Deleted

nid
mid
fields
1243981578030 1359124274112 NH<span style="vertical-align:sub;">4</span><spa
n style="vertical-align:super;">+</span>
Ammonium
y
y
1243982012508 1359124274112 C<span style="vertical-align:sub;">2</span>H<spa
n style="vertical-align:sub;">3</span>O<span style="vertical-align:sub;">2</span
><span style="vertical-align:super;">-</span><br />or<br />CH<span style="vertic
al-align:sub;">3</span>COO<span style="vertical-align:super;">-</span> Acetate
y
y
1243982342885 1359124274112 CO<span style="vertical-align:sub;">3</span><spa
n style="vertical-align:super;">2-</span>
Carbonate
y
y
1243982570161 1359124274112 HCO<span style="vertical-align:sub">3</span><spa
n style="vertical-align:super;">-</span>
Hydrogen carbonate<br />or<br />
bicarbonate
y
bicarbonate
common name
1243982798619 1359124274112 ClO<span style="vertical-align:super">-</span><b
r />
Hypochlorite
y
Uc
1243983331543 1359124274112 ClO<span style="vertical-align:sub">2</span><spa
n style="vertical-align:super;">-</span>
Chlorite
y
Uc
1243983378155 1359124274112 ClO<span style="vertical-align:sub;">3</span><sp
an style="vertical-align:super;">-</span>
Chlorate
y
y
1243983451396 1359124274112 ClO<span style="vertical-align:sub">4</span><spa
n style="vertical-align:super;">-</span>
Perchlorate
y
Uc
1243983638975 1359124274112 CrO<span style="vertical-align:sub">4</span><spa
n style="vertical-align:super;">2-</span>
Chromate
y
Uc
1243983729319 1359124274112 Cr<span style="vertical-align:sub">2</span>O<spa
n style="vertical-align:sub;">7</span><span style="vertical-align:super;">2-</sp
an>
Dichromate
y
Uc
1243983871829 1359124274112 OCN<span style="vertical-align:super">-</span>
Cyanate y
Uc
1243983933021 1359124274112 SCN<span style="vertical-align:super;">-</span>
Thiocyanate
y
y
1243983964907 1359124274112 CN<span style="vertical-align:super;">-</span>
Cyanide y
y
1243984035645 1359124274112 OH<span style="vertical-align:super">-</span>
Hydroxide
y
Uc
1243984179062 1359124274112 NO<span style="vertical-align:sub;">2</span><spa
n style="vertical-align:super;">-</span>
Nitrite y
y
1243984369908 1359124274112 NO<span style="vertical-align:sub;">3</span><spa
n style="vertical-align:super;">-</span>
Nitrate y
y
1243988213951 1359124274112 C<span style="vertical-align:sub;">2</span>O<spa
n style="vertical-align:sub;">4</span><span style="vertical-align:super;">2-</sp
an>
Oxalate
y
y
1243988267961 1359124274112 MnO<span style="vertical-align:sub">4</span><spa
n style="vertical-align:super;">-</span>
Permanganate
y
Uc
1243988329653 1359124274112 PO<span style="vertical-align:sub">4</span><span
style="vertical-align:super;">3-</span>
Phosphate
y
Uc
1243988413961 1359124274112 HPO<span style="vertical-align:sub">4</span><spa
n style="vertical-align:super;">2-</span>
Hydrogen phosphate
y
Uc
1243988787478 1359124274112 H<span style="vertical-align:sub">2</span>PO<spa
n style="vertical-align:sub;">4</span><span style="vertical-align:super;">-</spa
n>
Dihydrogen phosphate
y
Uc
1243988930613 1359124274112 SO<span style="vertical-align:sub;">3</span><spa
n style="vertical-align:super;">2-</span>
Sulfite y
y
1243988974296 1359124274112 HSO<span style="vertical-align:sub">3</span><spa
n style="vertical-align:super;">-</span>
Hydrogen sulfite
y
Uc
1243989042951 1359124274112 SO<span style="vertical-align:sub;">4</span><spa
n style="vertical-align:super;">2-</span>
Sulfate y
y
1243989085726 1359124274112 HSO<span style="vertical-align:sub;">4</span><sp
an style="vertical-align:super;">-</span>
Hydrogen sulfate
y

y
1243989189416 1359124274112 S<span style="vertical-align:sub">2</span>O<span
style="vertical-align:sub;">3</span><span style="vertical-align:super;">2-</spa
n>
Thiosulfate
y
Uc
1252879467999 1359124274112 R-X
Alkyl halide
y
Uc
1252879839514 1359124274112 <img src="paste-95550137434113.jpg" /> Primary
amine
y
1252879844249 1359124274112 <img src="9811363cf1244261c56b65f0016b76a4.png"
/>
Pyridine derivative
Uc
1252879860488 1359124274112 <img src="a22fe5c08acc94ef70c23106c35b0e11.png"
/>
Acyl halide
y
Uc
1252879864769 1359124274112 <img src="bf1ef28ed46bd7c35ec95d8330e27b86.png"
/>
Alcohol
y
1252879868982 1359124274112 <img src="4f4e81a515ea8e9957fb1bf7cc68a3e4.png"
/>
Aldehyde<br /> y
Uc
1252879881376 1359124274112 <img src="6e568727dd2dae21882e2316abd17df9.png"
/>
Imine (primary aldimine)
y
1252879887777 1359124274112 <img src="58cdd5cfaf509a15e5e5085467fa0a2d.png"
/>
Imine (Secondary aldimine)
Uc (Uc)
1252879892828 1359124274112 <img src="d68713aabf547682cb8d2401a8646389.png"
/>
Alkene
y
1252879904586 1359124274112 <img src="51fbf1f3d9f0b859f41e160533646333.png"
/>
Amide (tertiary)
y
1252879910039 1359124274112 <img src="af5306a537eec52d1e279a6811cdab51.png"
/>
Secondary amine
y
1252879915780 1359124274112 <img src="paste-97409858273281.jpg" /> Tertiary
amine
1252879921540 1359124274112 <img src="e7f2ad582d71f598c23f96b52f9b33fa.png"
/>
Azide y
y
1252879935170 1359124274112 <img src="9d3ba546d0af7885bc428402747a5e1d.png"
/>
Azo compound
y
Uc
1252879939269 1359124274112 <img src="6e1c4dbbf4e8f2a57efec8eefae59bc6.png"
/>
Toluene derivative
Uc
1252879943336 1359124274112 <img src="0045f867329a9a05f714327104972f49.png"
/>
Carbonate
Uc
1252879971544 1359124274112 <img src="87a8627ddca1fdba66a2b4a8098bb4a5.png"
/><br><img src="885c0b489c7f5731e17069eb90a02328.png" />
Carboxylate
y
1252879976238 1359124274112 <img src="3ea84accc3d02d58387dd29d047fcfb7.png"
/>
Carboxylic acid y
y
1252879988950 1359124274112 <img src="b969d36b6d59273ac20486b92bcf4b71.png"
/>
Cyanate y
Uc
1252879992965 1359124274112 <img src="ac8cb975b11b842b65112ab43308b7c1.png"
/>
Ester y
Uc
1252879997412 1359124274112 <img src="47e97847ac149ea5c2b9916073fb306d.png"
/>
Ether y
Ether ROR
Uc
1252880002506 1359124274112 <img src="dd7b1c1893f09bc59d9c47f8e60399d0.png"
/>
Peroxide
y
1252880009150 1359124274112 <img src="9c34975918c3883bcb6901b7c58db7b3.png"
/>
Imine (Secondary ketoimine)
y
1252880015513 1359124274112 <img src="53b575c87588b1aab19969cb17940707.png"
/> /> Imine (tertiary
<br
y
ketoimine)
1252880020197 1359124274112 Isocyanate
<img src="b2c7a3de696e6f60845adb
71d1afa463.png" />
y
Uc
1252880030006 1359124274112 <img src="663cb7ab467385424bf5f2fae6374fdd.png"
/>
Isonitrile or Isocyanide
1252880043134 1359124274112 <img src="af7b09bda393d9374b444b1a327677ab.png"
/>
Ketone y
Uc
1252880049598 1359124274112 <img src="651e24367d42482820892610a585fcc0.png"
/>
Nitrate
Uc

1252880056901 1359124274112 Nitrile <img src="7f7e2c8b1ef9157858f01ad29dcede
dd.png" />
y
Uc
1252880063613 1359124274112 <img src="d5eaff396cecbf09a6688e802e22f7f8.png"
/>
Nitrite
y
1252880068942 1359124274112 <img src="fb64b4bfaacce411763b45eb19062fce.png"
/>
Nitro compound y
Uc
1252880075713 1359124274112 <img src="feb3611ad90144111247eb98fac1c486.png"
/>
Nitroso compound
y
Uc
1252880082972 1359124274112 <img src="21e0bc814c3d26871e4eb6b99e2324e1.png"
/>
Disulfide
y
1252880090933 1359124274112 <img src="0d1ee8ec63e8b1bc2c2c4c87be9b9f54.png"
/>
Peroxide
y
1252880104441 1359124274112 <img src="8e93ecccac2890191f4dd3ca059bef3f.png"
/>
Benzene derivative
y
1252880109085 1359124274112 <img src="f73734a022a65bb8b6f91a28971890d3.png"
/>
Phosphonic acid
Uc
1252880114593 1359124274112 <img src="726a87cdc2b73b737656d803b9b6d7e0.png"
/>
Phosphine
Uc
1252880120524 1359124274112 <img src="2d11690a059723d59759701f5ca0d393.png"
/>
Phosphodiester
y
1252880125572 1359124274112 <img src="e18646d552503d759476951a8a545f53.png"
/>
Phosphonic acid
y
1252880142138 1359124274112 <img src="4eb388a84c310ef71d05e37169d5fc87.png"
/>
Sulfide or thioether
1252880150172 1359124274112 <img src="7d8a3caad9a148fbc3ff0a2f686cb555.png"
/>
Sulfone y
y
1252880157189 1359124274112 <img src="c3eb46507b072384059eb0b219e3268c.png"
/>
Sulfonic acid
y
1252880163085 1359124274112 <img src="a01b35a741e58db10d01ec902b5c0da4.png"
/>
Sulfoxide
y
Uc
1252880177800 1359124274112 <img src="ee88d45a6f0086a477bb760c5589e3c6.png"
/>
Thiocyanate
Uc
1252880182313 1359124274112 <img src="e0cd42a606172a23ac7419b82c1d2dec.png"
/>
Thiol y
Uc
1252880188217 1359124274112 <img src="4a4966b0f47748346cc3e8fb0fd0d9a1.png"
/>
Alkyne y
y
1252880227055 1359124274112 <img src="17e8d986ca443a0e10abdd62d404f514.png"
/>
Imide y
Uc
1295280600696 1359124274112 Constitutional isomers that co-exist in rapid eq
uilibrium are called
tautomers
1317430226406 1359124274112 <img src="pasteebdnfn.png" /> <img src="pastev
b4och.png" />
1317430305687 1359124274112 <img src="pasteptepeb.png" /> <img src="pastee
ueeat.png" />
1317430326500 1359124274112 <img src="pasteqdb_ns.png" /> <img src="pastex
abs9z.png" />
1317430353312 1359124274112 <img src="paste_qvzvq.png" /> <img src="pastet
o7ptg.png" />
1317430371828 1359124274112 <img src="pastez1rz67.png" /> <img src="pastev
spkcz.png" />
1317430391437 1359124274112 <img src="paste70sghw.png" /> <img src="pastef
__mrv.png" />
1317430426937 1359124274112 <img src="pastec3owdj.png" /> <img src="paste0
ya3ot.png" />
1317430450531 1359124274112 <img src="pasteoc1jcd.png" /> <img src="pastev
f0l2b.png" />
1317430463890 1359124274112 <img src="pastee7bydi.png" /> <img src="pastex
hg_4t.png" />
1317430487078 1359124274112 <img src="pastekejr7z.png" /> <img src="pastew
3bnaa.png" />

1317430501281 1359124274112 <img src="paste6tjz1v.png" /> <img src="pastef
jrmzi.png" />
1317430523468 1359124274112 <img src="pastecwxjny.png" /> <img src="pastet
jcjir.png" />
1317430559750 1359124274112 <img src="pasteslntv6.png" /> <img src="pasted
d5uz7.png" />
1317430577265 1359124274112 <img src="pastehtzfci.png" /> <img src="pastef
gii42.png" />
1317430598593 1359124274112 <img src="pasteu2dz1b.png" /> <img src="pastet
9o94n.png" />
1317430614781 1359124274112 <img src="pasteyxsv4l.png" /> <img src="pastev
2pbwc.png" />
1317430638453 1359124274112 <img src="pasteruwvzg.png" /> <img src="pastet
_cb4e.png" />
1317430664953 1359124274112 <img src="pasteby92f9.png" /> <img src="pastew
qsgqf.png" />
1317430739453 1359124274112 <img src="pasteljiilw.png" /> <img src="pasteu
uxw7q.png" />
1360973695835 1359124274112 1/5
0.2
y
1360973773730 1359124274112 1/6
0.167
y
1360973795910 1359124274112 1/7
0.143
y
1360973810043 1359124274112 1/9
0.111
#
1360973833542 1359124274112 1/11
0.091
y
1360973856677 1359124274112 1/12
0.083
y
1360996377581 1359124274112 sin(30) 0.5
y
1360996498359 1359124274112 sin(45) <b>√(2)/2 = 0.707</b>
0.707
#
1360996569891 1359124274112 sin(60) √(3)/2
1360996652901 1359124274112 cos(45) √(2)/2
1360996671746 1359124274112 cos(60) 0.5
y
1360996699029 1359124274112 cos(30) <b>√(3)/2 =&nbsp;</b><b>0.866</b>
0.866
#
1360996728626 1359124274112 √(2)
1.41
y
1360996803134 1359124274112 √(3)
1.73
y
1360996820066 1359124274112 √(5)
2.24
y
1360996885916 1359124274112 √(7)
2.65
y
1360996919297 1359124274112 ^b√(x^a)
x^a/b
1360999213011 1359124274112 log(a·b)
log(a)+log(b)
1360999275967 1359124274112 log(a^b)
b·log(a)
1360999295051 1359124274112 log(a/b)
log(a) - log(b)
1361001991353 1359124274112 -log(1_E-x) x
1361002145355 1359124274112 -log(3_E-x) x-0.5
1362134639321 1359712957464 <img src="2e09b508d391cc8a6409990bbda9ba1f295528
8f_KineCard1.png" />
<img src="2e09b508d391cc8a6409990bbda9ba1f2955288f_Q_0 (
1).svg" />
<img src="2e09b508d391cc8a6409990bbda9ba1f2955288f_A_0 (1).svg"
/>
<img src="2e09b508d391cc8a6409990bbda9ba1f2955288f_source_svg (1).svg" /
>
1362134639324 1359712957464 <img src="2e09b508d391cc8a6409990bbda9ba1f295528
8f_KineCard1.png" />
<img src="2e09b508d391cc8a6409990bbda9ba1f2955288f_Q_2 (
1).svg" />
<img src="2e09b508d391cc8a6409990bbda9ba1f2955288f_A_0 (1).svg"
/>
<img src="2e09b508d391cc8a6409990bbda9ba1f2955288f_source_svg (1).svg" /
>
1362134864969 1359712957464 <img src="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f
84_KineCard2.png" />
<img src="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f84_Q_0.s
vg" /> <img src="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f84_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f84_source_svg.svg" />
1362134864970 1359712957464 <img src="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f
84_KineCard2.png" />
<img src="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f84_Q_1.s
vg" /> <img src="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f84_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f84_source_svg.svg" />

1362134864971 1359712957464 <img src="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f
84_KineCard2.png" />
<img src="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f84_Q_2.s
vg" /> <img src="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f84_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f84_source_svg.svg" />
1362134864972 1359712957464 <img src="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f
84_KineCard2.png" />
<img src="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f84_Q_3.s
vg" /> <img src="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f84_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="29b6e9500ac0faff6aa1485a9d0fa05acafa9f84_source_svg.svg" />
1362135045597 1359712957464 <img src="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01
c3_KineCard3.png" />
<img src="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01c3_Q_0.s
vg" /> <img src="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01c3_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01c3_source_svg.svg" />
1362135045598 1359712957464 <img src="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01
c3_KineCard3.png" />
<img src="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01c3_Q_1.s
vg" /> <img src="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01c3_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01c3_source_svg.svg" />
1362135045599 1359712957464 <img src="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01
c3_KineCard3.png" />
<img src="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01c3_Q_2.s
vg" /> <img src="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01c3_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01c3_source_svg.svg" />
1362135045600 1359712957464 <img src="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01
c3_KineCard3.png" />
<img src="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01c3_Q_3.s
vg" /> <img src="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01c3_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="84832b7f78205027b0e4fd3729aded91d1ea01c3_source_svg.svg" />
1362135242200 1359712957464 <img src="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e9
38_KineCard4.png" />
<img src="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e938_Q_0.s
vg" /> <img src="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e938_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e938_source_svg.svg" />
1362135242202 1359712957464 <img src="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e9
38_KineCard4.png" />
<img src="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e938_Q_2.s
vg" /> <img src="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e938_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e938_source_svg.svg" />
1362135242203 1359712957464 <img src="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e9
38_KineCard4.png" />
<img src="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e938_Q_3.s
vg" /> <img src="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e938_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e938_source_svg.svg" />
1362135242204 1359712957464 <img src="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e9
38_KineCard4.png" />
<img src="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e938_Q_4.s
vg" /> <img src="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e938_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="7c6dfe8abb2d525e89a4c7910503e5303f45e938_source_svg.svg" />
1362142612611 1359712957464 <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2
f3_RampDiagram.png" /> <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_Q_0.s
vg" /> <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_source_svg.svg" />
1362142612612 1359712957464 <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2
f3_RampDiagram.png" /> <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_Q_1.s
vg" /> <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_A_1.svg" /> <img src
="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_source_svg.svg" />
1362142612613 1359712957464 <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2
f3_RampDiagram.png" /> <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_Q_2.s
vg" /> <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_A_2.svg" /> <img src
="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_source_svg.svg" />
1362142612614 1359712957464 <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2
f3_RampDiagram.png" /> <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_Q_3.s
vg" /> <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_A_3.svg" /> <img src
="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_source_svg.svg" />
1362142612615 1359712957464 <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2
f3_RampDiagram.png" /> <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_Q_4.s
vg" /> <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_A_4.svg" /> <img src
="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_source_svg.svg" />

1362142612616 1359712957464 <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2
f3_RampDiagram.png" /> <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_Q_5.s
vg" /> <img src="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_A_5.svg" /> <img src
="d0c5efc205e7451c152611e175755682f711c2f3_source_svg.svg" />
1363742240377 1359124274112 Equation for Center of Mass
(x₁m<
sub>1&nbsp;</sub>+&nbsp;<span style=" font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">
x₂m_2&nbsp;+ ...)/(m₁&nbsp;+ m₂&nbsp;
+ ...)</span>
1365293212968 1365293031514 Alanine ala
A
<img src="Alanine.svg" /
>
1365293787615 1365293031514 Arginine
arg
R
<img src="Argini
ne.svg" />
1365293821056 1365293031514 Asparagine
asn
N
<img src="Aspara
gine (1).svg" />
1365294480103 1365293031514 Aspartate
asp
D
<img src="Aspart
ic_acid.svg" />
1365294824680 1365293031514 Cysteine
cys
C
<img src="Cystei
ne (1).svg" />
1365294919495 1365293031514 Glutamate
glu
E
<img src="Glutam
ic_acid.svg" />
1365295195142 1365293031514 Glutamine
gln
Q
<img src="Glutam
ine (1).svg" />
1365295215815 1365293031514 Glycine gly
G
<img src="Glycine.svg" /
>
1365295292280 1365293031514 Histidine
his
H
<img src="Histid
ine.svg" />
1365295400449 1365293031514 Isoleucine
ile
I
<img src="Isoleu
cine (1).svg" />
1365295439110 1365293031514 Leucine leu
L
<img src="Leucine.svg" /
>
1365297006771 1365293031514 Methionine
met
M
<img src="Methio
nine.svg" />
1365297083821 1365293031514 Phenylalanine phe
F
<img src="Phenyl
alanine.svg" />
1365297146935 1365293031514 Proline pro
P
<img src="Proline.svg" /
>
1365297273170 1365293031514 Serine ser
S
<img src="Serine.svg" />
1365297366849 1365293031514 Threonine
thr
T
<img src="Threon
ine.svg" />
1365297440177 1365293031514 Tryptophan
trp
W
<img src="Trypto
phan.svg" />
1365297500917 1365293031514 Tyrosine
tyr
Y
<img src="Tyrosi
ne.svg" />
1365297566987 1365293031514 Valine val
V
<img src="Valine.svg" />
1365816619366 1359124274112 What is the most generalized expression of Hooke
's Law? Stress/Strain = Constant
1366328794516 1359124274112 What are the properties of an ideal fluid?
Incompressible<div>Zero viscosity</div><div>(Steady flow)</div><div>(Irrotationa
l flow)</div>
1366357099135 1366329156688 Pascal's Law
<span style=" font-style: normal
; font-weight: normal;">A change in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid a
t rest is transmitted undiminished to all points in the fluid. &nbsp;Therefore c
hange in pressure&nbsp;between two elevations is due only to the weight of the f
luid between the elevations.</span>
ΔP = ρgΔh
Use Pascal's Law to determine th
e difference in height between 2 fluids in a u-tube
Δh = h₁(1- ρ₂/ρ₁)
A&nbsp;
1366590086407 1366329156688 A chimedes' P inciple When an object is comple
tely o pa tially imme sed in a fluid, the fluid exe ts an upwa d fo ce on the o
bject equal to the weight of the fluid that is displaced by the object. F<sub>b<
/sub>&nbsp;= ρ_fluid·g·V_obj
Is the buoyant force greater for

a cm³ of lead on the bottom of a beaker or a cm³ of ice floating at the top?
<b>The buoyant force is greater for the lead</b><div><i>The lead is displacing a
larger volume of liquid than the ice. &nbsp;</i></div> A marble is sitting on a
buoyant platform floating in water. &nbsp;When the marble rolls off and sinks t
o the bottom, how does the amount of water it displaces change? &nbsp;Is the tot
al buoyant force (acting on the platform and the marble) larger before or after
it rolls off the platform?
<div><span style=" font-style: normal; font-weig
ht: normal;"><div><b>V</b>_{<b>displaced</b>}<b>&nbsp;decreased</b></div
><div><span style="font-style: normal; "><b>F</b>_{<b>btotal</b>}<b>&nbs
p;decreased</b></span></div></span></div><i>In order for it to float, the initia
l buoyant force F</i>_<i>bi</i><i>&nbsp;= W</i>_<i>p</i><i>&
nbsp;+ W</i>_<i>m</i><div><i>Because the marble is more dense than wat
er, this means that it was displacing more than its own volume of water while it
was floating. &nbsp;Therefore, when the marble entered the water, it went from
displacing an amount of water with equal weight as itself to only displacing an
amount of water with equal volume as itself.</i></div> An object is submerged i
n water and released. &nbsp;It neither sinks nor floats. &nbsp;What is the densi
ty of that object?
<b>1000kg/m³</b><div>In order to be neutrally buoyant, F<s
ub>b</sub>&nbsp;= W</div>
F_b&nbsp;acts on the center of mass of
the displaced fluid (otherwise the fluid would have been rotating before being
displaced). &nbsp;What does this imply for objects whose center of mass is off-c
enter? F_b&nbsp;will exert a torque on these objects
1366591151610 1366329156688 Continuity Equation
The volume of fluid pass
ing through any point of the flow tube in a given time is constant
ΔV/t = A<s
ub>1</sub>v₁&nbsp;= A₂v₂
An ideal fluid f
lows from a pipe into a smaller hose. &nbsp;If the radius of the hose is ½ that of
the pipe, how does the velocity of the fluid in the hose compare to its velocit
y in the pipe? <b>v</b>_<b>hose</b><b>&nbsp;= 4·v</b><sub><b>pipe</b></
sub><div><i>A = π·r²</i></div><div><i>2·r</i>_<i>hose</i><i>&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp
;r</i>_<i>pipe</i></div><div><i>4·A</i>_<i>hose</i><i>&nbsp;=
A</i>_<i>pipe</i></div><div><i>A</i>_<i>hose</i><i>·v</i>_<i>hose</i><i>&nbsp;= 4·A</i>_<i>hose</i><i>·v</i>_{<i>pipe</i></
sub></div><div>_{<br />}</div> The Continuity Equation for ideal fluids
dictates that as the cross-sectional area of a pipe decreases, the velocity of
the fluid will increase so that a constant volume flow rate is conserved. &nbsp;
In the real world, it is frequently observed that a narrower pipe will actually
cause a <i>decreased</i>&nbsp;fluid velocity. &nbsp;Which incorrect assumption a
bout the ideal nature of real fluids causes this discrepancy? Real fluids have
nonzero viscosity, and so Poiseuille's Law comes into play. &nbsp;
1366593330694 1366329156688 Bernoulli's Equation
Essentially energy conse
rvation for fluids...W + Ugrav + KE is constant.
P₁&nbsp;+ ρgh<s
ub>1}&nbs
;+ ½ρv₁² = P₂&nbs
;+ ρgh₂&nbs
;+ ½ρv<sub>2</
sub>²
1366594562810 1366329156688 Su face Tension (γ)
The ratio of the manitu
de F of the surface force to the lenth d (perpendicular to the force) alon whi
ch the force acts
γ = F/d How much excess pressure is required for a bubbl
e to maintain its spherical shape?
P-P_atm&nbsp;= 4γ/R &nbsp;(remem
ber that a bubble has 2 surfaces)
How much excess pressure is required for
a liquid drop to maintain its spherical shape? <span style=" font-style: normal
; font-weiht: normal;">P-P_atm&nbsp;= 2γ/R</span>
The unit dyn/cm
is commonly used for surface tension. &nbsp;Convert this into the more conventio
nal N/m 1000 dyn/cm = 1 N/m
1366595082102 1366329156688 Torricelli's Theorem
Derived from Bernoulli's
Equation, this states that the speed of efflux from a container or pipe with a
very proportionally lare cross-sectional area (such as a water tower or city ma
in) is the same as the speed it would ain from free-fallin from the openin at
the top of the liquid. &nbsp; ρgh_to&nbs
;= ½ρv_efflux² &nbs
; &n
bs
;| &nbs
;v_efflux&nbs
;= √(2gh_to)
1366596469584 1366329156688 Poiseuille's Law
The flow ate of a eal
fluid with nonze o viscosity η increases as te pressure gradient and cross-sectio

nal area of te pipe increase, and decrease due to te viscosity creating drag f
orce along te lengt of te pipe.
ΔV/Δt = πR<su
>4</su
>ΔP/8Lη &nbsp; (η = coeff of vi
scosity)
1366596516459 1366329156688 Stokes' Law
Te magnitude of te force F exe
rted on a spere of radius R tat moves non-turbulently wit speed v troug a f
luid wit viscosity η F = 6πRηv
Wat is te terminal velocity v_t&nbsp
;of a liquid spere wit density ρ falling th ough a gas with viscosity η?&nbsp;
<b>v</b>_<b>t</b><b>&nbsp;= ²/₉·ρgR²/η</b><div><b><span
style="font-weigt: normal;"><i>Derivation: &nbsp;</i></span></b><b><span style=
"font-weigt: normal;"><i>F_Stokes&nbsp;+ W = 0</i></span></b></div>
1366612013124 1366329156688 a beat frequency
Wen two tones of simila
r frequency are played, teir waves are sligtly out of sync, and cycle troug
constructive and destructive interference. &nbsp;Tis produces a 'beat' of ig
amplitude alternating wit a node.
f_beat&nbsp;= f₁&nb
sp;- f₂
Wat is te largest difference in frequencies for wic
our ears can detect an interference beat?
~7Hz
1366616482282 1366329156688 ow to calculate decibels (dB) given te intensi
ty (I) Te decibel scale is a logaritmic scale wit zero arbitrarily set for s
ounds wit an intensity of 10^-12&nbsp;W/m² ß = 120dB + 10dB(log(I))
If te intensity increases by a factor of 100, by ow many decibels did it incre
ase? &nbsp;
20
1366617088356 1359124274112 How does te intensity of a sound relate to te
distance from te source?
It is inversely proportional to te square of t
e distance, because sound expands out in a spere.<div><b>I₁r<sub>1</
sub>² = I₂r₂²</b></div>
1366617256696 1359124274112 Reasonable approximation for te speed of sound
in air? ~340m/s
1366644095056 1366329156688 te principle of superposition (for travelling w
aves) Wenever two waves overlap, te actual displacement of any point on te
string, at any time, is obtained by vector addition of te displacement it would
If te s
ave if only te first and if only te second were present.
ame tone is being played from two speakers wo are equidistant from point P, te
n te amplitude of te tone observed at tat point will be&nbsp;<span style=" fo
nt-style: normal; font-weigt: normal;">(in terms of te initial amplitude A of
bot speakers)?</span> 2A<div>Since te difference in pat lengts is equal to λ·½n w
here n is an even integer, then they will completely constructively interfere wi
th each other.</div>
<span style=" font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">
If the same tone is being played from two speakers whose distance from point P d
iffers by 1.5λ, then the ampitude of the tone observed at that point wi be (in
terms of the initia ampitude A of both speakers)?</span>
<span stye=" fo
nt-stye: norma; font-weight: norma;"><div><span stye=" font-stye: norma; f
ont-weight: norma;">0</span></div>Since the difference in path engths is equa
to λ·½n where n is an odd integer, then they will fully destructively interfere with
each other.</span>
1366644786450 1366329156688 which factors influence the speed (v) of a wave
on a string
The speed of a wave is affected solely on the properties of the
medium; for a string, those properties are the tension and the mass per unit len
gth.
v = √(F_T/μ) &nbsp;= √(^LF_T/_m)
When you shorten a cello string, how does that affect the speed of the wave?<div
>The wavelength? &nbsp;The frequency?</div>
The speed of the wave is unchang
ed, because though the length of the string is decreased, the mass per unit leng
th remains unchanged. &nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>You are directly decreasing th
e wavelength λ, and since v=λf, you are therefore increasing f (and pitch)</div>
1366644919656 1366329156688 the periodic motion of a penduum
A pendu
um wi osciate with Simpe Harmonic Motion (SHM) with a period dependent on t
he ength of its string and the magnitude of gravitationa acceeration.
2π·f = ω = √(^g/_L) <span style=" font-style: normal; font-eight: n
ormal;">If x=0 at the equilibrium position of a pendulum, hat is v_x&
nbsp;and a_x&nbsp;at that point?</span>
<span style=" font-style
: normal; font-eight: normal;">a_x&nbsp;= 0<div>v_x&nbsp;= ωA

, hich is its maximum value</div></span>
<span style=" font-style: normal
; font-eight: normal;">If you double the mass of a pendulum ith a period of 4s
and an amplitude of 15°, hat is the ne period?</span>
<span style=" font-style
: normal; font-eight: normal;">4s. &nbsp;The period of a pendulum is independen
t of the mass of the bob.</span>
What equation describes the x position o
f a pendulum bob at any time t? x = Acos(ωt)
1366663790884 1366329156688 the periodic motion of an ideal spring The posi
tion of a mass on an ideal spring ill oscillate ith Simple Harmonic Motion (SH
M) ith a period dependent on the spring constant k and the mass of the object
2π·f = ω = √(^k/_m) For a spring ith spring constant <i>k</i>, at 
hat displacement, in terms of the total amplitude A, ill the kinetic energy of
a mass compressing the spring equal the potential energy of the system? x = <sup
>A</sup>/_√2 If the mass on the end of a spring undergoing simple har
monic motion is quadrupled, hat ill the ne frequency be?
½f
1366671888530 1366329156688 the Zeroth La of Thermodynamics
2 system
s in thermal equilibrium / a 3rd system are also in equilibrium ith each other
. &nbsp;Systems are in thermal equilibrium iff they have the same temperature.
What is the equation for converting from a temperature in Celsius to Fahrenheit?
T_F&nbsp;= ⁹/₅T_C&nbsp;+ 32°F What tem
perature is absolute zero?
-273.15 °C, &nbsp;or 0K
1366672083651 1366329156688 thermal expansion
Predicts the change in d
imensions of an object due to expansion/contraction as the temperature increases
/decreases.
Linear expansion: &nbsp;ΔL = αL₀ΔT<div>Volume expansion: &n
bsp;ΔV = ßV₀ΔT</div> For many objects, the linear expansion coefficie
nt α is directly relted to the volume expnsion coefficient ß. &nbsp;Wht is the (r
ough pproximtion) reltionship between these for n object which expnds unifo
rmly? ß = 3α
1366672336539 1366329156688 specific het cpcity The mount of energy (in
J or cl) required to rise the temperture of one kg or g of  substnce by 1K
Q = mcΔT
The specific heat capacity of water is 1 cal/gK. &nbsp;What is this numb
er in units of J/gK?
1cal = <b>4.187</b>J
How much energy is required to r
aise the temperature of 10mL of water from 53°C to 63°C?
<b>418.7J</b><div>Q = mcΔT
</div><div>Q = 10g·10K·4.187J/gK</div>
1366673857216 1366329156688 phase changes A phase change is the transition
of a substance from one state of matter to another. &nbsp;This transition occur
s at a specific temperature for that given pressure and requires a change in (he
at) energy in order to change the amount of potential energy in the intermolecul
ar interactions. &nbsp; Q = mL_p&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>_{where p represents
the phase transition (f=fusion/boiling, v=vaporization/condensation, s = sublim
ation/deposition.)}</i>
How much heat energy is required to convert a 1k
g block of ice into water, if the L_f&nbsp;for water is 334 J/g? &nbsp
;
334,000J
Which is usually larger, L_v&nbsp;or L<sub>f</
sub>? L_v
1366674549928 1366329156688 conductive heat flow
the rate at which heat (
Q) flows from an area of higher temperature to one of lower temperature through
direct contact of solids.
H = ΔQ/Δt = kA^{(T_H&nbsp;- T<sub>C</su
b>})/<sub>L &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<i>where k is the thermal conductivity</i><
/sub> What are the three main methods of heat flow/transfer? Conduction, conv
ection, radiation
1366674902539 1366329156688 radiative heat flow
<span style=" font-style
: normal; font-weight: normal;">the rate at which heat (Q) is transferred from a
n object of high temperature to the surroundings via electromagnetic radiation.<
/span> H = eAT⁴σ &nbp; &nbp; <i><ub>σ = 5.671E-8 W/m²K4</ub>&nbp;&nb
p;&nbp;<ub>A i SA of emitter &nbp; &nbp; e i emiivity of material</ub><
/i>
Which object tend to have higher emiivitie, lighter
or darker?
Darker Given that our baic equation neglect the temperature g
radient between the emitter and the urrounding, what i actually the&nbp;<i>n
et</i>&nbp;heat radiation equation?
<pan tyle=" font-tyle: normal; font-w
eight: normal;">H = eA(T<up>4</up>-T<ub></ub><up>4</up>)σ &nbp; &nbp;&nb
p;<i><ub>σ = Stefan-Boltzmann</ub>&nbp;&nbp; &nbp;<ub>A i SA of emitter &nb

p; &nbp; e i emiivity of material</ub></i></pan>
1366749152722 1359124274112 <pan tyle=" font-tyle: normal; font-weight: n
ormal;">What would the fundamental frequency and wavelength be for a&nbp;fixed
tring of length L?</pan>
<pan tyle=" font-tyle: normal; font-weight: n
ormal;">λ = 2L &nbsp; &nbsp;</span><div><span stye=" font-stye: norma; font-wei
ght: norma;">f₁&nbsp;= v/2L = √(F_T/μ)/2L</span></div>
1366749192648 1359124274112 <span style=" font-style: normal; font-weight: n
ormal;">What would the fundamental frequency and wavelength be for an open pipe
of length L?</span>
<span style=" font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">λ
= 2L &nbsp; &nbsp;</span><div><span stye=" font-stye: norma; font-weight: nor
ma;">f₁&nbsp;= v/2L = (340^m/_s)/2L</span></div>
1366749236442 1359124274112 What woud be the frequency of the first overton
e for a pipe of ength L which is open on one end and cosed on the other?
<b>f</b>_<b>3</b><b>&nbsp;= 3v/4L</b><div><i>Remember, the first overt
one of a cosed pipe is actuay the <u>3rd</u>&nbsp;harmonic!</i></div>
1366750795044 1359124274112 How do you find torque (τ), and wha SI unis does
i have?
τ = rFsinθ and has unis of N·m
1366750874911 1397404373762 An {{c1::impulse}} ({{c2::J}}) is defined as {{c
2::F·t}} and has units of {{c1::N·s, or ^kg·m/_s}}
1366750981014 1397404373762 {{c1::Momentum}} (p) is defined as {{c2::mass ti
mes velocity}} and has units of {{c2::^kg·m/s_}}
p = mv
1366751250554 1397404373762 In {{c1::inelastic}} collisions, {{c2::kinetic e
nergy}} is <i><u>not</u>&nbsp;</i>conserved, though {{c2::momentum}} is.&nbsp;<d
iv>If a collision is purely {{c1::inelastic}}, the objects {{c3::stick together}
}</div> y
1366751371510 1397404373762 In {{c1::elastic}} collisions, both {{c2::kineti
c energy}} and&nbsp;{{c2::momentum}} are conserved.&nbsp;<div>If a collision is
purely {{c1::elastic}}, the objects will have no {{c3::permanent deformation}}</
div>
y
1366751460117 1366329156688 isobaric expansion
The expansion of a gas u
nder constant-pressure conditions.
What is the work done by a gas u
ndergoing isobaric expansion? <b>W = PΔV</b><div><i>Because the gas is expanding
, it is doing work on the surroundings, and W&gt;0</i></div>
What is the chan
ge in internal energy of a gas undergoing isobaric expansion? <b>ΔU = nC</b><sub
><b>v</b></sub><b>ΔT</b><div><div><i>^{Internal energy is a state function, and
therefore independent on path. &nbsp;This means that the calculation of ΔU for an
infinitesimally small adiabatic expansion is applicable for all other paths bet
ween the same two states.}</i></div></div> For an isobaric expansion, ΔV &gt;
0. &nbsp;What should we expect ΔT to look like?
ΔT &gt; 0 <i>Because ΔP = 0, ΔT shoul
increase proportionally with ΔV.</i> Is Q positive or negative for an isobari
c expansion? &nbsp;Is heat entering or leaving the system?
Positive, enteri
ng
1366841977422 1366329156688 an isochoric process
Also known as an isovolu
metric process, this is usually either the heating or cooling of a gas under con
stant volume conditions (ΔV = 0)
What is the work done by a gas in an iso
choric process? Because ΔV=0, <b>W=0</b>
What is the change in internal energy du
ring an isochoric process?
<span style=" font-style: normal; font-weight: n
ormal;"><b>ΔU = nC</b>_<b>v</b><b>ΔT</b><div><div><i>^{Internal energy
is a state function, and therefore independent on path. &nbsp;This means that th
e calculation of ΔU for an infinitesimally small adiabatic expansion is applicable
for all other paths between the same two states.}</i></div></div></span>
How do you calculate the heat energy absorbed during an isochoric process?
Q =&nbsp;<span style=" font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">ΔU =&nbsp;</span>
nC_vΔT<div><i><sup>Because no work is being done, all of the heat energy
goes into increasing the internal energy/changing the temperature of the gas.</
sup></i></div> How are pressure and temperature related in an isovolumetric pro
cess? ΔP&nbsp;∝ ΔT
1366842849752 1366329156688 isothermal expansion
The expansion of a gas u
nder conditions of constant temperature
What is the work done by a gas u

ndergoing an isothermal expansion? &nbsp;Is it positive or negative?
<b>W = n
RTln(^V₂/_V₁)</b><div><b><span style="
font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><i>^{Because the gas is expanding,
it is doing work on the surroundings, and W&gt;0}</i></span></b></div>
What is the change in internal energy of a gas undergoing isothermal expansion?
<span style=" font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><b>ΔU = 0&nbsp;</b></span>
<div><span style=" font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><b></b>= nC<sub>v</
sub>ΔT</span></div>
What is the relationship between ΔV and ΔP during an isother
mal expansion? ΔV&nbsp;∝¹/_ΔP
How do you find Q for an isother
mal expansion? &nbsp;Is heat entering or leaving the system?
Q = W =<span sty
le="font-style: normal; ">&nbsp;nRTln(^V₂/<sub>V_1</sub
>)&nbsp;</span><div><span style="font-style: normal; "></span>Entering (Q&
gt;0)<br /><div><i>^{Because the internal energy of the system does not chang
e, all heat entering the system must be converted to work, and vice-versa: &nbsp
;all energy spent on work done by the system must be replaced by external heat e
nergy. &nbsp;}</i></div></div>
What is the change in internal energy fo
r an isothermal expansion?
<span style=" font-style: normal; font-weight: n
ormal;"><i>^{<div><span style=" font-style: normal;"><b>ΔU = 0</b></span></div>ΔU
= nC}</i><i>^v</i><i>^{ΔT, ΔT=0}</i><div><div><i>^{Intern
al energy is a state function, and therefore independent on path. &nbsp;This mea
ns that the calculation of ΔU for an infinitesimally small adiabatic expansion is
applicable for all other paths between the same two states.}</i></div></div
></span>
1366843601976 1366329156688 adiabatic expansion
The expansion of a gas w
ithout an exchange of heat energy with the surroundings. &nbsp;
Find Q f
or an adiabatic expansion:
Q = 0 How do you determine the work done by a
gas undergoing adiabatic expansion?
W = -ΔU = -nC_vΔT<div><i>^{Beca
use no energy enters the system, all work done by the gas decreases the internal
energy of the system}</i></div> How does the internal energy of a gas ch
ange throughout adiabatic expansion? &nbsp;Does it increase or decrease? &nbsp;
<div><b>ΔU = nCvΔT = -W<br>Decrease during expansion </b></div><div><i>^{Internal
energy is a state function, and therefore independent on path. &nbsp;This means
that the calculation of ΔU for an infinitesimally small adiabatic expansion is ap
plicable for all other paths between the same two states.}</i></div>
In an adiabatic expansion, pressure, volume, and temperature all vary between th
e start and end points. &nbsp;What is the relationship between P and V? PV<sup>γ</
sup>&nbsp;is consan (P₁V₁^γ&nbsp;= P₂
V₂^γ)
<span syle=" fon-syle: normal; fon-weih: n
ormal;">In an adiabaic expansion, pressure, volume, and emperaure all vary be
ween he sar and end poins. &nbsp;Wha is he relaionship beween P and T?<
/span> TV^(1-γ)&nbsp;is consan (T₁V₁<sup>(1-γ)</s
up>&nbsp;= T₂V₂^(1-γ))
1366844177768 1359124274112 For an adiabaic process, pressure, emperaure,
and volume are all relaed o each oher as well as he consan 'γ' Wha is he
definiion of γ, and wha is is value for mos diaomic ases (includin he majo
riy of air)? γ = ^C_p/_{C_v} = 1.4
1366844513961 1366329156688
he Firs Law of Thermodynamics <span syle=" fo
n-syle: normal; fon-weih: normal;">he chane in he inernal enery of a c
losed sysem is e ual o he amoun of hea supplied o he sysem, minus he am
oun of work done by he sysem on is surroundins.</span>
Q = ΔU + W
1366844558018 1359124274112 Boltzmann Constant
k = ^R/N_A&nbsp;= 1.381_E-23 ^J/_moleculeK
1366844821356 1359124274112 Ideal Gas Law Constant (2 most common forms)
R = 8.314^J/_molK&nbsp;= 0.0821^Latm/<sub>molK</su
b>
1366844957775 1359124274112 Avogadro's Number
N_A&nbsp;= 6.0
22_E23
1366844989167 1359124274112 STP conditions are?
273.15K 1atm
1366852479598 1359124274112 How many L does 1mol of an ideal gas take up at
STP?
22.4L
y

1366852505537 1359124274112 What is a triple point? The specific combination
of temperature and pressure where the solid, liquid, and vapor phases of a subs
tance coexist
1366852739066 1366329156688 the Ideal Gas Law
An equation which descri
bes the state of an ideal gas at a given time PV = nRT
Which 3 laws wer
e combined to form the ideal gas law? Boyle's (PV) &nbsp; &nbsp; Charles' (V/T
) &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Avogadro's &nbsp;(V/n)
What are the properties of an id
eal gas (4)?
Point masses <div>No IMFs</div><div>Constant motion</div><div>KE
_av&nbsp;directly proportional to T</div>
Under what conditions ar
e ideal gas law predictions the most accurate? Low pressure, high Temp<div><i><
sup>Min volume eff &nbsp; &nbsp; Min IMF effects</sup></i></div>
What is
Kinetic Molecular Theory?
The physical model of ideal gas behavior
1366852955365 1359124274112 What is the relationship between the specific he
at capacity and the molar heat capacity?
C = Mc, where M is the molar mas
s of the substance
1366853020221 1359124274112 Describe the relationship between the molar heat
capacity of a substance when under constant pressure and when it has constant v
olume C_p&nbsp;= C_v&nbsp;+ R<div><i>^{Remember, C_p&nbsp;must be larger than C_v&nbsp;in order to account for the
work done during expansion}</i></div>
1366856718303 1366329156688 a reversible process
A process which is alway
s very nearly in equilibrium, and any change of state can be reversed with an in
finitesimal change in conditions.
1366857785886 1366329156688 cyclic processes
Processes in which the i
nitial state and the final state are the same (the change in all state functions
will be 0)
Most heat engines and refrigerators are idealized as cyc
lic processes with |Q_H| - |Q_C| = W. &nbsp;However, the Fir
st Law of Thermodynamics states that Q = ΔU + W. &nbsp;Reconcile these two stateme
nts.
ΔU is a state function, so in a cyclic process net ΔU=0. &nbsp;Therefore, W
= Q =&nbsp;<span style=" font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">|Q<sub>H</sub
>| - |Q_C|</span>
1366861150351 1366329156688 the Second Law of Thermodynamics
The tota
l entropy (disorder) of a system will never decrease. &nbsp;In order to go from
a less ordered state to a more ordered state, work must be done on a system, and
this process can never be 100% efficient.
ΔS &gt; 0
The ideal Carnot cycle i
s a completely reversible process, and is thus the most efficient heat engine/re
frigerator possible. &nbsp;Why can even this process not attain 100% efficiency?
e_Carnot&nbsp;= 1 -&nbsp;^T_C/<sub>T_H</
sub><div>In order for e = 1, T_c&nbsp;= 0K</div><div>The 3rd Law of Th
ermodynamics states that it is impossible to attain 0K.</div> What is ΔS of a re
versible isothermal process?
ΔS = ^Q/_T
1367440366190 1359124274112 Stefan-Boltzmann constant (heat radiation)
σ
= 5.671E-8 W/m²K<up>4</up>
1367441582334 1366329156688 Newton' Firt Law
An object continue eith
er at ret or in contant traight motion unle acted on by a net force
In all equilibrium ituation (zero acceleration of any kind), what 3 thing MUS
T be true about the force?&nbp;
1. &nbp;No net horizontal force<div>2.
&nbp;No net vertical force</div><div>3. &nbp;No net torque</div>
1367441823090 1366329156688 Newton' Second Law
The net force acting on
an object i equal to the object' ma time it acceleration ∑F = ma
1367442183408 1366329156688 Newton' Third Law
Every action ha an equa
l and oppoite reaction (force) F<ub>AonB</ub>&nbp;= -F<ub>BonA</ub>
1367442547813 1359124274112 What i the pivot point for a freely rotating (n
o fixed pivot) object? The center of gravity (equivalent to center of ma in a
uniform gravitational field)
1367444798681 1359124274112 Which i larger, μ_k&nbsp;or μ<sub>smax</s
ub>?
μ_s&nbsp;is greater than μ_k
1367445021060 1359124274112 Which force does a scale measure?
It is de
tecting the F_N&nbsp;between you and the floor.
1367445283181 1359124274112 How is F_N&nbsp;between you and the fl

oor related to your weight when you are stationary?
<b>F</b>_{<b>N</b></s
ub><b>&nbsp;= -W</b><div><i>If F_net&nbsp;= m·a and a = 0, F_N
+W = 0</i></div>
1367445416870 1359124274112 How is F_N&nbsp;between you and the fl
oor related to your weight (W) when you and the floor are accelerating upward?
<b>F_N&nbsp;&gt; |W|</b><div><i>^{Because F_N + W = m·a, |F
_N| must be greater than |W| in order to enact an overall upwards acce
leration}</i></div>
1367445773533 1359124274112 What is a conservative force? &nbsp;List 2 examp
les.
<b>A force for which the work done is independent of the path taken, and
a potential energy can be assigned based on the position of the object.</b><div
><i>Examples: <b>Gravity, spring forces, </b>magnetic forces, electric forces</i
></div><div><br /></div>
1367446204021 1366329156688 mechanical advantage
The amplification of a f
orce through the use of a tool or mechanical device.&nbsp;
How does
a lever enable us to lift large objects?
τ = Frsinθ<div>Applyin a small forc
e far from he pivo poin resuls in a lare force a a small disance from he
pivo poin. &nbsp;</div>
<span syle="">Briefly describe he basic premis
e of a hydraulic lif.</span> <span syle=""><i>A hydraulic sysem has an e ua
l pressure on eiher end, bu applied o pisons of differen areas. &nbsp;There
fore:</i><br /></span><div>P₁&nbsp;= P_{2 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nb
sp; &nbsp;&nbsp;}<span syle="fon-syle: normal; ">F</span>₁/A<
sub>1}&nbsp;= F₂/A₂</div><div><span syle="fon-syle
: normal; "></span><b>A₁&nbsp;&l;&l; A₂, hen F_{1</s
ub>&nbsp;&l;&l; F₂</b><div syle="fon-weih: normal; "><i>This al
lows a lare oupu force o be exered wih lile inpu force.&nbsp;</i></div>
</div> How do ools such as levers or ramps allow us o amplify force wihou v
iolain enery conservaion? <span syle="">Because enery is conserved, W<su
b>wih}&nbsp;= W_wihou, so if we use a lesser force here is al
ways a rade-off in disance (W = F·d)</span> Briefly describe the mechanical
advantages of a ramp
F_N&nbsp;supports some of the mass (offsets pa
rt of the weight W) of the object, allowing us to accelerate it upwards with les
s force (F_Y&nbsp;can be &lt; W).&nbsp;<div>Additionally, increasing F
_x&nbsp;will increase F_N&nbsp;such that the object can be m
oved upwards without directly exerting a vertical force.</div>
1367448054296 1359124274112 What is the difference between a transverse and
a longitudinal wave?
The direction of displacement relative to the length/mov
ement of the wave.<div><b>Transverse: </b><i>Particles move perpendicularly to t
he wave</i></div><div><b>Longitudinal: &nbsp;</b><i>Particles move in parallel w
ith the direction of the wave</i></div>
1367448475072 1359124274112 A point source emits a sound using a certain amo
unt of power, P. &nbsp;What is the intensity I at radius r?
I = ^P
/_{4π ²}
1367448734220 1359124274112 What is the volume of a s
he e? <su
>4</su
>/<su
b>3</sub>π ³
1367448870258 1359124274112 What is the su face a ea of a s
he e? 4π ²
eq
1367448893585 1359124274112 What is the a ea of a ci cle? π ²
y
1367448907907 1359124274112 What is the ci cumfe ence of a ci cle? 2π
y
1367450543580 1359124274112 What is the elationshi
between velocity and s

eed?
S
eed (scala ) is the magnitude of velocity (vecto )
1367450578334 1359124274112 What is the net fo ce on an object moving with c
onstant s
eed? Im
ossible to dete mine; s
eed is a scala quantity, and the efo
e a constant s
eed does not ule out an accele ation due to di ectional changes
of velocity.
1367450710821 1397404373762 <div><b>S
eed:</b></div>1<su
>m</su
>/<sub>s&nbs
2.237 m
h

;</sub>= {{c1::2.237}}m
h
1367553110315 1366329156688 Lavosie 's Law of mass conse vation
Mass is
neithe c eated no dest oyed in a chemical eaction

1367553236422 1366329156688 P oust's law of definite
o
o tion
A given
com
ound always contains exactly the same
o
o tion of elements by mass
1367553282667 1366329156688 Dalton's law of multi
le
o
o tions
When two
elements fo m a se ies of com
ounds, the atios of the masses of the second ele
ment that combine with a given amount of the fi st element can always be educed
to small intege s.
1367553357470 1366329156688 Dalton's atomic theo y The foundation of mode n
chemical theo y, consisting of 4
a ts:<div>1. All elements a e com
osed of ato
ms</div><div>2. All atoms of a given element a e <i>identical</i>&nbs
;<b>_{C
aveat: &nbs
;Isoto
es}</b></div><div>3. &nbs
;Chemical com
ounds a e fo med
when atoms combine</div><div>4. Atoms a e not changed in xns, but the way they
a e bound togethe does.</div>
1367553568528 1359124274112 What is the naming convention fo acids fo med f
om oxyanions? Foo-<b>ATE</b>&nbs
;--&gt; Foo-<b>IC</b>&nbs
;acid &nbs
; &nbs
;
&nbs
; &nbs
; &nbs
; &nbs
; <i><su
>I <b>ATE</b>&nbs
;something <b>IC</b>ky!</s
u
></i><div>Foo-<b>ITE</b>&nbs
;--&gt; Foo-<b>OUS</b>&nbs
;acid&nbs
;</div><div>
<i><su
>E.g. sulfate fo ms sulfu ic acid, nit ite fo ms nit ous acid</su
></i></
div>
1367554296344 1359124274112 What is a st ong elect olyte? A substance whic
h dissociates com
letely into se
a ate ions in aqueous solutions (e.g. a salt)
1367554463576 1359124274112 Weak elect olyte
A substance fo which on
ly a small
e centage of dissolved molecules
oduce ions; weakly conducts elect
ic cu ent
1367554534162 1359124274112 Nonelect olyte A substance which does not condu
ct elect ic cu ent o
oduce ions when dissolved in wate .
1367554554261 1397404373762 In the {{c1::A henius}} acid/base model, an aci
d {{c2::
oduces
otons}} while a base {{c2::
oduces hyd oxide}}
y
1367554664173 1397404373762 In the {{c1::B onsted-Low y::Uc}} acid/base mode
l, acids a e defined as {{c2::
oton dono s}}, while bases a e {{c2::
oton acce

to s}} y
1367554700499 1359124274112 S
ectato Ion An ion which does not
a tici
at
e in the aqueous chemical eaction ( emains in solution, not in Net Ionic Eq'n)
1367555719478 1359124274112 Find the oot mean squa e velocity fo a gas of
mola mass M
u_ms&nbs
;= √(<su
>3RT</su
>/_M)
1367555854232 1366329156688 effusion
The
assage of a gas th ough a s
mall o
ening into an evacuated chambe Rate_A·√M_A&nbsp;=&nbsp;
Rate_B·√M_B <b><u>Briefly</u></b> describe why Graham's law
of effusion is consistent with KMT
Relative effusion is directly related to
the average velocity of the gas particles, u_rms. &nbsp;Because u<sub
>rms</sub>&nbsp;is inversely proportional to the √M, so is rate of effusion. &nbsp
;
1367556356427 1366329156688 diffusion (gas) the mixing or spreading of gas
1367556826967 1366329156688 the van der Waals model of a real gas This mod
el includes correction factors which help account for the nonzero volume and IMF
s of real gases {P + a(ⁿ/_V)² } {V - nb} = nRT
<span st
yle=" font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">At high pressure, real gases dev
iate from the behavior predicted by PV=nRT, and will tend to occupy a (larger/sm
aller) volume than expected.</span>
<b>Larger </b><i>(due to non-zero volume
of molecules)</i>
<span style=" font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">
At low temperatures, real gases deviate from the behavior predicted by PV=nRT, a
nd will tend to occupy a (larger/smaller) volume than expected.</span> <b>Small
er </b><i>(due to IMF attractions between slow-moving, low-energy molecules)</i>
1371753523766 1359124274112 Trace the flow of blood outward from the heart t
o the right hand:
Aorta<div>Brachiocephalic</div><div>Subclavian</div><div
>Axillary</div><div>Brachial</div><div>Ulnar/Radial</div><div>Superficial branch
es of U/R</div>
1372921149845 1359124274112 Where along the spinal column would you find lat
eral grey horns?
T1-L2
1372963238260 1359124274112 Which 5 cranial nerves synapse in medullary nucl
ei?
Vestibulocochlear (VIII)<div>Glossopharyngeal (IX)</div><div>Vagus (X)</

div><div>Accessory (XI)</div><div>Hypoglossal (XII)</div>
1372963630746 1359124274112 What is the function of the olivary nuclei of th
e medulla?
Relay information to the vermis of the cerebellum
1372963846079 1359124274112 Which cranial nerves have synaptic nuclei in the
pons? Trigeminal <b>V</b><div>Abducens <b>VI</b></div><div>Facial <b>VII</b></
div><div>Vestibulocochlear <b>VIII</b></div>
1372970141170 1359124274112 What hormone is secreted by the pineal gland?
Melatonin
Uc
1372970913338 1359124274112 Which hormones are secreted by the hypothalamus?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)<div>Oxytocin</div>
1372974432552 1359124274112 What is the function of the hypothalamus' suprao
ptic nucleus? Secretion of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
1372974755047 1359124274112 What is the function of the hypothalamus' parave
ntricular nucleus?
Oxytocin secretion
Uc
1372987583424 1371234063709 If the trochlear nerve of the right eye were dam
aged, which movement would be impossible?
looking straight upward rolling
the eye upward and to the left (medially)
looking straight downward
<b><i><u><font color="#aa0000">rolling the eye down and to the right (laterally)
</font></u></i></b>
rolling the eye straight to the left (medially)
1372999975948 1359124274112 What is the anatomical term for the eyelids?
Palpabrae
Uc
1373000586190 1359124274112 What is the first section of the lower respirato
ry system?
Larynx
Uc
1373003202337 1359124274112 &nbsp;What are the 3 ways the hypothalamus regul
ates the endocrine system?
Secretion of regulatory hormones to pars distali
s of pituitary<div>Production of ADH and oxytocin</div><div>Controls sympathetic
output to suprarenal medullae</div>
1373004054010 1359124274112 2 lobes of the pituitary:
<b>Adenohypophys
is</b> (anterior)<div><b>Neurohypophysis</b> (posterior)</div>
adenohyp
ophysis, neurohypophysis
fullfancy, lclist, alpha
1373004137141 1359124274112 What are the three regions of the adenohypophysi
s?
Pars distalis<div>Pars intermedia</div><div>Pars tuberalis</div>
1373004159802 1359124274112 Which hormones are secreted by the neurohypophys
is?
<b></b><b>Oxytocin</b><div><b>Vasopressin (ADH)</b><div><i>These are pro
duced in the hypothalamus; the post. pituitary is simply the terminal release ce
nter</i></div></div>
oxytocin, vasopressin
full names &nbsp
; alpha &nbsp; lclist,
1373004460996 1359124274112 What are the hormones produced by the anterior p
ituitary?
<b>F</b>SH - <i>Follicle Stimulating Hormone</i><div><b>L</b>H &
nbsp;<i>- Luteal Hormone</i></div><div><b>A</b>CTH <i>- Adrenocorticotropic horm
one</i></div><div><b>T</b>SH <i>- Thyroid stimulating hormone</i></div><div><b>P
</b>RL <i>- Prolactin</i></div><div><b>G</b>H <i>- Growth Hormone</i></div><div>
<i><br /></i></div><div><b><i>FLAT PiG</i></b></div>
FSH, LH, ACTH, T
SH, PRL, GH
ABBlist,&nbsp;
1373004964003 1359124274112 What is triggered by hypothalamic signalling to
the suprarenal cortex? Release of cortisol
1373005022361 1359124274112 List the steps required for the hypothalamus to
regulate release of thyroxine Release of regulating hormone to pituitary (TRH)
<div>Adenohypophysis releases TSH</div><div>Thyroid releases Thyroxine</div>
1373005373393 1359124274112 What are the two primary thyroid hormones?
<div>Calcitonin</div><div>Thyroxine</div>
calcitonin, thyroxine
lclist, alpha
1373005461421 1359124274112 What is the effect of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
Increase calcium ion levels
1373311669265 1359124274112 Which side of the heart pumps to the lungs?
Right
y
1373311691772 1359124274112 Which side of the heart has a thicker wall?
Left
Uc
1373312087980 1359124274112 What is the "single biggest&nbsp;factor in contr
olling resistance and thereby pressure in an arteriole", and what allows us to c

ontrol this factor?
Radius of the arteriole, controlled by the smooth muscle
s lining it.
1373312184049 1359124274112 What is it called when a valve is stiff and does
n't open fully? Stenosis
Uc
1373312259443 1359124274112 What term is applied to the highest pressure dev
eloped by the heart?
Systole
Uc
1373312278722 1359124274112 What is the phase of low pressure (heart refilli
ng) called in the cardiac cycle?
Diastole
y
1373312507706 1371234063709 Which blood vessel would contain the most elasti
c tissue?
<b><i><u><font color="#aa0000">Artery</font></u></i></b>
Arteriole
Capillary
Venule Vein
1373312551399 1371234063709 Which blood vessel has walls comprised primarily
of fibrous tissue?
Artery Arteriole
Capillary
<font color="#aa
0000"><b><i><u>Venule</u></i></b></font>
Vein
Venules do not have elas
tic tissue or smooth muscle
1373312690916 1371234063709 Which blood vessel is primarily comprised of smo
oth muscle?
Artery <font color="#aa0000"><b><i><u>Arteriole</u></i></b></fo
nt>
Capillary
Venule Vein
The arteriole is the main source of circ
ulatory regulation for peripheral tissues...smooth muscle allows us to regulate
its diameter.
1373312759634 1371234063709 Which blood vessel contains one way valves?
Artery Arteriole
Capillary
Venule <font color="#aa0000"><b><i><u>V
ein</u></i></b></font> This, combined with compression from skeletal muscles, a
llows blood return to the heart
1373315059669 1359124274112 What is the purpose of elasticity in arterial wa
lls?
It is propulsive, and maintains a more constant pulse pressure throughou
t the cardiac cycle
1373315061790 1359124274112 What is pulse pressure? Difference in arterial p
ressure between systole and diastole
1373315212599 1359124274112 What is the equation for compliance of a vessel?
C = V/P
1373315372739 1359124274112 What are Korotkoff sounds?
Sounds used for
taking BP
1373315389486 1359124274112 What is responsible for sensing changes in blood
pressure?
<b>aortic baroreceptors</b>
lc
1373315499827 1359124274112 Which autonomic system is activated when aortic
baroreceptors are stretched?
Parasympathetic
Uc
1373315541852 1359124274112 Which autonomic system is activated when aortic
baroreceptors are lax? Sympathetic
Uc
1373315579214 1359124274112 Which hormones act primarily to alter blood pres
sure, and where are they made? Pituitary/Hypothalamus: &nbsp;ADH (vasopressin)<
div>Kidney: &nbsp;Renin(not a hormone) converts Angiotensin (hormone from liver)
</div><div>Adrenals: &nbsp;Aldosterone, Catecholamines (sympathetic NTs)</div><d
iv>Heart: &nbsp;Atrial natriuretic peptide</div>
1373316247820 1359124274112 How do you calculate stroke volume?
End-dias
tolic - End-systolic
1373319145054 1359124274112 How do you calculate cardiac output?
Stroke v
olume · Heart rate
1373319160798 1359124274112 How do you calculate the ejection fraction of a
heart? Stroke volume ÷ end-diastolic
1373319202445 1359124274112 What is the Frank-Starling principle? Stroke v
olume increases if end-diastolic volume increases<div>(Ventricular stretch trigg
ers increased contraction force)</div>
1373319300062 1359124274112 What is pre-load?
The pressure of venous r
eturn
1373319421738 1359124274112 What is after-load?
The pressure the heart h
as to beat against<div>Reducing BP increases stroke volume</div>
1373319730804 1359124274112 What is the action of thrombin? It converts fibr
inogen --&gt; Fibrin, which forms clot
1373319761884 1359124274112 What is Plasmin?
Anticlotting factor; <i>

fibrinolytic </i>&nbsp;(breaks down fibrin clot)
1373319791676 1359124274112 From what are platelets derived?
Megakary
ocytes
Uc
1373319825595 1359124274112 What relative pressures cause the AV valves to c
lose? low atrial pressure, high ventricular
1373319855623 1359124274112 What is the epiglottis? Cartilaginous plate whic
h covers the opening of the larynx during swallowing
1373319908986 1359124274112 What are the two strongest endocrine effectors o
f blood pressure?
Angiotensin II (regulated by Renin from the kidney)<div>
Aldosterone (adrenal)</div>
1373319949852 1359124274112 What are the effects of renin? <div><b>Converts
angiotensinogen -&gt; angiotensin I</b></div><div><i>This leads to:</i></div><i
>Vasoconstriction</i><div><i>Sodium/H2O retention</i></div><div><i>Hypertension<
/i></div>
1373320217159 1359124274112 Raises BP via water/Na+ retention<div>Blocked by
ACE inhibitors</div> Angiotensin
1373320308779 1359124274112 Which muscles are involved in inspiration?
<b>External</b> intercostals<div>Diaphragm</div><div>Some neck (Sternocleido, sc
alene)</div>
1373320527726 1359124274112 Which muscles are involved in expiration?
<b>Internal</b>&nbsp;intercostals<div>Abdominals (for labored breathing)</div>
1373320553198 1359124274112 What is the main force driving air into the lung
s?
ΔP b/w pleural space and atmosphere.<div>We control this by controlling th
oracic volume</div>
1373321205889 1359124274112 What is the dead space in the respiratory system
?
Non-alveolar space; the area of the resp system which cannot exchange ga
ses. &nbsp;V≈ 150mL
1373321214078 1359124274112 What is Tidal Volume? The volume change during
normal, unlabored respiration<div>(V≈500mL)</div>
1373321252970 1359124274112 What is Alveolar ventilation? Total (usually T
idal) Volume - Dead Space<div>≈350mL unlabored breathing</div>
1373321338784 1359124274112 How much O2 dissolves in blood plasma? Very lit
tle (&lt;2%)
1373321390209 1359124274112 Hypoxia:
low PO2
1373321434908 1359124274112 What causes increased O2 release from hemoglobin
?
<b>C</b>O2<div><b>A</b>cid (from high CO2)</div><div>2,3-<b>D</b>iPhosph
oGlycerate</div><div><b>E</b>xercise</div><div><b>T</b>emperature</div>
CADET
Acronym
1373321539199 1359124274112 Where is smooth muscle found in the airways?
All airways except alveoli
1373321574382 1359124274112 Where is cartilage found in the airway? Trachea,
first few bronchial levels
1373321596025 1359124274112 How is CO2 transported in the blood?
As HCO3
(70%)<div>On Hemoglobin (23%)</div><div>Dissolved in blood (7%)</div>
1373321665472 1359124274112 What has a higher affinity for hemoglobin than o
xygen, causing hypoxia? CO
1373321683820 1359124274112 What cells contribute to the alveoli other than
Type I epithelial alveolar cells?
Alveolar macrophage<div>Alveolar Type II
- create Surfactant</div>
1373321734738 1359124274112 What is the purpose of the surfactant in the alv
eoli? Decreases surface tension of the liquid to prevent alveolar collapse
1373321763099 1359124274112 What 2 features prevent collapse of the airways,
both macro and microscopically?
Cartilaginous rings<div>Surfactant surro
unding alveoli</div>
1373321790073 1359124274112 Which hormone stimulates RBC generation, and whe
re is it produced?
Erythropoietin (kidney)
1373321895675 1359124274112 What is emphysema?
Loss of alveolar functio
n
1373321920506 1359124274112 What is asthma? Inflammation of bronchii
1373321943829 1359124274112 Where are the respiratory centers of the brain?

Brain stem, medulla
1373322035790 1359124274112 What is pneumothorax? Collapsed lung due to in
creased pleural pressure (air in chest cavity)
1373322111607 1359124274112 What is the vital capacity of the lungs?
Tidal volume + Inspiratory reserve + Expiratory reserve
1373322192821 1359124274112 How is carbonic anhydrase involved in respiratio
n?
It interconverts CO2 with H2CO3
1373322778781 1359124274112 Which crosses the blood brain barrier more readi
ly, lipids or polar compounds? Lipids
1373322798523 1359124274112 Which side of the brain is the speech center loc
ated in?
Left<div>(Women may use both)</div>
Left
Uc
1373322820006 1359124274112 Which part of the brain is required for short te
rm memory?
Hippocampus
Uc
1373322836077 1359124274112 Which side of the brain is better at math, ident
ification, etc...?
Left
1373322882110 1359124274112 Which side of the brain is associated with creat
ivity, 3D constructs, art?
Right
Uc
1373322970504 1359124274112 What are the primary functions of the hypothalam
us?
Osmolar center<div>Temp control</div><div>Appetite</div><div>Pituitary</
div><div>ADH and Oxytocin synth</div>
1373323002952 1359124274112 What is referred pain? <b>Pain felt in an abnor
mal area due to overlap of the transmitting nerves. &nbsp;</b><div><i>Many visce
ral areas share spinal pathways with peripheral nerves, causing apparent pain in
the periphery when there is an internal problem.</i></div>
1373323080592 1359124274112 What is the role of the pineal gland? Produces
Melatonin which helps regulate sleep
1373323112835 1359124274112 How often does REM sleep occur? ~q2h
1373323136159 1359124274112 What is caused by adenosine buildup?
Sleepine
ss
1373323160464 1359124274112 What is the effect of sympathetic stimulation in
the eye?
Dilation of pupil (contracts radial muscle)
1373324294942 1359124274112 The plateau phase of cardiac contraction is caus
ed by what?
Ca2+ influx into the cells
1373325867411 1359124274112 What is normal hematocrit?
~42-45% (higher
for guys)
1373660047938 1359124274112 What are the first vessels to branch off of the
aorta? <b>Coronary arteries&nbsp;</b><div><i>at the base</i></div>
coronary
1 lc
1373665390257 1359124274112 What are the 7 main functions of the kidney?
Regulating <b>plasma ion concentrations</b><div>Regulating <b>blood volume/press
ure</b></div><div>Stabilizing <b>blood pH</b></div><div>Conserving <b>nutrients<
/b></div><div><b>Eliminating waste products</b></div><div><b>Synthesizing calcit
riol</b></div><div><b>Detoxifying some poisons</b></div>
1373665836311 1359124274112 What are the major structures of the urinary sys
tem? (in order) Kidneys<div>Ureters</div><div>Bladder</div><div>Urethra</div>
kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
lclist, inorder
1373666142180 1359124274112 What structure helps maintain the shape of the k
idney and provides mechanical protection?
Fibrous capsule
1373666310128 1359124274112 Which layer of kidney tissue is in contact with
the fibrous capsule?
Renal cortex
1373666357692 1359124274112 A portion of renal medulla projecting into the r
enal sinus is known as the?
Renal papilla
Uc
1373666579651 1359124274112 The renal pyramids are comprised of which type o
f kidney tissue?
Renal medulla
1373666678383 1359124274112 The sections of renal cortex separating renal py
ramids are known as?
Renal columns
Uc
1373666732845 1359124274112 What is a renal lobe? A section of the kidney
containing:<div>1 renal pyramid</div><div>the overlying area of cortex</div><div
>Adjacent renal columns</div>

1373666768910 1359124274112 Renal pelvis
This structure fills most of the
renal sinus and connects to the ureter y
Uc
1373666799423 1359124274112 Trace the flow of urine from its site of product
ion to the exit from the kidney.
Nephron/renal tubule<div>Connecting duct
</div><div>Collecting duct</div><div>Papillary duct</div><div>Minor calyx</div><
div>Major calyx</div><div>Renal pelvis</div>
1373667540262 1359712957464 <img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa960
68_tmp_rajxj.png" />
<img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_Q_0.s
vg" /> <img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373667540264 1359712957464 <img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa960
68_tmp_rajxj.png" />
<img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_Q_1.s
vg" /> <img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_A_1.svg" /> <img src
="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373667540265 1359712957464 <img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa960
68_tmp_rajxj.png" />
<img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_Q_2.s
vg" /> <img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_A_2.svg" /> <img src
="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373667540266 1359712957464 <img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa960
68_tmp_rajxj.png" />
<img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_Q_3.s
vg" /> <img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_A_3.svg" /> <img src
="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373667540267 1359712957464 <img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa960
68_tmp_rajxj.png" />
<img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_Q_4.s
vg" /> <img src="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_A_4.svg" /> <img src
="497404a6d39b11dfbebf0e1dcbd729e33fa96068_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373667800039 1359712957464 <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e583
1b_tmp_rajxj.png" />
<img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_Q_0.s
vg" /> <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373667800040 1359712957464 <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e583
1b_tmp_rajxj.png" />
<img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_Q_1.s
vg" /> <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_A_1.svg" /> <img src
="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373667800041 1359712957464 <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e583
1b_tmp_rajxj.png" />
<img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_Q_2.s
vg" /> <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_A_2.svg" /> <img src
="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373667800042 1359712957464 <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e583
1b_tmp_rajxj.png" />
<img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_Q_3.s
vg" /> <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_A_3.svg" /> <img src
="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373667800043 1359712957464 <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e583
1b_tmp_rajxj.png" />
<img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_Q_4.s
vg" /> <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_A_4.svg" /> <img src
="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373667800044 1359712957464 <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e583
1b_tmp_rajxj.png" />
<img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_Q_5.s
vg" /> <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_A_5.svg" /> <img src
="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name

of the highlighted structure?
1373667800045 1359712957464 <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e583
1b_tmp_rajxj.png" />
<img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_Q_6.s
vg" /> <img src="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_A_6.svg" /> <img src
="6896101fc2af8c65f196e7515288f00749e5831b_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373668253723 1359712957464 <img src="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011
a9_tmpm3hzlx.png" />
<img src="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011a9_Q_0.s
vg" /> <img src="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011a9_A_0.svg" /> <img src
="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011a9_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373668253725 1359712957464 <img src="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011
a9_tmpm3hzlx.png" />
<img src="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011a9_Q_1.s
vg" /> <img src="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011a9_A_1.svg" /> <img src
="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011a9_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373668253726 1359712957464 <img src="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011
a9_tmpm3hzlx.png" />
<img src="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011a9_Q_2.s
vg" /> <img src="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011a9_A_2.svg" /> <img src
="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011a9_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373668253727 1359712957464 <img src="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011
a9_tmpm3hzlx.png" />
<img src="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011a9_Q_3.s
vg" /> <img src="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011a9_A_3.svg" /> <img src
="c92d244d69d8b339a320448ecb709527db0011a9_source_svg.svg" /> What is the name
of the highlighted structure?
1373668615082 1359124274112 nephron basic functional unit of the kidney
y
lc
1373668896486 1359124274112 What are the structures/sections of the renal tu
bule? <div><b>PCT</b>&nbsp;(<i>proximal convoluted tubule)</i></div><div><b>lo
op of Henle</b>&nbsp;(<i>nephron loop)</i></div><div><b>DCT (</b><i>distal convo
luted tubule)</i></div>
1373671991469 1359124274112 What are the major structures of the renal corpu
scle? Bowman's capsule&nbsp;<div>Glomerulus</div>
Uc listSp alpha
1373672087841 1359124274112 What is the primary function of the proximal con
voluted tubule? Reabsorption of the majority of water and nutrients<div>Secretio
n of solute (but NOT K+)</div>
1373674037544 1359124274112 The major target of endocrine regulation within
the kidney is the...
Distal convoluted tubule
DCT
ABB
1373676531322 1359124274112 Which area of the nephron is responsible for the
production of renin? juxtaglomerular apparatus
2lc
1373677973995 1359124274112 Renal corpuscles are found in which kidney tissu
e?
Cortex
Uc
1373678251989 1359124274112 Which part of the renal tubule is impermeable to
water? Thin ascending limb of Henle
Uc
1373678351930 1359124274112 Where is hypotonic filtrate found in the nephron
?
Thick ascending limb of Henle<div>Beginning of the DCT</div>
1373678646580 1359124274112 What features allow the collecting duct to regul
ate urine concentration?
Impermeable to water<div>Endocrine-regulated Aqu
aporins</div><div>Passes through medullary pyramids (concentration gradient)</di
v>
1373680924956 1373679488163 vasopressin
ADH
<b>water retention</b> a
nd&nbsp;vasoconstriction
<b>Neurohypophysis </b><i>(after it is&nbsp;synt
hesized in the hypothalamus)</i>
Collecting ducts/DCT<div>Arterioles</div
>
It opens aquaporins in the collecting duct, allowing water to diffuse in
to the hyperosmotic renal medulla
<b>High plasma osmolarity</b><div>Low pl
asma volume</div><div>Angiotensin II presence</div>
1373687917623 1359124274112 Why doesn't urine flow back into the ureters dur
ing contraction of the bladder? Slit shape of the ureteral opening prevents back

flow
1373688341521 1359124274112 Which kidney usually sits higher?
Left
1374043796751 1359124274112 What are the 4 major layers of digestive tract t
issues? Mucosa<div>Submucosa</div><div>Muscularis externa</div><div>Serosa</div>
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa
lclist, inOut
1374043859380 1359124274112 What are the three sublayers of the digestive mu
cosa? mucosal epithelium<div>lamina propria</div><div>muscularis mucosae (circ
ular and longitudinal)</div>
1374044798921 1359124274112 What is a 'secondarily retroperitoneal' organ?
Developed in the peritoneal cavity<div>Posterior visceral peritoneum fuses w/ pa
rietal peritoneum</div>
1374045190073 1359124274112 How does the falciform ligament differ from a 't
raditional' skeletal ligament? It is actually a double layer of peritoneal memb
rane<div><i>Doesn't attach to bone, lacks strength, secretes serous fluid</i></d
iv>
1374045937733 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b199
3e_tmps6zvyl.png" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_Q_0 (
1).svg" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_A_0 (1).svg"
/>
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_source_svg (1).svg" /
>
1374045937734 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b199
3e_tmps6zvyl.png" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_Q_1 (
1).svg" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_A_1 (1).svg"
/>
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_source_svg (1).svg" /
>
1374045937735 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b199
3e_tmps6zvyl.png" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_Q_2 (
1).svg" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_A_2 (1).svg"
/>
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_source_svg (1).svg" /
>
1374045937736 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b199
3e_tmps6zvyl.png">
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_Q_3 (
1).svg">
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_A_3 (1).svg">
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_source_svg (1).svg">
1374045937737 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b199
3e_tmps6zvyl.png" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_Q_4 (
1).svg" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_A_4 (1).svg"
/>
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_source_svg (1).svg" /
>
1374045937738 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b199
3e_tmps6zvyl.png" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_Q_5 (
1).svg" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_A_5 (1).svg"
/>
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_source_svg (1).svg" /
>
1374045937739 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b199
3e_tmps6zvyl.png" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_Q_6.s
vg" /> <img src="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_A_6.svg" /> <img src
="6993f3f5689663ad5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_source_svg (1).svg" />
1374047967548 1359124274112 Which portion of the stomach connects with the e
sophagus?
Cardia<div><i>At the cardiac orifice</i></div>
cardia
lc
1374048000976 1359124274112 Which portion of the stomach is superior to the
gastroesophageal junction?
Fundus
Uc
1374048029149 1359124274112 What is the largest portion of the stomach?
Body
Uc
1374049103833 1359124274112 What is secreted by foveolar (gastric neck) cell
s?
Mucous<div>Bicarbonate</div>
1374050635723 1359124274112 What is the function of parietal cells in the ga
stric glands? Secretion of HCl<div>Secretion of <i><b>intrinsic factor</b>&nbs
p;(necessary for Vit B absorption)</i></div>

1374050750264 1359124274112 What is the function of Chief (zymogen) cells in
the stomach? Secretion of pepsinogen<div><i>Newborn Chief cells also secrete
rennin and gastric lipase</i></div>
1374052555663 1359124274112 What are the major regions of the small intestin
e?
Duodenum<div>Jejunum</div><div>Ileum</div>
duodenum, jejunu
m, ileum
lclist, inorder
1374053705805 1359124274112 What is the effect of the parasympathetic nervou
s system on intestinal peristalsis?
Accelerates peristaltic contractions<div
>Increase sensitivity of enteric reflexes</div>
1374053821747 1359124274112 What are the major functions of the large intest
ine?
Reabsorption of water/electrolytes<div>Absorption of bacterially produce
d nutrients</div><div>Storage and compaction of fecal matter</div>
1374054044582 1359124274112 What are the three segments of the large bowel?
Cecum&nbsp;<div>Colon&nbsp;</div><div>Rectum</div>
cecum, colon, re
ctum
y
1374054072788 1359124274112 Where is the appendix attached on the intestinal
tract? Posteromedial surface of cecum
1374054172249 1359124274112 What are the major sections of the colon?
Ascending<div>Transverse</div><div>Descending</div><div>Sigmoid</div>
ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
in order, lclist
1374054556534 1359124274112 What are the three basic categories of hepatic f
unction?
Metabolic regulation<div>Hematological regulation</div><div>Bile
production</div>
1374055491053 1373679488163 gastrin
increased secretion of gastric a
cid (HCl), pepsinogen, and mucous
gastric G cells gastric Parietal cells,
chief cells<div><i>Assorted other gastric cells</i></div>
Stomach
distension<div>Vagal stimulation</div><div>Proteins in chyme</div>
1374055646883 1373679488163 cholecystokinin CCK
release of pancreatic en
zymes and contraction of the gallbladder
small intestinal mucosa (I cells
)
pancreatic <i>acinar</i>&nbsp;<i>cells</i>, gastric cells, and the sphin
cter of Oddi
<b>fatty acids in duodenal chyme, </b>parasympathetic st
imulation
1374062720642 1373679488163 secretin
pancreatic bicarbonate s
ecretion, inhibition of gastric acid secretion duodenum (S cells)
<b>pancr
eas</b> <i>centroacinar cells</i><br /><b>gastric parietal cells</b><div><i>hypo
thalamus</i></div>
Entry of acidic chyme into the duodenum
1374062845439 1373679488163 ghrelin
increased hunger, stimulation of
growth factor secretion
gastric and intestinal cells
hypothalamus <i>
(arcuate nucleus)</i>
empty stomach
1374103848417 1359124274112 What are the two main sources of blood flow to t
he liver?
Hepatic artery<div>Hepatic portal vein</div>
hepatic
artery, portal vein
2, lc alpha
1374104855621 1359124274112 What are the primary functions of the gallbladde
r?
Bile storage<div>Bile concentration</div>
1374105611706 1359124274112 What is the function of pancreatic juice?
<b>Digestion</b><i> organic polymers --&gt; monomers</i><div><b>Neutralization o
f gastric acid in the duodenum</b></div>
1374105912728 1359124274112 What are the layers of the pericardial sac, from
inside to outside?
<b>Epicardium</b> <i>loose connective tissue, visceral p
ericardium</i><div><b>Pericardial/serous fluid</b></div><div><b>Fibrous pericard
ium</b> <i>collagen; anchors mediastinal structures at the 'base' of the heart</
i></div>
1374106380099 1359124274112 Where is the base of the heart? At the top, wher
e all of the vessels enter and the fibrous pericardium anchors it in the mediast
inum
1374106422814 1359124274112 What are the main layers of the heart wall, from
outside in?
Epicardium <i>visceral pericardium</i><div>Myocardium <i>interlo
cking layers of cardiac muscle and supplies</i></div><div>Endocardium <i>simple
squamous epithelium, continuous with those of blood vessels</i></div>
1374107092625 1397404373762 {{c2::Cardiac}} muscle cells are{{c1::mononuclea

r::vs skeletal}}, {{c1::striated::vs smooth}} cells with {{c2::intercalated disc
s}} between individual cells. <b>Mononuclear striated</b> muscle cells with <b
>intercalated discs</b>
1374107177633 1359124274112 Name 3 characteristics of myocardial <b>intercal
ated discs</b> Sarcolemmae connected by <b>desmosomes</b><div>Myofibrils connec
ted by <b><i>fascia adherens</i></b></div><div>Electric current conducted by <b>
gap junctions</b></div>
1374107556046 1359124274112 Which surface feature of the heart marks the div
ision between the atria and the ventricles?
Coronary sulcus
Uc
1374107697485 1359124274112 What are the main 'grooves' seen on the surface
of the heart? Interatrial sulcus<div>Coronary sulcus</div><div>Posterior/anter
ior interventricular sulci</div>
1374107887640 1359124274112 Which septum contains the foramen ovale in the f
etus? Interatrial septum
Uc
1374135953036 1359124274112 Where are pacemaker cells found in the heart?
<b>SA node </b><i>(80-100 bpm)</i><div>AV node</div><div>Bundle of His</div>
1374136126517 1359124274112 Which cells are responsible for conduction of AP
s in the heart? Purkinje fibers
Uc
1374164043416 1359124274112 What are the functions of the spleen? <b>Hemat
ologic -&nbsp;</b><i>Removal of abnormal blood cells/components,&nbsp;</i><div><
i>Iron storage/recycling</i></div><div><b>Lymphatic </b><i>- similar to lymph no
des</i></div>
hematologic, lymphatic
lclist, alpha
1374169370303 1359124274112 Where is the majority of angiotensin-converting
enzyme (ACE) produced? Alveolar capillaries
1374183104663 1359124274112 What are the two main regions of the suprarenal
gland? Cortex<div>Medulla</div>
cortex, medulla
alpha lc
list,
1374183310977 1359124274112 What is produced by the suprarenal medulla?
Sympathetic NTs (epinephrine, norepinephrine)
1374183382213 1373679488163 calcitriol
increased calcium absorp
tion
Kidneys Digestive tract
1374183464738 1359124274112 What pancreatic tissues are known as the 'endocr
ine pancreas'? Islets of Langerhans
Ucx2
1374183519056 1397404373762 Pancreatic islets contain 4 major cell types:&nb
sp;<div>{{c1::α}}, which produces {{c2::glucgon}}</div><div>{{c1::ß}}, which produc
es {{c2::insulin}}</div><div>{{c1::F}}, which produces {{c2::pncretic polypept
ide}}</div><div>{{c1::δ}}, which pro
uces {{c2::somatostatin}}</
iv>
y
1374183581891 1373679488163 glucagon
increase
bloo
sugar
pancreatic α cells
liver nd dipose tissues
Stimultes gluconeogenes
is nd glycogen brekdown in the liver
1374183675726 1373679488163 insulin
lowered blood sugr
pncret
ic ß cells
cells in ll tissue except brin, kidneys, nd digestive trct
Fcilittes glucose uptke<div>Stimultes lipid nd glycogen formtion</div>
1374183746930 1373679488163 somtosttin
inhibition of insulin n
d glucgon synthesis
pncretic δ cells
pancreatic α nd ß cells
1374183787645 1373679488163 pncretic polypeptide PP
inhibition of g
llbldder contrction nd regultion of digestive enzymes
pncretic F cel
ls
gllbldder nd pncres
1374185517774 1359124274112 Wht structure contins the testes?
Scrotum
1374185520835 1359124274112 Wht is the <b>gubernculum testis</b>? Cord of
connective tissue which control the descent of the testes during development
1374186397018 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b199
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>
1374186397019 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b199
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<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_A_1 (2).svg"
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<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_source_svg (2).svg" /

>
1374186397020 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b199
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<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_Q_2 (
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<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_A_2 (2).svg"
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<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_source_svg (2).svg" /
>
1374186397021 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b199
3e_tmpk6zzh6.png" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_Q_3 (
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<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_A_3 (2).svg"
/>
<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_source_svg (2).svg" /
>
1374186397022 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b199
3e_tmpk6zzh6.png" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_Q_4 (
2).svg" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_A_4 (2).svg"
/>
<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_source_svg (2).svg" /
>
1374186397023 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b199
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<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_Q_5 (
2).svg" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_A_5 (2).svg"
/>
<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_source_svg (2).svg" /
>
1374186397024 1359712957464 <img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b199
3e_tmpk6zzh6.png" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_Q_6 (
1).svg" />
<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_A_6 (1).svg"
/>
<img src="6993f3f5689663d5d128459058f1c6186b1993e_source_svg (2).svg" /
>
1374186517972 1359124274112 List the pth of spermtzo from the seminifero
us tubules to the urethrl orifice:
Testiculr medistinum<div>Epididymis</d
iv><div>Vs deferens</div><div>Ejcultory duct</div><div>Urethr</div>
1374186820504 1359124274112 Which structures produce the mjority of seminl
fluid volume? Seminl vesicles
Uc
1374213025140 1359124274112 Wht re the steps of spermtic cpcittion?
<b>Become motile - </b><i>seminl glnd secretions</i><div><b>Become cpble of
fertiliztion </b><i>- vginl conditions</i></div>
1374214456769 1359124274112 Which portion of the mle ejcultory pthwy co
ntins cilited epithelil cells?
Epididymis
1374215288654 1359124274112 Wht re the mjor structures/orgns of the fem
le reproductive system? Ovries<div>Fllopin tubes</div><div>Uterus</div><div>V
gin</div><div>Clitoris</div>
1374215771748 1359124274112 Where in the ovry does gmetogenesis occur?
Cortex
Uc
1374215796944 1359124274112 Describe tresi in the ovry Degenertion of
the mjority of primry oocytes by puberty
1374216323010 1359124274112 Wht triggers the ovrin cycle during puberty?
Incresed <b>FSH</b>&nbsp;levels
1374216351430 1359124274112 Which is the first structure of oogenesis to con
tin the <b>zon pellucid?</b> primry follicle
lc
1374216426129 1359124274112 Which folliculr stge is distinguished by n in
crese of folliculr fluid?
secondry
lc
1374216487105 1359124274112 During which folliculr stge is meiosis I finl
ly completed? Tertiry
Uc
1374216642315 1359124274112 Wht phse of meiosis is reched by the time the
egg is relesed from the ovry?
Metphse II
Uc
1374216691219 1359124274112 After formtion of the secondry oocyte, follicu
lr cells surrounding the oocyte re known s the...
coron rdit
lc
1374216762762 1359124274112 Wht is the centrl 'cvity' of the ovry?
Antrum
1374216773068 1359124274112 Wht triggers the relese of the 2° oocyte from th
e ovry?
LH surge
ABB

1374216827157 1397404373762 After {{c1::ovultion}} the {{c1::empty follicle
}} becomes the {{c2::corpus luteum}} nd produces {{c3::progestins}}
y
1374216879839 1359124274112 Wht is the folliculr phse of the ovrin cycl
e?
The period extending from the previous menses until relese of the 2° oocy
te from the ovry
1374217085510 1359124274112 After degenertion of the corpus luteum, wht re
mins? <b>Corpus lbicns</b>, <i>ple scr tissu</i><i>e</i>
corpus 
lbicns
lc
1374217216502 1359124274112 Wht re the regions of the uterine tube?
Infundibulum<div>Ampull</div><div>Isthmus</div><div>Intrmurl/uterine</div>
1374217301015 1359124274112 Wht re the fingerlike projections of the fllo
pin infundibulum?
fimbre
lc
1374217694621 1359124274112 Wht re the three phses of the uterine cycle?
Menses<div>Prolifertive phse</div><div>Secretory phse</div>
menses,
lph lclist,&nbsp;
prolifertive, secretory
1374217832399 1359124274112 Wht structure is sloughed off during the menses
?
Functionl lyer of the endometrium
1374217871193 1359124274112 Wht hormonl levels trigger menstrution?
Low estrogen nd progesterone
1374217921926 1397404373762 Estrogen is produced by the {{c1::grnulos}} ce
lls during the {{c1::folliculr}} phse of the ovrin cycle. y
1374219026256 1359124274112 Which hormones stimulte mmmry glnd developme
nt?
<div>Growth hormone</div><div>Humn plcentl lctogen</div><div>Prolct
lph ABB list,
in</div>
GH, hPL, PRL
1374711349587 1359124274112 Wht re 2 other nmes for the cell body of  ne
uron? Som<div>Perikryon</div>
perikryon, som
lclist, lph
1374711383609 1359124274112 Wht is the mjor site of protein synthesis in 
neuron?
Som
Uc
1374711406821 1359124274112 Wht re the 2 mjor types of neurites? <b>Axons
</b><i>- lrge, trnsmit impulse wy from som</i><div><b>Dendrites </b><i><b>
xons, dendrites
- </b>smll, trnsmit info TO the som</i></div>
plurls, lclist, lph
1374711424466 1359124274112 Axons occssionlly hve mjor brnches known s
wht? &nbsp; <b>Collterls</b><div><i>usully brnch off t 90°</i></div>
collterls
lc
1374711490097 1359124274112 Which cytoskeleton component is responsible for
protein trnsport down the xon?
Microtubules
y
1374711522811 1359124274112 Which protein crries out nterogrde trnsport
in neurons?
kinesin
lc
1374711547175 1359124274112 Which trnsport protein moves vesicles from the
dynein
lc
xon to the terminl <i>(retrogrde trnsport)</i>?
1374711582554 1359124274112 Wht re the 4 min types of Gli found in the C
NS?
Astrocytes<div>Oligodendrocytes</div><div>Microgli</div><div>Ependyml
cells</div>
strocyte, ependyml, microgli, oligodendrocyte
y
1374711669589 1359124274112 List the function(s) of the strocytes: Regulte
neurl growth<div>Regulte extrcellulr conditions in the CNS</div><div>Uptke
excess neurotrnsmitters</div>
1374711721021 1359124274112 List the function(s) of the oligodendrocytes:
Myelintion <i>(insultion) </i>of CNS neurons
myelintion
lc 1word
1374711747295 1359124274112 List the function(s) of the microgli: Immune f
xn in the CNS
immune
lc 1word
1374711903123 1359124274112 Wht is n ion's <b>equilibrium potentil</b>?
The membrne potentil necessry to exctly counterct the driving force of the
ion's concentrtion grdient.<div><i>(In the bsence of other pumps, ions, or ch
nnels)</i></div>
1374712899641 1359124274112 If the membrne potentil is <b>greter</b>&nbsp
;thn the equilibrium potentil of n ion, which direction will tht ion move c

ross the membrne?
The ion will move to the <i style="font-weight: bold; ">
outside</i>&nbsp;of the cell
outside
lc
1374713194610 1359124274112 Wht re the 4 phses of the Action Potentil?
Rising Phse<div>Overshoot</div><div>Flling Phse</div><div>Undershoot</div>
rising, overshoot, flling, undershoot
lclist,&nbsp;
1374713254372 1359124274112 Wht effect does the strength of the stimulus h
ve on the resulting ction potentils? Strength of stimulus ffects <u style="f
ont-weight: bold; font-style: itlic; ">FREQUENCY</u>&nbsp;of ction potentils<
div><i>Not mplitude</i></div>
1374713706276 1359124274112 Wht cuses the reversl of current during the <
b>overshoot</b>&nbsp;of the ction potentil? <b>Delyed rectifiers</b><div><b
>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; - </b>N⁺chnnels become inctive<div><b>&nbsp
; &nbsp; &nbsp; - </b>K⁺chnnels finlly open <i>&nbsp;(triggered by
depolriztion, but delyed response)</i></div></div>
delyed rectifie
rs
lc
1374713995374 1359124274112 Wht cuses the <b>undershoot</b>&nbsp;phse of
the ction potentil? Incresed K⁺permebility cuses V<sub>M</sub
>&nbsp;to pproch E_K<div><i>(VGKCs don't close until repolriztion
occurs)</i></div>
1374714088200 1359124274112 Wht cuses the reltive refrctory period?
The <b>hyperpolriztion</b> during the 'undershoot' phse of the AP temporrily
requires  higher excittory signl to rech threshold
hyperpolriztio
n
lc
1374714157023 1359124274112 Wht cuses the bsolute refrctory period?
VGNCs hve  <b>delyed inctivtor</b> which renders them incpble of reopenin
g until the membrne hs repolrized <i>(nd subsequently depolrized to thresho
ld gin)</i>.
delyed inctivtor
lc
1374714300436 1359124274112 Describe the structure nd behvior of voltge g
ted N⁺&nbsp;nd K⁺chnnels. &nbsp;How do they differ? &
nbsp; <div style="font-weight: bold; "><b><div></div></b><b>VGNC hs  'blocke
r' which inctivtes it fter  dely</b></div><div><b>VGKC delys opening</b></
div>4 trnsmembrne subunits <i>(α helices)</i><div><i><font color="#ffffff"><b>__
</b>_</font>- VGNC is  single polypeptide chin</i></div><div><i><font color="#
ffffff">___</font>- VGKC hs 4 subunits</i></div>
1374715234377 1359124274112 Action potentils tend to propgte in only one
direction (som --&gt; terminl). &nbsp;Wht is this directionl propgtion cl
led?
orthodromic conduction
lc
1374715314106 1359124274112 Wht chrcteristic of the ction potentil help
s ensure tht orthodromic propgtion will occur?
<b>Absolute refrctory p
eriod</b><div><i>The AP cn only spred in one direction down the xon, becuse
the res behind the currently ctivted point will hve inctive VGNCs.</i></di
v>
bsolute refrctory period
1374715658984 1359124274112 Wht is the reltionship between xon dimeter 
nd conduction speed?
Ft xons conduct more quickly.<div>(Ftter is fster)</
div>
1374715692406 1359124274112 Wht is the primry mechnism of Tetrodotoxin (T
TX)?
Blocks VGNCs
1374715738670 1359124274112 Wht re 2 behviors chrcteristic of neurons u
tilizing electric synpses?
Fst signl trnsduction<div>High synchrony</div
>
1374717917827 1359124274112 Wht structures llow for electricl synptic co
mmuniction?
Gp junctions
1374717949737 1359124274112 Describe the structure of  gp junction:
Chnnel directly connecting the cytosol of 2 cells<div>Comprised of <b>2 connexO
n</b>&nbsp;proteins - one in the membrne of ech cell</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &
nbsp;- 1 connexon is formed by <b>6 connex<u>i</u>n</b>&nbsp;units</div>
1374718266496 1359124274112 Wht re the 2 min ctegories of neurotrnsmitt
er receptors? Ionotropic<div>Metbotropic</div>
ionotropic, met
botropic
lclist, lph
1374718510577 1359124274112 Wht is n 'Ionotropic' receptor?
Lignd-g

ted ion chnnel<div><i>fst chemicl synpse</i></div>
1374718548860 1359124274112 Wht is  'metbotropic' receptor?
A membr
ne protein which ctivtes some sort of slow, cscding response in the cell<div
><i>Slow chemicl synpse</i></div><div><b>Primry exmple: &nbsp;<u><i>G-protei
n coupled receptors</i></u></b></div>
1374718656187 1359124274112 Describe the generl structure of  G-protein co
upled receptor. 7 trns-membrne domins (α helices)<div>1 polypeptide chin</div>
<div>Activtes  specific Gα subunit</div>
1374718790841 1359124274112 Wht is the typicl role of <b>NT&nbsp;utorecep
tors</b>&nbsp;on neurons?
These re generlly<b> just outside the synptic
cleft</b>, nd llow the presynptic cell to detect when there is n <b>excess
of xcellulr NT</b>. &nbsp;<div>Usully they initite <b>negtive feedbck</b>&n
bsp;mechnisms nd inhibit further NT relese</div>
1374719152353 1359124274112 Wht is the primry excittory NT of the brin?
Glutmte
Uc
1374719176730 1359124274112 Wht is the min inhibitory NT of the brin?
GABA
ABB
1374878734219 1359124274112 Nme the mjor white mtter system tht bridges
the cerebrl hemispheres
Corpus cllosum
Uc
1375396718285 1359124274112 Wht re the min clsses of rtery?
Elstic,
musculr, rteriole<div>(Big) &nbsp; &nbsp;(medium) &nbsp; &nbsp;(smll)</div>
elstic, musculr, rteriole
lclist, big&gt;smll
1375396826504 1359124274112 Another nme for n <b>elstic rtery</b>&nbsp;i
s?
Conducting rtery
Uc
1375397196077 1359124274112 Fenestrted cpillries re generlly found in w
hich types of tissues? <b>Endocrine tissues</b><div>Choroid plexus, glomeruli</
div>
1375398017513 1359124274112 Which cpillry type is the 'lekiest'? Sinusoid
s
Uc
1375398154639 1359124274112 Wht is the function of  metrteriole? <div>Mi
ntins  stedy rteriole--&gt;venule flow rte by p</div><div>Regultes the flo
w of  cpillry bed</div>
1375398432837 1359124274112 Wht is the function of rteriovenous nstomose
s?
Directly connected rterioles nd venules<div>Allows cpillry beds to b
e bypssed when not needed.</div>
1383803752194 1359124274112 Which brnch of optics focuses primrily on the
wve behvior of electromgnetic rdition?
physicl optics
lc
1383803815391 1359124274112 Wht is speculr reflection, nd when does it oc
cur?
<b>Reflection t  definite ngle</b> which occurs when light strikes <
b> very smooth surfce</b>
1383811646241 1359124274112 Wve 1 hs mplitude A₁&nbsp;nd inte
nsity I₁<div>Wve 2 hs mplitude 2A₁&nbsp;</div><div>Wht
is the intensity of Wve 2, in terms of I₁?</div> <b>I</b><sub sty
le="font-weight: bold; ">2</sub><b>&nbsp;= 4I</b>_{<b>1 &nbsp;</b><i>Intensit
y is proportionl to the squre of the mplitude</i>}
1384849948213 1359124274112 The 'thick filments' of strited muscle myofibr
ils consist of: Myosin
Uc
1384850403227 1359712957464 <img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b10
93_tmpxitsfo.png" />
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_Q_2 (
2).svg" />
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_A_2 (2).svg"
/>
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_source_svg (2).svg" /
>
1384850403228 1359712957464 <img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b10
93_tmpxitsfo.png" />
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_Q_3 (
2).svg" />
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_A_3 (2).svg"
/>
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_source_svg (2).svg" /
>
1384850403229 1359712957464 <img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b10
93_tmpxitsfo.png" />
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_Q_4 (
1).svg" />
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_A_4 (1).svg"

/>
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_source_svg (2).svg" /
>
1384850403230 1359712957464 <img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b10
93_tmpxitsfo.png" />
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_Q_5 (
1).svg" />
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_A_5 (1).svg"
/>
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_source_svg (2).svg" /
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1384850403231 1359712957464 <img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b10
93_tmpxitsfo.png" />
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_Q_6 (
1).svg" />
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_A_6 (1).svg"
/>
<img src="6791ee51feec9b4e0050b13f4c68560c44b1093_source_svg (2).svg" /
>
1384850533509 1359124274112 &nbsp;The thin filments of strited muscle myof
ibrils consist of?
Actin, tropomyosin, nd troponin
1392249759347 1359124274112 Hgb in the 'tense' stte hs  (higher/lower) f
finity for O₂?
<b>lower</b>
lc
1392250182966 1397404373762 Hgb in the '{{c2::relxed::relxed/tense}}' stt
e hs  {{c1::higher::higher/lower}} ffinity for O_2.
Uc
1392939945902 1359124274112 <div>Wht is the nme of the DNA nucleotide show
n below?</div><img src="pste-22535693402113.jpg" />
Adenine
Uc
1392940066161 1359124274112 Which DNA bse is circled below?<div><img src="p
Thymine
Cpitl
ste-23210003267585.jpg" /></div>
1392940105919 1359124274112 Which DNA nucleotide is circled below?<div><img
src="pste-25456271163393.jpg" /></div> Gunine
y
1392940266631 1359124274112 Which DNA nucleotide is circled below?<div><img
src="pste-25662429593601.jpg" /></div> Cytosine
y
1392940336094 1397404373762 Prokryotes typiclly hve {{c1::one circulr::<
i>number, shpe}}</i>&nbsp;chromosome which is condensed into the {{c1::nucleoid
::loc<i>tion}}</i>
y
1392940578236 1359124274112 True or flse: Plsmids typiclly contin genes
necessry for norml metbolism <b>Flse</b>
y
1392940722975 1359124274112 List four survivl dvntges commonly contined
in plsmids: <b>Fertility</b><div><b>Resistnce</b></div><div><b>Virulence</b
> <i>(pthogenic toxins)</i></div><div><b>Bcteriocin fctors </b><i>(kill other
bcteri)</i></div>
1392940794758 1359124274112 Define 'semiconservtive' in the context of DNA
repliction
Dughter helices contin one originl prent strnd nd one new
strnd.
1392940881487 1359124274112 DNA polymerse functions in which direction?
5' to 3'
y
1392940945967 1397404373762 A chromosome with  high number of methylted {{
c2::denine}} bses is probbly  {{c1::prokryote::prokryote/eukryote}}
y
1392941550387 1397404373762 A chromosome with  high number of methylted {{
c2::cytosine}} bses is probbly  {{c1::eukryote::prokryote/eukryote}}
lc
1392941666517 1359124274112 The Okzki frgments formed during eukryotic D
NA repliction re (shorter/longer) thn those formed in prokryotes
<b>short
er</b>
y
1392941992007 1359124274112 Describe the centrl dogm of biology in s few
words s possible:
<b>DNA</b> is <b><i>trnscribed</i></b> into <b>mRNA</b>
which is <b><i>trnslted</i></b> into <b>polypeptides</b>
1392942182391 1359124274112 List 4 min vrieties of RNA
mRNA<div>rRNA</d
iv><div>tRNA</div><div>primers</div>
1392942221304 1359124274112 Wht re the 3 steps of trnscription? Inititi
on<div>Elongtion</div><div>Termintion</div>
1392942298349 1359124274112 Where does RNA trnscription strt?
promoter
sequence
1392942690438 1359124274112 Wht re 2 common mechnisms of terminting trn
scription?
<b>Self-termintion </b><i>C-G rich sequences form hirpin loops

nd kick off the polymerse</i><div><b>Enzyme-dependent termintion</b><i>&nbsp
;Enzyme (e.g. Rho)&nbsp;</i></div>
1392942922351 1359124274112 mRNA processing occurs in (prokryotes/eukryote
s)
<b>eukryotes</b>
y
1392943197647 1359124274112 Wht re 3 min wys in which mRNA is processed
before leving the nucleus?
Cpping<div>Polydenyltion (Poly-A til)</div><
div>Splicing (remove introns)</div>
1392943302267 1359124274112 The 'one mRNA, one polypeptide' rule describes (
prokryotic/eukryotic) trnscription? <b>eukryotic</b>
y
1392943398585 1359124274112 The mRNA depicted below cme from  (prokryote/
eukryote)?<div><img src="pste-15822659518465.jpg" /></div>
<b>prokryote </
b><i>note the multiple coding regions</i>
y
1392943620697 1359124274112 Wht re the 3 binding sites in  ribosome?
<b>E</b>&nbsp;<i>empty</i><div><b>P </b><i>polypeptide</i></div><div><b>A </b><i
>mino cid</i></div>
1392943839364 1359124274112 Which stges of trnscription require energy? Wh
t is the typicl energy source?
initition nd elongtion<div>GTP</div>
1392943903452 1359124274112 Wht triggers the binding of the lrge ribosoml
unit in prokryotes? <b>Binding of inititor tRNA crrying formylmethionine (
fMet)</b>
1392944058370 1359124274112 Wht initites trnsltion in eukryotes?
<b>Ribosome binds to 5-gunine cp.</b>
1392944121819 1359124274112 A molecule which cuses RNA polymerse binding t
o be unblocked is clled&nbsp; n inducer
y
1392945985823 1359124274112 A molecule which cuses RNA polymerse binding t
o be blocked is clled  repressor
y
1392946018648 1359124274112 Repressible operons re usully (ctive/inctive
)
<b>ctive</b>
y
1392946046654 1359124274112 Inducible operons re usully (ctive/inctive)
<b>inctive</b>
lc
1392946070319 1359124274112 Nme 3 types of point muttions (by effect)
<b>Silent </b><i>no effect</i><div><b>Missense </b><i>wrong mino cid</i></div>
<div><b>Nonsense </b><i>stop codon</i></div>
1392946127765 1359124274112 Insertions nd deletions in the DNA sequence usu
lly cuse wht ctstrophic effect?
<b>Frmeshift</b>
Uc
1392946148600 1359124274112 Wht is  common test for  mutgen
Ames tes
t
Uc
1392946234635 1359124274112 Which orgnism is used in the Ames test?
Slmonell
Uc
1392946430410 1359124274112 List 3 methods of horizontl gene trnsfer in pr
okryotes
<b>Trnsformtion </b><i>phges</i><div><b>Trnsduction </b><i>f
rom environment</i></div><div><b>Conjugtion </b><i>bcteri sex w/ pilus</i></d
iv>
1392946482908 1359124274112 Which specific plsmid type is ssocited with c
onjugtion
F plsmid
y
1392946541563 1359124274112 Why is reverse trnscriptse prticulrly useful
for synthesizing cDNA from eukryotic mRNA?
It forms n <b>mRNA with introns
removed </b><i>(llows cloning in prokryotes)</i>
1392946670204 1359124274112 Wht is the function of  restriction enzyme?
Cuts dsDNA t specific nucleotide sequences
1392946696208 1359124274112 Wht re the 3 steps of PCR?
Denturtion (hi
gh temperture)<div>Priming (low temperture)</div><div>Extension (medium temper
ture w/ Tq)</div>
1392946804080 1359124274112 Which end of the gel does the red electrode go o
n?
<b>The bottom!</b>&nbsp;<i>Run to Red</i>
1398238095749 1397404373762 The formtion of the {{c1::secondry hemosttic
plug}} is triggered by {{c3::cogultion fctors}}, nd involves deposition of {
{c2::fibrin}} to strengthen the {{c4::pltelet plug::2words, sme 1stlet}} lre
dy in plce
y
1398239176881 1397404373762 The uninjured endothelium of  blood vessel inhi

bits clot formtion by {{c1::repelling pltelets with  negtively chrged glyco
clyx::mechnicl}}, {{c1::relesing vsodiltors nd nticogulnts::negtive r
egultion}}, nd {{c1::ctivting fibrinolysis::positive regultion}}
Negtive: PGI2, NO, ADPse<div>Positive: tPA</div>
1398244875239 1397404373762 The {{c1::intrinsic}} cogultion pthwy requir
es the following plsm cofctors:<div>{{c2::PK, HK, VIII, IX, XI, XII::no# then
scend 6,,,,,}}</div> y
1398245019583 1397404373762 The {{c1::extrinsic}} cogultion pthwy requir
es the following plsm cofctors:<div>{{c2::VII, TF::2}}</div> y
1398245053359 1397404373762 The {{c1::common}} cogultion pthwy requires
the following plsm cofctors:<div>{{c2::I, II, V, X, XIII::no# then scend 5,,
,,}}</div>
y
1398268147191 1397404373762 {{c1::Coumdin}} blocks the {{c3::recycling}} of
{{c2::Vitmin K}} fter it prticiptes in the essentil crboxyltion of cogu
ltion fctors.&nbsp; y
Vitmin K oxidized when it is used, nd reduced
when it is recycled
1398279672987 1397404373762 {{c1::Antithrombin}} is the most importnt inhib
itor of cogultion, ffecting thrombin; fctors XII, IX, X, nd XI; kllikr
ein; nd plsmin. It is ctlyzed by {{c2::heprin}}, which is found {{c3::on th
e surfce of intct epithelil cells}}.&nbsp;
1398279981201 1397404373762 Cogultion fctor {{c1::IX}} is encoded on the
{{c2::X chromosome}}. It is dependent on {{c2::Vitmin K}} nd cn be ctivted
by Fctor {{c3::VII}} y
Activtion by VII llows it to skip the erly p
rts of the intrinsic/contct pthwy
1398286803137 1359124274112 consumption cogulopthy
clotting protein
s nd pltelets re consumed fster thn they re synthesized y
lc
1398410239389 1397404373762 {{c1::ACTH::ABB}} triggers the {{c2::suprrenl
cortex}} to relese {{c3::glucocorticoids}}.
y
ACTH: Adrenocorticotropi
c hormone
1398532393050 1359124274112 simple epithelium
tissue consisting of  s
ingle lyer of cells
y
lc
1398532586792 1359124274112 strtified epithelium tissue consisting of 2 o
r more lyers of cells y
lc
1398532613614 1359124274112 3 common morphologies of epithelil cells
<b>columnr</b><div><b>cuboidl</b></div><div><b>squmous</b></div>
columnr, cuboidl, squmous
lclist, lph
1398532649204 1359124274112 tight junctions these nchor neighboring cells t
ogether nd form  permebility brrier, preventing proteins from moving cross
the tissue
y
lc
1398532959551 1359124274112 endocrine glnd  group of cells secreting into
the bloodstrem y
lc
1398533034801 1359124274112 exocrine glnd group of cells which secrete int
o  lumen vi  duct
y
lc
1398533104961 1397404373762 Blood is  kind of {{c1::connective}} tissue
y
1398533118891 1397404373762 Adipose cells re  type of {{c1::connective}} t
issue.&nbsp;
y
1398533245381 1397404373762 Melnocytes, though in the skin, qulify s  ty
pe of {{c1::connective}} tissue y
1398533261680 1397404373762 {{c1::Fibroblsts}} secrete mny of the proteins
of {{c2::structurl connective::2lc}} tissue. y
Such s <b>collgen, ret
iculin, nd elstin</b>
1398533337745 1397404373762 {{c1::Crtilge::Uc}} is  type of {{c2::structu
rl connective::2lc}} tissue which is secreted by specilized cells known s {{c
3::chondrocytes}}
y
This is  specilized fibroblst
1398533398479 1397404373762 Three of the most importnt {{c1::structurl con
nective::2lc}} tissues re:<div>{{c2::<b>Collgen</b>::Uc}} - Most bundnt mmm
lin protein. Its strength derives from {{c3::extensive crosslinking}}</div><di
v>{{c2::<b>Reticulin</b>::Uc}} - Thin fiber found in {{c3::spleen nd lymph node

s::2nd}}</div><div>{{c2::<b>Elstin</b>::Uc}} - Associted with orgns which re
quire some degree of elsticity, such s the {{c3::lungs, skin, nd blood vessel
s::3 lclist,,,nd}}</div>
y
1398535256601 1397404373762 <div>{{c1::Slttory conduction}} is the propg
tion of n ction potentil {{c2::between distinct nodes::3lc}}, known s {{c2::
Nodes of Rnvier::Uc}}, rther thn continously down the length of the xon. &nb
sp;This behvior is usully&nbsp;due to {{c3::myelintion}}, nd {{c1::increses
::increses/decreses}} the speed of conduction.</div> y
The nodes re<b>
&nbsp;unmyelinted</b>&nbsp;nd <b>dense in VGNCs</b>
1398535764817 1397404373762 The {{c1::rising}} phse of the ction potentil
begins when V_M&nbsp;{{c2::reches  threshold}} of bout {{c2::-65mV
::with unit}}, fter which the membrne begins to {{c3::depolrize}} by {{c3::op
ening VGNCs}}.&nbsp;
y
It will rech <b>~40mV</b>, which pproches the
<b>E_M&nbsp;of N⁺</b>
1398536904415 1397404373762 {{c1::Acetylcholine::NT}} hs two min receptors
in the humn body. {{c2::Nicotinic}} receptors re found in {{c3::skeletl}} mu
scle while {{c2::muscrinic}} receptors re found in {{c3::crdic}} tissues.
y
Not sure bout other involuntry muscles...
1398717819949 1397404373762 A muscle fiber is composed of mny {{c1::myofibr
ils}}, which contin the {{c2::contrctile}} units of the muscle, which re lso
known s {{c2::srcomeres}}
y
The Z line is the boundry between srco
meres
1398718017544 1397404373762 A {{c1::srcomere::contrctile unit of muscle}}
begins nd ends t the {{c2::Z lines}}, where the {{c2::thin}} filments re nc
hored. y
1398718147551 1397404373762 The {{c1::A bnds::plurl}} of  myofibril {{c2:
:spn the length of the thick filment}}
they therefore contin <
b><u>A</u>LL</b>&nbsp;elements of the myofibril
1398718331909 1397404373762 The {{c1::H zone}} of  myofibril is the regions
which contins {{c2::only thick filments}}
y
thus, it hs only <b><u>
H</u>evy</b>&nbsp;fibers
1398718386279 1397404373762 The {{c1::I bnd}} of  myofibril contins {{c2:
:only thin filments}} y
becuse 'I' is skinny. Also, they re the region
s <b><u>I</u>n</b>&nbsp;between A bnds.
1398718491502 1397404373762 {{c1::Myosin heds::plurl}} re found ner the
{{c2::edges}} of the A bnd.
y
1398718555723 1397404373762 When  muscle is in its {{c1::relxed}} stte, {
{c2::ATP}} is bound to the {{c3::myosin heds::plurl}}.
y
Myosin i
s not bound to ctin filment
1398718645414 1397404373762 {{c1::ATP}} {{c2::reduces::reduces/increses}} t
he ffinity of the myosin hed for ctin.
y
Thus, when there is not
enough ATP (sy, fter cell deth), muscles remin rigid s myosin cnnot uncoup
le from ctin
1398718799493 1397404373762 Myosin heds re 'cocked' by the {{c1::hydrolysi
s of bound ATP}}
y
They now sit t 90° to the ctin
1398718891739 1397404373762 Myosin cn only bind ctin in the presence of {{
c1::clcium::full}}, nd while the heds re bound to {{c2::hydrolyzed ATP}}
y
1398719209589 1397404373762 The binding of the 'cocked' myosin hed to the {
{c1::ctin filments}} triggers the relese of the bound {{c2::ADP nd phosphte
::ABB nd full}}, which cuses the {{c3::power stroke}}.
y
1398719364969 1397404373762 {{c1::Troponin}} is  {{c2::clcium}} dependnt
protein which moves {{c3::tropomyosin}} wy from {{c4::ctin}}-{{c4::myosin}} b
inding sites
y
1398720203241 1359124274112 Srcoplsmic reticulum Storge plce of clcium
in  muscle fiber
y
Uc
1398720249897 1359124274112 Trnsverse tubules
Invgintions of the sr
colemm which trnsmit ction potentils throughout the muscle fiber
y
Uc plurl
1398720321195 1397404373762 T-tubules follow the {{c1::Z lines::plurl}} of

myofibrils
y
1398720386086 1359124274112 Motor unit
Single motor neuron nd the musc
le fibers it innervtes y
Uc
1398720692030 1359124274112 Gnglion
Grouping of nerve cell bodies
y
Uc
1398723535090 1397404373762 The three bsic ntomicl divisions of the vert
ebrte brin re the forebrin, or {{c1::prosencephlon}}, the midbrin ({{c1::m
esencephlon}}), nd the hindbrin ({{c1::rhombencephlon}}). y
1398723627959 1397404373762 An {{c1::fferent}} neuron crries informtion {
{c2::towrds}} the brin, while n {{c1::efferent}} neuron crries informtion {
{c2::wy from}} the brin
y
efferent is often motor, fferent often
sensory
1398723797441 1397404373762 {{c2::Movement nd personlity::2nd}} re most
closely ssocited with the {{c1::frontl}} lobe.
y
1398723819880 1397404373762 {{c1::Vision}} is most closely ssocited with t
he {{c2::occipitl}} lobe.
y
1398723856582 1397404373762 {{c1::Touch}} is&nbsp;most closely ssocited wi
th the&nbsp;{{c2::prietl}} lobes of the brin y
1398723889549 1397404373762 The {{c1::motor}} cortex is locted {{c2::nteri
or}} to the {{c3::centrl sulcus}}, while the {{c1::sensory}} cortex is {{c2::po
sterior}} to it.
y
1398723990903 1397404373762 A reflex rc synpses in the {{c1::spinl cord}}
y
more specificlly, the ventrl gry horn, where the motor neuron bodies
re
1398724494035 1397404373762 A {{c1::polysynptic}} reflex rc requires n {{
c1::interneuron}} in order to crete n {{c2::inhibitory signl}}
y
1398724577714 1397404373762 {{c1::Prsympthetic}} nerves originte from th
e {{c2::midbrin nd medull::brin 2nd}} s well s the {{c2::scrum}}
y
The mjor prsympthetic nerve of the thorx nd bdomen is the <b>Vgu
s</b>&nbsp;nerve
1398724741004 1397404373762 The gngli of the {{c1::prsympthetic}} divis
ion of the ANS tend to be {{c2::ner::ner/fr}} the structures they innervte,
mking the pregnglionic nerve xons {{c2::long}} nd the postgnglionic nerve 
xons {{c2::short}}.
y
I know they're the sme, but I ws being tricksy
with the prllels to sympthetic phrsing
1398724915109 1397404373762 The nerves of the {{c1::sympthetic}} division o
f the ANS originte from the {{c2::thorcic nd lumbr spine}}. y
1398724998213 1397404373762 The gngli of the {{c1::sympthetic}} division
of the ANS tend to be {{c2::fr from::ner to/fr from}} the structures they inn
ervte, mking the pregnglionic nerve xons {{c2::short}} nd the postgnglioni
c nerve xons {{c2::long}}.&nbsp;
y
1398725174827 1397404373762 After leving the CNS, {{c2::somtic}} nerves ne
xt synpse t {{c1::their effector cell/orgn}}. They utilize {{c3::cetylcholin
e}} s their NT.
1398732017621 1359124274112 eqution to find height trvelled in free-fll f
rom rest
Δh = 4.9t²
1399079158110 1359124274112 ^√3/₂
0.87
#
1399079269800 1359124274112 ^√2/₂
0.71
#
1399079291028 1359124274112 range of a projectile, given θ an
initial velocit
y
r = (v₀² · sin2θ)/g
1399079458168 1359124274112 range of a projectile, given initial y an
x vel
ocities r = (2·v_0x·v_0y)/g
1399079559074 1397404373762 As the time of free fall doubles, the distance t
ravelled by the object {{c1::quadruples}}
y
1399079675486 1397404373762 An object which has fallen for {{c1::1s}} has tr
avelled {{c2::5m}}
y
1399079713895 1397404373762 An object which has fallen for {{c1::3s}} has tr
avelled {{c2::45m}}
y

1399079733223 1397404373762 An object which has fallen for {{c1::5s}} has tr
avelled {{c2::125m}}
y
1399079746014 1397404373762 An object which has fallen for {{c1::7s}} has tr
avelled {{c2::245m}}
y
1399079850023 1359124274112 Equation to find the maximum height reached by a
n object thrown straight up with initial velocity v
h = ^v²/<sub>2g<
/sub>
1399081050443 1397404373762 The suprarenal cortex has 3 zones:&nbsp;<div>Zon
a {{c1::glomerulosa}}, which produces {{c2::aldosterone}}</div><div>Zona {{c1::f
asciculata}}, which produces {{c2::cortisol}}</div><div>Zona {{c1::reticularis}}
, which produces {{c2::androgens}}</div>
y
1399081241938 1397404373762 The {{c1::luteal}} phase of the ovarian cycle be
gins with {{c2::ovulation}} and ends with {{c2::involution of the corpus luteum}
}
lc
1399081743486 1397404373762 The {{c1::ligamentum arteriosum}} is derived fro
m the fetal structure {{c1::ductus arteriosis}}, which spans between the {{c2::a
ortic arch}} and the {{c2::pulmonary trunk}}
y
1399094331323 1359124274112 Determine the time-of-flight of a falling projec
tile, given height
t = √^2h/_g
1399094521318 1359124274112 A stone takes time <b>t</b> to fall to the groun
d on a planet with gravity <b>g</b>. How long would it take to fall on a planet
with gravity <b>½g</b>? t·√2
1399140842807 1397404373762 The preganglionic nerves of the {{c1::sympatheti
c}} ANS utilize {{c2::ACh::ABB}}. The postganglionic nerves are called {{c2::adr
energic}} because of the NT they utilize.
y
1399149767110 1366329156688 Beer's law
The absorbance of light varies d
irectly with concentration of solute
Absorbance = ε·[solute]·length<sub>cuvette</su
b>
1399151123031 1359124274112 Precipitation reaction Reaction where aqueous s
alts form a solid
y
Uc
1399151205878 1397404373762 <b>Solubility rules (in water):&nbsp;</b><div>1.
Most salts containing alkali metal cations or ammonium are {{c1::soluble}}</div
><div>2. Most nitrate salts are {{c1::soluble}}</div><div>3. Most salts containi
ng halide anions (though not fluoride) are {{c1::soluble}} EXCEPT those containi
ng {{c2::Ca, Ba, Sr, Hg, Ag, or Pb::6,,,,,or don't write charges}}</div><div>4.
Most salts containing sulfate anions are {{c1::soluble}} EXCEPT those with {{c3:
:Ca, Ba, or Sr::don't write the charges, 3,,or}}</div><div>5. Most hydroxide ani
on salts are {{c1::only slightly soluble}}, though those with {{c4::transition m
etals}} are {{c1::insoluble}}</div><div>6. Carbonate anion, chromate anion, phos
phate anion, and sulfide anion salts are {{c1::frequently insoluble}}</div>
y
Do these in order - for example, NaOH is substantially soluble despite t
he OH because the Na rule takes precedence
1399151661691 1397404373762 {{c1::Combustion}} reactions are a special case
of {{c2::redox}} reactions, where the {{c2::oxidizing agent}} is oxygen and the
products are {{c2::oxides}}
y
For hydrocarbons, these produce CO₂ and H₂O
1399151881183 1397404373762 A {{c1::redox}} reaction involves {{c2::the tran
sfer of electrons from one atom to another}}
LEO says GER<div>OIL RIG
</div>
1399152586680 1359124274112 Molar mass of H 1.01 g/mol
#
1399152589784 1359124274112 Molar mass of Na
22.99 g/mol
#
1399152620637 1359124274112 Molar mass of C 12.01 g/mol
#
1399152627627 1359124274112 Molar mass of N 14.01 g/mol
#
1399152634253 1359124274112 Molar mass of O 15.99 g/mol
#
1399152652068 1359124274112 Molar mass of Cl
35.45 g/mol
#
1399152663068 1359124274112 Molar mass of Ca
40.1 g/mol
#
1399152671870 1359124274112 Molar mass of S 32.1 g/mol
#

1399152684048 1359124274112 Molar mass of K 39.1 g/mol
#
1399152769907 1397404373762 The {{c1::empirical}} formula is the {{c2::small
est whole number ratio of elements}} in a compound, while the {{c1::molecular}}
formula is the {{c2::actual composition}} of the compound
y
1399152836448 1397404373762 When calculating the mass percent from the conce
ntration of a solution, it is important to remember that the {{c1::total mass in
cludes that of the solvent AND solute}}
1399225997579 1397404373762 The preganglionic nerves of {{c1::parasympatheti
c}} nerves utilize {{c2::ACh::ABB}} and the postganglionic nerves&nbsp;are calle
d {{c2::cholinergic}} because of the NT they utilize. y
1399623375497 1397404373762 A {{c1::sigma}} bond is characterized as a bond
where the highest electron density is {{c2::between the nuclei}}
y
1399623505506 1397404373762 Both sigma and pi bonds are examples of {{c1::mo
lecular orbitals}}, or descriptions of electron distribution throughout a {{c1::
molecule}} rather than an individual atom.&nbsp;
y
1399623662406 1397404373762 {{c1::Sigma}} bonds are stronger than {{c2::pi}}
bonds and form first, with the exception of F₂, where the small radi
us inhibits the formation of the {{c1::sigma}} bond.
y
1399623789184 1397404373762 All bonds between {{c1::nonmetals}} are {{c2::co
valent}}, because the {{c3::electronegativity difference}} is less than {{c4::2:
:#}}. However, bonds between atoms with an {{c3::electronegativity difference}}
of greater than {{c4::1.5::#}} are considered to be {{c4::polar}}
y
1399623970338 1397404373762 Sigma anti-bonding orbitals are {{c1::higher::hi
gher/lower}} energy than pi anti-bonding orbitals.
y
1399624080888 1397404373762 Anti-bonding orbitals are unstable because {{c1:
:there is no overlap between the atoms}}
Some anti-bonding orbita
ls have no overlap due to opposing electron spins
1399624165318 1397404373762 The most important factor in determining the sta
bility of a proposed molecular structure is the {{c1::octet rule}}
y
In practice, this means that neutral molecules will have&nbsp;<div>H atoms with
1 bond</div><div>O atoms with 2 bonds</div><div>N atoms with 3 bonds</div><div>C
atoms with 4 bonds</div>
1399624373809 1359124274112 The 5 main explanations for ALL behavior in orga
nic chemistry Aromaticity<div>Hybridization</div><div>Induction</div><div>Reso
nance</div><div>Sterics</div>
aromaticity, hybridization, induction, r
esonance, sterics
lclist, alpha
1399624423898 1359124274112 The 9 most commonly discussed nonmetals in order
of most -&gt; least electronegative
F O N Cl Br I S C H
FONClBrI
SCH
ABB in order, no spaces
1399624736703 1397404373762 {{c1::sp³}}&nbsp;hybridization leads
to {{c2::109.5}}^o&nbsp;bond angles&nbsp;and some variation of a {{c2:
:tetrahedral}} molecular shape y
1399624764481 1397404373762 {{c1::sp²}}&nbsp;hybridization leads
to {{c2::120}}^o&nbsp;bond angles&nbsp;and some variation of a {{c2::t
rigonal planar}} molecular shape
y
1399624782173 1397404373762 {{c1::sp}}&nbsp;hybridization leads to {{c2::180
}}^o&nbsp;bond angles and some variation of a {{c2::linear}} molecular
shape y
1399704613428 1397404373762 The {{c2::bond dissociation energy}} is the ener
gy required to break a bond in a {{c1::homolytic}} fashion.&nbsp;
y
This produces 2 free radicals.&nbsp;<div>Higher BDE = stronger bond</div>
1399704819738 1397404373762 The {{c2::enthalpy}} of the reaction is the sum
of the energy of all bonds {{c1::broken::broken/formed}} minus that of all bonds
{{c1::formed::broken/formed}} y
<b>ΔH = ∑ BDE_broken&nbsp;- ∑ BDE<su
b>formed</sub></b>
1399704954841 1397404373762 {{c1::Resonance}} is an {{c2::intra::inter/intra
}}molecular phenomenon whereby electron density is {{c3::delocalized}} and share
d across continuous, overlapping {{c3::p}} orbitals
y
1399705302619 1397404373762 Structures with {{c1::resonance}} forms are cons
idered to exist as hybrid composits of those forms. The most stable {{c1::resona

nce}} forms will have the greatest effect on {{c2::structure and bonding::2and}}
1399705440689 1397404373762 The {{c1::inductive}} effect involves the transf
er of {{c2::electron density}} through {{c3::sigma::sigma/pi}} bonds
y
Range is limited to ~3 bonds
1399705583696 1397404373762 Electronegative groups have an electron {{c1::wi
thdrawing}} inductive effect, increasing the {{c2::acidity::acidity/basicity}} o
f nearby functional groups.&nbsp;
y
1399705815702 1397404373762 Protons bonded to atoms with sp³&nbsp
;hybridization are {{c1::less::more/less}} acidic than those bonded to atoms wit
h &nbsp;sp²&nbsp;hybridization
y
The more s-character in
the ?-H bond, the stronger the acid, because the electrons are held closer to th
e nucleus of the other atom.
1399705963801 1397404373762 A delocalized electron cloud {{c1::decreases::in
creases/decreases}} the basicity of nearby functional groups
y
1399706004899 1397404373762 Alkyl groups are electron {{c1::donating::donati
ng/withdrawing}}
y
1399706069729 1366329156688 Huckel's rule of aromaticity
Compounds with a
continous, planar system of p orbitals with 4n+2 electrons show enhanced stabil
ity, known as aromaticity
4n+2
Which theory explains the enhanced stabi
lity of aromatics?
Molecular orbital theory - 4n+2 electrons completely fil
ls the bonding energy level.
What is an antiaromatic compound?
One with
4n electrons in a delocalized system of p orbitals
1399706382666 1359124274112 3 main intermolecular forces in liquids <b>Hydro
gen Bonding</b>&nbsp;- <i>weak interaction between an electronegative atom and a
δ+ hy
rogn</i><
iv><b>Polar intractions</b>&nbsp;<i>- Attraction btwn prman
nt
ipols</i></
iv><
iv><b>Van
r Waals</b>&nbsp;- <i>Vry wak forcs btw
n nutral compoun
s, form
by tmporary
ipols. Ths ar strongr with larg
lctron clou
s</i></
iv>
hy
rogn, polar, van
r waals
lclist, strong-&gt;wak
1399706598068 1397404373762 {{c1::Solubility}} is th ability of a {{c2::sol
i
}} to
issolv/mix into a liqui
, whil {{c1::miscibility}} is th ability of
a {{c2::liqui
}} to
issolv/mix into a liqui
y
LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE
1399706681190 1397404373762 Alcohols an
amins ar both xampls of {{c1::p
olar::polar/nonpolar}}, {{c1::protic::protic/aprotic}} solvnts.
y
So is watr
1399706758868 1397404373762 Ktons, thrs, an
alkyl hali
s ar xampls
of {{c1::polar::polar/nonpolar}}, {{c1::aprotic::protic/aprotic}} solvnts.
y
1399706786962 1397404373762 Oils an
lipi
s ar both xampls of {{c1::nonpo
lar::polar/nonpolar}}, {{c1::aprotic::protic/aprotic}} solvnts.
y
1399752854999 1397404373762 Th {{c1::xtrnal lastic}} mmbran of an art
ry is locat
btwn th {{c2::a
vntitia::outr}} an
th {{c2::tunica m
ia::
innr}} y
1399752999747 1397404373762 Th {{c1::mitral}} valv of th hart is th onl
y on with {{c2::2 cusps}}. It is locat
btwn th {{c3::lft atrium::bfor}
} an
th {{c3::lft vntricl::aftr}} y
Bicuspi
lft AV valv
1399754405685 1397404373762 Though all of th hart valvs othr than th {{
c1::mitral}} valv hav {{c2::3::#}} cusps, only th on btwn th {{c3::right
atrium::bfor}} an
th {{c3::right vntricl::aftr}} is known as th {{c2::Tr
icuspi
::Uc}} valv
y
1399754540036 1397404373762 Th {{c2::pulmonic}} valv allows {{c1::
oxygn
at
::oxygnat
/
oxygnat
}} bloo
to lav th hart.&nbsp; y
1399754585698 1397404373762 Th {{c1::aortic}} valv allows {{c2::oxygnat

::oxygnat
/
oxygnat
}} bloo
to lav th hart.&nbsp;
y
1399754618337 1397404373762 Th AV valvs of th hart ar kpt from prolaps
ing by {{c1::chor
a tn
ina}} y
1399755272820 1397404373762 {{c1::Osmolarity}} is th total concntration of
{{c2::all solut molculs}} in a solution
y
1399756301501 1397404373762 {{c1::Osmotic prssur}} is th prssur which n

s to b appli
to a solution to prvnt th {{c2::inwar
flow of watr acros

s a smiprmabl mmbran}}
1399756506892 1397404373762 Liqui
movs out of th capillaris whil th {{
c1::hy
rostatic}} prssur is gratr than th {{c1::osmotic}} prssur opposing
it.
y
Onc th hy
rostatic prssur
crass, osmotic prssur movs
flui
back into th capillaris. Excss flui
is
rain
by th lymphatic systm
.&nbsp;
1399764964665 1397404373762 Kplr's first law tlls us that {{c1::all orbit
al paths ar lliptical}}
Th smallr mass will orbit with th lar
gr on at on focus of an llips
1399768028498 1397404373762 Kplr's scon
law stats that th {{c1::ra
ius
vctor}} of an orbiting plant swps out {{c2::qual aras in qual tims}}. I
n practic, this mans that an orbiting objct movs {{c3::fastr::fastr/slowr
}} an
is subjct to a {{c3::gratr::gratr/lssr}} forc whn it is clos to
th objct it orbits y
1399768153890 1397404373762 Kplr's thir
law tlls us that th {{c1::squar
 of th orbital prio
}} incrass proportionally with th {{c2::cub of th ra

ius}} y
Tchnically:<
iv><b>T² = &nbsp;R³· (<sup>4π²</su
>/_GM)</b></div
>
1399769119284 1397404373762 You a

a ent weight while in an elevato with a
ccele ation <u style="font-weight: bold; ">a</u>&nbs
;is equal to you cu ent w
eight, W, times ({{c1::1+<su
>a</su
>/_g}}) y
1400748011058 1359124274112 An object moves in the
ositive x di ection at 6
m/s fo 5s, then in the negative x di ection at 6m/s fo 2.5s. What is the ave a
ge s
eed?
<b>6m/s</b><div><i>Ave age s
eed ≠ Ave age velocity</i></div><div>
<i>S
eed is di ectionless, so the s
eed is ALWAYS 6m/s</i></div>
6
#
1400748203527 1397404373762 A
e son who is standing at the Equato will hav
e a slightly {{c1::smalle ::smalle /g eate }} a

a ent weight than a
e son of e
qual mass standing at the No th Pole.&nbs
;
y
This is because of the u
nifo m ci cula motion which the
e son at the Equato unde goes
1400748291049 1397404373762 A skie slides u
a hill and then slides back do
wn. On his descent he ex
e iences a {{c1::lesse ::g eate /equal/lesse }} magnitu
de of accele ation as on the way u
.
y
On the way u
f iction is in the
same di ection as g avity<div>On the way down, f iction is in o

osition to g a
vity</div>
1400749084588 1359124274112 A ock is d o

ed f om 100m at the same time tha
t anothe identical ock is th own u
wa ds, eaching a max height of 100m. At wh
at height do the ocks meet?
<b>75m f om the g ound</b><div><i>They t ave se
the same distance in the same time, so they must meet at the halfway <u>time</u>
. In the fi st half of its t i
, an object d o

ed f om est t avels 1/4 of the
total distance, while an object with constant decele ation t avels 3/4 of the to
tal distance.&nbs
;</i></div>
75
#
1400750657017 1397404373762 An object which sta ts at est and t avels with
constant accele ation will cove {{c1::25::#}}% of the total distance in the fi
st half of the jou ney, and {{c1::75::#}}% of the total distance in the emainin
g time.&nbs
;<b />
y
These
e centages a e eve sed in an object whic
h is constantly decele ating to est.&nbs
;<div><b /></div><div>1s = 5m</div><d
iv>2s = 20m</div><div>In the fi st second, it t avels 5m. In the second, 15m.&nb
s
;</div>
1401050975605 1397404373762 The {{c1::Z}} numbe of an atom is the numbe of
{{c2::
otons}} that atom contains. The {{c1::A}} numbe is the numbe of {{c2:
:nucleons}} that atom contains. y
The standa d fo mat goes f om A to Z...A
on to
, Z on bottom, and thus is to
-heavy.&nbs
;<div><b /></div><div>A numbe
because it shows <u style="font-weight: bold; ">A</u>LL
a ticles in the nucleu
s</div>
1401051764913 1397404373762 {{c1::Z}} numbe s can be used to diffe entiate {
{c2::elements}}<div>{{c1::A}} numbe s can be used to diffe entiate {{c2::isoto
e
s}}</div>
y
A numbe s being useful, of cou se, only when Z numbe s a
e equivalent
1401051912303 1397404373762 Because a/an {{c1::amu}} is defined as {{c2::<su


>1</su
>/₁₂&nbs
;of the mass of an atom of&nbs
;<su
>12</su
>C}}, it
is {{c3::the ave age mass of a
oton and a neut on:: elationshi
of amu to mas
s of
oton o neut on}}
1401416180575 1397404373762 {{c1::Sta ch}}, ty
ically found in {{c2::
lant}}
-based foods, is hyd olyzed by {{c3::amylase}} to
oduce {{c3::glucose}}
y
1401416294909 1397404373762 {{c1::Glycogen}}, ty
ically found in {{c2::anima
l}}-based foods, is hyd olyzed by {{c3::amylase}} to
oduce {{c3::glucose}}
y
1401416331299 1397404373762 {{c1::Cellulose}}, ty
ically found in {{c2::
lan
t}}-based foods, is hyd olyzed by {{c3::cellulase}} to
oduce {{c3::glucose}}
y
Humans do not make cellulase and thus cannot utilize cellulose
1401416360881 1397404373762 {{c1::Fats}} a e hyd olyzed by {{c2::li
ase}} to

oduce {{c2::fatty acids and glyce ol::al
ha 2and}} y
1401416499499 1359124274112 What is the fi st digestive enzyme any food you
eat will encounte ?
Saliva y amylase
Uc
1401416721018 1397404373762 {{c1::Pe
sinogen}} is an inactive fo m of the di
gestive
otein {{c2::
e
sin}}. It is conve ted by {{c3::HCl}}, but can also be
{{c3::autocatalytically fo med}}
y
1401416835763 1397404373762 One of the most
owe ful stimulants which causes
the
oduction of stomach acid is {{c1::histamine}}
y
1401416892085 1397404373762 The exoc ine st uctu es of the
anc eas a e know
n as {{c1::acini}}
lc
1401416928865 1397404373762 The majo
igment in bile is {{c1::bili ubin}}
y
1401416949337 1397404373762 {{c1::Bile salts}}, which a e
oduced in the {{
c2::live }}, act to {{c3::emulsify fats}}, allowing them to be mo e eadily deg
aded.&nbs
;
y
1401416996756 1397404373762 {{c1::Fats}} which ente the small intestine a e
emulsified into smalle globules by {{c2::bile salts}}, which allows mo e inte
action with {{c3::li
ases}}.&nbs
;
y
This is due to the highe su fac
e-a ea to volume atio of small s
he es - li
ase is wate -soluble, so it can onl
y wo k on the su face.
1401417222879 1397404373762 Afte fat b eakdown, the fatty acids and glyce o
l fo m into {{c1::chylomic ons}}, which a e actively t ans
o ted {{c2::ac oss th
e e
ithelial laye }} whe e they a e taken u
by local b anches of the {{c3::lym

hatic}} system known as {{c3::lacteals}}
u
1401938303550 1397404373762 Thomson was able to show a consistent {{c1::cha
ge to mass atio}} of {{c1::elect ons}} via his {{c2::cathode ay}} ex
e iment
y
1401939459859 1397404373762 {{c1::Heisenbe g's unce tainty
inci
le}} mathe
matically defines the fact that {{c2::it is not
ossible to simultaneously desc
ibe both the location and momentum of a
a ticle}}
Δx·Δ(mv) ≥ ^h/
_4π&nbs
;
1401939616031 1397404373762 The {{c1::Boh }} model of an atom de
icts a {{c2
::cent al}} nucleus with {{c2::ci cula , quantized::sha
e, cha acte istic}} elec
t on o bitals.&nbs
;
y
The Boh model, while ove sim
listic,
ovides a
g a
hic demonst ation of the quantized natu e of elect on ene gy levels. This h
el
s to desc ibe the consistent, e
oducible s
ect a c eated by ene gizing elem
ental gases.
1401939814505 1397404373762 In the Boh model, the ene gy of an elect on in
its
inci
le ene gy level is
o
o tional to {{c1::<su
>Z²</su
>/_n²}}
y
E = <u>2π²mZ²e</u><su
>4</su
><div><font size="5" colo ="#ffffff">_______</fon
t>n²h²</div><div>Howeve , all of these a e constant exce
t fo Z and n</div>
1401946607906 1397404373762 Elect on shells which a e fa the f om the nucle
us can hold {{c1::mo e::mo e/fewe }} elect ons. The ca
acity of a shell is desc
ibed by the equation:<div>#e<su
>-</su
>&nbs
;in shell = {{c1::2n²}}</div>
y
1401948947854 1397404373762 The {{c1::effective nuclea cha ge}} is the numb
e of {{c2::
otons}} minus the numbe of {{c2::shielding elect ons}} y

Shielding elect ons = elect ons in a lowe ene gy level than you valence elect
ons
1401949156133 1397404373762 Effective nuclea cha ge {{c1::inc eases::inc ea
ses/dec eases}} as you move f om left to ight ac oss a
e iod y
Because
you have mo e
otons com
a ed to shielding elect ons
1401949223444 1397404373762 The highe the effective nuclea cha ge of an el
ect on, the {{c1::highe ::highe /lowe }} the ionization ene gy of that elect on
y
1401949260306 1397404373762 {{c1::<b>Hund}}'s Rule</b><b>:</b><div>Elect ons
in the same {{c2::subshell}} occu
y available o bitals {{c2::singly}}, befo e {
{c2::
ai ing u
}}</div> y
elect on-elect on e
ulsion in doubly occu
ied o
bitals make them highe in ene gy than singly occu
ied o bitals.
1401953255409 1397404373762 <b>{{c1::Aufbau}} P inci
le:</b><div>Elect ons o
ccu
y the {{c2::lowest ene gy}} o bitals available</div>
y
1s<su
>2
</su
>2s<su
>2</su
>2
<su
>6</su
>3s<su
>2</su
>&nbs
;etc.
1401953353859 1397404373762 <b>{{c1::Pauli exclusion}}
inci
le:</b><div>No
two elect ons in the same atom can {{c2::have the same set of 4 quantum numbe s
}}</div>
y
1401953416112 1397404373762 A {{c1::
a amagnetic}} s
ecies contains at least
one {{c2::un
ai ed elect on}} y
It is thus susce
tible to exte nal magne
tic fields
1401953630666 1397404373762 The sha
e of an elect on o bital indicates the a
ea whe e {{c1::the e is a 95% chance of finding the elect on}}
1401953879263 1359124274112 W ite the 1st 8 o bitals which a e filled
1s2s2
3s3
4s3d4

e.g. 1s2s<div>No s
aces</div>
1401953982792 1397404373762 4s o bitals a e filled {{c1::befo e::befo e/afte
}} 3d o bitals.&nbs
;<div><b /></div> y
1401954013109 1397404373762 Elect ons in a 3d o bital a e emoved {{c1::afte
::befo e/afte }} those in a 4s o bital when fo ming cations
y
This is
NOT the no mal eve se o de
1401954078652 1397404373762 The {{c1::P inci
le::Uc}} quantum numbe , e
es
ented by {{c2::n}}, can be {{c2::any intege g eate than ze o}}, and defines th
e elect on's {{c1::shell}}
y
Desc ibes the shell (ave age adius of e
lect on f om nucleus; ene gy level)
1401954467669 1397404373762 The {{c1::Angula momentum::Uc}} quantum numbe ,
e
esented by {{c2::<i>l</i>}}, can be any intege between {{c2::0}} and {{c2:
:n-1}} (inclusive), and desc ibes the elect ons {{c1::subshell}}
y
Desc ibes the subshell (s,
,d, etc.) and thus the sha
e of the elect on cloud
1401954476179 1397404373762 The {{c1::Magnetic::Uc}} quantum numbe , e
ese
nted by {{c2::m<i>_l</i>}}, can be any intege between {{c2::<i>-l</i>
&nbs
;and <i>l::and</i>}} (inclusive), and desc ibes the elect on's {{c1::o bita
l}}
y
Desc ibes o ientation of the o bital (x, y, z, etc.)<div>With th
is (and the
eceding) numbe s, you can desc ibe which s
ecific o bital contains
the elect on</div>
1401954550571 1397404373762 The {{c1::S
in::Uc}} quantum numbe , e
esented
by {{c2::m_s}}, can be {{c2::+½ o -½::o }} y
Desc ibes the s

in of the elect on
1401954664688 1397404373762 An elect on with <i>l</i>&nbs
;of {{c2::0}} is i
n a/an {{c1::s}} o bital
y
1401954699695 1397404373762 An elect on with&nbs
;<i>l</i>&nbs
;of {{c2::1}}
is in a/an {{c1::
}} o bital y
1401954707955 1397404373762 An elect on with&nbs
;<i>l</i>&nbs
;of {{c2::2}}
is in a/an {{c1::d}} o bital y
1401954748927 1359124274112 Degene ate o bitals
O bitals of the same ene
gy
y
Uc
1402080062501 1397404373762 Pe iodic t ends as we move f om left to ight ac
oss a {{c1::
e iod}} of the table a e att ibuted to {{c2::inc easing Z<sub>eff<
/sub>::inc easing/dec easing ABB}}<div><b /></div><div>Pe iodic t ends as we mo
ve u
th ough a {{c1::g ou
}} of the table a e att ibuted to {{c2::dec easing va
lence shells::inc easing/dec easing lc}}</div> y
Thus, most t ends follow

the a ow below:<div><img s c="
aste-8860517531649.j
g" /></div>
1402080379937 1397404373762 Atomic adius dec eases as we move {{c1:: ight::
left/ ight}} ac oss a
e iod and {{c1::u
::u
/down}} th ough a g ou

y
1402080454656 1397404373762 Ionization ene gy {{c1::dec eases::inc eases/dec
eases}}&nbs
;as we move down a g ou
o {{c1::left::left/ ight}} ac oss a
e io
d.&nbs
;
y
1402080609229 1397404373762 Elect on affinity {{c1::inc eases::inc eases/dec
eases}}&nbs
;as we move {{c1::u
::u
/down}} a g ou
o ight ac oss a
e iod.&n
bs
;
y
1402081215744 1359124274112 Atomic adius <b>Distance f om the cente of t
he nucleus to the edge of the valence shell</b><div><i>Usually dete mined by hal
ving diatomic bond distances</i></div> y
Uc
1402081267317 1359124274112 Ionization ene gy
<b>Ene gy associated wit
h losing an elect on f om the valence shell</b><div><i>Fo standa dization
u
o
ses, the ene gy needed to ionize the <u>gas</u>&nbs
;
hase is used.&nbs
;</i></d
iv><div><i><b /></i></div><div><i>In addition to the gene al t end, note that s
ome t ansitions, es
ecially those which fo m an octet, lend fu the stability</i
></div> y
Uc
1402081495728 1359124274112 Elect on affinity
<b>Tendency of an elemen
t to gain an elect on</b><div><i>Fo standa dization
u
oses, the ene gy change
when an elect on is added to an element in its&nbs
;<u>gas</u>&nbs
;
hase is us
ed.&nbs
;</i></div><div><i><b /></i></div><div><i>In addition to the gene al t
end, note that some t ansitions, es
ecially those which fo m an octet o half-fi
ll a shell, lend fu the stability</i></div>
1402081641023 1359124274112 Elect onegativity
<b>The ability of an ato
m to att act elect ons <i>within a chemical bond</i></b><div><i>This t end shows
no exce
tions fo the fi st 3
e iods</i></div>
1402081921889 1397404373762 Elements f om G ou
{{c1::1::#}} of the
e iodic
table, also known as {{c1::alkali metals::lc}}, eact violently to fo m cations
. Thus, they a e st ong {{c3:: educing::oxidizing/ educing}} agents.&nbs
;<div>W
hen eacting with wate , they fo m the metal {{c2::hyd oxide}} and {{c2::hyd oge
n gas::full wo ds}}</div>
y
They fo m va iable oxides
1402082215627 1397404373762 Elements f om G ou
{{c1::2::#}} of the
e iodic
table, also known as {{c1::alkaline ea th metals::lc}}, a e st ong {{c3:: educi
ng:: educing/oxidizing}} agents. They all eact with O₂&nbs
;to fo m
{{c2::oxides}} y
2M + O₂&nbs
;-&gt; 2MO
1402085558246 1397404373762 The {{c1::
hotoelect ic effect}} occu s when a c
om
ound is {{c2::ionized}} by a {{c3::
hoton}}. This can only occu when the {{c
3::
hoton}} has g eate ene gy than the {{c2::ionization limit}} of the mate ial
.&nbs
; y
Excess ene gy becomes KE fo the emitted elect on
1402085997208 1359124274112 Wo k function (φ)
The energy required to remove an
electron rom the sur ace o a solid material.
Work unction
(When discussing the photoelectric e ect)&nbsp;<div>Uc</div>
1402092138128 1359124274112 Equation or the photoelectric e ect hν = ϕ + ½ mv²
1402092244956 1359124274112 Alpha particle Nuclear decay particle with<div>
2 proto
s</div><div>2
eutro
s</div>
y
Uc
1402092447690 1359124274112 Beta particle Nuclear decay particle with&
bsp
;<div>No mass</div><div>Charge = -1</div>
y
Uc
1402092507294 1359124274112 Beta⁺ particle
Nuclear decay pa
rticle with&
bsp;<div>No mass</div><div>Charge = 1+</div><div><br /></div><div>(
positro
)</div> y
Positro
Beta+ Uc
1402092544499 1359124274112 Gamma ray
Photo
s released whe
a
excited
ucleus 'relaxes'
Uc
y
1402093145019 1366329156688 First-order decay
Expo
e
tial decay (decre
ase i
size with each half-life taki
g the same time) C_t&
bsp;= C<s
ub>0</sub>&
bsp;e^-kt&
bsp;= C₀½^{(^t/t<sub>½</sub
>)}
1402094114349 1366329156688 the Equilibrium Co
sta
t (K_eq)
The ratio of products to reacta
ts i
a closed system at its equilibrium poi
t
K_eq&
bsp;= ^[Products]/_[Reacta
ts]&
bsp;

What happe
s to a
equilibrium co
sta
t whe
a catalyst is added to the system?
Nothi
g; both the forward a
d reverse reactio
s are affected a
d the fi
al co
ce
tratio
s of product a
d reacta
t will be equivale
t. It just gets there more qu
ickly.&
bsp;
What is the ONLY variable which alters the K_eq&
bsp;o
f a reactio
? <b>Temperature</b><div><i>NOT: co
ce
tratio
, pressure, volume,
catalysts</i></div>
How does a solid reacta
t affect K_eq?
It is
ot factored i
, as its co
ce
tratio
is, esse
tially, co
sta
t. How does
a solve
t reacta
t affect K_eq?
It is
ot factored i
, as its co
ce
tratio
is, esse
tially, co
sta
t. How do multiple products/reacta
ts affec
t K_eq?
Multiplicatively. That is to say:<div>^{[P<sub>1</sub
>][P₂]}/_[R₁][R₂]&
bsp;<div>If
the i
itial equatio
has 2P₁, the
this becomes [P₁]²</div><
/div>
1402095450351 1366329156688 a dy
amic equilibrium The state where, i
a cl
osed system, the rate of the forward reactio
is equal to the rate of the revers
e.
k_f[Reacta
ts] = k_r[Products]
How do you fi
d
the K_eq&
bsp;of a reactio
, give
the k_f&
bsp;a
d k_{r<
/sub>? K_eq&
bsp;= ^k_f/_{k_r}
A reactio
with a k_r&
bsp;&gt;&gt;k_f&
bsp;will have a <fo
t color="#5500ff">[large/small] </fo
t>K_e_q?
small
1402095773581 1366329156688 a reactio
quotie
t (Q_rx)
The rati
o of products to reacta
ts i
a system which is
ot at equilibrium
If K_eq&
bsp;is smaller tha
Q_rx, the reactio
must shift t
o the <fo
t color="#5500ff">[left/right]</fo
t>?
<b>left</b><div><i>K&lt;
Q &
bsp; K←Q</i></div> If K_eq&
bsp;is larger tha
Q_rx, th
e reactio
must shift to the&
bsp;<fo
t color="#5500ff">[left/right]</fo
t>?
<b>right</b><div><i>K&gt;Q &
bsp; K→Q</i></div>
1402099678663 1359124274112 For the reactio
system<div><b>A+2B ↔ 4C &
bsp;(K<
sub>eq1})</b></div><div><b>2C ↔ D &
bsp; &
bsp;(K_eq2)</b></div><di
v>what is the overall equilibrium coefficie
t&
bsp;K_eqt?</div>
K_eqt&
bsp;=&
bsp;K_eq1·(K_eq2)²
1402102025189 1366329156688 Molar solubility
<b>Maximum moles of solu
te which can dissolve into enough solvent to make 1L total</b><div><b><br /></b>
</div><div><i>This is the 'x' in the K_sp&nbsp;equation</i></div>
Equation relating K_sp&nbsp;to molar solubility (x) for salt MX
<b>K_sp&nbsp;= x²</b><div><i>K_{sp =&nbsp;}[M][X] = x·x</i></div>
Equation relating K_sp&nbsp;to molar solubility (x) for salt MX_{2<
/sub> <b>K_sp&nbsp;= 4x³</b><div><i>K_{sp =&nbsp;}[M][X] = x·(2x
)²</i></div>
Equation relating K_sp&nbsp;to molar solubility (x) fo
r salt MX₃ <b>K_sp&nbsp;= 27x⁴</b><div><i>K<su
b>sp =&nbsp;}[M][X] = x·(3x)³</i></div>
Equation relating K_sp
&nbsp;to molar solubility (x) for salt M₂X <b>K_sp&nbsp;=
4x³</b><div><i>K_{sp =&nbsp;}[M][X] = (2x)²·x</i></div>
Equation relatin
g K_sp&nbsp;to molar solubility (x) for salt M₂X<sub>2</sub
>
<b>K_sp&nbsp;= 16x⁴</b><div><i>K<sub>sp =&nbsp;</su
b>[M][X] = (2x)²·(2x)²</i></div>
1402271333403 1359124274112 Isomers 2 structures made of the same atoms
y
Uc
1402271359691 1359124274112 <b>Constitutional isomers</b> Isomers which di
ffer in connectivity (bonds)
y
Uc
1402271415970 1359124274112 <b>Stereoisomers</b>
Isomers which have the s
ame connectivity (bonds) but differ in spatial arrangement of atoms
y
Uc
1402271478033 1359124274112 Conformational isomers <b>The same molecule wit
h different spatial orientations due to rotation around bonds (rotamers) or cont
ortion of a ring</b><div><i>These can become identical via rotations without bre
aking bonds</i></div> y
Uc
1402271537513 1359124274112 Configurational isomers <b>Stereoisomers which c
annot rotate to become identical</b><div><i>Bonds must be broken for these to be
come identical</i></div>
y
Uc

1402271593001 1359124274112 Optical isomers Configurational stereoisomers wh
ich differ in spatial arrangement due to asymmetry in the structure
y
Uc
1402271757604 1359124274112 Geometrical isomers
Configurational stereois
omers due to the presence of a ring or π-bond which
events otation y
Uc
1402271839954 1359124274112 Diaste eome s Configu ational ste eoisome s wh
ich a e <b>nonsu
e
osable non-mi o images</b>
y
nonsu
e
osable
non-mi o images
diaste eome s lc
1402271895644 1359124274112 Enantiome s
Configu ational ste eoisome s wh
ich a e&nbs
;<b>nonsu
e
osable mi o images</b>
y
nonsu
e
osable
mi o images enantiome s
lc
lu al
1402273077153 1366329156688 deg ees of unsatu ation The numbe of additional
bonds (elect on
ai s) in a molecule beyond the minimum numbe
equi ed to hold
it togethe .
What 2 st uctu al com
onents cause unsatu ation?
π
bonds and ings How do you calculate the units of unsatu ation in a hyd oca bon?
<b>½ (2·#C +2 - #H)</b><div><i>Inside the ():Add #N and subtract #X</i></div>
1402281778719 1397404373762 An alkene with its highest priority constituents
on the {{c1::opposite}} sides is described as a {{c2::trans::commonly}}, or {{c
2::E::IUPAC}} alkene
y
<b>E and Z look the opposite of what they are as
signed to</b>
1402281945304 1397404373762 An alkene with its highest priority constituents
on the {{c1::same}} side/s is described as a {{c2::cis::commonly}}, or {{c2::Z:
:IUPAC}} alkene y
<b>E and Z look the opposite of what they mean!</b>
1402282993375 1359124274112 <img src="paste-15182709391361.jpg" /><div>These
drawings depict ethane in which conformation?&nbsp;</div>
Eclipsed
Uc
1402283055522 1359124274112 <img src="paste-15255723835393.jpg" /><div>These
drawings depict ethane in which conformation?</div>
Staggered
Uc
1402283102336 1359124274112 <img src="paste-15380277886977.jpg" /><div>Descr
ibe the conformation of this butane rotamer, given the location of the 2 termina
l CH₃&nbsp;groups.</div>
Gauche
Uc
1402283241224 1359124274112 <div><img src="paste-15586436317185.jpg" /></div
>Describe the conformation of this butane rotamer, given the location of the 2 t
erminal CH₃&nbsp;groups.
Anti
Uc
1402283268540 1359124274112 <img src="paste-24021752086529.jpg" /><br /><div
>Which of these chair conformations is lower in energy? &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;<span
style="color: rgb(85, 0, 255)">[left/right]</span></div>
left
y
1402284565125 1359124274112 <img src="paste-16011638079489.jpg" /><div>Which
of these chair conformations is lower in energy? &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;<span style
="color: rgb(85, 0, 255)">[left/right]</span></div>
right
lc
1402284662199 1359124274112 <img src="paste-17768279703553.jpg" /><div>Which
of these chair conformations is lower in energy? &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;<span style
="color: rgb(85, 0, 255)">[left/right]</span></div>
right
lc
1402284813049 1359124274112 <img src="paste-27380416512001.jpg" /><div>Which
of these chair conformations is lower in energy? &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;<span style
="color: rgb(85, 0, 255)">[left/right]</span></div>
right
lc
1402285182010 1359124274112 <img src="paste-28638841929729.jpg" /><div>Which
of these chair conformations is lower in energy? &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;<span style
="color: rgb(85, 0, 255)">[left/right]</span></div>
right
lc
1402285289619 1397404373762 A molecule with {{c1::point symmetry}} contains
an {{c1::inversion point}}, through which {{c2::all lines drawn intersect identi
cal atoms}} on either side.
y
All molecules with inversion points are
<b>nonpolar</b>
1402304376029 1397404373762 An NMR peak with a shift around {{c1::10-12::ran
ge}}ppm typically corresponds with a {{c2::carboxylic acid}} proton
y
1402304466918 1397404373762 An NMR peak with a shift around {{c1::9-10::rang
e}}ppm typically corresponds with an {{c2::aldehyde}} proton
y

1402304492283 1397404373762 An NMR peak with a shift around {{c1::7-8::range
}}ppm typically corresponds with an {{c2::aromatic}} proton
y
1402304566244 1397404373762 An NMR peak with a shift around {{c1::5-6::range
}}ppm typically corresponds with a {{c2::vinylic}} proton
y
1402304579629 1397404373762 An NMR peak with a shift around {{c1::3.5-4::ran
ge}}ppm typically corresponds with a {{c2::alkoxy}} proton
O-C<b>H<sub>x</s
ub></b>
1402304627520 1397404373762 An NMR peak with a shift around {{c1::2-2.5::ran
ge}}ppm typically corresponds with an {{c2::alpha}} proton
y
Adjacent
to the carbonyl
1402304676927 1397404373762 A {{c3::sharp::shape}} IR peak around {{c1::1700
}}cm^-1 typically corresponds with a {{c2::C=O}} bond.
y
C=O of any kind
1402304774919 1397404373762 A {{c3::broad::shape}} IR peak around {{c1::3300
}}cm^-1&nbsp;typically corresponds with an {{c2::O-H}} bond. y
Alcohols, acids<div>The breadth is due to the variable strengths associated with
hydrogen bonding</div>
1402304968700 1397404373762 A {{c3::sharp::shape}} IR peak around {{c1::1200
}}cm^-1&nbsp;typically corresponds with a {{c2::C-O}} bond. y
Often obscured by other peaks
1402511213118 1366329156688 Kinetic Energy Energy due to the actual, physic
al, motion of an object ½mv²
1402514907812 1397404373762 A stronger bond will result in a {{c1::higher::h
igher/lower}} IR wavenumber (cm⁻¹)
y
1402515022812 1397404373762 An alkyne has an IR wavenumber around {{c1::2200
::#}}cm⁻¹
y
1402515030810 1397404373762 An {{c2::alkene}} has an IR wavenumber around {{
c1::1600::#}}cm⁻¹
y
1402515197573 1397404373762 A {{c2::carboxylic acid}} has an IR wavenumber a
round {{c1::2850::#}}cm⁻¹, which corresponds with the bond between the {{c2::O}} and
the {{c2::H::smaller}} y
1402515356588 1359124274112 Unlike the hydrogens on a methyl ketone, the ter
minal hydrogen of an aldehyde displays what behavior on NMR spectra?
Splittin
g
Uc
1402619185051 1359124274112 Ion
Atom with unequal numbers of protons and
electrons (charged atom)
y
Uc
1402619223484 1359124274112 Cation Positively charged atom y
Uc
1402619237657 1359124274112 Anion Negatively charged atom y
Uc
1402619473396 1359124274112 Bohr atom
<b>Atom or ion with only one ele
ctron</b><div><i>E =(¹/_n²)&nbsp;-2.178_E-18 J</i><
/div> y
Uc
1402622655382 1366329156688 nuclear binding energy Energy which is released
when nucleons are bound together by the strong force to form the nucleus
<b>E_B&nbsp;= Δm·c²</b><div><i>where Δm = mass defect</i></div>
What is
the mass defect (Δm) of a nucleus?
The difference in mass between a nucleus
and the sum of the individual nucleons which comprise it
Where does the n
uclear binding energy come from?
Mass lost from the nucleons during bindi
ng
1402624004373 1359124274112 Coordinate covalent bond
<b>Bond in which
both electrons were donated by the same atom</b>&nbsp;<div><i>The electrons wil
l both go with that atom when the bond breaks.&nbsp;</i></div><div><i>Seen with
Boron and transition metals</i></div>
1402667563470 1359124274112 Acinar cells
Cells which secrete a substance
into a duct
y
Uc
1402667589941 1359124274112 <b>Ptyalin</b><div><i>(alternative name)</i></di
v>
<b>Salivary amylase</b><div><i>(alternative name)</i></div>
u
Salivary amylase
Ptyalin Uc
1402667768244 1397404373762 The smallest fragments yielded by {{c1::ptyalin:

:1word}} in the mouth are {{c2::disaccharides}}; digestion to {{c2::monosacchari
des}} occurs only at the {{c3::intestinal brush border}}
y
1402667860192 1397404373762 {{c1::Trypsinogen}} is converted to {{c1::trypsi
n}} by {{c2::enterokinase}}, which is found in the {{c3::intestine}}. It then ac
tivates other {{c3::digestive zymogens}}.&nbsp; y
1402668675920 1397404373762 Like most other digestive enzymes which are made
by the {{c1::pancreas}}, trypsin only functions in slightly {{c2::basic::acidic
/basic}} conditions
y
1403051502159 1359124274112 Planets A and B have the same mass. Planet A has
a radius half as large as planet B. Compared to a 100kg object dropped near the
surface of Planet B, a 50kg object dropped on Planet A will <font color="#5500f
f"><b>accelerate</b>&nbsp;</font>at&nbsp;
4x the rate
4x
#x the rate
1403051668199 1371234063709 Which of the following properties affects the co
efficient of static friction between a block and an inclined plane?
gravity
mass of the block
surface area of the block contacting the plane <b><u><i
><font color="#aa0000">material of the block and plane</font></i></u></b>
θ
of the plane
1403051829111 1359124274112 A 2kg ball an
an 8kg ball are place
on the sam
e spring at the same time. The spring is compresse
an
release
. Compare the ma
ximum height reache
by each ball
E ual
Uc
1403145896638 1397404373762 A {{c1::chiral}} molecule has no {{c2::planes of
symmetry}} an
at least one {{c2::stereogenic center}} y
This typically m
eans an sp3 carbon with 4
ifferent substituents
1403145965015 1397404373762 Typically, {{c1::chiral}} molecules are name
ac
cor
ing to the {{c2::Cahn-Ingol
-Prelog::3-Names-}} rules, which assign an {{c3:
:absolute configuration::lc}} (R or S) to each {{c1::chiral}} center. y
1403146543129 1397404373762 In or
er to
etermine the stereochemical orienta
tion of a chiral center, point your {{c1::thumbs}} towar
s the {{c1::lowest prio
rity}} substituent.&nbsp;<
iv>If the fingers of your {{c2::left}} han
curl from
the highest priority substituent to the 3r
priority substituent, the molecule
is {{c3::S}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv>If the fingers of your {{c2::right}} han
curl fro
m the highest priority substituent to the 3r
priority substituent, the molecule
is {{c3::R}}</
iv>
y
1403146724634 1397404373762 In or
er to
etermine the stereochemical orienta
tion of a chiral center, point the {{c1::lowest priority}} substituent {{c1::beh
in
}} the molecule.<
iv>If an arc
rawn from the highest priority substituent to
the 3r
priority substituent is {{c2::counter-clockwise}}, the molecule is {{c3
::S}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv>If an arc
rawn from the highest priority substituent to
the 3r
priority substituent is {{c2::clockwise}}, the molecule is {{c3::R}}</
i
v>
y
1403146850664 1397404373762 When prioritizing substituents in or
er to name
a chiral center, rank the atoms {{c1::from greatest to least molar mass}}
If the first atoms in a chain are i
entical, continue
own the line until there
is a
iscrepancy
1403147054934 1397404373762 {{c1::Enantiomers}} are {{c2::configurational}}
isomers in which {{c3::<b>all</b>}} of the chiral centers
iffer between isomers
.<
iv>{{c1::Diastereomers}} are {{c2::configurational}} isomers in which {{c3::s
ome but not all}} of the chiral centers
iffer between isomers</
iv><
iv>{{c1::E
pimers}} are {{c2::configurational}} isomers in which {{c3::one}} of multiple ch
iral centers
iffer between isomers</
iv>
y
1403147942459 1397404373762 {{c1::Meso}} compoun
s contain a {{c2::mirror pl
ane}} an
{{c2::an even number of}} chiral centers
y
...the chiral ce
nters being symmetrically place
on either si
e of the mirror plane, of course.
1403148970191 1397404373762 Meso compoun
s are optically {{c1::inactive}}
y
1403149713531 1397404373762 {{c1::Enantiomers}} rotate light in {{c2::opposi
te
irections}} with {{c3::e ual}} magnitu
es. y
1403150319878 1397404373762 A {{c1::racemic}} mixture contains {{c2::e ual a
mounts}} of each {{c3::enantiomer}}, an
is therefore {{c2::optically inactive}}

y
1403150655976 1366329156688 enantiomeric excess
The
ifference in percen
tage between the more abun
ant enantiomer an
the less abun
ant one
% ee·[α]<sup
>T</sup>_Dpure&nbsp;=&nbsp;[α]^T_Dmesured
1403150826910 1366329156688 specific rottion
the opticl rottion of
plne polrized light under specific conditions &nbsp;[smple]·L·[α]^T_D&nbsp;= observed rottion<div><i>^{(in g/mL)<font color="#ffffff">_</fo
nt>(in dm)<font color="#ffffff">_______</font>(in degrees)}</i></div>
Wht re the stndrd conditions for obtining specific rottion of  substnce?
[] = 1g/mL<div>L_cuvette&nbsp;= 1dm</div><div>D = monochromtic light
from N lmp</div>
1403151843215 1397404373762 The {{c1::nucleophile}} is the species which {{c
2::dontes}} electrons in  substitution rection.&nbsp;
y
Thus, th
ey <b>must</b>&nbsp;hve  lone pir vilble to shre.
1403151990694 1397404373762 Nucleophile strength is closely pproximted by
{{c1::bsicity}}
y
<div>Thus, they re lso ffected by <b>protic v
s protic </b>solvents.&nbsp;</div>Also, if they re too strong of  bse, they
will eliminte insted.&nbsp;
1403152082677 1397404373762 {{c1::Smller::Bigger/Smller}} nucleophiles re
generlly stronger.
y
1403152184370 1397404373762 The {{c1::electrophile}} is the species {{c2::c
cepting}} electrons in  substitution rection, mking it the Lewis {{c2::cid}}
y
Typiclly δ+
1403152319124 1397404373762 A goo
{{c1::laving group}} will hav a {{c3::w
ak}} bon
to carbon an
will b a stabl anion (thrfor a {{c2::wak bas}})
y
Thus, you can pr
ict th strngth of a laving group by th&nbsp;<b>pKa
of its conjugat aci
</b>
1403152750806 1397404373762 Substitution ractions which proc
via an {{c1
::SN2}} mchanism typically rsult in {{c2::invrt
strochmistry::ffct on
chiral cntrs}}
u to th {{c1::backsi
 attack}}
y
1403153875004 1397404373762 Substitution ractions which proc
via an {{c1
::SN1}} mchanism typically rsult in {{c2::racmic mixturs::ffct on chiral c
ntrs}}
u to th {{c1::carbocation intrm
iat}}
y
1403153898105 1397404373762 Substitution ractions of {{c1::highly::lss/hig
hly}} substitut
carbons ar mor likly to proc
via th {{c2::SN1}} mchani
sm
y
<!--anki--><
iv><b>...bcaus substitut
carbocations ar mor
stabl</b></
iv><i>...bcaus th LG lavs bfor any nuclophil attack, thr
is mor room for it (an
it is highly favor
anyway)</i>
1403153970743 1397404373762 {{c1::SN2}} substitution ractions xhibit {{c2:
:scon
}} or
r kintics an
proc
{{c2::quickly::quickly/slowly}}
y
...bcaus both ractants ar rquir
for th rat-limiting stp<
iv>...bcaus
thr is only on stp</
iv>
1403154096882 1397404373762 {{c1::SN1}} substitution ractions xhibit {{c2:
:first}} or
r kintics an
proc
{{c2::slowly::quickly/slowly}}
y
...bcaus th rat limiting stp is th loss of th LG, which rquirs only on
ractant (an
is slow).
1403154187519 1397404373762 Substitutions of {{c1::lss::lss/highly}} subst
itut
carbons ar mor likly to proc
via th {{c2::SN2}} mchanism y
<
iv>...bcaus strics limit th ability of th nuclophil to approach an
for
m th 5-ligan
intrm
iat</
iv>
1403154328307 1397404373762 In situations with {{c1::polar aprotic::2}} solv
nts an
{{c1::strong}} nuclophils, substitution will occur via th {{c2::SN2}
} mchanism
y
...bcaus that solvnt stabilizs th LG (polar) an
ma
intains th strngth of th N: (aprotic)<
iv>...a strong nuclophil is ncssar
y, as nuclophil attack <i>is</i>&nbsp;th primary mchanism in SN2</
iv>
1403154722044 1397404373762 In situations with {{c1::polar protic::2}} solv
nts an
{{c1::wak}} nuclophils, substitution will occur via th {{c2::SN1}} m
y
...bcaus this stabilizs both th LG an
th carbocati
chanism
on intrm
iat<
iv>...bcaus th prsnc of a carbocation mans that vn a w
ak nuclophil is favor
to attack an
stabiliz th systm</
iv>

1403154778780 1397404373762 Rarrangmnt can occur
uring {{c1::SN1}} subst
itution ractions
y
...bcaus it allows for stabilization of th ca
rbocation intrm
iat
1403155977531 1359124274112 <img src="past-17149804412929.jpg" /><
iv>Which
of ths nrgy
iagrams corrspon
s to an SN2 mchanism?</
iv>
<b>A</b>
<
iv><i>Singl hump - 1 stp/transition stat, no local minima (intrm
iat)</i
></
iv>
A
Uc
1403156084559 1359124274112 <img src="past-17149804412929.jpg" /><
iv>Which
of ths nrgy
iagrams corrspon
s to an SN1 mchanism?</
iv>
<b>B<br
/></b><
iv><i>Two humps - 2 stp/transition stats, local minima = intrm
iat<
/i></
iv>
B
Uc
1403157102573 1397404373762 <b>Raction kintics</b><
iv>- Rflct factors w
hich affct th {{c1::rat limiting stp}} of a raction</
iv><
iv>- Rat is inc
ras
by {{c2::highr}} tmpraturs an
{{c2::catalysts}}</
iv>
y
RLS
ictats/can b
trmin
by which [] affct th rat
1403157222485 1397404373762 Enantiomrs hav {{c1::i
ntical}} physical prop
rtis y
.g. boiling point, mlting point,
nsity, tc.&nbsp;
1403157451933 1397404373762 Diastromrs hav {{c1::
iffrnt}} physical pr
oprtis from ach othr
y
1403157482183 1397404373762 Th most common mtho
for physically sparating
nantiomrs is {{c1::chiral column chromatography::3wor
s}}
y
1403158183093 1397404373762 Bcaus nantiomrs hav i
ntical physical prop
rtis, it is oftn asist to {{c1::slctivly ract with on nantiomr}} in
or
r to facilitat furthr sparation
Onc you altr on, thy ar no
longr nantiomrs an
can b physically
iffrntiat

1403194833667 1397404373762 Much as {{c1::work}} is th masur of {{c2::n
rgy}} transfr, th {{c1::impuls}} is th masur of {{c2::momntum}} transfr
y
F·d: m·^kg·m/_s² = ^kg·m²/_s²&nbsp;<div>F·t:
p>kg·m</sup>/_s² = ^kg·m/_s</div>
1403231411890 1397404373762 {{c1::Gonadotropin releasing}} hormone (abbrevia
ted {{c1::GnRH::ABB}}) from the {{c2::hypothalamus}} stimulates the {{c2::adenoh
ypophysis::1word}} to release {{c3::FSH and LH::ABB 2and}} in{{c4::both males an
d females::males/females/both}}.
y
1403232153570 1359124274112 Spermatogenesis Production of sperm
y
Uc
1403232165912 1359124274112 In which structure does spermatogenesis take pla
ce?
Seminiferous tubules
Uc
1403232214104 1359124274112 <b>Leydig cells</b><div><i>(also called 'interst
itial' cells)</i></div> Testicular cells responsible for the production of <b>te
stosterone</b> y
Leydig Uc
1403232246652 1359124274112 Testes Male gonads
y
Uc
Uc
1403232271164 1359124274112 Sertoli cells <b>Testicular 'nurse' cells</b><
div><i>These help regulate spermatogenesis.&nbsp;</i></div><div><i>Also secrete
<u>inhibin</u></i></div>
y
Uc
1403232434512 1397404373762 {{c1::Sertoli::Uc}} cells, also known as {{c1::s
ustentacular::lc 1word}} cells or {{c1::testicular nurse::lc 2words}} cells, are
large cells which lie adjacent to the {{c2::lumen}} of the {{c2::seminiferous t
ubules::structure}}
y
1403232549609 1397404373762 {{c1::Spermatogenic}} cells can be found anywher
e between the {{c2::basement membrane::less mature}} and the {{c2::lumen::more m
ature}} of the {{c2::seminiferous tubules::plural structure}}, but are always in
contact with {{c3::Sertoli::Uc}} cells.&nbsp; y
They become more and mor
e mature as they move from basement membrane to the lumen.
1403232736713 1397404373762 Spermatogenic cells which lie close to the {{c2:
:basement membrane}} divide via {{c3::mitosis}} and are known as {{c1::spermatog
onia}} y
The daughter cells which move towards the lumen are referred to
as primary spermatocytes
1403234128870 1397404373762 Once they near the {{c1::lumen}} of the seminife
rous tubule, the {{c2::primary spermatocytes}} undergo {{c3::meiosis}}, forming
{{c4::2::#}} {{c4::secondary spermatocytes::after first meiotic division}} and t

hen a total of {{c4::4::#}} {{c4::spermatids::after second meiotic division}}
y
Spermatids are connected by cytoplasmic bridges
1403235655092 1397404373762 The {{c1::transformation event}} occurs when eac
h of the 4 {{c2::spermatids}}, which are connected by {{c3::cytoplasmic bridges}
} forms and ejects a {{c4::spermatozoan}}
y
These connected spermati
ds all formed from 1 parent primary spermatocyte
1403235805228 1397404373762 At the tip of the spermatozoan lies the {{c1::ac
rosome}}, which contains {{c2::digestive enzymes}}.&nbsp;
y
These he
lp it to gain access to the interior of the egg
1403235860051 1397404373762 Inside the head of the spermatozoan is the {{c1:
:nucleus}}, which contains {{c1::23 chromosomes::specifics}}.&nbsp;
y
1403235895742 1397404373762 In males, {{c1::Leydig}} cells convert {{c2::cho
lesterol}} into {{c3::testosterone}}
y
1403235939420 1397404373762 In males, {{c1::LH::ABB}} acts on {{c2::Leydig}}
cells to promote the production of {{c3::testosterone}}.&nbsp; y
This is
controlled via negative feedback - Testosterone inhibits both LH release as well
as the release of GnRH (which triggers LH release)
1403236508101 1397404373762 Testosterone levels are regulated via negative f
eedback; testosterone inhibits both {{c1::LH::ABB}} release as well as the relea
se of {{c2::GnRH::ABB}} (responsible for the release of {{c1::LH::ABB}})
y
1403236566058 1397404373762 {{c1::Sertoli}} cells convert {{c2::testosterone
}} into {{c3::dHT::ABB}}, which activates transcription of genes responsible for
regulating spermatogenesis.
y
dHT: dihydrotestosterone
1403236745556 1397404373762 {{c1::FSH::ABB}} acts on {{c2::Sertoli::Uc}} cel
ls to promote the generation of {{c3::testosterone}} receptors, and consequently
{{c3::dHT::ABB}} production, which leads to {{c3::spermatogenesis}}
y
dHT: dihydrotestosterone
1403236864132 1397404373762 Spermatogenesis is regulated not only by testost
erone level, but also because an increased {{c1::dHT::ABB}} level in Sertoli cel
ls will promote the increased production of {{c2::inhibin}}, which inhibits the
release of {{c3::FSH}} y
FSH from the pituitary causes testosterone recep
tor production (increased dHT production)
1403237020538 1397404373762 Once sperm have been ejaculated into the vagina,
they can live for up to {{c1::48hrs}}. However, they typically reach the {{c2::
Fallopian tubes::Site of fertilization}} within {{c1::30min}} y
1403237484583 1397404373762 All of the {{c1::primary oocytes}} which a femal
e will ever produce develop within the first {{c2::3mo}} of fetal development
y
1403237545220 1397404373762 The primary oocyte undergoes the first meiotic d
ivision {{c1::at the beginning of the menstrual cycle}}. It undergoes the second
meiotic division {{c2::after fertilization}}
1403237725601 1397404373762 A single oogonia produces {{c1::1 ovum::# produc
t}} after undergoing meiosis
y
Each meiotic division results in 1 small
polar body, which is discarded, along with the large oocyte
1403238278795 1397404373762 In females, {{c1::cholesterol}} is converted to
{{c2::testosterone}} in the {{c3::theca}} cells, while {{c2::testosterone}} is c
onverted to {{c4::estrogen}} in the {{c3::follicular}} cells. y
1403238379712 1397404373762 The {{c1::granulosa}} cells produce {{c2::estrog
en}}. As the {{c3::follicle}} grows, there are more {{c1::granulosa}} cells, so
the level of {{c2::estrogen}} rises steadily until {{c3::ovulation}}
y
1403238497776 1397404373762 {{c1::Estrogen}} {{c2::inhibits::inhibits/promot
es}} the release of LH and FSH &nbsp;at {{c1::low::high/low}} concentrations or
when combined with {{c1::progesterone}} y
1403238643917 1397404373762 {{c1::Estrogen}} {{c2::promotes::inhibits/promot
es}} the release of LH and FSH &nbsp;at {{c1::high::high/low}} concentrations
y
1403238660078 1397404373762 In females, {{c1::LH::ABB}} affects the {{c2::th
eca}} cells while {{c1::FSH::ABB}} affects the {{c2::granulosa}} cells y
1403238840336 1397404373762 After fertilization, the combined sperm and ovum

are known as a {{c1::zygote}} y
1403239653660 1397404373762 The zygote typically implants on the uterine wal
l within {{c2::7d}}, at which point it is called a {{c1::blastocyst}} due to its
morphology
y
1403239720795 1397404373762 After successful fertilization, the placenta beg
ins to produce {{c1::hCG::ABB}}, which maintains the {{c2::corpus luteum}} and t
herefore high levels of {{c2::estrogen and progesterone::2and}} y
High lev
els of estrogen and progesterone prevent any more primary oocytes from maturing
1403239855125 1397404373762 After the first {{c1::3mo}} of pregnancy, the pl
acenta ceases to secrete {{c2::hCG::ABB}}, causing the {{c3::corpus luteum}} to
{{c3::degenerate}}. All {{c3::estrogen and progesterone::2and}} is now produced
by the placenta itself y
1403239922703 1397404373762 <b>Developmental Stages:</b><div>1. {{c1::Fertil
ization::Uc}}</div><div>2. {{c1::Cleavage::Uc}}</div><div>3. {{c1::Gastrulation:
:Uc}}</div><div>4. {{c1::Neurulation::Uc}}</div><div>5. {{c1::Neural crest forma
tion::Uc}}</div><div>6. {{c1::Organogenesis::Uc}}</div> y
1403243450851 1397404373762 During {{c1::cleavage}}, the cells of the zygote
{{c2::divide}}, increasing in {{c3::number}} without increasing the {{c3::volum
e}} of the zygote
y
1403243697350 1397404373762 The {{c1::morula}}, which forms during the {{c2:
:cleavage}} stage of development, is a {{c3::small, solid ball of cells}}
y
NO hollow center
1403244012565 1397404373762 The {{c1::blastula}}, which forms during the {{c
2::cleavage}} stage of development, is a {{c3::hollow ball of cells}} y
The hollow being the <b>blastocoel</b>
1403244210273 1397404373762 During {{c1::gastrulation}}, the cells of the zy
gote {{c2::rearrange::general}}, {{c2::invaginating::specific-ing}} to form {{c3
::layers}}
y
1403244315143 1397404373762 The {{c1::gastrula}}, which forms during the {{c
1::gastrulation}} stage of development, contains the {{c2::archenteron::central
cavity}}, as well as 3 layers of cells: {{c2::endoderm::inner}}, {{c2::mesoderm}
}, and {{c2::ectoderm::outer}} y
The ectoderm and endoderm are derived fr
om the invagination of the blastula wall. The mesoderm forms later, in between t
hose two.&nbsp;
1403244488502 1397404373762 The most significant structures which form&nbsp;
during the {{c1::neurulation}} stage of development are the {{c2::notochord::}},
which is derived from the {{c3::mesoderm}}, and the {{c2::neural tube}}, which
is derived from the {{c3::ectoderm}}
y
1403314430631 1397404373762 A branched alkane of equal mass will boil at a {
{c1::lower::higher/lower}} temperature than the linear equivalent
y
1403314516939 1397404373762 An alkane of higher mass will boil at a {{c1::hi
gher::higher/lower}} temperature.
y
1403314538840 1397404373762 The most important alkane reactions are {{c1::fr
ee radical halogenation::constructive}} and {{c1::combustion}} y
Both pro
ceed via free-radical mechanisms
1403314636325 1397404373762 A radical is more stable on a {{c1::tertiary::pr
imary/tertiary}} carbon y
1403314712126 1397404373762 The {{c1::initiation}} step of {{c3::free radica
l halogenation}} reactions involves {{c2::homolytic cleavage}} of {{c2::X-X bond
s}}
y
Typically, activation energy for this step is supplied by light<
div>X-X → 2X·</div>
1403315155785 1397404373762 The {{c1::propagation}} step of radical halogena
tion reactions begins with {{c2::1}} radical present and ends with {{c2::1}} rad
ical present
y
There are always multiple possible reactions:<div>X· + R-H
→ H-X + R·</div><div>R· + X-X → R-X + X·</div>
1403315176037 1397404373762 The {{c1::termination}} step of radical halogena
tion reactions begins with {{c2::2}} radical species present and ends with {{c2:
:0}} radical species present. y
There are always multiple possible react
ions:<div>X· + ·R → R-X</div><div>R· + ·R → R-R (side product)</div><div>X· + ·X → X-X</div>
1403315277264 1397404373762 In general, {{c1::slower}} reactions are more se

lective. This is reflected in the fact that free radical chlorination results in
{{c2::more::more/less}} minor product formation than free radical bromination a
t the same temperature y
1403315647523 1397404373762 A {{c1::Zaitsev}} elimination product is the {{c
2::more::more/less}} substituted of the possible alkene products.
y
1403318740838 1397404373762 A {{c1::Hoffman}} elimination product is the {{c
2::less::more/less}} substituted of the possible alkene products.
y
More typical of E2 reactions with BBB
1403318768434 1397404373762 E1 elimination reactions require {{c1::acidic::b
asic/acidic}} conditions, while E2 requires {{c1::basic::acidic/basic}}.
y
This is because the LG leaves more readily if protonated, while basic co
nditions promote proton removal.&nbsp;
1403320294667 1397404373762 Reactions conducted at {{c2::high}} temperatures
with a {{c2::big bulky base}} tend to favor {{c1::E2}} y
1403320458410 1397404373762 {{c1::E2}} reactions proceed via {{c2::anti-peri
planar}} transitions, which often dictates the stereochemistry of the product.
y
1403320545159 1397404373762 {{c1::E1::E1/E2}} eliminations proceed via a {{c
2::carbocation}} intermediate, and thus favor the {{c1::Zaitsev::Hoffman/Zaitsev
}} product
y
They can also undergo rearrangement
1403320610229 1397404373762 Elimination reactions conducted at {{c2::high}}
temperatures and {{c2::acidic}} conditions tend to favor {{c1::E1::E1/E2}} mecha
nisms y
1403320658623 1397404373762 The {{c1::Hoffman elimination}} involves forming
a {{c2::cationic quaternary amine::charge substitution species}} and then elimi
nating it via an {{c3::E2}} mechanism, resulting in a {{c1::terminal alkene}}
y
1403321857270 1397404373762 Both the {{c1::Cope::terminal dienes}} and {{c1:
:Claisen::vinylic ethers}} reactions are examples of {{c2::sigmatropic rearrange
ments}} y
1403321930134 1397404373762 {{c1::Terpenes}} are biological molecules synthe
sized from {{c2::isoprene}} building blocks, meaning that they always have a mul
tiple of {{c2::5::#}} carbons. {{c1::Terpenoids}} are similar, but they also con
tain {{c2::oxygen}}
y
These can form into complex molecules such as Li
monene, carvone, camphor, or even cholesterol!<div><img src="paste-1677614225817
7.jpg" />&nbsp;</div><div><b>Isoprene</b></div>
1403324589669 1359124274112 <b>Isoprene </b><i>(structure)</i>
<img src
="paste-16771847290881.jpg" /> y
Isoprene
Uc
1403324688276 1359124274112 Why are small nucleophiles avoided when attempti
ng E2 reactions?
<b>To prevent SN2 side products</b><div><i>The reverse i
s avoidable because E2 requires higher reaction temperatures than SN2</i></div>
1403391547360 1397404373762 All hormones released from the pituitary are {{c
1::peptide}} hormones. y
1403391580963 1397404373762 The mucus which lines the alimentary canal is an
{{c1::indigestible::adj}} {{c1::polysaccharide::n}}
y
1403391642790 1397404373762 The lipid most dependent on bile salts for absor
ption is {{c1::cholesterol}}
y
1403391666516 1397404373762 A 10yr old male has a {{c1::lower::higher/lower/
equal}} testosterone level than he did at birth.
y
Testosterone is
vital for proper fetal development in males, but then is not heavily expressed a
gain until puberty.
1403391902232 1397404373762 A {{c1::primordial}} follicle contains the {{c2:
:primary}} oocyte (in stage {{c2::P1}} of meiosis) and {{c3::a single layer of}}
{{c2::granulosa cells}}.
y
1403392107311 1397404373762 A {{c1::primary}} follicle contains the {{c2::se
condary}} oocyte (in stage {{c2::M2}} of meiosis), the {{c3::zona pellucida::ooc
yte barrier}} and {{c3::multiple layers of}} {{c2::granulosa cells}}. y
Zona pellucida = polysaccharide shell around 2° oocyte
1403392210349 1397404373762 The {{c1::tertiary}} follicle is also referred t
o as the {{c2::Graafian}} follicle.
y

1403395293681 1359124274112 <img src="paste-15380277886977 (1).jpg" />
Testes differentiate
A (Uc)
1403395502309 1359124274112 <img src="paste-15788299780097.jpg" /> Sertoli,
MIF
A, B (Uc, ABB)
1403395516738 1359124274112 <img src="paste-17660905521153.jpg" /> Leydig,
testosterone
A, B (Uc, lc)
1403395593672 1359124274112 <img src="paste-17824114278401.jpg" /> <b>A: </
b>Development of Wolffian duct system<div><b>B: </b>Development of male external
genitalia</div>
Wolffian, external
A, B (Uc, lc)
1403400766101 1397404373762 A compound that rotates plane-polarized light {{
c1::clockwise}} is said to be {{c2::dextrorotary}} and is denoted {{c2::d::d/l}}
or {{c2::+::+/-}}
y
1403402133873 1397404373762 When an {{c1::ether}} and a {{c2::haloacid}} are
combined, the {{c2::protonated}} {{c1::ether}} can undergo 2 consecutive {{c3::
substitution}} reactions, resulting in &nbsp;2 {{c3::haloalkanes}}
y
R-O-R' + 2·H-X → R-X + R'-X + H₂O
1403402501345 1397404373762 Amines can be {{c1::alkylated}} by acting as the
{{c3::nucleophile}} in an {{c2::SN2}} reaction with an {{c1::alkyl halide}}
y
1403489542797 1397404373762 {{c3::Neutral water}} has a pH of {{c2::7}} at 2
5°C due to {{c1::autoionization}}
y
1403489719749 1359124274112 Amphoteric substance
A substance which can ac
t as either an acid or a base y
Uc
1403489757784 1359124274112 <b>Convert pK_a&nbsp;into K_{a</sub
></b><div><i>_K<sub style="vertical-align: sub; ">a}&nbsp;= ...</
i></div>
K_a&nbsp;= 10^-pK_a
1403489977355 1359124274112 Convert K_a&nbsp;into pK_a<d
iv><i>pK_a&nbsp;= ...</i></div>
pK_a&nbsp;= -log(K<sub
>a</sub>)
1403490026298 1397404373762 {{c1::Stronger}} acids have {{c2::higher::higher
/lower}} K_a&nbsp;values and {{c2::lower::higher/lower}} pK_{a</sub
>&nbsp;values. y
1403490208152 1397404373762 {{c1::Stronger}} bases have {{c2::higher}} K<sub
>b}&nbsp;values and {{c2::lower}} pK_B&nbsp;values.
y
1403494564340 1359124274112 You dilute 1mL of 1M HCl to a final volume of 1L
. What is the pOH of the final solution?
11
#
1403494888144 1359124274112 K_w 10^-14&nbsp;= [H⁺][OH⁻]
#
1403494995656 1359124274112 K_w&nbsp;is defined as [H⁺][OH⁻]<div>There
fore, pK_w&nbsp;= what?</div> <i>pK_w<b>&nbsp;</b>=</i><b><i
>&nbsp;</i>pH + pOH = 14</b><div><i>Remember, log(a·b) = loga + logb</i></div>
1403495196520 1397404373762 All strong acids can be classified as either {{c
1::haloacids or oxyacids::2or alpha}}. y
1403495271740 1397404373762 Any acid with a K_a&nbsp;of {{c1::less
than 1::more/less than #}} is a {{c2::weak}} acid.
y
1403495389954 1397404373762 Any acid with a pK_a&nbsp;{{c1::greate
r than 14::greater/less than #}} is a {{c2::very weak}} acid. y
1403495432708 1397404373762 The pK_a range for a {{c2::weak acid}}
is {{c1::0 to 14::#_low to #_high}}
y
1403495483840 1397404373762 The pK_a&nbsp;of a {{c1::strong}} acid
must be {{c2::negative}}
y
1403495509108 1397404373762 log({{c2::2::#}}) = {{c1::0.301::#}}
y
1403495739379 1397404373762 log({{c2::3::#}}) = {{c1::0.477::#}}
y
1403495752949 1397404373762 The pK_a&nbsp;of a strong base is alwa
ys {{c1::greater than 14::greater/less than #}} y
pK_a&nbsp;= 14
- pK_b<div>pK_b&nbsp;for a strong base must be &lt;0</div>
1403496110709 1397404373762 All {{c2::strong bases}} are either {{c1::alkoxi
des, amides, carbides, hydrides, or hydroxides::5,,,,or lclist, alpha}} y
Alkoxide: RO⁻<div>Amide: Y₂N⁻</div><div>Carbide: R₂C⁻</div><div>
Hydride: H⁻</div><div>Hydroxide: HO⁻<br /><div><br /></div></div>

1403496563841 1397404373762 Haloacids {{c1::increase::decrease/increase}} in
strength as you move {{c2::down::up/down}} the group. y
This is because
the atomic radius increases, and therefore the bond length. Long bond = weaker b
ond = easier to deprotonate.
1403497119077 1397404373762 As a general rule, the pK_a&nbsp;of an
oxyacid drops by {{c1::5::#}} units for every additional oxygen on the central
atom.&nbsp;
y
1403498117289 1359124274112 What explains the greater acidic strength of H<s
ub>2</sub>SO₃&nbsp;relative to H₂CO₃? <b>S is
more electronegative than C</b>, <i>so it withdraws electrons more strongly from
the acidic OH&nbsp;<b>(via induction)</b></i>
Electronegativity
Uc
1403499396637 1397404373762 {{c1::Oxyacids}} form from the {{c2::hydration}}
of {{c3::nonmetal oxides}}
y
<b>Example:</b>&nbsp;CO₂&nbsp
;+ H₂O → H₂CO₃
1403499559709 1397404373762 {{c1::Nonmetal::Metal/Nonmetal}} {{c2::oxides::o
xides/hydroxides}} act as {{c1::Lewis::Lewis/Bronsted-Lowry}} {{c2::acids::acids
/bases}}
y
Electron pair acceptors<div><i>Remember: metal/nonmetal
oxides are Lewis b/c they deal with lone pairs</i></div><div><i>Nonmetal oxides/
hydroxides are acids</i></div>
1403499858669 1397404373762 {{c1::Nonmetal::Metal/Nonmetal}} {{c2::hydroxide
s::oxides/hydroxides}} act as {{c1::Bronsted-Lowry::Lewis/Bronsted-Lowry}} {{c2:
:acids::acids/bases}} y
These are oxyacids<div>H⁺ donors</div>
1403500023835 1397404373762 {{c1::Metal::Metal/Nonmetal}} {{c2::hydroxides::
oxides/hydroxides}} act as {{c1::Bronsted-Lowry::Lewis/Bronsted-Lowry}} {{c2::ba
ses::acids/bases}}
y
Metal = base<div>Hydroxide = Bronsted-Lowry</div
>
1403500078155 1397404373762 {{c1::Metal::Metal/Nonmetal}} {{c2::oxides::oxid
es/hydroxides}} act as {{c1::Lewis::Lewis/Bronsted-Lowry}} {{c2::bases::acids/ba
ses}} y
Metal = bases<div>Oxide = Lewis</div>
1403500112508 1397404373762 The pK_a&nbsp;of a carboxylic acid is
typically between {{c1::3 and 5::#_low&nbsp;and #_high}}, th
ough in amino acids they tend to range closer to {{c1::2 and 3::#_low&
nbsp;and&nbsp;#_high}}
y
1403500285091 1397404373762 The pK_a&nbsp;of an alkyl ammonium cat
ion is typically between {{c1::9 and 11::#_low&nbsp;and&nbsp;#_hig
h}}, though in amino acids the range tends to be closer to {{c1::9 and 10:
:#_low&nbsp;and&nbsp;#_high}}
y
1403500329245 1397404373762 The pK_a&nbsp;of a phenol is typically
between {{c1::9.5 and 10.5::#_low&nbsp;and&nbsp;#_high}}
y
1403500350818 1397404373762 {{c2::-log(z·10^y)}}&nbsp;= {{c1::y - lo
g(z)}} y
HOLY SHIT THIS IS THE BEST EQUATION EVER!!!
1403502024256 1397404373762 {{c2::pH}} = {{c1::-log[H⁺]}} y
1403502592549 1359124274112 Polyprotic acid Acid with multiple dissociable H⁺
Uc
1403502669612 1397404373762 The second proton of a polyprotic acid always ha
s a {{c1::larger::smaller/larger}} pK_a&nbsp;than the first proton.
y
Remember, SMALL pKa is STRONG
1403502738293 1397404373762 <b>To find the pH of a weak acid given [HA]:</b>
<div>pH =&nbsp;{{c1::½pK_a&nbsp;-½log[HA]}}</div>
2nd best equatio
n ever!
1403503217772 1397404373762 If ambient pH is {{c1::greater::greater/less}} t
han the pK_a&nbsp;of a molecule, it will exist predominantly in its {{
c2::deprotonated}} form.&nbsp; y
pH <b>&gt;</b> pK<sub><b><u>a</u></b></s
ub>, &nbsp;<b>→ </b>more&nbsp;[<b><u>A⁻</u></b>]&nbsp;<div>pK_a&nbsp;<b>&g
t;</b> p<b><u>H</u></b>, → [<b><u>HA</u></b>]&nbsp;</div>
1403504199693 1397404373762 If ambient pH is {{c1::less::greater/less}} than
the pK_a&nbsp;of a molecule, it will exist predominantly in its {{c2:
:protonated}} form.
y
pH&nbsp;<b>&gt;</b>&nbsp;pK<sub><b><u>a</u></b><

/sub>, &nbsp;<b>→&nbsp;</b>more&nbsp;[<b><u>A⁻</u></b>]&nbsp;<div>p<b><u>H</u></b><s
ub>&nbsp;</sub><b>&lt;</b>&nbsp;pK_a, → [<b style="text-decoration: unde
rline; ">H</b>A]&nbsp;</div><div><i>Goes towards whichever side the 'arrow' form
ed by the &gt; sign makes</i></div>
1403504240470 1397404373762 Carboxylic acids are {{c1::deprotonated}} in mos
t biologic systems
y
pK_a&nbsp;3-5, less than 7.4
1403504353540 1397404373762 Carbonic acid is {{c1::deprotonated::protonated/
deprotonated}} in most biologic systems y
pK_a&nbsp;6.4, less th
an 7.4
1403504445173 1397404373762 <b>{{c1::Henderson-Hasselbalch}} Equation:</b><d
iv>pH =&nbsp;{{c2::pK_a&nbsp;+ log^[A⁻]/_[HA]}}</div
>
1403504679027 1359124274112 What effect does the addition of water have on a
buffer solution?
None
Uc
1403640804371 1359124274112 If the ruler is massless, how big&nbsp;must m<su
b>2</sub>&nbsp;be in terms of m₁&nbsp;in order for the net torque to
be zero?<div><img src="Torques.png" /></div>
<b>m</b>_<b>2</b><b>&n
bsp;</b><b>= 2·m</b>_<b>1</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;<div><i>(this is because r₁&nbsp;= 2·r₂)</i></div>
2
#
1403640881598 1359124274112 If m₁&nbsp;= m₂&nbsp;, how
much must the ruler weigh in order for this system to be in equilibrium (assume
the mass is equally distributed throughout the ruler)<div><img src="Torques.png
" /></div>
<b>2·m</b>_<b>1</b>&nbsp;&nbsp; Remember, the weight of
the ruler can be represented as a force applied at the center of mass (here the
center of the ruler).
2
#
1403640922332 1359124274112 How many distinct wavelengths could be emitted f
rom transitions between these energy levels?<div><span style="color: rgb(255, 25
5, 255)"><img src="paste-8108898254849.jpg" /></span></div>
6
#
1403641146392 1359124274112 Which of the photons depicted has the greatest f
requency?<div><span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255)"><img src="paste-8108898254
849.jpg" /></span></div>
A
Uc
1403641158140 1359124274112 Which of the photons depicted has the largest wa
velength?<div><span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255)"><img src="paste-8108898254
849.jpg" /></span></div>
C
Uc
1403641348115 1359124274112 Which of the photons depicted has the most energ
y?<div><span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255)"><img src="paste-8108898254849.jpg
" /></span></div>
A
Uc
1403641366921 1359124274112 A particle moving from position 1 to position 2
moves along path C. It travels at a constant speed of 5π&nbs
;<su
>m</su
>/_{s<
/sub>. At exactly halfway th ough the t i
, what is the ave age ve tical velocit
y?<div><img s c="2014-05-22 02.32.43.j
g" /></div>
10&nbs
;<su
>m</su
>/<su
b>s}
10
#
1403641420715 1359124274112 A
a ticle moving f om
osition 1 to
osition 2
moves along
ath C. It inc eases its s
eed at a constant ate. Afte 2s, it eac
hes
osition 2 t aveling at 10m/s. What is the ave age s
eed of the
a ticle du
ing the t i
?<div><img s c="2014-05-22 02.32.43.j
g" /></div> 5m/s
5
#
1403641464714 1359124274112 A
a ticle moving f om
osition 1 to
osition 2
moves along
ath C. It t avels at a constant s
eed of 1&nbs
;<su
>m</su
>/_s. What is the ave age accele ation of the
a ticle as it moves f om
ositi
on 1 to
osition 2?<div><img s c="2014-05-22 02.32.43.j
g" /></div>
<b>0.4/π&n
bs
;<su
>m</su
>/_s²</b><div><i>Velocity changes f om +1 to -1, o a tot
al of 2m/s</i></div><div><i>It takes 5π seconds to t ave se a semici cle with adi
us 5m at 1m/s</i></div><div><i>Thus, accele ation is ve tical only (ho izontal c
ancels out),&nbs
;<su
>2</su
>/_5π</i></div>
0.4/<b>π</b>
#
1403641514801 1359124274112 If all othe va iables we e held constant, the

a ticle with the g eatest&nbs
;<b>mass&nbs
;</b>would follow which
ath ( 1 o
2)?<div><img s c="
aste-3388729196545.j
g" /></div>
2
<font co

lo ="#0000ff">[ 1/ 2]</font>
1403641619936 1359124274112 If all othe va iables we e held constant, the

a ticle with the g eate &nbs
;<b>cha ge</b>&nbs
;would follow which
ath ( 1 o
2)?<div><img s c="
aste-3388729196545.j
g" /></div>
1
<font co
lo ="#0000ff">[ 1/ 2]</font>
1403641646224 1359124274112 The same
a ticle is sent th ough the mass s
ec
twice; the only diffe ence between t ials is the&nbs
;<b>st ength of the magneti
c field.&nbs
;</b><div>Which
ath did the
a ticle follow when the magnetic fiel
d was st onge ?</div><div><img s c="
aste-3388729196545.j
g" /></div>
1
<font colo ="#0000ff">[ 1/ 2]</font>
1403641667506 1359124274112 The same
a ticle is sent th ough the mass s
ec
twice; the only diffe ence between t ials is the&nbs
;<b>initial velocity of the

a ticle.&nbs
;</b><div>Which
ath did the
a ticle follow when the velocity wa
s highe ?</div><div><img s c="
aste-3388729196545.j
g" /></div> 2
<font colo ="#0000ff">[ 1/ 2]</font>
1403641696207 1359124274112 What is the tensile&nbs
;<b>st ess</b>&nbs
;of t
he system de
icted he e?<div><img s c="
aste-6043018985476.j
g" /></div>
<b>F/A</b><div><i>In com
essive st ess, this is the
essu e on each end</i></d
iv>
F/A
Uc
1403641785200 1359124274112 What is the tensile&nbs
;<b>st ain&nbs
;</b>of t
his system?<div><img s c="
aste-6043018985476.j
g" /></div>
<b>Δl/l<sub>0</sub
></b><div>_{<i>This is the deformation per unit length</i>}</div>
1403641813520 1359124274112 What is the Young's modulus of this material?<di
v><img src="paste-6043018985476.jpg" /></div> <b>F·l₀/Δl·A</b><div><i>Y =
stress/strain</i></div>
1403641865704 1359124274112 If we were to model this system as a spring wher
e F=kx (x = Δl), how would we calculate k given only the Young's modulus and the i
nitial parameters of the object?<div><img src="paste-6043018985476.jpg" /></div>
<b>k = Y·(^A/_l₀)</b><div><i>This gives us k = F/Δl</
i></div>
Y(^A/_l₀)
k=
1403641894576 1359124274112 What is the magnitude of the gravitational force
between these two masses?<div><img src="Orbit.JPG" /></div>
F_g<su
p>&nbsp;</sup>= Gm₁m₂/r²
1403641960943 1359124274112 What is the period of m₂&nbsp;if it i
s travelling at a constant speed s?<div><img src="Orbit.JPG" /></div> t = <b>2πR
/s</b>
2πR/s
eq
1403642013190 1359124274112 How much wo k is done on m₂&nbs
;by t
he g avitational fo ce f om m₁?<div><img s c="O bit.JPG" /></div>
<b>0</b><div><i>F_g&nbs
;is
e
endicula to the velocity, and the efo
e to the dis
lacement.</i></div>
0
#
1403642228087 1359124274112 What is the o bital s
eed (s) at adius R?<div><
img s c="O bit.JPG" /></div>
<b>s = √(Gm₁/R)</b>
1403642250669 1359124274112 What is F<sub>A

lied</sub>&nbs
;fo s
ing A? &
nbs
;Fo C? &nbs
;<div><img s c="S
ingFo ces.
ng" /></div>
<b>F = kx</b><di
v><i>whe e x is the distance f om the equilib ium
osition of the s
ing</i></di
v>
kx
eq
1403642381116 1359124274112 What is the
otential ene gy U_el&nbs

;fo s
ing A? &nbs
;Fo C?<div><img s c="S
ingFo ces.
ng" /></div>
<b>U<sub
>el</sub>&nbs
;= ½kx²</b> fo both&nbs
;<div><i>This is the integ al of the va iable
fo ce a

lied by the s
ing ove the distance x.</i></div>
½kx²
eq
1403642429563 1359124274112 S
ing 1 is al eady com
essed by 3cm. &nbs
;<s

an>When the s
ing is com
essed an additional 1cm, how much did the s
ing fo c
e inc ease in te ms of k?</s
an><div><s
an><img s c="S
ingFo ces.
ng" /></s
an>
</div> It inc eased by <u style="font-weight: bold; ">k</u>&nbs
;<div><i>fo ce
is di ectly
o
o tional to x.</i></div>
k
eq
1403642498707 1359124274112 <div>S
ing 1 is al eady com
essed by 3cm. &nbs

;When the s
ing is com
essed an additional 1cm, how did the
otential ene gy
change in te ms of k?</div><img s c="S
ingFo ces.
ng" />
<b>Inc eased by

3.5k:&nbs
;</b>&nbs
;<div><i>½(4²k-3²k) = ½7k. &nbs
;</i></div><div><i>This is because x
is always&nbs
;measu ed f om the equilib ium
oint of the s
ing.</i></div>
3.5k
eq
1403642540503 1359124274112 How fast must an object of mass m be t avelling
in o de to com
ess s
ing A as shown?<div><img s c="S
ingFo ces.
ng" /></div>
√(kx²/m)
1403642628398 1359124274112 What is the moment of ine tia (I) fo this syste
m?<div><img s c="RotationalKinetics.
ng" /></div>
<b>I =2m ²</b><div><i>∑(m<su
b>1</sub> ₁² + m₂ ₂² + ...)</i></div>
2m ²
eq
1403642711131 1359124274112 What angula accele ation α would result from the
ppliction of  torque τ?<div><im src="RoaionalKineics.pn" /></div>
<b>τ/<span
>2mr²</span></b><div><i>τ = Iα &nbsp;so α = τ/I&nbsp;</i></div>
1403642757546 1359124274112 If he radius were o double, how would he anu
lar velociy ω change?<div><img src="RotationalKinetics.png" /></div> <div><b>
The angular velocity ould&nbsp;decrease by a actor o 4. &nbsp;</b></div><i>L
= Iω, I = 2mr²</i><div><i>The moment o inertia increases by a actor o 4&nbsp;</i>
</div>
<b>4x smaller</b>
<span style="color: rgb(85, 0, 2
55)">[#x bigger/smaller]</span>
1403648698846 1359124274112 Ho ast are the masses moving i the system is
rotating ith angular velocity ω?<div><img src="RotationalKinetics.png" /></div>
v = ωr
ωr
eq
1403648781705 1359124274112 I the system has angular acceleration α, how quic
kly is the speed of the msses incresing? &nbsp;Does this describe the totl c
celertion of these objects?
<b></b>_<b>tn</b><b>&nbsp;= α·r</b>&nbsp
;<b>&nbsp;&nbsp; | &nbsp;</b>No, because the tangential velocity is changing dir
ection, there is also a radial component to acceleration (a_rad). &nbs
p;a_rad&nbsp;= v²/r &nbsp;v=ωr, so&nbsp;<b>a_rad&nbsp;= ω²r</b>
1403707834846 1359124274112 Bu er A solution here pH remains relatively u
nchanged a ter addition o a strong acid or a strong base
y
Uc
1403708077203 1397404373762 {{c1::Neutralization}} is the mixing o {{c2::eq
ual mole portions}} o an acid ith a base.&nbsp;
y
It does NOT mean
'make the pH 7'
1403708299382 1397404373762 {{c1::Bu ers}} are composed o a roughly {{c2::
equal}} mixture o a {{c3::eak acid}} and its {{c3::conjugate base}} y
These can be made either by mixing them directly, or by adding strong base to e
ak acid until reaching the bu er region
1403708428739 1397404373762 The ratio o eak acid to eak base in a bu er
is conventionally limited to {{c1::10:1::#:#}} or the reverse ratio. This limits
the pH range o a bu er to {{c2::pK_a±1::eq}}
y
Via the Henderso
n-Hasselbalch equation
1403708847276 1397404373762 When choosing a bu er, it is important that the
desired pH is close to the {{c1::pK_a&nbsp;o the eak acid}}
y
1403735199890 1397404373762 A {{c2::eak acid}} titrated by a strong base ha
s a pH {{c1::&gt;7::&gt;/=/&lt; #}} at its equivalence point
y
This is
due to the pK_a&nbsp;o the conjugate base
1403735650809 1397404373762 A {{c2::strong acid}} titrated by a strong base
has a pH {{c1::=7::&gt;/=/&lt; #}} at its equivalence point
y
1403735662872 1397404373762 A eak {{c2::base}} titrated by a strong {{c2::a
cid}} has a pH {{c1::&lt;7::&gt;/=/&lt; #}} at its equivalence point
y
This is due to the pK_a&nbsp;o its conjugate acid, hich is no the p
redominant species in the solution
1403735728227 1397404373762 A {{c2::strong base}} titrated by a strong acid
has a pH {{c1::=7::&gt;/=/&lt; #}} at its equivalence point
y
1403735745059 1397404373762 A {{c2::eak acid}} titrated by a strong base ha
s a pH {{c1::= pK_a::&gt;/=/&lt; #}} at its <b>hal </b>&nbsp;equivalen
ce point
y
1403736087313 1397404373762 A {{c2::eak base}} titrated by a strong acid ha

s a pH {{c1::= pK_a::&gt;/=/&lt; #}} at its&nbsp;<b>hal </b>&nbsp;equi
valence point y
1403736105131 1397404373762 The {{c2::eaker::stronger/eaker}} the eak aci
d being titrated, the {{c1::higher::higher/loer}} the pH at the equivalence poi
nt.
y
Weaker acids have stronger conjugate bases, and there ore more s
hi t rom neutral pH hen the conjugate is the predominant species in the system
1403736262546 1397404373762 A {{c1::eak::strong/eak}} acid titration curve
shos a {{c1::rapid::slo/rapid}} initial pH change and has an equivalence poin
t pH {{c2::above::belo/at/above}} 7
y
1403736477081 1397404373762 A {{c1::strong::strong/eak}} acid titration cur
ve shos a {{c1::slo::rapid/slo}} initial pH change and has an equivalence poi
nt pH {{c2::at::belo/at/above}} 7
y
1403736498060 1397404373762 The {{c1::loer}} the pK_a&nbsp;o a 
eak acid, the {{c2::smaller}} the initial lip o the titration curve ill be.
y
1403739413933 1397404373762 For a polyprotic acid, the pH o the irst equiv
alence point ill be {{c1::the average o irst and second pK_as}}
1403740111694 1397404373762 A good ay to estimate the ideal pK_a&
nbsp;o the indicator needed or a eak titration is to {{c1::average the pH o
the titrant and the pK_a&nbsp;o the molecule being titrated}}
A <i>eak</i>&nbsp;eak acid ill have a higher pK_a, and thus the ave
rage ill be more basic...hich correlates ith the strength o the conjugate ba
se
1403746724687 1359124274112 <b>Acetal </b><i>(structure)</i>
<img src
="paste-30142080483329.jpg" /> y
Acetal Uc
1403746761539 1359124274112 <b>Hemiacetal </b><i>(structure)</i>
<img src
="paste-30227979829249.jpg" /> y
Hemiacetal
Uc
1403746791399 1359124274112 <b>Ketal </b><i>(structure)</i> <img src="paste30283814404097.jpg" /> y
Ketal Uc
1403746821101 1359124274112 <b>Hemiketal</b><i>&nbsp;(structure)</i>
<img src="paste-30365418782721.jpg" /> y
Hemiketal
Uc
1403746853708 1359124274112 <b>Lactone </b><i>(structure)</i>
<img src
="paste-30438433226753.jpg" /> y
Lactone Uc
1403746937011 1359124274112 <b>Lactam </b><i>(structure)</i>
<img src
="paste-30520037605377.jpg" /> y
Lactam Uc
1403747058434 1397404373762 Alcohols are generally {{c1::poor}} nucleophiles
, though under {{c2::basic}} conditions, they can be converted into {{c2::alkoxi
des}}, hich are better y
Alkoxides are still mediocre due to overly high
basicity
1403748368643 1397404373762 Alcohols typically have {{c1::higher::higher/equ
al/loer}} boiling points than alkanes o similar mass. y
Due to H-bonding
1403748415038 1397404373762 {{c1::Primary::Primary/Tertiary}} alcohols have
higher boiling points y
Due to increased ability to H-bond
1403748441371 1397404373762 The {{c1::hydroxyl}} group is a poor leaving gro
up hich can be improved via {{c2::mesylation, protonation, tosylation::lclist,
alpha}} or other similar reactions.
y
1403749567700 1397404373762 {{c3::Ketone::Uc}} + {{c1::ROH::ABB}} ←{{c1::^<u>Base</u>::Uc}}→ {{c2::Hemiketal}}
y
<img src="paste-40565966
110721.jpg" /><div>Only ith a ketone...</div>
1403753145686 1397404373762 {{c3::Aldehyde::Uc}} + {{c1::ROH::ABB}} ←{{c1::<su
p><u>Base</u></sup>::Uc}}→ {{c2::Hemiacetal}} y
<img src="paste-40565966
110721.jpg" />
1403753155130 1397404373762 {{c3::Aldehyde::Uc}} + {{c1::ROH::ABB}} ←{{c1::<su
p><u>Acid</u></sup>::Uc}}→ {{c2::Acetal::Uc}} y
<img src="paste-43297565
310979.jpg" />
1403754099936 1397404373762 {{c3::Ketone::Uc}} + {{c1::ROH::ABB}} ←{{c1::^<u>Acid</u>::Uc}}→ {{c2::Ketal::Uc}}
y
<img src="paste-43297565
310979.jpg" />
1403754149009 1397404373762 <b>{{c1::Saponi ication::Uc}}:</b><div>{{c2::Est
er::Uc}} ←<sup style="text-decoration: underline; ">{{c3::Base::Uc}}</sup>→ {{c4::Ca

rboxylate::Uc}} + {{c4::ROH::ABB}}</div>
y
<img src="paste-46480136
077313.jpg" />
1403754586096 1397404373762 <b>{{c2::Ester::Uc}} hydrolysis:</b><div>{{c2::E
ster::Uc}} ←<sup style="text-decoration: underline; ">{{c3::Acid::Uc}}</sup>→ {{c4::
Carboxylic acid::Uc}} + {{c4::ROH::ABB}}</div> y
<img src="paste-47910360
186881.jpg" />
1403754682609 1397404373762 <b>{{c1::Iodo orm::Uc}} reaction:</b><div>{{c2::
Methyl ketone::Uc}} + {{c3::I₂::ABB}} &nbsp;←<sup style="text-decoratio
n: underline; ">{{c3::Base::Uc}}</sup>→ {{c4::Carboxylate::Uc}} + {{c1::Iodo orm::
Uc}}</div>
y
<img src="paste-48159468290049.jpg" />
1403755142830 1397404373762 <b>{{c2::Amide::Uc}} hydrolysis:</b><div>{{c2::A
mide::Uc}} ←<sup style="text-decoration: underline; ">{{c3::Acid::Uc}}</sup>→ {{c4::
Carboxylic acid::Uc}} + {{c4::Amine::Uc}}</div> y
<img src="paste-53412213
293057.jpg" />
1403755318638 1397404373762 <b>{{c2::Nitrile::Uc}} hydrolysis:</b><div>{{c2:
:Nitrile::Uc}} ←<sup style="text-decoration: underline; ">{{c3::Acid::Uc}}</sup>→ {{
c1::Carboxylic acid::Uc}} + {{c1::Ammonium::Uc, contains N}}</div>
y
<img src="paste-53983443943425.jpg" />
1403755394940 1397404373762 <b>{{c2::Esteri ication::Uc}}:</b><div>{{c1::Car
boxylic acid::Uc}} + {{c1::ROH::ABB}} <u>^&nbsp;&nbsp;</u><sup style="
text-decoration: underline; ">{{c3::Acid::Uc}}</sup>→ {{c2::Ester::Uc}}</div>
y
<img src=" ischer-2.jpg" />
1403756404011 1397404373762 <b>{{c1::Condensation::Uc}}:</b><div>{{c1::Carbo
xylic acid::Uc}} <u>^&nbsp;&nbsp;</u><sup style="text-decoration: unde
rline; ">{{c3::Heat::Uc}}</sup>→ {{c2::Acid anhydride::Uc}}</div>
y
<img src
="paste-56629143797761.jpg" />
1403793205837 1359124274112 <b>Lactone</b> Cyclic ester
y
Uc
Uc
1403793227770 1397404373762 <b>{{c3::Baeyer-Villiger::Uc}} reaction:</b><div
>{{c1::Hydroxyester::Uc}} ←<sup style="text-decoration: underline; ">{{c3::Acid::U
c}}</sup>→ {{c2::Lactone::Uc}} + {{c2::ROH::ABB}}</div> y
<img src="paste58471684767745.jpg" />
1403793572337 1397404373762 <b></b><b>{{c1::Amide::Uc}} reduction:</b><div>{
{c1::Amide::Uc}} <sup style="text-decoration: underline; ">{{c3::LAH::Uc}}</sup>→
{{c2::Amine::Uc}}</div> y
<img src="AmideReduction.png" />
1403835208853 1397404373762 KMnO₄&nbsp;tends to {{c1::oxidize::ox
idize/reduce}} organic compounds
y
1403835538282 1397404373762 CrO₃ tends to {{c1::oxidize::oxidize/
reduce}} organic compounds
y
1403835549702 1397404373762 RCO₃H&nbsp;tends to {{c1::oxidize::ox
idize/reduce}} organic compounds
y
1403835567241 1397404373762 ROOR tends to {{c1::oxidize::oxidize/reduce}} or
ganic compounds y
1403835576204 1397404373762 O₃&nbsp;&nbsp;tends to {{c1::oxidize:
:oxidize/reduce}} organic compounds
y
1403835600767 1397404373762 FAD&nbsp;tends to {{c1::oxidize::oxidize/reduce}
} organic compounds
y
1403835618156 1397404373762 NAD⁺&nbsp;&nbsp;tends to {{c1::oxidiz
e::oxidize/reduce}} organic compounds y
1403835642371 1397404373762 NADP⁺&nbsp;tends to {{c1::oxidize::ox
idize/reduce}} organic compounds
y
1403835651243 1397404373762 LAH&nbsp;tends to {{c1::reduce::oxidize/reduce}}
organic compounds
y
1403835668795 1397404373762 NaBH₄&nbsp;tends to {{c1::reduce::oxi
dize/reduce}} organic compounds y
1403835687156 1397404373762 HCl/Zn&nbsp;tends to {{c1::reduce::oxidize/reduc
e}} organic compounds y
1403835708984 1397404373762 H₂NNH₂/HO⁻&nbsp;tends to {{c
1::reduce::oxidize/reduce}} organic compounds y
1403835737541 1397404373762 H₂/Pd&nbsp;tends to {{c1::reduce::oxi

dize/reduce}} organic compounds y
1403835746046 1397404373762 FADH₂&nbsp;tends to {{c1::reduce::oxi
dize/reduce}} organic compounds y
1403835752767 1397404373762 NADH&nbsp;tends to {{c1::reduce::oxidize/reduce}
} organic compounds
y
1403835758216 1397404373762 NADPH&nbsp;tends to {{c1::reduce::oxidize/reduce
}} organic compounds
y
1403835765017 1397404373762 A {{c1::primary}} alcohol can be {{c3::oxidized}
} to become an {{c2::aldehyde}} with {{c3::PCC}} or a {{c2::carboxylic acid}} wi
th {{c3::permanganate::lc}}
y
1403835893713 1397404373762 A {{c1::secondary}} alcohol can be {{c3::oxidize
d}} to become a {{c2::ketone}} y
1403835959180 1397404373762 A {{c1::tertiary}} alcohol can be oxidized to be
come a {{c2::...haha, jk it can't be}}
No Hs to lose
1403836764691 1397404373762 <b>{{c3::Ozonolysis::Uc}}:<br /></b><div>{{c1::A
lkene::Uc}} <u>^{&nbsp; &nbsp;}</u><sup style="text-decoration: underlin
e; ">{{c3::O3::ABB}}</sup>→ {{c2::Aldehyde::Uc 1R}}</div>
y
<img src="paste22535693402113 (1).jpg" />
1403836885172 1397404373762 {{c1::LAH}} {{c2::reduces::oxidizes/reduces}} al
l carbonyl compounds
y
1403836978280 1397404373762 {{c1::NaBH₄}} {{c2::reduces::oxidizes
/reduces}} {{c3::aldehydes and&nbsp;ketones::2and alpha}}, but not {{c3::esters}
}
y
1403837007878 1397404373762 <b>{{c2::Wolff Kishner}} reduction:<br /></b><di
v>{{c1::Ketone::Uc 2R}} +&nbsp;<u>^{&nbsp; &nbsp;1.}</u><sup style="text
-decoration: underline; ">{{c3::Hydrazine::Uc}}</sup>→ Intermediate&nbsp;&nbsp;<u>
^{&nbsp; &nbsp;2.}</u><sup style="text-decoration: underline; ">{{c3::Ba
se::Uc}}</sup>→ {{c1::Alkane::Uc}}</div>
y
Also works on aldehydes<div><img
src="paste-24318104829953.jpg" /></div>
1403837373760 1397404373762 <b>{{c2::Clemmensen}} reduction:<br /></b><div>{
{c1::Ketone::Uc}} + {{c3::Zn::ABB}}&nbsp;&nbsp;<u>^{&nbsp; &nbsp;}</u><s
up style="text-decoration: underline; ">{{c3::Acid::ABB}}</sup>→ {{c2::Alkane::Uc}
}</div> y
Also works on aldehydes<div><img src="paste-24906515349505.jpg"
/></div>
1403837456398 1397404373762 <b>{{c3::Raney Ni::Uc}} reduction:<br /></b><div
>{{c1::Ketone::Uc 2R}} + HS(CH₂)₂SH&nbsp;&nbsp;<u>^{&nb
sp; &nbsp;}</u><sup style="text-decoration: underline; ">{{c3::Raney Ni::Uc
}}</sup>→ {{c2::Alkane::Uc}}</div>
y
<img src="paste-26796300959745.j
pg" />
1403837624387 1359124274112 Hydrazine
H₂NNH₂
y
ABB
Uc
1403839524238 1397404373762 The {{c1::Grignard}} reaction uses a {{c2::carba
nion}} to form a new {{c3::C-C::ABB}} bond
y
<img src="paste-35454955
028481.jpg" />
1403839714435 1397404373762 A Grignard reaction <i>always</i>&nbsp;results i
n a {{c1::longer::longer/shorter}} carbon chain, with a {{c2::hydroxyl::lc}} gro
up at the site of reaction
y
<img src="paste-35450660061185.jpg" />
1403839782792 1397404373762 A Grignard reagent can add {{c1::once::once/twic
e}} to {{c2::aldehydes or ketones::2or lc alpha}}
y
<img src="paste35450660061185.jpg" />
1403839849459 1397404373762 A Grignard reaction can add {{c1::twice::once/tw
ice}} to an {{c2::amide or ester::2or lc alpha}}
y
<img src="paste37220186587137.jpg" />
1403839906579 1397404373762 Grignard reactions with {{c1::aldehydes}} produc
e {{c3::secondary::primary/secondary/tertiary}} alcohols which are {{c2::usually
::usually/sometimes/never}}&nbsp;chiral y
<img src="paste-37761352466433.j
pg" />
1403840037727 1397404373762 Grignard reactions with {{c1::ketones}} produce
{{c3::tertiary::primary/secondary/tertiary}} alcohols which are {{c2::sometimes:
:usually/sometimes/never}}&nbsp;chiral y
<div>Depends largely on symmetry

of ketone</div><img src="paste-38414187495425.jpg" />
1403840147941 1397404373762 Grignard reactions with {{c1::esters}} produce {
{c3::tertiary::primary/secondary/tertiary}} alcohols which are &nbsp;{{c2::never
::usually/sometimes/never}}&nbsp;chiral y
The Grignard adds twice, so 2 of
the R groups are identical<div><img src="paste-39908836114433.jpg" /></div>
1403840268638 1397404373762 {{c1::Ketone::Uc}} + {{c3::RX::ABB}}&nbsp;&nbsp;
<u>^{&nbsp; &nbsp;}</u><sup style="text-decoration: underline; ">{{c3::B
ase::Uc}}</sup>→ {{c2::Longer ketone::Uc}} + HX y
<img src="paste-43284680
409089.jpg" />
1403841007743 1397404373762 <b>{{c1::Aldol}} condensation:</b><div>Ketone&nb
sp;<sup style="text-decoration: underline; ">&nbsp; {{c2::Base}}</sup>→ {{c1::α,ß-uns
turted crbonyl}}</div>
<img src="ldol_rection01.jpg" />
1403841310698 1397404373762 An Aldol condenstion performed t {{c1::low::hi
gh/low}} tempertures with  {{c1::bulky::smll/bulky}} bse is under {{c2::kine
tic::kinetic/thermodynmic}} control nd will result in the {{c2::less::more/les
s}} substituted product.
y
Give the rection brely enough energy t
o run nd you'll get the esiest product to mke.&nbsp;<div>Give the rection su
fficient energy to reverse nd reform, nd it will fvor the most stble product
</div>
1403841527213 1397404373762 The {{c1::kinetic::kinetic/thermodynmic}} produ
ct hs  {{c2::lower::higher/lower}} energy trnsition stte ({{c2::lower::highe
r/lower}} ctivtion energy), nd  {{c2::less::more/less}} stble finl product
y
Give the rection brely enough energy to run nd you'll get the esiest
product to mke.&nbsp;<div>Give the rection sufficient energy to reverse nd r
eform, nd it will fvor the most stble product</div>
1403841582963 1397404373762 An Aldol condenstion performed t {{c1::high::h
igh/low}} tempertures with  {{c1::smll::smll/bulky}} bse is under {{c2::the
rmodynmic::kinetic/thermodynmic}} control nd will result in the {{c3::more::m
ore/less}} substituted product. y
Give the rection brely enough energy t
o run nd you'll get the esiest product to mke.&nbsp;<div>Give the rection su
fficient energy to reverse nd reform, nd it will fvor the most stble product
</div>
1403841613683 1397404373762 The {{c1::thermodynmic::kinetic/thermodynmic}}
product hs  {{c2::higher::higher/lower}} energy trnsition stte ({{c2::highe
r::higher/lower}} ctivtion energy), nd  {{c2::more::more/less}} stble finl
product
y
Give the rection brely enough energy to run nd you'll
get the esiest product to mke.&nbsp;<div>Give the rection sufficient energy
to reverse nd reform, nd it will fvor the most stble product</div>
1403841708327 1397404373762 <b>{{c1::Wittig::Uc}} rection:</b><div>{{c1::Wi
ttig::Uc}} regent + {{c2::RX::ABB}} <sup style="text-decortion: underline; ">&
nbsp; {{c2::Bse}}</sup>→ {{c3::Ylide::Uc}} + {{c4::Ketone::Uc 2R}} <sup style="te
xt-decortion: underline; ">&nbsp; </sup>→ {{c4::Alkene::Uc}}</div>
y
<img src="pste-54455890345985.jpg" />
1403842536832 1397404373762 <b>{{c1::Pincol}} rerrngement:&nbsp;</b><div>
{{c2::Vicinl diol::Uc}} <sup style="text-decortion: underline; ">&nbsp; {{c2::
Acid}}</sup>→ {{c3::Ketone::Uc}}</div> y
<img src="pste-58128087384065.j
pg" />
1403905643402 1397404373762 Adding solvent to  rection will shift the equi
librium towrds the side with {{c1::more::<font color="#5500ff">more/fewer}}&nbs
p;</font>dissolved moles?
y
per Le Châtelier's principle
1403905705137 1397404373762 For n endothermic rection, the ddition of he
t will shift the equilibrium to the&nbsp;{{c1::right::<font color="#5500ff">left
/right}}</font>?
y
per Le Châtelier's principle
1403905741798 1397404373762 For n exothermic rection, the ddition of het
will shift the equilibrium to the {{c1::left::<font color="#5500ff">left/right}
}</font>?
y
per Le Châtelier's principle
1403905771429 1359124274112 If the pressure is incresed in  system of gse
s t equilibrium, which direction will the rection proceed?
<b>Towrds the s
ide with fewer moles</b><div><i>per Le Châtelier's principle</i></div>
1403905800601 1359124274112 Le Châtelier's Principle
The concept tht  syste

m in dynmic equilibrium will shift nd estblish new equilibrium in response to
le cht lc
ny pplied stress or chnge. y
1403926186582 1359124274112 3 mjor clsses of hormones
<b>Amine</b>&nbs
p;<i>(such s ctecholmines)</i><div><b>Peptide&nbsp;</b></div><div><b>Steroid&
nbsp;</b><i>(estrogen, testosterone)</i></div>
mine, peptide, steroid
lclist, lph
1403927085354 1397404373762 {{c1::Amine nd peptide::2nd lph}} hormones b
ind {{c2::GPCRs::ABBs}} for signlling. y
They re thus ble to effect  s
trong response in trget cells with reltively few molecules due to secondry me
ssenger cscdes
1403927296939 1397404373762 {{c1::Thyroid nd steroid::2nd lph}} hormones
bind {{c2::intrcellulrly}}, s they re {{c2::lipid soluble}}
y
Thyroid binds inside the nucleus, steroids in the cytoplsm
1403927369895 1359124274112 Homeostsis
Mintinence of norml body cond
itions y
Uc
1403927387161 1359124274112 Neuroendocrine regultion
Control of hormo
ne levels nd thus homeosttic mechnisms vi neuron signlling/direct relese o
f hormones from neurons y
Uc
1403927860044 1359124274112 Prcrine signlling
Intercellulr signlling
vi loclly relesed compounds y
Uc
1403927928305 1359124274112 Endocrine signlling
Intercellulr signlling
vi direct relese of  compound into the bloodstrem y
Uc
1403927967912 1359124274112 Hormone Regultory biochemicl trnsported vi t
he circultory system y
Uc
1403928052275 1359124274112 Autocrine regultion
The process whereby  ce
ll responds to its own loclly relesed compounds
y
Uc
1403928096209 1359124274112 List the 6 vrieties of leukocytes, from most→ le
st common
<u style="font-weight: bold; ">N</u>eutrophils<div><u style="fon
t-weight: bold; ">L</u>ymphocytes</div><div><u style="font-weight: bold; ">M</u>
onocytes</div><div><u style="font-weight: bold; ">E</u>osinophils</div><div><u s
tyle="font-weight: bold; ">B</u>sophils</div><div><br /></div><div><b><i><u>N</
u>ever <u>L</u>et <u>M</u>onkeys <u>E</u>t <u>B</u>nns!</i></b></div>
NLMEB
1st letters only, ALLCAPS, nospces
1403929151768 1359124274112 2 phgocytic leukocytes monocytes&nbsp;nd&nbsp;
neutrophils&nbsp;
lcs 2nds lphs
1403929248690 1397404373762 After migrting to the tissue, {{c1::mst cells}
} respond to tissue dmge by {{c2::relesing histmine}}
y
This inc
reses permebility to llow neutrophils nd lymphocytes to enter
1403929331605 1397404373762 After migrting to the tissue, {{c1::monocytes}}
become {{c2::mcrophges}}, which prticipte in {{c3::phgocytosis::direct}} 
nd {{c3::ntigen presenttion::indirect}}
y
1403929416104 1359124274112 Two brodest ctegories of lymphocytes B nd T
Uc 2nd lph
1403929442100 1359124274112 3 clsses of T-lymphocytes
cytotoxic, helpe
r, suppressor
lclist, lph
1403929519845 1397404373762 {{c1::T::B/T}} cells re responsible for {{c2::c
ell::humorl/cell}} medited immune function
y
1403929595966 1397404373762 {{c1::B::B/T}} cells re responsible for {{c2::h
umorl::humorl/cell}} medited immune function y
1403929693718 1359124274112 Antigen Substnce (or prt thereof) which produc
es n immune response y
Uc
1403929776827 1359124274112 Antibody
Smll, soluble, ntigen specific
peptides which crry out humorl immune function
y
Uc
1403929809047 1359124274112 Plsm cell
Activted B lymphocyte which pro
duces ntibodies
y
Uc
1403929944735 1397404373762 Antibodies re composed of {{c1::4::#}} subunits
({{c1::2::#}} light nd {{c1::2}} hevy) in  {{c1::Y}} configurtion.&nbsp;
y
1403930324847 1397404373762 Ig{{c1::A::Uc}} is {{c2::found in milk nd helps
to protect nursing infnts}}

1403930397573 1397404373762 Ig{{c1::E}} is {{c2::involved in llergies nd p
rsitic infesttions}}
1403930424996 1397404373762 Ig{{c1::G}} is {{c2::the only ntibody ble to c
ross the plcent}}
1403930448209 1397404373762 Ig{{c1::G::Uc}} is the most bundnt ntibody
y
1403930493274 1397404373762 Ig{{c1::M}} is {{c2::the first ntibody produced
fter ntigen detection}}
Within  few dys of detection
1403930634301 1359124274112 3 mechnisms of ntibody ction:
<b>Block
</b>&nbsp;<i>Abs cn block binding proteins of pthogens, or simply cot smller
ntigens</i><div><b>Complement </b><i>Innte immune cytotoxic mechnism - Ab bi
nding stimiltes Membrne Attck Complex nd eventully formtion of membrne po
res</i></div><div><b>Opsoniztion </b><i>Ab stems trigger phgocytosis</i></div>
block, complement, opsoniztion
lclist, lph 1stword
1403930819645 1397404373762 {{c1::Cytotoxic T}} lymphocytes re triggered by
ntigens presented on MHC clss {{c2::I::Romn}} molecules
y
1403930865707 1359124274112 The most bundnt cell in our body which is lck
ing in MHC I
RBCs
ABBs
1403930893427 1397404373762 MHC clss {{c1::I}} is primrily intended for pr
esenttion of {{c2::cytoplsmic}} proteins
y
Thus, it is the test for
'self'
1403930930314 1397404373762 MHC clss {{c1::II::Romn}} is primrily intende
d for presenttion of {{c2::phgocytosed}} proteins
y
Thus, it is prim
rily used by APCs
1403931873615 1359124274112 Hydrophobic mino cids (nonpolr R groups)
(F) Phenyllnine<div>(A) Alnine</div><div>(M) Methionine</div><div>(I) Isoleuc
ine</div><div>(L) Leucine</div><div>(V) Vline</div><div>(W) Tryptophn</div><di
v>(G) Glycine</div><div>(P) Proline</div><div><br /></div><div><b>FAMIL</b><i>y<
/i> <b>VW/</b><b>GP </b>(jeep)</div>
FAMILVWGP
1-letter
ABB, no spces
1403932142835 1359124274112 Hydrophilic mino cids (unchrged)
(Q) Glut
mine<div>(N) Asprgine</div><div>(C) Cysteine</div><div>(Y) Tyrosine</div><div
>(S) Serine</div><div>(T) Threonine</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Q</b>uee<b>N C
YST</b></div>
QNCYST
1letter ABB, nospces
1403932966357 1397404373762 Humns cn only use the {{c1::L::D/L}} form of 
mino cids
y
1403932987123 1397404373762 The pK_&nbsp;of the α-mino terminl of
n mino cid is bout {{c1::9.4::#.#}}, so it is {{c1::protonted::protonted/
deprotonted}} t physiologicl pH
y
1403933136833 1397404373762 The pK_&nbsp;of the α-crboxyl group of
n mino cid is bout {{c1::2.2::#.#}}, so it is {{c1::deprotonted::protonte
d/deprotonted}} t physiologicl pH
y
1403933176859 1359124274112 Zwitterion
A&nbsp;neutrl molecule with bot
h  locl positive nd  locl negtive electricl chrge
y
Uc
1403933530970 1359124274112 The pH t which  wek cid exists 50% in proton
ted form
pK_
ABB
1403933651375 1359124274112 Isoelectric point
pH t which n mino ci
d crries <b>no net</b>&nbsp;chrge
y
Uc
1403934317874 1397404373762 Amino cids re synthesized (nd written) from t
he {{c1::mino}} terminl to the {{c1::crboxyl}} terminl
y
1403934976383 1359124274112 Quternry structure (protein) Arrngement of m
ultiple polypeptide subunits
y
Uc
1403935784182 1397404373762 Techniclly,  {{c1::crbohydrte}} consists of
n {{c2::ldehyde or ketone::2or}} with t lest {{c2::2 hydroxyl::# lc}} functi
onl groups
y
1403935998815 1359124274112 Aldose Crbohydrte with ldehyde
y
Uc
1403936017872 1359124274112 Ketose Crbohydrte with ketone
y
Uc

1403936043092 1397404373762 The prefix {{c1::oligo}} generlly mens {{c2::s
hort chin}}
y
1403936060143 1397404373762 Most nturlly occurring sugrs re in {{c1::D::
L/D}} form, mening tht the hydroxyl group on the {{c1::reference crbon}} will
be on the {{c1::right}} in  Fisher projection y
reference crbon is typi
clly bonded to the oxygen which will ttck the crbonyl when it cyclizes
1403936158951 1397404373762 A {{c1::reducing}} sugr contins n {{c2::ldeh
yde}} (in cyclic form,  {{c2::hemicetl}}) nd rects with {{c1::Benedict's::r
ed ppt}} or {{c1::Tollen's::silver ppt}} regents
y
1403976451082 1359124274112 Anomer Epimer due to ring formtion (s in  su
gr)
y
Uc
1403976513302 1397404373762 In the {{c1::lph::lc}} nomer, the nomeric hy
droxyl is on the {{c2::sme::sme/different}} side s the &nbsp;CH₂OH
group on the reference crbon y
<img src="pste-168319768330241.jpg" />
1403976693417 1397404373762 A {{c1::sturted}} ftty cid hs {{c2::no doub
le bonds}}
y
1403979272006 1397404373762 {{c1::Sturted}} fts tend to be {{c2::solids}}
y
t room temperture
1403979335327 1397404373762 {{c1::Unsturted}} fts tend to be {{c2::liquid
s}} t room temperture y
1403979346416 1397404373762 A {{c1::phospholipid}} contins  {{c2::glycerol
}} bckbone, 2 {{c2::ftty cids}}, nd 1 {{c2::phosphte}}
y
1403979412544 1397404373762 {{c1::Sphingolipids}} use {{c2::mino lcohols}}
in plce of glycerol s the bckbone y
1403979456086 1397404373762 A {{c1::sphingolipid}} with  {{c2::monoscchri
de}} ttched is referred to s  {{c3::cerebroside}}.&nbsp;
y
1403979590313 1397404373762 A {{c1::sphingolipid}} with  {{c2::polyscchri
de}} ttched is referred to s  {{c3::gnglioside}}.&nbsp;
y
1403979602253 1397404373762 {{c1::Steroids}} re synthesized in the {{c2::mi
tochondri}} from {{c2::cholesterol}}, which is itself synthesized in the {{c3::
cytosol}}
y
1404055815736 1397404373762 <b>Volume:</b><div>1m³ = {{c1::1000}}L</div>
y
1404055871652 1397404373762 <div><b>Volume:</b></div><div><b><br /></b></div
>1 gllon = {{c1::3.788}}L
y
1404056101695 1397404373762 <b>Pressure:</b><div><b>1tm = {{c1::1.013}}·10<su
p>{{c2::5}}</sup>&nbsp;Pa = {{c1::1.013}}bar</b></div> y
1404056191800 1397404373762 <b>Pressure:</b><div>1 torr = {{c1::133.3}} Pa</
div>
y
1404056233939 1397404373762 <b>Pressure:</b><div>1atm = {{c1::760}} torr</di
v>
y
1404056290714 1397404373762 <b>Mass into Weight on Earth:</b>&nbsp;<div>&nbs
p;1kg = {{c1::2.21}}lb</div>
y
1404056338777 1397404373762 <div><b>Mass into Weight on Earth</b></div>1kg =
{{c1::9.8}}N y
1404056415715 1397404373762 <div><b>Mass into Weight on Earth</b></div>1lb =
{{c1::4.45}}N y
1404056425093 1397404373762 <b>Length:</b>&nbsp;<div>1m = {{c1::3.281}}ft</d
iv>
y
1404056458239 1397404373762 <b>Length:</b>&nbsp;<div>1mi = {{c1::1609}}m</di
v>
y
1404056471551 1397404373762 <b>Length:</b>&nbsp;<div>1mi = {{c1::5280}}ft</d
iv>
y
1404057869242 1397404373762 The {{c1::Doppler effect}} states that when the
listener and source are moving at different speeds relative to each other, then
the observed frequency will be {{c2::decreased}} if they are moving {{c3::away}}
from each other, and {{c2::increased}} if they are moving {{c3::towards}} one a
nother. y
1404057965318 1359124274112 Doppler Effect (equation)
<b>f_L
&nbsp;= f_s&nbsp;^(v+v_L)/<sub>(v+v_s)</

sub> &nbsp; </b>&nbsp; &nbsp;<div> <br /><div><i>v = 340 m/s in air</i></div><di
v><i>v_s&nbsp;positive when moving away from listener</i></div><div><i
>v_L&nbsp;positive when moving towards the source</i></div></div>
1404067214940 1359124274112 Glycosidic linkage
Attachment to a monosacc
haride at the anomeric carbon; this converts a hemiacetal to an acetal and preve
nts reduction y
Uc
1404068794048 1397404373762 {{c3::Power (P)}} is defined as {{c1::energy/tim
e}}, giving it units of {{c2::J/s}}.
1404160211654 1397404373762 <div>The SI unit for power is the {{c1::watt (W)
}}, which can be represented entirely in base units as {{c2::kg·m²/s³}}</div>
1404160239783 1397404373762 <div>The SI unit for time (t) is the {{c1::secon
d (s)}}, which is a base unit</div>
y
1404160335418 1359124274112 Radian The angle such that the arc traversed by
a rotating ray is equal to the radius of that ray
y
Uc
1404160403554 1397404373762 <div>The SI unit for angle (θ) is the {{c1::ra
ian
(ra
)}}</
iv>
1404160411021 1397404373762 1ra
= {{c1::57.3}}°
#
1404160446891 1397404373762 {{c3::Pressure (P)}} is
efine
as {{c1::force/a
rea}}, giving it units of {{c2::^N/_m²}}.&nbsp;
1404160564604 1397404373762 <
iv>The SI unit for pressure is the {{c1::Pasca
l (Pa)}}, which can be represente
entirely in base units as {{c2::^kg
/_m·s²}}</div>
1404160582089 1397404373762 <div>The SI unit for force is the {{c1::Newton (
N)}}, which can be represented entirely in base units as {{c2::^kg·m/<su
b>s²</sub>}}</div>
1404160692076 1359124274112 <b>Newton </b><i>(definition)</i>
The amou
nt of force which gives an acceleration of 1 m/s² to a 1kg object
y
Newton Uc
1404160732484 1359124274112 <b>Mole </b><i>(definition)</i> The number of at
oms in 12g of carbon-12 y
Mole
Uc
1404160814175 1397404373762 <div>The SI base unit for distance is the {{c1::
meter (m)}}</div>
1404160828670 1397404373762 <div>The SI unit for temperature (T) is the {{c1
::Kelvin (K)}}, which is defined as {{c1::the unit for which 0K = Absolute Zero
and there are 100 increments between the freezing point and the boiling point of
water}}</div>
1404160899861 1397404373762 <div>The SI unit for mass is the {{c1::kilogram
(kg)}}, which can be represented entirely in base units as {{c2::1000·g}}</div>
Note that, while kg is the SI unit, g is the base unit
1404160959187 1397404373762 <div>The SI unit for energy is the {{c1::Joule (
J)}}, which can be represented entirely in base units as {{c2::^kg·m²/<sub
>s²</sub>}}</div>
1404161040287 1359124274112 <b>Joule</b>&nbsp;<i>definition</i>
The work
done when a force of 1N is applied over a distance of 1m
y
Joule Uc
1405565407044 1395802358422 Which embryological structure develops into the
GI tract <b>from the pharynx to the duodenum</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::For
egut}}</div>
1405566256174 1395802358422 Which embryological structure develops into the
GI tract <b>from the duodenum to the proximal 2/3 of the transverse colon</b>?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Midgut}}</div>
1405566288463 1395802358422 Which embryological structure develops into the
GI tract <b>from the distal 1/3 of the colon to the anal canal <u>above the pect
inate line</u>?</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div>{{c1::Hindgut}}</div>
1405566320891 1395802358422 Which abdominal wall fold is associated with <b>
sternal defects</b>&nbsp;if it fails to close?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rostra
l fold}}</div>
1405566421202 1395802358422 Which abdominal wall fold is associated with <b>
omphalocele</b>&nbsp;and <b>gastroschisis</b>&nbsp;if it fails to close?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Lateral fold}}</div>

1405566451425 1395802358422 Which abdominal wall fold is associated with <b>
bladder exstrophy</b>&nbsp;if it fails to close?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Caud
al fold}}</div>
1405566528943 1395802358422 Which chromosomal trisomy is associated with duo
denal atresia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 21}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Oc
curs due to a failure of the duodenum to recanalize.</i></div>
1405566586051 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the midgut h
erniate through the umbilical ring?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::6th week}}</div>
1405566635415 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the midgut <
b>return</b>&nbsp;into the abdominal cavity<b>&nbsp;</b>and <b>rotate</b>&nbsp;a
round the superior mesenteric artery (SMA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::10th week
}}</div>
1405566669366 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastroschisis}} is a congenital GI disorde
r that involves <b>extrusion of the abdominal contents through the lateral abdom
inal folds</b>. <br /><div><i>The contents <b>are not covered by peritoneum</b>.
</i></div>
1405566805616 1395802358422 {{c1::Omphalocele}} is a congenital GI disorder
that involves the <b>persistence of herniation of abdominal contents into the um
bilical cord.</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><img src="paste-27492085662009.
jpg" /></b></div>
<br /><div><i>The contents are <b>sealed by peritoneum</
b>.</i></div>
1405566984163 1395802358422 What is the most common tracheoesophageal anomal
y?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Esophageal atresia with distal tracheoesophageal f
istula}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Presents with <b>drooling, choking and vomit
ing with the first feeding</b>.</i><div><i>Presence of a TEF will allow for <b>a
ir to enter the stomach</b>, which is noticeable on chest x-ray.<br /></i><div><
img src="paste-27504970564040.jpg" /></div></div>
1405567161887 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyanosis}} is a feature of congenital tran
cheoesophageal anomalies that occurs <b>secondary to laryngospasm</b>&nbsp;which
occurs to avoid reflux-related aspiration.
1405567207195 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyloric Stenosis}} is a congenital GI diso
rder that involves <b>hypertrophy of the pylorus</b>, thereby causing obstructio
n and a <b>palpable "olive" mass</b>&nbsp;in the <b>epigastric region</b>.
1405567259392 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyloric Stenosis}} is a congenital GI diso
rder due to hypertrophy of the pylorus that presents with <b><u>nonbilious</u>&n
bsp;projectile vomit</b>&nbsp;at ~2-6 weeks old.
<br /><div><i>Occurs in
1/600 live births.</i></div>
1405567307738 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected by Congenita
l Pyloric Stenosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Se
en in 1/600 live births.</i></div>
1405567329764 1395802358422 Which embryological structure gives rise to the
pancreas?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Foregut}}</div>
1405567368628 1395802358422 Which embryological pancreatic buds contribute t
o the <b>head of the pancreas</b>&nbsp;and the <b>main pancreatic duct</b>?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral pancreatic buds}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pas
te-28140625723863.jpg" /></div>
1405567410884 1395802358422 Which embryological pancreatic buds contribute t
o the <b>uncinate process</b>&nbsp;of the pancreas?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V
entral bud}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-28136330756567.jpg" /></div>
1405567431621 1395802358422 Which embryological pancreatic bud contributes t
o the <b>body, tail and isthmus of the pancreas</b>&nbsp;and <b>accessory pancre
atic ducts</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dorsal bud}}</div>
1405567474558 1395802358422 {{c1::Annular Pancreas}} is a congenital GI diso
rder that involves a <b>ring of pancreatic tissue around the duodenum</b>&nbsp;d
ue to abnormal development of the <b>ventral pancreatic bud</b>.
<div><br
/></div><div><i>This can cause <b>duodenal narrowing</b>.</i></div><i>Normally,
the ventral pancreatic bud goes entirely one way around the duodenum to form th
e head of the pancreas. Sometimes it can split, forming a <b>ring</b>.</i><br />
<div><img src="paste-28136330756567.jpg" /></div>
1405567570204 1395802358422 {{c1::Pancreas divisum}} is a congenital GI diso

rder that involves <b>failure of the ventral and dorsal pancreatic buds to fuse
at 8 weeks</b>.
1405567605170 1395802358422 Which embryological tissue layer gives rise to t
he spleen?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div> <br /><div><i>The spleen
arises in the mesentary of the stomach but <b>it is supplied by the foregut</b>
&nbsp;(i.e. the <b>celiac artery</b>).</i></div>
1405568459179 1395802358422 Which parts of the duodenum are <b>retroperitone
al</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd-4th}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pas
te-28647431864744.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-28660316766626.jpg" /></div>
1405568732703 1395802358422 Which parts of the pancreas are <b>retroperitone
al</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::All parts except the tail}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><div><img src="paste-28647431864744.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-2866031
6766626.jpg" /></div></div>
1405568756078 1395802358422 Which parts of the colon are <b>retroperitoneal<
/b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ascending and descending}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><div><img src="paste-28647431864744.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-2866031
6766626.jpg" /></div></div>
1405568775293 1395802358422 Which portion of the esophagus is retroperitonea
l?<div><br />{{c1::Lower 2/3}}</div>
<br /><div><div><img src="paste-28647431
864744.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-28660316766626.jpg" /></div></div>
1405568828366 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::falciform ligament}} is a GI liga
ment that connects the <b>liver to the anterior abdominal wall.</b>
<br /><d
iv><img src="paste-28870770164375.jpg" /></div>
1405569029658 1395802358422 What structure is contained within the Falciform
ligament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum teres hepatis}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Which develops from the fetal umbilical vein.</i></div>
1405569069698 1395802358422 The {{c1::hepatoduodenal ligament}} is a GI liga
ment that connects the <b>liver to the duodenum</b>.
<br /><div><img src="pas
te-28866475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569095842 1395802358422 What structure is contained within the Hepatoduo
denal Ligament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Portal Triad}}</div> <br /><div><i>Po
rtal vein; Proper hepatic artery; Common bile duct.</i></div><div><i><img src="p
aste-28866475197079.jpg" /></i></div>
1405569142852 1395802358422 What structures make up the portal triad?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Proper hepatic artery; Portal vein; Common bile duct}}</div
>
<br /><div><img src="paste-28866475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569161801 1395802358422 {{c1::Pringle maneuver}} is a surgical maneuver
that involves <b>compression of the hepatoduodenal ligament between the thumb an
d index finger to control bleeding</b>. <br /><div><img src="paste-2886647519707
9.jpg" /></div>
1405569229890 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::gastrohepatic ligament}} is a GI
ligament that connects the <b>liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach</b>.
<br /><div><img src="paste-28866475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569258433 1395802358422 What structure is contained in the Gastrohepatic
Ligament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric arteries}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="paste-28866475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569284058 1395802358422 Which GI ligament separates the greater and less
er abdominal sacs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gastrohepatic ligament}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It may be cut during surgery to access the lesser sac.</i></div><d
iv><i><img src="paste-28866475197079.jpg" /></i></div>
1405569323370 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Gastrocolic ligament}} is a GI li
gament that connects the <b>greater curvature of the stomach to the transverse c
olon</b>.
1405569351262 1395802358422 What structure is contained in the Gastrocolic L
igament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gastroepiploic arteries}}</div>
1405569368989 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::gastrosplenic ligament}} is a GI
ligament that connects the <b>greater curvature of the stomach to the spleen</b>
.
<br /><div><img src="paste-28866475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569398462 1395802358422 What structures are found in the Gastrosplenic a
rtery?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short Gastric vessels; Left Gastroepiploic ves

sels}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-28866475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569430873 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Splenorenal ligament}} is a GI li
gament that connects the <b>spleen to the anterior surface of the left kidney</b
>, extending to the posterior abdominal wall. <br /><div><img src="paste-28866
475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569468351 1395802358422 What structures are found in the Splenorenal lig
ament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Splenic artery; Splenic vein; Tail of the panc
reas}}</div>
1405569494312 1395802358422 In which layer of the GI wall is the <b>Meissner
plexus</b>&nbsp;found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Submucosa}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>i.e. Submucosal plexus</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-29978871726822.jpg
" /></i></div>
1405569901022 1395802358422 In which layer of the GI wall is the <b>Myenteri
c/Auerbach plexus</b>&nbsp;found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Muscularis externa}
}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-29983166694118.jpg" /></div>
1405569926798 1395802358422 Which layer of the GI wall contains the <b>epith
elium, lamina propria</b>&nbsp;and <b>muscularis mucosa</b>?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Mucosa}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-29978871726822.jpg" /></div>
1405569993692 1395802358422 Which layer of the GI wall is affected by <b>ero
sions</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mucosa only}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="paste-29978871726822.jpg" /></div>
1405570020993 1395802358422 What is the frequency of basal electric rhythm a
t the stomach?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3 waves/min}}</div>
1405570045396 1395802358422 What is the frequency of basal electric rhythm a
t the duodenum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::12 waves/min}}</div>
1405570051697 1395802358422 What is the frequency of basal electric rhythm a
t the ileum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::8-9 waves/min}}</div>
1405570058908 1395802358422 What histological type of epithelium is seen at
the esophagus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epi
thelium}}</div>
1405570101393 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine is associat
ed with <b>Brunner glands</b>&nbsp;(in the submucosa)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Duodenum}}</div>
1405570139478 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine is associat
ed with <b>Crypts of Lieberkuhn</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::All of them (duo
denum, jejunum, ileum)}}</div> <br /><div>:)</div>
1405570153564 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine is associat
ed with <b>plicae circulares</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Jejunum; Ileum}}</d
iv>
1405570199211 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine is associat
ed with <b>Peyer's patches</b>&nbsp;(in the lamina propria and submucosa)?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Ileum}}</div>
1405570229712 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine has the lar
gest number of goblet cells in the small intestine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
leum}}</div>
1405570258538 1395802358422 In which anatomical direction do <b>arteries tha
t supply the GI tract</b>&nbsp;branch off the abdominal aorta?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Anteriorly}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-31336081392355.jpg" /
></div>
1405570411394 1395802358422 In which anatomical direction to arteries that <
b>supply non-GI tract structures</b>&nbsp;branch off the abdominal aorta?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Laterally}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-3133178642505
9.jpg" /></div>
1405570432601 1395802358422 {{c1::Superior Mesenteric Arter (SMA) Syndrome}}
is a cardiovascular syndrome that occurs when the <b>transverse/third portion o
f the duodenum is entrapped between the SMA and aorta</b>, thereby causing intes
tinal obstruction.
1405570487968 1395802358422 What is the main artery that supplies derivative
s of the foregut?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac artery}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>Includes the <b>pharynx and lower esophagus to the proximal duodenum

</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="paste-31331786425059.jpg" /></div>
1405570511338 1395802358422 What is the main artery that supplies derivative
s of the midgut?<div><br />{{c1::SMA}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Includes <b>
distal duodenum to the proximal 2/3 of the transverse colon.</b></i><br /><div><
img src="paste-31331786425059.jpg" /></div>
1405570525909 1395802358422 What is the main artery that supplies derivative
s of the hindgut?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IMA}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Includes <b>distal 1/3 of the transverse colon to the upper portion of the r
ectum</b>.</i><div><i>Splenic flexure is watershed region.<br /></i><div><img sr
c="paste-31331786425059.jpg" /></div></div>
1405570539700 1395802358422 What is the parasympathetic innervation of deriv
atives of the foregut?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN X (vagus)}}</div>
1405570562557 1395802358422 What is the parasympathetic innervation of deriv
atives of the midgut?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN X (vagus)}}</div>
1405570582079 1395802358422 What is the parasympathetic innervation of deriv
atives of the hindgut?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic Nerve}}</div>
1405570596358 1395802358422 What is the vertebral level of the celiac trunk?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T12}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-3133178642505
9.jpg" /></div>
1405570629599 1395802358422 What is the vertebral level of the Superior Mese
nteric Artery (SMA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L1}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="paste-31331786425059.jpg" /></div>
1405570646561 1395802358422 What is the vertebral level of the left renal ar
tery?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L1}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-31331
786425059.jpg" /></div>
1405570657129 1395802358422 What is the vertebral level of the Inferior Mese
nteric Artery (IMA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L3}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="paste-31331786425059.jpg" /></div>
1405570671218 1395802358422 What is the vertebral level of the bifurcation o
f the abdominal aorta?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L4}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Bi
-<b>four</b>-cation of the abdominal aorta.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-313
31786425059.jpg" /></i></div>
1405570701879 1395802358422 What are the 3 main branches of the celiac trunk
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Common hepatic artery; Splenic artery; Left gastric
artery}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Notice the strong anastamoses between the le
ft and right gastric/gastroepiploic arteries.</i><br /><div><img src="paste-3246
9952758485.jpg" /></div>
1405572858389 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Common Hepatic Artery}},&nbsp;{{c
2::Splenic Artery}} and&nbsp;{{c3::Left Gastric artery}} are the 3 main branches
of the celiac trunk. <br /><div><img src="paste-32465657791189.jpg" /></div>
1405572931616 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::superior gastric artery}} anastam
oses with the&nbsp;{{c2::inferior epigastric artery}}.
1405573100149 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::superior pancreaticoduodenal arte
ry}} anastamoses with the&nbsp;{{c2::inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery}}.
1405573123796 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::middle colic artery}} anastamoses
with the&nbsp;{{c2::left colic artery}}.
1405573134859 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::superior rectal artery}} anastamo
ses with the&nbsp;{{c2::middle and inferior arteries}}.
1405620938992 1395802358422 {{c1::Esophageal varices}} is a clinical manifes
tation of portal HTN at the esophagus due to portosystemic anastomoses between t
he <b>left gastric artery</b>&nbsp;and the <b>esophageal artery</b>.
<br /><d
iv><img src="paste-962072675088.jpg" /></div>
1405621064989 1395802358422 {{c1::Caput medusae}} are a feature of portal HT
N that presents at the umbilicus due to the portosystemic anastamoses between th
e <b>paraumbilical artery</b>&nbsp;and the <b>small epigastric veins of the ante
rior abdominal wall</b>.
<br /><div><img src="paste-957777707792.jpg" /><
/div>
1405621314812 1395802358422 {{c1::Anorectal varices}} are a feature of porta
l HTN that presents at the rectum due to portosystemic anastomoses between the <
b>superior rectal artery</b>&nbsp;and the <b>middle/inferior rectal arteries</b>

.
<br /><div><img src="paste-957777707792.jpg" /></div>
1405621474819 1395802358422 {{c1::Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Sh
unt (TIPS)}} is a surgically places shunt that is used to treat portal HTN as it
shunts blood flow <b>from the portal vein to the hepatic vein</b>.
<br /><d
iv><i>i.e. it directly shunts the portal system into systemic circulation</i></d
iv><div><i><img src="paste-957777707792.jpg" /></i></div>
1405621568341 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::pectinate/dentate line}} is an an
atomical landmark at the rectum that forms <b>where the endoderm</b>&nbsp;(i.e.
hidgut) <b>meets the invaginating ectoderm</b>. <br /><div><img src="paste-14688
78815729.jpg" /></div>
1405621629761 1395802358422 {{c1::Internal hemorrhoids}} are a type of hemor
rhoids found <b>above the pectinate line</b>&nbsp;that are <b>not painful</b>&nb
sp;as they receive visceral innervation.
<br /><div><img src="paste-14645
83848433.jpg" /></div>
1405621886357 1395802358422 Which type of hemorrhoids are found <b>above the
pectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal hemorrhoids}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-1464583848433.jpg" /></div>
1405621903659 1395802358422 Which type of hemorrhoids are <b>not painful</b>
&nbsp;as they receive visceral innervation from <b>above the pectinate line</b>?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal hemorrhoids}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="paste-1464583848433.jpg" /></div>
1405621937279 1395802358422 Which artery supplies the rectum <b>above the pe
ctinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Rectal artery (from the IM
A)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-1464583848433.jpg" /></div>
1405621977089 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage of the rectum <b>abo
ve the pectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superior rectal vein to In
ferior Mesenteric Vein to Portal System}}</div>
1405622011279 1395802358422 What is the lymphatic drainage of the rectum <b>
above the pectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal iliac nodes}}<
/div>
1405622029720 1395802358422 {{c1::External hemorrhoids}} are a type of hemor
rhoids that are found <b>below the pectinate line</b>&nbsp;and are <b>painful</b
>&nbsp;as they receive <b>somatic innervation</b>&nbsp;from the inferior rectal
branch of the pudendal nerve. <br /><div><img src="paste-1464583848433.jpg" />
</div>
1405622078487 1395802358422 Which type of hemorrhoids are found <b>below the
pectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::External hemorrhoids}}</div>
1405622105412 1395802358422 Which type of hemorroids are <b>painful</b>&nbsp
;as they receive <b>somatic innervation</b>&nbsp;from the <b>inferior rectal bra
nch of the pudendal nerve</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::External hemorrhoids}}
</div>
1405622133488 1395802358422 What artery supplies the rectum <b>below the pec
tinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior Rectal Artery from the Inte
rnal Pudendal Artery}}</div>
1405622165494 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage of the rectum <b>bel
ow the pectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior rectal vein to In
ternal pudendal vein to Internal iliac vein to the IVC}}</div>
1405622205409 1395802358422 Which somatic nerve innervates the <b>external h
emorrhoids</b>&nbsp;found <b>below the pectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Inferior Rectal Branch of the Pudendal Nerve}}</div>
1405622243987 1395802358422 What is the lymphatic drainage of the rectum <b>
below the pectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superficial Inguinal No
des}}</div>
1405622264490 1395802358422 {{c1::Anal Fissure}} is a GI disorder described
as a <b>tear in the anal mucosa below the pectinate line</b>. <div><br /></div
><i>Presents with <b>pain while pooping, blood on the toilet paper</b>.</i><div>
<i>Typically located <b>posteriorly</b>&nbsp;due to <b>poor perfusion</b>&nbsp;i
n that area.<br /></i><div><img src="paste-1464583848433.jpg" /></div></div>
1405622325895 1395802358422 Which surface of hepatocytes faces the bile cana
liculi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apical surface}}</div>
<br /><div><img

src="paste-2680059593271.jpg" /></div>
1405623565819 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is affected 1st by viral
hepatitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 1/Periportal Zone}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="paste-2675764625975.jpg" /></div>
1405623604926 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is affected first by ing
ested toxins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 1/Periportal Zone}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="paste-2675764625975.jpg" /></div>
1405623624360 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is affected first by <b>
ischemia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Centrilobular Zone}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-2675764625975.jpg" /></div>
1405623678152 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver contains the cytochrome
P450 system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Centrilobular Zone}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-2675764625975.jpg" /></div>
1405623698320 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is most sensitive to met
abolic toxins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Centrilobular Zone}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-2675764625975.jpg" /></div>
1405623735692 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is the site of alcoholic
hepatitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Centrilobular Zone}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-2675764625975.jpg" /></div>
1405623762956 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Ampulla of Vater}} is the common
opening of the common bile duct and main pancreatic duct into the duodenum.
<br /><div><i>Obstruction here can block both pancreatic and biliary function.</
i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3148211028581.jpg" /></i></div>
1405624047603 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Sphincter of Oddi}} is the sphinc
ter that surrounds the common bile duct.
<br /><div><img src="paste-31439
16061285.jpg" /></div>
1405624096295 1395802358422 What are the contents of the <b>Femoral Triangle
</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femoral nerve, artery and vein (from lateral th
e medial)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img src="paste-3470333575239.jpg" /><b
r /><div><img src="paste-3371549327974.jpg" /></div>
1405624556600 1395802358422 What are the contents of the <b>femoral sheath</
b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femoral artery; Femoral vein; Deep Inguinal Lymph
Nodes}}</div> <br /><div><i>Note, it <b>does not</b>&nbsp;include the femoral
nerve.</i></div><div><i><div><img src="paste-3371549327974.jpg" /></div></i></di
v>
1405624610504 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::femoral sheath}} is a fascial tub
e found 3-4 cm below the inguinal ligament that contains the femoral vein, arter
y and deep inguinal lymph nodes.
<br /><div><br /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-3470333575239.jpg" /><br /><div><img src="paste-3371549327974.jpg" /></div><
/div>
1405624653846 1395802358422 What are the contents of the Spermatic Cord?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::External spermatic fascia; Cremasteric muscle and fascia
; Internal spermatic fascia}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-3685081940611
.jpg" /></div>
1405624731408 1395802358422 Which abdominal muscle gives rise to the externa
l spermatic fascia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::External oblique}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="paste-3680786973315.jpg" /></div>
1405624746962 1395802358422 Which abdominal muscle gives rise to the cremast
eric muscle and fascia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal oblique}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-3680786973315.jpg" /></div>
1405624764206 1395802358422 Which abdominal fascia gives rise to the interna
l spermatic fascia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Transversalis fascia}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-3680786973315.jpg" /></div>
1405624789382 1395802358422 What is the site of protrustion in an <b>Indirec
t Inguinal Hernia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Inguinal Ring}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b><u>I</u></b>ndirect = <b><u>I</u></b>nternal</i></div><div><i><
img src="paste-3680786973315.jpg" /></i></div>
1405624864376 1395802358422 What is the site of protrusion in a <b>Direct In
guinal Hernia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Abdominal Wall}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="paste-3680786973315.jpg" /></div>

1405626669368 1395802358422 An {{c1::diaphragmatic hernia}} is a type of her
nia that involves protrusion of <b>abdominal structures into the thorax</b>&nbsp
;through the diaphragm. <br /><div><i>Occurs in infants as a result of defective
development of the pleuroperitoneal membrane.</i></div>
1405627288168 1395802358422 What is the most common type of diaphragmatic he
rnia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hiatal Hernia}}</div>
1405627307900 1395802358422 {{c1::Hiatal Hernia}} is a type of diaphragmatic
hernia where the <b>stomach herniates upward through the esophageal hiatus</b>&
nbsp;of the diaphragm.
1405627355552 1395802358422 What is the most common type of Hiatal Hernia?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sliding Hiatal hernia}}</div>
1405627788927 1395802358422 {{c1::Sliding Hiatal Hernia}} is a type of Hiata
l hernia that involves <b>superior displacement of the gastroesophageal junction
</b>, thereby yielding an "<b>hourglass stomach</b>."
1405627835481 1395802358422 {{c1::Paraesophageal Hernia}} is a type of diaph
ragmatic hernia that involves <b>protrustion of the fundus of the stomach into t
he thorax</b>&nbsp;with <u>preservation of the gastroesophageal junction</u>.
1405627885148 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia involves protrusio
n of the bowel <b>through the internal inguinal ring, external inguinal ring and
into the scrotum</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Indirect Inguinal hernia}}</di
v>
1405628101362 1395802358422 {{c1::Indirect Inguinal hernia}} is a type of in
guinal hernia that involves protrustion of tissue <b>through the internal inguin
al ring, external inguinal ring and into the scrotum</b>.
<br /><div><img
src="paste-4969277161873.jpg" /></div>
1405628138791 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia herniates <b>later
al</b>&nbsp;to the inferior epigastric artery?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Indire
ct}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-4964982194577.jpg" /></div><div><img
src="paste-6627134537923.jpg" /></div>
1405628330292 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia herniates <b>media
l</b>&nbsp;to the Inferior Epigastric Artery?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Direct
inguinal hernia}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-4964982194577.jpg" /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-6622839570627.jpg" /></div>
1405628356042 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia is associated with
<b>failure of the processus vaginalis to close</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Indirect inguinal hernia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Can also result in hydroce
le.</i></div><div><i>The path of an indirect inguinal hernia follows the path of
descent of testes and it is covered by all 3 layers of the spermatic fascia.</i
></div>
1405628647449 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected by <b>Indire
ct </b>Inguinal Hernia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
1405628673305 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia protrudes through
the <b>inguinal (Hasselbach's) triangle?</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div>{{c1::D
irect inguinal hernia}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-4964982194577.jpg" />
</div>
1405629207039 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia involves herniatio
n through the <b>external (superficial) inguinal ring only</b>?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Direct inguinal hernia}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-49649
82194577.jpg" /></div>
1405629272514 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia is typically seen
in older men?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Direct}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pas
te-4964982194577.jpg" /></div>
1405629287694 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected by Femoral H
ernias?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Females}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pas
te-4964982194577.jpg" /></div>
1405629882717 1395802358422 {{c1::Femoral hernia}} is a type of gastrointest
inal hernia that protrudes <b>below the inguinal ligament through the femoral ca
nal</b>&nbsp;and <b>below/lateral to the pubic tubercle</b>.
<br /><div><img
src="paste-4964982194577.jpg" /></div>
1405629925596 1395802358422 What is the leading cause of bowel incarceration

?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femoral hernia}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pas
te-4964982194577.jpg" /></div>
1405629935597 1395802358422 What are the contents of the <b>inguinal (Hassel
bach's) triangle</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior epigastric vessels; La
teral border of the rectus abdominus; Inguinal Ligament}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="paste-4964982194577.jpg" /></div>
1405632598871 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete CCK?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::I cells}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-7610682049286
.jpg" /></div>
1405632721675 1395802358422 Where in the small intestine are I-cells found?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum; Jejunum}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pas
te-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>
1405632745651 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Gastrin?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::G cells}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-7606387081990
.jpg" /></div>
1405632756689 1395802358422 Where in the stomach are G cells found?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Antrum}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-7606387081990
.jpg" /></div>
1405632770077 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Glucose-depe
ndent Insulinotropic Peptide (GIP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::K cells}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>
1405632797797 1395802358422 Where in the small intestine are K cells found?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum; Jejunum}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pas
te-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>
1405632814187 1395802358422 What section of the GI tract secretes Motilin?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Small intestine}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pas
te-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633167210 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Secretin?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::S cells}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-76063
87081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633181366 1395802358422 Where in the small intestine are S cells located
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-76063
87081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633190521 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Somatostatin
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cells}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-76063
87081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633210167 1395802358422 Which areas of the GI tract secrete Vasoactive I
ntestinal Polypeptide (VIP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Parasympathetic ganglia
in GI sphincters, gallbladder and SI}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-76063
87081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633324647 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Intrinsic Fa
ctor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Parietal cells of the stomach}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="paste-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633350505 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Gastric Acid
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Parietal cells of the stomach}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="paste-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633366497 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Pepsin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Chief cells of the stomach}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="paste-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633380083 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete HCO<sub>3</s
ub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mucosal cells of the stomach, duodenum, salivary
glands and pancreas}}</div>
1405633416483 1395802358422 Which submucosal glands of the duodenum secrete
HCO₃?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brunner glands}}</div>
1405633433902 1395802358422 How does CCK influence pancreatic secretion?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is done indir
ectly.</i></div><div><i><b>CCK acts on neural muscarinic pathways to trigger pan
creatic secretion</b>.</i></div>
1405633926244 1395802358422 How does CCK influence&nbsp;gallbladder contract
ion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>

1405633932561 1395802358422 How does CCK influence&nbsp;gastric emptying?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405633942954 1395802358422 How does CCK influence&nbsp;sphincter of Oddi to
ne?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, CCK trig
gers gallbladder contraction, so the sphincter of Oddi must be relaxed at the sa
me time.</i></div>
1405633983503 1395802358422 How does an <b>increase</b>&nbsp;in fatty acids
and amino acids influence CCK release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</di
v>
1405634006773 1395802358422 How does Gastrin influence gastric acid secretio
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634062475 1395802358422 How does Gastrin influence growth of the gastric
mucosa?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634072789 1395802358422 How does Gastrin influence gastric motility?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634082007 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b>&nbsp;in stomach pH in
fluence Gastrin release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405634103047 1395802358422 How does an <b>increase</b>&nbsp;in stomach pH i
nfluence Gastrin secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634132338 1395802358422 How does stomach distention influence Gastrin re
lease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634143178 1395802358422 How do Gastrin levels change in Zollinger-Ellisi
on Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634174789 1395802358422 How do Gastrin levels change in chronic PPI use?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>PPI's work to decr
ease stomach acid (i.e. increase stomach pH).</i></div><div><i>This in turn trig
gers Gastrin release.</i></div>
1405634201844 1395802358422 How does Phenylalanine influence Gastrin release
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634213294 1395802358422 How does Tryptophan influence Gastrin release?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634226096 1395802358422 Which GI hormone is also known as Gastric Inhibi
tory Peptide (GIP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic
Peptide (GIP)}}</div>
1405634288960 1395802358422 How does&nbsp;Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic P
eptide (GIP) influence gastric acid secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrea
se}}</div>
1405634311394 1395802358422 How does&nbsp;Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic P
eptide (GIP) influence insulin release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
1405634316693 1395802358422 How does an <b>increase</b>&nbsp;in fatty acids,
amino acids and oral glucose influence&nbsp;Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Pe
ptide (GIP) release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Oral glucose loads are used more rapidly by the body versus equivalent IV
doses due to the GIP secretion it stimulates.</i></div>
1405634390780 1395802358422 {{c1::Motilin}} is a GI hormone secreted by the
small intestine that <b>functions to produce migratory motor complexes (MMCs)</b
>.
<br /><div><i>Hence, <b>motilin receptor agonists are used to stimulate
intestinal peristalsis</b>.</i></div>
1405634449679 1395802358422 How do Motilin levels change in the <b>fasting</
b>&nbsp;state?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
is is why we tell patients to <b>not feed their children</b>&nbsp;if they happen
to swallow something like a coin or marble.</i></div><div><i>Fasting state = in
creased motilin = increased frequency of MMCs = whatever was ingested will be po
oped out sooner.</i></div>
1405634509864 1395802358422 {{c1::Eryhtromycin}} is a macrolide antibiotic t
hat also acts as a Motilin agonist, thereby stimulating intestinal peristalsis.
1405635139648 1395802358422 How does Secretin influence pancreatic HCO₃&nbsp;secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<i><div>
</div></i><i><br /></i>This is integral for duodenal digestion.<div><i>The HCO<s

ub>3</sub>&nbsp;secretion into the duodenum neutralizes the incoming acidic bile
and allows pancreatic enzymes to function.</i></div>
1405635161215 1395802358422 How does Secretin influence bile secretion?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405635168567 1395802358422 How does Secretin influence gastric acid secreti
on?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635183257 1395802358422 How does a decrease in duodenal pH influence Sec
retin levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Re
member, Secretin induces pancreatic HCO₃&nbsp;secretion.</i></div>
1405635631032 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence gastric acid and
pepsinogen secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635656154 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence pancreatic secre
tion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635665033 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence small intestine
secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635673104 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence gallbladder cont
raction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635683572 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence insulin and gluc
agon release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635803442 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b>&nbsp;in gastric pH in
fluence Somatostatin release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, Somatostatin decreases gastric acid secretion.</i></div>
1405635837426 1395802358422 How does vagal stimulation influence Somatostati
n release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember,
the PSNS generally <b>increases</b>&nbsp;GI secretion. Somatostatin however work
s to generally <b>decrease</b>&nbsp;GI secretion. Hence, the PSNS <b>inhibits so
matostatin release</b>.</i></div>
1405635895477 1395802358422 How does Nitric Oxide influence Lower Esophageal
Sphincter (LES) tone?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>NO pretty much causes smooth muscle relaxation everywhere. LES included.</
i></div>
1405636029560 1395802358422 {{c1::Achalasia}} is a GI disorder that involves
an <b>increase in lower esophageal sphincter (LES) resting tone</b>&nbsp;due to
<b>loss of NO secretion</b>.
1405636065728 1395802358422 How does Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide (VIP)
influence intestinal water and electrolyte secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Increase}}</div>
1405636107010 1395802358422 How does Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide (VIP)
influence relaxation of intestinal smooth muscle and sphincters?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405636145891 1395802358422 {{c1::VIPoma}} is a <b>non-alpha, non-beta </b>i
slet cell pancreatic tumour&nbsp;that <b>secretes VIP</b>, thereby causing copio
us <b>watery diarrhea, hypokalemia and achlorhydria.</b>
<br /><div><b><i
>WDHA Syndrome:</i></b></div><div><i>- <b>W</b>atery <b>D</b>iarrhea</i></div><d
iv><i>- <b>H</b>ypokalemia</i></div><div><i>- <b>A</b>chlorhydria</i></div>
1405636267369 1395802358422 {{c1::Intrinsic Factor}} is a protein secreted b
y parietal cells of the stomach that <b>binds to vitamin B12</b>&nbsp;in order f
or it to be absorbed in the terminal ileum.
1405636307521 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract is vitamin B12 absorbed?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Terminal ileum}}</div>
1405636340567 1395802358422 How does Histamine influence gastric acid secret
ion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pas
te-11918534246988.jpg" /></div>
1405636375184 1395802358422 How does ACh influence gastric acid secretion?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-11914
239279692.jpg" /></div>
1405636390786 1395802358422 How does Gastrin influence gastric acid secretio
n??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-11914
239279692.jpg" /></div>
1405636402999 1395802358422 How does GIP influence gastric acid secretion?<d

iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405636438775 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence gastric acid sec
retion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405636451474 1395802358422 How do prostaglandins influence gastric acid sec
retion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is wh
y chronic NSAID use can result in gastric ulcers due to increased gastric acid s
ecretion.</i></div>
1405636488649 1395802358422 How does Secretin influence gastric acid secreti
on??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><br /></div>
1405636518630 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastrinoma}} is a gastrin-secreting tumour
that yields high levels of acid secretion and ulcers refractory to medical ther
apy.
1405636569029 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b>&nbsp;in pH influence
pepsin activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Pe
psin is activated by gastric acid via conversion from pepsinogen.</i></div>
1405636616266 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP)}} is a par
asympathetic transmitter that triggers release of Gastrin from G cells. <br /><d
iv><i>It is <b>unaffected by Atropine which blocks ACh action.</b></i></div><div
><i><b><img src="paste-11914239279692.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1405636695260 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastrin}} is a GI hormone secreted from G
cells that triggers Histamine release from Enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells in
order to increase gastric acid secretion.
<div><br /></div><i>Hence, <b>Ga
strin has both direct and indirect effects on parietal cells to govern gastric a
cid release</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="paste-11914239279692.jpg" /></div>
1405636927071 1395802358422 Which receptor does ACh bind to at parietal cell
s to trigger gastric acid secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::M₃}}<
/div> <br /><div><img src="paste-13056700580485.jpg" /></div>
1405637625859 1395802358422 Which receptor does Gastrin bind to at parietal
cells to trigger gastric acid secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CCK<sub>B</s
ub>}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-13052405613189.jpg" /></div>
1405637645685 1395802358422 Which receptor does Histamine bind to on parieta
l cells in order to trigger gastric acid secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H
₂}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-13052405613189.jpg" /></div>
1405637666661 1395802358422 Which intracellular signalling cascade is associ
ated with ACh (M₃) and Gastrin (CCK_B) action at parietal c
ells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G_q&nbsp;--&gt; IP₃/DAG -&gt; increased Ca}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-13052405613189.jpg" /
></div>
1405637751823 1395802358422 Which intracellular signalling cascade is associ
ated with Histamine (H₂) action at parietal cells?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::G_s&nbsp;--&gt; cAMP --&gt; gastric acid secretion}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-13052405613189.jpg" /></div>
1405638636482 1395802358422 Which pancreatic enzyme functions in starch dige
stion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::alpha-amylase}}</div> <br /><div><i>Secreted i
n its active form.</i></div>
1405638719216 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipase}},&nbsp;{{c2::phospholipase A}} and
&nbsp;{{c3::colipase}} are pancreatic enzymes that function in fat digestion.
1405638745450 1395802358422 {{c1::Trypsin}},&nbsp;{{c2::chymotrypsin}},&nbsp
;{{c3::elastase}} and&nbsp;{{c4::carboxypeptidase}} are 4 pancreatic enzymes tha
t function in <b>protein digestion</b>&nbsp;and are secreted as proenzymes in zy
mogen form.
1405638803329 1395802358422 {{c1::Trypsinogen}} is a pancreatic enzyme that
functions to convert <b>proenzyme/zymogens from the pancreas</b>&nbsp;in its act
ive form.
<br /><div><i>Trypsin is its active form.</i></div>
1405638862605 1395802358422 {{c1::Enterkinase/Enteropeptidase}} is a brush-b
order enzyme on the duodenal and jejunal mucosa that functions to convert Trypsi
nogen into Trypsin.
1405638891173 1395802358422 Which enzyme on the brush border of the duodenum
and jejunum functions to convert trypsinogen into trypsin?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Enterokinase/Enteropeptidase}}</div>

1405638914313 1395802358422 Which monosaccharide transporter uptakes glucose
and galactose at the enterocyte brush border?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SGLUT1
(with Na)}}</div>
1405639641453 1395802358422 Which monosaccharide transporter uptakes fructos
e at the enterocyte brush border via facilitated diffusion?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::GLUT-5}}</div>
1405639668103 1395802358422 Which monosaccharide transporter <b>transports a
ll monosaccharides across the basolateral membrane</b>&nbsp;of enterocytes into
the blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2}}</div>
1405639695188 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract is iron absorbed?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum as Fe²⁺}}</div>
1405639737857 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract is folate absorbed?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Jejunum; Ileum}}</div>
1405639751146 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract is Vitamin B12 absorbed?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Terminal ileum}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Requires i
ntrinsic factor.</i></div>
1405639772272 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract are bile acids absorbed?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Terminal ileum}}</div>
1405639783509 1395802358422 {{c1::Peyer's patches}} are <b>unencapsulated</b
>&nbsp;lymphoid tissue found in the lamina propria and submucosa of the<div>ileu
m.</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-14396730376506.jpg" /></div>
1405639892498 1395802358422 {{c1::M cells}} are a specialized cell found in
peyer patches that <b>sample</b>&nbsp;and <b>present antigens</b>&nbsp;to immune
cells.
1405639929817 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin isotype is transported acro
ss the epithelium into the gut from Peyer patches in the lamina propria to deal
with <b>intraluminal antigens?</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. secretory IgA</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-15045270438102
.jpg" /></i></div>
1405640417990 1395802358422 Which enzyme catalyzes the rate-limiting step of
bile synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::7-alpha hydroxylase}}</div>
1405640538740 1395802358422 To which compound is bilirubin conjugated?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucuronate}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-15131
169784371.jpg" /></div>
1405640617654 1395802358422 Which type of bilirubin is <b>conjugated with gl
ucuronate</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Direct}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="paste-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640641932 1395802358422 Which type of bilirubin is <b>water soluble</b>?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Direct bilirubin}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pas
te-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640654605 1395802358422 Which type of bilirubin is <b>unconjugated</b>?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Indirect}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-15126
874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640665134 1395802358422 Which type of bilirubin is <b>not water soluble<
/b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Indirect}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pas
te-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640678977 1395802358422 To which plasma protein does <b>unconjugated/ind
irect</b>&nbsp;bilirubin bind?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Albumin}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640704703 1395802358422 Which hepatic enzyme functions to conjugate bili
rubin with glucuronate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::UDP-glucuronyl transferase}}<
/div> <br /><div><img src="paste-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640731401 1395802358422 Which metabolite of Urobilinogen gives feces its
brown colour?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Stercobilin}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="paste-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640767115 1395802358422 Which metabolite of Urobilinogen gives urine its
yellow colour?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Urobilin}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="paste-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640782457 1395802358422 Where is Urobilinogen made?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::In the gut by normal flora}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-15126

874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405442831774 1395802358422 Which embryological structure functions as the k
idneys <b>up to week 4</b>&nbsp;of gestation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Proneph
ros}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>At which point it degenerates.</i><br /><div
><img src="paste-584115552792.jpg" /></div>
1405443374512 1395802358422 Which embryological structure functions as an in
terim kidney for the majority of the 1st trimester?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::M
esonephros}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>After which it contributes to the ma
le genital system.</i><br /><div><img src="paste-579820585496.jpg" /></div>
1405443425353 1395802358422 Which embryological structure develops into the
permanent kidney(s)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metanephros}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="paste-579820585496.jpg" /></div>
1405443482097 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the Metaneph
ros first appear?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Week 5}}</div>
<br /><div><br /
></div>
1405443505823 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::ureteric bud}} is an embryologica
l structure derived from the <b>caudal end of the mesonephric duct</b>&nbsp;that
gives rise to the <b>ureter, renal pelvises, calyces and collecting ducts</b>.
1405443587389 1395802358422 From which embryological structure does the uret
eric bud develop?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesonephric duct}}</div>
1405443606408 1395802358422 From which embryological structure do the renal
collecting ducts develop?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ureteric Bud (via the Meson
ephric Duct)}}</div>
1405443641224 1395802358422 By which week of gestation is the ureteric bud f
ully canalized?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::10th week}}</div>
1405443661055 1395802358422 With which embryological structure does the uret
eric bud interact to trigger formation of the glomerulus and renal tubules?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Metanephric mesenchyme}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pas
te-579820585496.jpg" /></div>
1405444063760 1395802358422 From which embryological structure does the rena
l glomerulus develop?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metanephros}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="paste-579820585496.jpg" /></div>
1405444081563 1395802358422 From which embryological structure do the renal
tubules (up to the distal convoluted tubule) develop?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Metanephros}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence, <b>everything from the glomerulus t
o the distal convoluted tubule</b>&nbsp;comes from the <b>metanephros</b>.</i></
div><div><i>Hence, <b>everything from the collecting duct to the ureter</b>&nbsp
;comes from the <b>mesonephros</b>&nbsp;(via the <b>ureteric bud</b>).</i></div>
<div><i><img src="paste-579820585496.jpg" /></i></div>
1405444209098 1395802358422 Which embryological structure gives rise to ever
ything from the renal glomerulus to the distal convoluted tubule?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Metanephros}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-579820585496.
jpg" /></div>
1405444251633 1395802358422 Which embryological structure gives rise to ever
ything from the renal collecting duct to the ureter?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Ureteric Bud via the Mesonephros}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-57982
0585496.jpg" /></div>
1405444291403 1395802358422 What is the most common site of renal obstructio
n/hydronephrosis in the fetus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ureteropelvic junction
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Because it is the last to canalize.</i></div>
1405444521741 1395802358422 {{c1::Potter Sequence/Syndrome}} is a congenital
sequence that is caused by <b>oligohydramnios</b>&nbsp;and subsequent <b>compre
ssion of fetal limbs, facial features and the chest.</b>
<br /><div><i>Yi
elds <b>low-set ears</b>&nbsp;and <b>retrognathia</b>.</i></div><div><i><img src
="paste-2443836391702.jpg" /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-2564095475998.jpg
" /></i></div>
1405444589405 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of death in Potter
Sequence?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary hypoplasia due to compression of
the chest}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-2564095475998.jpg" /></div>
1405444612402 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Potter Sequence?<div><br

/></div><div>{{c1::Oligohydramnios due to an <u>inability or impairment in urin
ation</u>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.g. ARPKD, Posterior Urethral Valves, Bil
ateral Renal Agenesis.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-2568390443294.jpg" /></i
></div>
1405444690537 1395802358422 {{c1::Horseshoe kidney}} is a congenital renal a
bnormality that involved <b>fusion of the inferior poles of both kidneys</b>.<di
v><br /></div><div><img src="paste-3874060501409.jpg" /></div> <br /><div><i>Ty
pically found low in abdomen as the horseshoe kidney is trapped under the inferi
or mesenteric artery as it ascends.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-32169305049
76.jpg" /></i></div>
1405446794570 1395802358422 How does kidney function change in with a Horses
hoe Kidney?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
1405446865326 1395802358422 Which sex chromosomal disorder is associated wit
h Horseshoe Kidney?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome}}</div>
1405446901803 1395802358422 How does the risk for ureteropelvic junction obs
truction change with Horseshoe Kidney?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</di
v>
1405446922296 1395802358422 How does the risk for <b>hydronephrosis</b>&nbsp
;and <b>kidney stones</b>&nbsp;change with Horseshoe Kidney?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405446943441 1395802358422 {{c1::Multicystic Dysplastic Kidney}} is a conge
nital renal disorder that presents with a <b>nonfunctional kidney consisting of
cysts and connective tissue</b>&nbsp;due to <b>abnormal interaction between the
ureteric bud and metanephric mesenchyme</b>.
1405447042079 1395802358422 What is the most common type of Multicystic Dysp
lastic Kidney?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Unilateral}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
is type of generally asymptomatic as the contralateral kidney undergoes hypertro
phy as compensation.</i></div>
1405447079974 1395802358422 Which kidney is typically taken during living do
nor transplantation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Left Kidney as it has a longer r
enal vein}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-4097398801059.jpg" /></div>
1405447892943 1395802358422 Which blood vessel carries blood <b>into</b>&nbs
p;the glomerulus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Afferent arteriole}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="paste-4544075399686.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-4556960301585
.jpg" /></div>
1405448012983 1395802358422 Which blood vessel carries blood <b>out of</b>&n
bsp;the glomerulus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Efferent arteriole}}</div>
<br /><div><br /></div><div><div><img src="paste-4544075399686.jpg" /></div><div
><img src="paste-4556960301585.jpg" /></div></div>
1405448031689 1395802358422 Which <b>genital</b>&nbsp;blood vessel does the
ureter run under in <b>females</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uterine Artery}}<
/div> <div><br /></div><i>"Water under the bridge."</i><div><i>Gynecological p
rocedures that involve manipulation or ligation of the uterine artery may damage
the ureter.<br /></i><div><img src="paste-4690104287633.jpg" /></div></div>
1405448126918 1395802358422 Which <b>genital</b>&nbsp;structure does the ure
ter run under in males?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vas Deferens}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>"Water under the bridge."</i><br /><div><img src="paste-468580932033
7.jpg" /></div>
1405448157717 1395802358422 What percentage of total body weight is water?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::60%}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-5304284610900
.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-5978594476186.jpg" /></div>
1405449367551 1395802358422 What percentage of total body weight is <b>extra
cellular</b>&nbsp;fluid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::20%}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="paste-5304284610900.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-5974299508890.jpg" />
</div>
1405449406525 1395802358422 What percentage of total body weight is <b>intra
cellular</b>&nbsp;fluid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::40%}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="paste-5304284610900.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-5974299508890.jpg" />
</div>
1405449430973 1395802358422 Which radiolabeled plasma protein is often used

to measure total plasma volume?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Albumin}}</div>
1405449452076 1395802358422 What protein is used to measure <b>extracellular
</b>&nbsp;volume?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inulin}}</div>
1405449490578 1395802358422 Which glomerular filtration barrier acts as a <b
>size</b>&nbsp;barrier?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fenestrated capillary endothe
lium}}</div>
1405449603572 1395802358422 Which glomerular filtration barrier acts as a <b
>negative charge</b>&nbsp;barrier?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fused basement mem
brane with heparan sulfate}}</div>
1405449635741 1395802358422 Which glomerular filtration barrier is lost in <
b>nephrotic</b>&nbsp;syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The negative charge ba
rrier (fused basement membrane with heparan sulfate)}}</div>
1405449686959 1395802358422 What is the equation for renal clearance?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::C_x&nbsp;= (U_x&nbsp;* V)/P_x
}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-6468220747953.jpg" /></div>
1405450345308 1395802358422 If C_x&nbsp;&lt; GFR, what is the net
movement of substance <i>x</i>&nbsp;across the tubular epithelium?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Net tubular reabsorption}}</div> <br /><div><i>i.e. if you are fi
ltering more of x into the kidney tubules than you are clearing x from the plasm
a, then x must be being reabsorbed by the kidneys</i></div>
1405450498929 1395802358422 If C_x&nbsp;&gt; GFR, what is the net
movement of substance <i>x</i>&nbsp;across the renal tubular epithelium?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Net tubular secretion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. if yo
u are clearing more plasma of substance x than you are filtering, then substance
x must be being secreted into the urine.</i></div>
1405450566634 1395802358422 If C_x&nbsp;= GFR, what is the net mov
ement of substance <i>x</i>&nbsp;across the renal tubular epithelium?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::No net secretion or reabsorption}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.
e. you are clearing the same amount of plasma of substance x than you are filter
ing, hence substance x must not be moving across the tubular epithelium at all (
or just not in a net value).</i></div>
1405450649959 1395802358422 What is the renal clearance of <i>para</i>-amino
hippuric acid (PAH)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C_PAH&nbsp;= RPF = 600
mL/min in normal conditions}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is because <b>PAH is
maximally secreted</b>&nbsp;from the blood.</i></div>
1405451095182 1395802358422 What is the renal clearance of Inulin?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::C_I&nbsp;= C_Cr&nbsp;= GFR ~ 100 mL/min in
normal conditions}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is because <b>Inulin is neith
er secreted or reabsorbed, it is </b><u style="font-weight: bold; ">purely filte
red</u>.</i></div><div><i>Same thing with creatinine.</i></div>
1405451214155 1395802358422 What is the renal clearance of Creatinine?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::C_I&nbsp;= C_Cr&nbsp;= GFR ~ 100 mL/mi
n in normal conditions}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is because along with Inulin,
<b>Creatinine is neither secreted or reabsorbed. <u>It is purely filtered</u>.<
/b></i></div>
1405451243539 1395802358422 What is the renal clearance of Glucose?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::C_Glc&nbsp;= 0}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is be
cause <b>Glucose is maximally reabsorbed</b>&nbsp;and <b>not excreted</b>&nbsp;i
n normal conditions</i></div>
1405451279979 1395802358422 The renal clearance of which&nbsp;<b>exogenous</
b>&nbsp;compound can be clinically used to calculate GFR as it is <b>freely filt
ered</b>&nbsp;and <b>neither secreted or reabsorbed</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Inulin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. the amount of plasma cleared of the c
ompound is the same as GFR</i></div>
1405451635737 1395802358422 What is the normal oncotic pressure of the bowma
n space at the glomerulus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::π_bs&nbs
;= 0}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><i>This is because, no mally, the e a e not
lasma
oteins f
ilte ed into the glome ulus.</i></div>
1405451700535 1395802358422 What is the no mal GFR?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::~ 100 mL/min}}</div>

1405451714347 1395802358422 The enal clea ance of which <b>endogenous</b>&n
bs
;com
ound is commonly used to clinically estimate GFR?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::C eatinine}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , C_C&nbs
;slightly ove
estimates GFR as C eatinine is mode ately sec eted by the enal tubules.</i></d
iv>
1405451813124 1395802358422 The enal clea ance of which <b>exogenous</b>&nb
s
;com
ound is used to estimate <b>Effective Renal Plasma Flow</b>&nbs
;(ERPF)?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
a a</i>-aminohi

u ic acid (PAH)}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>This is because PAH is f eely filte ed <b>and</b>&nbs
;maximally sec eted
in the PCT. Hence all PAH that ente s the kidney is exc eted.</i></div><div><i>C
_PAH&nbs
;= ERPF = U_PAH&nbs
;* V / P_PAH</i></div
>
1405451945480 1395802358422 What is the equation fo enal <b>blood</b>&nbs

;flow (RBF)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RBF = RPF/(1-Hct)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Hct = hematoc it = the % of ed blood cells in the blood.</i></div>
1405452116985 1395802358422 What is the equation fo enal Filt ation F acti
on (FF)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::FF = GFR / RPF}}</div>
<b /><div><i>i.
e. <b>the f action of
lasma filte ed f om the amount of
lasma that ente s the
kidney</b></i></div>
1405452206648 1395802358422 What is the no mal enal filt ation f action?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::FF = GFR / RPF = 20%}}</div> <b /><div><i>i.e. 20% o
f the
lasma that ente s the kidney is filte ed</i></div>
1405452260492 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the enal <b>Filte ed L
oad</b>&nbs
;of a substance?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::FL = GFR * P_x
}}</div>
<b /><div><i>FL is in mg/min</i></div><div><i>GFR is in mL/min<
/i></div><div><i>P_x&nbs
;is in mg/mL</i></div>
1405452325546 1395802358422 Which glome ula blood vessel is <b>dilated</b>&
nbs
;by P ostaglandins?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Affe ent a te ioles}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Hence, NSAIDs will <b>inhibit affe ent a te iole dilation</b
>.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-10093173146318.j
g" /></div>
1405452372251 1395802358422 Which glome ula blood vessel is
efe entially
<b>const icted</b>&nbs
;by Angiotensin II?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Effe ent a
te iole}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Hence ACE Inhibito s <b>inhibit effe
ent a te iole const iction</b>&nbs
;and <b>cause effe ent a te iole dilation</b
>.<b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-10088878179022.j
g" /></div>
1405452463066 1395802358422 Which glome ula blood vessel is <b>dilated</b>&
nbs
;by ACE Inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Effe ent a te iole as it inhi
bits AT2-mediated const iction}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1008887817902
2.j
g" /></div>
1405458619673 1395802358422 How does RPF change following glome ula affe en
t a te iole const iction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>This about this, b ah. You' e const icting the <b>incoming</b>&nbs
;blood
vessel, hence the e will be less
lasma flowing th ough the glome ulus.</i></div
><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405458711797 1395802358422 How does GFR change following const iction of th
e glome ula affe ent a te iole?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><!--anki--><div><i>This about this, b ah. You' e const icting the&nbs

;<b>incoming</b>&nbs
;blood vessel, hence the e will be less
lasma flowing th
ough the glome ulus and less of it will be filte ed.</i></div><div><i><img s c="

aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405458751599 1395802358422 How does enal filt ation f action change follow
ing affe ent a te iole const iction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div
>
<b /><div><!--anki--><div><i>This about this, b ah. You' e const icting
the&nbs
;<b>incoming</b>&nbs
;blood vessel, hence the e will be less
lasma flo
wing th ough the glome ulus. <b>RPF and GFR both dec ease</b>.</i></div><div><i>
<img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405458786054 1395802358422 How does RPF change following const iction of th
e <b>effe ent</b>&nbs
;a te iole?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><!--anki--><div><i>You' e const icting the&nbs
;<b>outgoing</b>&nbs
;
blood vessel, hence the e will be less
lasma flowing th ough the glome ulus.</i

></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405459525638 1395802358422 How does GFR change following const iction of th
e effe ent a te iole?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Initial inc ease; dec ease with
substantial inc ease in esistance}}</div>
<b /><div><div><i>This one is a
bit t icky. As you const ict the effe ent a te iole, you inc ease the hyd ostat
ic
essu e (P_C)u
st eam at the glome ula ca
illa ies, <b>hence GFR
will inc ease</b>. Howeve , as RPF continues to dec ease with inc easing effe en
t a te iole const iction, <b>GFR etu ns to no mal o dec eases</b>.</i></div><d
iv><i>Hence, <b>with minimal inc eases in effe ent a te iole esistance, P_C&nbs
;dominates and GFR inc eases.</b></i></div><div><i>Hence, <b>with la
ge inc eases in effe ent a te iole esistance, RPF dominates and GFR dec eases</
b>.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405459721377 1395802358422 How does enal Filt ation F action change follow
ing const iction of the effe ent a te iole?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}
}</div> <div><div><i><b /></i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g"
/></i></div></div>
1405459747208 1395802358422 How does GFR change following an inc ease in
la
sma
otein concent ation (i.e. inc eased π_c)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Dec eased}}</div>
<div><div><i><b /></i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-107
97547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405459794360 1395802358422 How does enal filt ation f action change follow
ing an inc ease in
lasma
otein concent ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec
ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459815200 1395802358422 How does GFR change following a <b>dec ease</b>&
nbs
;in
lasma
otein concent ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div
>
<div><b /></div><i>i.e. π_c&nbs
;dec eases</i><b /><div><i><im
g s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459836480 1395802358422 How does enal filt ation f action change follow
ing a dec ease in
lasma
otein concent ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc e
ase}}</div>
<b /><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459879019 1395802358422 How does GFR change following const iction of th
e u ete ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>This
causes an inc ease in hyd ostatic
essu e at the bowman's s
ace.</i><b /><div
><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459919640 1395802358422 How does enal filt ation f action change follow
ing const iction of the u ete ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459938187 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the enal exc etion at
e of the substance?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ER = V_u&nbs
;* U_x}}</div>
1405461426734 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the enal eabso
tion
ate of a substance?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RR_x = Filte ed load exc etion ate = FL - ER = (GFR * P_x) - (V * U_x)}}</div>
1405461485025 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the enal sec etion at
e of a substance?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::SR_x&nbs
;= exc etion at
e - filte ed load = ER - FL = (V * U_x) - (GFR * P_x)}}</div
>
1405461541013 1395802358422 At which
lasma concent ation of glucose does <b
>glucosu ia</b>&nbs
;begin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::~ 200 mg/dL}}</div>
1405461588228 1395802358422 At which
lasma concent ation of glucose a e all
enal glucose t ans
o te s fully satu ated?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::~ 375 mg
/dL}}</div>
1405461613523 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of Ha tnu
Disea
se?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1405461649054 1395802358422 {{c1::Ha tnu
Disease}} is a diso de of amino a
cid eabso
tion that is cha acte ized by <b>deficiency of neut al amino acid t
ans
o te s in the PCT and ente ocytes</b>.
<b /><div><i>Hence causing neut
al aminoacidu ia and dec eased abso
tion f om the gut.</i></div><div><i>Result
s in <b>
ellag a-like sym
toms</b>&nbs
;due to subsequent <b>Niacin (Vitamin B3)
</b>&nbs
;deficiency.</i></div>

1405461720032 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>glucose</b>&nbs
;
eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT (with Na)}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-12704513262182.j
g" /></div>
1405461835829 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on a e <b>amino acids</b>&n
bs
; eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT (with Na)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405461913260 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed HCO₃&nbs
; eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405461968789 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed Na eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT (es
ecially with gluco
se and amino acids)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /
></div>
1405461995249 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed Cl eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462012606 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed PO₄&nbs
; eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</di
v>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462030541 1395802358422 Whe e along the length of the ne
h on is <b>most
</b>&nbs
;of the filte ed K eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462046908 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed H₂O eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462066632 1395802358422 What ty
e of osmotic abso
tion is seen at the P
CT of the ne
h on?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Isosmotic abso
tion}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462183699 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on functions to <b>gen
e ate and sec ete NH₃&nbs
;</b>which acts as a buffe fo sec eted H<
su
>+</su
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462231006 1395802358422 At which section of the ne
h on does PTH functio
n to <b>inhibit Na/PO₄&nbs
;cot ans
o t</b>&nbs
;to induce PO<sub>4</
sub>&nbs
;exc etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462394955 1395802358422 At which section of the ne
h on does Angiotensin
II <b>stimulate Na/H exchange</b>, the eby leading to <b>inc eased Na, H<sub>2<
/sub>O and HCO₃&nbs
; eabso
tion</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT
}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13984413516381.j
g" /></div>
1405462726872 1395802358422 What
e centage of filte ed Na is eabso bed at
the PCT?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::65-80%}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-13980118549085.j
g" /></div>
1405462748772 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on <b>
assively eabso
bs H₂O </b>due to the enal medulla's hy
e tonicity?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Thin descending limb of the Loo
of Henle}}</div>
1405462822160 1395802358422 What is the Na
e meability in the thin <b>desce
nding</b>&nbs
;limb of loo
of Henle?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ze o}}</div>
1405462843331 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle is im
e meable t
o Na?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thin descending limb}}</div>
1405462865292 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle functions to mak
e u ine <b>hy
e tonic</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thin descending limb of th
e loo
of Henle}}</div> <b /><div><i>Achieved th ough
assive eabso
tion of H
₂O by vi tue of the medulla's hy
e tonicity and the limb's im
e meabi
lity to Na.</i></div>
1405462924033 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle is im
e meable t
o H₂O?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending limb}}</div>
1405463319257 1395802358422 What is the H₂O
e meability of the t
hick ascending limb of the loo
of Henle?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ze o}}</div
>

1405463346361 1395802358422 At which section of the ne
h on is <b>Mg<su
>2+<
/su
>&nbs
;and Ca<su
>2+ </su
> eabso bed <u>
a acellula ly</u>?</b><div><b><b
/></b></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending limb of the loo
of Henle}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This occu s via a <b>
ositive lumen
otential gene ated by K<su
>+
</su
>&nbs
;backleak.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img s c="
aste-14856291877387.j
g
" /></b></i></div>
1405463438606 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle functions to mak
e u ine <b>less concent ated</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending lim
b}}</div>
1405463460439 1395802358422 What
e centage of filte ed Na is eabso bed at
the thick ascending limb of the loo
of Henle?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::10-20%
}}</div>
1405463491410 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle <b>actively eab
so bs Na, K and Cl</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending limb of the l
oo
of Henle}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-15337328214520.j
g" /></div>
1405463969362 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on <b>actively eabso
bs Na and Cl</b>, the eby making u ine hy
otonic?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ea
ly DCT}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-15491947037217.j
g" /></div>
1405464031942 1395802358422 At which section of the ne
h on does PTH <b>inc
ease Ca/Na exchange</b>, the eby d iving Ca eabso
tion?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Ea ly DCT}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-15487652069921.j
g" /></div>
1405464077041 1395802358422 What
e centage of filte ed Na is eabso bed at
the ea ly DCT?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::5-10%}}</div>
1405464110296 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on functions to <b> ea
bso b Na</b>&nbs
;<b>in exchange fo sec eting K and H</b>?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Collecting duct}}</div> <div><b /></div><div><i>Gove ened by Aldoste on
e.</i></div><img s c="
aste-16011638080254.j
g" />
1405464484483 1395802358422 At which a ea of the ne
h on does Aldoste one go
ve n the <b> eabso
tion of Na in exchange fo K and H?</b><div><b><b /></b></d
iv><div>{{c1::Collecting Duct}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1600734311295
8.j
g" /></div>
1405464508946 1395802358422 {{c1::Aldoste one}} is a mine aloco ticoid that
acts on the collecting duct to inse t Na channels on the luminal memb ane.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-16007343112958.j
g" /></div>
1405464544259 1395802358422 {{c1::ADH}} is a ho mone that acts on the V₂&nbs
; ece
to at the collecting duct and induces the <b>inse tion of aqu
a
o in H₂O channels on the luminal memb ane</b>.
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-16007343112958.j
g" /></div>
1405464585709 1395802358422 At which segment of the ne
h on does ADH act to
inse t aqua
o in H₂O channels into the luminal memb ane?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Collecting duct}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1600734311295
8.j
g" /></div>
1405464609637 1395802358422 What
e centage of filte ed Na is eabso bed in
the collecting duct?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::3-5%}}</div>
1405464633208 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on is defective in Fan
coni Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-16496969384205.j
g" /></div>
1405466046970 1395802358422 {{c1::Fanconi Synd ome}} is a diso de of the PC
T that is associated with <b>inc eased exc etion of nea ly all amino acids, gluc
ose, HCO</b><sub style="font-weight: bold; ">3</sub><b>&nbs
;and PO</b><sub styl
e="font-weight: bold; ">4</sub>.
<b /><div><i>May esult in metabolic ac
idosis due to this (
oximal enal tubula acidosis).</i></div><div><i>Causes in
clude he edita y defects, ischemia and ne
h otoxins/d ugs.</i></div>
1405466102654 1395802358422 {{c1::Metabolic acidosis}} is an acid-base imbal
ance seen in Fanconi Synd ome that
esents due to the inc eased exc etion of HC
O₃.
1405466142205 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on is defective in Ba
ttne Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending loo
of Henle}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-16492674416909.j
g" /></div>
1405466205768 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of the enal tub

ula defect Ba tte Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal ecessive}}</
div>
1405466235909 1395802358422 {{c1::Ba tte Synd ome}} is an autosomal ecessi
ve diso de that affects the <b>Na/K/2Cl cot ans
o te of the thick ascending li
mb of the loo
of Henle</b>.
<b /><div><i>Hence esults in <b>hy
okalemia, m
etabolic alkalosis</b>&nbs
;and <b>hy
e calcemia</b>.</i></div>
1405466443306 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Ba tte Synd ome?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>Due to defective Na/K/2Cl
cot ans
o te in the thick ascending limb.</i></div>
1405466484251 1395802358422 {{c1::Metabolic Alkalosis}} is an acid-base imba
lance seen in Ba tte Synd ome due to the hy
okalemia that is seen.
<b /><d
iv><i>Hy
okalemia esults due to defective function of the Na/K/2Cl cot ans
o te
in the thick ascending limb.</i></div>
1405466560493 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on is defective in Git
elman Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::DCT}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-16492674416909.j
g" /></div>
1405466585634 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of the enal tub
ula defect Gitelman Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}<
/div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-16492674416909.j
g" /></div>
1405466600971 1395802358422 How do u ina y Ca levels change in Ba tte Synd
ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e calciu ia}}</div> <b /><div><i>Com
a e th
is to Gitelman Synd ome which has <b>hy
ocalciu ia</b>&nbs
;o <b>no mocalciu ia
</b>.</i></div>
1405466675178 1395802358422 {{c1::Gitelman Synd ome}} is an autosomal ecess
ive diso de of NaCl eabso
tion at the DCT that
esents with <b>hy
okalemia,
metabolic alkalosis</b>&nbs
;and <b>hy
ocalciu ia</b>. <b /><div><i>It is less
seve e than Ba tte Synd ome.</i></div>
1405466721402 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on is defective in Lid
dle Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Collecting Duct}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-16492674416909.j
g" /></div>
1405466758810 1395802358422 {{c1::Liddle Synd ome}} is an autosomal dominant
diso de of the collecting duct that is cha acte ized by <b>inc eased Na eabso

tion</b>&nbs
;due to <b>inc eased activity of e
ithelial Na channels</b>.
1405466796938 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of the enal tub
ula diso de Liddle Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</
div>
1405466818146 1395802358422 How do Aldoste one levels change in Liddle Synd
ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased}}</div>
1405466836706 1395802358422 {{c1::Hy
e tension}} is a ca diovascula diso de
seen in Liddle Synd ome due to <b>inc eased Na eabso
tion</b>.
1405466860907 1395802358422 {{c1::Metabolic Alkalosis}} is an acid-base imba
lance seen in Liddle Synd ome due to the hy
okalemia that a ises f om inc eased
Na eabso
tion.
1405466928167 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Liddle Synd ome?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia (due to the inc eased Na eabso
tion)}}</div>
1405466950655 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Liddle Synd ome?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Amilo ide}}</div> <b /><div><i>K-s
a ing diu etic.</i></d
iv>
1405466973484 1395802358422 How does the enal tubula concent ation of Inul
in change along the length of the <b>
oximal tubules</b>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , <b>inulin is neithe eabso bed
o sec eted</b>. Hence, <b>its concent ation inc eases as a esult of wate bein
g eabso bed</b>.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-18438294602410.j
g" /></i></d
iv>
1405467512264 1395802358422 How does a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in blood
essu
e influence the RAAS?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Activation of JG cells}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18687402705510.j
g" /></div>
1405467830062 1395802358422 How does a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in Na delive y t
o the macula densa influence the RAAS?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>

1405467848637 1395802358422 How do ad ene gics influence the RAAS?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Activation via beta-1 ad ene gic ece
to s}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467865499 1395802358422 Which ad ene gic ece
to s function to activate
the RAAS?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-1}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467879957 1395802358422 Which enzyme conve ts Angiotensinogen to Angiote
nsin I?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Renin}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467899895 1395802358422 Whe e is Renin made?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
Kidneys}}</div>
1405467907677 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to conve t Angiotensin I
to Angiotensin II?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ACE}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467922527 1395802358422 Whe e is Angiotensin Conve ting Enzyme (ACE) mad
e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Lungs}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18683
107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467935420 1395802358422 Which ece
to does Angiotensin II bind to on va
scula smooth muscle to t igge vasocont iction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AT I
ece
to s}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This inc eases BP.</i></div><div><i><img s
c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468014561 1395802358422 Which glome ula a te iole is <b>const icted</b>
&nbs
;by Angiotensin II action?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Effe ent a te iole}}<
/div> <div><b /></div><i>This is <b>in effo ts to
ese ve GFR</b>&nbs
;(i.e.
kidney function) in states of low blood volume (which activates the RAAS).</i><
div><i>Remembe , <b>dec eased blood volume = dec eased RPF</b>.<b /></i><div><i
mg s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div></div>
1405468093218 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence Aldoste one e
lease f om the ad enal co tex?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>The eby esulting in <b>Na etention, K exc etion, H exc eti
on</b>.</i><div><i>This inc eases BP by t igge ing H₂O eabso
tion.<
b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div></div>
1405468185726 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct es
ond to al
doste one by inse ting Na/K
um
s into the luminal memb ane?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::P inci
al cells}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>This d ives the <b> eabso
t
ion of Na</b>.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405468224452 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct es
ond to Al
doste one by u
egulating luminal K channels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P inci

al Cell}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>This d ives the <b>exc etion of K</b>.</i><b
/><div><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405468267607 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct es
ond to Al
doste one by inc easing the ex
ession of H<su
>+</su
>&nbs
;ATPases on the lumi
nal memb ane?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inte calated Cells}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>This d ives <b>exc etion of H</b>.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-186831
07738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468316467 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence ADH elease f
om the
oste io
ituita y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Remembe , ADH inc eases H₂O eabso
tion y <b>inse ting aqua
o
in channels at the luminal memb ane of
inci
al cells</b>.</i></div><div><i><im
g s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468381954 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence the activity o
f <b>
oximal tubule Na/H t ans
o te s</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}
}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405468407919 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence thi st?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , Angiotensin II's
actions all evolve a ound co ecting/maintaining blood volume/
essu e.</i></d
iv><div><i><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468459868 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II limit eflex b adyca dia
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::By affecting ba o ece
to function}}</div> <div><b
/></div><i>The no mal es
onse to any vaso
essive action would include eflex

b adyca dia (e.g. with al
ha-1 ad ene gic agonists). This es
onse is mitigated
by AT2's action at ba o ece
to s.</i><div><i><b /></i><div><i>S sly though... l
ook at this diag am. Is the e anything AT2 doesn't do?</i></div></div><div><i><i
mg s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468580273 1395802358422 {{c1::At ial Nat iu etic Pe
tide}} is a ho mone
eleased by the ca diac at ia in es
onse to an <b>inc ease</b>&nbs
;in blood vo
lume that functions to <b> elax vascula smooth muscle via cGMP</b>.
<b /><d
iv><i>The eby inc easing GFR and dec easing enin levels.</i></div><div><i>Essen
tially, ANP acts as a "b ake" on the RAAS system. It acts in o

osing fashion if
blood volume inc eases.</i></div>
1405468724299 1395802358422 {{c1::JG cells}} a e a com
onent of the JGA that
a e desc ibed as modified smooth muscle of the affe ent a te iole.
1405468766704 1395802358422 {{c1::Macula Densa}} is a com
onent of the JGA t
hat is desc ibed as a <b>NaCl senso </b>&nbs
;and
a t of the DCT.
1405468791958 1395802358422 Which cells of the JGA sec ete Renin in es
onse
to <b>dec eased</b>&nbs
; enal BP o <b>beta-1 ad ene gic</b>&nbs
;stimulation?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::JG cells}}</div>
1405468846790 1395802358422 Which cells of the JGA sec ete Renin in es
onse
to a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in NaCl delive y to the DCT?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::JG cells}}</div>
1405468873648 1395802358422 {{c1::E yth o
oietin}} is a ho mone eleased by
<b>inte stitial cells in the
e itubula ca
illa y bed of the kidneys</b>&nbs
;i
n es
onse to hy
oxia that functions to stimulate RBC
olife ation.
1405468932028 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on functions to conve
t 25-OH Vitamin D into 1,25-(OH)₂&nbs
;Vitamin D (i.e. the active fo
m)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-21174
188769462.j
g" /></div>
1405468989734 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the
oximal tubule of the kidne
y conve ts 25-OH Vitamin D into 1,25-(OH)₂&nbs
;Vitamin D (i.e. activ
e vitamin D)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::1-al
ha-hyd oxylase}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-21169893802166.j
g" /></div>
1405469032495 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Renal Failu e}} is a
ossible enal
com
lication of NSAID use as they function to <b>block the enal-
otective synt
hesis of
ostaglandins</b>.
<b /><div><i>Remembe ,
ostaglandins functions
to <b>const ict</b>&nbs
;the affe ent a te iole and dec ease GFR.</i></div>
1405469122427 1395802358422 {{c1::Angiotensin II}} is a ho mone synthesized
in es
onse to dec eased BO that functions to <b>const ict the effe ent a te iol
e</b>&nbs
;and <b>inc ease Na and H₂O eabso
tion</b>&nbs
;to mainta
in GFR and FF. <b /><div><i>Just think of <b>why</b>&nbs
;Angiotensin II is se
c eted, b ah.</i></div><div><i><b>Angiotensin II acts to
ese ve enal function
in low blood volume states</b>.</i></div><div><i>It also <b>acts to maintain ci
culating blood volume by inc easing both
oximal and distal Na eabso
tion.</
b></i></div><div><i><b><img s c="
aste-21556440859413.j
g" /></b></i></div>
1405469338329 1395802358422 {{c1::At ial Nat iu etic Pe
tide (ANP)}} is a ho
mone eleased by the ca diac at ia in es
onse to <b>inc eased at ial
essu e<
/b>&nbs
;that functions to <b>inc ease GFR and Na filt ation</b>&nbs
;<u>without
causing com
ensato y Na eabso
tion</u>.
<b /><div><i>The net effect is
<b>Na loss</b>&nbs
;and <b>loss of blood volume</b>.</i></div><div><i>ANP acts i
n an o

osite fashion of the RAAS and can be seen as a "b ake" on the RAAS.</i><
/div><div><i><img s c="
aste-21552145892117.j
g" /></i></div>
1405469431822 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct es
ond to AD
H by inc easing the numbe of aqua
o in channels to inc ease H₂O eab
so
tion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P inci
al cells}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-21552145892117.j
g" /></div>
1405479969734 1395802358422 How does Digitalis change K levels?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It shifts K out of cells.<
/i></div>
1405480134281 1395802358422 How does <b>hy
e </b>osmola ity change K levels?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It b ings
K out of the cell.</i></div>

1405480159841 1395802358422 How does Insulin deficiency influence K levels?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>It b ings K out of
cells.</i></div>
1405480175664 1395802358422 How does cell lysis change K levels?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><b /></div>
1405480189003 1395802358422 How does Acidosis change K levels?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Acidosis b ings K out of c
ells.</i></div>
1405480211508 1395802358422 How do beta-ad ene gic <b>antagonists</b>&nbs
;c
hange K levels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>It
b ings K out of cells.</i></div>
1405480241171 1395802358422 How does se um <b>hy
o</b>-osmola ity change K l
evels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>D ives K i
nto cells.</i></div>
1405480272898 1395802358422 How does Insulin change K levels?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Insulin activates the Na/K
ATPase which moves K into cells.</i></div>
1405480293588 1395802358422 How does Alkalosis change K levels?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Alkalosis shifts K into ce
lls.</i></div>
1405480308898 1395802358422 How do beta-ad ene gic agonists change K levels?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>They t igge K mov
ement into cells.</i></div>
1405480327248 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte <b>deficiency</b>&nbs
;i
s associated with <b>nausea, malaise, stu
o </b>and <b>coma</b>?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Hy
onat emia}}</div>
1405480374724 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>U-waves on an ECG</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
o
kalemia}}</div>
1405480392883 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>flattened T-waves on ECG</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Hy
okalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>A hythmia and muscle weakness is also see
n.</i></div>
1405480415646 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>tetany, seizu es </b>and <b>
olonged QT inte val</b>?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
ocalcemia}}</div>
1405480494809 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>tetany</b>&nbs
;and <b>To sades de Pointes</b>?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Hy
omagnesemia}}</div>
1405480513886 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>bone loss</b>&nbs
;and <b>osteomalacia</b>?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Hy
o
hos
hatemia}}</div>
1405480554384 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>i itability</b>, stu
o and coma?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::Hy
e nat emia}}</div>
1405480589250 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>widened QRS inte vals on ECG?</b><div><b><b /></b></div><
div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
1405480614506 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>
eaked T-waves on ECG</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e
kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>A hythmia and muscle weakness a e also se
en.</i></div>
1405480637023 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b> enal stones, bone
ain, abdominal
ain</b>&nbs
;and <b>
s
ychiat ic ove tones</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e calcemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Psychiat ic ove tones = alte ed mental status, anxiety.</i></div>
1405480698432 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>dec eased dee
tendon eflexes</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Hy
e magnesemia}}</div>
1405480751511 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;

is associated with <b>metastatic calcifications</b>&nbs
;and <b>hy
ocalcemia</b>
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e
hos
hatemia}}</div>
1405480768499 1395802358422 What is the Hende son-Hasselbalch equation?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-24734716657761.j
g" />}}</div>
1405481377695 1395802358422 What is the Winte s fo mula (used to
edict the
es
i ato y com
ensation fo metabolic acidosis)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i
mg s c="
aste-24975234826294.j
g" />}}</div>
<b /><div><i>If the measu ed P<
sub>CO2</sub>&nbs
;diffe s significantly f om the
edicted P_CO2, the
n a mixed acid-base diso de is likely
esent.</i></div>
1405481446894 1395802358422 What is no mal a te ial
H?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::7.4}}</div>
1405481911651 1395802358422 What a te ial
H is diagnostic of acidosis?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 7.4}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-2572255913654
1.j
g" /></div>
1405481929717 1395802358422 What a te ial
H is diagnostic of Alkalosis?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 7.4}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-25718
264169245.j
g" /></div>
1405481940601 1395802358422 What P_CO2&nbs
;value is seen in <b> e
s
i ato y</b>&nbs
;acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P_CO2&nbs
;&gt
; 40 mmHg}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-25718264169245.j
g" /></div>
1405481988628 1395802358422 What P_CO2&nbs
;value is seen in <b>me
tabolic </b>acidosis <u>with es
i ato y com
ensation</u>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::P_CO2&nbs
;&lt; 40 mmHg}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-25718
264169245.j
g" /></div>
1405482079952 1395802358422 What P_CO2&nbs
;value is seen in <b> e
s
i ato y</b>&nbs
;alkalosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P_CO2&nbs
;&l
t; 40 mmHg}}</div>
<div><b /></div><img s c="
aste-25718264169245.j
g" />
1405482109637 1395802358422 What P_CO2&nbs
;value is seen in <b>me
tabolic</b>&nbs
;alkalosis <u>with es
i ato y com
ensation</u>?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::P_CO2&nbs
;&gt; 40 mmHg}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-25718264169245.j
g" /></div>
1405482160888 1395802358422 What is the cause of <b>inc eased anion ga
</b>&
nbs
;metabolic acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-266245022681
31.j
g" />}}</div>
1405482213323 1395802358422 What is the cause of <b>no mal anion ga
</b>&nbs

;metabolic acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-26658862006480.
j
g" />}}</div>
1405482237905 1395802358422 What is the equation to calculate anion ga
?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anion Ga
= Na - (Cl + HCO₃)}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>No mal value is 8-12 mEq/L</i></div>
1405482278691 1395802358422 What is the no mal value fo anion ga
?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::8-12 mEq/L}}</div>
1405482291749 1395802358422 {{c1::Renal Tubula Acidosis}} isa &nbs
;diso de
of the enal tubules that leads to <b>non-anion ga
hy
e chlo emic metabolic a
cidosis</b>.
1405485319006 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e 1 RTA}} is a ty
e of enal tubula ac
idosis that is associated with a <b>defect in the ability of al
ha-inte calated
cells to sec ete H</b><su
style="font-weight: bold; ">+</su
>, hence <b>no new
HCO₃&nbs
;is gene ated</b>. <b /><div><i>The eby esulting in metab
olic acidosis.</i></div>
1405485393969 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is also ef
e ed to as <b>Distal</b>&nbs
;RTA?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1}}</div>
1405485410606 1395802358422 What is the
H of the u ine in <b>Ty
e 1, Distal
</b>&nbs
; enal tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 5.5}}</div>
1405485442152 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with a <b>defect in the ability of al
ha-inte calated cells to sec ete H</b><
su
style="font-weight: bold; ">+</su
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1/Dista
l RTA}}</div> <b /><div><i>Hence, new HCO₃&nbs
;canot be gene ated
.</i></div>
1405485490688 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Ty
e 1, Distal enal t

ubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div>
1405485510541 1395802358422 How does the isk fo calcium
hos
hate kidney s
tones change in Ty
e 1, Distal enal tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Due to an <b>inc ease in u ina y
H</b>&nb
s
;and <b>inc eased bone tu nove </b>.</i></div>
1405485546444 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with Am
hote icin B toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1/Distal}}</div
>
1405486214590 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with analgesic ne
h o
athy?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1/Distal}}</div>
1405486228772 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with a <b>defect in the
oximal tubule's ability to eabso b HCO</b><sub sty
le="font-weight: bold; ">3</sub>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1/P oximal}}</
div>
<b /><div><i>Hence the e is inc eased exc etion of HCO₃and
metabolic acidosis.</i></div>
1405486276951 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal RTA}} is a ty
e of enal t
ubula acidosis that involves <b>defective HCO₃&nbs
; eabso
tion at
the
oximal tubule</b>, the eby esulting in <b>inc eased HCO₃&nbs
;
exc etion</b>&nbs
;in the u ine.
<b /><div><i>The u ine is eventually ac
idified by the al
ha-inte calated cells of the collecting duct as they sec ete H
.</i></div>
1405486350370 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with <b>hy
okalemia</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1/Distal; Ty
e 2/P o
ximal}}</div>
1405486367675 1395802358422 How does the level of K change in Ty
e 2/P oxima
l enal tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div>
1405486391126 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with <b>inc eased isk of hy
o
hos
hatemic ickets</b>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal}}</div>
1405486415845 1395802358422 What is the u ina y
H in Ty
e 2/P oximal enal
tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 5.5}}</div>
1405486443196 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with <b>Fanconi Synd ome</b>&nbs
;(e.g. Wilson Disease)?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal}}</div>
1405486467252 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is also ef
e ed to as <b>
oximal</b>&nbs
; enal tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::Ty
e 2}}</div>
1405486501294 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with <b>lead</b>&nbs
;o <b>aminoglycosides</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T
y
e 2/P oximal RTA}}</div>
1405486528009 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with Multi
le Myeloma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal RTA}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is due to the amyloid light chains seen.</i></div>
1405486539077 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with Ca bonic Anhyd ase inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oxima
l RTA}}</div>
1405486551977 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with&nbs
;<b>hy
oaldoste onism</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy
e ka
lemic RTA}}</div>
1405486872609 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with&nbs
;<b>aldoste one esistance</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy

e kalemic RTA}}</div>
1405486907092 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with&nbs
;K-s
a ing diu etics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy
e kalemic
RTA}}</div>
1405486924796 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy
e kalemic RTA}} is a ty
e of en
al tubula acidosis that involves <b>hy
e kalemia</b>&nbs
;that <b>im
ai s ammon
iagenesis in the PCT</b>, the eby esulting in <b>dec eased buffe ing ca
acity</
b>&nbs
;and <b>dec eased H exc etion</b>&nbs
;into the u ine.
1405486988523 1395802358422 What is the
H in Ty
e 4/Hy
e kalemic enal tubu

la acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 5.5}}</div>
1405487020740 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with&nbs
;<b>hy
e kalemia</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy
e kalemic
RTA}}</div>
1405827187068 1395802358422 {{c1::Classical conditioning}} is a ty
e of cond
itioning whe e a <b>natu al es
onse is elicited by a conditioned o lea ned sti
mulus that was
esented with an unconditioned stimulus</b>.
<b /><div><i><u
>e.g. Pavlov's dog.</u></i></div><div><i>Natu al es
onse = salivation</i></div>
<div><i>Conditioned Stimulus = bell</i></div><div><i>Unconditioned stimulus = fo
od</i></div>
1405828425670 1395802358422 Which ty
e of conditioning usually deals with <b
>involunta y </b> es
onses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Classical Conditioning}}<
/div>
1405828440359 1395802358422 {{c1::O
e ant Conditioning}} is a ty
e of condit
ioning whe e a <b>
a ticula action is elicited because it
oduces a
unishment
o ewa d</b>. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-54503134986454.j
g" /></div>
1405828472197 1395802358422 Which ty
e of conditioning deals with <b>volunta
y </b> es
onses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::O
e ant Conditioning}}</div>
1405828486414 1395802358422 {{c1::T ansfe ence}} is a
sychologica
hemoneno
n whe e the <b>
atient </b>
ojects feeling about fo mative o othe im
o tant

e sons onto the
hysician.
<b /><div><i>e.g. the
hysician is seen as a
a
ent.</i></div>
1405828647046 1395802358422 {{c1::Counte t ansfe ence}} is a
sychological

henomenon whe e the <b>
hysician</b>&nbs
;
ojects feelings about fo mative ot o
the im
o tant
e sons onto the
atient.
<b /><div><i>e.g.
atient emin
ds the
hysician of a younge sibling.</i></div>
1405828734471 1395802358422 {{c1::Ego Defenses}} a e unconscious mental
oc
esses used to esolve conflict and
event undesi able feelings.
1405829389229 1395802358422 {{c1::Acting out}} is an immatu e ego defense th
at involves ex
essing unacce
table feelings and thoughts th ough actions.
<b /><div><i>e.g. tant ums</i></div>
1405829572571 1395802358422 {{c1::Dissociation}} is an immatu e ego defense
that involves tem
o a y, d astic change in
e sonality, memo y, consciousness o
moto behaviou to avoid emotional st ess.
<b /><div><i>Ext eme fo ms can
esult in Dissociative Identity Diso de (multi
le
e sonality diso de ).</i></d
iv>
1405829607547 1395802358422 {{c1::Denial}} is an immatu e ego defense that i
nvolves avoiding the awa eness of some
ainful eality.
1405829633902 1395802358422 {{c1::Dis
lacement}} is an immatu e ego defense
that involves t asnfe ing avoided ideas and feelings to some <b>neut al
e son
o object</b>. <b /><div><i>i.e. mothe yells at he child because he husband
yelled at he </i></div>
1405829827102 1395802358422 {{c1::Fixation}} is an immatu e ego defense that
involves
a tially emaining at a mo e childish level of develo
ment.
1405829870338 1395802358422 {{c1::Identification}} is an immatu e ego defens
e that involves modeling behaviou afte anothe
e son who is mo e
owe ful (th
ough not necessa ily admi ed) <b /><div><i>e.g. abusee indentifying with the
abuse </i></div>
1405829917276 1395802358422 {{c1::Isolation of affect}} is an immatu e ego d
efense that involves se
a ating feelings f om ideas and events. <b /><div><i>e.
g. desc ibed mu de is g uesome detail with no emotional es
onse</i></div>
1405829966612 1395802358422 {{c1::P ojection}} is an immatu e ego defense th
at involves <b>att ibuting an unacce
table inte nal im
ulse to an exte nal sou c
e</b>. <b /><div><i>e.g. a man who wants to be with anothe woman thinking his
wife is cheating on him</i></div>
1405830030465 1395802358422 {{c1::Rationalization}} is an immatu e ego defen
se that involves
oclaiming logical easons fo actions that a e actually
e fo
med fo othe easons, usually to avoid self-blame.
<b /><div><i>e.g. afte
getting fi ed, the
e son claims the job wasn't even im
o tant</i></div>
1405830075689 1395802358422 {{c1::Reaction fo mation}} is an immatu e ego de

fense that invovles e
lacing a wa ded-off idea o feeling by an unconsciously d
e ived em
hasis on its o

osite.
1405830120230 1395802358422 {{c1::Reg ession}} is an immatu e ego defense th
at involves <b>tu ning back</b>&nbs
;of the matu ational clock and going back to
ea lie modes of dealing with the wo ld.
<b /><div><i>e.g. child en unde
st ess</i></div>
1405830175638 1395802358422 {{c1::Re
ession}} is an immatu e ego defense th
at involves<b> involunta y </b>withholding of an idea o feeling f om conscious
awa eness.
1405830327441 1395802358422 {{c1::S
litting}} is an immatu e ego defense tha
t involves the belief that
eo
le a e eithe all good o bad at diffe ence times
due to an intole ance tow ads ambiguity.
1405830367538 1395802358422 Which ego defense is commonly associated with Bo
de line Pe sonality Diso de ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::S
litting}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. a
atient says that all nu ses a e cold and insensitive but t
hat docto s a e wa m and f iendly</i></div>
1405830380441 1395802358422 {{c1::Alt uism}} is a <b>matu e</b>&nbs
;ego def
ense that invovles alleviating of guilty feelings by unsolicited gene osity towa
ds othe s.
<b /><div><i>e.g. mafia boss making a la ge donation to cha ity
</i></div>
1405830450866 1395802358422 {{c1::Humou }} is a <b>matu e</b>&nbs
;ego defen
se that involves a

eciating the amusing natu e of an anxiety-
ovoking o adve
se situation. <b /><div><i>e.g. MS2's making jokes about how much Ste
1 is g
oing to dest oy them</i></div><div><i><b /></i></div><div><i><b /></i></div><d
iv><i><b /></i></div><div><i><b /></i></div><div><i><b /></i></div><div><i><b
/></i></div><div><i>.... i want my life back,
ls</i></div>
1405830502966 1395802358422 {{c1::Sublimation}} is a <b>matu e</b>&nbs
;ego
defense that involves e
lacing of an unacce
table wish with a cou se of action
that is simila to the wish but does not conflict with one's value system.
1405830543713 1395802358422 {{c1::Su

ession}} is a <b>matu e</b>&nbs
;ego
defense that involves <b>intentional</b>&nbs
;withholding of an idea o feeling
f om conscious awa eness.
<b /><div><i>Ve sus e
ession with involves <b
>involunta y withd awal</b>.</i></div><div><i>e.g. choosing not to wo y about t
he Ste
1 until test day (LOL YA RIGHT, BRAH)</i></div>
1402168772948 1395802358422 {{c1::Pe
tidoglycan}} is a bacte ial st uctu e t
hat gives i
id su

o t to the bacte ia and
otects against osmostic
essu e.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18824841658880.j
g" /></div>
1402169985256 1395802358422 {{c1::Cell wall/memb ane}} is a bacte ial st uct
u e seen in <b>g am-
ositive</b>&nbs
;bacte ia that functions as the majo su fa
ce antigen.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18820546691584.j
g" /></div>
1402170021178 1395802358422 {{c1::Li
oteichoic Acid}} is a com
onent of the
cell wall/memb ane of <b>g am-
ositive</b>&nbs
;bacte ia that induces TNF and IL
-1.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18820546691584.j
g" /></div>
1402170192781 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::oute memb ane}} is a bacte ial s
t uctu e seen in <b>g am-negative</b>&nbs
;bacte ia that is the site of endotoxi
n (li
o
olysaccha ide; LPS).
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18820546691584.j
g" /
></div>
1402170231877 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::oute memb ane}} is a bacte ial s
t uctu e in <b>g am-negative</b>&nbs
;bacte ia that functions as the majo su fa
ce antigen.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18820546691584.j
g" /></div>
1402170250338 1395802358422 {{c1::Li
id A}} is a com
onent of the oute memb
ane in <b>g am-negative</b>&nbs
;bacte ia that induces TNF and IL-1. <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-18820546691584.j
g" /></div>
1402170293953 1395802358422 {{c1::O
olysaccha ide}} is a com
onent of the o
ute memb ane of <b>g am-negative</b>&nbs
;bacte ia that functions as the su fac
e antigen.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18820546691584.j
g" /></div>
1402170335667 1395802358422 Which ibosomal subunits make u
bacte ial ibos
omes?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::30S; 50S}}</div>
1402171292092 1395802358422 The {{c1::
e i
lasm}} is a bacte ial st uctu e t
hat is desc ibed as the s
ace between the cyto
lasmic memb ane and the othe mem

b ane in <b>g am-negative</b>&nbs
;bacte ia.
<div><b /></div><i>Many hyd oly
tic enzymes a e found he e, es
ecially beta-lactamase.</i><b /><div><img s c="

aste-18820546691584.j
g" /></div>
1402171353900 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::ca
sule}} is a bacte ial st uctu
e exte nal to
e
tidoglycan that
otects the bacte ia f om
hagocytosis.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18820546691584.j
g" /></div>
1402171468077 1395802358422 The bacte ial ca
sule is no mally made of
olysa
ccha ides, exce
t in&nbs
;{{c1::<i>Bacillus anth acis</i>}} whose ca
sule contai
ns D-glutamate.
1402171506190 1395802358422 Which amino acid is a key com
onent of the bacte
ial ca
sule in <i>Bacillus anth acis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::D-glutamat
e}}</div>
1402171526417 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::
ilus/fimb ia}} is a bacte ial st
uctu e that functions to mediate the adhe ence of the bacte ia to cell su faces
.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18820546691584.j
g" /></div>
1402172216575 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::
ilus}} is a bacte ial st uctu e
that fo ms an attachment between 2 bacte ia du ing conjugation. <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-18820546691584.j
g" /></div>
1402172235744 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::glycocalyx}} is a bacte ial st uc
tu e consisting of
olysaccha ides that mediates adhe ence to su faces, es
ecial
ly fo eign su faces
<i><div></div></i><i><b /></i>Such as indwelling cathet
e s.
1402172315718 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::s
o e}} is a bacte ial st uctu e
that is esistance to dehyd ation, heat and chemicals due to its ke atin-like co
at and com
osition of
e
tidoglycan and di
icolinic acid.
1402172371311 1395802358422 {{c1::Li
oteichoic Acid}} is a com
onent of the
bacte al cell wall that is desc ibed as a combination of li
ids and teichoic aci
d.
<div><b /></div><i><b>Unique to g am-
ositive</b>&nbs
;bacte ia.</i><b
/><div><img s c="
aste-18820546691584.j
g" /></div>
1402172441531 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Sta
hylococcus</i>?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173770131 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>St e
tococcus</i>?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173776778 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Clost idium</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173785195 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Co ynebacte ium</i>
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173794129 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Bacillus</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173800127 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Liste ia</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173806778 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Mycobacte ium</i>?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive; also acid fast}}</div>
1402173817142 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Ga dne ella</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Va iable}}</div>
1402173824237 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Actinomyces</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive; also filamentous}}</div>
1402173877553 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Noca dia</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive; also weakly acid fast}}</div>
1402173888408 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Myco
lasma</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::None; it doesn't stain as it lacks a cell wall}}</div>
1402173905774 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Neisse ia</i>?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div> <b /><div><i>Neisse ia is also basicall
y the only clinically elevant g am-negative <b>coccus</b>.</i></div>
1402173993961 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174006464 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Shigella</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div> <div><i><b /></i></div>
1402174016838 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of the Ente ic bacte ia?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>

1402174029401 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Salmonella</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174037055 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Ye sinia</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174042162 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Klebsiella</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174047882 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>P oteus</i>?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174054743 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Ente obacte </i>?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174067366 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Se atia</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174073541 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Vib io</i>?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174078026 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Cam
ylobacte </i>?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174087282 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Helicobacte </i>?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174096558 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Pseudomonas</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174102130 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Bacte oides</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174109313 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Haemo
hilus</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174120219 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Legionella</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174127053 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Bo detella</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174132880 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of the Zoonotic bacte ia?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174142112 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>F ancisella</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174178686 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>B ucella</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174183830 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Pasteu ella</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174191153 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Ba tonella</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174196783 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of the S
i ochetes?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div> <b /><div><i>Bo elia, Le
tos
i a, T e

onema</i></div>
1402174232195 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Bo elia</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174240659 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Le
tos
i a</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174248064 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>T e
onema</i>?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174257516 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Myco
lasma s

.</i>}} is a bacte ial s

ecies that contains ste ols in thei cell memb ane.
1402174904523 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacte ia</i>}} is a bacte ial s
eci
es that contains <b>mycolic acid</b>&nbs
;in its cell wall.
1402174930840 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>T e
onema</i><b style="font-style
: italic; ">&nbs
;</b>g am stain well?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Too thin to be
visualized}}</div>
<b /><div><i>T e
onemes equi e da k-field mic osco
y a
nd fluo escent antibody staining.</i></div>
1402175557494 1395802358422 Why dont Mycobacte ia g am stain well?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Rich li
id content in cell wall}}</div>
<b /><div><i>De
tected by <b>Ca bolfuschin in an acid-fast stain</b>.</i></div>
1402175604132 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Myco
lasma</i>&nbs
;g am stain we
ll?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No cell wall}}</div>

1402175618870 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Legionella
neuno
hila</i>&nbs
;g
am stain well?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P ima ily int acellula o ganism}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><i>Legionella equi es a silve stain.</i></div>
1402175654023 1395802358422 What ty
e of stain is used to visualize <i>Legio
nella</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Silve stain}}</div>
1402175671704 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Rickettsia</i>&nbs
;g am stain ce
ll?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Int acellula
a asite}}</div>
1402175764388 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Chlamydia</i>&nbs
;g am stain wel
l?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Intacellula ; <b>lacks mu amic acid</b>&nbs
;in th
e cell wall}}</div>
1402175838315 1395802358422 Which stain is used to best visualize <i>Chlamyd
ia</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa stain}}</div> <div><b /></div><img s
c="
aste-23106924052545.j
g" />
1402176460130 1395802358422 Which stain is used to best visualize <i>Bo eli
a</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-23106924052545.j
g" /></div>
1402176473561 1395802358422 Which stain is best used to visualize<i>&nbs
;</
i>Rickettsiae?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-23106924052545.j
g" /></div>
1402176494851 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize T y
anosomes?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-23106
924052545.j
g" /></div>
1402176519075 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>Plasmodium</
i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-23106
924052545.j
g" /></div>
1402176532694 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::PAS (Pe iodic-acid Schiff) stain}
} is a diagnostic stain that stains fo <b>glycogen</b>&nbs
;and muco
olysaccha
ides. <b /><div><i><b>PAS</b>s the <b>suga </b>&nbs
;(glycogen).</i></div>
1402176592476 1395802358422 Which stain is used to diagnose Whi

le Disease
(<i>T o
he yma whi

lei</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PAS stain}}</div>
1402176630985 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>T o
he yma w
hi

lei</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PAS stain}}</div>
1402176649533 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize acid-fast o gan
isms (<i>Mycobacte ium, Noca dia</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ziehl-Neelsen
(ca bol fuschin) stain}}</div>
1402176691861 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>C y
tococcus
neofo mans</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::India ink}}</div> <b /><div><i>Mu
cica mine can also be used to stain think
olysaccha ide ca
sule ed.</i></div>
1402176732162 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>Helicobacte

ylo i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Silve stain}}</div>
1402176747181 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize fungi (e.g. <i>
Pneumocystis</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Silve stain}}</div>
1402176772054 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>Legionella</
i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Silve stain}}</div>
1402176794486 1395802358422 Which s
ecial cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Haemo
hilus influenzae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Chocolate aga s wi
th Facto s V (NAD) and X (Heme)}}</div>
1402177515133 1395802358422 Which s
ecial cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>&nbs
;o <i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Thaye -Ma tin (VPN) media}}</div>
<b /><div><i>To connect
to Neisse ia,
lease use you &nbs
;<b>VPN</b>&nbs
;client:</i></div><div><i>V =
Vancomycin which inhibits g am-
ositive o ganisms</i></div><div><i>P = Polymyxi
n which inhibits g am-negative o ganisms exce
t fo Neisse ia</i></div><div><i>N
= Nystatin which inhibits fungi</i></div>
1402177650176 1395802358422 {{c1::Vancomycin}} is an antibiotic that is used
in Thaye -Ma tin (VPN) media as it inhibits g am-
ositive o gnanisms.
1402177678285 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymyxin}} is an antibiotic used in Thaye
-Ma tin (VPN) media that inhibits g am-negative o ganisms exce
t fo <i>Neisse
ia</i>.
1402177702503 1395802358422 {{c1::Nystatin}} is an antifungal used in Thaye

-Ma tin (VPN) media that inhibits fungi.
1402177750037 1395802358422 Which s
ecial cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Bo detella
e tussis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bo det-Gengou (
otat
o) aga }}</div> <b /><div><i><b>BORDET</b>ella.</i></div>
1402177785061 1395802358422 Which s
ecial cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Co ynebacte ium di
hthe iae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tellu ite aga
; Loffle medium}}</div>
1402177808321 1395802358422 Which s
ecial cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Mycobacte ium tube culosis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Lowenstein-Jen
sen aga }}</div>
1402177860492 1395802358422 Which s
ecial cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Myco
lasma
neumoniae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Eaton aga (as <i>M
yco
lasma&nbs
;</i> equi es choleste ol)}}</div>
1402177894467 1395802358422 Which s
ecial cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate Lactose-fe menting ente ic bacte ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::MacConkey Ag
a }}</div>
<b /><div><i>G owth will a

ea as
ink colonies as lactose fe
mentation causes acidity, the eby tu ning the colony
ink.</i></div>
1402177955539 1395802358422 Which s
ecial cultu e media/aga othe than MacC
onkey aga is used to isolate <i>Esche ichia coli</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Eosin-Methylene Blue (EMB) as a <u>g een-metallic sheen</u>}}</div>
1402178003386 1395802358422 Which s
ecial cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Legionella</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cha coal yeast aga (buffe ed
with cysteine and i on)}}</div>
1402178193265 1395802358422 Which s
ecial cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate&nbs
;fungi?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sabou aud aga }}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i><b>Sab</b>&nbs
;is a <b>fun-guy</b>!</i></div>
1402332226256 1395802358422 What is the oxygen de
endency of <i>Noca dia</i>
&nbs
;<i>s

.</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Obligate ae obe}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-579820585086.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-592705486895.j

g" /></div>
1402333336345 1395802358422 What is the oxygen de
endency of <i>Pseudomonas
ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Obligate ae obe}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><div><img s c="
aste-579820585086.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-592705486
895.j
g" /></div></div>
1402333378017 1395802358422 What is the oxygen de
endency of <i>Mycobacte iu
m tube culosis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Obligate ae obe}}</div> <b /><d
iv><div><img s c="
aste-579820585086.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-592705486
895.j
g" /></div></div>
1402333396116 1395802358422 Whe e in the lungs does <i>Mycobacte ium tube cu
losis </i> eactivate?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::The lung a
ices due to high P<s
ub>O2</sub>&nbs
;levels}}</div> <b /><div><i>Reactivation ty
ically occu s afte
immune com
omise o TNF-al
ha inhibito use.</i></div>
1402333708217 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}} is a g amnegative obligate ae obe that is often seen in bu n wounds.
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-1670742278313.j
g" /></div>
1402343309593 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}} is a g amnegative obligate ae obe that is often seen as a com
lication in diabetes.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1666447311017.j
g" /></div>
1402343335968 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}} is a g amnegative obligate ae obe that often causes nocosomial
neumonia.
1402343358391 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}} is a g amnegative obligate ae obe that is often associated with
neumonia in Cystic Fib o
sis
atients. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1666447311017.j
g" /></div>
1402343381461 1395802358422 What is the oxygen de
endency of <i>Clost idium<
/i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Obligate anae obe}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><img s c="
aste-1971389988896.j
g" /><div><img s c="
aste-1984274890974.j
g" />
</div>
1402343491814 1395802358422 What is the oxygen de
endency of <i>Bacte oides<
/i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Obligate anae obe}}</div>
<b /><div><b /
></div><div><img s c="
aste-1971389988896.j
g" /><div><img s c="
aste-1984274890

974.j
g" /></div></div>
1402343508003 1395802358422 What is the oxygen de
endency of <i>Actinomyces<
/i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Obligate ane obe}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><div><img s c="
aste-1971389988896.j
g" /><div><img s c="
aste-1984274890974.j

g" /></div></div>
1402343536706 1395802358422 {{c1::Catalase}} and/o &nbs
;{{c2::Su
e oxide di
smutase}} a e enzymes involved with the detoxification of ROS that a e often <b>
absent</b>&nbs
;in obligate anae obes. <div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-19
71389988896.j
g" /><div><img s c="
aste-1984274890974.j
g" /></div></div>
1402343617358 1395802358422 Which 2 gases a e often
oduced in tissue by ob
ligate anae obic bacte ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CO2; H2}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-1971389988896.j
g" /><div><img s c="
aste-1984274890974.j
g"
/></div></div>
1402343664468 1395802358422 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} a e a class of antibioti
cs that a e <b>ineffective against anae obic bacte ia</b>&nbs
;as they equi e O
₂&nbs
;to ente bacte ial cells.
<b /><div><i>Amin<b>O</b><sub s
tyle="font-weight: bold; ">2</sub>glycosides equi e <b>O</b><sub style="font-we
ight: bold; ">2</sub>&nbs
;to ente bacte ia.</i></div>
1402344288287 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Rickettsia s

.</i>}} and&nbs
;{{c2::<i
>Chlamydia s

.</i>}} a e <b>obligate int acellula </b>,
leomo
hic, g am-negat
ive bacte ia that cannot make thei own ATP.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-24524
26326172.j
g" /></div>
1402347084540 1395802358422 What is the Fi st Aid mnemonic fo <b>facultativ
e int acellula </b>&nbs
;bacte ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-27
18714298532.j
g" />}}</div>
<b /><div><b /></div>
1402347087961 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>St e
tococcus
neumoniae</i>}} and&nbs

;{{c2::G ou
B <i>St e
tococcus </i>(<i>St e
tococcus agalactiae</i>)}} a e 2 s

ecies of <i>St e
tococcus</i>&nbs
;that a e enca
sulated.
<div><b /></div
><img s c="
aste-2911987826721.j
g" /><b /><div><img s c="
aste-2899102924926.j

g" /></div>
1402347655665 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Haemo
hilus influenzae</i>&nbs
;ty
e B}
} is a s
ecies of <i>Haemo
hilus</i>&nbs
;that is enca
sulated. <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-2911987826721.j
g" /><b /><div><img s c="
aste-2899102924926.j
g" />
</div></div>
1402347679561 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>}} is a s
eci
es of <i>Neisse ia</i>&nbs
;that is enca
sulated.
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-2911987826721.j
g" /><b /><div><img s c="
aste-2899102924926.j
g" /></div></
div>
1402347707244 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Esche ichia coli</i>}} is a s
ecies of
<i>Esche ichia</i>&nbs
;that is enca
sulated. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-29119
87826721.j
g" /><b /><div><img s c="
aste-2899102924926.j
g" /></div></div>
1402347826775 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Klebsiella
neumoniae</i>}} is a s
ecie
s of <i>Klebsiella</i>&nbs
;that is enca
sulated.
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-2911987826721.j
g" /><b /><div><img s c="
aste-2899102924926.j
g" /></div></
div>
1402347845933 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::ca
sule}} is a bacte ial st uctu
e that functions as an anti-
hagocytic vi ulence facto s.
1402347877791 1395802358422 Which o gan is es
onsible fo clea ing o
sonize
d enca
sulated bacte ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::S
leen}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Hence, a
lenics have dec eased o
sonizing and clea ing ability, the eby gi
ving them a significantly inc eased isk fo seve e infection. Such
atients sho
uld eceive S.
neumoniae, H. influenzae and N. meningitidis vaccinations.</i></
div>
1402347997872 1395802358422 {{c1::Catalase}} is an enzyme found in many bact
e ia that deg ades H₂O₂&nbs
;befo e it can be made into an
timic obial
oducts by Myelo
e oxidase.
<b /><div><i>Remembe , Myelo
e
oxidase in
hagocytes makes HOCl f om H2O2.</i></div>
1402349330844 1395802358422 {{c1::Ch onic G anulomatous Disease}} is an immu
ne diso de that involves a deficiency of NADPH Oxidase and subsequent ecu ent
infections with catalase-
ositive o ganisms. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-37666

86318661.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-3779571220525.j
g" /></div>
1402349542264 1395802358422 What is the catalase ex
ession of <i>Pseudomona
s</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><div><img s c
="
aste-3766686318661.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-3779571220525.j
g" /></d
iv></div>
1402349557832 1395802358422 What is the catalase ex
ession of <i>Liste ia</
i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <b /><div><div><img s c="
aste3766686318661.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-3779571220525.j
g" /></div></div
>
1402349567633 1395802358422 What is the catalase ex
ession of <i>As
e gillu
s</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><div><img s c
="
aste-3766686318661.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-3779571220525.j
g" /></d
iv></div>
1402349580052 1395802358422 What is the catalase ex
ession of <i>Candida</i
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <b /><div><div><img s c="
aste3766686318661.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-3779571220525.j
g" /></div></div
>
1402349588984 1395802358422 What is the catalase ex
ession of <i>Esche ichi
a coli</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <b /><div><div><img s c
="
aste-3766686318661.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-3779571220525.j
g" /></d
iv></div>
1402349603442 1395802358422 What is the catalase ex
ession of <i>Sta
hyloco
ccus s

.</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><div>
<img s c="
aste-3766686318661.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-3779571220525.j

g" /></div></div>
1402349622197 1395802358422 What is the catalase ex
ession of <i>Se atia</
i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402349631858 1395802358422 What is the catalase ex
esison of <i>Neisse ia<
/i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>"Sta
h<
/b>'s <b>N</b>' <b>Ente obacte ia</b>&nbs
;<b>A</b> e <b>List</b>ed <b>C</b>atal
ase <b>P</b>ositive"</i></div><div><i>Sta
hylococcus</i></div><div><i>Neisse ia<
/i></div><div><i>Ente obacte ia</i></div><div><i>As
e gillus</i></div><div><i>Li
ste ia</i></div><div><i>Candida</i></div><div><i>Pseudmonas</i></div><div><i>(an
d MTB)</i></div>
1402349703816 1395802358422 A&nbs
;{{c1::conjugate vaccine}} is a ty
e of va
ccine that contains
olysaccha ide bacte ial ca
sule antigens conjugated to a ca
ie
otein, the eby enhancing its immunogenicity by
omoting T-cell activati
on and class switching. <b /><div><i>A
olysaccha ide antigen alone cannot be

esented to T-cells.</i></div><div><i>Such vaccines exist fo Pnemococcus, Menin
gococcus and H. influenzae ty
e B.</i></div>
1402351906729 1395802358422 What is the u ease ex
ession of <i>C y
tococcus
</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-4569845203063.j
g" /></div>
1402352669308 1395802358422 What is the u ease ex
ession of <i>Helicobacte

ylo i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-4565550235767.j
g" /></div>
1402352685232 1395802358422 What is the u ease ex
ession of <i>P oteus</i>?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-45655
50235767.j
g" /></div>
1402352694298 1395802358422 What is the u ease ex
ession of <i>U ea
lasma s


</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-4565550235767.j
g" /></div>
1402352707385 1395802358422 What is the u ease ex
ession of <i>Noca dia s


</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-4565550235767.j
g" /></div>
1402352717906 1395802358422 What is the u ease ex
ession of <i>Klebsiella s


.</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-4565550235767.j
g" /></div>
1402352728938 1395802358422 What is the u ease ex
ession of <i>Sta
hylococc
us e
ide midis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>

1402352742276 1395802358422 What is the u ease ex
ession of <i>Sta
hylococc
us sa
o
hyticus</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-4565550235767.j
g" /></div>
1402352758008 1395802358422 What colou
igment is associated with <i>Sta
hy
lococcus au eus</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Yellow}}</div> <b /><div><i>Au
eus is latin fo gold.</i></div>
1402352820920 1395802358422 What colou
igment is associated with <i>Pseudo
monas ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Blue-g een}}</div>
1402352852109 1395802358422 What colou
igment is associated with <i>Se at
ia ma cescens</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Red}}</div>
1402352877134 1395802358422 What colou
igment is associated with <i>Actino
mycess is aelii</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Yellow "sulfu " g anules com
ose
d of filaments of bacte ia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Is ael has yellow sand.</i
></div>
1402352995706 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces is aelii</i>}} is a g am-
o
sitive, anae obic, filamentous bacte ia that yields a <b>yellow "sulfu " g anula

igment</b>&nbs
;com
osed of filaments of bacte ia.
1402353078926 1395802358422 {{c1::P otein A}} is a vi ulence facto ex
esse
d by <i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>&nbs
;that <b>binds to the F_c&nbs
;
egion of IgG</b>&nbs
;the eby
eventing o
sonization and
hagocytosis.<b>&nbs
;
</b>
1402353650255 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA P otease}} is a bacte ial vi ulence fa
cto that functions to cleave IgA, the eby allowing fo colonization of the es

i ato y mucosa. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-5299989643301.j
g" /></div>
1402353710712 1395802358422 {{c1::M P otein}} is a vi ulence facto ex
esse
d by G ou
A <i>St e
tococcus</i>&nbs
;(<i>St e
tococcus
yogenes</i>)&nbs
;s
ec
ies that functions to
event
hagocytosis.
1402405792394 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin}} is a vi ulence facto found in
the <b>oute cell memb ane</b>&nbs
;of most <b>g am-negative</b>&nbs
;bacte ia.
1402410456174 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin}} is a vi ulence facto found in
<b>g am-negative</b>&nbs
;bacte ia made of&nbs
;<b>li
o
olysaccha ide (LPS)</b>
, the st uctu al
a t of bacte ia.
<b /><div><i>It is eleased when the ba
cte ia is lysed.</i></div>
1402410541171 1395802358422 What is the toxicity of bacte ial exotoxins?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::High; fatal doses a e on the o de of 1 ug}}</div>
1402412496200 1395802358422 What is the toxicity of bacte ial endotoxins?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Low; fatal doses a e on the o de of hund eds of mic og
ams}}</div>
1402412517452 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin}} is a vi ulence facto found in
the oute cell memb ane of g am-negative bacte ia that <b>induces TNF, IL-1 </b
>and<b> IL-6.</b>
<b /><div><i>It also causes feve , shock, DIC.</i></div
>
1402412580738 1395802358422 {{c1::Exotoxins}} a e sec eted vi ulence facto s
f om bacte ia that induce a high-tite antibody es
onse called antitoxins.
<div><b /></div><i>Toxoids can hence be used as vaccines.</i><b /><div><i>Endo
toxin on the othe hand is
oo ly antigenic and no toxoids/vaccines a e availabl
e.</i></div>
1402412686790 1395802358422 At which tem
e atu e do most exotoxins get dest
oyed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::60 C}}</div> <b /><div><i>The exce
tion is s
ta
hylococcal ente otoxins.</i></div><div><i>Endotoxins a e stable at 100 C fo
1 hou .</i></div>
1402413735630 1395802358422 {{c1::Di
hthe ia toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>
Co ynebacte ium di
hthe iae</i>&nbs
;that inactivates elongation facto 2 (EF2),
the eby inhibiting
otein synthesis.
1402414258300 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Di
hthe ia Toxin f om <i>Co y
nebacte ium di
hthe iae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivation of elongati
on facto 2 (EF2) via <b>ADP ibosylation</b>, the eby inhibiting
otein synthe
sis}}</div>
1402414335997 1395802358422 {{c1::Di
the ia Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>C
o ynebacte ium di
hthe iae</i>&nbs
;that causes <b>
ha yngitis</b>&nbs
;with <b>


seudomemb anes in the th oat</b>&nbs
;and <b>seve e lym
hadeno
athy</b>&nbs
;("
bull neck").
1402414406806 1395802358422 {{c1::Exotoxin A}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Pseudo
monas ae uginosa</i>&nbs
;that inactivated elongation facto 2 (EF2) th ough ADP
ibosylation, the eby inhibiting
otein synthesis and causing cell death.
1402414446987 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Exotoxin A f om <i>Pseudomona
s ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivation of elongation facto 2
(EF2) via ADP ibosylation, the eby inhibiting
otein synthesis and causing ce
ll death}}</div>
1402414488645 1395802358422 {{c1::Shiga Toxin (ST)}} is an exotoxin f om <i>
Shigella s

.</i>&nbs
;that inactivates the 60S ibosomal subunit by emoving ad
enine f om RNA.
<b /><div><i>The eby causes GI mucosal damage, dysente
y and
ossibly hemolytic u emia synd ome (HUS).</i></div>
1402415821176 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Shiga Toxin (ST) f om <i>Shig
ella s

.</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivation of the 60S ibosome by e
moving adenine f om RNA}}</div>
1402415850406 1395802358422 {{c1::Shiga Toxin (ST)}} is an exotoxin f om <i>
Shigella s

.</i>&nbs
;that causes GI mucosal damage and subsequent <b>dysente y
</b>due to inactivation of the 60S ibosome.
1402415887965 1395802358422 {{c1::Shiga Toxin (ST)}} is an exotoxin f om <i>
Shigella s

.</i>&nbs
;that can enhance cytokine elease, the eby causing Hemoly
tic U emia Synd ome (HUS).
1402415921334 1395802358422 {{c1::Shiga-like Toxin (SLT)}} is an exotoxin f
om Ente ohemo hagic <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;(EHEC) that inactivates the 60
S ibosome by emoving adenine f om RNA.
<b /><div><i>Includes the O157:
H7 st ain.</i></div>
1402416008097 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Shiga-like Toxin (SLT) f om&n
bs
;Ente ohemo hagic&nbs
;<i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;(EHEC)?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inactivation of the 60S ibosomal subunit by emocing adenine f om R
NA}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Results in enhanced cytokine elease and Hemolytic
U emia Synd ome (HUS).</i></div>
1402416054795 1395802358422 {{c1::Shiga-like Toxin (SLT)}} is an exotoxin f
om&nbs
;Ente ohemo hagic&nbs
;<i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;(EHEC) that can caus
e Hemolytic U emia Synd ome (HUS) by enhancing cytokine elease.
<b /><d
iv><i>Es
ecially the O157:H7 st ain.</i></div><div><i><b>EHEC does not invade ho
st cells like Shigella.</b></i></div>
1402416127072 1395802358422 {{c1::Heat-labile toxin (LT)}} is an exotoxin f
om Ente otoxigenic <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;(ETEC) that ove activates adenyl
ate cyclase, the eby causing inc eased Cl sec etion and H2O efflux at the gut.
<div><b /></div><i>Inc eased cAMP = inc eased Cl sec etion and H2O efflux = wat
e y dia hea</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-8662949036137.j
g" /></div>
1402416857407 1395802358422 {{c1::Heat-stable Toxin (ST)}} is an exotoxin f
om Ente otoxigenic <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;(ETEC) that ove activates Guanyl
ate cyclase, the eby <b>dec easing</b>&nbs
;NaCl and H2O eso
tion at the gut.
<div><b /></div><i>Inc eased cGMP = dec eased NaCl and H2O eso
tion = wate y
dia hea</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-8658654068841.j
g" /></div>
1402416975554 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Heat-<b>labile</b>&nbs
;Toxin
f om Ente otoxigenic <i>Esche ichia coli </i>(ETEC)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1:
:Ove activation of adenylate cyclase, the eby inc easing cAMP levels and inc eas
ing Cl sec etion and H2O efflux in the gut}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-8658654068841.j
g" /></div>
1402417045996 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Heat-<b>stable</b>&nbs
;Toxin
f om Ente otoxigenic <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;(ETEC)?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Ove activation of Guanylate cyclase, the eby causing inc eased cGMP levels
and a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in NaCl and H2O eso
tion at the gut}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-8658654068841.j
g" /></div>
1402417106874 1395802358422 {{c1::Heat-<b>labile</b>&nbs
;toxin}} and&nbs
;{
{c2::Heat-<b>stable </b>toxin}} a e 2 exotoxins f om Ente otoxigenic <i>Esche ic
hia coli</i>&nbs
;(ETEC) that can cause wate y dia hea by inc easing fluid sec
etion at the GI e
ithelium.

1402417490502 1395802358422 {{c1::Edema Facto }} is an exotoxin f om <i>Baci
llus anth acis</i>&nbs
;that mimics Adenylate Cyclase, the eby inc easing cAMP l
evels.
1402417553807 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Edema Facto toxin f om <i>Ba
cillus anth acis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mimic y of Adenylate Cyclase, t
he eby inc easing cAMP levels}}</div>
1402417601645 1395802358422 {{c1::Edema Facto toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <
i>Bacillus anth acis</i>&nbs
;that is likely es
onsible fo the cha acte istic
edematous bo de s of black escha s seen in cutaneous anth ax.
1402417635906 1395802358422 {{c1::Chole a Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Vib
io chole ae</i>&nbs
;that ove activates Adenylate Cyclase th ough
e manent act
ivation of the G_s&nbs
;subunit via ADP ibosylation, the eby inc easi
ng Cl sec etion and H2O efflux at the gut.
<b /><div><i>Yields " ice-wate
" dia hea.</i></div>
1402417716210 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Chole a Toxin f om <i>Vib io
chole ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ove activation of Adenylate Cyclase by

e manently activating the G_s&nbs
;subunit via ADP ibosylation}}</di
v>
<b /><div><i>This the eby causes an inc ease in Cl sec etion and H2O ef
fluc at the gut.</i></div>
1402417771627 1395802358422 {{c1::Chole a Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Vib
io chole ae</i>&nbs
;that causes voluminous <b>" ice-wate " dia hea</b>&nbs
;d
ue to ove activation of adenylate cyclase th ough
e manent activation of the G<
sub>s</sub>&nbs
;subunit.
1402417815559 1395802358422 {{c1::Pe tussis Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>B
o detella
e tussis</i>&nbs
;that ove activates adenylate cyclase by disabling t
he G_i&nbs
;subunit, the eby im
ai ing
hagocytosis. <b /><div><i>Pe
mits the su vival of the mic obe.</i></div>
1402418691832 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Pe tussis Toxin f om <i>Bo de
tella
e tussis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ove activation of adenylate cycl
ase by disabling the G_i&nbs
;subunit, the eby im
ai ing
hagocytosis}
}</div> <b /><div><i>Occu s via ADP Ribosylation</i></div>
1402418737393 1395802358422 {{c1::Pe tussis Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>B
o detella
e tussis</i>&nbs
;that causes <b>whoo
ing cough</b>.
1402418770100 1395802358422 {{c1::Whoo
ing cough}} is a es
i ato y diso de
caused by Pe tussis Toxin f om <i>Bo detella
e tussis</i>&nbs
;and involves a
cough on ex
i ation and a "whoo
" on ins
i ation.
<b /><div><i>Ty
ically
affects child en.</i></div><div><i>Toxin may not actually be a cause of the coug
h.</i></div><div><i>Can cause a "100-day cough" in adults.</i></div>
1402418941004 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetanos
asmin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Clo
st idium tetani</i>&nbs
;that cleaves SNARE
oteins equi ed fo neu ot ansmitt
e elease.
1402418986922 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tetanos
asmin toxin f om <i>C
lost idium tetani</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cleavage of SNARE
oteins eq
ui ed fo neu ot ansmitte elease}}</div>
1402419013400 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetanus}} is a neu ological diso de cause
d by Tetanos
asmin toxin f om <i>Clost idium tetani</i>&nbs
;that involves <b>s

asticity, isus sa donicus</b>&nbs
;and <b>"lockjaw"</b>.
1402419160022 1395802358422 {{c1::Risus Sa donicus}} is a featu e of Tetanus
that is desc ibed as facial s
asms that often follow t ismus (lockjaw).
1402419199569 1395802358422 {{c1::T ismus}} is a featu e of Tetanus that is
also efe ed to as Lockjaw
1402419218807 1395802358422 Which neu ot ansmitte 's elease is <b>
evented
</b>&nbs
;by the Tetanos
asmin toxin f om <i>Clost idium tetani</i>?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::GABA; Glycine}}</div> <b /><div><i>Tetanus = s
astic
a alysi
s. Hence, the e must be a <b>lack of inhibito y neu ot ansmitte s</b>.</i></div>
1402419296796 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetanus}} is a neu ological diso de cause
d by <i>Clost idium s
.</i>&nbs
;and is&nbs
;cha acte ized by <b>s
astic
a alys
is</b>&nbs
;due to <b>inhibition of inhibito y neu ot ansmitte elease</b>&nbs

;(GABA; Glycine) f om Renshaw cells of the s
inal co d.
1402419379737 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulinum Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>C

lost idium botulinum</i>&nbs
;that cleaves SNARE
oteins equi ed fo neu ot an
smitte elease.
1402419529008 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Botulinum toxin f om <i>Clost
idium botulinum</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cleavage of SNARE
oteins equ
i ed fo neu ot ansmitte elease}}</div>
1402419564804 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulism}} is a neu ological diso de caus
ed by the Botulinum toxin f om <i>Clost idium botulinum</i>&nbs
;that
esents w
ith <b>flaccid
a alysis</b>&nbs
;o as <b>Flo

y Baby Synd ome</b>&nbs
;in infa
nts.
1402419652276 1395802358422 Which neu ot ansmitte 's elease is <b>
evented
</b>&nbs
;by the Botulinum toxin f om <i>Clost idium botulinum</i>?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::ACh}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Botulism = flaccid
a alysis. Henc
e the e must be a <b>lack of stimulato y neu ot ansmitte s</b>.</i></div>
1402419732306 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulism}} is a neu ological diso de caus
ed by&nbs
;<i>Clost idium s
.</i>&nbs
;and is&nbs
;cha acte ized by&nbs
;<b>flac
cid
a alysis</b>&nbs
;due to&nbs
;<b>inhibition of stimulato y neu ot ansmitte
elease</b>&nbs
;(ACh) at the neu omuscula junction.
1402428216177 1395802358422 {{c1::Al
ha Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Clost
idium
e f ingens</i>&nbs
;that acts as a
hos
holi
ase (Lecithinase) that deg
ades tissue and cell memb anes.
1402428313614 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Al
ha Toxin f om <i>Clost idi
um
e f ingens</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Phos
holi
ase (Lecithinase) actio
n, the eby leading to deg adation of tissue and cell memb anes}}</div>
1402432070114 1395802358422 {{c1::Al
ha toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Clost
idium
e f ingens</i>&nbs
;that deg ades
hos
holi
ids, the eby causing myonec
osis ("gas gang ene") and hemolysis.
<b /><div><i>The hemolysis is a "double
zone" of hemolysis on blood aga .</i></div>
1402432155838 1395802358422 {{c1::St e
tolysin O}} is an exotoxin f om <i>St
e
tococcus
yogenes</i>&nbs
;that functions to deg ade the cell memb ane.
1402432207851 1395802358422 What is the MOA of St e
tolysin O f om <i>St e
t
ococcus
yogenes</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Deg adation of the cell memb an
e, the eby causing cell lysis}}</div>
1402432235029 1395802358422 {{c1::St e
tolysin O}} is an exotoxin made by <i
>St e
tococcus
yogenes</i>&nbs
;that functions to lyse RBCs, the eby cont ibuti
ng to beta-hemolysis.
1402432533724 1395802358422 Which diso de is associated with ASO (Anti-St e

tolysin O) antibodies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rheumatic feve }}</div>
<b /><div><i>Remembe , St e
tolysin O is f om St e
tococcus
yogenes.</i></div>
1402432627607 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxic Shock Synd ome Toxin (TSST-1)}} is a
su
e antigen exotoxin f om <i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>&nbs
;that b ings MHC II
and T-cell ece
to s in close
oximity to the antigen binding site, the eby ca
using ove whelming IFN-gamma and IL-2 elease. <b /><div><i>The eby causing sh
ock.</i></div>
1402432761359 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Toxic Shock Synd ome Toxin (T
SST-1) f om <i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>?<div><b ></div><div>{{c1::B inging of M
HC II and T-cell ece
to s in
oximity to outside of the antigen binding site,
the eby causing ove whelming elease of IFN-gamma and IL-2}}</div>
<b ><div
><i>And subsequent shock.</i></div>
1402432829156 1395802358422 Which cytokines a e involved in the induction of
Toxic Shock Synd ome by su
e antigen exotoxins?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IFNgamma; IL-2}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The eby inducing feve , ash and shock.</i
></div>
1402432869781 1395802358422 {{c1::Exfoliatin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Sta
hy
lococcus au eus</i>&nbs
;that causes Sta
hylococcal Scalded Skin Synd ome (SSSS)
.
1402432972801 1395802358422 {{c1::Exotoxin A}} is a su
e antigen exotoxin f
om <i>St e
tococcus
yogenes</i>&nbs
;that b ings MHC II and T-cell ece
to s in

oximity to the antigen binding site, the eby causing toxic shock synd ome.
1402433021202 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Exotoxin A f om <i>St e
tococ
cus
yogenes</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su
e antigen; MHC II and TCR activa

tion, the eby causing massive elease of IFN-gamma and IL-2}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Not to be confused with Exotoxin A f om Pseudomonas ae uginosa which funct
ions to inactivate EF2 and
otein synthesis.</i></div>
1402433146269 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin}} is a vi ulence facto found in
g am-negative bacte ia that is made of Li
o
olysaccha ide (LPS)
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-14753212662239.j
g" /></div>
1402433697999 1395802358422 Which activated com
lement
otein is chemotacti
c fo neut o
hils?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::C5a}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-14748917694943.j
g" /></div>
1402433732008 1395802358422 {{c1::T ansfo mation}} is a bacte ial genetic

ocess th ough with naked DNA is taken u
f om the envi onment. <b /><div><i>Es

ecially seen with <b>S</b>t e
tococcus
neumoniae, <b>H</b>aemo
hilus <b>i</b>n
fluenzae ty
e B and <b>N</b>eisse ia s

. (<b>SHiN</b>).</i></div>
1402434152550 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::F+
lasmid}} is a bacte ial
lasm
id that contains genes equi ed fo sex
ilus and conjugation.
1402435735347 1395802358422 A&nbs
;{{c1::High-f equency ecombination (Hf )
cell}} is a bacte ial cell whose <b>F+
lasmid has become inco
o ated into the
bacte ial ch omosomal DNA</b>. <b /><div><i>Hence when the
lasmid DNA is e
l
icated, some flanking ch omosomal DNA is likely to be as well. The efo e,
lasmi
d and ch omosomal genes a e t ansfe ed.</i></div>
1402436340967 1395802358422 A&nbs
;{{c1::t ans
oson}} is a segment of DNA th
at can "jum
" f om one location to anothe via excision and einteg ation.
<b /><div><i>Th ough this, genes can be t ansfe ed f om
lasmid to ch omosome
and vice ve sa.</i></div><div><i>Excision can include flanking ch omosomal DNA w
hich can be inco
o ated into a
lasmid and t ansfe ed to anothe bacte ium. Th
is is a way antibiotic esistance can be t ansmitted.</i></div>
1402439166361 1395802358422 {{c1::Gene alized t anduction}} is a ty
e of bac
te ial t ansduction that involves cleavage of bacte ial DNA and
a tial
ackagin
g of bacte ial ch omosomal DNA into bacte io
hage ca
sids following <b>lytic
ha
ge</b>&nbs
;infection. <b /><div><i>The
hage then infects anothe bacte ium,
t ansfe ing the genes.</i></div>
1402441659957 1395802358422 {{c1::S
ecialized t ansduction}} is a ty
e of ba
cte ial t ansduction that involves a <b>lysogenic
hage</b>&nbs
;infects a bacte
ium and inco
o ates vi al DNA into the bacte ial ch omosome. <b /><div><i>Wh
en
hage DNA is excised, flanking bacte ial genes may be excised with it and
ac
kaged into vi al ca
sids.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-16896401342650.j
g" /
></i></div>
1402441976942 1395802358422 What is the Novobiocin sensitivity of <i>Sta
hyl
ococcus sa
o
hyticus</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Resistant}}</div> <div><b
/></div><i><b>"NO S</b>t<b>RES</b>s"</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-172528836282
84.j
g" /></div>
1402442693838 1395802358422 What is the Novobiocin sensitivity of <i>Sta
hyl
ococcus e
ide midis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sensitive}}</div> <div><b
/></div><i>"<b>NO</b>&nbs
;<b>S</b>t<b>RES</b>s"<b /></i><div><img s c="
aste17248588660988.j
g" /></div>
1402442749529 1395802358422 What is the O
tochin sensitivity of Vi idans St
e
tococci (<i>St e
tococcus mutans</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Resistant}}<
/div> <b /><div>"<b>OV</b>e<b>RP</b>a<b>S</b>s"</div><div><img s c="
aste-172
48588660988.j
g" /></div>
1402442905229 1395802358422 What is the O
tochin sensitivity of <i>St e
toco
ccus
neumoniae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sensitive}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i>"<b>OV</b>e<b>RP</b>a<b>S</b>s"</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-172485
88660988.j
g" /></div>
1402442951231 1395802358422 What is the Bacit acin sensitivity of G ou
B St
e
(<i>St e
tococcus agalactiae</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Resistant}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><i>"<b>B-BRAS</b>"</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-172485886
60988.j
g" /></i></div>
1402443067677 1395802358422 What is the Bacit acin sensitivity of G ou
A St
e
(<i>St e
tococcus
yogenes</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sensitive}}</div
>
<b /><div><i>"<b>B-BRAS</b>"</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-172485886

60988.j
g" /></i></div>
1402452771084 1395802358422 What ty
e of hemolysis is associated with the fo
mation of a g een ing a ound colonies on blood aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Al
ha-hemolysis}}</div>
1402453279253 1395802358422 What ty
e of hemolysis is exhibited by&nbs
;<i>S
t e
tococcus
neumoniae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Al
ha-hemolysis}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Catalase-negative</i></div><div><i>O
tochin sensitive</i></div>
1402453919315 1395802358422 What ty
e of hemolysis is exhibited by Vi idans
st e
tococci (e.g.<i>&nbs
;St e
tococcus mutans</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1:
:Al
ha-hemolysis}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Catalase-negative</i></div><div><i
>O
tochin esistant</i></div>
1402453965830 1395802358422 Which ty
e of hemolysis is associated with the f
o mation of a <b>clea a ea</b>&nbs
;of hemolysis on blood aga ?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Beta-hemolysis}}</div>
1402454001343 1395802358422 What ty
e of hemolysis is exhibited by <i>Sta
hy
lococcus au eus</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-hemolysis}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Catalase-
ositive</i></div><div><i>Coagulase-
ositive</i></div>
1402454023825 1395802358422 What ty
e of hemolysis is exhibited by G ou
A S
t e
(<i>St e
tococcus
yogenes</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-hemolysis}
}</div> <b /><div><i>Catalase-negative</i></div><div><i>Bacit acin sensitive</i
></div>
1402454109380 1395802358422 What ty
e of hemolysis is exhibited by G ou
B S
t e
(<i>St e
tococcus agalactiae</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-hemolysi
s}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Catalase-negative</i></div><div><i>Bacit acin esi
stant.</i></div>
1402454204136 1395802358422 What ty
e of hemolysis is exhibited by <i>Liste
ia monocytogenes</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-hemolysis}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Tumbling motility; meningitis in newbo ns; un
asteu ized milk.</i></div>
1402454541483 1395802358422 What ty
e of hemolysis is associated with G ou

D St e
(and <i>Ente ococcus faecalis</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gamma-hem
olysis}}</div>
1402454604773 1395802358422 What ty
e of hemolysis is associated with <i>St
e
tococcus bovis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gamma-hemolysis}}</div>
1402454645478 1395802358422 Whe e in the es
i ato y t act does <i>Sta
hyloc
occus au eus</i>&nbs
;commonly colonize?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-22
982370001162.j
g" /></div><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nose}}</div>
1402455154189 1395802358422 {{c1::P otein A}} is a vi ulence facto f om <i>
Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>&nbs
;that binds to the F_c&nbs
;
o tion of I
gG, the eby inhibiting com
lement activation and
hagocytosis.
1402456144030 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>
&nbs
;causes Toxic Shock Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Toxic Shock Synd o
me Toxin (TSST-1)}}</div>
1402456203626 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>
&nbs
;causes Sta
hylococcal Scalded Skin Synd ome (SSSS)?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Exfoliatin}}</div>
1402456236692 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>
&nbs
;causes a
id-onset food
oisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sta
hylococc
al ente otoxins}}</div> <b /><div><i>Incubation
e iod is ve y sho t (2-6 h s)
due to the toxins being
e-fo med. The ente otoxin is heat stable and hence is
not dest oyed by cooking.</i></div>
1402456305846 1395802358422 {{c1::Pneumonia}} is a es
i ato y com
lication
of <i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>&nbs
;infection that commonly a ises afte an inf
luenza vi us infection.
1402456347862 1395802358422 {{c1::Methicillin- esistant <i>Sta
hylococcus au
eus</i>&nbs
;(MRSA)}} is a fo m of <i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>&nbs
;that is e
sistant to methicillin and nafcillin due to alte ed
enicillin-binding
oteins.
<b /><div><i>MRSA is an im
o tant cause of se ious nocosomial and community-acq
ui ed infections.</i></div>
1402456529801 1395802358422 How does vaginal o nasal tam
on use influence t
he isk of getting Toxic Shock Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</

div>
1402456890495 1395802358422 What is the catalase ex
ession of <i>Sta
hyloco
ccus au eus</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402456952709 1395802358422 What is the coagulase ex
ession of <i>Sta
hyloc
occus au eus</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <b /><div><i>Co
agulase hel
s Sta
hylococcus au eus fo m fib in clots a ound itself, fo ming a s
o t of abscess.</i></div>
1402456998509 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Sta
hylococcus e
ide midis</i>}} is a <
i>Sta
hylococcus</i>&nbs
;s
ecies that commonly infects
osthetic devices and i
nt avenous cathete s by
oducing adhe ent biofilms.
<b /><div><i>Com
onent
of no mal skin flo a.</i></div><div><i>Contaminates blood cultu es.</i></div><di
v><i>Novobiocin sensitive.</i></div>
1402457468984 1395802358422 Which <i>Sta
hylococcus </i>s
ecies is the <b>2n
d most common</b>&nbs
;cause of uncom
licated UTI in young women?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::<i>Sta
hylococcus sa
o
hyticus</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Es
che ichia coli is the most common.</i></div>
1402457591435 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is the most common cause of menin
gitis?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-26530012987655.j
g" /><b /><div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus
neumoniae</i>}}</div></div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-25396141621449.j
g" /></div>
1402457846530 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is the most common cause of otiti
s media in child en?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-26525718020359.j
g" />
<b /><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus
neumoniae</i>}}</div></div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-25396141621449.j
g" /></div>
1402457866068 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is the most common cause of
neum
onia?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-26525718020359.j
g" /><b /><div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus
neumoniae</i>}}</div></div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-25400436588745.j
g" /></div>
1402457903262 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is the most common cause of sinus
itis?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-26525718020359.j
g" /><b /><div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus
neumoniae</i>}}</div></div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-25396141621449.j
g" /></div>
1402458991108 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>St e
tococcus
neumoniae</i>}} is a lan
cet-sha
ed&nbs
;<i>St e
tococcus</i>&nbs
;s
ecies that is associated with <b>" u
sty" s
utum</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-26525718020359.j
g" /></di
v>
<b /><div><i>Enca
sulated</i></div><div><i>IgA P otease
ositive.</i></
div>
1402459120332 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>St e
tococcus
neumoniae</i>}} is a lan
cet-sha
ed <i>St e
tococcus</i>&nbs
;s
ecies that is associated with se
sis in s
ickle cell anaemia and s
lenectomy.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-2652571
8020359.j
g" /></div> <b /><div><i>Enca
sulated.</i></div><div><i>IgA P oteas
e
ositive.</i></div>
1402519769834 1395802358422 Whe e a e Vi idans St e
tococci no mally found i
n the body?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::O o
ha ynx}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"V
i idans St e
live in the mouth because they a e not af aid <b>of-the-chin</b>&n
bs
;(<b>o
tochin</b>&nbs
; esistant)"</i></div>
1402519840481 1395802358422 Which s
ecies of Vi idans St e
tococci commonly
causes dental ca ies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus mutans</i>}}</
div>
1402519869398 1395802358422 Which s
ecies of Vi idans St e
tococci is known
to cause subacute bacte ial endoca ditis at damaged valves?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus sanguinis</i>}}</div> <b /><div><i>Sanguis = blood =
hea t = endoca ditis</i></div>
1402519948842 1395802358422 {{c1::Dext ans}} is a vi ulence facto f om <i>S
t e
tococcus sanguinis </i>that binds to fib in-
latelet agg egates on damaged h
ea t valves, the eby allowing fo bacte ial endoca ditis.
1402520542547 1395802358422 Which <i>St e
tococcus</i>&nbs
;s
ecies is consi
de ed G ou
A St e
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus
yogenes</i>}}<
/div>
1402520588882 1395802358422 Which <i>St e
tococcus </i>s
ecies is conside ed

G ou
B St e
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus agalactiae</i>}}</di
v>
1402520605294 1395802358422 Which&nbs
;<i>St e
tococcus&nbs
;</i>s
ecies is
known to cause&nbs
;Sca let Feve ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus

yogenes</i>&nbs
;(G ou
A St e
)}}</div>
1402521425886 1395802358422 Which <i>St e
tococcus </i>s
ecies is known to c
ause Nec otizing Fasciitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus
yogenes
</i>&nbs
;(G ou
A St e
)}}</div>
1402521446966 1395802358422 Which&nbs
;<i>St e
tococcus&nbs
;</i>s
ecies is
known to cause Rheumatic Feve ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus
yog
enes</i>&nbs
;(G ou
A St e
)}}</div>
1402521470315 1395802358422 Antibodies to {{c1::M P otein}}, a vi ulence fac
to f om <i>St e
tococcus
yogenes</i>, enhances host defenses against the bacte
ia but can give ise to Rheumatic Feve .
1402521522702 1395802358422 Which&nbs
;<i>St e
tococcus&nbs
;</i>s
ecies is
associated with an inc ease in ASO tite s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St e
to
coccus
yogenes</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>ASO tite s a e indicative of ecen
t S.
yogenes infection.</i></div>
1402521567796 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatic Feve }} and&nbs
;{{c2::acute glo
me ulone
h itis}} a e 2 immunological com
lications of
ha yngitis caused by <i>
St e
tococcus
yogenes</i>.
<b /><div><i>"St e
<b>PH</b>a yngitis can beco
me Rheumatic <b>PH</b>eve and glome ulone<b>PH</b> itis."</i></div>
1402522057796 1395802358422 {{c1::Sca let Feve }} is a toxigenic com
licatio
n of <i>St e
tococcus
yogenes</i>&nbs
;infection that involves a <b>sca let as
h</b>&nbs
;with <b>sand
a
e -like textu e</b>, a <b>st awbe y tongue</b>&nbs
;a
nd <b>ci cumo al
allo </b>.
1402522205348 1395802358422 {{c1::Polya th itis}} is a musculoskeletal featu
e of Rheumatic Feve that involves inflammation at multi
le joints.
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-3732326580468.j
g" /></div>
1402522246576 1395802358422 {{c1::Panca ditis}} is a ca diac com
lication of
Rheumatic Feve that involves inflammation of all 3 laye s of the hea t.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-3728031613172.j
g" /></div>
1402522355051 1395802358422 {{c1::Subcutaneous nodules}} is a cutaneous com

lication of Rheumatic Feve .
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-3728031613172.j
g" />
</div>
1402522361498 1395802358422 {{c1::E ythema ma ginatum}} is a cutaneous com
l
ication of Rheumatic Feve that is desc ibed as an <b>annula , non
u itic ash<
/b>&nbs
;with <b>e ythematous bo de s</b>.
<b /><div><i>Commonly seen at t
he t unk and limbs.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-3728031613172.j
g" /></i></
div>
1402522678704 1395802358422 {{c1::Sydenham Cho ea}} is a neu ological com
li
cation of Rheumatic Feve that involves a
id, involunta y muscle movements.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-3728031613172.j
g" /></div>
1402522704864 1395802358422 Whe e is G ou
B St e
(<i>St e
tococcus agalact
iae</i>) no mally found in the body?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vagina}}</div>
<b /><div><i>St e
tococcus <b>VAG</b>alactiae</i></div><div><i>P egnant women a
e sc eened fo St e
tococcus agalactiae at 35-37 weeks of gestation. Patients w
ith a
ositive cultu e eceive int a
a tum
enicillin
o
hylaxis.</i></div>
1402522917302 1395802358422 Which "g ou
" of <i>St e
tococcus</i>&nbs
;bacte
ia a e known to cause
neumonia, meningitis and se
sis mainly in <b>babies</b>?
<div><b />{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus agalactiae</i>&nbs
;(G ou
B St e
)}}</div>
<b /><div><i>G ou
<b>B</b>&nbs
;is fo the <b>B</b>abies.</i></div>
1402523212304 1395802358422 {{c1::CAMP Facto }} is a
otein
oduced by <i>
St e
tococcus agalactiae</i>&nbs
;(G ou
B St e
) that functions to enla gen the
a ea of hemolysis yielded by <i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>.
<b /><div><i>CA
MP ≠ cAMP.</i></div>
1402523420232 1395802358422 What Hi

u ate Test esult is yielded by <i>St e

tococcus agalactiae</i>&nbs
;(G ou
B St e
)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positi
ve}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The Hi

u ate Test gauges whethe o not the o gan
ism can hyd olyze hi

u ate.</i></div>

1402524036532 1395802358422 Whe e in the body a e G ou
D St e
tococci (<i>E
nte ococcus faecalis</i>&nbs
;and <i>Ente ococcus faecium</i>) no mally found?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div> <b /><div><i>G ou
D st e
tococci inclu
de:</i></div><div><i>Ente ococcal</i></div><div><i>Non-ente ococcal (St e
tococc
us bovis)</i></div>
1402524179050 1395802358422 {{c1::Subacute endoca ditis}} is a ca diac com
l
ication caused by&nbs
;G ou
D St e
tococci (<i>Ente ococcus faecalis</i>&nbs
;a
nd&nbs
;<i>Ente ococcus faecium</i>) following GI/GU
ocedu es.
1402524276587 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is Non-ente ococcal&nbs
;G ou

D St e
tococci (<i>St e
tococcus bovis</i>) no mally found?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::GI}}</div>
1402524394914 1395802358422 What ty
e of cance is associated with <b>bacte
emia</b>&nbs
;and <b>subacute endoca ditis</b>&nbs
;caused by&nbs
;Non-ente ococ
cal&nbs
;G ou
D St e
tococci (<i>St e
tococcus bovis</i>)?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Colon cance }}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>B</b>ovis in the <b>B</b>lood =
<b>C</b>ance in the <b>C</b>olon.</i></div>
1402524441767 1395802358422 Which g am-
ositive bacte ia causes Di
hthe ia t
h ough a
otent extoxin that inhibits
otein synthesis via ADP ibosylation of
EF-2?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Co ynebact ium di
hthe iae</i>}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>The toxin is encoded by a beta-
o
hage.</i><div><i>Toxoid v
accine can
event Di
hthe ia.<b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-7400228651293.j
g"
/></div></div>
1402525073764 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudomemb anous
ha yngitis}} is a featu
e of Di
hthe ia that involves a <b>g ayish-white memb ane</b>&nbs
;fo ming in th
e
ha ynx.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-7194070221082.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><i>The e is also lym
hadeno
athy, myoca ditis and a hythmias.</i></d
iv>
1402525174067 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Co ynebacte ium s

.</i>}} is a g am-
o
sitive, <b>club sha
ed</b>&nbs
;bacte ia that yields <b>black colonies</b>&nbs
;
on cystine-tellu ite aga .
<div><b /></div><i>It also has metach omatic (b
lue and ed) g anules and a
ositive Elek test fo the toxin.</i><b /><div><img
s c="
aste-7404523618589.j
g" /></div>
1402525322268 1395802358422 Which chemical com
ound found in the co e of bac
te ial s
o es functions to cont ibute to thei heat esistance?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Di
icolinic Acid}}</div>
<b /><div><i>S
o es must be autoclaved
to be killed (steamed at 121 C fo 15 min).</i></div><div><i>S
o e fo ming g am
ositives in soil:</i></div><div><i>- Bacillus anth acis</i></div><div><i>- Clos
t idium
e f ingens</i></div><div><i>- Clost idium tetani</i></div><div><i>Othe
s
o e fo ming bacte a:</i></div><div><i>- Bacillus ce eus</i></div><div><i>- Cl
ost idium botulinum</i></div><div><i>- Coxiella bu netti</i></div>
1402526056674 1395802358422 Which toxin f om <i>Clost idium tetani</i>&nbs
;
causes Tetanus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tetanos
asmin}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Remembe , tetanos
asmin cleaves SNARE
oteins involved in neu ot ansmissi
on. It
events the elease of GABA and Glycine, 2 inhibito y neu ot ansmitte s,
the eby causing <b>s
astic
a alysis</b>, t ismus and isus sa donicus.</i></di
v>
1402526161207 1395802358422 {{c1::Flo

y Baby Synd ome}} is a fo m of Botuli
num that is seen in babies following ingestion of s
o es in honey.
<div><b
/></div><i><b>BOT</b>ulinum is f om bad <b>BOT</b>tles of food and honey.</i><b
/><div><i>In adults, the
efo med toxin is ingested to cause Botulinum.</i></
div>
1402527211303 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Clost idium
e f ingens</
i>&nbs
;functions as a
hos
holi
ase, the eby causing myonec osis (gas gang ene)
and hemoylsis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Al
ha-toxin}}</div> <b /><div><i>Ph
os
holi
ase, lecithinase activity.</i></div><div><i><b>PERF</b> ingens <b>PERF</
b>o ates a gang enous leg.</i></div>
1402527467355 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxin A}} is an ente otoxin f om <i>Clost
idium difficile</i>&nbs
;that binds to the b ush bo de of the gut.
1402527707136 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Clost idium difficile </i
>functions to bind to the b ush bo de of the gut?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::To

xin A}}</div>
1402527727710 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxin B}} is a cytotoxin f om <i>Clost idi
um difficile</i>&nbs
;that causes cytoskeletal dis u
tion via actin de
ola izati
on, the eby causing <b>
seudomemb anous colitis</b> and <b>dia hea</b>.
<b /><div><i><b>DI</b>fficile causes <b>DI</b>a hea.</i></div>
1402527819144 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Clost idium difficile</i>
&nbs
;causes cytoskeletal dis u
tion via actin de
olyme ization?<div><b />{{c1:
:Toxin B}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The eby causes <b>
seudomemb anous colitis
</b>&nbs
;and <b>dia hea</b>.</i></div>
1402528301015 1395802358422 Which s
ecies of <i>Clost idium</i>&nbs
;often c
auses infection following antibiotic use, es
ecially clindamycin o am
icillin?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Clost idium difficile</i>}}</div>
1402528339247 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Clost idium diffici
le</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Met onidazole; O al Vancomycin}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Fo ecu ing cases, fecal t ans
lant may
event a ela
se.</i></
div>
1402528453642 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Bacillus anth acis</i>}} is a g am-
osi
tive, s
o e-fo ming od that causes Anth ax via the anth ax toxin.<div><b /></d
iv><div><img s c="
aste-10857677324705.j
g" /></div>
1402529845478 1395802358422 What is the only bacte ium with a
oly
e
tide ca

sule?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bacillus anth acis</i>}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>It contains D-glutamate</i></div>
1402529871324 1395802358422 Which amino acid makes u
the
oly
e
tide ca
sul
e of <i>Bacillus anth acis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::D-glutamate}}</div>
1402529904606 1395802358422 {{c1::Cutaneous Anth ax}} is a ty
e of anth ax t
hat
esents with <b>boil-like lesions</b>&nbs
;and <b>ulce s with black escha s
</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-11132555231651.j
g" /></div> <b /><d
iv><i>The boils/ulce s a e
ainless but nec otic.</i></div><div><i>Ve y uncommon
ly does cutaneous anth ax
og ess to bacte emia and death.</i></div>
1402530028091 1395802358422 What ty
e of Anth ax
esents with cutaneous ulc
e s with black escha s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous Anth ax}}</div><div
><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-11128260264355.j
g" /></div>
1402530059278 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmona y Anth ax}} is a ty
e of Anth ax t
hat is obtained via inhalation of s
o es.
1402530422851 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmona y Anth ax}} is a ty
e of Anth ax t
hat
esents with <b>flu-like sym
toms</b>&nbs
;that a
idly
og ess to feve ,

ulmona y hemo hage, mediastinitis and shock.
1402530947653 1395802358422 What ty
e of Anth ax is obtained th ough the inh
alation of <i>Bacillus anth acis</i>&nbs
;s
o es?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pul
mona y anth ax}}</div>
1402530981575 1395802358422 {{c1::Woolso te s' Disease}} is a ty
e of
ulmon
a y anth ax that is obtained f om the inhalation of s
o es f om contaminated woo
d.
1402538199987 1395802358422 What ty
e of food is associated with <i>Bacillus
ce eus</i>&nbs
;food
oisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rice}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Hence "<u>Reheated Rice Synd ome</u>".</i></div><div><i>S
o es su
vive the cooking of ice.</i></div><div><i>Kee
ing ice wa m esults in ge minat
ion of the s
o es and subsequent ente otoxin fo mation.</i></div>
1402538430203 1395802358422 {{c1::Ce eulide}} is an ente otoxin f om <i>Baci
llus ce eus</i>&nbs
;that causes the <b>Emetic</b>&nbs
;ty
e of <i>Bacillus ce e
us</i>&nbs
;food
oisoning.
1402538473732 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Bacillus ce eus</i>&nbs
;
causes the <b>emetic ty
e</b>&nbs
;of <i>Bacillus ce eus</i>&nbs
;food
oisoning
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ce eulide}}</div>
1402538510274 1395802358422 Which ty
e of&nbs
;<i>Bacillus ce eus</i>&nbs
;f
ood
oisoning has the sho test incubation
e iod?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Eme
tic ty
e}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Emetic ty
e = nausea and vomiting 1-5 h s

ost consum
tion</i></div><div><i>Dia heal ty
e = wate y, nonbloody dia hea wi
th GI
ain 8-18 h s
ost consum
tion</i></div>
1402538581035 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::Emetic}} ty
e of&nbs
;<i>Bacillus

ce eus</i>&nbs
;food
oisoning
esents with <b>nausea</b>&nbs
;and <b>vomiting
</b>&nbs
;within <b>1-5 h s</b>&nbs
;of consum
tion.
1402538632896 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::Dia heal}} ty
e of&nbs
;<i>Bacil
lus ce eus</i>&nbs
;food
oisoning
esents with <b>wate y, nonbloody dia hea</
b>&nbs
;and <b>GI
ain</b>&nbs
;within 8-18 h s of consum
tion.
1402539907068 1395802358422 What foods a e associated with acquisition of <i
>Liste ia monocytogenes</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Un
asteu ized dai y; del
i meats}}</div>
1402539931229 1395802358422 Besides ingestion of contaminated food, how is <
i>Liste ia monocytogenes</i>&nbs
;t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T ans

lacentally; vaginally du ing childbi th}}</div> <b /><div><i>Liste ia monocytog
enes can cause amnionitis, se
ticemia and s
ontaneous abo tion in
egnant women
.</i></div>
1402540262016 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Liste ia monocytogenes</i>}} is a g am
ositive facultative int acellula bacte ia that fo ms <b>" ocket tails"</b>&nbs

;via mani
ulation of actin filaments, the eby allowing them to move th ough the
cyto
lasm and cell-to-cell without ente ing the ECF. <b /><div><i>This way,
Liste ia is able to avoid antibodies.</i></div>
1402540339170 1395802358422 What ty
e of motility does <i>Liste ia monocytog
enes</i>&nbs
;have?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tumbling}}</div>
1402540355262 1395802358422 What is the only g am-
ositive bacte ia to
odu
ce li
o
olysaccha ide (LPS)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Liste ia monocytogene
s</i>}}</div>
1402540822790 1395802358422 {{c1::G anulomatosis Infantise
tica}} is a com
l
ication of fetomate nal liste iosis (<i>Liste ia monocytogenes</i>) seen in neon
ates that involves the fo mation of
yogenic g anulomas dist ibuted ove the who
le body.
1402540925193 1395802358422 Which age g ou
is commonly affected by meningit
is caused by<i>&nbs
;Liste ia monocytogenes</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Neon
ates; Newbo ns}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , Liste ia can be acqui ed t ansva
ginally du ing childbi th.</i></div>
1402541050124 1395802358422 How does Liste iosis (<i>Liste ia monocytogenes<
/i>) commonly
esent in healthy individuals?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mild ga
st oente itis}}</div>
1402541083693 1395802358422 What is the <b>em
i ical</b>&nbs
;t eatment fo
infants, immunocom
omised
atients and the elde ly with sus
ected meningitis f
om <i>Liste ia monocytogenes</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Am
icillin}}</div>
1402592222774 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces s

.</i>}} and&nbs
;{{c2::<
i>Noca dia s

.</i>}} a e both g am-
ositive bacte ia that fo m long, b anching
filaments esembling fungi.
1402593371183 1395802358422 What is the oxygen de
endency of <i>Actinomyces<
/i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anae obe}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-790273982886.j
g" /></div>
1402593397734 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>Actinomyces</i>&nbs
;no
mally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::O al cavity}}</div>
1402593709544 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces s

.</i>}} is a g am-
ositi
ve, filamentous bacte ia that causes o al/facial abscesses that d ain th ough th
e sinus t acts. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-785979015590.j
g" /></div>
1402593749717 1395802358422 What ty
e of
igment is associated with <i>Actin
omyces s

</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Yellow "sulfu g anules"}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-785979015590.j
g" /></div>
1402593770382 1395802358422 Which g am-
ositive, filamentous bacte ia is ass
ociated with yellow "sulfu g anules"?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Actinomyces
s

.</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-785979015590.j
g" /></div>
1402593795360 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Actinomyces s

.</i
>&nbs
;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillin}}</div>
1402593810596 1395802358422 What is the oxygen de
endency of <i>Noca dia s


</i>.?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ae obe}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-1331439862178.j
g" /></div>
1402594064144 1395802358422 Which stain (othe than G am) is equi ed to vis

ualize <i>Noca dia s

.</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Acid Fast; <i>Noca dia</
i> is weakly acid fast}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1327144894882.j
g" />
</div>
1402594106515 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Noca dia s

.</i>}} is a g am-
ositive,
filamentous bacte ia that is no mally found in soil.<div><b /></div><div><img
s c="
aste-1327144894882.j
g" /></div>
1402594127203 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Noca dia s

.</i>}} is a g am-
ositive,
filamentous bacte ia that causes
ulmona y infections in the immunocom
omised
and cutaneous infections afte t auma in the immunocom
etent.<div><b /></div><d
iv><img s c="
aste-1327144894882.j
g" /></div>
1402594170914 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Noca dia s

.</i>&n
bs
;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sulfonamides}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.
g. Sulfamethoxazole (SMX)</i></div>
1402594286235 1395802358422 What is the etiology of P ima y and Seconda y Tu
be culosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium tube culosis</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1687922148096.j
g" /></div>
1402595044576 1395802358422 Which demog a
hic is commonly affected by P ima
y Tube culosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Non immune host (i.e. child en); Immu
nocom
omised}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1683627180800.j
g" /></div>
1402595083354 1395802358422 Which a ea of the lung is the Ghon focus usually
found in P ima y Tube culosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Middle}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1683627180800.j
g" /></div>
1402595520978 1395802358422 Whe e in the lung does <b> eactivation</b>&nbs
;
of Tube culosis no mally occu ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::U

e lobe}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1683627180800.j
g" /></div>
1402595580027 1395802358422 {{c1::Pott Disease}} is a
ossible com
lication
of ext a
ulmona y Tube culosis that involves s
ead of infection to ve teb al bo
dies. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1683627180800.j
g" /></div>
1402595697031 1395802358422 {{c1::Caseating G anulomas}} a e a featu e of se
conda y tube culosis desc ibed as fib ocaseous cavita y lesions with cent al nec
osis and multinucleated Lange hans giant cells.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="

aste-2241972928930.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Cent al
inkish egion is
the nec osis.</i></div><div><i>A ow
oints to the Lange hans cell.</i></div>
1402596041435 1395802358422 Which Mycobacte ia s
ecies is known to cause Tub
e culosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium tube culosis</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Often esistant to many d ugs.</i></div>
1402597026328 1395802358422 Which Mycobacte ia s
ecies causes
ulmona y <b>T
B-like</b>&nbs
;sym
toms (but not TB)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobacte i
um kansasii</i>}}</div> <b /><div><i>TB-like sym
toms include feve , night swea
ts, weight loss and hemo
tysis.</i></div>
1402597472014 1395802358422 Which Mycobacte ia s
ecies causes disseminated,
non-TB disease in AIDS
atients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium avi
um-int acellula e</i>}}</div> <b /><div><i>Often esistant to multi
le d ugs.
</i></div>
1402597564621 1395802358422 Which stain is equi ed to visualize all <i>Myco
bacte ium</i>&nbs
;<i>s

.</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Acid-fast}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-3246995276057.j
g" /></div>
1402597655383 1395802358422 {{c1::Co d Facto }} is a vi ulence facto in vi
ulent <i>Mycobacte ium s
.</i>&nbs
;that <b>inhibits mac o
hage matu ation</b>&n
bs
;and <b>induces the elease of TNF-al
ha</b>.
1402597710214 1395802358422 {{c1::Sulfatides}} a e su face glycoli
ids found
on <i>Mycobacte ium s
.</i>&nbs
;that inhibit
hagolysosomal fusion.
1402597758898 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Le
osy (Hansen Disease)
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium le
ae</i>}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Acid-fast.</i></div><div><i>Loves cool tem
e atu es.</i></div>
1402598428843 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium le
ae</i>}} is an acid-f
ast bacillus that causes Le
osy (Hansen Disease).
1402599041268 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium le
ae</i>}} is a the bac
te ial cause of Le
osy that <b>likes cool tem
e atu es</b>, the eby esulting i
n infection of the skin and su
e ficial ne ves. <b /><div><i>This leads to a <b

>"glove and stocking" loss of sensation.</b></i></div><div><i>This is also means
that Mycobacte ium le
ae cannot be g own in vit o.</i></div>
1402599265400 1395802358422 {{c1::"Glove and Stocking" sensation loss}} is a
neu ological com
lication of Le
osy due to
efe ential infection of the skin
and su
e ficial ne ves by <i>Mycobacte ium le
ae</i>. <b /><div><i>Remembe ,
this is because Mycobacte ium le
ae likes cool tem
e atu es (i.e. the su face a
nd ext emities of the body).</i></div>
1402599332424 1395802358422 Which animal is the ese voi fo <i>Mycobacte i
um le
ae</i>&nbs
;in the USA?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A madillo}}</div>
1402599360392 1395802358422 Which fo m of Le
osy (Hansen Disease) is lethal
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Le
omatous fo m}}</div>
1402599578849 1395802358422 Which fo m of Le
osy
esents diffusely ove th
e skin with&nbs
;<b>leonine (lion-like) facies</b>?<div><b /></div><div><img s
c="
aste-4913442586912.j
g" /><b /><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Le
omatous}}</d
iv></div>
1402599681991 1395802358422 Which fo m of Le
osy
esents with a <b>"glove
and stocking" </b>dist ibution of digit defo mation?<div><b /></div><div><img s
c="
aste-4956392260002.j
g" /></div><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Le
omatous}}</
div>
<b /><div><i>This is due to senso y loss and e
eates t auma in the ext
emities.</i></div><div><i>Remembe , Mycobacte ium le
ae likes coole tem
e atu
es and hence infects the skin and su
e ficial ne ves at the ext emities.</i></d
iv>
1402599771427 1395802358422 Which fo m of Le
osy is cha acte ized by <b>low
cell-mediated immunity</b>&nbs
;with a <b>humo al Th₂&nbs
; es
onse<
/b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Le
omatous}}</div>
1402599929170 1395802358422 Which fo m of Le
osy is cha acte ized by <b>hig
h cell-mediated immunity </b>with a la gely <b>Th₁&nbs
;immune es
on
se</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tube culoid}}</div>
1402600174598 1395802358422 The {{c1::Tube culoid}} fo m of Le
osy is the f
o m limited to a few <b>hy
oesthetic, hai less skin
laques</b>.
1402600204809 1395802358422 Which fo m of Le
osy is limited to a few <b>hy

oesthetic, hai less skin
laques</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tube culoid}}</
div>
1402600237041 1395802358422 {{c1::Da
sone}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Rifam
in}} a e 2
anti-mycobacte ial d ugs used to t eat the Tube culoid fo m of Le
osy. <b /><d
iv><i>The Tube culoid fo m is t eated with a 6 month egimen of Da
son and Rifam

in.</i></div>
1402600753865 1395802358422 {{c1::Da
sone}},&nbs
;{{c2::Rifam
in}}, and&nbs

;{{c3::Clofazimine}} a e anti-mycobacte ial d ugs used to t eat the Le
omatous
fo m of Le
osy.
<b /><div><i>The Le
omatous fo m is t eated with a 2-5
yea egimen of Da
sone, Rifam
in and Clofazimine.</i></div>
1402600814505 1395802358422 What colou colonies do lactose-fe menting ente
ic bacte ia yield on MacConkey aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>"</b>Ma<b>C</b>on<b>KEE</b>'<b>S</b>"</i></div><div><i><b>- C</
b>it obacte </i></div><div><i>- <b>K</b>lebsiella</i></div><div><i>- <b>E</b>nte
obacte </i></div><div><i>- <b>E</b>sche ichia</i></div><div><i>- <b>S</b>e ati
a (weak fe mente )</i></div>
1402613840602 1395802358422 What colou colonies do&nbs
;<i>Cit obacte s

.
</i>&nbs
;yield on MacConkey Aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Due to lactose fe mentation.</i></div>
1402613877962 1395802358422 What colou colonies do <i>Klebsiella s

.</i>&n
bs
;yield on MacConkey Aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Due to lactose fe mentation.</i></div>
1402613902009 1395802358422 What colou colonies do <i>Ente obacte s

.</i>
&nbs
;yield on MacConkey Aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Due to lactose fe mentation.</i></div>
1402613927906 1395802358422 What colou colonies do <i>Se atia s

.</i>&nbs
<b /><d

;yield on MacConkey Aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
iv><i>Due to lactose fe mentation.</i></div>
1402613946370 1395802358422 {{c1::Beta-galactosidase}} is an enzyme
oduced

by <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;that b eaks down lactose into glucose and galac
tose.
1402619093228 1395802358422 What colou colonies do lactose fe menting bacte
ia yield on Eosin-Methylene Blue (EMB) aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pu
le/
black}}</div> <b /><div><i>Esche ichia coli g ows
u
le colonies with a g ee
n sheen.</i></div>
1402619167193 1395802358422 How does Penicillin G affect g am-negative bacte
ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No effect}}</div>
<b /><div><i>G am-negat
ives a e esistant to Penicillin G as the oute memb ane laye inhibits ent y.</
i></div>
1402620434178 1395802358422 How does Vancomycin influence g am-negatives bac
te ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No effect}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The oute
memb ane laye of g am-negative bacte ia does not let Vancomycin ente .</i></div
>
1402674610539 1395802358422 Which s
ecies of <i>Neisse ia</i>&nbs
;fe ments
glucose <b>only</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia gono heae</i>}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><i><b>G</b>onococcus = <b>G</b>lucose only</i></div>
1402675610097 1395802358422 Which s
ecies of <i>Neisse ia</i>&nbs
;fe ments
glucose <b>and</b>&nbs
;maltose?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia meningi
tidis</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>M</b>enin<b>G</b>ococcus = <b>M</b>alto
se and <b>G</b>lucose</i></div>
1402675655473 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA P otease}} is a
otein sec eted by <i
>Neisse ia s

.</i>&nbs
;that functions to cleave sec eted host IgA.
1402676290201 1395802358422 Which s
ecies of <i>Neisse ia</i>&nbs
;is often
found int acellula ly in neut o
hils?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-10222
02216727.j
g" /></div><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia gono heae</i>}}<
/div>
1402676332023 1395802358422 Which s
ecies of <i>Neisse ia</i>&nbs
;has a
ol
ysaccha ide ca
sule?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>}}<
/div> <b /><div><i>Gonococcus <b>does not</b>&nbs
;have a
olysaccha ide ca
s
ule.</i></div>
1402676915794 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>}} is a s
ecie
s of <i>Neisse ia</i>&nbs
;that has no vaccine due to a
id antigenic va iation
of
ilus
oteins.
1402676951058 1395802358422 Which se oty
e of <i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>&
nbs
;lacks a vaccine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e B}}</div>
1402676962607 1395802358422 How is <i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>&nbs
;t ansmi
tted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sexually}}</div>
1402677908050 1395802358422 How is <i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>&nbs
;t ansm
itted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Res
i ato y and O al sec etions}}</div>
1402677924333 1395802358422 {{c1::Fitz-Hugh-Cu tis Synd ome}} is a a e com

lication of
elvic inflammato y disease (PID) caused by <i>Neisse ia gono hoeae
</i>&nbs
;that involves inflammation of the live ca
sule and fo mation of adhes
ions.
1402678005051 1395802358422 {{c1::Neonatal Conjunctivitis}} is an ocula inf
ection seen in neonates due to <i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>&nbs
;infection du in
g childbi th.
1402678045935 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Gono hea?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>}}</div>
1402678070433 1395802358422 {{c1::Se
tic A th itis}} is a musculoskeletal co
m
lication of <i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>&nbs
;infection.
1402678102937 1395802358422 What is the etiology of meningococcemia?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>}}</div>
1402678464715 1395802358422 {{c1::Wate house-F ide ichsen Synd ome}} is a co
m
lication of meningococcemia that is desc ibed as <b>ad enal gland failu e</b>&
nbs
;due to <b>hemo haging into the ad enal glands.</b>
1402678661954 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Neisse ia meningiti
dis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ceft iaxone (o Penicillin G)}}</div>
1402678713631 1395802358422 How is <i>Haemo
hilus influenzae</i>&nbs
;t ansm
itted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ae osol}}</div>

1402679622262 1395802358422 Which st ain of <i>Haemo
hilus influenzae</i>&nb
s
;causes the most invasive disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e B}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>The H. influenzae vaccine contains Ty
e B ca
sula
olysacch
a ides conjugated to di
hthe ia toxoid o anothe
otein. It is given between 2
and 18 months.</i><b /><div><i>The non-ty
eable st ains cause mucosal infectio
ns (e.g. otitis media, conjunctivitis, b onchitis).</i></div>
1402679705999 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA P otease}} is a
otein made by <i>Hae
mo
hilus influenzae</i>&nbs
;that functions to cleave sec eted host IgA.
1402679943109 1395802358422 Which aga is equi ed to cultu e <i>Haemo
hilus
influenzae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Chocolate aga }}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Chocolate aga contains the equi ed Facto V (NAD+) and Facto X (Hematin
)</i></div>
1402680098931 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>}} is a g am-

ositive bacte ia that can be used to g ow <i>Haemo
hilus influenzae</i>&nbs
;due
to its ability to
ovide Facto V (NAD+).
1402680179686 1395802358422 {{c1::"Thumb
int Sign"}} is a featu e of E
iglo
ttitis caused by <i>Haemo
hilus influenzae</i>&nbs
;that is seen on a late al ne
ck x- ay.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-3904125272481.j
g" /></div>
1402680282680 1395802358422 {{c1::E
iglottitis}} is a com
lication of <i>Hae
mo
hilus influenzae</i>&nbs
;infection that often
esents as a "che y ed" e
i
glottis in child en.<div><b /><div><img s c="
aste-3990024618262.j
g" /></div><
/div> <b /><div><i>Ha<b>EMOP</b>hilus influenzae:</i></div><div><i>- <b>E</b>

iglottitis</i></div><div><i>- <b>M</b>eningitis</i></div><div><i>- <b>O</b>titi
s media</i></div><div><i>- <b>P</b>neumonia</i></div><div><i>H. influenzae does
not cause the flu. That is the influenza vi us.</i></div>
1402680394869 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>mucosal</b>&nbs
;<i
>Haemo
hilus influenzae</i>&nbs
;infections?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Amoxicil
lin (+/- Clavulanate)}}</div>
1402680440254 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo meningitis caused by <
i>Haemo
hilus influenzae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ceft iaxone}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Rifam
in can be used fo
o
hylaxis following close contact.</i><
/div>
1402681890002 1395802358422 What stain is equi ed to
o
e ly visualize <i>
Legionella
neumo
hila</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Silve stain}}</div>
1402682772705 1395802358422 What cultu e/aga is equi ed to g ow <i>Legione
lla
neumo
hila</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cha coal yeast ext act with i on
and cysteine}}</div> <b /><div><i>Legionella is clinically detected by the

esence of antigen in the u ine.</i></div>
1402682850107 1395802358422 How is <i>Legionella
neumo
hila</i>&nbs
;t ansm
itted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ae osol f om envi onmental wate sou ce to hab
itat}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. ai conditioning unit; hot wate tanks</i></d
iv><div><i>The e is no
e son-to-
e son t ansmission</i></div>
1402683018488 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Legionella
neumo
h
ila</i>&nbs
;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mac olides o Quinolones}}</d
iv>
1402683040477 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Legionnai es' Disease?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Legionella
neumo
hila</i>}}</div>
1402683239774 1395802358422 {{c1::Legionnai es' Disease}} is a es
i ato y d
iso de caused by <i>Legionella
neumo
hila</i>&nbs
;that
esents with <b>seve
e
neumonia</b>, feve , <b>GI</b>&nbs
;and <b>CNS </b>sym
toms.
1402683305813 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Pontiac Feve ?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Legionella
neumo
hila</i>}}</div>
1402683318268 1395802358422 {{c1::Pontiac Feve }} is a feve caused by <i>Le
gionella
neumo
hila</i>&nbs
;that
esents as a <b>mild flu-like synd ome</b>.
1402683374374 1395802358422 Which elect olyte imbalance is seen in the labs
of a
atient with <i>Legionella
neumo
hila</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
o
nat emia}}</div>
1402683406615 1395802358422 What is the oxygen de
endency of <i>Pseudomonas
ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ae obic}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Ps
eudomonas <b>AER</b>uginosa = <b>AER</b>obic</i></div>

1402683469962 1395802358422 What is the oxidase ex
ession of <i>Pseudomonas
ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402683513183 1395802358422 Which
igment made by <i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa<
/i>&nbs
;gives it its blue-g een
igment?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-7
387343749400.j
g" /></div><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pyocyanin}}</div>
1402683543013 1395802358422 What ty
e of odou is associated with <i>Pseudom
onas ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G a
e-like odou }}</div>
1402683559398 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i
>&nbs
;functions to inactivate EF-2 via ADP Ribosylation?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Exotoxin A}}</div>
1402683605448 1395802358422 Which g am-negative bacte ia is associated with
wound and bu n infections?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa<
/i>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-8057358647504.j
g" /></div>
1402684265625 1395802358422 Which g am-negative bacte ia is associated with

neumonia in cystic fib osis
atients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas
ae uginosa</i>}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>Ch onic
neumonia in cystic fib osis

atients is associated with biofilms, an a ea in which Pseudomonas is a sta .</
i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-8053063680208.j
g" /></div>
1402684318361 1395802358422 Which g am-negative bacte ia is associated with
malignant Otitis Exte na in diabetics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas
ae uginosa</i>}}</div>
1402684350685 1395802358422 Which g am-negative bacte ia is associated with
hot tub folliculitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}}
</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-8053063680208.j
g" /></div>
1402684375413 1395802358422 Which g am-negative bacte ia is associated with
Diabetic Osteomyelitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>
}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-8053063680208.j
g" /></div>
1402684416711 1395802358422 Which g am-negative bacte ia is associated with
Ecthyma Gang enosum?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-8529805050270.j
g" /><
b /><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}}</div></div>
1402684461597 1395802358422 {{c1::Ecthyma Gang enosum}} is a cutaneous diso
de caused by <i>Pseudomonas s
.</i>&nbs
;that is desc ibed as a
idly
og essi
ve, nec otic cutaneous lesions.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-85255100829
74.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Ty
ically seen in immunocom
omised
atien
ts.</i></div>
1402684552834 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Pseudomonas ae ugin
osa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-lactam (± Aminoglycoside)}}</div>
1402684942766 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo a&nbs
;<b>UTI</b>&nbs

;caused by <i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ci
ofloxac
in}}</div>
1402701900936 1395802358422 Which vi ulence facto f om <i>Esche ichia coli<
/i>&nbs
;allows it to cause cystitis and
yelone
h itis?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::Fimb iae}}</div>
1402702796660 1395802358422 Which vi ulence facto f om&nbs
;<i>Esche ichia
coli</i>&nbs
;allows it to cause
neumonia and neonatal meningitis?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::K ca
sule}}</div>
1402702816170 1395802358422 Which vi ulence facto f om&nbs
;<i>Esche ichia
coli</i>&nbs
;allows it to cause se
tic shock?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::LPS en
dotoxin}}</div>
1402702831849 1395802358422 {{c1::Ente oinvasive <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs

;(EIEC)}} is a st ain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;that <b>invades</b> the i
ntestinal mucosa, the eby causing nec osis and inflammation and subsequent dysen
te y.
1402702967849 1395802358422 {{c1::Ente oinvasive&nbs
;<i>Esche ichia coli</i
>&nbs
;(EIEC)}} is a st ain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;that clinically
es
ents simila to <i>Shigella</i>&nbs
;infection.
1402702989205 1395802358422 {{c1::Ente otoxigenic <i>Esche ichia coli </i>(E
TEC)}} is a st ain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;that
oduces both <u>heat-la
bile</u>&nbs
;and <u>heat-stable</u>&nbs
;ente otoxins. <b /><div><i>Does not c
ause inflammation and <u>is not invasive</u>.</i></div>

1402703101476 1395802358422 What is the etiology of T avele s' Dia hea?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ente otoxigenic&nbs
;<i>Esche ichia coli&nbs
;</i>(ETEC)
}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Wate y dia hea.</i></div><div><i>E<b>T</b>EC = <b
>T</b> avele s' Dia hea</i></div>
1402703136653 1395802358422 {{c1::Ente o
athogenic <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&n
bs
;(EPEC)}} is a st ain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;that <b>adhe es to the
a
ical su face of GI e
ithelium, flattens villi</b>&nbs
;and the eby causes <b>m
alabso
tion</b>.
<b /><div><i>Causes wate y dia hea, ty
ically in child
en.</i></div><div><i>E<b>P</b>EC = <b>P</b>ediat ic
atients</i></div>
1402703308145 1395802358422 {{c1::Ente ohemo hagic <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&
nbs
;(EHEC)}} is a st ain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;that
oduces a <b>Shi
ga-like&nbs
;toxin</b>&nbs
;that causes Hemolytic U emia Synd ome (HUS).
<b /><div><i>The toxin alone causes nec osis and inflammation, the eby causing
dysente y.</i></div>
1402703401230 1395802358422 What is the most common se oty
e of&nbs
;Ente oh
emo hagic&nbs
;<i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;(EHEC)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
O157:H7}}</div>
1402703433847 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic U emia Synd ome (HUS)}} is a hem
atological/ enal com
lication of&nbs
;Ente ohemo hagic&nbs
;<i>Esche ichia coli
</i>&nbs
;(EHEC) infection that involves a t iad of&nbs
;<b>anaemia, th ombocyto

aenia</b><i style="font-weight: bold; ">&nbs
;</i>and <b>acute enal failu e</b
>.
<b /><div><i>Mic oth ombi fo m on endothelium that is damaged by the Sh
iga-like toxin. This then causes mechanical hemolysis and fo mation of schistocy
tes. That also causes a dec ease in enal blood flow.</i></div><div><i>Additiona
lly, the mic oth ombi esults th ombocyto
aenia due to the
latelet usage.</i></
div>
1402703499005 1395802358422 {{c1::Ente ohemo hagic&nbs
;<i>Esche ichia coli
</i>&nbs
;(EHEC)}} is a st ain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;that is also efe
ed to as Shiga toxin-
oducing <i>Esche ichia coli</i>.
1402703632090 1395802358422 Which majo st ain of <i>Eche ichia coli</i>&nbs

;<b>does not</b>&nbs
;fe ment So bitol?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ente ohemo
hagic&nbs
;<i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;(EHEC)}}</div> <b /><div><i>This is ho
w you diffe entiate EHEC f om othe Esche ichia coli st ains.</i></div>
1402704125904 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Klebsiella</i>}} is a g am-negative ins
testinal bacte ia that causes loba
neumonia in alcoholics and diabetics when a
s
i ated.
<div><b /></div><i>Also a cause of nocosomial UTIs.</i><b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-13327283519705.j
g" /></div>
1402705097593 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Klebsiella s

.</i>}} is a g am-negativ
e intestinal flo a that g ows ve y mucoid colonies due to an abundance of
olysa
ccha ide ca
sules.
1402705143390 1395802358422 Which g am-negative intestinal flo a is associat
ed with <b> ed "cu ant jelly"</b>&nbs
;s
utum?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Kl
ebsiella s

.</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13322988552409.j
g" /
></div>
1402705195876 1395802358422 What ty
e of motility does <i>Salmonella</i>&nbs
<b /><div><i>"Salmon ca

;have?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Flagella}}</div>
n swim" (i.e. Salmonella has a flagella)</i></div><div><i>Shigella <b>does not</
b>&nbs
;have a flagella.</i></div>
1402705418836 1395802358422 How does <i>Salmonella</i>&nbs
;disseminate in t
he body?<div><b />{{c1::Hematogenously}}</div>
1402705440214 1395802358422 How does <i>Shigella</i>&nbs
;disseminate in the
body?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cell to cell}}</div> <b /><div><i>It <b>does
not</b>&nbs
;s
ead hematogenously (Salmonella does).</i></div>
1402705480143 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyd ogen sulfide}} is a chemical com
ound
with a cha acte istic smell of otten eggs. It is <b>made by </b><i style="fontweight: bold; ">Salmonella</i>, but <b>not <i>Shigella</i>.</b>
1402706128586 1395802358422 How do antibiotics influence the du ation of fec
al exc etion of <i>Salmonella</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P olongation}}</di
v>
1402706169399 1395802358422 How do antibiotics influence the du ation of fec

al exc etion of <i>Shigella</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sho tening}}</div>
1402706193971 1395802358422 What ty
e of immune es
onse is seen once <i>Sal
monella</i>&nbs
;invades the intestinal mucosa?<div><b />{{c1::Monocytic es
on
se}}</div>
1402707681139 1395802358422 What ty
e of immune es
onse is seen when <i>Shi
gella</i>&nbs
;invades the intestinal mucosa?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PMN Inf
ilt ation}}</div>
1402707714140 1395802358422 What is the etiology fo Ty
hoid Feve ?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Salmonella ty
hi</i>}}</div>
1402708338576 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
hoid Feve }} is a feve caused by <i>Sa
lmonella ty
hi</i>&nbs
;that
esents with <b> ose s
ots on the abdomen</b>, fev
e , headache and dia hea.
1402708366492 1395802358422 What is the ese voi fo <i>Salmonella ty
hi</i
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Humans only}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It can em
ain in the gallbladde and cause a ca ie state.</i></div>
1402708857743 1395802358422 How is <i>Cam
ylobacte jejuni</i>&nbs
;t ansmit
ted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fecal-o al}}</div>
1402708942499 1395802358422 What foods a e associated with <i>Cam
ylobacte
jejuni</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Poult y; Meat; Un
asteu ized Milk}}</div>
1402708972493 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea does <i>Cam
ylobacte jeju
ni</i>&nbs
;cause?<div><b />{{c1::Bloody; es
ecially in child en}}</div>
1402708990506 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cam
ylobacte jejuni</i>}} is a <b>comm
a</b>&nbs
;o <b>S-sha
ed</b>&nbs
;g am-negative bacillus that is a majo cause
of bloody dia hea, es
ecially in child en.
1402709037963 1395802358422 What is the Oxidase ex
ession of <i>Cam
ylobact
e jejuni</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402709054386 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cam
ylobacte jejuni</i>}} is a <b>comm
a</b>&nbs
;o <b>S-sha
ed</b>&nbs
;g am-negative bacillus that g ows at 42 C.
<b /><div><i><b>CAMP</b>ylobacte likes the hot <b>CAMP</b>fi e.</i></div>
1402709619219 1395802358422 Which g am-negative bacillus is a common anteced
ent to <b>Guillain-Ba e Synd ome</b>&nbs
;and eactive a th itis?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Cam
ylobacte jejuni</i>}}</div>
1402709659136 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Vib io chole ae</i>}} is a <b>comma-sha

ed</b> g am-negative bacillus that
oduces a
ofuse ice-wate dia hea via a
n ente otoxin that
e manently activates the G_s&nbs
;subunit, the eby
inc easing cAMP.
<b /><div><i>Endemic in develo
ing nations.</i></div><d
iv><i>P om
t o al ehyd ation is necessa y.</i></div>
1402710228196 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Chole a toxin f om <i>Vib io
chole ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pe manent activation of the G<sub>s</su
b>&nbs
;subunit leading to ove activity of Adenylate Cyclase and inc eased cAMP}
}</div>
1402710260851 1395802358422 What is the oxidase ex
ession of <i>Vib io chol
e ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402711710666 1395802358422 What ty
e of media is equi ed to cultu e <i>Vib
io chole ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::An alkaline media}}</div>
1402711752320 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ye sinia ente ocolitica</i>}} is a g am
-negative bacte ia that causes a mesente ic adenitis that can mimic C ohn Diseas
e o A

endicitis in its
esentation.
1402711796664 1395802358422 How is <i>Ye sinia ente ocolitica</i>&nbs
;t ans
mitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pet feces; Contaminated Milk; Po k}}</div>
1402711828007 1395802358422 What ty
e of gast ointestinal ulce is most comm
only associated with <i>Helicobacte
ylo i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Duod
enal}}</div>
1402712439398 1395802358422 What is the Oxidase ex
ession of <i>Helicobacte

ylo i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402712470507 1395802358422 What is the Catalase ex
ession of <i>Helicobact
e
ylo i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402712488672 1395802358422 What is the U ease ex
ession of <i>Helicobacte

ylo i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><i>A
U ease b eath test o fecal antigen test can be used fo diagnosis.</i></div>

1402712523662 1395802358422 How does the
H of the stomach change with <i>He
licobacte
ylo i</i>&nbs
;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mo e alkaline (
inc eased
H)}}</div>
1402712733388 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Helicobacte
ylo i
</i>&nbs
;infection?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-16664473108755.j
g" />
<b /><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T i
le the a
y: PPI + Cla ith omycin + Amoxici
llin/Met onidazole}}</div></div>
1402712785869 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::S
i ochetes}} a e a g ou
of bact
e ia that a e s
i al-sha
ed with axial filaments.<div><b /></div><div><img s c=
"
aste-16707422781769.j
g" /></div>
<div><b /></div><b><i>BLT</i></b><b />
<div><i>It includes <b>B</b>o elia (big), <b>L</b>e
tos
i a, <b>T</b> e
onema.<
/i></div>
1402712865855 1395802358422 Which is the only S
i ochete that can be visuali
zed using anilin dyes (W ight o Giemsa) in light mic osco
y?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::<i>Bo elia</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Remembe , Bo elia is the
biggest s
i ochete.</i></div>
1402712913007 1395802358422 What ty
e of mic osco
y is equi ed to visualize
the S
i ochete&nbs
;<i>T e
onema</i>?<div><b />{{c1::Da k-field mic osco
y}}</
div>
1402712939269 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Le
tos
i osis?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Le
tos
i a inte ogans</i>}}</div> <b /><div><i>Le
tos
i o
sis
esents with flu-like sym
toms, jaundice,
hoto
hobia with conjunctival suf
fusion (e ythema without exudate).</i></div>
1402713050920 1395802358422 Which S
i ochete is found in wate contaminated
with animal u ine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Le
tos
i a inte ogans</i>}}</d
iv>
1402713110665 1395802358422 {{c1::Le
tos
i osis}} is an infectious disease c
aused by <i>Le
tos
i a inte ogans</i>&nbs
;that
esents with <b>flu-like sym
t
oms, jaundice</b>&nbs
;and <b>
hoto
hobia with conjunctival suffusion</b>&nbs
;(
e ythema without exudate).
1402713162648 1395802358422 Which demog a
hic shows a high
evalence of Le

tos
i osis (<i>Le
tos
i a inte ogans</i>)?<div><b />{{c1::Su fe s; T o
ics}}</
div>
<b /><div><i>Hence Hawaii is a big hot s
ot.</i></div>
1402713204303 1395802358422 {{c1::Weil Disease (Icte ohemo hagic Le
tos
i o
sis)}} is a seve e fo m of Le
tos
i osis that
esents with <b>jaundice</b>&nbs

;and <b>azotemia</b>&nbs
;f om live and enal dysfunction.
<b /><div><i><u
>Also involves feve , hemo hage and anaemia</u>.</i></div>
1402775605621 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Lyme Disease?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>Bo elia bu gdo fe i</i>}}</div>
1402779671287 1395802358422 How is Lyme Disease (<i>Bo elia bu gdo fe i</i>
) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::via the <i>Ixodes</i>&nbs
;tick}}</div
>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-2263447765209.j
g" /></div>
1402779699146 1395802358422 Which vecto t ansmits Lyme Disease (<i>Bo elia
bu gdo fe i</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ixodes</i>&nbs
;tick}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-2263447765209.j
g" /></div>
1402779720891 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Babesia</i>}} is a s
ecies of
otozoa
t ansmitted by the <i>Ixodes</i>&nbs
;tick that causes a hematological infection
.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-2267742732505.j
g" /></div>
1402779823546 1395802358422 Which animal is the natu al ese voi fo <i>Bo
elia bu do fe i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mouse}}</div> <b /><div><i>Mi
ce a e im
o tant in the tick life cycle.</i></div>
1402780394007 1395802358422 In which a ea of the United States is Lyme Disea
se common?<div><b />{{c1::No theaste n United States}}</div>
1402780493044 1395802358422 {{c1::E ythemia Ch onicum Mig ans}} is an <b>ini
tial</b> cutaneous featu e of Lyme Disease that is desc ibed as an ex
anding <b>
"bull's eye", ed, ta get</b>&nbs
; ash.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-25
76980378017.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Othe initial featu es include flu
-like sym
toms and ± facial ne ve
alsy.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-32427003
08685.j
g" /></i></div>
1402780699113 1395802358422 Which ne ve
alsy is a
otential <b>initial</b>&

nbs
;sym
tom of Lyme Disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Facial Ne ve Palsy}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-3246995275981.j
g" /></div>
1402782513236 1395802358422 {{c1::A th itis}} is a musculoskeletal com
licat
ion seen in Lyme Disease.
<b /><div><i>Monoa th itis in la ge joints.</i>
</div><div><i>Mig ato y
olya th itis elsewhe e.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
ast
e-3242700308685.j
g" /></i></div>
1402782559050 1395802358422 Which ca diac conduction diso de is seen in <b>
late</b>&nbs
;Lyme Disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AV nodal block}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-3242700308685.j
g" /></div>
1402782592347 1395802358422 {{c1::Facial Ne ve Palsy}} is a neu ological sym

tom seen in <b>late</b>&nbs
;Lyme Disease that
esents alongside <b>ence
halo

athy</b>&nbs
;and <b>
olyneu o
athy</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-32427
00308685.j
g" /></div>
1402783498648 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Lyme Disease?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Doxycycline; Ceft iaxone}}</div>
1402783520457 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Sy
hilis?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::<i>T e
onema
allidum</i>}}</div>
1402784024193 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Sy
hilis?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Penicillin G}}</div>
1402784054464 1395802358422 {{c1::P ima y Sy
hilis}} is a ty
e of Sy
hilis t
hat
esents with localized, <b>
ainless</b>&nbs
;chanc es.<div><b /></div><div
><img s c="
aste-4118873637280.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><i>So y, but you kne
w the e was going to be a dick
ic when it came to Sy
hilis...</i></div>
1402785088773 1395802358422 What ty
e of mic osco
y is equi ed to visualize
<i>T e
onema
allidum</i>&nbs
;in the fluid f om Sy
hilis chanc es?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Da k-field mic osco
y}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-42649
02525152.j
g" /></div>
1402785400150 1395802358422 {{c1::Seconda y Sy
hilis}} is a fo m of Sy
hilis
that
esents as a disseminated disease with a&nbs
;<b>maculo
a
ula ash</b>&n
bs
;on the <b>
alms</b>&nbs
;and <b>soles</b>. <b /><div><i><b>S</b>econda y =
&nbs
;<b>S</b>ystemic</i></div>
1402785772078 1395802358422 {{c1::Seconda y Sy
hilis}} is a fo m of Sy
hilis
that
esents with <b>condylomata lata</b>.
<b /><div><i>These can also be
confi med via da k-field mic osco
y once the T e
onemes have been sam
led.</i></
div><div><i><b>S</b>econda y = <b>S</b>ystemic</i></div>
1402786184387 1395802358422 {{c1::Te tia y Sy
hilis}} is a fo m of Sy
hilis
that
esents with <b>Gummas</b>&nbs
;(ch onic g anulomas that fo m).
1402786224435 1395802358422 {{c1::Ao titis}} is a com
lication of <b>Te tia
y</b>&nbs
;Sy
hilis that
esents due to <b>dest uction of the vasa vaso um</b>&
nbs
;at la ge blood vessels.
1402786292768 1395802358422 {{c1::Te tia y Sy
hilis}} is a fo m of Sy
hilis
that
esents with <b>ao titis</b>&nbs
;that occu s due to dest uction of the va
sa vaso um.
1402786405306 1395802358422 {{c1::Tabes Do salis (Sy
hilitic Myelo
athy)}} i
s a featu e of <b>Te tia y</b>&nbs
;Sy
hilis that
esents with&nbs
;<b>gene al

a esis</b>&nbs
;and <b>loss of sensation</b>&nbs
;due to slow degene ation of t
he do sal column of the s
inal co d.
1402786769436 1395802358422 {{c1::A gyll-Robe tson
u
il}} is a featu e of <
b>Te tia y</b>&nbs
;Sy
hilis that is desc ibed as a
athological
u
il that <b>s
hows accommodation</b>&nbs
;but <b>does not eact to light</b>. <b /><div><i>i.
e. the
u
il const icts to focus on a nea object, but <u>does not cont ict</u>&
nbs
;when ex
osed to b ight light.</i></div><div><i>aka <b>P ostitute</b>&nbs
;P
u
il (lol, no lie, it's on
age 142 of fi st aid)</i></div>
1402787091177 1395802358422 What fo m of Sy
hilis is associated with <b>b oa
d-based ataxia</b>&nbs
;and a <b>
ositive Rombe g sign</b>?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Te tia y sy
hilis; Neu osy
hilis}}</div>
1402787284311 1395802358422 What fo m of Sy
hilis is associated with <b>Cha
cot joint </b>(Neu o
athic a th o
athy)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Te tia y Sy

hilis; Neu osy
hilis}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Cha cot joint involves
og essive
degene ation of a weight bea ing joint due to dec eased
e i
he al sensation/


o
ioce
tion/moto cont ol (e.g. Neu osy
hilis).</i></div>
1402787503569 1395802358422 Which fo m of Sy
hilis
esents with <b>st oke w
ithout hy
e tension</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Te tia y Sy
hilis}}</div>
1402787527065 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Sy
hilis}} is a fo m of sy
hili
s that
esents with <b>sabe shin </b>and <b>saddle nose</b>. <b /><div><i>Co
ngenital sy
hilis can be
evented by ea ly t eatment in the mothe , as
lacenta
l t ansmission ty
ically occu s <u>afte </u>&nbs
;the fi st t imeste .</i></div>
1402787736314 1395802358422 {{c1::Sabe shin}} is a mo
hological featu e of
Congenital Sy
hilis that
esents as a sha
ante io bowing of the tibia.
1402787765159 1395802358422 {{c1::Saddle Nose}} is a mo
hological featu e o
f Congenital Sy
hilis that
esents with a loss of height of the nose due to a c
olla
sed nose b idge (nasal do sum).
1402787831199 1395802358422 Which fo m of Sy
hilis is associated with <b>CN
VIII (Vestibulocochlea Ne ve) Deafness</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Congenit
al sy
hilis}}</div>
1402787876141 1395802358422 {{c1::Hutchinson teeth}} is a mo
hological feat
u e of Congenital Sy
hilis that is desc ibed as teeth that a e <b>notched</b>,&n
bs
;<b>smalle </b> and <b>mo e widely s
aced</b> than no mal.<div><b /></div><d
iv><img s c="
aste-6545530159374.j
g" /></div>
1402787985378 1395802358422 Which ty
e of Sy
hilis is associated with <b>Hut
chinson teeth?</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div>{{c1::Congenital Sy
hilis}}</div>
1402788064471 1395802358422 {{c1::Mulbe y mola s}} a e a mo
hological feat
u e of Congenital Sy
hilis that a e desc ibed as multi
le ounded udimenta y en
amel cus
s on the
e manent fi st mola s.
1402788779441 1395802358422 {{c1::VDRL}} is a non-s
ecific test fo Sy
hilis
that detects a nons
ecific antibody that eacts with beef ca dioli
in.
1402789401319 1395802358422 {{c1::VDRL}} is a non-s
ecific test fo Sy
hilis
that involves many false
ositive test esults.
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-7962869367009.j
g" /></div>
1402789442508 1395802358422 {{c1::Ja isch-He xheime Reaction}} is a flu-lik
e synd ome that
esents afte antibiotics a e administe ed in a
atient due to
wides
ead elease of
y ogens f om killed bacte ia.
1402789637427 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Ana
lasmosis?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>Ana
lasma s

.</i>}}</div>
1402794149604 1395802358422 How it Ana
lasmosis (<i>Ana
lasma s

.</i>) t an
smitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ixodes</i>&nbs
;tick (which lives on dee
and mice)}}</div>
1402794189885 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Cat Sc atch Disease?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ba tonella s

.</i>}}</div>
1402794201690 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Bacilla y Angiomatosis?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ba tonella s

.</i>}}</div>
1402794228777 1395802358422 How is Bacilla y Angiomatosis (<i>Ba tonella s


.</i>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cat sc atch}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Ba tonella also causes cat sc atch disease.</i></div>
1402794276603 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Rela
sing Feve ?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bo elia ecu entis</i>}}</div>
1402794294219 1395802358422 How is Rela
sing Feve (<i>Bo elia ecu entis<
/i>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Louse}}</div>
1402794315636 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::louse}} is an insect that se ves
as the vecto fo <i>Bo elia ecu entis</i>&nbs
;(Rela
sing Feve ) as it has v
a iable su face antigens.
<b /><div><i>The antigen va iability makes it
ecu ent.</i></div>
1402794360559 1395802358422 What is the etiology of B ucellosis?<div><b />{
{c1::<i>B ucella s

.</i>}}</div>
1402794808165 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Undulent Feve ?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>B ucella s

.</i>}}</div>
1402794822559 1395802358422 What food is associated with <i>B ucella s

.</i
>&nbs
;infection?<div><b />{{c1::Un
asteu ized dai y}}</div>
1402794842557 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is associated with <i>Cam

ylobacte jejuni</i>?<div><b />{{c1::Bloody dia hea}}</div>

1402795042313 1395802358422 Which
et animals a e associated with <i>Cam
ylo
bacte </i>&nbs
;infection?<div><b />{{c1::Pu

ies}}</div>
1402795071306 1395802358422 Aside f om
u

ies, how else is <i>Cam
ylobacte
s

.</i>&nbs
;t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Livestock (fecal-o al via
ingestion of unde cooked meat)}}</div>
1402795398398 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Psittacosis?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydo
hila
sittaci</i>}}</div>
1402795417638 1395802358422 How is Psittacosis (<i>Chlamydo
hila
sittaci</i
>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Pa ots</u>&nbs
;o othe bi ds}}<
/div>
1402795442685 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Q Feve ?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Coxiella bu netti</i>}}</div>
1402795461611 1395802358422 How is Q Feve (<i>Coxiella bu netti</i>) t ansm
itted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ae osols of cattle/shee
amniotic fluid}}</div
>
1402795486165 1395802358422 What is the etiology of E lichiosis?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::<i>E lichia chaffeensis</i>}}</div>
1402795514168 1395802358422 How is E lichiosis (<i>E lichia chaffeensis</i>)
t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Lone Sta ticks}}</div>
1402795542279 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Tula emia?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>F ancisella tula ensis</i>}}</div>
1402795561828 1395802358422 How is Tula emia (<i>F ancisella tula ensis</i>)
t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Rabbits</u>, ticks, dee fly}}</div>
1402795592883 1395802358422 What is the etiology of <b>E
idemic </b>Ty
hus?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Rickettsia
owazekii</i>}}</div> <b /><div><i>E<
b style="text-deco ation: unde line; ">P</b>idemic = <b style="text-deco ation:
unde line; ">P</b> owazeki</i></div>
1402795760707 1395802358422 What is the vecto fo <b>E
idemic</b>&nbs
;Ty
h
us&nbs
;(<i>Rickettsia
owazeki</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Human Body Lou
se}}</div>
1402796062112 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Rocky Mountain S
otted F
eve ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Rickettsia ickettsii</i>}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>All Rickettsiae a e&nbs
;<b>Obligate int acellula o ganism</b>&nbs
;as th
ey equi e CoA and NAD+. They cannot synthesize ATP.</i></div>
1402796136402 1395802358422 What is the vecto fo Rocket Mountain S
otted F
eve (<i>Rickettsia ickettsii</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>De macento </
i>&nbs
;ticks}}</div>
1402796160322 1395802358422 What is the etiology of <b>Endemic</b>&nbs
;Ty
h
us?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Rickettsia ty
hi</i>}}</div>
1402796183971 1395802358422 What is the vecto fo <b>Endemic</b>&nbs
;Ty
hu
s (<i>Rickettsia ty
hi</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fleas}}</div>
1402796200016 1395802358422 What is the cause of Bubonic Plague?<div><b />{
{c1::<i>Ye sinia
estis</i>}}</div>
1402796398454 1395802358422 How is Bubonic Plague (<i>Ye sinia
estis</i>) t
ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fleas}}</div>
1402796422932 1395802358422 What animals a e the ese voi fo <i>Ye sinia

estis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rats; P ai ie Dogs}}</div>
1402796444702 1395802358422 Which
leomo
hic, g am-<b>va iable</b>&nbs
; od
is known to be involved in <b>vaginosis</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ga d
ne ella vaginalis</i>}}</div> <div><b /></div>
1402796626970 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ga dne ella vaginalis</i>}} is a
leomo

hic bacillus that causes a vaginosis that
esents with a <b>g ay vaginal disc
ha ge</b>&nbs
;that has a <b>fishy</b>&nbs
;smell.
<b /><div><i>Associated
with sexual activity, but is not sexually t ansmitted.</i></div>
1402796857261 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ga dne ella vaginalis</i>}} is a
leomo

hic, <b>g am-va iable</b> bacillus that yields a <b>non
ainful</b>&nbs
;vagino
sis.
<b /><div><i>The non
ainful
oint is im
o tant as vaginitis
esents wi
th
ain.</i></div>
1402796943140 1395802358422 {{c1::Clue cells}} a e cells that featu e vagino
sis caused by <i>Ga dne ella vaginalis</i>&nbs
;and a e desc ibed as <b>vaginal

e
ithelial cells cove ed with </b><i><b>Ga dne ella vaginalis</b>.</i><div><i><b
/></i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-11751030522135.j
g" /></i></div> <b /><d
iv><i>Visible unde the mic osco
e.</i></div>
1402797071989 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo vaginosis caused by <i
>Ga dne ella vaginalis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Met onidazole}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The anae obic ove g owth of bacte ia seen alongside the vaginosis
can be t eated with Clindamycin.</i></div>
1402797631619 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo all diso de s caused b
y <i>Rickettsia s

</i>.?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Doxycycline}}</div>
1402797720987 1395802358422 Whe e in the United States does Rocky Mountain S

otted Feve
ima ily manifest?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::South Atlantic state
s, es
ecially No th Ca oline}}</div>
1402798047687 1395802358422 {{c1::Rocky Mountain S
otted Feve }} is a zoonot
ic infection caused by <i>Rickettsia ickettsii</i>&nbs
;that
esents with a a
sh that ty
ically sta ts at the <b>w ists and ankles</b>&nbs
;and then s
eads t
o the <b>t unk,
alms and soles</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-131511
89860772.j
g" /></div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-14160507175097.j
g" /></div>
1402799228982 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
hus}} is a Rickettsial disease that
e
sents with a <b> ash that sta ts cent ally and s
eads out</b>, but <b>s
a es th
e
alms and soles</b>. <b /><div><i><b>R</b>MSF (R. <b><u> </u></b>icketsii) =

alms/soles/w<b>R</b>ists</i></div><div><i><b>T</b>y
hus (R. ty
hi; R.
owazek
ii) = <b>T</b> unk</i></div>
1402799339029 1395802358422 {{c1::Eh lichiosis}} and {{c2::Ana
lasmosis}} a
e Rickettsial diseases that
esents with <b>monocytes with mo ulae</b>&nbs
;in
thei cyto
lasm.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-14538464297377.j
g" /></di
v>
1402799415933 1395802358422 {{c1::Mo ulae}} a e <b>be y-like</b> cyto
lasmi
c inclusions seen in the monocytes of a
atient with Eh lichiosis o Ana
lasmosi
s.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-14534169330081.j
g" /></div>
1402799666317 1395802358422 {{c1::Q Feve }} is a Rickettsial disease that ca
n be obtained via ae osolized s
o es eleased f om tick feces o cattle
lacenta
.
1402799860948 1395802358422 {{c1::Q Feve }} is a Rickettsial diso de caused
by <i>Coxiella bu netti</i>&nbs
;that
esents as
neumonia. <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-15302968475811.j
g" /></div>
1402799896649 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::Elementa y body}} is the mo
holo
gical fo m of Chlamydiae that is <b>infectious</b>&nbs
;and <b>ente s the host c
ell via endocytosis</b>.
<b /><div><i><b>E</b>lementa y = Is "<b>e</b>nf
ectious" and&nbs
;<b>e</b>nte s ta get host cell via <b>e</b>ndocytosis</i></div
>
1402800491518 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::Reticulate body}} is the mo
holo
gical fo m of Chlamydiae that <b> e
licates</b>&nbs
;inside the ta get host cell
by fission.
<b /><div><i><b>R</b>eticulate body = <b>R</b>e
licates into el
ementa y bodies</i></div>
1402800544876 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Reite Synd ome?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>}}</div>
1402800583375 1395802358422 {{c1::Reite Synd ome}} is a ty
e of eactive a
th itis that is caused by <i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>.
1402800604002 1395802358422 Which Chlamydiae o ganism is known to cause Foll
icula Conjunctivitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>}}
</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-15921443766555.j
g" /></div>
1402800819957 1395802358422 Which Chlamydiae o ganism is known to cause nong
onococcal u eth itis and
elvic inflammato y disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1:
:<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>}}</div>
1402800864696 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Chlamydo
hila
neumoniae</i>}} and&nbs

;{{c2::<i>Chlamydo
hila
sittaci</i>}} a e 2 Chlamydiae o ganisms that cause aty

ical
neumonia via ae osol t ansmission.
1402800912650 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo all Chlamydiae infecti
ons?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Azith omycin (favou ed Abx due to one-time t eat
ment); Doxycycline}}</div>

1402800943048 1395802358422 {{c1::Mu amic Acid}} is a suga acid commonly fo
und in bacte ial cell walls, howeve <b>not in Chlamydiae</b>.
1402801168380 1395802358422 Which se oty
es of <i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&
nbs
;a e associated with ch onic infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A; B; C}}
</div>
1402801299661 1395802358422 Which se oty
es of&nbs
;<i>Chlamydia t achomatis
</i>&nbs
;a e associated with blindness due to Follicula Conjunctivitis, es
eci
ally in Af ica?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A; B; C}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b
>ABC</b>&nbs
;= <b>A</b>f ica; <b>B</b>lindness; <b>C</b>onjunctivitis/<b>C</b>h
onic infection</i></div>
1402801348122 1395802358422 Which se oty
es of&nbs
;<i>Chlamydia t achomatis
</i>&nbs
;a e associated with U eth itis and Pelvic Inflammato y Disease (PID)?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::D-K}}</div> <b /><div><i>The D--K se oty
es a e ass
ociated with STD/STI (and eve ything else not s
ecific to se oty
es A, B, C, L13)</i></div>
1402801435247 1395802358422 Which se oty
es of&nbs
;<i>Chlamydia t achomatis
</i>&nbs
;a e associated with ecto
ic
egnancy?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::D-K}
}</div>
1402801445026 1395802358422 Which se oty
es of&nbs
;<i>Chlamydia t achomatis
</i>&nbs
;a e associated with Neonatal Pneumonia (Staccato Cough)?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::D-K}}</div>
1402801458083 1395802358422 Which se oty
es of&nbs
;<i>Chlamydia t achomatis
</i>&nbs
;a e associated with Neonatal Conjunctivitis?<div><b />{{c1::D-K}}</di
v>
<b /><div><i>Neonatal disease is ty
ically acqui ed du ing childbi th t
h ough the bi thing canal.</i></div>
1402801479820 1395802358422 Which se oty
es of&nbs
;<i>Chlamydia t achomatis
</i>&nbs
;a e associated with <b>Lym
hog anuloma Vene eum</b>?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::L1; L2; L3}}</div>
1402801500307 1395802358422 {{c1::Lym
hog anuloma Vene eum}} is an STD cause
d by <i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&nbs
;(L1, L2, L3) that <b>initially&nbs
;</b>

esents with <b>small,
ainless ulce s</b>&nbs
;on the genitals.
1402801569211 1395802358422 {{c1::Lym
hog anuloma Vene eum}} is an STD cause
d by <i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&nbs
;(L1; L2; L3) that
esents with <b>swolle
n,
ainful inguinal lym
h nodes</b>&nbs
;that ulce ate into <b>"buboes"</b>&nbs

;in its late stages.
1402801617772 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Lym
hog anuloma Vene e
um?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Doxycycline}}</div>
1402801636667 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Myco
lasma
neumoniae</i>}} is a
oo ly
g am-staining bacte ia that is a classic cause of aty
ical <b>"walking"</b>&nbs

;
neumonia.
<b /><div><i>Walking
neumonia is
neumonia with an insidious o
nset, headache, non
oductive cough and
atchy/diffuse inte stitial infilt ate.<
/i></div><div><i>Chest x- ay often looks wo se than the
atient is.</i></div>
1402802277542 1395802358422 Which class of immunoglobulin is found in high l
evels as cold agglutinins in aty
ical
neumonia caused by <i>Myco
lasma
neumoni
ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgM}}</div> <b /><div><i>Yes, I know this i
s a te ibly wo ded question. Just emembe that IgM tite s a e elevated in M.

neumoniae infection.</i></div>
1402802351448 1395802358422 What aga is used to g ow <i>Myco
lasma
neumoni
ae</i>?<div><b />{{c1::Eaton aga }}</div>
1402802366199 1395802358422 How does <i>Myco
lasma
neumoniae</i>&nbs
;g am
stain?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::It doesn't; The e is no cell wall}}</div>
1402802390902 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Myco
lasma
neumoni
ae</i>&nbs
;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mac olide, Doxycycline, <b>o <
/b> Fluo oquinolone}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Penicillins a e ineffective as the
e is no cell wall.</i></div>
1402802429526 1395802358422 Which age g ou
is mo e commonly affected by myc
o
lasmal
neumonia (<i>Myco
lasma
neumoniae</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&l
t; 30 y/o}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The e a e f equent outb eaks in milita y
ec uits and
isons.</i></div>
1402932958917 1395802358422 Which <b>mo
hological</b>&nbs
;ty
e of fungi a

e known to cause Systemic Mycoses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dimo
hic fungi; e
xce
t fo Coccidiomycosis (s
he ule in tissue, not yeast)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Remembe , Dimo
hic fungi a e:</i></div><div><i>- <b>Mold in the Cold</b>&
nbs
;(20 C)</i></div><div><i>- <b>Yeast in the Heat</b>&nbs
;(37 C)</i></div>
1402933081425 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>local</b>&nbs
;myco
ses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fluconazole o It aconazole}}</div>
1402933128075 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>systemic</b>&nbs
;m
ycoses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Am
hote icin B}}</div>
1402933148930 1395802358422 {{c1::Systemic mycoses}} is a <b>b oad ty
e</b>&
nbs
;of mycosis commonly caused by dimo
hic fungi.
<b /><div><i>All of the
m can cause
neumonia and can disseminate.</i></div><div><i>All can mimic TB (g
anuloma fo mation), but unlike TB, the e is no
e son-to-
e son t ansmission.</i
></div>
1402933225035 1395802358422 Which Systemic Mycosis is endemic in <b>Mississi


i</b>&nbs
;and the <b>Ohio Rive valleys</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Histo

lasmosis}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Causes
neumonia</i>.</div>
1402935063546 1395802358422 How is Histo
lasmosis commonly t ansmitted?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Bi d o bat d o

ings}}</div>
1402935087414 1395802358422 {{c1::Histo
lasmosis}} is a systemic mycosis tha
t
esents with <b>mac o
hages filled with </b><i style="font-weight: bold; ">Hi
sto
lasma</i>, as they a e smalle than RBCs.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
as
te-7189775253731.j
g" /></div> <b /><div><i style="font-weight: bold; ">H</i><
i>isto <b>H</b>ides in mac o
hages</i></div>
1402935257441 1395802358422 {{c1::Blastomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis that
is endemic in <b>states east of the Mississi

i Rive </b>&nbs
;and <b>Cent al A
me ica</b>.
1402935487673 1395802358422 {{c1::Blastomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis that

esents with <b>b oad-base budding</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-7
988639170784.j
g" /></div>
<div><b /></div><i>Causes inflammato y lung dis
ease and can disseminate to skin and bone.</i><div><i>Fo ms g anulomatous nodule
s.<b /></i><div><i>Blasto buds b oadly.</i></div></div>
1402935574119 1395802358422 Which systemic mycosis involves buds that a e th
e <b>same size as RBCs</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Blastomycosis}}</div><div
><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-7984344203488.j
g" /></div>
1402935598377 1395802358422 Which systemic mycosis involves int acellula ye
ast that a e <b>smalle than RBCs</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Histo
lasmosis
}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-8048768712926.j
g" /></div>
1402935669129 1395802358422 {{c1::Coccidiomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis th
at is endemic in the <b>Southweste n United States</b>&nbs
;and <b>Califo nia</b
>.
<b /><div><i>Causes
neumonia and meningitis.</i></div><div><i>Can diss
eminate to bone and skin.</i></div>
1402935858931 1395802358422 Which systemic mycoses often shows an <b>inc eas
e in case ate afte ea thquakes</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Coccidiomycosis
}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is due to s
o es in dust being th own u
into
the ai and becoming s
he ules in the lungs.</i></div>
1402935937768 1395802358422 {{c1::Coccidiomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis th
at
esents with <b>s
he ules</b>&nbs
;filled with endos
o es.&nbs
;<div><b /><
/div><div><img s c="
aste-8680128905440.j
g" /></div>
1402936017676 1395802358422 {{c1::Coccidiomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis th
at
esents with <b>e ythema nodosum</b>&nbs
;("Dese t bum
s") and <b>a th algia
s</b>&nbs
;("Dese t heumatism").
1402936073073 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa acoccidioidomycosis}} is a systemic myc
osis that is endemic in <b>Latin Ame ica</b>.
1402936094775 1395802358422 {{c1::Coccidiomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis th
at
esents with <b>s
he ules</b>&nbs
;that a e <b>much la ge than RBCs</b>.<di
v><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-8675833938144.j
g" /></div>
1402936130721 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa acoccidioidomycosis}} is a systemic myc
osis that
esents with <b>budding yeast</b>&nbs
;with a <b>"ca
tain's wheel</b>
" fo mation that is <b>much la ge than RBCs</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c=
"
aste-9238474653922.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-9251359555676

.j
g" /></div>
1402952353022 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Tinea Ve sicolou ?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Malassezia s

.</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s
c="
aste-10849087389973.j
g" /></div> <div><b /></div><i>Malassezia fu fu ; M
alassezia globosa; Malassezia sym
odialis</i><b /><div><i>Occu s in hot, humid
weathe .</i></div>
1402954770372 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Ve sicolou }} is a cutaneous mycosis
that involves damage to melanocytes and subsequent <b>hy
e - o hy
o
igmented

atches</b>&nbs
;due to acids
oduced f om deg adation of li
ids.
<b /><d
iv><i>Caused by&nbs
;</i><i>Malassezia fu fu ; Malassezia globosa; Malassezia sy
m
odialis</i></div>
1402954965425 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Tinea Ve sicolou ?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::To
ical Miconazole; Selenium Sulfide (Selsun)}}</div>
1402955340863 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Malassezia s

.</i>}} is a fungus that
commonly causes cutaneous mycosis and has a <b>"S
aghetti and meatball" a

ea an
ce</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-10844792422677.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Malassezia fu fu ; Malassezia globosa; Malassezia sym
odialis</i><
/div>
1402955392878 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Pedis}} is cutaneous mycosis of the
foot.
1402955655158 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea C u is}} is cutaneous mycosis of the
g oin.
1402955671031 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Co
o is}} is a cutaneous mycosis of
the body that
esents with a <b> ingwo m</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="

aste-12537009537268.j
g" /></div>
1402955744163 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Ca
itis}} is a cutaneous mycosis tha
t affects the head and scal
.
1402955759642 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Unguium (Onychomycosis)}} is a cutan
eous mycosis that is seen at the finge nails.
1402957102602 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mic os
o um</i>}},&nbs
;{{c2::<i>T icho

hyton</i>}} and&nbs
;{{c3::<i>E
ide mo
hyton</i>}} a e 3 s
ecies of De mato
hyt
es that cause cutaneous mycosis that
esent as
u itic lesions with a cent al
clea ing, esembling a ing.
1402957605543 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} is a dimo
hic f
ungi that commonly causes o al and eso
hageal th ush in the immunocom
omised.<d
iv><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-13146894893401.j
g" /></div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Neonates, ste oids, diabetes, AIDS.</i></div>
1402958910381 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} is a dimo
hic f
ungi that commonly causes <b>vulvovaginitis</b>, es
ecially in diabetics and fol
lowing antibiotic use.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-13142599926105.j
g"
/></div>
1402958973567 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} is a dimo
hic f
ungi that commonly causes dia
e ash.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-1314
2599926105.j
g" /></div>
1402959009960 1395802358422 Which dimo
hic fungi commonly causes endoca dit
is in IV d ug use s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13142599926105.j
g" /></div>
1402959047158 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} is a dimo
hic f
ungi that commonly causes o

o tunistic infections and
esents as <b>
seudohy
h
ae/budding yeasts</b>&nbs
;at 20 C and <b>ge m tubes</b>&nbs
;at 37 C.<div><b /
></div><div><img s c="
aste-13142599926105.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Ps
eudohy
hae/budding yeast on the left.</i></div><div><i>Ge m tubes on the ight.<
/i></div>
1402959230824 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Vaginal Candidiasis (V
ulvovaginitis)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A to
ical azole}}</div>
1402959354647 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo O al/Eso
hageal Candid
iasis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fluconazole; Cas
ofungin}}</div>
1402959387655 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Systemic Candidiasis?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fluconazole, Am
hote icin B o Cas
ofungin}}</div>
1402959422133 1395802358422 {{c1::As
e gillosis}} is an o

o tunistic fungal

infection that is commonly seen in
atients with Ch onic G anulomatous Disease.
<b /><div><i>Also seen in the immunocom
omised.</i></div>
1402959831123 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>As
e igllus fumigatus</i>}} is an o

o
tunistic fungal s
ecies that causes As
e gillosis and
esents with <b>se
tate h
y
hae that b anch at 45 deg ee angles</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste13975823581529.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Acute angles in As
e gillosis.</i>
</div><div><i>Not dimo
hic.</i></div>
1402959935910 1395802358422 {{c1::Conidio
ho e}} is a st uctu al fo m of <i>
As
e gillosis fumigatus </i>that is desc ibed as adiating chains of s
o es.<div
><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-14113262535000.j
g" /></div>
1402959996837 1395802358422 {{c1::Alle gic B oncho
ulmona y As
e gillosis (A
BPA)}} is a
ulmona y diso de caused by <i>As
e gillosis fumigatus</i>&nbs
;tha
t is associated with <b>asthma</b> and <b>cystic fib osis</b>. <b /><div><i>Ma
y cause b onchiectasis and eosino
hilia.</i></div>
1402960110587 1395802358422 {{c1::B onchiectasis}} and&nbs
;{{c3::eosino
hil
ia}} a e 2
ossible com
lications of Alle gic B oncho
ulmona y As
e gillosis (AB
PA).
1402960389799 1395802358422 {{c1::As
e gillomas}} a e masses of <i>As
e gill
osis fumigatus</i>&nbs
;that a e commonly seen in lung cavities, es
ecially afte
Tube culosis.
1402960482033 1395802358422 {{c1::Aflatoxin}} is a toxin
oduced by <i>As
e
gillosis s
.</i>&nbs
;that is associated with causing he
atocellula ca cinoma.
1402960556751 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>C y
tococcus neofo mans</i>}} is a heav
ily enca
sulated yest that is commonly found in soil and
igeon d o

ings.<div><
b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-15427522527574.j
g" /></div>
1402960871101 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>C y
tococcus neofo mans</i>}} is an o


o tunistic fungus that
esents as 5-10 um yeasts with wide ca
sula halos and u
nequal budding.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-15423227560278.j
g" /></div
>
<b /><div><i>The stain used is India Ink</i></div>
1402960924078 1395802358422 Which o

o tunistic fungus causes C y
tococcal M
eningitis and C y
tococcosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>C y
tococcus neofo m
ans</i>}}</div>
1402960955725 1395802358422 How is <i>C y
tococcus neofo mans</i>&nbs
;infec
tion acqui ed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhalation; s
eads to the meninges he
matogenously}}</div>
1402961020774 1395802358422 What stain is used to visualize <i>C y
tococcus
neofo mans</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::India ink and mucica mine}}</div>
1402961071496 1395802358422 Which o

o tunistic fungus is associated with <b
>"soa
bubble" lesions</b>&nbs
;in the b ain?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>C y

tococcus neofo mans</i>}}</div> <img s c="
aste-15423227560278.j
g" />
1402961188392 1395802358422 {{c1::Latex agglutination test}} is a diagnostic
test used to detect the
olysaccha ide ca
sula antigen of <i>C y
tococcus neof
o mans</i>.
<b /><div><i>S
ecific test.</i></div>
1402961229963 1395802358422 {{c1::Muco mycosis}} is an o

o tunistic yeast i
nfection that is mostly seen in ketoacidotic diabetic and leukemic
atients.
<div><b /></div><i>The fungi
olife ate in the blood vessel wall when the e is
an excess of ketones and glucose. F om the e they
enet ate the c ibifo m
late
and ente the b ain.</i><b /><div><i>Ty
ically caused by Muco s
. and Rhizo
u
s s

.</i></div>
1402961922429 1395802358422 {{c1::Muco mycosis}} is an o

o tunistic fungal
infections that involves
olife ation of fungi in the blood vessel walls due to
an excess of ketones and glucose.
<b /><div><i>F om the e the
enet ate t
he c ibifo m
late and ente the b ain.</i></div>
1402961972079 1395802358422 {{c1::Muco mycosis}} is an o

o tunistic fungal
infection that
esents with <b> hinoce eb al</b>&nbs
;and <b>f ontal lobe absce
sses</b>.
1402962164915 1395802358422 {{c1::Muco mycosis}} is an o

o tunistic fungal
infection that
esents with <b>headache</b>, <b>facial
ain</b>, and a <u style
="font-weight: bold; ">black nec otic escha on the face</u>. <b /><div><i>Th
e e may be c anial ne ve involvement as well.</i></div>

1402962307146 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Muco s

.</i>}} is a s
ecies of o

o t
unistic fungus that can cause Muco mycosis and
esents as <b>i egula , b oad,
nonse
tate hy
hae</b>&nbs
;b anching at wide angles.<div><b /></div><div><img s
c="
aste-17532056502616.j
g" /></div>
1402962549139 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Muco mycosis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Am
hote icin B}}</div>
1402962563511 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Muco s

.</i>}} and&nbs
;{{c2::<i>Rhiz
o
us s

.</i>}} a e 2 s
ecies of o

o tunistic fungus that can cause Muco mycosi
s.
1402962603661 1395802358422 Which s
ecies of <i>Pneumocystis</i>&nbs
;causes
<i>Pneumocystis</i>&nbs
;Pneumonia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pneumocystis
ji ovecii</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-18120467022102.j
g" /
></div> <b /><div><i>A diffuse inte stitial
neumonia seen in the immunocom
om
ised, es
ecially AIDS.</i></div><div><i>Most infections a e asym
tomatic.</i></d
iv><div><i>Diagnosed by lung bio
sy o lavage.</i></div>
1402962790436 1395802358422 How is <i>Pneumocystis ji ovecii</i>&nbs
;acqui
ed?<div><b />{{c1::Inhalation}}</div> <div><b /></div>
1402962938143 1395802358422 Which o

o tunistic fungus is associated with a

neumonia that yields a <b>diffuse, bilate al chest x- ay</b>?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::<i>Pneumocystis ji ovecii</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="

aste-18116172054806.j
g" /></div>
1402963075669 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pneumocystis ji ovecii</i>}} is an o

o
tunistic fungus that is a <b>disc-sha
ed yeast</b>&nbs
;that fo ms of <b>methen
amine silve stain</b>&nbs
;of lung tissue.<div><img s c="
aste-18116172054806.j

g" /></div>
1402963154951 1395802358422 Which d ugs a e used as
o
hylaxis fo <i>Pneum
ocystis ji ovecii</i>&nbs
;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Da
sone; Atovaq
uone}}</div>
1402963462795 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Pneumocystis ji ove
cii</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TMP-SMX; Pentamidine}}</div>
1402963483300 1395802358422 What CD4 count in AIDS
atients is equi ed befo
e sta ting
o
hylaxis t eatment?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 200 cells/mm<
su
>3</su
>}}</div>
1402963815793 1395802358422 What is the etiology of S
o ot ichosis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>S
o oth ix schenckii</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img
s c="
aste-19524921327895.j
g" /></div>
1402964058744 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>S
o oth ix schenkii</i>}} is a <b>dimo

hic, ciga sha
ed budding yeast</b>&nbs
;that lives on vegetation and causes S

o ot ichosis.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-19520626360599.j
g" /></div>
1402964183851 1395802358422 {{c1::S
o ot ichosis}} is an o

o tunistic funga
l infection that is commonly acqui ed th ough t aumatic int oduction into the sk
in, ty
ically by a ose tho n. <b /><div><i>Hence, "<b>Rose Ga dene 's" Diseas
e</b>.</i></div><div><i>T auma and infection causes a local
ustule o ulce wit
h nodules along d aining lym
hatics (i.e. Ascending Lym
angitis).</i></div><div>
<i>The e is little systemic illness.</i></div>
1402964283249 1395802358422 {{c1::Ascending Lym
hangitis}} is a com
lication
of S
o ot ichosis that esults f om local
ustule/ulce fo mation with nodules
along d aining lym
hatics following t aumatic infection.
1402964422607 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo S
o ot ichosis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::It aconazole o Potassium Iodide}}</div>
1403021079329 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Gia diasis?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Gia dia lamblia</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="
as
te-579820585185.j
g" /></div>
1403021176541 1395802358422 {{c1::Gia diasis}} is a GI
otozoal infection t
hat
esents with <b>bloating, flatulence, </b>and <b>foul-smelling, fatty dia
hea</b>.
1403021219016 1395802358422 Which demog a
hic is often affected by Gia diasi
s (<i>Gia dia lamblia</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cam
e s/hike s}}</div>
1403021279364 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is seen in Gia diasis?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fatty, foul-smelling dia hea}}</div>

1403021597178 1395802358422 {{c1::Gia diasis}} is a
otozoal GI infection t
hat is diagnosed by t o
hozoites o cysts in the stool.<div><b /></div><div><im
g s c="
aste-1026497183966.j
g" /><img s c="
aste-1039382085856.j
g" /></div>
1403021659604 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Gia diasis?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Met onidazole}}</div>
1403021666931 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Amoebiasis?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Entamoeba histolytica</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s
c="
aste-1610612736224.j
g" /></div>
1403021940684 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is seen in Amoebiasis?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody dia hea (dysente y)}}</div>
1403021960742 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoebiasis}} is a GI
otozoal infection t
hat
esents with a <b>live abscess</b>&nbs
;that is full of an <b>"anchovy
as
te" exudate</b>.
1403021999773 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoebiasis}} is a GI
otozoal infection t
hat
esents with <b>RUQ
ain</b>.
<b /><div><i>The RUQ
ain is often due
to GI ulce ation and
otential colonic u
tu e.</i></div>
1403022129908 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoebiasis}} is a GI
otozoal infection t
hat
esents with <b>flask-sha
ed ulce s</b>&nbs
;at the GI Submucosa. <b /><d
iv><i>Entamoeba histolytica causes the ulce ation.</i></div>
1403022177216 1395802358422 How is Gia diasis t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Cysts in wate }}</div>
1403022186025 1395802358422 How is Amoebiasis (<i>Entamoeba histolytica</i>)
t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cysts in wate }}</div>
1403022347139 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoebiasis}} is a GI
otozoal infection t
hat is diagnosed by <b>t o
hozoites</b>&nbs
;in the stool that contain <b>RBCs i
n thei cyto
lasm.</b><div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-1606317768928.j
g" /
></div>
1403022448145 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoebiasis}} is a GI
otozoal infection t
hat is diagnosed by <b>cysts</b>&nbs
;with <b>u
to 4 nuclei </b>in the stool.<d
iv><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-2130303779037.j
g" /></div>
1403022529724 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Amoebiasis (<i>Entamoe
ba histolytica</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Met onidazole}}</div>
1403022588298 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>&nbs
;asym
tomatic

asse s of <i>Entamoeba histolytica </i>cysts</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Iod
oquinol}}</div>
1403022678474 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>C y
tos
o idium</i>}} is a GI
otozoal

athogen that causes seve e dia hea in AIDS. <b /><div><i>It causes mild, wa
te y dia hea in the immunocom
etent.</i></div>
1403022798976 1395802358422 How is <i>C y
tos
o idium</i>&nbs
;t ansmitted?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Oocysts in the wate }}</div>
1403022814289 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>C y
tos
o idium</i>}} is a GI
otozoal

athogen that is diagnosed by visualizing <b>oocysts</b>&nbs
;on an <b style="t
ext-deco ation: unde line; ">acid-fast</b>&nbs
;stain.<div><b /></div><div><img
s c="
aste-2890512990431.j
g" /></div>
1403022865230 1395802358422 What ty
e of stain is equi ed to diagnose <i>C
y
tos
o idium</i>&nbs
;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Acid-fast}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-2886218023135.j
g" /></div>
1403022896510 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>C y
tos
o idium</i>
&nbs
;infection in <b>immunocom
etent</b>&nbs
;hosts?<div><b ></div><div>{{c1::N
itazoxanide}}</div>
1403023184166 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>C y
tos
o idium</i>
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P evention; via filte ing of city wate su

lies}}<
/div>
1403023207692 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Toxo
lasmosis?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Toxo
lasma gondii</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c
="
aste-3345779523810.j
g" /></div>
1403023387767 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxo
lasmosis}} is a CNS
otozoal infecti
on that
esents with <b>b ain abscesses</b>&nbs
;in HIV
atients, that a e seen
as ing-enhancing b ain lesions on CT/MRI.
1403023479370 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Toxo
lasmosis}} is a CNS
otoz

oal infection that
esents with a classic t iad of <b>cho io etinitis, hyd oce

halus</b>&nbs
;and <b>int ac anial calcifications</b>.
1403023521487 1395802358422 How is Toxo
lasmosis (<i>Toxo
lasma gondii</i>)
t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cysts in meat; Oocysts in cat feces; T a
ns
lacental}}</div>
1403023562093 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxo
lasmosis}} is a CNS
otozoal infecti
on that is diagnosed via <b>tachyzoites</b>&nbs
;on bio
sy.<div><b /></div><div
><img s c="
aste-3341484556514.j
g" /></div>
1403023588656 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Toxo
lasmosis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Sulfadiazine and Py imethamine}}</div>
1403023615483 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Naegle ia fowle i</i>}} is a CNS
otoz
oal
athogen that causes <b> a
idly fatal meningoence
halitis</b>.
1403024607626 1395802358422 How is <i>Naegle ia fowle i</i>&nbs
;t ansmitted
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Swimming in f eshwate lakes; ente s CNS th ough th
e c ibifo m
late}}</div>
1403024642383 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Naegle ia fowle i</i>}} is a CNS
otoz
oal
athogen that causes a a
idly fatal meningoence
halitis and is diagnosed by
<b>amoebas in the s
inal fluid</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-415323
3375457.j
g" /></div>
1403024689970 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Naegle ia fowle i</
i>&nbs
;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Am
hote icin B has been effective
fo a few su vivo s}}</div>
1403024713799 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Af ican Slee
ing Sicknes
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>T y
anosoma b ucei hodiense; T y
anosoma b uce
i gambiense</i>}}</div>
1403024810280 1395802358422 {{c1::Af ican Slee
ing Sickness}} is a CNS
oto
zoal infection that
esents with <b>enla ged lym
h nodes</b>, <b> ecu ing feve
, somnolence</b>&nbs
;and <b>coma</b>. <b /><div><i>The ecu ing feve is due
to antigenic va iation.</i></div>
1403024874932 1395802358422 How is Af ican Slee
ing Sickness (<i>T y
anosoma
b ucei s
.</i>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tsetse fly}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Which a

a ently has a
ainful bite.</i></div><div><i><b /></i></
div>
1403024912124 1395802358422 Which subs
ecies of <i>T y
anosoma b ucei</i>&nb
s
;is f om <b>East</b>&nbs
;Af ica?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>T y
anosoma b
ucei hodiense</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Rhodesia was located in south<b>ea
st</b>&nbs
;Af ica. Kind of... w/e b ah, just emembe it.</i></div>
1403025021992 1395802358422 Which subs
ecies of&nbs
;<i>T y
anosoma b ucei</
i>&nbs
;is f om <b>West</b>&nbs
;Af ica?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>T y
anoso
ma b ucei gambiense</i>}}</div> <b /><div><i>The <b>G</b>'s a e all f om the <b
>West</b>&nbs
;side.</i></div>
1403025074063 1395802358422 {{c1::Af ican Slee
ing Sickness}} is a CNS
oto
zoal infection caused by <i>T y
anosoma b ucei</i>&nbs
;subs
ecies that is diagn
osed by a <b>blood smea </b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-4771708666084
.j
g" /></div>
1403025135197 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Af ican Slee
ing Sickn
ess?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su amin fo blood-bo ne disease <u style="font-w
eight: bold; ">o </u>&nbs
;Mela so
ol fo CNS
enet ation}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>"It <b>su </b>e is nice to go to slee
. <b>Mela</b>tonin can hel
with tha
t."</i></div>
1403040703288 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Mala ia?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Plasmodium s

.</i>}}</div>
1403041120101 1395802358422 {{c1::Mala ia}} is a hematological
otozoal inf
ection that
esents with <b>feve , headache, anaemia</b>&nbs
;and <b>s
lenomega
ly</b>.
1403041143029 1395802358422 Which <i>Plasmodium</i>&nbs
;s
ecies is associat
ed with Mala ia that has a <b>te tian (48 hou ) cycle</b>&nbs
;of feve ?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Plasmodium vivax; Plasmodium ovale</i>}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Te tian cycle includes feve on the fi st and thi d day, hence feve s a e
actually 48 hou s a
a t.</i></div>

1403041275223 1395802358422 Which&nbs
;<i>Plasmodium</i>&nbs
;s
ecies is ass
ociated with <b>do mant hy
nozoites</b>&nbs
;in the live ?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::<i>Plasmodium vivax; Plasmodium ovale</i>}}</div>
1403041300686 1395802358422 Which&nbs
;<i>Plasmodium</i>&nbs
;s
ecies is ass
ociated with a&nbs
;<b>qua tan (72 h s) cycle</b>&nbs
;of feve ?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Plasmodium mala iae</i>}}</div>
1403041362011 1395802358422 Which&nbs
;<i>Plasmodium</i>&nbs
;s
ecies is ass
ociated with ve y <b>seve e</b>&nbs
;Mala ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Plas
modium falci
a um</i>}}</div>
1403041379866 1395802358422 Which&nbs
;<i>Plasmodium</i>&nbs
;s
ecies is ass
ociated with Mala ia that has <b>i egula feve
atte ns</b>?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::<i>Plasmodium falci
a um</i>}}</div>
1403041405473 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Plasmodium falci
a um</i>}} is a s
ecie
s of <i>Plasmodium</i>&nbs
;that yields ve y seve e mala ia that
esents with <
b>
a asitized RBCs that occlude ca
illa ies</b>&nbs
;in the <b>b ain, kidneys</b
>&nbs
;and <b>lungs</b>.
1403041449950 1395802358422 {{c1::Ce eb al Mala ia}} is a seve e fo m of Mal
a ia that
esents with occlusion of ca
illa ies in the b ain by
a asitized RBC
s.
<b /><div><i>Caused by Plasmodium falci
a um</i></div>
1403041479854 1395802358422 How is Mala ia (<i>Plasmodium s

.</i>) t ansmit
ted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ano
heles</i>&nbs
;mosquito}}</div>
1403041507040 1395802358422 {{c1::Mala ia}} is a hematological
otozoal inf
ection that can be diagnosed by a <b>t o
hozoite ing fo m</b>&nbs
;in RBCs on a

e i
he al blood smea .<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-6575594930399.j
g"
/></div>
1403042066653 1395802358422 {{c1::Mala ia}} is a hematological
otozoal inf
ection that can be diagnosed by <b>schizonts</b>&nbs
;that contain <b>me ozoites
</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-6618544603358.j
g" /></div>
1403042109432 1395802358422 What is the initial t eatment fo Mala ia (<i>Pl
asmodium s

.</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Chlo oquine}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Blocks Plasmodium heme
olyme ase.</i></div>
1403042699714 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlo oquine}} is an anti
lasmodial d ug us
ed as initial t eatment fo Mala ia that acts by blocking <i>Plasmodium</i>&nbs

;heme
olyme ase.
1403042729126 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Chlo oquine in the t eatment
of Mala ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Blocking of <i>Plasmodium</i>&nbs
;heme

olyme ase}}</div>
1403042765789 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>Chlo oquine- esista
nt</b>&nbs
;Mala ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mefloquine o Atovaquone/P oguan
il}}</div>
1403042797766 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo life-th eatening Mala
ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IV Quinidine}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Howeve yo
u <u>must test fo G6PD deficiency fi st</u>.</i></div>
1403042860437 1395802358422 Which anti
lasmodial d ug is added onto Chlo oqu
ine in <i>Plasmodium vivax/ovale</i>&nbs
;infection to eliminate Hy
nozoites?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::P imaquine}}</div>
<b /><div><i>You <u>must test f
o G6PD Deficiency fi st</u>.</i></div>
1403042928159 1395802358422 {{c1::P imaquine}} is an anti
lasmodial d ug tha
t is added onto Mala ial t eatment in <i>Plasmodium vivax/ovale</i>&nbs
;infecti
on to eliminate do mant hy
nozoites.
<b /><div><i>You <u>must test fo G6PD
Deficiency fi st</u>.</i></div>
1403042994234 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Babesiosis?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Babesia s

.</i>}}</div>
1403046098517 1395802358422 Whe e in the United States is Babesiosis
edomi
nantly found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No theaste n USA}}</div>
1403046116235 1395802358422 How does As
lenia influence the isk of obtainin
g seve e Babesiosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403046141730 1395802358422 {{c1::Babesiosis}} is a hematological
otozoal
infection that
esents with <b>feve </b>&nbs
;and <b>hemolytic anaemia</b>&nbs

;due to <i>Babesia s

.</i>&nbs
;infection.

1403046196653 1395802358422 How is Babesiosis (<i>Babesia s

.</i>) t ansmit
ted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ixodes</i>&nbs
;tick}}</div> <b /><div><i>Th
is is the same vecto as Bo elia bu gdo fe i</i>&nbs
;<i>which causes Lyme Dise
ase.</i></div><div><i>Co-infection is common.</i></div>
1403046255167 1395802358422 {{c1::Babesiosis}} is a hematological
otozoal
infection that is diagnosed by a <b>"Maltese c oss"</b>&nbs
;in RBCs in a
e i
h
e al blood smea .<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-7928509628642.j
g" /></di
v>
<b /><div><i>(1) shows a ing fo m in the RBC, which is also seen in Ma
la ia. So be su e to eithe look fo the Maltese c oss o double check the t ans
mission/
esentation to confi m that it is Babesiosis.</i></div>
1403046338560 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Babesiosis (<i>Babesia
s

.</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Atovaquone + azith omycin}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>The
atient's
a tne also eceives Met onidazole as
o
hylaxis.</i></div
>
1403046880368 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Chagas Disease?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>T y
anosoma c uzi</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s
c="
aste-8942121910501.j
g" /></div>
1403046909909 1395802358422 {{c1::Chagas Disease}} is a visce al
otozoal i
nfection that
esents with <b>dilated ca diomyo
athy</b>, <b>megacolon</b>&nbs

;and <b>megaeso
hagus</b>.
1403046937622 1395802358422 Whe e does Chagas Disease
edominantly occu ?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::South Ame ica}}</div>
1403046948446 1395802358422 How is Chagas Disease (<i>T y
anosoma c uzi</i>)
t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Reduviid bug (aka the "kissing bug") fe
ces}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The bug bite is <b>
ainless</b>.</i></div>
1403047019226 1395802358422 {{c1::Chagas Disease}} is a <b>visce al</b>&nbs

;
otozoal infection that is diagnosed by the visualization of <i>T y
anosoma c
uzi</i>&nbs
;on a
e i
he al blood smea .<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-8
937826943205.j
g" /></div>
1403047048998 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Chagas Disease?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Benznidazole o Nifu timox}}</div>
1403047067380 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Visce al Leishmaniasis (
Kala-aza )?<div><b />{{c1::<i>Leishmania donovani</i>}}</div>
1403047111558 1395802358422 {{c1::Visce al Leishmaniasis (Kala-aza )}} is a
visce al
otozoal infection that
esents with <b>s
iking feve , he
atos
lenome
galy</b>&nbs
;and <b>
ancyto
enia</b>.
1403047203565 1395802358422 How is Visce al Leishmaniasis (Kala-aza ) t ansm
itted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sandfly}}</div>
<b /><div><i>All Leishm
ania a e t ansmitted via the sandfly.</i></div>
1403047376744 1395802358422 {{c1::Visce al Leishmaniasis (Kala-aza )}} is a
visce al
otozoal infection that is diagnosed by the visualization of <b>mac o

hages containing amastigotes</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-924706458
8515.j
g" /></div>
1403047423596 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Visce al Leishmaniasis
(Kala-aza )?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Am
hote icin B, Sodium Stibogluconate}}
</div>
1403047466746 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>T ichomonas vaginalis</i>}} is an STD c
ausing
otozoa that commonly causes vaginitis that
esents with <b>foul-smelli
ng, g eenish discha ge</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-9835475108072.j
<b /><div><i>Do not confuse this with Ga dne ella vaginalis, a

g" /></div>
g am-va iable bacte ia that causes vaginosis.</i></div><div><i>Also emembe the
diffe ence between Vagin<b>itis</b>&nbs
;and Vagin<b>osis</b>. Vaginitis is
ai
nful.</i></div>
1403047871297 1395802358422 How is <i>T ichomonas vaginalis</i>&nbs
;t ansmi
tted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sexually (it cannot exist outside the human bod
y as it cannot fo m cysts)}}</div>
1403047901306 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>T ichomonas vaginalis</i>}} is a sexual
ly t ansmitted
otoza that is diagnosed by the visualization of <b>mobile t o
h
ozoites</b>&nbs
;on a wet mount.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-9831180140
776.j
g" /></div>

1403048000069 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>T ichomonas vaginalis</i>}} is a
otoz
oa that causes vaginitis associated with a <b>"st awbe y ce vix</b>".
1403048026302 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>T ichomonas vaginal
is</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Met onidazole}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Th
e
atient's sexual
a tne also eceives Met onidazole as
o
hylaxis.</i></div>
1403048054943 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::nematodes}} a e a class of
a asi
te that a e efe ed to as oundwo ms.
1403053610031 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::cestodes}} a e a class of
a asit
e that a e efe ed to as ta
ewo ms.
1403053631137 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::t ematodes}} a e a class of
a as
ite that a e efe ed to as the flukes.
1403053648160 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ente obius ve micula is</i>}} is a s
ec
ies of intestinal nematode that is also efe ed to as <b>
inwo m</b>.
1403053940991 1395802358422 How is
inwo m (<i>Ente obius ve micula is</i>)
t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fecal-o al}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-13945758810291.j
g" /></div>
1403054242694 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ente obius ve micula is</i>&nbs
;(
inwo
m)}} is an intestinal nematode that is associated with causing <b>anal
u itis
</b>.
1403054673052 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ente obius ve micula is</i>&nbs
;(
inwo
m)}} is an intestinal nematode that can be diagnosed via the <b>Scotch Ta
e tes
t</b>. <b /><div><i>Lulz, this is lite ally what it sounds like. Take scotch t
a
e and see if you can
ull off
inwo m eggs f om the anal a ea.</i></div>
1403054738448 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo
inwo m (<i>Ente obius
ve micula is</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bendazoles o Py antel
amoate}}<
/div> <b /><div><i><b>BEND</b>azoles a e used on wo ms because they a e <b>BE
ND</b>y.</i></div>
1403054905831 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Asca is lumb icoides</i>}} is a s
ecies
of intestinal nematode that is also efe ed to as <b>giant oundwo m</b>.
1403054940201 1395802358422 How is <i>Asca is lumb icoides</i>&nbs
;(giant
oundwo m) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fecal-o al}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Eggs a e visible in feces unde the mic osco
e.</i></div><div><i><img s c=
"
aste-13945758810291.j
g" /></i></div>
1403054985626 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo giant oundwo m (<i>As
ca is lumb icoides</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bendazoles o Py antel
amoa
te}}</div>
1403055014571 1395802358422 How is <i>St ongyloides ste co alis</i>&nbs
;t a
nsmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::La vae in the soil
enet ate the skin}}</di
v>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13945758810291.j
g" /></div>
1403055064847 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>St ongyloides ste co alis</i>}} is an i
ntestinal nematode that causes an intestinal infection that
esents with vomiti
ng, dia hea and <b>e
igast ic
ain that may mimic
e
tic ulce -like
ain</b>.
1403055113739 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>St ongyloides ste c
o alis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Albendazole; o Ive mectin}}</div>
1403055134956 1395802358422 Which 2 s
ecies of intestinal nematode a e hookw
o ms?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ancylostoma duodenale; Necato ame icanus</i
>}}</div>
1403055168350 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ancylostoma duodenale</i>}} and&nbs
;{{
c2::<i>Necato ame icanus</i>}} a e 2 s
ecies of intestinal nematodes that a e
efe ed to as <b>hookwo m</b>.
1403055198933 1395802358422 How is hookwo m (<i>Ancylostoma duodenale; Necat
o ame icanus</i>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::La vae
enet ate the
skin}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13945758810291.j
g" /></div>
1403056103275 1395802358422 {{c1::Hookwo m}} is an intestinal nematode that
causes intestinal infection that yields <b>anaemia</b>&nbs
;due to <b>blood bein
g sucked f om the intestinal walls</b>. <b /><div><i>Remembe , Hookwo m = Ancyl
ostoma duodenale &am
; Necato ame icanus</i></div>
1403056181130 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Hookwo m (<i>Ancylosto
ma duodenale; Necato ame icanus</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bendazoles o
Py antel
amoate}}</div>

1403056222232 1395802358422 How is <i>Ochoce ca volvulus</i>&nbs
;t ansmitte
d?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Female blackfly bite}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-13945758810291.j
g" /></div>
1403056263719 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Rive Blindness?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Onchoce ca volvulus</i>}}</div>
1403056280170 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Onchoce ca volvulus</i>}} is a tissue n
ematode associated with causing <b>hy
e
igmented skin</b>&nbs
;and <b> ive bli
ndness</b>.
<b /><div><i>Black fly bite; Black skin nodules; "Black" sight.
</i></div><div><i>Alle gic eaction to the mic ofila ia is
ossible.</i></div>
1403056350991 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Onchoce ca volvulus
</i>&nbs
;infection (e.g. ive blindness)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ive mecti
n}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>IVER</b>mectin is given fo <b>IVER</b>&nbs
;b
lindness.</i></div>
1403056398259 1395802358422 How is <i>Loa loa</i>&nbs
;t ansmitted?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Dee fly; Ho se fly; Mango fly}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-13945758810291.j
g" /></div>
1403056439572 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Loa loa</i>}} is a <b>tissue</b>&nbs
;n
ematode that causes swelling in the skin - wo ms can also be found in the conjun
ctiva.
1403056468069 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Loa loa</i>?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Diethylca bamazine}}</div>
1403057110444 1395802358422 What is the cause of Ele
hantiasis?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Wuche e ia banc ofti</i>}}</div>
1403058733063 1395802358422 How is Ele
hantiasis (<i>Wuche e ia banc ofti</i
>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Female mosquito bite}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-13945758810291.j
g" /></div>
1403058753804 1395802358422 {{c1::Ele
hantiasis}} is a com
lication of <i>Wu
che ia banc ofti</i>&nbs
;infection that involves a <b>blockage of lym
hatic ves
sels</b>.
<b /><div><i>Takes 9 months to 1 yea afte an infectious bite
to becomes sym
tomatic.</i></div>
1403058822718 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Ele
hantiasis?<div><b
/>{{c1::Diethylca bamazine}}</div>
1403058844837 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Visce al La va Mig ans?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Toxoca a canis</i>}}</div>
1403058860859 1395802358422 How is Visce al La va Mig ans (<i>Toxoca a canis
</i>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fecal-o al}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-13945758810291.j
g" /></div>
1403058881367 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Toxoca a canis</i>}} is a tissue nemato
de that causes Visce al La va Mig ans.
1403062744302 1395802358422 How is <i>Taenia solium</i>&nbs
;t ansmitted?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ingestion of la vae encysted in unde cooked
o k; Inges
tion of eggs}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Basically just emembe "via ingestion" an
d "unde cooked
o k" fo the la vae.</i></div>
1403062905086 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystice cosis}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Neu ocystic
e cosis}} a e 2 com
lications of infection with the <u style="font-weight: bold;
">eggs</u>&nbs
;of <i>Taenia solium</i>.
<b /><div><i>This is ve y im
o
tant. Only the eggs of Taenia solium cause Cystice cosis. The la vae cause intes
tinal infection.</i></div>
1403062977570 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Cystice cosis and Neu oc
ystice cosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::The <b><u>eggs</u>&nbs
;</b>of&nbs
;<i>
Taenia solium</i>}}</div>
1403063484085 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>intestinal infectio
n</b>&nbs
;caused by the la vae of <i>Taenia solium</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::P aziquantel}}</div>
1403063512786 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Cystice cosis (eggs of
<i>Taenia solium</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P aziquantel}}</div>
1403063531818 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Neu ocystice cosis (eg
gs of <i>Taenia solium</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Albendazole}}</div>
1403063577185 1395802358422 How is<i>&nbs
;Di
hylloboth ium latum</i>&nbs
;t
ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ingestion of la vae f om aw f eshwate f

ish}}</div>
1403063620388 1395802358422 Which vitamin deficiency is caused by <i>Di
hyll
oboth ium latum</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin B12}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>The wo m com
etes with Vitamin B12 in the intestines.</i></div><div><i>Cau
ses megaloblastic anaemia.</i></div>
1403063665929 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Di
hylloboth ium la
tum</i><b style="font-style: italic; ">&nbs
;</b>infection?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::P aziquantel}}</div>
1403063680581 1395802358422 How is <i>Echinococcus g anulosus</i>&nbs
;t ans
mitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ingestion of eggs f om <b>dog feces</b>}}</di
v>
1403063707249 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Echinococcus g anulosus</i>}} is a cest
ode that yields <b>hydatid cysts</b>&nbs
;in the live , the eby causing ana
hyla
xis if the antigens a e eleased.
<b /><div><i>Su geons kills the cysts b
y injecting ethanol befo e emoval.</i></div>
1403063775190 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Echinococcus g anul
osus</i>&nbs
;(hydatid cysts)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Albendazole}}</div>
1403063798409 1395802358422 How is <i>Schistosoma</i>&nbs
;t ansmitted?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Via snails; ce ca iae
enet ate the skin}}</div>
1403063839195 1395802358422 Which animal is the host fo <i>Schistosoma s

.
</i>?<div><b />{{c1::Snails}}</div>
1403063871194 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Schistosoma s

.</i>}} is a t ematode t
hat causes <b>live and s
leen g anulomas</b>, <b>fib osis</b> and <b>inflammati
on</b>.
1403063925330 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Schistosoma haematobium</i>}} is a s
ec
ies of <i>Schistosoma</i>&nbs
;that can lead to squamous cell ca cinoma of the b
ladde if the e is ch onic infection.
1403063970490 1395802358422 Which s
ecies of <i>Schistosoma</i>&nbs
;is asso
ciated with causing squamous cell ca cinoma if the e is a ch onic infection?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Schistosoma haematobium</i>}}</div>
1403064006246 1395802358422 Which cance is a
ossible com
lication of ch on
ic <i>Schistosoma haematobium</i>&nbs
;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Squ
amous cell ca cinoma of the bladde }}</div>
<b /><div><i>P esents with <b>

ainless hematu ia</b>.</i></div>
1403064044018 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Schistosomiasis (<i>Sc
histosoma</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P aziquantel}}</div>
1403064066257 1395802358422 How is <i>Clono chis sinensis</i>&nbs
;t ansmitt
ed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Unde cooked fish}}</div>
1403064088735 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Clono chis sinensis</i>}} is a s
ecies
of t ematode that causes <b>bilia y t act inflammation</b>&nbs
;and subsequent f
o mation of <b>
igmented gallstones</b>.
1403064212687 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Clono his sinensis</i>}} is a s
ecies o
f t ematode that is associated with <b>cholangioca cinoma</b>.
1403064246575 1395802358422 Which cance is associated with <i>Clono chis si
nensis</i>&nbs
;infection?<div><b ></div><div>{{c1::Cholangioca cinoma}}</div>
1403064275815 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Clono chis sinensis
</i>&nbs
;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P aziquantel}}</div>
1403064291751 1395802358422 Which cestode (ta
ewo m) is associated with <b>b
ain cysts</b>&nbs
;and <b>seizu es</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Taenia so
lium</i>&nbs
;(Cystice cosis)}}</div>
1403064353830 1395802358422 Which t ematode (fluke) is associated with <b>he
matu ia</b>&nbs
;and <b>bladde cance </b>?<div><b />{{c1::<i>Schistosoma haema
tobium</i>}}</div>
1403064383942 1395802358422 Which cestode (ta
ewo m) is associated with live
hydatid cysts?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Echinococcus g anulosus</i>}}</di
v>
1403064411121 1395802358422 Which nematodes a e associated with <b>mic ocyti
c anaemia</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ancylostoma duodenale; Necato ame
icanus</i>}}</div>
1403064575298 1395802358422 Which nematode is associated with <b>
e ianal


u itis</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ente obius ve micula is</i>&nbs
;(
inw
o m)}}</div>
1403064601056 1395802358422 Which t ematode (fluke) is associated with <b>
o
tal hy
e tension</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Schistosoma mansoni; Schist
osoma ja
onicum</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Schistosoma is often called a <b>l
ive fluke</b>.</i></div>
1403118693070 1395802358422 In which 2 sha
es a e vi al cas
ids ty
ically fo
und?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Icosahed al; Helical}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-841813590300.j
g" /></div>
1403119676318 1395802358422 {{c1::Reasso tment}} is a vi al genetic
henomen
on that involves the exchange of genetic segments amongst vi uses with segmented
genomes.
<b /><div><i>This is high f equency ecombination.</i></div><di
v><i>e.g. Influenza vi us; in fact, this is why the e a e wo ldwide influenza
a
ndemics.</i></div>
1403120908259 1395802358422 {{c1::Com
lementation}} is a vi al genetic
heno
menon whe e a <b>nonmutated</b>&nbs
;vi us com
lements a <b>mutated</b>&nbs
;vi
us by making a functional
otein that se ves fo both vi uses. <b /><div><i>In
this case, the mutated vi us has a <b>nonfunctional</b>&nbs
;ve sion of the
o
tein,</i></div>
1403121030967 1395802358422 What ty
e of immunity is induced by Live Attenua
ted Vaccines?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Humo al <u style="font-weight: bold; ">
and</u>&nbs
;cell-mediated immunity}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Some live attenuat
ed vaccines have eve ted back to vi ulence, but on ve y a e occasions.</i></di
v><div><i>Live vaccines <b>do not equi e booste s</b>.</i></div><div><i><img s
c="
aste-2267742732379.j
g" /></i></div>
1403122989005 1395802358422 What ty
e of immunity is induced by <b>Killed/In
activated</b>&nbs
;Vaccines?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Humo al immunity <b><u>o
nly</u></b>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-2469606195263.j
g" /></div>
1403122998026 1395802358422 {{c1::Live attenuated vaccine}} is a ty
e of vac
cine that is dange ous to give to immunocom
omised
atients o thei close cont
acts. <b /><div><i>The exce
tion is MMR, which can be given to HIV+
atients
who do not show signs of immunodeficiency.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-2272
037699675.j
g" /></i></div>
1403123343131 1395802358422 Which ty
es of HPV have available ecombinant va
ccines?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HPV 6, 11, 16, 18}}</div>
1403123430635 1395802358422 What is the only DNA vi us with <b>ss</b>DNA?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa vovi idae}}</div> <i><div></div></i><i><b /></i>T
he est of the DNA vi uses a e dsDNA.
1403123790266 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa
illomavi us}},&nbs
;{{c2::Polyomavi us}
} and&nbs
;{{c3::He
adnavi us}} a e the only 3 DNA vi uses that have ci cula ge
nomes. <b /><div><i>The emaining DNA vi uses a e all linea .</i></div>
1403123988848 1395802358422 What is the only RNA vi us that has <b>ds</b>RNA
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Reovi idae}}</div> <b /><div><i>All othe s a e ssR
NA.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-3040836845726.j
g" /></i></div>
1403124101979 1395802358422 Whe e in the cell do DNA vi uses e
licate?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus, <u>exce
t fo Poxvi us</u>}}</div>
1403125210405 1395802358422 Whe e in the cell do RNA vi uses no mally e
lic
ate?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cyto
lasm, <u>exce
t fo Influenza vi us and Ret
ovi uses</u>}}</div>
1403125256173 1395802358422 {{c1::He
esvi uses}} a e a class of DNA vi uses
that acqui es thei envelo
e f om the nuclea memb ane. All othe envelo
ed vi
uses acqui e it f om the
lasma memb ane.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-40888
08865920.j
g" /></div>
1403126074092 1395802358422 What is the only DNA vi us that <b>does not</b>&
nbs
;have an icosahed al sha
e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Poxvi us}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-4363686773147.j
g" /></div>
1403126635353 1395802358422 What is the only DNA vi us that <b>does not</b>&
nbs
; e
licate in the nucleus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Poxvi us}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It ca ies its own DNA-de
endent RNA
olyme ase.</i></div><div><i>
<b /></i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-4367981740443.j
g" /></i></div>

1403133798211 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in He
esvi u
ses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136564417 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in He
adnavi
us?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136569891 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in Poxvi us?<
div><b />{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136579174 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in Pa
illomav
i us?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136609242 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in Polyomavi
us?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136625776 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in Adenovi us
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136635213 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in Pa vovi us
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ssDNA}}</div>
1403137401302 1395802358422 {{c1::HBV}} is a He
adnavi us that causes acute
o ch onic he
atitis. <b /><div><i>Not a et ovi us, but has eve se t ansc i

tase.</i></div>
1403137616859 1395802358422 Which dsDNA vi us is associated with causing Acu
te Hemo hagic Cystitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Adenovi us}}</div>
1403137741089 1395802358422 Which dsDNA vi us is associated with <b>feb ile

ha yngitis,
neumonia</b>&nbs
;and <b>conjunctivitis</b>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Adenovi us}}</div>
1403137771235 1395802358422 What is the smallest DNA vi us?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Pa vovi us}}</div>
1403137788786 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa vovi us B19}} is a ssDNA vi us that cau
ses <b>a
lastic c ises</b>&nbs
;in sickle cell disease.
1403137824922 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa vovi us B19}} is a ssDNA vi us that cau
ses <b>"sla

ed cheeks" ash (e ythema infectiosum; fifth disease)</b>&nbs
;in c
hild en.
1403137863098 1395802358422 {{c1::E ythema Infectiosium (Fifth Disease)}} is
a cutaneous com
lication of Pa vovi us B19 infection that
esents as a <b>"sla


ed cheeks" ash</b>&nbs
;in child en.
1403137902532 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa vovi us B19}} is a ssDNA vi us that cau
ses RBC dest uction in fetus, the eby leading to hyd o
s fetalis and death.
1403137927718 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa vovi us B19}} is a ssDNA vi us that cau
ses
u e RBC a
lasia.
1403137935009 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa vovi us B19}} is a ssDNA vi us that cau
ses Rheumatoid A th itis-like sym
toms in adults.
1403137951253 1395802358422 What is the etiology of P og essive Multifocal L
eukoence
halo
athy (PML)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::JC vi us infection in HIV}}
</div>
1403138026081 1395802358422 {{c1::JC Vi us}} is a dsDNA Polyomavi us that ca
uses P og essive Multifocal Leukoence
halo
athy (PML) in HIV
atients..
1403138132467 1395802358422 {{c1::BK Vi us}} is a dsDNA Polyomavi us that co
mmonly ta gets the kidney in t ans
lant
atients.
<b /><div><i>BK = <b>B<
/b>ad <b>K</b>idney</i></div><div><i>JC = <b>J</b>unky <b>C</b>e eb um (PML)</i>
</div>
1403138210850 1395802358422 {{c1::Cow
ox}} is a dsDNA Poxvi us that yields "
<b>milkmaid bliste s</b>".
1403138249124 1395802358422 What is the la gest DNA vi us?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Poxvi uses}}</div>
1403138257021 1395802358422 {{c1::Molluscum contagiosum}} is a cutaneous dis
o de caused by <b>Poxvi uses</b> that
esents with <b>flesh-colou ed dome lesi
ons</b>&nbs
;with a <b>cent al umbilicated dim
le</b>.
1403138320042 1395802358422 Which He
esvi us is associated with Gingivostom
atitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div>
1403139339864 1395802358422 Which He
esvi us is associated with Ke atoconju
nctivitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s
c="
aste-7546257539403.j
g" /></div>
1403139385203 1395802358422 Which He
esvi us is the most common cause of s


o adic ence
halitis in the USA?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div>
1403139404471 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV-1}} is a He
esvi us that causes tem
o
al lobe ence
halitis. <b ><div><i>Most common cause of s
o adic ence
halitis i
n the USA.</i></div>
1403139452818 1395802358422 What is the etiology of He
es Labialis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-770946629
6652.j
g" /></div>
1403139472305 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV-1}} is a He
esvi us that is latent in
<b>t igeminal ganglia</b>.
1403139559264 1395802358422 How is HSV-1 t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Res
i ato y d o
lets; saliva}}</div>
1403139593691 1395802358422 Which He
esvi us is associated with Cowd y Ty
e
A inclusions on a cell smea ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1; HSV-2}}</div>
1403139633959 1395802358422 What is the etiology of He
es Genitalis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::HSV-2}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-79027398
24973.j
g" /></div>
1403139661451 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV-2}} is a He
esvi us that is latent in
<b>sac al ganglia</b>.
1403139685511 1395802358422 Which He
esvi us is associated with Neonatal He

es?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-2}}</div>
1403139710572 1395802358422 How is HSV-2 t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Sexual contact; Pe inatally}}</div>
1403139730046 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Chicken
ox?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::VZV (Va icella-zoste )}}</div>
1403140033058 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Shingles?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::VZV (Va icella-zoste )}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste
-8808977924430.j
g" /></div>
1403140047263 1395802358422 {{c1::VZV}} is a He
esvi us that is latent in <
b>do sal oot </b>o <b> t igeminal ganglia</b>.
1403140106172 1395802358422 What is the most common com
lication of Shingles
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Post-he
etic Neu algia}}</div>
1403140124899 1395802358422 How is VZV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Res
i ato y sec etions}}</div>
1403140169070 1395802358422 What is the most common etiology of Mononucleosi
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140255270 1395802358422 {{c1::Mononucleosis}} is a com
lication of EBV i
nfection that
esents with feve , he
atos
lenomegaly,
ha yngitis and lym
haden
o
athy. <b /><div><i>Lym
hadeno
athy is es
ecially seen at the
oste io ce vic
al nodes.</i></div>
1403140435215 1395802358422 How is EBV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Res
i ato y sec etions; Saliva}}</div>
1403140461354 1395802358422 {{c1::Mononucleosis}} is a disease caused by EBV
that is also commonly efe ed to as "<b>kissing disease</b>" as it is often se
en in teens and young adults.
1403140508210 1395802358422 Whe e is EBV latent?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
B cells}}</div> <b /><div><i>EBV infects B cells.</i></div>
1403140583915 1395802358422 Which ece
to does EBV use to ente B cells?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::CD21 (C3d; CR2)}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"You must
be <b>21</b>&nbs
;to d ink at the <b>E
stein-Ba </b>"</i></div>
1403140620392 1395802358422 {{c1::EBV}} is a He
esvi us that can give ise
to <b>aty
ical lym
hocytes (Downey Cells) on a
e i
he al blood smea </b>.<div><
b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-9152575308110.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Th
e aty
ical cells a e not B cells. <b>They a e eactive cytotoxic T cells</b>.</i
></div>
1403140678717 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to detect EBV infe
ction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Monos
ot Test}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>Hete
o
hile antibodies a e detected by agglutination of shee
o ho se RBCs.</i><b
/><div><i>Positive esult = EBV infection.</i></div>
1403140742833 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::Monos
ot Test}} is a diagnostic t
est that detects the <b>hete o
hile antibodies</b>&nbs
;seen in EBV infection vi

a agglutination of shee
o ho se RBCs.
1403140899061 1395802358422 Which He
esvi us is associated with Hodgkin Lym

homa?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140915952 1395802358422 Which He
esvi us is associated with endemic Bu
kitt Lym
homa?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140930710 1395802358422 Which He
esvi us is associated with Naso
ha yng
eal Ca cinoma?<div><b />{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140946098 1395802358422 Which He
esvi us causes Mononucleosis with a <b
>negative Monos
ot test</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div>
1403141234206 1395802358422 Which He
esvi us is associated with causing et
initis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div> <b /><div><i>"Sight"-o-megalovi
us</i></div>
1403141269124 1395802358422 Which He
esvi us is associated with cha acte is
tic <b>Owl's Eye inclusions</b>&nbs
;in infected cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::CMV}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-10479720202575.j
g" /></div>
1403141305744 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is a He
esvi us that is latent in m
ononuclea cells.
1403141339702 1395802358422 How is CMV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Congenitally; T ansfusion; Sexual Contact; Saliva; U ine; T ans
lant}}</div>
1403141534427 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Roseola?<div><b />{{c1:
:HHV-6}}</div>
1403141586391 1395802358422 {{c1::Roseola}} is an infectious diso de caused
by HHV-6 that
esents with <b>high feve </b>&nbs
;fo seve al days and a subse
quent <b>diffuse macula ash</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-10758893
076815.j
g" /></div>
1403141640344 1395802358422 {{c1::Seizu es}} a e a neu ological com
lication
of Roseola due to the high feve s that can last fo seve al days.
1403141683332 1395802358422 How is Roseola (HHV-6) t ansmitted?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Saliva}}</div>
1403141698113 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Ka
osi Sa coma?<div><b
/>{{c1::HHV-8}}</div>
1403141713141 1395802358422 {{c1::Ka
osi Sa coma}} is a neo
lasm of endothel
ial cells that is caused by HHV-8 in HIV/AIDS and t ans
lant
atients.
1403141780888 1395802358422 {{c1::Ka
osi Sa coma}} is a neo
lasm of endothel
ial cells caused by HHV-8 that
esents with <b>da k/violaceous, flat</b>&nbs
;a
nd <b>nodula skin lesions</b>&nbs
;that e
esent endothelial g owths.<div><b
/></div><div><img s c="
aste-10965051507025.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Th
e GI and Lungs can also be affected.</i></div>
1403141883192 1395802358422 How is HHV-8 t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Sexual contact}}</div>
1403141901654 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::Tzanck test}} is a diagnostic tes
t used to identify HSV th ough a smea of an o
ened skin vesicle.<div><b /></di
v><div><img s c="
aste-11192684773794.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><i>A
ositive
tzanck smea will show multinucleated giant cells.</i></div>
1403142018149 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to diagnose He
es
Ence
halitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CSF PCR}}</div>
1403142048017 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in Reovi us?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::dsRNA}}</div>
1403144228014 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in Pico navi
us?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssDNA}}</div>
1403144235452 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in He
evi us?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144245759 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in Calicivi u
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144253499 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in Flavivi us
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144258949 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in Flavivi us
??<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144288238 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in Togavi us?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>

1403144295552 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in Ret ovi us
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144302858 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in Co onavi u
ses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144312488 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is found in O thomyxov
i uses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144494015 1395802358422 What ty
e nucleic acid is found in Pa amyxovi us
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144822898 1395802358422 What ty
e nucleic acid is found in Rhabdovi us?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144831545 1395802358422 What ty
e nucleic acid is found in Filovi us?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144839873 1395802358422 What ty
e nucleic acid is found in A enavi us?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144848305 1395802358422 What ty
e nucleic acid is found in Bunyavi us?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144857131 1395802358422 What ty
e nucleic acid is found in Deltavi us?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403149724209 1395802358422 Which se ological antigen f om EBV is
oduced i
f the infection is active and
oductive?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vi al Ca
si
d Antigen (VCA)}}</div>
1403149942402 1395802358422 Which se ological antigen f om EBV is seen in la
tent infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::E
stein-Ba Nuclea Antigen (EBNA)}}
</div>
1403149965943 1395802358422 {{c1::E
stein-Ba Nuclea Antigen (EBNA)}} is a
se ological antigen f om EBV that cont ibutes to Hodgkin's o Bu kitt's Lym
hom
a.
1403150015090 1395802358422 {{c1::Coltivi us}} is a dsRNA A bovi us and Reov
i us that causes Colo ado Tick Feve .
1403151607539 1395802358422 Which ty
e Reovi us is the #1 cause of fatal dia
hea in child en?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rotavi us}}</div>
1403151653610 1395802358422 {{c1::Poliovi us}} is a Pico navi us that causes
Polio. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-17888538788154.j
g" /></div>
1403151822869 1395802358422 {{c1::Echovi us}} is a Pico navi us that causes
ase
tic meningitis.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-17884243820858.j
g" /></div>
1403151835081 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhinovi us}} is a Pico navi us that causes
the "common cold".
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-17884243820858.j
g" /></div>
1403151896208 1395802358422 {{c1::Coxsackievi us}} is a Pico navi us that ca
uses ase
tic meningitis, he
angina, hand-foot-mouth disease, myoca ditis and
e
ica ditis.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-17884243820858.j
g" /></div>
1403151923416 1395802358422 {{c1::HAV}} is a Pico navi us that causes Acute
Vi al He
atitis.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-17884243820858.j
g" /></div>
1403152447932 1395802358422 {{c1::HEV}} is a He
evi us that causes he
atitis
.
1403152475119 1395802358422 {{c1::No ovi us}} is a Calicivi us that causes v
i al gast oente itis.
1403152491888 1395802358422 {{c1::HCV}} is a Flavivi us that causes he
atiti
s.
1403152520861 1395802358422 {{c1::A bovi us}} is a g ou
of vi uses that a e
t ansmitted by a th o
ods (e.g. mosquitoes, ticks).
1403152973559 1395802358422 How a e A bovi uses t ansmitted?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::A th o
ods (mosquitoes; ticks)}}</div>
1403153047912 1395802358422 {{c1::Yellow Feve Vi us (YFV)}} is an A bovi us
and Flavivi us that causes Yellow Feve .
1403153074969 1395802358422 {{c1::Dengue vi us (DENV)}} is an A bovi us and
Flavivi us that causes Dengue.
1403153097390 1395802358422 {{c1::St. Louis Ence
halitis Vi us (SLEV)}} is a
n A bovi us and Flavivi us that causes St. Louis Ence
halitis.
1403153123179 1395802358422 {{c1::West Nile Vi us (WNV)}} is an A bovi us an
d Flavivi us that causes West Nile.

1403153151020 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella vi us}} is a Togavi us that causes
Rubella.
1403153216093 1395802358422 {{c1::Easte n Equine Ence
halitis Vi us (EEEV)}}
is an A bovi us and Togavi us that causes Easte n Equine Ence
halitis.
1403153301788 1395802358422 {{c1::Weste n Equine Ence
halitis Vi us (WEEV)}}
is an A bovi us and Togavi us that causes Weste n Equine Ence
halitis.
1403153333497 1395802358422 {{c1::Human T-lym
hot o
ic vi us (HTLV)}} is a R
et ovi us that causes Adult T-Cell Leukemia/Lym
homa.
1403153418832 1395802358422 {{c1::Human Immunodeficiency Vi us (HIV)}} is a
Ret ovi us that causes AIDS.
1403153434915 1395802358422 {{c1::Co onavi us}} is a Co onavi us that causes
the common cold and SARS.
1403153483786 1395802358422 {{c1::Influenza Vi us}} is an O thomyxovi us tha
t causes the flu.
1403153501981 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa ainfluenzavi us}} is a Pa amyxovi us th
at causes C ou
.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-19786914332833.j
g" /></div>
1403153543074 1395802358422 {{c1::Res
i ato y Syncytial Vi us (RSV)}} is a P
a amyxovi us that causes b onchiolitis in babies.
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-19782619365537.j
g" /></div>
1403153599484 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Res
i ato y Syncytial
Vi us (RSV) infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ribavi in}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-19782619365537.j
g" /></div>
1403153616162 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles vi us}} is a Pa amyxovi us that ca
uses Measles. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-19782619365537.j
g" /></div>
1403153633173 1395802358422 {{c1::Mum
s vi us}} is a Pa amyxovi us that caus
es Mum
s.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-19782619365537.j
g" /></div>
1403153646671 1395802358422 {{c1::Rabies vi us}} is a Rhabdovi us that cause
s Rabies.
1403153659412 1395802358422 {{c1::Ebola vi us}} is a Filovi us that causes E
bola.
1403153691369 1395802358422 {{c1::Ma bu g vi us}} is a Filovi us that causes
Ma bu g Hemo hagic Feve .
1403153708859 1395802358422 {{c1::Lym
hocytic Cho iomeningitis Vi us (LCMV)}
} is an A enavi us that causes Lym
hocytic Cho iomeningitis.
1403153783307 1395802358422 {{c1::Lassa vi us}} is an A enavi us that causes
Lassa Feve .
1403153795153 1395802358422 {{c1::Hantavi us}} is a Bunyavi us that causes h
emo hagic feve and
neumonia.
1403153931797 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Califo nia Ence
halitis?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bunyavi uses}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Which a e
also A bovi uses.</i></div>
1403153959813 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Sandfly/Rift Valley Feve
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bunyavi uses}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Which a e
also A bovi uses.</i></div>
1403153985737 1395802358422 What is the etiology of C imean-Congo Hemo hagi
c Feve ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bunyavi uses}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Wh
ich a e also A bovi uses<b>.</b></i></div>
1403154023641 1395802358422 {{c1::HDV}} is a Deltavi us that causes he
atiti
s <u>when the e is an HBV co-infection</u>.
1403193207560 1395802358422 Negative st anded RNA vi uses must b ing along a
n&nbs
;{{c1::RNA-de
endent RNA
olyme ase}} in o de to t ansc ibe thei negativ
e st and in
ositive st and RNA (mRNA) <div><b /></div><img s c="
aste-2200311
7457455.j
g" /><b /><div><img s c="
aste-21994527522938.j
g" /></div>
1403195008095 1395802358422 What ty
e of nucleic acid is seen in <b>all</b>&
nbs
;segmented vi uses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RNA}}</div> <div><b /></div
><img s c="
aste-22157736280214.j
g" />
1403195041732 1395802358422 How a e Pico navi uses t ansmitted?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Fecal-o al; all a e ente ovi uses exce
t fo Rhinovi us}}</div>
<div><b /></div><img s c="
aste-22316650070121.j
g" /><b /><div><img s c="
ast
e-22303765168434.j
g" /></div>

1403195353414 1395802358422 What is the only Pico navi us that <b>does not</
b>&nbs
;infect the GI t act?<div><b />{{c1::Rhinovi us}}</div> <b /><div><i>Th
is is because it is acid-labile and dest oyed in the stomach.</i></div>
1403195537492 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhinovi us}} is a Pico navi us that is <b>
acid labile</b>&nbs
;and hence is dest oyed by stomach acid and doesn't cause GI
infection.
1403195815189 1395802358422 How is Yellow Feve (Yellow Feve Vi us) t ansmi
tted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Aedes</i>&nbs
;mosquito}}</div>
1403195959549 1395802358422 What is the ese voi fo Yellow Feve Vi us?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Monkeys; Humans}}</div>
1403195987559 1395802358422 {{c1::Yellow Feve }} is an infectious diso de c
aused by a Flavivi us (and A bovi us) that
esents with <b>high feve , black vo
mitus</b>&nbs
;and <b>jaundice</b>.
<b /><div><i>Etiology is Yellow Feve V
i us (but I didn't wanna make it too easy, nom sayin?)</i></div>
1403196202956 1395802358422 What is the most im
o tant global cause of infan
tile gast oente itis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rotavi us}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i>dsRNA Reovi us</i><div><i></i><i><b>ROTA = R</b>ight&nbs
;<b>O</b>ut
&nbs
;<b>T</b>he&nbs
;<b>A</b>nus</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-23102629085462.j

g" /></div></div>
1403197164365 1395802358422 {{c1::Rotavi us}} is a dsRNA Reovi us that is a
majo cause of acute dia hea in the USA du ing the winte , es
ecially in day-ca
e cente s and kinde ga tens.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-2309833411816
6.j
g" /></div> <b /><div><i><b>ROTA = R</b>ight <b>O</b>ut <b>T</b>he <b>A</b>
nus</i></div>
1403197196511 1395802358422 {{c1::Rotavi us}} is a dsRNA vi us that causes <
b>dest uction and at o
hy of GI villi </b>that leads to a <b>dec ease in Na abso

tion</b>&nbs
;and a <b>loss of K</b>. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-2309833411816
6.j
g" /></div>
1403197495681 1395802358422 How do Na levels change in Rotavi us infection?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease due to a dec ease in Na abso
tion (due to v
illous dest uction and at o
hy)}}</div>
1403197532531 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Rotavi us infection?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease due to K loss (as a esult of GI villi dest u
ction and at o
hy)}}</div>
1403197667789 1395802358422 {{c1::Influenza vi us}} is an envelo
ed o thomyx
ovi us with an <b>8-segment</b> negative ssRNA genome.
1403198437647 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemagglutinin}} is an antigen f om Influen
za vi us that functions to
omote vi al ent y.
1403198474703 1395802358422 {{c1::Neu aminidase}} is a vi al enzyme/antigen
f om Influenza vi us that
omotes the elease of
ogeny vi ions.
1403198511652 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1:: efo mulated}} flu vaccine is the
flu vaccine that contains the vi al st ains most likely to a

ea du ing the fl
u season.
<b /><div><i>aka "the flu shot"</i></div>
1403198785505 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::killed vi al}} flu vaccine is the
fo m of flu vaccine that is most f equently used.
1403198804519 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::live, attenuated}} flu vaccine is
the flu vaccine that contains a tem
e atu e-sensitive mutant that e
licated in
the nose, but not the lungs. <b /><div><i>Administe ed int anasally.</i></di
v>
1403198837444 1395802358422 {{c1::Genetic/antigenic shift}} is a genetic
he
nomenon that causes <b>flu
andemics</b>.
<b /><div><i>This involves the
easso tment of the vi al genome. Segments unde go high-f equency ecombination
(like when human flu A vi us ecombines with swine flu A vi us).</i></div><div><
i></i><i><b>S</b>udden genetic&nbs
;<b>s</b>hifts a e mo e deadly that g a<b>d</
b>ual genetic&nbs
;<b>d</b> ifts.</i></div>
1403198971091 1395802358422 {{c1::Genetic/antigenic d ift}} is a genetic
he
nomenon that yields <b>flu e
idemics</b>.
<b /><div><i>Involves mino cha
nges based on andom mutations.</i></div><div><i><b>S</b>udden genetic <b>s</b>h
ifts a e mo e deadly that g a<b>d</b>ual genetic <b>d</b> ifts.</i></div>
1403215046161 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella}} is an infective diso de caused

by a Togavi us that was fo me ly known as Ge man (3-day) Measles.
1403215494953 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella}} is an infectious diso de caused
by a Togavi us that
esents with feve , <b>
ostau icula </b>&nbs
;(and othe )
lym
hadeno
athy, <b>a th algia</b>&nbs
;and a <b>fine ash</b>.<div><b /></div>
<div><img s c="
aste-26293789786530.j
g" /></div>
1403215608761 1395802358422 {{c1::Fine (Rubella) Rash}} is a cutaneous featu
e of Rubella that involves <b>fine macules that sta ts on the face and s
eads
cent ifugally</b>&nbs
;to involve the t unk and ext emities.<div><b /></div><di
v><img s c="
aste-26289494819234.j
g" /></div>
1403215645008 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Rubella}} is a se ious ToRCHeS
infection that
esents with a <b>"bluebe y muffin" a

ea ance</b>&nbs
;that is
indicative of ext amedulla y hemato
oeisis.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
ast
e-26439818674593.j
g" /></div>
1403215711657 1395802358422 {{c1::"Bluebe y Muffin" a

ea ance}} is a cutan
eous featu e of Congenital Rubella that is indicative of ext amedulla y hemato
o
iesis.
1403215750435 1395802358422 {{c1::C ou
}} is a vi al es
i ato y infection c
aused by Pa ainfluenzavi us that involves a <b>seal-like ba king cough</b>.
<b /><div><i>Commonly seen in infants.</i></div>
1403216570764 1395802358422 {{c1::Su face F (fusion)
otein}} is a su face

otein found in all Pa amyxovi uses that causes es
i ato y e
ithelial cells to
fuse and fo m multinucleated cells.
1403216622940 1395802358422 {{c1::Palivizumab}} is a monoclonal antibody tha
t ta gets the su face F
otein on
a amyxovi uses, the eby
eventing
neumonia
caused by RSV infection in
ematu e infants.
1403216662021 1395802358422 Which momoclonal antibody is used to ta get the
Su face F
otein on all Pa amyxovi uses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Palivizumab
}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It can
event the
neumonia caused by RSV infecti
on in
ematu e infants.</i></div>
1403216716841 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles}} is an infectious diso de caused
by a Pa amyxovi us that
esents with cha acte istic <b>Ko
lik s
ots</b>&nbs
;o
n the o al/buccal mucosa.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-26976689586594.j

g" /></div>
1403217185884 1395802358422 {{c1::Ko
lik S
ots}} a e a mucosal featu e of Me
asles that is desc ibed as <b>b ight ed s
ots</b>&nbs
;with <b>blue-white cente
s</b>&nbs
;that
ecede the measles ash by 1-2 days.<div><b /></div><div><img
s c="
aste-26972394619298.j
g" /></div>
1403217229133 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles}} is an infectious diso de caused
by a Pa amyxovi us that
esents with a cha acte istic <b>descending maculo
a
u
la ash</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-27131308409250.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Disc ete e ythematous ash that
esents late and includes the lim
bs as it s
eads downwa ds (vs. Rubella which involves mostly the t unk and s
e
ads cent ifugally to the ext emities)</i></div>
1403217376605 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Subacute Scle osing Pane
nce
halitis (SSPE)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Measles vi us}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Occu s yea s late .</i></div>
1403217416275 1395802358422 {{c1::Giant Cell Pneumonia}} is a a e es
i ato
y sequelae of Measles that is seen in the immunosu

essed.
1403217532105 1395802358422 {{c1::Cough}},&nbs
;{{c2::Co yza}} and&nbs
;{{c3
::Conjuncitivits}} is a t iad of sym
toms efe ed to as the "Th ee C's of Measl
es."
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27577985007779.j
g" /></div>
1403219013819 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitamin A}} is a fat soluble vitamin that
is used to
event seve e exfoliative de matitis in malnou ished child en infect
ed with Measles.
1403219043381 1395802358422 Which fat soluble vitamin is used to
event sev
e e exfoliative de matitis in malnou ished child en with Measles?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Vitamin A}}</div>
1403219447297 1395802358422 {{c1::Mum
s}} is an infectious diso de caused b
y Pa amyxovi uses that
esents with <b>
a otitis, o chitis</b>&nbs
;and <b>ase

tic meningitis</b>.
<b /><div><i>"Mum
s can make you
a otid glands and te

stes as big as <b>POM</b>-
oms."</i></div><div><i><b>P</b>a otitis, <b>O</b> chi
tis and ase
tic <b>M</b>eningitis.</i></div><div><i>The o chitis can cause ste i
lity, es
ecially afte
ube ty.</i></div>
1403219565935 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa otitis}} is a featu e of Mum
s that
e
sents with a <b>swollen neck and
a otid glands</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s
c="
aste-27994596835745.j
g" /></div>
1403226827494 1395802358422 Which Rhabdovi us (negative ssRNA) is sha
ed lik
e a bullet?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-29145648070934.j
g" /></div><di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rabies}}</div>
1403228947119 1395802358422 {{c1::Neg i Bodies}} a e cha acte istic cyto
las
mic inclusions commonly found in <b>Pu kinje cells of the ce ebellum</b>&nbs
;an
d in <b>hi

ocam
al neu ons</b>&nbs
;in a
atient with Rabies.<div><b /></div><
div><img s c="
aste-29686813950370.j
g" /></div>
1403229150193 1395802358422 What is the incubation
e iod fo Rabies?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Weeks to months befo e sym
toms a ise}}</div>
1403229165584 1395802358422 What is the
ostex
osu e t eatment fo Rabies?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Wound cleaning and vaccination ± abies immune globulin}
}</div>
1403229205421 1395802358422 {{c1::Rabies}} is a Rhabdovi us that t avels to
and infects the CNS by mig ating in a et og ade fashion u
ne ve axons.
1403229246864 1395802358422 Which animal bites a e the most common causes of
Rabies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bat, accoon and skunk}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Dog bites a e actually not that common in the USA.</i></div>
1403229278593 1395802358422 {{c1::Rabies}} is a CNS diso de caused by a Rha
bdovi us that
esents with <b>agitation,
hoto
hobia</b>&nbs
;and <b>hyd o
hobi
a</b>. <b /><div><i><u>Disease
og ession</u>:</i></div><div><i>Feve , Malais
e --&gt; Agitation, Photo
hobia, Hyd o
hobia --&gt; Pa alysis, Coma --&gt; Death
.</i></div>
1403229687296 1395802358422 What is the only DNA He
atitis vi us?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::HBV}}</div>
<b /><div><i>All othe s a e RNA vi uses.</i></d
iv><div><i><img s c="
aste-33152852557938.j
g" /></i></div>
1403229943935 1395802358422 How do ALT levels change in He
atitis?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403229952647 1395802358422 How do AST levels change in He
atitis?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403229961409 1395802358422 How is HAV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Fecal-O al}}</div> <b /><div><i><u>The He
atitis Wo m:&nbs
;<b>A-B-C-D-E</
b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends have fecal-o al t ansmission (A = mouth; E = an
us).</i></div><div><i>Eve ything else in between (BCD) is t ansmitted
a ente al
ly.</i></div>
1403230069721 1395802358422 How is HBV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Pa ente al}}</div> <b /><div><div><i><u>The He
atitis Wo m:&nbs
;<b>A-B-CD-E</b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends have fecal-o al t ansmission (A = mouth; E
= anus).</i></div><div><i>Eve ything else in between (BCD) is t ansmitted
a en
te ally.</i></div></div>
1403230087366 1395802358422 How is HCV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Pa ente al}}</div> <div><b /></div><div><div><i><u>The He
atitis Wo m:&nbs

;<b>A-B-C-D-E</b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends have fecal-o al t ansmission (A
= mouth; E = anus).</i></div><div><i>Eve ything else in between (BCD) is t ansm
itted
a ente ally.</i></div></div>
1403230100957 1395802358422 How is HDV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Pa ente al}}</div> <div><b /></div><div><div><i><u>The He
atitis Wo m:&nbs

;<b>A-B-C-D-E</b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends have fecal-o al t ansmission (A
= mouth; E = anus).</i></div><div><i>Eve ything else in between (BCD) is t ansm
itted
a ente ally.</i></div></div>
1403230118689 1395802358422 How is HEV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Fecal-o al; es
ecially with wate bo ne e
idemics}}</div>
<b /><div><div>
<i><u>The He
atitis Wo m:&nbs
;<b>A-B-C-D-E</b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends ha
ve fecal-o al t ansmission (A = mouth; E = anus).</i></div><div><i>Eve ything el
se in between (BCD) is t ansmitted
a ente ally.</i></div></div>

1403230126896 1395802358422 Which 2 He
atitis vi uses do not yield ca ie s
tatus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A and E}}</div>
1403230464069 1395802358422 Which 2 He
atitis vi uses a e t ansmitted fecalo ally?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HAV; HEV}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"The vowel
s hit you bowels."</i></div><div><i>They a e naked vi uses and do not ely on a
n envelo
e, hence they a e not dest oyed by the gut.</i></div>
1403230706101 1395802358422 What is the incubation
e iod fo HAV?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Sho t (weeks)}}</div>
1403230758993 1395802358422 What is the incubation
e iod fo &nbs
;HBV?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Long (months)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-33157
147525234.j
g" /></div>
1403230766342 1395802358422 What is the incubation
e iod fo &nbs
;HCV?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1403230790060 1395802358422 What is the incubation
e iod fo HDV&nbs
;<b>wh
en it is su
e infected on to
of HBV</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sho t}}</di
v>
1403230813793 1395802358422 What is the incubation
e iod fo &nbs
;HDV <b>wh
en it causes co-infection with HBV</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1403230847676 1395802358422 What is the incubation
e iod fo &nbs
;HEV?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Sho t}}</div>
1403230932218 1395802358422 Which 2 He
atitis vi uses <b>do not</b>&nbs
;inc
ease the isk fo He
atocellula Ca cinoma (HCC)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HA
V; HEV}}</div>
1403231231211 1395802358422 {{c1::HBV}} is a He
atitis vi us that inc eases
the isk of He
atocellula Ca cinoma by integ ating into the host genome, the eb
y acting as an oncogene.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-33152852557938.j
g" /
></div>
1403231272667 1395802358422 {{c1::HCV}} is a He
atitis vi us that inc eases
the isk of He
atocellula Ca cinoma by causing ch onic inflammation.
1403231301609 1395802358422 How does HDV influence the isk of He
atocellula
Ca cinoma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403231439439 1395802358422 Which He
atitis vi us is associated with <b>asym

tomatic</b>, <b>acute</b>&nbs
;he
atitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HAV}}</div
>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-32418413150333.j
g" /></div>
1403231921559 1395802358422 Which He
atitis is most commonly associated with
<b>ch onic</b>&nbs
;he
atitis and subsequent <b>ci hosis</b>&nbs
;o <b>ca cin
oma</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HCV}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-32452
772888671.j
g" /></div>
1403231965914 1395802358422 Which He
atitis vi us is a defective vi us that
is <b>de
endent on HBV co-infection o su
e infection</b>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::HDV}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Su
e infection yields a wo se
ognosis.</
i></div>
1403232021285 1395802358422 Which He
atitis vi us is associated with high mo
tality in
egnant women?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HEV}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-32568737005644.j
g" /></div>
1403234379492 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin against HAV indicates <b>ac
tive</b>&nbs
;He
atitis A?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HAV IgM}}</div>
1403234473918 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin against HAV indicates <b>

io infection o vaccination to HAV</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HAV IgG
}}</div>
1403234508053 1395802358422 {{c1::Anti-HAV IgG}} is an immunoglobulin agains
t HAV that
otects against HAV einfection.
1403234530092 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen indicates the <b>
esence</b>&
nbs
;of an He
atitis B infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HBsAg (su face)}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-35854386987766.j
g" /></div>
1403234700134 1395802358422 Which antibody against HBV indicates <b>immunity
to He
atitis B</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HBsAg antibodies}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-35850092020470.j
g" /></div>
1403234741071 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen is associated with the co e of
HBV?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HBcAg}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-35850

092020470.j
g" /></div>
1403235161183 1395802358422 Which antibody is HBV is indicative of an <b>acu
te o ecent infection</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HB<u><b>c</b></u>Ag
IgM}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-35850092020470.j
g" /></div>
1403235215825 1395802358422 Which antibody against HBV is indicative of <b>

io ex
osu e</b>&nbs
;o <b>ch onic infection</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A
nti-HBcAg IgG}}</div> <b /><div><i>Positive du ing the window
e iod.</i></di
v><div><i><img s c="
aste-35850092020470.j
g" /></i></div>
1403235269008 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen is indicative of <b>active vi
al e
lication</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HBeAg}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><i>A second, diffe ent antigenic dete minant f om the HBV co e</i>.<b /><div><
img s c="
aste-35850092020470.j
g" /></div>
1403235411557 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen is indicative of <b>high t ans
missibility</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HBeAg}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-35850092020470.j
g" /></div>
1403235477151 1395802358422 Which antibody against HBV is indicative of <b>l
ow t ansmissibility</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HBeAg}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-35850092020470.j
g" /></div>
1403235515874 1395802358422 Which ty
e of he
atitis is cha acte ized by ALT
&gt; AST?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vi al}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Vi <b>ALT<
/b>.</i></div>
1403236047548 1395802358422 Which ty
e of he
atitis is cha acte ised by AST
&gt; ALT?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Alcoholic he
atitis}}</div>
1403236061859 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen a

ea s fi st in an HBV infect
ion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HBsAg}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>"<b>SE-CES</
b>" in the o de of a

ea ance:</i><div><i>- SE a e the antigens (HBsAg; HBeAg)<
/i></div><div><i>- CES a e the antibodies<b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-35850092
020470.j
g" /></div></div>
1403236146801 1395802358422 Which antibody against HBV will be
esent in a

atient that is immunized against HBV?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HBsAg}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-37890201485634.j
g" /></div>
1403236338970 1395802358422 Which vi al gene in HIV codes fo the su face gl
yco
oteins g
120 and g
41?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>env</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The
otein codes fo g
160 which is cleaved into g
120 and g
41.<
/i></div>
1403236458381 1395802358422 Which envelo
e
otein on HIV functions to allow
<b>attachment to host CD4+ T cells</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::g
120; the d
ocking glyco
otein}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-38109244818014.j
g" /
></div>
1403236543841 1395802358422 Which envelo
e
otein f om HIV functions to med
iate <b>fusion and ent y</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::g
41; the t ansmemb ane
glyco
otein}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-38104949850718.j
g" /></div>
1403236571738 1395802358422 Which vi al gene in HIV codes fo the
24 ca
sid

otein?<div><b />{{c1::<i>gag</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-38104
949850718.j
g" /></div>
1403236603642 1395802358422 Which vi al
otein in HIV functions as the ca
s
id
otein?<div><b />{{c1::
24}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-3810494985071
8.j
g" /></div>
1403236619201 1395802358422 Which vi al gene in HIV codes fo its Reve se T
ansc i
tase?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
ol</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Re
membe , Reve se T ansc i
tase is an <b>RNA-de
endent DNA Polyme ase</b>&nbs
;whi
ch synthesizes dsDNA f om RNA. The fo med dsDNA integ ates into the host genome.
</i></div>
1403236647898 1395802358422 Which vi al gene in HIV codes fo its As
a tate
P otease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
ol</i>}}</div>
1403236662137 1395802358422 Which vi al gene in HIV codes fo its Integ ase?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
ol</i>}}</div>
1403236675704 1395802358422 Which vi al
otein in HIV functions as the mat
ix
otein?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
17}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-38104949850718.j
g" /></div>

1403236800656 1395802358422 To which co- ece
to does HIV bind to in <u styl
e="font-weight: bold; ">ea ly infection</u>&nbs
;to ente T cells?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::CCR5}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Alongside CD4.</i></div><div><i>Ho
mozygous CCR5 mutation = immunity.</i></div><div><i>Hete ozygous CCR5 mutation =
slowe disease cou se.</i></div>
1403236845148 1395802358422 To which co- ece
to does HIV bind to in <u styl
e="font-weight: bold; ">late infection</u>&nbs
;to ente T cells?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::CXCR4}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Alongside CD4.</i></div>
1403236876930 1395802358422 To which co- ece
to does HIV bind to ente Mac
o
hages?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CCR5}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Alongside
CD4.</i></div><div><i><div></div></i><i>Homozygous CCR5 mutation = immunity.</i>
</div><div><i>Hete ozygous CCR5 mutation = slowe disease cou se.</i></div>
1403237004609 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used as a <b>
esum
tiv
e, ule-out</b>&nbs
;test fo HIV infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ELISA}}<
/div> <b /><div><i>Sensitive; high false-
ositive ate; low th eshold.</i></d
iv><div><i><img s c="
aste-40432822124766.j
g" /></i></div>
1403237052080 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to<b>&nbs
;confi m
</b>&nbs
;a
ositive ELISA test fo HIV infection (i.e. a <b> ule-in test</b>)?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Weste n blot assay}}</div> <b /><div><i>S
ecific;
high-false negative ate; high th eshold</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-404285
27157470.j
g" /></i></div>
1403237108201 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to dete mine the

ognosis of HIV infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HIV PCR/vi al load test; d
ete mines the amount of vi al RNA in the
lasma}}</div>
1403237168152 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to monito the eff
ect of d ug the a
y in HIV infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HIV PCR/vi al l
oad test; dete mines the amount of vi al RNA in the
lasma}}</div>
1403237187951 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is equi ed to make an AIDS
diagnosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::≤ 200 CD4+ cells/mm<su
>3</su
>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>No mal = 500-1500 cells/mm<su
>3</su
></i></div><div><i><su
><img
s c="
aste-40870908789351.j
g" /></su
></i></div>
1403237266319 1395802358422 What CD4
e centage is needed to make a diagnosi
s of AIDS?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 14%}}</div> <b /><div><i>AIDS can a
lso be diagnosed by the
esence of an AIDS-defining condition (Pneumocystis
ne
umonia) in an HIV+
atient.</i></div>
1403237357017 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is indicative of <b>mode at
e immunocom
omisation</b>&nbs
;in HIV infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt
; 400 CD4+ cells/mm<su
>3</su
>}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-4086661382205
5.j
g" /></div>
1403237616954 1395802358422 Whe e does HIV e
licate du ing the latent
hase
of an unt eated infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Lym
h nodes}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-40866613822055.j
g" /></div>
1403280640589 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Histo
lasma ca
sulatum</i>}} is an o

o
tunistic fungus that is known to cause <b>systemic&nbs
;</b>disease in HIV
ati
ents that involves <b>low-g ade feve s, cough, he
atos
lenomegaly</b>&nbs
;and <
b>tongue ulce ation</b>.
<b /><div><i>CD4+ &lt; 100 cell/mm<su
>3</su
><
/i></div>
1403283050359 1395802358422 Which CD4+ cell count is associated with o

o tu
nistic <i>Histo
lasma ca
sulatum</i>&nbs
;infections in HIV
atients?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::&lt; 100 cells/mm<su
>3</su
>}}</div>
1403283089460 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} is an o

o tunis
tic fungus that causes o al th ush/eso
hagitis in HIV
atients that
esents wit
h fluffy white cottage-cheese lesions.
1403285170219 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <b>o al<
/b>&nbs
;th ush caused by <i>Candida albicans</i>&nbs
;in HIV
atients?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 400 cells/mm<su
>3</su
>}}</div>
1403285201397 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <b>eso
h
agitis</b>&nbs
;caused by <i>Candida albicans</i>&nbs
;in HIV
atients?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 100 cells/mm<su
>3</su
>}}</div>
1403285239765 1395802358422 {{c1::Hai y Leuko
lakia}} is a de matological in

fection caused by EBV in HIV
atients that commonly
esents on the late al tong
ue.
1403285323559 1395802358422 {{c1::Bacilla y Angiomatosis}} is a de matologic
diso de caused by <i>Ba tonella henselae</i>&nbs
;in HIV
atients and
esents
with su
e ficial vascula
olife ation.
<b /><div><i>Bio
sy eveals neu
t o
hilic inflammation.</i></div>
1403290054322 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>C y
tos
o idium s

.</i>}} is a
otozo
a that causes GI infection in HIV
atients that
esents with ch onic, wate y di
a hea. <b /><div><i>Acid fast cysts a e seen in the stool.</i></div>
1403290877323 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>C y
t
os
o idium s

.</i>&nbs
;infection in HIV
atients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&
lt; 200 cells/mm<su
>3</su
>}}</div>
1403291284641 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Toxo
lasma gondii</i>}} is a
otozoa t
hat causes CNS abscesses in HIV
atients that
esent as ing-enhancing lesions
on imaging.
1403291731134 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>Toxo

lasma gondii</i>&nbs
;infection in HIV
atients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt;
100 cells/mm<su
>3</su
>}}</div>
1403291771962 1395802358422 {{c1::Dementia}} is a CNS com
lication seen in H
IV that is di ectly associated with HIV and must be diffe entiated f om othe ca
uses.
1403291810944 1395802358422 {{c1::Ence
halo
athy (P og essive Multifocal Leu
koence
halo
athy; PML)}} is a CNS diso de seen in HIV
atients that involves th
e eactivation of latent JC vi us and subsequent demyelination.
1403292436951 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with JC vi us
eactivation in HIV
atients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 200 cells/mm<su
>
3</su
>}}</div>
1403292530742 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>C y
tococcus neofo mans</i>}} is an o


o tunistic fungus that causes meningitis in HIV
atients.
<b /><div><i>In
dia-ink stain will eveal a yeast with na ow-based budding and la ge ca
sule.</
i></div>
1403292875373 1395802358422 Which CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>C y

tococcus neofo mans</i>&nbs
;meningitis in HIV
atients?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::&lt; 50 cells/mm<su
>3</su
>}}</div>
1403292900993 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is a He
esvi us that causes <b> eti
nitis</b> in HIV
atients that
esents with <b>cotton-wool s
ots</b>&nbs
;on fu
ndosco
y.
<b /><div><i>May
esent with eso
hagitis.</i></div>
1403292961137 1395802358422 {{c1::Eso
hagitis}} is a GI com
lication that is
often seen alongside CMV Retinitis in HIV
atients.
1403293081180 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with CMV eti
nitis in HIV
atients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 50 cells/mm<su
>3</su
>}}
</div>
1403293151310 1395802358422 {{c1::La ge Cell Non-Hodgkin Lym
homa}} is a Non
-Hodgkin Lym
homa that is seen in HIV
atients, <b>often on the o o
ha ynx (Wald
eye Ring).</b> <b /><div><i>May be associated with EBV.</i></div>
1403294217650 1395802358422 {{c1::P ima y B-cell CNS Lym
homa}} is a Lym
hom
a often associated with EBV in that can
esent as focal o multi
le lesions, th
e eby diffe entiating it f om Toxo
lasmosis.
1403295597194 1395802358422 {{c1::Squamous Cel Ca cinoma}} is a cance cause
d by HPV in HIV
atients that often
esents at the anus (in MSM's) o the ce vi
x.
1403295677022 1395802358422 {{c1::Ka
osi Sa coma}} is a cance caused by HHV
-8 in HIV
atients that
esents with su
e ficial neo
lastc
olife ations of va
sculatu e.
<div><b /></div><i>Bio
sy will eveal lym
hocytic inflammation.
</i><b /><div><i>Do not confuse Ka
osi Sa coma with Bacilla y Angiomatosis whic
h is caused by Ba tonella henselae.</i></div>
1403296022011 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is a He
vesvi us that causes inte s
titial
neumonia in HIV
atients.
<b /><div><i>Associated with owl eye in
clusions.</i></div>
1403296068600 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>As
e gillus fumigatus</i>}} is an o

o

tunistic fungus that causes invasive As
e gillosis in HIV
atients that
esents
with
leu itic
ain, hemo
tysis and infilt ates on imaging.
1403296110584 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pneumocystic ji ovecii</i>}} is an o

o
tunistic fungus that causes <i>Pneumocystis</i>&nbs
;
neumonia in HIV
atients.
<b /><div><i>Associated with a g ound glass a

ea ance on imaging.</i></div>
1403296292520 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>Pneum
ocystis</i>&nbs
;
neumonia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 200 cells/mm<su
>3</
su
>}}</div>
1403296320448 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>St e

tococcus
neumoniae</i>&nbs
;
neumonia in HIV
atients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::&lt; 200 cells/mm<su
>3</su
>}}</div>
1403296589544 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium avium-int acellula e</i>&
nbs
;(MAC)}} is a Mycobacte ial s
ecies that causes Tube culosis-like disease in
HIV
atients.
1403296636460 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated <i>Mycobacte
ium avium-int acellula e</i>&nbs
;infection in HIV
atients?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::&lt; 50 cells/mm<su
>3</su
>}}</div>
1403296696962 1395802358422 Which fo m of
ions a e the infective, t ansmis
sible,
athogenic fo m of the
otein?<div><b />{{c1::P P<su
>sc</su
>}}</div>
1403296827842 1395802358422 {{c1::P P<su
>sc</su
>}} is the <b>beta-
leated,
</b>&nbs
;infective and t ansmissible fo m of
ions that is fo med following th
e conve sion f om the no mal,
edominantly al
ha-helical P P<su
>c</su
>&nbs
;

otein.
1403296910557 1395802358422 {{c1::P P<su
>sc</su
>}} is the
athological fo
m of
ions that esists
otease deg adation and hence facilitates the conve si
on of mo e no mal P P<su
>c</su
>&nbs
;
ions into the infective, t ansmissible
fo m.
1403296979146 1395802358422 {{c1::C eutzfeldt-Jakob Disease}} is a <b>s
o ad
ic</b> ty
e of s
ongifo m ence
halo
athy caused by
ions that is cha acte ized
by a
idly
og essive dementia.&nbs
; <b /><div><i>S
ongifo m ence
halo
athy
is cha acte ized by dementia, ataxia and death.</i></div>
1403297018321 1395802358422 {{c1::Ge stmann-St aussle -Scheinke Synd ome}}
is an <b>inhe ited</b>&nbs
;s
ongifo m ence
halo
athy caused by
ions. <b /><d
iv><i>S
ongifo m ence
halo
athy is cha acte ized by dementia, ataxia and death.<
/i></div>
1403297078245 1395802358422 {{c1::Ku u}} is an <b>acqui ed</b>&nbs
;fo m of
s
ongifo m ence
halo
athy that is caused by
ions.
<b /><div><i>S
ongifo m
ence
halo
athy is cha acte ized by dementia, ataxia and death.</i></div>
1403297162366 1395802358422 Whe e on the body is <i>Sta
hylococcus e
ide mid
is </i>found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Skin}}</div>
1403298938646 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>Sta
hylococcus e
ide mid
is</i>&nbs
;no mally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nose}}</div>
1403298970960 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i
>&nbs
;no mally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nose}}</div>
1403298984246 1395802358422 Whe e in the body a e Vi idans St e
tococci no m
ally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::O o
ha ynx}}</div>
1403299012580 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>St e
tococcus mutans </i
>no mally found in the body?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dental
laque}}</div>
1403299072684 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs

;no mally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div>
1403299701687 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>Bacte oides f agilis</i>
&nbs
;no mally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div>
1403299725154 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>Lactobacillus s
.</i>&nb
s
;no mally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vagina}}</div>
1403300499736 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Bacillus
ce eus</i>&nbs
;food
oisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Reheated ice}}</div>
1403300910954 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Clost idi
um botulinum </i>food
oisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Im
o
e ly canned fo
ods}}</div>
<b /><div><i>A sign will be <b>bulging cans</b>&nbs
;due to the
gas
oduction.</i></div>

1403300979026 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Clost idi
um
e f ingens</i>&nbs
;food
oisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Reheated meat
dishes}}</div>
1403301346841 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Esche ich
ia coli</i>&nbs
;O157:H7 food
oisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Unde cooked
meat}}</div>
1403301402601 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Salmonell
a</i>&nbs
;food
oisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Poult y, meat, eggs}}</div
>
1403301422588 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Sta
hyloc
occus au eus </i>food
oisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Meats; Mayonnaise; C
usta d}}</div> <b /><div><i>Involves
efo med ente otoxins</i></div>
1403301590798 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Vib io
a
ahaemolyticus</i>&nbs
;food
oisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Contaminated
seafood}}</div>
1403302018878 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Vib io vu
lnificus</i>&nbs
;food
oisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Contaminated seafoo
d}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Vib io vulnificus also causes wound infections f o
m contact with contaminated wate o shellfish.</i></div>
1403302057461 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is caused by <i>Cam
ylobac
te s

</i>.?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div> <b /><div><i>Comma o S
-sha
ed o ganisms that can g ow at 42 C</i></div>
1403303093917 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is caused by <i>Entamoeba
histolytica</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody (Amoebic Dysente y)}}</div>
1403303114564 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is caused by EHEC?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. O157:H7; makes a Shig
a-like toxin</i></div>
1403303139859 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is caused by EIEC?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Due to invasion of the col
onic mucosa</i></div>
1403303154209 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is caused by <i>Salmonella
</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div> <b /><div><i>Flagella motility
; ese voi is in animals, es
ecially
oult y and eggs.</i></div>
1403303200013 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is caused by <i>Shigella</
i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div> <b /><div><i>P oduces a Shiga t
oxin.</i></div><div><i>Human ese voi only.</i></div>
1403303227164 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is caused by<i>&nbs
;Ye si
nia ente olytica</i>?<b /><b /><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Ca
uses day-ca e outb eaks.</i></div><div><i>May also cause Pseudoa

endicitis.</i>
</div>
1403303265838 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is caused by <i>Clost idiu
m difficile</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Wate y}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Al
so causes Pseudomemb anous colitis.</i></div><div><i>Occassionally causes bloody
dia hea.</i></div>
1403303414091 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is caused by <i>Clost idiu
m
e f ingens</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Wate y}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Al
so causes gas gang ene.</i></div>
1403303430032 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is caused by ETEC?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Wate y}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Causes T avele 's dia hea
.</i></div><div><i>P oduces both a heat-labile and heat-stable toxin.</i></div>
1403303580284 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is caused by most
otozoa
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Wate y}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Gia dia, C y

tos
o idium</i></div>
1403303598154 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is caused by <i>Vib io cho
le ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Wate y}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Comma-sha

ed o ganism.</i></div><div><i>Causes ice wate dia hea.</i></div><div><i>Often
found in infected seafood.</i></div>
1403303643873 1395802358422 What ty
e of dia hea is caused by most vi uses?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rotavi us; No ovi us}}</div>
1403303672031 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>St e
tococcus
neumoniae</i>}},&nbs
;{{

c2::<i>Klebsiella</i>}} and&nbs
;{{c3::<i>Sta
hylococcus s
.</i>}} a e bace ia k
nown to cause
neumonia in alcoholics and/o IV d ug use s.
1403304551683 1395802358422 What g ou
of bacte ia a e associated with As
i
ation Pneumonia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anae obic bacte ia}}</div>
1403304573526 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Myco
lasma</i>}},&nbs
;{{c2::<i>Legione
lla</i>}} and&nbs
;{{c3::<i>Chlamydia</i>}} a e bacte ia associated with Aty
ica
l Pneumonia.
1403304637189 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas s
.</i>}},&nbs
;{{c2::<i>St
a
hylococcus au eus</i>}} and&nbs
;{{c3::<i>St e
tococcus
neumoniae</i>}} a e b
acte ia associated with
neumonia in Cystic Fib osis
atients.
1403304833135 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Sta
hylococcus</i>}},&nbs
;{{c2::<i>Hae
mo
hilus influenzae</i>}} and&nbs
;{{c3::<i>St e
tococcus
neumoniae</i>}} a e b
acte ial s
ecies associated with <b>
ostvi al</b>&nbs
;
neumonia.
1403304873280 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of bacte ial menin
gitis in teens?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>}}</div>
1403304927377 1395802358422 How does o
ening
essu e change in bacte ial me
ningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9929964388565.j
g" /></div>
1403306375270 1395802358422 How does o
ening
essu e change in Fungal o TB
meningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-9925669421269.j
g" /></div>
1403306391231 1395802358422 How does o
ening
essu e change in vi al mening
itis?<div><b />{{c1::No mal o Inc eased}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9925669421269.j
g" /></div>
1403306406607 1395802358422 How do the level of PMNs change in bacte ial men
ingitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9925669421269.j
g" /></div>
1403306462804 1395802358422 How do lym
hocyte levels change in Fungal o TB
meningitis?<div><b />{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-99256
69421269.j
g" /></div>
1403306480307 1395802358422 How do CSF lym
hocyte levels change in vi al men
ingitis?<div><b ></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b ><div><img s c="
aste
-9925669421269.j
g" /></div>
1403306514193 1395802358422 How do CSF
otein levels change in bacte ial me
ningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9925669421269.j
g" /></div>
1403306533528 1395802358422 How do CSF
otein levels change in fungal o TB
meningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-9925669421269.j
g" /></div>
1403306543116 1395802358422 How do CSF
otein levels change in vi al mening
itis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No mal o Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-9925669421269.j
g" /></div>
1403306580164 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels change in bacte ial me
ningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9925669421269.j
g" /></div>
1403306789648 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels change in fungal/TB me
ningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9925669421269.j
g" /></div>
1403306805863 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels change in vi al mening
itis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No mal; vi uses do not use glucose, emembe ?}}
</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-9925669421269.j
g" /></div>
1403379343634 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is the most common cause of Osteo
myelitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>If no othe info mation is available about the
atient, always ass
ume that Sta
hylococcus au eus is the cause.</i></div>
1403379855778 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with Osteomyelitis
in sexually active
atients, albeit a ely?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse
ia gono hoeae</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Osteomyelitis is quite a e. Se
ti
c a th itis is fa mo e common.</i></div>
1403380080297 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with Osteomyelitis

in diabetics and IV d ug use s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae ugi
nosa</i>&nbs
;(and <i>Se atia s
.</i>)}}</div>
1403380109988 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with Osteomyelitis
in Sickle Cell
atients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Salmonella s
.</i>}}</div
>
1403381846562 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with Osteomyelitis
in
atients that have eceived a
osthetic joint e
lacement?<div><b />{{c1::<
i>Sta
hylococcus au eus; Sta
hylococcus e
ide midis</i>}}</div>
1403381908012 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with Osteomyelitis
at the ve teb ae?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium tube culosis</i>}}
</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , this is called <b>Pott Disease</b></i></div>
1403381931442 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with Osteomyelitis
in
atients that have eceived cat and dog bites?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
Pasteu ella multocida</i>}}</div>
1403382032572 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteomyelitis}} is an infectious diso de
of the bone that often yields a <b>subtle</b>&nbs
;lesion on x- ay, but a mo e

ominent lesion on MRI.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-15607911153942.j
g"
/><img s c="
aste-15620796055832.j
g" /></div>
1403382462738 1395802358422 Which sex is mo e commonly affected by UTIs?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Females}}</div> <b /><div><i>They have sho te u eth as
that a e colonized by fecal flo a.</i></div>
1403386039275 1395802358422 How does
egnancy affect the isk fo obtaining
a UTI?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403386051223 1395802358422 How does diabetes affect the isk fo obtaining
a UTI?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403386063417 1395802358422 What is a <b>
ositive u ina y leukocyte este ase
test</b>&nbs
;indicative of?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bacte ial UTI}}</div>
1403386313014 1395802358422 What is a <b>
ositive u ina y nit ite test</b>&n
bs
;indicative of?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<u style="font-weight: bold; ">G a
m-negative</u>&nbs
;bacte ial UTI}}</div>
1403386334411 1395802358422 What kind of bacte ia yield a <b>
ositive u ina
y nit ite test</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G am-negative bacte ia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is im
o tant. G am-
ositive bacte ia will not yield a
ositiv
e nit ite test.</i></div>
1403386564988 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of UTI?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>Esche ichia coli</i>}}</div>
1403386615420 1395802358422 What is the second most common cause of UTI in s
exually active women?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Sta
hylococcus sa
o
hyticus
</i>}}</div>
1403386637865 1395802358422 What is the 3 d most common cause of UTI?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Klebsiella
neumoniae</i>}}</div>
1403386652204 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Se atia ma censens</i>}} is a s
ecies
of bacte ia that causes UTI. Some st ains
oduce a ed
igment.
<b /><d
iv><i>Often nocosomial and d ug esistant.</i></div>
1403386842718 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>P oteus mi abilis</i>}} is a g am-negat
ive bacte ia that causes UTI and is associated with <b>st uvite stones</b>.
1403387010200 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}} is a g amnegative bacte ia that causes UTI and is associated with a blue-g een
igment an
d f uity odo . <b /><div><i>Usually nocosomial and d ug esistant.</i></div>
1403387098106 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>P oteus s

.</i>}} and&nbs
;{{c2::<i>Kl
ebsiella s

.</i>}} a e 2 g am-negative bacte ia known to cause UTIs that yield
a &nbs
;<b>
ositive u ina y u ease test</b>.
1403387151807 1395802358422 Which bacte ia a e associated with a <b>
ositive
u ina y u ease test</b>&nbs
;in a UTI?<div><b />{{c1::<i>Klebsiella s

.; P ot
eus s

.</i>}}</div>
1403387182020 1395802358422 Which bacte ia a e most likely associated with a
<b>negative&nbs
;u ina y u ease test</b>&nbs
;in a UTI?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::<i>Esche ichia coli</i>; <i>Ente ococcus s

.</i>}}</div>
1403387237718 1395802358422 {{c1::Bacte ial Vaginosis}} is a ty
e of vaginal
infection that
esents with a <b>thin, white discha ge</b>&nbs
;with a <b>fish

y odou </b>.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-17738214932836.j
g" /></div>
1403388175462 1395802358422 {{c1::T ichomoniasis}} is a common vaginal infec
tion that
esents with <b>f othy, g ey-g een, foul-smelling discha ge</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-17733919965540.j
g" /></div>
1403388357800 1395802358422 {{c1::Vulvovaginal Candidiasis}} is a common vag
inal infection that
esents with a <b>thick, white, "cottage cheese" discha ge<
/b>.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-17733919965540.j
g" /></div>
1403388703460 1395802358422 Which vaginal infection is associated with Clue
Cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bacte ial vaginosis}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-17733919965540.j
g" /></div>
1403388724717 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo bacte ial vaginosis?<d
iv><b />{{c1::Met onidazole}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1773391996554
0.j
g" /></div>
1403388742871 1395802358422 What is the vaginal
H in Bacte ial Vaginosis?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 4.5}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-17733
919965540.j
g" /></div>
1403388755212 1395802358422 What is the vaginal
H in Vaginal T ichomoniasis
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 4.5}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-17733
919965540.j
g" /></div>
1403388781335 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Vaginal T ichomoniasis
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Met onidazole}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The sexual

a tne must be t eated as well.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-1773391996554
0.j
g" /></i></div>
1403388842309 1395802358422 What is the vaginal
H in Vulvovaginal Candidias
is?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No mal (4.0-4.5)}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-17733919965540.j
g" /></div>
1403388902876 1395802358422 Which common vaginal infection <b>does not</b>&n
bs
;
esent with inflammation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bacte ial vaginosis}}<
/div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-17733919965540.j
g" /></div>
1403388925963 1395802358422 How a e the ToRCHeS infections commonly t ansmit
ted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T ans
lacental in most cases}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>HSV-2 is commonly t ansmitted du ing delive y.</i></div>
1403390175556 1395802358422 Which vi al infection is known to cause Hyd o
s
Fetalis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa vovi us B19}}</div>
1403390219688 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>St e
tococcus agalactiae</i>}},&nbs
;{{
c2::<i>Esche ichia coli</i>}}, and&nbs
;{{c3::<i>Liste ia monocytogenes</i>}} a
e bacte ia that all cause meningitis in neonates.
1403390255400 1395802358422 How is <i>Toxo
lasma gondii</i>&nbs
;t ansmitted
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cat feces; ingestion of unde cooked meat}}</div>
1403392505431 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Toxo
lasma gondii</i>}} is a ToRCHeS in
fection that
esents as a classic t iad of <b>cho io etinitis, hyd oce
halus</b
>&nbs
;and <b>int ac anial calcifications</b>&nbs
;in neonates.
1403392962813 1395802358422 How is Rubella t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Res
i ato y d o
lets}}</div>
1403392975603 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella}} is a&nbs
;ToRCHeS infection that

esents with a classic t iad of <b>Patent Ductus A te iosus, cata acts</b>&nbs

;and <b>deafness</b>. <b /><div><i>The e may be <b>
ulmona y a te y hy
o
lasi
a</b>&nbs
;instead of PDA.</i></div><div><i>The e may be a <b>"bluebe y muffin"
ash</b>&nbs
;as well.</i></div>
1403393249459 1395802358422 What ca diovascula defects a e associated with
Congenital Rubella (ToRCHeS)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PDA o Pulmona y A te y
Hy
o
lasia}}</div>
1403393286093 1395802358422 Which&nbs
;ToRCHeS infection is associated with
a <b>"bluebe y muffin"</b>&nbs
; ash?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rubella; CMV}}
</div>
1403393437299 1395802358422 How is CMV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Sexual contact; o gan t ans
lantation}}</div>
1403393439364 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella}} and&nbs
;{{c2::CMV}} a e 2&nbs
;
ToRCHeS infections that a e associated with a <b>"bluebe y muffin</b>" ash.
1403393464088 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is a&nbs
;ToRCHeS infection that
e

sents with <b>hea ing loss, seizu es,
etechial ash</b>&nbs
;and a <b>"bluebe
y muffin" ash.</b>
1403393509039 1395802358422 {{c1::HIV}} is a&nbs
;ToRCHeS infection that
e
sents with <b> ecu ent infections</b>&nbs
;and <b>dia hea</b>&nbs
;in neonates
.
1403393766971 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV-2}} is a&nbs
;ToRCHeS infection that

esents with <b>ence
halitis</b>&nbs
;and <b>he
etic (vesicula ) lesions.</b>
1403394135062 1395802358422 {{c1::Sy
hilis}} is a&nbs
;ToRCHeS infection tha
t often esults in stillbi th th ough <b>hyd o
s fetalis</b>.
1403394254138 1395802358422 Which&nbs
;ToRCHeS infection is associated with
<b>Hutchinson teeth</b>, a congenital dental malfo mation involving notches, wid
ely sha
ed cent al inciso s?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-20985210208613
.j
g" /></div><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sy
hilis}}</div>
1403394307733 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhagades}} a e a facial malfo mation seen
in congenital Sy
hilis that a e desc ibed as <b>linea sca es at the angle of th
e mouth</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-21071109554532.j
g" /></div>
1403394374955 1395802358422 {{c1::Snuffles}} is a featu e of congenital sy
h
ilis that is desc ibed as <b>nasal discha ge full of sy
hilis s
i ochetes</b>.<d
iv><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-21066814587236.j
g" /></div>
1403394425500 1395802358422 Which ToRCHeS infection is associated with <b>CN
VIII deafness</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sy
hilis}}</div>
1403394467045 1395802358422 Which&nbs
;ToRCHeS infection is associated with
<b>saddle nose</b>&nbs
;and a <b>sho t maxilla</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::S
y
hilis}}</div>
1403394493807 1395802358422 Which&nbs
;ToRCHeS infection is associated with
<b>sabe shins</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sy
hilis}}</div>
1403394506409 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Hand-Foot-Mouth Disease?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Coxsackievi us Ty
e A}}</div>
1403397115066 1395802358422 {{c1::Hand-Foot-Mouth Disease}} is a vi al diso
de caused by Coxsackievi us Ty
e A that
esents with a <b>vesicula ash on th
e
alms and soles</b>&nbs
;and <b>vesicles/ulce s on the o al mucosa</b>.<div><b
/></div><div><img s c="
aste-21685289877861.j
g" /></div>
1403397223545 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Roseola?<div><b />{{c1:
:HHV-6}}</div>
1403397232102 1395802358422 {{c1::Roseola}} is a vi al diso de caused by HH
V-6 that
esents with a macula ash ove the body that a

ea s afte seve al d
ays of high feve .
<b /><div><i>Can
esent with feb ile seizu es and usua
lly affects infants.</i></div>
1403397278883 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles (Rubeola)}} is a vi al infection c
aused by a
a amyxovi us that
esents with a ash that <b>begins at the head an
d moves down</b>.
<b /><div><i>The ash is
eceded by cough, co yza, con
junctivitis and Ko
lik s
ots on the buccal mucosa.</i></div>
1403397342974 1395802358422 What is the etiology of E ythema Infectiosum (Fi
fth Disease)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa vovi us B19}}</div>
1403397414579 1395802358422 {{c1::E ythema Infectiosum (Fifth Disease)}} is
a vi al infection caused by Pa vovi us B19 that
esents with a <b>"sla

ed chee
k"</b>&nbs
;on the face.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-22157736280421.j
g
" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Pa vovi us B19 can cause hyd o
s fetalis in
egna
nt women.</i></div>
1403397499519 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella}} is a vi al infection that
esen
ts with a <b>
ostau ical lym
hadeno
athy</b>&nbs
;and a&nbs
;<b>fine t uncal as
h</b>&nbs
;that initially begins as a ash on the head which moves down.
1403397739006 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Sca let Feve ?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus
yogenes</i>}}</div>
1403397774456 1395802358422 {{c1::Sca let Feve }} is an infection caused by
<i>St e
tococcus
yogenes</i>&nbs
;that
esents with an <b>e ythematous, sand
a

e -like ash with feve and so e th oat</b>.
1403397960079 1395802358422 What is the cause of Chicken
ox?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::VZV (Va icella-Zoste )}}</div>
1403397976390 1395802358422 {{c1::Chicken
ox}} is an infectious diso de cau

sed by VZV that
esents with a <b>vesicula ash that begins on the t unk that
s
eads to the face and ext emities.</b>
1403398203672 1395802358422 What is the etiology of AIDS?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::HIV}}</div>
1403398462881 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Chanc oid?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Haemo
hilus duc eyi</i>}}</div>
1403398478236 1395802358422 {{c1::Chanc oid}} is an STD caused by <i>Haemo
h
ilus duc eyi</i>&nbs
;that
esents with <b>
ainful genital ulce s</b>&nbs
;and
<b>inguinal adeno
athy</b>.
1403398503408 1395802358422 What is the cause of Chlamydia?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&nbs
;se oty
es D-K}}</div>
1403398588067 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlamydia}} is an STD caused by <i>Chlamyd
ia t achomatis</i>&nbs
;that
esents with <b>u eth itis, ce vicitis </b>and <b>
PID</b>.
1403398642783 1395802358422 {{c1::Conjunctivitis}} is an ocula com
lication
of Chlamydia.
1403398715239 1395802358422 {{c1::Reactive a th itis}} is a musculoskeletal
com
lication of Chlamydia.
1403398742395 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Condyloma Acuminata?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::HPV-6; HPV-11}}</div>
1403398772648 1395802358422 Which HPV st ains cause Condyloma Acuminata?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::HPV6; HPV11}}</div>
1403398790620 1395802358422 {{c1::Condyloma Acuminata}} is an STD caused by
HPV6 o HPV11 that
esents with <b>genital wa ts</b>&nbs
;and <b>koilocytes</b>
.
1403398909721 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Genital He
es?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::HSV-2; less commonly HSV-1}}</div>
1403398935094 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Gono hea?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia gono heae</i>}}</div>
1403399191015 1395802358422 {{c1::Gono hea}} is an STD caused by <i>Neisse
ia gono heae</i>&nbs
;that
esents with <b>u eth itis, ce vicitis,
ostatitis
</b>&nbs
;and a <u style="font-weight: bold; ">c eamy
u ulent discha ge</u>.
1403399379143 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Lym
hog anuloma Vene eum
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&nbs
;se oty
es L1-L3}}
</div>
1403399415521 1395802358422 {{c1::Lym
hog anuloma Vene eum}} is an STD cause
d by <i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&nbs
;se oty
es L1-L3 that
esents with <b>inf
ection of lym
hatics</b>, <b>
ainless genital ulce s</b>&nbs
;and <b>
ainful lym

hadeno
athy</b>&nbs
;(buboes).
1403399484734 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Sy
hilis??<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>T e
onema
allidum</i>}}</div>
1403399534859 1395802358422 {{c1::P ima y Sy
hilis}} is a ty
e of Sy
hilis t
hat
esents with <b>
ainless chanc es</b>.
1403399558077 1395802358422 {{c1::Seconda y Sy
hilis}} is a ty
e of Sy
hilis
that
esents with feve , lym
hadeno
athy, skin ashes and <b>condylomata lata<
/b>.
1403399595505 1395802358422 {{c1::Te tia y Sy
hilis}} is a ty
e of Sy
hilis
that
esents with <b>gummas, tabes do salis, gene al
a esis, ao titis</b>&nbs

;and <b>A gyll-Robe tson
u
il</b>.
1403399671136 1395802358422 What is the etiology of T ichomoniasis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>T ichomonas vaginalis</i>}}</div>
1403399818501 1395802358422 {{c1::T ichomoniasis}} is an STD caused by <i>T
ichomonas vaginalis</i>&nbs
;that
esents with <b>vaginitis </b>and<b> st awbe
y ce vix</b>.
1403399869171 1395802358422 Which 2 bacte ia a e the most common causes of P
elvic Inflammato y Disease (PID)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t anch
omatis</i>&nbs
;(subacute; often undiagnosed); <i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>}}</d
iv>
1403402930924 1395802358422 What is the most common bacte ial STD in the Uni
ted States?<div><b />{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>}}</div>

1403402957857 1395802358422 Which bacte ia often causes <b>subacute</b>&nbs

;Pelvic Inflammato y Disease (PID) and hence often goes undiagnosed?<div><b />{
{c1::<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>}}</div>
1403402982827 1395802358422 Which bacte ia often causes <b>acute</b>&nbs
;Pe
lvic Inflammato y Disease (PID)?<div><b />{{c1::<i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>}}<
/div>
1403402993826 1395802358422 {{c1::Chandelie Sign}} is a com
lication of Pel
vic Inflammato y Disease (PID) that
esents as ce vical motion tende ness.
1403404030220 1395802358422 {{c1::Pelvic Inflammato y Disease (PID)}} is a g
enitou ina y diso de caused by <i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&nbs
;and <i>Neisse
ia gono heae</i>&nbs
;that
esents with <b>
u ulent ce vical discha ge</b>.<di
v><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-24803436134755.j
g" /></div>
1403404101084 1395802358422 {{c1::Fitz-Hugh-Cu tis Synd ome}} is a com
licat
ion of Pelvic Inflammato y Disease (PID) that
esents as an <b>infection of the
live ca
sule</b>&nbs
;and subsequent <b>"violin st ing" adhesions
e itoneum t
o live </b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-24932285153639.j
g" /></div>
1403404184255 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} is a nocosomial
infection that has <b>hy
e alimentation</b>&nbs
;as a isk facto .
1403404464321 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Esche ichia coli</i>}} and&nbs
;{{c2::<
i>P oteus mi abilis</i>}} a e 2 <b>nocosomial</b>&nbs
;bacte ial infections that
have u ina y cathete ization as a isk facto .
1403404521841 1395802358422 What is the most common nocosomial UTI infection
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Esche ichia coli</i>}}</div>
1403404531311 1395802358422 What is the most common nocosomial wound infecti
on?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>}}</div>
1403404543940 1395802358422 {{c1::HBV}} is a vi al nocosomial infection that
has <b>wo king at a enal dialysis unit</b>&nbs
;as a isk facto .
1403404566023 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Legionella</i>}} is a bacte ial nocosom
ial infection that has <b>wate ae osols</b>&nbs
;as a isk facto .
1403404584966 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}} is a g amnegative nocosomial bacte ial infection that has <b> es
i ato y the a
y equi
men
t</b>&nbs
;as a isk facto .
<b /><div><i>Think of Pseudomonas "</i><u style
="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; ">ai </u><s
an style="font-style: itali
c">"-uginosa when <b>ai </b>&nbs
;o <b>bu ns</b>&nbs
;a e involved.</s
an></div
>
1403410271881 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella vi us}} is a vi us that affects un
immunized child en and
esents with a ash that <b>begins at the head and moves
down with <u>
ostau icula lym
hadeno
athy</u>.</b>
1403410385653 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles vi us}} is a vi us that affects un
immunized child en and
esents with a ash that is <b>
eceded by cough, co yza
, conjunctivitis</b>&nbs
;and <b>Ko
lik s
ots</b>&nbs
;on the buccal mucosa.
<div><b /></div><i>The ash that is seen sta ts at the head and moves down.</i>
<b /><div><i>Co yza = hinitis.</i></div>
1403410485317 1395802358422 {{c1::Poliovi us}} is a vi us that affects unimm
unized child en that causes <b>meningitis</b>&nbs
;and can also lead to <u>myalg
ia</u> and <u>
a alysis</u>.
1403410692341 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Haemo
hilus influenzae</i><i style="fon
t-weight: bold; ">&nbs
;</i>Ty
e B}} is a bacte ia that affects unimmunized chil
d en that causes <b>e
iglottitis</b>&nbs
;which
esents with an <b>edematous "c
he y ed" e
iglottis</b>&nbs
;and a <b>"thumb
int sign"</b>&nbs
;on x ay.
<b /><div><i>The edematous e
iglottis can cause difficulty b eathing.</i></div>
1403410783068 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Co ynebacte ium di
hthe iae</i>}} is a
bacte ia that affects unimmunized child en and causes a <b>
ha yngitis</b>&nbs
;
that
esents wth a <b>g ayish o o
ha yngeal exudate</b>&nbs
;that fo ms "<b>
se
udomemb anes</b>".
<b /><div><i>The
seudomemb anes may obst uct the ai wa
y. They also cause th oat
ain.</i></div>
1403410856109 1395802358422 Which bug is associated with <b>b anching ods i
n an o al infection</b>&nbs
;with <b>sulfu -containing g anules</b>?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::<i>Actinomyces is aelii</i>}}</div>
1403410907022 1395802358422 Which enca
sulated mic obes a e associated with

infections in as
lenic
atients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St e
tococcus
ne
umoniae</i>&nbs
;&gt;&gt; <i>Haemo
hilus influenzae</i><b style="font-style: ita
lic; ">&nbs
;</b>Ty
e B &gt; <i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>"<b>SHiN</b>"</i></div><div><i>- <b>S</b>t e
tococcus
neumoniae</i></div>
<div><i>- <b>H</b>aemo
hilus <b>i</b>nfluenzae</i></div><div>- <i><b>N</b>eisse
ia meningitidis</i></div>
1403411003941 1395802358422 Which bugs a e associated with infection in
ati
ents with Ch onic G anulomatous Disease (CGD)?<div><b />{{c1::Catalase
ositive
mic obes; es
ecially <i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>}}</div>
1403411887468 1395802358422 Which bug is associated with <b> ed "cu ant jel
ly" </b>s
utum?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Klebsiella</i>}}</div>
1403411911460 1395802358422 Which bug is associated with dog o cat bites?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pasteu ella multocida</i>}}</div>
1403411935867 1395802358422 Which bug is associated with causing <b>CN VII (
Facial Ne ve) Palsy</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bo elia bu gdo fe i</i>&
nbs
;(Lyme Disease)}}</div>
1403411967243 1395802358422 Which fungi a e associated with infections in ne
ut o
enic
atients?<div><b />{{c1::<i>Candida albicans; As
e gillus</i>}}</div>
1403412017761 1395802358422 Which He
esvi us is associated with infecting a
n o gan t ans
lant eci
ient?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div>
1403412036450 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>T o
he yma whi

lei</i>}} is a bacte ia
that causes Whi

le Disease and yields a <b>
ositive PAS</b>&nbs
;test.
1403412081384 1395802358422 Which bug is associated with causing
neumonia i
n cystic fib osis
atients and causing bu n infections?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}}</div>
1403412113014 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is commonly associated with causi
ng se
sis and meningitis in newbo ns?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G ou
B St e
(
<i>St e
tococcus agalactiae</i>)}}</div>
1403412187186 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with <b>su gical wo
und infections</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>}}</d
iv>
1403412207169 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with <b>t aumatic o

en wound infection</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Clost idium
e f ingens</
i>}}</div>
1403412222660 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is commonly associated with <b>e

iglottitis</b>&nbs
;in
ediat ic
atients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Haemo
h
ilus influenzae</i><b style="font-style: italic; ">&nbs
;</b>Ty
e B}}</div>
1403412257226 1395802358422 Which He
atitis vi us is commonly associated wit
h causing <b>needle
icks</b>&nbs
;in health ca e wo ke s?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::HBV}}</div>
1403463223351 1395802358422 What is the ROA of Penicillin G?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::IV o IM}}</div>
1403464056977 1395802358422 What is the ROA of Penicillin V?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::O al}}</div>
1403464068204 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Penicillin?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of T ans
e
tidase, the eby inhibiting
e
tidoglycan c oss-l
inking; Activation of autolytic enzymes}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-79886
3917541.j
g" /></div>
1403464182073 1395802358422 Which ty
e of bacte ia a e t eated by Penicillin
G and V?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mostly g am-
ositive(<i>St e
tococcus
neum
oniae; St e
tococcus
yogenes; Actinomyces</i>); Also <i>Neisse ia meningitidis<
/i>&nbs
;and <i>T e
onema
allidum</i>}}</div>
1403464336533 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic anaemia}} is a hematological com

lication of Penicillin G and V use.
1403464350534 1395802358422 {{c1::Penicillinase}} is a ty
e of beta-lactamas
e bacte ia seen in bacte ia that cleaves beta-lactam ings and causes Penicillin
esistance.
1403464401468 1395802358422 {{c1::Am
icillin}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Amoxicillin}}
a e <b>amino
enicillins</b>&nbs
;that a e sensitive to
enicillinase but have a
wide s
ect um. <b /><div><i><b>AM</b>ino<b>P</b>enicillins a e <b>AMP</b>ed u



enicillins.</i></div>
1403465941752 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Am
icillin?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of T ans
e
tidase, the eby inhibiting
e
tidoglycan c oss-l
inking}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-798863917541.j
g" /></div>
1403465981600 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Amoxicillin?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of T ans
e
tidase, the eby inhibiting
e
tidoglycan c osslinking}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-798863917541.j
g" /></div>
1403466059983 1395802358422 {{c1::Clavulanic Acid}} is a beta-lactamase inhi
bito that is often administe ed with Am
icillin and Amoxicillin as they a e
en
icillinase sensitive.
1403466131627 1395802358422 Which Amino
enicillin has g eate o al bioavaila
bility?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Amoxicillin}}</div> <b /><div><i>Am<b>O</b>
xicillin has g eate <b>O</b> al bioavailability.</i></div>
1403466221895 1395802358422 {{c1::Am
icillin}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Amoxicillin}}
a e amino
enicillins that a e used to kill <i>Haemo
hilus influenzae, Esche ichi
a coli, Liste ia monocytogenes, P oteus mi abilis, Salmonella</i>&nbs
;and <i>Sh
igella</i>&nbs
;and ente ococci.
<b /><div><i>"Amino
enicillins <b>HELPS
S</b>&nbs
;kill <b>ente ococci</b>"</i></div>
1403466367536 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudomemb anous colitis}} is a GI com
lic
ation of Amino
enicillin use (Amoxicillin/Am
icillin) that esults f om ove g ow
th of <i>Clost idium difficile</i>&nbs
;in the GI t act.
1403466449813 1395802358422 How is Amino
enicillin esistance achieved?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinase, a beta-lactamase found in bacte ia}}</div>
1403466476888 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Oxacillin?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of T ans
e
tidase, the eby inhibition
e
tidoglycan c oss-li
nking}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-798863917541.j
g" /></div>
1403467052612 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Nafcillin?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of T ans
e
tidase, the eby inhibiting
e
tidoglycan c oss-li
nking}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-798863917541.j
g" /></div>
1403467069831 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Dicloxacillin?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Inhibition of T ans
e
tidase, the eby inhibiting the c oss-linking
of
e
tidoglycan}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-798863917541.j
g" /><
/div>
1403467106225 1395802358422 {{c1::Nafcillin}},&nbs
;{{c2::Oxacillin}} and&nb
s
;{{c3::Dicloxacillin}} a e <b>beta-lactamase esistant</b>&nbs
;
enicillins th
at esist
enicillinase action due to a bulky R-g ou
that blocks access to the
beta-lactam ing.
1403467177726 1395802358422 {{c1::Inte stitial ne
h itis}} is a enal com
li
cation of <b>beta-lactamase esistant
enicillin</b>&nbs
;(Nafcillin/Oxacillin/D
icloxacillin) administ ation.
1403467244954 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of <b>beta-lactamase e
sistant</b>&nbs
;
enicillins (Nafcillin/Oxacillin/Dicloxacillin)?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::<i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>&nbs
;(exce
t fo MRSA)}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"Use <b>'naf'</b>&nbs
;to kill <b>'sta
h'</b>&nbs
;"</i></div>
1403467360525 1395802358422 {{c1::Tica cillin}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Pi
e acillin}
} a e <b>anti
seudomonal</b>&nbs
;
enicillins used to t eat <i>Pseudomonas s

.<
/i>&nbs
;infections and g am-negative ods.
<b /><div><i>Extended s
ect um.
</i></div><div><i>Beta-lactamase sensitive.</i></div><div><i>Used with beta-lact
amase inhibito s.</i></div>
1403467741278 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tica cillin?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of T ans
e
tidase, the eby inhibiting
e
tidoglycan c osslinking}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-798863917541.j
g" /></div>
1403467785303 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Pi
e acillin?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of T ans
e
tidase, the eby inhibiting the c oss-linking o
f
e
tidoglycan}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-798863917541.j
g" /></div>
1403467839901 1395802358422 {{c1::Clavulanic Acid}},&nbs
;{{c2::Sulbactam}}
and&nbs
;{{c3::Tazobactam}} a e <b>beta-lactamase inhibito s</b>&nbs
;that a e o
ften added to
enicillin antibiotics to
otect them f om beta-lactamase action.
1403467907482 1395802358422 Which o ganisms a e ty
ically not cove ed by Ce

halos
o ins?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Liste a</i>, Aty
icals (<i>Chlamydia,

Myco
lasma</i>), MRSA and Ente ococci}}</div> <div><b /></div><div><i>The exc
e
tion is Cefta oline (5th gen) which cove s MRSA.</i></div><b /><div><i>"<b>LA
ME</b>"</i></div><div><i>- Liste ia</i></div><div><i>- Aty
icals (Chlamydia, Myc
o
lasma)</i></div><div><i>- MRSA</i></div><div><i>- Ente ococci</i></div>
1403468329356 1395802358422 What gene ation Ce
halos
o in is Cefazolin?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1403468774347 1395802358422 What gene ation Ce
halos
o in is Ce
halexin?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1403468781359 1395802358422 What gene ation Ce
halos
o in is Cefoxitin?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1403468787425 1395802358422 What gene ation Ce
halos
o in is Cefu oxime?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1403468793844 1395802358422 What gene ation Ce
halos
o in is Cefaclo ?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1403468800346 1395802358422 What gene ation Ce
halos
o in is Ceft iaxone?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::3 d}}</div>
1403468812671 1395802358422 What gene ation Ce
halos
o in is Cefotaxime?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::3 d}}</div>
1403468823087 1395802358422 What gene ation Ce
halos
o in is Ceftazidime?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::3 d}}</div>
1403468834424 1395802358422 What gene ation Ce
halos
o in is Cefe
ime?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1403468850398 1395802358422 What gene ation Ce
halos
o in is Cefta oline?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::5th}}</div>
1403468859221 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefazolin}} is a 1st gene ation Ce
halos
o
in that is used
io to su ge y to
event <i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>&nbs
;w
ound infections.
1403468913883 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefazolin}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Ce
halexin}} a
e 1st gene ation Ce
halos
o ins that a e used to t eat g am-
ositive cocci, <i>P
oteus mi abilis, Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
;and <i>Klebsiella
neumoniae</i>
<b /><div><i>1st gen Ce
halos
o ins "<b>PEcK</b>":</i></div><div><i>- P oteus m
i abilis</i></div><div><i>- Esche ichia coli</i></div><div><i>- Klebsiella
neum
oniae</i></div>
1403469144643 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefoxitin}},&nbs
;{{c2::Cefaclo }} and&nbs

;{{c3::Cefu oxime}} a e 2nd gene ation Ce
halos
o ins that a e used to t eat g
am-
ositive cocci, <i>Haemo
hilus influenzae, Ente obacte ae ogenes, Neisse ia
s

, P oteus mi abilis, Esche ichia coli, Klebsiella
neumoniae </i>and <i>Se a
tia ma cescens.</i>
<b /><div><i>2nd gene ation Ce
halos
o ins a e "<b>HEN
PEcKS</b>":</i></div><div><i>- Haemo
hilus influenzae</i></div><div><i>- Ente ob
acte ae ogenes</i></div><div><i>- Neisse ia s

.</i></div><div><i>- P oteus mi
abilis</i></div><div><i>- Esche ichia coli</i></div><div><i>- Klebsiella
neumon
iae</i></div><div><i>- Se atia ma cescens</i></div>
1403469366652 1395802358422 {{c1::Ceft iaxone}},&nbs
;{{c2::Cefotaxime}} and
&nbs
;{{c3::Ceftazidime}} a e 3 d gene ation Ce
halos
o ins that a e used to t e
at <b>se ious g am-negative infections</b>&nbs
;that a e esistant to othe beta
-lactams.
1403469569805 1395802358422 Which 3 d gene ation Ce
halos
o in is used to t
eat <b>meningitis</b>&nbs
;and <b>gono hea</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ceft
iaxone}}</div>
1403469588546 1395802358422 Which 3 d gene ation Ce
halos
o in is used to t
eat <i>Pseudomonas s

.</i>&nbs
;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ceftaxidi
me}}</div>
1403469605890 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefe
ime}} is a 4th gene ation Ce
halos
o
in that has <b>inc eased activity against </b><i><b>Pseudomonas</b>&nbs
;</i>and
g am-
ositives.
1403469843105 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefta oline}} is a 5th gene ation Ce
halos

o in that has <b>b oad-s
ect um cove age</b>&nbs
;against <b>g am-negative</b>&
nbs
;and <b>g am-
ositive</b>&nbs
;o ganisms, <b>including MRSA</b>.
<b /><d
iv><i>It <b>does not</b>&nbs
;cove Pseudomonas.</i></div>
1403469985799 1395802358422 Which vitamin deficiency is associated with Ce
h

alos
o in use?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin K}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Re
membe , Vitamin K is made by GI flo a.</i></div>
1403470026928 1395802358422 What is the MOA of all Ce
halos
o ins?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of T ans
e
tidase, the eby inhibiting the c oss-lin
king of
e
tidoglycan}}</div>
1403470070980 1395802358422 How do Ce
halos
o in antibiotics influence the n
e
h otoxicity of Aminoglycosides?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403477935122 1395802358422 {{c1::Azt eonam}} is a Monobactam antibiotic tha
t
ecents
e
tidoglycan c oss-linking by binding to <b>
enicillin-binding
ote
in 3</b>.
<b /><div><i>Resistant to beta-lactamases</i></div>
1403478203629 1395802358422 Which
enicillin-binding
otein does Azt eonam
bind to in o de to
event
e
tidoglycan c oss-linking?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::Penicillin-binding
otein 3}}</div>
1403478383088 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Azt eonam?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::P evention of
e
tidoglycan c oss-linking by binding to
enicillin-bind
ing
otein 3}}</div> <b /><div><i>Syne gistic with aminoglycosides.</i></div
>
1403478435539 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Monobactams (Azt eon
am)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G am-negative ods <b>only</b>}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Monobactams a e ineffective against g am-
ositives and ane obes.</i></div>
1403478476581 1395802358422 {{c1::Azt eonam}} is a Monobactam antibiotic tha
t is used in
atients with <b>
enicillin alle gy</b>&nbs
;o in
atients with <b
> enal insufficiency</b>&nbs
;that cannot tole ate aminoglycosides.
1403485140325 1395802358422 {{c1::Cilastatin}} is a d ug that is <b>always</
b>&nbs
;co-administe ed with Ca ba
anem antibiotics in o de to dec ease the ina
ctivation of the d ug in the enal tubules.
1403487376204 1395802358422 {{c1::Cilastatin}} is a d ug that is <b>always</
b>&nbs
;co-administe ed with Ca ba
anem antibiotics that <b>inhibits enal dehyd
o
e
tidase I</b>.
<b /><div><i>This dec eases the inactivation of the Ca
ba
anem antibiotic in enal tubules.</i></div>
1403487437234 1395802358422 Which Ca ba
anem antibiotic has a dec eased isk
of causing seizu es?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Me o
enem}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Me o
enem is also stable to enal dehyd o
e
tidase I</i></div>
1403487530750 1395802358422 {{c1::GI dist ess}},&nbs
;{{c2::skin ash}} and&
nbs
;{{c3::seizu es}} a e 3 common com
lications of Ca ba
anem administ ation wh
en they a e in high
lasma levels.
<b /><div><i>The significant side effec
ts limit the use of Ca ba
anem's to life-th eatening infections o afte othe d
ugs have failed.</i></div>
1403487743530 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Vancomycin?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of
e
tidoglycan fo mation by binding to D-Ala-D-Ala on cel
l wall
ecu so s}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Results in inhibition of T ansglyc
olase action.</i></div>
1403489281091 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Vancomycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::G am-
ositive <u style="font-weight: bold; ">only</u>; Multid
ug esistant o ganisms (MRSA, Ente ococci, <i>Clost idium difficile</i>)}}</div
>
<b /><div><i>Vancomycin is given as an o al dose in Pseudomemb anous Co
litis.</i></div>
1403489346842 1395802358422 {{c1::Red Man Synd ome}} is a cutaneous com
lica
tion of Vancomycin that
esents with <b>diffuse flushing</b>&nbs
;a ound the bo
dy.
<b /><div><i>Can be
evented by antihistamine
o
hylaxis and a slow i
nfusion ate of Vancomycin.</i></div>
1403489560862 1395802358422 {{c1::Ne
h otoxicity}},&nbs
;{{c2::Ototoxicity}}
and&nbs
;{{c3::Th ombo
hlebitis}} a e 3
ossible com
lications associated with
Vancomycin use. <b /><div><i>Howeve in gene al, Vancomycin is well tole ated.<
/i></div><div><i>"It is howeve , <b>NOT</b>&nbs
;t ouble f ee."</i></div><div><i
>- Ne
h otoxicity</i></div><div><i>- Ototoxicity</i></div><div><i>- Th ombo
hleb
itis</i></div>
1403489643599 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance fo Vancomyc
in?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bacte ial modification of D-Ala-D-Ala to D-Ala-DLac}}</div>

1403542646773 1395802358422 Which bacte ial ibosomal subunit is ta geted by
Aminoglycosides?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::30 S}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-12807592477440.j
g" /></div>
1403542823438 1395802358422 Which bacte ial ibosomal subunit is ta geted by
Tet acyclines?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::30S}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-12803297510144.j
g" /></div>
1403542843264 1395802358422 Which bacte ial ibosomal subunit is ta geted by
Chlo am
henicol?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-12803297510144.j
g" /></div>
1403542865742 1395802358422 Which bacte ial subunit is ta geted by Clindamyc
in?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12803
297510144.j
g" /></div>
1403542876768 1395802358422 Which bacte ial ibosomal subunit is ta geted by
E yth omycin and othe Mac olides?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12803297510144.j
g" /></div>
1403542915862 1395802358422 Which bacte ial ibosomal subunit is ta geted by
Linezolid?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-12803297510144.j
g" /></div>
1403542934667 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Gentamicin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13623
636262982.j
g" /></div>
1403555500182 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Neomycin?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1361934129568
6.j
g" /></div>
1403555511776 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Amikacin?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Antibiotic}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1361934129568
6.j
g" /></div>
1403555520046 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Tob amycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Antibiotic}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1361934129568
6.j
g" /></div>
1403555527155 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is St e
tomycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13619
341295686.j
g" /></div>
1403555539742 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Aminoglycoside antibiotics?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of the fo mation of the initiation com
lex
at the 30S subunit, the eby causing mis eading of mRNA; Blocking of t anslocatio
n}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>A</b>&nbs
;(Aminoglycosides) "initiates" the <b
>A</b>l
habet</i></div>
1403555611360 1395802358422 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} a e a ty
e of <b>
otein
synthesis inhibiting antibiotic</b>&nbs
;that <b> equi e O</b><sub style="fontweight: bold; ">2</sub>&nbs
;<b>fo u
take</b>, hence they a e ineffective again
st ane obes.
1403555649655 1395802358422 What is the clinical use fo Aminoglycosides?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Seve e g am-negative <b> od</b>&nbs
;infections}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Syne gistic with beta-lactams.</i><b /><div><i>Remembe , th
ey a e ineffective against ane obes.</i></div>
1403556046318 1395802358422 Which Aminoglycoside antibiotic is used befo e b
owel su ge y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Neomycin}}</div>
1403556064050 1395802358422 {{c1::Ne
h otoxicity}} is a enal com
lication o
f Aminoglycoside use, es
ecially when they a e used alongside Ce
halos
o ins.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13619341295686.j
g" /></div>
1403556090115 1395802358422 {{c1::Ototoxicity}} is a CNS com
lication of Ami
noglycoside use, es
ecially when they a e used with loo
diu etics.
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-13619341295686.j
g" /></div>
1403556159970 1395802358422 {{c1::Neu omuscula Blockade}} is a neu ological
com
lication of Aminoglycoside use that
esents at the neu omuscula junction.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13619341295686.j
g" /></div>
1403556218723 1395802358422 What is the
egnancy catego y of Aminoglycoside
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::X; they a e Te atogenic}}</div>
1403556822541 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance of Aminoglyc

osides?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bacte ial t ansfe ase enzymes; they inactivat
e the d ug by acetylation,
hos
ho ylation o adenylation}}</div>
1403556941212 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Tet acycline?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Tet acycline}}</div>
<b /><div><i>(lol)</i></div>
1403556965121 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Doxycycline?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Tet acycline}}</div>
1403556979343 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Minocycline?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Tet acycline}}</div>
1403557094697 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tet acycline antibiotics?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bind to the 30S ibosomal subunit, the eby
eventing th
e attachment of aminoacyl-tRNA mocs}}</div>
1403557596428 1395802358422 {{c1::Doxycycline}} is a Tet acycline antibiotic
that is enti ely fecally eliminated and hence can be used in
atients with ena
l failu e.
1403557626963 1395802358422 {{c1::Tet acyclines}} a e a <b>class</b>&nbs
;of
&nbs
;<b>
otein synthesis inhibiting </b>antibiotics that should not be taken w
ith milk (Ca<su
>2+</su
>), antacids (Ca<su
>2+</su
>, Mg<su
>2+</su
>) o i oncontaining
e
a ations (Fe<su
>2+</su
>).
<b /><div><i>This is because <b
>divalent cations</b>&nbs
;inhibits Tet acycline abso
tion at the gut.</i></div
>
1403557829724 1395802358422 What is the
ima y clinical use of Tet acycline
antibiotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bo elia bu gdo fe i; Myco
lasma
ne
umoniae; </i>Int acellula bugs such as <i>Rickettsia</i>&nbs
;and <i>Chlamydiae
</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Also used to t eat acne</i></div>
1403557897769 1395802358422 {{c1::Tet acyclines}} a e a class of <b>
otein
synthesis inhibiting</b>&nbs
;antibiotics that a e effective against int acellul
a o ganisms by vi tue of thei ability to accumulate int acellula ly. <b /><d
iv><i>e.g. Rickettsia s

., Chlamydiae s

.</i></div>
1403557954837 1395802358422 {{c1::Tet acyclines}} a e a class of <b>
otein
synthesis inhibiting</b>&nbs
;antibiotics that cause <b>teeth discolou ation</b>
&nbs
;and <b>inhibition of bone g owth</b>&nbs
;in child en.
1403557990915 1395802358422 {{c1::Photosensitivity}} is a CNS com
lication o
f Tet acycline use.
1403558003216 1395802358422 What is the
egnancy catego y of Tet acycline a
ntibiotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::X; Cont aindicated}}</div>
1403558015598 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance fo Tet acyc
line antibiotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::An inc ease in efflux o dec ease i
n u
take of the d ug by bacte ial
um
s}}</div>
1403558064116 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Azith omycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Mac olide}}</div>
1403559083549 1395802358422 What ty
e of antibiotic is Cla ith omycin?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Mac olide}}</div>
1403559105447 1395802358422 What ty
e of antibiotic is E yth omycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Mac olide}}</div>
1403559115171 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Mac olide antibiotics?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of <b>t anslocation</b>, by binding to the 23S
RNA of the 50S subunit}}</div>
1403559756635 1395802358422 {{c1::Mac olides}} a e a class of <b>
otein syn
thesis inhibiting</b>&nbs
;antibiotics that t eat aty
ical
neumonias (<i>Myco
l
asma, Chlamydia, Legionella</i>).
1403559986231 1395802358422 {{c1::Mac olides}} a e a class of <b>
otein syn
thesis inhibiting</b>&nbs
;antibiotics that t eat g am-
ositive cocci in
atient
s that a e alle gic to
enicillins.
<b /><div><i>They also t eat STDs (Chla
mydia)</i></div>
1403560023765 1395802358422 {{c1::GI motility issues}} is a GI com
lication
of Mac olide antibiotic administ ation. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1690928624445
8.j
g" /></div>
1403560070396 1395802358422 {{c1::A hythmia}} is a ca diac com
lication of
Mac olide antibiotic use that is caused by a <b>
olonged QT inte val</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-16904991277162.j
g" /></div>

1403560136130 1395802358422 {{c1::Cholestatic he
atitis}} is a he
atic com
l
ication of Mac olide antibiotic use.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1690499127716
2.j
g" /></div>
1403560160537 1395802358422 {{c1::Eosino
hilia}} is an immunological com
lic
ation of Mac olide antibiotics. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-16904991277162.j
g" /
></div>
1403560442386 1395802358422 {{c1::Mac olides}} a e a class of <b>
otein syn
thesis inhibiting</b>&nbs
;antibiotics that inc ease the se um concent ation of
<b>theo
hyllines</b>&nbs
;and <b>o al anticoagulants</b>.
1403560490754 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance fo Mac olid
e antibiotics?<div><b />{{c1::Methylation of the 23S RNA-binding site, the eby

eventing binding of the d ug}}</div>
1403560526372 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Chlo am
henicol?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Blocks
e
tidylt ansfe ase at the 50S ibosomal subunit}}</div>
1403560616138 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlo am
henicol}} is a <b>
otein synthesi
s inhibiting</b>&nbs
;antibiotic that is used to t eat <b>meningitis</b>&nbs
;(<
i>Haemo
hilus influenzae, Neisse ia meningitidis, St e
tococcus
neumoniae</i>).
1403560670649 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlo am
henicol}} is a <b>
otein synthesi
s inhibiting </b>antibiotic that is used to t eat <b>Rocky Mountain S
otted Feve
</b>&nbs
;(<i>Rickettsia ickettsii</i>).
<b /><div><i>Doxycycline (tet a
cyclines) can also be used.</i></div>
1403560716883 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlo am
henicol}} is a <b>
otein synthesi
s inhibiting</b>&nbs
;antibiotic that has limited use due to toxicities but is s
till used widely in develo
ing count ies due to its low cost.
1403560979085 1395802358422 {{c1::Anaemia (and A
lastic Anaemia)}} a e <b>do
se-de
endent</b>&nbs
;hematological com
lications of Chlo am
henicol use.
1403561007139 1395802358422 {{c1::G ay Baby Synd ome}} is a com
lication of
Chlo am
henicol use in
ematu e infants as they lack he
atic <b>UDP-Glucu onyl
T ansfe ase</b>.
1403561045116 1395802358422 The lack of which enzyme in
ematu e infants e
sults in G ey Baby Synd ome following Chlo am
henicol use?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::UDP-Glucu onyl T ansfe ase}}</div>
1403561104323 1395802358422 Which antibiotic is associated with causing G ey
Baby Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Chlo am
henicol}}</div>
1403561122259 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of Chlo am
henicol esista
nce?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Plasmid-encoded acetylt ansfe ases that inactiva
te the d ug}}</div>
1403561149682 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Clindamycin?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Blocks t anslocation at the 50S ibosomal subunit}}</div>
1403561311342 1395802358422 Which <b>
otein synthesis inhibiting</b>&nbs
;a
ntibiotic is known to t eat <b>anae obes <u>above</u>&nbs
;the dia
h agm</b>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Clindamycin}}</div>
1403561346128 1395802358422 {{c1::Clindamycin}} is a <b>
otein synthesis in
hibiting</b>&nbs
;antibiotic that is known to t eat anea obic infections above t
he dia
h agm (e.g. as
i ation
neumonia, lung abscesses, o al infections).
<b /><div><i>- Bacte oides s

.</i></div><div><i>- Clost idium
e f ingens</i><
/div>
1403561418436 1395802358422 Besides anae obic infections, what is the clinic
al use of Clindamycin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Invasive G ou
A St e
tococcal
infection (<i>St e
tococcus
yogenes</i>)}}</div>
1403561490959 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudomemb anous colitis}} is a
ossible c
om
lication of Clindamycin use due to esultant <i>Clost idium difficile</i>&nbs

;ove g owth. <b /><div><i>Also causes feve and dia hea.</i></div>
1403561537538 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Sulfonamide antibiotics?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Dihyd o
te oate Synthase, the eby dec easin
g Folate synthesis}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18906446037602.j
g" /
></div>
1403563275910 1395802358422 What is the clinical use fo Sulfonamide antibio
tics (Sulfamethoxazole (SMX); Sulfisoxazole; Sulfadiazine)?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::G am-negative; G am-
ositive; <i>Noca dia</i>; <i>Chlamydia</i>}}</div>

1403563528019 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic anaemia}} is a hematological com

lication of Sulfonamide use in
atients that have G6PD Deficiency.
1403563565338 1395802358422 {{c1::Tubulointe stitial Ne
h itis}} is a enal
com
lication of Sulfonamide antibiotic use.
1403563598701 1395802358422 {{c1::Photosensitivity}} is a cutaneous com
lica
tion of Sulfonamide use.
1403563611580 1395802358422 {{c1::Ke nicte us}} is a CNS com
lication of Sul
fonamide use that is seen in <b>infants</b>&nbs
;and&nbs
;a ises due to hy
e bil
i ubinemia.
1403563778560 1395802358422 Which class of <b>folate synthesis inhibiting</b
>&nbs
;antibiotics dis
lace othe d ugs f om Albumin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1:
:Sulfonamides}}</div>
1403563820098 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of Sulfonamide esistance?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Alte ed Dihyd o
te oate Synthase; Dec eased u
take;
Inc eased PABA synthesis}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1890215107030
6.j
g" /></div>
1403563851364 1395802358422 What is the MOA of T imetho
im?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Dihyd ofolate Reductase, the eby inhibiting folate syn
thesis}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-18902151070306.j
g" /></div>
1403563895990 1395802358422 {{c1::T imetho
im (TMP)}} is an antibiotic that
is often used in conjunction with Sulfonamides, the eby causing sequential bloc
k of folate synthesis. <b /><div><i><u>TMP-SMX: T imetho
im-Sulfamethoxazole<
/u>&nbs
;is ty
ically used fo :</i></div><div><i>- UTIs</i></div><div><i>- Shige
lla</i></div><div><i>- Salmonella</i></div><div><i>- Pneumocytis ji ovecii
neum
onia t eatment and
o
hylaxis</i></div><div><i>- Toxo
lasmosis
o
hylaxis</i><
/div>
1403563966147 1395802358422 {{c1::T imetho
im}} is a <b>folate synthesis in
hibiting</b>&nbs
;antibiotic that is used as a t eatment and
o
hylaxis fo <i>
Pneumocytis ji ovecii</i>&nbs
;
neumonia.
1403564021954 1395802358422 {{c1::T imetho
im}} is a <b>folate synthesis in
hibiting</b>&nbs
;antibiotic that is used as
o
hylaxis fo Toxo
lasmosis.
1403564107807 1395802358422 What ty
e of anaemia is a com
lication of Sulfon
amide use?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Megaloblastic Anaemia}}</div>
1403564135771 1395802358422 {{c1::T imetho
im}} is a <b>folate synthesis in
hibiting</b>&nbs
;antibiotic that causes <b>megaloblastic anaemia, leuko
enia,</
b>&nbs
;and <b>g anulocyto
enia</b>&nbs
;as com
lications.
<b /><div><i><b
>TMP</b>&nbs
;<b>T</b> eats <b>M</b>a ow <b>P</b>oo ly.</i></div>
1403571366705 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Fluo oquinolone antibiotics?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of DNA Gy ase (To
oisome ase II) and To
oi
some ase IV}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Must not be taken with antacids<b>.</b></i
></div>
1403571429799 1395802358422 {{c1::Nalidixic Acid}} is a quinolone antibiotic
that functions to inhibit DNA Gy ase (To
oisome ase II) and To
oisome ase IV.
1403571501614 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Fluo oquinolone anti
biotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G am-negative ods of u ina y and GI t acts
(including <i>Pseudomonas</i>); <i>Neisse ia</i>}}</div>
1403571546141 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluo oquinolones}} a e a class of antibiot
ics that can
ossible cause <b>tendonitis, tendon u
tue, leg c am
s</b>&nbs
;an
d <b>myalgias</b>.
1403571947579 1395802358422 What is the
egnancy ating of Fluo oquinolones
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::X; Cont aindicated due to
ossible damage to ca til
age}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Fluo oquinolones a e also cont aindicated in nu si
ng mothe s and child en &lt; 18 y/o.</i></div>
1403572037932 1395802358422 {{c1::A hythmia}} is a
ossible <b>ca diac com

lication&nbs
;</b>of Fluo oquinolone administ ation that often involves a <b>
o
longed QT inte val</b>.
1403572158030 1395802358422 {{c1::Tendon u
tu e}} is a
ossible connective
tissue com
lication of Fluo oquinolone administ ation in
atients &gt; 60 y/o an
d in
atients taking
ednisone.
1403572193542 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance towa ds Fluo

oquinolone antibiotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mutation in DNA Gy ase; Plas
mid-mediated esistance; Develo
ment of efflux
um
s}}</div>
1403572237470 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Met onidazole?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Fo mation of f ee adical toxic metabolites in the cell that damage
DNA}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Bacte icidal and anti
otozoal.</i></div>
1403572671183 1395802358422 Which antibiotic is known to t eat anae obic inf
ections <b>below</b>&nbs
;the dia
h agm?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Met onidazol
e}}</div>
<b /><div><i><u>"OP is a <b>P</b>h<b>AGGET</b>"</u>:</i></div><
div><i>- Helicobacte <b><u>
</u></b>ylo i (in t i
le the a
y)</i></div><div><i>
- <b><u>A</u></b>nae obes (Bacte oides, Clost idium difficile)</i></div><div><i>
- <b><u>G</u></b>ia dia lamblia</i></div><div><i>- <b><u>G</u></b>a dne ella vag
inalis</i></div><div><i>- <b><u>E</u></b>ntamoeba histolytica</i></div><div><i><b><u>T</u></b> ichomonas vaginalis</i></div>
1403573026078 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Met onidazole?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Anae obes; Ente ic infections}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><div><div><i><u>"OP is a&nbs
;<b>P</b>h<b>AGGET</b>"</u>:</i></div><div><i>- He
licobacte &nbs
;<b><u>
</u></b>ylo i (in t i
le the a
y)</i></div><div><i>-&nbs

;<b><u>A</u></b>nae obes (Bacte oides, Clost idium difficile)</i></div><div><i>&nbs
;<b><u>G</u></b>ia dia lamblia</i></div><div><i>-&nbs
;<b><u>G</u></b>a dne
ella vaginalis</i></div><div><i>-&nbs
;<b><u>E</u></b>ntamoeba histolytica</i><
/div><div><i>-&nbs
;<b><u>T</u></b> ichomonas vaginalis</i></div></div>
1403573724743 1395802358422 {{c1::Met onidazole}} is a DNA damaging antibiot
ic that causes <b>disulfi m-like eactions</b>&nbs
;with alcohol use. <b /><d
iv><i>Seve e flushing, tachyca dia, hy
otension.</i></div>
1403573789775 1395802358422 {{c1::Met onidazole}} is a DNA damaging antibiot
ic that yields a metallic taste.
1403573802902 1395802358422 Which antimycobacte ial d ug is used as
o
hyla
xis fo <i>Mycobacte ium tube culosis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Isoniazid}
}</div>
1403574264207 1395802358422 Which antimycobacte ial/antibiotic d ug is used
as
o
hylaxis fo <i>Mycobacte ium avium-int acellula e</i>?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Azith omycin; Rifabutin}}</div>
1403574292612 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Mycobacte ium tube
culosis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rifam
in; Isoniazid; Py azinamide; Etham
butol}}</div> <b /><div><i>"<b>RIPE</b>" fo t eatment.</i></div>
1403574339038 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifam
in}},&nbs
;{{c2::Isoniazid}},&nbs
;{
{c3::Py azinamide}} and&nbs
;{{c4::Ethambutol}} a e the 4 antimycobacte ial d ug
s used to t eat tube culosis.
1403574370113 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium avium-int acellula e</i>}
} is a s
ecies of <i>Mycobacte ium</i>&nbs
;that is mo e d ug esistant than <i>
Mycobacte ium tube culosis.</i> <b /><div><i>Hence it equi es Azith omycin/Cla
ith omycin + Ethambutol ± Rifabutin/Ci
ofloxacin</i></div>
1403575118249 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo the <b>le
ematous</b>
&nbs
;fo m of <i>Mycobacte ium le
ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Da
sone +
Rifam
in + Clofazimine}}</div>
1403575146960 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo the <b>tube culoid</b>
&nbs
;fo m of <i>Mycobacte ium le
ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Da
sone +
Rifam
in}}</div>
1403575166794 1395802358422 {{c1::Isoniazid (INH)}} is an antimycobacte ial
that equi es bacte ial <b>catalase-
e oxidase</b>&nbs
;enzymes in o de to beco
me active metabolites.
1403575251370 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Mycobacte ia is equi ed to acti
vate Isoniazid?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Catalase-
e oxidase; encoded by <i>Ka
tG</i>}}</div>
1403575277748 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Isoniazid (INH)?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Dec eases the synthesis of mycolic acid}}</div>
1403575291966 1395802358422 Which wate soluble vitamin is able to
esent w
ith Neu otoxicity and D ug-induced SLE caused by Isoniazid (INH)?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Vitamin B6 (Py idoxine)}}</div>
1403575350119 1395802358422 {{c1::Isoniazid (INH)}} is an antimycobacte ial

d ug that causes <b>neu otoxicity</b>&nbs
;and <b>he
atotoxicity</b>. <b /><d
iv><i>"<b>INH</b>&nbs
;<b>I</b>nju es <b>N</b>eu ons and <b>H</b>e
atocytes."</i
></div>
1403575450041 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifam
in}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Rifabutin}} a e
<b> ifamycin antimycobacte ials</b>&nbs
;that function to inhibit DNA-De
endent
RNA Polyme ase.
1403575481402 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Rifamycin antimycobacte ials
(Rifam
in; Rifabutin)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of DNA-de
endent RN
A
olyme ase}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-23652384899324.j
g" /></div>
1403575507666 1395802358422 Which class of antimycobacte ial is used as chem
o
o
hylaxis in contact of child en with <i>Haemo
hilus influenzae</i>&nbs
;ty
e
B?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rifamycins (Rifam
in; Rifabutin)}}</div>
1403575602130 1395802358422 How does Rifam
in influence cytoch ome P450 acti
vity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<div><b /></div><img s
c="
aste-23648089932028.j
g" />
1403575643202 1395802358422 How does Rifabutin influence cytoch ome P450 act
ivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No effect}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-23648089932028.j
g" /></div>
1403575655877 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifamycins (Rifam
in; Rifabutin)}} is a cl
ass of antimycobacte ials that yield <b>o ange- ed bodily fluids</b>. <b /><d
iv><i>A non-haza doud side effect.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-236480899320
28.j
g" /></i></div>
1403575723021 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifabutin}} is a Rifamycin antimycobacte i
al that is favou ed fo use in
atients with HIV due to less cytoch ome P450 sti
mulation.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-23648089932028.j
g" /></div>
1403575765063 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antimycobacte ial Py azin
amide?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Unce tain mechanism; Acidifies the int acellul
a envi onment via conve stion to Py azinoic Acid}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Ef
fective in the acidic
H of
hagolysosomes (i.e. whe e
hagocytosed TB is found
in mac o
hages).</i></div>
1403576529771 1395802358422 {{c1::Py azinamide}} is an antimycobacte ial tha
t is effective in the acidic
H of
hagolysosomes, whe e engulfed MTB is found i
n mac o
hages.
1403576581268 1395802358422 {{c1::Py azinamide}} is an antimycobacte ial tha
t is associated with <b>hy
e u icemia</b>&nbs
;and <b>he
atotoxicity</b>&nbs
;as
side effects.
1403576608030 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antimycobacte ial Ethambu
tol?<div><b /></div><div>{{c2::Inhibition of A abinosylt ansfe ase, the eby dec
easing ca bohyd ate
olyme ization of the mycobacte ium cell wall}}</div>
1403576658700 1395802358422 {{c1::Ethambutol}} is an antimycobacte ial that
is associated with <b>o
tic neu o
athy</b>, s
ecifically <b> ed-g een colou bli
ndness</b>, as a side effect.
1403576698558 1395802358422 What is the
o
hylactic t eatment fo endoca di
tis with su gical/dental
ocedu es?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillins}}</d
iv>
1403576844804 1395802358422 What is the
o
hylactic t eatment fo gono hea
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ceft iaxone}}</div>
1403576851982 1395802358422 What is the
o
hylactic t eatment fo a histo y
of ecu ent UTIs?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::SMP-TMX}}</div>
1403576863917 1395802358422 What is the
o
hylactic t eatment fo meningoco
ccal infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ci
ofloxacin}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Ci
ofloxacin = DOC</i></div><div><i>Rifam
in = DOC in child en</i></div>
1403576878077 1395802358422 What is the
o
hylactic t eatment fo meningoco
ccal infection <b>in child en</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rifam
in}}</div>
1403576911595 1395802358422 What is the
o
hylactic t eatment fo
egnant
women ca ying G ou
B St e
(<i>St e
tococcus agalactiae</i>)?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Am
icillin}}</div>
1403576948437 1395802358422 What is the
o
hylactic t eatment fo gonococca
l o chlamydial conjunctivitis in newbo ns?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::E yth omy
cin ointment}}</div>

1403576970093 1395802358422 What is the
o
hylactic t eatment fo
ostsu gi
cal <i>Sta
hylococcus au eus</i>&nbs
;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cefa
zolin}}</div>
1403576992013 1395802358422 What is the
o
hylactic t eatment fo St e
Pha
yngitis in a child with
io histo y of Rheumatic Feve ?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::O al Penicillin}}</div>
1403577017339 1395802358422 What is the
o
hylactic t eatment fo Sy
hilis?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Benzathine Penicillin G}}</div>
1403577734671 1395802358422 What is the
o
hylactic t eatment fo &nbs
;<i>P
neumocystis</i>&nbs
;
neumonia in an HIV
atient with &lt; 200 CD4+ cells/mm<su

>3</su
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TMP-SMX}}</div>
1403577776196 1395802358422 What is the
o
hylactic t eatment fo &nbs
;<i>P
neumocystis</i>&nbs
;
neumonia and toxo
lasmosis in an HIV
atient with &lt; 100
CD4+ cells/mm<su
>3</su
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TMP-SMX}}</div>
1403577807943 1395802358422 What is the
o
hylactic t eatment fo &nbs
;<i>M
ycobacte ium avium-int acellula e</i>&nbs
;in an HIV
atient with &lt; 50 CD4+ c
ells/mm<su
>3</su
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Azith omycin}}</div>
1403577838887 1395802358422 {{c1::Vancomycin}} is a glyco
e
tide antibiotic
that is used to t eat MRSA.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-26688926777482.j
g" /
></div>
1403577947679 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefta oline}} is a 5th gene ation ce
halos
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-26688926777482.j
g" /

o in used to t eat MRSA.
></div>
1403577977278 1395802358422 {{c1::Linezolid}} is a
otein synthesis inhibit
ing antibiotic that acts at the 50S ibosomal subunit to t eat MRSA and VRE.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-26688926777482.j
g" /></div>
1403583187879 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antifungal Am
hote icin B
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to E goste ol in the fungal cell memb ane, th
e eby fo ming a memb ane
o e that allows the leakage of elect olytes}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Am
ho"<b>tea "</b>-icin "<b>tea s</b>" a hole into the funga
l memb ane by fo ming a
o e.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-27981711934002.j
g"
/></div>
1403583540443 1395802358422 {{c1::Am
hote icin B}} is an antifungal d ug tha
t equi es subsequent K and Mg su

lementation due to alte ed enal tubule
e me
ability.
1403583607268 1395802358422 What is the ROA of Am
hote icin B in the t eatme
nt of fungal meningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Int athecally}}</div>
1403583623619 1395802358422 {{c1::Feve /chills}} is a com
lication of Am
hot
e icin B administ ation that is desc ibed as <b>"shake and bake"</b>.
1403583707775 1395802358422 How can Am
hote icin B ne
h otoxicity be dec eas
ed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hyd ation}}</div>
1403583795471 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Nystatin?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Binds to E goste ol in the fungal cell memb ane and fo ms a memb ane
o
e, the eby allowing the leakage of elect olytes}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-27981711934002.j
g" /></div>
1403583828968 1395802358422 What is the ROA of Nystatin?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::To
ical}}</div> <b /><div><i>It is too toxic fo systemic use.</i></div
>
1403583845859 1395802358422 {{c1::Nystatin}} is a to
ical antifungal that is
used as a <b>"swish and swallow"</b>&nbs
;t eatment fo o al Candidiasis.
<b /><div><i>Also administe ed to
ically fo dia
e ash o vaginal candidiasis
.</i></div>
1403583895951 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Azole antifungals?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of E goste ol synthesis by inhibiting the Cytoch ome
P450 enzyme that conve ts Lanoste ol to E goste ol}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-27981711934002.j
g" /></div>
1403584192480 1395802358422 {{c1::Am
hote icin B}} is an antifungal agent th
at is used in se ious, systemic mycoses.
1403584221817 1395802358422 {{c1::Azoles}} a e a class of antifungals that a
e used fo <b>local</b>&nbs
;and <b>less se ious</b>&nbs
;systemic mycoses.

1403584405410 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluconazole}} is an Azole antifungal that
is used fo <b>ch onic su

ession of c y
tococcal meningitis in AIDS
atients</
b>&nbs
;and <b>candidal infections</b>&nbs
;of all ty
es.
1403584456114 1395802358422 {{c1::It aconazole}} is an Azole antifungal agen
t that is used to t eat <i>Blastomyces, Coccidioides</i>&nbs
;and <i>Histo
lasma
</i>&nbs
;infection.
1403584518878 1395802358422 {{c1::Cot imazole}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Miconazole}}
a e Azole antifungals that a e used to
ically fo fungal infections.
1403584542223 1395802358422 Which Azole antifungal is es
ecially known to in
hibit testoste one synthesis and cause gynecomastia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
Ketoconazole}}</div>
1403584580357 1395802358422 {{c1::Gynecomastia}} is a ho monal com
lication
of Azole antifungal use due to inhibition of testoste one synthesis.
<b /><d
iv><i>Es
ecially seen with Ketoconazole.</i></div>
1403584619377 1395802358422 How do Azole antifungals influence Cytoch ome P4
50 activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1403584650151 1395802358422 {{c1::Flucytosine}} is an antifungal agent that
inhibits DNA and RNA biosynthesis by conve sion to 5-Fluo ou acil by Cytosine De
aminase.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27981711934002.j
g" /></div>
1403584694209 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antifungal Flucytosine?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of DNA and RNA biosynthesis via conve sion
to 5-Fluo ou acil by Cytosine Deaminase}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-27981
711934002.j
g" /></div>
1403584730306 1395802358422 Which enzyme in fungi conve ts Flucytosine into
5-Fluo ou acil?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cytosine Deaminase}}</div>
1403584762248 1395802358422 {{c1::Flucytosine}} is an antifungal agent that
is used combination with Am
hote icin B to t eat systemic mycoses.
<b /><d
iv><i>Es
ecially meningitis caused by C y
tococcus.</i></div>
1403584796865 1395802358422 What toxicity is associated with the antifunal F
lucytosine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bone Ma ow Su

ession}}</div>
1403584830957 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Echinocandin antifungals (Cas

ofungin; Micafungin; Anidulafungin)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of f
ungal cell wall synthesis by inhibiting the synthesis of beta-glucan}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27981711934002.j
g" /></div>
1403584882499 1395802358422 {{c1::Echinocandins}} a e a class of antifungal
agents that function to inhibit cell wall synthesis by inhibiting the synthesis
of beta-glucan. <b /><div><i>Cas
ofungin; Micafungin; Anidulafungin</i></div><d
iv><i><img s c="
aste-27981711934002.j
g" /></i></div>
1403584928834 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Echinocandin antifun
gals?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Invasive As
e gillosis; <i>Candida s

.</i>}}</
div>
1403584965030 1395802358422 {{c1::Flushing}} is a com
lication of Echinocand
in use that esults due to wides
ead histamine elease.
<b /><div><i>GI
u
set is also an adve se effect.</i></div>
1403584990358 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antifungal Te binafine?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Squalen E
oxidase}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-27981711934002.j
g" /></div>
1403585023946 1395802358422 {{c1::Te binafine}} is an antifungal agent that
inhibits Squalene E
oxidase, the eby inhibiting E goste ol synthesis. <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-27981711934002.j
g" /></div>
1403585048696 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Te binafine?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::De mato
hytoses (es
ecially, Onychomycosis)}}</div>
1403585077285 1395802358422 {{c1::Te binafine}} is an antifungal agent that
is used to t eat De mato
hytoses, es
ecially Onychomycosis.
1403585108293 1395802358422 {{c1::Te binafine}} is an antifungal agent that
is associated with <b>taste distu bance</b>&nbs
;as a side effect.
1403585137181 1395802358422 {{c1::G iseofulvin}} is an antifungal agent that
inte fe es with mic otubule function, the eby dis u
ting mitosis.
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-27981711934002.j
g" /></div>
1403585168901 1395802358422 What is the MOA of G iseofulvin?<div><b /></div

><div>{{c1::Inte efe ence with mic otubules, the eby dis u
ting mitosis}}</div>
1403585191301 1395802358422 Which antifungal agent is known to <b>de
osit in
ke atin-containing tissue</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G iseofulvin}}</div>
1403585229350 1395802358422 How does G iseofulvin influence P450 activity?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Es
ecially inc eas
es Wa fa in metabolism.</i></div>
1403585322758 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Toxo
lasmosis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Py imethamine}}</div>
1403585353599 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>T y
anosoma b ucei<
/i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su amin + Mela so
ol}}</div>
1403585372396 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Chagas Disease (<i>T y

anosoma c uzi</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nifu timox}}</div>
1403585400998 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Leishmaniasis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Sodium stibogluconate}}</div>
1403585424260 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlo oquine}} is an anti
otozoal that fun
ctions to block the detoxification of heme into hemozoin, the eby allowing fo t
oxic heme accumulation.
1403585491597 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the anti
otozoal Chlo oquine
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks the detoxification of heme into hemozoin, th
e eby allowing fo toxic heme accumulation in the
lasmodia}}</div>
1403585527254 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Chlo oquine?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Mala ia caused by <i>Plasmodium s
.</i>&nbs
;othe than <i>P
lasmodium falci
a um</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The f equency of Plasmodiu
m falci
a um esistance to Chlo oquine is ve y high.</i></div>
1403585605926 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i style="font-weight:
bold; ">Plasmodium falci
a um</i>&nbs
;Mala ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A te
methe /Lumef ant ine o A temethe /P oguanil}}</div>
1403585645064 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>life-th eatening</b
>&nbs
;Mala ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Quinidine (USA); Quinine ( est of the
wo ld); o A tesunate}}</div>
1403585680403 1395802358422 {{c1::P u itis}} is a cutaneous com
lication of
Chlo oquine use that is es
ecially seen in da k-skinned individuals.
1403585706958 1395802358422 {{c1::Retino
athy}} is an ocula com
lication of
Chlo oquine use.
1403585722404 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance to Chlo oqui
ne in <i>Plasmodium falci
a um</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Memb ane
um
tha
t dec eases int acellula concent ation of the d ug}}</div>
1403627084848 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Schistosoma</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::P aziquantel}}</div>
1403634755407 1395802358422 {{c1::Zanamivi }} and&nbs
;{{c2::Oseltamivi }} a
e antivi al agents that t eat Influenza A and B by <b>inhibiting neu aminidase<
/b>, the eby inhibiting elease of
ogeny vi uses.
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-1279900254982.j
g" /></div>
1403635016809 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Zanamivi and Oseltamivi ?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Neu aminidase, the eby dec easing the el
ease of
ogeny vi uses}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1275605287686.j
g" />
</div>
1403635049108 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Zanamivi and Oselta
mivi ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T eatment and
evention of Influenza A and B}
}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1275605287686.j
g" /></div>
1403635068374 1395802358422 {{c1::Ribavi in}} is an antivi al agent that inh
ibits <b>Inosine Mono
hos
hate Dehyd ogenase</b>, the eby inhibiting the synthes
is of guanine nucleotides.
1403635155716 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ribavi in?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of <b>Inosine Mono
hos
hate Dehyd ogenase</b>, the eby inhib
iting guanine nucleotide synthesis}}</div>
1403635184592 1395802358422 {{c1::Ribavi in}} is an antivi al agent that is
used to t eat <b>RSV</b>&nbs
;and <b>HCV</b>&nbs
;by inhibiting <b>Inosine Mono

hos
hate Dehyd ogenase</b>.
1403635218748 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic Anaemia}} is a hematological com


lication of Ribavi in use.
1403635238503 1395802358422 Which vi al enzyme mono
hos
ho ylates Acyclovi /
Famciclovi /Valacyclovi , the eby activating it?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thym
idine kinase}}</div>
1403635637447 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Acyclovi /Famciclovi /Valacyc
lovi ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Guanosine analog; Inhibition of vi al DNA Poly
me ase, the eby causing chain te mination}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It is only

hos
ho ylated in infected cells, hence the e a e ve y few adve se effects.</i>
</div><div><i><img s c="
aste-1275605287686.j
g" /></i></div>
1403635706707 1395802358422 Which He
esvi uses a e t eated by Acyclovi /Fam
ciclovi /Valacyclovi ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HSV; VZV}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Weak activity against EBV.</i></div><div><i>No activity against CMV.</i></
div><div><i>No activity against latent HSV/VZV.</i></div>
1403635783502 1395802358422 {{c1::Valacyclovi }} is the
od ug fo m of Acyc
lovi that has bette o al bioavailability.
1403635811412 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo He
es Zoste ?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Famciclovi }}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1275605287686
.j
g" /></div>
1403635844394 1395802358422 {{c1::Obst uctive c ystalline ne
h o
athy}} and&
nbs
;{{c2::Acute Renal Failu e}} a e 2 enal com
lications of Acyclovi /Famciclo
vi /Valacyclovi use if the
atient is not hyd ated
o
e ly.
1403635898739 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance to Acyclovi
/Famciclovi /Valacyclovi ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mutated Thymidine Kinase}}
</div>
1403636037558 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ganciclovi ?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Guanosine analog; Inhibition of vi al DNA Polyme ase, the eby causing
chain te mination}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1275605287686.j
g" />
</div>
1403636080596 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo CMV?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Ganciclovi }}</div>
1403636093932 1395802358422 {{c1::Valganciclovi }} is the
od ug fo m of Ga
nciglovi that has bette o al bioavailability.
1403636124030 1395802358422 {{c1::Leuko
enia}},&nbs
;{{c2::neut o
enia}} and
&nbs
;{{c3::th ombocyto
enia}} a e hematological com
lications of Ganciclovi .
<b /><div><i>Ganciclovi is mo e toxic to host enzymes than Acyclovi .</i></div
>
1403636336526 1395802358422 {{c1::Fosca net}} is an antivi al agent that act
s as a vi al DNA
olyme ase inhibito by <b>binding to the
y o
hos
hate-binding
site</b>&nbs
;of the enzyme. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1275605287686.j
g" />
</div>
1403636395074 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Fosca net?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of vi al DNA
olyme ase by binding to the
y o
hos
hate-bind
ing site of the enzyme}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1275605287686.j
g" />
</div>
1403636433207 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo CMV etinitis in immun
ocom
omised
atients when Ganciclovi fails?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fosca n
et o Cidofovi }}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1275605287686.j
g" /></div>
1403636465989 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Acyclovi - esistant HS
V?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fosca net o Cidofovi }}</div>
1403636599345 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Cidofovi ?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::P efe ential inhibition of vi al DNA
olyme ase}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-1275605287686.j
g" /></div>
1403636629969 1395802358422 {{c1::P obenecid}} is a d ug that must be co-adm
iniste ed with the antivi al Cidofovi to dec ease its ne
h otixicity. <b /><d
iv><i>IV saline is also given.</i></div>
1403652125487 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Atazanavi ?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-51067
16115718.j
g" /></div>
1403655722005 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Da unavi ?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-51024

21148422.j
g" /></div>
1403655744831 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART is Fosam
enavi ?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-51024
21148422.j
g" /></div>
1403655761991 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART is Indinavi ?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-5102421148422
.j
g" /></div>
1403655774171 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Lo
inavi ?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-51024
21148422.j
g" /></div>
1403655819688 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Ritonavi ?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-51024
21148422.j
g" /></div>
1403655843131 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Saquinavi ?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-51024
21148422.j
g" /></div>
1403655857003 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Abacavi (ABC)?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5102421148422
.j
g" /></div>
1403656100506 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Didanosine (ddI)?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5102421148422
.j
g" /></div>
1403656112841 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Emt icitabine (FTC)?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-5102421148422
.j
g" /></div>
1403656129614 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Lamivudine (3TC)?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5102421148422
.j
g" /></div>
1403656188268 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Stavudine (d4T)?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5102421148422
.j
g" /></div>
1403656256726 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Tenofovi (TDF)?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5102421148422
.j
g" /></div>
1403656274379 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Zidovudine (ZDV; AZT)
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-51024
21148422.j
g" /></div>
1403656299595 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Efavi enz?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-5102421148422.j
g" />
</div>
1403656332301 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Nevi a
ine?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-5102421148422.j
g" />
</div>
1403656356381 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Delavi dine?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5102421148422
.j
g" /></div>
1403656368136 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Ralteg avi ?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Integ ase inhibito }}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-51024
21148422.j
g" /></div>
1403656396345 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Enfuvi tide?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Fusion inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-51024
21148422.j
g" /></div>
1403656413870 1395802358422 What ty
e of HAART d ug is Ma avi oc?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-5102421148422.j
g" />
</div>
1403656436281 1395802358422 {{c1::HIV-1 P otease}} is an HIV vi al enzyme th
at is equi ed fo vi ion assembly as it cleaves the
oly
e
tide
oducts of HIV
mRNA into thei functional
a ts.
<b /><div><i>Hence,
otease inhibito s

event matu ation of new vi uses.</i></div>
1403657243642 1395802358422 {{c1::Ritonavi }} is an HIV P otease inhibito t

hat <b>inhibits cytoch ome P450</b>, the eby it can inc ease the concent ation o
f othe d ugs.
1403657543194 1395802358422 {{c1::Indinavi }} is an HIV P otease inhibito t
hat is associated with <b>hematu ia</b>&nbs
;and ne
h o
athy.
1403657594880 1395802358422 {{c1::Li
odyst o
hy}} is a com
lication of HIV P
otease inhibito s that affects fat tissue.
1403657626159 1395802358422 What is the MOA of P otease Inhibito HAART d ug
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of HIV-1 P otease}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>All
otease inhibito s end in <b>-navi </b>.</i></div>
1403657838422 1395802358422 What is the MOA of NRTI HAART d ugs?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Com
etitively inhibit nucleotide binding to Reve se T ansc i
tas
e, the eby te minating DNA chain elongation}}</div>
<b /><div><i>NRTIs lack
3' -OH g ou
s.</i></div>
1403657911373 1395802358422 {{c1::Tenofovi }} is an NRTI that is al eady a n
ucleotide, and hence does not need to be
hos
ho ylated to be activated.
<b /><div><i>The est a e all nucleoside and equi e
hos
ho ylation.</i></div>
1403657949285 1395802358422 {{c1::Zidovudine (ZDV; AZT)}} is an NRTI HAART d
ug that is used fo <b>gene al
o
hylaxis.</b>
1403658050087 1395802358422 {{c1::Zidovudine (ZDV; AZT)}} is an NRTI HAART d
ug that is used in <b>
egnancy</b>&nbs
;to&nbs
;<b>dec ease the isk of fetal
t ansmission.</b>
1403658090747 1395802358422 {{c1::Bone ma ow su

ession}} is a hematologic
al com
lication of NRTI HAART d ugs that can be eve sed with <b>G-CSF</b>&nbs
;
d ugs and <b>E yth o
oietin</b>.
1403658236640 1395802358422 {{c1::G-CSF d ugs}} and&nbs
;{{c2::E yth o
oieti
n}} a e 2 d ugs that a e used to co ect the bone ma ow su

ession caused by N
RTI HAART d ugs.
1403658275998 1395802358422 {{c1::Anaemia}} is a hematological diso de of Z
idovudine (ZDV).
1403658304542 1395802358422 {{c1::Didanosine (ddI)}} is an NRTI HAART d ug t
hat is associated with <b>
anc eatitis</b>.
1403658318319 1395802358422 What is the MOA of NNRTI HAART d ugs?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c2::Binding to and inhibition of Reve se T ansc i
tase at a diffe e
nt site than NRTIs}}</div>
<b /><div><i>They do not equi e
hos
ho ylatio
n to be active.</i></div>
1403658413214 1395802358422 {{c1::Rash}} and&nbs
;{{c2::He
atotoxicity}} a e
2 com
lications that a e common to all NNRTI HAART d ugs.
1403658453530 1395802358422 {{c1::Efavi enz}} is an NNRTI HAART d ug that is
associated with <b>vivid d eams</b>&nbs
;and <b>CNS toxicity.</b>
1403658473008 1395802358422 Which NNRTI HAART d ug is associated with <b>viv
id d eams</b>&nbs
;and <b>CNS toxicity</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Efavi enz
}}</div>
1403658494531 1395802358422 {{c1::Delavi dine}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Efavi enz}} a
e the 2 NNRTI HAART d ugs that a e cont aindicated in
egnancy.
1403658540630 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Raselteg avi (HAART d ug)?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of HIV Integ ase, the eby inhibiting HIV ge
nome inse tion into the host cell genome}}</div>
1403658591432 1395802358422 {{c1::Ralteg avi }} is an NNRTI HAART d ug that
is associated with <b>hy
e choleste olemia</b>.
1403658761423 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Enfuvi tide (HAART Fusion inh
ibito )?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to g
41, the eby inhibiting vi al ent
y}}</div>
1403658787752 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ma avi oc (HAART Fusion inhib
ito )?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to CCR5 on T cells/monocytes, the eby in
hibiting inte action with g
120 and vi al ent y}}</div>
1403658874584 1395802358422 {{c1::Enfuvi tide}} is an HAART d ug that <b>bin
ds to g
41</b>, the eby inhibiting vi al ent y.
1403658895002 1395802358422 {{c1::Ma avi oc}} is an HAART d ug that <b>binds
to CCR5</b>&nbs
;on T cells/monocytes, the eby inhibiting g
120 and and sto

in
g vi al ent y.

1403659004221 1395802358422 What toxicity is associated with HAART Fusion In
hibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Skin eaction at the injection site}}</div>
1403659041822 1395802358422 {{c1::Inte fe ons}} a e glyco
oteins no mally s
ynthesized by vi us-infected cells that exhibit a wide ange of antivi al and an
titumoual
o
e ties.
1403662449834 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of IFN-beta?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Multi
le scle osis}}</div>
1403662599988 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of IFN-gamma?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Ch onic G anulomatous Disease (CGD)}}</div>
1403662617700 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-al
ha}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat
<b>ch onic he
atitis B and C</b>.
1403662788329 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-al
ha}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat
Ka
osi sa coma.
1403662796116 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-al
ha}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat
Hai y Cell Leukemia.
1403662804354 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-al
ha}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat
Condyloma Accuminatum.
1403662821873 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-al
ha}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat
Renal Cell Ca cinoma.
1403662826216 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-al
ha}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat
Malignant Melanoma.
1403662831626 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-beta}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat
Multi
le Scle osis.
1403662843976 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-gamma}} is an inte fe on used to t eat
Ch onic G anulomatous Disease.
1403662857752 1395802358422 {{c1::Sulfonamides}} a e a class of antibiotics
that a e avoided in
egnancy as they cause <b>ke nicte us.</b> <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-9307194130833.j
g" /></div>
1403663123820 1395802358422 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} a e a class of antibioti
cs that should not be used in
egnancy as they cause <b>ototoxicity</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-9307194130833.j
g" /></div>
1403663273810 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluo oquinolones}} a e a class of antibiot
ics that a e avoided in
egnancy as they cause <b>ca tilage damage</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-9307194130833.j
g" /></div>
1403663302378 1395802358422 {{c1::Cla ith omycin}} is an antibiotic that is
avoided in
egnancy as it causes <b>emb yotoxicity</b>.
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-9307194130833.j
g" /></div>
1403663346534 1395802358422 {{c1::Tet acyclines}} a e a class of antibiotics
that a e avoided in
egnancy as they cause <b>teeth discolou ation</b>&nbs
;an
d <b>inhibit bone g owth</b>. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-9307194130833.j
g" />
</div>
1403663529183 1395802358422 {{c1::Ribavi in}} is an <b>antivi al</b> agent t
hat is avoided in
egnancy as it is te atogenic.
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9307194130833.j
g" /></div>
1403663568467 1395802358422 {{c1::G iseofulvin}} is an <b>antifungal</b>&nbs
<b /><div><img

;agent that is avoided in
egnancy as it is te atogenic.
s c="
aste-9307194130833.j
g" /></div>
1403663585680 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlo am
henicol}} is an antibiotic that is
avoided in
egnancy as it causes <b>"G ay Baby" Synd ome</b>. <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-9311489098129.j
g" /></div>
1397499844689 1395802358422 What st uctu e a ises f om the emb yonic ca diov
ascula st uctu e called&nbs
;the&nbs
;T uncus A te iosus (TA)?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Ascending ao ta; Pulmona y T unk}}</div>
1397499961848 1395802358422 What st uctu e a ises f om the emb yonic ca diov
ascula st uctu e called Bulbus Co dis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Smooth
a
ts</b>&nbs
;of the left and ight vent icle outflow t act}}</div>
1397500112830 1395802358422 What st uctu e a ises f om the emb yonic ca diov
ascula st uctu e called&nbs
;the P imitive At ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T
abeculated
a t of the left and ight at ia}}</div>
1397500132753 1395802358422 What st uctu e a ises f om the emb yonic ca diov

ascula st uctu e called&nbs
;the P imitive Vent icle?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::T abeculated
a t of the left and ight vent icles}}</div>
1397500148955 1395802358422 What st uctu e a ises f om the emb yonic ca diov
ascula st uctu e called&nbs
;the P imitive Pulmona y Vein?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Smooth
a t of the left at ium}}</div>
1397500165566 1395802358422 What st uctu e a ises f om the emb yonic ca diov
ascula st uctu e called&nbs
;the Left Ho n of the Sinus Venosus (SV)?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Co ona y Sinus}}</div>
1397500181363 1395802358422 What st uctu e a ises f om the emb yonic ca diov
ascula st uctu e called&nbs
;the Right Ho n of the Sinus Venosus (SV)?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Smooth
a t of the ight at ium}}</div>
1397500195333 1395802358422 What st uctu e a ises f om the emb yonic ca diov
ascula st uctu e called&nbs
;the Right Common Ca dinal Vein and Right Ante io
Ca dinal Vein?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su
e io Vena Cava}}</div>
1397500214001 1395802358422 Which emb yonic st uctu es develo
into the Su
e
io Vena Cava?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Right Common Ca dinal Vein; Right Ant
e io Ca dinal Vein}}</div>
1397500257288 1395802358422 Which emb yonic st uctu e develo
into the&nbs
;
Ascending Ao ta and Pulmona y T unk?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T uncus A te ios
us (TA)}}</div> <b /><div><i>The T uncus A te iosus otates as it fo ms.</i></d
iv><div><i>Neu al c est and endoca dial cells mig ate to fo m the t uncal and bu
lba idges that then s
i al and fuse to fo m the ao tico
ulmona y se
tum, the e
by se
a ating the T uncus A te iosus into the ascending ao ta and
ulmona y t un
k.</i></div>
1397500280855 1395802358422 Which emb yonic st uctu e develo
into the smoot
h
a ts of the left and ight vent icle outflow t act?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Bulbus Co dis}}</div>
1397500334274 1395802358422 Which emb yonic st uctu e develo
into the t abe
culated
a t of the left and ight at ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P imitive A
t ia}}</div>
1397500349726 1395802358422 Which emb yonic st uctu e develo
into the t abe
culated
a t of the left and ight vent icles?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P imit
ive vent icles}}</div>
1397500365339 1395802358422 Which emb yonic st uctu e develo
into the smoot
h
a t of the left at ium?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P imitive
ulmona y vein}}
</div>
1397500376033 1395802358422 Which emb yonic st uctu e develo
into the co on
a y sinus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Left Ho n of the Sinus Venosus}}</div>
1397500392745 1395802358422 Which emb yonic st uctu e develo
into the smoot
h
a t of the ight at ium?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Right Ho n of the sinus v
enosus}}</div>
1397500404921 1395802358422 What is the fi st functional o gan to fo m in ve
teb ate emb yos?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::The Hea t &lt;3}}</div>
1397500452777 1395802358422 Du ing which week of develo
ment does the emb yo
nic hea t sta t beating s
ontaneously?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Week 4}}</div>
1397500484902 1395802358422 Du ing which week of develo
ment does hea t mo

hogenesis begin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Week 4}}</div>
1397500871839 1395802358422 {{c1::Dext oca dia}} is a congenital ca diac dis
o de that is seen in Ka tagene Synd ome (P ima y Cilia y Dyskinesia) due to a
defect in left-to- ight dynein movement.
<b /><div><i>Left-to- ight dyne
in movement is <b>vital</b>&nbs
;in establishing no mal L/R asymmet y.</i></div>
1397500977132 1395802358422 {{c1::Ka tagene Synd ome (P ima y Cilia y Dyski
nesia)}} is a genetic diso de that involves a defect in left-to- ight dynein mo
vement and can cause dext oca dia as no mal L/R asymmet y cannot be achieved.
1397501128234 1395802358422 Which cilia y moto
otein is defective in Ka t
agene Synd ome (P ima y Cilia y Dyskinesia)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dynein}
}</div>
1397501202614 1395802358422 {{c1::Ca diac Loo
ing}} is the fi st stage in he
a t mo
hogenesis and involves the fo mation of
ima y hea t tube loo
s that es
tablish left- ight
ola ity.

1397501307768 1395802358422 Which se
tum is the fi st se
tum to g ow in emb
yonic se
tation of the ca diac at ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Se
tum P imum}}
</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-49237505081673.j
g" /></div>
1397502055278 1395802358422 Which fo amen develo
s fi st in emb yonic se
tat
ion of the ca diac at ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fo amen secundum}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Fo amen
imum <b>is al eady
esent befo e the se
tation begins</
b>.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-49233210114377.j
g" /></i></div>
1397502201151 1395802358422 What is the di ection of the blood shunt th ough
the Fo amen Ovale <b>in ute o</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Right to Left}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-49233210114377.j
g" /></div>
1397502250660 1395802358422 Which se
tum involved in emb yonic se
tation of
the ca diac at ia becomes the valve of the Fo amen Ovale?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Se
tum P imum}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-49233210114377.j
g" /
></div>
1397502342778 1395802358422 Which 2 emb yonic se
tums fuse to fo m the (ca d
iac) At ial Se
tum?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Se
tum P imum and Se
tum Secundum
}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-49233210114377.j
g" /></div>
1397502380304 1395802358422 What no mally t igge s the closu e of the Fo ame
n Ovale soon afte bi th?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease in Left At ial
e
ssu e}}</div> <b /><div><i>Inc ease in LA
essu e fo ces the Se
tum P imum u

against the Fo amen Ovale and Se
tum Secundum, d iving thei fusion and closu
e of the Fo amen Ovale.</i></div>
1397502442123 1395802358422 {{c1::Patent Fo amen Ovale}} is a congenital hea
t defect that is caused by the failu e of the Se
tum P imum and Se
tum Secundum
to fuse afte bi th. <b /><div><i>Most a e left unt eated</i></div>
1397502662893 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa adoxical Emboli}} a e a
ossible com
li
cation of a Patent Fo amen Ovale and involve venous th omboemboli that ente the
systemic a te ial ci culation. <b /><div><i>Simila to those seen in At ial Se

tal Defects, but not as common.</i></div><div><i>The emboli a e
a adoxical as
it involves <b>venous</b>&nbs
;th ombi that ente <b>a te ial</b>&nbs
;ci culati
on. (i.e. an embolus f om the ight ente s the left side, as o

osed to staying
ight and causing a PE)</i></div>
1397502824683 1395802358422 Which se
tum fo ms fi st in emb yonic se
tation
of the ca diac vent icles?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Muscula Vent icula Se
tu
m}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-51247549776169.j
g" /></div>
1397503023035 1395802358422 {{c1::Ao tico
ulmona y Se
tum}} is an emb yonic
ca diac se
tum that otates and fuses with the muscula vent icula se
tum, the
eby fo ming the memb anous inte vent icula se
tum.
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-51243254808873.j
g" /></div>
1397503094534 1395802358422 {{c1::Vent icula Se
tal Defect (VSD)}} is a con
genital hea t defect that commonly
esents in the memb anous vent icula se
tum
.
1397503265804 1395802358422 What ty
e of shunt is seen th ough a Vent icula
Se
tal Defect (VSD)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Left to Right}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>The efo e the baby will be <b>acyanotic</b>.</i></div>
1397503290971 1395802358422 What emb yonic st uctu es a e the Ao tic and Pul
mona y Valves de ived f om?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Endoca dial cushions of t
he outflow t act}}</div>
1397503574165 1395802358422 What emb yonic st uctu es a e the Mit al and T i
cus
id valves de ived f om?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fused endoca dial cushion
s of the At iovent icula Canal}}</div>
1397503616937 1395802358422 {{c1::Ebstein Anomaly}} is a congenital hea t de
fect that involves dis
lacement of a t icus
id valve leaflet towa ds the a
ex of
the ight vent icle.
1397503695897 1395802358422 Whe e does fetal e yth o
oiesis occu in weeks 3
-8 of develo
ment?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Yolk Sac}}</div> <div><b /></div
><i><b>"Y</b>oung <b>L</b>ive <b>S</b>ynthesizes <b>B</b>lood" = <b>Y</b>olk Sa
c, <b>L</b>ive , <b>S</b>
leen, <b>B</b>one Ma ow<b /></i><div><img s c="
aste
-52776558133426.j
g" /></div>
1397503773883 1395802358422 When does the live
e fo m fetal e yth o
oiesis

?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Week 6 of develo
ment to bi th}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i><b>"Y</b>oung&nbs
;<b>L</b>ive &nbs
;<b>S</b>ynthesizes&nbs
;<b>B</b
>lood" =&nbs
;<b>Y</b>olk Sac,&nbs
;<b>L</b>ive ,&nbs
;<b>S</b>
leen,&nbs
;<b>B<
/b>one Ma ow</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-52780853100722.j
g" /></div>
1397503895621 1395802358422 When does the Yolk Sac
e fo m fetal e yth o
oie
sis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks 3-8 of develo
ment}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i><b>"Y</b>oung&nbs
;<b>L</b>ive &nbs
;<b>S</b>ynthesizes&nbs
;<b>B</b
>lood" =&nbs
;<b>Y</b>olk Sac,&nbs
;<b>L</b>ive ,&nbs
;<b>S</b>
leen,&nbs
;<b>B<
/b>one Ma ow</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-52776558133426.j
g" /></div>
1397503935722 1395802358422 When does the S
leen
e fo m fetal e yth o
oiesi
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks 10-28 of develo
ment}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i><b>"Y</b>oung&nbs
;<b>L</b>ive &nbs
;<b>S</b>ynthesizes&nbs
;<b>B</b
>lood" =&nbs
;<b>Y</b>olk Sac,&nbs
;<b>L</b>ive ,&nbs
;<b>S</b>
leen,&nbs
;<b>B<
/b>one Ma ow</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-52776558133426.j
g" /></div>
1397503973137 1395802358422 When does the Bone Ma ow
e fo m fetal e yth o

oiesis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Week 18 of develo
ment to bi th (and eventual
ly until death, lol)}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i><b>"Y</b>oung&nbs
;<b>L</b>i
ve &nbs
;<b>S</b>ynthesizes&nbs
;<b>B</b>lood" =&nbs
;<b>Y</b>olk Sac,&nbs
;<b>L
</b>ive ,&nbs
;<b>S</b>
leen,&nbs
;<b>B</b>one Ma ow</i><b /><div><img s c="
a
ste-52776558133426.j
g" /></div>
1397504092472 1395802358422 What is the fi st o gan/st uctu e to
e fo m fet
al e yth o
oiesis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Yolk Sac}}</div> <b /><div><b><i
><img s c="
aste-54339926229171.j
g" /></i></b></div>
1397504493761 1395802358422 Which globin chains com
ise Fetal Hemoglobin (H
bF)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::α₂γ₂}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="pase-55568286876265.jp" /></div>
1397504679307 1395802358422 Which form of hemolobin involves&nbsp;α<sub>2</su
b>γ₂&nbsp;lobin chains?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Feal Hemolobin}}<
/div> <br /><div><im src="pase-55563991908969.jp" /></div>
1397504698984 1395802358422 Which lobin chains comprise Adul Hemolobin (H
bA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::α₂β<su>2</su>}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397504734677 1395802358422 Which type of hemogloin conists of&nsp;α<sub>2</
sub>β<su>2</su>&nsp;gloin chains?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adult Hemogloin
(HA)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397504751558 1395802358422 Which major form of hemogloin has higher affini
ty for oxygen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HF}}</div>
1397504783005 1395802358422 {{c1::Fetal Hemogloin (HF)}} is a major form o
f hemogloin that has a higher affinity for oxygen than Adult Hemogloin (HA) d
ue to less avid inding of 2,3-BPG.
<r /><div><i>As a result, HF can extra
ct oxygen at the placenta from the mother's adult hemogloin (HA).</i></div>
1397504931088 1395802358422 Which type of hemogloin is predominant at irth
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HF (alpha<su>2</su>-gamma<su>2</su>)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397505196717 1395802358422 How long after irth does the expression of&nsp
;β-gloin exceed the expression of γ-lobin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~6 monhs}}&
nbsp;</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This is why β-Thalassemia is asymptomatic for
the first 6 months of life (and why HF is protective during that time).</i><r
/><div><img src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397505242615 1395802358422 What is the O2 saturation of lood in the<>&ns
p;umilical arteries</>&nsp;of a fetus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, the Umilical Arteries carry lood away from the fetal h
eart <>to the placenta</>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-57067230462728.jpg
" /></i></div>
1397507242543 1395802358422 What is the O2 saturation of lood in the <>um
ilical vein</>&nsp;of the fetus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::80%; it holds oxyg
enated lood coming in from the mother}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-57062
935495432.jpg" /></div>
1397507294913 1395802358422 {{c1::Ductus Venosus}} is a fetal shunt that all
ows for incoming lood in the Umilical Vein to ypass hepatic circulation and e

nter the IVC. <r /><div><img src="paste-57062935495432.jpg" /></div>
1397507387002 1395802358422 Which fetal shunt ypasses hepatic circulation t
o ensure that incoming oxygenated lood from the Umilical Vein is not depleted?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ductus Venosus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-57062935495432.jpg" /></div>
1397507424331 1395802358422 {{c1::Foramen Ovale}} is a fetal shunt that allo
ws for the highly oxygenated lood entering the Right Atrium (via the IVC) to en
ter the aorta and arterial circulation. <r /><div><img src="paste-5706293549543
2.jpg" /></div>
1397507512244 1395802358422 Which fetal shunt allows for highly oxygenated 
lood in the Right Atrium to enter the aorta and arterial system?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Foramen Ovale}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5706293549543
2.jpg" /></div>
1397507565547 1395802358422 {{c1::Ductus Arteriosus}} is a fetal shunt that
allows deoxygenated lood in the Pulmonary Artery to ypass Pulmonary circulatio
n and enter the descending aorta.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, in a fetus, oxyg
enation of lood occurs at the placenta, not lungs. We do not want to flood the
lungs with lood and hinder its development either. Further, in utero the pulmon
ary circuit has high resistance, ensuring that the shunt through the DA is right
to left.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-57062935495432.jpg" /></i></div>
1397507753833 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in Prostaglandin
levels affect the Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased prost
aglandins causes closure of the Ductus Arteriosus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
is occurs after irth once the placenta and ay have separated.</i></div>
1397507840172 1395802358422 {{c1::Fossa Ovalis}} is the structural remnant o
f the Foramen Ovale after it has closed and fused.
<r /><div><i>Rememer,
when the left side of the heart ecomes the high pressure circuit after irth (d
ue to respiration), the foramen ovale shuts as left atrial pressure greatly exce
eds right atrial pressure.</i></div>
1397508049964 1395802358422 Which NSAID is commonly used to help close a Pat
ent Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indomethacin}}</div>
1397508179427 1395802358422 {{c1::Ligamentum Arteriosum}} is the structural
remnant of the Ductus Arteriosus after it has closed.
1397508211612 1395802358422 Which Prostaglandins keep a Patent Ductus Arteri
osus (PDA) open?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prostaglandin E<su>1</su>&nsp;and
E<su>2</su>}}</div>
1397508249548 1395802358422 {{c1::Prostaglandin E<su>1</su>/E<su>2</su>}
} is a type of Prostaglandin that keeps a Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA) open.
1397508282018 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Umilic
al Vein?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum teres hepatis; contained in the f
alciform ligament}}</div>
1397508662312 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Umilic
al Arteries?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial Umilical ligaments}}</div>
1397508678162 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Ductus
Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum arteriosum}}</div>
1397508688319 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Ductus
Venosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum venosum}}</div>
1397508699885 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Foramen
Ovale?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fossa Ovalis}}</div>
1397508707283 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Allanto
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urachus-median Umilical ligament}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The urachus is the part of the allantoic duct etween the ladder
and umilicus.</i></div>
1397508719639 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Notocho
rd?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus Pulposus of interverteral discs}}</div>
1397508829703 1395802358422 What is the post-natal remnant of the Urachus?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urachal cyst or sinus}}</div> <r /><div><i>The urachu
s is the part of the allantoic duct etween the ladder and umilicus</i></div>
1397519579080 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the Sinoatrial (S
A) and Atrioventricular (AV) nodes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Coronary Ar

tery (RCA)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61100204753514.jpg" /></div>
1397519659874 1395802358422 Infarct of which coronary artery may result in <
>nodal dysfunction</>&nsp;(involving radycardia or heart lock)?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Right Coronary Artery}}</div> <img src="paste-61095909786218.j
pg" />
1397519761060 1395802358422 Which coronary artery does the Posterior Descend
ing/Interventricular Artery (PDA) arise from in a <>right-dominant circulation<
/>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Coronary Artery (RCA)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Right-dominant circulation is found in 85% of people</i></div><div><img sr
c="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397519802495 1395802358422 Which coronary artery does the Posterior Descend
ing/Interventricular Artery (PDA) arise from in a <>left-dominant circulation</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Circumflex Coronary Artery (LCX)}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Left dominant circulation is seen in 8% of people.</i><r />
<div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397519909351 1395802358422 Which coronary artery does the Posterior Descend
ing/Interventricular Artery (PDA) arise from in <>codominant circulation</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both the Left Cirumflex Coronary Artery (LCX) and Righ
t Coronary Artery (RCA)}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>Codominant circulation is se
en in 7% of people</i><r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397519987382 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is most commonly occluded?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Anterior Descending artery (LAD)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520015196 1395802358422 In which phase of the cardiac cycle does coronar
y lood flow peak?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diastole}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520037353 1395802358422 What is the <>most posterior</>&nsp;chamer o
f the heart?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atrium}}</div>
<r /><div><i>He
nce enlargment can cause dysphagia or hoarsness.</i></div><div><i><img src="past
e-61095909786218.jpg" /></i></div>
1397520083401 1395802358422 Enlargement of which chamer of the heart can ca
use dysphagia due to esophageal compression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atr
ium}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520120274 1395802358422 Enlargement of which chamer of the heart can ca
use <>hoarseness</>&nsp;due to compression of the <>left recurrent laryngeal
nerve</>&nsp;(a ranch of CN X)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atrium}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520158888 1395802358422 Which nerve can the Left Atrium compress to caus
e <>hoarseness</>&nsp;if it is enlarged?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u style=
"font-weight: old; ">Left</u>&nsp;Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve (a ranch of CN X,
Vagus)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520211991 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>lateral an
d posterior walls</>&nsp;of the left ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lef
t Circumflex Coronary Artery (LCX)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095
909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520243527 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>anterior 2
/3 of the interventricular septum, anterior papillary muscle</>&nsp;and <>ant
erior surface of the left ventricle</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Anterio
r Descending Artery (LAD)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6109590978621
8.jpg" /></div>
1397520285808 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>Right Vent
ricle</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Marginal Artery (a ranch of the Rig
ht Coronary Artery)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /
></div>
1397520336211 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>posterior
2/3 of the interventricular septum</>&nsp;and <>posterior walls of the ventri
cles</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Descending/Interventricular Arter
y (PDA)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520398738 1395802358422 What is the equation for Cardiac Output?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::CO = SV x HR}}</div>

1397521626811 1395802358422 What is the equation for Fick Principle of cardi
ac output?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CO = (rate of O<su>2</su>&nsp;consumpti
on)/(arterial O<su>2</su>&nsp;content - venous O<su>2</su>&nsp;content)}}<
/div>
1397521697545 1395802358422 What is the equation for Mean Arterial Pressure
(MAP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MAP = CO * TPR = 2/3 diastolic pressure + 1/3
systolic pressure}}</div>
1397521744639 1395802358422 What is the equation for Pulse Pressure?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Pulse Pressure = Systolic Pressure - Diastolic Pressure}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Pulse pressure is proportional to SV and inversely proport
ional to arterial compliance.</i></div>
1397521791515 1395802358422 What is the equation for Stroke Volume?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::SV = EDV - ESV}}</div>
1397522500630 1395802358422 Which parameters maintain Cardiac Output in the
<>early stages of exercise</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increases in oth HR
and SV}}</div>
1397522533980 1395802358422 Which parameters maintain Cardiac Output during
the <>late stages of exercise</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased HR only
; SV plateaus}}</div>
1397522567562 1395802358422 How does an increase in HR affect the length of
diastole?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Shortens it}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
erefore there is less filling time and decreased CO</i></div>
1397522606361 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in cardiac cont
ractility affect stroke volume (SV)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397523068921 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in cardiac prel
oad affect stroke volume (SV)?<div><r />{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397523091157 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in cardiac after
load affect stroke volume (SV)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397523108371 1395802358422 How do catecholamines affect cardiac contractili
ty?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase (via increased activity of Ca pump in th
e sarcoplasmic reticulum)}}</div>
1397523160188 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change when there
is an increase in intracellular Ca?<div><r />{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1397523332369 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change when there
is a decrease in intracellular Na?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to decreased activity of the Na/Ca exchanger and hence increas
ed intracellular Ca</i></div>
1397523400092 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change in Digital
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Digitalis involves
a <>lockade of the Na/K pump</>, therey causing <>increased intracellular
Na</>, <>decreased Na/Ca exchanger activity</>&nsp;and a susequent <>incre
ase in intracellular Ca</>.</i></div>
1397523466069 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change with&nsp;β1
-lockade?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease; due to decreased cAMP}}</div>
1397523505614 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;in Ac
idosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397523516983 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;in Hy
poxia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397523529853 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;in Hy
percapnea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hypercapne
a can cause acidosis that then can exacerate this decrease in cardiac output.</
i></div>
1397523555710 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;with
the administration of <>non-dihydropyridine Ca channel lockers</>?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397523579652 1395802358422 Which aorticopulmonary valve normally closes fir
st?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic Valve}}</div>
1397524398388 1395802358422 Which cardiac disorder is associated with <>fix
ed splitting</>&nsp;of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-67761699029099.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial Septal Defect (

ASD)}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>There is a <>left to right shunt through
the ASD</>&nsp;which results in <>increased RA and RV volumes</>. As a resul
t, there is <>increased flow through the pulmonic valve</>&nsp;such that, reg
ardless of reath, the pulmonic valve closes later every time.</i></div>
1404876620972 1395802358422 {{c1::Preload}} is a cardiac output variale tha
t is approximated y ventricular EDV. <r /><div><i>Hence it is dependent on v
enous tone and circulating lood volume.</i></div>
1404877598633 1395802358422 How does the left ventricle compensate for an in
crease in afterload?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertrophy (increased wall thic
kness)}}</div>
1404877643246 1395802358422 How do vasodilators influence afterload?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is ecause afterload
is approximated y MAP.</i></div>
1404877668690 1395802358422 What is the equation for cardiac Ejection Fracti
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-20186346291290.jpg" />}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Left ventricular EF is an index of ventricular contractility.</i><
/div><div><i>Normal EF is ≥ 55%.</i></div>
1404878227500 1395802358422 How does cardiac Ejection Fraction change in <>
systolic</>&nsp;heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20182051323994.jpg" /></div>
1404878250994 1395802358422 How does cardiac Ejection Fraction change in <>
diastolic</>&nsp;heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal; no change}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-20182051323994.jpg" /></div>
1404925219925 1395802358422 How does the force of cardiac contraction change
with an increase in preload (ventricular EDV)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
ase (when healthy)}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>This is referred to as Starl
ing's Law. With a higher EDV, the ventricle will contract more forcefully.</i><d
iv><i>This is attriuted to the nature of cardiac muscle fiers. With increased
EDV (i.e. more ventricular filling), the muscle fiers <>stretch into a more id
eal length for contraction</>. Essentially, as these fiers stretch, more actin
-myosin cross ridges are formed and the contraction is more forceful.<r /></i>
<div><img src="paste-472446403119.jpg" /></div></div>
1404925428299 1395802358422 How do catecholamines change cardiac contractili
ty?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404925493970 1395802358422 How does Digoxin change cardiac contractility?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404925528061 1395802358422 How do eta-lockers change cardiac contractilit
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404925547535 1395802358422 How do Ca²⁺&nsp;channel lockers cha
nge cardiac contractility?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404925562427 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change in dilated
cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404925576327 1395802358422 What is the equation for the Resistance of a ves
sel?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-880468295807.jpg" />}}</div>
1404925615581 1395802358422 What is the equation for the <>total resistance
</>&nsp;of vessels in <>series</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="past
e-914828034097.jpg" />}}</div>
1404925654230 1395802358422 What is the equation for the <>total resistance
</>&nsp;of vessels in <>parallel</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="pa
ste-957777707095.jpg" />}}</div>
1404925694380 1395802358422 How does lood viscosity change in Polycythemia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Viscosity is depen
dent on hematocrit.</i></div>
1404926284709 1395802358422 How does lood viscosity change in anaemia?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>Viscosity is dependent on
anaemia.</i></div>
1404926304475 1395802358422 Which type of lood vessels account for most of
the TPR?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arterioles}}</div> <div><i><r /></i></div>
1404926345136 1395802358422 If cardiac output (CO) is 5 L/min, what is venou
s return?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5 L/min}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Don't fall

for this shiet on the step, ruv. Venous return = cardiac ouput (in healthy ind
ividuals).</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>"What goes in must come out!
" - Dr. Hashim Shams</i></div>
1404941821485 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in TPR affect v
enous return (and hence EDV/preload)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div
>
<div><r /></div><i>It also oviously increases afterload.</i><r /><div
><img src="paste-2418066588135.jpg" /></div>
1404941951950 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in TPR affect ve
nous return (and hence EDV/preload)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Afterload also clearly decreases.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste
-2413771620839.jpg" /></i></div>
1404942103315 1395802358422 {{c1::Isovolumetric contraction}} is a phase of
the cardiac cycle descried as the <>period etween the mitral valve closing an
d aortic valve opening</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2710124364571.jpg" />
</div>
1404943128013 1395802358422 Which cardiac cycle is the period of highest O<s
u>2</su>&nsp;consumption?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Isovolumetric contractio
n}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404943608282 1395802358422 {{c1::Systolic Ejection}} is a phase of the card
iac cycle that is descried as the <>period etween aortic valve opening and cl
osing</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404943716880 1395802358422 {{c1::Isovolumetric relaxation}} is a phase of t
he cardiac cycle that is descried as the <>period etween aortic valve closing
and mitral valve opening</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" />
</div>
1404943758272 1395802358422 {{c1::Rapid Ventricular Filling}} is a phase of
the cardiac cycle that is descried as the <>period just after mitral valve ope
ning</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404943806531 1395802358422 {{c1::Reduced Ventricular Filling}} is a phase o
f the cardiac cycle descried as the <>period just efore mitral valve closing<
/>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404943835577 1395802358422 At which valve area is the S1 heart sound the lo
udest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div>
1404944455858 1395802358422 Which heart sound is indicative of <>mitral</>
&nsp;and <>tricuspid</>&nsp;valve closure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S1}}</
div>
1404944493780 1395802358422 Which valves are associated with the S1 heart so
und?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral; Tricuspid}}</div>
1404944526361 1395802358422 Which anatomical location is the S2 heart sound
the loudest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left sternal order}}</div>
1404944553569 1395802358422 Which heart sound is associated with closure of
the <>aortic</>&nsp;and <>pulmonary</>&nsp;valves?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::S2}}</div>
1404944618320 1395802358422 Which valves are associated with the S2 heart so
und?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic; Pulmonary}}</div>
1404944664489 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound is associated wit
h an <>increase in filling pressure</>&nsp;or with <>dilated ventricles</>?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S3}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275
.jpg" /></div>
1404948067025 1395802358422 {{c1::S3}} is an <>extra</>&nsp;heart sound t
hat occurs in <>early diastole</>&nsp;due to an increase in ventricular filli
ng pressure or dilated ventricles.
<div><r /></div><i>S3 is normal in chil
dren and pregnant women.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></di
v>
1404948096181 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound is associated wit
h <>ventricular hypertrophy</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404948947523 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound is associated wit
h <>high atrial pressure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>The left atrium must push against the stiff LV wall.</i><r /><div><

img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404948983033 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound occurs in <>late
</>diastole as an "atrial kick"?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949007050 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound can occur due to
an increase in cardiac afterload?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949021613 1395802358422 Which wave in the Jugular Venous Pulse (JVP) sig
nifies atrial contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::a wave}}</div><div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div> <div><r /></div>
1404949477569 1395802358422 Which wave in the JVP signifies right ventricula
r contraction against a closed tricuspid valve that ulges into the right atrium
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::c wave}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i><>c</>&nsp;wave = <>c</>ontra
ction</i></div>
1404949504592 1395802358422 Which portion of the JVP signifies <>atrial rel
axation</>&nsp;and <>downward displacement of the closed tricuspid valve</>&
nsp;during ventricular contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::x descent}}</div
><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i><>x</>&nsp;descent = rela<>x</>ation</i></div>
1404949599846 1395802358422 {{c1::Tricuspid regurgitation}} is valvular diso
rder that presents with an <>asent x-descent</>&nsp;in the patient's JVP.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949637846 1395802358422 Which wave in the JVP is indicative of <>increa
sed right atrial pressure due to filling against a closed tricuspid valve</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::v wave}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27
05829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949688280 1395802358422 Which portion of the JVP signifies the movement
of lood from the RA to the RV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::y descent}}</div><div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949717044 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop do
es the mitral valve close?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div><div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-6451040879032.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-7301444403914.jpg" /></div>
1404950173968 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop do
es the aortic valve open?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div><div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-72971
49436618.jpg" /></div>
1404950196347 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop do
es the aortic valve close?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div><div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-7297149436618.jpg" /></div>
1404950231259 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop do
es the mitral valve open?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div><div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-72971
49436618.jpg" /></div>
1404950423846 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop is
ESV achieved?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3 (i.e. where the aortic valve closes)
}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7297149436618.jpg" /></div>
1404950489830 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop is
EDV achieved?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1 (i.e. where the mitral valve closes)
}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7297149436618.jpg" /></div>
1404963378952 1395802358422 When is <>normal, physiological splitting</>&n
sp;of S2 heart sound seen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inspiration}}</div><div><
<r /><div><i>In
r /></div><div><img src="paste-8658654068879.jpg" /></div>
spiration = <>decreased</>&nsp;intrathoracic pressure = <>increased</>&nsp
;venous return to the RV = <>increased</>&nsp;RV stroke volume = <>increased
</>&nsp;RV ejection time = <>delayed closure of the pulmonic valve</>.</i></

div><div><i>Inspiration also causes a <>decrease in pulmonary impedance</>&ns
p;(i.e. <>increased capacity</>&nsp;of the pulmonary circulation), therey co
ntriuting to delayed closure of the pulmonic valve.</i></div>
1404964470241 1395802358422 Which cardiac conditions yield <>wide splitting
</>&nsp;of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Any condition that <
>delays RV emptying</>&nsp;(e.g. pulmonic stenosis; right undle ranch lock
)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9281424326799.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>The delay in RV emptying causes a delayed pulmonic sound <>regard
less of reath</>.</i></div><div><i><>Pathological S2 splitting is <u>always</
u>&nsp;seen, whereas physiological splitting is only seen upon inspiration.</>
</i></div>
1404964745013 1395802358422 Which cardiac disorder is associated with <>fix
ed splitting</>&nsp;of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial S
eptal Defect}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9496172691600.jpg" /><
/div> <r /><div><i>ASD = left to right shunt = <>increased </>RA and RV vol
ume = <>increased</>&nsp;flow through the pulmonic valve such that there is a
<>fixed, great delay</>&nsp;in pulmonic valve closure regardless of reath.<
/i></div>
1404965202146 1395802358422 Which cardiac conditions cause <>paradoxical sp
litting </>of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Conditions that de
lay LV emptying (i.e. aortic stenosis; left undle ranch lock)}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-10372346019992.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>No
rmally, <>the pulmonic valve closes after the aortic valve</>. However, <>wit
h delayed LV emptying, the pulmonic valve closes efore the aortic</>, therey
causing a paradoxical splitting of S2.</i></div>
1405006121635 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Aortic Stenosis est h
eard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11347
303596676.jpg" /></div>
1405006199987 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Aortic Valve Sclerosis
est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006219375 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Pulmonic Stenosis est
heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonic}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006241889 1395802358422 At which valvulvar area are <>pansystolic murmu
rs</>&nsp;(Tricuspid regurgitation; VSD) est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Tricuspid}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006294392 1395802358422 At which valvulvar area is Tricuspid Stenosis e
st heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tricuspid}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006313189 1395802358422 At which valvular area is an Atrial Septal Defec
t murmur est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tricuspid}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006459503 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Mitral Stenosis est h
eard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11343
008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006497814 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Mitral Regurgitation 
est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006504614 1395802358422 How does standing influence venous return?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405006551093 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>increase</>&nsp;
the intensity of right heart sounds?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inspiration}}</d
iv>
1405006610436 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>decrease</>&nsp;
the intensity of Aortic Stenosis and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy murmurs?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Hand Grip (as it increases systemic vascular resistance)}}<
/div>
1405006762454 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>increase</>&nsp;
the intensity of Mitral Regurgitation, Aortic Regurgitation and VSD murmurs?<div

><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hand grip (as it increases systemic vascular resistance)
}}</div>
1405006807344 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver <>decreases</>&nsp;the
intensity of most murmurs, including aortic stenosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Valsalva; Standing (decreased venous return)}}</div>
1405006876357 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>increase</>&nsp;
the intensity of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy murmurs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Valsalva; standing (due to decreased venous return)}}</div>
1405006915789 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>increase</>&nsp;
the intensity of Aortic Stenosis murmurs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rapid squat
ting}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rapid squatting increases venous return, increases
preload, and increases afterload with prolonged squatting.</i></div>
1405006988446 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>decrease</>&nsp;
the murmur intensity in MVP and yield an earlier onset of the click/murmur?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Valsalva; Standing}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hand grip
and rapid squatting acheive the <>opposite </>when it comes to MVP.</i></div>
1405008293251 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral regurgitation}} and&nsp;{{c2::tric
uspid regurgitation}} are 2 <>systolic</>&nsp;murmurs that present as&nsp;<
>holosystolic, high-pitched "lowing" murmurs.</><div><><r /></></div><div><
<r /><div><img src="pas
><img src="paste-13520557047940.jpg" /></></div>
te-13666585936107.jpg" /></div>
1405008858520 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic Stenosis}} is a <>systolic </>mur
mur that presents as a <>crescendo-decrescendo systolic ejection murmur</>.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13700945674382.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-13756780249289.jpg" /></div>
1405008917858 1395802358422 Which systolic ejection murmur radiates to the c
arotids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic Stenosis}}</div>
1405008939207 1395802358422 {{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect murmur}} is a <
>systolic</>&nsp;murmur that presents as a <>holosystolic, harsh-sounding mur
mur</>&nsp;that is loudest at the tricuspid area.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-13812614824055.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Accentuated with the hand
grip maneuver due to an increase in afterload.</i></div>
1405009003166 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral Valve Prolapse (MVP)}} is a <>syst
olic</>&nsp;murmur that presents as a <>late systolic crescendo murmur with a
midsystolic click</>&nsp;due to sudden tensing of the chordae tendinae.<div><
<r /><div><img
r /></div><div><img src="paste-14023068221579.jpg" /></div>
src="paste-14615773708488.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-14791867367930.jpg"
/></div>
1405009318912 1395802358422 What is the most frequent valvular lesion?<div><
<r /><div><img src="pas
r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral valve prolapse}}</div>
te-14615773708488.jpg" /></div>
1405009329101 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral valve prolapse}} is a valvular diso
rder with a systolic murmur that can predispose to infective endocarditis.
<div><r /></div><img src="paste-14620068675784.jpg" />
1405009641940 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic regurgitation}} is a <>diastolic</
>&nsp;murmur that presents as a <>high-pitched "lowing" early diastolic decr
escendo murmur</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15161234555008.jpg" /><
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15268608737451.jpg" /></div>
1405017557412 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic regurgitation}} is a <>diastolic</
>&nsp;murmur that can present with <>ounding pulses</>&nsp;and a <>head 
o</>, especially when it is chronic. <r /><div><img src="paste-1526431377015
5.jpg" /></div>
1405017604985 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral stenosis}} is a <>diastolic</>&n
sp;murmur that presents as a <>delayed late diastolic rumle</>&nsp;following
an <>opening snap</>&nsp;due to an&nsp;<u>arupt halt in leaflet motion in
diastole after rapid opening due to fusion at the leaflet tips</u>.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-15474767167692.jpg" /></div>
1405017703276 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral stenosis}} is a diastolic murmur th
at often occurs secondary to Rheumatic Fever. <r /><div><img src="paste-15470
472200396.jpg" /></div>

1405017730194 1395802358422 Which cardiac disorder is associated with a <>c
ontinuous, machine-like murmur</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Patent Ductus Art
eriosus (PDA)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15534896709802.jpg" /
></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15590731284581.jpg" /></div>
1405017798322 1395802358422 Where on the ody is the continuous machine-like
murmur of PDA est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left infraclavicular area}
}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15586436317285.jpg" /></div>
1405017828588 1395802358422 In the ventricular action potential, which ion's
movement is responsile for the initial <>depolarization</>&nsp;of the memr
ane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Na⁺influx&nsp;via voltage-gated Na<
sup>+</sup>&nsp;channels}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1574535010781
6.jpg" /></div>
1405018123521 1395802358422 In the ventricular action potential, which ion i
s responsile for the <>plateau phase</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ca²⁺&nsp;influx via voltage-gated Ca²⁺&nsp;channels}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This Ca²⁺&nsp;influx <>alances the K⁺&ns
p;efflux that is happening at the same time</>.</i></div><div><i>This Ca²⁺&nsp;influx also <>triggers the release of Ca²⁺&nsp;from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum</>&nsp;and hence induces myocyte contraction.</i></div
><div><i><img src="paste-15741055140520.jpg" /></i></div>
1405018432012 1395802358422 In the ventricular action potential, which ion i
s responsile for the <>rapid repolarization</>&nsp;of the memrane?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::K⁺&nsp;efflux via <u style="font-weight: old; ">
slow</u>&nsp;voltage-gated K⁺&nsp;channels}}</div> <r /><div><i>Cl
osure of the Ca²⁺&nsp;"plateau" channels also allows for this to occ
ur.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-15741055140520.jpg" /></i></div>
1405018532728 1395802358422 In the pacemaker action potential, which ion is
responsile for the <>upstroke/depolarization</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C
a²⁺&nsp;influx via voltage-gated Ca²⁺&nsp;channels}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, <>ecause of the less negative resting potentia
l of pacemaker cells, fast voltage-gated Na⁺&nsp;channels are perman
ently inactivated</>. Hence, there is a slow conduction velocity used y the AV
node to prolong transmission from the atria to the ventricles.</i></div><div><i
><img src="paste-16552803959163.jpg" /></i></div>
1405019193147 1395802358422 In the pacemaker potential, which ion is reponsi
le for the <>repolarization</>&nsp;of the memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::K⁺&nsp;efflux}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1654850899186
7.jpg" /></div>
1405020341344 1395802358422 In the pacemaker potential, which ions are respo
nsile for the <>slow diastolic depolarization to threshold</>?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Slow Na⁺&nsp;movement via the <>I<su>f</su>&nsp;ach
annels </>(funny current)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1654850899186
7.jpg" /></div>
1405021287387 1395802358422 The {{c1::funny current (I<su>f</su>)}} is an
ion current in pacemaker cells that causes <>spontaneous depolarization</>&ns
p;of the memrane potential as Na⁺&nsp;conductance slowly increases.
<div><r /></div><i>This is what accounts for the automaticity of SA and AV node
s.</i><div><i>The slope of this current (phase 4) determines the HR.<r /></i><d
iv><img src="paste-16548508991867.jpg" /></div></div>
1405021385149 1395802358422 How does ACh change the rate of diastolic depola
rization via the I<su>f</su>&nsp;current in pacemaker cells?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16548508991867
.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Hence it slows HR.</i></div>
1405021430594 1395802358422 How does Adenosine change the rate of diastolic
depolarization via the I<su>f</su>&nsp;current in pacemaker cells?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16548508
991867.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence it decreases HR.</i></div>
1405021441541 1395802358422 How docatecholamines change the rate of diastoli
c depolarization via the I<su>f</su>&nsp;current in pacemaker cells?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1654850

8991867.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Hence they increase HR.</i></div>
1405021523239 1395802358422 Which cardiac conduction fiers have the fastest
speed of conduction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Purkinje &gt; atria &gt; ventri
cles &gt; AV node}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18386754994962.jpg" /
></div>
1405022185863 1395802358422 How long is the normal atrioventricular delay at
the AV node?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::100 msec}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Al
lows for ventricular filling.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-18382460027666.jp
g" /></i></div>
1405022245303 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the P-wave o
n an ECG signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial depolarization}}</div><div><
<r /><div><i>At
r /></div><div><img src="paste-18541373817496.jpg" /></div>
rial repolarization is masked y the QRS complex (ventricular depolarization).</
i></div>
1405022749048 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the PR inter
val signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AV conduction delay}}</div><div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Normally &
lt; 200 msec</i></div>
1405022784549 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the QRS comp
lex signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular depolarization}}</div><div><
<r /><div><i>No
r /></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div>
rmally &lt; 120 msec</i></div>
1405022810889 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the QT inter
val signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular contraction}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div>
1405022834435 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the T-wave s
ignify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular repolarization}}</div><div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>T-wave inv
ersion may e indicative of MI.</i></div>
1405022890358 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the ST segme
nt signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Isoelectricity; ventricles are entirely d
epolarized}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></
div>
1405022928593 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the U wave s
ignify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indicated <u>hypokalemia</u>&nsp;or <u>rady
cardia</u>}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></
div>
1405022998783 1395802358422 {{c1::Torsades de Pointes}} is an electro-cardio
vascular disorder characterized y <>polymorphic ventricular tachycardia</>&n
sp;and a <>shifting sinusoidal waveform on ECG</>.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-20044612370575.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Can progress to V-fi.</i>
</div><div><i>Caused y drugs, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia and other anormaliti
es.</i></div>
1405023694011 1395802358422 Prolongation of which ECG interval can predispos
e to Torsades de Pointes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::QT}}</div>
1405023715839 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Torsades de Pointes?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Magnesium Sulfate}}</div>
1405024012834 1395802358422 Which class of antiiotics can prolong the QT in
terval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Macrolides}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-20817706484036.jpg" /></div>
1405024179018 1395802358422 Which type of antiviral drugs are known to prolo
ng the QT interval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Protease inhiitors (-navir)}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20813411516740.jpg" /></div>
1405024200357 1395802358422 Which type of diuretics are known to prolong the
QT interval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thiazides}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-20813411516740.jpg" /></div>
1405024222702 1395802358422 Which antipsychotic is known to prolong the QT i
nterval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Risperidone}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-20813411516740.jpg" /></div>
1405024239952 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Long QT syndrome}} is an inheri

ted electrical cardiac disorder that presents with <>defective myocardial repol
arization</>&nsp;and <>prolonged QT syndrome</>&nsp;due to ion channel defe
cts.
<r /><div><i>Increased risk of sudden cardiac death due to Torsades de
pointes.</i></div>
1405024336557 1395802358422 {{c1::Romano-Ward Syndrome}} is a type of congen
ital long QT syndrome that is <>autosomal dominant</>&nsp;and involves a <>p
urely cardiac phenotype</>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. no other systems are affected
</i></div>
1405024375011 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Romano-Ward S
yndrome (congenital long QT syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal domi
nant}}</div>
1405024396425 1395802358422 {{c1::Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Syndrome}} is a
type of congenital long QT syndrome that is <>autosomal recessive</>&nsp;and
presents with <>sensorineural deafness</>&nsp;in addition to cardiac defects.
<r /><div><i>Versus Romano-Ward syndrome which is autosomal dominant and purely
cardiac.</i></div>
1405024453349 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Jervell and L
ange-Nielsen Syndrome (congenital long QT syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1405024673609 1395802358422 What is the most common type of ventricular preexcitation syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome}}
</div> <r /><div><i>This straight up sounds like the name of a law firm.</i></
div>
1405024722375 1395802358422 {{c1::Wolff-Parksinson-White Syndrome}} is a ven
tricular pre-excitation syndrome that involves <>anormally fast accessory cond
uction </><u style="font-weight: old; ">from the atria to the ventricles</u>&n
sp;via an accessory pathway called the <>Bundle of Kent</>. <r /><div><i>Th
e Bundle of Kent ypasses the AV node and allows the ventricles to depolarize so
oner.</i></div>
1405024797460 1395802358422 {{c1::Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome}} is a vent
ricular pre-excitation syndrome that involves the presence of the <>Bundle of K
ent</>&nsp;which ypasses the rate-slowing AV node, therey yielding a charact
eristic <>delta wave</>&nsp;and <>shortened PR interval</>&nsp;on ECG.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22033182228924.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Ca
n also involves a re-entry circuit and hence <>supraventricular tachycardia</>
.</i></div>
1405025544274 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Firillation}} is a pathological EC
G tracing that involves a <>chaotic</>&nsp;and <>erratic assline</>&nsp;w
ith <>no discrete P waves </>etween <>irregularly spaced QRS complexes</>.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22269405429968.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Involves irregularly irregular rhythm.</i></div><div><i>Can result in atri
al stasis and lead to thromoemolic stroke.</i></div><div><i>Treatment includes
rate control, anticoagulation and possile pharmacological/electrical cardiover
sion.</i></div>
1405025652000 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial flutter}} is a pathological ECG tra
ce that involves a <>rapid succession of identical, ack-to-ack atrial depolar
ization waves</>&nsp;that appear as <>"sawtooth"</>&nsp;waves.<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-22501333663916.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Pharmacolo
gical conversion to sinus rhythm via <>Class IA, IC or III antiarrhythmics</>.
</i></div><div><i>Rate control via <>eta-lockade, Ca-channel lockade.</></i
></div><div><i>Definitive treatment via <>catheter alation</>.</i></div>
1405025801262 1395802358422 What is the <>definitive</>&nsp;treatment for
Atrial Flutter?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Catheter alation}}</div><div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-22497038696620.jpg" /></div>
1405025823766 1395802358422 {{c1::Ventricular firillation}} is a pathologic
al ECG tracing that presents with a <>completely erratic rhythm with no identif
iale waves</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22776211570866.jpg" /></di
v>
<r /><div><i>Often results in fatal arrhythmia without immediate CPR an
d defirillation.</i></div>
1405026911131 1395802358422 {{c1::1st Degree AV lock}} is a type of AV loc

k that presents with a <>PR interval &gt; 200 msec</>&nsp;ut is otherwise e
nign and asymptomatic.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22819161243897.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>No treatment is required.</i></div>
1405026985814 1395802358422 {{c1::Moitz Type I (Wenckeach) AV lock}} is a
type of 2nd degree AV lock that involves <>progressive lengthening of the PR
interval until a dropped hearteat</>&nsp;(i.e. until a P wave is not followed
y a QRS complex).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23033909608673.jpg" /><
/div> <r /><div><i>Usually asymptomatic.</i></div>
1405027063668 1395802358422 {{c1::Moitz Type II AV Block}} is a type of 2nd
degree AV lock that presents with <>dropped hearteats that are not preceded
y a change in PR interval length</>.<div><r /></div> <r /><div><i>This is di
fferent that Moitz Type I (Wenckeach) which involves <>progressive elongation
of the PR interval</>.</i></div><div><i>Often found as a 2:1 lock (2 p-waves
to 1 QRS complex).</i></div><div><i>May progress to 3rd-degree lock.</i></div><
div><i>Often treated with pacemaker.</i></div>
1405027197277 1395802358422 {{c1::3rd degree AV Block}} is a type of AV loc
k that involves the <>atria and ventricles eating <u>independently</u>&nsp;of
each other</>&nsp;(i.e. oth P-waves and QRS complexes appear at their oth s
eparate rhythms).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23368917057839.jpg" /></d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Atrial rate is faster.</i></div><div><i>Treated with pacem
aker.</i></div>
1405027723945 1395802358422 Which infectious disease is known to e associat
ed with 3rd-degree AV lock?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lyme Disease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-23364622090543.jpg" /></div>
1405027746160 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)}} is a ho
rmone released from <>atrial myocytes</>&nsp;in response to increased lood v
olume and atrial pressure.
1405027804261 1395802358422 What is the function of Atrial Natriuretic Pepti
de (ANP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vasodilation; Decreased Na⁺&nsp
;reasorption at the collecting duct; Constriction of <u>efferent</u>&nsp;renal
arterioles and dilation of <u>afferent</u>&nsp;arterioles via cGMP, therey pr
omoting diuresis}}</div>
1405028963553 1395802358422 {{c1::B-type (Brain) Natriuretic Peptide}} is a
hormone released y <>ventricular myocytes</>&nsp;in response to <>increased
tension</>&nsp;that acts similarly to ANP.
1405029000553 1395802358422 Where is B-type (Brain) Natriuretic Peptide (BNP
) released from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular myocytes}}</div>
1405029025994 1395802358422 {{c1::Nesiritide}} is a recominant form of <>B
-type (rain) Natriuretic Peptide (BNP)</>&nsp;that can e used to treat heart
failure.
1405029064629 1395802358422 Through which cranial nerve do aortic arch aror
eceptors/chemoreceptors transmit their signals to the solitary nucleus of the me
dulla?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X (Vagus)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-23940147708618.jpg" /></div>
1405029530782 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the medulla receives signals fr
om aortic arch aro-/chemoreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Solitary nucleus
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Responds <>only to increases in BP</>.</i></div>
<div><i><img src="paste-23935852741322.jpg" /></i></div>
1405029587074 1395802358422 Through which cranial nerve does the Carotid Sin
us transmit its signals to the solitary nucleus of the medulla?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::CN IX (Glossopharyngeal)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-23935
852741322.jpg" /></div>
1405029629147 1395802358422 How does <>increased</> lood vessel stretchin
g influence cardiovascular aroreceptor afferent firing?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Increased stretch = <u>increased afferent firing</u>&nsp;and eventually a d
ecreased HR}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23935852741322.jpg" /><
/div> <img src="paste-24245090386362.jpg" />
1405030537046 1395802358422 How does a carotid massage influence HR?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2424079541906
6.jpg" /></div>

1405030557352 1395802358422 {{c1::Cushing reaction}} is a cardiovascular phe
nomenon due to <>increased intracranial pressure</>&nsp;that presents with a
triad of <>hypertension, radycardia,</>&nsp;and <>respiratory depression</
>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-24240795419066.jpg" /></div>
1405030654784 1395802358422 Where are peripheral cardiovascular chemorecepto
rs found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic arch; Carotid ody}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-24554328031954.jpg" /></div>
1405030983328 1395802358422 Which level of oxygen stimulates peripheral card
iovascular chemoreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Decreased</>&nsp;P<su
>O2</su>&nsp;&lt; 60 mmHg}}</div>
1405031031193 1395802358422 How does a decrease in pH influence peripheral c
ardiovascular chemoreceptor activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</d
iv>
1405031052317 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in P<su>CO2</s
u>&nsp;influence peripheral cardiovascular chemoreceptor activity?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
1405031080882 1395802358422 Which type of cardiovascular chemoreceptors <>d
o not</>&nsp;respond to P<su>O2</su>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Central}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>They respond to changes in pH and P<su>CO2</su>&nsp;in
the rain interstitial fluid which are in turn affected y arterial CO<su>2</su
>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-24704651886855.jpg" /></i></div>
1405031168384 1395802358422 Which organ has the largest lood flow?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lungs}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Receives 100% of cardiac o
utput.</i></div>
1405031201104 1395802358422 What is the normal Right Atrial pressure?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 5 mmHg}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-24786
256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031233845 1395802358422 What is the normal Right Ventricular pressure?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::25/5 mmHg}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-24790
551232853.jpg" /></div>
1405031267127 1395802358422 What is the normal pressure in the pulmonary tru
nk?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::25/10 mmHg}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-24786256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031294209 1395802358422 What is the normal Left Atrial pressure (PCWP)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 12 mmHg}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>In mitral st
enosis, PCWP (i.e. LAP) &gt; LV diastolic pressure.<r /></i><div><img src="past
e-24786256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031308858 1395802358422 What is the normal Left Ventricular pressure?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::130/10 mmHg}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-24786
256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031322755 1395802358422 What is the normal aortic arch pressure?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::130/90 mmHg}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2478625626555
7.jpg" /></div>
1405031345701 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmonary Capillary Wedge Pressure (PCWP)}
} is a wedge pressure measured with a <>pulmonary artery catheter</>&nsp;(Swa
n-Ganz catheter)&nsp;that is used as an approximation of left atrial pressure.
<r /><div><i>Normal PCWP &lt; 12 mmHg.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-2478625
6265557.jpg" /></i></div>
1405031516368 1395802358422 How does hypoxia affect pulmonary vasculature?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Causes <>vasoconstriction</>}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>This is something unique to the lungs where <>hypoxia causes vasoconstrio
n</>&nsp;such that only well-ventilated areas are perfused. <>In all other ti
ssues, hypoxia causes vasodilation</>.</i></div>
1405031739737 1395802358422 Which Starling forces work to move<> fluid out
of the capillary</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::P<su>c</su>&nsp;(capillary h
ydrostatic pressure); π_i&nbs
;(inte stitial colloid osmotic
essu e)}}
</div> <b /><div><i>π_i&nbs
;no mally equals 0.</i></div><div><i><img
s c="
aste-27157078212835.j
g" /></i></div>
1405031835817 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ces wo k to move <b>fluid into
the ca
illa y</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P_i&nbs
;(inte stitial

hyd ostatic
essu e); π_c(ca
illa y colloid osmotic
essu e)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27152783245539.j
g" /></div>
1405031909875 1395802358422 What is the equation fo <b>Net</b>&nbs
;Filt at
ion P essu e at a ca
illa y bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P_net&nbs

;= [(P_c&nbs
;- P_i) - (π_c&nbs
;- π_i)]}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27152783245539.j
g" /></div>
1405031981615 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the <b>Net </b>Fluid Fl
ow in ca
illa y fluid filt ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::J_v&nbs
;
= K_f&nbs
;* P_net}}</div>
1405033591552 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ce changes in hea t failu e to
cause edema?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc eased P_c}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27758373634259.j
g" /></div>
1405033619467 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ce changes in ne
h otic synd o
me to cause edema?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased π_c}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27754078666963.j
g" /></div>
1405033640958 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ce changes in live failu e to
cause edema?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased π_c}}</div>
1405033663937 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ce changes in lym
hatic blocka
ge to cause edema?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc eased π_i}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27754078666963.j
g" /></div>
1397777994357 1395802358422 Which ty
e of Pneumocyte is most abundant at alv
eola su faces?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e I
neumocytes (97%)}}</div>
1397778928590 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e I
neumocytes}} a e a ty
e of
neumoc
yte that a e <b>squamous</b>&nbs
;and thin, hence they a e o
timal fo gas excha
nge.
<b /><div><i>97% of the alveola lining is Ty
e I
neumocytes</i>.</div
>
1397779013570 1395802358422 Which ty
e of
neumocytes a e the <b>stem cells<
/b>&nbs
;of the lungs?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e II
neumocytes}}</div>
1397779040710 1395802358422 Which ty
e of
neumocytes <b>sec ete
ulmona y s
u factant</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e II
neumocytes}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Remembe ,
ulmona y su factant wo ks to <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;alveola su f
ace tension and <b>
events alveola colla
se</b>&nbs
;(atelectasis).</i></div>
1397779108014 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e II
neumocytes}} a e a ty
e of
neumo
cyte that is <b>cuboidal</b>&nbs
;and <b>cluste ed</b>.
1397779134203 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e II
neumocytes}} a e a ty
e of
neumo
cyte that function as the stem cells of the lungs,
olife ating into Ty
e I and
Ty
e II cells du ing lung damage.
1397779163603 1395802358422 {{c1::Cla a cells}} a e a ty
e of
neumocyte tha
t a e <b>nonciliated</b>, <b>columna cells</b>&nbs
;with sec eto y g anules.
1397779193280 1395802358422 {{c1::Cla a cells}} a e a ty
e of
neumocyte tha
t deg ades toxins and acts as ese ve cells.
1397779214201 1395802358422 Which ty
e of
neumocyte deg ades toxins and act
s as ese ve cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cla a cells}}</div>
1397779260542 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the <b>colla
sing
ess
u e</b>&nbs
;of an alveolus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Colla
sing P essu e = P
= [2(su face tension)]/ adius}}</div> <b /><div><i>Hence, alveoli have an inc
eased tendency to colla
se du ing ex
i ation as adius dec eases (this is La
la
ce's Law).</i></div>
1397779604235 1395802358422 What is the most im
o tant lechitin found in su
factant?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Di
almitoyl
ho
hatidylcholine}}</div>
1397779663483 1395802358422 Du ing which week of gestation does lung su fact
ant
oduction begin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Week 26}}</div>
1397779690179 1395802358422 Du ing which week of gestation a e <b>matu e lev
els of su factant</b>&nbs
;achieves?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Week 35}}</div>
1397779717267 1395802358422 Which Lecithin:S
hingomyelin atio is indicative
of fetal lung matu ity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::L:S &gt; 2.0}}</div>
1397779796585 1395802358422 Which lung has 3 lobes?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Right}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-30326764077352.j
g" /></div>
1397779819124 1395802358422 Which lung has 2 lobes?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Left}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-30322469110056.j
g" /></div>

1397779826982 1395802358422 Which lung has the Lingula?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Left}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>L</b>eft = <b>L</b>ingula</i></div><div
><i><img s c="
aste-30322469110056.j
g" /></i></div>
1397779840806 1395802358422 {{c1::Lingula}} is a egion of the left lung tha
t is a homologue of the ight middle lobe (of the ight lung).
1397779877330 1395802358422 Which lung is the mo e common site fo inhaled f
o eign bodies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Right lung}}</div>
<b /><div><b /
></div>
1397779951676 1395802358422 {{c1::Right Lung}} is the lung that is the most
common site fo inhaled fo eign bodies because its main stem b onchus is wide a
nd mo e ve tical than the o

osite lung's.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-30322
469110056.j
g" /></div>
1397780094689 1395802358422 Which lung &am
; lobe will an as
i ated fo eign
body get stuck in while the
atient is <b>u
ight</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Lowe
o tion of the ight infe io lobe}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-30322469110056.j
g" /></div>
1397780154188 1395802358422 Which lung &am
; lobe will an as
i ated fo eign
body get stuck in if the
atient is <b>su
ine</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su

e io
o tion of the ight infe io lobe}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-30322469110056.j
g" /></div>
1397780323867 1395802358422 What is the elation of the <b>
ulmona y a te y
to the b onchus</b>&nbs
;at the <b> ight lung</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::An
te io }}</div> <b /><div><i><b>RALS</b>&nbs
;= <b>R</b>ight <b>A</b>nte io , <
b>L</b>eft <b>S</b>u
e io </i></div>
1397780414904 1395802358422 What is the elation of the <b>
ulmona y a te y
to the b onchus</b>&nbs
;at the <b>left lung</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su

e io }}</div> <b /><div><i><b>RALS</b>&nbs
;=&nbs
;<b>R</b>ight&nbs
;<b>A</b>
nte io ,&nbs
;<b>L</b>eft&nbs
;<b>S</b>u
e io </i></div>
1397780434886 1395802358422 At which ve teb al level does the IVC
e fo ate
the dia
h agm?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T8}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>"I 8
10 eggs at 12"</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-30988189040954.j
g" /></div>
1397780538042 1395802358422 At which ve teb al level does the eso
hagus
e f
o ate the dia
h agm?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T10}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><div><i>"I 8 10 eggs at 12"</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-30988189040954.j
g" /
></div></div>
1397780558260 1395802358422 At which ve teb al level does the Vagus Ne ve (C
N X)
e fo ate the dia
h agm?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T10 (both t unks)}}</di
v>
<b /><div><i>"C anial Ne ve <b>10</b>&nbs
;at T<b>10</b>"</i><b /><div
><img s c="
aste-30988189040954.j
g" /></div></div>
1397780610916 1395802358422 At which ve teb al level does the ao ta
e fo at
e the dia
h agm?<div><b />{{c1::T12}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"I 8 10 eggs at 12
"</i></div><div><i></i><i>"At&nbs
;<b>T-1-2</b>&nbs
;its&nbs
;<b> ed, white and
blue</b>" (ao ta = ed; tho acic duct = white; azygos vein = blue)</i><div><img
s c="
aste-30988189040954.j
g" /></div></div>
1397780629981 1395802358422 At which ve teb al level does the Tho acic Duct

e fo ate the dia
h agm?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T12}}</div> <b /><div><i>"A
t <b>T-1-2</b>&nbs
;its <b> ed, white and blue</b>" (ao ta = ed; tho acic duct
= white; azygos vein = blue)</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-30988189040954.j
g" /
></div></div>
1397780702805 1395802358422 At which ve teb al level does the Azygos Vein
e
fo ate the dia
h agm?<div><b />{{c1::T12}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"At&nbs
;<
b>T-1-2</b>&nbs
;its&nbs
;<b> ed, white and blue</b>" (ao ta = ed; tho acic duc
t = white; azygos vein = blue)</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-30988189040954.j
g"
/></div></div>
1397780721375 1395802358422 Which ne ve inne vates the dia
h agm?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Ph enic Ne ve}}</div>
1397781386335 1395802358422 Which <b>ne ve oots</b>&nbs
;inne vate the dia

h agm via the
h enic ne ve?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::C3, C4, C5}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"C3, 4, 5 kee
the dia
h agm alive."</i></div><div><i>Hence dia
h
agm
ain can adiate the to shoulde (C5) o t a
ezius idge (C3, C4).</i></div>

1397829115104 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates the volume of ai that
can still be b eathed in afte no mal ins
i ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::I
ns
i ato y Rese ve Volume (IRV)}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-850403525001.
j
g" /></div>
1397830119483 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates the volume of ai that
moves into the lungs with each quiet ins
i ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ti
dal Volume (TV)}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-846108557705.j
g" /></div>
1397830145620 1395802358422 What is the ty
ical lung Tidal Volume (TV)?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::500 mL}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-846108557705.
j
g" /></div>
1397830179778 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates to the volume of ai t
hat can still be b eathed out afte no mal ex
i ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Ex
i ato y Rese ve Volume (ERV)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-84610
8557705.j
g" /></div>
1397830209139 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates to the volume of ai t
hat emains in the lung afte a maximal ex
i ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::R
esidual Volume (RV)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-846108557705.j
g" /><
/div>
1397830247804 1395802358422 Which lung voume cannot be measu ed on s
i omet
y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Residual Volume (RV)}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-846108557705.j
g" /></div>
1397830267863 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make u
lung Ins
i ato y Ca
a
city (IC)?<div><b />{{c1::IRV + TV}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-17093
96984240.j
g" /></div>
1397830442190 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make u
lung Functional Resid
ual Ca
acity (FRC)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RV + ERV}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-1705102016944.j
g" /></div>
1397830487091 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make u
lung (Functional) Vit
al Ca
acity (VC)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TV + IRV + ERV}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-1705102016944.j
g" /></div>
1397830673103 1395802358422 {{c1::(Functional) Vital Ca
acity (VC)}} is a lu
ng ca
acity that equates to the maximum volume of ai that can be ex
i ed afte
a maximal ins
i ation. <div><b /></div><i>"FVC = inhaling maximally and then e
xhaling maximally = inhaling and blowing out bi thday candles."</i><b /><div><i
mg s c="
aste-1705102016944.j
g" /></div>
1397830828080 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make u
Total Lung Ca
acity (
TLC)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IRV + TV + ERV + RV}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><div><img s c="
aste-1705102016944.j
g" /></div>
1397830859114 1395802358422 {{c1::Total Lung Ca
acity (TLC)}} is a lung ca
a
city that equates to the volume of ai
esent in the lungs afte a maximal ins

i ation.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1705102016944.j
g" /></div>
1397830882061 1395802358422 Which lung ca
acity is equal to the volume of ga
s
esent in the lungs afte a maximal ins
i ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T
otal Lung Ca
acity (TLC)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1705102016944
.j
g" /></div>
1397830912571 1395802358422 What is the equation fo <b>Minute Ventilation (
V_E)</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::V_E&nbs
;= V_{T</sub
>&nbs
;* RR}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Minute Ventilation = total volume of ai e
nte ing the lungs
e minute</i></div><div><i>V_T&nbs
;= tidal volume<
/i></div><div><i>RR = es
i ato y ate</i></div>
1397831272415 1395802358422 What is the equation fo &nbs
;<b>Alveola Ventil
ation (V_A)</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::V_A&nbs
;= (V<su
b>T}&nbs
;- V_D) * RR}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Alveola Ventilati
on = volume of gas
e unit time that eaches the alveoli</i></div><div><i>V<sub
>T</sub>&nbs
;= tidal volume</i></div><div><i>V_D&nbs
;=
hysiological
dead s
ace</i></div><div><i>RR = es
i ato y ate</i></div>
1397831355730 1395802358422 Which globin chains a e found in adult Hemoglobi
n (HbA)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::α₂β<su>2</su>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-3040836845747.jpg" /></div>
1397832346312 1395802358422 Which <>morphological form</>&nsp;of Hemoglo

in has <>lower</>&nsp;O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Taut (T) form}}</div>
1397832384428 1395802358422 Which <>morphological form</>&nsp;of Hemoglo
in has <>high</>&nsp;O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Relaxed (R) form; 300x more affinity than the taut form}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-3040836845747.jpg" /></div>
1397832421132 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an <>increase</>&nsp;in [H⁺] (i.e. decrease
d pH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dis
sociation curve shifts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832602352 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in CO<su>2</su>?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curve
shifts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832632832 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in 2,3-BPG?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curve shifts
to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832651068 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in temperature?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curve shi
fts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832659431 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in [Cl^-]?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curv
e shifts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832672968 1395802358422 Where in the ody is the <>Taut (T)</>&nsp;fo
rm of Hemogloin typically found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::At tissue (where O2
unloading is needed)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, the Taut form has <>dec
reased O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity</></i></div>
1397832738046 1395802358422 Where in the ody is the <>Relaxed (R)</>&nsp
;form of Hemogloin typically found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lungs; Respirato
ry tract (where O2 loading is required)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, the Rela
xed form of H has <>300x higher O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity than the Taut form
</></i></div>
1397832776938 1395802358422 What gloin chains are found in <>fetal</>&ns
p;Hemogloin (HF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::α₂γ₂}}</div>
1397832817748 1395802358422 Why does feal hemolobin (HbF) have a hiher af
finiy for O₂?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I has lower affiniy for 2
,3-BPG, which decreases O₂&nbsp;affiniy}}</div>
1397832864087 1395802358422 {{c1::Mehemolobin}} is a modified form of Hemo
lobin ha is oxidized and hereby has a <b>ferric (Fe³⁺)</b>&nbsp;a
om in is heme roup.
1397832958447 1395802358422 {{c1::Mehemolobin}} is a modified form of hemo
lobin ha is oxidized, and hence does no bind o O₂&nbsp;as readil
y.
1397832983310 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin has an <b>incr
eased affiniy for cyanide</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mehemolobin}}</div>
1397833023131 1395802358422 In which sae is iron normally found in Hemolo
bin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ferr<b>ous</b>&nbsp;(Fe<sup syle="fon-weih:
bold; ">2+</sup>)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"Jus he <b>2</b>&nbsp;of <b>us</
b>" =&nbsp;Fe<b>²⁺&nbsp;</b>is Ferro<b>us</b></i></div>
1397833230303 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin is associaed
wih cyanosis and&nbsp;<b>chocolae-coloured blood</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Mehemolobin}}</div>
1397833270572 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin is used o re
a cyanide poisonin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mehemolobin}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>We use niraes o oxidize hemolobin ino mehemolobin which hen binds
o cyanide. Thiosulfae is hen used o bind his cyanide, formin hiocyanae w
hich is renally excreed.</i></div>

1397833362782 1395802358422 {{c1::Mehemolobin}} is a modified form of hemo
lobin ha can be used o rea cyanide poisonin.
1397833381907 1395802358422 Wha <b>ype</b>&nbsp;of drus do we use o oxid
ize Hemolobin ino Mehemolobin such ha we can rea cyanide poisonin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Niraes}}</div> <br /><div><i>We use niraes o oxidize
hemolobin ino mehemolobin which hen binds o cyanide. Thiosulfae is hen
used o bind his cyanide, formin hiocyanae which is renally excreed.</i></d
iv>
1397833414786 1395802358422 Wha is he reamen for Mehemolobinemia?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mehylene Blue}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>Meh</b>emolob
inemia is reaed wih <b>meh</b>ylene blue.</i></div>
1397833462085 1395802358422 {{c1::Carboxyhemolobin}} is a modified form of
hemolobin ha is bound o CO in place of O₂.
1397833503353 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin is bound o CO
insead of O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Carboxyhemolobin}}</div>
1397833527560 1395802358422 How does he O2-hemolobin dissociaed curve shi
f in <b>Carboxyhemolobinemia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lef shif; here
is <b>decreased O2 bindin capaciy</b>&nbsp;and <b>decreased O2 unloadin a 
issue</b>}}</div>
1397833584227 1395802358422 How many imes reaer is CO's affiniy for Hb 
han O2's affiniy for Hb?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::200x}}</div>
1397833619153 1395802358422 How does Hemolobin's affiniy for O2 chane if
here is a <b>rih-shif</b>&nbsp;in he Hb sauraion curve?<div><br /></div><
div><im src="pase-6433861009835.jp" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
ased affiniy; i.e. <u>more O2 is needed o saurae Hb</u>}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>An increase in all of he parameers (includin H⁺) will cause
a rih-shif of he curve.</i></div><div><i></i><i>A decrease in all of he par
ameers (includin H⁺) will cause a lef-shif of he curve.</i></div
>
1397835659436 1395802358422 Wha volume of Oxyen can be bound by 1  of Hb?
<div><br />{{c1::1.34 mL}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Normal [Hb] is 15 /dL</i>
</div>
1397835993703 1395802358422 Wha <b>deoxyenaed</b> hemolobin blood concen
raion is associaed wih cyanosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Deoxyenaed Hb
&; 5 /dL}}</div>
1397843144868 1395802358422 Which area of he lun has he&nbsp;<b>hihes V
/Q raio</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex of he lun (V/Q = 3)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence here is wased venilaion.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase
-9332963934649.jp" /></i></div>
1397843864972 1395802358422 Which area of he lun has he <b>lowes V/Q ra
io</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base of lun (V/Q = 0.6)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence here is wased perfusion.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-93286689
67353.jp" /></i></div>
1397843924817 1395802358422 Wha does a V/Q raio <b>close o zero</b>&nbsp;
indicae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Airway obsrucion}}</div> <br /><div><i>i.
e. venilaion = 0.</i></div>
1397844065841 1395802358422 Wha does a V/Q raio close o <b>infiniy</b>&n
bsp;indicae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blood flow obsrucion}}</div>
1397844087625 1395802358422 Which area of he lun has he reaes perfusio
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base}}</div>
1397844128273 1395802358422 Which area of he lun has he reaes venila
ion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base}}</div>
1397844140607 1395802358422 Wha form is he majoriy of CO₂&nbsp
;found in he blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HCO₃^-}}</d
iv>
<div><br /></div><im src="pase-10355166151167.jp" />
1404750780726 1395802358422 {{c1::Conducin Zone}} is a secion of he resp
iraory ree ha funcions o <b>warm, humidify</b>&nbsp;and <b>filer</b>&nbsp
;air bu does no paricipae in as exchane. <br /><div><i>i.e. physioloical
dead space</i></div>
1404752342227 1395802358422 Which ype of epihelium is found in mos of he

counducin zone of he luns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pseudosraified cili
aed columnar epihelium}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Funcions o bea mucous u
p and ou of he luns.</i></div><div><i>Seen up o he erminal bronchioles a
which poin i ransiions o cuboidal cells.</i></div><div><i>Also, <b>airway s
mooh muscle exends o he end of he erminal bronchioles</b>&nbsp;(and is spa
rse beyond ha poin) while <b>carilae and oble cells exend o he end of
he bronchi</b>.</i></div>
1404752491676 1395802358422 {{c1::Respiraory Zone}} is a semen of he res
piraory ree ha <b>paricipaes in as exchane</b>. <br /><div><i>i.e. he l
un parenchyma (respiraory bronchioles, alveolar ducs and alveoli)</i></div><d
iv><i><im src="pase-2357937046019.jp" /></i></div>
1404753310737 1395802358422 Which ype of epihelium is found in he respira
ory zone of he respiraory ree?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cuboidal cells in
respiraory bronchioles; simple s uamous epihelium up o he alveoli}}</div>
<br /><div><i>There are n<b>o cilia</b>&nbsp;in he respiraory zone.</i></div><
div><i>There are also alveolar macrophaes ha clear debris and paricipae in
he immune response.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-2353642078723.jp" /></i><
/div>
1404765729222 1395802358422 {{c1::Physioloical Dead Space}} is a respiraor
y physioloical parameer defined as he <b>volume of anaomical dead space</b>&
nbsp;<u syle="fon-weih: bold; ">plus</u>&nbsp;he <b>volume of funcional de
ad space in alveoli</b>.
<br /><div><i>i.e. he volume of inspired air h
a does no ake par in as exchane</i></div>
1404765844156 1395802358422 {{c1::Physioloical dead space}} is a respiraor
y physioloical parameer ha is defined as he <b>volume of inspired air ha
does no ake par in as exchane</b>. <br /><div><im src="pase-3143916060758
.jp" /></div>
1404765892175 1395802358422 Which area of he lun is he lares conribuo
r of <b>funcional</b>&nbsp;dead space?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex of he l
un}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, funcional dead space = dead space in h
e alveoli.</i></div>
1404765938789 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for deerminin Physioloic
al Dead Space (of he lun)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="pase-31396210
93462.jp" />}}</div> <br /><div><i>V_T&nbsp;= idal volume</i></div
><div><i>P_aCO2&nbsp;= arerial P_CO2</i></div><div><i>P<sub
>E</sub>CO2 = expired air P_CO2</i></div><div><i>_{<im src="pase3393024163950.jp" />}</i></div>
1404766068400 1395802358422 {{c1::Minue venilaion (V_E)}} is a
respiraory physioloical parameer ha is defined as he <b>oal volume of a
s enerin he luns per minue</b>.
<br /><div><i>V_E&nbsp;= V<sub
>T</sub>&nbsp;* RR</i></div>
1404769649028 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for Minue Venilaion (V<s
ub>E</sub>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V_E&nbsp;= V_T&nbsp;
x RR}}</div>
1404769678182 1395802358422 {{c1::Alveolar Venilaion (V_A)}} is
a respiraory physioloical parameer defined as he <b>volume of as per uni 
ime ha reaches he alveoli</b>.
<br /><div><i>V_A&nbsp;= (V<su
b>T</sub>&nbsp;- V_D) x RR</i></div>
1404769834488 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for Alveolar Venilaion (V
_A)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V_A&nbsp;= (V_T&nb
sp;- V_D) x RR}}</div>
<br /><div><i>V_D&nbsp;= physi
oloical dead space</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-3886945402962.jp" /></i></
div>
1404769886426 1395802358422 {{c1::Compliance}} is a physioloical parameer
of he luns ha describes he oran's abiliy o <b>chane in volume for a iv
en chane in pressure</b>.
<br /><div><i>Think of compliance as he <b>abil
iy of he oran o disend/increase in volume wih an increase in ransmural pr
essure</b>.</i></div><div><i>Hence, <b>increased compliance</b>&nbsp;= <b>increa
sed abiliy o expand = less recoil</b></i></div><div><i>Hence, <b>decreased com
pliance = decreased abiliy o expand = more recoil</b></i></div>

1404770264260 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in Pulmonary Fib
rosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404770276592 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in Pneumonia?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404770284408 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in Pulmonary Ede
ma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404770294774 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in emphysema?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404770305266 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane wih normal ain
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404770313052 1395802358422 Wha is he alveolar air pressure a FRC (Funci
onal Residual Capaciy)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::0}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="pase-4170413244941.jp" /></div>
1404770384035 1395802358422 {{c1::Posiive cooperaiviy}} is a kineic fea
ure of oxyen-hemolobin bindin ha ives he dissociaion curve is simoidal
shape and is described as <b>hih affiniy for O₂&nbsp;for each subs
e uen O₂&nbsp;molecule bound</b>, as hemolobin is erameric.
<div><br /></div><i>Myolobin is monomeric and hence does no show posiive coop
eraiviy.</i><br /><div><im src="pase-4574140170838.jp" /><im src="pase-45
95615007330.jp" /></div>
1404781030201 1395802358422 In which direcion does he oxyen-hemolobin di
ssociaion curve shif if here is a <b>decrease</b>&nbsp;in he affiniy of hem
olobin for O₂?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>An <b>increase</b>&nbsp;in all facors (includin [H⁺]) shifs
he curve o he rih.</i></div><div><i>A <b>decrease</b>&nbsp;</i><i>in all fa
cors (includin [H⁺]) shifs he curve o he rih.</i></div><div><
i><b>Feal Hb</b>&nbsp;has hiher affiniy for O₂, hence is curve is
shifed o he lef.</i></div><div><im src="pase-4930622456100.jp" /></div>
1404781484491 1395802358422 Which way does <b>2,3-BPG</b>&nbsp;shif he oxy
en-hemolobin dissociaion curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decrea
ses affiniy)}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782729280 1395802358422 Which way does CO₂&nbsp;shif he oxy
en-hemolobin dissociaion curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decrea
sed affiniy)}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782769339 1395802358422 Which way does acid shif he oxyen-dissociaio
n curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decreased affiniy)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782791164 1395802358422 Which way does increased aliude shif he oxy
en-dissociaion curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decreased affiniy
)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782848212 1395802358422 Which way does increased emperaure shif he o
xyen-dissociaion curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decreased affin
iy)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404832416327 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for he O₂&nbsp;
conen of blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::O₂&nbsp;conen = (O<sub
>2</sub>&nbsp;bindin capaciy * % sauraion) + dissolved O₂}}</div>
<br /><div><i>O₂&nbsp;bindin capaci
y ~ 20.1 mL O₂/dL</i></
div><div><i>O₂&nbsp;delivery o issue = CO * O₂&nbsp;con
en</i></div>
1404832500018 1395802358422 How much O₂&nbsp;does 1  of hemolob
in normally bind?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1.34 mL O₂}}</div>
1404832529966 1395802358422 Wha is he normal concenraion of hemolobin i
n he blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::15 /dL}}</div>
1404832628076 1395802358422 A which concenraion of <b>deoxyenaed hemol
obin</b>&nbsp;does cyanosis occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::&; 5 /dL of deo
xyenaed hemolobin}}</div>
1404833656335 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for he amoun of O<sub>2</
sub>&nbsp;delivered o issue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::O₂&nbsp;del
ivery = CO * O₂&nbsp;conen}}</div>
1404833701334 1395802358422 How does % O₂&nbsp;sauraion of hemo

lobin chane wih CO poisonin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease; CO compee
s wih O₂&nbsp;for bindin on Hb}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This
in urn decreases oal O₂&nbsp;conen despie Hb levels sayin h
e same.</i><br /><div><im src="pase-1748051689886.jp" /></div>
1404834255352 1395802358422 How does % O₂&nbsp;sauraion of Hb c
hane in anaemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chane; Normal}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>Remember, sauraion is a <b>percenae</b>.</i><br /><div><im src=
"pase-1743756722590.jp" /></div>
1404834290657 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b>&nbsp;in <b>PA<sub>O2<
/sub>&nbsp;</b>influence pulmonary circulaion/vasculaure?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Causes <u>hypoxic vasoconsricion</u>}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is o
shif blood <b>away from poorly venilaed reions of he lun o well venila
ed reions of he lun</b>. This is also a uni ue feaure of he luns. All ohe
r issues vasodilae in hypoxic condiions.</i></div><div><i>Normally, he pulmo
nary circulaory sysem is a low-resisance, hih-compliance sysem.</i></div>
1404835583966 1395802358422 {{c1::O₂(when healhy)}},&nbsp;{{c2:
:CO₂}} and&nbsp;{{c3::N₂O}} are 3 <u syle="fon-weih: b
old; ">perfusion limied</u>&nbsp;ases ha e uilibrae early alon he lenh
of he capillary.
<div><br /></div><i>Hence, diffusion can only be increas
ed by an increase in blood flow.</i><br /><div><im src="pase-2379411882402.jp
" /></div>
1404835893294 1395802358422 {{c1::O₂&nbsp;(in emphysema or pulmon
ary fibrosis)}} and&nbsp;{{c2::CO}} are 2 <u syle="fon-weih: bold; ">diffusi
on limied</u>&nbsp;ases ha <b>do no</b>&nbsp;e uilibrae in he blood alon
he lenh of he capillary. <br /><div><i>i.e. by ime he blood reaches he
end of he capillary, he as has no e uilibraed beween he alveolus and cap
illary</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-2611340116381.jp" /></i></div>
1404835987190 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cor pulmonale</i>}} is a cardiac compli
caion of pulmonary hyperension ha involves <b>rih venricular failure</b>&
nbsp;and hence presens wih juular venous disension, edema and hepaomealy.
1404836050035 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for diffusion of a as acro
ss he pulmonary surface?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V_as&nbsp;= A/T
* D_k(P₁-P₂)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>A = area (
<b>decreases in Emphysema</b>)</i></div><div><i>T = hickness (<b>increases in p
ulmonary fibrosis</b>)</i></div><div><i>D_k(P₁-P<sub>2</sub
>) = difference in parial pressure</i></div>
1404837087279 1395802358422 How does he diffusion of O₂&nbsp;a
he luns chane in pulmonary fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><im src="pase-2877628088753.jp" /></div>
1404837126283 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for pulmonary vascular resi
sance?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="pase-3006477107328.jp" />}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This is essenially a rearranemen of <b>MAP = CO * TPR</b>
&nbsp;o salve for TPR (PVR).</i><div><i><br /></i><div><im src="pase-30279519
43949.jp" /></div></div>
1404837218619 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for PA_O2?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="pase-3062311682263.jp" />}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><im src="pase-3075196584337.jp" /></div>
1404837261529 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for he A-a radien?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::A-a radien = PA_O2&nbsp;- Pa_O2&nbsp
;= 10-15 mmH}}</div> <br /><div><i>The A-a radien <b>may increase in hypoxe
mia</b>&nbsp;due o shunin, V/Q mismach and pulmonary fibrosis (which impairs
diffusion).</i></div>
1404837410294 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane wih hih ali
ude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Normal; no chane}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="pase-3354369458521.jp" /></div>
1404837742607 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane wih hypovenil
aion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Normal; no chane}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="pase-3350074491225.jp" /></div>
1404837755431 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane wih V/Q misma
ch?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-33500

74491225.jp" /></div>
1404837769846 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane wih a Rih-o
-lef cardiovascular shun?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><d
iv><im src="pase-3350074491225.jp" /></div>
1404837791346 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane when here is a
pulmonary diffusion limiaion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-3350074491225.jp" /></div>
1404837821138 1395802358422 Which zone of he lun has he hihes V/Q raio
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex (V/Q = 3)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>i.e.
here is <b>wased venilaion a he apex of he lun</b>.</i><div><i>This is
aribued o raviy and i's effec on blood flow (Q), which is lower a he a
pex of he lun vs. he lower lun zones, despie he fac ha venilaion is a
lso he lowes a he apex of he lun.<br /></i><div><im src="pase-3513283248
695.jp" /></div></div>
1404838093864 1395802358422 Which zone of he lun has he lowes V/Q raio?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base (V/Q = 0.6)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. here
is <b>wased perfusion a he base</b>&nbsp;of he lun.</i></div><div><i><im
src="pase-3508988281399.jp" /></i></div><div><i><br /></i></div>
1404838108407 1395802358422 Which zone of he lun has <b>reaer</b>&nbsp;v
enilaion <u syle="fon-weih: bold; ">and</u>&nbsp;perfusion?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Base}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-3508988281399.jp" />
</div>
1404838147427 1395802358422 Wha is he ideal V/Q pulmonary raio?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. ideally, venilaion would e
ual perfusion, allowin for he mos efficien as chane.</i></div><div><i><b>V
/Q approaches 1 durin exercise</b>&nbsp;(increased CO) due o vasodilaion of 
he apical pulmonary capillaries.</i></div>
1404839332950 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacerium uberculosis</i>}} is a M
ycobacerial species ha hrives in hih O₂&nbsp;and flourishes in 
he apex of he lun.
1404839386030 1395802358422 Wha does a V/Q raio of <b>zero</b>&nbsp;indica
<br /><d
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Airway obsrucion (shun)}}</div>
iv><i>In his case, <b>100% O₂&nbsp;will no improve P_O2.<
/b></i></div>
1404839431224 1395802358422 Wha does a V/Q raio of <b>infiniy</b>&nbsp;in
dicae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Obsruced blood flow (i.e. here is a lo of
physioloical dead space)}}</div>
<div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Assumin
here is &l; 100% dead space, <b>100% O₂&nbsp;will improve P_O2.</b></i></div>
1404839509445 1395802358422 In which form is CO₂&nbsp;mos common
ly ranspored from issues o he luns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HCO<sub>3</
sub>^-&nbsp;(90%)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4913442587341
.jp" /></div>
1404841287711 1395802358422 {{c1::Carbaminohemolobin (HbCO₂)}} i
s a molecule used as a form of CO₂&nbsp;ranspor ha is descibed as
<b>CO₂&nbsp;bound o hemolobin a he N-erminus of <u>lobin</u>.<
/b>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4917737554637.jp" /></div>
1404841564207 1395802358422 {{c1::Haldane Effec}} is a respiraory physiolo
ical phenomenon ha involves he <b>release of CO₂&nbsp;from RBCs</
b>&nbsp;a he lun followin oxyenaion of hemolobin and dissociaion of H<su
p>+</sup>&nbsp;from Hb. <br /><div><i>Oxyenaion of Hb promoes he dissociaio
n of H⁺_&nbsp;from Hb, hereby shifin he e uilibrium ow
ards CO₂&nbsp;formaion and resulin in CO₂&nbsp;release
from RBCs.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-5501853106880.jp" /></i></div>
1404842174022 1395802358422 {{c1::Bohr Effec}} is a respiraory physioloic
al phenomenon ha involves he <b>unloadin of O₂&nbsp;a peripheral
issue from RBCs</b>&nbsp;due o an <b>increase in [H⁺]</b>.
<br /><div><im src="pase-5497558139584.jp" /></div>
1404842224730 1395802358422 How does venilaion chane in response o hih
aliude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pas

e-5768141078871.jp" /></div>
1404843519089 1395802358422 How does EPO levels chane in response o hih a
liude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pas
e-5763846111575.jp" /></div>
1404843565757 1395802358422 How do 2,3-BPG levels chane in resposne o hih
aliude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>The raion
ale here is ha <b>2,3-BPG riers O₂&nbsp;release from Hb</b>.</i>
</div><div><i><im src="pase-5763846111575.jp" /></i></div>
1404843621188 1395802358422 How does he amoun of miochondria in a cell ch
ane in response o hih aliude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-5763846111575.jp" /></div>
1404843648596 1395802358422 How does renal excreion of HCO₃&nbsp
;chane in response o hih aliude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>i.e. here is a <b>compensaory meabolic acidosis</b>&nbs
p;due o he respiraory alkalosis caused by he hypervenilaion.</i></div><div
><i><im src="pase-5763846111575.jp" /></i></div>
1404843702295 1395802358422 How does venilaion rae chane in response o
exercise?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is o
mee he increased O₂&nbsp;demand and increased CO₂&nbsp;
producion.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-5961414607166.jp" /></i></div>
1404843748277 1395802358422 How does blood pH chane in response o exercise
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div> <br /><div><i>Secondary o laci
c acidosis</i>.</div><div><im src="pase-5957119639870.jp" /></div>
1401045083085 1395802358422 Wha kind of chare is on DNA?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Neaive}}</div>
1401045181611 1395802358422 Wha kind of chare is on hisone proeins?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Posiive}}</div>
1401045228456 1395802358422 How many imes does DNA loop around a hisone oc
amer?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Twice}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-12283
60646880.jp" /></div>
1401045281528 1395802358422 Which 2 basic amino acids are Hisones paricula
rly rich in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Arinine}}</div>
1401045317058 1395802358422 Which Hisone proein funcions o bind o <b>bo
h</b>&nbsp;he nucleosome <b>and</b>&nbsp;he linker DNA, hereby sabilizin 
he chromain?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H1}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pas
e-1224065679584.jp" /></div>
1401045403083 1395802358422 Which Hisone proeins are par of he nucleosom
e core?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H2A; H2B; H3; H4}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Al
l appear wice in he ocamer.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-1224065679584.jp
" /></i></div>
1401045449762 1395802358422 {{c1::H1}} is a Hisone proein ha binds o <b
>boh</b>&nbsp;he nucleosome and <b>linker DNA</b>, hereby sabilizin he chr
omain. <br /><div><im src="pase-1224065679584.jp" /></div>
1401045489137 1395802358422 Which phase of he cell cycle involves DNA and H
isone Synhesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S Phase}}</div>
1401045530731 1395802358422 Which Hisone proein is he only Hisone no pa
r of he nucleosome core?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H1}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><im src="pase-1224065679584.jp" /></div>
1401045553840 1395802358422 Which srucural form of chromain is condensed?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Heerochromain}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>H</b>e
ero<b>C</b>hromain =&nbsp;<b>H</b>ihly&nbsp;<b>C</b>ondensed</i></div>
1401045951004 1395802358422 Which srucural form of chromain is ranscrip
ionally inacive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Heerochromain}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i><b>H</b>eero<b>C</b>hromain =&nbsp;<b>H</b>ihly&nbsp;<b>C</b>ondensed</
i></div>
1401045965945 1395802358422 Which srucural form of chromain is serically
inaccessible?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Heerochromain}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i><b>H</b>eero<b>C</b>hromain = <b>H</b>ihly <b>C</b>ondensed</i></div>
1401045976881 1395802358422 Which srucural form of chromain is less conde
nsed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Euchromain}}</div>

1401045988784 1395802358422 Which srucural form of chromain is ranscrip
ionally acive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Euchromain}}</div>
1401046000686 1395802358422 Which srucural form of chromain is serically
accessible?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Euchromain}}</div>
1401046050153 1395802358422 Which DNA nucleoides are mehylaed on he emp
lae srand durin DNA replicaion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cyosine; Adenine
}}</div>
1401046380947 1395802358422 How does DNA Mehylaion a CpG islands influenc
e ene ranscripion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Repression}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Mehylaion mues DNA.</i></div>
1401046422972 1395802358422 How does Hisone mehylaion influence DNA rans
cripion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Repression (ypically reversible)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Some Hisone mehylaion can acivae DNA.</i></div><div><i>Mehyl
aion mues DNA.</i></div>
1401046460897 1395802358422 How does Hisone aceylaion influence DNA rans
cripion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acivaion, by relaxin DNA coilin}}</div>
1401046493162 1395802358422 Which 2 nucleoides are he purines?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Adenine; Guanine}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Pure <b>A</b>s <b>
G</b>old.</i></div>
1401046652042 1395802358422 How many rins are found in purines?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-3225520439573.jp" />
</div>
1401046673877 1395802358422 Which 3 nucleoides are pyrimidines?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Cyosine; Thymine; Uracil}}</div>
<br /><div><i>CUT he PY
.</i></div>
1401046705289 1395802358422 How many rins are found in Pyrimidine nucleoid
es?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-32813
55014408.jp" /></div>
1401046727283 1395802358422 Which nucleoide has a mehyl roup?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Thymine}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>THY</b>mine has a me<b>THY</b>l
roup.</i></div>
1401046747655 1395802358422 Which nucleoide is made followin he deaminai
on of cyosine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uracil}}</div>
1401046761783 1395802358422 Which pyrimidine is found <b>solely</b>&nbsp;in
RNA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uracil}}</div>
1401046776364 1395802358422 Which pyrimidine is found <b>solel</b>y in DNA?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thymine}}</div>
1401046793678 1395802358422 Which nucleoide base pairin has he srones
bondin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Guanine-Cyosine due o 3 Hydroen bonds (vs
2 in A-T)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Increased GC base pair conen increases m
elin poin of DNA.</i></div>
1401046860471 1395802358422 Which amino acids are necessary for purine synh
esis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycine; Gluamine; Asparae}}</div> <br /><d
iv><im src="pase-3500398346511.jp" /></div>
1401046896568 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycine}},&nbsp;{{c2::Asparae}}, and&nbs
p;{{c3::Gluamine}} are 3 amino acids ha are necessary for purine synhesis.
<br /><div><im src="pase-3496103379215.jp" /></div>
1401047823168 1395802358422 Which enzyme in he pyrimidine synhesis pahway
convers ribonucleoides o deoxyribonucleoides?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ri
bonucleoide Reducase}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4209067950804.jp" />
</div>
1401048105101 1395802358422 {{c1::Carbamoyl Phosphae}} is a meabolie of 
he urea cycle ha is involved in de novo pyrimidine synhesis as i becomes Oro
ic Acid, a emporary base in he pahway.
1401048196398 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in nucleoide synhesis co
nvers Ribose-5-P ino PRPP?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PRPP Synhease}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401048299145 1395802358422 {{c1::Leflunomide}} is a DMARD dru ha inhibi
s Dihydrooroae Dehydroenase, an enzyme involved in pyrimidine synhesis.
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>

1401048414413 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in pyrimidine synhesis do
es Leflunomide inhibi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydrooroae Dehydroenase}
}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401048435694 1395802358422 {{c1::Dihydrooroae Dehydroenase}} is an enzym
e involved in pyrimidine synhesis ha convers Carbamoyl Phosphae ino Oroic
Acid. <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401048481761 1395802358422 {{c1::Mycophenolae}} is an immunosuppressan h
a inhibis IMP Dehydroenase, an enzyme involved in de novo purine synhesis.
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401048716410 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo purine synhesi
s is inhibied by he immunosuppressan Mycophenolae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::IMP Dehydroenase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" />
</div>
1401048765682 1395802358422 {{c1::Ribavirin}} is an ani-viral dru ha inh
ibis IMP dehydroenase, an enzyme involved in de novo purine synhesis.
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401048798452 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo purine synhesi
s is inhibied by he aniviral aen Ribavirin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IMP
Dehydroenase}}</div>
1401048814859 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydroxyurea}} is an anineoplasic dru h
a inhibis Ribonucleoide Reducase, an enzyme involved in de novo pyrimidine s
ynhesis.
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401048889992 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo pyrimidine syn
hesis is inhibied by he anineoplasic dru Hydroxyurea?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Ribonucleoide Reducase}}</div>
1401048916613 1395802358422 Wha is he prodru of 6-Mercapopurine (6-MP)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Azahioprine}}</div>
1401048938290 1395802358422 {{c1::6-Mercapopurine (6MP)}} is an anineoplas
ic dru ha inhibis PRPP Amidoransferase, an enzyme involved in de novo puri
ne synhesis. <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401049006281 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo purine synhesi
s is inhibied by he anineoplasic 6-Mercapopurine (6MP)?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::PRPP Amidoransferase}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508
.jp" /></div>
1401049040820 1395802358422 {{c1::5-Fluorouracil (5-FU)}} is an anineoplas
ic dru ha inhibis Thymidylae Synhase, an enzyme involved in de novo pyrimi
dine synhesis. <br /><div><i>Thereby causes a decrease in [dTMP]</i></div><div>
<i><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></i></div>
1401049090567 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo pyrimidine syn
hesis (specifically dTMP) is inhibied by 5-Fluorouracil?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Thymidylae Synhase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508
.jp" /></div>
1401049130565 1395802358422 {{c1::Mehrorexae (MTX)}} is an anineoplasic
dru ha inhibis Dihydrofolae Reducase in humans, hereby decreasin dTMP l
evels. <br><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401049222598 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo pyrimidine syn
hesis is inhibied by he anineoplasic Mehorexae (MTX)?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Dihydrofolae Reducase}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508
.jp" /></div>
1401049263528 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimehoprim (TMP)}} is an anibioic ha
inhibis Dihydrofolae Reducase in baceria, hereby inhibiin de novo pyrimi
dine synhesis. <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401049369767 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih de novo pyrimidine sy
nhesis is inhibied by he anibioic Trimehoprim (TMP)?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Dihydrofolae Reducase (in baceria)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pas
e-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401049407653 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyrimehamine}} is an aniproozoal aen
ha inhibis Dihydrofolae Reducase, hereby soppin de novo pyrimidine synh
esis. <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401049438045 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih de novo pyrimidine sy

nhesis is inhibied by he aniproozoal aen Pyrimehamine?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Dihydrofolae Reducase (in proozoa)}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pas
e-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401049511727 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in he purine salvae pah
way convers Hypoxanhine o Xanhine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Xanhine Oxida
se}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-8233452306902.jp" /></div>
1401052134086 1395802358422 Which enzyme in he purine salvae pahway conve
rs Xanhine ino Uric Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Xanhine Oxidase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-8229157339606.jp" /></div>
1401052151759 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in he purine salvae pah
way convers Adenosine ino Inosine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adenosine Deamin
ase (ADA)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-8229157339606.jp" /></div>
1401052190591 1395802358422 {{c1::Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) Deficiency}} is
a disorder of he purine salvae pahway ha resuls in excess ATP and dATP, h
ereby causin neaive feedback of Ribonucleoide Reducase.
<div><br /></div
><i>Thereby causin a decrease in DNA synhesis and decreased lymphocye coun.<
/i><br /><div><im src="pase-8229157339606.jp" /></div>
1401053133192 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih pyrimidine synhesis
is inhibied by neaive feedback in Adenosine Deaminase Deficiency?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Ribonucleoide Reducase, due o he excess ATP and dATP}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-8229157339606.jp" /></div>
1401053191518 1395802358422 {{c1::Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) Deficiency}} is
a disorder of he purine salvae pahway ha resuls in Severe Combined Immunod
eficiency (SCID).
<br /><div><i>The increase in ATP and dATP causes inhibi
ion of Ribonucleoide Reducase, hereby resulin in dereased DNA synhesis an
d low Lymphocye coun.</i></div>
1401053445823 1395802358422 Wha is he eneic inheriance of Adenosine Dea
minase (ADA) Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Auosomal recessive}}</div>
1401053484874 1395802358422 {{c1::Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome}} is a disorder of h
e purine salvae pahway ha involves a deficiency of HGPRT, an enzyme ha con
vers Hypoxanhine o IMP and Guanine o GMP. <div><br /></div><i>Thereby resu
ls in increased Uric Acid producion</i><br /><div><im src="pase-822915733960
6.jp" /></div>
1401053576661 1395802358422 Wha enzyme is defecive or absen in Lesch-Nyha
n Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HGPRT}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pas
e-8229157339606.jp" /><im src="pase-10647223926981.jp" /></div>
1401053589883 1395802358422 Wha is he eneic inheriance of Lesch-Nyhan S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}</div>
1401053604387 1395802358422 {{c1::Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome}} is a disorder of h
e purine salvae pahway ha involves <b>self-muilaion</b>&nbsp;and <b>ares
sion</b>&nbsp;due o <u>exremely painful ou</u>.
<br /><div><im src="pas
e-10647223926981.jp" /></div>
1401053636817 1395802358422 {{c1::Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome}} is a disorder of h
e purine salvae pahway ha involves <b>inellecual disabiliy</b>&nbsp;and <
b>dysonia.</b> <br /><div><im src="pase-10651518894277.jp" /></div>
1401053667814 1395802358422 Wha is he 1s line reamen of Lesch-Nyhan Sy
ndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Allopurinol; via inhibiion of Xanhine Oxida
se}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-8229157339606.jp" /></div>
1401053680402 1395802358422 Wha is he 2nd line reamen of Lesch-Nyhan Sy
ndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Febuxosa; via inhibiion of Xanhine Oxidas
e}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-8229157339606.jp" /></div>
1401053976840 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::unambiuous}} eneic code is on
e where each codon specifies for only 1 amino acid.
1401054001534 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::deenerae/redundan}} eneic c
ode is one where mos amino acids are coded by muliple codons. <br><div><i>The
excepion is Mehionine (AUG) and Trypophan (UGG)</i></div>
1401054019598 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::commaless, nonoverlappin}} ene
ic code is one ha is read from a fixed sarin poin as a coninuous se uenc
e of bases.
<br /><div><i>Excepion is some viruses.</i></div>
1401054052735 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::universal}} eneic code is one

ha is conserved hrouhou evoluion. <br /><div><i>The excepion is miochron
dia in humans.</i></div>
1401054609880 1395802358422 The {{c1::Oriin of Replicaion}} is a paricula
r se uence of base pairs in he enome where DNA replicaion beins.
<br /><d
iv><im src="pase-13215614370212.jp" /></div>
1401054653471 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>un
winds he DNA emplae a he replicaion fork</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H
elicase}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-13211319402916.jp" /></div>
1401054682823 1395802358422 {{c1::Sinle-sranded bindin proeins}} are nuc
lear proeins involved wih DNA replicaion ha <b>preven he unwound srand f
rom reannealin</b>.
<br /><div><im src="pase-13211319402916.jp" /></div>
1401054714944 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>cr
eaes a sinle- or double-sranded break in he DNA double helix o add or remov
e supercoils</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DNA Topoisomerase}}</div> <br /><d
iv><im src="pase-13211319402916.jp" /></div>
1401054753071 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion is in
hibied by Fluoro uinolone anibioics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DNA Gyrase (p
rokaryoic DNA Topoisomerase II)}}</div>
1401054812624 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>ma
kes RNA primers on which DNA Polymerase III can iniiae replicaion</b>?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Primase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-1321131940291
6.jp" /></div>
1401054871970 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>el
onaes he leadin srand by addin deoxynucleoides o he 3' end</b>?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::DNA Polymerase III}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-13211
319402916.jp" /></div>
1401054917662 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>el
onaes he lain srand unil i reaches he primer of he precedin framen
</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DNA Polymerase III}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="pase-13211319402916.jp" /></div>
1401054957246 1395802358422 In which direcion does DNA Polymerase III have
exonuclease aciviy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3' o 5'}}</div>
1401055048784 1395802358422 In which direcion does DNA Polymerase III synh
esize DNA?<div><br />{{c1::5' o 3'}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-13211
319402916.jp" /></div>
1401055087535 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>de
rades RNA primers and replaces i wih DNA</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DNA
Polymerase I}}</div>
1401055111746 1395802358422 In which direcion does DNA Polymerase I have ex
onuclease aciviy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5' o 3'; i removes RNA primers
in his direcion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Compare ha o DNA Polymerase III
which has 3' o 5' exonuclease aciviy.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-13211
319402916.jp" /></i></div>
1401055165699 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>ca
alyzes he formaion of a phosphodieser bond wihin a srand of dsDNA?</b><div
><b><br /></b></div><div>{{c1::DNA Liase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. i jo
ins Okazaki framens</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-13211319402916.jp" /></i
></div>
1401055210164 1395802358422 {{c1::Telomerase}} is an enzyme involved wih DN
A replicaion ha adds DNA o he 3' end of chromosomes in order o avoid loss
of eneic maerial wih every duplicaion.
<br /><div><i>I is an RNA-Depen
den DNA polymerase</i></div>
1401055253205 1395802358422 Wha <b>ype</b>&nbsp;of muaion is he mos se
vere?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frameshif}}</div>
1401055358115 1395802358422 Wha <b>ype</b>&nbsp;of muaion is he leas s
evere?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Silen}}</div>
1401055365826 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::ransiion muaion}} is a ype of
muaion ha involves he swich of a purine o purine or pyrimidine o pyrimid
ine.
1401055395094 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::ransversion muaion}} is a ype o

f muaion ha involves he swich of a purine o a pyrimidine or vice versa.
1401055415930 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::silen muaion}} is a ype of mua
ion ha involves a nucleoide subsiuion for he <b>same (synonymous) amino
acid</b>.
1401055576548 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::missense muaion}} is a ype of mu
aion ha involves a nucleoide subsiuion ha resuls in chaned amino aci
ds.
1401055616267 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::nonsense muaion}} is a ype of mu
aion ha involves a nucleoide subsiuion ha yields a sop codon.
<br /><div><i>Sop he nonsense.</i></div>
1401055649205 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::frameshif muaion}} is a ype of
muaion ha involves he deleion or inserion of a number of nucleoides no
divisible by 3, hereby causin misreadin of all nucleoides downsream.
<br /><div><i>The mos severe ype of muaion as i ypically resuls in runca
ed, nonfuncional proeins</i>.</div>
1401055701851 1395802358422 Which form of DNA repair involves specific endon
ucleases ha release he olionucleoide ha conains damaed bases?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Nucleoide Excision Repair}}</div>
<br /><div><i>DNA Polyme
rase and Liase hen fill and seal he ap respecively.</i></div>
1401056135364 1395802358422 Which ype of DNA repair is defecive in Xeroder
ma Pimenosum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleoide Excision Repair}}</div>
1401056156818 1395802358422 {{c1::Xeroderma Pimenosum}} is a cuaneous dis
order ha involves defecive Nucleoide Excision Repair, hereby resulin in 
he formaion of pyrimidine dimers from UV lih exposure.
1401056197661 1395802358422 Which ype of DNA repair funcions o repair bul
ky helix-disorin lesions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleoide excision repa
ir}}</div>
1401056228512 1395802358422 Which ype of DNA repair involves base-specific
lycosylases ha reconize alered bases and form an Apurinic/Apyrimidinic (AP)
sie?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base Excision Repair}}</div> <br /><div><i>1.
AP Endonuclease cleaves he base a he 5' end.</i></div><div><i>2. Lyase cleav
es he base a he 3' end.</i></div><div><i>3. DNA Polymerase-bea fills he ap
wih a new/correc nucleoide.</i></div><div><i>4. DNA liase seals he break.<
/i></div><div><i><br /></i></div>
1401056413958 1395802358422 Which ype of DNA repair funcions o repair spo
naneous/oxic deaminaion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base excision repair}}</d
iv>
1401056969430 1395802358422 Which ype of DNA repair involves he removal of
mismached nucleoides from newly synhesized DNA srands?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::DNA Mismach Repair}}</div>
1401057000399 1395802358422 Wha ype of DNA repair is defecive in Heredia
ry Nonpolyposis Colorecal Cancer (HNPCC)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mismach r
epair}}</div>
1401057025382 1395802358422 Wha ype of DNA repair involves he brinin o
eher of 2 ends of DNA framens o repair double-sranded braks?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Nonhomoloous End Joinin Repair}}</div> <br /><div><i>There is <
b>no re uiremen for homoloy</b>.</i></div>
1401057085801 1395802358422 Wha ype of DNA repair is muaed in Aaxia Tel
aniecasia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nonhomoloous End Joinin Repair}}</div>
1401057116627 1395802358422 In which direcion is DNA and RNA synhesized?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::5' o 3'}}</div>
1401057295662 1395802358422 In which direcion is mRNA read?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::5' o 3'}}</div>
1401057313674 1395802358422 Which funcional roup on he 3' posiion of nuc
leoides aacks he riphosphae bond of he precedin nucleoide?<div><br></di
v><div>{{c1::Hydroxyl roup (-OH)}}</div>
<br><div><i>Drus ha block DNA
replicaion ypically have modified 3' OH roups, hereby prevenin he addii
on of he nucleoide and causin chain erminaion.</i></div>
1401057401388 1395802358422 Wha is he mRNA sar codon?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::AUG}}</div>

1401057424630 1395802358422 Wha does he sar codon AUG code for in eukary
oes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mehionine}}</div>
1401057435648 1395802358422 Wha does he sar codon AUG code for in prokar
yoes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Formylmehionine (F-me)}}</div>
1401057452016 1395802358422 Wha are he mRNA sop codons?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::UGA; UAA; UAG}}</div>
1401057463828 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::promoer}} is a DNA sie where RN
A polymerase and oher ranscripion facors can bind o DNA. <br /><div><im
src="pase-17016660426963.jp" /></div>
1401057831233 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::promoer}} is a DNA sie upsream
from a ene locus ha is rich in A-T base pairin and has boh TATA and CAAT b
oxes. <br /><div><im src="pase-17012365459667.jp" /></div>
1401057868607 1395802358422 How does a muaion in he promoer se uence yp
ically influence ene ranscripion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dramaic decreas
e}}</div>
1401057895751 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::enhancer}} is a srech of DNA h
a alers ene expression by bindin o ranscripion facors. <div><br /></div
><i>Can be close o, far from or wihin he ene i reulaes.</i><br /><div><im
 src="pase-17012365459667.jp" /></div>
1401057921423 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::silencer}} is a DNA sie where ne
<div><br /></div><i>Can be close
aive reulaors (ene repressors) bind.
o, far from or wihin he ene i reulaes.</i><br /><div><im src="pase-170
12365459667.jp" /></div>
1401058515444 1395802358422 Wha ype of eukaryoic RNA Polymerase makes rRN
A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polymerase I}}</div> <br /><div><i>Polymerase
I, II and III are numbered as heir producs are used in proein synhesis.</i>
</div>
1401058563843 1395802358422 Wha ype of eukaryoic RNA Polymerase makes mRN
A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polymerase II}}</div> <br /><div><i>Polymerase
I, II and III are numbered as heir producs are used in proein synhesis.</i>
</div>
1401058578970 1395802358422 Wha ype of eukaryoic RNA Polymerase makes RN
A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polymerase III}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Po
lymerase I, II and III are numbered as heir producs are used in proein synhe
sis.</i></div>
1401058602230 1395802358422 Wha is he mos numerous ype of RNA?<div><br /
>{{c1::rRNA}}</div>
1401058628961 1395802358422 Wha is he lares ype of RNA?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::mRNA}}</div>
1401058639640 1395802358422 Wha is he smalles ype of RNA?<div><br></div>
<div>{{c1::RNA}}</div> <br><i>T = RNA = iny</i>
1401058648334 1395802358422 Which ype of RNA Polymerase funcions o open D
NA a promoer sies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polymerase II}}</div>
1401058822031 1395802358422 {{c1::alpha-amaniin}} is a oxin found in <i>Am
ania phalloides</i>&nbsp;(deah cap mushrooms) ha inhibis RNA Polymerase II.
<br /><div><i>And also causes severe hepaooxiciy.</i></div>
1401058914807 1395802358422 Wha is he MOA of alpha-amaniin, he acive o
xin in <i>Amania phalloides</i>&nbsp;(deah cap mushrooms)?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Inhibiion of RNA Polymerase II}}</div> <br /><div><i>Also causes severe
hepaooxiciy.</i></div>
1401059043818 1395802358422 Which end of he iniial RNA ranscrip receives
a 7-mehyluanosine cap?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5'}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="pase-20040317403285.jp" /></div>
1401059773880 1395802358422 Which end of he iniial RNA ranscrip underoe
s polyadenylaion (~200 A's)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3'}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><im src="pase-20036022435989.jp" /></div>
1401059810127 1395802358422 Where in he cell does ranslaion occur?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyosol}}</div>
1401059878769 1395802358422 {{c1::P-bodies}} are cyoplasmic proein complex
es ha conain exonucleases, decappin enzymes and microRNAs and <b>funcion as

an mRNA ualiy conrol mechanism</b>.
1401059966346 1395802358422 Wha is he polyadenylaion sinal on mRNA?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::AAUAAA}}</div>
1401059984710 1395802358422 Which enzyme polyadenylaes he 3' end of he in
iial RNA ranscrip?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Poly-A Polymerase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Does no re uire a emplae.</i></div>
1401060028718 1395802358422 {{c1::Small Nuclear Ribonucleoproeins (snRNPs)}
} are nuclear proeins involved wih pre-mRNA splicin ha form he spliceosome
wih he primary ranscrip. <br /><div><im src="pase-20431159427435.jp" /
></div>
1401060146522 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Spliceosome}} is a proein comple
x ha performs pre-mRNA splicin.
<br /><div><im src="pase-2043545439473
1.jp" /></div>
1401060268638 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::laria-shaped inermediae}} is an
inermediae ha is eneraed when an inron is excised and 2 exons are joined.
<br /><div><im src="pase-20431159427435.jp" /></div>
1401060332543 1395802358422 Which auoimmune disorder is hihly associaed w
ih <b>ani-spliceosomal snRNP anibodies</b>&nbsp;(ani-Smih anibodies)?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::SLE}}</div>
1401060483198 1395802358422 {{c1::Ani-Smih anibodies}} are an auoanibod
y aains spliceosomal snRNPs ha are hihly specific for SLE.
1401060559443 1395802358422 Which <b>ype</b>&nbsp;of disease is hihly asso
ciaed wih Ani-U1 RNP anibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mixed connecive
issue disease}}</div>
1401060579472 1395802358422 {{c1::Ani-U1 RNP anibodies}} are auoanibodie
s aains RNPs (Ribonucleoproeins) ha are hihly associaed wih mixed connec
ive issue disease.
1401060876961 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::inron}} is an inervenin se ue
nce of RNA ha is excised ou of he iniial RNA ranscrip and says in he nu
cleus. <div><br /></div><im src="pase-21891448308035.jp" />
1401061092002 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::exon}} are codin se uences of R
NA ha are processed afer ranscripion and expressed via ranslaion in he c
yosol.
<br /><div><im src="pase-21887153340739.jp" /></div>
1401061130932 1395802358422 Which rinucleoide se uence is found a he 3'
end of RNA molecules in boh prokaryoes and eukaryoes?<div><br></div><div>{{c
1::CCA}}</div> <div><br></div><div><i>"CCA; Can Carry Amino Acids" - CCA is he
amino acid accepor sie</i></div><i>There are also many chemically modified ba
ses.</i><br><div><im src="pase-22089016803683.jp" /></div>
1401061327935 1395802358422 Which rinucleoide se uence found on he T-arm
of RNA allows for RNA-ribosome bindin?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::TΨC (Thymine; P
seudouridine; Cytosine)}}</div> <r><div><img src="paste-22488448762213.jpg" /><
/div>
1401061403124 1395802358422 Which chemically modified nucleotide is found in
the D-arm of tRNA and allows for tRNA recognition y the correct aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydrouracil}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-22484153794917.jpg" /></div>
1401061514225 1395802358422 Which enzyme is responsile for charging tRNA mo
lecules with amino acids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase}}
</div> <div><r /></div><i>It scrutinizes amino acids efore and after it inds
to tRNA, if the match is incorrect the ond is hydrolyzed and the AA is release
d.</i><div><i>The AA-tRNA ond contains enough energy to form a peptide ond.</i
></div><div><i>A mischarged (i.e. incorrectly matched) tRNA will still read the
same codon (via the tRNA anticodon) ut will provide the wrong AA.<r /></i><div
><img src="paste-22484153794917.jpg" /></div></div>
1401061838026 1395802358422 Which enzyme is responsile for the accuracy of
amino acid selection for protein synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoacyl
-tRNA Synthetase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The enzyme's selectivity/action an
d the inding of the charged tRNA moc to the appropriate codon is what provides
accuracy.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-22484153794917.jpg" /></i></div>
1401062031076 1395802358422 {{c1::tRNA wole}} is a iochemical phenomenon

that involves accurate ase pairing etween mRNA and tRNA codons despite a diffe
rence in the codon's 3rd position.
<r /><div><i>Accurate ase pairing is o
nly necessary in the first 2 nucleotide positions of an mRNA codon. The 3rd posi
tion (aka the "wole" position) can differ and the same amino acid/tRNA molecul
e will arrive. This is due to the degeneracy of the genetic code.&nsp;</i></div
>
1401062325441 1395802358422 Which eukaryotic riosomal suunit assemles wit
h the initiator tRNA molecule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40S}}</div> <div><r
/></div><i>60S suunit and mRNA molecule arrive after, triggering the disassem
ly of the initiation factors.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-24197845745957.jpg"
/></div>
1401062573586 1395802358422 Which nucleoside triphosphate molecule is used t
o <>activate</>&nsp;(charge) tRNA?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ATP}}</div>
<r /><div><i>ATP = <>A</>ctvation of tRNA</i></div>
1401062673264 1395802358422 Which nucleoside triphosphate is used in transla
tion for&nsp;<>initiation</>&nsp;and <>elongation</>?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::GTP}}</div>
<r /><div><i>GTP = tRNA <>G</>ripping and <>G</>oin
g places</i></div>
1401062747925 1395802358422 Which 2 riosomal suunits make up <>eukaryotic
</>riosomes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40S + 60S = 80S}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i><>E</>ukaryotic = <>E</>ven</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-241935507
78661.jpg" /></i></div>
1401062791111 1395802358422 Which 2 riosomal suunits make up <>prokaryoti
c</>&nsp;riosomes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::30S + 50S = 70S}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pr<>O</>karyotic = <>O</>dd</i></div>
1401062826949 1395802358422 In which riosomal inding site do aminoacyl-tRN
A molecules ind to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A site; except for the initiator
methionine-tRNA which slides into the P site}}</div> <r /><div><i><>A</>&n
sp;site = <>A</>rriving <>A</>mino-acyl tRNA</i></div><div><i><img src="pas
te-24193550778661.jpg" /></i></div>
1401062911224 1395802358422 Which enzyme catalyzes peptide ond formation du
ring translation y transferring the growing polypeptide to the amino acid prese
nt in the A site?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::rRNA (Riozyme)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-24193550778661.jpg" /></div>
1401062965123 1395802358422 In which riosomal inding site does the peptidy
l-tRNA molecule shift to in translocation following peptide ond formation?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::P site}}</div> <div><r /></div><i><>P</>&nsp;site =
growing <>p</>eptide</i><r /><div><img src="paste-24193550778661.jpg" /></di
v>
1401063090835 1395802358422 From which riosomal inding site does the compl
eted polypeptide chain leave the riosome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::E site}}</
div>
<div><r /></div><i><>E</>&nsp;site = <>E</>xit</i><r /><div><img
src="paste-24193550778661.jpg" /></div>
1401063135623 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimming}} is a posttranslational modifica
tion that involves removal of the N- or C-terminal propeptide from zymogen to ge
nerate a mature protein.
<r /><div><i>e.g. Proinsulin to Insulin; Trypsi
nogen to Trypsin</i></div>
1401063212388 1395802358422 {{c1::Chaperone Proteins}} are intracellular pro
teins involved in facilitating and/or maintaining protein folding.
<r /><d
iv><i>In yeast, some are heat-shock proteins (e.g. Hsp60) that are expressed at
high temperatures to prevent protein denaturing/misfolding.</i></div>
1401125552393 1395802358422 What is the shortest phase of the cell cycle?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitosis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-66571
9931167.jpg" /></div>
1401125621152 1395802358422 {{c1::CDKs (Cyclin-Dependent Kinases)}} are prot
ein kinases that regulate the cell cycle and are constitutively expressed in the
cell ut left inactive.
<div><r /></div>
1401125947477 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclins}} are <>phase specific</> regula
tory proteins that control cell cycle events and activate CDKs. <r /><div><i>No
te that Cyclin-CDK complexes must e oth activated and inactivated for the cell

cycle to progress.</i></div>
1401125987156 1395802358422 Which phase specific cell cycle regulatory prote
ins activate CDKs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclins}}</div>
1401126448424 1395802358422 Which cell cycle checkpoint is locked y p53?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::G1 to S}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Hence a muta
tion can cause uncontrolled cell division.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-6614249
63871.jpg" /></div>
1401126657216 1395802358422 Which cell cycle checkpoint is locked y hypoph
osphorylated R?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G1 to S}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><i>Hence a mutation can cause uncontrolled cell division.</i><r /><div><img sr
c="paste-661424963871.jpg" /></div>
1401140293505 1395802358422 {{c1::Permanent}} cells are a <>type</>&nsp;o
f cell that <>remain in G<su>0</su>&nsp;</>and regenerate from stem cells.
<r /><div><i>e.g. neurons, skeletal and cardiac muscle.</i></div>
1401140459553 1395802358422 {{c1::Stale}} cells are a <>type</>&nsp;of c
ells that <>enter G<su>1</su>&nsp;from G<su>0</su>&nsp;when stimulated</
>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. hepatocytes, lymphocytes</i></div>
1401140497429 1395802358422 {{c1::Laile}} cells are a <>type</>&nsp;of c
ell that <>never go to G<su>0</su>&nsp;</>and <>divide rapidly with a shor
t G<su>1</su>.</>
<r /><div><i>These type of cells are the most affected
y chemotherapy</i></div><div><i>e.g. one marrow, gut epithelium, skin, hair fo
llicles and germ cells.</i></div>
1401140571086 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of synthesi
s of secretory (exported) proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Any cells that are highly secretory are rich in RER.</i></div>
1401140650725 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site where <>Nlinked oligosaccharides</>&nsp;are added to proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Rough ER}}</div>
1401140679478 1395802358422 {{c1::Nissl Bodies}} are the Rough ER in neurons
that function to synthesize peptide neurotransmitters for secretion.
1401142296564 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of steroid
synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth ER}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence, ste
roid producing cells are rich in SER.</i></div>
1401142323681 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of drug and
poison detoxification?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth ER}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence, hepatocytes are aundant in SER.</i></div>
1401142338139 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Rough ER}} is a cellular organell
e that is the site of synthesis of secretory proteins as they have surface rios
omes. <r /><div><i>In fact, it is these surface riosomes that make the RER l
ook rough.</i></div>
1401143001013 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle functions as the <>dis
triution center</>&nsp;for proteins and lipids from the ER to the vesicles an
d plasma memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Golgi Apparatus}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4316442133115.jpg" /></div>
1401143055032 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle functions to <>modify
N-oligosaccharides</>&nsp;on asparagine residues?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G
olgi apparatus}}</div>
1401143100313 1395802358422 Which amino acid undergoes N-linked glycosylatio
n in the Rough ER?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asparagine}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>i.e. an N-oligosaccharide is added to Asparagine</i></div>
1401143226244 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of O-linked
glycosylation of proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Golgi Apparatus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>g<>O</>lgi = <>O</>-linked glycosylation</i></div>
1401143284426 1395802358422 Which amino acids are involved in O-linked glyco
sylation in the Golgi apparatus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Serine; Threonine}}<
/div>
1401143313472 1395802358422 {{c1::Mannose-6-phosphate}} is a monosaccharide
that is added to proteins to allow for <>protein trafficking to lysosomes</>.
1401143377052 1395802358422 Which monosaccharisde is added to proteins in th
e Golgi to allow for <>trafficking to lysosomes</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:

:Mannose-6-phosphate}}</div>
1401143424047 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle functions to add mannos
e-6-phosphate to proteins for trafficking to lysosomes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Golgi apparatus}}</div>
1401143457076 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::endosome}} is an organelle that f
unctions as sorting centers for material from outside the cell or from the Golgi
.
<r /><div><i>Therey either sending material to the lysosomes for degra
dation, the memrane for secretion or ack to the Golgi for further use.</i></di
v><div><i><img src="paste-4312147165819.jpg" /></i></div>
1401143527967 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease (Inclusion Cell Disease)}}
is an inherited lysosomal storage disorder that involves a defect in phosphotran
sferase, therey resulting in failure of the Golgi apparatus to phosphorylate ma
nnose residues. <r /><div><i>Hence, proteins enter the default secretory pathwa
y instead of eing sent to lysosomes.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, the lysosomal t
rafficking signal is Mannose-6-Phosphate.</i></div>
1401144019445 1395802358422 Which enzyme is defective in I-Cell Disease, the
rey resulting in defective protein trafficking/secretion?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Phosphotransferase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Mannose residues ca
nnot e phosphorylated on glycoproteins. Therey results in proteins entering th
e default secretory pathway (extracellular secretion) instead of eing sent to l
ysosomes.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, the lysosomal trafficking signal is mannose
-6-phosphate.</i></div>
1401144112641 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of I-Cell Diseas
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1401144172277 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that involves <>high plasma levels of lysosomal enz
ymes</>&nsp;due to a Phosphotransferase defect.
1401144228202 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that involves <>coarse facial features</>&nsp;and
<>clouded corneas</>&nsp;due to a defect in Phosphotransferase.
1401144266688 1395802358422 {{c1::I-cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that involves <>restricted joint movement</>&nsp;
due to a defect in Phosphotransferase.
1401145159202 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that is often <>fatal in childhood</>&nsp;due to
a defect in Phosphotransferase.
1401145197644 1395802358422 {{c1::Signal Recognition Particle (SRP)}} is an
aundant, cytosolic rionucleoprotein that traffics proteins from the riosome t
o the Rough ER. <div><r /></div><i>Asent or defective SRPs result in <>accumu
lation of proteins in the cytosol</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-59828894439
70.jpg" /></div>
1401145469448 1395802358422 {{c1::COPI}} is a vesicular trafficking protein
that carries material through the Golgi in a <>retrograde</>&nsp;direction.
<r /><div><img src="paste-6146098201213.jpg" /></div>
1401145783406 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial through the Golgi in a <>retrograde</>&nsp;direction?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::COPI}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401145802810 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial <>from the Golgi to the ER</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::COPI}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>i.e. COPI goes <>ackwards</></i><r /><div><img src="past
e-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401145831987 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial through the Golgi in the <>anterograde</>&nsp;direction?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::COPII}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" />
</div>
1401145852835 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial <>from the ER to the Golgi</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::COPII}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>i.e. COPII goes <>forward</></i><r /><div><img src="paste
-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401145902833 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein moves materi

al <>throughout the Golgi</>&nsp;(i.e. is <i>trans</i>-Golgi)?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Clathrin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" />
</div>
1401146136741 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial <>from the Golgi to lysosomes</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clathrin}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401146158054 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial <>from the plasma memrane to endosomes</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cl
athrin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401146180723 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein in involved
with receptor-mediated endocytosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clathrin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401146203051 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Peroxisome}} is a memrane-enclos
ed organelle involved in the cataolism of very-long-chain FAs, ranched-chain F
As and amino acids.
1401147474137 1395802358422 Which organelle is involved in the cataolism of
very-long-chain and ranched-chain fatty acids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pero
xisome}}</div>
1401147500313 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::proteasome}} is a arrel-shaped p
rotein complex that degrades damaged or uiquitin-tagged proteins.
<r><div
><i>Uiquitin-proteasome complex defects have een implicated in Parkinson Disea
se.</i></div>
1401147562313 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Microtuule}} is a cylindrical ce
llular structure composed of a helical array of polymerized heterodimers of&nsp
;α- nd&nbsp;β-tuulin. <r /><div><img src="paste-7687991460172.jpg" /></div>
1401148318233 1395802358422 Which nucleoside triphosphate is ound to each&n
sp;α- nd β-tuulin heterodimer in microtuules?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GTP}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>Each dimer has 2 GTP ound.</i></div>
1401148397662 1395802358422 Which cytoskeletal filament is incorporated into
flagella, cilia and mitotic spindles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuules}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-7765300871514.jpg" /></div>
1401148437875 1395802358422 Which cytoskeletal filament is involved in slow
axoplasmic transport in neurons?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuules}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7761005904218.jpg" /></div>
1401148482016 1395802358422 Which molecular motor protein transports cellula
r cargo in the <>retrograde</>&nsp;direction&nsp;towards the <>negative</>
&nsp;(-) end of the microtuule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dynein}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7761005904218.jpg" /></div>
1401149338014 1395802358422 Which molecular motor protein transports cargo i
n an <>anterograde</>&nsp;direction towards the <>positive</>&nsp;(+) end
of the microtuule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kinesin}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-7761005904218.jpg" /></div>
1401149386181 1395802358422 {{c1::Meendazole}} is an anti-helminthic drug t
hat targets microtuules.
<r /><div><img src="paste-8559869821146.jpg" />
</div>
1401149459874 1395802358422 {{c1::Griseofulvin}} is an anti-fungal agent tha
t targets microtuules. <r /><div><img src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" /></div>
1401149487279 1395802358422 {{c1::Colchicine}} is an anti-gout drug that tar
gets microtuules.
<r /><div><img src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" /></div>
1401149511537 1395802358422 {{c1::Vincristine}} and&nsp;{{c2::Vinlastine}}
are vinca-alkaloid anti-cancer drugs that target microtuules. <r /><div><img
src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" /></div>
1401149532767 1395802358422 {{c1::Paclitaxel}} is a taxol anti-cancer drug t
hat targets microtuules.
<r /><div><img src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" />
</div>
1401158079665 1395802358422 What microtuular arrangement is found in cilia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::9 + 2 in the centre}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-9431748182227.jpg" /></div>
1401158163022 1395802358422 {{c1::Axonemal Dynein}} is an ATPase found in ci
lia that links the peripheral 9 microtuule doulets.<div><r /></div><div><img

src="paste-9427453214931.jpg" /></div>
1401158214524 1395802358422 {{c1::Axonemal Dynein}} is an ATPase found in mi
crotuules that causes ending of the cilium y differential sliding of the 9 pe
ripheral doulets.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9427453214931.jpg" /></d
iv>
1401158246963 1395802358422 Which molecular motor protein is found in cilia
and causes ending of the cilium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axonemal Dynein (vi
a ATP hydrolysis)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9427453214931.jpg
" /></div>
1401158285576 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that involves immotile cilia due to
a dynein arm defect.
1401158484461 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritence of&nsp;Kartagen
er Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal R
ecessive}}</div>
1401158502998 1395802358422 {{c1::Infertility}} is a complication of&nsp;Ka
rtagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia) that arises in males due to <>im
motile sperm</>.
1401158598320 1395802358422 {{c1::Infertility}} is a complication of&nsp;Ka
rtagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia) that arises in females due to <>
dysfunctional fallopian tue cilia</>.
1401158625860 1395802358422 How does the risk of ectopic pregnancy change in
&nsp;Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, there are cilia along the fallop
ian tue. Hence defective cilia activity will result in an increased chance of i
mplantation occuring in the fallopian tue instead of the uterus.</i></div>
1401158681823 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that presents with <>ronchiectasis
</>&nsp;and <>recurrent sinusitis</>&nsp;due to a dynein arm defect in cili
a.
1401158732423 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that causes <>situs inversus</>&n
sp;due to a dynein arm defect in cilia.
1401158761127 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that presents with <>dextrocardia</
>&nsp;on chest x-ray due to a dynein arm defect in cilia.
1401159108451 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filament is involved i
n muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin &amp; Myosin}}</div>
1401159153794 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filament is involved i
n microvilli?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin &amp; myosin}}</div>
1401159162085 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filament is involved i
n cytokinesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin; Myosin}}</div>
1401159171813 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filament is involved i
n adherens junctions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin; Myosin}}</div>
1401159188214 1395802358422 {{c1::Myosin}} is a dimeric, ATP-driven motor pr
otein that moves along actin chains.
1401159210960 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filaments are involved
in axonal trafficking?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuule}}</div>
1401159533349 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filament is involved
with movement?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuules}}</div>
1401159869635 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filament is involved
with structure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intermediate filaments}}</div>
1401159888009 1395802358422 {{c1::Ergosterol}} is a sterol molecule that is
uniquely found in fungal plasma memranes.
1401159918917 1395802358422 What type of cell contains the intermediate fila
ment Vimentin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Connective tissue}}</div>
1401159955331 1395802358422 What type of cell contains the intermediate fila
ment Desmin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscle}}</div>
1401159963941 1395802358422 What type of cell contains the intermediate fila
ment Cytokeratin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium}}</div>

1401159971500 1395802358422 What type of cell contains the intermediate fila
ment Glial Firillary Acid Protein (GFAP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroglia}
}</div>
1401159990136 1395802358422 What type of cell contain Neurofilaments?<div><
r></div><div>{{c1::Neurons}}</div>
<r><div><i>Lol @ this card. Just trying
to e complete here.</i></div>
1401160016409 1395802358422 On which side of the plasma memrane is the ATP
inding site on the Na/K ATPase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytosolic}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11196979740887.jpg" /></div>
1401160173996 1395802358422 In which direction across the plasma memrane do
es the Na/K ATPase move Na?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3 Na out per ATP consumed
}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11673721110738.jpg" /></div>
1401160216456 1395802358422 In which direction across the plasma memrane do
es the Na/K ATPase move K?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2 K in per ATP consumed}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11673721110738.jpg" /></div>
1401160286191 1395802358422 {{c1::Ouaain}} is a poisonous cardiac glycoside
commonly used as "arrow poison" that inhiits the Na/K ATPase y inding to the
K inding site.
<r /><div><img src="paste-11678016078034.jpg" /></div>
1401160371962 1395802358422 {{c1::Digoxin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Digitoxin}} are c
ardiac glycosides that directly inhiits the Na/K ATPase.
<r /><div><i>Th
is then causes indirect inhiition of the Na/Ca exchanger and a susequent <>in
crease</>&nsp;in [Ca]<su>i</su>, therey increasing cardiac contractility.</
i></div>
1401160661819 1395802358422 What is the most aundant protein in the human 
ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Collagen}}</div>
1401160767495 1395802358422 What is the most common type of collagen?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I (90%)}}</div>
1401160904834 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in one?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>B<>one</><r /></i
><div><i>Made y osteolasts.</i></div>
1401161078696 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in skin?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161087124 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in tendons?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161094476 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the cornea?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161153453 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in dentin?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161160448 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in fascia?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161173373 1395802358422 Which type of collagen has defective production
in Ostegenesis Imperfecta, Type I?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161203746 1395802358422 Which type of collagen is found in cartilage?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Car<>two</>lage<
/i></div>
1401161225814 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the vitreous 
ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1401161242129 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the nucleus pu
lposus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1401161252761 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in Reticulin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1401161317722 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in lood vessel w
alls?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III (as Reticulin)}}</div>
1401161343636 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in granulation ti
ssue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III (as Reticulin)}}</div>
1401161356962 1395802358422 What type of collagen is deficient in the <>vas
cular type</>&nsp;of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I
II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Thre<>E D</></i></div>
1401161403471 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the asement m
emrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Type IV is

under the floor (i.e. asement)</i></div>
1401161708043 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the asal lami
na?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401161716779 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the lens of th
e eye?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401161748636 1395802358422 What type of collagen is defective in Alport Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401161769216 1395802358422 What type of collagen is targeted y autoantiod
ies in Goodpasture Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401215680713 1395802358422 Where inside firolasts is collagen synthesized
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, secreted
proteins are made in the RER.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-489626272441.jpg
" /></i></div>
1401215758397 1395802358422 {{c1::Preprocollagen}} is the initial form of sy
nthesized collagen made at the Rough ER and involves alpha-chains of Glycine-X-
amino acids. <r /><div><i>X and  are either proline or lysine.</i></div>
1401215857964 1395802358422 What is the most aundant amino acid in collagen
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glycine}}</div>
1401215869212 1395802358422 Which organelle in firolasts is the site of hy
droxylation of specific Proline and Lysine residues in Preprocollagen?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.
jpg" /></div>
1401215918908 1395802358422 Which amino acids in Preprocollagen are hydroxyl
ated in the Rough ER?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Proline}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The resultant Hydroxylysine and Hydroxyproline residues are
later integral in collagen firil formation.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-48533
1305145.jpg" /></div>
1401216004988 1395802358422 Which vitamin is an essential cofactor in the hy
droxylation of Preprocollagen in the Rough ER?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitami
n C}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence a deficiency causes scurvy.</i></div><div><i
><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></i></div>
1401216036574 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is a connective tissue disorder c
haracterized y impaired collagen synthesis that results from a deficiency of Vi
tamin C.
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401216069493 1395802358422 Which organelle in firolasts is the site of gl
ycosylation of Preprocollagen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401216608756 1395802358422 {{c1::Procollagen}} is an intermediate of collag
en synthesis that is made y the glycosylation of pro-alpha-chain hydroxylysine
residues and hydrogen/disulfide ond interactions.
<div><r /></div><i>Proc
ollagen is a <>triple helix of 3 collagen alpha-chains</>&nsp;that comes toge
ther via hydrogen and disulfide ond interactions following glycosylation of pro
-alpha-chain hydroxylysine.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></
div>
1401216834649 1395802358422 {{c1::Procollagen}} is an intermediate of collag
en synthesis that is structured as a triple helix of 3 collagen alpha-chains.
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401216860810 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a one disord
er that arises from an <>inaility to form procollagen</>&nsp;(prolems formi
ng a triple helix of collagen alpha-chains).
<r><div><img src="paste-4853313
05145.jpg" /></div>
1401216904238 1395802358422 {{c1::Tropocollagen}} is an intermediate of coll
agen synthesis that is formed following the cleavage of disulfide-rich terminal
regions of procollagen. <r /><div><i>Tropocollagen is insolule. Procollagen is
solule. Keep this in mind to rememer where each is formed. We don't want trop
ocollagen eing formed inside of the cell as it will kill the cell as tropocolla
gen mocs come together. On the flip side, we want this to happen outside of the
cell so that collagen firils can form.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4853313
05145.jpg" /></i></div>
1401217159741 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to cross-link staggered t

ropocollagen molecules into collagen firils through covalent lysine-hydroxylysi
ne cross-links?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lysyl Oxidase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401217327420 1395802358422 {{c1::Lysyl Oxidase}} is a <>Cu-containing</>&
nsp;enzyme responsile for cross-linking staggered tropocollagen molecules into
collagen firils through covalent lysine-hydroxylysine cross-links.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401217425241 1395802358422 Which trace element/metal is found in Lysyl Oxid
ase and is necessary for its function in collagen synthesis?<div><r></div><div>
{{c1::Copper (as Cu²⁺)}}</div>
<r><div><img src="paste-4853313
05145.jpg" /></div>
1401217574190 1395802358422 {{c1::Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome}} is a connective t
issue disorder that arises due to prolems with cross-linking tropocollagen mole
cules into collagen firils.
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /><
/div>
1401217621218 1395802358422 What genetic one disorder is also referred to a
s Brittle Bone Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}}</di
v>
1401217743926 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of the <>most c
ommon form</>&nsp;of Osteogenesis Imperfecta?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autos
omal Dominant}}</div> <r /><div><i>Defect involves a decreased production of
otherwise normal Type I collagen.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, Type I collagen is
found in ones.</i></div>
1401217828622 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a genetic on
e disorder that involves severe skeletal deformities, lim shortening and multip
le fractures in a child due to <>defective Type I collagen production</>.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-2933462663475.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>In
the right image, there are ilateral proximal femur fractures; the right femue
is pinned and healing while the left femur has healed</i></div>
1401217945805 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a genetic on
e disorder that presents with multiple one fractures after minimal trauma, poss
ily even during childirth.
1401218009697 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a genetic on
e disorder that presents with <>lue sclera</>&nsp;due to the translucency of
the connective tissue over choroidal veins.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-3135326126287.jpg" /></div>
1401218063902 1395802358422 {{c1::Hearing Loss}} is a complication of Osteog
enesis Imperfecta that results from anormal ossicle formation.
1401218095320 1395802358422 {{c1::Dental imperfections}} are a complication
of Osteogenesis Imperfecta due to a lack of dentin formation.
1401218132265 1395802358422 {{c1::Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome}} is a connective t
issue disorder that presents with hyperextensile skin, tendency to leed and hy
permoile joints due to faulty collagen cross-linking. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-3491808412251.jpg" /></div>
1401229430672 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Ehlers-Danlos
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Can e AD or AR}}</div>
1401229484480 1395802358422 What is the <>most common type</>&nsp;of Ehle
rs-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypermoility Type (with join ins
taility)}}</div>
1401229513466 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypermoility type}} is the most common <
>type</>&nsp;of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome and involves hypermoile and unstale j
oints.
1401229548064 1395802358422 {{c1::Classical Type}} is a <>type</>&nsp;of
Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome that is caused y a mutation in Type V collagen.
1401229597733 1395802358422 What type of collagen is mutated in the Classica
l type of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type V}}</div>
1401229616243 1395802358422 What is the most severe type of Ehlers-Danlos Sy
ndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vascular type}}</div>
1401229627616 1395802358422 What type of collagen is deficient in the Vascul
ar type of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>

1401229654417 1395802358422 {{c1::Vascular Type}} is a type of Ehlers-Danlos
syndrome that involves vascular and organ rupture due to a deficiency in type I
II collagen.
1401229695813 1395802358422 {{c1::Menkes Disease}} is a connective tissue di
sorder that is caused y <>impaired copper asorption and transport</>.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Lysyl Oxidase, the enzye responsile for cross-linking t
ropocollagen into collagen firils, requires Copper as a cofactor. Hence there w
ill e decreased collagen.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3487513444955.jpg" /
></i></div>
1401229768194 1395802358422 What trace element sees an impairment in asorpt
ion and transport in Menkes Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Copper}}</div>
1401229794453 1395802358422 {{c1::Menkes Disease}} is a connective tissue di
sorder that involves decreased activity of lysyl oxidase due to impaired copper
asorption and transport.
1401230044123 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with the cross-linking of
collagen firils is impaired in Menkes Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lysyl
Oxidase}}</div>
1401230241423 1395802358422 {{c1::Menkes Disease}} is a connective tissue di
sorder that results in <>rittle, "kinky" hair</>&nsp;due to impaired copper
asorption/transport.
1401230332326 1395802358422 {{c1::Menkes Disease}} is a connective tissue di
sorder that involves <>growth retardation</>&nsp;and <>hypotonia</>&nsp;du
e to impaired copper asorption and transport.
1401230373851 1395802358422 {{c1::Ligamenta Flava}} are ligaments <>rich in
elastin</>&nsp;that connect verterae.
<r /><div><i>They have relaxed
and stretched conformations.</i></div>
1401230443361 1395802358422 Which 2 amino acids are aundant in Elastin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Proline; Glycine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>In their n
onhydroxylated forms (compare to collagen that has hydroxyproline residues).</i>
</div>
1401230492292 1395802358422 Which enzyme reaks down Elastin?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Elastase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Inhiited y&nsp;α₁-nti
trypsin</i></div>
1401230604495 1395802358422 Which ntiprotese normlly inhibits Elstse?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::α₁-ntitrypsin}}</div>
1401230620600 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is  connective tissue d
isorder tht is cused by  defect in fibrillin,  glycoprotein tht forms  she
th round elstin.
1401230899568 1395802358422 Which connective tissue glycoprotein is defectiv
e in Mrfn Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrillin}}</div>
1401230921925 1395802358422 {{c1::Emphysem}} is  COPD tht cn be cused b
y n&nbsp;α₁-ntitrypsin deficiency. <br /><div><i>Deficiency of&nbsp
;α₁-ntitrypsin cuses n excess of Elstse deficiency nd too much br
ekdown of elstin.</i></div>
1401230986013 1395802358422 Which ntiprotese deficiency is ssocited with
cusing Emphysem?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::α₁-ntitrypsin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Leds to overctive Elstse.</i></div>
1401231780209 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymerse Chin Rection (PCR)}} is  mol
eculr biology lbortory procedure used to mplify  desired frgment of DNA.
<br /><div><i>Quite useful s  dignostic tool.</i></div><div><i><img src="pst
e-6266357285141.jpg" /></i></div>
1401232010170 1395802358422 {{c1::Southern Blot}} is  blotting procedure us
ed to identify DNA by cleving, electrophoresis, denturing nd renneling DNA
to rdiolbeled DNA probes with known sequences.
<br /><div><i>The result
nt dsDNA is lbeled nd visulized on  filter when exposed to film.</i></div>
1401232854224 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify DNA
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Southern Blot}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-6498285518984.jpg" /></div>
1401232872658 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify RNA
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Northern Blot}}</div>

1401232888355 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify pro
tein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Western blot}}</div>
1401232899598 1395802358422 {{c1::Northern Blot}} is  blotting procedure us
ed to identify RNA by clevge, electrophoresis, nd lbelling of RNA vi rdiol
beled RNA probes.
<br /><div><i>Similr procedure to Southern Blot except
with RNA.</i></div><div><i>Useful to mesure mRNA levels which re reflective of
gene expression.</i></div>
1401233036153 1395802358422 {{c1::Western Blot}} is  blotting procedure th
t is used to identify protein by electrophoresis nd lbelling of proteins with
<br /><div><i>Used to confirm HIV fter  positive ELISA.</i></d
ntibodies.
iv>
1401233124413 1395802358422 {{c1::Southwestern Blot}} is  blotting procedur
e used to indentify <b>DNA-binding proteins</b>&nbsp;by using lbeled oligonucle
otide probes. <br /><div><i>e.g. identifiction of trnscription fctors.</i><
/div>
1401233162723 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify DNA
-binding proteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Southwestern Blot}}</div>
1401233178499 1395802358422 {{c1::Microrry}} is  lbortory technique th
t involves thousnds of nucleic cid sequences rrnged in grids on glss or sil
icon. DNA/RNA probes subsequently hybridize to the chip, llowing the scnner to
detect the mount of complementry binding.
<br><div><i>Used to profile gene
expression levels of thousnds of genes simultneously to study certin disese
s nd Tx.</i></div><div><i>Cn detect nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) nd copy n
umber vrition (CNVs) for  vriety of pplictions such s genotyping, clinic
l genetic testing, forensic nlysis, cncer muttions nd genetic linkge nly
sis.</i></div>
1401233720061 1395802358422 {{c1::Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assy (ELISA)}
} is  lbortory technique used to detect the presence of either  specific nt
igen (direct) or specific ntibody (indirect) in  ptient's blood.
<br /><d
iv><i>Used widely to detect specific ntibodies (esp. nti-HIV).</i></div><div><
i>Specificity nd sensitivity both pproch 100%, but flse results still occur.
</i></div>
1401235652556 1395802358422 {{c1::Indirect ELISA}} is  type of ELISA tht <
b>uses  test ntigen</b>&nbsp;<b>to detect  specific ntibody</b>&nbsp;in  p
tient's blood. <br /><div><i>Secondry ntibody coupled to  colour-generting
enzyme is dded to detect the first ntibody.</i></div><div><i>If there is n in
tense colour rection, the test is positive.</i></div>
1401235750404 1395802358422 {{c1::Direct ELISA}} is  type of ELISA tht <b>
uses  test ntibody to detect  specific ntigen</b>&nbsp;in the ptient's bloo
d.
<br /><div><i>A secondry ntibody is coupled to  colour-generting enz
yme nd is dded to detect the ntigen.</i></div><div><i></i><i>If there is n i
ntense colour rection, the test is positive.</i></div>
1401236082830 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluorescence in situ hybridiztion}} is 
lbortory technique tht uses fluorescent DNA or RNA probes to bind to specific
gene sites of interest <u>on chromosomes</u>. <br /><div><i>Used to specificl
ly loclize genes nd directly visulize nomlies t the moleculr level, espec
illy when microdeletions re too smll to be visulized by kryotyping.</i></di
v>
1401236240324 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluorescence in situ hybridiztion}} is 
lbortory technique used to specificlly loclize genes nd directly visulize
nomlies t the moleculr level, especilly when microdeletions re too smll t
o be visulized by kryotyping. <br /><div><i>Fluorescence &nbsp;= gene is prese
nt. No fluorescence = gene is bsent nd hs been deleted.</i></div>
1401236286523 1395802358422 {{c1::Cloning}} is  lbortory technique tht p
roduces  recombinnt DNA molecule tht is self-perpetuting. <br /><div><img
src="pste-9281424326843.jpg" /></div>
1401236519866 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Cre-Lox System}} is  gene expres
sion modifiction tht cn inducibly mnipulte genes t specific developmentl
points. <br /><div><i>e.g. to study  gene whose deletion cuses embryonic deth
</i></div>

1401236661580 1395802358422 {{c1::RNA Interference (RNAi)}} is  gene expres
sion modifiction tht employs dsRNA molecules tht re injected into trget cel
ls, seprte nd promote the degrdtion of mRNA.
<br /><div><i>Thereby "k
nocking down" gene expression.</i></div>
1401236732256 1395802358422 {{c1::Kryotyping}} is  lbortory technique th
t obtins metphse chromosomes nd then stins, orders nd numbers them ccord
ing to morphology, size, rm-length rtio nd bnding pttern. <br /><div><i>C
n be performed on  smple of blood, bone mrrow, mniotic fluid, or plcentl t
issue.</i></div>
1401236822313 1395802358422 Which lbortory technique is used to dignose c
hromosoml imblnces?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Kryotyping}}</div>
1401305014970 1395802358422 {{c1::Codominnce}} is  genetic term defined s
both lleles contributing to the phenotype of  heterozygote. <br /><div><i>e.
g. AB blood group; lph-1-ntitrypsin deficiency</i></div>
1401305135635 1395802358422 {{c1::Vrible Expressivity}} is  genetic term
defined s phenotype vrition mong individuls with the sme genotype.
<br /><div><i>e.g. 2 ptients with NF1 my hve vrying disese severity</i></di
v>
1401305292576 1395802358422 {{c1::Incomplete Penetrnce}} is  genetic pheno
menon described s not ll individuls with  mutnt genotype hving  mutnt ph
enotype.
<br /><div><i>e.g. BRCA1 muttions do not lwys cuse brest/ov
rin cncer.</i></div>
1401305457826 1395802358422 {{c1::Pleiotropy}} is  genetic term tht descri
bes one gene contributing to multiple phenotypic effects.
<br /><div><i>e.
g. Untreted PKU mnifests s light skin tone, intellectul disbility nd must
body odor/urine.</i></div>
1401305530423 1395802358422 {{c1::Anticiption}} is  genetic term described
s n incresed severity or erlier onset of disese in succeeding genertions.
<br><div><i>e.g. Huntington's Disese (or other trinucleotide repet disorders)<
/i></div>
1401305623612 1395802358422 {{c1::Loss of Heterozygosity}} is  genetic phen
omenon tht occurs when  ptient inherits/develops  muttion in  tumour suppr
essor gene <b>nd</b>&nbsp;the complementry llele is deleted/mutted. <br /><d
iv><i>This loss of heterozygosity must occur before cncer develops.</i></div><d
iv><i>Also, <b>this does not pply to oncogenes</b>.</i></div><div><i>e.g. Retin
oblstom nd the "2 hit hypothesis"</i></div>
1401305725509 1395802358422 {{c1::Dominnt Negtive Muttion}} is  genetic
phenomenon tht involves  heterozygote producing  <u>nonfunctionl ltered pro
tein tht prevents the norml gene product from functioning</u>.
<br /><d
iv><i>e.g. Muttion of  trnscription fctor <u>t its llosteric site</u>; hen
ce, the nonfunctioning mutnt cn still bind DNA nd prevent the wild-type trns
cription fctor from binding</i></div>
1401305951154 1395802358422 {{c1::Linkge Disequilibrium}} is  genetic phen
omenon tht is described by the tendency for certin lleles t 2 linked loci to
occur together more often thn expected by chnce.
<br /><div><i>Mesured i
n popultions, not fmilies.</i></div><div><i>Vries mongst popultions.</i></d
iv>
1401306026318 1395802358422 {{c1::Mosicism}} is  genetic term defined s t
he presence of geneticlly distinct cell lines the <b>sme</b>&nbsp;individul d
ue to mitotic errors fter fertiliztion.
<br><div><i>McCune-Albright Synd
rome is lethl if the muttion is somtic, but survivble if mosic.</i></div>
1401306121127 1395802358422 {{c1::Somtic Mosicism}} is  type of genetic m
osicism where the muttion propgtes through multiple tissues or orgns.
1401306159940 1395802358422 {{c1::Gondl Mosicism}} is  type of genetic m
osicism where the muttion is only in egg or sperm cells.
1401306179125 1395802358422 {{c1::Locus Heterogeneity}} is  genetic phenome
non tht occurs when muttions t different loci cn produce  similr phenotype
.
<br /><div><i>e.g. lbinism</i></div>
1401306574918 1395802358422 {{c1::Allelic heterogeneity}} is  genetic pheno
menon where different muttions in the sme locus produce the sme phenotype.

<br /><div><i>e.g. bet-thlssemi</i></div>
1401306620685 1395802358422 {{c1::Heteroplsmy}} is  genetic term defined 
s the presence of both norml nd mutted mtDNA, thereby resulting in vrible e
xpression in mitochondril inherited disese.
1401306671117 1395802358422 {{c1::Uniprentl Disomy}} is  genetic phenomen
on tht involves offspring receiving 2 copies of  chromosome from 1 prents nd
no copies from the other prent.
<br /><div><i>The individul is euploid,
not neuploid.</i></div><div><i>Most UPD occurrences yield norml phenotypes.</
i></div><div><i>Alwys consider UPD in n individul mnifesting  recessive dis
order when only one prent is  crrier.</i></div>
1401307301450 1395802358422 {{c1::Heterodisomy}} is  type of Uniprentl Di
somy tht is cused by  meiosis I error.
1401307335934 1395802358422 {{c1::Isodisomy}} is  type of Uniprentl Disom
y cn be cused by  meiosis II error.
1401307393948 1395802358422 {{c1::Isodisomy}} is  type of Uniprentl Disom
y tht cn be cused by  postzygotic chromosoml dupliction of 1 or  pir of
chromosomes nd the loss of the originl pir.
1401307515398 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>freq
uency of homozygosity for llele p</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::p²
}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img src="pste-13645111099592.jpg" />
1401307915884 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>freq
uency of homozygosity for llele q</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::q²
}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-13640816132296.jpg" /></div>
1401307944084 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>freq
uency of heterozygosity</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2pq}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-13640816132296.jpg" /></div>
1401307999053 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>crr
ier frequency of n utosoml recessive disese</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
2pq}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>i.e. wht is the vlue for the frequency of
Heterozygous crriers</i><br /><div><img src="pste-13640816132296.jpg" /></div>
1401308029683 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg eqution?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::p²&nbsp;+ 2pq + q²&nbsp;= 1}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Also, p + q = 1</i><br /><div><img src="pste-13640816132296
.jpg" /><img src="pste-14508399526045.jpg" /></div>
1401308082709 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for <b>the freq
uency of n X-linked recessive disorder </b><u style="font-weight: bold; ">in m
les</u>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::q}}</div>
1401308223314 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>freq
uency of n X-linked recessive disorder </b><b style="text-decortion: underline
; ">in femles</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::q²}}</div>
1401308284814 1395802358422 {{c1::Imprinting}} is  genetic phenomenon descr
ibed by only one llele being ctive t  locus while the other is inctive due
to methyltion. <br /><div><i>With tht one llele inctivted, deletion/muttio
n of the ctive llele will cuse disese.</i></div>
1401309940398 1395802358422 Which chromosome is implicted in both Prder-Wi
lli nd Angelmn Syndromes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 15}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both re imprinting disorders.</i></div><div><i>Both cn lso be c
used by uniprentl disomy.</i></div>
1401310233410 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht cn result from deletion of the <b>pternl</b>&nbsp;gene s
the mternl gene is normlly silent. <br /><div><i><b>P</b>rder-Willi = <b>p
</b>ternl gene is deleted/mutted <u>or</u>&nbsp;mternl uniprentl disomy.<
/i></div>
1401310757919 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht cn result due to mternl uniprentl disomy.
<br /><d
iv><i>2 mternlly imprinted genes re received, hence there is no pternl gene
. This is synonymous to pternl gene deletion/muttion.</i></div>
1401310827381 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht results from pternl gene deletion nd presents with <b>hyp
erphgi</b>&nbsp;nd <b>obesity</b>.

1401310870123 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht results from pternl gene deletion nd presents with&nbsp;<
b>intellectul disbility</b>&nbsp;nd <b>hypotoni</b>.
1401310888407 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht results from pternl gene deletion nd presents with&nbsp;<
b>hypogondism</b>.
1401311316361 1395802358422 {{c1::Angelmn Syndrome}} is  genetic imprintin
g disorder tht cn result from deletion of the <b>mternl</b>&nbsp;gene s the
pternl gene is normlly silent.
<br /><div><i>Angel<b>M</b>n = <b>M</b>
ternl gene deletion/muttion <u>or</u>&nbsp;pternl uniprentl disomy</i></d
iv>
1401311367226 1395802358422 {{c1::Angelmn Syndrome}} is  genetic imprintin
g disorder tht cn result from pternl uniprentl disomy
<br /><div>2<i>&
nbsp;pternlly imprinted genes re inherited nd no mterl gene is received. T
his is synonymous with  mternl gene deletion.</i></div>
1401311434739 1395802358422 {{c1::Angelmn Syndrome}} is  genetic imprintin
g disorder cused by <b>mternl</b>&nbsp;gene deletion tht presents with <b>in
pproprite lughter ("hppy puppet")</b>.
1401311473899 1395802358422 {{c1::Angelmn Syndrome}} is  genetic imprintin
g disorder cused by&nbsp;<b>mternl</b>&nbsp;gene deletion tht presents with&
nbsp;<b>seizures, txi </b>nd <b>severe intellectul disbility</b>.
1401311491675 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence often involves
defects in structurl genes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><img src="pste-16664473108669.jpg" /></div>
1401312280600 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence ffects mny g
enertions nd both mles nd femles somewht eqully?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16660178141373.jpg" /
></div>
1401312311299 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is often ssoc
ited with pleiotropic disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}
}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16660178141373.jpg" /></div>
1401312346790 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is often ssoc
ited with enzyme deficiencies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}
</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16849156702401.jpg" /></div>
1401312388196 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is usully see
n in only 1 genertion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Typiclly more severe thn dominnt disorders.</i><br /><div
><img src="pste-16844861735105.jpg" /></div>
1401312665793 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is often ssoc
ited with disorders tht present in childhood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autos
oml Recessive}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16844861735105.jpg" /></div>
1401312695125 1395802358422 How does the risk of Autosoml Recessive disorde
rs chnge in cosnguineous fmilies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div
>
1401312718534 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is commonly s
socited with disorders more severe in mles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linke
d recessive}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Femles must be homozygous to be ff
ected.</i><div><i>Sons of heterozygous mothers (crriers) hve  50% chnce of b
eing ffected.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-17437567221940.jpg" /></div></div>
1401313949767 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence will never occ
ur from fther to son?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive or Dominnt
(i.e. ny X-linked trnsmission)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>And mitochon
dril s well.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-17433272254644.jpg" /></div>
1401314206993 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hypophosphte
mic Rickets?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Dominnt}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-18627273162934.jpg" /></div>
1401314526121 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypophosphtemic Rickets}} is n X-linked
dominnt disorder tht results in incresed phosphte wsting t the proximl tu
bule. <br /><div><i>Yields  rickets-like presenttion.</i></div>
1401314561716 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypophosphtemic Rickets}} is n X-linked

dominnt disorder tht ws formerly known s Vitmin D-Resistnt Rickets.
<br /><div><i><br /></i></div>
1401314610940 1395802358422 Wht type of genetic inheritnce is trnsmitted
<b>exclusively</b>&nbsp;through the mother?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochond
ril Inheritnce}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>All offspring of ffected fe
mles re likely to show disese.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-18713172508868.j
pg" /></div>
1401314742506 1395802358422 Wht mode of genetic inheritence is ssocited w
ith disorders tht show vrible expression in  popultion/fmily due to hetero
plsmy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondril Inheritnce}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-18708877541572.jpg" /></div>
1401314812810 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitochondril Myopthies}} re  group of
rre myopthies tht often show <b>"rgged red fibers"</b>&nbsp;on  muscle biop
sy.<br />
<br /><div><i>Also present with myopthy, lctic cidosis nd CN
S disese.</i></div><div><i>Secondry to  filure in oxidtive phosphoryltion<
/i></div>
1401314957055 1395802358422 {{c1::Autosoml Dominnt Polycystic Kidney Dise
se (ADPKD)}} is n utosoml dominnt renl disorder tht involves <b>bilterl<
/b>, mssive enlrgement of the kidneys due to <b>multiple lrge cysts</b>.
1401318249013 1395802358422 Wht is the most common gene mutted in Autosom
l Dominnt Polycystic Kidney Disese (ADPKD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>PKD1
</i>&nbsp;on Chromosome 16 (85% of cses)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Chromosome
<b>16</b>; <b>16</b>&nbsp;letters&nbsp;</i></div>
1401318544275 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>second</b>&nbsp;most common gene
mutted in&nbsp;Autosoml Dominnt Polycystic Kidney Disese (ADPKD)?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>PKD2</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 4}}</div>
<div><i><br /></
i></div>
1401318732326 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Adenomtous Polyposis (FAP)}} is
n utosoml dominnt GI disorder tht involves numerous denomtous polyps fte
r puberty.
<br /><div><i>Progresses to colon cncer if the colon is not rem
oved.</i></div>
1401319063590 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in&nbsp;Fmilil Adenomtou
s Polyposis (FAP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>APC</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 5}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>"People use <b>A PC</b> to <b>FAP</b>."</i></div><div><i>C
hromosome 5; 5 letters in polyp.</i></div>
1401319113672 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi}} is n uto
soml dominnt crdiovsculr disorder tht involves n <b>elevted LDL</b>&nbsp
;due to defective or bsent LDL receptors.
<br /><div><i>Cuses severe the
rosclerotic disese erly in life nd <b>tendon xnthoms</b>&nbsp;(esp t the A
chilles tendon).</i></div>
1401319221991 1395802358422 {{c1::Hereditry Hemorrhgic Telngiectsi}} is
n utosoml dominnt vsculr disorder tht is lso known s Osler-Weber-Rendu
Syndrome.
<br /><div><i>Involves telngiectsi, recurrent epistxis, skin
discolourtion, rteriovenous mlformtions, GI bleeding nd hemturi.</i></di
v>
1401319326505 1395802358422 {{c1::Hereditry Spherocytosis}} is n utosoml
dominnt hemtologicl disorder tht involves <b>spheroid erythrocytes</b>&nbsp
;due to  <b>spectrin </b>or<b> nkyrin defect</b>.
<br><div><i>Cuses hemol
ytic nemi, increses MCHC.</i></div>
1401319402488 1395802358422 How does MCHC chnge in Hereditry Spherocytosis
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
1401319417415 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Hereditry Spherocytos
is??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Splenectomy}}</div>
1401319441109 1395802358422 {{c1::Huntington Disese}} is n utosoml domin
nt neurologicl disorder tht presents with <b>progressive dementi</b>, <b>cho
reiform movement</b>, nd&nbsp;<b>cudte trophy.</b> <br /><div><i>Also invol
ves decresed levels of GABA nd ACh in the brin.</i></div>
1401320017517 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the gene implicted in Hu
ntington Disese found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 4}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i><b>Hunting 4</b>&nbsp;food (chromosome 4)</i></div>

1401320040652 1395802358422 Which trinucleotide repet is involved in Huntin
gton Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The higher
the number of repets, the erlier the ge of onset.</i></div>
1401320376203 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is n utosoml dominnt
connective tissue disorder tht involves  Fibrillin-1 gene muttion. <br /><d
iv><i>Presents with long extremitis, pectus excvtum, hypermobile joints, rch
nodctyly, floppy mitrl vlve nd lens subluxtion.</i></div>
1401320431100 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in Mrfn Syndrome?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Fibrillin-1}}</div>
1401320441186 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is n utosoml dominnt
connective tissue disorder tht involves cystic medil necrosis of the ort, t
hereby leding to ortic incompetence nd ortic dissection.
1401320496509 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is n utosoml dominnt
connective tissue disorder tht involves subluxtion of the lenses, typiclly u
pwrd nd temporlly. <br /><div><i>Lens subluxtion is lso  key feture of
Homocystinuri, so keep tht shiet in mind, brh</i></div>
1401320603432 1395802358422 {{c1::Multiple Endocrine Neoplsi (MEN)}} is n
utosoml dominnt endocrine disorder tht involves fmilil tumours of endocri
ne glnds.
1401320650191 1395802358422 Which gene is ssocited with Multiple Endocrine
Neoplsi (MEN) 2A nd 2B?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>ret</i>}}</div>
1401320679948 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurofibromtosis Type 1 (NFT1)}} is n u
tsoml dominnt neurocutneous disorder chrcterized by cfe-u-lit spots nd
cutneous neurofibroms.
<br /><div><i>100% penetrnce</i></div>
1401320751795 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurofibromtosis Type 1 (NFT1)}} is n u
tosoml dominnt neurocutneous disorder tht is lso known s von Recklinhusen
disese.
1401320784152 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in&nbsp;Neurofibromtosis T
ype 1 (NFT1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>NF1</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 17}}</div
>
1401320821406 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>NF1</i>&nbsp;gene
found on?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::17}}</div> <br /><div><i>17 letters in von
Recklinghusen [Neurofibromtosis Type 1 (NFT1)]</i></div>
1401320856177 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurofibromtosis Type 2 (NFT2)}} is n u
tosoml dominnt neurologicl tumour disorder tht presents with <b>bilterl c
oustic schwnnoms</b>, juvenile ctrcts, meningioms nd ependymoms.
1401320914908 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in&nbsp;Neurofibromtosis T
ype 2 (NFT2)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>NF2</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 22}}</div
>
1401320929038 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>NF2</i>&nbsp;gene
found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 22}}</div>
1401320945013 1395802358422 {{c1::Tuberous Sclerosis}} is n utosoml domin
nt neurocutneous disorder tht presents with numerous benign hmrtoms with m
ulti-orgn system involvement.
1401321000685 1395802358422 {{c1::von Hippel-Lindu Disese}} is n utosom
l dominnt tumour disorder tht is chrcterized by the development of numerous
tumours s  result of deletion of the <i>VHL</i>&nbsp;tumour suppressor gene.
1401321052248 1395802358422 Which gene is deleted/mutted in von Hippel-Lind
u Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>VHL</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 3p; tumour
suppressor}}</div>
1401321103249 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>VHL</i>&nbsp;tumou
r suppressor gene found (von Hippel-Lindu Disese)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
3}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Chromosome 3; 3 words in VHL</i></div>
1401321188984 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Autosoml Dom
innt Polycystic Kidney Disese (ADPKD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Do
minnt}}</div> <br /><div><i>Just checking if you're still wke.</i></div>
1401321193442 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fmilil Aden
omtous Polyposis (FAP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</div>
1401321205737 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fmilil Hype
rcholesterolemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>

1401321222117 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hereditry He
morrhgic Telngiectsi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321237565 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hereditry Sp
herocytosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321245254 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Huntington Di
sese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321252099 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Mrfn Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321257717 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Multiple Endo
crine Neoplsi (MEN)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321266037 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Neurofibromt
osis Type 1 (NFT1; von Recklinghusen Disese)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}<
/div>
1401321292854 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Neurofibromt
osis Type 2 (NFT2)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321306910 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Tuberous Scle
rosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321314551 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of von Hippel-Li
ndu Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321323852 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Albinism?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321462608 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Autosoml Rec
essive Polycystic Kidney Disese (ARPKD; Infntile PKD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::AR}}</div> <br /><div><i>I men, if you're getting these kind of crds wron
g...</i></div>
1401321505781 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Cystic Fibros
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321511643 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hemochromtos
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321519029 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Krtgener Sy
ndrome (Primry Ciliry Dyskinesi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321547131 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Phenylketonur
i (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321581789 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Sickle Cell A
nemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321590038 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Wilson Dises
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321597841 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Thlssemis?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321796775 1395802358422 Wht gene is defective in Cystic Fibrosis?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>CFTR</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 7}}</div>
1401321845201 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>CFTR</i>&nbsp;gene
found (Cystic Fibrosis)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 7}}</div>
1401321860737 1395802358422 Wht muttion is commonly seen in the <i>CFTR</i
>&nbsp;gene in Cystic Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phe508 deletion; <i>C
FTR </i>gene; chromosome 7}}</div>
1401321903496 1395802358422 Wht is the most lethl genetic disese in the c
ucsin popultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cystic Fibrosis}}</div>
1401321931814 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b>&nbsp;of ion chnnel is normlly
encoded by the <i>CFTR</i>&nbsp;gene (Cystic Fibrosis)?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::ATP-gted Cl- chnnel}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The CFTR (Cystic Fibrosis
Trnsmembrne Conductnce Regultor) Cl chnnel <b>secretes </b>Cl into&nbsp;the
lungs nd GI trct nd <b>rebsorbs</b>&nbsp;Cl in swet glnds.</i></div><div>
<i><div></div></i><i>When it is mutted it is not trnsported to the membrne, r
esulting in decresed Cl secretion in the GI nd respirtory trcts nd decrese
d Cl rebsorption t swet glnds.</i></div><div><i>Incresed intrcellulr Cl t
riggers compenstory N rebsorption which then cuses incresed H2O rebsorptio
n, thereby cusing&nbsp;<b>thick mucus secretion into the lungs nd GI trct</b>
.</i></div><div><i>There is lso subsequently  more negtive trnsepithelil po
tentil difference.</i></div>

1401323194603 1395802358422 Where in the cell is misfolded CFTR (Cystic Fibr
osis Trnsmembrne Conductnce Regultor) retined?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::R
ough ER}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence it is not trnsported to the membrne, resul
ting in decresed Cl secretion in the GI nd respirtory trcts nd decresed Cl
rebsorption t swet glnds.</i></div><div><i>Incresed intrcellulr Cl trigg
ers compenstory N rebsorption which then cuses incresed H2O rebsorption, t
hereby cusing <b>thick mucus secretion into the lungs nd GI trct</b>.</i></di
v><div><i>There is lso subsequently  more negtive trnsepithelil potentil d
ifference.</i></div>
1401323478191 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystic Fibrosis}} is n utosoml recessiv
e genetic disorder tht is dignosed by <b>incresed [Cl^-] (&gt; 60 m
Eq/L) in swet</b>.
1401323556626 1395802358422 {{c2::Alklosis}} nd {{c1::Hypoklemi}} re po
ssible complictions of Cystic Fibrosis due to the loss of H₂O nd N
from the extrcellulr fluid nd resultnt K⁺&nbsp;nd H⁺
&nbsp;wsting. <br /><div><i>The loss of H2O nd N from the ECF is nlogous t
o the ptient tking  loop diuretic.</i></div>
1401323651080 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>}} is  grmnegtive bcteri tht commonly cuses recurrent pulmonry infections in ptient
s with Cystic Fibrosis.
1401323873866 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchiectsis}} is  pulmonry complicti
on of Cystic Fibrosis tht presents with  <b>reticulonodulr pttern </b>on CXR
.
1401323972934 1395802358422 {{c1::Pncretic Insufficiency}} is n endocrine
compliction of Cystic Fibrosis due to decresed dringe of pncretic secreti
ons nd subsequent chronic pncretitis.
<br /><div><i>This brings bout
further complictions such s mlbsorption, stetorrhe, nd Vit A, D, E &mp;
K deficiencies</i></div>
1401324204908 1395802358422 {{c1::Meconium ileus}} is  GI compliction of C
ystic Fibrosis commonly seen in newborns.
1401324263674 1395802358422 {{c1::Infertility}} is  compliction of Cystic
Fibrosis seen in mles due to the bsence of the vs deferens nd sperm.
1401324301134 1395802358422 Which vitmin deficiencies re commonly seen in
Cystic Fibrosis ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A, D, E, K; i.e. th
e ft soluble vitmins}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, there is pncretic insu
fficiency nd mlbsorption.</i></div>
1401324348713 1395802358422 {{c1::N-cetylcysteine}} is  mucolytic gent us
ed to tret the mucous plugs seen in Cystic Fibrosis by cleving disulfide bonds
within mucous glycoproteins.
1401324408282 1395802358422 Which mucolytic gent is used to tret the mucou
s plugs seen in Cystic Fibrosis by cleving the disulfide bonds within mucous gl
ycoproteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N-cetylcysteine}}</div>
1401324444771 1395802358422 {{c1::Dornse Alf}} is  recombinnt humn DNAs
e used to tret Cystic Fibrosis s it clers the leukocytic debris in thick muco
us secretions.
1401324499032 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of N-cetylcysteine in the tret
ment of Cystic Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clevge of the disulfide bo
nds in mucous glycoproteins, thereby clering mucous plugs}}</div>
1401324534107 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Dornse Alf in the tretment
of Cystic Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clering of Leukocytic debris vi
 DNAse ction}}</div>
1401329999520 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Bruton Agmm
globulinemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330068064 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Wiskott-Aldri
ch Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330086165 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fbry Disese
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330093193 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of G6PD Deficien
cy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330107840 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Oculr Albini

sm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330115977 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Lesch-Nyhn S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330124484 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Duchenne's Mu
sculr Dystrophy (DMD)?<div><br />{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330138385 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Becker Muscul
r Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330146297 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hunter Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330160575 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hemophili A?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330169018 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hemophili B?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330174521 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Ornithine Tr
nscrbmylse Deficiency (OTCD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330197163 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b>&nbsp;of muttion is seen in Duc
henne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frmeshift muttion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Cuses  truncted Dystrophin protein nd ccelerted muscle brek
down</i></div>
1401331110594 1395802358422 Wht gene undergoes  frmeshift muttion in Duc
henne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophin; muttion trunc
tes the proteins; results in ccelerted muscle brekdown}}</div>
1401331142047 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudohypertrophy}} is  feture of Duchen
ne Musculr Dystrophy tht typiclly presents t the clf muscles due to <b>fibr
oftty replcement of muscle</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-304298432
92370.jpg" /></div>
<div><br /></div>
1401331453911 1395802358422 Where in the body does muscle wekness first pp
er in Duchenne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic Girdle}}</
div>
1401331482248 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Gower mneuver}} is  feture of
Duchenne Musculr Dystrophy tht involves ptients using their upper extremities
to help them stnd up. <br><div><i>These ptients re typiclly young (&lt; 5 y
/o) nd mle (X-linked recessive).</i></div>
1401331561774 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth in Duchen
ne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dilted Crdiomyopthy}}</div>
1401331658845 1395802358422 Which humn gene hs the longest coding region?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophin (<i>DMD</i>)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Fo
r this reson there is n incresed risk of spontneous muttion</i></div>
1401331700101 1395802358422 {{c1::Dystrophin}} is  structurl protein found
in muscle tht functions to connect the intrcellulr cytoskeleton to the trns
membrne proteins lph- nd bet-dystroglycn, which subsequently re ttched
to the ECM.
<br /><div><i>Hence, the loss of dystrophin in Duchenne Musculr
Dystrophy results in myonecrosis</i></div>
1401331809518 1395802358422 Which trnsmembrne proteins does Dystrophin bin
d to in muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alph- nd Bet-Dystroglycn}}</div>
1401331833982 1395802358422 How do CK-MM (Cretine Kinse) levels chnge in
Duchenne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401331928387 1395802358422 How do Aldolse levels chnge in Duchenne Muscul
r Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401331949289 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to dignose Duc
henne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Western Blot}}</div>
1401332007700 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b>&nbsp;of muttion is seen in Bec
ker Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Point muttion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both DMD nd BMD re X-linked Recessive.</i></div><div><i>DMD hs
 frmeshift muttion.</i></div>
1401332135129 1395802358422 Which gene is mutted in Becker Musculr Dystrop
hy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophin}}</div>
<div><i><br /></i></div>
<div><i>DMD = <b>frmeshift</b>&nbsp;muttion in Dystrophin cusing deletion of
the protein</i></div><div><i><!--nki--></i><i>BMD =&nbsp;<b>point</b>&nbsp;mut
tion in Dystrophin, hence less severe</i></div><div><i>Both BMD nd DMD = X-link

ed recessive</i></div>
1401332584029 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of Duchenne Musculr
Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~20 y/o}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence, re
d the dmn vignette properly. If the ptient is 30+ y/o, DMD is unlikely.</i></d
iv>
1401332759049 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of Becker Musculr D
ystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Well into dulthood}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i><br /></i></div>
1401332843193 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Myotonic Mu
sculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CTG; in the <i>DMPK</i>&nbsp
;gene}}</div>
1401332880553 1395802358422 Which gene is ffected by CTG trinucleotide repe
ts in Myotonic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>DMPK</i
>&nbsp;gene; cuses bnorml expression of Myotonin Protein Kinse nd subsequen
t pthology}}</div>
1401333004894 1395802358422 {{c1::Myotonic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1}} is 
musculr dystrophy cused by CTG trinucleotide repets in the <i>DMPK </i>gene,
thereby cusing bnorml expression of myotonin protein kinse. <br /><div><i>Ab
norml myotonin protein kinse deficiency cues myotoni, muscle wsting, front
l blding, ctrcts, testiculr trophy nd rrhythmi.</i></div>
1401333127454 1395802358422 Which enzyme is ffected in Myotonic Musculr Dy
strophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myotonin Protein Kinse}}</div>
1401333348144 1395802358422 Wht crdic complictions re seen in&nbsp;Myot
onic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arrhythmi}}</div>
1401333408045 1395802358422 Wht gondl complictions re seen in&nbsp;Myot
onic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Testiculr trophy}}<
/div>
1401333439541 1395802358422 Wht oculr complictions re seen in&nbsp;Myoto
nic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ctrcts}}</div>
1401333454369 1395802358422 Wht gene is ffected in Frgile X Syndrome?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>FMR1</i>}}</div>
1401333843231 1395802358422 {{c1::Frgile X Syndrome}} is n X-linked disord
er ffecting the methyltion nd expression of the <i>FMR1</i>&nbsp;gene.
1401333863062 1395802358422 Wht is the 2nd most common cuse of genetic int
ellectul disbility?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frgile X Syndrome}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Down Syndrome is #1.</i></div>
1401333956775 1395802358422 {{c1::Mcroorchidism}} is  gondl compliction
of Frgile X syndrome typiclly seen in mles fter puberty. <br /><div><i>i.
e. big blls</i></div>
1401334222388 1395802358422 Wht crdic vlvulr disorder is seen in Frgil
e X syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitrl Vlve Prolpse}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>For the NBA fns:</i><div><i><br /></i><div><img src="pste-34063385
625082.jpg" /></div></div>
1401334353239 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Frgile X S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CGG}}</div>
1401334387032 1395802358422 {{c1::Frgile X Syndrome}} is n X-linked trinuc
leotide repet disorder ffecting the <i>FMR1</i>&nbsp;gene tht presents with 
<b>long fce, lrge jw</b>&nbsp;nd <b>lrge everted ers</b>.
1401334514040 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Friedrich A
txi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GAA}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-34329
673597094.jpg" /></div>
1401334592021 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Frgile X S
yndrome??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CGG}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img sr
c="pste-34333968564390.jpg" />
1401334633017 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Huntinton D
isese??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-34329
673597094.jpg" /></div>
1401334645439 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Myotonic Dy
strophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CTG}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-34329
673597094.jpg" /></div>

1401334663114 1395802358422 Wht is the most common etiology of Down Syndrom
e (Trisomy 21)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Meiotic Nondisjunction of homologous
chromosomes}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Associted with incresed mternl ge</i>
</div><div><i><img src="pste-35360465748483.jpg" /></i></div>
1401335194239 1395802358422 How does incresed mternl ge influence the ri
sk of hving  child with Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed; e
specilly through meiotic nondisjunction of homologous chromosomes}}</div>
<br /><div><i>1:1500 in mothers &lt; 20</i></div><div><i>1:25 in mothers &gt; 45
</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-35356170781187.jpg" /></i></div>
1401335311099 1395802358422 Wht is the 2nd most common etiology of Down Syn
drome (Trisomy 21)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Robertsonin trnsloction}}</div
>
1401335359271 1395802358422 Wht is the most common vible chromosoml disor
der?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1401335425518 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of genetic intelle
ctul disbility?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1401335437238 1395802358422 {{c1::Down Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy di
sorder tht is ssocited with <b>incresed nuchl trnslucency</b>&nbsp;nd  <
b>hypoplstic nsl bone</b>&nbsp;in  first trimester ultrsound.
1401335791564 1395802358422 How do serum PAPP-A (Pregnncy-ssocited plsm
protein A) levels chnge in the first trimester of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401336066058 1395802358422 How do free bet-hCG levels chnge in the first
trimester of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401336087973 1395802358422 How do lph-fetoprotein levels chnge in the se
cond trimester qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese
}}</div>
1401336228278 1395802358422 How do bet-hCG levels chnge in the second trim
ester qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401336349343 1395802358422 How do estriol levels chnge in the second trime
ster qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401336369013 1395802358422 How do Inhibin A levels chnge in the second tri
mester qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401336437343 1395802358422 {{c1::Down Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy di
sorder tht is ssocited with <b>flt fcies</b>, <b>prominent epicnthl folds
</b>, <b>single plmr crese</b>&nbsp;nd  <b>gp between the 1st 2 toes</b>.
1401336689876 1395802358422 {{c1::Down Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy di
sorder tht is ssocited with <b>duodenl tresi</b>&nbsp;nd <b>Hirschprung d
isese</b>.
1401336706094 1395802358422 {{c1::Down Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy di
sorder tht is ssocited with ostium primum-type tril septl defects.
1401336751869 1395802358422 Wht type of septl defect is ssocited with Do
wn Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ostium primum-type tril septl defect}
}</div>
1401336784440 1395802358422 {{c1::Brushfield Spots}} re  morphologicl fe
ture of Down Syndrome described s smll white or gryish/brown spots on the per
iphery of the iris.
1401381184439 1395802358422 How does the risk of Acute Lymphocytic Leukemi
(ALL) chnge in Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401381222405 1395802358422 How does the risk of Acute Myeloblstic Leukemi
(AML) chnge in Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401381241911 1395802358422 How does the risk of Alzheimer Disese chnge in
Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>So
me Down Syndrome ptients hve AD by 40 y/o.</i></div><div><i>Risk significntly
increses &gt; 35 y/o.</i></div>
1401381279814 1395802358422 Which chromosoml trisomy is seen in Down Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 21}}</div>
1401381329907 1395802358422 Wht is the most common utosoml trisomy?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome; 1:700}}</div>
1401381348391 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml trisomy is found in Edwrds Syn

drome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 18}}</div>
1401381371613 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of someone with Edw
rds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 1 y/o}}</div>
1401382414957 1395802358422 {{c1::Edwrds Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy
tht is ssocited with rocker-bottom feet&nbsp;nd <b>micrognthi</b>.
<br /><div><i>Micrognthi = smll jw</i></div>
1401382452160 1395802358422 {{c1::Edwrds Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy
tht is ssocited with <b>low-set ers</b>&nbsp;nd <b>clenched hnds</b>.
1401382477941 1395802358422 {{c1::Edwrds Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy
ssocited with  <b>prominent occiput</b>.
1401382602910 1395802358422 How do PAPP-A (Pregnncy ssocited plsm prote
in A) levels chnge in the first trimester in Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401382655003 1395802358422 How do bet-hCG levels chnge in the first trime
ster in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}
}</div>
1401382667029 1395802358422 How do lph-fetoprotein levels chnge in the qu
d screen in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decr
ese}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Everything is decresed in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (
Trisomy 18)</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>"All these hoes re going d
own on Edwrd."</i></div>
1401382696928 1395802358422 How do bet-hCG levels chnge in the qud screen
in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Everything is decresed in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy
18)</i></div>
1401382720973 1395802358422 How do estriol levels chnge in the qud screen
in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>Everything decreses in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)
</i></div>
1401383374670 1395802358422 How do Inhibin A levels chnge in the qud scree
n in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese (or
norml)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Everything decreses in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndr
ome (Trisomy 18)</i></div>
1401383405923 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml trisomy is seen in Ptu Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 13}}</div>
1401383464593 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)}} is n utoso
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with rocker-bottom feet nd <b>microphthlmi</b>
.
1401384404467 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)}} is n utoso
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with <b>microcephly</b>&nbsp;nd <b>holoprosence
phly</b>.
1401384439188 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)}} is n utoso
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with <b>cleft lip</b>&nbsp;nd <b>cleft plte</b
>.
1401384458897 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)}} is n utoso
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with <b>polydctyly</b>.
1401384507165 1395802358422 How do free bet-hCG levels chnge in the first
trimester in&nbsp;Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
1401384543445 1395802358422 How do PAPP-A (pregnncy ssocited plsm prote
in A) levels chnge in the first trimester in&nbsp;Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401384569961 1395802358422 How does nuchl trnslucency chnge in the first
trimester in&nbsp;Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
se}}</div>
1401384602177 1395802358422 {{c1::Robertsonin Trnsloction}} is  chromoso
ml trnsloction tht tht involves the fusion of the long rms of 2 crocentri
c chromosomes t the centromere nd the loss of the 2 short rms.<div><br /></di
v><div><img src="pste-3354369458776.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Nonrecipro
cl trnsloction</i></div><div><i>Cn be blnced or unblnced</i></div><div><

i>One of the most common</i></div>
1401384991580 1395802358422 Which chromosoml pirs re commonly involved in
Robertsonin Trnsloctions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::13; 14; 15; 21; 22}}</d
iv>
1401385053793 1395802358422 {{c1::Cri-du-cht Syndrome}} is n utosoml chr
omosome disorder cused by  <b>congenitl microdeletion of the short rm of chr
omosome 5</b>. <br /><div><i>i.e. 46,XX,5p- or 46,XY,5p-</i></div>
1401385548158 1395802358422 {{c1::Cri-du-cht Syndrome}} is  congenitl chr
omosoml microdeletion tht involves <b>high-pitched crying/mewing</b>.
1401385598203 1395802358422 Wht type of crdic septl defect is seen in Cr
i-du-cht Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ventriculr Septl Defect (VSD)}}
</div>
1401385626537 1395802358422 Which chromosome undergoes  microdeletion in Cr
i-du-cht Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 5}}</div>
1401386676276 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is n utosoml chromo
some disorder tht involves  congenitl microdeletion of the long rm of chromo
some 7, including the elstin gene.
1401386974825 1395802358422 Which chromosome undergoes  microdeletion in Wi
llims Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 7; including the elstin
gene}}</div>
1401386993470 1395802358422 Which importnt gene on Chromosome 7 is deleted
in Willims Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elstin}}</div>
1401387024811 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is  congenitl chromo
soml microdeletion disorder tht is ssocited with distinctive <b>"elfin"</b>&
nbsp;fcies.
1401387067281 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is  congenitl chromo
soml microdeletion disorder tht is ssocited with <b>well-developed verbl sk
ills</b>&nbsp;nd <b>extreme friendliness with strngers</b>.
1401387085772 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is  congenitl chromo
soml microdeletion disorder tht is ssocited with <b>hyperclcemi</b>&nbsp;t
ht hs n <b>incresed sensitivity&nbsp;to vitmin D.</b>
1401387108466 1395802358422 {{c1::DiGeorge Syndrome}} is  22q11 deletion sy
ndrome tht presents with <b>thymic plsi</b>, <b>prthyroid plsi</b>&nbsp
;nd <b>crdic defects</b>.
<br /><div><img src="pste-5158255722652.jpg" />
</div>
1401387565210 1395802358422 {{c1::Velocrdiofcil Syndrome}} is  22q11 del
etion syndrome tht presents with <b>cleft plte</b>, <b>bnorml fcies</b>&nb
sp;nd <b>crdic defects</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-5153960755356.jpg" />
</div>
1401387638673 1395802358422 {{c1::22q11 deletion syndromes}} re  group of
chromosoml deletion syndromes tht yield  specific series of complictions due
to  microdeletion t chromosome 22q11.
<br /><div><img src="pste-51539
60755356.jpg" /></div>
1401387692793 1395802358422 Which brnchil pouches re ffected in 22q11 de
letion syndromes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd; 4th}}</div>
1401387724107 1395802358422 {{c1::T-cell Deficiency}} is n immunologicl co
mpliction of 22q11 deletion syndromes due to the thymic plsi seen.
1401387754048 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoclcemi}} is  serum electrolyte comp
liction of 22q11 deletion syndromes tht rises s  result of prthyroid pl
si.
<br /><div><i>Remember, PTH increses serum [C]; Clcitonin decreses s
erum [C]</i></div>
1401387927154 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml deletion is seen in DiGeorge Sy
ndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::22q11}}</div>
1401387958636 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml deletion is seen in Velocrdiof
cil Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::22q11}}</div>
1401389801179 1395802358422 Wht re the ft soluble vitmins?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Vitmin A, D, E, nd K}}</div>
<div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>
All others re wter soluble.</i></div><div><i>Absorption is therefore dependent
on the gut nd pncres.</i></div><div><i>Mlbsorption syndromes often cuse f
t-soluble vitmin deficiency.</i></div>

1401390200622 1395802358422 Vitmins with which type of solubility hve more
common toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ft soluble due to ccumultion in
body ft stores}}</div>
1401390337900 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Thimine (TPP)?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::B1}}</div>
1401391000309 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Riboflvin (FAD; FMN)?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::B2}}</div>
1401391011894 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Nicin (NAD+)?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::B3}}</div>
1401391026121 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Pnthothenic Acid (CoA)?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::B5}}</div>
1401391213415 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Pyridoxine (PLP)?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::B6}}</div>
1401391224209 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Biotin?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::B7}}</div>
1401391229424 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Folte?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::B9}}</div>
1401391234182 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Coblmin<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::B12}}</div>
1401391243366 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is Ascorbic Acid?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Vitmin C}}</div>
1401391279216 1395802358422 Which B-vitmin is the only one tht does not w
sh out esily from the body?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12; Coblmin}}
</div> <br /><div><i>It is stored in the liver</i></div>
1401391313688 1395802358422 Wht trid of symptoms is commonly seen in Vitm
in B-complex deficiencies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dirrhe; Dermtitis; Glos
sitis}}</div>
1401391481670 1395802358422 {{c1::Dirrhe}},&nbsp;{{c2::dermtitis}}, nd&n
bsp;{{c3::glossitis}} is  trid of symptoms commonly seen in Vitmin B-complex
deficiencies
<br><i>Enteritis is lso common</i>
1401391504040 1395802358422 Which vitmin is  constituent of visul pigment
s (Retinl)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A (Retinol)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i><b>Retin</b>ol = Vitmin <b>A</b>; <b>Retin-A</b>; <b>Retin</b>l</i></div
>
1401391975504 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is essentil for norm
l differentition of epithelil cells into specilized tissue?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Vitmin A (Retinol)}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.g. pncretic cells; muc
ous-secreting cells</i></div>
1401392014083 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is known to prevent sq
umous metplsi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1401392329929 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is used s  tretment
for <b>Mesles</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1401392348131 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is used s  tretment
for <b>AML-M3</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1401392359900 1395802358422 {{c1::Nyctlopi}} is  visul deficit seen in V
itmin A deficiency nd is described s night blindness.
1401392580790 1395802358422 {{c1::Xerosis cutis}} is  cutneous complictio
n of vitmin A deficiency nd is described s dry, scly skin.
1401392605760 1395802358422 {{c1::Alopeci}} is  cutneous compliction of
vitmin A deficiency nd involves loss of hir.
1401392628425 1395802358422 {{c1::Kertomlci}} is n oculr compliction
of vitmin A deficiency nd is described s cornel degenertion.
1401392649118 1395802358422 How does vitmin A deficiency ffect the immune
system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cuses immunosuppression}}</div>
1401392671875 1395802358422 Wht cutneous chnges re seen when there is n
excess of Vitmin A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Scliness; lopeci}}</div>
1401394260873 1395802358422 Wht bone complictions re seen when there is 
n excess of Vitmin A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoporosis}}</div>
1401394277936 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is highly tertogenic
when it is in excess?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
<br /><d

iv><i>Hence,  negtive pregnncy test <b>nd</b>&nbsp;relible contrception is
required before  ptient cn be prescribed isoretinoin for severe cne.</i></d
iv>
1401394720445 1395802358422 Wht tertogenic effects re yielded by vitmin
A (Retinol) when it is in excess mounts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cleft plt
e; crdic bnormlities}}</div>
1401394756002 1395802358422 {{c1::Thimine Pyrophosphte (TPP)}} is the enzy
me cofctor form of Vitmin B1 (Thimine).
1401394831658 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte dehydrogense}} is  metbolic en
zyme tht links glycolysis to the TCA cycle nd requires Vitmin B1 (Thimine) 
s  cofctor. <br /><div><img src="pste-9925669421121.jpg" /></div>
1401394880917 1395802358422 {{c1::Alph-ketoglutrte dehydrogense}} is n
enzyme involved in the TCA cycle tht requires&nbsp;Vitmin B1 (Thimine) s  c
ofctor.
<div><br /></div><img src="pste-9925669421121.jpg" />
1401394914859 1395802358422 {{c1::Trnsketolse}} is n enzyme involved in t
he HMP shunt tht requires&nbsp;Vitmin B1 (Thimine) s  cofctor.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-9929964388417.jpg" /></div>
1401394997033 1395802358422 {{c1::Brnched-chin ketocid dehydrogense}} is
n enzyme involved in brnched chin mino cid metbolism tht requires&nbsp;V
itmin B1 (Thimine) s  cofctor.
1401395083455 1395802358422 How does Vitmin B1 (Thimine) deficiency ffect
glucose brekdown?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Impirs it; the resultnt ATP dep
letion is worsened by glucose dministrtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember t
he 2 importnt enzymes in glucose brekdown tht require Thimine. Highly erobi
c tissues such s the hert nd brin re ffected first (i.e. Wernicke-Korskof
f).</i></div><div><i>This is lso why we </i><b style="font-style: itlic; ">lw
ys dminister Thimine <u>before</u>&nbsp;glucose</b>.&nbsp;</div>
1401396795238 1395802358422 {{c1::Dry Beriberi}} is  disorder cused by Vit
min B1 (Thimine) deficiency nd involves <b>polyneuritis </b>nd<b>&nbsp;symme
tricl muscle wsting</b>.
1401396866631 1395802358422 {{c1::Wet Beriberi}} is  disorder cused by Vit
min B1 (Thimine) deficiency tht involves <b>high-output crdic filure</b>&n
bsp;(due to dilted crdiomyopthy) nd <b>edem</b>. <br /><div><i>Wet beribe
ri = wet</i></div><div><i>Blood = wet</i></div><div><i>Hence, wet beriberi = blo
od.&nbsp;</i></div><div><i>So think hert nd edem.</i></div>
1401396982797 1395802358422 {{c1::Trnsketolse}} is n enzyme found in RBCs
tht is used to dignose Vitmin B1 deficiency.
<br /><div><i>An incres
e in RBC Trnsketolse ctivity fter vitmin B1 dministrtion helps us ensure
tht the tretment is working.</i></div>
1401397245268 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke-Korskoff Syndrome}} is  neurolo
gicl disorder cused by Vitmin B1 deficiency nd involves  clssic trid of <
b>confusion, ophthlmoplegi</b>, nd <b>txi</b>.
1401397311883 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke-Korskoff Syndrome}} is  neurolo
gicl disorder tht occurs due to Vitmin B1 deficiency nd involves <u style="f
ont-weight: bold; ">permnent</u>&nbsp;<b>confbultion, personlity chnge</b>&
nbsp;nd <b>memory loss</b>.
1401397354715 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the thlmus is dmged in Wern
icke-Korskoff Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Medil Dorsl Nucleus}}</div
>
1401397382488 1395802358422 Which re of the limbic system is dmged in We
rnicke-Korskoff Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mmmillry Bodies}}</div>
1401404544210 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient in Wernicke-Korskoff
Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B1 (Thimine)}}</div>
1401404581312 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient is deficient in Beribe
ri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B1 (Thimine)}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-12738872999999.jpg" /></div>
1401405243314 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is  component of th
e flvins FAD nd FMN?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B2 (Riboflvin)}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>FAD nd FMN re used s cofctors in redox rections.</i><
/div><div><i><img src="pste-12872016986186.jpg" /></i></div>

1401407636254 1395802358422 {{c1::Cheilosis}} is n orl compliction of Vit
min B2 (Riboflvin) deficiency nd involves <b>inflmmtion of the lips</b> nd
<b>scling/fissure t the corners of the mouth</b>.
1401407704149 1395802358422 {{c1::Cornel vsculriztion}} is n oculr com
pliction of Vitmin B2 (Riboflvin) deficiency.
1401407732466 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is  constituent of
NAD+ nd NADP+?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>NAD nd NADP re both used in redox rections.</i></div><div><i><img src="
pste-13207024435234.jpg" /></i></div>
1401408275262 1395802358422 Which mino cid is used to derive Vitmin B3 (N
icin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn}}</div>
1401408291829 1395802358422 Which 2 wter soluble vitmins re needed to syn
thesize Vitmin B3 (Nicin) from Tryptophn?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmins
B2 nd B6}}</div>
1401408327252 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used to tret dys
lipidemi s it lowers the levels of VLDL nd rises HDL?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
1401408353017 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}} is  wter soluble v
itmin tht is used to tret dyslipidemi s it functions to lower the levels of
VLDL nd rise HDL.
1401408385983 1395802358422 {{c1::Hrtnup Disese}} is n utosoml recessiv
e metbolic disorder tht cn cuse Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency by decresing
tryptophn bsorption. <br /><div><i>The muttion in SLC6A19,  N-dependent ne
utrl mino cid trnsporter, yields  decrese in Tryptophn sborption.</i></d
iv>
1401409148309 1395802358422 {{c1::Mlignnt Crcinoid Syndrome}} is  neopl
stic syndrome tht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency though n incre
se in tryptophn metbolism. <br /><div><i>Remember, Tryptophn cn be conver
ted to serotonin nd meltonin in ddition to nicin. If serotonin production in
creses, less tryptophn is vilble to be mde into nicin.</i></div>
1401409238001 1395802358422 {{c1::Isonizid}} is n nti-TB drug tht cn c
use&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency by decresing Vitmin B6 levels.
<br /><div><i>Remember, Vitmin B6 is needed for the synthesis of Nicin.</i></d
iv><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Iso<b>NIAZ</b>id cuses <b>NIAZ</b>in deficie
ncy.</i></div>
1401409864161 1395802358422 {{c1::Pellgr}} is  vitmin deficiency disorde
r cused by  deficiency in&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin). <br /><div><i>Presents w
ith the 3 (or 4) D's:</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Dirrhe</i></div
><div><i>Dementi (with hllucintions)</i></div><div><i>Dermtitis</i></div><di
v><i>(Deth)</i></div>
1401410055440 1395802358422 {{c1::Pellgr}} is &nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) d
eficiency disorder tht presents with <b>dirrhe, dermtitis, dementi</b>&nbsp
;nd possibly <b>deth</b>.
<br /><div><i>The 3 (or 4) D's of Pellgr.</i><
/div>
1401410092495 1395802358422 {{c1::Glossitis}} is n orl compliction of&nbs
p;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency tht primrily ffects the tongue.
1401410119028 1395802358422 {{c1::Fcil flushing}} is  morphologicl fetu
re of&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) excess tht is cused by n increse in prostgl
ndin levels.
<br /><div><i>Not cused by Histmine.</i></div>
1401410259636 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient in Pellgr?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
1401410494871 1395802358422 Wht vitmin deficiency cn be cused by Hrtnup
Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Decrese in tryptophn bsorption cuses  decrese in&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Ni
cin) production.</i></div>
1401410503168 1395802358422 Wht vitmin deficiency cn be cused by Mlign
nt Crcinoid Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Increse in serotonin production cuses incresed metbolism of tr
yptophn, thereby tking wy tryptophn from&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) productio
n.</i></div>

1401410593954 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is n essentil comp
onent of Coenzyme A (CoA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B5 (Pnthothente)
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>B5 = <b>pento</b>thente</i></div>
1401410642021 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is n essentil comp
onent of Ftty Acid Synthse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B5 (Pnthothen
te)}}</div>
1401410672835 1395802358422 {{c1::Adrenl Insufficiency}} is n endocrine co
mpliction of&nbsp;Vitmin B5 (Pnthothente) deficiency.
1401410697947 1395802358422 Wht 2 cutneous complictions re seen in&nbsp;
Vitmin B5 (Pnthothente) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dermtitis; l
opeci}}</div>
1401410730505 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is converted to Pyri
doxl Phosphte,  cofctor used in trnsmintion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V
itmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401411929992 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is converted to Pyri
doxl pyrophosphte,  cofctor used in decrboxyltion rections?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401411964563 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is converted to Pyri
doxl pyrophosphte,  cofctor used in Glycogen Phosphorylse?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401411998663 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for the
synthesis of neurotrnsmitters?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxin
e)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>NTs include serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine
, dopmine, GABA</i></div>
1401412056890 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for the
synthesis of heme?<div><br />{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401412072490 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for the
synthesis of Vitmin B3 (Nicin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridox
ine)}}</div>
1401412090744 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for the
synthesis of Cystthionine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}
</div>
1401412108425 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is needed for the sy
nthesis of Histmine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401412120629 1395802358422 {{c1::Sideroblstic nemi}} is  hemtologicl
compliction of&nbsp;Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) deficiency tht rises due to imp
ired hemoglobin synthesis nd iron excess.
1401412190668 1395802358422 {{c1::Peripherl neuropthy}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::con
vulsions}} re both neurologicl complictions of&nbsp;Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) d
eficiency.
1401412263053 1395802358422 {{c1::Isonizid}} is n nti-TB drug tht cn in
duce&nbsp;Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) deficiency. <br /><div><i>Wht other vitmin
deficiency cn isonizid cuse? Vitmin B3 (Nicin)</i></div>
1401412362953 1395802358422 {{c1::Orl contrceptives}} re  type of hormon
l drug tht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) deficiency.
1401412520400 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin functions s  cofc
tor for mny crboxyltion enzymes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B7 (Bioti
n)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img src="pste-16767552323759.jpg" />
1401412615206 1395802358422 {{c1::Avidin}} is  protein found in egg whites
tht cn bind to&nbsp;Vitmin B7 (Biotin).
1401412876331 1395802358422 Wht re the cutneous complictions seen in&nbs
p;Vitmin B7 (Biotin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dermtitis; lopeci
}}</div>
1401412915969 1395802358422 Wht is the GI compliction seen in&nbsp;Vitmin
B7 (Biotin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Enteritis}}</div>
1401412927691 1395802358422 Excessive ingestion of&nbsp;{{c1::rw egg whites
}} is  potentil cuse of&nbsp;Vitmin B7 (Biotin) due to Avidin's bility to b
ind to Biotin. <br /><div><i>In generl,&nbsp;Vitmin B7 (Biotin) deficiency is
quite rre nd the only other cuse is ntibiotic use.</i></div>
1401413039537 1395802358422 Which wter soluble enzyme is converted to Tetr

hydrofolte (THF),  coenzyme for 1-crbon trnsfer/methyltion rections?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid)}}</div>
1401414272434 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmine is importnt in the
synthesis of nitrogenous bses in DNA nd RNA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitm
in B9 (Folic Acid)}}</div>
1401414290353 1395802358422 In which portion of the smll intestine is&nbsp;
Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) bsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Jejunum}}</div>
1401414313912 1395802358422 In which type of foods is&nbsp;Vitmin B9 (Folic
Acid) found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lefy green vegetbles}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i><b>FOL</b>ic cid = <b>FOL</b>ige</i></div>
1401414341457 1395802358422 Where in the body is the smll reserve pool of&n
bsp;Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) stored?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div>
1401414360650 1395802358422 Wht type of nemi is seen in&nbsp;Vitmin B9
(Folic Acid) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Megloblstic nemi}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>With hypersegmented polymorphonucler cells (PMNs).</i></d
iv>
1401414756869 1395802358422 How do homocysteine levels chnge in&nbsp;Vitmi
n B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401414784317 1395802358422 How do methylmlonic cid levels chnge in&nbsp;
Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chnge; they s
ty norml}}</div>
<i><div></div></i><i><br />Increse in B12 deficiency</i
>
1401414825003 1395802358422 Wht is the most common vitmin deficiency in th
e United Sttes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Seen in lcoholism nd pregnncy</i></div>
1401414851986 1395802358422 {{c1::Methotrexte}} is n ntineoplstic drug t
ht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency.
1401414880832 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenytoin}} is n nticonvulsnt tht cn
cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency.
1401414935097 1395802358422 How does the risk of neurl tube defects chnge
following dministrtion of supplementl mternl folic cid?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401415336987 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used s  cofcto
r for Homocysteine Methyltrnsferse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12 (Co
blmin)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>It trnsfers  methyl group s methy
lcoblmin.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-19155554140667.jpg" /></div>
1401415597758 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used s  cofcto
r for Methylmlonyl-CoA Mutse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12 (Coblmi
n)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-19151259173371.jpg" /></div>
1401415635866 1395802358422 Wht type of nemi is seen in Vitmin B12 (Cob
lmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Megloblstic nemi}}</div>
<br /><div><i>With hypersegmented PMNs</i></div>
1401415670506 1395802358422 {{c1::Subcute Combined Degenertion}} is  neur
ologicl compliction of Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency nd involves degener
tion of the dorsl columns, lterl corticospinl trcts nd spinocerebellr tr
<br /><div><i>Prolonged B12 deficiency cn cuse
cts due to bnorml myelin.
<b>irreversible nerve dmge</b>.</i></div>
1401415953858 1395802358422 How do homocysteine levels chnge in Vitmin B12
(Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><img src="pste-19151259173371.jpg" />
1401415975915 1395802358422 How do methylmlonic cid levels chnge in Vitm
in B12 (Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-19151259173371.jpg" /></div>
1401416030134 1395802358422 Where in the body is the very lrge reserve pool
of Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) stored?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div>
1401416061316 1395802358422 Wht kind of diet is known to induce Vitmin B12
(Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vegn}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Due to the lck of niml products in the diet.</i></div>
1401416133599 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Diphyllobothrium ltum</i>}} is  tpew
orm tht cn cuse Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency through mlbsorption.

1401416520742 1395802358422 {{c1::Pernicious nemi}} is  type of nemi
tht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency due to  lck of intrinsi
c fctor.
1401416964353 1395802358422 Which portion of the smll intestine is the site
of&nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) bsorption?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Terminl
Ileum}}</div>
1401416995400 1395802358422 {{c1::Crohn Disese}} is n inflmmtory bowel d
isese tht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency due to dmge to t
he terminl ileum.
1401417025901 1395802358422 {{c1::Pernicious nemi}} is  type of nemi
tht cuses&nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency through nti-intrinsic fcto
r ntibodies.
1401417051698 1395802358422 Wht utontibodies in pernicious nemi cuse&
nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-intrins
ic fctor ntibodies}}</div>
1401417072870 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin fcilittes iron bs
orption by reducing it to the Fe²⁺&nbsp;stte?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417575830 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is necessry for the
hydroxyltion of proline nd lysine in collgen synthesis?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417615246 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is necessry for Dop
mine bet-hydroxylse, the enzyme tht converts DA to NE?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417696664 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used s n ncill
ry tretment for Methemoglobinemi by reducing Fe³⁺&nbsp;to Fe^2
+?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417750782 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is  connective tissue disorder c
used by&nbsp;Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficiency tht presents with <b>"corksc
rew" hir&nbsp;</b>nd&nbsp;<b>swollen gums</b>.
1401417824087 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is  connective tissue disorder c
used by&nbsp;Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficiency tht presents with <b>bruisin
g</b>, <b>hemrthrosis</b>, nd <b>poor wound heling</b>.
1401417846875 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is  connective tissue disorder c
used by&nbsp;Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficiency tht presents with <b>perifol
liculr </b>nd <b>subperiostel hemorrhges</b>.
1401417879033 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient in Scurvy?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417895593 1395802358422 How does&nbsp;Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficien
cy ffect the immune system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Wekened}}</div>
1401417909129 1395802358422 Wht type of nephrolithisis is seen in&nbsp;Vit
min C (Ascorbic Acid) excess?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clcium oxlte}}</div
>
1401417957145 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}} is  wter sol
uble vitmin tht increses the risk of iron toxicity in predisposed individuls
.
<br /><div><i>i.e. those people with trnsfusions nd hereditry hemochr
omtosis</i></div>
1401418025681 1395802358422 {{c1::Ergoclciferol (D₂)}} is the fo
rm of Vitmin D tht is ingested from plnts.
1401418802085 1395802358422 {{c1::Choleclciferol (D₃)}} is the f
orm of Vitmin D tht is consumed in milk.
1401418826868 1395802358422 In which lyer of sun-exposed skin is Choleclci
ferol (Vitmin D₃) formed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Strtum bsle}
}</div>
1401418871576 1395802358422 {{c1::25-OH D₃}} is the storge form
of Vitmin D.
1401419169898 1395802358422 {{c1::Clcitriol [1,25-(OH)₂&nbsp;D<s
ub>3</sub>]}} is the ctive form of Vitmin D.
1401419206278 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin functions to increse
intestinl bsorption of C nd PO₄?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitm

in D}}</div>
1401419237505 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin functions to increse
bone minerliztion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin D}}</div>
1401419252256 1395802358422 {{c1::Rickets}} is  bone disorder cused by Vit
min D deficiency in children. <div><br /></div><i>Involves bone pin nd defor
mity.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-22535693402514.jpg" /></div>
1401419297030 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteomlci}} is  bone disorder cused b
y Vitmin D deficiency in dults.
<br /><div><i>Involves bone pin nd mus
cle wekness.</i></div>
1401419461841 1395802358422 {{c1::Srcoidosis}} is  grnulomtous immune di
sorder tht involves incresed ctivtion of Vitmin D by epithelioid mcrophge
s.
1401419632024 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin cts s n ntioxidnt
, especilly in RBCs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrien
ol)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Proteins RBCs nd membrnes from free rdicl dm
ge</i></div>
1401419707427 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is ble to enhnce the
nticogulnt effects of Wrfrin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin E (Tocoph
erol/Tocotrienol)}}</div>
1401419862590 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrienol)}} is 
ft soluble vitmin tht cuses <b>posterior column</b>&nbsp;nd <b>spinocerebel
lr trct demyelintion </b>if it is deficient. <br /><div><i>This my hve  si
milr neurologicl presenttion to Vitmin V12 deficiency, but without meglobl
stic nemi, hypersegmented PMNs or incresed methylmlonic cid.</i></div>
1401420404066 1395802358422 {{c1::Acnthocytosis}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::hemolytic
nemi}} re hemtologicl complictions seen in Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrie
nol) deficiency.
<br /><div><i>Remember,&nbsp;Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocot
rienol) is n importnt ntioxidnt in RBCs.</i></div>
1401420466162 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is the cofctor for g
mm-crboxyltion of glutmic cid residues on vrious proteins involved in bloo
d clotting?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421037310 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is synthesized by inte
stinl flor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421047625 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is necessry for the 
ctivtion of clotting fctors II, VII, IX, X nd proteins C nd S?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421081854 1395802358422 Aginst which ft soluble vitmin is Wrfrin n
ntgonist?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421108243 1395802358422 {{c1::Neontl hemorrhging}} is  hemtologicl
disorder seen in neontes with Vitmin K deficiency nd involves n <b>increse
d PT</b>&nbsp;nd <b>incresed PTT</b>, but norml bleeding time.
<br /><d
iv><i>Vitmin K is not found in brest milk. Neontes re given Vitmin K inject
ions t birth to prevent bleeding dithesis.</i></div>
1401421216682 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is  trce element essentil for th
e ctivity of 100+ enzymes, especilly the formtion of trnscription fctor mot
ifs.
<br /><div><i>i.e. Zinc-finger trnscription fctor motifs</i></div>
1401421247311 1395802358422 {{c1::Acrodermtitis enteropthic}} is  cutne
ous disorder seen in Zinc deficiency.
1401421281528 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypogondism}} is  gondl compliction s
een in Zinc deficiency.
1401421296898 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is  trce element tht is ssocit
ed with <b>dysgeusi</b>&nbsp;nd <b>nosmi</b>&nbsp;when it is deficient.
1401421321859 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is  trce element tht cn predisp
ose to lcoholic cirrhosis when it is deficient.
1401421486821 1395802358422 How mny clories per grm re obtined from Cr
bohydrtes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl/g}}</div>
1401421807049 1395802358422 How mny clories per grm re obtined from Pro
tein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl/g}}</div>
1401421820077 1395802358422 How mny clories per grm re obtined from ft
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::9 kcl/g}}</div>

1401421835795 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Ethnol into Acetldehyde
in lcohol metbolism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol dehydrogense}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Functions vi zero-order kinetics</i><br /><div><img src="p
ste-25327422144653.jpg" /></div>
1401422094047 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Acetldehyde into Acette
in lcohol metbolism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acetldehyde dehydrogense}}</
div>
<i><div></div></i><i><br /></i>Requires <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For N
ncy</b>:<div><i>- Thimine (B1)</i></div><div><i>- Lipoic Acid</i></div><div><i>
- CoA (Pntothente)</i></div><div><i>- FAD (Riboflvin)</i></div><div><i>- NAD
(Nicin)<br /></i><div><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></div></div>
1401422453854 1395802358422 {{c1::NAD⁺}} is  coenzyme molecule d
eveloped from Nicin tht cts s the limiting regent in lcohol metbolism.
<br /><div><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></div>
1401422534567 1395802358422 How do NADH levels chnge in lcohol metbolism?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse; lcohol metbolism forms NADH from NAD+}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>NADH:NAD⁺&nbsp;rtio increses.</i></div><div><
i><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></i></div>
1401422563613 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetldehyde}} is  metbolite of lcohol
metbolism tht is toxic nd forms dducts with proteins, thereby cusing dmge
.
<br /><div><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></div>
1401422772024 1395802358422 {{c1::Acette}} is  metbolite of lcohol metb
olism tht cn cuse metbolic cidosis when it ccumultes.
1401422795947 1395802358422 How does ethnol ffect GABA ction?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::It is GABA-mimetic, hence it is dditive to CNS depressnts}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Becuse of this, it cn excerbte dverse effects nd cu
se com/deth.</i></div>
1401422962869 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctic cidosis}} is  compliction of eth
nol metbolism due to n increse in the NADH:NAD rtio which drives the conver
sion of pyruvte to lctte.
<br /><div><img src="pste-27354646708362.jpg" /
></div>
1401423025592 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoglycemi}} is  compliction of ethno
l metbolism due to the incresed NADH:NAD rtio driving the conversion of oxlo
cette to mlte, thereby preventing gluconeogenesis. <div><br></div><i>We cor
rect the hypoglycemi with <u style="font-weight: bold; ">IV&nbsp;thimine befor
e glucose</u>&nbsp;s thimine is  required cofctor for glucose metbolism.</i
><br><div><img src="pste-27440546054293.jpg" /></div>
1401423079007 1395802358422 How does ethnol metbolism ffect gluconeogenes
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition due to incresed NADH:NAD rtio}}</div
>
<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-27436251086997.jpg" /></div>
1401423161498 1395802358422 {{c1::Heptostetosis}} is  compliction of eth
nol metbolism due to the incresed NADH:NAD rtio cusing the conversion of gl
ycerldehyde-3-phosphte to glycerol-3-phosphte, thereby cusing n increse in
triglyceride levels. <br /><div><i>Heptostetosis is lso cused by the incr
esed use of cetyl-CoA for lipogenesis.</i></div>
1401423225950 1395802358422 {{c1::Ketocidosis}} is  compliction of lcoho
l metbolism due to the incresed NADH:NAD rtio disfvouring TCA production of
NADH nd cusing subsequent use of cetyl-CoA for ketogenesis.
1401423326567 1395802358422 {{c1::Fomepizole}} is n zole drug tht is used
to competitively inhibit lcohol dehydrogense, thereby cting s n ntidote f
or methnol or ethylene glycol poisoning.
1401423671336 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Fomepizole in the tretment o
f methnol or ethylene glycol poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Competitive
inhibition of lcohol dehydrogense}}</div>
1401423705003 1395802358422 {{c1::Disulfirm}} is  drug tht trets lcohol
ddiction by inhibiting cetlydehyde dehydrogense. <br /><div><i>This resul
ts in the buildup of cetldehyde nd induces  strong toxicity (i.e. hngover s
ymptoms) tht deter ptients from drinking lcohol.</i></div><div><i>This is ls
o wht is referred to with "Disulfirm-like rection"</i></div>
1401424946667 1395802358422 {{c1::Kwshiorkor}} is  type of <b>protein</b>&
nbsp;mlnutrition tht results in skin lesions, edem nd liver mlfunction.<div

><br /></div><div><img src="pste-29424820945212.jpg" /></div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-29399051141302.jpg" /></div>
1401425003905 1395802358422 {{c1::Ftty chnge of the liver}} is  heptic c
ompliction of Kwshiorkor tht rises due to decresed polipoprotein synthesis
s  result of protein mlnutrition.
1401425038269 1395802358422 {{c1::Kwshiorkor}} is  type of mlnutrition th
t presents s  smll child with  swollen belly.<div><br /></div><div><img src
="pste-28991029248321.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>The edem is due to the se
vere protein mlnutrition.</i></div>
1401425104870 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrsmus}} is  type of mlnutrition tht
involves <b>totl clorie mlnutrition</b>&nbsp;nd resultnt tissue/muscle wst
ing, loss of subQ ft nd vrible edem.
<br /><div><i><b>M</b>rsmus =
<b>M</b>uscle wsting</i></div>
1401425163401 1395802358422 Where in the body is ethnol metbolised?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Liver <b>only</b>}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-29854
317674625.jpg" /></div>
1401473784107 1395802358422 Where in the cell does ftty cid oxidtion (bet
-oxidtion) occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473828782 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;cetyl-CoA productio
n occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473842020 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;the TCA cycle occur?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473852838 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;oxidtive phosphoryl
tion occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473862920 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;glycolysis occur?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
1401473879365 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;Ftty cid synthesis
occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
1401473888009 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;the HMP shunt occur?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
1401473896162 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;Heme synthesis occur
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both mitochondri nd cytoplsm}}</div>
1401474705901 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;the Ure Cycle occur
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both mitochondri nd cytoplsm}}</div>
1401474722855 1395802358422 Where in the cell does Gluconeogenesis occur?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both mitochondri nd cytoplsm}}</div>
1401474752691 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::kinse}} is  type of enzyme tht u
ses ATP to dd high-energy phosphte groups onto substrtes.
1401474851000 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::phosphorylse}} is  type of enzyme
tht dds inorgnic phosphte onto substrtes without using ATP.
1401474882837 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::phosphtse}} is  type of enzyme t
ht removes phosphte groups from substrtes.
1401474896128 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::dehydrogense}} is  type of enzyme
tht ctlyzes oxidtion-reduction rections.
1401474916397 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::hydroxylse}} is  type of enzyme t
ht dds hydroxyl groups (-OH) to substrtes.
1401474934495 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::crboxylse}} enzyme is  type of e
nzyme tht trnsfers CO2 groups with the help of Vitmin B7 (Biotin).
1401474984573 1395802358422 A {{c1::mutse}} is  type of enzyme tht reloc
tes  functionl group within  molecule.
1401475003447 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT5}} is  crbohydrte trnsporter foun
d t the <b>luminl membrne</b>&nbsp;of the GI trct tht llows <b>fructose</b
>&nbsp;to be bsorbed.
1401475059128 1395802358422 Which crbohydrte trnsporter on the <b>luminl
membrne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium functions to llow <b>fructose</b>&nbsp;to b
e bsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT5}}</div>
1401475085182 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT2}} is  crbohydrte trnsporter loc
ted t the <b>bsolterl membrne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium tht moves <b>gluco
se nd fructose</b>&nbsp;from the cell into the blood.
1401475119464 1395802358422 Which crbohydrte trnsporter on the <b>bsolt

erl membrne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium moves <b>fructose nd glucose</b>&nbsp;f
rom the cell into the blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2}}</div>
1401475151890 1395802358422 {{c1::S-GLUT1}} is  N cotrnsporter on the <b>
luminl membrne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium tht moves<b>&nbsp;glctose nd gluc
ose</b>&nbsp;into the cell <b>with N.</b>
1401475197728 1395802358422 Which trnsporter on the <b>luminl membrne</b>
&nbsp;of GI epithelium moves <b>glctose nd glucose</b>&nbsp;into the cell <b>
with N</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S-GLUT1}}</div>
1401475223934 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Glycolysi
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK-1)}}</div>
1401475517311 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Gluconeog
enesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fructose-1,6-bisphosphtse}}</div>
1401475530289 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of the TCA c
ycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isocitrte dehydrogense}}</div>
1401475539831 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Glycogene
sis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen synthse}}</div>
1401475549215 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Glycogeno
lysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen phosphorylse}}</div>
1401475563451 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of the HMP s
hunt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphte dehydrogense (G6PD)}}</div
>
1401475580012 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of de novo p
yrimidine synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crbmoyl phosphte synthetse I
I}}</div>
1401475598719 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of de novo p
urine synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PRPP Amidotrnsferse}}</div>
1401475623943 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of the Ure
cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crbmoyl phosphte synthetse I}}</div>
1401475634516 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of ftty ci
d synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acetyl-CoA crboxylse (ACC)}}</div>
1401475651685 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of ftty ci
d oxidtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crnitine cyltrnsferse I}}</div>
1401475663656 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of ketogenes
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA synthse}}</div>
1401475673235 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of cholester
ol synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA Reductse}}</div>
1401475685825 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 i
n Glycolysis chnge with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse; vi
 llosteric ctivtion}}</div>
1401475741699 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 i
n Glycolysis chnge with fructose-2,6-bisphosphte regultion?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401475756152 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 i
n Glycolysis chnge with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</
div>
1401475762459 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 i
n Glycolysis chnge with Citrte regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese
}}</div>
1401475785362 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Fructose-1,6-bisphosph
te in Gluconeogenesis chnge with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inc
rese}}</div>
1401475813397 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Fructose-1,6-bisphosph
tse in Gluconeogenesis chnge with cetyl-CoA regultion?<div><br></div><div>{{
c1::Increse}}</div>
<br><div><i>This is especilly true in fsting sttes wh
en cetyl-CoA levels re elevted.</i></div>
1401475837287 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Fructose-1,6-bisphosph
te in Gluconeogenesis chnge with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dec
rese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, gluconeogenesis only occurs in high ener
gy sttes.</i></div>
1401475843908 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Fructose-1,6-bisphosph

tse in Gluconeogenesis chnge with fructose-2,6-bisphosphte regultion?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401475873367 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Isocitrte dehydrogens
e chnge in the TCA cycle with ADP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
se}}</div>
1401475896228 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Isocitrte dehydrogens
e chnge in the TCA cycle with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
1401475902854 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Isocitrte dehydrogens
e chnge in the TCA cycle with NADH regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence the incresed NADH in lcohol metbolism shu
ts off the TCA cycle.</i></div>
1401475925423 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with glucose-6-phosphte regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Increse}}</div>
1401475958060 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with Insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}
</div>
1401475964370 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with cortisol regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}
}</div>
1401475972972 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with Epinephrine regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
1401475981019 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}
}</div>
1401476119682 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with epinephrine regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Increse}}</div>
1401476148413 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::In
crese}}</div>
1401476154312 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incres
e}}</div>
1401476158486 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with glucose-6-phosphte regultion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476168141 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with Insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dec
rese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin ctivted Protein Phosphtse 1, which the
n dephosphoryltes Glycogen phosphorylse, thereby inctivting it.</i></div>
1401476176797 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decres
e}}</div>
1401476181878 1395802358422 How does G6PD ctivity in the HMP shunt chnge w
ith NADP+ regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476200186 1395802358422 How does G6PD ctivity in the HMP shunt chnge w
ith NADPH regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476206560 1395802358422 How does PRPP Amidotrnsferse ctivity in de no
vo purine synthesis chnge with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
1401476243742 1395802358422 How does PRPP Amidotrnsferse ctivity in de no
vo purine synthesis chnge with&nbsp;IMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Decrese}}</div>
1401476250937 1395802358422 How does PRPP Amidotrnsferse ctivity in de no
vo purine synthesis chnge with&nbsp;GMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Decrese}}</div>
1401476256782 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Crbmoyl phosphte syn

thetse I ctivity in the Ure cycle chnge with N-cetylglutmte regultion?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476282820 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of cetyl-CoA crboxylse
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476311930 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of cetyl-CoA crboxylse
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with citrte regultion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476317326 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of cetyl-CoA crboxylse
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476323038 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of cetyl-CoA crboxylse
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with plmitoyl-CoA regultion?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476333693 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Crnitine cyltrnsfer
se I in ftty cid oxidtion chnge with mlonyl-CoA regultion?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476365489 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of HMG-CoA reductse in ch
olesterol synthesis chnge with insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrese}}</div>
1401476453966 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of HMG-CoA reductse in ch
olesterol synthesis chnge with Thyroxine regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Increse}}</div>
1401476459014 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of HMG-CoA reductse in ch
olesterol synthesis chnge with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Decrese}}</div>
1401476464474 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of HMG-CoA reductse in ch
olesterol synthesis chnge with cholesterol regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476495043 1395802358422 How mny pyruvte molecules re mde from the me
tbolism of 1 Glucose molecule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>1Glc + 2ADP + 2P_i&nbsp;+ 2NAD⁺&nbsp;--&gt; 2Pyruvte
+ 2ATP + 2NADH</i></div>
1401478374227 1395802358422 How much net ATP is produced in nerobic glycol
ysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2/moc Glc}}</div>
1401479036239 1395802358422 {{c1::Arsenic}} is  metlloid element tht cn
cuse glycolysis to produce net zero ATP.
1401479098580 1395802358422 How much net ATP is produced vi the mlte-sp
rtte shuttle in erobic metbolism t the hert nd liver?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::32}}</div>
1401479146930 1395802358422 How much net ATP is mde vi the glycerol-3-phos
phte shuttle in erobic metbolism t muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::30}}</
div>
1401479173491 1395802358422 Wht does ATP crry when it is in its ctivted
form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphoryl groups}}</div>
1401479255203 1395802358422 Wht does NADH, NADPH nd FADH2&nbsp;crry when
it is in its ctivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Electrons}}</div>
1401479271035 1395802358422 Wht does CoA&nbsp;crry when it is in its ctiv
ted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acyl groups}}</div>
1401479279717 1395802358422 Wht does lipomide&nbsp;crry when it is in its
ctivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acyl groups}}</div>
1401479288717 1395802358422 Wht does Biotin&nbsp;crry when it is in its c
tivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CO2}}</div>
1401479296971 1395802358422 Wht do Tetrhydrofoltes&nbsp;crry when they 
re in their ctivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1-crbon units}}</div>
1401479322876 1395802358422 Wht does SAM&nbsp;crry when it is in its ctiv
ted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CH₃&nbsp;groups}}</div>
1401479338751 1395802358422 Wht does TPP&nbsp;crry when it is in its ctiv
ted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aldehydes}}</div>
1401479350081 1395802358422 {{c1::NAD+}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::NADP+}} re nicotin

mides tht function s universl electron cceptors.
1401494685439 1395802358422 {{c1::FAD+}} is  flvin nucleotide mde from Vi
tmin B2 tht functions s  universl electron cceptor.
1401494704964 1395802358422 Which nicotinmide electron cceptor is generll
y used in <b>ctbolic</b>&nbsp;processes to crry reducing equivlents wy s
NADH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NAD+}}</div>
1401494755285 1395802358422 Which nicotinmide electron donor is used in <b>
nbolic </b>processes s  supply of reducing equivlents?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::NADPH}}</div>
1401494782730 1395802358422 Which nicotinmide electron donor is  product o
f the HMP shunt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NADPH}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-6171868004510.jpg" /></div>
1401494829059 1395802358422 Which enzyme in glycolysis phosphoryltes glucos
e to glucose-6-phosphte, the first metbolite in the pthwy?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Hexokinse or Glucokinse depending on the tissue}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hexokinse = most tissue, but not liver or pncretic bet-cells</i></div>
<div><i>Glucokinse = liver; pncretic bet-cells</i></div>
1401495317535 1395802358422 Wht is the K_m&nbsp;of Hexokinse com
pred to Glucokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div> <br /><div><i>He
nce, Hexokinse hs higher ffinity for glucose. This is importnt s Hexokinse
is found outside of the liver. We wnt our tissues to be ble to use glucose wh
en it is in lower concentrtions.</i></div>
1401495797717 1395802358422 Wht is the K_m&nbsp;of Glucokinse co
mpred to Hexokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Higher; by 100x}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence, Glucokinse hs  lower ffinity for glucose. This is very
importnt, s in hypoglycemic situtions, we do not wnt the liver or pncretic
bet-cells to be using too much Glc. Conversely, this ensures tht the liver n
d pncretic bet-cells re more inclined to utilize glucose when it is vilbl
e in higher concentrtions. Both of the bove points exist so tht the liver doe
s not tke glucose wy from tissue nd store it when we don't need it to; nd s
o tht the pncretic bet-cells don't mke nd secrete insulin when glucose lev
els re low.</i></div>
1401495962648 1395802358422 Which GLUT trnsporter protein hs the highest K
_m&nbsp;vlue (i.e. lowest ffinity)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, GLUT2 is found on the <b>bsolterl mem
brne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium.</i></div>
1401496077564 1395802358422 Wht is the V_mx&nbsp;of Hexokinse c
ompred to Glucokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div>
1401496136074 1395802358422 Wht is the V_mx&nbsp;of Glucokinse
compres to Hexokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Higher}}</div>
1401496153822 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse hs both <b>lower</b
>&nbsp;K_m&nbsp;nd V_mx?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexoki
nse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hexokinse = lower</i></div><div><i>Glucokinse =
higher</i></div>
1401496356269 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse is inducible by insu
lin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucokinse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Think bou
t this. Which form is in the liver? Where do we wnt to store glucose? Wht horm
one is elevted only when glucose is elevted?</i></div><div><i>Also remember, t
ht induction = incresed expression = incresed Vmx. This is why GK hs higher
Vmx.</i></div><div><i>Tht is lso why n increse in sugrs in the diet will
result in increse ft deposition s GK expression hs incresed.</i></div>
1401496797663 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse is inhibited by gluc
ose-6-phosphte feedbck?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexokinse}}</div>
1401496824656 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse is ssocited with M
turity-onset Dibetes of the Young (MODY)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucokin
se}}</div>
1401496867570 1395802358422 How does regultion by Glucose-6-phosphte ffec
t Hexokinse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-8160437862481.jpg" /></div>
1401497455669 1395802358422 How does regultion by Fructose-6-phosphte ffe

ct Glucokinse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div> <div><br
/></div><img src="pste-8156142895185.jpg" />
1401497473230 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-limiting enzyme in glycolysis?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK1)}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-8349416423508.jpg" /></div>
1401497503816 1395802358422 How does regultion by ATP ffect Phosphofructok
inse-1 (PFK-1) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>When ATP levels re high, PFK-1 is inhibited nd upstrem glucose-6phosphte builds up. When tht occurs, G6P is stored s glycogen by the liver.</
i><br /><div><img src="pste-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497529282 1395802358422 How does regultion by AMP influence phosphofruc
tokinse-1 (PFK1) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497563689 1395802358422 How does regultion by citrte influence the ct
ivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</
div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497591274 1395802358422 How does regultion by fructose-2,6-bisphosphte
(F2,6BP) influence Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK1) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Activtion; vi llosteric binding}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497713589 1395802358422 How does regultion by ATP influence the ctivit
y of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div><div><br /></
div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>ATP/AMP re
gultion is pretty logicl overll. When ATP exists, we don't need to mke more.
</i></div>
1401497755622 1395802358422 How does regultion by lnine influence the ct
ivity of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div><div><br
/></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Th
is is  pretty logicl negtive feedbck loop when you remember tht <b>pyruvte
is converted to lnine by ALT nd Vitmin B6</b>.</i></div>
1401497774801 1395802358422 How does regultion by fructose-1,6-bisphosphte
influence the ctivity of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtio
n}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, <b>F1,6BP is n upstrem metbolite in glycolysis</b>. D
o not confuse tht with <b>F<u>2</u>,6BP</b>&nbsp;which is n llosteric ctivt
or of PFK-1.</i></div>
1401497919743 1395802358422 How does Glucgon ction influence the ctivity
of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition; vi phosphoryltion}}
</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
1401497951667 1395802358422 How does Insulin ction influence the ctivity o
f Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion; vi dephosphoryltion}
}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>One of my biochem profs sid this nd I'll never forget it: "<b>In
sulin drives the <u>utiliztion</u>&nbsp;of glucose."</b></i></div>
1401498020219 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose bisphosphtse-2}} nd&nbsp;{{c2:
:Phosphofructokinse-2}} re 2 enzymes prt of the sme bifunctionl enzyme comp
lex tht function to regulte PFK-1 through F2,6BP.
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-9955734192342.jpg" /></div>
1401499337024 1395802358422 Which Protein Kinse controls Fructose Bisphosph
te-2 nd PFK-2 in the regultion of PFK-1?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Protein Kin
se A}}</div> <br><div><img src="pste-10544144712085.jpg" /></div>
1401499353645 1395802358422 {{c1::Phosphofructokinse-2 (PFK-2)}} is n enzy
me tht forms F2,6BP, n llosteric ctivtor of PFK-1, in response to insulin.
<br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401499588764 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Bisphosphtse-2}} is n enzyme t
ht <b>breks down</b>&nbsp;F2,6BP, n llosteric ctivtor of PFK-1, in respons
e to glucgon. <br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401499636707 1395802358422 How does Glucgon influence Phosphofructokinse2 ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inctivtion, by <u>ctivting protein ki
nse A nd subsequent phosphoryltion of PFK-2</u>}}</div>
<div><br /></div

><i>Thereby cuses <b>less glycolysis nd more gluconeogenesis</b>&nbsp;in the f
sting stte.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401499795869 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Phosphofructokinse-2
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion; vi <u>inhibition of protein k
inse A nd subsequent dephosphoryltion of PFK-2</u>}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>Thereby cuses <b>more glycolysis nd less gluconeogenesis</b>&nbsp;in the f
ed stte.</i><div><i>This is lso why dibetics hve decresed rtes of glycolys
is.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div></div>
1401499901998 1395802358422 Which secondry messenger is involved in the ct
ivtion nd inctivtion of PFK-2 through protein kinse A?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401574581943 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte Dehydrogense}} is  mitochondri
l enzyme tht links glycolysis nd the TCA cycle by converting pyruvte to cety
l CoA. <br><div><i>Pyruvte + NAD + CoA --&gt; Acetyl-CoA + CO2 + NADH</i></div
><div><i><br></i></div><div><i>This rection is <b>irreversible</b></i></div>
1401574687733 1395802358422 Wht re the 5 key cofctors required by&nbsp;Py
ruvte Dehydrogense?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thimine; Lipoic Acid; CoA; FAD
; NAD}}</div> <br /><div><i>k <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b></i></d
iv><div><i><b><img src="pste-16870631538902.jpg" /></b></i></div><div><i><b><br
/></b></i></div><div><i>This is lso  good wy to understnd Wernicke-Korskof
f:</i></div><div><i>Alcoholism --&gt; Thimine deficiency --&gt; decresed Acety
l CoA --&gt; myelintion nd CNS deficits</i></div>
1401574873524 1395802358422 How does n incresed NAD+:NADH rtio ffect Pyr
uvte Dehydrogense ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401574900778 1395802358422 How does n increse in ADP levels ffect Pyruv
te Dehydrogense ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401574916600 1395802358422 How do incresed C levels ffect Pyruvte Dehyd
rogense ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401574932422 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Pyruvte Dehydrogens
e ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
1401574945166 1395802358422 How does Glucgon ffect Pyruvte Dehydrogense
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1401575033135 1395802358422 {{c1::lph-ketoglutrte dehydrogense}} is n
enzyme complex tht converts lph-ketoglutrte to succinyl-CoA in the TCA cycl
e nd requires the sme cofctors s pyruvte dehydrogense.
<br /><div><i>Re
member, those cofctors re <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy </b>(Thimine; L
ipoic Acid; CoA; FAD; NAD)</i></div>
1401575327070 1395802358422 {{c1::Brnched Chin Ketocid Dehydrogense}} is
n enzyme involved in the metbolism of brnched chin mino cids nd involves
the sme cofctors s pyruvte dehydrogense. <br /><div><i>Remember, those co
fctors re <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>&nbsp;(Thimine, Lipoic Acid,
CoA, FAD, NAD)</i></div>
1401576743029 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetylldehyde dehydrogense}} is n enzym
e involved in lcohol metbolism tht uses the sme cofctors s pyruvte dehydr
ogense.
<br><div><i>Remember, those cofctors re <b>Tender Love &mp; C
re For Nncy</b>: (Thimine, Lipoic Acid, CoA, FAD, NAD)</i></div><div><i><br><
/i></div><div><i>This is lso  brillint tie into thimine deficiency nd Werni
cke-Korskoff in lcoholism. All of tht lcohol needs to be metbolised, tht m
ens ll vilble thimine needs to be used. As  consequence, there will be le
ss PDH ctivity, less cetyl CoA nd subsequent Wernicke-Korskoff.</i></div>
1401577288486 1395802358422 {{c1::Arsenic}} is  metlloid element tht inhi
bits lipoic cid,  key cofctor of Pyruvte Dehydrogense, Acetldehyde DH, lp
h-Ketoglutrte DH, nd Brnched-Chin Ketocid DH.
<div><br /></div><i>Pres
ents with vomiting, rice-wter stools nd <b>grlic breth</b>.</i><br /><div><i
>Lipoic cid is the <b>Love</b>&nbsp;in <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>.
</i></div>
1401577835900 1395802358422 Which enzyme <b>irreversibly</b>&nbsp;converts P
yruvte into Acetyl CoA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvte Dehydrogense}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>"Sugr cn become ft, but ft cnnot become sugr."</i></
div><div><i>Glc &lt;---&gt; Pyruvte <b><u>---&gt;</u></b>&nbsp;Acetyl-CoA &lt;-

--&gt; Ft</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>The Pyruvte tht is involve
d in gluconeogenesis comes from the conversion of Alnine (vi ALT) nd Lctte
to Pyruvte.</i></div>
1401583796468 1395802358422 How do pyruvte levels chnge in Pyruvte dehydr
ogense deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The build up of Pyruvte gets shunted to Lctte (vi LDH) nd Alnine (vi
 ALT).</i></div>
1401585139762 1395802358422 Wht re the 2 <b>only purely</b>&nbsp;ketogenic
mino cids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Leucine}}</div>
1401585162913 1395802358422 How do lctte levels chnge in Pyruvte Dehydro
gense deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th
e excess pyruvte gets mde into lctte vi LDH, thereby cusing <b>lctic cid
osis</b>.</i></div>
1401585323923 1395802358422 How do serum lnine levels chnge in Pyruvte D
ehydrogense deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The excess pyruvte gets shunted to lnine by ALT.</i></div>
1401585356004 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Pyruvte Dehydrogense
deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed intke of ketogenic nutrients}
}</div> <br /><div><i>e.g. high ft diet or Lysine/Leucine rich diet</i></div>
1401585398262 1395802358422 {{c1::Alnine midotrnsferse (ALT)}} is n enz
yme involved in pyruvte metbolism tht forms Alnine from pyruvte to llow m
ino groups to be tken to the liver from muscle.
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-19331647799898.jpg" /></div>
1401585530196 1395802358422 Wht wter soluble vitmin is required by Alnin
e Aminotrnsferse (ALT)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</
div>
1401585722133 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte crboxylse}} is n enzyme involv
ed in pyruvte metbolism tht converts pyruvte into oxlocette, which cn go
on to replenish the TCA cycle or feed gluconeogenesis. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-19327352832602.jpg" /></div>
1401585774062 1395802358422 Wht wter soluble vitmin is needed for Pyruvt
e Crboxylse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B7 (Biotin)}}</div>
1401585798623 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte Dehydrogense}} is n enzyme invo
lved in pyruvte metbolism tht converts pyruvte to cetyl-CoA, thereby linkin
g glycolysis to the TCA cycle. <div><br /></div><i>Remember, PDH requires <b>Te
nder Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>&nbsp;cofctors (Vitmins B1, B2, B3, B5 nd L
ipoic Acid)</i><br /><div><img src="pste-19327352832602.jpg" /></div>
1401585964325 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctic Acid Dehydrogense (LDH)}} is n en
zyme involved in pyruvte metbolism tht converts pyruvte to lctte. <br /><d
iv><i>This is the end stge of <b>nerobic glycolysis</b>&nbsp;(key in RBCs, le
ukocytes, renl medull, lens, testes nd the corne) nd lso prt of the <b>Co
ri Cycle.</b></i></div><div><i>The generted NAD+ molecules feed bck into glyco
lysis for substrte level phosphoryltion.</i></div><div><i><u>This rection is
extremely vitl in sttes of low O₂&nbsp;or mitochondril dmge s i
t replenishes NAD needed for glycolysis.</u></i></div><div><i><b><img src="pste
-19327352832602.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401586160301 1395802358422 How mny NADH molecules re mde in the TCA cycl
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
1401587946656 1395802358422 How mny FADH₂&nbsp;molecules re md
e in the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
1401587965683 1395802358422 How mny ATP molecules re mde per Acetyl-CoA m
olecule tht enters the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::10}}</div>
1401588001838 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the TCA cycle occur??<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401588020285 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the TCA cycle is the mjor regul
tion point of the pthwy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isocitrte Dehydrogense}
}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Remember, the Krebs cycle is not influenced by Insul
in or Glucgon. <b>It is entirely regulted by locl levels of energy (i.e. ATP,
NADH).</b></i><div><i>The other key regultory steps re t <b>Citrte Synthse
</b>&nbsp;nd <b>lph-ketoglurte dehydrogense</b><br /></i><div><img src="ps

te-20882130993800.jpg" /></div></div>
1401588366248 1395802358422 How does n increse in ATP levels influence the
TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hi
gh ATP = high energy = inhibitions of Krebs.</i></div><div><i>ATP nd ADP ct s
llosteric regultors.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-20877836026504.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1401588408409 1395802358422 How does n increse of ADP levels influence the
TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>In
cresed ADP = low energy stte = ctivtion of Krebs</i></div><div><i>ADP nd AT
P ct s llosteric regultors.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-20877836026504.
jpg" /></i></div>
1401588433623 1395802358422 How does n increse in NADH levels influence th
e TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibitions}}</div>
<br /><div><i>In
cresed NADH = high energy stte = inhibition of Krebs.</i></div><div><i>NADH c
ts s  competitive inhibitor.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-20877836026504.j
pg" /></i></div>
1401588472767 1395802358422 How does n increse in NAD+ levels influence th
e TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hi
gh NAD+ = low energy stte = ctivted Krebs.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-2
0877836026504.jpg" /></i></div>
1401588681226 1395802358422 Wht is the First Aid mnemonic for the intermedi
tes of the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Citrte Is Krebs' Strting Sub
strte For Mking Oxlocette}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-2087783602650
4.jpg" /></div>
1401588727100 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Pyruvte to Oxlocette,
which cn then be fed into the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvte c
rboxylse}}</div>
1401589173566 1395802358422 Which mino cid cn be converted into Pyruvte
by ALT?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alnine; requires B6}}</div>
1401589230593 1395802358422 Which mino cid cn be converted into Oxlocet
te by AST?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asprtte; requires B6}}</div>
1401589257724 1395802358422 Which mino cid cn be converted into lph-ket
oglutrte vi Trnsminse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glutmte; requires B6}}
</div>
1401589281420 1395802358422 Which intermedite of the TCA cycle cn be mde
from Alnine by AST with B6?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvte}}</div>
1401589315193 1395802358422 Which intermedite in the TCA cycle cn be mde
from Asprtte vi AST with B6?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oxlocette}}</div>
1401589347353 1395802358422 Which intermedite in the TCA cycle cn be mde
from Glutmte vi Trnsminse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-ketoglutrte}
}</div>
1401589369960 1395802358422 The {{c1::Mlte-Asprtte shuttle}} nd&nbsp;{{
c2::Glycerol-3-phosphte shuttle}} re 2 metbolic shuttles tht function to bri
ng NADH nd FADH2 electrons into the mitochondri from glycolysis.
<br><div
><i>FADH2 comes in vi the G3P shuttle.</i></div>
1401590348780 1395802358422 Which metbolic shuttle is responsible for bring
ing FADH₂&nbsp;electrons from glycolysis into the mitochondri?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycerol-3-phosphte shuttle}}</div>
1401590394880 1395802358422 Which mitochondril enzyme receives electrons fr
om FADH₂&nbsp;in the electron trnsport chin?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Complex II (k Succinte Dehydrogense)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-23441931502034.jpg" /></div>
1401590448508 1395802358422 {{c1::Succinte Dehydrogense}} is  mitochondri
l enzyme prt of the electron trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Compl
ex II. <br /><div><img src="pste-23437636534738.jpg" /></div>
1401590533116 1395802358422 {{c1::NADH Dehydrogense}} is  mitochondril en
zyme prt of the electron trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Complex I.
<br /><div><img src="pste-23682449670599.jpg" /></div>
1401590587246 1395802358422 {{c1::Ubiquinone}} is n enzyme in the electron
trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Coenzyme Q. <br /><div><img src="ps

te-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590622172 1395802358422 {{c1::Cytochrome Oxidse}} is n enzyme in the e
lectron trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Complex IV. <br /><div><img
src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590657862 1395802358422 {{c1::ATP Synthse}} is n enzyme in the electro
n trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Complex V.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590749133 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin pro
duces H₂O?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytochrome Oxidse (Complex IV)
}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590817835 1395802358422 How mny ATP molecules re produced by ATP synth
se for every molecule of NADH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2.5 (so we just use ~
3 in clcultions)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Steve hd sex with <b>NAD</b>i <b
>H</b>. <b>3</b>&nbsp;times during frosh week nd got n STI.&nbsp;</i></div><di
v><i><br /></i></div><div><i>(True story. Will never forget the regret on Steve'
s fce. Will lso never forget this mnemonic.)</i></div>
1401591083458 1395802358422 How mny ATP molecules re produced by ATP Synth
se for every FADH₂&nbsp;molecule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1.5 (so
we just use ~2 for clcultion)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>FADH<sub style="fo
nt-weight: bold; ">2</sub>&nbsp;= <b>2</b>&nbsp;ATP</i></div>
1401591134161 1395802358422 {{c1::Rotenone}} is n electron trnsport inhibi
tor tht directly inhibits the ETC t Complex I.
<div><br /></div><i>This
<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton grdient nd <b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><
br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591408045 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin is
inhibited by Rotenone?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex I (NADH Dehydrogense)
}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This&nbsp;<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton g
rdient nd&nbsp;<b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-2367
8154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591510868 1395802358422 {{c1::Cynide}} nd {{c2::CO}} re electron trn
sport inhibitors tht directly inhibit the ETC t Complex IV. <div><br /></div
><i>Cynide is detoxified by nitrites nd thiosulftes.</i><div><i></i><i>This&n
bsp;<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton grdient nd&nbsp;<b>blocks ATP synthesis</
b>.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div></div>
1401591770484 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin is
inhibited by Cynide nd CO?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex IV (Cytochrome O
xidse)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591797642 1395802358422 {{c1::Antimycin A}} is n electron trnsport inh
ibitor tht directly inhibits the ETC t Complex III. <div><br /></div><i>This
&nbsp;<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton grdient nd&nbsp;<b>blocks ATP synthesis
</b>.</i><br /><div><i>"<b>RACCO</b>" from left to right.</i></div><div><img src
="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591997268 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin is
inhibited by Antimycin A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex III}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This&nbsp;<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton grdient nd&nbsp
;<b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><div><i><b>"RACCO"</b>&nbsp;from left to right
in the ETC.<br /></i><div><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div></div
></div>
1401592020484 1395802358422 {{c1::Oligomycin}} is n ATP Synthse inhibitor
tht directly inhibits ATP synthse in the ETC. <br /><div><i>This <b>increses<
/b>&nbsp;the proton grdient, but no ATP is produced s the ETC is inhibited.</i
></div><div><i>"<b>RACCO</b>" from left to right in the ETC.</i></div><div><i><i
mg src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></i></div>
1401592337244 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the ETC is inhibited by Oligomyc
in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ATP Synthse}}</div>
<div><br /></div>"<i><b>
ROCCO</b>" from left to right.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg"
/></div>
1401592420020 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin is
inhibited by Doxorubicin nd Dunorubicin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Coenzyme Q
(Ubiquinone)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>

1401592449592 1395802358422 {{c1::Doxorubicin}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::Dunorubicin}
} re ntineoplstic gents tht inhibit Coenzyme Q (Ubiquinone) in the electron
trnsport chin.
<br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401592484059 1395802358422 How do FADH₂&nbsp;nd NADH levels ch
nge when the electron trnsport chin is inhibited?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrese}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is pretty obvious, but think of the consequen
ces: Inhibition of the TCA cycle, decresed ATP production, nd decresed O₂&nbsp;utiliztion.</i></div>
1401592821605 1395802358422 {{c1::2,4-Dinitrophenol}} is n uncoupling gent
tht is sometimes used illicitly for weight loss.
1401592888587 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Uncoupling Agents in the inhi
bition of ATP synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Incresed permebility of
the mitochondril membrne</b>, thereby cusing  decresed proton grdient nd
incresed O2 consumption}}</div>
<br /><div><i>ATP synthesis stops, but e
lectron trnsport continues. This increse in metbolic rte produces  consider
ble bout of het s well.</i></div>
1401593017448 1395802358422 {{c1::Aspirin}} is n NSAID tht cn ct s n u
ncoupling gent, thereby cusing fevers in n overdose.
1401593221266 1395802358422 {{c1::Thermogenin}} is n uncoupling gent found
in brown ft.
1401593299761 1395802358422 How do incresed ATP levels influence Gluconeoge
nesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Gluconeoge
nesis only occurs in high energy sttes (high ATP nd high NADH) becuse <b>Oxl
ocette must be converted to Mlte in the TCA cycle</b>. Mlte then leves to
gluconeogenesis vi the mlte shuttle.</i></div>
1401593619539 1395802358422 How do incresed NADH levels influence Gluconeog
enesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gluconeoge
nesis only occurs in high energy sttes (high ATP nd high NADH) becuse&nbsp;<b
>Oxlocette must be converted to Mlte in the TCA cycle</b>. Mlte then lev
es to gluconeogenesis vi the mlte shuttle.</i></div>
1401593640147 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte crboxylse}} is n irreversible
enzyme tht converts pyruvte to oxlocette in gluconeogenesis.
1401594066010 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for Pyru
vte Crboxylse ctivity in gluconeogenesis?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B
7 (Biotin)}}</div>
<br><i>Remember, Avidin from rw eggs binds to Biotin</i
>
1401594091941 1395802358422 How do incresed Acetyl-CoA levels influence Pyr
uvte Crboxylse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
1401594112417 1395802358422 {{c1::Phosphoenolpyruvte crboxykinse}} is n
irreversible enzyme in gluconeogenesis tht converts oxlocette to phosphoenol
pyruvte.
<br /><div><i>Requires GTP.</i></div>
1401594161811 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphtse}} is n irreve
rsible enzyme tht converts F1,6BP to F6P in gluconeogenesis.
1401594203282 1395802358422 How do incresed Citrte levels influence Fructo
se-1,6-bisphosphtse ctivity in gluconeogenesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ac
tivtion}}</div>
1401594251409 1395802358422 How do incresed Fructose-<b>2,6</b>-bisphospht
e levels influence Fructose-1,6-bisphosphtse ctivity in gluconeogenesis?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1401594297420 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucose-6-phosphtse}} is n irreversible
enzyme of gluconeogenesis tht converts Glucose-6-phosphte to glucose.
1401594333809 1395802358422 Where in the body does gluconeogenesis primrily
occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Essentill
y, it will occur wherever the enzymes exist. Hence it lso occurs t the kidneys
nd intestinl epithelium. Along the sme lines, it does not occur t muscle du
e to their lck of Glucose-6-phosphtse</i></div>
1401594455163 1395802358422 {{c1::Propionyl-CoA}} is  product of odd-chin
ftty cid metbolism tht cn enter the TCA cycle s succinyl-CoA, undergo gluc
oneogenesis nd hence serve s  glucose source.
<br /><div><i>Even-chin
ftty cids provide Acetyl-CoA equivlents.</i></div>

1401594545605 1395802358422 Which metbolic shunt cts s  vitl source of
NADPH from glucose-6-phosphte?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMP Shunt (Pentose Ph
osphte Pthwy)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, NADPH is required for re
ductive rections, esp. glutthione in RBCs.</i></div><div><i>Also, <u>do not co
nfuse NADPH for NADH nd its role in ATP synthesis</u></i></div><div><i><u><br /
></u></i></div><div><i><u><img src="pste-29794188132607.jpg" /></u></i></div>
1401596199885 1395802358422 Which metbolic shunt is  vitl source of ribos
e for nucleotide synthesis nd glycolytic intermedites?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::HMP Shunt (Pentose Phosphte Pthwy)}}</div>
1401596236051 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the HMP Shunt occur?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
<br /><div><i>No ATP is used or
produced.</i></div>
1401596268083 1395802358422 Wht is the rte limiting enzyme in the HMP shun
t?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G6PD (Glucose-6-phosphte dehydrogense)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-29253022253225.jpg" /></div>
1401596354823 1395802358422 Wht wter soluble vitmin is required in the no
noxidtive, reversible step of the HMP shunt conducted by Trnsketolses?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B1 (Thimine)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Acti
vity of these trnsketolses re used to guge the level of Thimine deficiency.
<br /></i><div><img src="pste-29386166239378.jpg" /></div>
1401596476373 1395802358422 {{c1::Myeloperoxidse}} is n enzyme involved in
the respirtory burst tht gives sputum its blue-green colour. <br /><div><img
src="pste-29918742184491.jpg" /></div>
1401597532687 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respirtory burst forms supe
roxide rdicls from O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NAPDH Oxidse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-29914447217195.jpg" /></div>
1401597575169 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respirtory burst forms H2O2
from superoxide rdicls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide dismutse}}</di
v>
<br /><div><img src="pste-29914447217195.jpg" /></div>
1401597595981 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respirtory burst forms Hypo
chlorite (HOCl) from H2O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myeloperoxidse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-29914447217195.jpg" /></div>
1401597622507 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Grnulomtous Disese}} is  metb
olic disorder tht involves deficiency of NADPH Oxidse.
1401597727422 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Grnulomtous Disese}} is n immu
ne disorder cused by NADPH Oxidse deficiency tht involves n incresed risk f
or recurrent infections nd grnulom formtion by <b>ctlse-positive orgnism
s</b>. <br /><div><i>Ctlse positive orgnisms re cpble of neutrlizing th
eir own H2O2, thereby leving phgocytes without ny ROS to fight the infection.
Ctlse negtive orgnisms on the other hnd essentilly provide H2O2 to phgo
cytes.</i></div>
1401597935365 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctoferrin}} is  protein found in secret
ory fluids nd neutrophils tht functions to inhibits microbil growth vi iron
cheltion.
1401597960554 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyocynin}} is  protein found in <i>Pseud
omons eruginos</i>&nbsp;tht functions to generte ROS tht kill competing mi
crobes.
1401598127447 1395802358422 Wht type of orgnisms hve  higher rte of rec
urrent infection nd grnulom formtion in Chronic Grnulomtous Disese (CGD)?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ctlse-positive orgnisms}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th
e mjor Ctlse-positive bugs: <b>Stphs N' Enterobctericee Are Listed Ctl
se Positive.</b></i></div><div><i>[Stphylococcus, Neisseri, Enterobcteri, A
spergillus, Listeri, Cndid, Pseudomons (nd TB!)]</i></div>
1401645975656 1395802358422 {{c1::G6PD Deficiency}} is n X-linked recessive
enzyme deficiency tht results in decresed NADPH levels in RBCs, thereby mkin
g them susceptible to oxidizing gents nd cusing hemolytic nemi. <div><br
/></div><i>Remember, NADPH is needed to Glutthione reduced so tht is cn deto
xify free rdicls nd ROS. No G6PD = No NADPH required for Glutthione reducts
e.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-648540061960.jpg" /></div>
1401646194700 1395802358422 {{c1::Primquine}} is n ntimlril drug tht

cn trigger hemolytic nemi in G6PD Deficiency.
1401646785061 1395802358422 {{c1::Fv Bens}} re  type of ben tht cn t
rigger hemolytic nemi in G6PD deficiency.
<br /><div><i><b>Infection cn 
lso trigger hemolytic nemi</b>&nbsp;s the free rdicls generted from the i
nflmmtory response cn diffuse into RBCs nd cuse oxidtive dmge.</i></div>
1401646866490 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of G6PD Deficien
cy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive}}</div>
1401646887023 1395802358422 Wht is the most common humn enzyme deficiency?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G6PD Deficiency}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-644245094664.jpg" /></div>
1401646897922 1395802358422 Which rce hs  higher prevlence of G6PD Defic
iency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blcks; Middle Esterns}}</div>
1401646923798 1395802358422 How does the resistnce to mlri chnge in G6P
D Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401646968353 1395802358422 {{c1::Heinz Bodies}} re intrcellulr inclusion
s of oxidized hemoglobin tht precipitte within RBCs in G6PD Deficiency.
1401647000972 1395802358422 {{c1::Bite Cells}} re  pthologicl form of RB
Cs tht form s  result of the phgocytic removl of Heinz bodies by splenic m
crophges in G6PD Deficiency.
1401647037205 1395802358422 {{c1::Essentil Fructosuri}} is  disorder of f
ructose metbolism tht involves  defect in <b>Fructokinse</b>.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-1705102016881.jpg" /></div>
1401647919414 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is defective in Essentil Fructosuri
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fructokinse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-1700807049585.jpg" /></div>
1401647943624 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Essentil Fru
ctosuri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" /></div>
1401647959360 1395802358422 {{c1::Essentil Fructosuri}} is n <b>symptom
tic</b>&nbsp;disorder of fructose metbolism s Hexokinse is ble to perform th
e sme function s Fructokinse, hence Fructose is not trpped in cells.
<div><br /></div><i>The symptoms tht pper re benign (fructosuri; fructosemi
).</i><div><i>Disorders of fructose metbolism generlly cuse milder symptoms
thn nlogous disorders of glctose metbolism.<br /></i><div><div><img src="p
ste-1700807049585.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1401648271389 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Intolernce}} is  disorder of fr
uctose metbolism tht results from  deficiency of <b>Aldolse B</b>. <div><br
/></div><i>Aldolse B should not be confused with Aldolse A, the enzyme in gly
colysis. However, through Aldolse B, Fructose requires less ATP to enter glycol
ysis. For this reson, fructose is in mny sports drinks. For this sme reson,
high fructose corn syrups re quite bd, s the quick, chep supply of sugr ene
rgy leds to n excess of sugrs tht then get turned into ft.</i><br /><div><i
mg src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" /></div>
1401648410695 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Fructose Intolernc
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aldolse B}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember,
Aldolse B is unique to fructose metbolism. Aldolse A is the enzyme in glycoly
sis.</i></div>
1401648440884 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fructose Into
lernce?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401648455934 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Intolernce}} is  disorder of fr
uctose metbolism tht presents with n ccumultion of Fructose-1-Phosphte, th
ereby cusing  decrese in vilble phosphte.
<br /><div><i>This in tu
rn results in inhibition of glycogenolysis nd gluconeogenesis.</i></div><div><i
><img src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" /></i></div>
1401649701708 1395802358422 {{c1::Fstic hypoglycemi}},&nbsp;{{c2::jundice
}} nd&nbsp;{{c3::cirrhosis}} re heptic complictions of Fructose Intolernce
tht rise due to the extensive liver dmge seen.
1401649802545 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperuricemi/Gout}} is  compliction of
Fructose Intolernce s the trpping of phosphte on Fructose molecules forces P
urines towrds Uric Acid.
<br /><div><img src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" />

</div>
1401649865039 1395802358422 Which of the <b>mjor</b>&nbsp;monoscchrides i
s <b>not</b>&nbsp; reducing sugr?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fructose (it's 
ketose sugr)}}</div> <br /><div><i>For this reson, ctrcts re not  sympt
oms of fructose metbolism disorders</i></div>
1401649969484 1395802358422 Which renl tubule cn get dmged in Fructose I
ntolernce?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Proximl Convoluted Tubule (PCT)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Similr to Renl Tubulr Acidosis, Type 2.</i></div>
1401650173302 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucose}} is  reducing sugr (ldose) th
t becomes Sorbitol vi Aldose Reductse.
<br /><div><i>The other ldose (
reducing) sugrs include:&nbsp;</i></div><div><i>Glctose --&gt; Glctitol;&nb
sp;</i></div><div><i>Inose --&gt; Inositol;&nbsp;</i></div><div><i>Mnnose --&gt
; Mnnitol</i></div>
1401650177776 1395802358422 {{c1::Sucrose}} is  discchride tht consists
of Fructose nd Glucose.
1401650501102 1395802358422 {{c1::Mltose}} is  discchride tht consists
of Glucose nd Glucose.
1401650512131 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctose}} is  discchride tht consists
of Glctose nd Glucose.
1401650525781 1395802358422 {{c1::Glctokinse Deficiency}} is  disorder o
f glctose metbolism tht involves  hereditry deficiency of <b>Glctokinse
</b>. <div><br /></div><i>Thereby results in the ccumultion of Glctitol, 
the reducing form of Glctose.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4969277161823.jpg
" /></div>
1401650861584 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Glctokinse
Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401650874333 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is deficient in Glctokinse Defici
ency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glctokinse, duh.}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401650898779 1395802358422 {{c1::Glctokinse Deficiency}} is  <b>reltiv
ely mild </b>disorder of glctose metbolism tht is essentilly benign except
for <b>infntile ctrcts</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" />
</div>
1401650972248 1395802358422 {{c1::Ctrcts}} re n oculr compliction of
disorders of glctose metbolism due to the ccumultion of Glctitol,  reduc
ing product of Glctose.
<div><br /></div><i>For this reson, disorders o
f fructose metbolism <b>do not present with ctrcts</b>&nbsp;s Fructose is n
ot  reducing sugr.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401651076546 1395802358422 {{c1::Glctokinse Deficiency}} is  disorder o
f glctose metbolism tht my initilly present s filure to trck objects or
to develop  socil smile.
1401651108768 1395802358422 {{c1::Clssic Glctosemi}} is  disorder of g
lctose metbolism tht involves the bsence of <b>Glctose-1-phosphte Uridylt
rnsferse</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401651661214 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is bsent in Clssic Glctosemi?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glctose-1-phosphte Uridyltrnsferse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401651684872 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Clssic Glc
tosemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401651699438 1395802358422 {{c1::Clssic Glctosemi}} is  disorder of g
lctose metbolism tht presents with <b>jundice, heptomegly, infntile ctr
cts</b>&nbsp;nd <b>intellectul disbility</b>&nbsp;due to the ccumultion of
toxic substnces.
<div><br /></div><div><i>Especilly Glctitol.</i></div
><div><i>The more serious defects cn lso involve PO4 depletion.</i></div><i><u
>Clssic Glctosemi is similr to Fructose Intolernce (Aldolse B deficiency)
except tht it includes ctrcts.</u></i><br /><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i
><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></i></div>
1401651844000 1395802358422 {{c1::Clssic Glctosemi}} is  disorder of g
lctose metbolism tht presents similrly to Fructose Intolernce (Aldolse B d
eficiency) except tht it includes ctrcts. <br /><div><i><b>F</b>ructose is

to <b>A</b>ldolse <b>B</b> s <b>G</b>lctose is to <b>U</b>ridyl<b>T</b>rns
ferse. (<b>FAB GUT</b>).</i></div>
1401652005087 1395802358422 Which disorder of Glctose metbolism cn led
to <i>Escherichi coli </i>sepsis in neontes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clssi
c Glctosemi}}</div>
1401652055363 1395802358422 {{c1::Sorbitol}} is the lcohol counterprt of G
lucose formed by Aldose Reductse nd stnds s n lterntive method of trppin
g glucose in the cell. <div><br /></div><i>Some tissues re ble to then conver
t Sorbitol into Fructose vi Sorbitol Dehydrogense.</i><div><i>Other tissue th
t do not hve the bove enzyme re t risk for intrcellulr sorbitol ccumulti
on, thereby cusing osmotic dmge (e.g. <b>ctrcts, retinopthy, peripherl n
europthy</b>). This is especilly seen in hyperglycemi.</i></div><div><i>Glc
titol cn cuse similr problems vi Aldose Reductse.<br /></i><div><img src="p
ste-6300717023664.jpg" /></div></div>
1401653655500 1395802358422 Which enzyme found on the brush border of the GI
epithelium functions to digest Lctose into glucose nd glctose?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Lctse}}</div>
1401654170558 1395802358422 {{c1::Primry Lctse Deficiency}} is  type of
Lctse Deficiency tht presents with n ge-dependent decline in Lctse ctivi
ty fter childhood due to the bsence of  lctse-persistent llele. <br /><d
iv><i>Common in Asins, Africns, nd North Americns.</i></div>
1401654269199 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondry Lctse Deficiency}} is  type o
f Lctse Deficiency tht commonly rises due to the loss of the brush border du
e to gstroenteritis or utoimmune disese.
1401655187287 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenitl Lctse Deficiency}} is  <b>r
re</b>&nbsp;type of lctse deficiency tht is due to  defective lctse gene.
1401655253607 1395802358422 How does the pH of stool chnge in Lctse Defic
iency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
<br /><div><i>GI complic
tions involve bloting, crmping, fltulence nd osmotic dirrhe.</i></div>
1401655299070 1395802358422 How does the hydrogen content of stool chnge in
Lctse deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse (i.e. decresed pH)}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>This is  nice tie into Lctulose, n osmotic lxtive th
t cidifies the GI lumen to tret hypermmonemi. It's essentilly the sme MOA
here where Lctose stys in the GI lumen due to the lctse deficiency.</i></div
>
1401655355919 1395802358422 Which stereoisomer of Amino Acids is found in pr
oteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L-form}}</div>
1401656107716 1395802358422 Wht re the 2 ketogenic mino cids?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Leucine}}</div>
1401656175204 1395802358422 Wht re the 2 cidic mino cids?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Asprtte; Glutmte}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both re negtivel
y chrged t body pH.</i></div>
1401656239623 1395802358422 Wht re the 3 bsic mino cids?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Arginine; Lysine; Histidine}}</div>
1401656259170 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>most bsic</b>&nbsp;mino cid?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div>
1401656272310 1395802358422 Which 2 bsic mino cids re required during pe
riods of growth?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine; Histidine}}</div>
1401656329284 1395802358422 Which essentil mino cids re <b>both</b>&nbsp
;ketogenic nd glucogenic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isoleucine; Phenyllnine;
Threonine; Tryptophn}}</div>
1401656369270 1395802358422 Which metbolic pthwy functions to get rid of
ny excess nitrogen (NH3) generted by mino cid ctbolism?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Ure Cycle}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-8735963480780.jpg" />
</div>
1401657269820 1395802358422 Which 2 sources provide the Ammoni tht enters
the Ure Cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The gut vi Glutminse; Glutmte vi
<br /><div><img src="pste-8731668513484
 Glutmte Dehydrogense}}</div>
.jpg" /></div>
1401657331838 1395802358422 Which intermedite of the TCA cycle is supplied

by the Ure Cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fumrte}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>In fct, the Ure Cycle is  very key Fumrte source.</i><br /><div><img sr
c="pste-8731668513484.jpg" /></div>
1401657382050 1395802358422 Wht is the First Aid mnemonic for the intermedi
tes of the Ure Cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ordinrily, Creless Crppers
Are Also Frivolous About Urintion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Ornithine, Crbmo
yl phosphte,&nbsp;</i><i>Citrulline,&nbsp;</i><i>Asprtte,&nbsp;</i><i>Arginos
uccinte,&nbsp;</i><i>Fumrte,&nbsp;</i><i>Arginine,&nbsp;</i><i>Ure</i></div>
<div><i><img src="pste-8731668513484.jpg" /></i></div>
1401657491417 1395802358422 Which 2 mino cids re necessry for the trnsp
ort of mmoni from muscle nd other tissue to the liver?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Alnine; Glutmte; both re mde nd unmde by Trnsminses}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Asprtte = Oxlocette + NH2</i><div><i>Alnine = Pyruvte
+ NH2</i></div><div><i>Glutmte = lph-Ketoglutrte + NH2<br /></i><div><img
src="pste-9131100471783.jpg" /></div></div>
1401657732704 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required by Trns
minses nd hence in the trnsport of mmoni by Alnine nd Glutmte?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Asp
rtte = Oxlocette + NH2</i><div><i>Alnine = Pyruvte + NH2</i></div><div><i>
Glutmte = lph-Ketoglutrte + NH2</i></div><div><img src="pste-912680550448
7.jpg" /></div>
1401657734354 1395802358422 How do lph-Ketoglutrte levels chnge in Hype
rmmonemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese; thereby inhibiting the TCA cycl
e}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, lph-KG + NH2 = Glutmte.</i></div><di
v><i>Also, since this inhibits the TCA cycle, less ATP will be mde nd less ATP
will be vilble for the Ure Cycle, thereby compounding the hypermmonemi.</
i></div>
1401659651540 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Butyrte in the tretment of
Hypermmonemi?<div><br />{{c1::Binding to mino cids nd leding to their excr
etion, thereby decresing mmoni levels}}</div>
1401659688814 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Phenylbutyrte in the tretme
nt of hypermmonemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binding to mino cids, leding
to their excretion nd decresed mmoni levels}}</div>
1401659726589 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctulose}} is n osmotic lxtive tht c
n tret Hypermmonemi by cidifying the GI trct nd trpping NH4⁺&n
bsp;ions for excretion.
1401659792004 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Lctulose in the tretment of
Hypermmonemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trpping of NH4⁺&nbsp;ion
s in the GI trct by cidifying the lumen}}</div>
1401659849527 1395802358422 {{c1::Asterixis}} is  neurologicl compliction
of Ammoni intoxiction nd is described s repetitive tremor of the hnd when
the wrist is extended. <br /><div><img src="pste-11312943857772.jpg" /></div>
1401660410918 1395802358422 {{c1::N-cetylglutmte}} is  cofctor tht is
required by Crbmoyl Phosphte Synthetse I in the Ure Cycle. <div><br /></div
><i>Hence, N-cetylglutmte deficiency will cuse hypermmonemi.</i><br /><div
><img src="pste-11325828760087.jpg" /></div>
1401660552185 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the Ure Cycle requires N-cetyl
glutmte s  cofctor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crbmoyl Phosphte Synthet
se I}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-11321533792791.jpg" /></div>
1401660580401 1395802358422 {{c1::Hereditry N-cetylglutmte deficiency}}
is  cuse of hypermmonemi tht presents identiclly to Crbmoyl Phosphte Sy
nthetse I deficiency, however <b>the elevtion in Ornithine will be ccompnied
by <u>norml Ure Cycle enzymes</u>.</b>
<br><div><img src="pste-1132153
3792791.jpg" /></div>
1401660667923 1395802358422 Wht is the most common Ure Cycle disorder?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse deficiency (OTCD)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-11321533792791.jpg" /></div>
1401660706834 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Ornithine Tr
nscrbmylse (OTC) Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive}}<
/div> <br /><div><img src="pste-11321533792791.jpg" /></div>

1401660751172 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>only</b>&nbsp;Ure Cycle enzyme d
eficiency tht is X-linked recessive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trns
crbmylse Deficiency}}</div> <br /><div><i>All of the others re utosoml re
cessive.</i></div>
1401660792334 1395802358422 How do BUN levels chnge in Ure Cycle disorders
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Less Ure is being
mde, hence BUN is lower.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-11321533792791.jpg"
/></i></div>
1401661659045 1395802358422 {{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}} is
 ure cycle enzyme deficiency tht presents with <b>orotic ciduri</b>&nbsp;
s the excess crbmoyl phosphte is converted into orotic cid in de novo pyrimi
dine synthesis. <br /><div><i>Remember, Crbmoyl Phosphte is the one intermedi
te of the Ure Cycle tht is prt of the de novo pyrimidine synthesis. Becuse
of this, there my lso be n increse in pyrimidines, especilly Urcil.</i></d
iv><div><i><img src="pste-12262131630802.jpg" /></i></div>
1401661812338 1395802358422 {{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}} is
 Ure Cycle enzyme disorder tht presents with <b>elevted crbmoyl phosphte
</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-12257836663506.jpg" /></div>
1401662114308 1395802358422 Wht is the key difference between Hereditry Or
otic Aciduri nd the orotic ciduri secondry to Ornithine Trnscrbmylse De
ficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::OTCD <b>does not </b>hve megloblstic n
emi}}</div>
1401662194023 1395802358422 Which Ure Cycle enzyme disorder is ssocited w
ith <b>ornge crystls in the urine</b>&nbsp;if it is left to dry?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}}</div>
1401662240535 1395802358422 Which mjor ure cycle enzyme disorder presents
with <b>orotic ciduri</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmyl
se Deficiency}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, the elevted Crbmoyl Phosphte
is shunted to pyrimidine synthesis where it becomes Orotic Acid.</i></div><div>
<i><img src="pste-12257836663506.jpg" /></i></div>
1401662286656 1395802358422 Which mjor ure cycle enzyme disorder presents
with <b>incresed crbmoyl phosphte</b>&nbsp;levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-12257
836663506.jpg" /></div>
1401662378208 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Crbmoyl Pho
sphte Synthetse I deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}
</div>
1401662416290 1395802358422 How do mmoni levels chnge in Ure Cycle enzym
e disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elevted}}</div>
1401663051035 1395802358422 How do crbmoyl phosphte levels chnge in Crb
moyl Phosphte Synthetse I deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</
div>
<div><br /></div><i>This crd isn't entirely stupid becuse it reinforce
s the connection with orotic ciduri. <b>Becuse Crbmoyl Phosphte levels re
low, there will be no Orotic Aciduri </b>vi de novo pyrimidine synthesis.</i>
<br /><div><img src="pste-12257836663506.jpg" /></div>
1401663121999 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycerol Phenylbutyrte}} is  nitrogen sc
venger tht trets hypermmonemi by grbbing mmoni from glutmine. <br /><d
iv><i>It is  prodrug. The ctive form performs the MOA.</i></div>
1401663208151 1395802358422 Which osmotic lxtive is used to tret hypermm
onemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lctulose (or Levulose)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Lctulose cidifies the gut, thereby trpping NH4⁺&nbsp;in the
lumen nd decresing its bsorption.</i></div>
1401671464765 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Thyroxine derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenyllnine}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-15023795601547.jpg" /></div>
1401671500825 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Melnin derived from?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenylnine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-15019500634251.jpg" /></div>
1401671516012 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Dopmine derived from?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenyllnine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps

te-15019500634251.jpg" /></div>
1401671535231 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is NE nd Epinephrine derived fr
om?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenyllnine}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-15019500634251.jpg" /></div>
1401671562863 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Nicin derived from?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Hence, in Hrtnup Di
sese there is decresed Nicin due to defective Tryptophn bsorption.</i><br /
><div><img src="pste-15715285336166.jpg" /></div>
1401673075760 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Serotonin derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-15710
990368870.jpg" /></div>
1401673110405 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Meltonin derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn vi Serotonin}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-15710990368870.jpg" /></div>
1401673129352 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Histmine derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Histidine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1634664552862
1.jpg" /></div>
1401673202168 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Porphyrin derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1637241533239
6.jpg" /></div>
1401673214892 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Heme derived from?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Glycine vi Porphyrin}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16368
120365100.jpg" /></div>
1401673226030 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is GABA derived from?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Glutmte}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-1672889761802
0.jpg" /></div>
1401673251667 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Glutthione derived from?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glutmte}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-16724
602650724.jpg" /></div>
1401673263381 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Cretine derived from?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1689210637529
2.jpg" /></div>
1401673565846 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Ure derived from?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-1688781140799
6.jpg" /></div>
1401673575935 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Nitric Oxide derived from?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-16887
811407996.jpg" /></div>
1401673630336 1395802358422 Wht re the 3 romtic mino cids?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn; Phenyllnine; Tyrosine}}</div>
1401673790592 1395802358422 {{c1::Albinism}} is  possible cutneous complic
tion of Menkes Disese due to Tyrosinse requiring copper to form Melnin.
<div><br /></div><i><div></div>Remember, Menkes Disese involves  defect in cop
per bsorption.</i><div><i>The lbinism is on the milder side, if present.</i><b
r /><div><img src="pste-17467631993490.jpg" /></div></div>
1401673873130 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylketonuri (PKU)}} is  disorder of 
mino cid metbolism tht occurs due to  deficiency in P<b>henyllnine Hydroxy
lse</b>&nbsp;or <b>Tetrhydrobiopterin cofctor</b>. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401673994657 1395802358422 Which enzyme deficiency cn cuse Phenylketonuri
 (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phenyllnine hydroxylse}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401674051461 1395802358422 Which cofctor deficiency cn cuse Phenylketonu
ri (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tetrhydrobiopterin (BH4)}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>If cused by BH4 deficiency, the PKU is <b>milder</b>.</i><br /><div
><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401674095931 1395802358422 How do phenyllnine levels chnge in Phenylketo
nuri (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed, thereby leds to excess pheny
lketones in the urine}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Phenylketones include: pheny
lcette, phenyllctte nd phenylpyruvte.</i><br /><div><i>Also, tyrosine beco

mes n essentil mino cid.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg
" /></i></div>
1401674190383 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylketonuri (PKU)}} is  disorder of 
mino cid metbolism tht presents with  chrcteristic <b>musty body odour</b>
.
<br /><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401674230704 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylketonuri}} is  disorder of mino 
cid metbolism tht presents with <b>fir skin</b>&nbsp;or <b>prtil lbinism</
b>&nbsp;due to <b>decresed tyrosine production</b>.
<div><br /></div><i>Reme
mber,  significnt mount of Tyrosine is mde from Phenyllnine, whose metbol
ism is impired in PKU.</i><div><i>Also remember tht DA, NE, Epinephrine, Meln
in re ll derived from Tyrosine.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.j
pg" /></div></div>
1401674528009 1395802358422 {{c1::Asprtme}} is  rtificil sweetener used
in food tht must be voided in Phenylketonuri s it is  phenyllnine deriv
tive.
1401674669660 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Phenylketonuri (PKU)?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Less</b>&nbsp;phenyllnine nd <b>more</b>&nbsp;
tyrosine in the diet}}</div>
1401674746052 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Phenylketonur
i (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Incidence 1:10,000</i></div><div><i>Screened for 2-3 dys fter birth s m
ternl enzymes t birth cn give norml redings during.</i></div>
1401675101072 1395802358422 {{c1::Mternl PKU}} is  form of phenylketonuri
 tht rises due to  lck of proper dietry therpy during pregnncy. <br /><d
iv><i>Infnt presents with microcephly, intellectul disbility, growth retrd
tion nd congenitl hert defects.</i></div>
1401675173336 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht involves deficiency of <b>Homogentiste Oxidse </b>in the degr
dtive pthwy of tyrosine to fumrte.
<div><br /></div><i>The disorder
is <b>benign</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401675242641 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Alkptonuri?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Homogentiste Oxidse}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Foun
d in the degrdtive pthwy of tyrosine to fumrte.</i><div><div><img src="ps
te-17463337026194.jpg" /></div></div>
1401675603698 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Alkptonuri?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401675619786 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht presents with <b>drk connective tissue </b>nd <b>brown pigmen
ted sclere</b>.
1401675645122 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht presents with <b>urine tht turns blck </b>following prolonged
exposure to ir.
1401675743456 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht my present with <b>debilitting rthrlgis</b>&nbsp;nd <b>de
genertive rthritis</b>&nbsp;due to homogentisic cid's toxicity towrds crtil
ge.
<br /><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401675782552 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Homocystinuri
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive (ll types re AR)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-21509196218551.jpg" /></div>
1401675860107 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht cn be due to  deficiency of Cystthionine synthse.
<div><br /></div><i>Tx: decresed methionine, incresed cysteine, incresed B12
nd incresed B9 (folte) in the diet.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-21504901251
255.jpg" /></div>
1401675941832 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht cn result from  decresed ffinity of Cystthionine Synths
e for Pyridoxl Phosphte (Vitmin B6). <br /><div><i>Tretment: <b>gretly</b>&
nbsp;incresed B6 nd incresed cysteine in the diet.</i></div><div><i><img src=
"pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></i></div>

1401676005888 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht cn be due to  deficiency of Homocysteine Methyltrnsferse
(k Methionine Synthse).
<div><br /></div><i>Tretment: Incresed methion
ine in the diet.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></div>
1401677529173 1395802358422 Which 2 enzyme deficiencies cn cuse Homocystin
uri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cystthionine Synthse <u style="font-weight: b
old; ">or</u>&nbsp;Homocysteine Methyltrnsferse (Methionine Synthse)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>A deficiency in either cn cuse Homocystinuri</i></div><div><i><
img src="pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></i></div>
1401677584196 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin deficiencies cn cu
se Homocystinuri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine), B9 (Folt
e) nd B12 (Coblmin)}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Notice how B12 nd B6 re bo
th needed s cofctors.</i><div><i>Vitmin B9 is needed to drive Methionine Synt
hse s N5-Methyl-THF.</i></div><div><i><u>Remember, Methionine Synthse is the
only enzyme tht cn rectivte folte (N5-Methyl-THF to THF).</u><br /></i><div
><img src="pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></div></div>
1401677719641 1395802358422 Which is the only humn enzyme tht cn rectiv
te Folte (N5-Methyl-THF to THF)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Homocysteine Methyl
trnsferse (Methionine Synthse)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-21504
901251255.jpg" /></div>
1401677752307 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht presents very similrly to Mrfn Syndrome (tll stture, kyp
hosis, <b>lens subluxtion</b>).
1401677812519 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht presents with <b>downwrd nd inwrd lens subluxtion</b>.
1401677833612 1395802358422 {{c1::Thrombosis}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::Atherosclerosi
s}} re 2 vsculr complictions of Homocystinuri due to dmge sustined to ve
ssels s  result of disulfide bond formtion vi Homocysteine. <br /><div><i>Ho
mocysteine hs  free -SH group tht cn cuse disulfide bone formtion with oth
er -SH groups on proteins or blood vessel wlls.</i></div>
1401678012593 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht is lso referred to s Onchronosis.
1401678036330 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystinuri}} is  disorder of mino cid m
etbolism tht involves  hereditry defect of the renl PCT nd intestinl min
o cid trnsporter for Cysteine, Ornithine, Lysine nd Arginine.
<br /><d
iv><i><b>COLA</b>: Cysteine, Ornithine, Lysine, Arginine</i></div>
1401680647663 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystinuri}} is disorder of mino cid met
bolism tht cn involve <b>hexgonl cystine stones</b>&nbsp;in the urine due t
o excess cystine content.
<br /><div><i>Cystine is mde of 2 cysteine mole
cules connected by  disulfide bond.</i></div>
1401680677671 1395802358422 Which 4 mino cids hve defective trnsport in
Cystinuri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cysteine; Ornithine; Lysine; Arginine}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>COLA</i></div>
1401680703039 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Cystinuri?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div> <br /><div><i>Common (1:
7000).</i></div>
1401681073994 1395802358422 Wht dignostic test is used to dignose Cystinu
ri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Urinry cynide-nitroprusside test}}</div>
1401681092469 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Cystinuri?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Urinry lkliniztion nd cheltors tht increse the solubili
ty of cystine stones}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Agents include Potssium Citrte 
nd Acetzolmide.</i></div>
1401811267040 1395802358422 {{c1::Mple Syrup Urine Disese}} is  disorder
of mino cid metbolism tht occurs due to  deficiency in <b>Brnched Chin&nb
sp;lph-Ketocid dehydrogense</b>.
<br /><div><i>Remember, &nbsp;BCKDH is o
ne of the enzymes tht requires <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>:</i></di
v><div><i>Thimine (B1)</i></div><div><i>Lipoic Acid</i></div><div><i>CoA (B5)</
i></div><div><i>FAD (B2)</i></div><div><i>NAD (B3)</i></div>
1401813093714 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Mple Syrup Urine D
isese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brnched Chin lph-Ketocid Dehydrogense}}

</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, this enzyme requires <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre F
or Nncy</b>:</i></div><div><i>Thimine (B1)</i></div><div><i>Lipoic Acid</i></d
iv><div><i>CoA (B5)</i></div><div><i>FAD (B2)</i></div><div><i>NAD (B3)</i></div
>
1401813158862 1395802358422 Wht re the 3 brnched chin mino cids?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Vline; Leucine; Isoleucine}}</div>
1401813191515 1395802358422 {{c1::Mple Syrup Urine Disese}} is  disorder
of brnched mino cid metbolism tht results in <b>incresed lph-ketocids</
b>&nbsp;in the blood, especilly those of leucine.
1401813227620 1395802358422 How do the levels of lph-ketocids chnge in M
ple Syrup Urine Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse; especilly those
of leucine}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, MSUD involves  defect or defici
ency in Brnched Chin lph-Ketocid Dehydrogense.</i></div>
1401813299130 1395802358422 {{c1::Mple Syrup Urine Disese}} is  disorder
of brnched chin mino cid metbolism tht involves <b>severe CNS defects, int
ellectul disbility</b>&nbsp;nd <b>deth</b>.
1401813428800 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Mple Syrup U
rine Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401813441502 1395802358422 {{c1::Mple Syrup Urine Disese}} is  disorder
of mino cid metbolism tht presents with urine tht smells like mple syrup/b
urnt sugr.
1401813474986 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Mple Syrup Urine Dise
se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Restriction of BCAAs in the diet (Leu, Ile, Vl)
; Thimine supplementtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Thimine is  required cof
ctor for Brnched Chin lph-Ketocid Dehydrogense.</i></div>
1401813535554 1395802358422 How does Glucgon influence Glycogenolysis?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Glucgon cuses th
e <b>phosphoryltion of Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>&nbsp;vi Protein Kinse A, th
ereby <b>ctivting it.</b></i></div><div><i>Glucgon cuses the <b>phosphorylt
ion of Glycogen Synthse</b>&nbsp;vi Protein Kinse A, thereby <b>inctivting
it.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819069138 1395802358422 How does Epinephrine influence Glycogenolysis?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<div><br /></div><div><div><i>Ep
inephrine cuses the&nbsp;<b>phosphoryltion of Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>&nbsp;
vi Protein Kinse A, thereby&nbsp;<b>ctivting it.</b></i></div><div><i>Epinep
hrine cuses the&nbsp;<b>phosphoryltion of Glycogen Synthse</b>&nbsp;vi Prote
in Kinse A, thereby&nbsp;<b>inctivting it.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="
pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div></div>
1401819219969 1395802358422 Which type of G-protein is involved in Glucgon
nd Epinephrine signlling?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Thereby cusing n increse in [cAMP].</i></div><div><i><div></div
></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819279758 1395802358422 Which protein kinse enzyme is involved in the r
egultion of Glycogen Phosphorylse nd Glycogen Synthse by Glucgon nd Epinep
hrine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Protein Kinse A}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>And remember, <b>Insulin ctivtes phosphtses</b>&nbsp;hence it does the o
pposite.</i><br /><div><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg
" /></b></i></div>
1401819363556 1395802358422 Which protein phosphtse enzyme is involved in
the regultion of Glycogen Synthse nd Glycogen Phosphorylse by Insulin?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Protein Phosphtse 1}}</div>
<br /><div><i><div></div
></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819410506 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Glycogenolysis?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Insulin ctivtes
<b>Glycogen Synthse</b>.</i></div><div><i>Insulin ctivtes <b>Protein Phospht
se 1</b>&nbsp;which <b>dephosphoryltes Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>, thereby in
ctivting it.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-21646
63517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819491519 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Glycogenesis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin ctivtes <b>Glyco

gen Synthse</b>.</i></div><div><i>Insulin ctivted <b>Protein Phosphtse 1</b
>&nbsp;which dephosphoryltes <b>Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>, thereby inctivtin
g it.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742
.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401820462778 1395802358422 How does AMP influence Glycogenolysis t muscle?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>This only occurs 
t muscle. <b>AMP hs no effect on heptic glycogenolysis</b>.</i></div>
1401820512824 1395802358422 Which enzyme in muscle ctivtes Glycogen Phosph
orylse when it is bound to C?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clmodulin}}</div>
<br /><div><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i>
</div>
1401820582800 1395802358422 How does Glucose-6-phosphte influence Glycogene
sis in both liver nd muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>G6P ctivted Glycogen Synthse in  feed-forwrd mnner to drive
glycogenesis.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-21646
63517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401833353374 1395802358422 Wht type of glycosidic bond is seen in <b>glyco
gen brnches</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-(1,6)}}</div>
1401833612783 1395802358422 Wht type of glycosidic bond is seen in <b>glyco
gen links</b>&nbsp;(i.e. liner glycogen)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-(1,4
)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-4475355922733.jpg" /></div>
1401833683064 1395802358422 In skeletl muscle, Glycogen is broken into&nbsp
;{{c1::Glucose-1-phosphte}} molecules nd then converted to&nbsp;{{c2::Glucose6-phosphte}}, which is rpidly metbolized during exercise nd enters nerobic
glycolysis.
<br /><div><i>The brekdown is the reverse of glycogen synthesis
:</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></i></div>
1401833835675 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver cleves Glucose-1-phos
phte residues off brnched glycogen until there re four remining before  br
nch point?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen phosphorylse}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></div>
1401834039050 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver moves <b>three</b>&nbs
p;Glucose-1-phosphte molecules from the brnch to the glycogen linkge in Glyco
genolysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4-lph-D-Glucnotrnsferse (Debrnching
Enzyme)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></div>
1401834231654 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver cleves off the lst g
lucose-1-phosphte molecule from  brnch in Glycogenolysis?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::lph-1,6-Glucosidse (Debrnching Enzyme)}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></div>
1401834270124 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver removes  phosphte gr
oup from Glucose-6-phosphte, thereby llowing glucose to be trnsported into th
e blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphtse}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Remember, glycogenolysis t the liver is imed to mintin blood sugr. Th
is finl step is vitl in both gluconeongenesis nd glycogenolysis to llow gluc
ose to enter circultion.</i></div><div><i>In fct, <b>the liver hs  unique Gl
ucose-6-phosphtse</b>&nbsp;tht lets this lst step occur.</i></div>
1401834466570 1395802358422 Which enzyme reversibly converts Glucose-1-phosp
hte to Glucose-6-phosphte (nd vice vers)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Epimer
se}}</div>
1401834493200 1395802358422 Which enzyme in <b>lysosomes</b>&nbsp;degrdes 
smll mount of glycogen?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-1,4-glucosidse (Aci
d Mltse)}}</div>
1401834550708 1395802358422 Wht is the primry role of Glycogenolysis t th
e liver?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mintennt of blood glucose}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Glycogenolysis only lsts  short time. Soon fter, gluconeogenesis tkes
over to keep blood glucose levels mintined.</i></div>
1401834674758 1395802358422 How do Glycogen levels chnge in glycogen storg
e disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Lo
l. Just mking sure you're still live.</i></div><div><i>Also, keep in mind of <
b>where</b>&nbsp;glycogen is mde/stored: <b>Liver</b>&nbsp;nd <b>muscle</b>. H
ence, it is these 2 tissues tht re ffected in these disorders. Glycogen stor

ge disorders cn be sorted into liver, muscle or mixed types.</i></div>
1401835653689 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke disese}} is  glycogen storge
disorder tht is lso referred to s Type I Glycogen Storge Disorder.
1401835707649 1395802358422 {{c1::Pompe Disese}} is  glycogen storge diso
rder tht is lso referred to s Type II&nbsp;Glycogen Storge Disorder
1401835724855 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is  glycogen storge disor
der tht is lso referred to s Type III&nbsp;Glycogen Storge Disorder.
1401835744015 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht is lso referred to s Type V&nbsp;Glycogen Storge Disorder.
1401835786447 1395802358422 Wht is the only glycogen storge disorder tht
ffects <b>both</b>&nbsp;the liver nd muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pompe
Disese}}</div>
1401835912232 1395802358422 Wht is the only glycogen storge disorder tht
hs severe fsting hypoglycemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Von Gierke Disese}}
</div>
1401835936881 1395802358422 Which enzyme is defective in Von Gierke Disese?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphtse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Re
member, <b>only the liver expresses Glucose-6-phosphtse.</b></i></div><div><i>
Of the glycogen storge disorders, Von Gierke is bsiclly the only one with re
lly shitty biochemistry.</i></div>
1401835993657 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke Disese}} is  glycogen storge
disorder tht presents with <b>severe fsting hypoglycemi</b>&nbsp;due to  Gl
ucose-6-phosphtse deficiency.
1401836050525 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke Disese}} is  glycogen storge
disorder tht presents with <b>heptomegly</b>&nbsp;due to  severe increse i
n Glucose-6-phosphte levels. <br /><div><i>G6P is very osmoticlly ctive nd
hence cuses cell swelling nd ultimtely heptosplenomegly.</i></div>
1401836115317 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke Disese}} is  glycogen storge
disorder tht presents with <b>hypermmonemi</b>&nbsp;nd <b>lctic cidosis</
b>&nbsp;due to the liver filure tht rises. <br /><div><i>Von Gierke Disese
is essentilly  genetic cuse of liver filure due to the Glucose-6-phosphts
e deficiency.</i></div>
1401836262125 1395802358422 {{c1::Ketocidosis}} is  compliction of Von Gi
erke Disese tht rises due to Acetyl CoA being shunted towrds ketogenesis.
1401836445601 1395802358422 {{c1::Gout/Hyperuricemi}} is  possible complic
tion of Von Gierke Disese due to the phosphte trpping tht occurs with Gluco
se-6-phosphte ccumultion nd the resultnt lck of phosphte for purine slv
ge.
<br /><div><i>Anything tht cuses phosphte trpping cn cuse hyperuri
cemi/gout.</i></div><div><i>Fructose Intolernce (Aldolse B deficiency; F1P c
cumultion) is nother exmple.</i></div><div><i>Clssic Glctosemi (Gl-1-P U
ridyltrnsferse defect; Gl-1-P ccumultion) is one s well.</i></div>
1401836484479 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Von Gierke Di
sese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401836496319 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Von Gierke Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frequent orl glucose/cornstrch; voidnce of fructose
nd glctose}}</div>
1401848975352 1395802358422 {{c1::Pompe Disese}} is  glycogen storge diso
rder tht involves <b>crdiomyopthy.</b>
<br /><div><i>Along with systemi
c findings, heptomegly nd muscle wekness there is erly deth.</i></div>
1401849196084 1395802358422 {{c1::Pompe Disese}} is  glycogen storge diso
rder tht involves  deficiency of Lysosoml lph-1,4-glucosidse (Acid Mltse
).
1401849223920 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is deficient in Pompe Disese?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Alph-1,4-glucosidse (Acid Mltse)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Found in lysosomes.</i></div>
1401849315370 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth in Pompe
Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CHF or rrhythmi}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i><b>P</b>ompe trshes the <b>p</b>ump.</i><br /><div><i>However remember, the
<b>liver is still ffected</b>. Pompe ffects both muscle nd the liver.</i></d
iv>

1401849357548 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Pompe Disese
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401849391388 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is  glycogen storge disor
der tht is considered  milder form of Von Gierke Disese (Glycogen Storge Dis
order Type I) with norml lctte levels.
<br /><div><i>Gluconeogenesis is
intct.</i></div>
1401849487279 1395802358422 Which glycogen storge disorder is considered 
milder form of Von Gierke Disese (Glycogen Storge Disorder Type I)?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Cori Disese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gluconeogenesis is intct
nd there re norml lctte levels.</i></div>
1401849548573 1395802358422 How do lctte levels chnge in Cori Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is  very key point.
There is no lctic cidosis in Cori Disese.</i></div>
1401849589562 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Cori Disese?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Debrnching enzyme (lph-1,6-Glucosidse)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Mnemonic to remember Anderson nd Cori Disese:</i></div><div><i><
b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson = <b>B</b>rnching enzyme deficie
ncy</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori = <b>D</b>ebrnching enzyme deficiency</i></div
>
1401849667566 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is  glycogen storge dise
se tht involves deficiency of Debrnching Enzyme (lph-1,6-glucosidse).
<div><br /></div><div><div><i>Mnemonic to remember Anderson nd Cori Disese:</i
></div><div><i><b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson =&nbsp;<b>B</b>r
nching enzyme deficiency</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori =&nbsp;<b>D</b>ebrnching
enzyme deficiency</i></div></div>
1401849717567 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Cori Disese?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401849734132 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is  glycogen storge disor
der tht involves cellulr glycogen with <b>too mny brnches </b>due to  defic
iency of Debrnching Enzyme.
1401849834426 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht presents with <b>myoglobinuri</b>&nbsp;with <b>red urine</b>&nbsp;f
ollowing strenuous exercise.
1401851325675 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht presents with pinful muscle crmps due to glycogen ccumultion in
muscle.
1401851374058 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht presents with <b>rrhythmi</b>&nbsp;due to electrolyte bnormlitie
s.
1401851414844 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in McArdle Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Skeletl muscle glycogen phosphorylse (Myophosphoryls
e)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Therefore <b>glycogenolysis is defective.</b></i><
/div>
1401851474427 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht involves  skeletl muscle glycogen phosphorylse (Myophosphorylse)
deficiency.
<br /><div><i>Therefore <b>glycogenolysis is defective</b>.</i><
/div>
1401851515196 1395802358422 {{c1::Pinful muscle crmps}} is  compliction
of McArdle Disese tht rises due to the significnt glycogen buildup in muscle
s.
<br /><div><i>There is no lctic cidosis in McArdle Disese s glucose
is <b>unvilble</b>&nbsp;due to  glycogen phosphorylse deficiency. Hence, no
glucose is vilble to be mde into Lctte vi Anerobic Glycolysis. Therefor
e, this muscle crmping hs nothing to do with lctte.</i></div>
1401851670334 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of McArdle Dise
se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401852097481 1395802358422 Which mjor glycogen storge disorder is ssoci
ted with muscle dmge?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::McArdle Disese}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>M</b>cArdle = <b>M</b>uscle</i></div>
1401852141165 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the glycogen storg
e disorder Anderson Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brnching Enzyme}}</div>

<br /><div><div><i>Mnemonic for remembering Anderson nd Cori disese:</i></div>
</div><div><i><b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson = <b>B</b>rnching
enzyme deficiency</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori = <b>D</b>ebrnching enzyme defi
ciency</i></div>
1401923761587 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b>&nbsp;of bnorml products ccum
ulte in lysosoml storge diseses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sphingolipids}}<
/div> <br /><div><i><b>Cermide</b> is the 'prent' of ll sphingolipids.</i><
/div>
1401926578906 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disese is ssocited wi
th <b>ngiokertoms</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fbry Disese}}</div>
1401926647468 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith crdiovsculr/renl disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fbry Disese}}</di
v>
1401926672207 1395802358422 {{c1::Fbry Disese}} is  lysosoml storge dis
order tht involves peripherl neuropthy of the hnds nd feet due to n <b>lp
h-glctosidse A</b> deficiency.
1401927090547 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml stor
ge disorder Fbry Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-Glctosidse A}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401927126436 1395802358422 {{c1::Fbry Disese}} is  lysosoml storge dis
order tht involves  deficiency of lph-Glctosidse A.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401927150689 1395802358422 {{c1::Fbry Disese}} is  lysosoml storge dis
order tht involves ccumultion of <b>cermide hexoside</b>. <br /><div><img
src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401927173282 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of the lysosoml
storge disorder Fbry Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}
</div> <br /><div><i>All lysosoml storge disorders <b>except Fbry</b>&nbsp;
re utosoml recessive disorders.</i></div>
1401927409823 1395802358422 Wht is the only lysosoml storge disorder tht
is X-linked recessive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fbry Disese}}</div>
<br /><div><i>All other lysosoml storge disorders re utosoml recessive.</i>
</div>
1401928007277 1395802358422 Wht is the most common lysosoml storge disord
er?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gucher Disese}}</div>
1401928040370 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder ffects t
he Reticuloendothelil System (RES; Mononucler Phgocyte System) only?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Gucher}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence there will be <b>hep
tosplenomegly</b>.</i></div>
1401928923199 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith <b>pncytopeni</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gucher Disese}}</div>
1401928967551 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith <b>septic necrosis of the femur</b>&nbsp;nd <b>bone crises</b>?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Gucher Disese}}</div>
1401928997477 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Cells}} re  pthologicl cell se
en in Gucher Disese tht re described s <b>lipid-lden mcrophges resemblin
g crumpled tissue pper</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-3685081940158.
jpg" /></div> <br /><div><i>Visulized with  <b>PAS stin.</b></i></div>
1401929060078 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for the lysosoml storge
disorder Gucher Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Recombinnt glucocerebrosid
se}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. the deficient enzyme</i></div>
1401929097241 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Gucher Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucocerebrosidse (bet-Glucosidse)}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i><b>"G-G-Glucose!</b>" (Gucher; Glucocerebrosidse; Glucocerebroside
).</i><br /><div><img src="pste-3878355468684.jpg" /></div>
1401929406864 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Disese}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves  deficiency of <b>Glucocerebrosidse</b>&nbsp;(bet-Gluco
sidse) nd  subsequent deficiency of <b>Glucocerebroside</b>. <div><br /></div
><i>Gucher = "<b><u>GGG</u></b>"</i><br /><div><img src="pste-3874060501388.jp
g" /></div>

1401929481745 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Disese}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves  Glucocerebrosidse deficiency. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401929530946 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Disese}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves the ccumultion of Glucocerebroside.
<div><br /></div
><i>"<b>G-G-Glucose!</b>" (Gucher, Glucocerebrosidse, Glucocerebroside)</i><br
/><div><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401929935588 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder ffects <
b>both</b>&nbsp;the CNS nd Reticuloendothelil System (RES)?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence there is <b>heptosp
lenomegly, progressive neurodegenertion</b>&nbsp;<b><u>nd</u>&nbsp;cherry-red
mcul</b>.</i></div>
1401929998180 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder presents
with <b>both</b>&nbsp;heptosplenomegly nd cherry-red mcul?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}}</div>
1401930068039 1395802358422 {{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}} is  lysosoml stor
ge disorder tht presents with progressive neurodegenertion, <b>heptosplenome
gly</b>&nbsp;nd <b>cherry-red</b>&nbsp;spot on the mcul.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401930503169 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml stor
ge disorder Niemnn-Pick Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sphingomyelinse}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>My friend <b>Nmn</b>&nbsp;picks (Niemnn-Pick) his nose
with his <b>sphing</b>er (sphingomyelin; sphingomyelinse).</i></div><div><i>...
. true story, if you ever see Nmn D. on the wrds, cll him out on it.</i></di
v><div><i><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></i></div>
1401930887198 1395802358422 {{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}} is  lysosoml stor
ge disorder tht involves  deficiency of Sphingomyelinse.
<div><br /></div
><i>My friend <b>Nmn</b>&nbsp;picks (Niemnn-Pick) his nose with his <b>sphing
</b>er (sphingomyelin; sphingomyelinse).</i><div><i>... true story, if you ever
see Nmn D. on the wrds, cll him out on it.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-38
74060501388.jpg" /></div></div>
1401930953025 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Gucher Dise
se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401931228389 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Niemnn-Pick
Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401931245436 1395802358422 {{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}} is  lysosoml stor
ge disorder tht presents with n ccumultion of Sphingomyelin.
<br /><d
iv><br /></div><div><i>My friend&nbsp;<b>Nmn</b>&nbsp;picks (Niemnn-Pick) his
nose with his&nbsp;<b>sphing</b>er (sphingomyelin; sphingomyelinse).</i><div><
i>... true story, if you ever see Nmn D. on the wrds, cll him out on it.<br
/></i><div><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1401931274881 1395802358422 {{c1::Cherry-red spot on the mcul}} is n ocul
r compliction of lysosoml storge disorders ffecting the CNS nd is describe
d s the mcul ppering on  very ple bckground retin with neurons full of
sphingolipids. <br /><div><i>Here's  good mnemonic: <b>Cherry-red is hyphente
d, so is Niemnn-Pick nd Ty-Schs</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="pste-7911
329759427.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401931429176 1395802358422 {{c1::Fom cells}} re  pthologicl cell seen
in Niemnn-Pick Disese tht re described s lipid-lden mcrophges.<div><br /
></div><div><img src="pste-7022271529157.jpg" /></div>
1401931470977 1395802358422 {{c1::Zebr Bodies}} re intrcellulr fetures
of mcrophges nd neurons in Niemnn-Pick disese seen on electron microscopy 
nd re described s striped ptterns of ccumulted sphingolipids.<div><br /></d
iv><div><img src="pste-7176890351902.jpg" /></div>
1401931654715 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder ffects t
he CNS only?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence there is <b>progressive neurodegenertion nd cherry-red mcul</b>.
</i></div>
1401932275945 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}} is  lysosoml storge
disorder tht presents with <b>progressive neurodegenertion</b>&nbsp;nd <b>de

velopmentl dely</b>&nbsp;due to  Hexosminidse A defect.
1401932315388 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}} is  lysosoml storge
disorder tht presents with  <b>"cherry-red" spot on the mcul</b>&nbsp;due t
o  Hexosminidse A deficiency.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-7907034792
131.jpg" /></div>
1401932350503 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder presents with <
b>lysosomes with onion skin</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}}<
/div>
1401932454875 1395802358422 Wht is the key distinguishing feture between N
iemnn-Pick nd Ty-Schs Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs <b>does
not</b>&nbsp;hve heptosplenomegly}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Niemnn-Pick = CNS
nd RES</i></div><div><i>Ty-Schs = CNS only</i></div>
1401932505408 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy for someone with Ty
-Schs Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3-4 y/o}}</div>
<br /><div><i>He
nce  vignette with  40 y/o ptient does not hve Ty-Schs.</i></div>
1401932531668 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml stor
ge disorder Ty-Schs Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexosminidse A}}</di
v>
<div><br /></div><i>Ty-S<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>&nbsp;= He
<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>osminidse A deficiency</i><br /><div><img
src="pste-8383776162186.jpg" /></div>
1401932604193 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}} is  lysosoml storge
disorder tht involves  Hexosminidse A deficiency. <br /><div><i>Ty-S<u s
tyle="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>&nbsp;= He<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>os
minidse A deficiency</i><br /><div><img src="pste-8383776162186.jpg" /></div>
</div>
1401932644047 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}} is  lysosoml storge
disorder tht involves n ccumultion of GM₂&nbsp;Gnglioside.
<br /><div><i>Ty-S<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>&nbsp;= He<u style="font
-weight: bold; ">X</u>osminidse A deficiency</i><br /><div><img src="pste-838
3776162186.jpg" /></div></div>
1401932687196 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Ty-Schs Dis
ese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401932704046 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith Globoid Cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Krbbe Disese}}</div>
1401933097915 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith <b>optic trophy</b>&nbsp;s well s peripherl neuropthy nd developmentl
dely?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Krbbe Disese}}</div>
1401933127517 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml storg
e disorder Krbbe Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glctocerebrosidse}}</di
v>
<br /><div><img src="pste-9229884719498.jpg" /></div>
1401933369573 1395802358422 {{c1::Krbbe Disese}} is  lysosoml storge di
sorder tht presents with n ccumultion of Glctocerebroside.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933395457 1395802358422 {{c1::Krbbe Disese}} is  lysosoml storge di
sorder tht involves  Glctocerebrosidse deficiency. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933451333 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Krbbe Dises
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401933463784 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of  ptient with Kr
bbe Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~ 2 y/o}}</div>
1401933483703 1395802358422 {{c1::Metchromtic Leukodystrophy}} is  lysoso
ml storge disorder tht presents with <b>centrl nd peripherl demyelintion,
txi</b> nd <b>dementi</b>.
1401933530940 1395802358422 {{c1::Metchromtic Leukodystrophy}} is  lysoso
ml storge disorder tht involves n Arylsulftse A deficiency.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933565132 1395802358422 Which enzyme deficiency is seen in the lysosoml
storge disorder Metchromtic Leukodystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aryls
ulftse A}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933594019 1395802358422 {{c1::Metchromtic Leukodystrophy}} is  lysoso

ml storge disorder tht presents with n ccumultion of Cerebroside Sulfte.
<br /><div><img src="pste-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933647288 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Metchromtic
Leukodystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401933927937 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents with <b>grgoylism</b>&nbsp;nd <b>cornel clouding</b>.
1401933986744 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents with <b>irwy obstruction</b>&nbsp;nd heptosplenomegly
.
1401934028029 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml stor
ge disorder Hurler Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-L-iduronidse}}</d
iv>
1401934069500 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves  deficieny of lph-L-iduronidse.
1401934092467 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::Hunter Sy
ndrome}} re lysosoml storge disorders tht present with ccumultion of <b>he
prn sulfte</b>&nbsp;nd <b>dermtn sulfte</b>.
1401934123572 1395802358422 {{c1::Hunter Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents similr to Hurler Syndrome, but <b>lcks cornel clouding<
/b>.
1401934149732 1395802358422 {{c1::Hunter Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents similr to Hurler Syndrome but <b>includes ggressive beh
viour</b>.
1401934185984 1395802358422 {{c1::Hunter Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves  deficiency of iduronte sulftse.
1401934211249 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of the lysosoml
storge disorder Hunter Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hunters lwys im for the <b>X</b>.</i></div>
1401934246419 1395802358422 Which 3 lysosoml storge disorder hve n incre
sed incidence in Ashkenzi Jews?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs; NiemnnPick; Gucher}}</div>
1401934288337 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}},&nbsp;{{c2::Niemnn-Pi
ck Disese}} nd&nbsp;{{c3::Gucher Disese}} re lysosoml storge disorders th
t hve incresed incidence in Ashkenzi Jews.
1401934344648 1395802358422 Adipose tissue cn only mke Glycerol-3-Phospht
e by reducing {{c1::Dihydroxycetone Phosphte (DHAP)}},  glycolytic intermedi
te.
<br /><div><i>Hence, dipose tissue requires incresed glucose uptke vi
 the GLUT4 trnsporter in order for there to be spre DHAP vilble for mking
nd storing triglycerides. This is prt of why excess sugr intke becomes ft.
</i></div><div><i>Also this is why&nbsp;</i><b><i>dibetics will hve hyperlipid
emi</i>.</b></div>
1401936293497 1395802358422 {{c1::Ftty Acid Synthse}} is n enzyme in ftt
y cid synthesis tht mkes Plmitte through 7 rounds of rection (vi 7 ATP) b
y dding 2 crbons from Acetyl CoA to  growing ftty cid chin.
<br /><d
iv><i>This rection lso uses NADPH.</i></div><div><i>Only crbons from Acetyl C
oA re dded.</i></div><div><i>Plmitte is essentilly  storge form of 8 cet
yl-CoA mocs (2 C ech).</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-11463267713772.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1401937489319 1395802358422 {{c1::Avidin}} is  protein in rw eggs tht cn
bind to Vitmin B7 (Biotin), thereby cusing  possible deficiency of ftty ci
ds due to impired Mlonyl-CoA production.
<div><br /></div><i>Biotin is re
quired for Mlonyl-CoA production in FA Synthesis.</i><br /><div><img src="pste
-11458972746476.jpg" /></div>
1401937981267 1395802358422 Which metbolic shuttle is involved in Ftty Aci
d <b>Synthesis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Citrte Shuttle}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>This is importnt to remember becuse <b>Citrte inhibits glycolysis
.</b>&nbsp;Hence, when Citrte is high the body is essentilly sying "Stop burn
ing sugr, brh. I'm gonn mke ft. How bout you use tht G6P to mke glycogen
or NADPH vi the HMP shunt insted?".</i><br /><div><img src="pste-11458972746
476.jpg" /></div>

1401938332490 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Ftty Acid Synthse 
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed vi induction}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-11458972746476.jpg" /></div>
1401938390760 1395802358422 {{c1::Ftty Acid CoA Synthetse}} is n enzyme i
nvolved in ftty cid <b>degrdtion</b>&nbsp;tht "ctivtes" ftty cids by d
ding  CoA group.
<br /><div><img src="pste-12167642350321.jpg" /></div>
1401938575082 1395802358422 Which nucleoside disphosphte molecule is dded
to sugrs to "ctivte" them for metbolic rections?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:UDP (Uridine Diphosphte)}}</div>
1401938879605 1395802358422 How does Mlonyl-CoA influence Ftty Acid Degrd
tion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition (t Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse
1)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Remember, <b>Mlonyl-CoA is n intermedite
of FA Synthesis</b>. Hence, if your ss is mking fts, ft brekdown is going t
o be inhibited.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939128667 1395802358422 Wht is the rte limiting enzyme of Ftty Acid D
egrdtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse <u><b>1</
b></u> (CPT1)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939154201 1395802358422 Which metbolic shuttle is involved in Ftty Aci
d Degrdtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crnitine Shuttle}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>Involves 2 key enzymes:</i><div><i><b>Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsfers
e 1 (CPT1)&nbsp;</b>nd&nbsp;</i><i><b>Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse 2 (CPT2).
</b></i></div><div><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div></div>
1401939211497 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse <b>1</b>}}
is n enzyme involved in the crnitine shuttle tht dds Crnitine to Acyl-CoA
molecules, thereby llowing it to cross the mitochondril membrne.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939260807 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse <b>2</b>}}
is n enzyme in the crnitine shuttle tht <b>removes</b>&nbsp;Crnitine from C
rnitine-Acyl-CoA, thereby freeing Acyl-CoA into the mitochondri.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939309807 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetyl-CoA}} is the finl brekdown produc
t of ftty cids tht then feeds into ketogenesis nd the TCA cycle.
<div><br
/></div><i>Hence, when there is incresed ATP (such s in dibetics), the <b>ex
cess Acetyl-CoA cuses ketocidosis</b>.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-121633473
83025.jpg" /></div>
1401939401190 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Deficiency}} is  disorder of f
tty cid brekdown tht involves the <b>inbility to trnsport long-chin ftty
cids into the mitochondri</b>, thereby resulting in toxic ccumultion.
<br /><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939467652 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Deficiency}} is  disorder of f
tty cid brekdown tht presents with <b>wekness</b>&nbsp;nd <b>hypotoni</b>.
1401939523409 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoketotic hypoglycemi}} is  feture of
Crnitine deficiency due to significntly lower levels of Acetyl-CoA s  resul
t of impired ftty cid brekdown.
<div><br /></div><i>Remember, Acetyl-CoA
feeds into ketogenesis. Acetyl-CoA is lso  positive llosteric regultor of P
yruvte Decrboxylse in gluconeogenesis.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-12163347
383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939640650 1395802358422 {{c1::Acyl-CoA Dehydrogense Deficiency}} is  d
isorder of ftty cid brekdown tht involves <b>elevted levels of dicrboxylic
cids </b>nd <b>low levels of Acetyl-CoA.</b> <br /><div><i>Becuse there is l
ess Acetyl-CoA, there is lso <b>hypoketotic hypoglycemi</b>&nbsp;s cetyl-CoA
drives both ketogenesis nd gluconeogenesis.</i></div>
1401939781619 1395802358422 How does Acetyl-CoA influence Pyruvte Crboxyl
se in Gluconeogenesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive llosteric regultor}
}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence, decresed Acetyl-CoA = decresed fsting glucose =
fsting hypoglycemi</i></div>
1401939841483 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetyl-CoA}} is  brekdown product of ft
ty cids tht directly feeds into ketogenesis, especilly when it is found in ex
cess. <br /><div><i>In prolonged strvtion nd DKA, Oxlocette is depleted
for gluconeogenesis.</i></div><div><i>In lcoholism, elevted NADH levels shunt

Oxlocette to mlte.</i></div><div><i><u>Both of the bove occurrences cuse
 buildup of Acetyl-CoA, which shunts both Glucose nd free ftty cids towrds
Ketogenesis.</u></i></div>
1401940643620 1395802358422 How does Glucgon influence Ketogenesis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence Ketogenesis occurs p
ost mel nd in between mels.</i></div>
1401940667657 1395802358422 Which breth smell is ssocited with Ketosis?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fruity Odour}}</div>
1401940705348 1395802358422 Where in the body does Ketolysis occur?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Renl cortex, muscle nd brin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
e liver is unble to peform Ketolysis becuse <b>it lcks Thiophorse </b>(Succi
nyl-CoA Acetocette Trnsferse), nd is hence unble to ctivte its own keton
es.</i></div><div><i>Ketolysis involves the ctivtion of Hydroxybutyrte to Ace
tocette nd subsequent NADH production.</i></div>
1401941075357 1395802358422 Linolenic Acid is n omeg-{{c1::3}} ftty cid.
<br /><div><i>i.e. fish oil.</i></div>
1401941118259 1395802358422 Linoleic Acid is n omeg-{{c1::6}} ftty cid.
1401941135122 1395802358422 Archidonic Acid is n omeg-{{c1::6}} ftty ci
d.
1401941147674 1395802358422 Which omeg-6 ftty cid is used to mke Archid
onic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Linoleic Acid}}</div>
1401941166429 1395802358422 How mny crbons re in the ftty cid Plmitic
Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::16:0}}</div>
1401941209238 1395802358422 How mny crbons re in the <b>essentil</b>&nbs
p;ftty cid Linoleic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::18:2}}</div>
1401941226068 1395802358422 How mny crbons re in the <b>essentil</b>&nbs
p;ftty cid Linolenic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::18:3}}</div>
1401988556499 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of p
rotein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl}}</div>
1401988983762 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of c
rbohydrte?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl}}</div>
1401989001496 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of f
t?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::9 kcl}}</div>
1401989012640 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of 
lcohol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::7 kcl}}</div>
1401989035680 1395802358422 {{c1::Cretine Phosphte}} is  high energy phos
phorylted molecule tht functions s the <b>second</b>&nbsp;mjor source of ene
rgy in exercise fter ATP stores.
<br /><div><img src="pste-979252544012.
jpg" /></div>
1401989465450 1395802358422 Which metbolic process is the mjor source of e
nergy in the fed stte (just fter  mel)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycolysi
s; Aerobic Respirtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin fter  mel stimultes th
e storge of lipids, proteins nd glycogen.</i></div>
1401990702186 1395802358422 Which metbolic process is the <b>mjor</b>&nbsp
;source of energy in the fsting stte (between mels)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Heptic glycogenolysis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Glucgon nd NE stimulte
use of fuel/energy reserves.</i></div>
1401990764617 1395802358422 Which metbolic process is the <b>secondry</b>&
nbsp;source of energy in the fstic stte (between mels)?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Heptic gluconeogenesis; Adipose relese of FFA}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gl
ucgon nd NE stimulte the use of fuel/energy reserves.</i></div>
1401990812842 1395802358422 How mny dys into strvtion do Glycogen reserv
es usully become depleted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dy 1}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-1541893259754.jpg" /><img src="pste-2435246457278.jpg" /></d
iv>
1401991850330 1395802358422 Which energy store is the <b>mjor</b>&nbsp;sour
ce of energy fter dy 3 of strvtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adipose store
s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This fr into strvtion, ketones become the min
energy source for the brin.</i></div><div><i>After ft stores deplete, degrdt
ion of vitl proteins ccelertes, leding to orgn filure nd deth.</i></div>

<div><i>The mount of excess energy stores vilble determines how long someone
will survive in strvtion.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-1541893259754.jpg"
/><img src="pste-2435246457278.jpg" /></i></div>
1401992066409 1395802358422 How do incresed cholesterol levels influence th
e expression of LDL receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1402010858583 1395802358422 Which receptor on heptocytes binds to LDL, llo
wing for its uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL Receptors (ApoB100 Receptor)
}}</div>
1402011383789 1395802358422 Which receptor on heptocytes binds to HDL, llo
wing for its uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SR-B1 receptor}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Scvenger receptor B1</i></div>
1402011413644 1395802358422 Wht is the rte limiting enzyme in cholesterol
synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA Reductse}}</div>
1402011452174 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence HMG-CoA Reductse ct
ivity in cholesterol synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse vi inductio
n}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, Induction = incresed expression = incre
sed V_mx</i></div>
1402011491725 1395802358422 How does Mevlonte, n intermedite in choleste
rol synthesis, influence HMG CoA Reductse expression?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Repression}}</div>
<br /><div><i>HMG-CoA is converted into Mevlonte</i></
div>
1402011923634 1395802358422 Which enzyme bound to HDL nd LDL esterifies 2/3
of plsm cholesterol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lechitin-Cholesterol Acyltrn
sferse (LCAT)}}</div>
1402012081011 1395802358422 {{c1::Sttins}} re  clss of ntihyperlipidemi
c drugs tht competitively nd reversibly inhibit HMG-CoA Reductse.
<br /><d
iv><i>e.g. Lovsttin</i></div>
1402012556117 1395802358422 {{c1::Frnesyl PPi}} is  byproduct of cholester
ol synthesis tht functions s  source of Coenzyme Q. <br /><div><i>Hence, dm
inistrtion of Sttins, which inhibit cholesterol synthesis, cn impir function
of the electron trnsport chin by inhibiting Frnesyl PPi production. This is
prt of&nbsp;<b>Sttin-induced Rhbdomyolysis</b>&nbsp;s myocytes re prticul
rly rich in mitochondri.</i></div>
1402022178378 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipse}} is  pncretic enzyme tht degr
des dietry triglycerides in the smll intestine.
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-2250562863813.jpg" /></div>
1402022600834 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL)}} is n enzyme fo
und on the surfce of vsculr endothelium tht degrdes triglycerides circulti
ng in chylomicrons nd VLDLs. <br /><div><img src="pste-2246267896517.jpg" />
</div>
1402022656036 1395802358422 {{c1::Heptic Lipse (HL)}} is  heptic enzyme
tht degrdes triglycerides tht remin in IDL. <br /><div><img src="pste-22462
67896517.jpg" /></div>
1402022687158 1395802358422 How do decresed Insulin levels influence Hormon
e Sensitive Lipse (HSL) ctivity?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<div><br></div><i>This is very importnt to remember. <b>Hormone Sensitive Lips
e detects <u>decreses</u>&nbsp;in Insulin</b>. This contributes to the hyperlip
idemi seen in dibetics. Lower insulin levels cuses n increse in HSL ctivit
y nd hence more FFAs in the blood.</i><div><i>Also remember tht without Insuli
n, lipids re not stored in dipose tissue nd they sty in blood (s VLDL, LDL
nd Chylomicrons), thereby contributing to dibetic hyperlipidemi.<br></i><div>
<img src="pste-2246267896517.jpg" /></div></div>
1402022799822 1395802358422 How do incresed Insulin levels influence Lipopr
otein Lipse (LPL) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-2246267896517.jpg" /></div>
1402022830108 1395802358422 {{c1::Hormone Sensitive Lipse (HSL)}} is  lip
se enzyme found in dipocytes tht degrdes stored triglycerides.
1402022977509 1395802358422 {{c1::Lechitin-cholesterol Acyltrnsferse (LCAT
)}} is n enzyme found on HDL tht ctlyzes the esterifiction of cholesterol,
thereby forming mture HDL.
<br /><div><img src="pste-3534758084974.jpg" />

</div>
1402023608036 1395802358422 {{c1::Cholesterol ester trnsfer protein (CETP)}
} is n enzyme found in HDL tht medites the trnsfer of cholesterol esters to
other lipoprotein prticles (such s VLDL, IDL, LDL). <div><br /></div><i>As I
DL becomes richer nd richer in cholesterol vi CETP ction, it becomes LDL.</i>
<br /><div><img src="pste-3530463117678.jpg" /></div>
1402023680505 1395802358422 Wht receptor on heptocytes binds to HDL, there
by mediting its uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SR-B1}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>k Scvenger B1 Receptor</i></div><div><i>Remember, <b>HDL brings exposed
or unused cholesterol to the liver from peripherl tissue</b>.&nbsp;</i></div><
div><i>When LDL levels re in excess in the blood, they become oxidized nd cn
yield  ftty strek on blood vessel wlls. HDL lso functions to "clen up" thi
s deposited cholesterol.</i></div>
1402023855461 1395802358422 Which GLUT trnsporter is involved in Insulin-me
dited storge of Glucose?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT4}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>In dipose, the stored glucose is converted to Glycerol nd then dded to
ftty cids to form ft when there is high energy.</i></div>
1402024881005 1395802358422 {{c1::ApoE}} is n polipoprotein tht medites
the uptke of lipoprotein remnnts.
<br /><div><img src="pste-4986457031063
.jpg" /></div>
1402025312771 1395802358422 {{c1::ApoA-I}} is n polipoprotein tht functio
ns to elevte LCAT.
<br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025594492 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to medite lipopr
otein remnnt uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoE}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025612444 1395802358422 {{c1::ApoA-1}} is n polipoprotein tht is rth
er unique to HDL.
<br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025638385 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to ctivte LCAT?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoA-1}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-49821
62063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025701816 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions s  cofctor for
Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoC-II}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025730094 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to medite chylom
icron secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-48}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Only found in chylomicrons.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg"
/></div>
1402025772256 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein is unique to chylomicrons?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-48}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-49821
62063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025784799 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein is relesed by the gut or f
ound in the diet?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-48}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Seen in exogenous lipids.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /
></div>
1402026032782 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions s the LDL recept
or?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-100}}</div> <br /><div><i>The LDL receptor i
s the ApoB-100 Receptor nd is <b>found in ll endogenously mde lipoproteins fr
om the liver</b>.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></i></di
v>
1402026445101 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to trnsport cholest
erol from liver to tissues?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402026758577 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to trnsport cholest
erol from peripherl tissue to the liver?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is why HDL is considered "<b>H</b>elthy".</i></div><div><i><
img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402026833181 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to deliver <b>dietr
y</b>&nbsp;<b>triglycerides</b>&nbsp;to peripherl tissue?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Chylomicrons}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It lso delivers cholesterol to th
e liver s chylomicron remnnts, which re mostly depleted of their tricylglyce

rols.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402027042896 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein is secreted by intestinl epit
helil cells <b>only</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chylomicrons (with ApoB48)}
}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027180249 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to deliver <b>hep
tic triglycerides</b>&nbsp;to peripherl tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::VLD
L}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Secreted by the liver.</i></div><div><i><img src="
pste-7189775254219.jpg" /></i></div>
1402027283013 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein is formed through the degrdt
ion of VLDL?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IDL (k VLDL remnnts)}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027399022 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to deliver <b>hepti
c cholesterol</b>&nbsp;to peripherl tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027586977 1395802358422 {{c1::LDL}} is  lipoprotein formed by Heptic L
ipse modifiction of IDL in the peripherl tissue.
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027650538 1395802358422 Which receptor does LDL bind to t trget cells
for receptor-medited endocytosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL Receptor (ApoB
100 Receptor)}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>The trget cell is bsiclly ny cel
l tht cn use cholesterol.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /><
/div>
1402027788627 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to medite <b>revers
e cholesterol trnsport</b>&nbsp;from peripherl tissue to the liver nd steroid
ogenic tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
1402027831340 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein cts s  repository for ApoC
nd ApoE?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both of th
ese re needed for chylomicron nd VLDL metbolism. ApoC-II is hnded off to oth
er lipoproteins nd then ctivted LPL, thereby driving VLDL nd CM metbolism.<
/i></div><div><i><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402027886301 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein is secreted from&nbsp;<b>both<
/b>&nbsp;the liver nd intestines?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027984325 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions s  repository for
ApoA-1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-71854
80286923.jpg" /></div>
1402028044386 1395802358422 How does lcohol ffect HDL synthesis?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1402028054872 1395802358422 Which dyslipidemi is referred to s Type I Dysl
ipidemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (or Hypertriglyceridem
i)}}</div>
1402028786714 1395802358422 Which dyslipidemi is referred to s Type II Dy
slipidemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi}}</div>
1402028809366 1395802358422 Which dyslipidemi is referred to s&nbsp;Type I
V Dyslipidemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertriglyceridemi}}</div>
1402028822734 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I)}} is  fmil
il dyslipidemi tht involves elevtion of chylomicrons, TGs nd cholesterol.
1402029015585 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II)}}
is &nbsp;fmilil dyslipidemi tht involves elevtion of LDL nd cholesterol.
1402029044973 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertriglyceridemi (Type IV)}} is &nbsp
;fmilil dyslipidemi tht involves elevtion of VLDL nd TGs.
1402029066291 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hyperchylomic
ronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosom
l recessive}}</div>
1402029099556 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil
dyslipidemi)}} is  fmilil dyslipidemi tht cn be cused by  deficiency o
f Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL).
1402029135973 1395802358422 <div>Which enzyme deficiency cn cuse&nbsp;Hype
rchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil dyslipidemi)?</div><div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL)}}</div>

1402029179367 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil
dyslipidemi)}} is  fmilil dyslipidemi tht cn be cused by ltered ApoC-I
I function.
<br /><div><i>Remember, ApoC-II ctivtes Lipoprotein Lipse.</i
></div>
1402029210128 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil
dyslipidemi)}} is  fmilil dyslipidemi tht cuses pncretitis, <b>heptos
plenomegly</b>&nbsp;nd <b>eruptive/pruritic xnthoms</b>.
1402029262107 1395802358422 How does the risk of therosclerosis chnge in&n
bsp;Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::No incresed risk}}</div>
1402029276024 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fmilil Hype
rcholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Au
tosoml dominnt}}</div>
1402029452609 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II f
milil dyslipidemi)}} is  fmilil dyslipidemi tht involves bsent or defect
ive LDL receptors.
1402029481789 1395802358422 Which receptors re bsent or defective in&nbsp;
Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::LDL receptor (k ApoB-100 receptor)}}</div>
1402029496083 1395802358422 Wht is the typicl blood cholesterol for  pti
ent heterozygous for&nbsp;Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dysli
pidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~ 300 mg/dL}}</div>
1402029546051 1395802358422 Wht is the typicl blood cholesterol level for
ptients homozygous for&nbsp;Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dy
slipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::≥ 700 mg/dL}}</div>
1402029574265 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa fa
milial dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <>accelera
ted atherosclerosis</>.
<r /><div><i>MI is possile efore 20 y/o.</i><
/div>
1402029676063 1395802358422 Which tendon is commonly the site of xanthomas i
n&nsp;Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa familial dyslipidemia)?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Achilles tendon}}</div>
1402029696859 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa fa
milial dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <>corneal
arcus</>.
1402029710322 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa fa
milial dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <>achilles
tendon xanthomas</>.
1402029735385 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Hypertriglyce
ridemia (Type IV Familial Dyslipidemia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal do
minant}}</div>
1402029770739 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertriglyceridemia (Type IV Familial Dys
lipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <>hepatic overproduc
tion of VLDL</>.
1402029800982 1395802358422 Which endocrine complication is associated with&
nsp;Hypertriglyceridemia (Type IV Familial Dyslipidemia)?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Pancreatitis}}</div>
1402029833751 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Familial Hypercholeste
rolemia (Type IIa familial dyslipidemia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mipomersen}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Mipomersen inds to the mRNA that is translated into ApoB100. The dsRNA molecule is then degraded and ApoB-100 production is inhiited. H
ence <>VLDL production is inhiited. </>Rememer, Type IIa dyslipidemia involv
es elevated levels of LDL due to defective LDL receptors.</i></div>
1396878226295 1395802358422 What is the life span of Erythrocytes?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::120 days}}</div>
1396878244547 1395802358422 What is the primary source of energy for Erythro
cytes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose}}</div>
<r /><div><i>90% is use
d in Glycolysis, 10% is used in the HMP shunt</i></div>
1396878284412 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythrocytosis (Polycythemia)}} is a hemat
ological disorder that is primarily characterized y an <>elevated</>&nsp;hem

atocrit.
1396878419942 1395802358422 {{c1::Anisocytosis}} is a hematological disorder
that is characterized y varying Erythrocyte <>size</>.
1396878441656 1395802358422 {{c1::Poikilocytosis}} is a hematological disord
er that is descried y varying Erythrocyte <>shape</>.
1396878470660 1395802358422 A(n) {{c1::Reticulocyte}} is an immature erythro
cyte that is commonly used as a marker of erythroid proliferation.
1396878511436 1395802358422 Which precursor cell are Platelets (Thromocytes
) derived from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Megakaryocytes}}</div>
1396878580550 1395802358422 What is the life span of Platelets (Thromocytes
)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::8-10 days}}</div>
1396878596280 1395802358422 Which lymphoid organ stores approximately 1/3 of
the platelet pool?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spleen}}</div>
1396878965203 1395802358422 Which platelet receptor does von Willerand's Fa
ctor (vWF) ind to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpI}}</div>
1396879047967 1395802358422 Which platelet receptor does Firinogen ind to?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpII/IIIa}}</div>
1396879228618 1395802358422 What is the most aundant Leukocyte in a normal
person?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neutrophils (54-62% of total WBCs)}}</div>
<div><div class="page" title="Page 397"><div class="section"><div class="layoutA
rea"><div class="column"><p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt;font-family: 'El
ectraLH';font-weight: 700;color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">N</span
><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">eutrophils (54–62%
)&nsp;</span></p><p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraL
H'; font-weight: 700; color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">L</span><sp
an style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">ymphocytes (25–33%)&n
sp;</span></p><p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH';
font-weight: 700; color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">M</span><span s
tyle="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">onocytes (3–7%)&nsp;</spa
n></p><p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'; font-wei
ght: 700; color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">E</span><span style="fo
nt-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">osinophils (1–3%)&nsp;</span></p>
<p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'; font-weight: 7
00; color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">B</span><span style="font-siz
e: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">asophils (0–0.75%)&nsp;</span></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div></div>
1396879515608 1395802358422 Which vitamin deficiency is associated with the
presence of hypersegmented Neutrophils with 5+ loes?<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-2173253451950.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin B12 (C
oalamin) Deficiency; Vitamin B9 (Folate) Deficiency}}</div></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence these are seen in Megalolastic Anaemia</i></div>
1396879521588 1395802358422 What is an increase in the numer of Band Cells
(immature Neutrophil) indicative of?<div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myeloid Pro
liferation}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Can e due to a acterial infectio
n or CML</i></div>
1396879666428 1395802358422 What do Monocytes differentiate into once they e
nter tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Macrophages}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.
e. Monocytes are <>only found in the lood</>&nsp;and Macrophages are <>only
found in tissue</></i></div>
1396879730590 1395802358422 Which type of Interferon activates Macrophages?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::gamma-Interferon}}</div>
1396879797069 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker (CD) is expressed main
ly y Macrophages?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD14}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It
is involved in the detection of acterial LPS.</i></div>
1396879950180 1395802358422 Which MHC molecule is found on Macrophages?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
1396880031833 1395802358422 Which Leukocyte is the primary defense against H

elminthic infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Eosinophils}}</div>
1396880210877 1395802358422 Which sustance from Eosinophils is primarily in
volved in fighting Helminthic infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Major Basic
Protein}}</div>
1396880705193 1395802358422 {{c1::Histaminase}} and&nsp;{{c2::Arylsulfatase
}} are enzymes produced y Eosinophils that function to limit the reaction follo
wing Mast Cell degranulation.
1396880890336 1395802358422 Which Leukocyte is primarily involved in mediati
ng allergic reactions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basophils}}</div>
1396880945282 1395802358422 Which Leukotriene is commonly found in the granu
les of Basophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LTD4}}</div>
1396881008712 1395802358422 {{c1::Heparin}} is an anticoagulant that is foun
d in the densely asophilic granules of Basophils.
1396881011799 1395802358422 {{c1::Histamine}} is a vasodilator that is commo
nly found in the densely asophilic granules of Basophils.
1396881033662 1395802358422 Which leukocyte is involved with mediating aller
gic reactions at <>local tissue</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mast Cells}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Mast Cells are similar in structure and function to Basoph
ils ut are a different cell type.</i></div>
1396881143091 1395802358422 Which type of immunogloulin inds to Mast Cells
to sensitize them to degranulation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgE (via the F<s
u>c</su>&nsp;portion)}}</div>
1396881277956 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin ound on the surface of Mas
t Cells will cross-link upon antigen inding and trigger degranulation?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
1396881397054 1395802358422 {{c1::Cromolyn Sodium}} is a Mast Cell stailize
r used for asthma prophylaxis as it prevents Mast Cell degranulation.
1396881537399 1395802358422 {{c1::Dendritic Cells}} are a type of highly pha
gocytic Antigen Presenting Cell that function as the link etween innate and ada
ptive immune systems. <r /><div><i>aka Langerhans Cell at the skin</i></div>
1396881625698 1395802358422 Where in the ody do B Cells mature?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Bone Marrow}}</div>
1396881930365 1395802358422 What do B Cells differentiate into when they enc
ounter an antigen at peripheral lymphoid tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Plas
ma Cells}}</div>
1396881983638 1395802358422 Which MHC molecule is found on B Cells?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
1396882048513 1395802358422 Where in the ody do T Cells mature?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Thymus}}</div>
1396882081154 1395802358422 What is the most aundant Lymphocyte in a normal
person?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells (80%)}}</div>
1396882108788 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker is associated with cyt
otoxic T Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD8}}</div>
1396882129253 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker is associated with hel
per T Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4}}</div>
1396882141444 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker is associated with reg
ulatory T Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD28}}</div>
1396882161143 1395802358422 Which type of T Cell is the primary target of HI
V?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ helper T cells}}</div>
1396882263664 1395802358422 {{c1::Mutiple Myeloma}} is a Plasma Cell Cancer.
1396882322233 1395802358422 {{c1::Plasma Cells}} are an immune cell that dif
ferentiate from B Cells and produce large amounts of antiody specific to a part
icular antigen.
1396882358169 1395802358422 Which immune cell is associated with a clock-fac
e distruution of chromatin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Plasma Cells}}</div>
1396882419626 1395802358422 Which lood group antiody is found in a person
with Group A lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-B}}</div>
1396883190435 1395802358422 Which lood group antiody is found in a person
with Group&nsp;B lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-A}}</div>
1396883196939 1395802358422 Which lood group antiody is found in a person

with Group&nsp;AB lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div>
1396883218290 1395802358422 Which lood group is the universal <>recipient<
/>&nsp;of <>RBCs</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AB}}</div> <r /><div><i>Be
cause the patient's plasma lacks antiodies against lood group antigens.</i></d
iv>
1396883287334 1395802358422 Which lood group is the universal <>donor</>&
nsp;of <>plasma</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AB}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Be
cause the patient's plasma lacks antiodies against lood group antigens.</i></d
iv>
1396883317448 1395802358422 Which lood group antiody is found in a person
with Group&nsp;O lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both Anti-A and Anti-B}}</di
v>
1396883360161 1395802358422 Which lood group is the universal <>donor</>&
nsp;of <>RBCs</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::O}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Be
cause the patient's RBCs lack A and B antigens.</i></div>
1396883373663 1395802358422 Which lood group is the universal <>recipient<
/>&nsp;of <>plasma</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::O}}</div> <r /><div><i>Be
cause the patient's RBCs lack A and B antigens.</i></div>
1396883453618 1395802358422 Which type of immunogloulins are Anti-A and Ant
i-B lood group antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgM}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence the <>cannot cross the placenta</></i></div>
1396883508977 1395802358422 Which type of immunogloulin are Anti-Rh lood g
roup antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence they
<>can cross the placenta</>.</i></div>
1396883552377 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is deficient in Haemoph
ilia A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VIII}}</div>
1396884336778 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is deficient in Haemoph
ilia B (Christmas Disease)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IX}}</div>
1396884359219 1395802358422 How do ACE-Inhiitors affect Bradykinin levels?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is why patien
ts receiving ACE Inhiitors have an "ACE Inhiitor cough."</i></div>
1396884385283 1395802358422 Which enzyme reduces Vitamin K so that it can ac
t as a cofactor in coagulation factor synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epox
ide Reductase}}</div> <r /><div><i>This is the enzyme inhiits y Warfarin</i
></div>
1396884585917 1395802358422 Which coagulation factors require Vitamin K as a
cofactor in their synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factors II, VII, IX and
X (as well as Protein C and Protein S)}}</div>
1396884648381 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is carried y von Wille
<r /><d
rand's Factor (vWF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor VIII}}</div>
iv><r /></div>
1396884682904 1395802358422 Which coagulation factors are inactivated y Pro
tein C?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factors V<su>a</su>&nsp;and VIII<su>a</su
>}}</div>
1396884946509 1395802358422 Which enzyme cleaves the Firin mesh, therey r
eaking down clots?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Plasmin}}</div>
1396884999133 1395802358422 Which coagulation factors are inhiited y Antit
hromin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factors IIa, VIIa, IXa, Xa, XIa, and XIIa}}<
/div>
1396885149021 1395802358422 {{c1::Heparin}} is an anticoagulant drug enhance
s the activity of antithromin.
1396885172691 1395802358422 What are the 2 principal targets of antithromin
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor II<su>a</su>&nsp;(Thromin)&nsp;and Fact
or X<su>a</su>}}</div>
1396885194671 1395802358422 What is Factor V Leiden?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Factor V that is resistant to inactivation y Protein C}}</div>
1396885230664 1395802358422 {{c1::Factor V Leiden}} is a mutant form of coag
ulation Factor V that is resistant to inhiition y activated Protein C.
1396885261026 1395802358422 {{c1::Tissue Plasminogen Activators (tPA's)}} ar
e a <>class</>&nsp;of anticoagulant drugs that function as thromolytics y a

ctivating Plasminogen into Plasmin.
1396885390251 1395802358422 In platelet adhesion, what receptor does von Wil
lerand's Factor (vWF) ind to on Platelets?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpI}}</
div>
1396885458748 1395802358422 In platelet activation, which molecule inding a
t the Platelet surface induces the movement of GpII/IIIa receptors to the Plate
let surface?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ADP}}</div>
1396885564750 1395802358422 In platelet aggregation, which receptor does Fi
rinogen ind to on Platelets in order to link them together?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::GpII/IIIa}}</div>
1396885615272 1395802358422 What happens first in Platelet Plug Formation, P
latelet Adhesion or Platelet Aggregation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adhesion}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>D's efore G's, rah.</i></div>
1397317135284 1395802358422 What is the outermost layer of the epidermis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stratum Corneum}}</div>
<r /><div><i>California
ns Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img sr
c="paste-1254130450966.jpg" /></i></div>
1397323054173 1395802358422 {{c1::Stratum Corneum}} is the outermost layer o
f the epidermis and primarily full of keratin. <r /><div><r /></div><div><div
><i>Californians Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><
div><i><img src="paste-1254130450966.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1397323079471 1395802358422 {{c1::Stratum Spinosum}} is a layer of the epide
rmis that involves visile spines etween keratinocytes that are formed y desmo
somes. <r /><div><r /></div><div><div><i>Californians Love Girls in String Bi
kinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1254130450966.jpg
" /></i></div></div>
1397323193363 1395802358422 Which layer of the epidermis is the stell cell l
ayer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stratum Basale}}</div> <r /><div><r /></div><
div><div><i>Californians Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i
></div><div><i><img src="paste-1254130450966.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1397323208442 1395802358422 {{c1::Stratum Basale}} is the deepest layer of t
he epidermis and is the layer that contains <>stem cells</>. <r /><div><div>
<i>Californians Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><d
iv><i><img src="paste-1254130450966.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1397323236305 1395802358422 {{c1::Tight Junctions (Zonula Occludens)}} are a
type of epithelial cell junction that prevent paracellular movement of solutes.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397323803527 1395802358422 Which type of Epithelial Cell Junction prevents
the paracellular movement of solutes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tight Junctions
}}</div>
1397323832600 1395802358422 {{c1::Tight Junction (Zonula Occludens)}} is a t
ype of epithelial cell junction that is composed of Claudins and Occludins.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397323864739 1395802358422 {{c1::Claudins}} and&nsp;{{c2::Occludins}} are
the 2 epithelial cell junction proteins that make up tight junctions (Zonula Occ
ludens).
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397323901053 1395802358422 {{c1::Tight Junction}} is a type of epithelial c
ell junction that is also known as Zonula Occludens.
1397323959545 1395802358422 {{c1::Adherens Junction (Zonula Adherens)}} is a
type of epithelial cell junction found just elow tight junctions that form <>
"elt-like"</>&nsp;connections etween actin cytoskeletons of adjacent cells.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324311204 1395802358422 What type of epithelial cell junction is found j
ust elow tight junctions and forms <>"elt-like"</>&nsp;connections etween
actin cytoskeletons of adjacent cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adherens Junct
ion (Zonula Adherens)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" />
</div>
1397324355398 1395802358422 {{c1::Adherens Junction}} is a type of epithelia
l cell junction that is also known as Zonula Adherens. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>

1397324376155 1395802358422 Which adhesion protein is associated with Adhere
ns Junctions (Zonula Adherens)?<div><r />{{c1::Cadherins}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i style="font-weight: old; ">CAD</i><i>herins are <>Ca</><sup style="font
-weight: old; ">2+</sup>&nsp;dependent <>ad</>hesion proteins</i></div><div>
<i><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></i></div>
1397324450216 1395802358422 The loss of which adhesion protein in Adherens J
unctions promotes metastasis of epithelial neoplasms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:E-cadherin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324506076 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmosome (Macula Adherens)}} are a type o
f epithelial cell junction that act as structural support via keratin interactio
ns.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324647010 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmosome}} is a type of epithelial cell j
unction that is also known as Macula Adherens. <r /><div><img src="paste-20315
19531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324715667 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filaments are Desmoso
mes associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Keratin}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324745232 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filaments are Adheren
s Junctions (Zonula Adherens) associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin
Filaments}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324773148 1395802358422 What adhesion protein is associated with Desmoso
mes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmoplakin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324790934 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmoplakin}} is an adhesion protein that
is associated with Desmosomes and couples with keratin. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324814071 1395802358422 Which epithelial cell junction is targeted y th
e autoantiodies in Pemphigus Vulgaris?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmosomes}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324844724 1395802358422 {{c1::Gap Junctions}} are a type of epithelial c
ell junction that involve channel proteins called Connexons that allow for elect
rical and chemical communication etween cells. <r /><div><img src="paste-20315
19531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324904822 1395802358422 What transmemrane channels are associate with G
ap Junctions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Connexons}}</div>
1397324927042 1395802358422 What type of epithelial cell junction allow for
electrical and chemical communication etween cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Gap Junctions via Connexons}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533
.jpg" /></div>
1397324959844 1395802358422 {{c1::Integrins}} are memrane adhesion proteins
that maintain the integrity of the <>asolateral memrane</>&nsp;y inding
to <>collagen and laminin</>&nsp;on the asement memrane. <div><r /></div
><i><>INTEG</>rins maintain the <>INTEG</>rity of the asolateral memrane.<
/i><r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397325374651 1395802358422 What does Integrin ind to in the asement memr
ane to maintain integrity of the cell's asolateral memrane?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Collagen and Laminin}}</div>
1397325402722 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemidesmosome}} is an epithelial cell junc
tion that connects keratin in asal cells to the underlying asement memrane.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397325441886 1395802358422 Which type of epithelial cell junction connects
keratin in asal cells to the underlying asement memrane?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Hemidesmosomes}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" />
</div>
1397325465093 1395802358422 Which epithelial cell junction do autoantiodies
in Bullous Pemphigoid target?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemidesmosome}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397325518295 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with an Anterior
Drawer Sign?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACL injury}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-5716601471227.jpg" /></div>

1397325755670 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with a Posterior
Drawer Sign?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PCL injury}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397325767329 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with anormal pa
ssive <>aduction </>(valgus stress)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MCL injury}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397325951674 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with anormal pa
ssive <>adduction</>&nsp;(varus stress)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LCL injur
y}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326018932 1395802358422 Which clinical test looks for the presnce of a m
eniscus knee injury?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::McMurray Test}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326046210 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with pain on <>
external rotation</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial Meniscus injury}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326069174 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with pain on <>
internal rotation</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral meniscus injury}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326095938 1395802358422 Which cruciate ligament in the knee attaches to
the anterior aspect of the tiia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACL}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The naming refers to the site of tiial attachment.</i><r /
><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326146119 1395802358422 Which cruciate ligament in the knee attaches to
the posterior aspect of the tiia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PCL}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The naming refers to the site of tiial attachment.</i></div><div>
<i><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></i></div>
1397326180110 1395802358422 {{c1::Unhappy Triad}} is a common sports injury
that presents due to <>lateral force applied to a planted leg</>.
1397326222696 1395802358422 {{c1::Unhappy Triad}} is a common sports injury
that classically involves damage to the ACL, MCL and Medial Meniscus as it is at
tached to the MCL.
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326476784 1395802358422 Which 3 structures in the knee are commonly inju
red in Unhappy Triad?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACL; MCL; Medial Meniscus}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326515369 1395802358422 Which side of the knee involves a meniscus that
is attached to a collateral ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial (MCL + M
edial Meniscus)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326542847 1395802358422 Which meniscus in the knee is attached to a coll
ateral ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial Meniscus (and MCL)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326562076 1395802358422 Which meniscus in the knee is more commonly inju
red?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral meniscus}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326616531 1395802358422 Which anatomical landmark is associated with the
Pudendal Nerve for Pudendal Nerve Block in relieving the pain of delivery?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Ischial spine}}</div>
1397326664588 1395802358422 Which anatomical surface landmark is associated
with the Appendix?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::McBurney's Point (2/3 of the dista
nce etween the umilicus and ASIS)}}</div>
1397326716442 1395802358422 Which anatomical surface landmark is associated
with Lumar Puncture?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The level of the Iliac Crest}}<
/div>
1397326744170 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Rotator Cuff Muscles}} are a grou
p of shoulder muscles that form the rotator cuff.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-8538394984672.jpg" /></div>
1397326791714 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle is most commonly injur
ed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supraspinatus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327008289 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the Supraspinatus?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Suprascapular N}}</div>

1397327029752 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle aducts the arm initia
lly efore the action of the deltoid takes over?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supr
aspinatus}}</div>
1397327061525 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle injury is commonly see
n in aseall pitchers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infraspinatus injury}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327105520 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the Infraspinatus mus
cle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suprascapular nerve}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327137355 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle laterally rotates the
arm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infraspinatus}}</div>
1397327167103 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle oth adducts <u>and</u
>&nsp;laterally rotates the arm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Teres Minor}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327191613 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the Teres Minor muscl
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary Nerve}}</div>
1397327369287 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle medially rotates and a
dducts the arm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suscapularis}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327392350 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the Suscapular muscl
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suscapular nerve}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327410469 1395802358422 Which spinal cord nerve roots primarily innervat
e the Rotator Cuff Muscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-C6}}</div>
1397327444207 1395802358422 What are the 4 rotator cuff muscles?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Supraspinatus; Infraspinatus; Teres Minor; Suscapularis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"SItS"</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></i><
/div>
1397327482467 1395802358422 What is the most commonly fractured carpal one?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scaphoid}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10286
446674205.jpg" /></div>
1397327788124 1395802358422 Which carpal one can e palpated in the anatomi
cal snuff ox?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scaphoid}}</div>
1397327804309 1395802358422 {{c1::Scaphoid}} is a carpal one that is the mo
st commonly fractured carpal one and is prone to avascular necrosis due to retr
ograde lood supply.
<r /><div><img src="paste-10282151706909.jpg" /></div>
1397327847711 1395802358422 Dislocation of which carpal one may cause Acute
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lunate}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-10282151706909.jpg" /></div>
1397327889757 1395802358422 Which nerve can e damaged following a fall onto
an outstretched that results in fracture to the hook of the Hamate?<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-10282151706909.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Ulnar Nerve}}</div>
1397328031852 1395802358422 {{c1::Carpal Tunnel Syndrome}} is a wrist injury
that involves entrapment of the Median Nerve in the carpal tunnel and hence pre
sents with paresthesia, pain and numness.
1397328122571 1395802358422 Which nerve is entrapped in the carpal tunnel to
cause Carpal Tunnel Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Median Nerve}}</div>
1397328148762 1395802358422 {{c1::Guyon Canal Syndrome}} is a wrist injury t
hat involves compression of the Ulnar Nerve at the wrist of hand, presenting wit
h paresthesia, pain and numness.
1397328194858 1395802358422 Which nerve is compressed at the wrist or hand i
n Guyon Canal Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulnar Nerve}}</div>
1397328209301 1395802358422 {{c1::Guyon Canal Syndrome}} is a wrist injury t
hat is classically seen in cyclists due to constant pressure on the wrist/hand f
rom the handlears.
1397328233085 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Er Palsy (Waiter's Tip)?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lesion to the <>upper</>&nsp;trunk at C5-C6 roots
}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i><>ERB</>er = Upper trunk<r /></i><div><im
g src="paste-11858404704811.jpg" /></div>

1397330340192 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Er Palsy in <
>infants</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral traction on the neck during del
ivery}}</div>
1397330363923 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Er Palsy in <
>adults</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trauma}}</div>
1397330380176 1395802358422 {{c1::Er Palsy}} is a Brachial Plexus lesion th
at involves lesion to the <>upper trunk</>&nsp;(C5-C6) and presents as an add
ucted, medially rotated, extended and pronated ipsilateral upper lim.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-12141872546039.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /></div
><i>Due to deficit of the deltoid, supraspinatus, infraspinatus and iceps rach
ii.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397330522125 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Klumpke's Palsy?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lesion of the <>lower trunk</>&nsp;(C8-T1 roots)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397330681779 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Klumpke's Palsy
in <>infants</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upward force on the arm during de
livery}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397330708506 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Klumpke Palsy i
n adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trauma (e.g. graing a tree ranch while f
alling down a tree)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /
></div>
1397330757872 1395802358422 {{c1::Klumpke Palsy}} is a rachial plexus lesio
n that is due to lesion of the <>lower trunk</>&nsp;at C8-T1 roots and involv
es a <>total claw hand</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13052405612715
.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397331125784 1395802358422 {{c1::Thoracic Outlet Syndrome}} is a rachial p
lexus lesion that involves compression of the <>lower trunk</>&nsp;and <>su
clavian vessels</>.
<r /><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-118541097375
15.jpg" /></div>
1397331202876 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Thoracic Outlet Syndrome?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Compression of the <>lower</>&nsp;trunk of the r
achial plexus and <>suclavian vessels</>}}</div>
<r /><div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397331267972 1395802358422 Which type of tumour is associated with Thoracic
Outlet Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pancoast tumour (at the apex of the
lung)}}</div>
1397331286413 1395802358422 {{c1::Cervical Ri}} is a congenital anatomical
anomaly that may cause Thoracic Outlet Syndrome.
1397331337403 1395802358422 {{c1::Thoracic Outlet Syndrome}} is a rachial p
lexus lesion that involves the atrophy of intrinsic hand muscles along with isch
emic, pain, edema of the hand due to vascular compression.
1397331385231 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Winged Scapula?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Lesion of the Long Thoracic Nerve}}</div>
1397331400731 1395802358422 What muscle deficit is seen in Winged Scapula?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Serratus Anterior}}</div>
1397331428745 1395802358422 {{c1::Winged Scapula}} is a rachial plexus lesi
on that involves lesion to the Long Thoracic Nerve and presents with an inailit
y to anchor the scapula to the thoracic cage due to a Serratus Anterior defect.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14242111553704.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1404608091119 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the A
xillary Nerve (C5-C6)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fracture surgical neck of the
humerus; Anterior dislocation of the humerus}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Pres
ents with <>flattened deltoid</>, <>loss of arm aduction at the shoulder </
>(&gt; 15 degrees), <>loss of sensation over the deltoid muscle and lateral arm
</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-17141214478924.jpg" /></div>
1404609666551 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the M
usculocutaneous Nerve (C5-C7)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upper trunk compressio
n}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Presents with <>loss of forearm flexion and
supination</>&nsp;and <>loss of sensation over the lateral forearm</>.</i><

r /><div><img src="paste-17136919511628.jpg" /></div>
1404609714536 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the R
adial Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Midshaft fracture of the humerus
; Compression of the axilla (crutches; Saturday Night Palsy)}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>Presents with <>wrist drop</>, <>decreased grip strength, loss of
sensation over posterior arm/forearm/dorsal hand.</></i><r /><div><img src="p
aste-17136919511628.jpg" /></div>
1404610097409 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>proximal</>
injury to the Median Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supracondylar fr
acture of the humerus}}</div> <div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1713691951
1628.jpg" /></div>
1404610169014 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>distal</>&n
sp;injury to the Median Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Carpal Tunnel
Syndrome; Wrist laceration}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Presents with <>Ape
Hand</>&nsp;or <>Benedict's Hand</>.</i><div><i>Presents with <>loss of wr
ist and lateral finger flexion, thum opposition.</><r /></i><div><img src="pa
ste-17136919511628.jpg" /></div></div>
1404610467566 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>proximal </
>injury to the Ulnar Nerve (C8-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fracture of the m
edial epicondyle of the humerus (i.e. "funny one")}}</div>
<r /><div><i></
i><i></i><i>Presents with&nsp;<>Claw Hand</>&nsp;upon digit extension.</i></
div><div><i>Presents with&nsp;<>radial deviation of wrist upon extension</>.<
/i></div><div><i>Presents with <>loss of flexion of wrist and medial fingers, a
duction and adduction of fingers.</></i></div><div><i>Presents with <>loss of
sensation over the medial 1/2 of fingers including hypothenar eminence</>.</i>
</div><div><i><div style="font-weight: old; "><div><img src="paste-171369195116
28.jpg" /></div></div></i></div>
1404611375079 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>distal</>&n
sp;injury to the Ulnar Nerve (C8-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fractured hook
of the hamate}}</div> <div><div><i></i><i><r class="Apple-interchange-newline
" />Presents with&nsp;<>Claw Hand</>&nsp;upon digit extension.</i></div><div
><i>Presents with&nsp;<>loss of flexion of wrist and medial fingers, aduction
and adduction of fingers.</></i></div><div><i>Presents with&nsp;<>loss of se
nsation over the medial 1/2 of fingers including hypothenar eminence</>.</i></d
iv><div><i><div style="font-weight: old; "><div><img src="paste-17136919511628.
jpg" /></div></div></i></div></div>
1404611388759 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the R
ecurrent Branch of the Median Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superfic
ial laceration of the palm}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Presents with <>Ape
Hand</></i><div><i>Presents with <>loss of thenar muscle groups</>&nsp;(opp
osition, aduction, flexion of the thum).</i></div><div><i>No loss of sensation
.<r /></i><div><i><div style="font-weight: old; "><div><img src="paste-1713691
9511628.jpg" /></div></div></i></div></div>
1404611452458 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Axillary Nerve?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-C6}}</div>
<r /><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musc
ulocutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassin
ated (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all
5 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><di
v><i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="paste-19219
978650178.jpg" /></div>
1404611478769 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Musculocutaneou
s Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-C7}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>3 Mus
keteers (Musculocutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><di
v><i>Assassinated (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Media
n nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)
</i></div><div><i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src
="paste-19219978650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404611488223 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Radial Nerve?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-T1}}</div> <r /><div><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musculo
cutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassinate

d (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all 5
roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><
i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="paste-19219978
650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404611497410 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Median Nerve?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-T1}}</div> <r /><div><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musculo
cutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassinate
d (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all 5
roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><
i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="paste-19219978
650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404611505977 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Ulnar Nerve?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::C8-T1}}</div> <r /><div><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musculo
cutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassinate
d (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all 5
roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><
i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="paste-19219978
650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404611518719 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Recurrent ranc
h of the Median Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-T1}}</div> <r /><div><div>
<i>3 Musketeers (Musculocutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i><
/div><div><i>Assassinated (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 me
n (Median nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all
5 roots)</i></div><div><i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div>
<img src="paste-19219978650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404614495031 1395802358422 {{c1::Clawing}} is a distortion of the hand that
is commonly seen est with <>distal</>&nsp;lesions of the median or ulnar ne
rves. <r /><div><i>The remaining extrinsic flexors of the digits exaggerate t
he loss of the lumricals. Hence the <>fingers extend at the MCP ut flex at th
e DIPs and PIPs.</></i></div><div><i>In <>proximal lesions</>, deficits prese
nt during voluntary flexion of the digits.</i></div>
1404614907599 1395802358422 {{c1::Claw Hand (Ulnar Claw)}} is a distortion o
f the hand due to a <>distal ulnar nerve</>&nsp;<>lesion</>&nsp;that prese
nts with a <>loss of flexion of the medial digits and wrist</>&nsp;<u style="
font-weight: old; ">at rest</u>&nsp;or while <u style="font-weight: old; ">ex
tending the fingers</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21118354194697.jpg
" /></div>
1404615452035 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Ulnar Claw (Claw Hand)?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distal Ulnar Nerve lesion}}</div><div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-21114059227401.jpg" /></div>
1404615471575 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Benedict's Hand (Pope's B
lessing)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Proximal</u>&nsp;median nerve lesion}}<
/div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21114059227401.jpg" /></div>
1404615539717 1395802358422 {{c1::Benedict's Hand (Pope's Blessing)}} is a d
istortion of the hand that is due to <>proximal median nerve lesion</>&nsp;an
d presents with <>loss of lateral digit flexion</>&nsp;when prompted to <u st
yle="font-weight: old; ">make a fist</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste21114059227401.jpg" /></div>
1404615608564 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Ape Hand (Median Claw)?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Distal</u>&nsp;median nerve lesion}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-21530671055107.jpg" /></div>
1404616013207 1395802358422 {{c1::Ape Hand (Median Claw)}} is a distortion o
f the hand that is due to a <>distal median nerve</>&nsp;lesion and presents
with <>loss of thum opposition</>&nsp;and <>medial digit flexion</>&nsp;<
u style="font-weight: old; ">at rest</u>&nsp;or when <u style="font-weight: o
ld; ">extending the fingers</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2153067105
5107.jpg" /></div>
1404616245928 1395802358422 {{c1::"OK Gesture"}} is a distortion of the hand
that is due to a <>proximal ulnar nerve lesion</>&nsp;and presents with <>f
lexion of the first 3 digits only</>&nsp;upon <u style="font-weight: old; ">m

aking a fist</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21530671055107.jpg" /></d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Strong creativity with the naming here. "OK Gesture". Lol.
</i></div>
1404616520821 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in the "OK Gesture" hand dis
tortion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal ulnar nerve lesion}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-21530671055107.jpg" /></div>
1404616621226 1395802358422 Which <>group</>&nsp;of hand muscles can eco
me atrophied in <>median nerve lesions</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thenar}}
</div> <div><r /></div><i>Hence there will e unopposale thum.</i><r /><div
><img src="paste-23351737188724.jpg" /></div>
1404616684829 1395802358422 Which <>group</>&nsp;of hand muscles can eco
me atrophied in <>ulnar nerve lesions</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypothena
r muscles}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-23347442221428.jpg" /></div>
1404622467026 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the Thenar muscles?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Median Nerve}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste597000454487.jpg" /></div>
1404622498946 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the Hypothenar muscles?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulnar Nerve}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-601295421783.jpg" /></div>
1404670901243 1395802358422 {{c1::Opponens pollicis}},&nsp;{{c2::Aductor p
ollicis revis}} and&nsp;{{c3::Flexor pollicis revis}} are the 3 hand muscles
that make up the thenar group.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-592705487210
.jpg" /></div> <div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-605590388941.jpg" /></div>
1404671073406 1395802358422 {{c1::Opponens digiti minimi}},&nsp;{{c2::aduc
tor digiti minimi}} and&nsp;{{c3::flexor digiti minimi revis}} are the 3 hand
muscles that make up the hypothenar group.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste592705487210.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /><div><img src="paste-605590388941.jpg
" /></div></div>
1404671129671 1395802358422 What is the action of the <>dorsal</>&nsp;int
erosseous muscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Finger aduction}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i><>"DAB"</>&nsp;= <>D</>orsals <>AB</>duct the fingers</i></div>
1404671175861 1395802358422 What is the action of the <>palmar</>&nsp;int
erosseous muscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adduction of the fingers}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>PAD</>" = <>P</>almars <>AD</>duct the fingers.</i></div>
1404671228254 1395802358422 What is the action of the Lumrical muscles?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Flexion of the MCP joint; Extension of the PIP and DIP j
oints}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-833223655794.jpg" /></div>
1404671357521 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Oturator Nerve
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L2-L4}}</div>
1404672355915 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Femoral Nerve?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L2-L4}}</div>
1404672382737 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Common Peroneal
Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S2}}</div>
1404672389705 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Tiial Nerve?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S3}}</div>
1404672396153 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Superior Glutea
l Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S1}}</div>
1404672402099 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Inferior Glutea
l Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L5-S2}}</div>
1404672412114 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Sciatic Nerve?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S3}}</div>
1404672424927 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the O
turator Nerve (L2-L4)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic Surgery}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>loss of medial thigh sensation</>&nsp;and <>lo
ss of adduction</>.</i></div>
1404672719909 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the F
emoral Nerve (L2-L4)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic fracture}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>loss of thigh flexion and leg extension</>.</i><
/div>
1404673296558 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the C

ommon Peroneal Nerve (L4-S2)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trauma/compression to t
he <u>lateral leg</u>; Fiular neck fracture}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents a
s <>Foot Drop</>&nsp;(inverted and plantarflexed foot at rest; loss of eversi
on and dorsiflexion; Steppage gait; loss of sensation on the dorsum of the foot)
.</i></div>
1404673420680 1395802358422 {{c1::Foot Drop}} is a leg injury that results d
ue to injury to the <>common peroneal nerve</>&nsp;and presents with <>inver
sion/plantarflexion of the foot at rest</>&nsp;and a <>loss of eversion and d
orsiflexion</>.
1404673605898 1395802358422 Which nerve injury causes <>Foot Drop</>?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Common peroneal nerve}}</div>
1404673624105 1395802358422 {{c1::Foot Drop}} is a leg injury due to injury
to the <>common peroneal nerve</>&nsp;and presents with a <>"steppage gait."
</>
1404673661071 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>proximal</>
injury to the Tiial Nerve (L4-S3)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Knee trauma; Bak
er cyst}}</div> <r /><div><i>Presents with <>loss of aility to curl toes</>&
nsp;and <>loss of sensation on the sole of the foot</>.</i></div><div><i>Prox
imal lesion presents with <>foot eversion at rest</>&nsp;with <>loss of inve
rsion and plantarflexion</>.</i></div>
1404673709617 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>distal</> i
njury to the Tiial Nerve (S4-L3)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tarsal tunnel synd
rome}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with&nsp;<>loss of aility to curl toes
</>&nsp;and&nsp;<>loss of sensation on the sole of the foot</>.</i></div>
1404673804292 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the S
uperior Gluteal Nerve (L4-S1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior hip dislocat
ion; Polio}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>Trendelenurg Sign/Gait</
>&nsp;(pelvis tilts ecause the weight-earing leg cannot maintain alignment o
f the pelvis through hip aduction.</i></div><div><i>The lesion is <>contralate
ral to the side of the hip that drops</>&nsp;and <>ipsilateral to the side of
the weight earing lim</>.</i></div>
1404673946434 1395802358422 Which gluteal muscles are innervated y the Supe
rior Gluteal Nerve (L4-S1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gluteus medius; Gluteus m
inimus}}</div>
1404674435457 1395802358422 Which nerve injury can cause Trendelenurg Sign/
Gait?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Gluteal Nerve}}</div> <r /><div><div>
<i>Presents with&nsp;<>Trendelenurg Sign/Gait</>&nsp;(pelvis tilts ecause
the weight-earing leg cannot maintain alignment of the pelvis through hip aduc
tion.</i></div><div><i>The lesion is&nsp;<>contralateral to the side of the hi
p that drops</>&nsp;and&nsp;<>ipsilateral to the side of the weight earing
lim</>.</i></div></div>
1404674460830 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the I
nferior Gluteal Nerve (L5-S2)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior hip dislocat
ion}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>difficulty climing stairs</>&n
sp;and <>rising from a seated position</>&nsp;due to a <>loss of hip extensi
on</>.</i></div>
1404674833365 1395802358422 Which gluteal muscles are innervated y the <>I
nferior</>&nsp;Gluteal Nerve (L5-S2)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gluteus maxim
us}}</div>
1404674891756 1395802358422 Which nerve of the leg mediates <>eversion</>&
nsp;and <>dorsiflexion</>&nsp;of the foot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Common
peroneal nerve (L4-S2)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3560527888510.jpg" />
</div>
1404674952723 1395802358422 Which nerve of the leg <>inverts</>&nsp;and <
>plantarflexes</>&nsp;the foot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tiial nerve}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3556232921214.jpg" /></div>
1404674973741 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Long Thoraci
c Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Thoracic Artery}}</div>
1404675302359 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Axillary ner
ve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Circumflex Artery}}</div>

1404675347363 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Radial nerve
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Deep Brachial Artery}}</div>
1404675358136 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Median Nerve
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brachial artery}}</div>
1404675372598 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Tiial Nerve
<>at the popliteal fossa</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Popliteal artery}}</d
iv>
1404675387127 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Tiial Nerve
<>posterior to the medial malleolus</>?<div><r />{{c1::Posterior Tiial Arte
ry}}</div>
1404676055360 1395802358422 The {{c1::dihydropyridine receptor}} is a voltag
e-gated receptor that is mechanically coupled to the ryanodine receptor on the s
arcoplasmic reticulum of muscle.
<r /><div><i>Depolarization of the Dihy
dropyridine Receptor induces a conformational change in the Ryanodine Receptor a
nd susequent Ca²⁺&nsp;release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.</i><
/div><div><i><img src="paste-4398046511753.jpg" /></i></div>
1404676262836 1395802358422 Which receptor on the cell memrane of muscle ce
lls is mechanically coupled to the Ryanodine Receptor on the sarcoplasmic reticu
lum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydropyridine Receptor}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Depolarization of the Dihydropyridine Receptor induces a conformational ch
ange in the Ryanodine Receptor and susequent release of Ca²⁺&nsp;fr
om the sarcoplasmic reticulum.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4393751544457.jp
g" /></i></div>
1404676357104 1395802358422 {{c1::Troponin C}} is a protein in muscle that 
inds to Ca²⁺&nsp;and causes a conformational change that moves tropo
myosin out of the myosin-inding site on actin filaments.
1404676820705 1395802358422 How does the length of the H and I ands of the
sarcomere change in muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both <u>decre
ase</u>}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-4393751544457.jpg" /></div>
1404676900232 1395802358422 How does the length of the A and of the sarcome
re change in muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>A</>-and is <>A</>lways the same length."</i></div><div><i
><img src="paste-4393751544457.jpg" /></i></div>
1404676932303 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fiers are referred to as <
>slow</>&nsp;twitch fiers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 1}}</div>
1404677844113 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fiers are referred to as <
>fast </>twitch fiers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 2}}</div>
1404677865821 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fiers are <>red </>fier
s due to an <>increased mitochondria</>&nsp;and <>myogloin concentration</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 1}}</div>
1404678139240 1395802358422 {{c1::Type 1 muscle fiers}} are a type of muscl
e fier that perform <>sustained contraction</>&nsp;due to an <>increased co
ncentration of mitochondria and myogloin</>&nsp;(i.e. increased oxidative pho
sphorylation capacity). <r /><div><i>Hence these fiers are "red" fiers.</i></
div>
1404678196261 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fier is referred to as <>
white</>&nsp;fiers due to their decreased mitochondria and myogloin concentr
ation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 2}}</div>
1404678228499 1395802358422 {{c1::Type 2 muscle fiers}} are a type of muscl
e fier that are <>white</>&nsp;as there is a <>decreased concentration of m
itochondria </>and <>myogloin concentration</>&nsp;(i.e. increased anaeroi
c glycosis).
<div><i><r /></i></div>
1404678287456 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fiers typically yield hype
rtrophy as a result of weight training?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 2, fasttwitch, white muscle fiers}}</div>
1404678329753 1395802358422 Which type of Ca²⁺&nsp;channels on s
mooth muscle govern smooth muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>L-t
ype</u>&nsp;voltage-gated Ca²⁺&nsp;channels}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-5858335392481.jpg" /></div>
1404678963543 1395802358422 Which protein in smooth muscle inds to Ca<sup>2

+</sup>&nsp;in order to activate Myosin Light-chain Kinase (MLCK)?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Calmodulin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185
.jpg" /></div>
1404679015149 1395802358422 Which enzyme in smooth muscle functions to phosp
horylate myosin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myosin Light-chain kinase (MLCK)}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679044249 1395802358422 How does an increase in Ca²⁺&nsp;lev
el influence smooth muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679687526 1395802358422 Which enzyme in smooth muscle cells does Nitric
Oxide activated to trigger muscle relaxation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Guanyla
te cyclase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679691862 1395802358422 Which enzyme in smooth muscle cells functions to
<>dephosphorylate</>&nsp;myosin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myosin Light-cha
in Phosphatase (MLCP)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" />
</div>
1404679732651 1395802358422 Which secondary messenger in smooth muscle cells
functions to activate Myosin Light-chain Phosphatase (MLCP)?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::cGMP (via NO activating Guanylate Cyclase)}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679773180 1395802358422 How does Nitric Oxide influence smooth muscle re
laxation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679791660 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with ones of the axial and appendicular skeleton?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::En
dochondral ossification}}</div>
1404681302876 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;the ase of the skull?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossific
ation}}</div>
1404681316438 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;ones of the calvarium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memranous ossifica
tion}}</div>
1404681330677 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;facial ones?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memranous ossification}}</di
v>
1404681338966 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;a cartilaginous model of one first made y chondrocytes?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossification}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The cartil
aginous model of one is first made y chondrocytes.</i></div><div><i>Osteoclast
s and osteolasts then later replace it with woven one and then remodel it to l
amellar one.</i></div>
1404681376860 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;the replacement of cartilaginous one with woven one y osteoclasts a
nd osteolasts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossification}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>The cartilaginous model of one is first made y chondrocytes
.</i></div><div><i>Osteoclasts and osteolasts then later replace it with woven
one and then remodel it to lamellar one.</i></div></div>
1404681404737 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with <>direct formation</>&nsp;of woven one without cartilage?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Memranous ossification}}</div> <r /><div><i>Woven one is form
ed directly without cartilage and is later remodeled to lamellar one.</i></div>
1404681541884 1395802358422 Which one cells function to uild one y secre
ting collagen and catalyzing mineralization?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteola
sts}}</div>
1404681690759 1395802358422 Which one cells differentiate from the <>mesen
chymal stem cell population</>&nsp;in the periosteum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Osteo<u></u>lasts}}</div>
1404681732635 1395802358422 Which one cells are multinucleated cells that f
unction to <>dissolve one</>&nsp;y secreting acid and collagenases?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Osteoclasts}}</div>

1404681760694 1395802358422 Which one cells differentiate from monocytes an
d macrophages?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoclasts}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
is is very important to rememer when it comes to the treatment of Osteopetrosis
(one marrow transplantation, as osteoclasts form from monocytes).</i></div>
1404681863809 1395802358422 {{c1::Parathyroid Hormone}} is a hormone that ca
uses <>anaolic</>&nsp;effects at the one via osteolasts and osteoclasts wh
en it is present in <u style="font-weight: old; ">low, intermittent levels</u>.
<r /><div><i>It uilds one directly via osteolasts and indirectly via osteocl
asts.</i></div>
1404681945984 1395802358422 {{c1::Parathyroid Hormone}} is a hormone from th
e parathyroid that causes <>cataolic effects</>&nsp;when it is found in <u s
tyle="font-weight: old; ">chronic, high levels</u>.
1404682004948 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteitis Firosa Cystica}} is a skeletal c
omplication of chronic high PTH levels that results from the cataolic effects t
he hormone yields.
1404682971482 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence apoptosis in Osteol
asts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Est
rogen favours one formation.</i></div>
1404682997924 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence apoptosis in Osteocl
asts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Est
rogen inhiits one resorption.</i></div><div><i>Hence, in estrogen deficiency (
surgical or menopausal), excess remodelling cycles carried out y Osteoclasts le
ads to osteoporosis.</i></div>
1403716405340 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymph nodes}} are secondary lymphoid struc
tures that are <>encapsulated</>&nsp;and function to filter passing content,
store lymphocyte and mediat eimmune response. <r /><div><img src="paste-54546
0847004.jpg" /></div>
1403716839425 1395802358422 In which area of the lymph node does <>B-cell l
ocalization and proliferation</>&nsp;occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Follicl
e; found in the outer cortex}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Primary follicles ar
e dense and dormant.</i><div><i>Secondary follicles have pale central germinal c
enters and are active.<r /></i><div><img src="paste-541165879708.jpg" /></div><
/div>
1403716964276 1395802358422 {{c1::Medullary Cords}} are structures found in
the medulla of lymph nodes that consist of closely packed lymphocytes and plasma
cells. <r /><div><img src="paste-541165879708.jpg" /></div>
1403717222093 1395802358422 {{c1::Medullary sinuses}} are structures found i
n the medulla of lymph nodes that contain <>reticular cells</>&nsp;and <>mac
rophages</>. <r /><div><i>These medullary sinuses communicate with efferent
lymphatics.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-541165879708.jpg" /></i></div>
1403717278166 1395802358422 In which area of the lymph node are T cells foun
d?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paracortex; the region of the lymph node etween f
ollicles and the medulla}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The paracortex conta
ins many venules through which T and B cells enter from the lood.</i><r /><div
><img src="paste-541165879708.jpg" /></div>
1403717392705 1395802358422 Which area of the lymph nodes are not well devel
oped in patients with DiGeorge Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paracortex}}
</div> <div><r /></div><i>Rememer, the paracortex houses T cells. DiGeorge sy
ndrome involves a defect in T-cell maturation.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-541
165879708.jpg" /></div>
1403717453496 1395802358422 Which area of the lymph node enlarges in extreme
cellular immune responses (e.g. viral infection)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pa
racortex}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Paracortex = T cells.</i></div><div><i><im
g src="paste-541165879708.jpg" /></i></div>
1403717495660 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>head and
neck</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cervical}}</div>
1403718149923 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>lungs</>
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hilar}}</div>
1403718158106 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>trachea a
nd esophagus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mediastinal}}</div>

1403718169671 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>upper lim
s</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary}}</div>
1403718183586 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>reasts</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary}}</div>
1403718189320 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>skin aov
e the umilicus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary}}</div>
1403718201041 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>upper duo
denum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718227881 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>liver</>
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718231841 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>stomach</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718237913 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>spleen</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718252658 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>pancreas<
/>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403719276413 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>lowe
r duodenum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Mesenteric}}</div>
1403719293404 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>jeju
num</>&nsp;and <>ileum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior mesenteric}}<
/div>
1403719308692 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>colo
n to the splenic flexure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior mesenteric}}</
div>
1403719330371 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>colo
n from the splenic flexure to the upper rectum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I
nferior Mesenteric}}</div>
1403719349605 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>lowe
r rectum to the anal canal</>&nsp;(aove the pectinate line)?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Internal Iliac}}</div>
1403719373994 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>lad
der</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Iliac}}</div>
1403719380734 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>midd
le third of the vagina</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Iliac}}</div>
1403719390032 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>pros
tate</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Iliac}}</div>
1403719404052 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>test
es</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1403719414491 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>ovar
ies</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1403719421221 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>kidn
eys</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1403719432141 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>uter
us</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1403719442503 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>anal
canal elow the pectinate line</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superficial ingu
inal}}</div>
1403719468681 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>skin
elow the umilicus</>&nsp;(except the popliteal territory)?<div><r />{{c1::
Superficial inguinal}}</div>
1403719501088 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>dors
olateral foot</>&nsp;and <>posterior calf</>?<div><r />{{c1::Popliteal}}</d
iv>
1403719528605 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::right lymphatic duct}} is a major
lymphatic vessel that drains the right side of the ody aove the diaphragm.
1403720044323 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::thoracic duct}} is a major lympha
tic vessel that drains 3/4 of the ody into the junction of the left suclavian
and internal jugular veins.
<r /><div><i>The Right Lymphatic Duct is what d
rains the remaining 1/4 (right side of the ody aove the diaphragm).</i></div>
1403720136149 1395802358422 In which area of the spleen are T cells found?<d

iv><r />{{c1::Periarterial lymphatic sheath of the white pulp}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4088808866383.jpg" /></div>
1403724143119 1395802358422 In which area of the spleen are B cells found?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Follicles within the white pulp}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4088808866383.jpg" /></div>
1403724163251 1395802358422 In which area of the spleen are <>APCs</>&nsp
;and <>specialized B cells </>found?<div><r />{{c1::Marginal Zone (etween th
e red and white pulp)}}</div> <r /><div><i>This is the area where APCs presen
t lood orne antigens.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4088808866383.jpg" /></
i></div>
1403724312462 1395802358422 How does splenic dysfunction, asplenia or splene
ctomy influence the susceptiility to infection y encapsulated organisms?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>Splenic dysfunction
= decreased IgM = decreased complement activation = decreased C3 opsonization =
increased susceptiility to encapsulated organisms</i><r /><div><img src="past
e-4393751544047.jpg" /></div>
1403724935353 1395802358422 {{c1::Howell-Jolly Bodies}} are intracellular in
clusions of <>nuclear remnants&nsp;</>seen in RBCs following splenectomy.
1403724963660 1395802358422 How do Thromocyte levels change post-splenectom
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase; there is often Thromocytosis}}</div>
1403724990252 1395802358422 Which lymphoid organ is the site of T cell matur
ation and differentiation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thymus}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i><>T</>&nsp;cells = <>T</>hymus</i></div><div><i><>B</>&nsp;cells =
<>B</>one marrow</i></div>
1403725033195 1395802358422 Which emryological pharyngeal pouch gives rise
to the Thymus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium of the <u>3rd</u>&nsp;phar
yngeal pouch}}</div>
1403725083050 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::cortex}} is the area of the Thymu
s that is <>dense</>&nsp;and full of <>immature T cells.</>
1403725113436 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::medulla}} is the area of the Thym
us that is <>pale</>&nsp;and full of <>mature T cells</>&nsp;and <>Hassal
l corpuscles</>&nsp;containing epithelial reticular cells.
1403728974095 1395802358422 {{c1::Toll-like Receptors (TLRs)}} are pattern r
ecognition receptors involved in <>innate immunity</>&nsp;that recognize <>p
athogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)</>.
<r /><div><i>PAMPs incl
ude LPS, Flagellin, ssRNA, etc.</i></div>
1403729873078 1395802358422 {{c1::HLA-A}},&nsp;{{c2::HLA-B}} and&nsp;{{c3:
:HLA-C}} are the HLA loci associated with MHC I.
1403730052424 1395802358422 {{c1::HLA-DR}},&nsp;{{c2::HLA-DP}} and&nsp;{{c
3::HLA-DQ}} are the HLA loci that are associated with MHC II.
1403730083192 1395802358422 Which type of T cell does MHC I ind to?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::CD8+ T cells}}</div>
1403730116755 1395802358422 Which type of T cell does MHC II ind to?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ T cells}}</div>
1403730128805 1395802358422 Which MHC receptor is <>expressed on all nuclea
ted cells</>&nsp;except for RBCs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MHC I}}</div>
1403730276225 1395802358422 Which MHC receptor is <>only expressed on APCs<
/>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
1403730291961 1395802358422 Which MHC receptor presents <>endogenously</>&
nsp;synthesized <>antigens</>&nsp;(e.g. viral)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::M
HC I}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presented to CD8+ T cells</i></div>
1403730381281 1395802358422 Which MHC receptor presents <>exogenously </>s
ynthesized <>proteins</>&nsp;(e.g. acterial proteins; viral capsid antigens)
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents it to CD4
+ T cells.</i></div>
1403730425846 1395802358422 {{c1::TAP}} is a peptide transporter found in th
e RER that functions to deliver peptide antigens for loading into MHC I efore i
t is secreted.
1403731093160 1395802358422 {{c1::eta2-microgloulin}} is a protein that tr
ansports MHC I molecules to the cell surface. <r /><div><img src="paste-77567

10936791.jpg" /></div>
1403731126065 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Hemochromat
osis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-A3}}</div>
1403735608138 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Psoriatic A
rthritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-8138963026013.jpg" /></div>
1403735640890 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Ankylosing
Spondylitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-8134668058717.jpg" /></div>
1403735662015 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with the arthrit
is of Inflammatory Bowel Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8134668058717.jpg" /></div>
1403735685532 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Reactive Ar
thritis (Reiter Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-8134668058717.jpg" /></div>
1403735706703 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with the seroneg
ative arthropathies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-8134668058717.jpg" /></div>
1403736071374 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Celiac Dise
ase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DQ2/DQ8}}</div>
1403736094921 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Multiple Sc
lerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2}}</div>
1403736117231 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with hay fever?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2}}</div>
1403736126754 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with SLE?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2; HLA-DR3}}</div>
1403736132132 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Goodpasture
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2}}</div>
1403736141703 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with T1DM?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR3; HLA-DR4}}</div>
1403736148376 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Graves Dise
ase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLS-DR3}}</div>
1403736170707 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Rheumatoid
Arthritis??<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR4}}</div> <r /><div><i>There are
<>4</>&nsp;walls in the <>"rheum</>".</i></div>
1403736233761 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Pernicious
Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR5}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer,
Pernicious Anaemia can cause Vit B12 deficiency.</i></div>
1403736262399 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Hashimoto T
hyroiditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR5}}</div>
1403736277187 1395802358422 {{c1::Perforin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Granzyme}} are e
nzymes used y Natural Killer cells to induce apoptosis in virally infected cell
s and tumour cells.
<r /><div><i>Perforin "perforates" the memrane.</i></d
iv><div><i>Granzyme enters and induces apoptosis.</i></div>
1403738680003 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is the only lymphocyte that fun
ctions in the innate immune system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Natural Killer ce
lls}}</div>
1403738714689 1395802358422 How does IL-2 influence NK cell activity?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403738736156 1395802358422 How does IL-12 influence NK cell activity?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403738743555 1395802358422 How does IFN-eta influence NK cell activity?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403738753600 1395802358422 How does IFN-alpha influence NK cell activity?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403738764683 1395802358422 {{c1::Natural Killer cells}} are cells that func
tion in the innate immune system y killing cells when exposed to an<> activati
on signal</>&nsp;or an <>asence of MHC I</>&nsp;on the target cell.
1403738896410 1395802358422 {{c1::Antiody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxic
ity (ADCC)}} is an immunological killing method performed y NK cells that invol

ves the inding of <>CD16</>&nsp;to the <>F<su>c</su>&nsp;portion of oun
d immunogloulins</>. <r /><div><i>This then activates the NK cell.</i></div>
1403739099878 1395802358422 Which type of T cell functions to help B cells m
ake antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ T cells}}</div>
1403739221373 1395802358422 Which type of T cells function to produce cytoki
nes that activate other cells of the immune system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C
D4+ T cells}}</div>
1403739243025 1395802358422 Which type of T cells function to kill virus-inf
ected cells directly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD8+ T cells}}</div>
1403739263853 1395802358422 Which type of lymphocyte is associated with Type
IV Hypersensitivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1403739342247 1395802358422 Which type of lymphocyte is associated with acut
e and chronic organ rejection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1403739360890 1395802358422 In which area of the Thymus does <>positive sel
ection</>&nsp;of T cells occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cortex}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10771777979063.jpg" /></div>
1403739873226 1395802358422 In which area of the Thymus does <>negative sel
ection</>&nsp;of T cells occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medulla}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403739903771 1395802358422 {{c1::Positive selection}} is a type of selectio
n undergone y T cells that involves the survival of T cells expressing TCRs tha
t are <>capale</>&nsp;of inding surface self MHC molecules.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740110832 1395802358422 {{c1::Negative selection}} is a type of selectio
n undergone y T cells that involves the <>apoptosis</>&nsp;of T cells expres
sing TCRs with high affinity for self antigens. <r /><div><img src="paste-10767
483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740212080 1395802358422 Which cytokine induces the differentiation of He
lper T cells into Th1 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740242484 1395802358422 Which cytokine induces the differentiation of He
lper T cells into Th2 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-4}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740268332 1395802358422 Which cytokine induces the differentiation of He
lper T cells into Th17 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TGF-eta + IL-6}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740302633 1395802358422 Which cytokine induces the differentiation of He
lper T cells into Regulatory T cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TGF-eta}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740351715 1395802358422 In the activation of T cells, what is the <>pri
mary signal </>etween the APC and T cell? &nsp;<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::An
tigen via MHC II on APC to TCR on CD4+ T cell; Antigen via MHC I on APC to TCR o
n CD8+ T cell}}</div> <r /><div><i>MHC II &lt;--&gt; CD4+ T cell</i></div><di
v><i>MHC I &lt;--&gt; CD8+ T cell</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1253271457014
9.jpg" /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-13735305412787.jpg" /></i></div>
1403742157676 1395802358422 In the activation of T cells, what is the <>sec
ondary/co-stimulatory</>&nsp;signal etween the APC and T cell?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::B7 on APC to CD28 on T cell}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-12537009537445.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-13739600380083.jpg" /></div>
1403742217564 1395802358422 In B cell activation, what is the <>primary </
>signal etween the CD4+ T cell and B cell?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antigen v
ia TCR on CD4+ T cell to MHC II on B cell}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-13224204304801.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-13653701034168.jpg" /></div>
1403742535744 1395802358422 In B cell activation, what is the <>secondary</
>&nsp;signal etween the CD4+ T cell and B cell?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD
40L on CD4+ T cell to CD40 on B cell}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13219
909337505.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-13657996001464.jpg" /></div>
1403803116185 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cell secretes I<>FN-gamm
a</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Th1}}</div>
1403803358364 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cell secrets <>IL-4, IL-

5, IL-6, IL-10</>&nsp;and <>IL-13</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Th2}}</div>
1403803398290 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cells function to <>acti
vate macrophages and cytotoxic T cells</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Th1}}</di
v>
1403803451156 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cells function to <>recr
uit eosinophils for parasite defense</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Th2}}</div>
1403804426864 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cells function to <>prom
ote IgE production y B cells</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Th2}}</div>
1403804476924 1395802358422 {{c2::IL-4}} and {{c1::IL-10}} are cytokines&ns
p;<>secreted y Th2</>&nsp;cells that <>inhiits Th1 cell activity</>.
1403804505594 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-gamma}} is a cytokine <>secreted y T
h1</>&nsp;cell that <>inhiits Th2 cell action</>.
1403804722120 1395802358422 Which cytokine from macrophages functions to sti
mulate T cell differentiation into Th1 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}
</div> <r /><div><i>- Macrophages release IL-12 --&gt; T cells differentiate i
nto Th1 cells.</i></div><div><i>- Th1 cells secrete IFN-gamma --&gt; Activation
of macrophages</i></div>
1403804814688 1395802358422 Which cytokine from Th1 cells functions to activ
ate macrophages?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-gamma}}</div> <r /><div><div>
<i>- Macrophages release IL-12 --&gt; T cells differentiate into Th1 cells.</i><
/div><div><i>- Th1 cells secrete IFN-gamma --&gt; Activation of macrophages</i><
/div></div>
1403805012727 1395802358422 {{c1::Perforin}} is an enzyme found in the cytot
oxic granules of CD8+ T cells that functions to deliver the content of granules
into target cells.
1403805121291 1395802358422 {{c1::Granzyme B}} is a <>serine protease</>&n
sp;found in the cytotoxic granules of CD8+ T cells that functions to activate a
poptosis inside target cells.
1403805171666 1395802358422 {{c1::Granulysin}} is an <>antimicroial</>&n
sp;protein found in the cytotoxic granules of CD8+ T cells that functions to ind
uce apoptosis.
1403805210685 1395802358422 Which type of T cell functions to <>maintain sp
ecific immune tolerance</>&nsp;y <>suppression CD4 and CD8 T cell</>&nsp;e
ffector function?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Regulatory T cells}}</div>
1403805941842 1395802358422 Which type of T cell is identified y the expres
sion of cell surface markers <>CD3, CD4 and CD25</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Regulatory T cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>CD25 = alpha-chain of the IL-2 rec
eptor</i></div>
1403806196523 1395802358422 Which type of T cell is identified y the expres
sion of the <>transcription factor FOXP3</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Regula
tory T cells}}</div>
1403806222535 1395802358422 Which anti-inflammatory cytokines are produced 
y regulatory T cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-10; TGF-eta}}</div>
1403806247938 1395802358422 Which fragment in antiodies contains the <>hea
vy chain only</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fc}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-3513283248542.jpg" /></div>
1403806922331 1395802358422 Which fragment in antiodies contains <>oth</
>&nsp;the heavy and light chains?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fa}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3508988281246.jpg" /></div>
1403806927526 1395802358422 Which fragment in antiodies functions to <>in
d antigen</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fa}}</div> <div><r /></div><img sr
c="paste-3508988281246.jpg" />
1403806951120 1395802358422 Which fragment in antiodies <>determines the i
diotype</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fa}}</div>
<r /><div><i>There is a
unique antigen-inding pocket as </i><u style="font-style: italic; ">only 1 ant
igenic specificity is expressed per B cell</u>.</div><div><img src="paste-350898
8281246.jpg" /></div>
1403807109173 1395802358422 Which fragment in antiodies is involved with <
>complement inding</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fc}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-3508988281246.jpg" /><img src="paste-4509715660977.jpg" /></div>

1403807142461 1395802358422 Which fragment of antiodies determines the isot
ype (IgM, IgD, etc.)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fc}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-3508988281246.jpg" /><img src="paste-4505420693681.jpg" /></div>
1403807216749 1395802358422 {{c1::Opsonization}} is an immunological phenome
non performed y antiodies that involves the promotion of phagocytosis.
<r /><div><img src="paste-4707284156818.jpg" /></div>
1403807983588 1395802358422 {{c1::Neutralization}} is an immunological pheno
menon performed y antiodies that involves the prevention of acterial adherenc
e to target cells/tissue.
<r /><div><img src="paste-4702989189522.jpg" />
</div>
1403808019293 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotypes are expressed on t
he surface of mature, naive B cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgM; IgD}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"We <>B</>&nsp;<>naive</>&nsp;<>MD</>'s"</i></div><div><i>
<r /></i></div><div><i>They may differentiate in germinal centers of lymph node
s y isotype switching into plasma cells that secrete IgA, IgE and IgG.</i></div
>
1403821717530 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotype is the main antiod
y involved in the&nsp;<>secondary/delayed</>&nsp;response to an antigen?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
1403822705268 1395802358422 What is the most aundant immunogloulin isotype
in serum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
1403823724749 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype fixes compleme
nt <u style="font-weight: old; ">and</u>&nsp;is ale to cross the placenta?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Crossing of the plcenta pr
ovides infants with passive immunity.</i></div>
1403823804312 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype function to <
>opsonize acteria</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
1403823814812 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype functions to <
>neutralize acterial toxins and viruses</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}<
/div>
1403823830486 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype <>prevents th
e attachment of acteria and viruses to </><u style="font-weight: old; ">mucou
s memranes</u>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
1403823874672 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA}} is an&nsp;immunogloulin isotype th
at is found as a <>monomer</>&nsp;in circulation ut a <>dimer</>&nsp;in s
ecretions.
1403823936207 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype crosses epithe
lial cells y transcytosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
1403823977131 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype is the <>most
produced antiody overall</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>It is released into secretions (tears, saliva, mucous) and early reast mi
lk (colostrum).</i></div><div><i>Before it is released from epithelial cells, it
picks up a secretory component (i.e. ecoming Secretory-IgA).</i></div>
1403825652154 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype is produced in
the <>primary/immediate</>&nsp;response to an antigen?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::IgM}}</div>
1403825751831 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype functions to f
ix complement <>ut does not cross the placenta</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:IgM}}</div>
1403825784725 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype exists as a <
>monomer</>&nsp;on B cells or a <>pentamer</>&nsp;when secreted?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::IgM}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The shape of the IgM pentamer allo
ws it to efficiently trap free antigens out of tissue while the humoural respons
e evolves.</i></div>
1403826232035 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype inds <>mast
cells</>&nsp;and <>asophils</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It cross-links when exposed to the allergen, therey causing mast
cell degranulation.</i></div><div><i>Major part of <>type I hypersensitivity</
>.</i></div><div><i>Mediates immunity to worms y activating eosinophils.</i></d
iv>

1403826487731 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype has the lowest
concentration in serum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
1403826499478 1395802358422 {{c1::Thymus-independent antigens}} are a type o
f antigen that <>lacks</>&nsp;a peptide component and hence cannot e present
ed y MHC to T cells. <r /><div><i>Weakly immunogenic or nonimmunogenic.</i><
/div><div><i>Vaccines often require oosters.</i></div>
1403827703983 1395802358422 {{c1::Thymus-dependent antigens}} are a type of
antigen that <>contain protein components</>. <r /><div><i>Immunologic memory
occurs as a result of direct contact of B cells with Th cells (via CD40 and CD4
0L interaction).</i></div>
1403883361607 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute-phase Reactants}} are proteins/facto
rs whose serum concentrations change significantly in response to inflammation.
1403883505004 1395802358422 Where are acute-phase reactants made?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div> <r /><div><i>In oth acute and chronic inflamma
tory states.</i></div>
1403883525128 1395802358422 {{c1::Serum Amyloid A}} is a positive acute phas
e reactant whose prolonged elevation can lead to Amyloidosis.
1403883964474 1395802358422 {{c1::C-reactive protein}} is a <>positive</>&
nsp;acute phase reactant that functions as an <>opsonin</>&nsp;and <>fixes
complement</>. <r /><div><i>It is measured clinically as a sign of ongoing inf
lammation.</i></div>
1403884008600 1395802358422 {{c1::Ferritin}} is a <>positive</>&nsp;acute
phase reactant that inds to and sequesters iron to inhiit microial iron scav
enging.
1403884040048 1395802358422 {{c1::Firinogen}} is a <>positive</>&nsp;acu
te phase reactant that functions as a <>coagulation factor</>&nsp;and <>prom
otes endothelial repair</>.
<r /><div><i>It correlates with ESR.</i></div>
1403884093041 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepcidin}} is a <>positive</>&nsp;acute
phase reactant that prevents the release of iron ound y Ferritin.
1403884115768 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepcidin}} is a <>positive</>&nsp;acute
phase reactant that can cause Anaemia of Chronic Disease when elevated for a pr
olonged period.
1403884151465 1395802358422 {{c1::Alumin}} is a <>negative</>&nsp;acute
phase reactant whose production is reduced to conserve amino acids for the posit
ive reactants.
1403884176332 1395802358422 {{c1::Transferrin}} is a <>negative</>&nsp;ac
ute phase reactant that is internalized y macrophages to sequester iron.
1403884205201 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotypes mediate the <>cla
ssical</>&nsp;complement pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG; IgM}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>GM</>&nsp;makes <>classic</>&nsp;cars."</i></div><div><i>
<img src="paste-15431817495065.jpg" /></i></div>
1403885182126 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated y IgG or
IgM?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Classical}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>GM</>
&nsp;makes <>classic</>&nsp;cars."</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-15427522
527769.jpg" /></i></div>
1403885217365 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated y surface
molecules on microes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alternative}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885242304 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated y <>mann
ose</>&nsp;or other sugars on the microe surface?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Lectin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885267752 1395802358422 What is the function of complement protein C3?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Opsonization}}</div> <r /><div><i>C3 inds to acte
ria.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-15427522527769.jpg" /></i></div>
1403885304656 1395802358422 What is the function of the complement proteins
C3a, C4a and C5a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anaphylaxis}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885327291 1395802358422 What is the function of the complement protein C
5a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neutrophil chemotaxis}}</div>
1403885361880 1395802358422 What is the function of the complement proteins

C5, C6, C7, C8 and C9?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Formation of the MAC and sus
equent cytolysis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15427522527769.jpg" /
></div>
1403885389569 1395802358422 Which complement proteins are involved in anaphy
laxis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3a, C4a, C5a}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885490258 1395802358422 Which complement proteins are involved in the fo
rmation of the MAC?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5, C6, C7, C8, C9}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885515265 1395802358422 Which complement protein is involved with neutro
phil chemotaxis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5a}}</div>
1403885542841 1395802358422 Which complement protein is involved with opsoni
zation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3}}</div>
1403885554737 1395802358422 Which immunological isotype is one of the two pr
imary opsonins in acterial defense?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
1403885628026 1395802358422 Which complement protein is one of the two prima
ry opsonins in acterial defense?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3}}</div>
<r /><div><i>C3 also helps to clear immune complexes.</i></div>
1403885651820 1395802358422 {{c1::Decay-accelerating factor (DAF; CD55)}} an
d&nsp;{{c2::C1 Esterase Inhiitor}} are 2 proteins that function to <>prevent<
/>&nsp;complement activation on self cells (such as on RBCs).
1403904944918 1395802358422 Which complement protein disorder causes Heredit
ary Angioedema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C1 Esterase Inhiitor Deficiency}}</d
iv>
1403906276037 1395802358422 {{c1::C1 Esterase Inhiitor Deficiency}} is a co
mplement disorder that causes Hereditary Angioedema.
<r /><div><i>ACE Inhii
tors are contraindicated in C1 Esterase Inhiitor Deficiency.</i></div>
1403906380806 1395802358422 Which complement disorder increases the suscepti
ility to Type III hypersensitivity reactions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3 Def
iciency}}</div> <r /><div><i>C<>3</>&nsp;deficiency = More Type&nsp;<>3</
>&nsp;reactions</i></div>
1403906633826 1395802358422 {{c1::C3 Deficiency}} is a complement disorder t
hat increases the susceptiility to Type III Hypersensitivity reactions.
<r /><div><i>C<>3</>&nsp;deficiency = More Type <>3</>&nsp;reactions</i><
/div>
1403906701579 1395802358422 {{c1::C3 Deficiency}} is a complement disorder t
hat presents with an increased risk of severem recurrent <>pyogenic sinus and r
espiratory tract infections</>.
1403907450352 1395802358422 {{c1::C5-C9 Deficiencies}} are a group of comple
ment protein deficiencies that involve increased susceptiility to recurrent <i>
Neisseria</i>&nsp;acteremia.
1403907493918 1395802358422 {{c1::Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemogloinuria}} is a
hematological disorder that presents with <>complement-mediated lysis</>&nsp
;of RBCs due to a <>DAF</>&nsp;(CD55; GPI anchored enzyme) deficiency.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, DAF functions to inhiit complement mediated cell lysis
on self-cells, especially RBCs.</i></div>
1403907629544 1395802358422 Which protein is deficient in Paroxysmal Nocturn
al Hemogloinuria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DAF (CD55)}}</div>
1403907916822 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophages functio
ns as an endogenous pyrogen, causing fever and acute inflammation?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::IL-1}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20444044329218.jpg" /
></div>
1403908541187 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophages is also
called <>osteoclast-activating factor</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-1}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20439749361922.jpg" /></div>
1403908656668 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophages functio
ns to activate endothelium to express adhesion molecules?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::IL-1}}</div>
1403908852818 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophages functio
ns to induce chemokine secretion to recruit leukocytes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c

1::IL-1}}</div>
1403908874318 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophages causes
fever <u style="font-weight: old; ">and</u>&nsp;stimulates the production of a
cute-phase proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-6}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><i>Also secreted y Th2 cells.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-20439749361922.jpg
" /></div>
1403908946411 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Macrophages is a ma
jor chemotactic factor for Neutrophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-8}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Clean up on <>aisle 8</>."</i></div>
1403909369598 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophages induces
the differentiation of T cells to Th1 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}
</div> <r /><div><i>Also secreted y B cells.</i></div>
1403909387355 1395802358422 Which cytokine released y macrophages activates
NK cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Also secre
ted y B cells.</i></div>
1403909456381 1395802358422 Which cytokine released y macrophages mediates
septic shock?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TNF-alpha}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It
also activates endothelium, causes leukocyte recruitment and vascular leakage.<
/i></div>
1403909692002 1395802358422 Which cytokine secreted y all T cells stimulate
s the growth of all T cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-2}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-20439749361922.jpg" /></div>
1403909694074 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from all T cells functio
ns to support the growth and differentiation of one marrow stem cells (i.e. fun
ctions like GM-CSF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-3}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-20439749361922.jpg" /></div>
1403909721098 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th1 cells has antiv
iral and antitumour properties?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-gamma}}</div>
1403909780321 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th1 cells functions
to increase MHC expression and antigen presentation in all cells?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::IFN-gamma}}</div>
1403910086930 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th2 cells functions
to induce differentiation into Th2 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-4}}</di
v>
1403910142484 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th2 cells functions
to promote <>B cell growth</>&nsp;and <>enhance class switching to IgE and
IgG</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-4}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-20439749361922.jpg" /></div>
1403910406179 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th2 cells functions
to promote B cell differentiation and <>enhance class switching to IgA</>?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-5}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2043974936192
2.jpg" /></div>
1403910502179 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th2 cells functions
to stimulate the growth and differentiation of eosinophils?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::IL-5}}</div>
1403910545340 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-10}} is an anti-inflammatory cytokine r
eleased y Th2 cells that inhiits the actions of activated T cells and Th1 cell
s.
<r /><div><i>Also secreted y regulatory T cells.</i></div><div><i>Simi
lar to TGF-eta which is also anti-inflammatory.</i></div>
1403918806326 1395802358422 {{c1::Interferons}} are immunological glycoprote
ins synthesized y viral-infected cells that act locally on uninfected cells, th
erey "priming them" for viral defense. <r /><div><i>When a virus infected a "p
rimed" cell, viral nucleic acid triggers the following enzymes and eventually ap
optosis, hence stopping viral replication:</i></div><div><i>- RNA-ase L, which d
egrades viral/host mRNA</i></div><div><i>- Protein Kinases that inhiit viral/ho
st protein synthesis</i></div>
1403919003754 1395802358422 {{c1::RNA-ase L}} is a rionuclease enzyme that
functions to degrade viral/host mRNA as a defense mechanism in virally infected
cells. <r /><div><r /></div><div><div><i>When a virus infected a "primed" cel
l, viral nucleic acid triggers the following enzymes and eventually apoptosis, h

ence stopping viral replication:</i></div><div><i>- RNA-ase L, which degrades vi
ral/host mRNA</i></div><div><i>- Protein Kinases that inhiit viral/host protein
synthesis</i></div></div>
1403919110154 1395802358422 Which cell type is the only cell that does not h
ave MHC I on its surface?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mature RBCs}}</div>
1403919956930 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on T cells inds to
the antigen-MHC complex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TCR}}</div>
1403920002488 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on T cells is associ
ated with the TCR for signal transduction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD3}}</div
>
1403920032758 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on T cells inds to
B7 on APCs during the secondary signal in T cell activation?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::CD28}}</div>
1403920064266 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on B cells is the re
ceptor for EBV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD21}}</div> <r /><div><i>"ou must
e <>21</>&nsp;to drink at the <>Epstein-Barr</>."</i></div>
1403920166350 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on B cells inds to
CD40L on helper T cells during B cell activation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4
0}}</div>
1403920196810 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is characterized y CD19, CD20,
CD21 and CD40 cell surface proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B cells}}</div>
1403920249024 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is characterized y CD3 and CD2
8 cell surface proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1403920377502 1395802358422 {{c1::CD14}} and&nsp;{{c2::CD40}} are the 2 CDcell surface proteins found on macrophages.
1403920412901 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein on NK cells inds to
the Fc portion of IgG?<div><r /></div><div>{{c2::CD16}}</div>
1403920430120 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein on NK cells is a uniq
ue marker for NK cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD56}}</div>
1403920455001 1395802358422 {{c1::Anergy}} is an immunological phenomenon th
at involves T cells ecoming nonreactive without a costimulatory molecule.
<r /><div><i>B cells also ecome anergic, ut tolerance is less complete than i
n T cells.</i></div>
1403921380619 1395802358422 {{c1::Superantigens}} are acterial toxins that
function to cross-link the <>eta-region of TCRs on all T cells to MHC II on AP
Cs</>, therey causing massive release of cytokines. <r /><div><i>Especially
released from Streptococcus pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus.</i></div>
1403922093744 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin/LPS}} is a acterial toxin from
gram-negative acteria that functions to <>directly stimulate macrophages y i
nding to the endotoxin receptor CD14</>.
<r /><div><i>Th cells are not i
nvolved.</i></div>
1403922433630 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein on macrophages is the
receptor for <>endotoxin/LPS</>&nsp;from gram-negative acteria?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::CD-14}}</div>
1403972465428 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Salmonella</i>}} is a gram-negative ac
teria that yiels antigenic variation due to it having 2 flagellar variants.
1403973380580 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Borrelia spp.</i>}} is a Spirochete tha
t yields antigenic variation and hence causes Relapsing Fever.
1403973457267 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisseria gonorrhoeae</i>}} is a specie
s of <i>Neisseria </i>that yield antigenic variation due to its pilus protein.
1403973514544 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Trypanosoma</i>}} is a genus of parasit
e that yields antigenic variation through programmed rearrangement of nucleic ac
id.
1403973818647 1395802358422 How is passive immunity acquired?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Receiving preformed antiodies}}</div>
1403974182943 1395802358422 What is the half-life of antiodies?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::3 weeks}}</div>
1403974216209 1395802358422 Which type of vaccine induces a strong and often
lifelong immunity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Live attenuated}}</div>
1403974569126 1395802358422 Which type of vaccine often induces a weaker imm

une response and hence requires ooster shots?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inacti
vated/killed vaccine}}</div>
1403974602027 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity reaction causes a
naphylaxis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-35566624178432.jpg" /><img src="paste-40510131536095.jpg" /></div>
1403975571117 1395802358422 {{c1::Type I Hypersensitivity}} is a type of hyp
ersensitivity that involves free antigens cross-linking IgE on presensitized mas
t cells and asophils.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-35562329211136.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>Therey triggering immediate, widespread release o
f vasoactive amines that act as postcapillary venules (i.e. histamine).</i></div
><div><i>The reaction is <>rapid</>&nsp;due to preformed antiodies.</i></div
>
1403975686169 1395802358422 {{c1::Type I Hypersensitivity}} is a type of hyp
ersensitivity that involves a delayed response due to production of Arachidonic
Acid metaolites (e.g. leukotrienes).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-35562
329211136.jpg" /></div>
1403975847006 1395802358422 Which hypersensitivity reactions are mediated y
antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Types I, II, and III}}</div>
1403975961897 1395802358422 What is the diagnostic test for Type I Hypersens
itivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Skin test for specific IgE}}</div>
1403975975899 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity involves cytotoxi
city?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-36206574305588.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Type </i><><i>2</i>&nsp;
</><i>is cy-<>2</>-toxic.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-40510131536095.jpg
" /></i></div>
1403976358058 1395802358422 {{c1::Type II Hypersensitivity}} is a type of hy
persensitivity that involves IgM or IgG inding to fixed antigens on "enemy" cel
ls, therey leading to cellular destruction.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-36202279338292.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>3 mechanisms exist:</i></div><div>
<i>- Opsonization leading to phagocytosis or complement activation</i></div><div
><i>- Complement-mediated lysis</i></div><div><i>- Antiody-dependent cell-media
ted cytotoxicity, typically y NK cells or macrophages</i></div>
1403976666920 1395802358422 What is the diagnostic test for Type II Hypersen
sitivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indirect and direct Cooms' test}}</div><di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-36202279338292.jpg" /></div>
1403976724587 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Direct Coom's test}} is a type o
f Coom's test that detects antiodies that <u style="font-weight: old; ">have
adhered</u>&nsp;to the patient's RBCs. <r /><div><i>e.g. testing an Rh-positiv
e infant of an Rh-negative mother</i></div>
1403976951442 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Indirect Coom's Test}} is a type
of Coom's test that detects antiodies that <u style="font-weight: old; ">can
adhere</u>&nsp;to other RBCs. <r /><div><i>e.g. testing an Rh-negative mother
for Rh-positive antiodies</i></div>
1403977015655 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity reaction involves
immune complexes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III Hypersensitivity}}</div><
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-37946036060486.jpg" /></div>
<img src
="paste-40510131536095.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div>
1403977055546 1395802358422 {{c1::Type III Hypersensitivity}} is a type of h
ypersensitivity that involves antigen-antiody (IgG) complexes which activate co
mplement, therey attracting neutrophils.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3
8100654883105.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Neutrophils release lysosomal enzy
mes.</i></div>
1403977409517 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotype is involved in Type
I Hypersensitivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-38246683771141.jpg" /></div>
1403977596021 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotype is involved in Type
II Hypersensitivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgM; IgG}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-38341173051709.jpg" /></div>
1403977623907 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotype is involved in Type
III Hypersensitivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div> <r /><div><img

src="paste-38375532790053.jpg" /></div>
1403977660948 1395802358422 {{c1::Serum Sickness}} is a Type III Hypersensit
ivity disorder that involves antiodies produced rapidly to an antigen (5 days)
forming immune complexes that deposit in memranes, therey causing tissue damag
e through complement fixation. <r /><div><i>More common that the Arthus Reacti
on.</i></div>
1403977757423 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity reaction is invol
ved in Serum Sickness?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403977799154 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity reaction is invol
ved in Arthus Reaction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-38371237822757.jpg" /></div>
1403977813070 1395802358422 {{c1::Serum Sickness}} is a type III hypersensit
ivity disorder that presents with fever, urticaria, arthralgia, proteinuria, lym
phadenopathy <>5-10 days after antigen exposure</>.
1403978313337 1395802358422 {{c1::Arthus Reaction}} is a type III hypersensi
tivity disorder that results from intradermal injection of antigens.
1403978462132 1395802358422 {{c1::Arthus Reaction}} is a type III hypersensi
tivity disorder that presents with antigen-antiody complexes in the skin.
1403978567048 1395802358422 {{c1::Arthus Reaction}} is a type III hypersensi
tivity that is characterized y edema, necrosis of the skin and complement activ
ation.
1403978700931 1395802358422 What diagnostic test is used to diagnose the Art
hus Reaction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Immunofluorescent staining}}</div>
1403978726721 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity involves a delaye
d, T-cell mediated reaction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-39724152520981.jpg" /><img src="paste-40514426503391.jpg" /><
/div>
1403978968306 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity involves sensitiz
ed T-cells that encounter antigen and then release lymphokines?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The lymphokines lead to macr
ophage activation.</i><div><i>There are no antiodies involves.<r /></i><div><i
mg src="paste-39719857553685.jpg" /></div></div>
1403979101476 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity is not transferra
<r /><div><img
le y serum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
src="paste-40007620362499.jpg" /></div>
1403979315540 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity is involved in tr
ansplant rejection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-40003325395203.jpg" /></div>
1403979360773 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity is involved in TB
skin tests?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-40003325395203.jpg" /></div>
1403979372604 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity is involved in co
ntact dermatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-40003325395203.jpg" /></div>
1403979472100 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
anaphylaxis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1403980403798 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
allergic and atopic disorders?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1403980425763 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980439089 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Pernicious Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980446348 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Idiopathic Thromocytopenic Purpura?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980480384 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Erythrolastosis Fetalis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980491424 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
acute hemolytic transfusion reactions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</di
v>
1403980510724 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with

Rheumatic Fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980521754 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Goodpasture Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980533878 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Bullous Pemphigoid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980553347 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Pemphigus Vulgaris?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980689240 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403980700885 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Polyarteritis Nodosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403980711154 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</di
v>
1403980732227 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Serum Sickness?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403980856605 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Arthus Reaction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403980869988 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
vasculitis and systemic manifestations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</
div>
1403981018779 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Multiple Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1403981071040 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Guillain-Barre Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1403981277894 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Graft-versus-host disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1403981292947 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
PPD test for TB?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1403982071145 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Contact Dermatitis (e.g. poison ivy; nickel allergy)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Type IV}}</div>
1403993435845 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is involved in fe
rile nonhemolytic transfusion reactions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II hype
rsensitivity}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Involves host antiodies against donor HLA
antigens and leukocytes.</i></div>
1403994370623 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is involved in acu
te hemolytic transfusion reactions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Involves intravascular hemolysis (i.e. ABO lood group incompatii
lity) or extravascular hemolysis (i.e. host antiody reaction against foreign an
tigens on donor RBCs).</i></div>
1403994583077 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Myasthenia
Gravis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-ACh Receptor}}</div>
1403995003159 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Goodpastur
e Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-asement memrane}}</div>
1403995012828 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with SLE?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-cardiolipin; Anti-dsDNA; Anti-Smith; ANA (nonspecific
)}}</div>
1403995075505 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Antiphosph
olipid Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-cardiolipin}}</div>
1403995126258 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with <>limited
</>&nsp;Scleroderma (CREST Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anticentromer
e}}</div>
1403995140505 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Pemphigus
Vulgaris?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-desmoglein}}</div>
1403995155658 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with T1DM?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-glutamate decaroxylase}}</div>
1403995179411 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Bullous Pe
mphigoid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-hemidesmosome}}</div>
1403995201458 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Drug-induc

ed SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antihistone}}</div>
1403995574176 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Polyomyosi
tis and Dermatomyositis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Jo-1; Anti-SRP; Anti-Mi
-2}}</div>
1403995610720 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Hashimoto
Thyroiditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antimicrosomal; Antithyrogloulin}}</div
>
1403995637713 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Primary Bi
liary Cirrhosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antimitochondrial}}</div>
1403995653877 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with <>Diffuse
</>Scleroderma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Scl-70 (Anti-DNA Topoisomerase
I)}}</div>
1403995681306 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Autoimmune
Hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-smooth muscle}}</div>
1403995693784 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Sjogren Sy
ndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-SSA (Ro); Anti-SSB (La)}}</div>
1403996350172 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Graves Dis
ease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-TSH Receptor}}</div>
1403996368467 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Mixed Conn
ective Tissue Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-U1 RNP (Rionucleoprotein
)}}</div>
1403996398329 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Wegener Gr
anulomatosis (i.e. granulomatosis with polyangiitis)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:c-ANCA (PR3-ANCA)}}</div>
1403996432198 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Celiac Dis
ease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA anti-tissue transglutaminase; IgA antiendom
ysial}}</div>
1403996462590 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Microscopt
ic Polyangiitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p-ANCA (MPO-ANCA)}}</div>
1403996478102 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Churg-Stra
uss Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p-ANCA (MPO-ANCA)}}</div>
1403996490484 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Rheumatoid
Arthritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rheumatoid factor (IgM specific to the Fc
region of IgG); anti-CCP}}</div>
1403996531568 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisseria</i>}} is a genus of gram-nega
tive acterial that commonly cause infection in <>complement deficiency</>&ns
p;as there is no memrane attack complex.
1403996587310 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte deficiency tends to produce rec
urrent <>acterial </>infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B-cell deficiency
}}</div>
1403996626512 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte deficiency tends to produce mor
e recurrent <>fungal</>&nsp;and <>viral</>&nsp;infections?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::T-cell deficiency}}</div>
1403996658354 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Giardia lamlia</i>}} is a GI protozoal
infection that is often seen in <>B cell deficiency</>&nsp;due to a lack of
IgA.
1403997709839 1395802358422 Which gene is defective in Bruton (X-linked) Aga
mmgloulinemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>BTK</i>&nsp;(Bruton's Tyrosine Ki
nase); results in a lack of B cell maturation}}</div>
1403999757012 1395802358422 {{c1::Bruton (X-linked) Agammagloulinemia}} is
an XLR immunodeficiency that involves a defect in <i>BTK</i>&nsp;(Bruton Tyrosi
ne Kinase gene), therey resulting in a lack of B-cell maturation.
1403999799341 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Bruton Agamma
gloulinemia??<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence ther
e is an increased incidence in oys.</i></div>
1403999830500 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is affected in Bruton Agammaglo
ulinemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B-cells}}</div>
1403999844692 1395802358422 {{c1::Bruton (X-linked) Agammagloulinemia}} is
an XLR immunodeficiency that presents with recurrent acterial and enteroviral i
nfections <>after 6 months</>&nsp;of irth (due to a decrease in maternal IgG

in the child).
1404000041802 1395802358422 {{c1::Bruton (X-linked) Agammagloulinemia}} is
an XLR immunodeficiency that presents with an <>asence of CD19+ B-cells</>&n
sp;and a decrease in <>pro-B cells</>.
1404000232064 1395802358422 How do immunogloulin levels change in Bruton (X
-linked) Agammagloulinemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased immunogloulin
s of all classes}}</div>
1404000257469 1395802358422 {{c1::Bruton (X-linked) Agammagloulinema}} is a
n XLR immunodeficiency that presents with <>asent/scanty lymph nodes</>&nsp;
and <>tonsils</>.
1404007128360 1395802358422 What is the most common primary immunodeficiency
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Selective IgA Deficiency}}</div>
1404007373971 1395802358422 What IgA level is diagnostic of Selective IgA De
ficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 7 mg/dL (with normal IgG and IgM level
s)}}</div>
1404007413143 1395802358422 {{c1::Common Variale Immunodeficiency}} is a pr
imary immunodeficiency with <>many causes</>&nsp;that involves a defect in Bcell differentiation. <r /><div><i>Can e acquired in the 20s-30s.</i></div><
div><i>Increased risk of autoimmune disease, ronchiectasis, lymphoma, sinopulmo
nary infections.</i></div>
1404007637297 1395802358422 How do immunogloulin levels change in Common Va
riale Immunodeficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>There is a defect in B-cell differentiation, hence there are fewer plasma
cells and fewer immunogloulins.</i></div>
1404007679611 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in DiGeorge Syndrome
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::22q11}}</div>
1404007721770 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is affected in Common Variale
Immunodeficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B-cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>He
nce there are fewer plasma cells and immunogloulins.</i></div>
1404007743187 1395802358422 Which pharyngeal pouches fail to develop in DiGe
orge Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd and 4th}}</div> <r /><div><i>He
nce there is thymic and parathyroid aplasia.</i></div>
1404007981537 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetany}} is a muscular complication of DiG
eorge Syndrome that occurs due to the <>hypocalcemia</>&nsp;secondary to para
thyroid aplasia.
1404008010570 1395802358422 How do PTH levels change in DiGeorge Syndrome?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404008073227 1395802358422 How do serum Ca levels change in DiGeorge Syndro
me?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404008085107 1395802358422 Which lymphocytes are affected in DiGeorge Syndr
ome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div> <r /><div><i>Due to the thymic
aplasia.</i></div>
1404008108957 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of IL-12 Recepto
r Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1404008313963 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-12 Receptor Deficiency}} is a primary i
mmunodeficiency that involves a decreased Th1 response due to a lack of IL-12 ac
tion. <r /><div><i>Rememer, IL-12 from macrophages activates Th1 cells (whic
h then activate macrophages via IFN-gamma).</i></div>
1404008382813 1395802358422 How do IFN-gamma levels change in IL-12 Receptor
Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>IL
-12 from macrophages causes Th1 cell activation.</i></div><div><i>Activated Th1
cells release IFN-gamma which activations macrophages.</i></div><div><i><>No IL
-12 action = no IFN-gamma release from Th1 cells</></i></div>
1404008442212 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Jo Syndrome
(Hyper-IgE Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1404008490941 1395802358422 {{c1::Autosomal Dominant hyper-IgE Syndrome (Jo
Syndrome)}} is a primary immunodeficiency that presents with a <>deficiency of
Th17 cells</>&nsp;due to a <i style="font-weight: old; ">STAT3</i>&nsp;muta
tion. <r /><div><i>The mutation results in impaired recruitment of neutrophil
s to the site of infection.</i></div>

1404008550006 1395802358422 Which gene mutation is seen in Jo Syndrome (Aut
osomal Dominant hyper-IgE Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>STAT3</i>; ca
uses a deficiency of Th17 cells which leads to impaired recruitment of neutrophi
ls to sites of infection}}</div>
1404008592546 1395802358422 How do IgE levels change in Jo Syndrome (Autoso
mal Dominant hyper-IgE Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-49598282334413.jpg" /></div>
1404008632293 1395802358422 How do IFN-gamma levels change in Jo Syndrome (
Autosomal Dominant hyper-IgE Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</
div>
1404008678484 1395802358422 What type of lymphocyte is affected in Jo Syndr
ome (Autosomal Dominant hyper-IgE Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}
}</div>
1404009254845 1395802358422 What type of lymphocyte is affected in Chronic M
ucocutaneous Candidiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1404009272434 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Mucocutaneous Candidiasis}} is a p
rimary T-cell immunodeficiency that involves noninvasive <i>Candida alicans</i>
&nsp;infections of skin and mucous memranes.
1404010851270 1395802358422 What is the most common etiology of Severe Comi
ned Immunodeficiency (SCID)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Defective IL-2R gamma ch
ain}}</div>
<r /><div><i>X-linked</i></div>
1404011726248 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of IL-2R Gamma C
hain deficiency [and the susequent Severe Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID)]?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive}}</div>
1404011780588 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Adenosine Dea
minase Deficiency [and the susequent Severe Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID)]?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1404011821953 1395802358422 What type of lymphocytes are affected in Severe
Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T and B cells}}</di
v>
1404011853786 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Severe Comined Immuno
deficiency (SCID)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bone marrow transplantation}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>There is no concern for rejection.</i></div>
1404011951361 1395802358422 {{c1::Severe Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID}} i
s a primary immunodeficiency that presents with decreased T-cell receptor excisi
on circles (TRECs).
1404012084160 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Ataxia Telangiect
asia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>ATM</i>&nsp;gene; leads to DNA doule stran
ded reaks and arrest of the cell cycle}}</div> <r /><div><i>This ultimately ca
uses a deficiency of lymphocytes. (T and B cells).</i></div>
1404012157533 1395802358422 {{c1::Ataxia Telangiectasia}} is a primary immun
odeficiency that involves a defect in the <i>ATM</i>&nsp;gene, therey leading
to many doule stranded DNA reaks and arrest of the cell cycle.
1404012196576 1395802358422 {{c1::Ataxia Telangiectasia}} is a primary immun
odeficiency that presents with a triad of <>ataxia, spider angiomas</>&nsp;an
d <>IgA deficiency.</>
<r /><div><i>Spider angiomas are a type of tela
ngiectasia.</i></div><div><i>There is also significant cereellar atrophy.</i></
div>
1404012232234 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotype is deficient in Ata
xia Telangiectasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Ig
G and IgE are also decreased.</i></div>
1404012380967 1395802358422 How do AFP levels change in Ataxia Telangiectasi
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404012403474 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Hyper IgM Syndrom
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD40L; especially at Th cells}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence class switching for B cells is defective.</i></div>
1404012453683 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Hyper IgM Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}</div>
1404012481178 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyper IgM Syndrome}} is an XLR primary imm
unodeficiency that involves a defect in CD40L on Th cells, therey yielding a de

fect in B-cell class switching. <r /><div><i>CD40L is required as a co-stimulat
ory factor in class switching. Since it is defective, B-cells are "stuck" secret
ed IgM (which is a default isotype expressed y naive B-cells).</i></div>
1404012568560 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein is defective in Hyper
IgM Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD40L on Th cells}}</div>
1404012581402 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyper IgM Syndrome}} is a primary immunode
ficiency that involves severe pyogenic infections early in life.
<r /><d
iv><i>Opportunistic infections with Pneumocystis, Cryptosporidium and CMV are al
so likely.</i></div>
1404012904857 1395802358422 How do IgG, IgA and IgE levels change in Hyper I
gM Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
is stems from why there is hyper-IgM.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>R
ememer, there is a defect in class switching of B cells - they are stuck secret
ing IgM due to a CD40L defect on Th cells. As a result, no IgG, IgA or IgE is ma
de as no B cells are switching to those isotypes.</i></div>
1404012991885 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Wiskott-Aldrich S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>WAS</i>&nsp;mutation; results in T cells
that are unale to reorganize their actin cytoskeleton}}</div>
1404013032550 1395802358422 {{c1::Wiskot-Aldrich Syndrome}} is a primary imm
unodeficiency that involves a mutation in <i>WAS</i>&nsp;and hence presents wit
h T-cells that are unale to reorganize their actin cytoskeleton.
1404013066104 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Wiskott-Aldri
ch Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}</div>
1404013081138 1395802358422 {{c1::Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome}} is a primary im
munodeficiency that presents with <>thromocytopenic purpura</>, <>eczema</>
&nsp;and <>recurrent infections</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-5441723564048
8.jpg" /></div>
1404013407607 1395802358422 How do IgG and IgM levels change in Wiskott-Aldr
ich Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease to normal}}</div>
1404013436862 1395802358422 How do IgE and IgA levels change in Wiskott-Aldr
ich Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1404013453792 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Leukocyte Adhesio
n Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LFA-1 integrin (CD18) on
phagocytes}}</div>
1404013755387 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1
)}} is a primary immunodeficiency that involves a defect in LFA-1 integrin (CD18
) on phagocytes, therey resulting in impaired phagocyte migration and chemotaxi
s.
1404013792319 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Leukocyte Adh
esion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}
</div>
1404013817379 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1
)}} is a primary immunodeficiency that presents with <>delayed separation of th
e umilical cord</>&nsp;(&gt; 30 days).
1404014947661 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1
)}} is a primary immunodeficiency that presents with recurrent acterial skin/mu
cosal infections, asent pus formation and impaired wound healing.
1404014982518 1395802358422 Which genetic defect is seen in Chediak-Higashi
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>LST</i>&nsp;(Lysosomal trafficking reg
ulator gene)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Causes microtuule dysfunction in phagosom
e-lysosome fusion.</i></div>
1404015046147 1395802358422 {{c1::Chediak-Higashi Syndrome}} is a primary im
munodeficiency disorder that involves a defect in <i>LST</i>&nsp;(Lysosomal tr
afficking regulator gene), therey presenting with microtuule dysfunction in ph
agosome-lysosome fusion.
<r /><div><r /></div>
1404015100169 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Chediak-Higas
hi Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1404015115816 1395802358422 {{c1::Parital Alinism}} is a cutaneous disorder
seen in Chediak-Higashi Syndrome that results from dysfunctional phagosome-lyso
some fusion.

1404015180318 1395802358422 Which gram-positive acterial genuses often caus
e recurrent pyogenic infections in Chediak-Higashi Syndrome?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::<i>Staphylococci; Streptococci</i>}}</div>
1404015216936 1395802358422 {{c1::Chediak-Higashi Syndrome}} is a primary im
munodeficiency disorder that presents with <>giant granules in neutrophils and
platelets</>. <r /><div><i>There is pancytopenia and mild coagulation defects
.</i></div>
1404015264002 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Chronic Granuloma
tous Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NADPH Oxidase defect}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>XLR</i></div>
1404015286448 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Chronic Granu
lomatous Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1404015298694 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Granulomatous Disease}} is a prima
ry immunodeficiency that involves an NADPH Oxidase defect, therey resulting in
deceased ROS and a susequent lack of respiratory urst in neutrophils. <r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, NADPH Oxidase makes superoxide.</i></div>
1404015355228 1395802358422 What Nitrolue Tetrazolium (NZT) dye reduction t
est result is associated with Chronic Granulomatous Disease?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1404015422163 1395802358422 Which flow cytometry test is anormal in Chronic
Granulomatous Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anormal Dihydrorhodamine Tes
t}}</div>
1404015447316 1395802358422 A(n) {{c1::autograft}} is a type of graft that i
s received from oneself.
1404015985734 1395802358422 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::Syngeneic Graft}} is a type of g
raft that is received from an identical twin or clone.
1404016011128 1395802358422 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::allograft}} is a type of graft t
hat is received from a nonidentical individual of the same species.
1404016039210 1395802358422 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::xenograft}} is a graft that is r
eceived from a different species.
1404016054779 1395802358422 What is the onset of Hyperacute transplant rejec
tion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Minutes}}</div>
1404016076261 1395802358422 What is the onset of Acute transplant rejection?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks to months}}</div>
1404016088036 1395802358422 What is the onset of Chronic transplant rejectio
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Months to years}}</div>
1404016096921 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperacute Rejection}} is a type of transp
lant rejection that involves <>pre-existing recipient antiodies reacting to do
nor antigens</>&nsp;via a Type II reaction.
1404016146807 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperacute Rejection}} is a type of transp
lant rejection that involves <>widespread thromosis of grafted vessels</>, th
erey leading to ischemia and necrosis. <r /><div><i>The graft has to e remove
d.</i></div>
1404016180870 1395802358422 {{c1::Cellular Acute Rejection}} is a type of Ac
ute Transplant Rejection that involves <>CTLs</>&nsp;that ecome <>activated
against donor MHCs</>.
1404016228306 1395802358422 {{c1::Humoral Acute Rejection}} is a type of Acu
te Transplant Rejection that presents similarly to Hyperacute rejection, ut inv
olves antiodies that <>develop after transplantation</>.
1404016531454 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Rejection}} is a type of transplant
rejection that presents with <>vasculitis of grafted vessels</>&nsp;with <>d
ense interstitial lymphocytic infiltrate</>. <r /><div><i>Prevented or rever
sed with immunosuppressants.</i></div>
1404016580569 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Rejection}} is a type of transplan
t rejection that involves <>recipient T cells that perceive donor MHC as recipi
ent MHC</>&nsp;and susequently <>react against donor antigens that are prese
nted</>.
<r /><div><i>Basically, recipient (host) T cells here think tha
t the donor MHC molecules are host MHC molecules. Hence any antigens presented 
y the donor MHCs trigger oth cell-mediated and humoral reactions (i.e. reaction
against donor antigens).</i></div>

1404016926300 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Rejection}} is a type of transplan
t rejection that presents with <>irreversile T-cell</>&nsp;and <>antiody m
ediated damage</>.
1404016969952 1395802358422 How does Chronic transplant rejection present at
the heart?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atherosclerosis}}</div>
1404016988210 1395802358422 How does Chronic transplant rejection present at
the Lungs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchiolitis oliterans}}</div>
1404016999210 1395802358422 How does Chronic transplant rejection present at
the liver?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vanishing ile ducts}}</div>
1404017009258 1395802358422 How does Chronic transplant rejection present at
the kidney?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vascular firosis and glomerulopathy}}</
div>
1404017019087 1395802358422 {{c1::Graft-versus-host disease}} is a transplan
t rejection disorder that involves <>grafted immunocompetent T cells that proli
ferate in the immunocompromised host</>&nsp;and eventually egin <>rejecting
host cells </>as if they were "foreign."
<r><div><i>Essentially, the tra
nsplanted, functional T cells attack the immunocompromised host T cells.</i></di
v><div><i>Causes severe organ dysfunction.</i></div>
1404017950425 1395802358422 Which type of transplants are typically associat
ed with graft-versus-host disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bone marrow and li
ver transplants (as they are rich in lymphocytes)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
is is potentially eneficial in one marrow transplants to treat leukemia (Graft
-versus-tumour effect).</i></div>
1404059399172 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Cyclosporine?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Calcineurin y inding to Cyclophilin}}</div> <div><r
/></div><i>Therey locks T-cell activation y <>preventing IL-2 transcription
</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-58523224375972.jpg" /></div>
1404063112127 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclosporine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t inhiits Calcineurin y inding to Cyclophilin, therey inhiiting IL-2 transc
ription and T-cell activation.
1404063162191 1395802358422 Which interleukin's transcription is prevented 
y Cyclosporine and Tacrolimus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-2}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Cyclosporine inds to Cyclophilin and then inhiits Calcineurin.</i></div>
<div><i>Tacrolimus inds to FKBP and then inhiits Calcineurin.</i></div><div><i
>Sirolimus inds to FKBP and then inhiits mTOR, ut <>inhiits IL-2 signal tra
nsduction.</></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></i></div>
1404063255668 1395802358422 What does Cyclosporine ind to efore inhiiting
Calcineurin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclophilin}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404063535509 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclosporine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t is used to <>psoriasis</>&nsp;and rheumatoid arthritis.
1404063620151 1395802358422 Which immunosuppressant is associated with <>ne
phrotoxicity</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclosporine; Tacrolimus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Both Calcineurin inhiitors are nephrotoxic.</i></div>
1404063651642 1395802358422 Which immunosuppressant is associated with <>hi
rsutism</>&nsp;and <>gingival hyperplasia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyc
losporine}}</div>
1404063677232 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclosporine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t is associated with <>hypertension, hyperlipidemia</>&nsp;and <>hyperglycem
ia</>.
1404064623432 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tacrolimus?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhiition of Calcineurin via FKBP (FK506 Binding Protein)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404064653178 1395802358422 {{c1::Tacrolimus}} is an immunosuppressant that
inhiits Calcineurin y inding to FKBP, therey inhiiting IL-2 transcription.
<r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404064716929 1395802358422 Which protein does Tacrolimus ind to in order t
o inhiit Calcineurin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FKBP}}</div> <div><r /></div
><i>The -limus drugs ind to FKBP.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.
jpg" /></div>

1404064776888 1395802358422 {{c1::Tacrolimus}} is an immunosuppressant that
inhiits Calcineurin and yields an <>increased risk of diaetes and neurotoxici
ty</>.
1404064933400 1395802358422 {{c1::Tacrolimus}} is an immunosuppressant that
inhiits Calcineurin ut <>does not cause hirsutism or gingival hyperplasia</>
.
1404064975838 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Sirolimus (Rapamycin)?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of mTOR via inding to FKBP; therey inhiits IL
-2 signal transduction}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /
></div>
1404065097406 1395802358422 What protein does Sirolimus (Rapamycin) ind to
efore inhiiting mTOR?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FKBP}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404065131727 1395802358422 {{c1::Sirolimus (Rapamycin)}} is an immunosuppre
ssant that inhiits mTOR via inding to FKBP, therey inhiiting IL-2 <>signal
transduction</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404065360707 1395802358422 Which organ transplant is associated with suseq
uent Sirolimus (Rapamycin) use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kidney transplant rej
ection prophylaxis}}</div>
1404065420288 1395802358422 Which immunosuppressant is associated with insul
in resistance and hyperlipidemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sirolimus (Rapamyci
n)}}</div>
1404065485604 1395802358422 {{c1::Sirolimus (Rapamycin)}} is an immunosuppre
ssant that inhiits mTOR and is <>non-nephrotoxic</>.
1404065544829 1395802358422 {{c1::Sirolimus (Rapamycin)}} is an immunosuppre
ssant that works in synergy with Cyclosporine. <r /><div><img src="paste-58518
929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404065877680 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the immunosuppressant Basilix
ima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to and locks the IL-2R}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066012709 1395802358422 {{c1::Basilixima}} is a monoclonal antiody tha
t locks the <>IL-2R</>, therey causing immunosuppression and acting as a kid
ney transplant rejection prophylactic. <r /><div><img src="paste-5851892940867
6.jpg" /></div>
1404066056607 1395802358422 {{c1::Basilixima}} is a monoclonal antiody tha
t locks IL-2R and yields <>edema, HTN</>&nsp;and <>tremor</>.
<r /><d
iv><r /></div>
1404066078559 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathioprine (AZT)}} is an immunosuppressa
nt that is the antimetaolite precursor of 6-MP.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066128501 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Azathioprine?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhiition of PRPP Amidotransferase; inhiits lymphocyte proliferati
on y locking nucleotide synthesis}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Rememer, AZ
T is the prodrug form of 6-MP.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg"
/></div>
1404066180132 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathioprine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t is used to treat <>Crohn Disease</>.
1404066579885 1395802358422 How does Allopurinol influence the toxicity of A
zathioprine (6MP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>6MP is degraded y Xanthine Oxidase. Hence Allopurinol increases its toxicity.</i
></div>
1404066636967 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathioprine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t inhiits PRPP Amidotransferase and causes <>leukopenia, anaemia</>&nsp;and
<>thromocytopenia</>.
1404066691061 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Glucocorticoids as immunosupp
ressants?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of NF-kB; Therey suppressing o
th B and T cell function y decreasing the transcription of many cytokines}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066745491 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of immunosupp
ressant that inhiits NF-kB, therey decreasing the transcription of many cytoki

nes.
<r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066839371 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathioprine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t is converted into <>6-MP</>&nsp;and inhiits <>PRPP Amidotransferase</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066891524 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of immunosupp
ressant that is associated with <>central oesity</>&nsp;and <>hyperglycemia
</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066937054 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of immunosupp
ressant that are associated with <>osteoporosis</>&nsp;and <>muscle reakdow
n</>.
1404067164688 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of immunosupp
ressant that are associated with <>acne</>&nsp;and <>cataracts</>.
1404067186993 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of immunosupp
ressant that are associated with <>peptic ulcers</>.
1404067203206 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of immunosupp
ressant that are known to cause iatrogenic Cushing Syndrome.
1404067580343 1395802358422 {{c1::Epoetin alfa}} is a recominant cytokine t
hat functions as Erythropoietin and is used to treat <>anaemia</>, especially
in renal failure.
1404069394445 1395802358422 {{c1::Thromopoietin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Oprelvekin
}} are recominant cytokines that are used to treat thromocytopenia.
1404069436564 1395802358422 {{c1::Oprelvekin}} is a recominant cytokine tha
t functions as <>IL-11</>&nsp;and hence is used to treat Thromocytopenia.
1404069482968 1395802358422 {{c1::Filgrastim}} is a recominant cytokine tha
t functions as a <>granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF)</> to induce
one marrow recovery.
1404069605164 1395802358422 {{c1::Sargramostim}} is a recominant cytokine t
hat functions as a <>granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)
</>and is used to induce one marrow recovery.
1404069687174 1395802358422 {{c1::Aldesleukin}} is a recominant cytokine th
at function as <>IL-2</>&nsp;and is used in renal cell carcinoma and metastat
ic melanoma.
1404069713578 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat chronic HBV an
d HCV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069732893 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Kaposi Sarcoma
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069739996 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Hairy Cell Leu
kemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069747185 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Condyloma Acum
inatum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069763176 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Renal Cell Car
cinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069770283 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Malignant Mela
noma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069778681 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Multiple Scler
osis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-eta}}</div>
1404069788097 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Chronic Granul
omatous Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-gamma}}</div>
1404069797079 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Al
emtuzuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD52 in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia}}</di
v>
1404070337638 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Be
vacizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VEGF in colorectal cancer, renal cell carc
inoma}}</div>
1404070364535 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Ce
tuxima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in s
tage IV colorectal cancer, head and neck cancer}}</div>
1404070414787 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Ri
tuxima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD20 in B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Rheumao
id Arthritis and Idiopathic Thromocytopenic Purpura}}</div>

1404070486754 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Tr
astuzuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HER2/neu in reast cancer and some gastric
cancer}}</div> <r /><div><i>"Tras-<>2</>-zuma targets HER<>2</>"</i></div
>
1404070524214 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody In
flixima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TNF-alpha in IBD, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Ank
ylosing Spondylitis, Psoriasis}}</div>
1404070711881 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Ad
alimuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TNF-alpha in IBD, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Ank
ylosing Spondylitis, Psoriasis}}</div>
1404070868387 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Na
talizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::alpha4-integrin in MS and Crohn Disease}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Alpha4-integrin is an integrin protein involved with leuko
cyte adhesion.</i></div>
1404070920133 1395802358422 {{c1::Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy
(PML)}} is a possile neurological complication of Natalizuma use in patients
with JC virus infection.
1404070972875 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody A
cixima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpII/IIIa in patients that need anti-platel
et action}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. for the prevention of ischemic compli
cations in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention</i></div>
1404071054879 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody De
nosuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RANKL in osteoporosis; Blocking of RANKL inh
iits osteoclast maturation}}</div>
1404071083682 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Di
goxin Immune Fa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Digoxin; acts as an antidote for Di
goxin toxicity}}</div>
1404071121555 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Om
alizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgE; used to prevent allergic asthma and pr
events IgE inding to FcERI}}</div>
1404071160652 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Pa
vilizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RSV F protein}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Re
memer, F proteins on RSV allow is to make syncytia. Hence, Respiratory Syncytia
l Virus (RSV).</i></div>
1404071589190 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Alemtuzuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) v
ia CD52}}</div>
1404071614787 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Bevacizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colorectal cancer; Renal cell carcin
oma; via VEGF}}</div>
1404071654896 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Cetuxima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stage IV colorectal cancer; Head and n
eck cancer; via EGFR}}</div>
1404071682615 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Rituxima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma; Rheumatoi
d Arthritis; Idiopathic Thromocytopenia Purpura; via CD20}}</div>
1404071717603 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Trastuzuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast cancer; Gastric cancer; via H
ER2/neu}}</div>
1404071740352 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Inflixima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IBD; Rheumatoid Arthritis; Ankylosing
Spondylitis; Psoriasis; via TNF-alpha}}</div>
1404071944718 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Adalimuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IBD; Rheumatoid Arthritis; Ankylosing
Spondylitis; Psoriasis; via TNF-alpha}}</div>
1404071967380 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Natalizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Multiple Sclerosis; Crohn Disease; v
ia alpha4-integrin}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, alpha4-integrin is invol
ved with leukocyte adhesion.</i></div>
1404072007193 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti

ody Acixima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prevention of ischemic complications i
n patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>i.e. it's an antiplatelet, rah!</i></div>
1404072051299 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Denosuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoporosis; inhiits osteoclast matu
ration via RANKL}}</div>
1404072078422 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Digoxin Immune Fa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antidote for Digitoxin toxici
ty}}</div>
1404072094823 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Omalizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Allergic asthma; prevents IgE inding
to FcERI}}</div>
1404072129533 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Palivizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prophylaxis in RSV high-risk infants
; via RSV F protein}}</div>
1404072154231 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat C
hronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alemtuzuma (via C
D52)}}</div>
1404072803058 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat I
diopathic Thromocytopenic Purpura (ITP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rituxima}}
</div>
1404073044364 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat B
reast Cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trastuzuma (via HER2/neu)}}</div>
1404073071781 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat M
ultiple Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Natalizuma}}</div>
1404073420208 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat C
rohn Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Natalizuma}}</div>
1404073432419 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat A
nkylosing Spondylitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inflixima; Adalimuma; oth v
ia TNF-alpha}}</div>
1404074377437 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat O
steoporosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Denosuma (via RANKL)}}</div>
1404074417513 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat D
igoxin toxicity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Digoxin Immune Fa}}</div>
1404074435170 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat A
llergic Asthma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Omalizuma}}</div>
1404074449984 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used as an RSVprophylaxis for high-risk infants?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Palivizuma}}</div
>
1405187801441 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Sonic hedgehog gene}} is an impor
tant gene of emryogenesis that is produced at the ase of lims in the zone of
polarizing activity.
1405187930710 1395802358422 {{c1::Sonic hedgehog}} is a gene important in em
ryogenesis that is involved in <>patterning along the anterior-posterior axis<
/>&nsp;and in <>CNS development</>.
1405187968943 1395802358422 Which congenital defect is associated with Sonic
Hedgehog mutations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Holoprosencephaly}}</div>
1405187987735 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Wnt-7</i>}} is an important gene in em
ryogenesis that is produced at the apical ectodermal ridge; and is needed for <
>dorsal-ventral axis organization</>. <r /><div><i>The apical ectodermal ridg
e is a <>ridge of thickened ectoderm at the distal end of developing lims</>.
</i></div>
1405188074585 1395802358422 Which gene important for emryogenesis is involv
ed in <>anterior-posterior axis patterning</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Soni
c Hedgehog}}</div>
1405188098958 1395802358422 Which gene important for emryogenesis is needed
for <>dorsal-ventral axis organization</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Wnt7</i>}}</div>
1405188127165 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>FGF</i>}} is a gene important in emryo
genesis that is produced at the apical ectodermal ridge and functions to <>stim

ulate mitosis of underlying mesoderm</>, therey causing lengthening of lims.
1405188170991 1395802358422 {{c1::Homeoox (<i>Hox</i>) genes}} are genes im
portant for emryogenesis that is involved in <>segmental organization of the e
mryo in the craniocaudal direction</>.
1405188234322 1395802358422 A mutation in which gene important in emryogene
sis is associated with <>appendages eing found in the wrong locations</>?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Homeoox (<i>Hox</i>) genes}}</div>
1405188274504 1395802358422 On which day after fertilization is the zygote f
ormed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-48881
022796163.jpg" /></div>
1405189423019 1395802358422 On which day following fertilization is the <>m
orula</>&nsp;formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-48876727828867.jpg" /></div>
1405189436675 1395802358422 On which day following fertilization is the <>
lastocyst</>&nsp;formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-48876727828867.jpg" /></div>
1405189449032 1395802358422 On which day following fertilization does <>imp
lantation</>&nsp;occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::7-10}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>hCG secretion egins around this time.</i><r /><div><img src="paste
-48876727828867.jpg" /></div>
1405189480591 1395802358422 During which week of gestation is the <>ilamin
ar disc</>&nsp;(of epilast and hypolast) formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Week 2}}</div> <r /><div><i><>2</>&nsp;weeks =&nsp;<>2</>&nsp;layers</i
></div>
1405189572077 1395802358422 During which week of gestation is the <>trilami
nar</>&nsp;disc formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div> <r /><div><i><
>3</>&nsp;weeks = <>3</>&nsp;layers</i></div>
1405189607684 1395802358422 During which week of gestation&nsp;does gastrul
ation occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-49997714292844.jpg" /></div>
1405189616150 1395802358422 During which week of gestation&nsp;does the pri
mitive streak appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pr
imitive streak, notochord, mesoderm and its organization and neural plate all e
gin to form in week 3.</i></div>
1405189647980 1395802358422 During which week of gestation&nsp;does the neu
ral tue form and close?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
1405189673617 1395802358422 During which weeks of gestation&nsp;does organo
genesis occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-8}}</div>
1405189692284 1395802358422 During which weeks of gestation is the emryo ex
tremely susceptile to teratogens?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-8}}</div>
1405189710397 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the heart e
gin to eat?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
1405189724199 1395802358422 During which week of gestation do the <>upper a
nd lower lim uds</>&nsp;egin to form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>4</>&nsp;weeks = <>4</>&nsp;lims</i></div>
1405189748896 1395802358422 During which week of gestation is fetal cardiac
activity visile y transvaginal ultrasound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::6}}</div
>
1405189766131 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the fetal ge
nitalia gain male/female characteristics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::10}}</div>
1405190441441 1395802358422 {{c1::Craniopharyngioma}} is a enign tumour of
Rathke's Pouch that presents with <>cholesterol crystals</>&nsp;and <>calcif
ications</>.
1405190495474 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the l
ens of the eye form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190598843 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does senso
ry organs of the ear form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190612914 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does olfac
tory epithelium form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190623972 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the e

pidermis form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190640750 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer do parotid
, sweat and mammary glands form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</
div>
1405190654004 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the a
nal canal elow the pectinate line form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface Ecto
derm}}</div>
1405190671066 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the e
pithelial lining of the oral cavity form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ect
oderm}}</div>
1405190687783 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the C
NS form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190701065 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does retin
a form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190708163 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the o
ptic nerve form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190720066 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the s
pinal cord form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190729933 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the P
NS form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190740203 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer do melanoc
ytes form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190788282 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the Chromaffin Cells of the adrenal medulla?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190799414 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the parafollicular cells of the thyroid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ne
ural Crest}}</div>
1405190815053 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the ones of the skull?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div
>
1405190823755 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to Odontolasts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190833676 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the aorticopulmonary septum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}
</div>
1405190850123 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to muscle, one, CT and serous lining of ody cavities?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405191021105 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the spleen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405191028608 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the cardiovascular structures?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-52901112185109.jpg" /></div>
1405192554037 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the lymphatics and lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405192566362 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the wall of the gut tues?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-52905407152405.jpg" /></div>
1405192571401 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the vagina, testes and ovaries?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}<
/div>
1405192585157 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the kidneys and adrenal cortex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-52901112185109.jpg" /></div>
1405192597844 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the dermis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405192604044 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the<>&nsp;epithelium</>&nsp;of the gut tue?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Endoderm}}</div>

1405192621253 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to most of the urethra?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endoderm}}</div>
1405192646938 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to luminal epithelial derivatives?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endoderm}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>e.g. lungs, liver, galllader, pancreas, thymus, parathyro
id, thyroid follicles, eustachian tue</i></div>
1405192693279 1395802358422 What is the only postnatal derivative of the not
ochord?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus Pulposus of the interverteral disc}}
</div>
1405193713758 1395802358422 {{c1::Agenesis}} is an error in organ morphogene
sis that is defined as the <>asence of an organ due to asent primordial tissu
e</>.
1405193749960 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplasia}} is an error in organ morphogenes
is that is defined as the <>asence of an organ</>&nsp;<u style="font-weight:
old; ">despite the presence of primordial tissue</u>. <r /><div><i>In aplasia
, <u>there is no primordial tissue</u>.</i></div>
1405193786627 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoplasia}} is a type of error in organ m
orphogenesis that is defined as <>incomplete organ development</>&nsp;despite
primordial tissue eing present.
1405193949062 1395802358422 {{c1::Deformation}} is a type of error in organ
morphogenesis that is defined as <>extrinsic disruption of organ morphogenesis<
/>.
<r /><div><i>Occurs after the emryonic period.</i></div>
1405193994529 1395802358422 {{c1::Disruption}} is an error is organ morphoge
nesis that is defined as the <>secondary reakdown of a previously normal tissu
e or structure</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. amniotic and syndrome</i></div>
1405194044038 1395802358422 {{c1::Malformation}} is an error in organ morpho
genesis that is defined as <>intrinsic disruption</>&nsp;of organ formation <
u><>during the emryonic period</>&nsp;(weeks 3-8).</u>
1405194087199 1395802358422 {{c1::Sequence}} is an error in organ morphogene
sis that is defined as a <>series of anormalities resulting from a single prim
ary emryological event</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. oligohydramnios causes Potter
sequence.</i></div>
1405194129948 1395802358422 During which weeks of gestation do teratogens ha
ve an "<>all-or-none</>" effect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Before week 3}}</d
iv>
1405194547645 1395802358422 Which which weeks of gestation do teratogens onl
y affect <>growth and function</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 8}}</div>
1405194569378 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of ACE Inhiitor
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal damage}}</div>
1405194633580 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of alkylating ag
ents?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Digit aplasia; many other anormalities}}</div>
1405194651448 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Aminoglycosid
es?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VIII toxicity}}</div>
1405194660571 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Carampazepin
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural tue defect; Craniofacial defects; Fingerna
il hypoplasia; IUGR}}</div>
1405194682748 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Diethylstile
strol (DES)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vaginal clear cell adenocarcinoma; Conge
nital Mullerian anomalies}}</div>
1405194714115 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of folate antago
nists?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural tue defects}}</div>
1405194851042 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Lithium?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Estein anomaly}}</div> <r /><div><i>Involves an atrial
ized left ventricle.</i></div>
1405194872240 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Methimazole?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aplasia cutis congenita}}</div>
1405194879556 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Phenytoin?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal hydantoin syndrome}}</div>
<r /><div><i>In
volves <>microcephaly, dysmorphic craniofacial features, hypoplastic nails, hyp
oplastic distal phalanges, cardiac defects, IUGR</>&nsp;and <>intellectual di

saility</>.</i></div>
1405194936602 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Tetracyclines
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Discoloured teeth}}</div>
1405194941954 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Thalidomide?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phocomelia; Micromelia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.
e. lim defects</i></div>
1405194956886 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Valproic Acid
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural tue defects due to inhiition of maternal f
olate asorption}}</div>
1405194978814 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Warfarin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bone deformities; fetal hemorrhage; aortion; opthalmolo
gic anormalities}}</div>
1405195005246 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of alcohol?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal Alcohol Syndrome; Intellectual disaility}}</div>
1405195076581 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of cocaine?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Placental aruption; anormal fetal growth; aortion}}</d
iv>
1405195090284 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of nicotine or C
O (via smoking)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low irth weight; premature laour;
IUGR; ADHD}}</div>
1405195113597 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of either a lack
or excess of Iodine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital goiter; Cretinism}}<
/div>
1405195161309 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Maternal Dia
etes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caudal regression syndrome; Congenital heart de
fects; Neural tue defects}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Caudal Regression Syndrome
involves <>anal atresia to sirenomelia</>.</i></div>
1405195198881 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of excess Vitami
n A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spontaneous aortion; Cleft palate; Cardiac ano
rmalities}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Extremely high risk for all 3</i></div>
1405195816470 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of X-rays?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Microcephaly; Intellectual Disaility}}</div>
1405195831089 1395802358422 Which facial anormalities are associated with F
etal Alcohol Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth philtrum; Thin Upper Li
p; Small Palperal Fissure; Hypertelorism}}</div>
1405195892553 1395802358422 {{c1::Dizygotic twins}} are a type of twins that
<>arise from 2 eggs</>&nsp;that are <>separately fertilized y 2 different
sperm</>.
<div><r /></div><i>Hence they will have 2 zygotes, 2 amniotic s
acs and 2 separate placentas.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-55228984460061.jpg"
/></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div>
1405199081659 1395802358422 Which type of twins is associated with <>2 sepa
rate amniotic sacs</>&nsp;and <>2 separate placentas</>?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Dizygotic twins}}</div> <r /><div><div><img src="paste-55228984460061.j
pg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></div>
1405199116169 1395802358422 {{c1::Monozygotic twins}} are a type of twins th
at arise from <>1 fertilized egg</>&nsp;and <>1 sperm</>&nsp;that <>split
s into 2 zygotes in early pregnancy</>.
<r /><div><i>The degree of sepa
ration etween the monozygotic twins depends on when the egg splits into 2 zygot
es.</i></div><div><i>The time of the split determines the numer of chorions and
the numer of amnions.</i></div><div><i><div><img src="paste-55228984460061.jpg
" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /> </div></i></div>
1405199351228 1395802358422 {{c1::Dichorionic diamniotic monozygotic twins}}
are a type of monozygotic twinning that occurs if the cleavage occurs etween <
<r /><div><div><img src="paste-55228984
>0-4 days</> of fertilization.
460061.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></div>
1405199537731 1395802358422 {{c1::Monochorionic diamniotic monozygotic twins
}} is a type of monozygotic twinning that occurs if the cleavage occurs <>4-8 d
ays</>&nsp;after fertilization.
<r /><div><div><img src="paste-55228984
460061.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></div>
1405199570954 1395802358422 {{c1::Monochorionic monoamniotic monozygotic twi

ns}} is a type of monozygotic twinning that occurs if the cleavage occurs <>8-1
2 days</>&nsp;after fertilization.
<r /><div><div><img src="paste-55228984
460061.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></div>
1405199607258 1395802358422 {{c1::Monochorionic monoamniotic conjoined twins
}} are a type of monozygotic twinning that occurs if the cleavage occurs <>afte
r 13 days</>&nsp;following fertilization.
<r /><div><div><img src="paste55228984460061.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></d
iv>
1405199866006 1395802358422 {{c1::Decidua Basalis}} is the <>maternal compo
nent</>&nsp;of the placenta that is derived from the <>endometrium</>.
<r /><div><i>Hence it is maternal lood that fills the lacunae.</i></div><div><
i><img src="paste-56672093471228.jpg" /></i></div>
1405199987066 1395802358422 Which fetal tissue group contriutes to the <>i
nner</>&nsp;later of chorionic villi?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytotrophola
st}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-56667798503932.jpg" /></div>
1405200119895 1395802358422 Which fetal tissue group contriutes to the <>o
uter</>&nsp;layer of the chorionic villi?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Syncytiot
ropholast}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-56667798503932.jpg" /></div>
1405200144824 1395802358422 {{c1::hCG}} is a hormone secreted y the syncyti
otropholast that stimulated the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone during th
e first trimester.
<r /><div><i>It is structurally similar to LH.</i></div
><div><i><img src="paste-56667798503932.jpg" /></i></div>
1405200192138 1395802358422 {{c1::Umilical arteries}} are the lood vessels
that <>return deoxygenated lood from the fetal internal iliac arteries to the
placenta</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-57320633532807.jpg" /></div>
1405201815263 1395802358422 {{c1::Umilical Vein}} is the lood vesse that <
>supplies oxygenated lood from the placenta to the fetus</>. <r /><div><i>It
drains into the IVC via the liver or via the ductus venosus.</i></div><div><i><
img src="paste-57316338565511.jpg" /></i></div>
1405201858770 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::urachus}} is a fetal structure th
at develops from the allantois that acts as a <>duct &nsp;etween the fetal l
adder and yolk sac</>.
1405201929545 1395802358422 {{c1::Patent Urachus}} is a congenital anomaly t
hat occurs due to a failure of the urachus to oliterate and presents with <>ur
ine discharge from the umilicus</>.
1405201990258 1395802358422 {{c1::Urachal Cyst}} is a congenital anomaly tha
t results from <>partial failure</>&nsp;of the urachus to oliterate and pres
ents as a <>fluid-filled davity lined with uroepithelium</>&nsp;etween the u
milicus and ladder. <r /><div><i>Can lead to infection and adenocarcinoma.<
/i></div>
1405202052062 1395802358422 {{c1::Vesicourachal Diverticulum}} is a congenit
al anomaly that results from failure of the urachus to oliterate and presents a
s an <>outpouching of the ladder</>.
1405202140734 1395802358422 In which week of gestation does the vitelline du
ct oliterate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::7th}}</div>
1405202321049 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitelline fistula}} is a congenital anomal
y that occurs due to failure of the vitelline duct to close and presents with <
>meconium discharge from the umilicus</>.
1405202349818 1395802358422 {{c1::Meckel Diverticulum}} is a congenital anom
aly that occurs due to <>partial</>&nsp;failure of the vitelline duct to oli
terate and presents with a patent vitelline duct portion attached to the ileum.
<r /><div><i>May have ectopic gastric mucosa or pancreatic tissue and hence can
yield <>melena, periumilical pain</>&nsp;or <>ulcers</>.</i></div>
1405203472835 1395802358422 What does the 1st aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Part of the Maxillary Artery}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-58660663329382.jpg" /></div>
1405203494100 1395802358422 What does the 2nd aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Stapedial Artery; Hyoid Artery}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203509487 1395802358422 What does the 3rd aortic arch develop into?<div>

<r /></div><div>{{c1::Common Carotid Artery; proximal portion of the Internal C
arotid Artery}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203539751 1395802358422 What does the 4th aortic arch develop into <>on
the left</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic Arch}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203562875 1395802358422 What does the 4th aortic arch develop into <>on
the right</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal part of the Right suclavian
artery}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203586945 1395802358422 What does the 5th aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::There is no 5th arch}}</div>
1405203602648 1395802358422 What does the 6th aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal portion of the pulmonary arteries and ductus art
eriosus}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203629465 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue layer gives rise to t
he ranchial clefts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ectoderm}}</div><div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-59292023521689.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>aka Branch
ial grooves</i></div>
1405203664747 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue layer gives rise to t
he ranchial <>arches</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm; neural crest}}<
/div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-59287728554393.jpg" /></div>
1405203681425 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue layer gives rise to t
he ranchial <>pouches</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endoderm}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-59287728554393.jpg" /></div>
1405203691537 1395802358422 Which ranchial cleft develops into the <>exter
nal auditory meatus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405203778779 1395802358422 Which ranchial cleft develops into temporary ce
rvical sinuses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2-4}}</div> <r /><div><i>They are o
literated y proliferation of the 2nd arch's mesenchyme.</i></div><div><i>Persi
stence of the cervical sinuses results in a <>ranchial cleft cyst within the l
ateral neck</>.</i></div>
1405203836849 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Meckel's Cart
ilage (mandile, malleus, incus, spheno-mandiular ligament)?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204285795 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the muscles o
f mastication?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <r /><div><i>Masseter;
medial and lateral pterygoids; temporalis.</i></div>
1405204314256 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the <>Tensor
Tympani</>&nsp;muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204335779 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the <>Tensor
Veli Palatini</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204374307 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to mylohyoid mus
cle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204386539 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to anterior ell
y of the digastric?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204404042 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the 1st 
ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>2</su>&nsp;(sensory); CN V<
su>3</su>&nsp;(motor)}}</div>
1405204428625 1395802358422 {{c1::Treacher Collins Syndrome}} is a congenita
l anomaly of the 1st ranchial arch that is due to <>failure of neural crest ce
lls to migrate</>&nsp;and presents with <>madiular hypoplasia</>&nsp;and <
>facial anormalities</>.
1405204465012 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch is associated with Treacher
Collins Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204483489 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch is associated with a Congen
ital Pharyngocutaneous Fistula?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204499419 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Reichert Cart
ilage (stapes; styloid process; lesser horn of the hyoid; stylohyoid ligament)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204539760 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the muscles o
f facial expression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>

1405204549067 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Stapedius mus
cle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204554793 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the Stylohoid
muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204565018 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Platysma musc
le?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204573676 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the elly of
the digastric muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204592492 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the 2nd 
ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII (facial nerve)}}</div>
1405204621241 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Pharyngocutaneous Fistula}} is
a congenital anomaly of the 2nd ranchial arch that presents with <>persistence
of the cleft and pouch</>&nsp;and <>susequent fistula etween the tonsillar
area and lateral neck</>.
1405204662404 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the greater h
orn of the hyoid one?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1405204672373 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Stylopharynge
us muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1405204686606 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the 3rd 
ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div>
1405204710274 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the thyroid,
cricoid, arytenoid, corniculate and cuneiform cartilages?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::4-6}}</div>
1405205011179 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to <>pharyngeal
constrictors</>&nsp;and the <>cricothyroid</>&nsp;muscle?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1405205040180 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the <>levato
r veli palatini</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1405205050057 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to <>all intrin
sic muscles of the larynx except the cricothyroid</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::6th}}</div>
1405205070605 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the <>4t
h</>&nsp;ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior laryngeal ranch
of CN X}}</div>
1405205100282 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the <>6t
h</>&nsp;ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Recurrent laryngeal ranch
of CN X}}</div>
1405205142260 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the middle e
ar cavity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205773911 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the eustachi
an tue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-62504
659059030.jpg" /></div>
1405205783192 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to mastoid air
cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <r /><div><r /></div>
1405205792549 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the epitheli
al lining of the palatine tonsils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205810725 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the <>infer
ior parathyroids</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd (dorsal wing)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205835929 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the <>thymu
s</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd (ventral wing)}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205853619 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the <>super
ior parathyroids</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4th (dorsal wings)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205868504 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch contriutes to the endoder
m-lined structures of the ear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405205950212 1395802358422 {{c1::DiGeorge syndrome}} is a 22q11 deletion sy

ndrome that involves <>aerrant development of the 3rd and 4th ranchial pouche
s</>. <r /><div><i>Therefore there is thymic and parathyroid aplasia.</i></di
v>
1405206012036 1395802358422 {{c1::Cleft lip}} is a congenital anomaly that i
s descried as <>failure of the fusion of the maxillary and medial nasal proces
ses</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-62947040690438.jpg" /></div>
1405206096479 1395802358422 {{c1::Cleft Palate}} is a congenital anomaly tha
t involves the failure of fusion of the <>two lateral palatine processes</>&n
sp;<u>or</u>&nsp;failure of fusion of the <>lateral palatine processes with th
e nasal septum or medial palatine process</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-63097364545849.jpg" /></div>
1405206287882 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
female internal genitalia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paramesonephric (Mullerian
) Duct}}</div> <r /><div><i>Develops into the fallopian tues, uterus, upper p
ortion of the vagina.</i></div><div><i>Defects can present as <>primary amenorr
hea</>&nsp;despite fully developed secondary characteristics (i.e. functional
ovaries).</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-63823214019232.jpg" /></i></div>
1405206493278 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
male internal genitalia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesonephric (Wolffian) Duct}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Develops into <>SEED. </>Does not give rise to the prost
ate.</i></div><div><i>- Seminal vesicles</i></div><div><i>- Epididymis</i></div>
<div><i>- Ejaculatory duct</i></div><div><i>- Ductus deferens</i></div><div><i><
img src="paste-63823214019232.jpg" /></i></div>
1405206556049 1395802358422 Which gene on the -chromosome produces <>testi
s-determining factor</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>SR</i>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-64587718197875.jpg" /></div>
1405206625264 1395802358422 {{c1::Mullerian Inhiitory Factor (MIF)}} is a p
rotein secreted y Sertoli cells that functions to suppress the development of t
he paramesonephric (Mullerian) duct.
<r /><div><i>Lack of MIF results in the
<>development of oth male and female internal genitalia</>&nsp;and <>male
external genitalia</>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-64583423230579.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1405206658945 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete Mullerian Inhi
itor Factor (MIF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</div>
1405206675137 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete androgens that
stimulate the development of the mesonephric (Wolffian) ducts?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Leydig Cells}}</div>
1405206710482 1395802358422 {{c1::Bicornuate uterus}} is a congenital genita
l anomaly that results from <>incomplete fusion of the paramesonephric ducts</
>.
<r /><div><i>Complete failure of fusions results in <>doule uterus an
d vagina</>.</i></div>
1405206775532 1395802358422 {{c1::5-alpha-reductase deficiency}} is an enzym
e deficiency that results in the <>inaility to convert testosterone into DHT</
>, therey yielding male internal genitalia ut <>amiguous external genitalia
until puerty</>.
<div><r /></div><i>The increase in testosterone at pue
rty results in masculization.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-64583423230579.jpg"
/></div>
1405208347086 1395802358422 What is the male equivalent to the clitoris?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Penis}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6538658211494
5.jpg" /></div>
1405208369079 1395802358422 What is the male equivalent to the vestiular u
ls?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Corpus cavernosum and spongiosum}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-65382287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208385752 1395802358422 What is the male equivalent to the Greater Vesti
ular Glands (Bartholin Glands)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bulourethral (Cowpe
r) glands}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-65382287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208410695 1395802358422 What is the male holomog to the urethral and par
aurethral glands (glands of Skene)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prostate gland}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-65382287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208437361 1395802358422 What is the male homolog to the laia minora?<di

v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral shaft of the penis}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-65382287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208457256 1395802358422 What is the male homolog to the laia majora?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scrotum}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-65382
287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208474780 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypospadias}} is a congenital penile anoma
ly that is descried as an <>inferiorly displaced opening of the urethra</>&n
sp;on the ventral side of the penis due to <>failure of the urethral folds to c
lose</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-65695819759730.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>More common that epispadias.</i></div><div><i>Must e fixed to pre
vent UTIs.</i></div>
1405208544910 1395802358422 {{c1::Epispadias}} is a congenital penile anomal
y that is descried as a <>superiorly displaced opening of the penile urethra</
>&nsp;on the dorsal surface of the penis due to <>faulty positioning of the g
enital tuercle</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-65781719105666.jpg" />
</div> <r /><div><i>Associated with <>exstrophy of the ladder</>.</i></div>
1405208631191 1395802358422 {{c1::Guernaculum}} is an emryological structu
re descried as a and of firous tissue that anchors the testes to the floor of
the scrotum.
1405208704099 1395802358422 What is the female remnant of the guernaculum?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian ligament; Round ligament of the uterus}}</div
>
1405208727771 1395802358422 What is the male remnant of the processus vagina
lis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tunica vaginalis}}</div>
1405208745519 1395802358422 What is the female remnant of the processus vagi
nalis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None; it is oliterated}}</div>
1405281810652 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage of the <>left</>&n
sp;ovary and testis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left gonadal vein --&gt; Left r
enal vein --&gt; IVC}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"The <>left</>&nsp;gonadal vein
takes the <>l</>ongest way."</i></div><div><i>The left spermatic vein enters
the left renal vein at a 90 degree angle, hence flow is less continuous on the l
eft than on the right.</i></div>
1405292830484 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage of the <>right</>&
nsp;ovary and testis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right gonadal vein --&gt; IVC}
}</div>
1405292857923 1395802358422 Which side of the ody is more commonly affected
y varicocele?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left testis}}</div>
1405292989858 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the ovaries?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1405293461001 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the testes?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1405293465481 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the distal vagina and vu
lva?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superficial inguinal nodes}}</div>
1405293479897 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the scrotum?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Superficial inguinal nodes}}</div>
1405293496834 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the proximal vagina and
uterus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oturator; External Iliac; Hypogastric}}</div
>
1405293578834 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the ovaries to the later
al pelvic wall?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infundiulopelvic ligament}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-69015829480013.jpg" /></div>
1405294160891 1395802358422 Which lood vessels are contained in the Infundi
ulopelvic ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian vessels}}</div> <div><r
/></div><i>Vessels must e ligated during oopherectomy to avoid leeding.</i><d
iv><i>Ureter courses retriperitoneally, close to the vessels. There is significa
nt risk of injury when ligating the vessels.<r /></i><div><img src="paste-69011
534512717.jpg" /></div></div>
1405294268946 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the cervix to the side w
all of the pelvis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cardinal ligament}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></div>

1405294404407 1395802358422 Which lood vessels are contained in the cardina
l ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uterine vessels}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
e ureter is at risk of injury during ligation of these vessels in hysterectomy.<
/i></div><div><i><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></i></div>
1405294429111 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the fundus of the uterus
to the laia majora?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Round ligament of the uterus}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Travels through the round inguinal canal aove the artery
of Sampson.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></i></div>
1405294536096 1395802358422 Which emryological structure gives rise to the
Roung Ligament of the Uterus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Guernaculum}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></div>
1405294558776 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the uterus, fallopian tu
es and ovaries to the side wall of the pelvis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Broad
ligament}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Composed of the <>mesosalpinx, meso
metrium</>&nsp;and <>mesovarium</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-6901153451
2717.jpg" /></div>
1405294595265 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the medial pole of the o
vary to the lateral aspect of the uterus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian Lig
ament}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></div>
1405296290287 1395802358422 Which emryological structure gives rise to the
Ovarian Ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Guernaculum}}</div>
1405296304736 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the vagina?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Non-keratinized</u>&nsp;stratified squamous epith
elium}}</div>
1405296485791 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the <>ecto<
/>cervix?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Non-keratinized</u>&nsp;stratified squ
amous epithelium}}</div>
1405296538021 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the <>endo<
/>cervix?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple columnar epithelium}}</div>
1405296571886 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the transfor
mation zone of the cervix?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamocolumnar junction}}<
/div>
1405296614121 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the uterus?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple columnar epithelium with long tuular glands}}
</div>
1405296637205 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the fallopia
n tues?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Ciliated</u>&nsp;simple columnar epithel
ium with <u style="font-weight: old; ">peg</u>&nsp;cells}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Peg cells are secretory cells of the fallopian tue epithelium.</i></div>
1405296693483 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the outer su
rface of the ovary?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple cuoidal epithelium (germi
nal epithelium covering surface of the ovary)}}</div>
1405296731800 1395802358422 What is the pathway of sperm during ejaculation?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>StEVE</i>: Seminiferous tuules, epididymis, vas
deferens, ejaculatory ducts}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i><>StEVE</>: Semini
ferous tuules, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory ducts</i><r /><div><img s
rc="paste-71554155151887.jpg" /></div>
1405297977162 1395802358422 Which ranch of the ANS yields male&nsp;<>erec
tion</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parasympathetic}}</div>
<r /><div><i>vi
a the <>Pelvic Nerve</></i></div><div><i><><img src="paste-72344429134007.jpg
" /></></i></div>
1405298093455 1395802358422 Which ranch of the ANS causes male <>emission<
/>&nsp;(following erection)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sympathetic}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>via the <>Hypogastric Nerve</></i><r /><div><img src="pas
te-72348724101303.jpg" /></div>
1405298122265 1395802358422 Which nerve causes male ejaculation?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Pudendal nerve}}</div>
1405298331021 1395802358422 {{c1::Sildenafil}} and&nsp;{{c2::Vardenafil}} a
re drugs that inhiits cGMP reakdown and hence are used as treatment for erecti
le dysfunction.

1405298370115 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling pathway is associated
with male erection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-72344429134007.jp
g" />}}</div>
1405302611405 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted y Sertoli cells function
s to <>inhiit FSH</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiin}}</div>
1405302798883 1395802358422 {{c1::Androgen-inding protein}} is a protein se
creted y Sertoli cells that functions to maintain local levels of testosterone.
1405303192760 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes form the lood-testis
arrier?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Formed y tight junctions etween adjacent S
ertoli cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Functions to <>isolate gametes from autoi
mmune attaack</>.</i></div>
1405303258484 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes function to support an
d nourish developing spermatozoa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</di
v>
1405303281590 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes function to regulate s
permatogenesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</div>
1405303309026 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete Mullerian Inhi
iting Factor (MIF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</div>
1405303335104 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in temperature
affect sperm production and inhiin secretion via Sertoli cells?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Temperature increase is seen in va
ricocele and cryptorchidism.</i></div>
1405303386801 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Sertoli cells functions to conve
rt <>testosterone</>&nsp;and <>androstenedione</>&nsp;into <>estrogen</>
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
1405303837728 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete testosterone?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Leydig cells}}</div>
1405303869121 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in temperature
affect testosterone production y Leydig cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No ch
ange}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Temperature does not affect testosterone productio
n.</i></div>
1405303891116 1395802358422 Which form of estrogen is made y the ovaries?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::17-eta-estradiol}}</div>
1405304208565 1395802358422 Which form of estrogen is made y the placenta?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estriol}}</div>
1405304217159 1395802358422 Which form of estrogen is made y adipose tissue
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrone via aromatization}}</div>
1405304232174 1395802358422 What is the most potent form of Estrogen?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Estradiol &gt; estrone &gt; estriol}}</div>
1405304250875 1395802358422 What is the weakest form of Estrogen?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Estriol}}</div>
1405304258214 1395802358422 How does estrogen change myometrial excitaility
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304279556 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence prolactin secretion?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304311443 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence the production of st
eroid hormone-inding gloulin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304340167 1395802358422 How does estrogen influence HDL levels?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304349989 1395802358422 How does estrogen influence LDL levels?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405304361684 1395802358422 {{c1::Estriol}} is a form of estrogen that is us
ed as an indicator of fetal well-eing as it sees a 1000x fold increase in pregn
ancy.
1405304418222 1395802358422 Which cells of the follicle/ovary secrete estrog
en?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granulosa cells}}</div> <r /><div><i>Estro<>G<
/>en = <>G</>ranulosa cells</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-74702366179656.j
pg" /></i></div>
1405304460981 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Granulosa cells converts Androst
enedione into estrogens?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>

1405304488996 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Theca cells converts Cholesterol
into Androstenedione?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmolase}}</div>
1405304513023 1395802358422 How does Progesterone influence myometrial excit
aility?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405306532541 1395802358422 {{c1::Progesterone}} is a hormone secreted y th
e corpus luteum and placenta that triggers the production of thick cervical mucu
s which prevents sperm from entering the uterus.
1405306573294 1395802358422 How does Progesterone influence ody temperature
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405306585065 1395802358422 How does Progesterone influence gonadotropin act
ivity (LH; FSH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405306611080 1395802358422 How does progesterone influence uterine smooth m
uscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405306635834 1395802358422 How does progesterone influence endometrial hype
rplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405306662206 1395802358422 {{c1::Progesterone}} is a hormone secreted y th
e corpus luteum and placenta that functions to <>maintain</>&nsp;pregnancy.
<r /><div><i><>Progest</>erone is <>pro-gest</>ation.</i></div>
1405306942418 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with prepuescence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I}}</div>
1405307331656 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with puarche (appearance of puic hair)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::II}}
</div>
1405307357332 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with thelarche (formation of the reast uds)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:II}}</div>
1405307374385 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with darkening and curling of the puic hair?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
III}}</div>
1405307421317 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with increase in penis size and length?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::III}}<
/div>
1405307432536 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with reast enlargement?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::III}}</div>
1405307440156 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with thickening of the penis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV}}</div>
1405307451011 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with darkening of the scrotal skin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV}}</div>
1405307459514 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with development of the glans of the penis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV
}}</div>
1405307466517 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with raised areolae?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV}}</div>
1405307474003 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with flattening of the areolae?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V}}</div>
1405307484943 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with adulthood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V}}</div>
1405307489694 1395802358422 How long is the luteal (secretory) phase of mens
truation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::14 days}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Typically
stays constant.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-76038101009164.jpg" /></i></div
>
1405307610329 1395802358422 How long is the follicular (proliferative) phase
of the menstrual cycle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Variale}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-76033806041868.jpg" /></div>
1405307625608 1395802358422 Which sex hormone functions to <>stimulate</>&
nsp;endometrial production?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrogen}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-76033806041868.jpg" /></div>
1405307721201 1395802358422 Which sex hormone functions to <>maintain </>t
he endometrium and <>support</>&nsp;implantation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Progesterone}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>Progest</>erone is <>pro-gest</>atio

n.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-76033806041868.jpg" /></i></div>
1405307755215 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in progesterone
level influence fertility?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405307772807 1395802358422 {{c1::Oligomenorrhea}} is a disorder of the mens
trual cycle that is defined as a cycle <>&gt; 35 days</>.
1405307805771 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymenorrhea}} is a disorder of the menst
rual cycle that is defined as a cycle <>&lt; 21 days</>.
1405307830941 1395802358422 How many days in the menstrual cycle is diagnost
ic of <>oligomenorrhea</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 35 days}}</div>
1405307848047 1395802358422 How many days in the menstrual cycle is diagnost
ic of <>polymenorrhea</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 21 days}}</div>
1405307876268 1395802358422 {{c1::Metrorrhagia}} is a disorder of the menstr
ual cycle descried as <>intermenstrual leeding</>&nsp;with <>frequent</>&
nsp;ut <>irregular</>&nsp;menstruation.
1405308107900 1395802358422 {{c1::Menorrhagia}} is a disorder of the menstru
al cycle that is descried as <>heavy menstrual leeding</>&nsp;of <>&gt; 80
mL</>&nsp;of lood loss or <>&gt; 7 days</>&nsp;of menses.
1405308155518 1395802358422 {{c1::Menometrorrhagia}} is a disorder of the me
nstrual cycle that is descried as <>heavy, irregular menstruation</>&nsp;at
<>irregular</>&nsp;intervals.
1405308183516 1395802358422 A surge of which gonadotropin is associated with
the triggering of ovulation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LH}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><img src="paste-77008763617647.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-760338
06041868.jpg" /></div>
1405308232216 1395802358422 In which phase of the cell cycle is meiosis I in
the primary oocyte arrested from fetal life to ovulation in puerty?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Prophase I}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7715479250614
1.jpg" /></div>
1405308466267 1395802358422 In which phase of the cell cycle is meiosis II o
f the secondary oocyte arrested from ovulation to fertilization?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Metaphase II}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7715049753884
5.jpg" /></div>
1405308504898 1395802358422 How does estrogen influence the expression of Gn
RH receptors at the anterior pituitary?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>This enstrogen surge then stimulates an LH surge, therey
causing ovulation.</i></div>
1405308971628 1395802358422 {{c1::Mittelschmerz}} is a disorder of ovulation
that refers to the <>transient mid-cycle ovulatory pain</>&nsp;that is class
ically associated with peritoneal irritation. <r /><div><i>Can mimic appendic
itis.</i></div>
1405309016332 1395802358422 What is the most common site of <>fertilization
</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ampulla of the fallopian tue}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Typically within 1 day of ovulation.</i></div>
1405309250934 1395802358422 How many days after fertilization does implantat
ion occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::6 days}}</div>
1405309268791 1395802358422 Which fat solule vitamin is required in infants
that are exclusively fed reastmilk?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin D}}</di
v>
1405309690517 1395802358422 How does reastfeeding influence the risk of mat
ernal reast and ovarian cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405309721680 1395802358422 How does prolactin influence reproductive functi
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405309848672 1395802358422 {{c1::hCG}} is a hormone secreted y the placent
a/corpus that functions to maintain the corpus luteum <>in the 1st trimester</
>&nsp;y acting like LH.
<r /><div><i>Otherwise there is a lack of lutea
l cell stimulation and aortion results.</i></div><div><i>In the 2nd and 3rd tri
mesters, the placenta synthesizes its own estriol and progesterone, resulting in
corpus luteum degeneration.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-78773995176237.jpg
" /></i></div>
1405310008420 1395802358422 Which hormone is used to detect pregnancy as it

appears early in the urine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::hCG}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>hCG is detectale in the lood 1 week after conception and after 2 w
eeks in the urine.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-78769700208941.jpg" /></div>
1405310145915 1395802358422 Which suunit of hCG is structurally identical t
o LH, FSH and TSH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::alpha}}</div>
1405310228997 1395802358422 Which suunit of hCG is unique and detected y p
regnancy tests?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::eta}}</div>
1405310248554 1395802358422 What is the average age of onset of menopause?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::51}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Earlier in smokers.</i></d
iv>
1405310483913 1395802358422 {{c1::Menopause}} is a hormonal disorder seen in
women that is descried as a <>decline in estrogen production due to age-linke
d decline in the numer of ovarian follicles</>.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-79925046411392.jpg" /></div>
1405310520081 1395802358422 Which form of estrogen is the predominant form i
n menopause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrone}}</div> <r /><div><i>Formed y
peripheral conversion of androgens.</i></div><div><i>Increased androgens = hirsu
tism.</i></div>
1405310597503 1395802358422 How do FSH levels change in menopause?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Significant increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>In fact, this incr
ease is specific for menopause as there is a <>loss of negative feedack on FSH
due to a decrease in estrogen</>.</i></div>
1405310639116 1395802358422 How do LH levels change in menopause?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405310656174 1395802358422 How do GnRH levels change in menopause?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405310702001 1395802358422 Before which age does the onset of menopause lik
ely indicate Premature Ovarian Failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40}}</div>
1405310903925 1395802358422 How long does spermatogenesis take?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::2 months}}</div>
1405311234921 1395802358422 {{c1::Spermatozoon}} are <>mature</>&nsp;sper
m that are ale to fertilize an egg.
<r /><div><i>Spermato<>zoon</>&nsp;<
>zoom</>&nsp;to eggs.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-80118319940200.jpg" />
</i></div>
1405311299206 1395802358422 {{c1::Spermatogonia}} are sperm that have yet to
develop/mature.
<r /><div><i>Spermato<>gonia</>&nsp;are <>going</>
&nsp;to ecome mature.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-80114024972904.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1405311332467 1395802358422 {{c1::Sper<u>mio</u>genesis}} is the process thr
ough which spermatids lose their cytoplasmic contents, gain an acrosomal cap and
form mature spermatozoon.
<r /><div><img src="paste-80114024972904.jpg" /
></div>
1405311492528 1395802358422 {{c1::Androstenedione}} is an androgen made prim
arily at the adrenals.
1405311773256 1395802358422 What is the most potent androgen?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::DHT &gt; testosterone &gt; androstenedione}}</div>
1405311790316 1395802358422 What is the least potent androgen?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Androstenedione}}</div>
1405311805452 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with the differenti
ation of the epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles and genitalia (except th
e prostate)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone}}</div>
1405311914276 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with the growth spu
rt in the penis, sperm, muscle and RBCs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone
}}</div>
1405311936185 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with deepening of t
he voice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone}}</div>
1405311945912 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with closing of the
epiphyseal plates?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone (via estrogen after
conversion)}}</div>
1405311972283 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with liido?<div><

r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone}}</div>
1405311984727 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with <>differentia
tion</>&nsp;of the penis, scrotum and prostate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DHT
}}</div>
1405312007606 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with prostate growt
h?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DHT}}</div>
1405312014465 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with alding?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::DHT}}</div>
1405312018679 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with seaceous glan
d activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DHT}}</div>
1405312029602 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts testosterone to DHT?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::5-alpha-reductase}}</div>
1405312045717 1395802358422 {{c1::Finasteride}} is an anti-hormone agent tha
t inhiits 5-alpha-reductase.
1405312065213 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Finasteride?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhiition of 5-alpha-reductase}}</div>
1405312074789 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to convert androgens into
estrogens in males?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Primarily in adipose tissue and the testes.</i></div>
1405312142668 1395802358422 How do exogenous testosterones influence the siz
e of testicles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Ex
ogenous testosterone inhiits the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, therey d
ecreased intratesticular testosterone and ultimately causing a reduction in oth
testicular size and spermatogenesis.</i></div>
1405040462126 1395802358422 What is the normal remnant of the thyroglossal d
uct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Foramen cecum}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-28668906701396.jpg" /></div>
1405040782510 1395802358422 What is the most common site of ectopic thyroid
tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tongue}}</div>
1405040798341 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::thyroglossal duct}} is an emryol
ogical structure that connects the descending thyroid to the tongue.
<r /><d
iv><i>It may persist as the pyramidal loe of the thyroid.</i></div><div><i><img
src="paste-28664611734100.jpg" /></i></div>
1405040851321 1395802358422 {{c1::Thyroglossal Duct Cyst}} is a congenital t
hyroid anomaly that presents as an <>anterior midline neck mass</>&nsp;that m
oves with swallowing or protrusion of the tongue.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-28956669509910.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Compare this to a <>Branc
hial Cleft Cyst</>&nsp;which presents with a <>persistant cervical cinus in t
he lateral neck</>.</i></div>
1405041318384 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the A
drenal <>cortex</>&nsp;form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-29231547416921.jpg" /></div>
1405042330143 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue population does
the adrenal <>medulla</>&nsp;form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural crest ce
lls}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></div>
1405042348905 1395802358422 Which area of the adrenal cortex secretes Minera
locorticoids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Glomerulosa}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>GFR = salt, sugar, sex.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-29227252449625
.jpg" /></div>
1405042661478 1395802358422 Which area of the adrenal cortex secretes Glucoc
orticoids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Fasciculata}}</div> <r /><div><i>GF
R = salt, sugar, sex</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></i>
</div>
1405042715137 1395802358422 Which area of the adrenal cortex secretes sex ho
rmones?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Reticularis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>GF
R = salt, sugar, sex</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></i>
</div>
1405042755487 1395802358422 Which portion of the adrenal glands secretes Cat
echolamines?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chromaffin cells of the Adrenal medulla}
}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></div>

1405042842332 1395802358422 Which hormones act as the primary regulatory con
trol factors for the Zona Glomerulosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renin; Angiote
nsin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></div>
1405042893479 1395802358422 What is the most common tumour of the adrenal me
dulla in <>adults</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pheochromocytoma}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></div>
1405042923714 1395802358422 What is the most common tumour of the adrenal me
dulla in <>children</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neurolastoma}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></div>
1405042943197 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage for the <>left</>&
nsp;adrenal gland?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left adrenal vein --&gt; <u>Left
renal vein</u>&nsp;--&gt; IVC}}</div>
1405043142571 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage for the <>right</>
&nsp;adrenal gland?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right adrenal vein --&gt; IVC}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>The right adrenal vein <>does not drain into the right re
nal vein</>&nsp;(unlike the left side).</i></div>
1405043184450 1395802358422 Which gland secretes Vasopressin (ADH)?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Made in the hypothalamus ut is shipped to the posterior pituitary.</i></d
iv>
1405044169837 1395802358422 Which gland secretes Oxytocin?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Made in th
e hypothalamus ut is shipped to the posterior pituitary.</i></div>
1405044227394 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer is the pos
terior pituitary formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405044257038 1395802358422 Which gland secretes FSH?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-30799210479781.jpg" /></div>
1405044367157 1395802358422 Which gland secretes LH?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Anterior pituitary}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-30794915512485.jpg" /
></div>
1405044376762 1395802358422 Which gland secretes ACTH?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Anterior pituitary}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3079491551248
5.jpg" /></div>
1405044386971 1395802358422 Which gland secretes TSH?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Anterior pituitary}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-30794915512485.jpg" /
></div>
1405044395801 1395802358422 Which gland secretes Prolactin?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Anterior pituitary}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3079491551248
5.jpg" /></div>
1405044407801 1395802358422 Which gland secretes GH?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Anterior pituitary}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-31293131718810.jpg" /
></div>
1405048148748 1395802358422 Which gland secretes Melanotropin?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Anterior pituitary}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-31288
836751514.jpg" /></div>
1405048167219 1395802358422 From which emryological layer is the anterior p
ituitary formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oral ectoderm (Rathke's pouch)}}</di
v>
1405048195911 1395802358422 {{c1::GH}} and&nsp;{{c2::Prolaction}} are anter
ior pituitary hormones secreted y the <>acidophils</>&nsp;of the gland.
<r /><div><img src="paste-31288836751514.jpg" /></div>
1405048244530 1395802358422 {{c1::FSH}},&nsp;{{c2::LH}},&nsp;{{c3::ACTH}}
and&nsp;{{c4::TSH}} are the anterior pituitary hormones secreted y the <>aso
phils</>&nsp;of the gland.
<r /><div><img src="paste-31288836751514.jpg" /
></div>
1405048276866 1395802358422 Which cells of the pancreas secrete glucagon?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::alpha cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Found at the perip
hery.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-36103495090417.jpg" /></i></div>
1405048997614 1395802358422 Which cells of the pancreas secrete insulin?<div

><r /></div><div>{{c1::eta cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Found centrally.</
i></div><div><i><img src="paste-36099200123121.jpg" /></i></div><div><i><r /></
i></div><div><i><img src="paste-38809324486784.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste
-38203734098560.jpg" /></div></i></div>
1405049012375 1395802358422 Which cells of the pancreas secrete somatostatin
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::delta cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Found inte
rspersed throughout the Islets of Langerhans.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3
6099200123121.jpg" /></i></div>
1405049041670 1395802358422 Where in the cell is preproinsulin formed?<div><
<r /><div><i>It is then cleaved into Pr
r /></div><div>{{c1::RER}}</div>
oinsulin which is stored in secretory granules.</i></div><div><i>Before exocytos
is, it is cleaved into Insulin and C-peptide.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3
6356898161033.jpg" /></i></div>
1405049590664 1395802358422 Which GLUT transporter is moved to the cell mem
rane following Insulin action?<div><r />{{c1::GLUT4}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-36631776068243.jpg" /></div>
1405050093967 1395802358422 How does insulin influence Na⁺&nsp;r
etention at the kidneys?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1405050122871 1395802358422 How does insulin influence protein synthesis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405050132340 1395802358422 How does insulin influence cellular uptake of K<
sup>+</sup>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405050146959 1395802358422 How does insulin influence the cellular uptake o
f amino acids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405050165109 1395802358422 How does insulin influence glucagon release?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405050175309 1395802358422 How does insulin influence triglyceride synthesi
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405050188187 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT4}} is an <>insulin-dependent</>&ns
p;glucose transporter found in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle.
1405050226690 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT1}} is an <>insulin-independent</>&n
sp;glucose transporter found in<>&nsp;RBCs, rain </>and the <>cornea</>.
1405050257249 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT5}} is an <>insulin-independent</>&n
sp;fructose transporter that is found in <>spermatocytes</>&nsp;and the <>G
I tract</>.
1405050302200 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT2}} is a <>idirectional</>, <>insu
lin-independent</>&nsp;glucose transporter found at <>pancreatic eta cells,
liver, kidney</>&nsp;and <>small intestines</>.
1405050746298 1395802358422 How do eta-2 adrenergic agonists influence Insu
lin release?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051700979 1395802358422 How does GH influence Insulin release?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase <u>via insulin resistance</u>}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>GH causes insulin resistance and hence insulin release.</i></div>
1405051731373 1395802358422 Which adrenergic receptor triggers an <>increas
e</>&nsp;in Insulin release?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::eta-2}}</div>
1405051754012 1395802358422 Which GLUT transporter on pancreatic eta cells
is involved with Insulin regulation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2}}</div>
<div><r /></div><img src="paste-38809324486784.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="past
e-38203734098560.jpg" /></div>
1405051781108 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence glycogenolysis?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051964460 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence gluconeogenesis?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051978262 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence lipolysis?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051987850 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence ketogenesis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051997637 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence Glucagon levels?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405052018732 1395802358422 How does <>hypoglycemia</>&nsp;influence Gluc

agon levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405052027474 1395802358422 How does <>hyperglycemia</>&nsp;influence Glu
cagon levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405052079651 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to increase
ACTH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CRH}}</div>
1405053241603 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;inc
rease MSH (Melanotropin) secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CRH}}</div>
1405053262174 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;inc
rease eta-endorphin secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CRH}}</div>
1405053274795 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;dec
rease Prolactin secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dopamine}}</div>
1405053291600 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;inc
rease FSH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GnRH}}</div>
<r /><div><i>To
nic GnRH suppresses the HPA axis.</i><div><i>Pulsatile GnRH triggers puerty and
fertility.</i></div></div>
1405053299071 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;inc
rease LH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GnRH}}</div>
<i><div></div></
i><i><r /></i>Tonic GnRH suppresses the HPA axis.<div><i>Pulsatile GnRH trigger
s puerty and fertility.</i></div>
1405053308287 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;dec
rease GnRH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prolactin}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i><r /></i></div>
1405053322022 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;dec
rease GH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Somatostatin}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Somatostatin analogs are used to treat acromegaly.</i></div>
1405053333201 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;dec
rease TSH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Somatostatin}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Somatostatin analogs are used to treat acromegaly.</i></div>
1405053343026 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;inc
rease TSH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TRH}}</div>
1405053394881 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;inc
rease Prolactin secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TRH}}</div>
1405053414496 1395802358422 {{c1::Pituitary prolactinoma}} is a pituitary tu
mour that presents with <>amenorrhea</>&nsp;and <>osteoporosis</>.
1405094340172 1395802358422 {{c1::Prolactin}} is a hormone secreted y the a
nterior pituitary that functions to stimulate milk production in reasts.
1405094394080 1395802358422 {{c1::Prolactin}} is a hormone produced y the a
nterior pituitary that <>inhiits ovulation in females and spermatogenesis in m
ales y inhiiting GnRH synthesis and release</>.
<r /><div><i>Hyperprola
ctinemia is also associated with decreased liido.</i></div><div><i><img src="pa
ste-1039382086420.jpg" /></i></div>
1405094433387 1395802358422 Which hormone from the anterior pituitary functi
ons to <>inhiit GnRH synthesis and release</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pro
lactin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1035087119124.jpg" /></div>
1405094452302 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter secreted y the Hypothala
mus functions to tonically inhiit Prolactin secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Dopamine}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Prolactin then inhiits its own secr
etion via negative feedack y triggering Dopamine release from the hypothalamus
.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-1035087119124.jpg" /></div>
1405094592247 1395802358422 How does Dopamine influence Prolactin secretion?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10350
87119124.jpg" /></div>
1405094603184 1395802358422 How does TRH influence Prolactin secretion?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1035087119124
.jpg" /></div>
1405094659682 1395802358422 {{c1::Bromocriptine}} is a dopamine agonist that
is used to treat Prolactinoma as it inhiits prolactin secretion.
<r /><d
iv><i>Similarly, dopamine antagonists (antipsychotics) and estrogens (OCPs; preg
nancy) stimulate Prolactin secretion.</i></div>
1405094691987 1395802358422 How do estrogens (e.g. OCPs) influence Prolactin

secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405099806628 1395802358422 {{c1::GH}} is a hormone secreted y the anterior
pituitary that functions to stimulate linear growth and muscle mass growth via
<>IGF-1/Somatomedin</>&nsp;secretion.
1405100021446 1395802358422 How does GH influence insulin resistance?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>GH is diaetogenic.</i></d
iv>
1405100050495 1395802358422 {{c1::GHRH}} is a hormone that triggers pulsatil
e release of GH.
1405100170048 1395802358422 How does glucose influence GH release?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405100183271 1395802358422 How does GH secretion change during exercise and
sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405100198833 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence GH release?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405100210326 1395802358422 {{c1::Acromegaly}} is an endocrine disorder caus
ed y excess GH secretion <>in adults</>.
1405100229790 1395802358422 {{c1::Gigantism}} is an endocrine disorder cause
d y excess GH secretion <>in children</>.
1405100265583 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the Hypothalamus synthesized AD
H (Vasopressin)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supraoptic Nuclei}}</div>
1405100373343 1395802358422 Which Vasopressin receptors function to regulate
serum osmolarity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V<su>2</su>}}</div>
1405100396503 1395802358422 Which Vasopressin receptor functions to regulate
lood pressure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V<su>1</su>}}</div>
1405100429996 1395802358422 {{c1::Vasopressin (ADH)}} is a hormone released
y the posterior pituitary that functions to regulate serum osmolarity (V<su>2<
/su>) and lood pressure (V<su>1</su>).
1405100482736 1395802358422 {{c1::Vasopressin (ADH)}} is a hormone secreted
from the posterior pituitary that primarily <>decreases</>&nsp;serum osmolari
ty y influencing aquaporin channel transcription in principal cells of the coll
ecting duct.
<r /><div><i>ADH <>increases </>urine osmolarity and <>decre
ases</>&nsp;serum osmolarity y <>inducing water retention</>.</i></div>
1405100640508 1395802358422 How do ADH levels change in Central Diaetes Ins
ipidus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405100759050 1395802358422 How do ADH levels change in Nephrogenic Diaetes
Insipidus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal or Increased}}</div>
1405100783653 1395802358422 How do ADH levels change in primary polydipsia?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1405100795612 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmopressin}} is an ADH analog used to tr
eat Central Diaetes Insipidus.
1405100816809 1395802358422 What is the primary control for ADH release?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus}}</div>
1405100838378 1395802358422 What is the secondary control of ADH release?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypovolemia}}</div>
1405100849436 1395802358422 How does Ketoconazole influence Cholesterol Desm
olase activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-1670742278921.jpg" /></div>
1405105404198 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to convert Testosterone i
nto Estradiol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405105553676 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to convert Testosterone i
nto Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5-alpha-reductase}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106002238 1395802358422 How do mineralocorticoid levels change in 17-alp
ha-hydroxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106031534 1395802358422 How do Cortisol levels change in 17-alpha-hydrox
ylase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405106044483 1395802358422 How do sex hormone levels change in 17-alpha-hyd

roxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106085056 1395802358422 {{c1::17-alpha-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a typ
e of congenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with <>hypertension</>&nsp;
and <>hypokalemia</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106370283 1395802358422 {{c1::17-alpha-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a typ
e of congenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with <>decreased DHT</>&nsp
;levels.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106396892 1395802358422 {{c1::17-alpha-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a typ
e of congenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with <>pseudo-hermaphroditism
in males</>&nsp;(amiguous genitalia, undescended testes). <r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106452412 1395802358422 {{c1::17-alpha-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a typ
e of congenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with a <>lack of secondary se
xual development in females</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625
.jpg" /></div>
1405106573181 1395802358422 How do mineralocorticoid levels change in 21-hyd
roxylase activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106613705 1395802358422 How do Cortisol levels change in 21-hydroxylase
deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106631061 1395802358422 How do sex hormone levels change in 21-hydroxyla
se deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106664250 1395802358422 {{c1::21-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a type of c
ongenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with <>hypotension</>&nsp;and <>
hyperkalemia</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106708464 1395802358422 How does lood pressure change in 17-alpha-hydro
xylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106720676 1395802358422 How do K⁺&nsp;levels change in 17-al
pha-hydroxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106738795 1395802358422 How does lood pressure change in 21-hydroxylase
deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106754423 1395802358422 How do K⁺&nsp;levels change in 21-hy
droxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106772051 1395802358422 {{c1::21-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a type of c
ongenital adrenal hyperplasia that involves an accumulation of <>17-hydroxyprog
esterone</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106800992 1395802358422 {{c1::21-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a type of c
ongenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with <>increased renin activity</>
.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106842304 1395802358422 What is the most common enzyme deficiency in Con
genital Adrenal Hyperplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::21-hydroxylase deficienc
y}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106859497 1395802358422 {{c1::21-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a type of c
ongenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents in infancy as <>salt wasting</>&n
sp;or in childhood as <>precocious puerty</>.
<div><r /></div><i>Fema
les will see <>virilization</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jp
g" /></div>
1405106914693 1395802358422 How do mineralocorticoid levels change in 11-et
a-hydroxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>There is decreased Aldosterone ut <>accumulation of 11-deoxycorticostero
ne</>&nsp;which yields an increase in lood pressure.</i></div><div><i><img sr
c="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></i></div>
1405106978074 1395802358422 How do cortisol levels change in 11-eta-hydroxy

lase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106999858 1395802358422 How do sex hormone levels change in 11-eta-hydr
oxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <div><r /></div
><i>Hence females will present with <>virilization</>.</i><r /><div><img src=
"paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405107013558 1395802358422 {{c1::11-eta-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a type
of congenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with <>hypertension</>&nsp;w
ith <>low-renin activity</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" />
</div>
1405107038395 1395802358422 How does lood pressure change in 11-eta-hydrox
ylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405107071586 1395802358422 How do ACTH levels change in Congenital Adrenal
Hyperplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
is is <>always</>&nsp;the case as <>Cortisol levels are always decreased in
congenital adrenal hyperplasia</>.</i></div><div><i>The lack of Cortisol feeda
ck results in elevated ACTH levels and susequent adrenal gland hyperplasia.</i>
</div>
1405107555750 1395802358422 Which zone of the adrenal cortex secretes Cortis
ol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Fasciculata}}</div>
1405107999349 1395802358422 Which plasma protein primarily inds to Cortisol
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Corticosteroid-inding gloulin}}</div>
1405108016180 1395802358422 How does Cortisol influence lood pressure?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Cortisol <>upregulates al
pha-1 adrenergic receptors on arterioles</>, therey increasing the sensitivity
to norepinephrine and epinephrine.</i></div>
1405108188806 1395802358422 Which adrenergic receptors are upregulated y Co
rtisol on arterioles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-1}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>This is how Cortisol increases lood pressure.</i></div>
1405108209770 1395802358422 How does Cortisol influence insulin resistance?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Cortisol is diaet
ogenic.</i></div>
1405108240611 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence gluconeogenesis?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405108255543 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence Lipolysis?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405108260623 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence Proteolysis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405108268797 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence firolast activity?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is how is cau
ses <>striae</>.</i></div>
1405108287793 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence leukotriene and pros
taglandin synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Through this Cortisol is anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive.</i></div
>
1405108337602 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence luekocyte adhesion?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Therey causing <
>neutrophilia</>.</i></div><div><i>This also adds to the anti-inflammatory and
immunosuppressive role of glucocorticoids.</i></div>
1405108368578 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence Histamine release fr
om mast cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>He
nce it is anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive.</i></div>
1405108386985 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence IL-2 production?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence it is immuno
suppressive and anti-inflammatory.</i></div><div><i>Because of this, <>exogenou
s corticosteroids can cause reactivation of TB and candidiasis</>.</i></div>
1405108416947 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence osteolast activity?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Therey decreasing
one formation.</i></div>

1405108430948 1395802358422 How does Cortisol influence ACTH secretion?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405108498352 1395802358422 Where is Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) secreted from
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chief cells of the parathyroid}}</div>
1405111334971 1395802358422 How does PTH influence the resorption of Ca²⁺&nsp;at one?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-6433861010180.jpg" /></div>
1405111397321 1395802358422 How does PTH influence the reasorption of Ca<su
p>2+</sup>&nsp;in the distal convoluted tuule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Incr
ease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6429566042884.jpg" /></div>
1405111424232 1395802358422 How does PTH change serum [Ca²⁺]?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-64295
66042884.jpg" /></div>
1405111446988 1395802358422 How does PTH influence PO<su>4</su><sup>3-</su
p>&nsp;resorption at<>&nsp;one</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6558415061498.jpg" /></div>
1405111521483 1395802358422 How does PTH influence PO<su>4</su><sup>3- </s
up>reasorption at the proximal convoluted tuule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::De
crease}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6816113099264.jpg" /></div>
1405111780046 1395802358422 {{c1::PTH}} is a hormone secreted y the parathy
roid hormone that increases Calcitriol [1,25-(OH)<su>2</su>&nsp;D<su>3</su>
] production y activating kidney <>1-alpha-hydroxylase</>. <r /><div><img
src="paste-7301444403975.jpg" /></div>
1405111844244 1395802358422 {{c1::RANKL}} is a receptor ligand secreted y O
steolasts that inds to&nsp;{{c2::RANK}} on Osteoclasts to stimulate osteoclas
t activity.
<r /><div><i>Resulting in one resorption.</i></div>
1405111924534 1395802358422 Which one cell secretes RANKL?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Osteolasts}}</div>
1405112032076 1395802358422 {{c1::PTH-related peptide (PTHrP)}} is a PTH-lik
e hormone that functions similarly to PTH and is commonly seen in paraneoplastic
syndrome.
1405112079609 1395802358422 How do&nsp;<>decreased</>&nsp;Ca^{2+</sup
>&nsp;levels influence PTH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7297149436679.jpg" /></div>
1405112110458 1395802358422 How do marginally decreased Mg²⁺&nsp
;levels influence PTH release?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><r /></div>
1405112135842 1395802358422 How doe <>significantly reduced</>&nsp;Mg<sup
>2+}&nsp;levels influence PTH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrea
se}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Mg can decrease in diarrhea, aminoglycoside use, d
iuresis and alcohol ause.</i></div>
1405112173526 1395802358422 How does an increase in lood pH influence Alum
in's affinity for Ca²⁺?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, acidosis can yield </i><><i>clinical manifestations of hyp
ocalcemia</i>&nsp;</><i>(cramps, pain, paresthesias, carpopedal spasm).</i></d
iv>
1405114053471 1395802358422 Which form of Vitamin D is made at the skin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::D<su>3</su>}}</div>
1405114088127 1395802358422 Which form of Vitamin D is ingested from plants?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D<su>2</su>}}</div>
1405114101534 1395802358422 Which form of Vitamin D is made in the liver?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::25-OH Vitamin D}}</div>
1405114120497 1395802358422 Which form of vitamin D is the active form made
in the kidneys?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1,25-(OH)<su>2</su>&nsp;Vitamin D}
}</div>
1405114142029 1395802358422 How does Vitamin D influence the asorption of d
ietary Ca²⁺&nsp;and PO<su>4</su>^3-?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405114958754 1395802358422 How does Vitamin D influence one resorption?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence increased Ca

and PO<su>4</su>.</i></div>
1405114978976 1395802358422 How does PTH influence Vitamin D production?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405115000577 1395802358422 How does <>decreased</>&nsp;Ca influence Vita
min D production?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405115020016 1395802358422 How does <>decreased</>&nsp;PO4 influence Vit
amin D production?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405115075165 1395802358422 Which gland secreted Calcitonin?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Parafollicular cells (C cells) of the Thyroid}}</div>
1405116510202 1395802358422 What is the function of Calcitonin?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Decreases one resorption of Ca²⁺}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>i.e. opposite of PTH</i></div><div><i>"Calci<>TON</>in <>TON</>es down
Ca²⁺&nsp;levels."</i></div>
1405116528975 1395802358422 How does increased serum [Ca²⁺] influ
ence Calcitonin secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405116585372 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is involved wi
th ANP and NO (vasodilators)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cGMP}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-9470402888212.jpg" /></div>
1405117065010 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with the ADH V<su>2</su>-receptor?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117087480 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with FSH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117103064 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with LH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117116740 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with ACTH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117129887 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with TSH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117143775 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with CRH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117158585 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with hCG?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117175869 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with MSH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117194117 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with PTH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117203936 1395802358422 WHich cellular signalling cascade is associated
with Calcitonin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117216020 1395802358422 &nsp;Which cellular signalling cascade is assoc
iated with GHRH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117246675 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with GnRH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117274580 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with Oxytocin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117285586 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is assocaited
with the ADH V<su>1</su>&nsp;receptor?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>

1405117306015 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with the Histamine H<su>1</su>&nsp;receptor?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117327678 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with Angiotensin II?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117339701 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with Gastrin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117350241 1395802358422 Which cellular cascade is associated with prolac
tin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Receptor-associated tyrosine kinases}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117377313 1395802358422 Which cellular cascade is associated with GH?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Receptor-associated tyrosine kinase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117396371 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in sex hormoneinding gloulin (SHBG) influence free testosterone levels?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>In men this causes <>gynecomastia</>.</i
></div>
1405117736449 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in sex hormone-
inding gloulin influence free testosterone levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>In women this causes <>hirsutism</>.</i></div>
1405117779261 1395802358422 How do oral contraceptives (or pregnancy) influe
nce sex hormone-inding gloulin (SHBG) levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
ase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Free testosterone levels decrease.</i></div><div><
i>Free estrogen levels <>remain unchanged</>.</i></div>
1405117856963 1395802358422 Where is most T<><su>3</su>&nsp;</>made?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::At target tissue}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Thyroid fo
llicles primarily make T<su>4</su>.</i></div>
1405119361237 1395802358422 {{c1::T<su>3</su>/T<su>4</su>}} is a hormone
secreted from the thyroid that functions to upregulate <>eta-1 adrenergic rec
eptors</>&nsp;in the heart. <r /><div><i>Similar to Cortisol, it <>increas
es the sensitivity of the tissue to catecholamines</>.</i></div><div><i>Through
this it increases CO, HR, SV and contractility.</i></div><div><i><img src="past
e-11145440133320.jpg" /></i></div>
1405119466323 1395802358422 Which adrenergic receptor is upregulated y thyr
oid hormone?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-1; especially at the heart}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11141145166024.jpg" /></div>
1405119500436 1395802358422 {{c1::Thyroid hormone (T<su>3</su>/T<su>4</su
>)}} is a hormone secreted y the thyroid that functions to increase asal meta
olic rate y <>increasing Na/K ATPase activity</>. <r /><div><i>Increased
Na/K ATPase activity results in <>increased O<su>2</su>&nsp;consumption, RR
and ody temperature</>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-11141145166024.jpg" /
></i></div>
1405119710037 1395802358422 How does thyroid hormone influence asal metaol
ic rate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405119726409 1395802358422 How does thyroid hormone influence glycogenolysi
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405119739066 1395802358422 How does thyroid hormone influence gluconeogenes
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405119749619 1395802358422 How does thyroid hormone influence lipolysis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405119761351 1395802358422 Which plasma protein inds to most T<su>3</su>
/T<su>4 </su>in the lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thyroxine-inding gloul
in (TBG)}}</div>
1405120330410 1395802358422 How do Thyroxine-inding gloulin (TBG) levels c
hange in hepatic failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405120360300 1395802358422 How do Thyroxine-inding gloulin (TBG) levels c
hange in OCP use or pregnancy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to the estrogen.</i></div>

1405120388244 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts T<su>4</su>&nsp;into ac
tive T<su>3</su>&nsp;in peripheral tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5'-deio
dinase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, T<su>4</su>&nsp;is the major product
of the thyroid and is converted into the active T<su>3</su>.</i></div>
1405120439205 1395802358422 Which form of thyroid hormone has <>greater aff
inity</>&nsp;for Thyroid hormone receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T<su>3
</su>&nsp;&gt; T<su>4</su>}}</div>
1405120469165 1395802358422 Which enzyme is responsile for the oxidation an
d organification of Iodide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Peroxidase}}</div>
1405120541035 1395802358422 Which enzyme is responsile for the coupling of
monoiodotyrosine (MIT) and diiodotyrosine (DIT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pero
xidase}}</div>
1405120567844 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Propylthiouracil in the treat
ment of hyperthyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of 5'-deiodinase
<u>and</u>&nsp;peroxidase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1243822528955
6.jpg" /></div>
1405120611341 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Methimazole in the treatment
of hyperthyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Peroxidase <u>only<
/u>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-12438225289556.jpg" /></div>
1405120638892 1395802358422 How does TRH from the hypothalamus influence TSH
activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405122146293 1395802358422 {{c1::Graves Disease}} is an autoimmune disorder
characterized y <>hyperthyroidism</>&nsp;due to the presence of thyroid sti
mulating immunogloulins.
1405122194189 1395802358422 Negative feedack of T<su>3</su>&nsp;and T<su
>4</su>&nsp;to the anterior pituitary <>decreases</>&nsp;the sensitivity t
o&nsp;{{c1::TRH}}, therey resulting in decreased Thyroid hormone production.
<r /><div><r /></div>
1405122334042 1395802358422 {{c1::Wolff-Chaikoff Effect}} is a phenomenon th
at involves the <>temporary</>&nsp;<>inhiition of thyroid peroxidase</>&n
sp;due to <>excess iodine levels</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-1243822528955
6.jpg" /></div>
1405141647568 1395802358422 Which drug used to treat hyperparathyroidism is
used in <>pregnancy</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Propylthiouracil (PTU)}}</d
iv>
1405141731050 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplasia Cutis}} is a possile teratogenic
complication of Methimazole.
1405141749030 1395802358422 Which drug used to treat hyperthyroidism is a po
ssile teratogen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Methimazole}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Can cause aplasia cutis.</i></div>
1405141770453 1395802358422 {{c1::Agranulocytosis}} is a rare hematological
complication of Propylthiouracil and Methimazole use. <r /><div><i>Aplastic a
naemia is also a possile complication.</i></div>
1405141793183 1395802358422 Which drug used to treat hyperthyroidism is asso
ciated with hepatotoxicity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Propylthiouracil}}</div>
1405141828670 1395802358422 {{c1::Levothyroxine}} and&nsp;{{c2::Triiodithyr
onine}} are thyroxine replacements that are used to treat hypothyroidism and myx
edema.
1405141875461 1395802358422 {{c1::GH}} is a hormone analog used to treat Tur
ner Syndrome.
1405141896851 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to treat Carci
noid tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Octreotide}}</div>
1405141924843 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to treat Gastr
inoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Octreotide}}</div>
1405141933394 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to treat Gluca
gonoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Octreotide}}</div>
1405141940741 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to treat Esoph
ageal Varices?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Octreotide}}</div>
1405141955250 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Central Diaetes Insip
idus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DDAVP}}</div>

1405141973751 1395802358422 {{c1::Oxytocin}} is a posterior pituitary hormon
e that is used to <>stimulate laour, uterine contractions </>and <>milk letdown</>.
1405142007029 1395802358422 Which tetracycline antiiotic is used to treat S
IADH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Demeclocycline}}</div>
1405142023011 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Demeclocycline in the treatme
nt of SIADH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ADH antagonism}}</div>
1405142036083 1395802358422 What type of Diaetes Insipidus is a potential c
omplication of Demeclocycline use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrogenic DI}}</
div>
1405142067031 1395802358422 {{c1::Photosensitivity}} is a cutaneous complica
tion of Demeclocycline use.
1405142084123 1395802358422 {{c1::Demeclocycline}} is a drug used to treat S
IADH that is associated with <>anormalities of one and teeth</>.
1405142102856 1395802358422 {{c1::NF-kB}} is a transcription factor hat is o
ften inhiited y Glucocorticoids, therey leading to downstream anti-inflammato
ry and immunosuppressive effects.
1405142159010 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Osteoporosis seen in I
atrogenic Cushing Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bisphosphonates}}</div>
1405142186359 1395802358422 {{c1::Adrenal Insufficiency}} is a complication
of <u style="font-weight: old; ">arupt cessation</u>&nsp;of glucocorticoids f
ollowing chronic use.
1379539830538 1358629116480 Epinephrine is an adrenergic with a receptor aff
inity of&nsp;{{c1::1=2=3 &gt;&gt; a1=a2}}
1379541123732 1358629116480 {{c1::Epinephrine}} is the adrenergic of choice
to treat anaphylaxis and angioedema.
1379541217698 1358629116480 {{c1::Doutamine}} and {{c2::Dopamine}} are the
adrenergics/sympathomimetics of choice to treat cardiogenic shock.
1379541384454 1358629116480 {{c1::Norepinephrine}} and&nsp;{{c2::phenylephr
ine}} are the adrenergics of choice to treat vasodilatory shock.
<r /><d
iv><i>Neurogenic, septic, etc shock</i></div>
1379541448677 1358629116480 {{c1::Epinephrine}} is the adrenergic of choice
to treat anaphylactic shock.
1379541481648 1358629116480 {{c1::Epinephrine}} is the adrenergic used durin
g cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
1379541500977 1358629116480 {{c1::Isoproterenol}} is the adrenergic of choic
e to treat torsade de pointes.
1379541559411 1358629116480 {{c1::Clonidine}} and Methyldopa are the adrener
gics used to treat hypertension through the activation of central a2 receptors.
1379541591233 1358629116480 {{c1::Epinephrine}} and&nsp;{{c1::norepinephrin
e}} are the adrenergics involved with local anaesthesia and the triggering of lo
cal vasoconstriction.
1379541644648 1358629116480 {{c1::Phenylephrine}} is the adrenergic used to
treat nasal congestion and leeding.
1379541757663 1358629116480 {{c1::Epinephrine}} and&nsp;{{c1::selective 2}
} agonists are adrenergics used to treat asthma and COPD.
1379541803547 1358629116480 {{c1::Epinephrine}} and&nsp;{{c2::Apraclonidine
}} are adrenergics used to treat open angle glaucoma.
1379541831196 1358629116480 {{c1::Clonidine}} is an adrenergic used to treat
toacco, alcohol or opioid withdrawal.
1379541863787 1358629116480 Norepinephrine is an a- agonist with a receptor
affinity of&nsp;{{c1::1 &gt; a1=a2}}.
1379542145050 1358629116480 Phenylephrine is a(n) {{c1::a1}} selective adren
ergic agonist.
1379542198636 1358629116480 Clonidine is a(n)&nsp;{{c1::a2}} selective adre
nergic agonist. <r /><div><i>Rememer, Clonidine activates a2 autoreceptors and
a2 central receptors to decrease central adrenergic tone.</i></div>
1379542257520 1358629116480 Apraclonidine is a(n)&nsp;{{c1::a2}} selective
adrenergic agonist. It is administered ophthalmically.
1379542307767 1358629116480 Isoproterenol is a(n)&nsp;{{c1::1, 2, 3}} ad

renergic agonist.
1379542340464 1358629116480 Doutamine is a(n)&nsp;{{c1::1}} selective adr
energic agonist.
1379542355899 1358629116480 Aluterol is a(n)&nsp;{{c1::2}} selective adre
nergic agonist.
1379542374732 1358629116480 Salmeterol is a(n)&nsp;{{c2::2}} selective adr
energic agonist.
1379542429922 1358629116480 {{c1::Methyldopa}} is converted to methylnorepin
ephrine in adrenergic neurons. It then activates central {{c2::a2}} receptors to
decrease central adrenergic tone.
1379542523150 1358629116480 {{c1::Tyramine}} is converted to Octopamine in a
drenergic neurons. It is then stored in vesicles and released in place of NE.
1379542561813 1358629116480 {{c1::Cocaine}} is a mixed-acting adrenergic tha
t locks the reuptake of catecholamines in the CNS and PNS.
1379542597439 1358629116480 {{c1::Amphetamines}} is a mixed-acting adrenergi
c that stimulates the release of monoamine NTs (NE, D, 5-HT) from their storage
vesicles. It also locks catecholamine reuptake.
1379558429103 1358629116480 {{c2::Phenoxyenzamine}} is an irreversile nonselective alpha adrenergic locker with an affinity of a1 &gt; a2.
1379558572762 1358629116480 Prazosin is a selective&nsp;{{c1::a1}} adrenerg
ic locker.
1379558601635 1358629116480 Doxazosin is a selective&nsp;{{c1::a1}} adrener
gic locker.
1379558615718 1358629116480 Tamsulosin is a selective&nsp;{{c1::a1}} adrene
rgic locker.
1379558629853 1358629116480 Propanolol is a non-selective&nsp;{{c1::eta}}
adrenergic locker. It has a local anaesthetic effect.
1379558648135 1358629116480 Pindolol is a nonselective&nsp;{{c1::eta}} adr
energic locker. It has a local anaesthetic effect.
1379558695127 1358629116480 Timolol is a non-selective&nsp;{{c1::eta}} adr
energic locker that is commonly used for open angle glaucoma.
1379558728817 1358629116480 Sotalol is a nonselective&nsp;{{c1::eta}} adre
nergic locker.
1379558754697 1358629116480 Atenolol is a selective&nsp;{{c1::1}} adrenerg
ic locker.
1379558782272 1358629116480 Metoprolol is a selective&nsp;{{c1::1}} adrene
rgic locker.
1379558802870 1358629116480 Esmolol is a selective&nsp;{{c1::1}} adrenergi
c locker. It is only administered parenterally.
1379558852507 1358629116480 {{c1::Laetalol}} is an alpha-eta adrenergic l
ocker that has alpha-antagonist and partial eta-agonist function. It is also a
local anaesthetic.
1379558913105 1358629116480 Carvidilol is a(n)&nsp;{{c1::a1-eta}} adrenerg
ic locker.
1379558952458 1358629116480 {{c2::Metyrosine}} is an indirect acting antiadr
energic that inhiits&nsp;{{c1::Tyrosine Hydroxylase}}, the rate limiting enzym
e in catecholamine iosynthesis.
1379559008875 1358629116480 {{c1::Phenoxyenzamine}} is an alpha-adrenergic
locker primarily used to treat Pheochromocytoma as a pre-operative preparation
or when the tumour is metastatic/inoperale.
1379559702644 1358629116480 Selective a1-adrenergic lockers are primarily u
sed to treat&nsp;{{c1::HTN}} and&nsp;{{c2::urinary incontinence in BPH.}}
<r /><div><i>Rememer, selective a1-adrenergic lockers end in -osin</i></div><
div><i>e.g. Prazosin, trazosin, &nsp;doxazosin, &nsp;tamsulosin</i></div>
1379559801375 1358629116480 Phenoxyenzamine toxicity involves&nsp;{{c1::or
thostatic hypotension}} and&nsp;{{c2::reflex tachycardia}}.
1379559878331 1358629116480 Selective a1-lockers have a toxicity of&nsp;{{
c1::1st dose orthostatic hypotension}}.
1379559903975 1358629116480 Timolol is a non-selective eta-locker primaril
y used to treat&nsp;{{c1::open angle glaucoma}}.

1379559964204 1358629116480 {{c1::Metoprolol}} and&nsp;{{c2::Esmolol}} are
selective 1-lockers used to treat Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT).
1379627871132 1358629116480 {{c1::Bethanechol}} is a direct muscarinic agoni
st used to treat postoperative nonostructive ileus, neurogenic ileus and urinar
y retention.
<r /><i>Bethanechol = owels and ladder </i>
1379627972507 1358629116480 {{c1::Pilocarpine}} is a direct muscarinic agoni
st used to treat open angle glaucoma and xerostomia as it stimulates sweating, t
earing and salivation. <r><div><i style="font-weight: old; ">Pilo</i><i>carpi
ne lets you cry, drool and sweat onto your <>pillo</>w</i></div>
1379628145233 1358629116480 {{c1::Mycetism}} is poisoning due to mushrooms t
hat contain muscarine. Symptoms appear within 30 minutes: salivation, lacrimatio
n, ronchospasm, radycardia, tremors, coma.
1379628340573 1358629116480 {{c1::Edrophonium}} is a cholinesterase inhiito
r clinically used to diagnose myasthenia gravis.
1379628521535 1358629116480 {{c1::Neostigmine}} is used to treat myasthenia
gravis, postoperative nonostructive ileus, urinary retention and postoperative
NMJ lockade
1379628647497 1358629116480 {{c1::Neostigmine}} and&nsp;{{c2::Bethanechol}}
can e used to treat neurogenic ladder.
1379628861500 1358629116480 {{c1::Doneprezil}} is a cholinesterase inhiitor
that is selective for ChE's in the rain. As such, it is used to treat Alzheime
r's Disease.
1379628918981 1358629116480 {{c1::Organophosphate}} are <>irreversile</>&
nsp;cholinesterase inhiitors.
1379629129053 1358629116480 {{c2::Pralidoxime}} is a cholinesterase reactiva
tor used to treat organophosphate poisoning.
1379638625360 1358629116480 Atropine is typically used in ophthalmology wher
e it causes&nsp;{{c1::mydriasis}} and&nsp;{{c2::cycloplegia}}.
1379638684720 1358629116480 {{c1::Scopolamine}} is a muscarinic locker used
to treat motion sickness.
1379638770245 1358629116480 {{c1::Darifenacin}} is a muscarinic locker used
to treat overactive ladder (urge incontinence).
1379638827171 1358629116480 {{c1::Benzotropine}} is a muscarinic locker use
d to treat Parkinson's Disease. <r /><div><i>Park my&nsp;<>Benz.</></i></div
>
1379981560930 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::M2}} receptor is the major muscar
inic receptor at the heart.
1379981594689 1358629116480 The {{c2::M2}} receptor <>strongly</> decrease
s conduction and refractoriness at the&nsp;{{c1::AV node}}
1379981634633 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes v
asodilation.
1379981723221 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes s
trong ronchoconstriction and lung secretion.
1379981772778 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes s
trong erection indirectly via NO.
1379981794571 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes a
strong increase in GI motility, a decrease in sphincter tone and gallladder co
ntraction.
1379981913792 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes <
>moderate</>&nsp;exocrine secretion from the pancreas.
1379981953963 1358629116480 The {{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes a stro
ng increase in detrusor muscle motility and tone.
1379982068167 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes s
trong contraction of the spincter pupillae and ciliary muscles.&nsp;
1379982098869 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes a
strong increase in lacrimal gland secretion.
1379982116300 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes a
strong increase in sweat gland secretion.
1379982137526 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::1}} adrenergic receptor is the m
ain receptor at the heart.

1379982213560 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::a1}} adrenergic receptor is respo
nsile for most vasocontriction and smooth muscle contraction.
1379988833840 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::2}} adrenergic receptor is respo
nsile for most vasodilation and ronchodilation.
1379988856732 1358629116480 Bronchial muscle relaxation is mediated through&
nsp;{{c1::2}} adrenergic receptors.
1379988982816 1358629116480 Ejaculation in males is mediated through the&ns
p;{{c1::a1}} adrenergic receptor.
1379989022198 1358629116480 Relaxation of uterine muscle in oth the pregnan
t and non-pregnant uteruses are mediated y the&nsp;{{c1::2}} adrenergic recep
tor.
1379989068780 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::2}} adrenergic receptor is the m
ajor mediator of the increases in hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
1379989219218 1358629116480 The {{c1::a2}} adrenergic receptor strongly decr
eases insulin secretion from the pancreas.
1379989262187 1358629116480 The {{c1::2}} adrenergic receptor weakly increa
ses insulin release from the pancreas.
1379989284393 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::2}} adrenergic receptor increase
s Ca²⁺&nsp;sequestration, glycogenolysis and K⁺&nsp;upta
ke at <>skeletal</> muscle.
1380063485106 1358629116480 Mast cell degranulation is inhiited through&ns
p;{{c1::2}} adrenergic receptors.
1380063518711 1358629116480 Platelet aggregation is stimulated y&nsp;{{c1:
:a2}} adrenergic receptors.
1404332807900 1395802358422 What is the value of K<su>m</su>&nsp;in a Mic
haelis-Menten kinetics system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::[S] at 1/2 V<su>max</
su>}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Rememer, K<su>m</su>&nsp;is inversely re
lated to the affinity of the enzyme for the sustrate. (i.e. K<su>m</su>&nsp;
= 1/affinity)</i><div><i>Rememer, V<su>max</su>&nsp;is directly proportional
to the concentration of the enzyme.<r /></i><div><img src="paste-2808049618148
8.jpg" /></div></div>
1404333476525 1395802358422 {{c1::Lineweaver-Burk plot}} is a reciprocal plo
t of Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetic values.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-28217935134949.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, K<su>m</su>&nsp;is th
e inverse of enzyme affinity (1/affinity).</i></div><div><i>Rememer, V<su>max<
/su>&nsp;is directly proportional to the concentration of the enzyme.</i></div
>
1404333594465 1395802358422 How do<>&nsp;reversile competitive inhiitors
</>&nsp;change V<su>max</su>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<div><r /></div><div><i>Reversile competitive inhiition =&nsp;<>increase</
>&nsp;K<su>m</su>; unchanged V<su>max</su>;&nsp;<>decreased</>&nsp;pote
ncy</i></div><img src="paste-28561532518663.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-28574417
420736.jpg" /></div>
1404334860857 1395802358422 How do <>reversile competitive inhiitors</>&
nsp;change K<su>m</su>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <div><r
/></div><i>Reversile competitive inhiition =&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;K<su>
m</su>; unchanged V<su>max</su>;&nsp;<>decreased</>&nsp;potency</i><r />
<div><img src="paste-28561532518663.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-28574417420736.j
pg" /></div></div>
1404334889652 1395802358422 Which type of enzyme inhiition is ale to e ov
ercome y an increase in sustrate concentration?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rev
ersile competitive inhiition}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>Reversile competiti
ve inhiition =&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;K<su>m</su>; unchanged V<su>max</su
>;&nsp;<>decreased</>&nsp;potency</i><r /><div><img src="paste-28561532518
663.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-28574417420736.jpg" /></div></div>
1404334917949 1395802358422 Which type of enzyme inhiition causes a <>decr
ease in potency</>&nsp;of the drug?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reversile comp
etitive inhiition}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Reversile competitive inhi
ition = <>increase</>&nsp;K<su>m</su>; unchanged V<su>max</su>; <>decrea
sed</>&nsp;potency</i><r /><div><img src="paste-28561532518663.jpg" /><div><i

mg src="paste-28574417420736.jpg" /></div></div>
1404334988908 1395802358422 How does&nsp;<>irreversile competitive inhii
tion</>&nsp;change V<su>max</su>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div
>
<div><r /></div><i>Irreversile competitive inhiition =&nsp;<>decrea
sed</>&nsp;V<su>max</su>; unchanged K<su>m</su>;&nsp;<>decreased</>&ns
p;efficacy</i><r /><div><img src="paste-28561532518663.jpg" /><div><img src="pa
ste-28574417420736.jpg" /></div></div>
1404335028881 1395802358422 How does <>irreversile competitive inhiition<
/>&nsp;change K<su>m</su>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Irreversile competitive inhiition =&nsp;<>decreased</>&
nsp;V<su>max</su>; unchanged K<su>m</su>;&nsp;<>decreased</>&nsp;effica
cy</i><div><img src="paste-28561532518663.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-2857441742
0736.jpg" /></div></div>
1404335066834 1395802358422 Which type of enzyme inhiitor <>does not</>&n
sp;resemle the sustrate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Noncompetitive inhiitor}
}</div> <div><r /></div><i>Noncompetitive inhiition =&nsp;<>decreased</>&n
sp;V<su>max</su>; unchanged K<su>m</su>;&nsp;<>decreased</>&nsp;efficacy
</i><div><i>e.g. allosteric inhiition</i></div><div><img src="paste-28561532518
663.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-28574417420736.jpg" /></div></div>
1404335114549 1395802358422 Which type of enzyme inhiition <>does not</>&
nsp;involve inding at the active site?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Noncompetiti
ve inhiition}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>Noncompetitive inhiition =&nsp;<>
decreased</>&nsp;V<su>max</su>; unchanged K<su>m</su>;&nsp;<>decreased</
>&nsp;efficacy</i><div><i>e.g. allosteric inhiition</i></div><div><img src="p
aste-28561532518663.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-28574417420736.jpg" /></div></di
v>
1404335148270 1395802358422 How does <>noncompetitive inhiition</>&nsp;c
hange V<su>max</su>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>Noncompetitive inhiition =&nsp;<>decreased</>&nsp;V<su>max</su
>; unchanged K<su>m</su>;&nsp;<>decreased</>&nsp;efficacy</i><div><i>e.g.
allosteric inhiition</i></div><div><img src="paste-28561532518663.jpg" /><div>
<img src="paste-28574417420736.jpg" /></div></div>
1404335182462 1395802358422 How does <>noncompetitive inhiition </>change
K<su>m</su>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><i>Noncompetitive inhiition = <>decreased</>&nsp;V<su>max</su>; unchanged
K<su>m</su>; <>decreased</>&nsp;efficacy</i><div><i>e.g. allosteric inhii
tion<r /></i><div><img src="paste-28561532518663.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-28
574417420736.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1404335786517 1395802358422 {{c1::Pharmacokinetics}} is a pharmacological su
field that explores the <>effects of the ody on a drug</>. <r /><div><i>AD
ME: Asorption, Distriution, Metaolism, Excretion</i></div>
1404336407505 1395802358422 {{c1::Pharmacodynamics}} is a sufield of pharma
cology that explores the <>effects of a drug on the ody</>. <r /><div><i>i.
e. receptor inding, efficacy, potency, toxicity, MOA, etc.</i></div>
1404336449213 1395802358422 What is the ioavailaility (F) of a drug admini
stered intravenously?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::100%}}</div> <r /><div><i>F<
su>oral</su>&nsp;&lt; 100%; varies depending on incomplete asorption and fir
st-pass metaolism</i></div>
1404338068244 1395802358422 {{c1::Bioavailaility (F)}} is a pharmacokinetic
measure defined as the fraction of administered drug that reaches systemic circ
ulation unchanged.
1404338105442 1395802358422 {{c1::Volume of Distriution (V<su>d</su>)}} i
s a pharmacokinetic measure that is defined as the theoretical volume occupied 
y the total asored drug amount at the plasma concentration. <r /><div><i>He
nce, the V<su>d</su>&nsp;of plasma protein-ound drugs can e altered y live
r and kidney disease (liver/kidney disease = decreased protein inding = decreas
ed V<su>d</su>)</i></div>
1404338469299 1395802358422 What is the equation for the Volume of Distriut
ion (V<su>d</su>) of a drug?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-317784
63023194.jpg" />}}</div>

1404338977373 1395802358422 Which type of drug is associated with <>low</>
&nsp;volume of distriution?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Large/charged molecules
; plasma protein ound drugs}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3192019694414
9.jpg" /></div>
1404339014414 1395802358422 To which fluid compartment do drugs with <>low<
/>&nsp;volume of distriution spread?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blood (4-8 L)
}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-31920196944149.jpg" /></div>
1404339063295 1395802358422 To which fluid compartment do drugs with <>medi
um</>&nsp;volume of distriution spread?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ECF}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-31920196944149.jpg" /></div>
1404339087780 1395802358422 To which fluid compartment do drugs with <>high
</>&nsp;volume of distriution spread?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::All tissue,
including fat}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-31920196944149.jpg" /></div>
1404339111737 1395802358422 Which type of drug is associated with <>medium<
/>&nsp;volume of distriution (V<su>d</su>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smal
l, hydrophilic molecules}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3192019694414
9.jpg" /></div>
1404339137890 1395802358422 Which type of drug is associated with <>high</
>&nsp;volume of distriution (V<su>d</su>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small
lipophilic drugs, especially those ound to tissue proteins}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-31920196944149.jpg" /></div>
1404339202515 1395802358422 {{c1::Half-life (t1/2)}} is a pharmacokinetic me
asure that is defined as the time required to reduce the amount of a drug in a 
ody <>y half</>&nsp;via elimination.
<r /><div><i>Stems from first o
rder drug elimination.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-33204392165513.jpg" /></
i></div>
1404339271694 1395802358422 How many half-lives does it take for a drug to r
each <>steady state</>&nsp;if it is eing <>infused at a constant rate</>?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4-5}}</div> <r /><div><i>The overall time it takes
to reach the steady-state concentration is primarily dependent on t<su>1/2</su
>&nsp;and is independent of dose and dosing frequency.</i></div>
1404339327959 1395802358422 How many half-lives does it take to reach <>90%
of the steady-state level</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3.3}}</div>
1404339348778 1395802358422 What is the equation for the half-life of a drug
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-32688996089953.jpg" />}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Where V<su>d</su>&nsp;= volume of distriution; CL = clearance<
/i></div>
1404340362563 1395802358422 {{c1::Clearance (CL)}} is a pharmacokinetic meas
ure that is defined as the <>volume of plasma cleared of a drug per unit time</
>.
1404340395277 1395802358422 What is the equation for the Clearance (CL) of a
drug?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-33238751903844.jpg" />}}</div>
1404340411909 1395802358422 What is the equation for the Loading dose of a d
rug?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-33264521707620.jpg" />}}</div>
1404340445940 1395802358422 What is the equation for the maintenance dose of
a drug?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-33290291511521.jpg" />}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>In renal/liver disease, the <>maintenance dose decreases<
/>&nsp;ut the loading dose is unchanged.</i></div>
1404340544267 1395802358422 What is the equation for the ioavailaility (F)
of a drug?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-33809982554188.jpg" />}}<
/div>
1404340626555 1395802358422 {{c1::Zero-Order Elimination}} is an order of dr
ug elimination that involves a <>constant rate of elimination</>&nsp;regardle
ss of C<su>p</su>.
<div><r /></div><i>Hence C<su>p</su>&nsp;decreases l
inearly with time.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-34170759807431.jpg" /></div>
1404343474527 1395802358422 {{c1::Zero-order elimination}} is an order of el
imination that involves elimination of a <>constant amount of drug</>&nsp;per
unit time.
<r /><div><img src="paste-34166464840135.jpg" /></div>
1404343510253 1395802358422 {{c1::Zero-order elimination}} is an order of dr
ug elimination that is <>capacity-limited</>.

1404343541012 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenytoin}},&nsp;{{c2::Ethanol}} and&nsp
;{{c3::Aspirin}} are three drugs that are known to exhiit zero-order eliminatio
n.
<r /><div><img src="paste-34166464840135.jpg" /></div>
1404343568539 1395802358422 {{c1::First-order elimination}} is an order of d
rug elimination that involves a rate of elimination that is <>directly proporti
onal to the drug concentration</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-3470333575215
6.jpg" /></div>
1404343622571 1395802358422 {{c1::First-order elimination}} is an order of e
limination that involves elimination of a <>constant fraction of drug</>&nsp;
per unit time. <div style="font-style: italic; "><i><r /></i></div><i>Hence, C
<su>p</su>&nsp;decreases exponentially with time.</i><div><i>Flow-dependent e
limination.<r /></i><div><img src="paste-34699040784860.jpg" /></div></div>
1404344028791 1395802358422 {{c1::Bicaronate}} is a treatment for <>weak a
cid drug overdose</>&nsp;that functions y alkalinizing the urine, therey tra
pping the weakly acidic drug.<div><r /></div> <div><r /></div><i>For weak aci
d drugs:</i><r /><div><img src="paste-35596688949347.jpg" /></div>
1404344650089 1395802358422 {{c1::Ammonium chloride}} is a treatment for <>
weak ase drug overdose</>&nsp;and functions y <>acidifying</>&nsp;the uri
ne, therey trapping the weakly asic drug.
<div><r /></div><i>For weakly 
asic drugs:</i><r /><div><img src="paste-35759897706601.jpg" /></div>
1404408265963 1395802358422 Which phase of drug metaolism yields <>slightl
y polar, water-solule</>&nsp;and <>active</>&nsp;metaolites?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Phase I}}</div> <div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>Involves &nsp;r
eduction, oxidation and hydrolysis of drugs with cytochrome P450 enzymes.</i></d
iv>
1404409257639 1395802358422 Which phase of drug metaolism is lost first in
geriatric patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phase 1}}</div>
1404409501937 1395802358422 Which phase of drug metaolism involves conjugat
ion of drugs into <>very polar</>&nsp;and <>inactive</>&nsp;metaolites?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phase II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Glucuronidation, a
cetylation, sulfation.</i></div>
1404409546817 1395802358422 {{c1::Efficacy}} is a pharmacodynamic measure de
fined as the <>maximal effect a drug can produce</>. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-1434519077352.jpg" /></div>
1404410077779 1395802358422 {{c1::Potency}} is a pharmacodynamic measure def
ined as the <>amount of drug needed for a given effect</>.
<div><r /></div
><i>Increased potency = increased affinity for the receptor.</i><div><i>Potency
is an independent variale (vs. efficacy).<r /></i><div><img src="paste-1477468
750343.jpg" /></div></div>
1404410132265 1395802358422 How does a competitive antagonist change the pot
ency of a drug?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased; therefore, curve shifts to
the right}}</div>
<r /><div><i>(i.e. more of that drug is now requried to
achieve the desired effect)</i></div><div><i>Overcome y increased sustrate co
ncentration.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1748051689981.jpg" /></i></div>
1404411121856 1395802358422 How does a competitive antagonist change efficac
y of a drug?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
e maximal effect of the drug is still the same, however more drug will e needed
to achieve it.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1743756722685.jpg" /></i></div>
1404412018289 1395802358422 How does a <>noncompetitive antagonist</>&nsp
;change the efficacy of a drug?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Shits the curve down.</i></div><div><i>This makes perfect sense, 
rah. The antagonist doesn't compete with the agonist in order to lock the drug'
s effect. Hence, the maximal effect that drug can elicit is significantly reduce
d as an increase in drug concentration cannot overcome the noncompetitive inhii
tor.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1937030251009.jpg" /></i></div>
1404412129590 1395802358422 How does an <>irreversile competitive antagoni
st</>&nsp;change the efficacy of a drug?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}
</div> <r /><div><i>i.e. the curve shifts downwards</i></div><div><i>This is t
he same idea as the noncompetitive antagonist. However here, despite the antagon
ist competing for the same inding site, the inding is <>irreversile</>. Hen

ce an increase in drug concentration cannot overcome the antagonist.</i></div><d
iv><i><img src="paste-1932735283713.jpg" /></i></div>
1404412343147 1395802358422 How does a <>partial agonist</>&nsp;change th
e efficacy of a drug?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>The partial agonist acts at the same site as the agonist, <>ut wit
h a lower maximal effect</>. Hence the overall drug effect is reduced (i.e. dec
reased efficacy).</i><div><i>Rememer, potency is an independent variale.<r />
</i><div><img src="paste-2332167242244.jpg" /></div></div>
1404412714563 1395802358422 What is the equation for Therapeutic Index?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-3191160701021.jpg" />}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-3234110374059.jpg" /></div>
1404413444375 1395802358422 {{c1::Therapeutic window}} is a pharmacodynamic
measure of the <>clinical drug's effectiveness</>&nsp;for a patient. <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-3268470112705.jpg" /></div>
1404419935022 1395802358422 Which type of cholinergic receptors are found at
all autonomic ganglia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nicotinic (N<su>N</su>)}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4157528343316.jpg" /></div>
1404421300214 1395802358422 {{c1::Sweat glands}} and the&nsp;{{c2::adrenal
medulla}} are 2 parts of the sympathetic nervous system that are innervated y <
>cholinergic</>&nsp;neurons. <r /><div><img src="paste-4153233376020.jpg" />
</div>
1404421343075 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulinum toxin}} is a toxin from <i>Clost
ridium otulinum</i>&nsp;that prevents the release of neurotransmitters at all
cholinergic terminals. <r /><div><img src="paste-12459700126480.jpg" /></div>
1404421380756 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with alpha-1
adrenergic receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>q</su>}}</div> <div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-4745938862242.jpg" /></div>
1404422968289 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with alpha-2
adrenergic receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>i</su>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-5531917877544.jpg" /></div>
1404422978512 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with eta-1
adrenergic receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>s</su>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423017554 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with eta-2
adrenergic receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>s</su>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423097307 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with M<su>2
</su>&nsp;cholinergic receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>i</su>}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423127644 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with D<su>1
</su>&nsp;dopamine receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>s</su>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423170898 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with D<su>2
</su>&nsp;dopamine receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>i</su>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423189928 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with H<su>2
</su>&nsp;histamine receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>s</su>}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423222711 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with V<su>2
</su>&nsp;vasopressin receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>s</su>}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423256164 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with M<su>1
</su>&nsp;cholinergic receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>q</su>}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4745938862242.jpg" /></div>
1404423294646 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with M<su>3
</su>&nsp;cholinergic receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>q</su>}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4745938862242.jpg" /></div>
1404423322161 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with H<su>1
</su>&nsp;histamine receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>q</su>}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4745938862242.jpg" /></div>

1404423351175 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with V<su>1
</su>&nsp;vasopressin receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>q</su>}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4745938862242.jpg" /></div>
1404423366684 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with the act
ivation of Phospholipase C?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>q</su>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4745938862242.jpg" /></div>
1404423801075 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with activat
ion of Protein Kinase C following Phospholipase C activation?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::G<su>q</su>}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-4745938862242.jpg" />
</div>
1404423836663 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with activat
ion of the IP<su>3</su>/DAG signalling cascade?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<s
u>q</su>}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Rememer, IP<su>3</su>&nsp;increa
ses intracellular [Ca].</i><r /><div><img src="paste-4745938862242.jpg" /></div
>
1404423963414 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with an incr
ease in intracellular [Ca²⁺] via IP<su>3</su>&nsp;action?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::G<su>q</su>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-47459
38862242.jpg" /></div>
1404424057309 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with activat
ion of Adenylate Cyclase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>s</su>; G<su>i</su
>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404424085334 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with increas
es in intracellular [cAMP]?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>s</su>; G<su>i</s
u>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404424120919 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with activat
ion of Protein Kinase A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>s</su>; G<su>i</su>
}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404424142151 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with activat
ion of the cAMP/Protein Kinase A signalling cascade?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
G<su>s</su>; G<su>i</su>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5527622910248
.jpg" /></div>
1404424185531 1395802358422 Which dopamine receptor functions to relax <>re
nal vascular smooth muscle</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D<su>1</su>}}</div>
1404424536998 1395802358422 Which dopamine receptor functions to modulate ne
urotransmitter release, especially at the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D<su
>2</su>}}</div>
1404424557578 1395802358422 Which histamine receptor mediates increases in g
astric acid secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::H<su>2</su>}}</div>
1404424584996 1395802358422 Which histamine receptor functions to increase v
ascular permeaility?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::H<su>1</su>}}</div>
1404424602013 1395802358422 Which histamine receptor functions to increase n
asal and ronchial mucus production?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::H<su>1</su>}}<
/div>
1404424620431 1395802358422 Which histamine receptor mediates pruritis?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::H<su>1</su>}}</div>
1404424632964 1395802358422 Which histamine receptor mediates pain?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::H<su>1</su>}}</div>
1404424642043 1395802358422 Which histamine receptor mediates the contractio
n of ronchioles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::H<su>1</su>}}</div>
1404424652948 1395802358422 Which vasopressin receptor mediates <>vascular
smooth muscle contraction</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V<su>1</su>}}</div>
1404424674617 1395802358422 Which vasopressin receptor is found at the kidne
ys?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V<su>2</su>}}</div>
1404424689186 1395802358422 Which vasopressin receptor functions to increase
H<su>2</su>O permeaility and reasorption in the collecting tuules of the k
idney?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V<su>2</su>}}</div>
1404425011618 1395802358422 Which alpha-adrenergic receptor functions to <>
decrease</>&nsp;sympathetic outflow?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::alpha-2}}</div
>

1404425058735 1395802358422 Which alpha-adrenergic receptor functions to <>
increase platelet aggregation</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::alpha-2}}</div>
1404425071777 1395802358422 Which muscarinic receptor is mainly found at the
CNS and enteric nervous system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::M<su>1</su>}}</div
>
1404435364439 1395802358422 {{c1::Bethanecol}} is a cholinergic drug used to
treat <>postoperative/neurogenic ileus</>&nsp;and <>urinary retention</>&n
<r /><div><i>Resistant
sp;y activating ladder and owel smooth muscle.
to AChE.</i></div><div><i>"<>Bethan</>y, <>chol</>&nsp;me to activate your
<>owel</>&nsp;and <>ladder</>."</i></div>
1404436011407 1395802358422 {{c1::Carachol}} is a cholinergic drug used to
treat glaucoma and cause pupillary constriction.
1404436586043 1395802358422 {{c1::Carachol}} is a cholinergic drug used to
relieve intraocular pressure.
1404436604169 1395802358422 {{c1::Pilocarpine}} is a direct cholinergic agon
ist used to stimulate <>sweat, tears</>&nsp;and <>saliva</>&nsp;secretion.
<r /><div><i>"ou <>cry, sweat</>&nsp;and <>drool</>&nsp;onto your pillow
(-carpine) at night."</i></div>
1404436762068 1395802358422 {{c1::Pilocarpine}} is a direct cholinergic agon
ist used to treat <>open-angle glaucoma</>&nsp;y contracting the ciliary mus
cle.
1404436875472 1395802358422 {{c1::Pilocarpine}} is a dirct cholinergic agoni
st used to treat <>closed-angle glaucoma</>&nsp;y contracting the pupillary
sphincter muscle.
1404436904135 1395802358422 {{c1::Bethanechol}} and&nsp;{{c2::Pilocarpine}}
are direct cholinergic agonists that are <>resistant to AChE</>.
1404436933398 1395802358422 Which direct cholinergic agonist is used in the
challenge test for the diagnosis of asthma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Methachol
ine}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>It stimulates muscarinic receptors in the ai
rway when inhaled.</i><r /><div><i>Hence the "Methacholine challenge."</i></div
>
1404437035135 1395802358422 {{c1::Methacholine}} is a direct cholinergic ago
nist that is used in challenge tests to diagnose asthma as it stimulates muscari
nic receptors in the airway when inhaled.
1404437160260 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostigmine}} is a cholinesterase inhiito
r that treats <>postoperative/neurogenic ileus</>&nsp;and <>urinary retentio
n</>. <r /><div><i>Neostigmine is the Bethanechol of cholinesterase inhiitor
s.</i></div>
1404437770394 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostigmine}} and&nsp;{{c2::Pyridostigmin
e}} are cholinesterase inhiitors that are used to treat <>myasthenia gravis</
>.
1404437830108 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostigmine}} is a cholinesterase inhiito
r that is used to reverse postoperative neuromuscular lockade.
1404437878256 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostigmine}} and&nsp;{{c2::Pyridostigmin
e}} are cholinesterase inhiitors that <>do not</>&nsp;penetrate the CNS.
1404437913573 1395802358422 {{c1::Physostigmine}} is a cholinesterase inhii
tor used to treat anticholinergic toxicity as it crosses the BBB.
<r /><d
iv><i>"Physostigmine '<>phyxes</>' atropine overdose."</i></div>
1404437962415 1395802358422 {{c1::Donepezil}},&nsp;{{c2::Rivastigmine}} and
&nsp;{{c3::Galantamine}} are 3 cholinesterase inhiitors that are used to treat
Alzheimer Disease.
1404438052162 1395802358422 {{c1::Edrophonium}} is a cholinesterase inhiito
r that can e used to <>diagnose</>&nsp;myasthenia gravis as it is extremely
short acting.
1404438094002 1395802358422 <div>Which cholinesterase inhiitor was historic
ally used to <>diagnose</>&nsp;myasthenia gravis?</div><div><r /></div>{{c1:
:Edrophonium}} <r /><div><i>Now, Anti-Acetylcholine Receptor Antiody (anti-AC
hR A) tests are used.</i></div>
1404438158182 1395802358422 {{c1::Organophosphate}} are a type of <>irrever
sile</>&nsp;AChE inhiitor that can cause cholinesterase inhiitor poisoning,

especially in farmers. <r /><div><i>Causes <>DUMBBELSS</>:</i></div><div><i>
- Diarrhea</i></div><div><i>- Urination</i></div><div><i>- Miosis</i></div><div>
<i>- Bronchospasm</i></div><div><i>- Bradycardia</i></div><div><i>- Excitation o
f skeletal muscle and CNS</i></div><div><i>- Lacrimation</i></div><div><i>- Swea
ting</i></div><div><i>- Salivation</i></div>
1404438737203 1395802358422 {{c1::Atropine}} is an anticholinergic used to t
reat cholinesterase inhiitor poisoning along with Pralidoxime.
1404438769859 1395802358422 {{c1::Pralidoxime}} is a drug used to treat chol
inesterase inhiitor poisoning with Atropine as it <>regenerates AChE </>if gi
ven early.
1404438806729 1395802358422 {{c1::Atropine}},&nsp;{{c2::homatropine}} and&n
sp;{{c3::tropicamide}} are 3 antimuscarinics that are used clinically to produc
e mydriasis and cycloplegia.
1404439480932 1395802358422 {{c1::Benztropine}} is an antimuscarinic that is
used to treat Parkinson Disease.
<r /><div><i>"<>Park</>&nsp;my <>e
nz</>, rah."</i></div>
1404439512204 1395802358422 Which antimuscarinic drug is used to treat Parki
nsons Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Benztropine}}</div>
1404439526734 1395802358422 Which antimuscarinic drug is used to treat motio
n sickness?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scopolamine}}</div>
1404439540732 1395802358422 {{c1::Scopolamine}} is an antimuscarinic drug us
ed to treat motion sickness.
1404439557479 1395802358422 {{c1::Ipratropium}} and&nsp;{{c2::tiotropium}}
are 2 antimuscarinic drugs used to treat COPD and asthma.
1404439590883 1395802358422 {{c1::Oxyutynin}},&nsp;{{c2::Darifenacin}} and
&nsp;{{c3::Solifenacin}} are 3 antimuscarinic drugs used to <>reduce urgency i
n mild cystitis</>&nsp;and <>ladder spasms</>.
<r /><div><i>Other agen
ts include tolterodine, fesoterodine and trospium.</i></div>
1404439772987 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycopyrrolate}} is an antimuscarinic drug
administered <>parenterally</>&nsp;to <>reduce airway secretions</>&nsp;i
n preparation for surgery.
1404439925096 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycopyrrolate}} is an antimuscarinic that
is administered <>orally</>&nsp;to treat <>drooling</>&nsp;and <>peptic
ulcers</>.
1404440096980 1395802358422 Which antimuscarinic is used to treat radycardi
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atropine}}</div>
1404440758239 1395802358422 How does Atropine influence respiratory secretio
ns?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404440869995 1395802358422 How does Atropine influence GI secretions?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404440885269 1395802358422 How does atropine influence GI motility?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404440892458 1395802358422 How does Atropine influence urinary urgency in c
ystitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404442020564 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperthermia}} is a potential complication
of Atropine use due to the significant decrease in sweating. <r /><div><img
src="paste-15960098472153.jpg" /></div>
1404442090956 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute angle-closure glaucoma}} is a potent
ial ocular complication of Atropine use in the elderly due to the mydriasis caus
ed.
1404442138994 1395802358422 {{c1::Urinary retention}} is a possile urinary
complication of Atropine use in men with BPH.
1404442169322 1395802358422 {{c1::Jimson weed (<i>Datura</i>)}} is a weed kn
own to cause <>Gardeners pupil</>, a condition characterized y <>mydriasis</
>&nsp;due to alkaloids in the plant. <r /><div><i>For anyone that's played A
ssassin's Creed: think of the Datura powder oms!</i></div>
1404447004821 1395802358422 {{c1::Isoproterenol}} is an adrenergic agonist t
hat is used for electrophysiologic evaluation of tachyarrhythmias.
1404447147578 1395802358422 Which adrenergic agonist is known to e ale to
worsen ischemia when it is administered?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Isoprotereno

l}}</div>
1404447315851 1395802358422 To which adrenergic receptor(s) does Epinephrine
<r /><d
ind?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::All (1, 2, 3, a1, a2)}}</div>
iv><><i>Much higher affinity for eta-receptors than alpha.</i></></div><div><
i>Alpha-receptor effects however will predominate at high doses.</i></div>
1404447502669 1395802358422 To which adrenergic receptor(s) does Norepinephr
ine ind?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1 &gt; a1, a2}}</div>
1404447534633 1395802358422 To which adrenergic receptor(s) does Isoproteren
ol ind?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1, 2, 3}}</div>
1404447565727 1395802358422 To which adrenergic receptor(s) does Doutamine
ind?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
1404447590424 1395802358422 To which adrenergic receptor(s) does Phenylephri
ne ind?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::a1}}</div>
1404447601774 1395802358422 To which adrenergic receptor(s) does Aluterol 
ind?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
1404447655403 1395802358422 To which adrenergic receptor(s) does Salmeterol
ind?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
1404447661283 1395802358422 To which adrenergic receptor(s) does Terutaline
ind?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
1404447976301 1395802358422 Which adrenergic is the drug of choice to treat
Anaphylaxis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epinephrine}}</div>
1404448016547 1395802358422 Which eta-2 adrenergic agonist is used to treat
<>acute</>&nsp;asthma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aluterol}}</div>
1404448042887 1395802358422 Which eta-2 adrenergic agonist is used to treat
<>long-term</>&nsp;asthma or COPD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Salmeterol}}</
div>
1404448068894 1395802358422 Which eta-2 agonist is used to <>reduce premat
ure uterine contractions</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Terutaline}}</div>
1404448095264 1395802358422 Which alpha-1 adrenergic agonist is used to trea
t <>rhinitis</>&nsp;via vasocontriction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phenyleph
rine}}</div>
1404448125358 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylephrine}} is an alpha-1 adrenergic a
gonist used in ocular procedures as it causes mydriasis.
1404448154946 1395802358422 {{c1::Norepinephrine}} is an adrenergic agonist
used to treat hypotension, however it <>decreases renal perfusion</>.
1404448181452 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylephrine}} is an alpha-1 agonist that
is used to treat hypotension via <>vasocontriction.</>
1404448217135 1395802358422 Which 2 sympathomimetics are used to treat cardi
ogenic heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Doutamine; Dopamine}}</div>
1404448259722 1395802358422 {{c1::Doutamine}} is a eta-1 adrenergic agonis
t that treats heart failure and yields <>greater inotropic effects than chronot
ropic</>.
1404448330051 1395802358422 {{c1::Doutamine}} is a eta-1 adrenergic agonis
t that is used in cardiac stress testing.
1404448361307 1395802358422 Which adrenergic agonist is used to treat open-a
ngle glaucoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epinephrine}}</div>
1404448390654 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Amphetamines?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Triggers the release of catecholamines (E, NE, D); Blocks catecholam
ine reuptake}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1241245549337.jpg" /></div>
1404448679815 1395802358422 {{c1::Amphetamines}} are a type of indirect symp
athomimetic that is used to treat narcolepsy.
1404448702486 1395802358422 {{c1::Amphetamines}} are a type of sympathomimet
ic that is used to treat ADHD.
1404448717272 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ephedrine?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Triggers the release of catecholamines (E, NE, D)}}</div>
1404448748725 1395802358422 {{c1::Ephedrine}} is an indirect sympathomimetic
that is used to treat nasal congestion.
1404448773560 1395802358422 {{c1::Ephedrine}} is an indirect sympathomimetic
used to treat <>urinary incontinence</> and <>hypotension</>.
1404448796261 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Cocaine?<div><r /></div><div

>{{c1::Inhiition of catecholamine reuptake}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Never give
a patient eta-lockers if cocaine intoxication is suspected as it can lead to
unopposed alpha-1 activation and extreme hypertension (rememer, alpha-1 recepto
rs mediate vasoconstriction).</i></div>
1404448822662 1395802358422 {{c1::Cocaine}} is an indirect sympathomimetic t
hat causes <>local vasoconstriction</>&nsp;and is used as a <>local anaesthe
tic</>.
<div><i><r /></i></div>
1404491141012 1395802358422 Through which adrenergic receptor does Norepinep
hrine cause an increase in systolic and diastolic pressure?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Alpha-1 (via vasoconstriction)}}</div>
1404492106574 1395802358422 How does Norepinephrine change lood pressure?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is through al
pha-1 mediated vasoconstriction and an increase in MAP.</i></div><div><i>Rememe
r, <>norepinephrine does not ind to eta-2 receptors and hence does not cause
vasodilation.</></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1391569404477.jpg" /></i></di
v>
1404492996927 1395802358422 How does Norepinephrine change heart rate?<div><
<r /><d
r /></div><div>{{c1::Bradycardia (via reflexive decrease)}}</div>
iv><i>Norepinephrine: causes <>alpha-1</>&nsp;mediated vasocontriction --&gt;
<>increased</>&nsp;BP --&gt; <>reflexive radycardia</></i></div><div><i><
img src="paste-2001454760514.jpg" /></i></div>
1404493469940 1395802358422 How does Isoproterenol influence lood pressure?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Isoprote
renol is a <>non-specific eta-agonist</>. It causes <>eta-2</>&nsp;mediat
es vasodilation and hence a decrease in MAP. It also activated <>eta-1</>&ns
p;receptors at the heart, therey causing tachycardia directly (as well as refle
xively).</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1997159793218.jpg" /></i></div>
1404493561582 1395802358422 How does Isoproterenol influence heart rate?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Isoprote
renol is a <>non-specific eta-agonist</>.</i></div><div><i>Hence it causes in
creased HR oth directly and via reflexive action from the decrease in BP.</i></
div><div><i><img src="paste-1997159793218.jpg" /></i></div>
1404494293433 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Clonidine?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Agonist at alpha2-<>autoreceptors</>, therey decreasing adrenergic t
one}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1241245549337.jpg" /></div>
1404494300567 1395802358422 {{c1::Clonidine}} is an alpha-2 adrenergic agoni
st that is used to treat <>hypertensive urgency</>&nsp;y inding to <>alpha
-2 autoreceptors</>. <r /><div><i>It does not decrease renal lood flow.</i>
</div><div><i><img src="paste-1241245549337.jpg" /></i></div>
1404494347894 1395802358422 Which alpha-2 agonist is used to treat ethanol a
nd opioid withdrawal?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clonidine}}</div>
1404494437723 1395802358422 What is the MOA of alpha-methyldopa?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Converted into Methylnorepinephrine which acts at <u>central alp
ha-2 receptors</u>, therey decreasing adrenergic tone}}</div> <div><r /></div
><i>It is a false neurotransmitter that is taken up y adrenergic neurons.</i><
r /><div><img src="paste-1241245549337.jpg" /></div>
1404494580402 1395802358422 {{c1::alpha-Methyldopa}} is an indirect central
alpha-2 agonist that is used to treat <>hypertension in pregnancy</>. <r /><d
iv><i>Hence, it is safe to use in pregnancy.</i></div>
1404494676496 1395802358422 Which indirect central alpha-2 adrenergic agonis
t is used to treat Hypertension in pregnancy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::alpha-M
ethyldopa}}</div>
1404494712744 1395802358422 {{c1::Direct Cooms-positive hemolytic anaemia}}
is a hematological complication of alpha-Methyldopa use.
1404494750054 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Phenoxyenzamine?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::<u>Irreversile, non-selective</u>&nsp;alpha adrenergic lockad
e}}</div>
1404496071325 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Phentolamine?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::<u>Reversile, nonselective</u>&nsp;alpha-adrenergic lockade}}</di
v>

1404496562438 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Prazosin?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Alpha-1 adrenergic antagonism}}</div>
1404496586995 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Terazosin?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Alpha-1 adrenergic antagonism}}</div>
1404496757275 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Doxazosin?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Alpha-1 adrenergic lockade}}</div>
1404496768900 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tamsulosin?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Alpha-1 adrenergic lockade}}</div>
1404496782536 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Mirtazapine?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Alpha-2 adrenergic lockade}}</div>
1404496804758 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenoxyenzamine}} is an alpha-adrenergic
antagonist used <>preoperatively</>&nsp;in Pheochromocytoma to prevent hypert
ensive crisis during the surgery.
<r /><div><i>Phenoxyenzamine is an <>
irreversile, non-selective alpha-locker</>.</i></div>
1404497078864 1395802358422 {{c1::Orthostatic hypertension}} is a systemic c
omplication of Phenoxyenzamine and other alpha-adrenergic lockers administrati
on that presents as a decrease in lood pressure upon a change in posture.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Phenoxyenzamine irreversily locks alpha adrenergic re
ceptors.&nsp;</i></div><div><i>alpha-1 receptors mediate vasoconstriction.</i><
/div>
1404497186677 1395802358422 {{c1::Phentolamine}} is an alpha-locker given t
o patients on MAO inhiitors that have eaten tyramine-containing foods. <r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, Phentolamine is a <>reversile, non-selective alpha-locker</>
.</i></div>
1404497745626 1395802358422 {{c1::Prazosin}} is a selective alpha-1 locker
that is used to treat PTSD.
1404497779415 1395802358422 Which alpha-adrenergic locker is used to treat
the urinary symptoms of BPH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Selective alpha-1 locke
rs (Prazosin, Terazosin, Doxazosin, Tamsulosin)}}</div>
1404498380515 1395802358422 Which selective alpha-1 adrenergic locker is <
>not</>&nsp;used to treat Hypertension?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tamsulosin}
}</div>
1404498431008 1395802358422 {{c1::Mirtazapine}} is a selective alpha-2 adren
ergic locker that is used to treat depression.
1404498478113 1395802358422 Which selective alpha-2 adrenergic locker is us
ed to treat depression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mirtazapine}}</div>
1404498507879 1395802358422 How does Mirtazapine change serum cholesterol le
vels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404498529176 1395802358422 How does lood pressure change with Epinephrine
administration <>efore alpha-adrenergic lockade</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5394478924495.jpg" /></div>
1404498942401 1395802358422 How does lood pressure change with Epinephrine
administration <>after alpha-adrenergic lockade</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Decrease}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Rememer, Epinephrine activates <>a
ll</>&nsp;adrenergic receptors.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-5390183957199.jp
g" /></div>
1404499365915 1395802358422 How does lood pressure change with Phenylephrin
e <>efore alpha-adrenergic lockade</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}
</div> <r /><div><i>via alpha-1 adrenergic activation.</i></div><div><i><img s
rc="paste-5390183957199.jpg" /></i></div>
1404499400863 1395802358422 How does lood pressure change with Phenylephrin
e <>after alpha-adrenergic lockade</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change;
Phenylephrine's action is suppressed y the alpha-lockade}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>Rememer, Phenylephrine is a pure alpha-1 agonist.</i><r /><div><im
g src="paste-5390183957199.jpg" /></div>
1404508536054 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Metoprolol?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Selective eta-1 antagonism}}</div> <r /><div><i>Beta-lockers that
start with a letter in the&nsp;<>first</>&nsp;half of the alphaet (<>A</
>-<>M</>)&nsp;are selective for&nsp;<>eta-1</>&nsp;receptors.</i></div>
1404509922698 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Aceutolol?<div><r /></div><

div>{{c1::Selective eta-1 antagonism}}</div> <r /><div><i>Beta-lockers that
start with a letter in the&nsp;<>first</>&nsp;half of the alphaet (<>A</
>-<>M</>)&nsp;are selective for&nsp;<>eta-1</>&nsp;receptors.</i></div>
1404509941469 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Betaxolol?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Selective eta-1 antagonism}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Beta-lockers that
start with a letter in the&nsp;<>first</>&nsp;half of the alphaet (<>A</
>-<>M</>)&nsp;are selective for&nsp;<>eta-1</>&nsp;receptors.</i></div>
1404510023532 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Carvedilol?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Nonselective alpha and eta adrenergic antagonism}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Drugs that end in <>a suffix other than -olol</>&nsp;are <>non-selecti
ve alpha </>and <>eta</>&nsp;antagonists.</i></div><div><i>e.g. Carvedilol
and Laetalol</i></div>
1404510043999 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Esmolol?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Selective eta-1 adrenergic antagonism}}</div> <r /><div><i>Beta-lock
ers that start with a letter in the&nsp;<>first</>&nsp;half of the alphaet
(<>A</>-<>M</>)&nsp;are selective for&nsp;<>eta-1</>&nsp;receptors.</i
></div>
1404510076438 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Atenolol?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Selective eta-1 adrenergic antagonism}}</div> <r /><div><i>Beta-lock
ers that start with a letter in the <>first</>&nsp;half of the alphaet (<>A
</>-<>M</>)&nsp;are selective for <>eta-1</>&nsp;receptors.</i></div>
1404510226538 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Nadolol?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Nonselective eta adrenergic antagonism}}</div> <r /><div><i>Beta-lock
ers that start with a letter in the <>2nd</>&nsp;half of the alphaet (<>N</
>-<>Z</>) are <>non-selective eta adrenergic lockers</>.</i></div>
1404510611882 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Timolol?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Nonselective eta adrenergic antagonism}}</div> <r /><div><i></i><i>Bet
a-lockers that start with a letter in the&nsp;<>2nd</>&nsp;half of the alph
aet (<>N</>-<>Z</>) are&nsp;<>non-selective eta adrenergic lockers</>.
</i></div>
1404510618675 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Pindolol?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Nonselective eta adrenergic antagonism}}</div> <r /><div><i>Beta-lock
ers that start with a letter in the&nsp;<>2nd</>&nsp;half of the alphaet (<
>N</>-<>Z</>) are&nsp;<>non-selective eta adrenergic lockers</>.</i></d
iv>
1404510643156 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Propanolol?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Nonselective eta adrenergic antagonism}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Be
ta-lockers that start with a letter in the&nsp;<>2nd</>&nsp;half of the alp
haet (<>N</>-<>Z</>) are&nsp;<>non-selective eta adrenergic lockers</>
.</i></div>
1404510706957 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Laetalol?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Nonselective alpha and eta adrenergic antagonism}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><div><i>Drugs that end in&nsp;<>a suffix other than -olol</>&nsp;are&nsp
;<>non-selective alpha&nsp;</>and&nsp;<>eta</>&nsp;antagonists.</i></div
><div><i>e.g. Carvedilol and Laetalol</i></div></div>
1404510709841 1395802358422 {{c1::Neivolol}} is a comined eta-adrenergic
agonist and antagonist that has comined <>cardiac-selective</>&nsp;<>eta-1
</>&nsp;<>lockade&nsp;</>and <>eta-3 activation</>.
<r /><div><i>Be
ta-3 receptor activates Nitric Oxide Synthase in the vasculature.</i></div>
1404511277397 1395802358422 {{c1::Metoprolol}} and&nsp;{{c2::Esmolol}} are
2 eta-1 selective antagonists that can treat <>SVT</>&nsp;y decreasing AV n
ode conduction velocity.
1404512849545 1395802358422 Which 2 eta-lockers are commonly used as Class
II Antiarrhythmics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metoprolol; Esmolol}}</div>
1404512880292 1395802358422 {{c1::Metoprolol}},&nsp;{{c2::Carvedilol}} and&
nsp;{{c3::Bisoprolol}} are eta-lockers commonly used after myocardial infarct
ion that decrease patient mortality.
1404512932082 1395802358422 How do eta-lockers influence Renin secretion?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to <>eta-1 r
eceptor antagonism at JGA cells</>.</i></div>

1404512969460 1395802358422 {{c1::Timolol}} is a eta-locker used to treat
Glaucoma as it decreases the secretion of aqueous humour.
1404513265571 1395802358422 Which eta-locker is associated with Dyslipidem
ia as a side effect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metoprolol}}</div>
1404513293883 1395802358422 Which CNS side effects are associated with etalockers?<div><r />{{c1::Seizures, sedation, sleep alteration}}</div>
1404576489526 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Acetaminophen toxicity
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::N-acetylcysteine}}</div> <r /><div><i>It functio
ns to replenish glutathione which is used up y NAPQI.</i></div>
1404576649468 1395802358422 What is the treatment for AChE Inhiitor toxicit
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atropine + Pralidoxime}}</div>
1404576667814 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Organophosphate poison
ing?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atropine + Pralidoxime}}</div>
1404576691367 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Amphetamines (asic dr
ugs)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ammonium chloride (NH<su>4</su>Cl)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Functions to acidify the urine, therey keeping Amphetamines insid
e the kidney tuules to e excreted.</i></div>
1404576777850 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Antimuscarinic and Ant
icholinergic toxicity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Physostigmine salicylate}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>The aim in therapy is to control the hyperthermia.</i></di
v>
1404576825849 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Benzodiazepine toxicit
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Flumanezil}}</div>
1404577610419 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Beta-Blocker induced h
ypoglycemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glucagon}}</div>
1404577755163 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Caron Monoxide poison
ing?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::100% O<su>2</su>; Hyperaric O<su>2</su>}}</
div>
1404577779154 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Copper toxicity?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinamine}}</div>
1404577809039 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Arsenic toxicity?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinamine; Dimercaprol; Succimer}}</div>
1404577819417 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Gold toxicity?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinamine; Dimercaprol; Succimer}}</div>
1404577827765 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Cyanide toxicity?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Nitrite + thiosulfate; Hydroxocoalamin}}</div>
1404577856934 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Digitalis toxicity?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Digoxin FA}}</div>
1404577877651 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Heparin toxicity?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Protamine sulfate}}</div>
1404577888142 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Iron toxicity?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Deferoxamine; Deferasirox}}</div>
1404577903340 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Lead toxicity?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::EDTA; Dimercaprol; Succimer; Penicillamine}}</div>
1404579030424 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Mercury toxicity?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Dimercaprol (BAL); Succimer}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Di
<>MERC</>aprol for <>MERC</>ury poisoning.</i></div>
1404579098763 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Methanol poisoning?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fomepizole &gt; ethanol; Dialysis}}</div>
1404579125528 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Ethylene Glycol (antif
reeze) poisoning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fomepizole &gt; ethanol; Dialysis}}
</div>
1404579165513 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Methemogloin poisonin
g?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Methylene lue; Vitamin C}}</div>
1404579184497 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Opioid toxicity?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Naloxone}}</div>
1404579192977 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Salicylate (acidic dru
g) toxicity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NaHCO<su>3</su>&nsp;to alkalinize the
urine; Dialysis}}</div>
1404579218092 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Tri-cyclic Antidepress

ants (acidic drugs) toxicity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NaHCO<su>3</su>&nsp;
to alkalinize the plasma}}</div>
1404579246209 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Tissue Plasminogen Act
ivator toxicity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminocaproic Acid}}</div>
1404579291515 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Streptokinase and Urok
inase toxicity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminocaproic Acid}}</div>
1404579306970 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Warfarin toxicity?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin K; Plasma if the patient is actively leeding}}<
/div>
1404579329216 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Cocaine?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coronary vasospasm}}</div>
1404579761422 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Sumatript
an?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coronary vasospasm}}</div>
1404579811459 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Ergot Alk
aloids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coronary vasospasm}}</div>
1404579820547 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Vancomyci
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushing}}</div>
1404579835331 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Adenosine
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushing}}</div>
1404579842234 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Niacin?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushing}}</div>
1404579847932 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Ca²⁺&nsp;channel lockers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushing}}</d
iv>
1404579864658 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Daunorui
cin and Doxoruicin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dilated cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1404579877391 1395802358422 Which class of antiarrhythmics are associated wi
th Torsade de Pointes as toxicity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Class III and Clas
s IA}}</div>
1404580474782 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Macrolide
antiiotics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Torsade de pointes}}</div>
1404580493064 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Antipsych
otics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Torsade de pointes}}</div>
1404580503500 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Tricyclic
Antidepressants?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Torsades the pointes}}</div>
1404580527641 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of T
omixifen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hot flashes}}</div>
1404580601011 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of C
lomiphene?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hot flashes}}</div>
1404580608677 1395802358422 {{c1::Adrenocortical Insufficiency}} is an endoc
rine complication of HPA suppression secondary to glucocorticoid withdrawal.
1404580694617 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of T
acrolimus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperglycemia}}</div>
1404580712960 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of P
rotease Inhiitors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperglycemia}}</div>
1404580735098 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of N
iacin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperglycemia}}</div>
1404580744227 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of H
ydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperglycemia}}</div>
1404580773301 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of 
eta-lockers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperglycemia}}</div>
1404580787753 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of c
orticosteroids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperglycemia}}</div>
1404580796915 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of L
ithium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypothyroidism}}</div>
1404580838992 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of A
miodarone?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypothyroidism}}</div>
1404580847466 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of S
ulfonamides?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypothyroidism}}</div>
1404580880918 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Erythromycin?<div><r

/></div><div>{{c1::Acute cholestatic hepatitis; Jaundice; Diarrhea}}</div>
1404580925722 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Metformin?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Diarrhea}}</div>
1404580932250 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Colchicine?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Diarrhea}}</div>
1404580943658 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Orlistat?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Diarrhea}}</div>
1404580948708 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Acarose?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Diarrhea}}</div>
1404580961889 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Halothane?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive hepatic necrosis}}</div>
1404580989741 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of <i>Amanita phalloides
</i>&nsp;(death cap mushrooms)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive hep
atic necrosis}}</div>
1404581015482 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Valproic Acid?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive hepatic necrosis; Pancreatitis}}</div>
1404581026490 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Acetaminophen?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive hepatic necrosis}}</div>
1404581042941 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Isoniazid (INH)?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatitis}}</div>
1404581060839 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Didanosine?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Pancreatitis}}</div>
1404581070126 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Corticosteroids?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Pancreatitis}}</div>
1404581080822 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Alcohol?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Pancreatits}}</div>
1404581104981 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Azathioprine?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Pancreatitis}}</div>
1404581119050 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of diuretics?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Pancreatitis}}</div>
1404581189040 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Clindamycin?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomemranous colitis}}</div>
1404581199457 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Ampicillin?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomemranous colitis}}</div>
1404581209017 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Cephalosporins?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomemranous colitis}}</div>
1404581225358 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Dapsone?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Agranulocytosis; Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404581792804 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Clozapine?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Agranulocytosis}}</div>
1404581801438 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Caramazep
ine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Agranulocytosis; Aplastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581820751 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Colchicine
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Agranulocytosis;}}</div>
1404581836489 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Methimazol
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Agranulocytosis; Aplastic Anaemia}}</div>
1404581854551 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Propylthio
uracil?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Agranulocytosis; Aplastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581877224 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of NSAIDs?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aplastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581882729 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Benzene?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aplastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581896124 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Chloramphe
nicol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aplastic anaemia; Gray Bay Syndrome}}</div>
1404581924240 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Methyldopa
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Direct Cooms-positive hemolytic anaemia}}</div>
1404582451730 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Penicillin
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Direct cooms-positive hemolytic anaemia}}</div>
1404582476711 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Isoniazid
(INH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>

1404582493485 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Sulfonamid
es?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582513316 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Primaquine
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G6PD Deficiency}}</div>
1404582520032 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Aspirin?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582562837 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Iuprofen?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582585408 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Nitrofuran
toin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582625096 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Phenytoin?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Megalolastic anaemia}}</div>
1404582634334 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Methotrexa
te?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Megalolastic anaemia}}</div>
1404582641957 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Sulfa drug
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Megalolastic anaemia}}</div>
1404582648683 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Heparin?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thromocytopenia}}</div>
1404582660811 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Cimetidine
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thromocytopenia}}</div>
1404582668081 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of oral contr
aceptives?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thromotic complications}}</div>
1404582774834 1395802358422 What is the connective tissue toxicity of Protea
se Inhiitors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fat redistriution}}</div>
1404584320403 1395802358422 What is the connective tissue toxicity of Glucoc
orticoids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fat redistriution}}</div>
1404584343416 1395802358422 Which is the oral complication of Phenytoin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gingival hyperplasia}}</div>
1404584386240 1395802358422 Which is the oral complication of&nsp;Verapamil
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gingival hyperplasia}}</div>
1404584397310 1395802358422 Which is the oral complication of&nsp;Cyclospor
ine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gingival hyperplasia}}</div>
1404584414970 1395802358422 Which is the oral complication of Nifedipine?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gingival hyperplasia}}</div>
1404591568576 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Pyrazina
mide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperuricemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591639648 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Thiazide
s?<div><r />{{c1::Hyperuricemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591648055 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Furosemi
de?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperuricemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591671235 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Niacin?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperuricemia/Gout; Myopathy}}</div>
1404591681570 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Cyclospo
rine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperuricemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591691943 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of firates
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myopathy}}</div>
1404591866243 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of IFN-alph
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myopathy}}</div>
1404591902421 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Hydroxyc
hloroquine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myopathy}}</div>
1404591910919 1395802358422 What is the skeletal toxicity of Heparin?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoporosis}}</div>
1404591967998 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of Sulfonamides?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592038228 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of Amiodarone?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592045713 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of Tetracycline a
ntiiotics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592057477 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of 5-Fluorouracil
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>

1404592068874 1395802358422 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Syndrome}} is a cutaneous
complication associated with anti-epileptic drugs.
1404592323601 1395802358422 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Syndrome}} is a cutaneous
complication associated with Allopurinol.
1404592327417 1395802358422 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Syndrome}} is a cutaneous
complication associated with Sulfa drugs.
1404592332986 1395802358422 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Syndrome}} is a cutaneous
complication associated with Penicillin.
1404592337138 1395802358422 {{c1::SLE-like syndrome}} is an autoimmune-like
complication of sulfa drug use.
1404592365817 1395802358422 {{c1::SLE-like syndrome}} is an autoimmune-like
complication of Hydralazine use.
1404592369555 1395802358422 {{c1::SLE-like syndrome}} is an autoimmune-like
complication of Isoniazid (INH) use.
1404592376054 1395802358422 {{c1::SLE-like syndrome}} is an autoimmune-like
complication of Procainamide use.
1404592379330 1395802358422 {{c1::SLE-like syndrome}} is an autoimmune-like
complication of Phenytoin use.
1404592384929 1395802358422 {{c1::SLE-like syndrome}} is an autoimmune-like
complication of Etanercept use.
1404592388304 1395802358422 Which class of antiiotics is associated with te
eth discolouration?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tetracyclines}}</div>
1404592405978 1395802358422 Which class of antiiotics is associated with te
ndonitis, tendon rupture and/or cartilage damage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Flu
oroquinolones}}</div>
1404592861924 1395802358422 {{c1::Cinchonism}} is a neurological complicatio
n associated with Quinidine and Quinine use that presents with tinnitus, lurred
vision, headache, vertigo and confusion.
1404592966195 1395802358422 {{c1::Seizures}} are a neurological complication
of Isoniazid use due to the Vit B6 deficiency that the drug causes.
1404593140712 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Bupropion?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Seizures}}</div>
1404593166225 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Imipenem/Cilastatin?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Seizures}}</div>
1404593180324 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Tramadol?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Seizures}}</div>
1404593191535 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Enflurane?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Seizures}}</div>
1404593201171 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Metoclopramide?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Seizures}}</div>
1404593208496 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Antipsychotics?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Parkinson-like syndrome; Tardive Dyskinesia}}</div>
1404594097744 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Lithium?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Diaetes Insipidus}}</div>
1404594249814 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Demeclocycline?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diaetes Insipidus}}</div>
1404594261218 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Cyclophosphamide?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemorrhagic cystitis; SIADH}}</div> <r /><div><i>He
morrhagic cystitis is prevented y Mesna co-administration.</i></div>
1404594435607 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Ifosfamide?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemorrhagic cystitis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Prevented
y Mesna coadministration.</i></div>
1404594466000 1395802358422 {{c1::Mesna}} is a drug that is coadministered w
ith Cyclophosphamide and Ifosfamide to prevent hemorrhagic cystitis.
1404594508159 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Methicillin?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Interstitial nephritis}}</div>
1404594521981 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of NSAIDs?<div><r />
{{c1::Interstitial nephritis}}</div>
1404594531307 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Furosemide?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Interstitial nephritis}}</div>

1404594544889 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Caramazepine?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::SIADH}}</div>
1404594557714 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of SSRIs?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::SIADH}}</div>
1404594581404 1395802358422 {{c1::Fanconi Syndrome}} is a renal complication
of expired tetracycline antiiotics that presents with glucose, amino acids, ur
ic acid, phosphate and icaronate in the urine instead of eing reasored.
1404594765985 1395802358422 What is the respiratory toxicity of ACE inhiito
rs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dry cough}}</div>
1404594958498 1395802358422 What is the respiratory toxicity of Bleomycin?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary firosis}}</div>
1404594967410 1395802358422 What is the respiratory toxicity of Busulfan?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary firosis}}</div>
1404594972949 1395802358422 What is the respiratory toxicity of Methotrexate
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary firosis}}</div>
1404594979714 1395802358422 What is the respiratory toxicity of Amiodarone?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary firosis}}</div>
1404594986951 1395802358422 How does chronic alcohol influence cytochrome p4
50 activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-12421045420686.jpg" /></div>
1404595915141 1395802358422 How does Modafinil influence cytochrome p450 act
ivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404595943972 1395802358422 How does St. John's Wort influence cytochrome p4
50 activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404595978077 1395802358422 How does Phenytoin influence cytochrome p450 act
ivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404595994582 1395802358422 How does Phenoaritol influence cytochrome p450
activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404596007163 1395802358422 How does Nevirapine influence cytochrome p450 ac
tivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404596019805 1395802358422 How does Rifampin influence cytochrome p450 acti
vity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404596031061 1395802358422 How does Griseofulvin influence cytochrome p450
activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404596043577 1395802358422 How does Caramazepine influence cytochrome p450
activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404596064040 1395802358422 How does <>acute </>alcohol ause influence cy
tochrome p450 activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-13073880449698.jpg" /></div>
1404596172193 1395802358422 How does Gemfirozil influence cytochrome p450 a
ctivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596186617 1395802358422 How does Ciprofloxacin influence cytochrome p450
activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596207769 1395802358422 How does Isoniazid influence cytochrome p450 act
ivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596220626 1395802358422 How does Grapefruit Juice influence cytochrome p
450 activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596237681 1395802358422 How does Quinidine influence cytochrome p450 act

ivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596251666 1395802358422 How does Amiodarone influence cytochrome p450 ac
tivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596265426 1395802358422 How does Ketoconazole influence cytochrome p450
activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596287510 1395802358422 How do macrolide antiiotics influence cytochrom
e p450 activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596301526 1395802358422 How do Sulfonamides influence the activity of cy
tochrome p450?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596349181 1395802358422 How does Cimetidine influence cytochrome p450 ac
tivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596362060 1395802358422 How does Ritonavir influence cytochrome p450 act
ivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596380541 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Ergosterol synthes
is inhiitors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-azole}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.
g. Ketoconazole</i></div>
1404597825004 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for antiparasitics/ant
ihelminthics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-endazole}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.
g. meendazole</i></div>
1404597853147 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for acterial peptidog
lycan synthesis inhiitors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-cillin}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>e.g. Penicillin</i></div>
1404597872830 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for acterial protein
synthesis inhiitors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-cycline}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>e.g. Tetracycline</i></div>
1404597891761 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for viral Neuraminidas
e inhiitors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-ivir}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.g. Oselt
amivir</i></div>
1404597917651 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for viral protease inh
iitors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-navir}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. Riton
avir</i></div>
1404597937489 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for viral DNA polymera
se inhiitors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-ovir}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.g. Acycl
ovir</i></div>
1404597951240 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Macrolide antiiot
ics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-thromycin}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. Azith
romycin</i></div>
1404598042497 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for inhalational gener
al anaesthetics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-ane}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.
g. Halothane</i></div>
1404598063652 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Typical antipsycho
tics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-azine}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.g. Thioridazine<
/i></div>
1404598084208 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Bariturates?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::-arital}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. Phenoarital
</i></div>
1404598102309 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for local anaesthetics
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-caine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. Lidocaine</i>
</div>
1404598126975 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for SSRIs?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::-etine}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.g. Fluoxetine</i></div>
1404598142755 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for TCAs?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>-</i>ipramine; -triptyline}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. Imipr

amine; Amitryptiline</i></div>
1404598157902 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for 5-HT<su>1B/1D</su
>&nsp;agonists?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-triptan}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.
g. Sumatriptan</i></div>
1404598206715 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Benzodiazepines?<d
iv><r />{{c1::-zepam; -zolam}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.g. Diazepam; Midazolam</
i></div>
1404598244633 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Cholinergic agonis
ts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-chol}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. ethanechol</
i></div>
1404598566025 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for <>non-depolarizin
g paralytics</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-curium; -curonium}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>e.g. Atracurium</i></div>
1404598586944 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for eta-lockers?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::-olol}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.g. Propanolol</i></div>
1404598597544 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for AChE Inhiitors?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::-stigmine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. Neostigmine</
i></div>
1404598612741 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for eta-2 adrenergic
agonists?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-uterol}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.g. Alut
erol</i></div>
1404598623140 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for alpha-1 adrenergic
agonists?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-zosin}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. Prazo
sin</i></div>
1404598638443 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for PDE-5 Inhiitors?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-afil}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. Sildenafil</i
></div>
1404598656974 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for dihydropyridine Ca
channel lockers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-dipine}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.
g. Amlodipine</i></div>
1404598705288 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for ACE inhiitors?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::-pril}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.g. captopril</i></div>
1404598719660 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Angiotensin-II rec
eptor lockers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-sartan}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.
g. Losartan</i></div>
1404598747952 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for HMG-CoA reductase
inhiitors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-statin}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.g. Atorv
astatin</i></div>
1404598808413 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Bisphosphonates?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::-dronate}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. Pamidronate</
i></div>
1404598822221 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for PPAR-gamma activat
ors (antidiaetics)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-glitazone}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>e.g. Rosiglitazone</i></div>
1404598901157 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for proton pump inhii
tors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-prazole}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. Omepr
azole</i></div>
1404598926372 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Prostaglandin anal
ogs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-prost}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.g. Latanoprost</
i></div>
1404598941851 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for H<su>2</su>&nsp
;(histidine) receptor antagonists?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-tidine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. Cimetidine</i></div>
1404598968798 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for pituitary hormones
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-tropin}}</div>
1404598985363 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Chimeric Monoclona
l antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-xima}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.g. Basil
ixima</i></div>
1404599005623 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for humanized monoclon
al antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-zuma}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.

g. Daclizuma</i></div>
1395771507741 1390229673821 In which week of gestation do the neuropores nor
mally fuse?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1395772170509 1390229673821 Which vitamin/mineral is associated with Neural
Tue Defects?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Folic Acid (Vitamin B9/M)}}</div>
1395772254745 1390229673821 Low intake of the vitamin {{c1::Folic Acid (Vita
min B9/M)}} efore conception and during pregnancy is associated with neural tu
e defects.
1395772321641 1390229673821 Which serum protein marker is associated with Ne
ural Tue Defects?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)}}</div>
1395772350314 1390229673821 Which amniotic fluid protein marker is associate
d with Neural Tue Defects?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)}}
</div>
1395772378187 1390229673821 Which enzyme in the amniotic fluid is a helpful
confirmatory test in the diagnosis of Neural Tue Defects if it is elevated?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Fetal AChE in the CSF transudates across/through the neural tue defect in
to the amniotic fluid.</i></div>
1395772565076 1390229673821 {{c1::Spina Bifida Occulta}} is a Neural Tue De
fect that results from a failure of the ony spinal canal to close, ut does not
involve a structural herniation.
<r /><div><i>Seen at lower verteral le
vels with tuft of hair or dimple of skin.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div>
<i><img src="paste-32083405701545.jpg" /></i></div>
1395773085765 1390229673821 {{c1::Spina Bifida Occulta}} is a Neural Tue De
fect that is associated with a tuft of hair or dimple of the skin at the level o
f the defect. <r /><div><img src="paste-32087700668841.jpg" /></div>
1395773113205 1390229673821 {{c1::Meningocele}} is a Neural Tue Defect that
involves normal AFP levels and herniation of the <>meninges only</>&nsp;thro
ugh the defect. <r /><div><img src="paste-32083405701545.jpg" /></div>
1395773183831 1390229673821 {{c1::Meningomyelocele}} is a Neural Tue Defect
that involves hernation of <>meninges and spinal cord</>&nsp;through the def
ect.
<r /><div><img src="paste-32083405701545.jpg" /></div>
1395773206448 1390229673821 {{c1::Anencephaly}} is a congenital CNS malforma
tion that involves malformation of the anterior neural tue, resulting in no for
erain and an open calvarium. <r /><div><i>Note the "frog-like appearance".</
i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3242700308680.jpg" /></i
></div>
1395773632547 1390229673821 How does the level of Alpha-Fetoprotein change i
n Anencephaly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1395773686471 1390229673821 {{c1::Polyhydramnios}} is a feature of Anencepha
ly that results from a lack of the swallowing center in the rain, therey resul
ting in an increased volume of amniotic fluid.
1395773765653 1390229673821 Which maternal endocrine disorder is associated
with Anencephaly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T1DM}}</div>
1395773794951 1390229673821 {{c1::Holoprosencephaly}} is a congenital CNS ma
lformation that involves failure of the left and right hemispheres to separate.
<r><div><img src="paste-3539053052624.jpg" /></div>
1395773879202 1390229673821 In which weeks of gestation do the left and righ
t hemispheres fail to separate, therey causing Holoprosencephaly?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::5-6}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Etiology is multifactorial; may e
related to sonic hedgehog signaling pathway.</i></div>
1395773986971 1390229673821 {{c1::Cyclopia}} is a characteristic of severe H
oloprosencephaly and involves a single, midline eye due to failure of the prosen
cephalon to divide.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3740916515199.jpg" /></
div>
1395774086394 1390229673821 {{c1::Arnold-Chiari (Chiari II) Malformation}} i
s a congenital CNS malformation that involves significant herniation of the cere
ellar tonsils and vermis through the foramen magnum.
1395774192578 1390229673821 {{c1::Hydrocephalus (via Cereral Aqueductal Ste
nosis)}} is a complication of Arnold-Chiari (Chiari II) Malformation due to comp

ression of the cereral aqueduct as a result of the cereellar herniation.
1395774272454 1390229673821 {{c1::Lumosacral Myeomeningocele}} is a type of
Myelomeningocele that often presents alongside Arnold-Chiari (Chiari II) Malfor
mations.
<r /><div><i>There is also often <>paralysis</>&nsp;elow th
e defect.</i></div>
1395774317566 1390229673821 {{c1::Dandy-Walker Malformation}} is a congenita
l CNS malformation that involves agenesis of the cereellar vermis with a cystic
enlargement of the 4th ventricle.
<r /><div><i>Associated with hydrocepha
lus and spina ifida.</i></div>
1395774447103 1390229673821 Which Neural Tue Defect is associated with Arno
ld-Chiari (Chiari II) Malformations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lumosacral Meni
ngomyelocele}}</div>
1395774478476 1390229673821 Which Neural Tue Defect is associated with Dand
y-Walker Malformations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spina Bifida}}</div>
1395774511584 1390229673821 {{c1::Syringomyelia}} is a congenital CNS malfor
mation that involves cystic cavitation of the spinal cord.
<div><r /></div
><div><i>Syrinx = tue/cystic cavity</i></div><r /><div><img src="paste-3231962
8902866.jpg" /></div>
1395775441722 1390229673821 {{c1::Hydromyelia}} is a specific type of Syring
omyelia that involves cystic cavitation of the central canal.
1395775513974 1390229673821 {{c1::Syringomyelia}} is a congenital spinal cor
d malformation that results in a <>ilateral "cape-like"</>&nsp;loss of pain
and temperature sensation from the upper extremities. <r /><div><i>Touch is p
reserved as the dorsal column is typically unnaffected.</i></div><div><i><r /><
/i></div><div><i><img src="paste-32315333935570.jpg" /></i></div>
1395775599511 1390229673821 Which verteral levels are the most common locat
ion of Syringomyelia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C8-T1}}</div>
1395775620034 1390229673821 Which Chiari malformation is associated with Syr
ingomyelia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chiari I (Type I)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4367981740214.jpg" /></div>
1395775655239 1390229673821 What spinal cord malformation is associated with
Chiari I (Type I) malformations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Syringomyelia}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4367981740214.jpg" /></div>
1395775679351 1390229673821 {{c1::Chiari I}} is a congenital CNS malformatio
n that involves a &gt; 3-5 mm cereellar tonsillar ectopia and is usually asympt
omatic. <r /><div><img src="paste-4367981740214.jpg" /></div>
1395775781031 1390229673821 Which type of Chiari malformation is usually asy
mptomatic?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1395775819639 1390229673821 Which Dopamine receptor is involved in the direc
t pathway of the Basal Ganglia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D1}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>"<>D1</>rect"</i></div>
1395776362419 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::Basal Ganglia}} is a deep structu
re of the rain that involves a group of nuclei that collectively govern volunta
ry movement and postural adjustments. <r /><div><i>It received cortical input
and provides negative feedack to the motor cortex to modulate movement.</i></d
iv><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></i></d
iv>
1395776440373 1390229673821 What is the only excitatory nucleus of the Basal
Ganglia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suthalamic Nucleus (STN)}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>The rest are all inhiitory.</i></div>
1395776597738 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::direct}} pathway of the Basal Ban
glia <>disinhiits</>&nsp;the Thalamus, therey resulting in cortical activat
ion and movement.
<r /><div><i>"<>DI</>rect <>DI</>sinhiits the Thal
amus causing <>activation</>&nsp;of movement"</i></div><div><i><r /></i></di
v><div><i><img src="paste-5729486373230.jpg" /></i></div>
1395776653470 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::indirect}} pathway of the Basal G
anglia <>inhiits</>&nsp;the Thalamus, therey resulting in no cortical activ
ation and a lack of movement. <r /><div><i>"<>IN</>direct <>IN</>hiits t
he Thalamus causing <>inhiition</>&nsp;of movement"</i></div><div><i><r /><
/i></div><div><i><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></i></div>

1395776806143 1390229673821 What Dopamine receptor is involved with the Indi
rect Pathway of the Basal Ganglia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D2}}</div>
1395776941011 1390229673821 The SNc of the Basal Ganglia <>inhiits</>&ns
p;the&nsp;{{c1::indirect}} pathway of the Basal Ganglia via&nsp;{{c2::D2}} rec
eptors, therey leading to the initiation of the movement.
<r /><div><i>"S
Nc <>IN</>hiits the <>IN</>direct pathway"</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div
><div><i><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></i></div>
1395777039552 1390229673821 The SNc of the Basal Ganglia&nsp;<>activates</
>&nsp;the&nsp;{{c1::direct}} pathway of the Basal Ganglia via&nsp;{{c2::D1}}
receptors, therey leading to the initiation of the movement. <r /><div><i>"S
Nc <>activates</>&nsp;the <>D1</>rect pathway"</i></div><div><i><r /></i><
/div><div><i><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></i></div>
1395777128397 1390229673821 <u>The Direct Basal Ganglia Pathway</u><div><u><
r /></u></div><div>Motor Cortex --&gt;&nsp;{{c1::Striatum}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c2::
GPi}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c3::Thalamus}} --&gt; Motor Cortex</div>
<r /><div><i>"T
he Glous Pallidus <u style="font-weight: old; ">IN</u>ternus is always <u styl
e="font-weight: old; ">IN</u>cluded in Basal Ganglia pathways."</i></div><div><
i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-48765058679580.jpg" /></i></div>
1395777310186 1390229673821 <u>The Indirect Basal Ganglia Pathway</u><div><u
><r /></u></div><div>Motor Cortex --&gt;&nsp;{{c1::Striatum}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c2
::GPe}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c3::STN}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c4::GPi}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c5::Thalam
us}} --&gt; Motor Cortex</div> <div><r /></div><div><i>"The Glous Pallidus <u
style="font-weight: old; ">IN</u>ternus is always <u style="font-weight: old;
">IN</u>cluded in Basal Ganglia pathways."</i></div><div><i>"<>I</>&nsp;(GPi
) efore <>E</>&nsp;(GPe), except after <>C</>&nsp;(cortex)"</i></div><r
/><div><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></div>
1395777819017 1390229673821 {{c1::Parkinson's Disease}} is a movement disord
er that involves degeneration of dopaminergic neurons of the SNc of the Basal Ga
nglia, therey resulting in decreased movement.
1395778019298 1390229673821 {{c1::Lewy Bodies}} are intracellular inclusions
seen in Parkinson's Disease and are composed of alpha-synuclein.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-8177617731835.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>(The small
er, dark purple inclusions)</i></div>
1395778199299 1390229673821 What protein is found in the Lewy Bodies of Park
insons and Lewy Body Dementia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-synuclein}}</div
>
1395778271752 1390229673821 {{c1::Parkinson's Disease}} is a movement disord
er of the Basal Ganglia that presents with a <>resting tremor</>, <>cogwheel
rigidity</>, akinesia/radykinesia, postural instaility and a <>shuffling gai
t</>.
1395778333705 1390229673821 {{c1::MPTP}} is a contaminant in illicit IV drug
s and is a rare cause of Parkinson's Disease.
1395778428732 1390229673821 {{c1::Huntington's Disease}} is a movement disor
der of the Basal Ganglia that is characterized y ilateral degeneration of the
Caudate Nucleus, especially its cholinergic and GABAergic neurons.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-9457517986694.jpg" /></div>
1395778551807 1390229673821 What is the genetic inheritance of Huntington's
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1395778569980 1390229673821 {{c1::Huntington's Disease}} is an&nsp;<u>autos
omal dominant</u>&nsp;movement disorder of the Basal Ganglia that involves <>c
horeiform movements</>, aggression, depression and dementia. <r /><div><i>Pr
esentation typically egins at 20-30 y/o and progresses from frontal loe ehavi
our prolems to chorea to dementia and eventually death in 5-10 years from Dx.</
i></div>
1395778613975 1390229673821 How do CNS levels of GABA change in Huntington's
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1395778635218 1390229673821 How do CNS levels of ACh change in Huntington's
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1395778651313 1390229673821 {{c1::Huntington's Disease}} is an&nsp;<u>autos
omal dominant</u>&nsp;movement disorder that involves neurodegeneration via NMD

A Receptor Glutamate toxicity. <r /><div><r /></div>
1395778771287 1390229673821 Which nuclei of the Basal Ganglia are atrophied
in Huntington's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caudate Nucleus, especially
the head}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9457517986694.jpg" /></div>
1395778961004 1390229673821 Which trinucleotide repeat is associated with Hu
ntington's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Au
tosomal dominant with anticipation.</i></div>
1395779153784 1390229673821 {{c1::Hemiallismus}} is a movement disorder tha
t involves sudden, <>wild flailing</>&nsp;of <u>1 arm and potentially the ips
ilateral leg</u>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. half of the ody is allistic</i></di
v>
1395779374113 1390229673821 What nucleus is characteristically lesioned in H
emiallismus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The <u style="font-weight: old; ">cont
ralateral</u>&nsp;Suthalamic Nucleus (STN)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hemiallis
mus is a contralateral lesion and typically presents unilaterally. Often due to
a lacunar stroke.</i></div>
1395779539462 1390229673821 What is the most common cause of Hemiallismus?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lacunar Stroke at the Suthalamic Nucleus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, it will cause <>contralateral</>&nsp;deficits.</i></d
iv>
1395779619390 1390229673821 {{c1::Chorea}} is a movement disorder that invol
ves sudden, <>jerky</>, <>purposeless</>&nsp;movements.
1395779719497 1390229673821 {{c1::Athetosis}} is a movement disorder that in
volves slow, <>writhing "snake-like" </>movements, especially in the fingers.
1395779746345 1390229673821 {{c1::Myoclonus}} is a movement disorder that in
volves sudden, <>rief, uncontrolled muscle contractions</>&nsp;such as in je
rks and hiccups.
<r /><div><i>Also common in metaolic anormalities suc
h as renal and liver failure.</i></div>
1395779886566 1390229673821 {{c1::Dystonia}} is a movement disorder that inv
olves <>sustained, involuntary</>&nsp;muscle contraction.
1395779914792 1390229673821 {{c1::Blepharospasm}} is a type of Dystonia desc
ried as a sustained eyelid twitch.
1395779952957 1390229673821 {{c1::Essential/Postural Tremor}} is a type of t
remor that is descried as an action tremor and is exacerated y holding postur
e/lim position.
<r /><div><i>Has a genetic predisposition.</i></div>
1395780228727 1390229673821 What do patients often use to self-medicate with
to treat their Essential Tremor?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol as it decre
ases tremor amplitude}}</div>
1395780284575 1390229673821 {{c1::Beta-lockers}} are a <>type</>&nsp;of
drug (other than Primidone) that can e given to treat Essential Tremors.
1395780476746 1390229673821 {{c1::Primidone}} is a Bariturate that can e g
iven to treat Essential Tremors.
1395780490634 1390229673821 {{c1::Resting Tremor}} is a type of tremor that
involves uncontrolled movement of the distal appendages at rest and is most noti
ceale in the hands.
1395780554690 1390229673821 {{c1::Resting Tremor}} is a type of tremor that
is alleviated y initiating <>intentional</>&nsp;movement.
1395780571397 1390229673821 What type of tremor is commonly seen in Parkinso
n's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Resting Tremor (specifically, a pill-rol
ling tremor at the hands)}}</div>
1395780608517 1390229673821 {{c1::Intention Tremor}} is a type of tremor tha
t involves slow, zigzag motion when pointing or extending towards a target.
1395780642036 1390229673821 {{c1::Intention Tremor}} is a type of tremor tha
t is due to cereellar dysfunction.
1395780666981 1390229673821 {{c1::Central Pontine Myelinolysis}} is an osmot
ic demyelination syndrome that can cause Locked-In Syndrome.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-12627203850381.jpg" /></div>
1395781903511 1390229673821 {{c1::Central Pontine Myelinolysis}} is an osmot
ic demyelination syndrome that involves massive axonal demyelination in pontine
white matter tracts.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12631498817677.jpg" />

</div>
1395781905062 1390229673821 {{c1::Central Pontine Myelinolysis}} is an osmot
ic demyelination syndrome that is commonly iatrogenic, typically caused y <>ov
erly rapid correction of hyponatremia</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste12627203850381.jpg" /></div>
1395781992263 1390229673821 What is the most common <>iatrogenic</>&nsp;c
ause of Central Pontine Myelinolysis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Overly rapid co
rrection of Hyponatremia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Bring serum Na too fast f
rom low to high and your pons will die."</i></div>
1395783524556 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::Circle of Willis}} is a system of
vascular anastomoses etween the anterior and posterior lood supplies to the 
rain. <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395783689422 1390229673821 Which cereral artery supplies the anteromedial
surface of the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Cereral Artery}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2761663971827.jpg" /></div>
1395783719922 1390229673821 Which cereral artery supplies the lateral surfa
ce of the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Cereral Artery (MCA)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2757369004531.jpg" /></div>
1395783738861 1390229673821 Which cereral artery supplies the posterior and
inferior surfaces of the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Cereral A
rtery}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2757369004531.jpg" /></div>
1395783763903 1390229673821 An occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::Middle Cereral}}
Artery will result in contralateral sensory/motor deficits to the <>upper lim
and face</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395784056169 1390229673821 Which cereral hemisphere is most commonly assoc
iated with aphasia following a stroke of the Middle Cereral Artery?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Left hemisphere (commonly the dominant hemisphere)}}</div>
1395784206001 1390229673821 Which cereral hemisphere is most commonly assoc
iated with hemineglect following a stroke of the Middle Cereral Artery?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Right (commonly the non-dominant side)}}</div>
1395784225701 1390229673821 Occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::Anterior Cereral}}
Artery will result in contralateral sensory/motor deficits to the <>lower lims
</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395784455868 1390229673821 How does an occlusion of the Lenticulostriate Ar
tery present?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral hemiparesis/hemiplegia}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395784530993 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::Lenticulostriate}} Artery is an a
rtery of the anterior CNS circulation that is a common location of lacunar infar
cts, especially in unmanaged hypertension.
<r /><div><img src="paste-26371
09920499.jpg" /></div>
1395784595461 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery will cause Medial M
edullary Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Spinal Artery}}</div>
<div><r /></div><div><i>Specifically the paramedian ranches of the ASA (or eve
n Verteral Artery).</i></div><r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></
div>
1395785011167 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Lateral Medu
llary (Wallenerg's) Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Inferior Cer
eellar Artery (PICA)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" />
</div>
1395785069629 1390229673821 {{c1::Lateral Medullary Syndrome}} is a stroke s
yndrome caused y occlusion to the Posterior Inferior Cereellar Artery (PICA) a
nd is also referred to as Wallenerg's Syndrome.
1395785092954 1390229673821 {{c1::Medial Medullary Syndrome}} is a stroke sy
ndrome that is caused y an occlusion to the Anterior Spinal Artery (ASA).
1395785142153 1390229673821 Which CNS artery is associated with Nucleus Ami
guus defects following a stroke?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Inferior Cer
eellar Artery (PICA)}}</div>
1395785977234 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Lateral Pont
ine Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Inferior Cereellar Artery (AI
CA)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>

1395786002276 1390229673821 {{c1::Lateral Pontine Syndrome}} is a stroke syn
drome that occurs due to occlusion of the Anterior Inferior Cereellar Artery.
1395786119211 1390229673821 {{c1::Lateral Pontine Syndrome}} is a stroke syn
drome that presents similar to Wallenerg's Syndrome ut <>lacks hoarseness, dy
sphagia and taste deficits</>.
1395786187939 1390229673821 Which stroke syndrome is associated with <>para
lysis</>&nsp;of the face?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Pontine Syndrome}
}</div> <r /><div><i>"Facial droop means the AICA is pooped."</i></div>
1395786227603 1390229673821 Which stroke syndrome is associated with hoarsen
ess and dysphagia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Medullary (Wallenerg's) S
yndrome}}</div> <r /><div><i>aka Nucleus Amiguus deficits</i></div>
1395786319554 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Superior Alt
ernating (Weer's) Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Cereral Arter
y}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395786600644 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Benedict's S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Cereral Artery}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395786654858 1390229673821 {{c1::Superior Alternating (Weer's) Syndrome}}
is a stroke syndrome that results from an occlusion to the Posterior Cereral Ar
tery and presents with <>CN III palsy</>&nsp;and <>contralateral hemiplegia<
/>.
1395786697163 1390229673821 {{c1::Benedict's Syndrome}} is a stroke syndrome
that presents similarly to Superior Alternating (Weer's) Syndrome, except it i
ncludes ataxia.
1395786730199 1390229673821 {{c1::Benedict's Syndrome}} is a stroke syndrome
due to occlusion of the Posterior Cereral Artery and involves <>CN III palsy<
/>, <>contralateral hemiplegia</>&nsp;and <>ataxia</>.
1395786775134 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery will cause "LockedIn" Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basilar Artery}}</div> <div><i><r /></
i></div>
1395787174337 1390229673821 {{c1::Locked-In Syndrome}} is a stroke syndrome
due to occlusion of the Basilar Artery and involves <>quadriplegia</>&nsp;wit
h <>preserved consciousness/linking</>&nsp;and a loss of voluntary facial, m
outh and tongue movements.
<r /><div><i>This was also a pretty cool House
episode with Mos Def...</i></div>
1395787180165 1390229673821 What is the most common site of a Berry (Saccula
r) Aneurysm?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3667902071128.jpg" /><r /><di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Communicating Artery}}</div></div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-18605798326561.jpg" /></div>
1395787245574 1390229673821 What is the 2nd most common site of Berry (Saccu
lar) Aneurysm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Communicating Artery}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18601503359265.jpg" /></div>
1395787288466 1390229673821 {{c1::CN III Palsy}} is a common cranial nerve p
alsy involved with strokes that presents with <>"down and out" eyes</>&nsp;wi
th ptosis and mydriasis.<div><r /><div><img src="paste-18769007083916.jpg" /></
div></div>
1395787523740 1390229673821 {{c1::Bitemporal Hemianopia}} is a possile comp
lication of Berry Aneurysm due to compression of the Optic Chiasm.
1395787615018 1390229673821 Which genetic renal disorder is associated with
Berry Aneurysms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney
Disease (ADPKD)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence <u>always</u>&nsp;get a cra
nial angiogram/CT/MRI of a patient with ADPKD.</i></div>
1395787667212 1390229673821 {{c1::Berry Aneurysm}} is a type of cereral ane
urysm that is associated with connective tissue disorders such as Ehlers-Danlos
Syndrome and Marfan's Syndrome. <r /><div><img src="paste-3663607103832.jpg" />
</div>
1395787712622 1390229673821 Which race has an increased risk of developing a
Berry Aneurysm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blacks}}</div>
1395787909353 1390229673821 {{c1::Charcot-Bouchard Microaneurysm}} is a type
of CNS aneurysm that is associated with chronic hypertension and commonly affec

ts the small vessels of the deep rain (i.e. at the asal ganglia, thalamus).
1395787972725 1390229673821 Which type of CNS aneurysm is commonly associate
d with chronic Hypertension?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Charcot-Bouchard microan
eurysm}}</div>
1395788000135 1390229673821 Which artery is commonly ruptured in Epidural He
matoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Meningeal Artery (ranch of the Maxill
ary Artery)}}</div>
1395797998860 1390229673821 Which cranial one is most commonly fractured in
an Epidural Hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Temporal Bone}}</div>
1395798040267 1390229673821 What type of CNS herniation is seen in an Epidur
al Hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transtentorial herniation (with CN III P
alsy)}}</div>
1395798157863 1390229673821 {{c1::CN III (Oculomotor) Palsy}} is a complicat
ion of Epidural Hematoma that will present with <>"down and out" eyes</>&nsp;
and mydriasis due to compression of the Oculomotor Nerve via herniation.
1395798220380 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hematoma presents as a
<>iconvex</>&nsp;(lentiform), <>lens-shaped</> lesion on CT?<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-3740916515098.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Epidural Hematoma}}</div></div>
1395798348470 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hematoma <>cannot</>
&nsp;cross cranial <>suture lines</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epidural Hem
atoma}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3740916515098.jpg" /></div>
1395798391876 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hematoma <>can</>&n
sp;cross the midline, falx and tentorium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epidural He
matoma}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3745211482394.jpg" /></div>
1395798482213 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hematoma involves a <
>lucid interval</>&nsp;efore neurological symptoms present?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Epidural Hematoma}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3740916515098
.jpg" /></div>
1395798509902 1390229673821 {{c1::Epidural Hematoma}} is a type of intracran
ial hematoma that involves a collection of lood etween the dura and the skull.
1395798607964 1390229673821 Which lood vessels are commonly ruptured in Su
dural Hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bridging vessels etween the dura and
arachnoid mater}}</div>
1395798894538 1390229673821 Which intracranial hematoma results in <>rapid
expansion</>&nsp;of the hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epidural Hematoma
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Attriuted to the fact that it is the arterial pre
ssure that feeds into the hematoma out of the ruptured artery.</i></div>
1395798974108 1390229673821 Which intracranial hematoma involves <>slow le
eding</>&nsp;over time?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural hematoma}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Attriuted to the fact that it is the venous system that feeds int
o the hematoma, resulting in a slow growing hematoma.</i></div>
1395799025178 1390229673821 Which kind of intracranial hematoma is associate
d with rain atrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural Hematoma}}</div>
1395799044939 1390229673821 Which type of intracranial hematoma displays a <
>crescent</>&nsp;shaped lesion on CT?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-38
35405795608.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural Hematoma}}</div></
div>
1395799106587 1390229673821 Which type of intracranial hemorrhage <>can</>
&nsp;cross cranial <>suture lines</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural Hem
atoma}}</div>
1395799136620 1390229673821 Which type of intracranial hematoma <>cannot</
>&nsp;cross the midline, falx or tentorium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural
Hematoma}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3839700762904.jpg" /></div>
1395799181989 1390229673821 {{c1::Sudural Hematoma}} is a type of intracran
ial hematoma that involves collection of the lood underneath the dura over the
surface of the rain. <r /><div><img src="paste-22346714841200.jpg" /></div>
1395799241563 1390229673821 {{c1::Suarachnoid hemorrhage}} is a type of int
racranial hemorrhage that involves leeding into the suarachnoid space.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-3934190043415.jpg" /></div>

1395799568907 1390229673821 What is the most common cause of Suarachnoid He
morrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rupture of a Berry (Saccular) aneurysm}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Don't forget the association with Autosomal Dominant Polyc
ystic Kidney Disease, rah!!</i></div>
1395799621586 1390229673821 What is the 2nd most common cause of Suarachnoi
d Hemorrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arteriovenous Malformations}}</div>
1395799661587 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hemorrhage is often de
scried as "the worst headache of my life"?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suarachn
oid Hemorrhage}}</div>
1395800369260 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hemorrhage is associat
ed with a loody or <>xanthochromatic</>&nsp;(yellow) fluid after Lumar Punc
ture?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suarachnoid Hemorrhage}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The yellow hue is due to the iliruin reakdown that occurs in the CSF.</
i></div>
1395800469980 1390229673821 {{c1::Suarachnoid Hemorrhage}} is a type of int
racranial hemorrhage that involves a risk of <>vasospasm</>&nsp;<>2-3 days</
>&nsp;after onset of the injury due to lood reakdown.
1395800525948 1390229673821 Which drug is commonly used to treat the vasospa
sm seen in Suarachnoid Hemorrhage 2-3 days after the injury?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Nimodipine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>A Calcium channel locker</i></div
>
1395800810690 1390229673821 {{c1::Intracereral/Intraparenchymal Hemorrhage}
} is a type of intracranial hemorrhage that involves leeding into the rain par
enchyma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3972844749079.jpg" /></div>
1395800892646 1390229673821 What is the most common cause of Intracereral/I
ntraparenchymal Hemorrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rupture of Charcot-Boucha
rd microaneurysms due to systemic hypertension}}</div>
1395800930959 1390229673821 Where are&nsp;Intracereral/Intraparenchymal He
morrhages typically located in the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal Gangl
ia and Internal Capsule (i.e. deep rain)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Basal gang
lia is the most common however it can e loar.</i></div>
1395801002154 1390229673821 Which cereral vessels are typically affected in
&nsp;Intracereral/Intraparenchymal Hemorrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lent
iculostriate vessels (at/around the deep rain)}}</div>
1405725640979 1395802358422 Which emryological structure induces the overly
ing ectoderm to differentiate into the neuroectoderm and form the neural plate?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Notochord}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30094
835843424.jpg" /></div>
1405725776381 1395802358422 What does the notochord develop into?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Nucleus pulposus of the interverteral disc in adults}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30090540876128.jpg" /></div>
1405725804658 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
<>dorsal/sensory</>&nsp;portion of the spinal cord?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Alar Plate}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Give <>DAP</>s to the spinal cord, rah
."</i></div>
1405725889948 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
<>ventral/motor</>&nsp;portion of the spinal cord?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Basal plate}}</div>
1405725918702 1395802358422 On which day of gestation does the neural plate
form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Day 18}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-30090
540876128.jpg" /></div>
1405725935400 1395802358422 Which <>primary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops i
nto the Telencephalon and Diencephalon?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prosencephalo
n}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Or what I like to call it: the Brosencephalon.</i>
</div><div><i><img src="paste-30305289241310.jpg" /></i></div>
1405726030425 1395802358422 Which <>primary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops i
nto the Mesencephalon?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesencephalon}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726051334 1395802358422 Which <>primary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops i
nto the Metencephalon and Myelencephalon?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rhomenceph

alon}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726091147 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the cereral hemispheres?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Telencephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726121328 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the lateral ventricles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Telencephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726144218 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the thalamus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diencephalon}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726156848 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the third ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diencephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726205795 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the midrain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesencephalon}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i></div><div><i>- From rostral to
caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon and Myelencephalon whic develops
into the rainstem structures (midrain, pons, medulla respectively)</i></div><
div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1405726219663 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the cereral aqueduct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesencephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i></div><div><i>- From ro
stral to caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon and Myelencephalon whic
develops into the rainstem structures (midrain, pons, medulla respectively)</i
></div><div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1405726267826 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the <>pons</>&nsp;and <>cereellum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Met
encephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i
></div><div><i>- From rostral to caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon
and Myelencephalon whic develops into the rainstem structures (midrain, pons,
medulla respectively)</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i
></div></div>
1405726290799 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the upper part of the fourth ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metence
phalon}}</div> <r /><div><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i></div><
div><i>- From rostral to caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon and Myel
encephalon whic develops into the rainstem structures (midrain, pons, medulla
respectively)</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i></div><
/div>
1405726339159 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the medulla?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myelencephalon}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i></div><div><i>- From rostral to caud
al, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon and Myelencephalon whic develops into
the rainstem structures (midrain, pons, medulla respectively)</i></div><div><
i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i></div>
1405726430212 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the lower part of the fourth ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myelenc
ephalon}}</div> <r /><div><r /></div><div><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rai
nstem"</i></div><div><i>- From rostral to caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Meten
cephalon and Myelencephalon whic develops into the rainstem structures (midrai
n, pons, medulla respectively)</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.j
pg" /></i></div></div>
1405726449490 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do ependymal cells develop?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}&nsp;</d
iv>
1405726544750 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do oligodendrocytes develop?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405726558275 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do astrocytes develop?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405726570257 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population

do Schwann cells form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural crest}}</div>
1405726583584 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do microglia form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405726596990 1395802358422 Which ranchial arches develop into the <>anter
ior 2/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st and 2nd}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Hence the sensation (CN V<su>3</su>)&nsp;and taste (CN VI
I) is in line with the associated cranial nerves.</i><r /><div><img src="paste32654636352006.jpg" /></div>
1405727024434 1395802358422 Which ranchial arches develop into the <>poste
rior 1/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd and 4th}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Hence sensory (CN IX, CN X) and taste (CN IX, CN X) innervat
ion is via the associated cranial nerves.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-32650341
384710.jpg" /></div>
1405727100789 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs the motor innervatio
n of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN XII}}</div>
1405727115491 1395802358422 Which emryological myotomes develops into the m
uscles of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Occipital myotomes}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-32650341384710.jpg" /></div>
1405727142116 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs the <>sensation</>
&nsp;of the <>anterior 2/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
CN V<su>3</su>}}</div>
1405727162340 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs <>taste</>&nsp;at
the <>anterior 2/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-32650341384710.jpg" /></div>
1405727195901 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve <>mainly</> governs taste
and sensation at the <>posterior 1/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::CN IX}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-32650341384710.jpg" /></div>
1405727233846 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs taste and sensation
at the <>extreme posterior </>of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}
</div>
1405727262948 1395802358422 Which 3 cranial nerves govern <>taste</>&nsp;
at the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII; CN IX; CN X}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>via the <>Solitary nucleus</></i></div><div><i><><img src="paste-326503
41384710.jpg" /></></i></div>
1405727292154 1395802358422 Which <>nucleus</>&nsp;is involved in taste p
erception from the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Solitary nucleus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>via CN VII, IX, X</i></div>
1405727311689 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves are involves with pain and
sensation from the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>; CN IX; C
N X}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-32650341384710.jpg" /></div>
1405735410086 1395802358422 {{c1::Wallerian degeneration}} is a type of axon
al degeneration that involves <>degeneration distal to the injury</>&nsp;and
<>axonal retraction proximally</>.
<r /><div><i>This allows for potential
regeneration of the PNS.</i></div>
1405737348696 1395802358422 Which protein is used as an astrocyte marker?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::GFAP}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3640414280110
8.jpg" /></div>
1405737371569 1395802358422 Which cells are the phagocytes of the CNS?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Microglia}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-364
64272343244.jpg" /></div>
1405737384858 1395802358422 Which type of CNS cell fuse to form multinucleat
ed giants cells in the CNS if they are HIV infected?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Microglia}}</div>
1405737430020 1395802358422 Which cells produce myelin in the CNS?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-36021
890711803.jpg" /></div>
1405737627458 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS yield a<>&nsp;"fried eg
g"&nsp;</>appearance on H&amp;E stain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendroc
ytes}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-36490042147069.jpg" /></div>
1405737706774 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS are targeted in Multiple

Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
1405737718746 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS are targeted in leukodyst
rophies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
1405737733357 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS are targeted in Progressi
ve Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendroc
ytes}}</div>
1405737756265 1395802358422 Which cell of the PNS produce myelin?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Schwann Cells}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3667472574072
6.jpg" /></div>
1405737816394 1395802358422 Which cells of the PNS are targeted in Gullain-B
arré Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Schwann Cells}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-36670430773430.jpg" /></div>
1405737841637 1395802358422 {{c1::Acoustic Neuroma}} is a type of schwannoma
that is typically located in the <>internal acoustic meatus</>, therey affec
ting CN VIII.
1405737887058 1395802358422 {{c1::C fiers}} are a type of free nerve ending
that is <>slow</>&nsp;and <>unmyelinated</>.
1405737971879 1395802358422 {{c1::A∂ fiers}} are a type of free nerve endings
that are <>fast</>&nsp;and <>myelinated</>.
1405737995347 1395802358422 What do free nerve endings sense?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Pain and temperature}}</div>
1405738018985 1395802358422 Which type of sensory corpuscle sense <>dynamic
, fine/light touch</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Meissner corpuscle}}</div>
1405738046691 1395802358422 Which type of sensory corpuscle sense <>virati
on</>&nsp;and <>rapid changes in&nsp;pressure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Pacinian corpuscle}}</div>
1405738061330 1395802358422 Which type of sensory corpuscle sense <>pressur
e, deep static touch</>&nsp;and <>position sense</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Merkel Disc}}</div>
1405738081941 1395802358422 What type of adaptation is exhiited y Meissner
corpuscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fast}}</div>
1405738111285 1395802358422 What type of adaptation is exhiited y Pacinian
Corpuscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fast}}</div>
1405738117420 1395802358422 What type of adaptation is exhiited y Merkel D
isc?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Slow}}</div>
1405738123808 1395802358422 {{c1::Perineurium}} is a connective tissue layer
that surrounds a <>fascicle of nerve fiers</>.
<div><r /></div><i>Endo
, peri, epi =&nsp;</i><i>Inner, middle, outer</i><div><div><img src="paste-3757
2373905617.jpg" /></div></div>
1405738214377 1395802358422 {{c1::Epineurium}} is a dense connective tissue
that surrounds entire nerves. <r /><div><i>Endo, peri, epi =&nsp;</i><i>Inne
r, middle, outer</i><div><div><img src="paste-37572373905617.jpg" /></div></div>
</div>
1405738246776 1395802358422 Which connective tissue surrounding single nerve
fier layers is the site of inflammatory infiltration in Guillain-Barré Syndrome?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endoneurium}}</div> <r /><div><i>Endo, peri, epi =&
nsp;</i><i>Inner, middle, outer</i><div><div><img src="paste-37572373905617.jpg
" /></div></div></div>
1405738286683 1395802358422 How do Norepinephrine levels change in anxiety?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405738649658 1395802358422 How do Norepinephrine levels change in depressio
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738655565 1395802358422 How do Dopamine levels change in Huntington Dise
ase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405738669763 1395802358422 How do Dopamine levels change in Parkinson Disea
se?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738678624 1395802358422 How do Dopamine levels change in depression?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738684190 1395802358422 How do 5-HT levels change in Parkinson?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>

1405738695411 1395802358422 How do 5-HT levels change in anxiety?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738700084 1395802358422 How do 5-HT levels change in depression?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738707468 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in Parkinson?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405738723515 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in Alzheimer Disease?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738733299 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in Huntington Disease?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738740730 1395802358422 How do GABA levels change in anxiety?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738752452 1395802358422 How do GABA levels change in Huntington Disease?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738761954 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of Norepin
ephrine ?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Locus ceruleus (which also governs pain)}}<
/div>
1405738956168 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nsp;Do
pamine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral tegmentum; SNc}}</div>
1405738969295 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nsp;5HT?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Raphe nuclei}}</div>
1405738979030 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nsp;AC
h?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal nucleus of Meynert}}</div>
1405738989730 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nsp;GA
BA?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus accumens}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Nu
cleus accumens is also a <>reward center</>&nsp;and it governs <>pleasure,
addiction and fear</>.</i></div>
1405739026255 1395802358422 Which 3 structures make up the lood-rain arri
er?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tight junctions etween nonfenestrated capillary
endothelium; Basement memrane; Astrocyte foot processes}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-39041252720857.jpg" /></div>
1405739077438 1395802358422 {{c1::Area Postrema}} is a nucleus that is part
of the circumventricular system that governs <>vomiting.</>
1405739171726 1395802358422 {{c1::Organ Vasculosum of the Lamina Terminalis
(OVLT)}} is a nucleus part of the circumventricular system that <>senses change
s in osmolarity</>.
1405739191843 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::circumventricular system}} is a g
roup of specialized rain regions that have <>fenestrated capillaries</>&nsp;
and <>no lood-rain arrier</>, therey allowing for molecules in the lood t
o affect rain function.
<r /><div><i>Normally there are non-fenestrated
capillaries and a lood-rain arrier.</i></div>
1405739240133 1395802358422 {{c1::Vasogenic edema}} is a type of cereral ed
ema that involves <>infarction</>&nsp;or <>neoplastic damage</>&nsp;to the
endothelial tight junctions.
1405739502861 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the hypothalamus makes ADH?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supraoptic nucleus}}</div>
1405739705032 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the hypothalamus makes Oxytocin
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paraventricular Nucleus}}</div>
1405739723108 1395802358422 How does Leptin influence the activity of the la
teral area of the hypothalamus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405739759666 1395802358422 How does Leptin influence the activity of the Ve
ntromedial Area of the Hypothalamus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</di
v>
1405739778535 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs <>hunger
</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral area}}</div>
1405740013016 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs <>satiet
y</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventromedial area}}</div>
1405740024639 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs <>coolin
g</>&nsp;and the <>parasympathetic</>&nsp;system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Anterior hypothalamus}}</div> <r /><div><i>"AC = air conditioning = <>anteri

or, cooling</>."</i></div>
1405740065988 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs <>heatin
g</>&nsp;and the <>sympathetic </>nervous system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Posterior hypothalamus}}</div>
1405740080879 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs circadian
rhythms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suprachiasmatic Nucleus}}</div>
1405740097741 1395802358422 Lesion to which area of the hypothalamus will re
sult in <>anorexia</>&nsp;and <>failure to thrive </>(in infants)?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lateral area}}</div>
1405740135331 1395802358422 Lesion to which area of the hypothalamus will re
sult in <>hyperphagia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventromedial area}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. y a craniopharyngioma</i></div>
1405740155309 1395802358422 How does the amount of sleep change with increas
ing age?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405741500451 1395802358422 How does the <>length</>&nsp;of REM sleep cha
nge with increasing age?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405741525933 1395802358422 How does the <>proportion</>&nsp;of REM sleep
change with increasing age?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Constant}}</div>
1405741546373 1395802358422 {{c1::Sleep Fragmentation}} is a sleep disorder
that involves the <>chopping up of sleep cycles</>, therey resulting in a lac
k of rest and groggyness.
<r /><div><i>Do not confuse this with sleep dep
rivation, which is a straight up lack of sleep.</i></div><div><i>This is also a
great tie into why aies ruin the lives of young parents. Baies have 30-40 min
ute sleep cycles, which are much shorter than an adults. Hence when they wake up
and cry, they cause <>sleep fragmentation</>&nsp;in adults, leading to the p
arents hating their lives.</i></div>
1405741668037 1395802358422 Which stages of sleep are lost in the elderly?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::3 and 4; i.e. they lose delta sleep}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Hence, <u>always look at the patient's age in the vignette</u>. A 15 year
old with a lack of stage 3 or 4 sleep is ad news ears. But in the elderly it m
ay not e pathological.</i></div>
1405741784528 1395802358422 What are the 4 key neurotransmitters involved wi
th sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5-HT; ACh; NE; DA}}</div> <r /><div><i>"<
>SAND</>man"</i></div>
1405741809877 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter is involved in the <>ini
tiation</>&nsp;of sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5-HT (Serotonin)}}</div>
1405741829446 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in REM sleep?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>An increased ACh:NE ratio
triggers REM sleep.</i></div><div><i>This is also why <>erections occur in men
during REM sleep</>&nsp;(i.e. dat dere morning wood).</i></div>
1405741852420 1395802358422 How do NE levels change in REM sleep?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>An increased ACh:NE ratio
triggers REM sleep.</i></div>
1405741863367 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter ratio is the trigger for
REM sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACh:NE}}</div>
<r /><div><i>An increas
ed ACh:NE ratio triggers REM sleep.</i></div>
1405741887748 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter is associated with <>aro
usal</>&nsp;and <>wakefulness</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dopamine}}</div
>
1405741944855 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in the <>durat
ion and frequency</>&nsp;of REM sleep influence the susceptiility for depress
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405741989281 1395802358422 How does light influence suprachiasmatic nucleus
activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742330685 1395802358422 Which pontine nucleus governs the extraocular mo
vements during REM sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paramedian Pontine Reticula
r Formation (PPRF)}}</div>
1405742489274 1395802358422 What is the normal length of an adult sleep cycl
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::90 min}}</div>
1405742502563 1395802358422 How does alcohol influence REM sleep and delta w

ave sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742535465 1395802358422 How do enzodiazepines influence REM sleep and d
elta wave sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742546236 1395802358422 How do ariturates influence REM sleep and delt
a wave sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742557976 1395802358422 What is the treatment for sleep enuresis (edwet
ting)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oral desmopressin acetate (DDAVP)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Preferred over <>Imipramine</>&nsp;due to a etter adverse effe
ct profile.</i></div>
1405742603688 1395802358422 What type of EEG waves are seen in <>eyes open<
/>&nsp;wakefulness?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta}}</div> <i><div></div></
i><i><r />Highest frequency, lowest amplitude.</i><div><i><img src="paste-43319
040147775.jpg" /></i></div>
1405742889875 1395802358422 What type of EEG waves are seen in <>eyes close
d</>&nsp;wakefulness?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>8-12 cps</i><r /><div><img src="paste-43314745180479.jpg" /></div>
1405742904673 1395802358422 What type of EEG waves are seen in <>Stage N1</
>&nsp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Theta}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>3-7
cps</i><r /><div><img src="paste-43314745180479.jpg" /></div>
1405742938118 1395802358422 What type of EEG waves are seen in <>Stage N2</
>&nsp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sleep spindles and K complexes}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>12-14 cps</i><r /><div><img src="paste-43314745180479.jpg"
/></div>
1405742955674 1395802358422 What type of EEG waveforms are seen in <>Stage
N3</>&nsp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Partial Delta}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Lowest frequency, highest amplitude.</i></div><div><i>Delta = deepest slee
p = slow-wave sleep</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-43314745180479.jpg" /></i><
/div>
1405743023647 1395802358422 Which type of EEG waves are seen in <>Stage N4<
/>&nsp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Full delta}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-43314745180479.jpg" /></div>
1405743046860 1395802358422 Which type of EEG waves are seen in <>REM</>&n
<r /><div><img src="pas
sp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta}}</div>
te-43314745180479.jpg" /></div>
1405743065766 1395802358422 Which phase of NREM sleep is the phase where neu
rotransmitters are replaced?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stages 3 and 4}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. the stores are refilled</i></div>
1405743107835 1395802358422 A loss of which phase of sleep is<>&nsp;associ
ated with</>&nsp;(not causal) dementia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Delta sleep
(i.e. stage 3 and 4 NREM)}}</div>
1405743141407 1395802358422 What is the most common stage of sleep?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Stage N2}}</div>
1405743151287 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep is where <>ruxism</>&ns
p;occurs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stage N2}}</div>
1405743173876 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves <>sleepwalking, n
ight terrors</>&nsp;and <>edwetting</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stages 3
and 4}}</div>
1405743223116 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves <>loss of motor t
one</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM}}</div>
1405743853321 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves an <>increase in
rain O<su>2</su>&nsp;usage</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</div>
1405743870356 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves an <>increase in
variale pulse and lood pressure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</d
iv>
1405743942182 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves <>dreaming</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This includes thos
e kinky wet dreams you have of me, Sohai.</i></div><div><i>If you wake up and r
ememer your dream, you likely woke up out of REM sleep.</i></div><div><i>If you
wake up and don't rememer your dream (ut still know you dreamt), you likely w
oke up out of Stage 2 sleep.</i></div><div><i>If you wake up groggy and disorien

ted, you likely woke up out of delta sleep (stage 3 or 4). This is why alarm clo
cks suck.</i></div>
1405743969914 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves <>penil and clitt
oral tumescence</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</div>
1405743985373 1395802358422 What is the second most common stage of sleep?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stage N3}}</div>
1405744022317 1395802358422 {{c1::Sleep latency}} is defined as the time it
takes to fall asleep.
1405744348978 1395802358422 {{c1::REM latency}} is defined as the time it ta
kes <>from sleep to the first REM period</>. <r /><div><i>Typically ~90 min.
</i></div>
1405744395457 1395802358422 What is the normal cycle of sleep stages?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM......}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i><>Notice how stage 2 sleep is the crossroad</>, this is wh
y it is the most common stage.</i><r /><div><div><i>If you wake up and rememer
your dream, you likely woke up out of REM sleep.</i></div><div><i>If you wake u
p and don't rememer your dream (ut still know you dreamt), you likely woke up
out of Stage 2 sleep.</i></div><div><i>If you wake up groggy and disoriented, yo
u likely woke up out of delta sleep (stage 3 or 4). This is why alarm clocks suc
k.</i></div></div>
1405744552015 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the s
pinothalamic tract?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPL}}</div>
1405745430016 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the d
orsal column/medial lemniscus (DCML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPL}}</div>
1405745448345 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the t
rigeminal pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPM}}</div>
1405745461749 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the g
ustatory pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPM}}</div>
1405745467649 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the o
ptic pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LGN}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Lateral ge
niculate nucleus.</i></div>
1405745484187 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the s
uperior olivary nucleus (auditory pathway)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MGN}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Medial geniculate nucleus.</i></div><div><i><>M</>&nsp;
for <>M</>usic.</i></div>
1405745518357 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the i
nferior colliculus of the tectum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MGN}}</div>
<r /><div><i>In the auditory pathway.</i></div>
1405745534095 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the 
asal ganglia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral lateral (VL)}}</div>
1405745545486 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the c
ereellum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral lateral (VL)}}</div>
1405745553532 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
VPL send pain and temperature information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primary s
omatosensory cortex}}</div>
1405745607230 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
VPL send pressure, touch, viration and proprioception information?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Primary somatosensory cortex}}</div>
1405745642591 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
VPM send face sensation and taste information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prima
ry Somatosensory Cortex}}</div>
1405745666093 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
LGN send visual information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcarine sulcus}}</div
>
1405745743931 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
MGN send hearing information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Auditory cortex of the
temporal loe}}</div>
1405745761652 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
VL send motor information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Motor cortex}}</div>
1405745771137 1395802358422 {{c1::Limic system}} is a collection of neural

structures involved in <>emotion, long-term memory, olfaction, ehaviour</>&n
sp;and <>autonomic function</>.
<r /><div><i>Basically, the 5 F's.</i><
/div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>Fighting, fleeing, feeding, feeling and for
nication.</i></div>
1405745861356 1395802358422 Through which cereellar peduncle does the <>co
ntralateral motor cortex</>&nsp;communicate with the cereellum?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Middle Cereellar Peduncle}}</div>
1405746136895 1395802358422 Through which cereellar peduncle does the <>ip
silateral proprioceptive information</>&nsp;from the spinal cord project to th
e cereellum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior cereellar peduncle}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, <>cereellar proprioceptive tracts are always ipsilater
al</>.</i></div>
1405746204993 1395802358422 From <>lateral to medial</>, what are the deep
nuclei of the cereellum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dentate; Emoliform; Gloo
se; Fastigial}}</div> <r /><div><i>"<>D</>on't <>E</>at <>G</>reasy <>
F</>oods"</i></div>
1405746261619 1395802358422 Which cells of the cereellum are the <>output
cells</>&nsp;that send signals to the contralateral motor cortex via the super
ior cereellar peduncle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Purkinje cells}}</div>
1405746299184 1395802358422 Lesions to the&nsp;{{c1::lateral}} side of the
cereellum affects <>voluntary movement of the extremities</>&nsp;and present
s with the <>propensity to fall towards the injured (ipsilateral) side</>.
1405746376983 1395802358422 Lesions to the&nsp;{{c1::medial}} side of the c
ereellum result in <>truncal ataxia, nystagmus</>&nsp;and <>head tilting</
>&nsp;due to damage to the vermis, fastigial nuclei or flocconodular loe.
<r /><div><i>The <>vermis</>&nsp;and <>fastigial nuclei</>&nsp;are midlin
e structures.</i></div>
1405746579633 1395802358422 Which area of cereral cortex governs <>motor s
peech</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Broca Area}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-49417893708241.jpg" /></div>
1405747595669 1395802358422 Which area of the cereral cortex functions as t
he <>associative auditory area</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wernicke area}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-49413598740945.jpg" /></div>
1405747675305 1395802358422 In which loe of the rain is the principal visu
al cortex found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Occipital loe}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-49413598740945.jpg" /></div>
1405747733973 1395802358422 In which loe of the rain is primary auditory c
ortex found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Temporal loe}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-49413598740945.jpg" /></div>
1405747755176 1395802358422 Which ody parts are represented on the <>later
al</>&nsp;side of the rain in the homunculus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rost
ral structures (head, tongue, etc)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-49838
800503311.jpg" /></div>
1405747950499 1395802358422 Which parts of the ody are found on the <>medi
al</>&nsp;side of the rain on the homunculus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caud
al structures (legs; feet)}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>"The feet hang off t
he edge."</i><r /><div><img src="paste-49834505536015.jpg" /></div>
1405786797020 1395802358422 {{c1::Kluver-Bucy Syndrome}} is a CNS lesion tha
t results from <>ilateral amygdala lesion</>&nsp;and presents with <>hypero
rality, hypersexuality</>&nsp;and <>disinhiited ehaviour</>.
1405786856914 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Kluver-Bucy Syndrome?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral amygdala}}</div>
1405786876709 1395802358422 Which herpesvirus is associated with Kluver-Bucy
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div>
1405786887860 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::frontal loe lesion}} is a CNS lesi
on that presents with <>disinhiition and deficits in concentration, orientatio
n</>&nsp;and <>judgement</>.
<r /><div><i>May involve re-emergence o
f primitive reflexes.</i></div>
1405786943021 1395802358422 {{c1::Spatial Neglect Syndrome}} is a CNS disord
er due to a <>right parietal-temporal cortex lesion</>&nsp;and presents with

<>agnosia of the contralateral side of the world</>.
1405787033295 1395802358422 Which lesion is seen in spatial neglect syndrome
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right parietal-temporal cortex lesion}}</div>
1405787051947 1395802358422 {{c1::Gerstmann Syndrome}} is a CNS disorder tha
t is due to a <>left parietal-temporal cortex lesion</>&nsp;and presents with
<>agraphia, acalculia, finger agnosia</>&nsp;and <>left-right disorientatio
n</>.
1405787090039 1395802358422 Which CNS lesion is seen in Gerstmann Syndrome?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left parietal-temporal cortex lesion}}</div>
1405787108302 1395802358422 A CNS lesion to the&nsp;{{c1::reticular activat
ing system}} in the <>midrain</>&nsp;presents with <>reduced levels of arou
sal and wakefulness</>.
1405787140819 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome}} is a CNS dis
order due to <>thiamine deficiency&nsp;</>that presents with <>confusion, op
hthalmoplegia, ataxia</>&nsp;and <>memory loss</>. <r /><div><i>Can e cau
sed y excessive alcohol use.</i></div>
1405787210806 1395802358422 Which CNS lesion is seen in Wernicke-Korsakoff S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral mamillary ody lesion}}</div>
1405787226276 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Wernicke-Korsakoff Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thiamine (Vitamin B<su>1</su>) <u>efore</u>
&nsp;Glucose}}</div> <r /><div><i>Giving glucose efore thiamine can exacer
ate the thiamine deficiency.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, thiamine is a vital cofa
ctor in 2 major enzymes involved in glucose metaolism. Administering glucose in
a Vitamin B<su>1</su>&nsp;deficiency patient simply further exacerates the
deficiency.</i></div>
1405787312589 1395802358422 Which cereellar lesion is associated with <>tr
uncal ataxia</>&nsp;and <>dysarthria</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cereell
ar vermis}}</div>
1405787353044 1395802358422 Which lesion is seen in Hemiallismus?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral suthalamic nucleus lesion}}</div>
1405787372934 1395802358422 Which CNS lesion can cause <>anterograde</>&n
sp;amnesia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral hippocampal lesion}}</div>
1405787394123 1395802358422 In which direct do the eyes turn following a PPR
F lesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Away</u>&nsp;from the lesion}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Wrong way eyes."</i></div>
1405787423245 1395802358422 In which direction do the eyes turn in a Frontal
Eye Field lesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Towards</u>&nsp;the lesion}}</
div>
<r /><div>"<i>Right way eyes"</i></div>
1405787441014 1395802358422 {{c1::Dysarthria}} is a CNS movement disorder th
at is descried as the inaility to speak.
1405787480489 1395802358422 {{c1::Aphasia}} is a CNS language deficit descri
ed as a high-order inaility to speak.
1405787502375 1395802358422 {{c1::Broca Aphasia}} is a type of aphasia that
involves <>nonfluent speech</>&nsp;with <>intact comprehension</>. <r><div
><i>Due to Broca's Area lesion.</i></div><div><i>These type of patients will app
ear to e visily frustrated as they can comprehend what you're saying, ut cann
ot reply. They can also hear what their saying and will realise the prolem, get
ting even more frustrated.</i></div><div><i>This is often is not the case in Wer
nicke Aphasia as comprehension is defective in a Wernicke lesion.</i></div>
1405787568806 1395802358422 Which speech center is located at the <>inferio
r frontal gyrus of the frontal loe?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Broca
's Area}}</div>
1405787610394 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke Aphasia}} is a type of aphasia th
at involves <>fluent speech</>&nsp;with <>impaired comprehension</>&nsp;an
d <>repetition</>.
<r /><div><i><>W</>ernicke's = <>W</>ord vomit.</i>
</div><div><i><r /></i></div>
1405787675043 1395802358422 Which speech center is located at the <>superio
r temporal gyrus of the temporal loe</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wernicke's
Area}}</div>
1405787694509 1395802358422 {{c1::Gloal Aphasia}} is a type of aphasia that

involves <>nonfluent speech</>&nsp;with <>impaired comprehension</>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. Broca's <>and</>&nsp;Wernicke's lesions</i></div>
1405787790970 1395802358422 {{c1::Conduction Aphasia}} is a type of aphasia
that involves <>poor repetition ut fluent speech and intact comprehension</>.
<r /><div><i>These patients cannot repeat the phrase "No ifs, ands or uts."</i
></div>
1405787834268 1395802358422 Which lesion causes Conduction Aphasia?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Left superior temporal loe and/or left supramarginal gyrus}}
</div>
1405787859922 1395802358422 {{c1::Tanscortical Motor Aphasia}} is a type of
aphasia that involves <>nonfluent speech</>&nsp;with <>good comprehension an
d repetition</>.
1405787889049 1395802358422 {{c1::Transcortical Sensory Aphasia}} is a type
of aphasia that involves <>poor comprehension</>&nsp;with <>fluent speech an
d repetition</>.
1405787957662 1395802358422 {{c1::Mixed Transcortical Aphasia}} is a type of
aphasia that involves <>nonfluent speech, poor comprehension</>&nsp;and <>g
ood repetition</>.
1405787979379 1395802358422 Which arterial lood gas primarily drives cerer
al perfusion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::P<su>CO2</su>&nsp;(increased CO<su>
2</su>&nsp;results in increased cereral perfusion)}}</div> <r /><div><i>P<
su>O2</su>&nsp;modulates perfusion in severe hypoxia.</i></div><div><i><>Thi
s is why therapeutic hyperventilation (i.e. a decrease in P<su>CO2</su>) helps
decrease ICP in cases of cereral edema as the decrease in P<su>CO2</su>&nsp
;will decrease cereral perfusion via vasoconstriction.</></i></div><div><i><im
g src="paste-2843268350545.jpg" /></i></div>
1405788260884 1395802358422 After how long in hypoxia does irreversile CNS
damage egin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5 minutes}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Mo
st vulnerale area is hippocampus, neocortex, cereellum, watershed areas</i></d
iv>
1405788824936 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event do red neuro
ns appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::12-48 hrs}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-4428111282360.jpg" /></div>
1405788905173 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event does necrosi
s and neutrophils appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::24-72 hrs}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4423816315064.jpg" /></div>
1405788922042 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event do macrophag
es appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-5 days}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-4423816315064.jpg" /></div>
1405788935689 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event does <>reac
tive gliosis</>&nsp;and <>vascular proliferation</>&nsp;appear?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::1-2 weeks}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4423816315064
.jpg" /></div>
1405788959655 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event does a <>gl
ial scar</>&nsp;appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 2 weeks}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4423816315064.jpg" /></div>
1405788973267 1395802358422 What is the most common site of intracereral he
morrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal ganglia}}</div>
1405789036808 1395802358422 {{c1::Ischemic Stroke}} is a type of stroke that
involves <>acute lockage of vessels</>&nsp;and resulting ischemia.
1405789064364 1395802358422 What type of necrosis is seen following an ische
mic stroke?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefactive necrosis}}</div>
1405789076539 1395802358422 {{c1::Thromotic stroke}} is a type of ischemic
stroke that involves <>clot formation directly at the site of infarction</>, t
ypically over <>atherosclerotic plaque</>.
1405789125130 1395802358422 Which major cereral lood vessel is commonly th
e site of thromotic stroke?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MCA}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4999341932777.jpg" /></div>
1405789139374 1395802358422 {{c1::Emolic Stroke}} is a type of ischemic str
oke that involves <>emolus formation from another part of the ody ostructing

a vessel</>.
1405789173434 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoxic Stroke}} is a type of ischemic str
oke that involves <>hypoperfusion</>&nsp;and <>hypoxemia</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>Commony during cardiovascular surgery, especially at watershed zones.</i><
/div>
1405789259481 1395802358422 {{c1::Transient Ischemia Attack}} is an ischemic
rain disorder that involves <>rief, reversile episode(s) of focal neurologi
cal dysfunction</>&nsp;lasting <u style="font-weight: old; ">&lt; 24 hrs</u>&
nsp;without acute infarction. <r /><div><i>The negative MRI confirms a lack o
f acute infarction.</i></div><div><i>Majority resolves in &lt; 15 min.</i></div>
1405789334565 1395802358422 Into which major cereral vein do the dural veno
us sinuses drain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal jugular vein}}</div>
1405789380053 1395802358422 Which dural venous sinus is the main location of
CSF return via arachnoid granulations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior sagg
ital sinus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5622112190931.jpg" /></div>
1405789413799 1395802358422 Which foramen joins the lateral ventricles to th
e 3rd ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Interventricular Foramen (of Monro)}
}</div> <r /><div><i>On oth sides.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-5759551144
305.jpg" /></i></div>
1405789482456 1395802358422 Which structure joins the 3rd ventricle to the 4
th ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cereral Aqueduct (of Sylvius)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5755256177009.jpg" /></div>
1405789513070 1395802358422 Which foramina join the 4th ventricle to the su
arachoid space?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Foramina of Luschka (laterally) and t
he Foramen of Magendie (medially)}}</div>
1405789559602 1395802358422 Where is CSF made?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ep
endymal cells of the choroid plexus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-57552
56177009.jpg" /></div>
1405789572333 1395802358422 How many spinal nerves are there in total?<div><
<r /><div><i>8 cervical + 12 thoracic +
r /></div><div>{{c1::31}}</div>
5 lumar + 5 sacral + 1 coccygeal.</i></div>
1405789823704 1395802358422 Which spinal nerves exit <>aove</>&nsp;their
corresponding vertera?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C1-C7}}</div>
1405789865811 1395802358422 Which spinal nerves exit <>elow</>&nsp;their
corresponding verterae?<div><r />{{c1::C8 and elow}}</div> <r /><div><i>i.
e. <>only C1-C7 exit aove their corresponding verterae</></i></div>
1405789934849 1395802358422 At which verteral levels does Verteral Disc He
rniation usually occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-L5; L5-S1}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Typically occurs posterolaterally.</i></div>
1405789992247 1395802358422 Which portion of the verteral disc herniates in
disc herniation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus pulposus}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, this is the only derivative of the notochord.</i></div>
1405790023202 1395802358422 Where does the spinal cord end in a<>dults</>?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L1-L2}}</div>
1405790048631 1395802358422 Where does the suarachnoid space end in a<>dul
ts</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lower order of S2 vertera}}</div>
1405790072718 1395802358422 At which verteral levels are lumar punctures n
ormally performed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L3-L4; L4-L5}}</div>
1405790099255 1395802358422 Which ascending spinal tract carries information
aout <>pressure, touch, viration</>&nsp;and <>proprioception?</><div><>
<r /></></div><div>{{c1::Dorsal Column}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-7490422964789.jpg" /></div>
1405790857180 1395802358422 {{c1::Fasciculus Gracilis}} is an ascending sect
ion of the spinal cord that carries pressure/touch/viration information <>from
the lower ody and leg</>.
<div><r /></div><i><>T7 and elow</></i><r /
><div><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></div>
1405790942260 1395802358422 {{c1::Fasciculus Cuneatus}} is an ascending sect
ion of the spinal cord that carries pressure/touch/viration information from th
e <>upper ody and arms</>. <r /><div><><i>T6 and aove</i></></div><div>
<><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i></></div>

1405790990404 1395802358422 Which section of the dorsal column is found medi
ally?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fasciculus gracilis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.
e. the dorsal column is organized as humans are; with the hands on the side; arm
s outside, legs inside</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i
></div>
1405791129424 1395802358422 Which section of the dorsal column is found late
rally?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fasciculus cuneatus}}</div> <div><r /></div
><div><div><i>i.e. the dorsal column is organized as humans are; with the hands
on the side; arms outside, legs inside</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-74861279
97493.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1405791150197 1395802358422 Which ascending spinal tract carries <>pain and
temperature</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral spinothalamic tract}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1405791226232 1395802358422 Which ascending spinal tract carries <>crude to
uch</>&nsp;and pressure information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Spino
thalamic Tract}}</div> <r /><div><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i><
/div>
1405791258967 1395802358422 Which descending spinal tract carries <>volunta
ry motor</>&nsp;information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior/Lateral Corti
cospinal Tract}}</div> <r /><div><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i><
/div>
1405791287164 1395802358422 What is the first synapse in the Dorsal Column/M
edial Lemniscus (DCML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Ipsilateral</u>&nsp;nucle
us cuneatus or nucleus gracilis at the medulla}}</div>
1405791750609 1395802358422 Where does the&nsp;Dorsal Column/Medial Lemnisc
us (DCML) decussate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medulla}}</div>
1405791763932 1395802358422 What is the 2nd synapse in the&nsp;Dorsal Colum
n/Medial Lemniscus (DCML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPL of the thalamus}}</div
>
1405791786121 1395802358422 What is the 1st synapse of the Spinothalamic Tra
ct (STT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ipsilateral gray matter of the dorsal horn}
}</div>
1405791845625 1395802358422 Where does the&nsp;Spinothalamic Tract (STT) de
cussate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior White Commisure}}</div>
1405791860785 1395802358422 What is the 2nd synapse of the&nsp;Spinothalami
c Tract (STT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPL}}</div>
1405791867608 1395802358422 What is the 1st synapse of the Lateral Corticosp
inal Tract (LCT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LMN of the anterior horn of the spi
nal cord}}</div>
1405791908071 1395802358422 What is the 2nd synapse of the&nsp;Lateral Cort
icospinal Tract (LCT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NMJ at the target voluntary mu
scle}}</div>
1405791928058 1395802358422 Where does the&nsp;Lateral Corticospinal Tract
(LCT) decussate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pyramidal decussation at the caudal
medulla}}</div>
1405791961624 1395802358422 How do reflexes and muscle tone change in UMN le
sions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9702331121811.jpg" /></div>
1405792717468 1395802358422 How do reflexes and muscle tone change in LMN le
sions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9706626089107.jpg" /></div>
1405792741530 1395802358422 What type of paralysis is seen in UMN lesions?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spastic paralysis}}</div>
1405792770376 1395802358422 What type of paralysis is seen in LMN lesions?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Flaccid paralysis}}</div>
1405792783586 1395802358422 What motor neuron lesion is associated with a <
>positive</>&nsp;Bainski sign?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UMN}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Positive ainski is normal in infants.</i></div>
1405792842113 1395802358422 {{c1::Werdnig-Hoffman Disease (spinal muscular a
trophy)}} and {{c2::Poliomyelitis}} are spinal cord lesions that present with <

>LMN lesions only</>&nsp;due to <>destruction of the anterior horn</>, there
y presenting with flaccid paralysis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10136
122818707.jpg" /></div>
1405792997125 1395802358422 {{c1::Multiple Sclerosis}} is a spinal cord lesi
on that occurs due to <>demyelination</>&nsp;of mostly white matter of the <
>cervical region</>, therey presenting with <>random, asymmetric lesions</>.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10325101379736.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>There is often scanning speech, intention tremor and nystagmus.</i></div>
1405793074339 1395802358422 {{c1::Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)}} is a
spinal cord lesion that involves <>comined UMN and LMN deficits</>&nsp;with
<u><>no sensory, cognitive or oculomotor deficits</>.</u><div><u><r /></u></
div><div><u><img src="paste-10591389352092.jpg" /></u></div>
1405793134499 1395802358422 Which enzyme deficiency can cause&nsp;Amyotroph
ic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide Dismutase 1}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, SOD is required to eliminate ROS.</i></div>
1405793160853 1395802358422 {{c1::Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)}} is a
spinal cord lesions that often initially presents with <>fasciculations, atrop
hy</>&nsp;and <>weakness of the hands</>.
1405793188900 1395802358422 {{c1::Riluzole}} is a drug that can modestly inc
rease survival of&nsp;Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) y <>decreasing pres
ynaptic glutamate release</>. <r /><div><i>Ri<>lou</>zole can e used in <
>Lou</>&nsp;Gehrig's Disease.</i></div>
1405793251109 1395802358422 An occlusion to the&nsp;{{c1::Anterior Spinal A
rtery}} results in lesion to the <>entire spinal cord except the dorsal column
and Lissauer tract</>. <div><r /></div><i>The upper thoracic ASA territory is
a watershed area due to the <>artery of Adamkiewicz</>&nsp;supplying the ASA
area elow ~T8.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-10866267259120.jpg" /></div>
1405793592670 1395802358422 {{c1::Taes Dorsalis}} is a spinal cord lesion t
hat is caused y <>tertiary syphilis</>&nsp;and involves <>degeneration of t
he dorsal columns and roots</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1121845457
7316.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence this will present with <>impaired s
ensation and proprioception and progressive sensory ataxia</>.</i></div>
1405793652061 1395802358422 Which spinal cord lesion is associated with <>C
harcot joints?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Taes Dorsalis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11214159610020.jpg" /></div>
1405793675436 1395802358422 Which spinal cord lesion is associated with <>A
rgyll-Roertson pupils?</><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Taes Dorsalis}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Argyll-Roertson pupil is a a pupil that exhiits accomodati
on and convergence, ut not to light.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-112141596100
20.jpg" /></div>
1405793759057 1395802358422 Which spinal cord lesion is associated with a <
>positive Romerg sign</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Taes Dorsalis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11214159610020.jpg" /></div>
1405793774076 1395802358422 {{c1::Syringomyelia}} is a spinal cord lesion th
at involves <>expansion of the syrinx</>&nsp;and <>damage to the anterior wh
ite commissure of the STT</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-117381456201
24.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence this will present with a ilateral l
oss of pain and temperature sensation <>at the level of the lesion</>.</i></di
v><div><i>The syrinx can grow and affect other tracts.</i></div>
1405794043596 1395802358422 Which spinal cord lesion is associated with <>C
hiari type 1 malformations</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Syringomyelia}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11733850652828.jpg" /></div>
1405794069135 1395802358422 {{c1::Suacute Comined Degeneration}} is a spin
al cord lesion that occurs due to <>vitamin B12</>&nsp;or <>vitamin E defici
ency</>&nsp;and involves <>demyelination of the dorsal column, LCST</>&nsp;
and <>STT</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12004433592473.jpg" /></div
>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>ataxic gait, paresthesia, impaires positi
on sense, impaired viration sense.</></i></div>
1405794175984 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Poliomyelitis?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Poliovirus}}</div>

1405794200377 1395802358422 How is poliovirus transmitted?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Fecal oral}}</div>
1405794207918 1395802358422 {{c1::Poliovirus}} is a virus that causes Poliom
yelitis that <>replicates in the oropharynx and small intestines efore enterin
g the CNS via the loodstream</>.
1405794240791 1395802358422 Which area of the spinal cord is targeted in Pol
iomyelitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior horn of the spinal cord (i.e. LM
Ns)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence polio presents with LMN lesion signs.</i></d
iv>
1405794274944 1395802358422 How do CSF WBC levels change in Poliomyelitis?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405794290443 1395802358422 How do CSF protein levels change in Poliomyeliti
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Slight increase}}</div>
1405794299952 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels change in poliomyeliti
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
1405794311078 1395802358422 What is the cause of&nsp;Werdnig-Hoffman Diseas
e (spinal muscular atrophy)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital degeneration
of the anterior horn}}</div>
1405794384894 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of&nsp;WerdnigHoffman Disease (spinal muscular atrophy)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal
recessive}}</div>
1405794397462 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Friedreich At
axia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1405794421954 1395802358422 What trinucleotide repeat is seen in Friedreich
Ataxia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GAA on chromosome 9}}</div>
1405794442471 1395802358422 Which gene is affected y GAA repeated in Friedr
eich Ataxia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Frataxin, an iron inding protein}}</div
>
1405794462725 1395802358422 {{c1::Friedreich Ataxia}} is a CNS disorder due
to GAA repeats in the Frataxin gene that involves <>impairment of mitochondrial
functioning.</>
1405794521339 1395802358422 What is the cause of death in Friedreich Ataxia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1405794542477 1395802358422 {{c1::Friedreich Ataxia}} is a CNS disorder due
to GAA repeats that presents in childhood with <>kyphoscoliosis.</>
1405794574009 1395802358422 {{c1::Friedreich Ataxia}} is a CNS disorder due
to GAA repeats that involves <>staggering gait, frequent falling, nystagmus, dy
sarthria, pes cavus</>&nsp;and <>hammer toes</>.
1405794605952 1395802358422 {{c1::Brown-Séquard Syndrome}} is a spinal cord sy
ndrome due to <>hemisection of the spinal cord.</><div><><r /></></div><div
><><img src="paste-13752485281995.jpg" /></></div>
<r /><div><i>Findings a
re pretty logical if you know your neuroanatomy. Just <>don't forget the last 2
</>:</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-13773960118708.jpg" /><img src="paste-147
18852923951.jpg" /></i></div>
1405796019342 1395802358422 {{c1::Brown-Séquard Syndrome}} is a spinal cord sy
ndrome that presents with <>ipsilateral loss of all sensation </><u style="fon
t-weight: old; ">at the level of the lesion</u>&nsp;due to hemisection of the
spinal cord.
<r /><div><img src="paste-14718852923951.jpg" /></div>
1405796156219 1395802358422 {{c1::Brown Séquard Syndrome}} is a spinal cord sy
ndrome that presents with <>ipsilateral LMN deficits </><u style="font-weight:
old; ">at the level of the lesion</u>&nsp;due to hemisection of the spinal co
rd.
<r /><div><img src="paste-14723147891247.jpg" /></div>
1405796200589 1395802358422 Aove which verteral level can Brown-Séquard Synd
rome present with Horner Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aove T1}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to damage of the oculosympathetic pathway.</i></div>
1405796299101 1395802358422 {{c1::Horner Syndrome}} is an autonomic disorder
that results from spinal cord lesions <>aove T1</>&nsp;and presents with <
>ptosis, miosis</>&nsp;and <>anhidrosis.</><div><><r /></></div> <div><r
/></div><i>"Horny PAM"</i><div><i><img src="paste-15479062134931.jpg" /><r /><
/i><div><img src="paste-14925011354154.jpg" /></div></div>

1405797156788 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptosis}} is a feature of Horner Syndrome t
hat involves <>slight drooping of the eyelid</>&nsp;(via the Superior Tarsal
Muscle).
<r /><div><img src="paste-14925011354154.jpg" /></div>
1405797184151 1395802358422 {{c1::Anhidrosis}} is a feature of Horner Syndro
me that involves the <>asence of sweating</>.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-14925011354154.jpg" /></div>
1405797205008 1395802358422 {{c1::Miosis}} is a feature of Horner Syndrome t
hat involves <>pupil constriction</>. <r><div><img src="paste-14925011354154.
jpg" /></div>
1405797217241 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the posterior half o
f the skull cap?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C2}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-15710990369162.jpg" /></div>
1405797520620 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the <>high turtlene
ck shirt level</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /></div>
1405797537896 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the <>low-collar sh
irt</>&nsp;level?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C4}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /></div>
1405797557839 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the nipple?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::T4}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /></div>
1405797568340 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the xyphoid process?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::T7}}</div>
1405797579780 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the umilicus?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::T10}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /
></div>
1405797589478 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the inguinal ligament?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::L1}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1570669540186
6.jpg" /></div>
1405797658880 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the kneecaps?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::L4}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /
></div>
1405797670093 1395802358422 Which dermatome is involved with <>erection and
sensation of the penile and anal zones</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S1; S3;
S4}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /></div>
1405797715029 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the iceps reflex?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1637241533260
0.jpg" /><img src="paste-16492674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797760045 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the triceps reflex?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::C7}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1636812036530
4.jpg" /><img src="paste-16492674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797770299 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the patellar reflex?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1636812036530
4.jpg" /><img src="paste-16492674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797781911 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the achilles reflex?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S1}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1636812036530
4.jpg" /><img src="paste-16492674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797790832 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the cremaster reflex?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L1,L2}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-16496
969384236.jpg" /></div>
1405797808455 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the anal wink reflex?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S3, S4}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-16492
674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797822766 1395802358422 How long after irth to the primitive reflexes d
isappear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st year}}</div> <r /><div><i>Eventually
, the <>mature/developing frontal loe inhiits these reflexes</>.</i></div>
1405798014578 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::moro reflex}} is a primitive refl
ex that involves <>aduction/extension of the arms when startled</>, following
<r /><div><i>Aka the "Hang on f
y <>drawing of the arms together</>.
or life" reflex.</i></div>
1405798051396 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::rooting reflex}} is a primitive r

eflex that involves <>movement of the head towards one side if the cheek or mou
th is stroked</>&nsp;(i.e. nipple seeking).
1405798083509 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::sucking reflex}} is a primitive r
eflex that involves a <>sucking reflex when the roof of the mouth is touched</
>.
1405798105409 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::palmar reflex}} is a primitive re
flex that involves <>curling of the fingers if the palm is stroked</>.
1405798122918 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::plantar reflex}} is a primitive r
eflex that involves <>dorsiflexion of the large toe and fanning of the other to
es with plantar stimulation</>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. Bainski sign in infa
nts (which is normal, hence called the plantar reflex)</i></div>
1405798266406 1395802358422 The {{c1::Galant reflex}} is a primitive reflex
that involves <>lateral flexion of the lower ody towards the stimulated side f
ollowing stroking along one side of the spine while the neworn is face down</>
.
1405798444295 1395802358422 Which 3 cranial nerves lie medially at the rain
stem?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III, CN VI, CN XII}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-17901423690238.jpg" /></div>
1405798541598 1395802358422 Which gland located at the rainstem secretes <
>melatonin</>&nsp;and influences <>circadian rhythms</>?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Pineal}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-18017387807271.jpg" /></div>
1405798608630 1395802358422 Which nucleus at the dorsal rainstem is the <>
conjugate vertical gaze center</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Collicul
is}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18013092839975.jpg" /></div>
1405798636905 1395802358422 Which nucleus at the dorsal rainstem is is invo
lved in the auditory pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior colliculis}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18013092839975.jpg" /></div>
1405798656442 1395802358422 {{c1::Parinaud Syndrome}} is a CNS disorder that
involves <>paralysis of conjugate vertical gaze due to a lesion to the superio
r colliculis.</>
<div><r /></div><i>e.g. y a pinealoma.</i><r /><div><
img src="paste-18013092839975.jpg" /></div>
1405798684216 1395802358422 Which dorsal rainstem structure is lesioned in
Parinaud Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Colliculis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18013092839975.jpg" /></div>
1405798706026 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve I?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Olfactory}}</div>
1405799777636 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;II?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Optic}}</div>
1405799782085 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;III?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Oculomotor}}</div>
1405799787141 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;IV?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Trochlear}}</div>
1405799792783 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;V?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Trigeminal}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Includes the <>Ophthalmic (V<su>
1</su>), Maxillary (V<su>2</su>) and Mandiular (V<su>3</su>) ranches</>.
</i></div>
1405799822533 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;VI?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Aducens}}</div>
1405799827308 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;VII?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Facial}}</div>
1405799830377 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;VIII?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Vestiulocochlear}}</div>
1405799840247 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;IX?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Glossopharyngeal}}</div>
1405799851801 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;X?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Vagus}}</div>
1405799854651 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;XI?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Spinal accessory}}</div>
1405799859356 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;XII?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Hypoglossal}}</div>

1405799863915 1395802358422 What is the only cranial nerve that <>does not<
/>&nsp;have thalamic relay to the cortex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN I, Olf
actory}}</div>
1405799894101 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls the muscles of mast
ication?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>, Mandiular ranch of the T
rigeminal}}</div>
<r /><div><r /></div>
1405799957568 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs <>sensation</>&ns
p;at the face?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trigeminal}}</div>
1405799969736 1395802358422 What are the three ranches of the Trigeminal ne
rve (CN V)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ophthalmic, Maxillary, Mandiular (V<su>
1</su>, V<su>2</su>, V<su>3</su>&nsp;respectively)}}</div>
1405800029370 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs lacrimation?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Facial}}</div>
1405800047148 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs salivation from the
<>sumandiular and sulingual glands</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}<
/div>
1405800069890 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs <>closing</>&nsp;
of the eyelid via <>Oricularis oculi</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}<
/div>
1405800093083 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls the <>stapedius</
>&nsp;muscle in the ear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}</div>
1405800106497 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is involved with hearing and
alance?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VIII}}</div>
1405800118773 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs salivation from the
<>parotid gland</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div>
1405800136943 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is involved with <>carotid
ody and sinus</>&nsp;aro- and chemoreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN
IX}}</div>
1405800160351 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls the <>stylopharyng
eus</>&nsp;muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div> <r /><div><i>It
elevates the pharynx and larynx.</i></div>
1405800184186 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve carries <>taste from the ep
iglottis region</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800368334 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve innervates the uvula?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800403884 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve monitors <>aortic arch </>
chemo- and aroreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800421768 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls shoulder shrugging
and head turning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN XI via the SCM and trapezius mus
cles.}}</div>
1405800448687 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls tongue movement?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN XII}}</div>
1405800473491 1395802358422 What is the mnemonic for rememering cranial ner
ve modalities?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Sa
ys Big Boos Matter Most}}</div>
<r /><div><i><u>S,S,M,M,B,M,B,S,B,B,M,M
.</u></i></div><div><i>- S = sensory</i></div><div><i>- M = motor</i></div><div>
<i>- B = oth</i></div>
1405800572527 1395802358422 Which is the only cranial nerve whose nucleus is
<>not in the rainstem</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN XI (in the spinal co
rd just caudal of the medulla)}}</div> <img src="paste-20714627268833.jpg" />
1405800669193 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the <>afferent</>&nsp;
ranch of the corneal reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>1</su>&nsp;(
ophthalmic; specifically the nasociliary ranch)}}</div>
1405800707292 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>afferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Lacrimation Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>1</su
>&nsp;(loss of reflex does not preclude the loss of emotional tears)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>So you can still cry me a river...</i></div>
1405800752517 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>afferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Jaw Jerk Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>&
nsp;(muscle spindles from the masseter muscle)}}</div>

1405800775487 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>afferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the pupillary reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN II}}</div>
1405800782210 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>afferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Gag Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div>
1405800790099 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the <>efferent</>&nsp;
ranch of the Corneal Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII (temporalis ran
ch to the oricularis oculi which closes the eye)}}</div>
1405800910976 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>efferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Lacrimation Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}</div>
1405800919022 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>efferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Jaw Jerk Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>&
nsp;(to the masseter muscle)}}</div>
1405800935586 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>efferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the pupillary reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
1405800941973 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>efferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Gag Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800948089 1395802358422 Which vagal nucleus is involved with <>visceral
sensory information</>&nsp;such as taste, aroreceptors and gut distention)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus Solitarius}}</div>
1405800989337 1395802358422 Which vagal nucleus is involved with <>motor in
nervation of the pharynx, larynx and upper esophagus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Nucleus Amiguus}}</div>
1405801011375 1395802358422 Which vagal nucleus is associated with sending <
>parasympathetic fiers to the heart, lungs and upper GI</>?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Dorsal Motor Nucleus}}</div>
1405801042108 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::I}} travels through the
&nsp;{{c2::criiform plate}} of the skull.
1405801356266 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::II}} travels through th
e&nsp;{{c2::optic canal}} in the skull.
1405801373529 1395802358422 What are the contents of the optic canal?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::CN II, Ophthalmic Artery, Central Retinal Vein}}</div>
1405801394734 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves travel through the Superior
Orital Fissure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III, IV, V<su>1</su>&nsp;and
VI}}</div>
1405801421954 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::V<su>2</su>}} travels
through the&nsp;{{c2::foramen rotundum}} of the skull.
1405801445175 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::V<su>3</su>}} travels
through the {{c2::foramen ovale}} of the skull.
1405801467925 1395802358422 Which cranial artery travels through the Foramen
Spinosum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Meningeal Artery}}</div>
1405801485946 1395802358422 Through which foramen does the Middle Meningeal
Artery travel in the skull?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Foramen Spinosum}}</div>
1405801507511 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves travel throgh the internal
auditory meatus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII, VIII}}</div>
1405801529791 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves travel through the jugular
foramen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX, X, XI}}</div>
1405801549186 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::CN XII}} travels throug
h the&nsp;{{c2::hypoglossal canal}} of the skull.
1405801566883 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::XI}} travels through th
e&nsp;{{c2::foramen magnum}} of the skull.
1405801618578 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::cavernous sinus}} is a collection
of venous sinuses found on either side of the pituitary that collects lood fro
m the eye and superficial cortex.
<r><div><img src="paste-22230750724601.
jpg" /></div>
1405801761044 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves pass <>through</>&nsp;th
e cavernous sinus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III, IV, V<su>1</su>, V<su>2
</su>, VI}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. all of the CN's that deal with the ey
e + V<su>2</su>&nsp;(and not CN II)</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-22226455
757305.jpg" /></i></div>
1405801821550 1395802358422 Which major cranial artery passes through the ca

vernous sinus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Carotid Artery}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-22226455757305.jpg" /></div>
1405801841200 1395802358422 {{c1::Cavernous sinus syndrome}} is a neurologic
al disorder that results due to <>mass effect, fistula or thromosis</>&nsp;i
n the cavernous sinus that presents with <>ophthalmoplegia</>&nsp;and <>decr
eased corneal/maxillary sensation</>&nsp;with <>normal visual acuity</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-22226455757305.jpg" /></div>
1405801923481 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is commonly affected in Cave
rnous Sinus Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VI}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-22226455757305.jpg" /></div>
1405801940976 1395802358422 Which way does the jaw deviate in a CN V motor l
esion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Towards</u>&nsp;the lesion}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>CN V innervation to the mastication muscles is <>ipsilatera
l</>.</i><r /><div><i>The unopposed force from the opposite pterygoid muscle p
ushes the jaw.</i></div>
1405802012257 1395802358422 Which way does the uvula deviate in a CN X lesio
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Away</u>&nsp;from the lesion}}</div> <div><r
/></div><div><i>The weak side of the uvula collapses and is henced pushed away
when the patient says "Ahhhhhhhhhh".</i></div>
1405802073459 1395802358422 Which way does the <>left</>&nsp;sternocleido
mastoid muscle help turn the head?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right}}</div>
1405802096917 1395802358422 Which side of the ody will see a shoulder droop
following lesion to the <>left</>&nsp;CN XI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left
(ipsilateral)}}</div>
1405802177547 1395802358422 Which side of the ody will the head have weakne
ss turning towards following a <>left</>&nsp;CN XI lesion?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Right (contralateral)}}</div>
1405802197426 1395802358422 Which way does the tongue deviate following a CN
XII LMN lesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Towards</u>&nsp;the lesion}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>i.e. <>"the tongue licks the wound</>"</i></div><div><i>
This is due to weakened tongue muscles on the side of the lesion. Think of it li
ke pushing a shoppig cart with one hand on 1 side, the cart is going to move the
opposite side due to a lack of pushing.</i></div>
1405802275364 1395802358422 What is the Rinne's Test result in conductive he
aring loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anormal (one &gt; air conduction)}}</di
v>
1405802318716 1395802358422 What is the Rinne's Test result in sensorineural
hearing loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal (air &gt; one)}}</div>
1405802337568 1395802358422 To which ear does Weer's Test localize in condu
ctive hearing loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The affected ear}}</div>
1405802365700 1395802358422 To which ear does Weer's Test localize in senso
rineural hearing loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unaffected ear}}</div>
1405802375296 1395802358422 Which frequency of sound is lost first in noiseinduced hearing loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High frequency}}</div>
1405803541663 1395802358422 Which area of the face is paralyzed in a <>cort
icoular (UMN) CN VII lesion</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral <u>L
ower</u>&nsp;face}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The forehead is spared due t
o ilateral UMN innervation of the upper division of the facial nucleus.</i><div
><i><>The lower division of the facial nucleus only receives contralateral inne
rvation</>.<r /></i><div><img src="paste-24068996727271.jpg" /></div></div>
1405804107837 1395802358422 Which area of the face is paralyzed in a <>LMN
CN VII lesion</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Ipsilateral</u>&nsp;upper <u>a
nd</u>&nsp;lower face}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-24064701759975.jpg" /
></div>
1405804151480 1395802358422 {{c1::Facial Nerve Palsy}} is a cranial nerve pa
lsy that presents with <>peripheral ipsilateral facial paralysis</>&nsp;with
the <>inaility to close the eye on the ipsilateral side</>.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-24455543783656.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Due to com
plete destruction of the facial nucleus or it's efferent fiers.</i></div><div><
i><r /></i></div>

1405804484013 1395802358422 {{c1::Bell Palsy}} is a type of facial nerve pal
sy that occurs idiopathically and gradually recovers.
1405804512841 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve palsy is associated with Lym
e disease (<i>Borrelia urgdorferi</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Facial nerve
palsy}}</div>
1405804537062 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve palsy is associated with HSV
and VZV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Facial nerve palsy}}</div> <r /><div><i>HS
V is more common.</i></div>
1405804558708 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve palsy is associated with Sar
coidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Facial nerve palsy}}</div>
1405804566918 1395802358422 What are the muscles of mastication?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Masseter; Temporalis; Medial &amp; lateral pterygoid}}</div>
1405804607561 1395802358422 Which pterygoid muscle <>opens</>&nsp;the jaw
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral pterygoid}}</div> <r /><div><i><>L</>at
eral <>L</>owers the jaw.&nsp;</i></div><div><i>The masseter, temporalis and
medial pterygoid all close the jaw.</i></div>
1405804636657 1395802358422 What is the innervation of all the mastication m
uscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>}}</div>
1405804650095 1395802358422 Which fiers in the eye attach the lens to the c
iliary ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zonula fiers}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-25374666785302.jpg" /></div>
1405806166965 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the lateral rectus mu
scle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VI}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-31533
649887734.jpg" /></div>
1405808058288 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the superior olique
muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IV}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808073626 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the superior rectus m
uscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808089300 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the medial rectus mus
cle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-31529
354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808099700 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the inferior rectus m
uscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808113195 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the inferior olique
muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808124177 1395802358422 {{c1::Oculomotor palsy}} is a cranial nerve pals
y that presents with <>down and out eyes</>, <>ptosis, pupillary dilation</>
&nsp;and <>loss of accommodation</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-3339337072661
3.jpg" /></div>
1405808171192 1395802358422 {{c1::Trochlear Palsy}} is a cranial nerve palsy
that presents with <>upwardly displaced eyes</>, especially with contralatera
l gaze and <>head tilt</>&nsp;<u style="font-weight: old; ">towards</u>&nsp
;the side of the lesion.
<r /><div><i>Hence there is often prolems goin
g down the stairs.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-31529354920438.jpg" /></i></
div>
1405808240053 1395802358422 {{c1::Aducens palsy}} is a cranial nerve palsy
that presents with <>medially directed eyes that cannot aduct</>.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808263899 1395802358422 Which way must a patient look in order to test t
he <>inferior olique</>&nsp;muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upwards}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i><>The olique eye muscles move the eye in </><u style="f
ont-weight: old; ">opposite directions</u>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-32
087700668723.jpg" /></i></div>
1405808324692 1395802358422 Which parasympathetic nucleus sends signals to t
he ciliary ganglion via CN III to achieve <>miosis</>&nsp;(pupillary constric
tion)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Edinger-Westphal nucleus}}</div>
<r /><d

iv><i>The ciliary ganglion then send <>short ciliary nerves</>&nsp;to the pup
illary sphincter muscles.</i></div>
1405808594265 1395802358422 Which ciliary nerves send signals to the <>pupi
llary sphincter muscles</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Short ciliary nerves}}</
div>
1405808616547 1395802358422 Which pupillary muscle is involved in <>miosis<
/>&nsp;(constriction)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sphincter muscles}}</div>
1405808641776 1395802358422 Which sympathetic nucleus receives hypothalamic
input to trigger <>mydriasis</>&nsp;(pupillary dilation)?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Ciliospinal center of Budge (C8-T2)}}</div>
1405808829475 1395802358422 Which ciliary nerves innervate the pupillary <>
dilator</>&nsp;muscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Long</u>&nsp;ciliary ne
rve}}</div>
1405808852219 1395802358422 Which pupillary muscles trigger <>mydriasis?</
><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Pupillary dilator muscles}}</div>
1405808884440 1395802358422 Which midrain nucleus <>directly </>receives
light signals via CN II in the pupillary light reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Pretectal nucleus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-32804960207259.jpg" /
></div>
1405808947978 1395802358422 Which midrain nucleus is activated y the Prete
ctal nuclei in the pupillary light reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Edinger-We
stphal nuclei}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-32800665239963.jpg" /></div>
1405808978140 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the midrain triggers ilateral
pupil contraction in the pupillary light reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Edi
nger-Westphal Nucleus}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-32800665239963.jpg" /
></div>
1405809021284 1395802358422 {{c1::Marcus-Gunn Pupil}} is a pathological pupi
l that occurs due to <>optic nerve damage or a severe retinal injury</>&nsp;a
nd presents with a <>loss/decrease of ilateral pupillary constriction to light
</>. <r /><div><i>Tested with the "<>swinging flashlight test</>"</i></div
><div><i><img src="paste-32800665239963.jpg" /></i></div>
1405809092063 1395802358422 {{c1::Retinal detachment}} is a retinal disorder
defined as separation of the neurosensory layer of the retina from the pigmente
d epithelium, therey leading to degeneration of photoreceptors.
<r /><d
iv><i>The neurosensory layer of the retina = rods and cones.</i></div><div><i>Re
tinal pigmented epithelium = the layer that shields excess light and supports th
e retina.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-33801392619624.jpg" /></i></div>
1405809602325 1395802358422 What visual field defect is seen in <>lesion of
the optic nerve</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ispilateral anopia}}</div>
<div><r /></div>#1<r /><div><img src="paste-34243774251776.jpg" /></div>
1405810216759 1395802358422 What visual field deficit is seen in <>optic ch
iasm lesions</>&nsp;(e.g. with a pituitary tumour)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Bitemporal hemianopia}}</div> <div><r /></div>#2<r /><div><img src="paste-34
239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405810259976 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in an<>&nsp;optic
tract</>&nsp;lesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral homonymous hemia
nopia}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>#3</i><r /><div><img src="paste-34239479284
480.jpg" /></div>
1405810628319 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in <>temporal loe
lesion </>(Meyer's Loop)<>?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Contralatera
l upper quadrant anopia}}</div> <div><r /></div>#4<r /><div><img src="paste-34
239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405810678375 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in a <>parietal lo
e lesion </>(Dorsal Optic Radiation; Baum's Loop)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C
ontralateral lower quadrantic anopia}}</div>
<div><r /></div>#5<r /><div><i
mg src="paste-34239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405810710845 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in <>infarction of
the Posterior Cereral Artery (PCA)</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contralatera
l hemianopia with macular sparing}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is ecause th
e macula has ilateral projection to the occiput.</i></div><div><i>#6</i></div><

div><i><img src="paste-34239479284480.jpg" /></i></div>
1405810785224 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in <>macular degene
ration</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Central scotoma in the affected eye}}</di
v>
<r /><div>#7</div><div><img src="paste-34239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405810822359 1395802358422 {{c1::Meyer's Loop}} is a section of the optic t
ract that carries visual information from the <>inferior retina</>&nsp;around
the <>inferior horn of the lateral ventricle</>&nsp;through the <>temporal
loe</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-34239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405811062562 1395802358422 {{c1::Dorsal Optic Radiation (Baum's Loop)}} is
a section of the optic tract that carries information from the <>superior retin
a</>&nsp;via the internal capsule and <>parietal loe</>. <r /><div><i>Th
is is the shortest route to the occiput.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-342394
79284480.jpg" /></i></div>
1405811109332 1395802358422 {{c1::Medial Longitudinal Fascicle}} is a visual
tract that allows for crosstalk etween <>CN VI</>&nsp;and <>CN III</>&ns
p;nuclei, therey coordinating <>horizontal gaze</>. <div><r /></div><i>It i
s very highly myelinated in order for extremely quick communication.</i><div><i>
Hence, <>demyelinating disorders present with symptoms</>.<r /></i><div><img
src="paste-35781372543332.jpg" /></div></div>
1405811243621 1395802358422 {{c1::Intranuclear Ophthalmoplegia (INO)}} is a
visual disorder that results from <>lesion to the MLF</>&nsp;and presents wit
h a <>lack of adduction of the ipsilateral eye</>&nsp;and <>nystagmus</>&n
sp;in the contralateral eye.
<div><r /></div><i>"<>INO</>&nsp;a <>MLF</
>&nsp;that can't <>Add</>(uct)."</i><div><i>When the CN VI nucleus activates
the ipsilateral lateral rectus, the contralateral medial rectus is not activated
y the contralateral CNIII nucleus.</i></div><div><i><u>This to me was unnecess
arily confusing. Whoever named the MLF's sucks alls.</u></i></div><div><i><>Th
e MLF's are named according to which side they <u>synapse on</u>, not the side f
rom which they originate </>(which would make so much more sense to me).<r /><
/i><div><img src="paste-35948876267875.jpg" /></div></div>
1405811550653 1395802358422 Which eye is unale to <>adduct</>&nsp;follow
ing a lesion to the <>MLF</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The <>IPSILATERAL</
>&nsp;eye}}</div>
<r /><div><i>All caps for emphasis ecause this one alw
ays gets me y virtue of the MLF naming.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i>
<i><>The MLF's are named according to which side they&nsp;<u>synapse on</u>, n
ot the side from which they originate&nsp;</>(which would make so much more se
nse to me).</i></div><div><i></i><i>Hence, l<u>esion to the LEFT MLF, result in
a loss of adduction in the LEFT eye (i.e. LEFT INO) even if the MLF is lesioned
in the right side of the ody</u> (i.e. at the right Aducens nucleus).</i></div
><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><div></div></i><i><><r /></></i><div><img sr
c="paste-35948876267875.jpg" /></div></div>
1420548759570 1367090743656 <>Enzyme kinetics</><div><><r /></></div><d
iv><>Michaelis-Menten kinetics</></div><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c8::[S]}
} = {{c9::concentration of sustrate}}; {{c10::V}} = {{c11::velocity}}.</div><di
v><><r /></></div><div><><img src="paste-8053063680113.jpg" /></></div><div
><><r /></></div><div><div>{{c1::Km}} is {{c2::inversely}} related to the aff
inity of the enzyme for its sustrate.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c3::Vmax}} i
s directly proportional to the enzyme concentration.</div><div><r /></div><div>
Most enzymatic reactions follow a {{c4::hyperolic curve}} (follow Michaelis-Men
ten kinetics); however, enzymatic reactions that exhiit a {{c5::sigmoid}} curve
usually indicate {{c6::cooperative}} kinetics (i.e., {{c7::hemogloin}}).</div>
</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
1420548934539 1367090743656 <>Enzyme Kinects</><div><><r /></></div><di
v><>{{c8::Lineweaver-Burk plot}}</></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-8216272437367.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::increase}} y-intercept,
{{c2::decrease}} V . ma</div><div><r /></div><div>The further to the {{c3::righ
t}} the x-intercept (i.e., closer to zero), the {{c4::greater}} the {{c5::Km}} a
nd the {{c6::lower}} the {{c7::affinity}}</div>
1420635247550 1367090743656 <>Enzyme inhiition</><div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-20044612370565.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div

>{{c1::Competitive inhiitors}} cross each other competitively, whereas {{c2::no
ncompetitive inhiitors}} do not.</div>
1420635347493 1367090743656 <>Pharmacokinetics vs. pharmacodynamics</><div
><><r /></></div><div><>{{c1::Pharmacokinetics}}:&nsp;</>{{c6::The effects
of the ody on the drug}}.&nsp;<>ADME:&nsp;</>{{c5::Asorption}},&nsp;{{c5
::Distriution}},&nsp;{{c5::Metaolism}}, {{c5::Excretion}}</div><div><><r />
</></div><div><>{{c2::Pharmacodynamics}}:&nsp;</>{{c3::The effects of the dr
ug on the ody}}.&nsp;Includes concepts of {{c4::receptor inding}}, {{c4::drug
efficacy}}, drug {{c4::potency}}, {{c4::toxicity}}.</div>
1420635375932 1412253438515 <img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592
a1_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_tmpqa7Nh6.png" />
1420635376053 1412253438515 <img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592
a1_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_tmpqa7Nh6.png" />
1420635376058 1412253438515 <img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592
a1_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_tmpqa7Nh6.png" />
1420635466069 1412253438515 <img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf
07_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_A_0.svg" />
<img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_tmpQyPlgZ.png" />
1420635466071 1412253438515 <img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf
07_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_A_0.svg" />
<img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_tmpQyPlgZ.png" />
1420635466072 1412253438515 <img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf
07_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_A_0.svg" />
<img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_tmpQyPlgZ.png" />
1420635714100 1412253438515 <img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c09
1_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_tmpQyPlgZ.png" />
1420635714102 1412253438515 <img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c09
1_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_tmpQyPlgZ.png" />
1420635714103 1412253438515 <img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c09
1_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_tmpQyPlgZ.png" />
1421622626809 1367090743656 <div><>{{c1::</><>Bioavailaility (F)</><div
></div>}}</div><div><><r /></></div><div><div>{{c2::Fraction of administered
drug that reaches systemic circulation unchanged.}}</div><div><r /></div><div>F
or an <>{{c6::IV dose}}</>, F = {{c3::100}}%.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Or
ally</>: F typically {{c4::&lt;100}}% due to {{c5::incomplete asorption and fi
rst-pass metaolism.}}</div></div>
1421623058769 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Volume of distriution&nsp;(Vd)}}</><
div><><r /></></div><div>Theoretical volume occupied y {{c4::the total asor
ed drug amount at the plasma concentration.&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div>
Apparent Vd of plasma protein–ound drugs can e altered y {{c5::liver}} and {{c5
::kidney}} disease ({{c3::decreasing}} protein inding, {{c2::increases}} Vd). D
rugs may distriute in more than one compartment.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c
6::Vd}} = {{c7::amount of drug in the ody}} / {{c8::plasma drug concentration}}
</div>
1421623163778 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Half-life (t1/2)}}</><div><><r /></

></div><div>{{c6::The time required to change the amount of drug in the ody y
1⁄2 during elimination (or constant infusion).&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div>
Property of {{c7::first}}-order elimination. A drug infused at a constant rate t
akes {{c8::4–5}} half-lives to reach {{c9::steady state}}. It takes {{c10::3.3}} h
alf-lives to reach {{c11::90}}% of the steady-state level.</div><div><r /></div
><div>{{c2::t1/2}} = {{c3::0.693}} × {{c5::Vd}} / {{c4::CL}}</div><div><r /></div
><div><r /></div>
1421623263498 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
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af_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
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af_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623263591 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
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af_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623263594 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623263595 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623263596 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623263597 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623372726 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Clearance (CL)}}</><div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c2::The volume of plasma cleared of drug per unit time}}.&nsp;</div><div><
r /></div><div>Clearance may e impaired with defects in {{c3::cardiac}}, {{c3:
:hepatic}}, or {{c3::renal function}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>CL = {{c4::rat
e of elimination of drug}} / {{c5::plasma drug concentration}} =&nsp;{{c6::Vd}}
× {{c7::Ke (elimination constant)}}</div>
1421623414237 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414240 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414241 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src

="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414242 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414243 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414244 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414246 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414258 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623519455 1367090743656 <>Dosage calculations</><div><r /></div><div>
{{c2::Loading dose}} = {{c6::Cp}} × {{c5::Vd}} / {{c4::F}}</div><div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Maintenance dose}} = {{c3::Cp × CL × τ / F}}</div><div><br /></div><div><div
>Cp = are plasma concenraion a seady sae&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><d
iv>τ = dosae inerval (ime beween doses), if no</div><div>adminisered coninu
ously</div></div><div><br /></div><div><b>Noe</b>:&nbsp;In renal or liver disea
se, mainenance dose {{c7::decreases}} and loadin dose is usually {{c8::unchan
ed}}.</div><div><br /></div><div>Time o seady sae depends primarily on {{c9:
:1/2}} and is independen of dose and dosin fre uency.</div>
1421623675232 1367090743656 <b>Eliminaion of drus</b><div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Zero}}-order eliminaion</div><div><br /></div><div>Rae of eliminaion i
s {{c2::consan reardless of Cp (i.e., consan amoun of dru eliminaed per
uni ime).&nbsp;}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Cp decreases {{c3::linearly}} wi
h ime.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Examples of drus—{{c4::Phenyoin}}, {{c5
::Ehanol}}, and {{c6::Aspirin (a hih or oxic concenraions).}}</div><div><b
r /></div><div><div><br /></div></div> <div>Capaciy-limied eliminaion.</div>
<div><b>PEA.</b> (A pea is round, shaped like he “0” in</div><div>“zero-order.”)</div>
1421623776874 1367090743656 <b>Eliminaion of drus</b><div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Firs}}-order eliminaion</div><div><br /></div><div>Rae of eliminaion
is {{c2::direcly proporional o he dru concenraion (i.e., consan fracio
n of dru eliminaed per uni ime).}}&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Cp {{c3:
:decreases}} exponenially wih ime.</div><div><br /></div>
Flow-dependen e
liminaion.
1421623845426 1367090743656 <b>Urine pH &amp; dru eliminaion</b><div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Ionized}} species are rapped in {{c2::urine}} and cleared ui
ckly. {{c3::Neural}} forms can be {{c4::reabsorbed}}.</div><div><br /></div>
1421623916363 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916481 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916482 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_2.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916483 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0

96_Q_3.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916527 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_4.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916529 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_5.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916530 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_6.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916532 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_7.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623954582 1367090743656 <div><b>Urine pH &amp; Dru eliminaion-</b>Ioni
zed species are rapped in urine and cleared uickly. Neural forms can be reabs
orbed.</div><div><br /></div><b>Weak {{c1::acids}}</b><div><br /></div><div><b>E
xamples</b>: {{c2::phenobarbial}}, {{c3::mehorexae}}, {{c4::aspirin}}.&nbsp;
</div><div><br /></div><div>Trapped in {{c5::basic}} environmens.&nbsp;</div><d
iv><br /></div><div>Trea overdose wih {{c6::bicarbonae}}.</div>
1421624020204 1367090743656 <b>Urine pH &amp; Dru eliminaion-</b>Ionized s
pecies are rapped in urine and cleared uickly. Neural forms can be reabsorbed
.<div><br /></div><div><b>Weak {{c1::bases}}</b></div><div><br /></div><div>Exam
ple: {{c2::ampheamines}}. Trapped in {{c3::acidic}} environmens.&nbsp;</div><d
iv><br /></div><div>Trea overdose wih {{c4::ammonium chloride}}.</div>
1421624061812 1367090743656 <b>Dru meabolism</b><div><b><br /></b></div><d
iv><b>{{c19::Phase I}}-</b>{{c12::Reducion}}, {{c13::oxidaion}}, {{c14::hydrol
ysis}} wih {{c15::cyochrome P-450}} usually yield {{c16::slihly polar}}, {{c
17::waer}}-soluble meabolies (ofen sill {{c18::acive}}).</div><div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Geriaric}} paiens lose {{c2::phase I}} firs.</div><div><b><b
r /></b></div><div><b>{{c20::Phase II}}-</b>{{c11::Conjuaion}} ({{c7::Glucuron
idaion}}, {{c7::Aceylaion}}, {{c7::Sulfaion}}) usually yields very {{c8::pol
ar}}, {{c9::inacive}} meabolies ({{c10::renally}} excreed).</div><div><br />
</div><div><div>Geriaric paiens have GAS (phase {{c3::II}}).</div><div>Paien
s who are slow {{c4::aceylaors}} have reaer&nbsp;{{c5::</div><div>side&nbsp
;effecs}}&nbsp;from cerain drus because of {{c6::decreased}} rae of meaboli
sm.</div></div>
1421624179783 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179785 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179787 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_2.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179789 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_3.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179790 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_4.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />

<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179792 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_5.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179793 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_6.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179795 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_7.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624319840 1367090743656 <b>Efficacy vs. poency</b><div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Efficacy}}-{{c3::Maximal}} effec a dru can produce. Hih-efficacy dru
classes are {{c4::analesic (pain) medicaions}}, {{c5::anibioics}}, {{c7::an
ihisamines}}, and {{c6::deconesans}}. Parial aoniss have {{c8::less}} eff
icacy han full&nbsp; aoniss.</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c2::Poency}}-Amoun o
f dru needed for {{c9::a iven effec}}. {{c10::increase}} poency, {{c11::incr
ease}} affiniy for recepor. Hihly poen dru classes include {{c12::chemohe
rapeuic (cancer) drus}}, {{c13::anihyperensive (blood pressure) drus}}, and
{{c14::&nbsp;lipid-lowerin (choleserol) drus.}}</div>
1421624505381 1367090743656 <b>{{c8::Therapeuic index}}</b><div><br /></div
><div>Measuremen of {{c1::dru safey}}</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c7::TD50}}
/{{c6::ED50}} = {{c4::median oxic dose}}/{{c5::median effecive dose}}</div><di
v><br /></div><div>{{c3::Therapeuic window}}-measure of {{c2::clinical dru eff
eciveness for a paien}}</div><div><br /></div><div><div>TITE: Therapeuic Ind
ex = TD50 / ED50. Safer drus have {{c9::hiher}} TI values.&nbsp;</div><div><br
/></div><div>Examples&nbsp;of drus wih {{c11::low}} TI values include {{c10::
dioxin}},</div><div>{{c12::lihium}}, {{c13::heophylline}}, and {{c14::warfari
n}}.</div><div><br /></div><div>LD50 (lehal median dose) ofen replaces TD50</d
iv><div>in animal sudies.</div></div>
1421624599457 1412253438515 <im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a87
25_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_A_0.sv" />
<im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_mpaFfMrH.pn" />
1421624599460 1412253438515 <im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a87
25_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_A_0.sv" />
<im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_mpaFfMrH.pn" />
1421624599463 1412253438515 <im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a87
25_Q_2.sv" /> <im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_A_0.sv" />
<im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421624835386 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
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1421624835453 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
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<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421624835454 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
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<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421624835455 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
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<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421624978660 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Ach}} recepors</b><div><b><br /></b></
div><div><div syle="fon-weih: bold; "><br /></div><div>{{c2::Nicoinic}} ACh
recepors are {{c3::liand}}-aed {{c4::Na+/K+}} channels; NN (found in {{c5::
auonomic anlia}}) and NM (found in {{c6::neuromuscular juncion}}) subypes.<
/div><div><br /></div><div>{{c7::Muscarinic}} ACh recepors are {{c8::G-proein–co
upled}} recepors ha usually ac hrouh {{c9::2nd messeners}}; 5 subypes: {
{c10::M1, M2, M3, M4, and M5.}}</div></div>
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1421625302689 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
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1421625302690 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
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1421625302692 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
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1421625302695 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
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1421625302697 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
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1421625302701 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
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<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625302702 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_19.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625393787 1367090743656 <b>Cholineserase inhibior poisonin</b><div><b
><br /></b></div><div>Ofen due o {{c1::oranophosphaes}}, such as {{c2::para
hion}}, ha irreversibly inhibi {{c3::AChE}}.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div
>Causes {{c4::Diarrhea}}, {{c5::Urinaion}}, {{c6::Miosis}}, {{c7::Bronchospasm}
}, {{c8::Bradycardia}}, Exciaion of {{c9::skeleal muscle}} and {{c10::CNS, La
crimaion, Sweain, and Salivaion.}}</div><div><br /></div><div><div>DUMBBELSS
.</div><div>Oranophosphaes are componens of</div><div>{{c11::insecicides}};
poisonin usually seen in {{c12::farmers}}.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div><b>
Anidoe</b>—{{c13::aropine}} (acs as {{c14::compeiive inhibior}}) +</div><di
v>{{c15::pralidoxime}} (reeneraes {{c16::AChE}} if iven early).</div></div>
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<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625556649 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
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<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1b_Q_10.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625556657 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_11.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625556677 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_12.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1b_Q_13.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625556680 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_15.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625556681 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
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<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625556682 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_17.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625556684 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_18.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625556685 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_19.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625556686 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_20.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625556687 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_21.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_mpbmkH4V.pn" />
1421625556688 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_22.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_mpbmkH4V.pn" />
1421625556689 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_23.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625556690 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_24.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />

<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625556691 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_25.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_mpbmkH4V.pn" />
1421625702619 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
f8_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702624 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
f8_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702625 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
f8_Q_2.sv" /> <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_mp7x8c9i.pn" />
1421625702626 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
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<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702627 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
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<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702628 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
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<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702629 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
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<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702631 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
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<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702632 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
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<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_mp7x8c9i.pn" />
1421625702633 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
f8_Q_10.sv" /> <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702634 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
f8_Q_11.sv" /> <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702635 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
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<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702929 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
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<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702930 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
f8_Q_14.sv" /> <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702931 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
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<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_mp7x8c9i.pn" />
1421625702932 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
f8_Q_16.sv" /> <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702933 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
f8_Q_17.sv" /> <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421625702934 1412253438515 <im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893
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<im src="07a10d28a5e270722ebcf21165b3758f7dc893f8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421626010428 1412253438515 <im src="3116e987d8cdbd09d0b3336d9762cfc1af4ddb
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<im src="3116e987d8cdbd09d0b3336d9762cfc1af4ddbaa_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421626127638 1367090743656 <b>Norepinephrine vs. isoproerenol</b><div><b><
br /></b></div><div><b><br /></b><div>Norepinephrine causes {{c1::increase}} in
sysolic and diasolic pressures as a resul of α1-medited vsoconstriction leds
to {{c2::increse}} in men rteril pressure leding to {{c3::brdycrdi}}.&n
bsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>However, isoproterenol (no longer commonly used)
hs little {{c4::α}} effect but cuses β2-mediated {{c5::vasodilation}}, resulting
in {{c6::decreased}} mean arterial pressure and {{c7::increased}} heart rate thr
ough {{c8::β1}} and reflex activity.</div><div><r /></div></div>
1421626241396 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
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<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241398 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
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<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241400 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
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<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241401 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
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<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241403 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
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<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241404 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
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<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241405 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
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<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241407 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
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<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241408 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
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<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241409 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
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<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241410 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
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<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241411 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
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<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241434 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
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<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d57_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d57_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421628199633 1412253438515 <img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d
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<img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d57_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d57_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d57_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d57_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421628199640 1412253438515 <img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d
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<img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d57_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421628199641 1412253438515 <img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d
57_Q_18.svg" /> <img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d57_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d57_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1425090250118 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Acathosis nigricans}}</><div><r /></d
iv><div>Epidermal {{c2::hyperplasia}} causing symmetrical, hyperpigmented, velve
ty thickening of skin, especially on {{c3::neck}} or {{c3::in axilla}} (see pic
A) .&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Associated with {{c4::hyperinsulinemia}} (
e.g., {{c6::diaetes}}, {{c6::oesity}}, {{c6::Cushing syndrome}}) and {{c5::vis
ceral malignancy}} (e.g., {{c7::gastric adenocarcinoma}}).</div><div><r /></div

><div><img src="paste-95309619265778.jpg" /></div>
1425090604302 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Actinic keratosis}}</><div><r /></div
><div>{{c3::Premalignant}} lesions caused y {{c2::sun exposure}}. Small, rough,
{{c6::erythematous}} or {{c6::rownish}} papules or plaques (see pic B) . Risk
of {{c4::squamous cell carcinoma}} is proportional to degree of epithelial {{c5:
:dysplasia}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-95541547499770.jpg" /><
/div>
1425090693899 1367090743656 <>{{c10::Erythema nodosum}}</><div><r /></div
><div>Painful inflammatory lesions of {{c1::sucutaneous fat}}, usually on {{c2:
:anterior shins}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Often idiopathic, ut can e
associated with {{c3::sarcoidosis}}, {{c4::coccidioidomycosis}}, {{c5::histopla
smosis}}, {{c6::TB}}, {{c7::streptococcal}} infections, {{c8::leprosy}}, and {{c
9::Crohn}} disease (See pic C).&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-95584497172731.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
1425090761492 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Lichens Planus}}</><div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c2::Pruritic}}, {{c2::Purple}}, {{c2::Polygonal}} {{c2::Planar}} {{c2::Papu
les}} and {{c2::Plaques}} are the 6 P’s of lichen Planus (See pic D).&nbsp;</
iv><

iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Mucosal involvement manifests as {{c3::Wickham striae}} (re
ticular white lines). {{c4::Sawtooth}} infiltrate of {{c5::lymphocytes}} at {{c6
::
ermal-epi
ermal}} junction. Associate
with {{c7::hepatitis C}}.</
iv><
iv><b
r /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-95747705929967.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv>
1425090876976 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Pityriasis rosea}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv>
<
iv>{{c2::Heral
patch}}” followe

ays later by {{c3::“Christmas tree”}}
istributio
n (See pic E) . Multiple pla ues with collarette scale. {{c4::Self-resolving}} i
n {{c5::6–8 weeks}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-95910914687217.jpg
" /></
iv>
1425090953247 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Sunburn}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv
>Acute cutaneous inflammatory reaction
ue</
iv><
iv>to excessive {{c2::UV irra

iation}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Causes {{c3::DNA mutations}}, in
ucin
g {{c4::apoptosis}} of {{c5::keratinocytes}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{
{c6::UVA}} is
ominant in tanning an
photoaging, {{c6::UVB}} in sunburn.&nbsp;<
/
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Can lea
to {{c7::impetigo}} (See pic F) an
skin {{c
8::cancers}} ({{c8::basal cell carcinoma}}, {{c8::s uamous cell carcinoma}}, an

{{c8::melanoma}}).</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-96031173771
501.jpg" /></
iv>
1425091076816 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Basal cell carcinoma}}</b><
iv><b><br /
></b></
iv><
iv>Most {{c2::common}} skin cancer. Foun
in {{c3::sun}}-expose
ar
eas of bo
y. Locally {{c4::invasive}}, but almost never {{c5::metastasizes}}.&nb
sp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Pink, pearly no
ules, commonly with {{c6::telangi
ectasias}}, {{c7::rolle
}} bor
ers, an
central {{c8::crusting}} or {{c8::ulcera
tion}} (see pic A) . BCCs also appear as {{c9::nonhealing}} {{c10::ulcers}} with
infiltrating growth (see pic B) or as a {{c11::scaling pla ue}} (superficial BC
C) C . Basal cell tumors have {{c12::“palisa
ing”}} nuclei (see pic D).<br /><
iv><b
r /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-96452080566449.jpg" /></
iv></
iv>
1425091208781 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::S uamous cell carcinoma}}</b><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv><
iv>{{c2::Secon
most}} common skin cancer.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /><
/
iv><
iv>Associate
with {{c3::excessive exposure to sunlight}}, {{c4::immunosu
ppression}}, an
occasionally {{c5::arsenic}} exposure.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv>Commonly appears on {{c6::face}} (See pic E),</
iv><
iv>{{c7::lower lip
}} (see pic F), {{c8::ears}}, an
{{c9::han
s}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
i
v>{{c10::Locally invasive}}, but may sprea
to lymph no
es an
will {{c11::rarel
y metastasize}}. Ulcerative re
lesions with fre uent scale. Associate
with {{c
12::chronic
raining}} sinuses. <b>Histopathology</b>: {{c13::keratin “pearls”}} (se
e pic G).</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c14::Actinic keratosis}}, a scaly pla ue,
is a precursor to s uamous cell carcinoma.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c15::Ke
ratoacanthoma}} is a variant that {{c16::grows rapi
ly (4–6 weeks)}} an
may&nbsp;
{{c17::regress spontaneously over&nbsp;months}} (see pic&nbsp;H).</
iv></
iv><
i
v><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-96572339650736.jpg" /></
iv>
1425091965359 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Melonoma}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Com
mon tumor with significant risk of {{c2::metastasis}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></


iv><
iv>{{c13::S-100}} tumor marker. Associate
with {{c15::sunlight}} exposure;
{{c14::fair-skinne
}} persons are at {{c3::increase
}} risk.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><b
r /></
iv><
iv>{{c5::Depth of tumor}} correlates with risk of {{c4::metastasis}}
. Look for the ABCDEs: {{c6::Asymmetry}}, {{c6::Bor
er irregularity}}, {{c6::Col
or variation}}, {{c6::Diameter &gt;6mm}}, an
{{c7::Evolution over time}}. At le
ast 4
ifferent types of melanoma (See I, J, K, L). Often
riven by activating m
utation in {{c8::BRAF kinase}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Primary treatme
nt is {{c10::excision with appropriately wi
e margins}}. Metastatic or unresecta
ble melanoma in patients with {{c11::BRAF V600E}} mutation may benefit from {{c1
2::vemurafenib}}, a {{c9::BRAF kinase inhibitor}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><i
mg src="paste-96744138342577.jpg" /></
iv>
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11_tmprYCgz8.png" />
1425093028302 1412253438515 <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605

11_Q_21.svg" /> <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_tmprYCgz8.png" />
1425093028303 1412253438515 <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605

11_Q_22.svg" /> <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_tmprYCgz8.png" />
1425093028304 1412253438515 <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605

11_Q_23.svg" /> <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_tmprYCgz8.png" />
1425093028305 1412253438515 <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605

11_Q_24.svg" /> <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_tmprYCgz8.png" />
1425093028306 1412253438515 <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605

11_Q_25.svg" /> <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_tmprYCgz8.png" />
1425093028307 1412253438515 <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605

11_Q_26.svg" /> <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_tmprYCgz8.png" />
1425093028308 1412253438515 <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605


11_Q_27.svg" /> <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_tmprYCgz8.png" />
1425093028309 1412253438515 <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605

11_Q_28.svg" /> <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_tmprYCgz8.png" />
1425093028310 1412253438515 <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605

11_Q_29.svg" /> <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_tmprYCgz8.png" />
1425093028311 1412253438515 <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605

11_Q_30.svg" /> <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_tmprYCgz8.png" />
1425093028312 1412253438515 <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605

11_Q_31.svg" /> <img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb069c467a0a141cc9ba920b0219ecb602605
11_tmprYCgz8.png" />
1425093053272 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Aspirin}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>M
echanism:</b>&nbsp;{{c10::Irreversibly}} inhibits {{c11::cyclooxygenase (both CO
X-1 an
COX-2)}} by covalent {{c12::acetylation}}, which {{c2::
ecreases}} synth
esis of both {{c3::thromboxane A2 (TXA2)}} an
{{c4::prostaglan
ins}}. {{c5::Inc
rease
}} {{c6::blee
ing time}} until new platelets are pro
uce
(∼ {{c7::7}}
ays)
. {{c8::No}} effect on PT, PTT. A type of {{c9::NSAID}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv><b>Clinical Use:</b>&nbsp;Low
ose (&lt; 300 mg/
ay): {{c15::
ecreases plate
let aggregation}}. Interme
iate
ose (300–2400 mg/
ay): {{c13::antipyretic}} an
{
{c14::analgesic}}. High
ose (2400–4000 mg/
ay): {{c16::anti-inflammatory}}.</
iv>
<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Toxicity</b>:{{c17::&nbsp;Gastric ulceration}}, {{c18::
tinnitus (CN VIII)}}. Chronic use can lea
to {{c19::acute renal failure}}, {{c2
0::interstitial nephritis}}, an
upper {{c21::GI blee
ing}}. Risk of {{c22::Reye
syn
rome}} in chil
ren treate
with aspirin for {{c23::viral}} infection. Also
stimulates {{c24::respiratory centers}}, causing {{c25::hyperventilation}} an
{
{c26::respiratory alkalosis.}}</
iv>
1425093533086 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::NSAIDs}}-</b>{{c2::Ibuprofen}}, {{c3::n
aproxen}}, {{c4::in
omethacin}}, {{c6::ketorolac}}, {{c5::
iclofenac}}.<
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv><b>Mechanism:</b> {{c7::Reversibly}} inhibit {{c8::cyclooxygenase (
both COX-1 an
COX-2)}}. Block {{c9::PG}} synthesis.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv
><
iv><b>Clinical Use:</b>&nbsp;{{c10::Antipyretic}}, {{c11::analgesic}}, {{c12:
:anti-inflammatory}}. {{c13::In
omethacin}} is use
to {{c14::close a PDA}}.</
i
v><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Toxicity</b>:&nbsp;{{c15::Interstitial nephritis}}, {
{c16::gastric ulcer (PGs protect gastric mucosa)}}, {{c17::renal ischemia (PGs v
aso
ilate afferent arteriole)}}.</
iv>
1425093839889 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::COX-2 inhibitors}} ({{c2::celecoxib}})<
/b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Mechanism</b>:&nbsp;{{c3::Reversibly}} inhibit speci
fically the {{c4::cyclooxygenase (COX) isoform 2}}, which is foun
in {{c5::infl
ammatory cells}} an
vascular {{c6::en
othelium}} an
me
iates {{c7::inflammatio
n}} an
{{c8::pain}}; spares {{c9::COX-1}}, which helps maintain the {{c10::gast
ric mucosa}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Thus, shoul
not have the corrosi
ve effects of other NSAIDs on the GI lining. Spares {{c11::platelet}} function a
s {{c12::TXA2}} pro
uction is
epen
ent on {{c13::COX-1}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv
><
iv><b>Clinical use:</b>&nbsp;{{c14::Rheumatoi
arthritis}} an
{{c15::osteoar
thritis}}; patients with {{c16::gastritis or ulcers}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
i
v><b>Toxicity</b>: Increase
risk of {{c17::thrombosis}}. {{c18::Sulfa}} allergy
.</
iv>
1425093977457 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Acetominophen}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
i
v><b>Mechanism</b>:&nbsp;Reversibly inhibits {{c2::cyclooxygenase}}, mostly in {
{c3::CNS}}. {{c4::Inactivate
}} peripherally.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Clin
ical use</b>:&nbsp;{{c10::Antipyretic}}, {{c10::analgesic}}, but not {{c11::anti
-inflammatory}}. Use
instea
of {{c14::aspirin}} to avoi
{{c12::Reye}} syn
rom

e in chil
ren with {{c13::viral}} infection.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Toxic
ity</b>:&nbsp;Over
ose pro
uces {{c5::hepatic necrosis}}; acetaminophen metaboli
te ({{c7::NAPQI}})
epletes {{c6::glutathione}} an
forms toxic tissue a

ucts i
n liver. {{c8::N-acetylcysteine}} is anti
ote—regenerates {{c9::glutathione}}.</
i
v>
1425094247494 1367090743656 <b>{{c2::Bisphosphonates}}</b>-{{c1::Alen
ronate
, other-"
ronates".}}<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Mechanism:</b> {{c3::Pyrophosphate
}} analogs; bin
{{c4::hy
roxyapatite}} in bone, inhibiting {{c5::osteoclast}} a
ctivity.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Clinical use:</b> {{c6::Osteoporosis}}, {
{c7::hypercalcemia}}, {{c8::Paget
isease of bone}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>
<b>Toxicity</b>:&nbsp;{{c9::Corrosive esophagitis (patients are a
vise
to take
with water an
remain upright for 30 minutes)}}, {{c10::osteonecrosis}} of the {
{c11::jaw}}.</
iv>
1425094336525 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Allopurinol}}</b><
iv><b><br /></b></
i
v><
iv>Inhibits {{c2::xanthine oxi
ase}},
ecreases conversion of {{c3::xanthine
}} to {{c4::uric aci
}}. Also use
in {{c5::lymphoma}} an
{{c6::leukemia}} to p
revent {{c7::tumor lysis}}– associate
{{c8::urate nephropathy}}. Increases concen
trations of {{c9::azathioprine}} an
{{c10::6-MP}} (both normally metabolize
by
{{c11::xanthine oxi
ase}}).<br /><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Do not give {{c12::salic
ylates}}; all but the {{c13::highest}}
oses
epress {{c14::uric aci
}} clearanc
e. Even high
oses (5–6 g/
ay) have only minor {{c15::uricosuric}} activity.</
iv>
</
iv>
1425094650250 1412253438515 <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e4319
1e_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_tmpPJn3tZ.png" />
1425094650343 1412253438515 <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e4319
1e_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_tmpPJn3tZ.png" />
1425094650344 1412253438515 <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e4319
1e_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_tmpPJn3tZ.png" />
1425094650346 1412253438515 <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e4319
1e_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_tmpPJn3tZ.png" />
1425094650347 1412253438515 <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e4319
1e_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_tmpPJn3tZ.png" />
1425094650349 1412253438515 <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e4319
1e_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_tmpPJn3tZ.png" />
1425094650350 1412253438515 <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e4319
1e_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_tmpPJn3tZ.png" />
1425094650351 1412253438515 <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e4319
1e_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_tmpPJn3tZ.png" />
1425094650352 1412253438515 <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e4319
1e_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_tmpPJn3tZ.png" />
1425094650353 1412253438515 <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e4319
1e_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_A_0.svg" />

<img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_tmpPJn3tZ.png" />
1425094650355 1412253438515 <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e4319
1e_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_tmpPJn3tZ.png" />
1425094650392 1412253438515 <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e4319
1e_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="28933babf28129622e84e32
4
155c
00e43191e_tmpPJn3tZ.png" />
1425094769136 1367090743656 <b>Gout
rugs</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c1::
Febuxostat}}</b>- inhibits xanthine oxi
ase.<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c2::Probe
naci
}}</b>: Inhibits reabsorption of {{c3::uric aci
}} in {{c4::PCT}} (also inh
ibits secretion of {{c5::penicillin}})</
iv></
iv>
1425094838381 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Acute}} gout
rugs</b><
iv><b><br /></b
></
iv><
iv><b>{{c5::NSAIDs}}: </b>{{c6::Naproxen}}, {{c7::in
omethacin}}.</
iv>
<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c4::Glucocorticoi
s}}</b>: {{c2::Oral}} or {{c3::intr
aarticular}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c8::Colchicine}}</b>:&nbsp;Bin
s a
n
stabilizes {{c9::tubulin}} to inhibit {{c10::microtubule}} polymerization, im
pairing {{c11::leukocyte chemotaxis}} an
{{c12::
egranulation}}.&nbsp;{{c13::Ac
ute}} an
{{c13::prophylactic}} value. {{c14::GI}} si
e effects.</
iv><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv>
1425095245353 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Acute}} Gout Drugs</b><
iv><br /></
iv>
<
iv><b>{{c2::TNF-a inhibitors}}</b>:&nbsp;All TNF-α inhibitors predispose to {{c1
6::infection}}, including rectivtion of {{c17::ltent TB}}, since TNF blockde
prevents ctivtion of {{c18::mcrophges}} nd destruction of {{c19::phgocyto
sed microbes}}.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div><b>{{c9::Etnercept}}</b>:&nbsp
;Fusion protein (receptor for {{c10::TNF-α}} + {{c11::IgG1 Fc}}), produced by {{c1
2::recombinnt DNA}}. Clinicl use =&nbsp;{{c13::Rheumtoid rthritis}}, {{c14::
psorisis}}, {{c15::nkylosing spondylitis}}</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></
div><div><b>{{c3::Infliximb, dlimumb}}</b>:&nbsp;Anti-TNF-α {{c4::monoclonl}}
ntibody. Clinicl use =&nbsp;{{c5::IBD}}, {{c6::rheumtoid rthritis}}, {{c7::
nkylosing spondylitis}}, {{c8::psorisis}}</div>
Etner<b>cept</b> is  T
NF decoy re<b>cept</b>or.
1424798102756 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Endochondrl}} ossifiction</b><br /><b
r /><div>Bones of xil nd ppendiculr skeleton, nd {{c2::bse}} of the skull
. {{c4::Crtilginous}} model of bone is first mde by {{c3::chondrocytes}}. Ost
eoclsts nd osteoblsts lter replce with {{c5::woven bone}} nd then remodel
to {{c6::lmellr bone}}. In dults, woven bone occurs fter frctures nd in {{
c7::Pget disese}}.<br /><br /></div>
1424798148098 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Membrnous}} ossifiction</b><div><br /
></div><div>Bones of {{c2::clvrium}} nd {{c3::fcil}} bones. {{c4::Woven bon
e}} formed directly without {{c5::crtilge}}. Lter remodeled to {{c6::lmellr
bone}}.</div>
1424798331850 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Achondroplsi}}</b><div><br /></div><d
iv>Filure of longitudinl bone growth ({{c2::endochondrl}} ossifiction), led
s to short limbs.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c3::Membrnous}} ossificti
on is not ffected, leds to {{c4::lrge hed reltive to limbs}}.&nbsp;</div><d
iv><br /></div><div>Constitutive ctivtion of {{c5::fibroblst growth fctor re
ceptor (FGFR3)}} ctully inhibits {{c6::chondrocyte}} prolifertion.&nbsp;</div
><div><br /></div><div>&gt; 85% of muttions occur {{c7::spordiclly}} nd re
ssocited with {{c8::dvnced pternl ge}}, but the condition lso demonstrt
es {{c9::utosoml dominnt}} inheritnce. Common cuse of dwrfism. Norml {{c1
0::life spn}} nd {{c10::fertility}}.</div>
1424798422483 1367090743656 <b>{{c17::Osteoporosis}}</b><div><br /></div><di
v><div><br /></div><div>{{c18::Trbeculr (spongy)}} bone loses mss nd interco
nnections despite norml bone minerliztion nd lb vlues (serum C2+ nd PO43−)
. Diagnosis by {{c19::a bone mine al density test (DEXA)}} with a Tsco e of {{c
20::≤ −2.5}}. Can be caused by longte m exogenous {{c21::ste oid}} use.</div><div><
b /></div><div>Can lead to {{c22::ve teb al c ush}} f actu es—acute {{c23::back p

ain}}, {{c23::loss of height}}, {{c23::kyphosis}}.</div></div><div><b /></div><
div><b>Type I:</b>&nbsp;{{c3::Postmenopausal}}<b>,</b>&nbsp;{{c1::inc eases}} {{
c4::bone eso ption}} due to {{c2::dec eased}} {{c4::est ogen}} levels</div><div
>{{c5::Femo al neck}} f actu e, {{c6::distal adius (Colles)}} f actu e</div><d
iv><b /></div><div><b>Type II:&nbsp;</b>{{c7::Senile osteopo osis}}: affects {{
c8::men and women}} &gt; {{c9::70}} yea s old.</div><div><b>P ophylaxis</b>: e
gula {{c15::weightbea ing exe cise}} and adequate {{c16::calcium and vitamin D
intake th oughout adulthood.}}</div><div><b>T eatment</b>: {{c10::bisphosphonat
es}}, {{c11::PTH}}, {{c12::SERMs}}, a ely {{c13::calcitonin}}; {{c14::denosumab
(monoclonal antibody against RANKL)}}.</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="pas
te39990440493199.jpg" /></div>
1424832189015 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Osteopet osis&nbsp;}}</b><div>({{c2::Ma
ble bone}} disease)</div><div><b /></div><div><div>Failu e of no mal {{c3::bon
e eso ption}} due to defective {{c4::osteoclasts}}, leading to {{c5::thickened,
dense}}&nbsp;bones that a e p one to {{c6::f actu e}}. Bone fills {{c9::ma ow
space}}, leading to {{c7::pancytopenia}}, {{c8::ext amedulla y hematopoiesis}}.&
nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><div>Mutations (e.g., {{c10::ca bonic anhyd ase II}}
) impai ability of {{c11::osteoclast}}&nbsp;to gene ate {{c12::acidic envi onme
nt}} necessa y&nbsp;fo bone eso ption. X ays show {{c13::boneinbone}} appea
ance. Can esult in {{c14::c anial ne ve impingement}} and palsies as a esult
of {{c15::na owed fo amina}}. {{c16::Bone ma ow t ansplant}} is potentially cu
ative as osteoclasts a e de ived f om {{c17::monocytes}}.</div></div><div><b /
></div><div><img s c="paste41987600285920.jpg" /></div>
1424832535011 1367090743656 <b>{{c2::Osteomalacia/Rickets}}</b><div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Vitamin D}} deficiency. {{c3::Osteomalacia}} in adults; {{c3:: ic
kets}} in child en. Due to defective {{c4::mine alization/ calcification of oste
oid}}, leading to soft bones that bow out.&nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c5
::Dec eased}} {{c6::vitamin D}}, leading to {{c7::dec eaced}} se um {{c8::calciu
m}} leading to {{c9::inc eased}} {{c10::PTH}} sec etion leading to {{c11::dec ea
sed}} se um {{c12::PO4}}. Hype activity of osteoblasts leading to inc eased A{{c
13::LP (osteoblasts equi e alkaline envi onment).}}</div>
1424833270198 1367090743656 <b>{{c3::</b><b>Paget disease of bone </b><b>(os
teitis defo mans)</b>}}<b /><div><b /></div><div>Common, localized diso de of
bone emodeling caused by inc ease in {{c4::both osteoblastic &amp; osteoclasti
c}} activity. Se um {{c1::calcium}}, {{c1::phospho us}}, and {{c1::PTH}} levels
a e {{c2::no mal}}.&nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><div>Inc eased {{c5::ALP}}</div>
<div><b /></div><div>{{c6::Mosaic}} patte n of {{c7::woven}} &amp; {{c7::lamell
a }} bone (see A), long bone {{c8::chalk}}like f actu es.</div><div><b /></div
><div>Inc eased {{c9::blood}} f om f om inc eased {{c10::a te iovenous shunts}}
may cause {{c11::highoutput hea t failu e}}. Inc eased isk of {{c12::osteosa c
oma}}.&nbsp;<b /><div><b /></div><div><div>{{c13::Hat size}} can be inc eased
(see B) ; {{c14::hea ing loss}} is common due to {{c15::audito y fo amen na owi
ng}}.</div><div><b /></div><div><b>Stages of Paget disease:</b></div><div> {{c16
::Lytic}}—{{c23::osteoclasts}}</div><div> {{c17::Mixed}}—{{c22::osteoclasts + osteobl
asts}}</div><div> {{c18::Scle otic}}—{{c21::osteoblasts}}</div><div> {{c19::Quiescen
t}}—{{c20::minimal osteoclast/osteoblast&nbsp;activity}}</div></div></div><div><b
/></div><div><img s c="paste42515881263340.jpg" /></div>
1424833594095 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Osteonec osis (avascula nec osis)}}</b
><div><b><b /></b></div><div>{{c2::Infa ction}} of bone and ma ow, usually ve
y {{c3::painful}}. Caused by {{c4::t auma}}, {{c4::highdose co ticoste oids}},
{{c4::alcoholism}}, {{c4::sickle cell}}.&nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><div>Most c
ommon site is {{c5::femo al head (due to insufficiency of medial ci cumflex femo
al a te y).}}</div>
1424833817793 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_0.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424833817794 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_1.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c

="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424833817796 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_2.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424833817835 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_3.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424833817836 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_4.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424833817837 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_5.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424833817839 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_6.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424833817840 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_7.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424833817841 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_8.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424833817852 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_9.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424833817853 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_10.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424833817855 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_11.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424833817856 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_12.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424833817857 1412253438515 <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716
f8_Q_13.svg" /> <img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="04ced79abb5a2ef92fbab0bd2ef4312b260716f8_tmphHCq8j.png" />
1424887048896 1367090743656 <b>{{c3::Giant cell tumo }}</b><div><b /></div>
<div>{{c2::2040}} yea s old, {{c1::Epiphyseal end}} of long bones</div><div><b
/></div><div><div><b>Cha acte istics</b></div><div>Locally agg essive {{c5::ben
ign}} tumo often a ound {{c6::knee}}.</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c7::“Soap bubb
le”}} appea ance on x ay.</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c4::Multinucleated}} giant
cells.</div></div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste34385508171901.jpg" /><
/div>
1424887137362 1367090743656 <b>{{c4::Osteochond oma (exostosis)}}</b><div><b
/></div><div>Most {{c2::common}} {{c3::benign tumo }}</div><div><b /></div><d
iv>Population = {{c1::Males &lt; 25 yo}}</div><div><b /></div><div>Matu e bone
with {{c5::ca tilaginous}} cap. Ra ely t ansfo ms to {{c6::chond osa coma}}.</di

v>
1424887200990 1367090743656 <b>{{c3::Osteosa coma}}</b><div><b /></div><div
>2nd most common p ima y {{c4::malignant}} bone tumo (afte {{c5::multiple myel
oma}})</div><div><b /></div><div><b>Bimodal dist ibution</b>: {{c1::1020 yea
olds (1st)}} &amp; {{c2::&gt;65 (2nd)}}</div><div><b /></div><div><b>P edisposi
ng facto s</b> = {{c6::Paget disease of bone}}, {{c7::bone infa cts}}, {{c8:: ad
iation}}, &amp; {{c9::familial Rb}}</div><div><b /></div><div>Found @ {{c11::me
taphysis}} of long bones, often a ound the {{c10::knee}}.&nbsp;</div><div><b />
</div><div><img s c="paste34638911242357.jpg" /></div><div><b /></div><div><di
v>{{c12::Codman t iangle}} (f om elevation of pe iosteum) o {{c13::sunbu st}} p
atte n on x ay.</div><div><b /></div><div>Agg essive. T eat with {{c14::su gic
al en bloc esection (with limb salvage)}} and {{c15::chemothe apy}}.</div></div
><div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste34651796144337.jpg" /></div>
1424887504514 1367090743656 <b>Ewing sa coma</b><div><b /></div><div><div>P
opulation = {{c1::Boys &lt; 15 yea s old.}}</div><div><b /></div><div>Commonly
appea s in {{c2::diaphysis}} of long bones,o &nbsp;{{c3::pelvis}}, {{c3::scapula
}}, and {{c3:: ibs}}.</div></div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste348407747
05271.jpg" /></div><div><b /></div><div><div>{{c4::Anaplastic}} {{c5::small blu
e cell}} {{c6::malignant}} tumo (in pic).</div><div><b /></div><div>Ext emely
agg essive with ea ly {{c7::metastases}}, but</div><div>{{c8:: esponsive to chem
othe apy}}.</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c9::“Onion skin”}} appea ance in bone.</div
><div><b /></div><div>Associated with {{c10::t(11;22) t anslocation}}.</div><di
v><b /></div></div>
11 + 22 = 33 (Pat ick Ewing’s jersey number).
1424887642939 1367090743656 <b>{{c2::Chon
rosarcoma}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv>{{c4::Rare}}, {{c3::malignant}}, {{c5::cartilaginous}} tumor.</
iv><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv><b>Population</b> = {{c1::Men, 30-60 yo}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv
>Usually locate
in {{c6::pelvis}}, {{c6::spin}}, {{c6::scapula}}, {{c6::humerus
}}, {{c6::tib/fib}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>May be primary origin or from {{
c8::osteochon
roma}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Expansile glistening mass withi
n {{c7::me
ullary cavity}}.</
iv>
1424887981570 1412253438515 <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b
20_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_tmptTbUXP.png" />
1424887981581 1412253438515 <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b
20_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_tmptTbUXP.png" />
1424887981582 1412253438515 <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b
20_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_tmptTbUXP.png" />
1424887981584 1412253438515 <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b
20_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_tmptTbUXP.png" />
1424887981585 1412253438515 <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b
20_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_tmptTbUXP.png" />
1424887981586 1412253438515 <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b
20_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_tmptTbUXP.png" />
1424887981587 1412253438515 <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b
20_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_tmptTbUXP.png" />
1424887981589 1412253438515 <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b
20_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_A_0.svg" />

<img src="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7539036cb53951
71baf2f777ea44a9cf0357b20_tmptTbUXP.png" />
1424888792508 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Sjögren syn
rome}}</b><
iv><b><br /></b>
</
iv><
iv>{{c3::Autoimmune}}
isor
er characterize
by
estruction of {{c4::exo
crine glan
s}} (esp. {{c2::lacrimal}} &amp; {{c2::salivary}})</
iv><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv>Pre
ominantly affects {{c5::females}}, {{c5::40-60}} yo.</
iv><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv><b>Fin
ings:</b></
iv><
iv>{{c6::Xerophthalmia}} (
ecrease
{{c7::t
ear pro
uction}} &amp; subse uent {{c7::corneal
amage}})</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv>
<
iv>{{c8::Xerostomia}} (
ec. {{c8::saliva}} pro
uction)</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv>Presence of {{c9::antinuclear antibo
ies}}: {{c10::SS-A (anti-o)}}, an
/or {
{c11::SS-B (anti-La)}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>Can be a {{c12::1°
isor
er
}} or a {{c13::2° syn
rome associate
with other autoimmune
isor
ers (e.g., rheum
atoi
arthritis).}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Complications</b>—{{c14::
ental
caries}}; {{c15::mucosa- associate
lymphoi
tissue (MALT) lymphoma (may present
as unilateral paroti
enlargement).}}</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></

iv>
1424888994392 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Gout}}</b><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv>
<
iv><b>Fin
ings</b>:</
iv><
iv>Acute {{c2::inflammatory}} {{c3::mono}}arthritis
cause
by precipitation of {{c4::monoso
ium urate}} crystals in joints (see pic
A).&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Associate
with {{c5::hyperuricemia}},
which can be cause
by:</b></
iv><
iv> {{c10::Un
erexcretion}} of uric aci
(90%
of patients)—largely {{c16::i
iopathic}}; can be exacerbate
by certain&nbsp;me
ic
ations (e.g., {{c17::thiazi
e}}
iuretics).</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv> {{c11::Ov
erpro
uction}} of uric aci
(10% of patients)—{{c13::Lesch-Nyhan}} syn
rome, {{c14
::PRPP}} excess, increase
&nbsp;{{c15::cell&nbsp;turnover (e.g., tumor lysis syn

rome)}}, {{c12::von Gierke}}
isease.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Crystals are {
{c6::nee
le}} shape
an
{{c7::Neg}} birefringent ({{c8::yellow}} un
er parallel
light, {{c8::blue}} un
er&nbsp;perpen
icular light). More common in {{c9::males
}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Symptoms</b>:&nbsp;{{c18::Asymmetric}} joint

istribution. Joint is {{c19::swollen}}, {{c19::re
}}, an
{{c19::painful}} (see
pic B). Classic manifestation is painful {{c20::MTP}} joint of the {{c21::big to
e}} (calle
{{c22::po
agra}}). {{c23::Tophus}} formation (often on {{c24::extern
al ear}}, {{c24::olecranon bursa}}, or {{c24::Achilles ten
on}}). Acute attack t
en
s to occur after {{c25::a large meal}} or {{c25::alcohol consumption}} (becas
e {{c26::alcohol metabolites compete for same excretion sites in ki
ney as uric
aci
, causing
ecrease
uric aci
secretion an
subse uent buil
up in bloo
}}).<
/
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Treatment</b>:&nbsp;<b>Acute</b>: {{c27::NSAIDs}}
(e.g., {{c28::in
omethacin}}), {{c29::glucocorticoi
s}}, {{c30::colchicine}}.</

iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Chronic</b> (preventive): {{c31::xanthine oxi
ase in
hibitors}} (e.g., {{c32::allopurinol}}, {{c32::febuxostat}}).</
iv></
iv><
iv><b
r /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-42460046688484.jpg" /></
iv>
1424889744467 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Pseu
ogout}}</b><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv
><
iv><
iv>Presents with {{c6::pain}} an
{{c6::effusion}} in a joint, cause
by

eposition of {{c7::calcium pyrophosphate}} crystals within the joint space (ch
on
rocalcinosis on x-ray).&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Forms {{c8::basophil
ic}}, {{c9::rhomboi
}} crystals that&nbsp;are weakly {{c10::positively}} birefri
ngent (see pic A) . Usually affects {{c11::large}} joints (classically the {{c12
::knee}}).&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c13::&gt; 50}}&nbsp;years ol
; sex
es {{c14::affecte
e ually}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Diseases that may
be associate
with pseu
ogout inclu
e {{c15::hemochromatosis}}, {{c16::hyperpar
athyroi
ism}}, an
{{c17::hypoparathyroi
ism}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv
><b>Treatment</b> inclu
es {{c18::NSAIDs}} for su

en, severe attacks; {{c19::st
eroi
s}}; an
{{c20::colchicine}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c4::Gout}}</b
>—crystals are {{c3::yellow}} when parallel (||) to the light.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv><b>{{c5::Pseu
ogout}}</b>—crystals are {{c2::blue}} when parallel (|
|) to the light.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-42528766165112
.jpg" /></
iv>
1424972002807 1367090743656 <b>Infectious arthritis</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv
>{{c1::S. aureus}}, {{c1::Streptococcus}}, an
{{c1::Neisseria gonorrhoeae}} are
common causes.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Gonococcal arthritis is an STD

that presents as a {{c2::migratory}} arthritis with an {{c3::asymmetric}} patter
n.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Affecte
joint is swollen, re
, an
painful.
&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>STD = {{c4::Synovitis (e.g.,
knee)}}, {{c5::Tenosynovitis (e.g., han
)}}, an
{{c6::Dermatitis (e.g., pustule
s)}}.</
iv>
1424972072052 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Seronegative spon
yloarthropathies}}</b
>:&nbsp;Arthritis without {{c2::rheumatoi
factor (no anti-IgG antibo
y)}}. Stro
ng association with {{c3::HLA-B27 (gene that co
es for HLA MHC class I)}}. Occur
s more often in males.&nbsp;<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c4::PAIR}}
= {{c4::Psoriatic arthritis}}, {{c4::Ankylosing spon
ylitis}}, {{c4::Inflammator
y bowel
isease}}, {{c4::Reactive arthritis}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br />
</
iv>
1424972176015 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Psoriatic arthritis}}</b><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv>Joint pain an
stiffness associate
with psoriasis.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv>{{c2::Asymmetric}} an
{{c2::patchy}} involvement.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv>
<br /></
iv><
iv>{{c3::Dactylitis (“sausage fingers” see pic A}}, {{c4::“pencil-in- cu
p” &nbsp;
eformity on x-ray (see pic B)}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Seen i
n {{c5::fewer than 1 ⁄3 of patients}} with psoriasis.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
img src="paste-597000454311.jpg" /></
iv>
1424972284534 1367090743656 <b>{{c2::Ankylosing spon
ylitis}}</b><
iv><br />
</
iv><
iv>Chronic inflammatory
isease of {{c3::spine}} &amp; {{c3::sacroiliac}
} joints, lea
s to {{c4::ankylosis (stiff spine
ue to fusion)}}, {{c4::uveitis}
}, an
{{c4::aortic regurgitation.&nbsp;}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Bamb
oo spine (pic C)}} is ofter seen</
iv> <img src="paste-828928688300.jpg" />
1424972393499 1367090743656 <b>Inflammatory bowel
isease</b><
iv><br /></
i
v><
iv>{{c1::Crohn
isease}} &amp; {{c2::ulcerative colitis}} are often accompan
ie
by {{c3::ankylosing spon
ylitis}} or {{c4::peripheral arthritis}}</
iv>
1424972447644 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Reactive arthritis (Reiter syn
rome)}}<
/b><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b>Classic Tria
</b>: {{c5::Conjunctivitis}}, {{
c5::Urethritis}}, {{c5::Arthritis}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>From {{c2::Post-G
I}} infections w/: {{c4::Shigella}}, {{c4::Salmonella}}, {{c4::Yersinia}}, {{c4:
:Campylobacter}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Or {{c3::Chlamy
ia}} infections.</

iv>
<
iv>Can’t see, can’t pee, can’t ben
my knee.”</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv>
1425000936072 1367090743656 <b>{{c10::Systemic lupus erythematosus}}</b><
iv
><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv><b>Classic presentation:</b> rash, joint pain, an
fever,
most commonly in a {{c7::female}} of {{c8::repro
uctive}} age an
{{c9::African
}}
escent.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-28080496181389.jpg" /></

iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c1::Libman-Sacks en
ocar
itis}}</b>—wart-like vegeta
tions on both si
es of valve.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Lupus nephritis (typ
e {{c2::III}} hypersensitivity reaction):</b></
iv><
iv> {{c6::Nephritic}}—{{c3::&n
bsp;
iffuse proliferativeglomerulonephritis}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv> {{c5::
Nephrotic}}—{{c4::membranous&nbsp;glomerulonephritis.}}</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
i
v><
iv><b>Fin
ings:</b></
iv><
iv><
iv><b>{{c12::Antinuclear antibo
ies (ANA)}}<
/b>—sensitive, not specific.</
iv><
iv>{{c13::Anti-
sDNA}} antibo
ies—specific, poor
prognosis (renal
isease).</
iv><
iv>{{c14::Anti-Smith antibo
ies}}—specific, not
prognostic (
irecte
against snRNPs).</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c15::Antihis
tone antibo
ies}}—sensitive for
rug-in
uce
lupus.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c
16::Anticar
iolipin}} antibo
ies—false positive on tests for {{c18::syphilis}}, pr
olonge
{{c19::PTT (para
oxically, increase
risk of arteriovenous thromboemboli
sm).}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Decrease
{{c17::C3}}, {{c17::C4}}, an
{{c17:
:CH50}}
ue to immune complex formation.</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Tre
atment:</b></
iv><
iv>{{c11::NSAIDs}}, {{c11::steroi
s}}, {{c11::immunosuppressa
nts}}, {{c11::hy
roxychloro uine}}.</
iv>
<
iv><b>RASH OR PAIN:</b></
iv><

iv><b>R</b>ash (malar A or
iscoi
)</
iv><
iv><b>A</b>rthritis</
iv><
iv><b>S</
b>oft tissues/serositis</
iv><
iv><b>H</b>ematologic
isor
ers (e.g., cytopenias
) Oral/nasopharyngeal ulcers</
iv><
iv>Renal
isease, Raynau
phenomenon Photose
nsitivity, Positive VDRL/RPR Antinuclear antibo
ies</
iv><
iv>Immunosuppressants
</
iv><
iv>Neurologic
isor
ers (e.g. seizures, psychosis)</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv
><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Common causes of
eath in SLE:&nbsp;</b></
iv><
iv> Car

iovascular
isease</
iv><
iv> Infections</
iv><
iv> Renal
isease</
iv>

1425001308488 1367090743656 <b>{{c2::Sarcoi
osis}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>
<
iv>Characterize
by {{c1::immune}}-me
iate
, wi
esprea
{{c3::noncaseating gra
nulomas}} (see pic A) an
elevate
serum {{c4::ACE}} levels. Common in {{c5::bla
ck females}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Often {{c6::asymptomatic}} except
for {{c7::enlarge
lymph no
es}}. Inci
ental fin
ings on CXR of {{c8::bilateral
hilar a
enopathy}} an
/or {{c9::reticular opacities}} (see pic B).</
iv><
iv><b
r /></
iv><
iv>Associate
with {{c10::restrictive lung
isease (interstitial fib
rosis)}}, {{c11::erythema no
osum}}, {{c12::lupus pernio}}, {{c13::Bell palsy}},
epithelioi
granulomas containing microscopic {{c14::Schaumann}} an
{{c14::ast
eroi
}} bo
ies, uveitis, an
hypercalcemia (
ue to increase
1{{c15::α-hydroxylse
}}–medited vitmin D ctivtion in mcrophges).</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Tr
etment</b>: {{c16::steroids}}.</div></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste
-28157805592835.jpg" /></div>
1425001493918 1367090743656 <b>{{c8::Polymylgi rheumtic}}</b><div><br />
</div><div><b>Symptoms</b>: Pin nd stiffness in {{c9::shoulders}} nd {{c9::hi
ps}}, often with fever, mlise, nd weight loss. Does not cuse {{c10::musculr
wekness}}. More common in {{c11::women}} {{c11::&gt; 50}} yers old; ssocite
d with {{c12::temporl (gint cell) rteritis}}.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>F
indings</b>: {{c1::inc}} {{c4::ESR}}, {{c2::inc}} {{c5::C-rective protein}}, {{
c3::norml}} {{c6::CK}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Tretment</b>: {{c7::rpid
response to low dose corticosteroids}}</div>
1425001624959 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Fibromylgi}}</b><div><br /></div><div
>Most commonly seen in {{c2::femles}} {{c2::20–50}} yers old. Chronic, widespre
d musculoskeletl pin ssocited with {{c7::stiffness}}, {{c8::presthesis}},
{{c3::poor sleep}}, nd {{c9::ftigue}}.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Tret
with {{c4::regulr exercise}}, {{c5::ntidepressnts (TCAs, SNRIs)}}, nd {{c6::
nticonvulsnts}}.</div>
1425001909211 1367090743656 <b>{{c3::Polymyositis}}</b>—progressive symmetric
proximl muscle wekness, chrcterized by {{c4::endomysil}} inflmmtion with
{{c5::CD8+ T}} cells. Most often involves {{c6::shoulders}}.<div><br /></div><di
v><b>{{c2::Dermtomyositis}}</b>—similr to polymyositis, but lso involves {{c7::
mlr rsh (similr to SLE)}}, {{c8::Gottron ppules}} (see pic A) , {{c9::helio
trope (erythemtous periorbitl) rsh, “shwl nd fce”}} rsh (see pic B) , {{c10::“m
echnic’s}} han
s.” Increase
&nbsp;risk of {{c11::occult malignancy}}. {{c13::Perimy
sial}} inflammation an
atrophy with {{c12::CD4+ T}} cells.</
iv><
iv><br /></
i
v><
iv><img src="paste-28647431864575.jpg" /><img src="paste-28660316766353.jpg"
/></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Fin
ings:&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Tre
atment: </b>{{c1::steroi
s}}</
iv>
1425002144627 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Myositis ossificans}}</b><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv>{{c2::Metaplasia}} of {{c3::skeletal muscle}} to {{c3::bone}} following
{{c4::muscular trauma}} (see pic A).&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Most often
seen in {{c5::upper or lower extremity}}. May present as {{c6::suspicious “mass”}}
at site of known trauma or as inci
ental fin
ing on ra
iography.</
iv><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-38336878084368.jpg" /></
iv>
1425002310202 1412253438515 <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa

3_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_tmpVcbYwh.png" />
1425002310204 1412253438515 <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa

3_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_tmpVcbYwh.png" />
1425002310226 1412253438515 <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa

3_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_tmpVcbYwh.png" />
1425002310228 1412253438515 <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa

3_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_tmpVcbYwh.png" />

1425002310229 1412253438515 <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa

3_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_tmpVcbYwh.png" />
1425002310230 1412253438515 <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa

3_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_tmpVcbYwh.png" />
1425002310231 1412253438515 <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa

3_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_tmpVcbYwh.png" />
1425002310233 1412253438515 <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa

3_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_tmpVcbYwh.png" />
1425002310234 1412253438515 <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa

3_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_tmpVcbYwh.png" />
1425002310235 1412253438515 <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa

3_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_tmpVcbYwh.png" />
1425002310236 1412253438515 <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa

3_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_tmpVcbYwh.png" />
1425002310237 1412253438515 <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa

3_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="041b35
8f5223a1b478f7c92024afe269036aa
3_tmpVcbYwh.png" />
1424888052884 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Osteoarthritis}}</b><
iv><b><br /></b><
/
iv><
iv><b>Etiology: </b>{{c2::Mechanical}}-joint {{c3::wear}} &amp; {{c3::tea
r}}
estroys {{c4::articular cartilage}}</
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b>Jo
int Fin
ings: </b>Subchon
ral cysts, sclerosis, osteophytes, eburnation (polishe

, ivory-like appearance of bone), {{c5::Heber
en (DIP)}} &amp; {{c5::Bouchar
s
(PIP) no
es}}. No {{c5::MCP}} involvement.</
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b>
Pre
isposing Factors:</b>&nbsp;{{c11::Age}}, {{c11::obesity}}, {{c11::joint
efo
rmity}}, {{c11::trauma}}</
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b>Classic Presentati
on:&nbsp;</b>Pain in {{c8::weight-bearing joints afer use (e.g. at the en
of th
e
ay)}}, improving with {{c9::rest}}. {{c10::Knee cartilage}} loss begins me
ia
lly (bowlegge
). Non-{{c7::inflammatory}}, No {{c6::systemic}} symptoms.&nbsp;</

iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b>Treatment: </b>{{c13::NSAIDs}}, {{c12::intra
-articular glucocorticoi
s}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-4130899
5453360.jpg" /></
iv>
1424888374688 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Rheumatoi
arthritis}}</b><
iv><b><br /
></b></
iv><
iv><b>Etiology: </b>{{c2::Autoimmune}}-{{c3::inflamm}}.
estruction
of the {{c4::synovial joints}}. Me
iate
by {{c5::cytokines}} &amp; Type {{c6::
III/IV}} hypersensitivity reactions.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b>
Joint Fin
ings: </b>{{c8::Pannus}} formation in joints ({{c7::MCP}}, {{c7::PIP}}
), {{c10::subcutaneous rheumatoi
}} no
ules ({{c9::fibrinoi
}} necrosis), {{c14:
:ulnar
eviation}} of fingers, {{c13::subluxation}}, {{c12::Baker cyst}} (in pop
liteal fossa). No {{c11::DIP}} involvement.</
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b
>Pre
isposing factors: </b>{{c16::Females}} &gt; {{c17::Males}}, 80% have + {{c1
8::Rheumatoi
factor}} (anti-{{c19::IgG}} antibo
y); {{c20::anti-cyclic citrulli
nate
pepti
e antibo
y}} is more specific. Strong association with {{c15::HLA-DR
4}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b>Classic presentation: </b>{{c24:
:Morning stiffness lasting &gt; 30 min. &amp; improving w/ use}}, {{c25::symmetr
ic}} joint involvement, {{c26::systemic}} symptoms (fever, fatigue, pleuritis, p

ericar
itis)</
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b>Treatment: </b>{{c21::NSAIDs}}
, {{c22::glucocorticoi
s}}, Disease mo
ifying agents ({{c23::methotrexate}}, {{c
23::sulfasalazine}}, {{c23::TNF-a inhibitors}})</
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
i
v><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b><img src="paste-41472204210
604.jpg" /></b></
iv>
1425086980272 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Sclero
erma (systemic sclerosis)}}</b><

iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b><br /></b><
iv><img src="paste-446676598967.jpg"
/><img src="paste-459561500915.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>Excessive
{{c4::fibrosis}} an
{{c5::collagen}}
eposition throughout the bo
y. Commonly
sclerosis of {{c6::skin}}, manifesting as {{c7::puffy}} an
{{c7::taut}} skin&nb
sp;with absence of wrinkles. Also sclerosis of {{c8::renal}}, {{c8::pulmonary}}
(most common {{c8::cause of
eath}}), {{c8::car
iovascular}}, an
{{c8::GI}} sys
tems. 75% {{c10::female}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c9::2 major types:
}}</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c2::Diffuse}} sclero
erma</b>—wi
esprea

skin involvement, rapi
progression, early visceral involvement. Associate
with
{{c11::anti- Scl-70}} antibo
y (anti-{{c12::DNA topoisomerase I}} antibo
y).</

iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv><b>{{c3::Limite
}} sclero
erma</b>—limite
skin invo
lvement confine
to {{c13::fingers}} an
&nbsp;{{c13::face}}. Also with <b>{{c14:
:CREST}}</b> involvement: {{c15::Calcinosis, Raynau
phenomenon, Esophageal
ysm
otility, Sclero
actyly, an
Telangiectasia}}. More benign clinical course. Assoc
iate
with {{c16::antiCentromere}} antibo
y {{c16::(C for CREST)}}.</
iv></
iv><
/
iv>
1425087384640 1412253438515 <img src="2a3580978aa
b51667ff51b51b39c5c10
25
4
9e_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="2a3580978aa
b51667ff51b51b39c5c10
25
49e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2a3580978aa
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25
49e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2a3580978aa
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25
49e_tmpv7rwYj.png" />
1425087384642 1412253438515 <img src="2a3580978aa
b51667ff51b51b39c5c10
25
4
9e_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="2a3580978aa
b51667ff51b51b39c5c10
25
49e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2a3580978aa
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25
49e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2a3580978aa
b51667ff51b51b39c5c10
25
49e_tmpv7rwYj.png" />
1425087384643 1412253438515 <img src="2a3580978aa
b51667ff51b51b39c5c10
25
4
9e_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="2a3580978aa
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25
49e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2a3580978aa
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25
49e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2a3580978aa
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25
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1425087384671 1412253438515 <img src="2a3580978aa
b51667ff51b51b39c5c10
25
4
9e_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="2a3580978aa
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<img src="2a3580978aa
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="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_tmp9m0CaM.png" />
1425088621025 1412253438515 <img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570
c4_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_tmp9m0CaM.png" />
1425088621026 1412253438515 <img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570
c4_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_tmp9m0CaM.png" />
1425088621082 1412253438515 <img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570
c4_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_tmp9m0CaM.png" />
1425088621083 1412253438515 <img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570
c4_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_tmp9m0CaM.png" />
1425088621084 1412253438515 <img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570
c4_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_A_0.svg" />

<img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_tmp9m0CaM.png" />
1425088621086 1412253438515 <img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570
c4_Q_16.svg" /> <img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b39118f49af92f7e4919f
4c174ca7eb903570c4_tmp9m0CaM.png" />
1425088878191 1412253438515 <img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c55b
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1_tmpxTfOTm.png" />
1425088878193 1412253438515 <img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="c55b
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1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c55b
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1_tmpxTfOTm.png" />
1425088878194 1412253438515 <img src="c55b
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1_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="c55b
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1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c55b
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1_tmpxTfOTm.png" />
1425088878195 1412253438515 <img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="c55b
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1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c55b
41361b7
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1_tmpxTfOTm.png" />
1425088878196 1412253438515 <img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c55b
41361b7
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1_tmpxTfOTm.png" />
1425088878197 1412253438515 <img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="c55b
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1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c55b
41361b7
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1_tmpxTfOTm.png" />
1425088878198 1412253438515 <img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_tmpxTfOTm.png" />
1425088878199 1412253438515 <img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_tmpxTfOTm.png" />
1425088878200 1412253438515 <img src="c55b
41361b7
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1_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_tmpxTfOTm.png" />
1425088878590 1412253438515 <img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea

1_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_tmpxTfOTm.png" />
1425088878592 1412253438515 <img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea

1_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_tmpxTfOTm.png" />
1425088878593 1412253438515 <img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea

1_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c55b
41361b7
62470833779ebbe0246cbceea
1_tmpxTfOTm.png" />
1425088941693 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Pemphigus vulgaris}}</b><
iv><br /></
i
v><
iv><
iv>Potentially fatal autoimmune skin
isor
er with {{c2::IgG}} antibo
y
against {{c3::
esmoglein (component of
esmosomes)}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
i
v><br /></
iv><
iv>Flacci
intraepi
ermal bullae (see Pic A) cause
</
iv><
iv>by
{{c4::acantholysis}} ({{c7::keratinocytes}} in {{c6::stratum spinosum}} are con
necte
by {{c5::
esmosomes}}); {{c8::oral mucosa}} also involve
.</
iv><
iv><br

/></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c9::Immunofluorescence}} reveals antibo
ies arou
n
{{c10::epi
ermal}} cells in a {{c11::reticular (net-like)}} pattern (See pic
B).</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c13::Nikolsky}} sign {{c12::Positive}} ({{c14::
separation of epi
ermis}} upon manual stroking of skin).</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /><
/
iv><
iv><img src="paste-93638876987528.jpg" /><img src="paste-93660351824108.j
pg" /></
iv>
1425089181600 1367090743656 <b>{{c3::Bulla pemphigoi
}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv>
<
iv><
iv>Less severe than {{c4::pemphigus vulgaris}}. Involves {{c5::IgG}} anti
bo
y against {{c6::hemi
esmosomes}} ({{c7::epi
ermal basement}} membrane; antibo

ies are “bullow” the epi
ermis).</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Tense {{c8::blisters}}
(see pic C) containing {{c9::eosinophils}} affect skin but spare {{c10::oral muc
osa}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-94446330839277.jpg" /></
iv><

iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c11::Immunofluorescence}} reveals {{c12::linear}} pattern
at {{c13::epi
ermal-
ermal junction}} (see pic D).</
iv><
iv>{{c2::Nikolsky}} si
gn {{c1::negative}}.</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-9439908619
8917.jpg" /></
iv>
antibo
ies are “bullow” the epi
ermis
1425089368404 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Dermatitis herpetiformis}}</b><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv>Pruritic papules, vesicles, an
bullae (often foun
on {{c2::elbows
}}) (see pic E).&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Deposits of {{c3::IgA}} at the
tips of {{c4::
ermal papillae}}. Associate
with {{c5::celiac}}
isease.</
iv><

iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-94484985544941.jpg" /></
iv>
1425089452416 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Erythema multiforme}}</b><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv><
iv>Associate
with {{c2::infections}} (e.g., {{c3::Mycoplasma pneumoni
ae}}, {{c3::HSV}}), {{c4::
rugs}} (e.g., {{c5::sulfa}}&nbsp;
rugs, {{c5::β-lactams
}}, {{c5::phenytoin}}), {{c6::cancers}}, and {{c7::autoimmune}} disease.&nsp;</
div><div><r /></div><div>Presents with multiple {{c8::types of lesions—macules, p
apules, vesicles, and target lesions}} (look like {{c9::targets}} with multiple
rings and a dusky center showing {{c10::epithelial}} disruption) (See pic F).</d
iv></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-94545115087088.j
pg" /></div>
1425090025560 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Stevens-Johnson syndrome}}</><div><r
/></div><div>Characterized y {{c2::fever}}, {{c2::ulla}} formation and {{c2::n
ecrosis}}, {{c3::sloughing of skin}}, and a {{c4::high}} mortality rate.&nsp;</
div><div><r /></div><div>Typically {{c5::2}} {{c6::mucous memranes}} are invol
ved (See pic G), and skin lesions may appear like {{c7::targets}} as seen in {{c
8::erythema multiforme}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Usually associated wi
th {{c9::adverse drug reaction}}. A more severe form of Stevens-Johnson syndrome
with &gt; 30% of the ody surface area involved is {{c10::toxic epidermal necro
lysis}}
.</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-94721208746224.jpg" /></div
><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-94819992994033.jpg" /></div>
1423929134334 1367090743656 <div><>Epidermis layers</></div><div><><r />
</></div><div><>From surface to ase:</></div><div>{{c1::Stratum Corneum (ker
atin)}}</div><div>{{c2::Stratum Lucidum}}</div><div>{{c3::Stratum Granulosum}}</
div><div>{{c4::Stratum Spinosum (spines =<div>desmosomes)}}</div></div><div>{{c5
::Stratum Basale (stem cell site)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-14242111553853.jpg" /></div>
Californians Like Girls in Strin
g Bikinis.
1423929283522 1367090743656 <>Knee Injury</><div><r /></div><div><div>Pre
sents with acute knee pain and signs of joint injury/instaility:</div><div> Ante
rior drawer sign tests ACL injury</div><div><r /></div><div> {{c13::Posterior dr
awer}} sign tests {{c14::PCL injury}}</div><div><r /></div><div> {{c16::Anormal
passive aduction (valgus stress)}} suggests {{c15::MCL injury}}</div><div><r
/></div><div> {{c6::Anormal passive adduction (varus stress)}} suggests {{c5::LC
L injury}}</div><div><r /></div><div> <>{{c12::McMurray}} test</>: pain on {{c
4::external rotation}} points to {{c1::medial meniscus}}; pain on {{c3::internal
rotation}} suggests {{c2::lateral meniscus}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Unh
appy triad</>—common injury in contact sports due to {{c7::lateral}} force applie
d to a planted leg. Classically, consists of damage to the {{c8::ACL}}, {{c9::MC
L}}, and {{c10::medial meniscus (attached to MCL)}}; however, {{c11::lateral men
iscus}} injury is more common.</div></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-

25387551686797.jpg" /></div>
“Anterior” and “posterior” in ACL and PCL refer to sites
of tiial attachment.
1423929426495 1412253438515 <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41a
a3_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_tmpsc5_5I.png" />
1423929426497 1412253438515 <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41a
a3_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_tmpsc5_5I.png" />
1423929426525 1412253438515 <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41a
a3_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_tmpsc5_5I.png" />
1423929426526 1412253438515 <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41a
a3_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_tmpsc5_5I.png" />
1423929426528 1412253438515 <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41a
a3_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_tmpsc5_5I.png" />
1423929426529 1412253438515 <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41a
a3_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_tmpsc5_5I.png" />
1423929426530 1412253438515 <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41a
a3_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_tmpsc5_5I.png" />
1423929426531 1412253438515 <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41a
a3_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_tmpsc5_5I.png" />
1423929426558 1412253438515 <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41a
a3_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_tmpsc5_5I.png" />
1423929426559 1412253438515 <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41a
a3_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_tmpsc5_5I.png" />
1423929426561 1412253438515 <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41a
a3_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_tmpsc5_5I.png" />
1423929426562 1412253438515 <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41a
a3_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_tmpsc5_5I.png" />
1423929426563 1412253438515 <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41a
a3_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_A_0.svg" />
<img src="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="052a67361fad23847f44fa854fd25d4a41aa3_tmpsc5_5I.png" />
1423931032367 1412253438515 <img src="d0d5d7161395377660e7ea621f3d82f01c373
0_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="d0d5d7161395377660e7ea621f3d82f01c3730_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d0d5d7161395377660e7ea621f3d82f01c3730_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d0d5d7161395377660e7ea621f3d82f01c3730_tmpOWK9Hn.png" />
1423931032402 1412253438515 <img src="d0d5d7161395377660e7ea621f3d82f01c373
0_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="d0d5d7161395377660e7ea621f3d82f01c3730_A_0.svg" />

<img src="d0d5d7161395377660e7ea621f3d82f01c3730_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d0d5d7161395377660e7ea621f3d82f01c3730_tmpOWK9Hn.png" />
1423931032403 1412253438515 <img src="d0d5d7161395377660e7ea621f3d82f01c373
0_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="d0d5d7161395377660e7ea621f3d82f01c3730_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d0d5d7161395377660e7ea621f3d82f01c3730_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d0d5d7161395377660e7ea621f3d82f01c3730_tmpOWK9Hn.png" />
1423931078288 1367090743656 <>Clinically important landmarks</><div><r />
</div><div><div><>Pudendal nerve lock (to relieve pain of delivery)</>—{{c2::is
chial spine}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Appendix</>—{{c3::2/3 of the distanc
e etween the umilicus and the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS)}},&nsp;jus
t proximal to the {{c4::ASIS (McBurney point).&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><di
v><>Lumar puncture</>—{{c1::iliac crest}}.</div></div>
1423931167575 1412253438515 <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3
c9_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_tmpKG9XT3.png" />
1423931167625 1412253438515 <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3
c9_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_tmpKG9XT3.png" />
1423931167626 1412253438515 <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3
c9_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_tmpKG9XT3.png" />
1423931167628 1412253438515 <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3
c9_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_tmpKG9XT3.png" />
1423931167629 1412253438515 <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3
c9_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_tmpKG9XT3.png" />
1423931167630 1412253438515 <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3
c9_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_tmpKG9XT3.png" />
1423931167631 1412253438515 <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3
c9_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_tmpKG9XT3.png" />
1423931167632 1412253438515 <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3
c9_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0987f1ced1af13a614aae89e8485ade02fde3c9_tmpKG9XT3.png" />
1423931231844 1367090743656 <>Rotator cuff muscles</><div><r /></div><div
><div>Shoulder muscles that form the rotator cuff:</div><div><r /></div><div><
>{{c7::Supraspinatus}}</> ({{c8::suprascapular}} nerve)—&nsp;{{c9::</div><div>a
ducts arm initially (efore the action&nsp;of the deltoid); most common rotator
cuff&nsp;injury.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c5::Infraspinatus}}</> ({{
c6::suprascapular}} nerve)—</div><div>{{c10::laterally rotates arm; pitching injur
y.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c3::Teres minor}}</> ({{c4::axillary}} ner
ve)—{{c11::</div><div>adducts and&nsp;laterally rotates arm.}}</div><div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::<>Suscapularis</>}} ({{c2::suscapular}} nerve)—{{c12::</div><di
v>medially&nsp;rotates and adducts arm. Innervated primarily y C5-C6.}}</div><
/div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-36790689857715.jpg" /></div>
1423931466653 1367090743656 <>Wrist ones</><div><r /></div><div><div>Sca
phoid, Lunate, Triquetrum,</div><div>Pisiform, Hamate, Capitate, Trapezoid, Trap
ezium A .&nsp;</div><div>(So Long To Pinky, Here Comes The Thum).</div><div><
r /></div><div>{{c11::Scaphoid}} (palpated in {{c8::anatomical snuff ox}}) is t
he most commonly {{c9::fractured carpal one}} and is prone to {{c10::avascular

necrosis}} owing to retrograde lood supply.</div><div><r /></div><div>Dislocat
ion of {{c7::lunate}} may cause acute carpal tunnel syndrome.</div><div>A fall o
n an outstretched hand that damages the hook of the hamate can cause ulnar nerve
injury.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c2::Carpal tunnel syndrome}}</>: {{c6:
:entrapment of median nerve in carpal tunnel}}; nerve compression leads to {{c3:
:paresthesia, pain, and numness in distriution of median nerve.}}</div><div><
r /></div><div><>{{c1::Guyon canal syndrome}}</>: {{c5::Compression of the uln
ar nerve at the wrist or hand}}, classically seen in {{c4::cyclists due to press
ure from handlears.}}</div></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-43026982
371537.jpg" /></div>
1423931551271 1412253438515 <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae5
58_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_A_0.svg" />
<img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_tmpgrWTUg.png" />
1423931551296 1412253438515 <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae5
58_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_A_0.svg" />
<img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_tmpgrWTUg.png" />
1423931551298 1412253438515 <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae5
58_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_A_0.svg" />
<img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_tmpgrWTUg.png" />
1423931551299 1412253438515 <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae5
58_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_A_0.svg" />
<img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_tmpgrWTUg.png" />
1423931551300 1412253438515 <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae5
58_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_A_0.svg" />
<img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_tmpgrWTUg.png" />
1423931551302 1412253438515 <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae5
58_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_A_0.svg" />
<img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_tmpgrWTUg.png" />
1423931551303 1412253438515 <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae5
58_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_A_0.svg" />
<img src="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="a3c1c72a01670a7d7f6e9a0238180c96ae558_tmpgrWTUg.png" />
1423931876754 1412253438515 <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e1
1e_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_tmpRMm6Gt.png" />
1423931876756 1412253438515 <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e1
1e_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_tmpRMm6Gt.png" />
1423931876757 1412253438515 <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e1
1e_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_tmpRMm6Gt.png" />
1423931876758 1412253438515 <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e1
1e_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_tmpRMm6Gt.png" />
1423931876759 1412253438515 <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e1
1e_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_tmpRMm6Gt.png" />
1423931876760 1412253438515 <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e1
1e_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_A_0.svg" />

<img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_tmpRMm6Gt.png" />
1423931876761 1412253438515 <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e1
1e_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_tmpRMm6Gt.png" />
1423931876762 1412253438515 <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e1
1e_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_tmpRMm6Gt.png" />
1423931876774 1412253438515 <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e1
1e_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_tmpRMm6Gt.png" />
1423931876775 1412253438515 <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e1
1e_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0d59efa9af347e6e29dd0ae9774a67dfa2d9e11e_tmpRMm6Gt.png" />
1423932577820 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932577821 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932577822 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932577823 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932577824 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932577825 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932577826 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932577827 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932577828 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932577829 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932577830 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />

<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932578196 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932578197 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932578198 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932578200 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932578201 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932578202 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_16.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932578203 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_17.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932578204 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_18.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1423932578205 1412253438515 <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c2
7a_Q_19.svg" /> <img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="fdd374f26d75e8af21696972f31448d85c27a_tmpOyWl6U.png" />
1424238472243 1367090743656 <>Distortions of the hand&nsp;</><div><r /><
/div><div><div>At rest, a alance exists etween the extrinsic flexors and exten
sors of the hand, as well as the intrinsic muscles of the hand—particularly the {{
c1::lumrical muscles}} ({{c2::flexion}} of MCP, {{c3::extension}} of DIP and PI
P joints).</div><div><r /></div><div>“Clawing”—seen est with {{c4::distal}} lesions
of median or ulnar nerves. Remaining extrinsic flexors of the digits exaggerate
the loss of the lumricals &gt;&gt;&gt;&gt; fingers extend at MCP, flex at DIP a
nd PIP joints.</div><div><r /></div><div>Deficits {{c5::less}} pronounced in pr
oximal lesions; deficits present during voluntary flexion of the digits.</div></
div>
The closer to the paw, the worse the claw
1424238540286 1412253438515 <img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec29768676
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<img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec2976867671_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238540379 1412253438515 <img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec29768676
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<img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec2976867671_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238540381 1412253438515 <img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec29768676
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<img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec2976867671_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238540400 1412253438515 <img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec29768676
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<img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec2976867671_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238540403 1412253438515 <img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec29768676
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<img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec2976867671_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238540405 1412253438515 <img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec29768676
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<img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec2976867671_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238540407 1412253438515 <img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec29768676
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<img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec2976867671_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec2976867671_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="29f3f1e3a1440372e274060ec2976867671_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238745993 1412253438515 <img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d4
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238745994 1412253438515 <img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d4
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238745996 1412253438515 <img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d4
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238745997 1412253438515 <img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d4
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238745998 1412253438515 <img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d4
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238746000 1412253438515 <img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d4
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238746002 1412253438515 <img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d4
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238746003 1412253438515 <img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d4
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238746004 1412253438515 <img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d4
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1424238746005 1412253438515 <img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d4
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<img src="2c77aa18f573226a6282a037c014f730a3d478_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9fc6d7f129a41df03ae1ad4c34aa09d6ac6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9fc6d7f129a41df03ae1ad4c34aa09d6ac6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9fc6d7f129a41df03ae1ad4c34aa09d6ac6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9fc6d7f129a41df03ae1ad4c34aa09d6ac6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9fc6d7f129a41df03ae1ad4c34aa09d6ac6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9fc6d7f129a41df03ae1ad4c34aa09d6ac6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9fc6d7f129a41df03ae1ad4c34aa09d6ac6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9fc6d7f129a41df03ae1ad4c34aa09d6ac6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9fc6d7f129a41df03ae1ad4c34aa09d6ac6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="9fc6d7f129a41df03ae1ad4c34aa09d6ac6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="f58a0799640326309a45cc58f3f0685c33ca_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="f58a0799640326309a45cc58f3f0685c33ca_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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70_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_tmpvBJAPH.png" />
1424240386198 1412253438515 <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf1562849
70_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_tmpvBJAPH.png" />
1424240386199 1412253438515 <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf1562849
70_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_tmpvBJAPH.png" />
1424240386200 1412253438515 <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf1562849
70_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_tmpvBJAPH.png" />
1424240386235 1412253438515 <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf1562849
70_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_tmpvBJAPH.png" />
1424240386237 1412253438515 <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf1562849
70_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_tmpvBJAPH.png" />

1424240386238 1412253438515 <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf1562849
70_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_tmpvBJAPH.png" />
1424240386239 1412253438515 <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf1562849
70_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_tmpvBJAPH.png" />
1424240386240 1412253438515 <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf1562849
70_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_tmpvBJAPH.png" />
1424240386241 1412253438515 <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf1562849
70_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_tmpvBJAPH.png" />
1424240386242 1412253438515 <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf1562849
70_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c98155e25f24e1ec803720ea7acf156284970_tmpvBJAPH.png" />
1424789684661 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789684778 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789684779 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789684780 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789684782 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789684810 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789684811 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789684812 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789685530 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789685554 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />

1424789685556 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789685586 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789685587 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789685589 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789685590 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789685591 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424789685593 1412253438515 <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c3
0a_Q_16.svg" /> <img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c8200c0e3726d925e7a293002896250c30a_tmpBOi6Xv.png" />
1424793119058 1367090743656 <>Muscle contraction</><div><r /></div><div><
div>1. Action potential depolarization opens presynaptic voltage-gated {{c1::Ca2
+}} channels, inducing {{c2::neurotransmitter}} release.</div><div><r /></div><
div>2. Postsynaptic ligand inding leads to muscle cell depolarization in the {{
c3::motor end plate}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>3. Depolarization travels alon
g muscle cell and down the {{c4::T tuule.}}</div><div><r /></div><div>4. Depol
arization of the voltage-sensitive {{c5::dihydropyridine}} receptor, mechanicall
y coupled to the {{c6::ryanodine}} receptor on the&nsp;{{c7::sarcoplasmic retic
ulum}}, induces a conformational change, causing {{c8::Ca2+}} release from {{c9:
:sarcoplasmic reticulum}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>5. Released Ca2+ inds to
{{c10::troponin C}}, causing a conformational change that moves {{c11::tropomyos
in}} out of the&nsp;{{c12::myosin-inding&nsp;groove}}&nsp;on {{c13::actin}}
filaments.</div><div><r /></div><div>6. Myosin releases ound {{c14::ADP}} and
susequently, {{c15::inorganic PO4}}, leads to displacement of {{c16::myosin}} o
n the&nsp;{{c17::actin filament (powerstroke)}}. Contraction results in shorten
ing of {{c18::H}} and {{c18::I}} ands and etween {{c19::Z}} lines (HIZ shrinka
ge), ut the {{c20::A}} and remains the same length.</div></div>
(A and
is Always the same length)
1424793278180 1367090743656 <>Type 1 Muscle</><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Slow}} twitch; {{c2::red}} fiers resulting from increased {{c3::mitochondria}}
and {{c3::myogloin}} concentration (increases {{c5::oxidative phosphorylation}}
) leading to {{c4::sustained contraction}}.</div><div><r /></div>
Think “1 s
low red ox.”
1424793352397 1367090743656 <>Type 2 muscle</><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Fast}} twitch; {{c2::white}} fiers resulting from decreased {{c3::mitochondria}
} and {{c3::myogloin}} concentration (increases {{c4::anaeroic glycolysis}});
{{c6::weight training}} results in {{c5::hypertrophy}} of {{c7::fast}}-twitch mu
scle fiers.</div>
1424793511433 1412253438515 <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05
a8_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_A_0.svg" />
<img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_tmpPc0c5h.png" />

1424793511435 1412253438515 <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05
a8_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_A_0.svg" />
<img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_tmpPc0c5h.png" />
1424793511436 1412253438515 <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05
a8_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_A_0.svg" />
<img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_tmpPc0c5h.png" />
1424793511437 1412253438515 <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05
a8_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_A_0.svg" />
<img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_tmpPc0c5h.png" />
1424793511438 1412253438515 <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05
a8_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_A_0.svg" />
<img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_tmpPc0c5h.png" />
1424793511439 1412253438515 <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05
a8_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_A_0.svg" />
<img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_tmpPc0c5h.png" />
1424793511441 1412253438515 <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05
a8_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_A_0.svg" />
<img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_tmpPc0c5h.png" />
1424793511442 1412253438515 <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05
a8_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_A_0.svg" />
<img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_tmpPc0c5h.png" />
1424793511443 1412253438515 <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05
a8_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_A_0.svg" />
<img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_tmpPc0c5h.png" />
1424793511471 1412253438515 <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05
a8_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_A_0.svg" />
<img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_tmpPc0c5h.png" />
1424793511473 1412253438515 <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05
a8_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_A_0.svg" />
<img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_tmpPc0c5h.png" />
1424793511474 1412253438515 <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05
a8_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_A_0.svg" />
<img src="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="740cfa0e851230c0101a38429e26a15419df05a8_tmpPc0c5h.png" />
1424798187494 1367090743656 <>Cell iology of one</><div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::<>Osteolasts</>}}:&nsp;Build one y secreting {{c2::collagen}} and c
atalyzing {{c3::mineralization}}. Differentiate from {{c4::mesenchymal}} stem ce
lls in {{c5::periosteum}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c6::Osteoclasts}}</>
:&nsp;{{c7::Multinucleated}} cells that dissolve one y secreting {{c8::acid}}
and {{c8::collagenases}}. Differentiate from {{c9::monocytes/macrophages}}.</di
v><div><r /></div><div><>{{c10::Parathyroid hormone}}</>:&nsp;At low, interm
ittent levels, exerts {{c11::anaolic effects (uilding one)}} on {{c12::osteo
lasts}} and {{c12::osteoclasts (indirect)}}. Chronic high PTH levels ({{c13::1° hy
perparathyroidism}}) cause {{c15::cataolic effects}} ({{c14::osteitis firosa c
ystica}}).</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c16::<>Estrogen</>}}: inhiits {{c18::
apoptosis}} in one-forming {{c18::osteolasts}} and induces {{c19::apoptosis}}
in one-resoring {{c19::osteoclasts}}. Under estrogen deficiency (surgical or p
ostmenopausal), excess remodeling cycles and one resorption lead to {{c17::oste
oporosis}}.</div><div><r /></div>
1423727697176 1369615657128 Which cereral lood vessels are commonly affect

ed y thromotic stroke?<r />{{c1::Carotic ifurcation, the origin of the middl
e cereral artery, and at either end of the asilar artery}}
"Source: Roins
asic pathology 9th ed. p816
1419658867777 1367090743656 <>Ethanol metaolism</><div><r /></div><div><
div>{{c5::NAD+}} is the limiting reagent.</div><div><r /></div><div>Alcohol deh
ydrogenase operates via {{c6::zero}}-order&nsp;kinetics.</div><div><r /></div>
<div>Ethanol metaolism {{c7::increases}} NADH/NAD+ ratio in liver, causing:</di
v><div><r /></div><div> {{c8::Pyruvate}} conversion to&nsp;&nsp;{{c9::lactate}
} (causes {{c10::lactic acidosis}}).</div><div><r /></div><div> {{c11::Oxaloacet
ate}} conversion to {{c12::malate}} (prevents&nsp;{{c13::gluconeogenesis}} lead
ing to fasting {{c14::hypoglycemia}})</div><div><r /></div><div> {{c15::Glyceral
dehyde-3-phosphate}} conversion to&nsp;{{c16::glycerol-3-phosphate}}&nsp;(com
ines with fatty acids to&nsp;make {{c17::triglycerides}} leading to {{c18::hepa
tosteatosis}})&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>End result is clinical picture s
een in chronic&nsp;alcoholism.</div><div><r /></div><div>Additionally, {{c20::
increased}} {{c19::NADH/NAD+}} ratio {{c21::disfavor}}&nsp;{{c22::TCA}} product
ion of {{c23::NADH}} leading to increased utilization of {{c25::acetyl-CoA}} for
{{c24::ketogenesis}} (causes {{c26::ketoacidosis}}) and {{c27::lipogenesis}} (
causes {{c28::hepatosteatosis}}).</div></div><div><r /></div><div><div><>{{c1:
:Fomepizole}}</>—{{c4::inhiits alcohol dehydrogenase and is an antidote for meth
anol or ethylene glycol poisoning.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c2::Disulfi
ram}}</>—i{{c3::nhiits acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (acetaldehyde accumulates, con
triuting to hangover symptoms).}}</div></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-2942052597847.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-30408368457
70.jpg" /></div>
1419660781973 1367090743656 <>Malnutrition-{{c5::Kwashiorkor}}</><div><r
/></div><div>{{c6::Protein}} malnutrition resulting in {{c7::skin lesions}}, {{c
8::edema}}, {{c9::liver malfunction}} (fatty change due to decreased {{c10::apol
ipoprotein}} synthesis).&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Clinical picture is sm
all child with swollen elly.</div><div><r /></div><div><div>Kwashiorkor result
s from a protein- deficient <>MEAL</>:</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Malnut
rition}}&nsp;</div><div>{{c2::Edema}}&nsp;</div><div>{{c3::Anemia}}&nsp;</div
><div>{{c4::Liver (fatty)}}</div></div><div><r /></div>
<img src="paste3590592661244.jpg" />
1419660923487 1367090743656 <>Malnutrition-{{c1::Marasmus}}</><div><r /><
/div><div>{{c2::Total calorie}} malnutrition resulting in tissue and muscle {{c3
::wasting}}, loss of {{c4::sucutaneous fat}}, and variale {{c5::edema}}.</div>
<div><r /></div>
Marasmus results in Muscle wasting
1419660984714 1367090743656 <>Biochemistry metaolism-Metaolic sites</><d
iv><r /></div><div><>Mitochondria:&nsp;</>{{c1::Fatty acid}} oxidation ({{c1
::β-oxidation}}), {{c2::acetyl-CoA}} production, {{c3::TCA cycle, oxidative phosph
orylation.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>Cytoplasm</>:&nsp;{{c5::Glycolysis}
}, {{c6::fatty acid}} synthesis, {{c7::HMP shunt}}, {{c8::protein}} synthesis (R
ER), {{c4::steroid}} synthesis (SER), {{c4::cholesterol}} synthesis.</div><div><
r /></div><div><>Both</>:&nsp;{{c9::Heme}} synthesis, {{c10::Urea}} cycle, {
{c11::Gluconeogenesis}}.</div> HUGs take two (i.e., oth).
1419661361405 1367090743656 <>Enzyme terminology</>-An enzyme’s name often

escribes its function. For example, glucokinase is an enzyme that catalyzes the
phosphorylation of glucose using a molecule of ATP. The following are commonly u
se
enzyme
escriptors.<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c2::Kinase}}</b>:&nbsp;{{c4::U
ses ATP to a

high-energy phosphate group onto substrate (e.g., phosphofructoki
nase).}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c3::Phosphorylase}}</b>:&nbsp;{{c5::A


s inorganic phosphate onto substrate without using ATP (e.g., glycogen phosphory
lase).}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c6::Phosphatase}}</b>:&nbsp;{{c7::Remov
es phosphate group from substrate (e.g., fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase).}}</
iv><

iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c8::Dehy
rogenase}}</b>:&nbsp;{{c9::Catalyzes oxi
ation
-re
uction reactions (e.g., pyruvate
ehy
rogenase).}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
i
v><b>{{c10::Hy
roxylase}}</b>:&nbsp;{{c11::A

s hy
roxyl group (−OH) onto subst at
e (e.g., ty osine hyd oxylase).}}</div><div><b /></div><div><b>{{c12::Ca boxyla
se}}</b>:&nbsp;{{c13::T ansfe s CO2 g oups with the help of biotin (e.g., py uva

te ca boxylase).}}</div><div><b /></div><div><b>{{c14::Mutase}}:</b>&nbsp;{{c1:
:Relocates a functional g oup within a molecule (e.g., vitamin B12–dependent methy
lmalonylCoA mutase).}}</div><div><b /></div>
1419689111415 1367090743656 <b>Ratedete mining enzymes of metabolic p ocess
es</b><div><b /></div><div><b>P ocess</b>: {{c1::Glycolysis}}</div><div><b /><
/div><div><b>Enzyme</b>:&nbsp;{{c2::Phosphof uctokinase1 (PFK1)}}</div><div><b
/></div><div><b>Regulato s</b>: AMP {{c3::+}},&nbsp;f uctose2,6bisphosphate
{{c4::+}}, ATP {{c5::}}, cit ate {{c6::}}</div>
1419689264954 1367090743656 <b>Ratedete mining enzymes of metabolic p ocess
es</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>P ocess:&nbsp;</b>{{c1::Gluconeogenesis}}<
/div><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>Enzyme: </b>{{c2::F uctose1,6,bisphosphat
ase}}</div><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>Regulato s:&nbsp;</b>ATP {{c3::+}}, a
cetylCoA {{c4::+}},&nbsp;AMP {{c5::}}, f uctose2,6bisphosphate {{c6::}}</di
v>
1419690244970 1367090743656 <b>Ratedete mining enzymes of metabolic p ocess
es</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>P ocess: </b>{{c1::TCA cycle}}</div><div><
b><b /></b></div><div><b>Enzyme:&nbsp;</b>{{c2::Isocit ate dehyd ogenase}}</div
><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>Regulato s: </b>ADP {{c3::+}}, ATP {{c4::}}, N
ADH {{c5::}}</div>
1419690307624 1367090743656 <b>Ratedete mining enzymes of metabolic p ocess
es</b><div><b /></div><div><b>P ocess:</b> {{c2::Glycogenesis}}</div><div><b /
></div><div><b>Enzyme</b>: {{c1::Glycogen synthase}}</div><div><b /></div><div>
<b>Regulato s</b>: Glucose6phosphate {{c3::+}}, insulin {{c4::+}}, co tisol {{
c5::+}}, Epineph ine {{c6::}}, glucagon {{c7::}}</div>
1419690403299 1367090743656 <b>Ratedete mining enzymes of metabolic p ocess
es</b><div><b /></div><div><b>P ocess:</b> {{c8::Glycogenolysis}}</div><div><b
/></div><div><b>Enzyme:</b> {{c7::Glycogen phospho ylase}}</div><div><b /></di
v><div><b>Regulato s:</b> Epineph ine {{c1::+}}, glucagon {{c2::+}}, AMP {{c3::+
}}, Glucose6phosphate {{c4::}}, insulin {{c5::}}, ATP {{c6::}}</div>
1419690506933 1367090743656 <b>Ratedete mining enzymes of metabolic p ocess
es</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>P ocess:&nbsp;</b>{{c2::</div><div>HMP shu
nt</div><div></div>}}<div><b>Enzyme: </b>{{c1::Glucose6Phosphate dehyd ogenase
(G6PD)}}</div><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>Regulato s: </b>NADP {{c3::+}}, N
ADPH {{c4::}}</div>
1419690911380 1367090743656 <b>Rate dete mining enzymes of metabolic p ocess
es</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>P ocess: </b>{{c2::De novo py imidine synt
hesis}}</div><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>Enzyme: </b>{{c1::Ca bamoyl phospha
te synthetase II}}</div><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b><b /></b></div>
1419690990855 1367090743656 <b>Rate dete mining enzymes of metabolic p ocess
es</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>P ocess: </b>{{c2::De novo pu ine synthesi
s}}</div><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>Enzyme: </b>{{c1::Glutaminephospho ibo
sylpy ophosphate (PRPP) amidot ansfe ase}}</div><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>
Regulato s: </b>AMP {{c3::}}, inosine monophosphate (IMP) {{c4::}}, GMP {{c5::
}}</div>
1419691125740 1367090743656 <b>Rate dete mining enzymes of metabolic p ocess
es</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>P ocess: </b>{{c2::U ea cycle}}</div><div>
<b><b /></b></div><div><b>Enzyme: </b>{{c1::Ca bamoyl phosphate synthetase I}}<
/div><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>Regulato s: </b>Nacetylglutamate {{c3::+}}
</div>
1419691185218 1367090743656 <b>Ratedete mining enzymes of metabolic p ocess
es</b><div><b /></div><div><b>P ocess</b>: {{c1::Fatty Acid Synthesis}}</div><d
iv><b /></div><div><b>Enzyme</b>: {{c2::AcetylCoAca boxylase (ACC)}}</div><di
v><b /></div><div><b>Regulato s</b>: Insulin {{c3::+}}, cit ate {{c4::+}}, Gluc
agon {{c5::}}, palmitoylCoA {{c6::}}</div>
1419691556486 1367090743656 <b>Ratedete mining enzymes of metabolic p ocess
es</b><div><b /></div><div><b>P ocess</b>: {{c2::Fatty acid oxidation}}</div><d
iv><b /></div><div><b>Enzyme</b>: {{c3::Ca nitine acylt ansfe ase I}}</div><div
><b /></div><div><b>Regulato s:</b> MalonylCoA {{c1::}}</div><div><b /></div
><div><b /></div>
1419691622294 1367090743656 <b>Ratedete mining enzymes of metabolic p ocess

es</b><div><b /></div><div><b>P ocess</b>: {{c1::Ketogenesis}}</div><div><b />
</div><div><b>Enzyme</b>: {{c2::HMGCoA synthase}}</div><div><b /></div><div><b
/></div>
1419691663729 1367090743656 <b>Ratedete mining enzymes of metabolic p ocess
es</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>P ocess: </b>{{c6::Choleste ol synthesis}}
</div><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>Enzyme: </b>{{c5::HMGCoA eductase}}</div
><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>Regulato s: </b>Insulin {{c1::+}}, thy oxine {{
c2::+}}, Glucagon {{c3::}}, choleste ol {{c4::}}</div>
1419691957751 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_0.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957753 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_1.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957755 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_2.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957756 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_3.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957795 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_4.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957797 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_5.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957798 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_6.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957799 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_7.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957801 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_8.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957802 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_9.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957804 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_10.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957805 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_11.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957806 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_12.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />

1419691957807 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_13.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957808 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_14.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957810 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_15.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957811 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_16.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957812 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_17.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957813 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_18.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419691957814 1412253438515 <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9c
b0_Q_19.svg" /> <img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="a8367def14351138c378db051922b95274bb9cb0_tmpUAiqvK.png" />
1419086567897 1367090743656 <b>Vitamins</b>: {{c1::fat soluble}}<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c2::A, D, E, K}}.&nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><div>Abso ption depend
ent on {{c3::gut}} and {{c3::panc eas}}.&nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><div>Toxici
ty mo e common than fo {{c4::wate }}soluble vitamins because {{c4::fatsoluble
vitamins accumulate in fat.}}</div><div><b /></div><div><div>Malabso ption syn
d omes ({{c5::steato hea}}), such as {{c6::cystic fib osis}} and {{c6::sp ue}},
o {{c7::mine al oil}} intake can cause fatsoluble vitamin {{c8::deficiencies}
}.</div></div><div><b /></div>
1419087285309 1367090743656 <b>Vitamins: {{c1::wate soluble}}</b><div><b /
></div><div><div>{{c2::B1}} ({{c3::thiamine}}: {{c4::TPP}})</div><div><b /></di
v><div>{{c5::B2}} ({{c6:: iboflavin: FAD, FMN}})&nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><di
v>{{c9::B3}} ({{c7::niacin: NAD+}})</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c8::B5}} ({{c10
::pantothenic acid: CoA}})&nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c12::B6}} ({{c11::
py idoxine: PLP}})</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c13::B7}} ({{c14::biotin}})</div
><div><b /></div><div>{{c15::B9}} ({{c16::folate}})</div><div><b /></div><div>
{{c17::B12}} ({{c18::cobalamin}})</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c19::C}} ({{c20::
asco bic acid}})</div></div><div><b /></div><div><div>All wash out easily f om
body except {{c21::B12}} and {{c22::folate}} (sto ed in {{c23::live }}).</div><d
iv><b /></div><div>Bcomplex deficiencies often esult in {{c24::de matitis, gl
ossitis, and dia hea.}}</div></div>
1419087460128 1367090743656 <b>Vitamin {{c1::A ( etinol)}}</b><div><b /></d
iv><div><b>Function</b>: {{c8::Antioxidant}}; constituent of {{c9::visual pigmen
ts ( etinal)}}; essential fo no mal diffe entiation of {{c10::epithelial cells
into specialized tissue (panc eatic cells, mucussec eting cells)}}; p events {{
c11::squamous metaplasia}}. Used to t eat {{c12::measles and AML, subtype M3.}}<
/div><div><b /></div><div><b>Deficiency:</b> {{c3::Night blindness (nyctalopia)
}}; {{c4::d y, scaly skin (xe osis cutis)}}; {{c5::alopecia}}; {{c6::co neal deg
ene ation (ke atomalacia)}}; {{c7::immune supp ession.}}</div><div><b /></div><
div><b>Excess</b>: {{c13::A th algias}}, {{c14::skin changes (e.g., scaliness)}}
, {{c15::alopecia}}, {{c19::ce eb al edema, pseudotumo ce eb i, osteopo osis, h
epatic}} abno malities. {{c18::Te atogenic}} (cleft palate, ca diac abno malitie
s), so a {{c16::neg}} p egnancy test and eliable cont aception a e needed befo

e {{c17::isot etinoin}} is p esc ibed fo seve e acne.</div><div><b /></div><di
v>Found in {{c2::live }} and {{c2::leafy vegetables.}}</div>
Retinol is vitam
in A, so think etinA (used topically fo w inkles and acne).
1419088317852 1367090743656 Vitamin B1 (thiamine)<div><b /></div><div><b>Fu
nction:</b>&nbsp;In {{c8::thiamine py ophosphate (TPP)}}, a cofacto fo seve al
{{c9::dehyd ogenase}} enzyme eactions:</div><div><b /></div><div>&nbsp;{{c10::
</div><div>Py uvate dehyd ogenase (links glycolysis to</div><div>TCA cycle)</div
>}}<div> {{c11::α-ketoglutrte dehydrogense (TCA cycle)}}</div><div> {{c12::Trnsk
etolse (HMP shunt)}}</div><div> {{c13::Brnched-chin ketocid dehydrogense}}</
div><div><br /></div><div><b>Deficiency:</b>&nbsp;Impired {{c14::glucose}} bre
kdown leding to {{c15::ATP}} depletion worsened by glucose infusion; highly {{c
16::erobic}} tissues (e.g., brin, hert) re ffected {{c17::first}}.&nbsp;</d
iv><div><br /></div><div>Wernicke-Korskoff syndrome nd beriberi. Seen in {{c18
::mlnutrition}} nd {{c18::lcoholism (2° to mlnutrition nd mlbsorption).}}&n
bsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Dignosis mde by {{c1::increse}} in RBC trnsk
etolse ctivity following vitmin B1 dministrtion.</div><div><br /></div><div
><div><br /></div><div><b>{{c19::Wernicke-Korskoff}} syndrome</b>—{{c20::confusio
n, ophthlmoplegi, txi (clssic trid)}} + {{c21::confbultion, personlity
chnge, memory loss (permnent)}}. Dmge to {{c22::medil dorsl nucleus}} of
{{c23::thlmus}}, {{c24::mmmillry}} bodies.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>{{c
6::Dry beriberi}}</b>—{{c2::polyneuritis}}, {{c3::symmetricl muscle wsting.}}</d
iv><div><br /></div><div><b>{{c7::Wet beriberi}}</b>—{{c4::high-output crdic fi
lure (dilted crdiomyopthy)}}, {{c5::edem}}.</div></div>
<div>Think ATP: αketoglutrte dehydrogense, Trnsketolse, nd Pyruvte dehydrogense.</div><di
v>Spell beriberi s Ber1Ber1 to remember vitmin B1.</div>
1419088608402 1367090743656 <b>Vitmin</b> {{c1::B2 (riboflvin)}}<div><br /
></div><div><b>Function</b>:&nbsp;Component of {{c2::flvins FAD nd FMN}}, used
s cofctors in {{c3::redox}} rections, e.g., the succinte dehydrogense rec
tion in the TCA cycle.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Deficiency</b>:&nbsp;{{c4::
Cheilosis (inflmmtion of lips, scling nd fissures t the corners of the mout
h)}}, {{c5::Cornel vsculriztion.}}</div>
FAD nd FMN re derived from rib
oFlvin (B2 = 2 ATP).<div><br /></div><div>The 2 C’s of B2.</
iv>
1419088700493 1367090743656 <b>Vitamin B3 (niacin)</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>
<b>Function:&nbsp;</b>Constituent of {{c7::NAD+}}, {{c8::NADP+}} (use
in re
ox
reactions). Derive
from {{c9::tryptophan}}. Synthesis re uires vitamins {{c10::
B2}} an
{{c10::B6}}. Use
to treat {{c11::
yslipi
emia}}; lowers levels of VLDL
an
raises levels of HDL.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Deficiency:</b>&nbsp;{{
c12::Glossitis}}. Severe
eficiency lea
s to {{c13::pellagra}}, which can be cau
se
by {{c14::Hartnup}}
isease ({{c1::
ecrease
}} in tryptophan absorption), {{
c15::malignant carcinoi
}} syn
rome ({{c2::increase}} in tryptophan metabolism),
&nbsp;an
{{c16::isoniazi
}} (
ecrease in vitamin B6).&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv><b>Symptoms&nbsp;of pellagra</b>: {{c3::Diarrhea, Dementia (also halluci
nations), Dermatitis (e.g., Casal necklace or hyperpigmentation of sun-expose
l
imbs).}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Excess:</b>&nbsp;{{c5::Facial flushing}}
(in
uce
by {{c4::prostaglan
in}}, not histamine), {{c6::hyperglycemia, hyperuri
cemia.}}</
iv> NAD
erive
from Niacin (B3 = 3 ATP).<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>The 3
D’s of B3</
iv>
1419089140348 1367090743656 <b>Vitamin {{c1::B5 (pantothenate)}}</b><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv><b>Function</b>:&nbsp;Essential component of {{c3::coenzyme A (CoA
, a cofactor for acyl transfers)}} an
{{c4::fatty aci
synthase.}}</
iv><
iv><b
r /></
iv><
iv><b>Deficiency</b>:&nbsp;{{c2::Dermatitis, enteritis, alopecia, a

renal insufficiency.}}</
iv>
B5 is “pento”thenate.
1419089343161 1367090743656 <b>Vitamin {{c1::B6 (pyri
oxine)}}</b><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv><b>Function:</b>&nbsp;Converte
to {{c2::pyri
oxal phosphate}}, a co
factor use
in {{c3::transamination (e.g., ALT an
AST)}}, {{c4::
ecarboxylation
}} reactions, glycogen {{c5::phosphorylase}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>S
ynthesis of {{c6::cystathionine, heme, niacin, histamine,}} an
neurotransmitter
s inclu
ing {{c7::serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine,
opamine, an
GABA.}}<
/
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Deficiency:</b> {{c8::Convulsions}}, {{c9::hyperir
ritability}}, {{c10::peripheral neuropathy (
eficiency in
ucible by isoniazi
an


oral contraceptives)}}, {{c11::si
eroblastic}} anemias
ue to {{c12::impaire

hemoglobin synthesis an
iron excess.}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv>
1419089457853 1367090743656 <b>Vitamin {{c1::B7 (biotin)}}</b><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv><b>Function:&nbsp;</b>Cofactor for {{c11::carboxylation}} enzymes (which
a

a {{c12::1-carbon}} group):</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>1.{{c9::Pyruvate car
boxylase: pyruvate (3C)}} lea
ing to&nbsp;{{c10::oxaloacetate (4C)}}</
iv><
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv>2. {{c7::Acetyl-CoA carboxylase: acetyl-CoA (2C)}} lea
ing to&nb
sp;{{c8::malonyl-CoA (3C)}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>3.&nbsp;{{c6::</
iv><
iv>
Propionyl-CoA carboxylase: propionyl-CoA</
iv><
iv>(3C)</
iv><
iv>}}&nbsp;lea
in
g to {{c5::methylmalonyl-CoA (4C)}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Deficiency</b>
:&nbsp;Relatively {{c2::rare}}. {{c3::Dermatitis, alopecia, enteritis.}} Cause

by {{c4::antibiotic}} use or excessive ingestion of {{c4::raw egg whites.}}</
iv
><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv>
Avi
in in egg whites avi
ly bin
s biotin
.
1419093862445 1367090743656 <b>Vitamin {{c1::B9 (folic aci
)}}</b><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv><b>Function:</b>&nbsp;Converte
to {{c2::tetrahy
rofolate (THF)}}, a
coenzyme for {{c3::1-carbon transfer/methylation}} reactions.&nbsp;Important fo
r the synthesis of {{c4::nitrogenous bases}} in {{c5::DNA an
RNA.}}</
iv><
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv><b>Deficiency:</b>&nbsp;{{c6::Macrocytic}}, {{c6::megaloblastic}
} anemia; {{c7::hypersegmente
}} polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs); {{c8::glossitis
}}; no {{c9::neurologic}} symptoms (as oppose
to vitamin {{c10::B12}}
eficienc
y).&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Labs:</b> {{c11::increase}} in homocyste
ine, {{c12::normal}} methylmalonic aci
. Most common {{c13::vitamin
eficiency i
n the Unite
States.}} Seen in {{c14::alcoholism}} an
{{c14::pregnancy}}.</
iv>
<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>Foun
in {{c15::leafy green vegetables}}. Absorbe
in
{{c15::jejunum. Folate from foliage.}}</
iv><
iv>Small reserve pool store
prim
arily in the {{c16::liver}}.</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>Deficiency ca
n be cause
by several
rugs (e.g., {{c17::phenytoin}}, {{c17::sulfonami
es}}, {
{c17::methotrexate}}).</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Supplemental maternal folic ac
i
in early pregnancy
ecreases risk of {{c18::neural tube
efects.}}</
iv></
iv
>
1419094079094 1367090743656 <b>Vitamin {{c3::B12 (cobalamin)}}</b><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv><b>Function</b>:&nbsp;Cofactor for {{c4::homocysteine methyltransfer
ase}} (transfers CH3 groups as methylcobalamin) an
{{c5::methylmalonyl-CoA muta
se.}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Deficiency</b>:&nbsp;{{c6::Macrocytic}}, {{c
6::megaloblastic}} anemia; {{c7::hypersegmente
}} PMNs; {{c8::paresthesias}},</

iv><
iv>an
{{c9::subacute combine

egeneration (
egeneration of
orsal columns
, lateral corticospinal tracts, an
spinocerebellar tracts)}}
ue to {{c10::abno
rmal myelin.&nbsp;}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Associate
with {{c1::increase}}
in serum homocysteine an
methylmalonic aci
levels.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
i
v><
iv>Prolonge

eficiency lea
s to {{c2::irreversible nerve
amage.}}</
iv><
i
v><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>Foun
in {{c11::animal pro
ucts.}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv
><
iv>Synthesize
only by {{c12::microorganisms}}. Very</
iv><
iv>{{c13::large}}
reserve pool ({{c13::several years}}) store
primarily in the {{c14::liver}}.&n
bsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Deficiency is usually cause
by insufficient int
ake (e.g., veganism), {{c15::malabsorption (e.g., sprue, enteritis, Diphylloboth
rium latum)}}, lack of {{c16::intrinsic factor (pernicious anemia, gastric bypas
s surgery)}}, or absence of {{c17::terminal ileum (Crohn
isease)}}.</
iv><
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv>{{c18::Anti-intrinsic factor antibo
ies}}
iagnostic for {{c19::
pernicious anemia.}}</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-1382120475
8890.jpg" /></
iv>
1419626339616 1367090743656 <b>Vitaminc {{c1::C (ascorbic aci
)}}</b><
iv><b
r /></
iv><
iv><b>Function:</b>&nbsp;It is an&nbsp;{{c2::Antioxi
ant}}.</
iv><
i
v><br /></
iv><
iv>Also facilitates {{c3::iron}} absorption by re
ucing it to</

iv><
iv>{{c3::Fe2+}} state.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Necessary for {{c4::hy
ro
xylation}} of {{c5::proline}} an
</
iv><
iv>{{c6::lysine}} in {{c7::collagen}} s
ynthesis.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Necessary for {{c8::
opamine β-hydroxylase}},
which</div><div>converts {{c9::dopamine}} to {{c10::NE}}.</div><div><r /></div
><div><>Deficiency:</>&nsp;Causes&nsp;{{c11::Scurvy}}—{{c12::swollen}} gums, {
{c13::ruising}}, {{c14::hemarthrosis}}, {{c15::anemia}}, poor {{c16::wound heal

ing}}, perifollicular and superiosteal {{c17::hemorrhages}}, {{c18::“corkscrew”}} h
air.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c19::Weakened}} immune response.</div><div><r
/></div><div><>Excess:</>&nsp;{{c20::Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea}}, fatigue,
calcium oxalate {{c21::nephrolithiasis}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Can i
ncrease risk of</div><div>{{c22::iron}} toxicity in predisposed individuals (e.g
., those with {{c23::transfusions, hereditary hemochromatosis}}).</div><div><r
/></div><div><div><r /></div></div>
<div>Found in fruits and vegetales.</di
v><div>Pronounce “asoric” acid.</div><div>Ancillary treatment for methemogloinemi
a y</div>reducing Fe3+ to Fe2+.<r /><r />Vitamin C deficiency causes sCurvy d
ue to a Collagen synthesis defect.
1419626934795 1367090743656 <>Vitamin {{c1::D}}</><div><r /></div><div><d
iv>{{c7::D2}} = {{c8::ergocalciferol}}—ingested from {{c9::plants}}.&nsp;</div><d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c6::D3}} = {{c10::cholecalciferol}}—consumed in {{c11::milk}
},&nsp;formed in {{c12::sun-exposed skin (stratum asale)}}.&nsp;</div><div><
r /></div><div>{{c5::25-OH D3}} = {{c4::storage form}}.</div><div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c3::1,25-(OH)2 D3 (calcitriol)}} = {{c2::active form}}.</div><div><r /></d
iv><div><>Function:</> increased&nsp;intestinal asorption of {{c13::calcium}
} and {{c14::phosphate}}, increases one {{c15::mineralization}}.</div><div><r
/></div><div><>Deficiency:</>&nsp;{{c16::Rickets}} in children (one pain and
deformity), {{c17::osteomalacia}} in adults (one pain and muscle weakness), {{
c18::hypocalcemic tetany}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Breastfed infants s
hould receive {{c19::oral vitamin D}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Deficien
cy is exacerated y {{c20::low sun exposure}}, {{c21::pigmented skin}}, {{c22::
prematurity}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Excess:</>&nsp;{{c23::Hypercalcem
ia}}, {{c26::hypercalciuria}}, loss of {{c27::appetite}}, {{c28::stupor}}.&nsp;
</div><div><r /></div><div>Seen in {{c25::sarcoidosis}} ({{c24::increased}} act
ivation of vitamin D y epithelioid macrophages).</div></div> Drinking milk (f
ortified with vitamin D) is good for ones.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-1567663063359.jpg" /></div>
1419650003783 1367090743656 <>Vitamin {{c1::E (tocopherol/tocotrienol)}}</
><div><r /></div><div><>Function:</>&nsp;{{c2::Antioxidant}} (protects {{c3:
:erythrocytes}} and memranes from free radical damage).</div><div><r /></div><
div><>Deficiency:</>&nsp;{{c4::Hemolytic anemia}}, {{c5::acanthocytosis}}, mu
scle {{c6::weakness}}, posterior column and {{c8::spinocereellar}} tract {{c7::
demyelination}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>&nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
<div>E is for Erythrocytes.</div><div>Can enhance anticoagulant effects of warfa
rin.</div><div><r /></div><div>Neurological presentation may appear similar to
vitamin B12 deficiency, ut without megalolastic anemia, hypersegmented neutrop
hils, orserum methylmalonic acid levels.</div>
1419650200668 1367090743656 <>Vitamin {{c1::K}}</><div><><r /></></div>
<div><>Function:&nsp;</>Cofactor for the {{c2::γ-carboxylaion}} of {{c3::lua
mic acid}} residues on various proeins re uired for blood cloin. Synhesized
by {{c4::inesinal flora.}}</div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>Deficiency:&n
bsp;</b>Neonaal hemorrhae wih {{c5::increase}} in PT and {{c5::increase}} aPT
T bu normal bleedin ime (neonaes have {{c6::serile}} inesines and are una
ble o {{c7::synhesize viamin K}}). Can also occur afer proloned use of {{c8
::broad-specrum anibioics.}}</div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><br /></b><
/div> K is for Koaulaion. Necessary for he acivaion of cloin facors I
I, VII, IX, X, and proeins C and S. Warfarin—viamin K anaonis.<div><br /></di
v><div>No in breas milk; neonaes are iven viamin K injecion a birh o pr
even bleedin diahesis.</div>
1419658618873 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Zinc}}</b><div><br /></div><div><b>Func
ion:&nbsp;</b>Essenial for he aciviy of {{c2::100+ enzymes}}.&nbsp;</div><d
iv><br /></div><div>Imporan in he formaion of {{c3::zinc finers (ranscrip
ion facor moif).}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Deficiency:</b> Delayed {{c4:
:wound healin}}, {{c5::hypoonadism}}, decreased {{c6::adul hair (axillary, fa
cial, pubic)}}, {{c7::dyseusia}}, {{c8::anosmia}}, {{c9::acrodermaiis enerop
ahica.}}&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>May predispose o {{c10::alcoholic ci
rrhosis.}}</div>
1419692017707 1367090743656 <b>ATP producion</b><div><br /></div><div><div>

Aerobic meabolism of lucose produces {{c3::32}} ne ATP via {{c4::malae-aspar
ae}} shule (in {{c8::hear}} and {{c8::liver}}), {{c5::30}} ne ATP via {{c6
::lycerol-3-phosphae}} shule (in {{c7::muscle}}).</div><div><br /></div><div
>Anaerobic lycolysis produces only {{c9::2}} ne ATP per lucose molecule.</div
><div><br /></div><div>ATP hydrolysis can be coupled o enereically {{c10::unf
avorable}} reacions.</div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ar
senic}} causes lycolysis o produce {{c2::zero ne ATP}}.</div>
1419692098401 1367090743656 <b>Universal elecron accepors</b><div><br /></
div><div><div><b>{{c7::Nicoinamides}}</b> (NAD+ from viamin {{c5::B3}}, NADP+)
and <b>{{c8::flavin nucleoides}}</b> (FAD+ from viamin {{c6::B2}}).</div><div
><br /></div><div>NAD+ is enerally used in {{c9::caabolic}} processes o carry
reducin e uivalens away as {{c10::NADH}}.</div><div><br /></div><div>NADPH is
used in {{c11::anabolic}} processes ({{c12::seroid}} and {{c13::fay acid}} s
ynhesis) as a supply of reducin e uivalens.</div></div><div><br /></div><div>
<div>NADPH is a produc of {{c14::he HMP shun}}.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><
div>NADPH is used in:</div><div><br /></div><div> {{c1::Anabolic processes}}</div
><div> {{c2::Respiraory burs}}</div><div> {{c3::Cyochrome P-450 sysem&nbsp;}}<
/div><div> {{c4::Gluahione reducase}}</div></div>
1419692183249 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />
<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692183277 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />
<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692183278 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_2.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />
<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692183279 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_3.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />
<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692183281 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_4.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />
<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692183282 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_5.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />
<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692183283 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_6.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />
<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692183284 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_7.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />
<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692183285 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_8.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />
<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692183286 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_9.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />
<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692183287 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_10.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />

<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692183288 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_11.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />
<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692183289 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_12.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />
<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692183290 1412253438515 <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b
85_Q_13.sv" /> <im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_A_0.sv" />
<im src="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="588ca2cd4ed44fcbc68d6f16e026a9614e130b85_mpVIl4yd.pn" />
1419692693403 1367090743656 <b>Hexokinase vs. lucokinase</b><div><br /></di
v><div>Phosphorylaion of lucose o yield {{c1::lucose-6-P}} serves as he 1s
sep of lycolysis (also serves as he 1s sep of lycoen synhesis in he li
ver).&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Reacion is caalyzed by eiher {{c2::hex
okinase}} or {{c2::lucokinase}}, dependin on {{c3::he issue}}.&nbsp;</div><d
iv><br /></div><div>A {{c6::low}} lucose concenraions, {{c4::hexokinase}} se
uesers lucose in he issue.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>A {{c5::hih}}
lucose concenraions, excess lucose is sored in he {{c7::liver}}.</div>
1419692778046 1367090743656 <b>Glycolysis reulaions, key enzymes</b><div><
br /></div><div><div><b>Ne lycolysis (cyoplasm):</b></div><div>{{c2::Glucose
+ 2 Pi + 2 ADP + 2 NAD+}} --&; {{c3::2 pyruvae + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 H2
O.}}</div><div><br /></div><div>E uaion no balanced chemically, and exac bala
nced e uaion depends on {{c1::ionizaion sae}} of reacans and producs.</di
v></div>
1419692851307 1412253438515 <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d591
1f_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_mpIDXQiR.pn" />
1419692851397 1412253438515 <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d591
1f_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_mpIDXQiR.pn" />
1419692851398 1412253438515 <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d591
1f_Q_2.sv" /> <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_mpIDXQiR.pn" />
1419692851399 1412253438515 <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d591
1f_Q_3.sv" /> <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_mpIDXQiR.pn" />
1419692851401 1412253438515 <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d591
1f_Q_4.sv" /> <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_mpIDXQiR.pn" />
1419692851402 1412253438515 <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d591
1f_Q_5.sv" /> <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_mpIDXQiR.pn" />
1419692851403 1412253438515 <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d591
1f_Q_6.sv" /> <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_mpIDXQiR.pn" />
1419692851442 1412253438515 <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d591
1f_Q_7.sv" /> <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_mpIDXQiR.pn" />

1419692851444 1412253438515 <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d591
1f_Q_8.sv" /> <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_mpIDXQiR.pn" />
1419692851446 1412253438515 <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d591
1f_Q_9.sv" /> <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_mpIDXQiR.pn" />
1419692851447 1412253438515 <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d591
1f_Q_10.sv" /> <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_mpIDXQiR.pn" />
1419692851448 1412253438515 <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d591
1f_Q_11.sv" /> <im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="8e2e599b60e1ade3f55d4dc7e7164b1857d5911f_mpIDXQiR.pn" />
1419693088163 1367090743656 <b>Pyruvae dehydroenase complex</b><div><br />
</div><div><div>Miochondrial enzyme complex linkin {{c1::lycolysis}} and {{c1
::TCA cycle}}. Differenially reulaed in fed/fasin saes (acive in fed sa
e).</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Reacion</b>: {{c2::pyruvae + NAD+ + CoA}} --&; {{c3::aceyl- CoA + CO2 + NADH.}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>The compl
ex conains 3 enzymes ha re uire 5 cofacors:</b></div><div>1. {{c12::Pyrophos
phae}} ({{c4::B1, hiamine; TPP}})&nbsp;</div><div>2. {{c11::FAD}} ({{c5::B2, r
iboflavin}})</div><div>3. {{c10::NAD}} ({{c6::B3, niacin}})</div><div>4. {{c9::C
oA}} ({{c7::B5, panohenae}})</div><div>5. {{c8::Lipoic acid}}</div><div><br /
></div><div><br /></div><div><b>Acivaed by exercise, which:</b></div><div>{{c1
5::increases}} NAD+/NADH raio</div><div>{{c14::increases}} ADP&nbsp;</div><div>
{{c13::increases}} Ca2+</div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><div>T
he complex is similar o he α-ketoglutrte dehydrogense complex (sme cofctors
, similr substrte nd ction), which converts {{c18::α-ketoglutrte}} to {{c19:
:succinyl-CoA (TCA cycle).}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Arsenic</b> inhibits
{{c16::lipoic cid}}.&nbsp;</div><div>Findings: {{c17::vomiting, rice-wter stoo
ls, grlic breth.}}</div></div>
1419693273604 1412253438515 <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb
94_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_tmpy57mSX.png" />
1419693273605 1412253438515 <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb
94_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_tmpy57mSX.png" />
1419693273606 1412253438515 <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb
94_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_tmpy57mSX.png" />
1419693273607 1412253438515 <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb
94_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_tmpy57mSX.png" />
1419693273608 1412253438515 <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb
94_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_tmpy57mSX.png" />
1419693273625 1412253438515 <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb
94_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_tmpy57mSX.png" />
1419693273627 1412253438515 <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb
94_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_source_svg.svg" /> <img src

="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_tmpy57mSX.png" />
1419693273628 1412253438515 <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb
94_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_tmpy57mSX.png" />
1419693273629 1412253438515 <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb
94_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_tmpy57mSX.png" />
1419693273630 1412253438515 <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb
94_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_tmpy57mSX.png" />
1419693273631 1412253438515 <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb
94_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_tmpy57mSX.png" />
1419693273632 1412253438515 <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb
94_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_tmpy57mSX.png" />
1419693273634 1412253438515 <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb
94_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7dc53f31dfb8888774df4ef76d2feb0f4bb94_tmpy57mSX.png" />
1419693490074 1412253438515 <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c4
7d_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_tmpOPNWqx.png" />
1419693490075 1412253438515 <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c4
7d_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_tmpOPNWqx.png" />
1419693490076 1412253438515 <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c4
7d_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_tmpOPNWqx.png" />
1419693490077 1412253438515 <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c4
7d_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_tmpOPNWqx.png" />
1419693490078 1412253438515 <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c4
7d_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_tmpOPNWqx.png" />
1419693490079 1412253438515 <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c4
7d_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_tmpOPNWqx.png" />
1419693490117 1412253438515 <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c4
7d_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_tmpOPNWqx.png" />
1419693490118 1412253438515 <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c4
7d_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_tmpOPNWqx.png" />
1419693490120 1412253438515 <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c4
7d_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src

="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_tmpOPNWqx.png" />
1419693490121 1412253438515 <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c4
7d_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_tmpOPNWqx.png" />
1419693490122 1412253438515 <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c4
7d_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_tmpOPNWqx.png" />
1419693490123 1412253438515 <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c4
7d_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_tmpOPNWqx.png" />
1419693490124 1412253438515 <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c4
7d_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c9dfe0190179bdb99bf0f946210d0d47c47d_tmpOPNWqx.png" />
1419693865389 1367090743656 <b>Pyruvte dehydrogense complex deficiency</b>
<div><br /></div><div>Cuses  buildup of {{c7::pyruvte}} tht gets shunted to
l{{c8::ctte (vi LDH)}} nd {{c9::lnine (vi ALT)}}.</div><div><br /></div><
div><b>Findings</b>:&nbsp;{{c4::Neurologic}} defects, {{c5::lctic cidosis}}, {
{c6::incresed}} serum lnine strting in infncy.</div><div><br /></div><div><
b>Tretment</b>: increse intke of {{c3::ketogenic}} nutrients (e.g., {{c2::hig
h}} ft content or {{c1::high}} in lysine nd leucine).</div><div><br /></div>
<div>Lysine nd Leucine—the onLy pureLy ketogenic mino cids.</div><div><br /></d
iv>
1419694123252 1367090743656 <b>TCA cycle (Krebs Cycle)</b><div><br /></div><
div><div>The TCA cycle produces {{c1::3}} NADH, {{c2::1}} FADH2, {{c3::2}} CO2,
{{c4::1}} GTP per {{c5::cetyl-CoA}} = {{c6::10}} ATP/ cetyl-CoA (2× everything p
er {{c7::glucose}}).&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>TCA cycle rections occur
in the {{c8::mitochondri}}.</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c9::α-ketoglutrte dehy
drogense}} complex requires the sme cofctors s the {{c10::pyruvte dehydroge
nse}} complex ({{c11::B1, B2, B3, B5, lipoic cid}}).</div><div><br /></div></d
iv><div><img src="pste-70579197575481.jpg" /></div>
Citrte Is Krebs’ Starting
Substrate For Making Oxaloacetate.
1419694188060 1412253438515 <img src="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f660
44_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f66044_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f66044_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f66044_tmpDJu34D.png" />
1419694188062 1412253438515 <img src="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f660
44_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f66044_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f66044_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f66044_tmpDJu34D.png" />
1419694188063 1412253438515 <img src="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f660
44_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f66044_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f66044_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f66044_tmpDJu34D.png" />
1419694188064 1412253438515 <img src="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f660
44_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f66044_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f66044_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c566051c2c5f24
015ca2c803ac97e7947f66044_tmpDJu34D.png" />
1419694235575 1412253438515 <img src="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f
08_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f08_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f08_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f08_tmpDJu34D.png" />
1419694235599 1412253438515 <img src="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f
08_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f08_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f08_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f08_tmpDJu34D.png" />
1419694235601 1412253438515 <img src="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f

08_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f08_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f08_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

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1419694235602 1412253438515 <img src="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f
08_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f08_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f08_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b1bb026acb29e071
1
e9
24

2a1467bbb37f08_tmpDJu34D.png" />
1419694407244 1367090743656 <b>Electron transport chain an
oxi
ative phosph
orylation</b><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv>NADH {{c1::electrons}} from glycolysis
enter mitochon
ria via the malate-aspartate or glycerol-3- phosphate shuttle.&n
bsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>FADH2 {{c2::electrons}} are transferre
to {{c3:
:complex II (at a lower energy level than NADH)}}. The passage of electrons resu
lts in the formation of a {{c4::proton gra
ient}} that, couple
to {{c5::oxi
ati
ve phosphorylation}},
rives the pro
uction of ATP.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
img src="paste-70866960384181.jpg" /></
iv>
1419694633922 1367090743656 <img src="paste-70862665416885.jpg" /><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv><b>ATP pro
uce
via ATP synthase</b></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>1 NA
DH --&gt; {{c1::2.5}} ATP</
iv><
iv>1 FADH2 --&gt; {{c2::1.5}} ATP</
iv>
1419694697456 1367090743656 <b>Oxi
ative phosphorylation poisons</b><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv><b>Electron transport inhibitors:</b>&nbsp;Directly inhibit electr
on transport, causing {{c1::increase}} in proton gra
ient an
{{c2::block}} of A
TP synthesis.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Examples</b> = {{c3::Rotenone, cyani

e, antimycin A, CO}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>ATP synthase inhibitors</b>:
&nbsp;Directly inhibit mitochon
rial ATP synthase, causing {{c5::increase}} in p
roton gra
ient. {{c6::No}} ATP is pro
uce
because electron transport stops. Exa
mple = {{c4::Oligomycin}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Uncoupl
ing agents:</b> {{c7::increase
}}&nbsp;permeability of membrane, causing a {{c11
::
ecrease
}} proton gra
ient an
{{c12::increase
}} O2 consumption. ATP synthes
is {{c13::stops}}, but electron transport {{c13::continues}}. Pro
uces heat.&nbs
p;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Examples</b> =&nbsp;{{c8::2,4-Dinitrophenol}} (
use
illicitly for weight loss), {{c9::aspirin}} (fevers often occur after aspir
in over
ose), {{c10::thermogenin}} in brown fat.</
iv>
1419694944055 1367090743656 <b>Gluconeogenesis, irreversible reactions</b><

iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b>{{c1::Pyruvate carboxylase}}</b>: in {{c15::mitoch
on
ria}}. {{c2::Pyruvate}} --&gt; {{c3::oxaloacetate}}. Re uires: {{c4::biotin}}
, {{c5::ATP}}. Activate
by {{c6::acetyl-CoA}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c
10::Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase}}</b>: In {{c14::cytosol}}. {{c8::Oxaloace
tate}} --&gt; {{c9::phosphoenolpyruvate}}. Re uires {{c7::GTP}}.</
iv><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv><b>{{c12::Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase}}</b>: In {{c13::cytosol}}. {{
c21::Fructose-1,6-BP}} --&gt; {{c22::fructose-6-P}}. Citrate {{c19::+}}, 2,6-bis
phosphate {{c20::-}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c11::Glucose-6-phosphatase
}}:</b> In {{c16::ER}}. {{c17::Glucose-6-phosphate}} --&gt; {{c18::glucose}}<br
/><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv></
iv>
Pathway
Pro
uces Fresh Glucose.
1419695472543 1367090743656 <b>Gluconeogensis</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>
Occurs primarily in {{c1::liver}}; serves to maintain euglycemia
uring fasting.
Enzymes also foun
in ki
ney, intestinal epithelium. Deficiency of the key gluc
oneogenic enzymes causes {{c2::hypoglycemia}}. (Muscle cannot participate in glu
coneogenesis because it lacks {{c7::glucose-6-phosphatase}}).</
iv><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv>O

-chain fatty aci
s yiel
{{c3::1 propionyl-CoA}}
uring metabolism,
which can enter the TCA cycle (as succinyl-CoA), un
ergo {{c4::gluconeogenesis}}
, an
serve as a glucose source. {{c5::Even-chain}} fatty aci
s cannot pro
uce n
ew glucose, since they yiel
only {{c6::acetyl-CoA}} e uivalents.</
iv></
iv>
1419695649532 1367090743656 <b>HMP shunt (pentose phosphate pathway)</b><
iv
><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>Provi
es a source of {{c1::NADPH}} from abun
antly availa
ble {{c2::glucose-6-P}} (NADPH is re uire
for re
uctive reactions, e.g., {{c10:
:glutathione re
uction}} insi
e RBCs, {{c11::fatty aci
}} an
{{c11::cholesterol
}} biosynthesis).&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>A

itionally, this pathway yi
el
s {{c7::ribose}} for {{c8::nucleoti
e}} synthesis an
glycolytic interme
iate

s. 2
istinct phases (oxi
ative an
nonoxi
ative), both of which occur in the cy
toplasm. {{c9::No}} ATP is use
or pro
uce
.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Sites
</b>: {{c3::lactating mammary glan
s}}, {{c4::liver}}, {{c5::a
renal cortex (sit
es of fatty aci
or steroi
synthesis)}}, {{c6::RBCs}}.</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></

iv>
1419695758593 1367090743656 <b>Respiratory burst (oxi
ative burst)</b><
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv>Involves the activation of the phagocyte {{c1::NADPH oxi
ase}} c
omplex (e.g., in {{c2::neutrophils}}, {{c3::monocytes}}), which utilizes O2 as a
substrate.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Plays an important role in the immu
ne response lea
ing to rapi
release of {{c4::reactive oxygen species (ROS)}}.&n
bsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Note that NADPH plays a role in both the {{c5::c
reation}} an
{{c6::neutralization}} of ROS.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{
c7::Myeloperoxi
ase}} is a blue-green heme-containing pigment that gives {{c8::s
putum}} its color.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-81007378170146.jpg
" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>Phagocytes of patients wit
h {{c9::CGD}} can utilize H2O2 generate
by inva
ing organisms an
convert it to
ROS.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Patients are at increase
risk for infect
ion by {{c10::catalase +}} species (e.g., {{c11::S. aureus}}, {{c12::Aspergillus
}}) capable of neutralizing their own H2O2, leaving phagocytes without ROS for f
ighting infections.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c13::Pyocyanin}} of P. aerugino
sa functions to generate {{c14::ROS}} to kill {{c15::competing microbes}}. {{c16
::Lactoferrin}} is a protein foun
in secretory flui
s an
neutrophils that inhi
bits microbial growth via iron {{c17::chelation}}.</
iv></
iv>
1419695861318 1412253438515 <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa4
44_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_A_0.svg" />
<img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_tmpmpjMkN.png" />
1419695861319 1412253438515 <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa4
44_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_A_0.svg" />
<img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_tmpmpjMkN.png" />
1419695861321 1412253438515 <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa4
44_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_A_0.svg" />
<img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_tmpmpjMkN.png" />
1419695861322 1412253438515 <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa4
44_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_A_0.svg" />
<img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_tmpmpjMkN.png" />
1419695861323 1412253438515 <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa4
44_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_A_0.svg" />
<img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_tmpmpjMkN.png" />
1419695861324 1412253438515 <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa4
44_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_A_0.svg" />
<img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_tmpmpjMkN.png" />
1419695861325 1412253438515 <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa4
44_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_A_0.svg" />
<img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_tmpmpjMkN.png" />
1419695861326 1412253438515 <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa4
44_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_A_0.svg" />
<img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_tmpmpjMkN.png" />
1419695861354 1412253438515 <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa4
44_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_A_0.svg" />
<img src="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="4c5c80242c35518b287f49c3b01229792b0fa444_tmpmpjMkN.png" />
1419701986303 1367090743656 <b>Glucose-6-phosphate
ehy
rogenase
eficiency<

/b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>NADPH is necessary to keep {{c1::glutathione}} re
uce
,
which in turn {{c2::
etoxifies free ra
icals an
peroxi
es}}.</
iv><
iv><br /><
/
iv><
iv>{{c3::Decrease
}} NADPH in RBCs lea
s to {{c4::hemolytic anemia}}
ue
to poor RBC
efense against {{c5::oxi
izing agents (e.g., fava beans, sulfonami

es, prima uine, antituberculosis
rugs).}}&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Infe
ction can also precipitate {{c6::hemolysis}} (free ra
icals generate
via inflam
matory response can
iffuse into RBCs an
cause oxi
ative
amage).</
iv><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-81110457385091.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>
<br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>{{c7::X-linke
recessive}}
isor
er; most {{c8::common}} h
uman enzyme
eficiency; more prevalent among {{c9::blacks}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv>{{c10::Elevate
}} {{c11::malarial}} resistance.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv>{{c12::Heinz bo
ies}}—{{c14::oxi
ize
Hemoglobin precipitate
within RBCs.}}</

iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c13::Bite cells}}—{{c15::result from the phagocytic rem
oval of Heinz bo
ies by splenic macrophages. Think, “Bite into some Heinz ketchup.”}
}</
iv></
iv>
1419702244340 1367090743656 <b>Disor
ers of fructose metabolism</b><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv><b>Essential fructosuria:</b>&nbsp;Involves a
efect in {{c1::fruct
okinase}}. Autosomal recessive. A benign, asymptomatic con
ition, since fructose
is {{c2::not trappe
in cells.}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Symptoms:</b> fr
uctose appears in {{c3::bloo
}} an
{{c3::urine}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Di
sor
ers of fructose metabolism cause {{c5::mil
er}} symptoms than analogous
iso
r
ers of {{c4::galactose}}&nbsp;metabolism.</
iv>
1419702313944 1367090743656 <b>Disor
ers of fructose metabolism</b><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv><b>{{c1::Fructose intolerance}}:</b>Here
itary
eficiency of {{c2::
al
olase B}}. Autosomal recessive. Fructose-1-P accumulates, causing</
iv><
iv>ai
n available phosphate, which results in inhibition of glycogenolysis an
glucone
ogenesis.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Symptoms present following consumptio
n of {{c3::fruit}}, {{c3::juice}}, or {{c3::honey}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv
><
iv>Urine
ipstick will be {{c4::-}} (tests for glucose only); re
ucing sugar
can be
etecte
in the {{c5::urine (nonspecific test for inborn errors of carboh
y
rate metabolism).}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Symptoms: </b>{{c6::hypoglyc
emia}}, {{c7::jaun
ice}}, {{c8::cirrhosis}}, {{c9::vomiting}}</
iv><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv>Treatment:
ecrease intake of both {{c11::fructose}} an
{{c10::sucrose
}} ({{c12::glucose}} + {{c12::fructose}})</
iv>
1419702495537 1367090743656 <b>Disor
ers of galactose metabolism</b><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv><b>{{c1::Galactokinase
eficiency}}</b>: Here
itary
eficiency of
{{c2::galactokinase}}.&nbsp;{{c3::Galactitol}} accumulates if galactose is prese
nt in
iet. Relatively mil
con
ition. Autosomal recessive.</
iv><
iv><br /></
i
v><
iv><b>Symptoms</b>: galactose appears in {{c4::bloo
}} an
{{c4::urine}}, in
fantile {{c5::cataracts}}. May initially present as {{c6::failure to track objec
ts or to
evelop a social smile.}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv>
1419702562467 1412253438515 <img src="aa344

08b40cf74bc057ebe383bfe04a94c19
cc_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="aa344

08b40cf74bc057ebe383bfe04a94c19cc_A_0.svg" />
<img src="aa344

08b40cf74bc057ebe383bfe04a94c19cc_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="aa344

08b40cf74bc057ebe383bfe04a94c19cc_tmpjIDQAf.png" />
1419702562468 1412253438515 <img src="aa344

08b40cf74bc057ebe383bfe04a94c19
cc_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="aa344

08b40cf74bc057ebe383bfe04a94c19cc_A_0.svg" />
<img src="aa344

08b40cf74bc057ebe383bfe04a94c19cc_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="aa344

08b40cf74bc057ebe383bfe04a94c19cc_tmpjIDQAf.png" />
1419702562469 1412253438515 <img src="aa344

08b40cf74bc057ebe383bfe04a94c19
cc_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="aa344

08b40cf74bc057ebe383bfe04a94c19cc_A_0.svg" />
<img src="aa344

08b40cf74bc057ebe383bfe04a94c19cc_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="aa344

08b40cf74bc057ebe383bfe04a94c19cc_tmpjIDQAf.png" />
1419702740836 1367090743656 <b>Disor
ers of galactose metabolism</b><
iv><b>
<br /></b></
iv><
iv><b>Classic galactosemia:</b>Absence of {{c1::galactose-1-ph
osphate uri
yltransferase}}. Autosomal recessive. Damage is cause
by {{c2::accu
mulation of toxic substances (inclu
ing galactitol, which accumulates in the len
s of the eye).}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Symptoms</b>: {{c3::failure to th
rive}}, {{c4::jaun
ice}}, {{c5::hepatomegaly}}, infantile {{c6::cataracts}}, {{c
7::intellectual
isability}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Treatment</b>:

exclu
e {{c8::galactose}} an
{{c9::lactose (galactose + glucose)}} from
iet.<
/
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>{{c10::Fructose}} is to {{c11::Al
olase B}} as {
{c12::Galactose}} is to {{c13::Uri
ylTransferase (FAB GUT)}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><b
r /></
iv><
iv>The more serious
efects lea
to {{c14::PO4 3-}}
epletion. Class
ic galactosemia can lea
to {{c15::E. coli sepsis}} in&nbsp;neonates.</
iv></
iv
><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-93720481366164.jpg" /></
iv>
1419703973111 1367090743656 <b>Disor
ers of galactose metabolism</b><
iv><b>
<br /></b></
iv><
iv><b>{{c1::Sorbitol}}</b></
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><

iv>An alternative metho
of {{c2::trapping glucose}} in the cell is to convert
it to its alcohol counterpart, calle
{{c3::sorbitol}}, via {{c4::al
ose re
ucta
se}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>&nbsp;Some tissues then convert sorbitol to {{c
5::fructose}} using {{c6::sorbitol
ehy
rogenase}}; tissues with an insufficient
amount of this enzyme are at risk for intracellular sorbitol accumulation, caus
ing {{c7::osmotic
amage}} (e.g., {{c8::cataracts}}, {{c9::retinopathy}}, an
{{
c10::peripheral neuropathy}} seen with chronic {{c11::hyperglycemia}} in
iabete
s).</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>High bloo
levels of {{c12::galactose}} also resu
lt in conversion to the osmotically active galactitol via {{c13::al
ose re
uctas
e.}}</
iv><
iv style="font-weight: bol
; "><br /></
iv></
iv><
iv style="font-we
ight: bol
; "><br /></
iv><
iv style="font-weight: bol
; "><img src="paste-43379
1697127.jpg" /></
iv>
1419704134102 1367090743656 <b>Lactase
eficiency</b><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv
><
iv><
iv>Insufficient {{c1::lactase enzyme}} lea
s to
ietary {{c2::lactose}}
intolerance. Lactase functions on the {{c3::brush bor
er}} to {{c4::
igest lacto
se (in human an
cow milk)}} into {{c5::glucose}} an
{{c6::galactose}}.</
iv><

iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Primary</b>: age-
epen
ent
ecline after chil
hoo
(absen
ce of lactase-persistent allele), common in people of {{c7::Asian, African, or N
ative American}}
escent.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Secon
ary</b>: loss of {
{c8::brush bor
er}}
ue to gastroenteritis (e.g., rotavirus), autoimmune
isease
, etc.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Congenital lactase
eficiency: {{c9::rar
e,
ue to
efective gene.}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Stool
emonstrates {{c10:
:
ecrease
}} pH an
breath shows {{c11::increase
}} {{c12::hy
rogen}} content wi
th lactose tolerance test.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Intestinal&nbsp;biop
sy reveals normal mucosa in patients with {{c13::here
itary lactose intolerance.
}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Fin
ings</b>:&nbsp;{{c14::Bloating}}, {{c15::cr
amps}}, {{c16::flatulence}}, {{c17::osmotic
iarrhea}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv><b>Treatment</b>:&nbsp;{{c18::Avoi

airy pro
ucts or a

lactase pills to
i
et; lactose-free milk.}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv></
iv>
1419704162633 1412253438515 <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347

6_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_A_0.svg" />
<img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_tmp_nxE
L.png" />
1419704162635 1412253438515 <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347

6_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_A_0.svg" />
<img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_tmp_nxE
L.png" />
1419704162636 1412253438515 <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347

6_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_A_0.svg" />
<img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_tmp_nxE
L.png" />
1419704162637 1412253438515 <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347

6_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_A_0.svg" />
<img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_tmp_nxE
L.png" />
1419704162663 1412253438515 <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347

6_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_A_0.svg" />
<img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_tmp_nxE
L.png" />
1419704162664 1412253438515 <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347

6_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_A_0.svg" />
<img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src

="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_tmp_nxE
L.png" />
1419704162666 1412253438515 <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347

6_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_A_0.svg" />
<img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_tmp_nxE
L.png" />
1419704162667 1412253438515 <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347

6_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_A_0.svg" />
<img src="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="33260b71b601239e58e47f5a99
27282ef2347
6_tmp_nxE
L.png" />
1419704385338 1367090743656 <b>Amino aci
s</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Only {{c
1::L}}-form amino aci
s are foun
in protein</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c2:
:Essential (nee
to be supplie
in the
iet)}}:</b></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><

iv>Glucogenic: {{c4::methionine (Met), valine (Val), histi
ine (His).}}</
iv><

iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Glucogenic/ketogenic: {{c3::isoleucine (Ile), phenylalanine
(Phe), threonine (Thr), tryptophan (Trp).}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Ketogenic
: {{c5::leucine (Leu), lysine (Lys).}}</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Aci
i
c:</b>&nbsp;{{c6::Aspartic aci
(Asp)}} an
{{c7::glutamic aci
(Glu)}}. {{c8::N
egatively}} charge
at bo
y pH.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Basic:&nbsp;</b>{{
c9::Arginine (Arg), lysine (Lys), histi
ine (His).}} {{c10::Arg}} is most basic.
</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>His has {{c11::no}} charge at bo
y pH.</
iv><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv>Arg an
His are re uire

uring perio
s of {{c12::growth}}. Arg an

Lys are increase
in {{c13::histones}}, which bin
negatively charge
DNA.</
i
v>
1419704734641 1367090743656 <b>Urea cycle</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Amino aci

catabolism results in the formation of common metabolites (e.g., pyruvate, ace
tyl-CoA), which serve as metabolic fuels.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Exces
s {{c1::nitrogen (NH3)}} generate
by this process is converte
to {{c2::urea}}
an
excrete
by the {{c3::ki
neys}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste7683696492921.jpg" /></
iv>
Or
inarily, Careless Crappers Are Also Frivolous
About Urination.
1419704849055 1412253438515 <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8
e
_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_A_0.svg" />
<img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_tmpkxpbon.png" />
1419704849057 1412253438515 <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8
e
_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_A_0.svg" />
<img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_tmpkxpbon.png" />
1419704849058 1412253438515 <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8
e
_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_A_0.svg" />
<img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_tmpkxpbon.png" />
1419704849059 1412253438515 <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8
e
_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_A_0.svg" />
<img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_tmpkxpbon.png" />
1419704849060 1412253438515 <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8
e
_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_A_0.svg" />
<img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_tmpkxpbon.png" />
1419704849061 1412253438515 <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8
e
_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_A_0.svg" />
<img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_tmpkxpbon.png" />
1419704849062 1412253438515 <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8
e
_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_A_0.svg" />
<img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_tmpkxpbon.png" />
1419704849063 1412253438515 <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8
e
_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_A_0.svg" />

<img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_tmpkxpbon.png" />
1419704849064 1412253438515 <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8
e
_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_A_0.svg" />
<img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_tmpkxpbon.png" />
1419704849066 1412253438515 <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8
e
_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_A_0.svg" />
<img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_tmpkxpbon.png" />
1419704849067 1412253438515 <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8
e
_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_A_0.svg" />
<img src="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="798ccf975
aa4fa074335cc2c63e74b9a077
8e
_tmpkxpbon.png" />
1419707404256 1367090743656 <b>Hyperammonemia</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>
Can be {{c3::ac uire
(e.g., liver
isease)}} or {{c4::here
itary (e.g., urea cy
cle enzyme
eficiencies).}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Results in excess {{c5::N
H4+}}, which
epletes {{c6::α-ketoglutrte}}, leding to inhibition of {{c7::TCA
cycle.}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Tretment</b>: limit {{c8::protein}} in d
iet. {{c10::Benzote}} or {{c9::phenylbutyrte}} (both of which bind mino cid
nd led to excretion) my be given to {{c2::decrese}} {{c11::mmoni}} levels.
{{c12::Lctulose}} to cidify the GI trct nd trp {{c13::NH4+}} for excretion
.</div></div><div><br /></div><div><b>{{c1::Ammoni intoxiction}}</b>—{{c14::trem
or (sterixis)}}, {{c15::slurring of speech, somnolence, vomiting, cerebrl edem
, blurring of vision.}}</div>
1419707443062 1412253438515 <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b3
2d_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_tmp3md1Hg.png" />
1419707443080 1412253438515 <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b3
2d_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_tmp3md1Hg.png" />
1419707443106 1412253438515 <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b3
2d_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_tmp3md1Hg.png" />
1419707443107 1412253438515 <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b3
2d_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_tmp3md1Hg.png" />
1419707443108 1412253438515 <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b3
2d_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_tmp3md1Hg.png" />
1419707443110 1412253438515 <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b3
2d_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_tmp3md1Hg.png" />
1419707443111 1412253438515 <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b3
2d_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_tmp3md1Hg.png" />
1419707443112 1412253438515 <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b3
2d_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_tmp3md1Hg.png" />
1419707443113 1412253438515 <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b3
2d_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src

="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_tmp3md1Hg.png" />
1419707443114 1412253438515 <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b3
2d_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_tmp3md1Hg.png" />
1419707443115 1412253438515 <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b3
2d_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="46e4f7285911bd9d41efb5b22c3c987e218b32d_tmp3md1Hg.png" />
1419707571004 1367090743656 <div><b>{{c6::N-cetylglutmte}} deficiency</b>
</div><div><br /></div><div><div>Required cofctor for crbmoyl phosphte synth
etse I. Absence of N-cetylglutmte leds to {{c1::hypermmonemi}}.</div><div
><br /></div><div>Presenttion is identicl to {{c2::crbmoyl phosphte synthet
se I}} deficiency.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>However, {{c3::incresed}}
ornithine with norml ure cycle enzymes suggests {{c4::hereditry}} {{c5::N-ce
tylglutmte}} deficiency.</div></div>
1419707648218 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Ornithine trnscrbmylse}} deficiency
</b><div><br /></div><div><div>Most common ure cycle disorder.&nbsp;</div><div>
<br /></div><div>{{c2::X-linked recessive}} (vs. other ure cycle enzyme deficie
ncies, which re utosoml recessive).&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Interfer
es with the body’s ability to eliminate {{c3::ammonia}}. Often evi
ent in {{c4::th
e first few
ays of life}}, but may present with late onset.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv>Excess {{c5::carbamoyl phosphate}} is converte
to {{c6::orotic ac
i
(part of the pyrimi
ine synthesis pathway)}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv><b>Fin
ings</b>: {{c7::increase
}} {{c8::orotic aci
}} in bloo
an

urine, {{c9::
ecrease
}} {{c10::BUN}}, symptoms of {{c11::hyperammonemia}}.&nbs
p;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>No {{c13::megaloblastic anemia}} (vs. {{c12::oroti
c aci
uria}}).</
iv></
iv>
1419707775114 1367090743656 <b>Phenylketonuria</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv
>Due to
ecrease
{{c1::phenylalanine hy
roxylase}} or
ecrease
{{c2::tetrahy
r
obiopterin cofactor (malignant PKU)}}. {{c3::Tyrosine}} becomes essential.&nbsp;
</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Increase
phenylalanine lea
s to excess {{c4::phenyl
ketones}} in urine.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Fin
ings</b>: i{{c5::ntellectu
al
isability, growth retar
ation, seizures, fair skin, eczema, musty bo
y o
or.
}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Treatment</b>: {{c6::
ecrease}} {{c7::phenylala
nine}} an
{{c6::increase}} {{c7::tyrosine}} in
iet.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv
><b>Maternal PKU</b>—lack of proper
ietary therapy
uring pregnancy. Fin
ings in
infant: {{c8::microcephaly, intellectual
isability, growth retar
ation, congeni
tal heart
efects.}}</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>Auto
somal recessive. Inci
ence ≈ 1:10,000.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Screene
f
or {{c9::2–3
ays}} after birth (normal at&nbsp;birth because of maternal enzyme

uring fetallife).</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Phenylketones</b>—{{c11::phenylace
tate, phenyllactate,&nbsp;an
phenylpyruvate.}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Disor

er of aromatic amino aci
metabolism lea
s to {{c10::musty bo
y}} o
or.</
iv><

iv><br /></
iv><
iv>PKU patients must avoi
the artificial sweetener&nbsp;{{c12:
:aspartame}}, which contains {{c13::phenylalanine}}.</
iv></
iv>
1419707986001 1412253438515 <img src="62606ac
14a90eb02
ac1fee56898772146
54
8
_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="62606ac
14a90eb02
ac1fee56898772146
548
_A_0.svg" />
<img src="62606ac
14a90eb02
ac1fee56898772146
548
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="62606ac
14a90eb02
ac1fee56898772146
548
_tmppLNSA4.png" />
1419707986003 1412253438515 <img src="62606ac
14a90eb02
ac1fee56898772146
54
8
_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="62606ac
14a90eb02
ac1fee56898772146
548
_A_0.svg" />
<img src="62606ac
14a90eb02
ac1fee56898772146
548
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="62606ac
14a90eb02
ac1fee56898772146
548
_tmppLNSA4.png" />
1419707986006 1412253438515 <img src="62606ac
14a90eb02
ac1fee56898772146
54
8
_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="62606ac
14a90eb02
ac1fee56898772146
548
_A_0.svg" />
<img src="62606ac
14a90eb02
ac1fee56898772146
548
_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="62606ac
14a90eb02
ac1fee56898772146
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<img src="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a47a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a47a_tmpIpAV0X.png" />
1419708115529 1412253438515 <img src="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a4
7a_Q_20.svg" /> <img src="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a47a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a47a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a47a_tmpIpAV0X.png" />
1419708115530 1412253438515 <img src="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a4
7a_Q_21.svg" /> <img src="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a47a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a47a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a47a_tmpIpAV0X.png" />
1419708115531 1412253438515 <img src="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a4
7a_Q_22.svg" /> <img src="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a47a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a47a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="55e027091e2f64bea9a38b290a4c21427023a47a_tmpIpAV0X.png" />
1419708311827 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Alkaptonuria (ochronosis)}}</b><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv><
iv>Congenital
eficiency of {{c4::homogentisate oxi
ase}} in the

egra
ative pathway of {{c5::tyrosine}} to {{c6::fumarate}}. Autosomal recessiv
e. Benign
isease.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Fin
ings</b>: {{c3::
ark connec
tive tissue, brown pigmente
sclerae, urine turns black on prolonge
exposure to
air}}. May have
ebilitating {{c2::arthralgias (homogentisic aci
toxic to cart
ilage).}}</
iv></
iv>
1419708484914 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Homocystinuria}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv><
iv>Types (all autosomal recessive):</
iv><
iv> Cystathionine synthase
efici
ency</
iv><
iv>(<b>treatment</b>: {{c3::
ecrease}} methionine, {{c4::increase}}
cysteine, increase {{c2::B12}}</
iv><
iv>an
{{c2::folate}} in
iet)</
iv><
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv> {{c5::
ecrease
}} affinity of cystathionine synthase for</
iv><

iv>pyri
oxal phosphate (treatment: {{c6::increase}} B6 an
</
iv><
iv>{{c7::incre
ase}} cysteine in
iet)</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>&nbsp;{{c9::</
iv><
iv>Homocys
teine methyltransferase</
iv><
iv>(methionine synthase) </
iv><
iv>}}
eficiency
(treatment: {{c8::increase}} methionine in
iet)</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
i
v><
iv>All forms result in {{c10::excess homocysteine.}}</
iv><
iv>&nbsp;</
iv><

iv><b>Fin
ings</b>: increase homocysteine in {{c11::urine}},&nbsp;{{c12::intell
ectual&nbsp;
isability}}, {{c13::osteoporosis}}, {{c14::tall}} stature, {{c15::k
yphosis, lens subluxation (
ownwar
an
inwar
), thrombosis, an
atherosclerosis
(stroke an
MI).}}</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-61091614818
395.jpg" /></
iv>
1419708684710 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Cystinuria}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><

iv>Here
itary
efect of renal {{c3::PCT}} an
intestinal amino aci
transporter
for {{c4::Cysteine, Ornithine, Lysine, an
Arginine (COLA).}}</
iv><
iv><br /><
/
iv><
iv>Excess {{c5::cystine}} in the urine can lea
to precipitation of {{c6:
:hexagonal cystine stones.}}</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>Autosomal rec
essive. Common (1:7000). Urinary cyani
e-nitroprussi
e test is
iagnostic.&nbsp;
</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Treatment</b>: u{{c7::</
iv><
iv>rinary alkaliniz
ation (e.g.,</
iv><
iv>potassium citrate, acetazolami
e)</
iv><
iv>}}&nbsp;an
{
{c8::chelating agents}} {{c2::increase}} solubility of cystine stones; goo
hy
r
ation.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Cystine is ma
e of 2 {{c9::cysteines}} connect
e
by {{c10::a
isulfi
e bon
.}}</
iv></
iv>
1419708913908 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Maple syrup urine
isease}}</b><
iv><b>

<br /></b></
iv><
iv><
iv>Blocke

egra
ation of branche
amino&nbsp;aci
s (Isol
eucine, Leucine, Valine)
ue to
ecrease
α-ketocid dehydrogense (B1).&nbsp;</di
v><div><br /></div><div>Cuses incresed α-ketocids in the blood, especilly thos
e of leucine.</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c2::Autosoml recess
ive}} genetics.</div><div><br /></div><div>Urine smells like mple syrup/burnt s
ugr.</div><div style="font-weight: bold; "><br /></div><div style="font-weight:
bold; "><br /></div><div style="font-weight: bold; "><br /></div><div><b>Tretm
ent: </b>restriction of&nbsp;{{c3::leucine, isoleucine, nd&nbsp;vline}}&nbsp;i
n diet, nd {{c4::thimine}} supplementtion.</div><div><br /></div><div>Cuses
{{c5::severe CNS defects}}, i<b>{{c6::ntellectul disbility, </b><b>nd deth</
b>}}.</div></div><div><b><br /></b></div>
<div style="font-weight: bold; "
>I Love Vermont mple syrup from mple trees&nbsp;(with brnches).</div>
1419709880633 1367090743656 <b>Glycogen</b><div><br /></div><div>Brnches h
ve {{c1::α-(1,6)}} bonds; linkges hve {{c2::α-(1,4)}} bonds.</div><div><br /></div
><div><b>Skeletl muscle</b>:&nbsp;Glycogen undergoes {{c3::glycogenolysis}} le
ding to {{c4::glucose-1-phosphte}} conversion to to {{c5::glucose-6-P}}, which
is rpidly metbolized during exercise.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Heptocyte
s</b>:Glycogen is stored nd undergoes {{c6::glycogenolysis}} to mintin blood
sugr t pproprite levels.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c12::Glycogen ph
osphorylse}} cleves {{c7::glucose-1-P}} residues off brnched glycogen until f
our remin before  brnch point. Then {{c8::4-α-D-glucnotrnsferse (debrnching
enzyme)}} moves three {{c9::glucose-1-Ps}} from the brnch to the linkge.&nbsp
;</div><div><br /></div><div>Then {{c10::α-1,6-glucosidse (debrnching enzyme)}}
cleves off the lst glucose-1-P on the brnch.</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c11
::“Limit dextrin”}} refers to the one to four residues remining on  brnch fter g
lycogen phosphorylse hs lredy shortened it.</div><div><br /></div><div><img
src="pste-11678016078068.jpg" /></div>
1419709928925 1412253438515 <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b
83_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_tmprxWBMn.png" />
1419709929010 1412253438515 <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b
83_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_tmprxWBMn.png" />
1419709929012 1412253438515 <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b
83_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_tmprxWBMn.png" />
1419709929013 1412253438515 <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b
83_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_tmprxWBMn.png" />
1419709929014 1412253438515 <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b
83_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_tmprxWBMn.png" />
1419709929015 1412253438515 <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b
83_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_tmprxWBMn.png" />
1419709929016 1412253438515 <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b
83_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_tmprxWBMn.png" />
1419709929018 1412253438515 <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b
83_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_tmprxWBMn.png" />
1419709929019 1412253438515 <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b

83_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e98c236038cd7841747fc23668bf40e0cc9d8b83_tmprxWBMn.png" />
1419710199598 1367090743656 <b>Ftty cid metbolism</b><div><br /></div><di
v>Long-chin ftty cid degrdtion requires {{c1::crnitine}}-dependent trnspo
rt into the {{c2::mitochondril mtrix.}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Crnitin
e deficiency:</b>inbility to trnsport {{c3::LCFAs}} into the mitochondri, res
ulting in toxic ccumultion. Cuses {{c4::wekness}}, {{c5::hypotoni}}, nd {{
c6::hypoketotic hypoglycemi.}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Acyl-CoA dehydroge
nse deficiency:</b>&nbsp;{{c7::incresed}} dicrboxylic cids, {{c8::decresed}
} glucose nd ketones. Acetyl-CoA is  {{c9::positive}} llosteric regultor of
pyruvte crboxylse in gluconeogenesis. {{c10::Decresed}} cetyl-CoA leds to
{{c11::decresed}} fsting glucose.</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-6
6305705116099.jpg" /></div>
<div>“SYtrte” = SYnthesis.</div><div>CARnitine = CA
Rnge of ftty cids.</div>
1419710286070 1412253438515 <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db4586
34_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_tmpT1ZEQg.png" />
1419710286071 1412253438515 <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db4586
34_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_tmpT1ZEQg.png" />
1419710286072 1412253438515 <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db4586
34_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_tmpT1ZEQg.png" />
1419710286073 1412253438515 <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db4586
34_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_tmpT1ZEQg.png" />
1419710286075 1412253438515 <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db4586
34_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_tmpT1ZEQg.png" />
1419710286076 1412253438515 <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db4586
34_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_tmpT1ZEQg.png" />
1419710286100 1412253438515 <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db4586
34_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_tmpT1ZEQg.png" />
1419710286101 1412253438515 <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db4586
34_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_tmpT1ZEQg.png" />
1419710286103 1412253438515 <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db4586
34_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_tmpT1ZEQg.png" />
1419710286104 1412253438515 <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db4586
34_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_tmpT1ZEQg.png" />
1419710286105 1412253438515 <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db4586
34_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_tmpT1ZEQg.png" />
1419710286106 1412253438515 <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db4586

34_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cb6ce7cf63ef1f7ef06232d087f6db458634_tmpT1ZEQg.png" />
1419711964779 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964781 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964783 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964784 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964786 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964787 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964788 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964789 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964814 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964816 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964817 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964818 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964839 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964840 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964841 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e

7_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964842 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964844 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_16.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964845 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_17.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964846 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_18.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964847 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_19.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964848 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_20.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964849 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_21.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964851 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_22.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964852 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_23.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964853 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_24.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964854 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_25.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964855 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_26.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964856 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_27.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964857 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e
7_Q_28.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419711964858 1412253438515 <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e

7_Q_29.svg" /> <img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="b6309d0b374c8002b6573db417cb277fd4e7_tmpeW4JId.png" />
1419712061848 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061849 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061850 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061851 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061852 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061853 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061854 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061855 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061856 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061857 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061858 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061859 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061860 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061903 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061904 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d

8d_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712061905 1412253438515 <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d
8d_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0c56f10b0c50482dc28e736e5e074f97608d8d_tmpLd43Vv.png" />
1419712292782 1367090743656 <b>Ketone bodies</b><div><br /></div><div><div>I
n the liver, ftty cids nd mino cids re metbolized to {{c1::cetocette}}
nd {{c2::β-hydroxyutyrate (to e used in muscle and rain).}}</div><div><r /><
/div><div>In prolonged starvation and diaetic ketoacidosis, {{c3::oxaloacetate}
} is depleted for {{c4::gluconeogenesis}}. In alcoholism, excess {{c5::NADH}} sh
unts {{c6::oxaloacetate}} to {{c7::malate}}. Both processes cause a uildup of {
{c8::acetyl-CoA}}, which shunts glucose and FFA toward the production of {{c9::k
etone odies.}}</div></div><div><r /></div><div><div>Breath smells like {{c10::
acetone (fruity odor).}}&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Urine test for ketones
does not detect</div><div>{{c11::β-hydroxyutyrate.}}</div></div>
1419712369336 1367090743656 <>Fasting &amp; Starving</>: priorities are to
supply suficient glucose to the {{c1::rain}} &amp; {{c2::RBCs}} and to preserv
e {{c3::protein}}<div><r /></div><div><>Fed state (after a meal)</>: Glycolys
is &amp; aeroic respiration. {{c4::Insulin}} stimulates storage of {{c5::glycog
en}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><>Fasting (etween meals):</>&nsp;{{c6
::Hepatic glycogenolysis (major)}}; hepatic {{c7::gluconeogenesis}}, adipose rel
ease of {{c8::FFA (minor)}}.&nsp;{{c9::Glucagon}}, {{c9::adrenaline}} stimulate
use of fuel reserves.</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
1419712910153 1412253438515 <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce
38_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_tmpTVt03i.png" />
1419712910154 1412253438515 <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce
38_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_tmpTVt03i.png" />
1419712910155 1412253438515 <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce
38_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_tmpTVt03i.png" />
1419712910156 1412253438515 <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce
38_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_tmpTVt03i.png" />
1419712910158 1412253438515 <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce
38_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_tmpTVt03i.png" />
1419712910159 1412253438515 <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce
38_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_tmpTVt03i.png" />
1419712910160 1412253438515 <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce
38_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_tmpTVt03i.png" />
1419712910183 1412253438515 <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce
38_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8cd81ac2eff7655d755a32a51ed05a980ce38_tmpTVt03i.png" />
1419713079348 1367090743656 <>Starvation days 1-3</>:&nsp;Blood glucose l
evels maintained y:<div> {{c1::Hepatic glycogenolysis}}</div><div> Adipose releas
e of {{c2::FFA}}</div><div> Muscle and liver, which shift fuel use from&nsp;{{c3

::glucose}} to {{c3::FFA}}</div><div> Hepatic {{c4::gluconeogenesis}} from periph
eral&nsp;tissue {{c8::lactate}} and {{c8::alanine}}, and from adipose tissue {{
c7::glycerol}} and {{c5::propionyl- CoA}} (from {{c6::odd-chain FFA}}—the only tri
acylglycerol components that contriute to gluconeogenesis)</div><div><r /></di
v><div><div>Glycogen reserves depleted after {{c9::day 1}}. RBCs lack {{c11::mit
ochondria}} and so cannot use {{c10::ketones}}.</div><div>
</div></div><div><>
day 3:</>&nsp;Adipose stores ({{c12::ketone odies}} ecome the main source of
energy for the rain). After these are depleted, vital {{c13::protein}} degrada
tion accelerates, leading to {{c14::organ failure and death.}}</div><div><r /><
/div><div>Amount of {{c15::excess stores}} determines survival time.</div><div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-76892799500531.jpg" /></div>
1419713279713 1367090743656 <>Cholesterol synthesis</><div><><r /></></
div><div>Rate-limiting step is catalyzed y {{c1::HMG-CoA reductase}} (induced 
y {{c2::insulin}}), which converts {{c3::HMG-CoA}} to {{c4::mevalonate}}. 2⁄3 of p
lasma cholesterol is esterified y {{c5::lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (L
CAT)}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c6::Statins (e.g., lovastatin)}} competitiv
ely and reversily inhiit {{c7::HMG-CoA reductase.}}</div><div><><r /></></d
iv>
1419713671666 1367090743656 <>Lipid transport, key enzymes</><div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-77210627080557.jpg" /></div><div><div><r /></div><div>
<>{{c1::Pancreatic lipase}}</>—degradation of {{c2::dietary triglycerides (TG)}}
in small intestine.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c3::Lipoprotein lipase (LPL
)}}</>—degradation of {{c4::TG}} circulating in {{c5::chylomicrons}} and {{c6::VL
DLs}}. Found on&nsp;{{c7::vascular endothelial surface}}.</div><div><r /></div
><div><>Hepatic TG lipase (HL)</>—degradation of {{c8::TG}} remaining in {{c9::I
DL}}. {{c10::Hormone-sensitive lipase}}—degradation of TG stored in adipocytes.</d
iv></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-77197742178489.j
pg" /></div><div><div><>{{c11::LCAT}}</>—catalyzes {{c12::esterification}} of ch
olesterol.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c13::Cholesterol ester transfer prote
in (CETP)}}</>—mediates transfer of {{c14::cholesterol esters}} to other</div><di
v>{{c15::lipoprotein particles.}}</div></div>
1419713864920 1367090743656 <>Lipoprotein functions</><div><r /></div><di
v><div>Lipoproteins are composed of varying proportions of {{c1::cholesterol}},
{{c2::TGs}}, and {{c3::phospholipids}}. LDL and HDL carry most {{c4::cholesterol
}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c5::LDL}} transports cholesterol from {{c8::liv
er}} to {{c8::tissues}}. &nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c6::HDL}} transport
s cholesterol from {{c7::periphery}} to&nsp;{{c7::liver}}.</div></div>
1419713940391 1412253438515 <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f3
92_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_A_0.svg" />
<img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_tmp2aX0Ah.png" />
1419713940392 1412253438515 <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f3
92_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_A_0.svg" />
<img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_tmp2aX0Ah.png" />
1419713940393 1412253438515 <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f3
92_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_A_0.svg" />
<img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_tmp2aX0Ah.png" />
1419713940394 1412253438515 <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f3
92_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_A_0.svg" />
<img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_tmp2aX0Ah.png" />
1419713940395 1412253438515 <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f3
92_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_A_0.svg" />
<img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_tmp2aX0Ah.png" />
1419713940396 1412253438515 <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f3
92_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_A_0.svg" />
<img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_source_svg.svg" /> <img src

="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_tmp2aX0Ah.png" />
1419713940397 1412253438515 <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f3
92_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_A_0.svg" />
<img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_tmp2aX0Ah.png" />
1419713940398 1412253438515 <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f3
92_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_A_0.svg" />
<img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_tmp2aX0Ah.png" />
1419713940412 1412253438515 <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f3
92_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_A_0.svg" />
<img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_tmp2aX0Ah.png" />
1419713940414 1412253438515 <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f3
92_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_A_0.svg" />
<img src="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="37f640d0045a8cc8373c851580e1425f392_tmp2aX0Ah.png" />
1419714014740 1367090743656 <>Chylomicron:</>&nsp;Delivers dietary {{c1::
TGs}} to {{c2::peripheral tissue}}. Delivers {{c3::cholesterol}} to liver in the
form of chylomicron remnants, which are mostly depleted of their {{c4::triacylg
lycerols}}. Secreted y {{c5::intestinal epithelial cells}}.<div><r /></div><di
v><>VLDL:&nsp;</>Delivers hepatic {{c6::TGs}} to peripheral tissue. Secreted
y {{c7::liver}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>IDL:</>&nsp;Formed in the degr
adation of {{c11::VLDL}}. Delivers {{c8::TGs}} and {{c8::cholesterol}} to {{c10:
:liver}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>LDL:</>&nsp;Delivers hepatic {{c12::ch
olesterol}} to peripheral tissues. Formed y hepatic lipase modification of {{c1
3::IDL}} in the peripheral tissue. Taken up y target cells via {{c14::receptormediated endocytosis.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>HDL:</>&nsp;Mediates rev
erse {{c15::cholesterol}} transport from periphery to {{c16::liver}}. Acts as a
repository for apoC and apoE (which are needed for chylomicron and VLDL metaoli
sm). Secreted from {{c18::oth liver and intestine}}. Alcohol {{c17::increases}}
synthesis.</div>
1419714343309 1412253438515 <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a
9f_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_tmpjcFaRQ.png" />
1419714343310 1412253438515 <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a
9f_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_tmpjcFaRQ.png" />
1419714343311 1412253438515 <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a
9f_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_tmpjcFaRQ.png" />
1419714343313 1412253438515 <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a
9f_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_tmpjcFaRQ.png" />
1419714343314 1412253438515 <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a
9f_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_tmpjcFaRQ.png" />
1419714343315 1412253438515 <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a
9f_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_tmpjcFaRQ.png" />
1419714343316 1412253438515 <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a
9f_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_tmpjcFaRQ.png" />

1419714343317 1412253438515 <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a
9f_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_tmpjcFaRQ.png" />
1419714343318 1412253438515 <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a
9f_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="ac5402253697221c1514814475eef927dc1a9f_tmpjcFaRQ.png" />
1415244902352 1367090743656 <>{{c10::Lesch-Nyhan syndrome}}</><div><r /><
/div><div><div>Defective {{c1::purine salvage}} due to asent HGPRT, which conve
rts {{c8::hypoxanthine}} to IMP and {{c9::guanosine}} to GMP.&nsp;</div><div><
r /></div><div>Results in excess {{c5::uric acid}} production and de novo purine
synthesis.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Genetics = {{c6::X-linked recessive
}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Findings: {{c7::intellectual disaility, self-muti
lation, aggression, hyperuricemia, gout, dystonia.}}</div><div><r /></div><div>
Treatment: {{c3::allopurinol}} or {{c4::feuxostat (2nd line)}}.</div></div><div
><r /></div><div><div>HGPRT:</div><div>{{c2::<div>Hyperuricemia</div><div>Gout<
/div><div>Pissed off (aggression, self-mutilation)&nsp;</div><div>Retardation (
intellectual disaility)&nsp;</div><div>DysTonia</div>}}</div></div>
1415245063434 1367090743656 <>{{c4::Adenosine deaminase deficiency}}</><di
v><r /></div><div>Excess {{c2::ATP}} and {{c2::dATP}} imalances nucleotide poo
l via feedack inhiition of rionucleotide reductase = prevents DNA synthesis a
nd thus lowers {{c1::lymphocyte}} count.</div><div><r /></div><div><div>One of
the major causes of autosomal recessive</div><div>{{c3::SCID}}.</div></div>
1415245166242 1367090743656 DNA repair mechanisms<div><r /></div><div>1. {{
c4::Nucleotide excision repair}}-Defective in {{c5::xeroderma pigmentosum}}, whi
ch prevents repair of {{c6::pyrimidine}} dimers ecause of UV exposure</div><div
><r /></div><div>2. {{c3::Base excistion repair}}-Important in repair of sponta
neous/toxic deamination</div><div><r /></div><div>3. {{c1::Mismatch repair}}-De
fective in {{c2::hereditary nonpolyposis colorecal cancer}}</div>
1415245334377 1367090743656 {{c1::Nucleotide excision repair}}<div><r /></d
iv><div>Specific {{c3::endonucleases}} release the {{c4::oligonucleotide-contain
ing damaged ases}}; DNA polymerase and ligase fill and reseal the gap, respecti
vely. Repairs ulky {{c5::helix-distorting}} lesions.</div><div><r /></div><div
>Defective in {{c2::xeroderma pigmentosum}}, which prevents repair of pyrimidine
dimers ecause of ultraviolet light exposure.</div>
1415245432893 1367090743656 {{c1::Base excision repair}}<r /><r /><div>Bas
e-specific {{c3::glycosylase}} recognizes altered ase and creates {{c4::AP site
(apurinic/apyrimidinic)}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>One or more nucleot
ides are removed y {{c5::AP- endonuclease}}, which cleaves the 5′ end. Lyase clea
ves the 3′ end. DNA polymerase-β fills the gap and DNA ligase seals it.<r /><r /><
/div><div><div>Important in repair of spontaneous/toxic {{c2::deamination}}.</di
v></div><div><r /></div>
1415245555368 1367090743656 <>Mismatch repair</><div><r /></div><div>Newl
y synthesized strand is recognized, {{c2::mismatched}} nucleotides are removed,
and the gap is filled and resealed.</div><div><r /></div><div>Defective in {{c1
::hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC).}}</div>
1415292910367 1367090743656 {{c2::RNA stop codons&nsp;}}<div><r /></div><d
iv>= {{c1::UGA, UAG, UAA}}</div>
1415292966864 1367090743656 <>Difference etween Eukaryotic &amp; Prokaryot
ice RNA polymerases</><div><><r /></></div><div><>Eukaryotes </>= {{c1::3}
} type(s)</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c3::RNA poly I: rRNA (rampant RNAs)}}</di
v><div>{{c4::RNA poly II: mRNA (massive RNAs)}}</div><div>{{c5::RNA poly III: tR
NA (tiny RNAs)}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Note: poly I, II, and III are named
according to {{c7::their sequential use in protein synthesis}}</div><div><r /><
/div><div>{{c8::RNA poly II}} is inhiited y {{c9::alpha-amanitin (death cap mu
shrooms)}}, leading to severe {{c10::hepatoxicity}}</div><div><r /></div><div><
>Prokaryotes</> = {{c2::1}} type(s)</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c6::RNA poly
makes all 3 kinds of RNA}}</div>
1415329938345 1367090743656 <img src="paste-858993459368.jpg" /><div><r /><

/div><div>Blue sclera is a symptom of {{c1::osteogenesis imperfecta}}</div>
1415330016131 1367090743656 <img src="paste-901943132419.jpg" /><div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Osteogenesis imperfecta. Severe skeletal deformity and lim shor
tening due to multiple fractures in a child (left, arrows). On the right, note 
ilateral proximal femur fractures (arrows); right is pinned and healing, left is
healed.}}</div>
1415330081154 1367090743656 <>Osteogenesis imperfecta</><div><r /></div><
div><div>Genetic one disorder (rittle one disease A ) caused y a variety of
gene defects.</div><div><r /></div><div>Most common form has autosomal dominant
genetics with production of otherwise normal type {{c1::I}} collagen. OI manife
stations can include:</div><div><r /></div><div> {{c6::Multiple fractures}} with
minimal trauma;&nsp;may occur during the {{c7::irth process}}</div><div><r /
></div><div> {{c4::Blue sclerae}} due to the translucency of</div><div>the {{c5::
connective tissue}} over the choroidal</div><div>veins</div><div><r /></div><di
v> {{c2::Hearing loss (anormal ossicles)}}</div><div><r /></div><div> {{c3::Dent
al imperfections}} due to lack of {{c3::dentin}}</div></div>
1415332554539 1367090743656 <>{{c12::Ehlers-Danlos syndrome}}</><div><><
r /></></div><div>Faulty collagen synthesis causing {{c1::hyperextensile}} ski
n, tendency to {{c2::leed (easy ruising)}}, and {{c3::hypermoile}} joints.</d
iv><div><r /></div><div>6+ types. Inheritance and severity vary. Can have {{c4:
:autosomal dominant}} or {{c5::recessive}} genetics. May e associated with join
t {{c6::dislocation}}, {{c7::erry and aortic aneurysms}}, {{c8::organ rupture}}
.</div><div><r /></div><div><div>{{c9::Hypermoility type (joint instaility)}}
: most common type.</div><div><r /></div><div>Classical type (joint and skin sy
mptoms): caused y a mutation in type {{c10::V}} collagen.</div><div><r /></div
><div>{{c13::Vascular type (vascular and organ rupture)}}: deficient type {{c11:
:III}} collagen.</div></div>
1415332710726 1367090743656 <>Menkes disease</><div><r /></div><div>Conne
ctive tissue disease caused y impaired {{c4::copper}} asorption and transport.
<r /><r /></div><div>Leads to decreased activity of {{c5::lysyl oxidase (copp
er is a necessary cofactor).&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Results in ritt
le, {{c3::“kinky” hair}}, {{c2::growth retardation}} and {{c1::hypotonia}}.<div><r
/></div><div><r /></div></div>
1415987446705 1367090743656 <div>DNA exists in the condensed, {{c1::chromati
n}} form in order to fit into the nucleus. {{c2::Negatively}} charged DNA loops
twice around {{c3::positively}} charged histone octamer to form nucleosome “ead.”&n
sp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Histones are rich in the amino&nsp;acids {{c4::
lysine}} and {{c5::arginine}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c6::H1}} inds
to the nucleosome and to “linker DNA,” therey stailizing the chromatin fier.</di
v><div><r /></div><div>In mitosis, DNA condenses to form chromosomes.&nsp;</di
v><div><r /></div><div>DNA and histone synthesis occur during {{c7::S}} phase.<
/div>
1415987504089 1367090743656 Chromatin structure<div><r /></div><div><div>Th
ink of “eads on a string.”</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::H1}} is the only histon
e that is not in the&nsp;nucleosome core.</div></div> <img src="paste-42949672
9755.jpg" />
1415987559857 1367090743656 <div>{{c1::Heterochromatin (think&nsp;HeteroChr
omatin = Highly Condensed.)}}</div><div><r /></div><div>when chromatin is conde
nsed, transcriptionally inactive, sterically inaccessile.</div>
1415987616676 1367090743656 {{c1::Euchromatin (Eu = true, "truly transcried
)}}<div><r /></div><div>Less condensed chromatin, transcriptionally active, ste
rically accessile.</div>
1415987662640 1367090743656 DNA methylation<div><r /></div><div>{{c3::Templ
ate}} strand {{c1::cytosine}} and {{c2::adenine}} are methylated in DNA replicat
ion, which allows mismatch repair enzymes to distinguish etween {{c4::old and n
ew strands in prokaryotes.}} DNA methylation at CpG islands {{c5::represses (CpG
Methylation Makes DNA Mute.)}} transcription.</div><div><r /></div><div><r />
<div><r /></div><div><r /></div></div>
1415987836366 1367090743656 <>Histone methylation</><div><r /></div><div>
Usually {{c1::reversily represses}} DNA transcription, ut can {{c2::activate i

t in some cases.}}</div>
1415987891202 1367090743656 <>Histone acetylation</><div><r /></div><div>
<div>{{c1::Relaxes DNA coiling, allowing for transcription.<r /><div></div>}}</
div><div><r /></div></div>
1415987914428 1367090743656 <>Nucleotides</><div><r /></div><div><div>{{c
3::PURines}} (consisting of {{c2::A, G}})—{{c1::2}} rings.</div><div><r /></div><
div>{{c4::Primidines}} (C, T, U)—1 ring.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c6::Thymine
}} has a {{c5::methyl}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>Deamination of {{c7::cytosin
e}} makes {{c8::uracil}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c9::Uracil}} found in RNA
; {{c9::thymine}} in DNA.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c12::G-C}} ond ({{c10::3
}} H onds) {{c14::stronger}} than {{c13::A-T}} ond</div><div>({{c11::2}} H on
ds).</div><div><r /></div><div>Increasing {{c16::G-C}} content will {{c15::incr
ease}} melting temperature of DNA.</div></div> <img src="paste-1176821039314.jp
g" />
1415988155948 1367090743656 <div><>Amino acids necessary for purine synthes
is:</></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GAG—Glycine Aspartate Glutamine}}</div>
1415988190090 1367090743656 <div>{{c2::NucleoSide}} = {{c1::ase + (deoxy)ri
ose (Sugar).&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c5::NucleoTides}} =&nsp;{{c3
::</div><div>ase + (deoxy)riose +</div><div>phosphaTe</div><div>}}; linked y
{{c4::3′-5′ phosphodiester}} ond.</div>
1416024862891 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024863017 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024863038 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024863039 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864047 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864048 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864049 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864051 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
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6c_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864053 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />

1416024864054 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
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6c_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864105 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864107 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864108 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864109 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864110 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_16.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864126 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_17.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864128 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_18.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864199 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_19.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
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6c_Q_20.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
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6c_Q_21.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
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6c_Q_22.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
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6c_Q_23.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864206 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_24.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />

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6c_Q_25.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
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6c_Q_26.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
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6c_Q_27.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
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6c_Q_28.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864211 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_29.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
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6c_Q_30.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864213 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_31.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864214 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_32.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
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6c_Q_33.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416024864216 1412253438515 <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c
6c_Q_34.svg" /> <img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="38e30499936c1c316766ff3f1c359205dcd18c6c_tmpo2BFiO.png" />
1416970707355 1367090743656 <>Genetic Code Features</><div><r /></div><di
v><>Unamiguous</>-{{c1::Each codon specifies only 1 amino acid.}}</div><div><
r /></div><div><>Degenerate/redundant</>-{{c2::Most amino acids are coded y
multiple codons}};&nsp;Exceptions are {{c3::methionine}} and {{c4::tryptophan}}
encoded y only 1 codon ({{c5::AUG}} and {{c6::UGG}}, respectively).</div><div>
<r /></div><div><>Commaless/nonoverlapping</>-{{c7::Read from a fixed startin
g point as a continuous sequence of ases}}; Exceptions are {{c8::some viruses}}
</div><div><r /></div><div><>Universal</>-{{c9::Genetic code is conserved thr
oughout evolution}}; Exceptions in humans is {{c10::mitochondria}}.</div><div><
r /></div><div><r /></div>
1416970739749 1412253438515 <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc19
1_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_A_0.svg" />
<img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_tmpl_zqJa.png" />
1416970739871 1412253438515 <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc19
1_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_A_0.svg" />
<img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_tmpl_zqJa.png" />
1416970739872 1412253438515 <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc19
1_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_A_0.svg" />

<img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_tmpl_zqJa.png" />
1416970739897 1412253438515 <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc19
1_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_A_0.svg" />
<img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_tmpl_zqJa.png" />
1416970739899 1412253438515 <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc19
1_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_A_0.svg" />
<img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_tmpl_zqJa.png" />
1416970739901 1412253438515 <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc19
1_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_A_0.svg" />
<img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_tmpl_zqJa.png" />
1416970739903 1412253438515 <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc19
1_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_A_0.svg" />
<img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_tmpl_zqJa.png" />
1416970739904 1412253438515 <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc19
1_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_A_0.svg" />
<img src="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="add136058f6562cf06e9c519434f2decc191_tmpl_zqJa.png" />
1416971219983 1367090743656 <>DNA replication</><div><r /></div><div>Euka
ryotic DNA replication is more complex than the prokaryotic process ut uses man
y enzymes analogous to those listed elow. In oth prokaryotes and eukaryotes, D
NA replication is {{c3::semiconservative}} and involves oth {{c1::continuous}}
and {{c2::discontinuous (Okazaki fragment)}} synthesis.</div><div><r /></div><d
iv><>{{c4::Origin of replication}}</>-Particular consensus sequence of ase pa
irs in genome where {{c5::DNA replication}} egins. May e {{c6::single}} (proka
ryotes) or {{c6::multiple}} (eukaryotes).</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c7::Re
plication Fork}}</>--shaped region along DNA template where leading and laggin
g strands are synthesized.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c8::Helicase}}</>-Un
winds DNA template at replication fork.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c10::Sin
gle stranded inding proteins}}</>-{{c9::Prevent strands from reannealing.}}</d
iv><div><r /></div><div><>{{c11::DNA topoisomerases}}</>-{{c12::Create a sing
le- or doule-stranded reak in the helix to add or remove supercoils}}; Note th
at {{c13::Fluoroquinolones}}—inhiit {{c14::DNA gyrase (prokaryotic topoisomerase
II).}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c15::Primase}}</>-{{c16::Makes an RNA pr
imer on which DNA polymerase III can initiate replication.}}</div><div><r /></d
iv><div><>{{c17::DNA polymerase III}}</>-{{c18::Prokaryotic}} only. Elongates
leading strand&nsp;y adding deoxynucleotides to the 3′ end. Elongates lagging st
rand until it reaches primer of preceding fragment. 3′ to 5′ exonuclease activity “pro
ofreads” each added nucleotide. Note that&nsp;DNA polymerase III has {{c19::5′ to 3′}
} synthesis and proofreads with {{c19::3′ to 5′}} exonuclease.</div><div><><r /></
></div><div><>{{c20::DNA polymerase I}}</>-{{c21::Prokaryotic}} only. {{c22::
Degrades RNA primer; replaces it with DNA}}.&nsp;Has same functions as DNA poly
merase III ut also excises RNA primer with 5′ to 3′ exonuclease.</div><div><r /></
div><div><>{{c23::DNA ligase}}</>-Catalyzes the formation of a {{c25::phosphod
iester ond}} within a strand of doule-stranded DNA (i.e., joins Okazaki fragme
nts).</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c24::Telomerase}}</>-{{c26::An RNA-depend
ent DNA polymerase that adds DNA to 3′ ends of chromosomes to avoid loss of geneti
c material with every duplication.}}</div>
1416971374927 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />
1416971375053 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />

1416971375054 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />
1416971375056 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />
1416971375057 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />
1416971375058 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />
1416971375078 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />
1416971375079 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />
1416971375080 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />
1416971375100 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />
1416971375101 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />
1416971375103 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />
1416971375104 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />
1416971375106 1412253438515 <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d22
86_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c963d0f3c853750e7228dff36942ff573d2286_tmpktSsjq.png" />
1416972300584 1367090743656 <>Mutations in DNA</><div><r /></div><div><di
v>Severity of damage: {{c1::silent}} &lt;&lt; {{c2::missense}} &lt; {{c3::nonsen
se}} &lt; {{c4::frameshift}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>For silent, misse
nse, and nonsense mutations:</div><div><r /></div><div> <>{{c6::Transition}}</
>—{{c5::purine to purine (e.g., A to G) or pyrimidine to pyrimidine (e.g., C to T)
.}}</div><div><r /></div><div> <>{{c7::Transversion}}</>—{{c8::purine to pyrimid
ine (e.g., A to T) or pyrimidine to purine (e.g., C to G).}}</div></div><div><r
/></div><div><>{{c9::Silent}}</>-{{c10::Nucleotide sustitution ut codes for
same (synonymous) amino acid; often ase change in 3rd position of codon (tRNA
wole).}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c11::Missense}}</>-{{c12::Nucleotide
sustitution resulting in changed amino acid (called conservative if new amino
acid is similar in chemical structure). Example = Sickle cell disease.}}</div><d

iv><r /></div><div><>{{c13::Nonsense}}</>-{{c14::Nucleotide sustitution resu
lting in early stop codon.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c15::Frameshift}}</
>-{{c16::Deletion or insertion of a numer of nucleotides not divisile y 3, r
esulting in misreading of all nucleotides downstream, usually resulting in a tru
ncated, nonfunctional protein. Duchenne's muscular dystrophy.}}</div>
1417012585871 1367090743656 <>{{c2::Nonhomologous end joining}}</><div><r
/></div><div>{{c3::Brings together 2 ends of DNA fragments to repair doule-str
anded reaks. No requirement for homology.}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Mutated
in ataxia {{c1::telangiectasia}}.</div>
1417012623475 1367090743656 <>DNA/RNA/protein synthesis direction</><div><
r /></div><div><div>DNA and RNA are oth synthesized {{c1::5′ to 3}}′ direction. Th
e 5′ end of the incoming nucleotide ears the {{c2::triphosphate (energy source fo
r ond)}}.&nsp;Protein synthesis is {{c3::N-terminus to C-terminus.}}</div></di
v><div><r /></div><div><div>mRNA is read {{c4::5′ to 3′}}.</div><div>The triphospha
te ond is the target of&nsp;{{c5::</div><div>the</div><div>3′ hydroxyl attack.</
div><div>}}&nsp;Drugs locking DNA replication often have {{c6::modified 3′ OH,}}
preventing {{c7::addition of the next nucleotide (“chain termination”).}}</div></di
v>
1417012842587 1367090743656 <>Regulation of gene expression</><div><r /><
/div><div><>Promoter</></div><div><r /></div><div>Site where {{c2::RNA polyme
rase}} and multiple other transcription factors ind to DNA {{c3::upstream}} fro
m gene locus ({{c4::AT}}-rich upstream sequence with TATA and CAAT oxes).</div>
<div><r /></div><div>Promoter mutation commonly results in dramatic {{c1::decre
ase}} in level of gene transcription.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Enhancer</>
</div><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c5::Stretch of DNA}} that alters gene expre
ssion y {{c6::inding transcription factors.}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Enhan
cers and silencers may e located {{c7::close to, far from, or even within (in a
n intron)}} the gene whose expression it regulates.</div><div><r /></div><div><
>Silencer</></div><div><><r /></></div><div>Site where {{c8::negative regul
ators (repressors)}} ind.</div>
1417013275120 1367090743656 <div><>Splicing of pre-mRNA</></div><div><><
r /></></div><div><div>1. Primary transcript comines with {{c1::small nuclear
rionucleoproteins (snRNPs)}} and other proteins to form spliceosome.&nsp;</div
><div><r /></div><div>2. {{c2::Lariat-shaped (looped)}} intermediate is generat
ed.</div><div><r /></div><div>3. Lariat is released to precisely remove {{c3::i
ntron}}</div><div>and join 2 {{c3::exons}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></d
iv><div>Antiodies to spliceosomal snRNPs (anti-</div><div>Smith antiodies) are
highly specific for {{c4::SLE}}. Anti-U1 RNP antiodies are highly associated w
ith {{c5::mixed connective tissue}} disease.</div></div>
<img src="paste31555124723974.jpg" />
1417013605372 1367090743656 <>RNA processing (eukaryotes)</><div><r /></d
iv><div><div>Initial transcript is called {{c1::heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA
)}}. then modified and ecomes mRNA.</div><div><r /></div><div>The following pr
ocesses occur in the nucleus following transcription:</div><div><r /></div><div
>&nsp;{{c2::</div><div>Capping of 5′ end (addition of</div><div>7-methylguanosine
cap)</div>}}<div><r /></div><div> {{c3::Polyadenylation of 3′ end (≈ 200 A’s)&nbsp;}}<
/
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>&nbsp;{{c4::</
iv><
iv>Splicing out of introns</
iv><

iv>Cappe
, taile
, an
splice
transcript is calle
mRNA.</
iv>}}</
iv><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>mRNA is transporte
out of the nucleus into t
he cytosol, where it is translate
.&nbsp;mRNA uality control occurs at cytoplas
mic {{c5::P-bo
ies}}, which contain {{c6::exonucleases}}, {{c9::
ecapping enzyme
s}}, an
{{c8::microRNAs}}; mRNAs may be store
here for future translation.</
i
v><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Poly-A polymerase
oes not re uire a {{c7::template}}. A
AUAAA = polya
enylation signal.</
iv></
iv>
<img src="paste-31744103284860.j
pg" />
1417013812733 1367090743656 <b>Introns vs. exons</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><

iv>{{c1::Exons}} contain the actual genetic information co
ing for protein.</
iv
><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c2::Introns}} are intervening nonco
ing segments of DNA
.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Different exons are fre uently combine
by alternat
ive splicing to pro
uce a larger number of uni ue proteins.</
iv></
iv><
iv><br

/></
iv><
iv><
iv>Introns are intervening se uences an
stay in the {{c3::nucleu
s}}, whereas exons exit an
are expresse
.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Abnormal s
plicing variants are implicate
in {{c4::oncogenesis}} an
many genetic
isor
er
s (e.g., {{c5::β-thalassemia}}).</div></div>
<img src="paste-31890132173019.j
pg" />
1417013982392 1367090743656 <>tRNA</><div><r /></div><div><>Structure</
></div><div><r /></div><div><div>75–90 nucleotides, {{c1::Secondary}} protein str
ucture, cloverleaf form, {{c3::anticodon}} end is opposite {{c2::3′ aminoacyl}} en
d.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>All tRNAs, oth eukaryotic and prokaryotic,
have {{c4::CCA}} at 3′ end along with a high percentage of chemically modified as
es. The amino acid is covalently ound to the 3′ end of the tRNA. CCA Can {{c5::Ca
rry Amino acids}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c7::T-arm}}</>:&nsp;{{c6::<
/div><div>contains the TΨC (thymine, pseudouridine, cytosine) sequence necessary f
or tRNA- riosome inding.</div><div></div>}}<div><r /></div><div><>{{c9::D-ar
m}}</>: {{c8::contains dihydrouracil residues necessary for tRNA recognition y
the correct aminoacyl- tRNA synthetase.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c10::
Acceptor stem}}</>: {{c11::the 3′ CCA is the amino acid acceptor site.}}</div></d
iv><div><r /></div><div><>Charging</></div><div><><r /></></div><div><div>
{{c12::Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (1 per amino acid; “matchmaker”; uses ATP)}} scruti
nizes amino acid efore and after it inds to tRNA. If incorrect, ond is {{c13:
:hydrolyzed}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>The amino acid-tRNA ond has ene
rgy for formation of peptide ond. A {{c15::mischarged tRNA}} reads usual codon
ut inserts wrong amino acid.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c14::Aminoacyl-tRNA s
ynthetase}} and inding of charged tRNA to the codon are responsile for accurac
y of amino acid selection.</div></div><div><><r /></></div> <img src="paste32311038968051.jpg" />
1417574977398 1367090743656 <>tRNA wole</><r /><r />Accurate ase pair
ing is required only {{c1::in the first 2 nucleotide positions}} of an mRNA codo
n, so codons differing in the {{c2::3rd “wole” position}} may code for the same tR
NA/amino acid (as a result of degeneracy of genetic code).
1417575262703 1367090743656 <div><>Protein synthesis</></div><div><r /></
div><div><>Initiation</></div><div><r /></div><div>Initiated y {{c1::GTP}} h
ydrolysis; i{{c2::nitiation factors (eukaryotic IFs)}} help assemle the {{c3::4
0S}} riosomal suunit with the initiator {{c4::tRNA}} and are released when the
{{c5::mRNA}} and the {{c6::riosomal 60S suunit}} assemle with the complex.</
div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
1417576052585 1367090743656 <>Protein Synthesis</><div><r /></div><div><
>Elongation</></div><div><r /></div><div><div>1. {{c3::Aminoacyl-tRNA}} inds
to {{c1::A}} site (except for initiator {{c2::methionine}})</div><div><r /></di
v><div>2. {{c4::rRNA (“riozyme”)}} catalyzes peptide ond formation, transfers grow
ing {{c5::polypeptide}} to amino acid in {{c6::A}} site</div><div><r /></div><d
iv>3. Riosome advances {{c7::3 nucleotides}} toward 3′ end of mRNA, moving {{c8::
peptidyl tRNA}} to {{c9::P site (translocation)}}</div></div><div><r /></div><d
iv><r /></div>
1417576130393 1367090743656 <>Protein Synthesis</><div><><r /></></div>
<div><>Initiation</></div><div><r /></div><div><div>Eukaryotes: {{c3::40S + 6
0S}} ---&gt;{{c2::80S (Even).}}</div><div>PrOkaryotes: {{c4::30S + 50S}}---&gt;{
{c1::70S (Odd).}}</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c5::ATP}}—tRNA {{c8::Activation (ch
arging).&nsp;}}</div><div>{{c6::GTP}}—tRNA&nsp;{{c7::</div><div>Gripping and Goi
ng places</div><div>(translocation).</div>}}</div>
1417576321598 1367090743656 <div><>Protein Synthesis-Elongation</></div><d
iv><r /></div><div>Think of “going APE”:</div><div>{{c1::A}} site = {{c2::incoming
Aminoacyl-tRNA.}}</div><div>{{c3::P}} site = {{c6::accommodates growing Peptide.
&nsp;}}</div><div>{{c4::E}} site = {{c5::holds Empty tRNA as it Exits.}}</div>
1417576374549 1367090743656 <>Protein Synthesis-Termination</><div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Stop codon}} is recognized y {{c2::release factor}}, and {{c4::
completed polypeptide}} is released from {{c3::riosome}}.</div>
1417576416209 1367090743656 <>Posttranslational modifications</><div><r /
></div><div><>Trimming</></div><div>Removal of {{c1::N- or C-terminal propepti
des}} from {{c2::zymogen}} to generate mature protein (e.g., {{c3::trypsinogen}}

to {{c4::trypsin}}).</div><div><><r /></></div><div><>Covalent alterations<
/></div><div>{{c5::Phosphorylation}}, {{c6::glycosylation}}, {{c7::hydroxylatio
n}}, {{c8::methylation}}, {{c9::acetylation}}, and {{c10::uiquitination}}.</div
><div><r /></div><div><>Chaperone protein</></div><div><div>Intracellular pro
tein involved in facilitating and/or maintaining {{c11::protein folding.}}</div>
<div><r /></div><div>In yeast, some are {{c12::heat shock proteins (e.g., Hsp60
)}} that are expressed at high temperatures to&nsp;{{c13::prevent protein denat
uring/misfolding.}}</div></div>
1417576472567 1412253438515 <img src="ef98c2888c46fd8f19e0a21f1337c38c276a9
c2_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="ef98c2888c46fd8f19e0a21f1337c38c276a9c2_A_0.svg" />
<img src="ef98c2888c46fd8f19e0a21f1337c38c276a9c2_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="ef98c2888c46fd8f19e0a21f1337c38c276a9c2_tmp5sEIgA.png" />
1417576472568 1412253438515 <img src="ef98c2888c46fd8f19e0a21f1337c38c276a9
c2_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="ef98c2888c46fd8f19e0a21f1337c38c276a9c2_A_0.svg" />
<img src="ef98c2888c46fd8f19e0a21f1337c38c276a9c2_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="ef98c2888c46fd8f19e0a21f1337c38c276a9c2_tmp5sEIgA.png" />
1417576699234 1367090743656 <>Cell cycle phases</><div><r /></div><div>Ch
eckpoints control transitions etween phases of cell cycle. This process is regu
lated y {{c1::cyclins}}, {{c2::cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)}}, and {{c3::tum
or suppressors}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c4::Mitosis}} (shortest pha
se of cell cycle) includes {{c5::prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.}}
{{c6::G1}} and {{c6::G0}} are of variale duration.</div>
1417576753902 1367090743656 <>Regulation of cell cycle</><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c8::<>CDKs</>:}}&nsp;{{c7::Constitutive and inactive.}}</div><div><r
/></div><div>{{c5::<>Cyclins</>:}}&nsp;{{c6::Regulatory proteins that control
cell cycle events; phase specific; activate CDKs.}}</div><div><r /></div><div>
{{c4::<>Cyclin-CDK complexes</>:}}&nsp;{{c3::Must e oth activated and inact
ivated for cell cycle to progress.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><div><r /></div
><div><>{{c9::Tumor suppressors:}}</>&nsp;{{c10::p53}} and {{c11::hypophospho
rylated R}} normally inhiit {{c12::G1-to-S}} progression; mutations in these g
enes result in {{c13::unrestrained cell division}} (e.g., {{c14::Li-Fraumeni}} s
yndrome).</div></div><div><r /></div><div>G = {{c2::Gap or Growth}}.&nsp;</div
><div>S = {{c1::Synthesis}}.</div>
1417577178746 1412253438515 <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dd
a1_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_tmpea8C46.png" />
1417577178918 1412253438515 <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dd
a1_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_tmpea8C46.png" />
1417577178920 1412253438515 <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dd
a1_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_tmpea8C46.png" />
1417577178921 1412253438515 <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dd
a1_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_tmpea8C46.png" />
1417577178922 1412253438515 <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dd
a1_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_tmpea8C46.png" />
1417577178923 1412253438515 <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dd
a1_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_tmpea8C46.png" />
1417577178925 1412253438515 <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dd
a1_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src

="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_tmpea8C46.png" />
1417577178926 1412253438515 <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dd
a1_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_tmpea8C46.png" />
1417577178927 1412253438515 <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dd
a1_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="72504f8380ffa6204d80da457019d983a47dda1_tmpea8C46.png" />
1417610745934 1367090743656 <>Cell Types</><div><r /></div><div><>{{c1::
Permanent}}</>:&nsp;{{c9::Remain in G0, regenerate from stem cells.}} Examples
include: {{c10::Neurons}}, {{c11::skeletal and cardiac muscle}}, {{c12::RBCs}}.
</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c2::Stale (quiescent)}}</>:&nsp;{{c6::Enter
G1 from G0 when stimulated.}} Examples include&nsp;{{c7::Hepatocytes}}, {{c8::l
ymphocytes}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c3::Laile}}</>:&nsp;{{c4::Never
go to G0, divide rapidly with a short G1. Most affected y chemotherapy}}. Exam
ples include: {{c13::Bone marrow}}, {{c14::gut epithelium}}, {{c15::skin}}, {{c1
6::hair follicles}}, {{c17::germ cells}}.</div>
1417610924208 1367090743656 <div><>Rough endoplasmic reticulum</></div><di
v><r /></div><div>Site of synthesis of {{c1::secretory (exported) proteins}} an
d of {{c2::N-linked oligosaccharide}} addition to many proteins.</div><div><r /
></div><div>{{c3::Nissl odies (RER in neurons)}}—{{c4::synthesize peptide neurotr
ansmitters for secretion.}}</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c5::Free riosomes}}—unat
tached to any memrane; site of synthesis of {{c6::cytosolic}} and {{c7::organel
lar}} proteins.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c8::Mucus-secreting golet}} cells
of the {{c9::small intestine}} and {{c10::antiody-secreting plasma}} cells are
rich in RER.</div>
1417611119192 1367090743656 <>Smooth endoplasmic reticulum</><div><r /></
div><div>Site of {{c1::steroid synthesis}} and {{c2::detoxification of drugs and
poisons}}. Lacks {{c3::surface riosomes}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>Liver {{
c5::hepatocytes}} and {{c4::steroid hormone}}– producing cells of the {{c6::adrena
l cortex}} and {{c7::gonads}} are rich in SER.</div>
1417611298391 1367090743656 <>Cell trafficking</><div><r /></div><div><di
v>{{c1::Golgi}} is the distriution center for {{c2::proteins and lipids}} from
the {{c3::ER}} to the {{c3::vesicles}} and {{c3::plasma memrane}}. Modifies {{c
4::N-oligosaccharides}} on {{c5::asparagine}}. Adds {{c6::O-oligosaccharides}} o
n {{c7::serine}} and {{c8::threonine}}. Adds {{c9::mannose-6-phosphate}} to prot
eins for trafficking to {{c10::lysosomes}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c11::En
dosomes}} are sorting centers for material from outside the cell or from the {{c
12::Golgi}}, sending it to {{c13::lysosomes}} for destruction or ack to the {{c
14::memrane/Golgi}} for further use.</div></div>
1417619758471 1367090743656 <>I-cell disease (inclusion cell disease)</>—inh
erited {{c1::lysosomal storage}} disorder; defect in {{c2::phosphotransferase}}
leading to failure of the {{c3::Golgi}} to {{c4::phosphorylate}} {{c5::mannose r
esidues}} (i.e., {{c6::decrease}} {{c7::mannose- 6-phosphate}}) on {{c8::glycopr
oteins}} so that proteins are secreted {{c9::extracellularly}} rather than deliv
ered to {{c10::lysosomes}}.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div>Results in {{c11::coarse
facial features}}, {{c12::clouded corneas}}, {{c13::restricted joint movement}},
and high plasma levels of {{c14::lysosomal enzymes}}. Often {{c15::fatal}} in c
hildhood.</div>
1417619889103 1367090743656 <div><>{{c2::Signal recognition particle (SRP)}
}:&nsp;</>Aundant, cytosolic {{c1::rionucleoprotein}} that traffics proteins
from the {{c3::riosome}} to the {{c3::RER}}. Asent or dysfunctional SRP lead
to {{c4::protein}} accumulation in the cytosol.</div><div><r /></div><div><div>
<>Vesicular trafficking proteins</></div><div>{{c6::COPI}}: Golgi goes to Golg
i ({{c10::retrograde}}); {{c7::Golgi &nsp;goes to ER.}}</div><div><r /></div><
div>{{c5::COPII}}: Golgi to Golgi ({{c9::anterograde}}); {{c8::ER goes to &nsp;
Golgi.}}</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c11::Clathrin}}: trans-Golgi to {{c12::lys
osomes}}; plasma memrane to {{c13::endosomes}} ({{c14::receptor- mediated}} end
ocytosis [e.g., {{c15::LDL receptor activity}}]).</div></div><div><r /></div><d

iv><r /></div>
1417620086119 1367090743656 <div><>{{c1::Peroxisome}}</>:&nsp;Memrane-en
closed organelle involved in {{c3::cataolism}} of {{c4::very-long-chain fatty a
cids}}, {{c5::ranched-chain fatty acids}}, and {{c6::amino acids}}.</div><div><
r /></div><div><>{{c2::Proteasome}}</>:&nsp;Barrel-shaped protein complex th
at {{c7::degrades}} damaged or {{c8::uiquitin-tagged}} proteins. Defects in the
{{c9::uiquitin-proteasome}} system have een implicated in some cases of {{c10
::Parkinson disease.}}</div><div> </div><div> </div>
1417620189292 1412253438515 <img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d
03_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_tmplkqjCQ.png" />
1417620189293 1412253438515 <img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d
03_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_tmplkqjCQ.png" />
1417620189295 1412253438515 <img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d
03_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_tmplkqjCQ.png" />
1417620189296 1412253438515 <img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d
03_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_tmplkqjCQ.png" />
1417620189297 1412253438515 <img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d
03_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_tmplkqjCQ.png" />
1417620189298 1412253438515 <img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d
03_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2e6d46aa7646d054372738e1c0a4ff3f9ee3d03_tmplkqjCQ.png" />
1417919657567 1367090743656 <>De novo pyrimidine &amp; purine synthesis</>
<div><r /></div><div><>Purines</></div><div><r /></div><div>Start with {{c2:
:sugar + phosphate}} ({{c1::PRPP}})</div><div>Add ase</div><div><r /></div><di
v><>Pyrimidines</></div><div><r /></div><div>Make temporary ase ({{c5::oroti
c acid}})</div><div><r /></div><div>Add {{c3::sugar + phosphate}} ({{c4::PRPP}}
)</div><div><r /></div><div>Rionucleotides are synthesized first and are conve
rted to deoxyrionucleotids y rionucleotide reductase</div><div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c6::Caramoyl phosphate}} is involved in 2 metaolic pathways: {{c7::de nov
o pyrimidine synthesis}} and {{c8::the urea cycle}}</div><div><r /></div><div><
r /></div>
1417919902998 1367090743656 <>Various antineoplastic and antiiotic drugs f
unciton y interfering with nucleotide synthesis</><div><><r /></></div><div
><><img src="paste-34033320854029.jpg" /><r /></><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Leflunomide}} inhiits {{c2::dihydroorotate dehydrogenase}}</div><div><r /></di
v><div>{{c3::Mycophenolate}} and {{c4::riavirin}} inhiit {{c5::IMP dehydrogena
se}}</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c6::Hydroxyurea}} inhiits {{c7::rionucleotid
e reductase}}</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c8::6-mercaptopurine (6-MP)}} and its
prodrug {{c9::azathioprine}} inhiit {{c10::de novo purine}} synthesis</div><di
v><r /></div><div><div>{{c11::5-fluorouracil (5-FU)}} inhiits&nsp;{{c12::</di
v><div>thymidylate</div><div>synthase</div><div>}}&nsp;{{c13::</div><div>(decre
ases deoxythymidine monophosphate</div><div>[dTMP]</div><div>}})</div></div><div
><r /></div><div><div>{{c14::Methotrexate (MTX)}}, {{c15::trimethoprim (TMP)}},
</div><div>and {{c16::pyrimethamine}} inhiit {{c17::dihydrofolate reductase}} (
decreases {{c18::dTMP}}) in {{c19::humans}}, {{c20::acteria}}, and {{c21::proto
zoa}}, respectively</div></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div></div>
1417920247363 1367090743656 <>Start and stop codons</><div><><r /></></
div><div>{{c1::mRNA start codon}} = {{c2::AUG}} (or rarely {{c3::GUG}})</div><di
v><r /></div><div>In {{c7::eukaryotes}} it codes for {{c5::methionine}}, which

may e {{c6::removed efore translation is completed.}}</div><div><r /></div><d
iv>In {{c8::prokaryotes}} it codes for {{c4::forrmylmethionine (f-met)}}</div>
1417920359755 1367090743656 <>Microtuule</><div><r /></div><div>Cylindri
cal structure composed of a helical array of polymerized heterodimers of {{c1::α-}
} nd {{c2::β-tuulin}}. Each dimer has {{c3::2 GTP}} ound. Incorporated into {{c
4::flagella}}, {{c5::cilia}}, {{c6::mitotic spindles}}. {{c7::Grows}} slowly, {{
c7::collapses}} quickly. Also involved in {{c8::slow axoplasmic transport}} in n
eurons.</div><div><r /></div><div><div><>Molecular motor proteins</>—transport
cellular cargo toward {{c9::opposite}} ends of microtuule tracks.</div><div><r
/></div><div><>{{c11::Dynein}}</> = {{c12::retrograde to microtuule (+ to −).&
nbsp;}}</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><b>{{c10::Kinesin}}</b> =&nbsp;{{c13::</div><
div>ante og ade to mic otubule</div><div>(− to +).</div>}}<div><b /></div><div><d
iv><b>D ugs that act on mic otubules</b> (Mnemonic = Mic otubules Get Const ucte
d Ve y Poo ly):</div><div><b /></div><div> {{c14::Mebendazole}} (anti{{c16::hel
minthic}})</div><div> {{c15::G iseofulvin}} (anti{{c17::fungal}})</div><div> {{c1
9::Colchicine}} (anti{{c18::gout}})</div><div> {{c20::Vinc istine/Vinblastine}}
(anticance )&nbsp;</div><div> {{c21::Paclitaxel}} (anti{{c22::cance }})</div></
div><div><b /></div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste40840844017957.jpg" /
></div><div><b /></div></div>
1417920468977 1412253438515 <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c
11_Q_0.svg" /> <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_tmpHAj91c.png" />
1417920469138 1412253438515 <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c
11_Q_1.svg" /> <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_tmpHAj91c.png" />
1417920469139 1412253438515 <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c
11_Q_2.svg" /> <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_tmpHAj91c.png" />
1417920469140 1412253438515 <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c
11_Q_3.svg" /> <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_tmpHAj91c.png" />
1417920469179 1412253438515 <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c
11_Q_4.svg" /> <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_tmpHAj91c.png" />
1417920469181 1412253438515 <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c
11_Q_5.svg" /> <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_tmpHAj91c.png" />
1417920469182 1412253438515 <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c
11_Q_6.svg" /> <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_tmpHAj91c.png" />
1417920469183 1412253438515 <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c
11_Q_7.svg" /> <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_tmpHAj91c.png" />
1417920469185 1412253438515 <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c
11_Q_8.svg" /> <img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_A_0.svg" />
<img s c="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_sou ce_svg.svg" /> <img s c
="2b6b2cecb0621d10876c0b03d943442a2d169c11_tmpHAj91c.png" />
1417920801756 1367090743656 <b>Cilia st uctu e</b><div><b /></div><div><img
s c="paste41072772251801.jpg" /></div><div><b /></div><div><div>{{c1::9 + 2}}
a angement of mic otubules A .&nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><div><b>{{c4::Axone
mal dynein}}</b>—{{c2::ATPase}} that links pe iphe al</div><div>9 doublets and cau
ses {{c3::bending of cilium by diffe ential sliding of doublets.}}</div></div><d

iv><b /></div><div><b>{{c5::Ka tagene synd ome (1° cilia y dyskinesia)}}</b>— immo
tile cilia due to {{c6::a dynein a m defect}}. Results in male and female {{c7::
infe tility}} due to {{c8::immotile spe m and dysfunctional fallopian tube cilia
}}, espectively; ↑ isk of {{c9::ectopic p egnancy}}. Can cause {{c10::b onchiect
asis}}, ecu ent {{c11::sinusitis}}, and {{c12::situs inve sus (e.g., dext oca
dia on CXR).}}</div><div><b /></div><div><b /></div>
1417920931158 1367090743656 <b>Cytoskeletal elements</b><div><b><b /></b></
div><div><b>Actin and myosin</b></div><div><div>{{c1::Muscle cont action}}, {{c2
::mic ovilli}}, {{c3::cytokinesis}}, {{c4::adhe ens}} junctions. {{c5::Actins}}
a e long, st uctu al polyme s. {{c6::Myosins}} a e dime ic, {{c7::ATP}}d iven m
oto p oteins that move along {{c8::actins}}.</div><div><b /></div><div><b>Mic
otubule</b></div><div>Function in {{c9::movement}}. {{c10::Cilia}}, {{c11::flage
lla}}, {{c12::mitotic spindle}}, {{c13::axonal t afficking,}} {{c14::cent ioles}
}.</div><div><b /></div><div><b>Inte mediate filaments</b></div><div>Funciton i
n {{c15::st uctu e}}. {{c16::Vimentin}}, {{c17::desmin}}, {{c18::cytoke atin}},
{{c19::lamins}}, {{c20::glial fib illa y acid p oteins (GFAP)}}, {{c21::neu ofil
aments}}.</div></div>
1417921162112 1367090743656 <div><b>Plasma memb ane composition</b></div><di
v><b><b /></b></div><div>Asymmet ic {{c1::lipid}} bilaye .</div><div><b /></di
v><div>Contains {{c2::choleste ol}}, {{c3::phospholipids}}, {{c4::sphingolipids}
}, {{c5::glycolipids}}, and {{c6::p oteins}}.&nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><div>{
{c8::Fungal}} memb anes&nbsp;contain {{c7::e goste ol}}.</div>
1417921221421 1367090743656 <b>Immunohistochemical stains fo inte mediate f
ilaments</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>Stain (Cell type)</b></div><div><b><
b /></b></div><div>{{c10::Vementin}} ({{c9::Connective tissue}})</div><div><b
/></div><div>{{c7::Desmin}} ({{c8::Muscle}})</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c5::Cy
toke atin}} ({{c6::Epithelial cells}})</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c4::GFAP}} (
{{c3::Neu oglia}})</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Neu ofilaments}} ({{c2::Neu
ons}})</div>
1417921329086 1367090743656 <b>Sodiumpotassium pump</b><b /><div><b /></d
iv><div>Na+K+ ATPase is located in the plasma memb ane with ATP site on {{c1::c
ytosolic}} side. Fo each ATP consumed, {{c2::3}} Na+ go out and {{c2::2}} K+ co
me in.</div><div><b /></div><div><div>{{c3::Ouabain}} inhibits by binding to K+
site.&nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c4::Ca diac glycosides}} ({{c5::digoxi
n}} and {{c6::digitoxin}})&nbsp;di ectly inhibit the Na+K+ ATPase, which leads
to indi ect inhibition of {{c7::Na+/ Ca2+}} exchange, leading to an inc ease in
{{c8::[Ca2+]}}, and the fo e an inc ease in {{c9::ca diac cont actility}}.</div>
</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste41644002902171.jpg" /></div>
1417921693949 1367090743656 <b>Collagen</b><div><b /></div><div><div>{{c5::
Most}} {{c4::abundant p otein}} in the human body.&nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><
div>Extensively modified by&nbsp;{{c6::postt anslational&nbsp;modification.}}</d
iv><div><b /></div><div>O ganizes and st engthens {{c7::ext acellula mat ix.}}
</div></div><div><b /></div><div><b>Type I:</b>&nbsp;Most {{c8::common (90%)}}—{{
c9::Bone}} (made by {{c10::osteoblasts}}), {{c11::Skin}}, {{c12::Tendon}}, {{c13
::dentin}}, {{c14::fascia}}, {{c15::co nea}}, late {{c16::wound}} epai . Dec ea
sed p oduction in {{c1::osteogenesis pe fecta}} type {{c2::I}}</div><div><b /><
/div><div><b>Type II</b>:&nbsp;{{c17::Ca tilage (including hyaline)}}, {{c18::vi
t eous body}}, {{c19::nucleus pulposus}}. Type II: ca <b>two</b>lage</div><div><
b /></div><div><b>Type III</b>:&nbsp;{{c20::Reticulin}}—skin, {{c21::blood vessel
s}}, {{c22::ute us}}, {{c23::fetal}} tissue, {{c24::g anulation}} tissue.&nbsp;d
eficient in the uncommon, {{c26::vascula }}&nbsp;type of {{c25::Ehle sDanlos sy
nd ome (Th eE D).}}</div><div><b /></div><div><b>Type IV</b>:&nbsp;{{c27::Basem
ent memb ane}}, {{c28::basal lamina}}, {{c29::lens}}. Unde the floo (basement
memb ane). Defective in {{c30::Alpo t}} synd ome; ta geted by&nbsp;autoantibodie
s in {{c3::Goodpastu e}} synd ome.</div><div><b /></div><div>Mnemonic:&nbsp;<b>
B</b>e (<b>S</b>o <b>T</b>otally) <b>C</b>ool, <b>R</b>ead <b>B</b>ooks.</div>
1417922199975 1367090743656 <b>Collagen synthesis and st uctu e</b><div><b
/></div><div><b /></div><div>Inside {{c1::fib oblasts}}...<b /><div><b /></di
v><div><b>1. Synthesis</b>:&nbsp;T anslation of collagen {{c2::α chins}} ({{c3::p
reprocollgen}})—usully {{c4::Gly-X-Y}} (X nd Y re {{c5::proline}} or {{c6::lys

ine}}). {{c7::Glycine}} content best reflects collgen synthesis (collgen is 1⁄3
{{c7::glycine}}).</div><div><br /></div><div><b>2. {{c8::Hydroxyltion (RER)}}</
b>:&nbsp;Hydroxyltion of specific {{c10::proline}} nd {{c11::lysine}} residues
(requires vitmin {{c12::C}}; deficiency leds to {{c13::scurvy}}).</div><div><
br /></div><div><b>3. {{c9::Glycosyltion (RER)}}</b>:&nbsp;Glycosyltion of {{c
14::pro-α-chin}} {{c15::hydroxylysine}} residues nd formtion of {{c16::procoll
gen}} vi hydrogen nd {{c17::disulfide}} bonds (triple helix of 3 {{c18::collg
en α chins}}). Problems forming triple helix led to {{c19::osteogenesis imperfec
t.}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>4. Exocytosis:</b>&nbsp;Exocytosis of procol
lgen into extrcellulr spce.</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-42120
744272305.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div></div>
1417922639348 1367090743656 <b>Collgen synthesis nd structure&nbsp;</b><di
v><br /></div><div>Once outside of {{c1::fibroblsts}}...<br /><div><br /></div>
<div>Clevge of {{c2::disulfide-rich}} terminl regions of {{c3::procollgen}},
trnsforming it into insoluble {{c4::tropocollgen}}.</div><div><br /></div><di
v>Reinforcement of mny stggered {{c5::tropocollgen}} molecules by covlent {{
c6::lysine-hydroxylysine}} cross-linkge (by {{c7::Cu2+}}-contining {{c8::lysyl
oxidse}}) to mke collgen fibrils. Problems with cross-linking led to {{c9::
Ehlers-Dnlos.}}</div></div>
1417922667510 1412253438515 <img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc
5c_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_tmpT6_6K7.png" />
1417922667511 1412253438515 <img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc
5c_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_tmpT6_6K7.png" />
1417922667512 1412253438515 <img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc
5c_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_tmpT6_6K7.png" />
1417922667513 1412253438515 <img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc
5c_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_tmpT6_6K7.png" />
1417922667514 1412253438515 <img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc
5c_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_tmpT6_6K7.png" />
1417922667516 1412253438515 <img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc
5c_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_A_0.svg" />
<img src="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="3d8cfdbf2bc52306643898312d50ecc7001bc5c_tmpT6_6K7.png" />
1417922787530 1367090743656 <b>Elstin</b><div><br /></div><div><div>Stretch
y protein within {{c1::skin}}, {{c2::lungs}}, l{{c3::rge rteries}}, {{c5::els
tic ligments}}, {{c6::vocl cords}}, {{c4::ligment flv}} (connect vertebre
leding to relxed nd stretched conformtions).</div><div><br /></div><div>Ric
h in {{c8::proline}} nd {{c7::glycine}}, {{c9::nonhydroxylted}} forms.</div><d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c10::Tropoelstin}} with fibrillin scffolding. Cross-link
ing tkes plce {{c11::extrcellulrly}} nd&nbsp;gives elstin its {{c12::elst
ic}} properties.</div><div><br /></div><div>Broken down by {{c13::elstse}}, wh
ich is normlly&nbsp;inhibited by {{c14::α1-ntitrypsin.}}</div></div><div><br /><
/div><div><div><b>{{c15::Mrfn syndrome}}</b>—cused by  defect in {{c16::fibril
lin}},  glycoprotein tht forms  sheth round elstin.</div><div><br /></div>
<div><b>{{c17::Emphysem}}</b>—cn be cused by {{c18::α1-ntitrypsin}} deficiency,
resulting in excess elstse ctivity.</div><div>Wrinkles of ging re due to {{
c19::decresed}} {{c20::collgen}} nd {{c21::elstin}} production.</div></div>
1417923193365 1367090743656 <b>Biochemistry Lbortory Techniques</b><div><b
><br /></b></div><div><b>Polymerse Chin Rection</b></div><div><br /></div><di
v><div>Moleculr biology lbortory procedure used to {{c1::mplify}}  desired

frgment of DNA. Useful s  dignostic tool (e.g., neontl HIV, herpes enceph
litis).</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Steps</b>:</div><div>1. {{c2::Denturtion
}}—{{c3::DNA is dentured by heting to generte 2 seprte strnds}}</div><div><b
r /></div><div>2. {{c4::Anneling}}—during cooling, excess premde {{c5::DNA prime
rs}} nnel to  specific sequence on&nbsp;ech strnd to be mplified.</div><di
v><br /></div><div>3. {{c6::Elongtion}}—het-stble DNA polymerse replictes the
DNA sequence following ech&nbsp;{{c7::primer}}.</div><div><br /></div><div>The
se steps re repeted multiple times for DNA sequence mplifiction.</div><div><
br /></div><div><b>{{c8::Agrose gel electrophoresis}}</b>—used for {{c9::size sep
rtion}} of PCR products (smller molecules trvel&nbsp;further); compred gi
nst {{c10::DNA ldder.}}</div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1417923624713 1367090743656 <b>Biochemistry Lbortory Techniques-Blotting P
rocedures</b><div><br /></div><div><b>Souther Blot</b>:A {{c4::DNA}} smple is e
nzymticlly cleved into smller pieces, electrophoresed on  gel, nd then tr
nsferred to  filter. The filter is then soked in  {{c5::denturnt}} nd subs
equently exposed to  {{c6::rdiolbeled DNA}} probe tht recognizes nd nnels
to its {{c7::complementry strnd}}. The resulting double-strnded, lbeled pie
ce of DNA is visulized when the filter is exposed to film.</div><div><br /></di
v><div><b>Northern Blot</b>:&nbsp;Similr to Southern blot, except tht n {{c8:
:RNA}} smple is {{c9::electrophoresed}}. Useful for studying {{c10::mRNA}} leve
ls, which re reflective of gene expression.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Weste
rn Blot</b>:Smple {{c11::protein}} is seprted vi {{c12::gel electrophoresis}
} nd trnsferred to  filter. Lbeled {{c13::ntibody}} is used to bind to rele
vnt protein. Confirmtory test for {{c14::HIV}} fter&nbsp;positive ELISA.</div
><div><br /></div><div><b>Southwestern Blot</b>:&nbsp;Identifies {{c15::DNA-bind
ing proteins (e.g., trnscription fctors)}} using lbeled {{c16::oligonucleotid
e}} probes.</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>Memory Aid:&nbsp;</div><
div><b>SN</b>o<b>W</b> <b>DR</b>o<b>P</b>:&nbsp;</div><div>Southern = {{c1::DNA&
nbsp;}}</div><div>Northern = {{c2::RNA&nbsp;}}</div><div>Western = {{c3::Protein
}}</div>
1417923880604 1367090743656 <b>Microrrys</b><div><br /></div><div><div>Tho
usnds of nucleic cid sequences re rrnged in grids on glss or silicon. {{c1
::DNA}} or {{c2::RNA}} probes re hybridized to the chip, nd  scnner detects
the reltive mounts of complementry binding.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>
Used to profile gene expression levels of {{c3::thousnds}} of genes simultneou
sly to study certin diseses&nbsp;nd tretments.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><
div>Able to detect {{c4::single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)}} nd {{c5::copy
number vritions (CNVs)}} for  vriety of pplictions including genotyping,
clinicl genetic testing, forensic nlysis, cncer muttions, nd genetic link
ge nlysis.</div></div><div><br /></div>
1417924004372 1367090743656 <b>Enyzme-linked immunosorbent ssy</b><div><br
/></div><div><div>Used to detect the presence of either {{c1:: specific ntige
n (direct)}} or {{c2:: specific ntibody (indirect)}} in  ptient’s bloo
sample
.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Patient’s bloo
sample is probe
with either:</
iv><

iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>In
irect ELISA:</b> uses a test {{c3::antigen}} to see if
</
iv><
iv>a specific {{c4::antibo
y}} is present in the patient’s bloo
; a secon

ary {{c5::antibo
y}} couple
to a color-generating enzyme is a

e
to
etect the
first antibo
y.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Direct ELISA:</b> uses a test {{c
6::antibo
y}} to see if a specific {{c7::antigen}} is present in the patient’s blo
o
; a secon
ary antibo
y couple
to a color-generating enzyme is a

e
to
etect
the antigen.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>If the target substance is present in t
he sample, the test solution will have {{c9::an intense color reaction}}, in
ica
ting a {{c8::positive}} test result.</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Use
in ma
ny laboratories to
etermine whether a particular {{c10::antibo
y}} (e.g., antiHIV) is present in a patient’s bloo
sample. Both the sensitivity an
specificity
of ELISA approach {{c11::100%}}, but both {{c12::false-positive}} an
{{c13::fal
se-negative}} results occur.</
iv>
1417924150259 1367090743656 <b>Fluorescence in situ hybri
ization</b><
iv><b
r /></
iv><
iv><
iv>Fluorescent {{c1::DNA or RNA}} probe bin
s to specific gene
site of interest on chromosomes.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Use
for specific {{

c2::localization}} of genes an

irect visualization of {{c3::anomalies (e.g., m
icro
eletions)}} at&nbsp;molecular level (when
eletion is too small to be visua
lize
by karyotype).&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Fluorescence = {{c4::gene
is present}}; no fluorescence = {{c5::gene has been
elete
.}}</
iv></
iv>
1417924237301 1367090743656 <b>Cloning metho
s</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv
>Cloning is the pro
uction of a recombinant DNA molecule that is self perpetuati
ng.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Steps:</
iv><
iv>1. Isolate {{c1::eukaryoti
c mRNA (post-RNA processing steps)}} of interest.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>2.
Expose {{c4::mRNA}} to {{c2::reverse transcriptase}} to pro
uce {{c3::cDNA (lack
s introns).}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>3. Insert {{c5::cDNA fragments}} into b
acterial plasmi
s containing antibiotic resistance genes.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br />
</
iv><
iv>4. Transform recombinant plasmi
into bacteria.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv
><
iv>5. Surviving bacteria on antibiotic me
ium pro
uce {{c6::cDNA}}.</
iv></
i
v>
1417924321417 1367090743656 <b>Gene expression mo
ifications</b><
iv><br /><
/
iv><
iv><
iv>Transgenic strategies in mice involve:</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv
>{{c1::Ran
om}} insertion of gene into mouse</
iv><
iv>genome</
iv><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv>Targete
{{c2::insertion}} or {{c3::
eletion}} of gene</
iv><
iv>throug
h {{c4::homologous recombination}} with mouse gene</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv>Knock-out = {{c6::removing a gene, taking it out.}}&nbsp;</
iv><
iv>Knock-in
= {{c5::inserting a gene.}}</
iv>
1417924384282 1367090743656 <b>Cre-lox system</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1:
:Can in
ucibly manipulate genes at specific
evelopmental points (e.g., to stu
y
a gene whose
eletion causes embryonic
eath).}}</
iv>
1417924433429 1367090743656 <b>RNA interference (RNAi)</b><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv><
iv>{{c1::
sRNA}} is synthesize
that is complementary</
iv><
iv>to the {{c
2::mRNA}} se uence of interest.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>When transfecte

into human cells,
sRNA separates an
promotes {{c3::
egra
ation}} of target m
RNA, “knocking
own” {{c4::gene expression}}.</
iv></
iv>
1417924487605 1367090743656 <b>Karyotyping</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>A proces
s in which {{c1::metaphase}} chromosomes are staine
, or
ere
, an
numbere
acco
r
ing to morphology, size, arm-length ratio, an
ban
ing pattern.&nbsp;</
iv><
i
v><br /></
iv><
iv>Can be performe
on a sample of bloo
, {{c2::bone marrow}}, {
{c3::amniotic flui
}}, or {{c4::placental tissue}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv>
<
iv>Use
to
iagnose {{c5::chromosomal imbalances (e.g., autosomal trisomies, s
ex chromosome
isor
ers).}}</
iv>
1417924530215 1367090743656 <b>{{c2::Co
ominance}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>
{{c1::Both alleles contribute to the phenotype of the heterozygote.}}<br /><
iv>
<br /></
iv><
iv>Examples:&nbsp;Bloo
groups A, B, AB; α1-ntitrypsin deficiency.<
/div></div>
1417924697911 1367090743656 <b>{{c2::Vrible expressivity}}</b><div><br /><
/div><div><div>{{c1::Phenotype vries mong individuls with sme genotype.}}</d
iv></div><div><br /></div><div>Exmple:&nbsp;2 ptients with neurofibromtosis t
ype 1 (NF1) my hve vrying disese severity.</div><div><br /></div>
1417924738458 1367090743656 <b>{{c2::Incomplete penetrnce}}</b><div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Not ll individuls with  mutnt genotype show the mutnt pheno
type.}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Exmple:&nbsp;BRCA1 gene muttions do not lw
ys result in brest or ovrin cncer.</div>
1417924794153 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Pleiotropy}}</b><div><br /></div><div>{
{c2::One gene contributes to multiple phenotypic effects.}}</div><div><br /></di
v><div>Exmple:&nbsp;Untreted phenylketonuri (PKU) mnifests with light skin,
intellectul disbility, nd musty body odor.</div>
1417925071183 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Anticiption}}</b><div><br /></div><div
>{{c2::Incresed severity or erlier onset of disese in succeeding genertions.
}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Exmple:&nbsp;Trinucleotide repet diseses (e.g.,
Huntington disese).</div>
1417925098094 1367090743656 <b>{{c2::Loss of heterozygosity}}</b><div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::If  ptient inherits or develops  muttion in  tumor suppres
sor gene, the complementry llele must be deleted/mutted before cncer develop
s. This is not true of oncogenes.}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Exmple:&nbsp;Ret

inoblstom nd the “two-hit hypothesis.”&nbsp;</div>
1417925136080 1367090743656 <b>{{c2::Dominnt negtive muttion}}</b><div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Exerts  dominnt effect. A heterozygote produces  nonfunc
tionl ltered protein tht lso prevents the norml gene product from functioni
ng.}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Exmple: muttion of  trnscription fctor in
its lloeteric site. Nonfunctioning mutnt cn still bind DNA, preventing wild-t
ype trnscription fctor from binding.</div>
1417925193599 1367090743656 {{c1::<b>Linkge disequilibrium</b>}}<div><br />
</div><div>{{c2::Tendency for certin lleles t 2 linked loci to occur together
more often thn expected by chnce. Mesured in  popultion, not in  fmily,
nd often vries in different popultions.}}</div>
1417925235264 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Mosicism}}</b><div><br /></div><div><d
iv>{{c2::Presence of geneticlly distinct cell lines in the sme individul. Ari
ses from mitotic errors fter fertiliztion.}}</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c4::
Somtic mosicism}}—{{c3::muttion propgtes through multiple tissues or orgns.}
}</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c5::Gondl mosicism}}—{{c6::muttion only in egg
or sperm cells.}}</div></div><div><br /></div><div><div>Exmple: McCune-Albright
syndrome is lethl if the muttion is somtic, but survivble if mosic.</div><
/div>
1417925309461 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Locus of heterogeneity}}</b><div><br />
</div><div>{{c2::Muttions t different loci cn produce  similr phenotype.}}<
/div><div><br /></div><div>Exmple: Albinism&nbsp;</div>
1417925335340 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Allelic heterogeneity}}</b><div><br /><
/div><div>{{c2::Different muttions in the sme locus produce the sme phenotype
.}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Exmple:&nbsp;β-thalassemia.</div><div><r /></div>
1417925369348 1367090743656 <>{{c2::Heteroplasmy}}</><div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Presence of oth normal and mutated mtDNA, resulting in variale expressi
on in mitochondrial inherited disease.}}</div>
1417925403303 1367090743656 <>Uniparental disomy</><div><r /></div><div>O
ffspring receives {{c1::2 copies}} of a chromosome from 1 parent and no copies f
rom the other parent. {{c2::Heterodisomy (heterozygous)}} indicates a {{c4::meio
sis I}} error. {{c3::Isodisomy (homozygous)}} indicates a {{c5::meiosis II}} err
or or postzygotic chromosomal duplication of one of a pair of chromosomes, and l
oss of the other of the original pair.</div><div><r /></div><div><div>Example:
Uniparental is eUploid (correct numer</div><div>of chromosomes), not aneuploid.
Most occurrences of UPD lead to {{c6::normal}} phenotype. Consider UPD in an in
dividual manifesting a recessive disorder when only one parent is a carrier.</di
v></div>
1417925974121 1367090743656 <>Hardy-Weinerg population genetics</><div><
r /></div><div><div>If a population is in Hardy-Weinerg equilirium and if p an
d q are the frequencies of separate alleles, then:&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><
div>{{c9::p2 + 2pq + q2}} = {{c10::1}}&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>and&nsp
;</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c11::p}} + {{c12::q}} = {{c13::1}}, which implies
that:</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p2}} = frequency of {{c
3::homozygosity}} for allele {{c2::p}}&nsp;</div><div>{{c4::q2}} = frequency of
{{c5::homozygosity}} for allele {{c6::q}}&nsp;</div><div>{{c8::2pq}} = frequen
cy of {{c7::heterozygosity}} (carrier</div><div>frequency, if an autosomal reces
sive disease).&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>The frequency of an X-linked rec
essive disease&nsp;in males = q and in females = q2.</div></div><div><r /></di
v><div><div><>Hardy-Weinerg law assumptions include:&nsp;</></div><div><r /
></div><div> {{c14::No mutation occurring at the locus}}</div><div> {{c15::Natural
selection is not occurring}}</div><div> {{c17::Completely random mating}}</div><
div> {{c16::No net migration}}</div></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5
7990648430720.jpg" /></div>
1417926203440 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Imprinting}}</><div><r /></div><div>A
t some loci, {{c3::only one allele}} is active; the other is inactive (imprinted
/inactivated y {{c2::methylation}}). With one allele inactivated, deletion of t
he active allele {{c4::leads to disease.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>Example
</>:&nsp;Both {{c5::Prader-Willi}} and {{c6::Angelman}} syndromes are due to m
utation or deletion of genes on chromosome {{c7::15}}.</div><div><r /></div><di

v>Can also occur as a result of uniparental disomy.</div>
1417926277147 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Prader-Willi Syndrome}}</><div><><r
/></></div><div>{{c2::Maternal imprinting: gene from mom is normally silent and
Paternal gene is deleted/ mutated.}}&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Results i
n {{c4::hyperphagia}}, {{c5::oesity}}, {{c6::intellectual disaility}}, {{c7::h
ypogonadism}}, and {{c8::hypotonia}}.<r /><div><r /></div><div>25% of cases du
e to {{c3::maternal uniparental disomy (two maternally imprinted genes are recei
ved; no paternal gene received).}}</div></div>
1417926354435 1367090743656 <>{{c2::Angelman syndrome}}</><div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Paternal imprinting: gene from dad is normally silent and Maternal g
ene is deleted/mutated.}}&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Results in {{c3::inap
propriate laughter (“happy puppet”)}}, {{c4::seizures}}, {{c5::ataxia}}, and severe
{{c6::intellectual disaility}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>5% of cases due to {
{c7::paternal uniparental disomy (two paternally imprinted genes are received; n
o maternal gene received).}}</div>
1418215240576 1367090743656 <>Modes of inheritance</><div><><r /></></d
iv><div><>{{c6::Autosomal dominant}}</><div><r /></div><div>Often due to defe
cts in {{c1::structural}} genes. {{c2::Many}} generations, {{c3::male}} and {{c3
::female}}, affected.</div><div><r /></div><div>Often {{c4::pleiotropic}}. {{c5
::Family history}} crucial to diagnosis.</div></div><div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-230356275953820.jpg" /></div>
1418215402005 1367090743656 <>Modes of inheritance</><div><><r /></></d
iv><div><>{{c8::Autosomal recessive}}</></div><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c
1::25}}% of offspring from {{c2::2}} carrier parents are affected.&nsp;</div><d
iv><r /></div><div>Often due to {{c3::enzyme}} deficiencies. Usually seen in {{
c4::only 1}} generation.</div><div><r /></div><div><div>Commonly more {{c5::sev
ere}} than dominant disorders; patients often present in {{c6::childhood}}.</div
><div><r /></div><div>Increased risk in {{c7::consanguineous}} families.</div><
div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-230485124972701.jpg" /></d
iv><div style="font-weight: old; "><r /></div></div>
1418215504496 1367090743656 <>Modes of inheritance</><div><><r /></></d
iv><div><>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}</><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c3::Sons}
} of heterozygous {{c4::mothers}} have a {{c2::50}}% chance of eing affected. N
o {{c5::male}}-to-{{c5::male}} transmission.</div><div><r /></div><div>Commonly
more severe in {{c6::males}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c7::Females}}
usually must e {{c8::homozygous}} to e affected.</div></div><div><r /></div><
div><r /></div>
<img src="paste-230618268958872.jpg" />
1418215660085 1367090743656 <>Modes of inheritance</><div><><r /></></d
iv><div><>X-linked dominant</></div><div><r /></div><div>Transmitted through
{{c1::oth parents}}. Mothers transmit to {{c2::50}}% of {{c3::daughters and son
s}}; fathers transmit to {{c4::all daughters ut no sons.}}</div><div><r /></di
v><div><>{{c5::Hypophosphatemic rickets}}</>—formerly known as vitamin D–resistant
rickets. Inherited disorder resulting in {{c6::increased phosphate}} wasting at
{{c7::proximal tuule}}. Results in rickets-like presentation.</div> <img src
="paste-231283988889748.jpg" />
1418215930112 1367090743656 <>Modes of inheritance</><div><><r /></></d
iv><div><>{{c1::Mitochondrial inheritance}}</></div><div><r /></div><div>Tran
smitted only through {{c2::the mother}}. All offspring of affected {{c3::females
}} may show signs of disease.</div><div><r /></div><div><div>{{c4::Variale}} e
xpression in a population or even within a family due to heteroplasmy.</div><div
><r /></div><div><>{{c5::Mitochondrial myopathies}}</>—rare disorders; often pr
esent with myopathy, lactic acidosis and CNS disease. 2° to failure in {{c6::oxida
tive phosphorylation}}. Muscle iopsy often shows {{c7::“ragged red fiers.”}}</div>
</div> <img src="paste-231472967450796.jpg" />
1418216145207 1367090743656 <img src="paste-231610406404626.jpg" /><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-231623291306353.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::<img src="paste-231644766142505.jpg" />}}</div>
1418393238317 1367090743656 <>{{c7::Autosomal}} {{c6::dominant}} diseases</
><div><><r /></></div><div><>{{c1::Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney dis
ease (ADPKD)}}</></div><div><r /></div><div>Formerly known as adult polycystic

kidney disease. Always {{c2::ilateral}}, massive enlargement of kidneys due to
{{c3::multiple large cysts}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>85% of cases are
due to mutation in {{c4::PKD1 (chromosome 16; 16 letters in “polycystic kidney”)}};
remainder due to mutation in {{c5::PKD2 (chromosome 4)}}.</div>
1418393323421 1367090743656 <>{{c8::Autosomal}} {{c2::dominant}} diseases</
><div><><r /></></div><div><>{{c1::Familial adenomatous polyposis}}</></di
v><div><r /></div><div>Colon ecomes covered with {{c3::adenomatous polyps}} af
ter {{c4::puerty}}. Progresses to {{c5::colon cancer}} unless colon is {{c6::re
sected}}. Mutations on chromosome {{c7::5 (APC gene); 5 letters in “polyp.”}}</div><
div><r /></div>
1418393418545 1367090743656 <>{{c2::Autosomal}} {{c1::dominant}} disease</
><div><><r /></></div><div><>{{c3::Familial hypercholesterolemia}}</></div>
<div><r /></div><div>Elevated {{c4::LDL}} due to defective or asent {{c5::LDL
receptor}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Leads to severe {{c6::atherosclerot
ic disease}} early in life, and {{c7::tendon xanthomas (classically in the Achil
les tendon).}}</div><div><r /></div>
1418393477902 1367090743656 <>{{c2::Autosomal}} {{c1::dominant}} diseases</
><div><><r /></></div><div><>{{c3::Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia}}<
/></div><div><r /></div><div>Inherited disorder of {{c4::lood vessels}}.&nsp
;</div><div><r /></div><div>Findings: {{c5::telangiectasia}}, recurrent {{c6::e
pistaxis}}, {{c7::skin discolorations}}, {{c8::arteriovenous malformations (AVMs
)}}, {{c9::GI leeding}}, {{c10::hematuria}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>A
lso known as {{c11::Osler-Weer-Rendu}} syndrome.</div>
1418393536118 1367090743656 <>Autosomal dominant disease</><div><><r /><
/></div><div><>Hereditary spherocytosis</></div><div><r /></div><div>Spheroi
d {{c2::erythrocytes}} due to {{c3::spectrin}} or {{c4::ankyrin}} defect; {{c5::
hemolytic}} anemia; {{c6::increased}} {{c7::MCHC}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
<div>Treatment: {{c1::splenectomy}}.</div>
1418393585644 1367090743656 <>{{c2::Autosomal}} {{c1::dominant}} diseases</
><div><><r /></></div><div><>{{c3::Huntington disease}}</></div><div><r /
></div><div>Findings: {{c4::depression}}, progressive {{c5::dementia}}, {{c6::ch
oreiform movements}}, {{c7::caudate}} atrophy, and {{c8::decreased}} levels of {
{c9::GABA}} and {{c9::ACh}} in the rain.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Gene
on chromosome {{c10::4}}; {{c11::trinucleotide repeat}} disorder: (= CAG)n.&nsp
;</div><div><r /></div><div>An {{c12::increase}} in repeats {{c13::decreases}}
{{c14::age of onset.}}&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
Think "H
unting 4 food"
1418393750774 1367090743656 <>{{c3::Autosomal}} {{c2::dominant}} disease</
><div><><r /></></div><div><>{{c1::Marfan syndrome}}</></div><div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c5::Firillin-1}} gene mutation leads to {{c4::connective tissue}} dis
order affecting {{c6::skeleton}}, {{c6::heart}}, and {{c6::eyes}}.&nsp;</div><d
iv><r /></div><div><>Findings</>: {{c8::tall with long extremities}}, {{c7::p
ectus excavatum}}, {{c9::hypermoile joints}}, and long, tapering {{c10::fingers
and toes (arachnodactyly)}}; cystic medial necrosis of {{c11::aorta}} leads to
{{c12::aortic incompetence}} and {{c12::dissecting aortic aneurysms}}; floppy {{
c13::mitral valve}}. Suluxation of {{c14::lenses}}, typically upward and tempor
ally.</div><div><r /></div>
1418393969894 1367090743656 <>{{c2::Autosomal}} {{c1::dominant}} diseases</
><div><><r /></></div><div><>{{c3::Multiple endocrine neoplasias (MEN)}}</
></div><div><r /></div><div>Several distinct syndromes (1, 2A, 2B) characterize
d y {{c4::familial tumors}} of {{c5::endocrine glands}}, including those of the
{{c6::pancreas}}, {{c7::parathyroid}}, {{c8::pituitary}}, {{c9::thyroid}}, and
{{c10::adrenal medulla}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>MEN {{c13::2A}} and {
{c12::2B}} are associated with {{c11::ret}} gene.</div>
1418446418602 1367090743656 <div><>{{c1::Autosomal}} {{c2::dominant}} disea
se</></div><div><><r /></></div><>{{c3::Neurofiromatosis type 1 (von Reckl
inghausen disease)}}</><div><r /></div><div><div>Neurocutaneous disorder chara
cterized y {{c4::café-au-lait spots}} and cutaneous {{c5::neurofiromas}}.&nsp;
</div><div><r /></div><div>Autosomal dominant, {{c6::100}}% penetrance, varial
e expression. Caused y mutations in the {{c7::NF1}} gene on chromosome {{c8::17

}}</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div></div>
think 17
letters in “von Recklinghausen.”
1418446533990 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Autosomal}} {{c2::dominant}} diseases</
><div><><r /></></div><div><div><>{{c3::Neurofiromatosis&nsp;type 2}}</>
</div></div><div><r /></div><div>Findings: ilateral {{c4::acoustic schwannomas
}}, juvenile {{c5::cataracts}}, {{c6::meningiomas}}, and {{c7::ependymomas}}.&n
sp;</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c8::NF2}} gene on chromosome {{c9::22}}</div>
type 2 = 22.
1418446605930 1367090743656 <>{{c2::Autosomal}} {{c1::dominant}} diseases</
><div><><r /></></div><div><>{{c3::Tuerous sclerosis}}</></div><div><r /
></div><div>Neurocutaneous disorder with {{c4::multi-organ system}} involvement,
characterized y numerous {{c5::enign hamartomas}}. {{c6::Incomplete}} penetra
nce, {{c7::variale}} expression.</div>
1418446864470 1367090743656 <>{{c3::Austosomal}} {{c2::dominant}} disease</
><div><><r /></></div><div><>{{c1::von Hippel-Lindau disease}}</></div><di
v><r /></div><div>Disorder characterized y development of numerous {{c4::tumor
s}}, oth {{c5::enign and malignant}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Associa
ted with deletion of {{c6::VHL}} gene (tumor suppressor) on chromosome {{c7::3 (
3p)}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
Von Hippel-Lindau = 3 words for chromoso
me 3.
1418446924145 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Autosomal}} {{c2::recessive}} diseases<
/><div><r /></div><div>{{c3::Alinism}}, {{c4::ARPKD (formerly known as infant
ile polycystic kidney disease)}}, {{c5::cystic firosis}}, {{c6::glycogen storag
e diseases}}, {{c7::hemochromatosis}}, {{c8::Kartagener syndrome}}, {{c9::mucopo
lysaccharidoses (except Hunter syndrome)}}, {{c10::phenylketonuria}}, {{c11::sic
kle cell anemia}}, {{c12::sphingolipidoses (except Fary disease)}}, {{c13::thal
assemias}}, {{c14::Wilson disease}}.</div>
1418447088746 1367090743656 <>Cystic firosis</><div><r /></div><div><>G
enetics:&nsp;</>Autosomal {{c1::recessive}}; defect in {{c2::CFTR}} gene on ch
romosome {{c3::7}}; commonly a deletion of {{c4::Phe508}}. Most common lethal ge
netic disease in {{c5::Caucasian}} population.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Pat
hophysiology</>: CFTR encodes an {{c6::ATP-gated Cl−}} channel that sec etes Cl− in
{{c7::lungs}} and {{c8::GI t act}}, and eabso bs Cl− in {{c9::sweat glands}}. Mu
tations lead to misfolded p otein which lead to p otein etained in {{c10::RER}}
and not t anspo ted to cell memb ane, causinga dec ease in {{c11::Cl− (and H2O) s
ec etion}}; inc ease in int acellula Cl− esults in compensato y inc ease in {{c1
2::Na+}} eabso ption via epithelial {{c12::Na+}} channels leading to inc ease i
n H2O eabso ption leads to abno mally {{c13::thick mucus}} sec eted into lungs
and GI t act. Inc ease in Na+ eabso ption also causes mo e {{c14::negative t an
sepithelial potential diffe ence}}.</div><div><b /></div><div><b>Diagnosis</b>:
Inc ease in&nbsp;{{c15::Cl−}} concent ation (&gt;{{c16::60}} mEq/L) in {{c17::swe
at}} is diagnostic. Can p esent with cont action {{c18::alkalosis}} and {{c19::h
ypokalemia}} (ECF effects analogous to a patient taking a {{c20::loop diu etic}}
) because of ECF {{c22::H2O/Na+}} losses and concomitant enal {{c21::K+/H+}} wa
sting.</div><div><b /></div><div><b>Complications</b>:&nbsp;Recu ent {{c23::pu
lmona y infections (e.g., Pseudomonas), ch onic b onchitis and b onchiectasis}}
leads to {{c24:: eticulonodula }} patte n on CXR, {{c25::panc eatic insufficienc
y}}, {{c26::malabso ption and steato hea}}, nasal {{c27::polyps}}, and {{c28::m
econium ileus}} in newbo ns. {{c29::Infe tility}} in males ( due to absence of {
{c30::vas defe ens, absent spe m}}). {{c31::Fatsoluble}} vitamin deficiencies (
meaning {{c32::A, D, E, K}}).</div><div><b /></div><div><b>T eatment</b>:&nbsp;
{{c33::Nacetylcysteine}} to l{{c34::oosen mucus plugs}} (cleaves {{c35::disulfi
de}} bonds within mucus {{c36::glycop oteins}}), {{c37::do nase alfa (DNAse)}} t
o clea leukocytic deb is.</div>
1418447876069 1367090743656 <b>Xlinked ecessive diso de s</b><div><b /></
div><div><div>{{c3::B uton agammaglobulinemia}}, {{c4::WiskottAld ich synd ome}
}, {{c5::Fab y disease}}, {{c6::G6PD deficiency}}, {{c7::Ocula albinism}}, {{c8
::LeschNyhan synd ome}}, {{c9::Duchenne (and Becke ) muscula dyst ophy}}, {{c1
0::Hunte Synd ome}}, {{c11::Hemophilia A and B}}, {{c12::O nithine t ansca bamy
lase deficiency}}.</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Female}} ca ie s can be va

iably affected depending on the pe centage {{c2::inactivation}} of the X ch omos
ome ca ying the mutant vs. no mal gene.</div></div>
Be Wise, Fool’s GOLD Hee
s
Silly HOpe.
1418542709399 1367090743656 <b>Muscular
ystrophies</b><
iv><b><br /></b></

iv><
iv><b>{{c1::Duchenne}}</b></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>{{c2::X-linke
f
rameshift}} mutation lea
ing to truncate
{{c3::
ystrophin}} protein lea
ing to
{{c4::accelerate
muscle break
own.&nbsp;}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Weakness
begins in&nbsp;{{c5::pelvic&nbsp;gir
le muscles}}&nbsp;an
progresses {{c6::supe
riorly}}.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c7::Pseu
ohypertrophy}} of {{c8::ca
lf muscles}}
ue to {{c9::fibrofatty}} replacement of muscle.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><b
r /></
iv><
iv>{{c10::Gower}} maneuver—patients use {{c11::upper extremity}} to he
lp them stan
up. Onset {{c12::before 5 years of age}}. Dilate
{{c13::car
iomyo
pathy}} is common cause of
eath.</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>{{c17::D
ystrophin gene (DMD)}} has the&nbsp;{{c18::longest co
ing</
iv><
iv>region}}&nbs
p;of any human gene lea
ing to increase
chance of {{c19::spontaneous mutation}}
.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Dystrophin helps {{c20::anchor muscle fibers}
}, primarily in skeletal an
car
iac muscle. It connects the intracellular cytos
keleton (actin) to the transmembrane proteins α- nd β-dystroglycan, which are conne
cted to the extracellular matrix (ECM).&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Loss of
dystrophin results in {{c21::myonecrosis}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></
div><div>{{c14::Increased}} {{c15::CPK}} and {{c15::aldolase}} are seen; {{c16::
Western lot}} and {{c16::muscle iopsy}} confirm diagnosis.</div></div>
<img src="paste-340320323633286.jpg" /><div><r /></div><div>Duchenne = deleted
dystrophin.</div>
1418543038283 1367090743656 <>Muscular dystrophies</><div><><r /></></d
iv><div><>{{c1::Becker}}</></div><div><r /></div><div>Usually, {{c2::X-linked
}} {{c3::point}} mutation in {{c4::dystrophin}} gene (no {{c5::frameshift}}).&n
sp;</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c6::Less}} severe than {{c8::Duchenne}}. Onset
{{c7::in adolescence or early adulthood.}}</div>
Deletions can cause oth
Duchenne and Becker.
1418543488579 1367090743656 <>Muscular dystrophies</><div><><r /></></d
iv><div><>{{c1::Myotonic type 1}}</></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c2::CTG trin
ucleotide repeat expansion}} in the {{c3::DMPK}} gene leads to anormal expressi
on of {{c4::myotonin protein kinase}} leading to {{c5::myotonia}}, {{c6::muscle
wasting}}, {{c7::frontal alding}}, {{c8::cataracts}}, {{c9::testicular atrophy}
}, and {{c10::arrhythmia}}.</div><div><r /></div>
1418543595615 1367090743656 <>Muscular dystrophies</><div><><r /></></d
iv><div><>Trinucleotide repeat expansion diseases</></div><div><r /></div><di
v><div><r /></div><div>{{c8::Fragile X syndrome}} = ({{c1::CGG}})n.&nsp;</div>
<div><r /></div><div>{{c7::Friedreich ataxia}} = ({{c2::GAA}})n.&nsp;</div><di
v><r /></div><div>{{c6::Huntington disease}} = ({{c3::CAG}})n.&nsp;</div><div>
<r /></div><div>{{c5::Myotonic dystrophy}} = ({{c4::CTG}})n.</div></div>
<div><>Try</> (trinucleotide) <>hunting</> for <>my</> <>fried</> <>egg
s</> (X).</div><div><r /></div><div>X-Girlfriend’s First Ai
Helpe
Ace My Test.
&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>May show genetic anticipation (
isease severit
y {{c9::increase}}&nbsp;an
age of onset {{c9::
ecrease}} in successive generati
ons).</
iv>
1419038987488 1367090743656 <b>Autosomal trisomies</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>
{{c3::(trisomy 21)}} 1:{{c1::700}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv><b>Fin
ings</
b>: {{c2::intellectual
isability}}, {{c4::flat}} facies, {{c5::prominent}} epic
anthal fol
s, single palmar crease, gap between 1st 2 toes,
uo
enal atresia, {{
c6::Hirschsprung}}
isease, {{c7::congenital heart}}
isease (most commonly {{c8
::ostium primum-type atrial septal
efect [ASD]}}), {{c9::Brushfiel
}} spots. As
sociate
with increase
risk of {{c10::ALL}}, {{c11::AML}}, an
{{c12::Alzheimer
}}
isease (&gt; 35 years ol
).</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>95% of cases
ue to {
{c13::meiotic non
isjunction of homologous chromosomes}} (associate
with {{c14:
:a
vance
maternal age}}; from 1:1500 in women &lt; 20 to 1:25 in women &gt; 45
years ol
).</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>4% of cases
ue to {{c15::Robertsonian tr
anslocation}}. 1% of cases
ue to {{c16::mosaicism (no maternal association; pos
t-fertilization mitotic error).}}</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv><br /></


iv><
iv>Most common {{c17::viable chromosomal
isor
er}} an
</
iv><
iv>most com
mon&nbsp;{{c18::</
iv><
iv>cause of genetic intellectual</
iv><
iv>
isability.</

iv>}}<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>First-trimester ultrasoun
commonly shows:</b></

iv><
iv>increase
nuchal {{c19::translucency}} an
{{c20::hypoplastic}} nasal</

iv><
iv>bone; serum PAPP-A is {{c21::
ecrease
}}, free β-hCG is {{c22::increased}}
.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Second-trimester quad screen shows: {{c23::de
creased}} α-fetoprotein, {{c24::incresed}} β-hCG, {{c25::decreased}} estriol,</div>
<div>{{c26::increase}} in inhiin A.</div></div>
Drinking age (21).
1419039778702 1367090743656 <>Autosomal trisomies</><div><><r /></></di
v><div><>{{c3::Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18)}}, 1:{{c4::8000}}</></div><div><
r /></div><div><>Findings:</> severe {{c1::intellectual disaility}}, {{c2::ro
cker-ottom}} feet, micrognathia (small jaw), {{c5::low-set}} Ears, clenched han
ds, {{c6::prominent}} occiput, {{c7::congenital heart}} disease. Death usually o
ccurs within {{c8::1 year of irth.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><div><r /></di
v><div>Most common&nsp;{{c9::</div><div>trisomy resulting in live irth</div><d
iv>after Down syndrome.</div>}}</div><div><r /><div>{{c14::PAPP-A a}}nd free {{
c15::β-hCG}} are decreased in first trimester.</div><div><r /></div><div>Quad scr
een shows: {{c10::decreased}} α-fetoprotein, {{c11::decresed}} β-hCG, {{c12::decrea
sed}} estriol, {{c13::decreased}} or normal inhiin A.</div></div>
Election
age (18).
1419061202351 1367090743656 <>{{c3::Autosomal trisomy}}</><div><r /></div
><div>{{c2::Patau syndrome (trisomy 13)}}, 1:{{c1::15,000}}</div><div><r /></di
v><div><>Findings</>: severe {{c4::intellectual disaility}}, {{c5::rocker- o
ttom}} feet, {{c6::microphthalmia}}, {{c7::microcephaly}}, {{c8::cleft liP/Palat
e}}, {{c9::holoProsencephaly}}, {{c10::Polydactyly}}, {{c11::congenital heart di
sease}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c12::Death}} {{c13::usually occurs w
ithin 1 year of irth}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>First-trimester pregnancy
screen shows: </>{{c14::decrease}} in free&nsp;{{c15::β-hCG}}, {{c16::decrease}}
in {{c17::PAPP-A}}, and {{c18::increase}} in {{c19::nuchal translucency}}</div>
<div><r /></div>
Puerty (13).
1419084816420 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Roertsonian translocation}}</><div><
r /></div><div>Nonreciprocal chromosomal translocation that commonly involves ch
romosome pairs {{c2::13, 14, 15, 21, and 22.}}&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>
One of the most common types of translocation.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>
Occurs when the long arms of 2 {{c3::acrocentric}} chromosomes (chromosomes with
centromeres near their ends) {{c4::fuse at the centromere and the 2 short arms
are lost.&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Balanced translocations normally {{
c5::do not cause any anormal phenotype}}. Unalanced translocations can result
in {{c6::miscarriage, stillirth, and chromosomal imalance (e.g., Down syndrome
, Patau syndrome).}}</div>
1419085058735 1412253438515 <img src="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc
0e_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc0e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc0e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc0e_Screen Shot 2014-12-20 at 9.13.53 AM.
png" />
1419085058817 1412253438515 <img src="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc
0e_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc0e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc0e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc0e_Screen Shot 2014-12-20 at 9.13.53 AM.
png" />
1419085058818 1412253438515 <img src="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc
0e_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc0e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc0e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc0e_Screen Shot 2014-12-20 at 9.13.53 AM.
png" />
1419085058819 1412253438515 <img src="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc
0e_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc0e_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc0e_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c3f53c1ae0022c2d72f978dd7316d16ecc5cc0e_Screen Shot 2014-12-20 at 9.13.53 AM.
png" />

1419085136460 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Cri-du-chat syndrome}}</><div><r /></
div><div><div>Congenital microdeletion of {{c2::short}} arm of {{c3::chromosome
5 (46,XX or X, 5p−)}}.&nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><div><b /></div><div><b>Findi
ngs:</b> {{c4::mic ocephaly}}, mode ate to</div><div>seve e {{c5::intellectual d
isability}}, {{c6::highpitched c ying/mewing}}, {{c7::epicanthal folds}}, {{c8:
:ca diac abno malities (VSD).}}</div></div><div><b /></div>
C i du chat = c
y of the cat.
1419086060401 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Williams}} synd ome</b><div><b /></div
><div><div>Congenital mic odeletion of {{c3::long}} a m of {{c4::ch omosome 7}}
(deleted egion includes {{c2::elastin}} gene).&nbsp;</div><div><b /></div><div
><b /></div><div><b>Findings</b>: distinctive {{c5::“elfin” facies}}, {{c6::intelle
ctual disability}}, {{c7::hype calcemia}} (inc eased {{c8::sensitivity}} to vita
min D),</div><div>welldeveloped {{c9::ve bal}} skills, ext eme f{{c10:: iendlin
ess with st ange s}}, {{c11::ca diovascula p oblems.}}</div></div>
1419086423647 1367090743656 <div><b>{{c1::22q11 deletion}} synd omes</b></di
v><div><b /></div><div><b>Va iable p esentation</b>, including {{c6::Cleft pala
te}}, Abno mal {{c7::facies}}, {{c8::Thymic aplasia}} leading to {{c9::Tcell}}
deficiency, {{c10::Ca diac defects}}, {{c11::Hypocalcemia}} 2° to {{c12::pa athy o
id}} aplasia, due to mic odeletion at ch omosome {{c13::22q11}}.</div><div><b /
></div><div><b>{{c2::DiGeo ge}} synd ome</b>—{{c5::thymic, pa athy oid, and ca dia
c defects.}}</div><div><b /></div><div><b>{{c3::Veloca diofacial}} synd ome</b>—{
{c4::palate, facial, and ca diac defects.}}</div>
<div>CATCH22.</div><div
>Due to abe ant development of 3 d and 4th b anchial pouches.</div>
1379539830538 1358629116480 Epineph ine is an ad ene gic with a ecepto aff
inity of&nbsp;{{c1::b1=b2=b3 &gt;&gt; a1=a2}}
1379541123732 1358629116480 {{c1::Epineph ine}} is the ad ene gic of choice
to t eat anaphylaxis and angioedema.
1379541217698 1358629116480 {{c1::Dobutamine}} and {{c2::Dopamine}} a e the
ad ene gics/sympathomimetics of choice to t eat ca diogenic shock.
1379541384454 1358629116480 {{c1::No epineph ine}} and&nbsp;{{c2::phenyleph
ine}} a e the ad ene gics of choice to t eat vasodilato y shock.
<b /><d
iv><i>Neu ogenic, septic, etc shock</i></div>
1379541448677 1358629116480 {{c1::Epineph ine}} is the ad ene gic of choice
to t eat anaphylactic shock.
1379541481648 1358629116480 {{c1::Epineph ine}} is the ad ene gic used du in
g ca diopulmona y esuscitation (CPR)
1379541500977 1358629116480 {{c1::Isop ote enol}} is the ad ene gic of choic
e to t eat to sade de pointes.
1379541559411 1358629116480 {{c1::Clonidine}} and Methyldopa a e the ad ene
gics used to t eat hype tension th ough the activation of cent al a2 ecepto s.
1379541591233 1358629116480 {{c1::Epineph ine}} and&nbsp;{{c1::no epineph in
e}} a e the ad ene gics involved with local anaesthesia and the t igge ing of lo
cal vasoconst iction.
1379541644648 1358629116480 {{c1::Phenyleph ine}} is the ad ene gic used to
t eat nasal congestion and bleeding.
1379541757663 1358629116480 {{c1::Epineph ine}} and&nbsp;{{c1::selective b2}
} agonists a e ad ene gics used to t eat asthma and COPD.
1379541803547 1358629116480 {{c1::Epineph ine}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Ap aclonidine
}} a e ad ene gics used to t eat open angle glaucoma.
1379541831196 1358629116480 {{c1::Clonidine}} is an ad ene gic used to t eat
tobacco, alcohol o opioid withd awal.
1379541863787 1358629116480 No epineph ine is an ab agonist with a ecepto
affinity of&nbsp;{{c1::a1 &gt; a2 &gt; b1}}.
1379542145050 1358629116480 Phenyleph ine is a(n) {{c1::a1}} selective ad en
e gic agonist.
1379542198636 1358629116480 Clonidine is a(n)&nbsp;{{c1::a2}} selective ad e
ne gic agonist. <b /><div><i>Remembe , Clonidine activates a2 auto ecepto s and
a2 cent al ecepto s to dec ease cent al ad ene gic tone.</i></div>
1379542257520 1358629116480 Ap aclonidine is a(n)&nbsp;{{c1::a2}} selective
ad ene gic agonist. It is administe ed ophthalmically.

1379542307767 1358629116480 Isop ote enol is a(n)&nbsp;{{c1::b1, b2, b3}} ad
ene gic agonist.
1379542340464 1358629116480 Dobutamine is a(n)&nbsp;{{c1::b1}} selective ad
ene gic agonist.
1379542355899 1358629116480 Albute ol is a(n)&nbsp;{{c1::b2}} selective ad e
ne gic agonist.
1379542374732 1358629116480 Salmete ol is a(n)&nbsp;{{c2::b2}} selective ad
ene gic agonist.
1379542429922 1358629116480 {{c1::Methyldopa}} is conve ted to methylno epin
eph ine in ad ene gic neu ons. It then activates cent al {{c2::a2}} ecepto s to
dec ease cent al ad ene gic tone.
1379542523150 1358629116480 {{c1::Ty amine}} is conve ted to Octopamine in a
d ene gic neu ons. It is then sto ed in vesicles and eleased in place of NE.
1379542561813 1358629116480 {{c1::Cocaine}} is a mixedacting ad ene gic tha
t blocks the euptake of catecholamines in the CNS and PNS.
1379542597439 1358629116480 {{c1::Amphetamines}} is a mixedacting ad ene gi
c that stimulates the elease of monoamine NTs (NE, D, 5HT) f om thei sto age
vesicles. It also blocks catecholamine euptake.
1379558429103 1358629116480 {{c2::Phenoxybenzamine}} is an i eve sible non
selective alpha ad ene gic blocke with an affinity of a1 &gt; a2.
1379558572762 1358629116480 P azosin is a selective&nbsp;{{c1::a1}} ad ene g
ic blocke .
1379558601635 1358629116480 Doxazosin is a selective&nbsp;{{c1::a1}} ad ene
gic blocke .
1379558615718 1358629116480 Tamsulosin is a selective&nbsp;{{c1::a1}} ad ene
gic blocke .
1379558629853 1358629116480 P opanolol is a nonselective&nbsp;{{c1::beta}}
ad ene gic blocke . It has a local anaesthetic effect.
1379558648135 1358629116480 Pindolol is a nonselective&nbsp;{{c1::beta}} ad
ene gic blocke . It has a local anaesthetic effect.
1379558695127 1358629116480 Timolol is a nonselective&nbsp;{{c1::beta}} ad
ene gic blocke that is commonly used fo open angle glaucoma.
1379558728817 1358629116480 Sotalol is a nonselective&nbsp;{{c1::beta}} ad e
ne gic blocke .
1379558754697 1358629116480 Atenolol is a selective&nbsp;{{c1::b1}} ad ene g
ic blocke .
1379558782272 1358629116480 Metop olol is a selective&nbsp;{{c1::b1}} ad ene
gic blocke .
1379558802870 1358629116480 Esmolol is a selective&nbsp;{{c1::b1}} ad ene gi
c blocke . It is only administe ed pa ente ally.
1379558852507 1358629116480 {{c1::Labetalol}} is an alphabeta ad ene gic bl
ocke that has alphaantagonist and pa tial betaagonist function. It is also a
local anaesthetic.
1379558913105 1358629116480 Ca vidilol is a(n)&nbsp;{{c1::a1beta}} ad ene g
ic blocke .
1379558952458 1358629116480 {{c2::Mety osine}} is an indi ect acting antiad
ene gic that inhibits&nbsp;{{c1::Ty osine Hyd oxylase}}, the ate limiting enzym
e in catecholamine biosynthesis.
1379559008875 1358629116480 {{c1::Phenoxybenzamine}} is an alphaad ene gic
blocke p ima ily used to t eat Pheoch omocytoma as a p eope ative p epa ation
o when the tumou is metastatic/inope able.
1379559702644 1358629116480 Selective a1ad ene gic blocke s a e p ima ily u
sed to t eat&nbsp;{{c1::HTN}} and&nbsp;{{c2::u ina y incontinence in BPH.}}
<b /><div><i>Remembe , selective a1ad ene gic blocke s end in osin</i></div><
div><i>e.g. P azosin, t azosin, &nbsp;doxazosin, &nbsp;tamsulosin</i></div>
1379559801375 1358629116480 Phenoxybenzamine toxicity involves&nbsp;{{c1::o
thostatic hypotension}} and&nbsp;{{c2:: eflex tachyca dia}}.
1379559878331 1358629116480 Selective a1blocke s have a toxicity of&nbsp;{{
c1::1st dose o thostatic hypotension}}.
1379559903975 1358629116480 Timolol is a nonselective betablocke p ima il

y used to t eat&nbsp;{{c1::open angle glaucoma}}.
1379559964204 1358629116480 {{c1::Metop olol}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Esmolol}} a e
selective b1blocke s used to t eat Sup avent icula Tachyca dia (SVT).
1379627871132 1358629116480 {{c1::Bethanechol}} is a di ect musca inic agoni
st used to t eat postope ative nonobst uctive ileus, neu ogenic ileus and u ina
y etention.
<b /><i>Bethanechol = bowels and bladde </i>
1379627972507 1358629116480 {{c1::Piloca pine}} is a di ect musca inic agoni
st used to t eat open angle glaucoma and xe ostomia as it stimulates sweating, t
ea ing and salivation. <b ><div><i style="fontweight: bold; ">Pilo</i><i>ca pi
ne lets you c y, d ool and sweat onto you <b>pillo</b>w</i></div>
1379628145233 1358629116480 {{c1::Mycetism}} is poisoning due to mush ooms t
hat contain musca ine. Symptoms appea within 30 minutes: salivation, lac imatio
n, b onchospasm, b adyca dia, t emo s, coma.
1379628340573 1358629116480 {{c1::Ed ophonium}} is a cholineste ase inhibito
clinically used to diagnose myasthenia g avis.
1379628521535 1358629116480 {{c1::Neostigmine}} is used to t eat myasthenia
g avis, postope ative nonobst uctive ileus, u ina y etention and postope ative
NMJ blockade
1379628647497 1358629116480 {{c1::Neostigmine}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Bethanechol}}
can be used to t eat neu ogenic bladde .
1379628861500 1358629116480 {{c1::Donep ezil}} is a cholineste ase inhibito
that is selective fo ChE's in the b ain. As such, it is used to t eat Alzheime
's Disease.
1379628918981 1358629116480 {{c1::O ganophosphate}} a e <b>i eve sible</b>&
nbsp;cholineste ase inhibito s.
1379629129053 1358629116480 {{c2::P alidoxime}} is a cholineste ase eactiva
to used to t eat o ganophosphate poisoning.
1379638625360 1358629116480 At opine is typically used in ophthalmology whe
e it causes&nbsp;{{c1::myd iasis}} and&nbsp;{{c2::cycloplegia}}.
1379638684720 1358629116480 {{c1::Scopolamine}} is a musca inic blocke used
to t eat motion sickness.
1379638770245 1358629116480 {{c1::Da ifenacin}} is a musca inic blocke used
to t eat ove active bladde (u ge incontinence).
1379638827171 1358629116480 {{c1::Benzot opine}} is a musca inic blocke use
d to t eat Pa kinson's Disease. <b /><div><i>Pa k my&nbsp;<b>Benz.</b></i></div
>
1379981560930 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::M2}} ecepto is the majo musca
inic ecepto at the hea t.
1379981594689 1358629116480 The {{c2::M2}} ecepto <b>st ongly</b> dec ease
s conduction and ef acto iness at the&nbsp;{{c1::AV node}}
1379981634633 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ecepto causes v
asodilation.
1379981723221 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ecepto causes s
t ong b onchoconst iction and lung sec etion.
1379981772778 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ecepto causes s
t ong e ection indi ectly via NO.
1379981794571 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ecepto causes a
st ong inc ease in GI motility, a dec ease in sphincte tone and gallbladde co
nt action.
1379981913792 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ecepto causes <
b>mode ate</b>&nbsp;exoc ine sec etion f om the panc eas.
1379981953963 1358629116480 The {{c1::M3}} musca inic ecepto causes a st o
ng inc ease in det uso muscle motility and tone.
1379982068167 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ecepto causes s
t ong cont action of the spincte pupillae and cilia y muscles.&nbsp;
1379982098869 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ecepto causes a
st ong inc ease in lac imal gland sec etion.
1379982116300 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ecepto causes a
st ong inc ease in sweat gland sec etion.
1379982137526 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::b1}} ad ene gic ecepto is the m

ain ecepto at the hea t.
1379982213560 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::a1}} ad ene gic ecepto is espo
nsible fo most vasocont iction and smooth muscle cont action.
1379988833840 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ecepto is espo
nsible fo most vasodilation and b onchodilation.
1379988856732 1358629116480 B onchial muscle elaxation is mediated th ough&
nbsp;{{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ecepto s.
1379988982816 1358629116480 Ejaculation in males is mediated th ough the&nbs
p;{{c1::a1}} ad ene gic ecepto .
1379989022198 1358629116480 Relaxation of ute ine muscle in both the p egnan
t and nonp egnant ute uses a e mediated by the&nbsp;{{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ecep
to .
1379989068780 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ecepto is the m
ajo mediato of the inc eases in hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
1379989219218 1358629116480 The {{c1::a2}} ad ene gic ecepto st ongly dec
eases insulin sec etion f om the panc eas.
1379989262187 1358629116480 The {{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ecepto weakly inc ea
ses insulin elease f om the panc eas.
1379989284393 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ecepto inc ease
s Ca²⁺&nbsp;sequest ation, glycogenolysis and K⁺&nbsp;upta
ke at <b>skeletal</b> muscle.
1380063485106 1358629116480 Mast cell deg anulation is inhibited th ough&nbs
p;{{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ecepto s.
1380063518711 1358629116480 Platelet agg egation is stimulated by&nbsp;{{c1:
:a2}} ad ene gic ecepto s.
1404332807900 1395802358422 What is the value of K_m&nbsp;in a Mic
haelisMenten kinetics system?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::[S] at 1/2 V<sub>max</
sub>}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Remembe , K_m&nbsp;is inve sely e
lated to the affinity of the enzyme fo the subst ate. (i.e. K_m&nbsp;
= 1/affinity)</i><div><i>Remembe , V_max&nbsp;is di ectly p opo tional
to the concent ation of the enzyme.<b /></i><div><img s c="paste2808049618148
8.jpg" /></div></div>
1404333476525 1395802358422 {{c1::Lineweave Bu k plot}} is a ecip ocal plo
t of MichaelisMenten enzyme kinetic values.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="past
e28217935134949.jpg" /></div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , K_m&nbsp;is th
e inve se of enzyme affinity (1/affinity).</i></div><div><i>Remembe , V<sub>max<
/sub>&nbsp;is di ectly p opo tional to the concent ation of the enzyme.</i></div
>
1404333594465 1395802358422 How do<b>&nbsp; eve sible competitive inhibito s
</b>&nbsp;change V_max?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<div><b /></div><div><i>Reve sible competitive inhibition =&nbsp;<b>inc ease</b
>&nbsp;K_m; unchanged V_max;&nbsp;<b>dec eased</b>&nbsp;pote
ncy</i></div><img s c="paste28561532518663.jpg" /><div><img s c="paste28574417
420736.jpg" /></div>
1404334860857 1395802358422 How do <b> eve sible competitive inhibito s</b>&
nbsp;change K_m?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <div><b
/></div><i>Reve sible competitive inhibition =&nbsp;<b>inc ease</b>&nbsp;K_m; unchanged V_max;&nbsp;<b>dec eased</b>&nbsp;potency</i><b />
<div><img s c="paste28561532518663.jpg" /><div><img s c="paste28574417420736.j
pg" /></div></div>
1404334889652 1395802358422 Which type of enzyme inhibition is able to be ov
e come by an inc ease in subst ate concent ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rev
e sible competitive inhibition}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>Reve sible competiti
ve inhibition =&nbsp;<b>inc ease</b>&nbsp;K_m; unchanged V<sub>max</su
b>;&nbsp;<b>dec eased</b>&nbsp;potency</i><b /><div><img s c="paste28561532518
663.jpg" /><div><img s c="paste28574417420736.jpg" /></div></div>
1404334917949 1395802358422 Which type of enzyme inhibition causes a <b>dec
ease in potency</b>&nbsp;of the d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Reve sible comp
etitive inhibition}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Reve sible competitive inhib
ition = <b>inc ease</b>&nbsp;K_m; unchanged V_max; <b>dec ea

sed</b>&nbsp;potency</i><b /><div><img s c="paste28561532518663.jpg" /><div><i
mg s c="paste28574417420736.jpg" /></div></div>
1404334988908 1395802358422 How does&nbsp;<b>i eve sible competitive inhibi
tion</b>&nbsp;change V_max?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div
>
<div><b /></div><i>I eve sible competitive inhibition =&nbsp;<b>dec ea
sed</b>&nbsp;V_max; unchanged K_m;&nbsp;<b>dec eased</b>&nbs
p;efficacy</i><b /><div><img s c="paste28561532518663.jpg" /><div><img s c="pa
ste28574417420736.jpg" /></div></div>
1404335028881 1395802358422 How does <b>i eve sible competitive inhibition<
/b>&nbsp;change K_m?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>I eve sible competitive inhibition =&nbsp;<b>dec eased</b>&
nbsp;V_max; unchanged K_m;&nbsp;<b>dec eased</b>&nbsp;effica
cy</i><div><img s c="paste28561532518663.jpg" /><div><img s c="paste2857441742
0736.jpg" /></div></div>
1404335066834 1395802358422 Which type of enzyme inhibito <b>does not</b>&n
bsp; esemble the subst ate?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Noncompetitive inhibito }
}</div> <div><b /></div><i>Noncompetitive inhibition =&nbsp;<b>dec eased</b>&nb
sp;V_max; unchanged K_m;&nbsp;<b>dec eased</b>&nbsp;efficacy
</i><div><i>e.g. alloste ic inhibition</i></div><div><img s c="paste28561532518
663.jpg" /><div><img s c="paste28574417420736.jpg" /></div></div>
1404335114549 1395802358422 Which type of enzyme inhibition <b>does not</b>&
nbsp;involve binding at the active site?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Noncompetiti
ve inhibition}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>Noncompetitive inhibition =&nbsp;<b>
dec eased</b>&nbsp;V_max; unchanged K_m;&nbsp;<b>dec eased</
b>&nbsp;efficacy</i><div><i>e.g. alloste ic inhibition</i></div><div><img s c="p
aste28561532518663.jpg" /><div><img s c="paste28574417420736.jpg" /></div></di
v>
1404335148270 1395802358422 How does <b>noncompetitive inhibition</b>&nbsp;c
hange V_max?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i>Noncompetitive inhibition =&nbsp;<b>dec eased</b>&nbsp;V_{max</su
b>; unchanged K_m;&nbsp;<b>dec eased</b>&nbsp;efficacy</i><div><i>e.g.
alloste ic inhibition</i></div><div><img s c="paste28561532518663.jpg" /><div>
<img s c="paste28574417420736.jpg" /></div></div>
1404335182462 1395802358422 How does <b>noncompetitive inhibition </b>change
K_m?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><i>Noncompetitive inhibition = <b>dec eased</b>&nbsp;V_max; unchanged
K_m; <b>dec eased</b>&nbsp;efficacy</i><div><i>e.g. alloste ic inhibi
tion<b /></i><div><img s c="paste28561532518663.jpg" /><div><img s c="paste28
574417420736.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1404335786517 1395802358422 {{c1::Pha macokinetics}} is a pha macological su
bfield that explo es the <b>effects of the body on a d ug</b>. <b /><div><i>AD
ME: Abso ption, Dist ibution, Metabolism, Exc etion</i></div>
1404336407505 1395802358422 {{c1::Pha macodynamics}} is a subfield of pha ma
cology that explo es the <b>effects of a d ug on the body</b>. <b /><div><i>i.
e. ecepto binding, efficacy, potency, toxicity, MOA, etc.</i></div>
1404336449213 1395802358422 What is the bioavailability (F) of a d ug admini
ste ed int avenously?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::100%}}</div> <b /><div><i>F<
sub>o al}&nbsp;&lt; 100%; va ies depending on incomplete abso ption and fi
stpass metabolism</i></div>
1404338068244 1395802358422 {{c1::Bioavailability (F)}} is a pha macokinetic
measu e defined as the f action of administe ed d ug that eaches systemic ci c
ulation unchanged.
1404338105442 1395802358422 {{c1::Volume of Dist ibution (V_d)}} i
s a pha macokinetic measu e that is defined as the theo etical volume occupied b
y the total abso bed d ug amount at the plasma concent ation. <b /><div><i>He
nce, the V_d&nbsp;of plasma p oteinbound d ugs can be alte ed by live
and kidney disease (live /kidney disease = dec eased p otein binding = dec eas
ed V_d)</i></div>
1404338469299 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the Volume of Dist ibut
ion (V_d) of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="paste317784

63023194.jpg" />}}</div>
1404338977373 1395802358422 Which type of d ug is associated with <b>low</b>
&nbsp;volume of dist ibution?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::La ge/cha ged molecules
; plasma p otein bound d ugs}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste3192019694414
9.jpg" /></div>
1404339014414 1395802358422 To which fluid compa tment do d ugs with <b>low<
/b>&nbsp;volume of dist ibution sp ead?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Blood (48 L)
}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste31920196944149.jpg" /></div>
1404339063295 1395802358422 To which fluid compa tment do d ugs with <b>medi
um</b>&nbsp;volume of dist ibution sp ead?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ECF}}</div
>
<b /><div><img s c="paste31920196944149.jpg" /></div>
1404339087780 1395802358422 To which fluid compa tment do d ugs with <b>high
</b>&nbsp;volume of dist ibution sp ead?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::All tissue,
including fat}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste31920196944149.jpg" /></div>
1404339111737 1395802358422 Which type of d ug is associated with <b>medium<
/b>&nbsp;volume of dist ibution (V_d)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Smal
l, hyd ophilic molecules}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste3192019694414
9.jpg" /></div>
1404339137890 1395802358422 Which type of d ug is associated with <b>high</b
>&nbsp;volume of dist ibution (V_d)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Small
lipophilic d ugs, especially those bound to tissue p oteins}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste31920196944149.jpg" /></div>
1404339202515 1395802358422 {{c1::Halflife (t1/2)}} is a pha macokinetic me
asu e that is defined as the time equi ed to educe the amount of a d ug in a b
ody <b>by half</b>&nbsp;via elimination.
<b /><div><i>Stems f om fi st o
de d ug elimination.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste33204392165513.jpg" /></
i></div>
1404339271694 1395802358422 How many halflives does it take fo a d ug to
each <b>steady state</b>&nbsp;if it is being <b>infused at a constant ate</b>?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::45}}</div> <b /><div><i>The ove all time it takes
to each the steadystate concent ation is p ima ily dependent on t<sub>1/2</sub
>&nbsp;and is independent of dose and dosing f equency.</i></div>
1404339327959 1395802358422 How many halflives does it take to each <b>90%
of the steadystate level</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::3.3}}</div>
1404339348778 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the halflife of a d ug
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="paste32688996089953.jpg" />}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Whe e V_d&nbsp;= volume of dist ibution; CL = clea ance<
/i></div>
1404340362563 1395802358422 {{c1::Clea ance (CL)}} is a pha macokinetic meas
u e that is defined as the <b>volume of plasma clea ed of a d ug pe unit time</
b>.
1404340395277 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the Clea ance (CL) of a
d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="paste33238751903844.jpg" />}}</div>
1404340411909 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the Loading dose of a d
ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="paste33264521707620.jpg" />}}</div>
1404340445940 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the maintenance dose of
a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="paste33290291511521.jpg" />}}</di
v>
<b /><div><i>In enal/live disease, the <b>maintenance dose dec eases<
/b>&nbsp;but the loading dose is unchanged.</i></div>
1404340544267 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the bioavailability (F)
of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="paste33809982554188.jpg" />}}<
/div>
1404340626555 1395802358422 {{c1::Ze oO de Elimination}} is an o de of d
ug elimination that involves a <b>constant ate of elimination</b>&nbsp; ega dle
ss of C_p.
<div><b /></div><i>Hence C_p&nbsp;dec eases l
inea ly with time.</i><b /><div><img s c="paste34170759807431.jpg" /></div>
1404343474527 1395802358422 {{c1::Ze oo de elimination}} is an o de of el
imination that involves elimination of a <b>constant amount of d ug</b>&nbsp;pe
unit time.
<b /><div><img s c="paste34166464840135.jpg" /></div>
1404343510253 1395802358422 {{c1::Ze oo de elimination}} is an o de of d

ug elimination that is <b>capacitylimited</b>.
1404343541012 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenytoin}},&nbsp;{{c2::Ethanol}} and&nbsp
;{{c3::Aspi in}} a e th ee d ugs that a e known to exhibit ze oo de eliminatio
n.
<b /><div><img s c="paste34166464840135.jpg" /></div>
1404343568539 1395802358422 {{c1::Fi sto de elimination}} is an o de of d
ug elimination that involves a ate of elimination that is <b>di ectly p opo ti
onal to the d ug concent ation</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="paste3470333575215
6.jpg" /></div>
1404343622571 1395802358422 {{c1::Fi sto de elimination}} is an o de of e
limination that involves elimination of a <b>constant f action of d ug</b>&nbsp;
pe unit time. <div style="fontstyle: italic; "><i><b /></i></div><i>Hence, C
_p&nbsp;dec eases exponentially with time.</i><div><i>Flowdependent e
limination.<b /></i><div><img s c="paste34699040784860.jpg" /></div></div>
1404344028791 1395802358422 {{c1::Bica bonate}} is a t eatment fo <b>weak a
cid d ug ove dose</b>&nbsp;that functions by alkalinizing the u ine, the eby t a
pping the weakly acidic d ug.<div><b /></div> <div><b /></div><i>Fo weak aci
d d ugs:</i><b /><div><img s c="paste35596688949347.jpg" /></div>
1404344650089 1395802358422 {{c1::Ammonium chlo ide}} is a t eatment fo <b>
weak base d ug ove dose</b>&nbsp;and functions by <b>acidifying</b>&nbsp;the u i
ne, the eby t apping the weakly basic d ug.
<div><b /></div><i>Fo weakly b
asic d ugs:</i><b /><div><img s c="paste35759897706601.jpg" /></div>
1404408265963 1395802358422 Which phase of d ug metabolism yields <b>slightl
y pola , wate soluble</b>&nbsp;and <b>active</b>&nbsp;metabolites?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Phase I}}</div> <div><i><b /></i></div><div><i>Involves &nbsp;
eduction, oxidation and hyd olysis of d ugs with cytoch ome P450 enzymes.</i></d
iv>
1404409257639 1395802358422 Which phase of d ug metabolism is lost fi st in
ge iat ic patients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Phase 1}}</div>
1404409501937 1395802358422 Which phase of d ug metabolism involves conjugat
ion of d ugs into <b>ve y pola </b>&nbsp;and <b>inactive</b>&nbsp;metabolites?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Phase II}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Glucu onidation, a
cetylation, sulfation.</i></div>
1404409546817 1395802358422 {{c1::Efficacy}} is a pha macodynamic measu e de
fined as the <b>maximal effect a d ug can p oduce</b>. <b /><div><img s c="pas
te1434519077352.jpg" /></div>
1404410077779 1395802358422 {{c1::Potency}} is a pha macodynamic measu e def
ined as the <b>amount of d ug needed fo a given effect</b>.
<div><b /></div
><i>Inc eased potency = inc eased affinity fo the ecepto .</i><div><i>Potency
is an independent va iable (vs. efficacy).<b /></i><div><img s c="paste1477468
750343.jpg" /></div></div>
1404410132265 1395802358422 How does a competitive antagonist change the pot
ency of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased; the efo e, cu ve shifts to
the ight}}</div>
<b /><div><i>(i.e. mo e of that d ug is now equ ied to
achieve the desi ed effect)</i></div><div><i>Ove come by inc eased subst ate co
ncent ation.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste1748051689981.jpg" /></i></div>
1404411121856 1395802358422 How does a competitive antagonist change efficac
y of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Th
e maximal effect of the d ug is still the same, howeve mo e d ug will be needed
to achieve it.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste1743756722685.jpg" /></i></div>
1404412018289 1395802358422 How does a <b>noncompetitive antagonist</b>&nbsp
;change the efficacy of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Shits the cu ve down.</i></div><div><i>This makes pe fect sense, b
ah. The antagonist doesn't compete with the agonist in o de to block the d ug'
s effect. Hence, the maximal effect that d ug can elicit is significantly educe
d as an inc ease in d ug concent ation cannot ove come the noncompetitive inhibi
to .</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste1937030251009.jpg" /></i></div>
1404412129590 1395802358422 How does an <b>i eve sible competitive antagoni
st</b>&nbsp;change the efficacy of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}
</div> <b /><div><i>i.e. the cu ve shifts downwa ds</i></div><div><i>This is t
he same idea as the noncompetitive antagonist. Howeve he e, despite the antagon

ist competing fo the same binding site, the binding is <b>i eve sible</b>. Hen
ce an inc ease in d ug concent ation cannot ove come the antagonist.</i></div><d
iv><i><img s c="paste1932735283713.jpg" /></i></div>
1404412343147 1395802358422 How does a <b>pa tial agonist</b>&nbsp;change th
e efficacy of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i>The pa tial agonist acts at the same site as the agonist, <b>but wit
h a lowe maximal effect</b>. Hence the ove all d ug effect is educed (i.e. dec
eased efficacy).</i><div><i>Remembe , potency is an independent va iable.<b />
</i><div><img s c="paste2332167242244.jpg" /></div></div>
1404412714563 1395802358422 What is the equation fo The apeutic Index?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="paste3191160701021.jpg" />}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste3234110374059.jpg" /></div>
1404413444375 1395802358422 {{c1::The apeutic window}} is a pha macodynamic
measu e of the <b>clinical d ug's effectiveness</b>&nbsp;fo a patient. <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste3268470112705.jpg" /></div>
1404419935022 1395802358422 Which type of choline gic ecepto s a e found at
all autonomic ganglia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nicotinic (N_N)}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste4157528343316.jpg" /></div>
1404421300214 1395802358422 {{c1::Sweat glands}} and the&nbsp;{{c2::ad enal
medulla}} a e 2 pa ts of the sympathetic ne vous system that a e inne vated by <
b>choline gic</b>&nbsp;neu ons. <b /><div><img s c="paste4153233376020.jpg" />
</div>
1404421343075 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulinum toxin}} is a toxin f om <i>Clost
idium botulinum</i>&nbsp;that p events the elease of neu ot ansmitte s at all
choline gic te minals. <b /><div><img s c="paste12459700126480.jpg" /></div>
1404421380756 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with alpha1
ad ene gic ecepto s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</div> <div><b
/></div><div><img s c="paste4745938862242.jpg" /></div>
1404422968289 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with alpha2
ad ene gic ecepto s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_i}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste5531917877544.jpg" /></div>
1404422978512 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with beta1
ad ene gic ecepto s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423017554 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with beta2
ad ene gic ecepto s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423097307 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with M₂&nbsp;choline gic ecepto s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_i}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423127644 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with D₁&nbsp;dopamine ecepto s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423170898 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with D₂&nbsp;dopamine ecepto s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_i}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423189928 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with H₂&nbsp;histamine ecepto s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div
>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423222711 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with V₂&nbsp;vasop essin ecepto s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404423256164 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with M₁&nbsp;choline gic ecepto s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="paste4745938862242.jpg" /></div>
1404423294646 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with M₃&nbsp;choline gic ecepto s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="paste4745938862242.jpg" /></div>
1404423322161 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with H₁&nbsp;histamine ecepto s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</div

>
<b /><div><img s c="paste4745938862242.jpg" /></div>
1404423351175 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with V₁&nbsp;vasop essin ecepto s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="paste4745938862242.jpg" /></div>
1404423366684 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with the act
ivation of Phospholipase C?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste4745938862242.jpg" /></div>
1404423801075 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with activat
ion of P otein Kinase C following Phospholipase C activation?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::G_q}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste4745938862242.jpg" />
</div>
1404423836663 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with activat
ion of the IP₃/DAG signalling cascade?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G<s
ub>q</sub>}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Remembe , IP₃&nbsp;inc ea
ses int acellula [Ca].</i><b /><div><img s c="paste4745938862242.jpg" /></div
>
1404423963414 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with an inc
ease in int acellula [Ca²⁺] via IP₃&nbsp;action?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste47459
38862242.jpg" /></div>
1404424057309 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with activat
ion of Adenylate Cyclase?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404424085334 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with inc eas
es in int acellula [cAMP]?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404424120919 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with activat
ion of P otein Kinase A?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404424142151 1395802358422 Which Gp otein class is associated with activat
ion of the cAMP/P otein Kinase A signalling cascade?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
G_s}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste5527622910248.jpg" /></div>
1404424185531 1395802358422 Which dopamine ecepto functions to elax <b> e
nal vascula smooth muscle</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::D₁}}</div>
1404424536998 1395802358422 Which dopamine ecepto functions to modulate ne
u ot ansmitte elease, especially at the b ain?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::D<su
b>2</sub>}}</div>
1404424557578 1395802358422 Which histamine ecepto mediates inc eases in g
ast ic acid sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::H₂}}</div>
1404424584996 1395802358422 Which histamine ecepto functions to inc ease v
ascula pe meability?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::H₁}}</div>
1404424602013 1395802358422 Which histamine ecepto functions to inc ease n
asal and b onchial mucus p oduction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::H₁}}<
/div>
1404424620431 1395802358422 Which histamine ecepto mediates p u itis?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::H₁}}</div>
1404424632964 1395802358422 Which histamine ecepto mediates pain?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::H₁}}</div>
1404424642043 1395802358422 Which histamine ecepto mediates the cont actio
n of b onchioles?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::H₁}}</div>
1404424652948 1395802358422 Which vasop essin ecepto mediates <b>vascula
smooth muscle cont action</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::V₁}}</div>
1404424674617 1395802358422 Which vasop essin ecepto is found at the kidne
ys?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::V₂}}</div>
1404424689186 1395802358422 Which vasop essin ecepto functions to inc ease
H₂O pe meability and eabso ption in the collecting tubules of the k
idney?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::V₂}}</div>
1404425011618 1395802358422 Which alphaad ene gic ecepto functions to <b>
dec ease</b>&nbsp;sympathetic outflow?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::alpha2}}</div
>

1404425058735 1395802358422 Which alphaad ene gic ecepto functions to <b>
inc ease platelet agg egation</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::alpha2}}</div>
1404425071777 1395802358422 Which musca inic ecepto is mainly found at the
CNS and ente ic ne vous system?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::M₁}}</div
>
1404435364439 1395802358422 {{c1::Bethanecol}} is a choline gic d ug used to
t eat <b>postope ative/neu ogenic ileus</b>&nbsp;and <b>u ina y etention</b>&n
bsp;by activating bladde and bowel smooth muscle.
<b /><div><i>Resistant
to AChE.</i></div><div><i>"<b>Bethan</b>y, <b>chol</b>&nbsp;me to activate you
<b>bowel</b>&nbsp;and <b>bladde </b>."</i></div>
1404436011407 1395802358422 {{c1::Ca bachol}} is a choline gic d ug used to
t eat glaucoma and cause pupilla y const iction.
1404436586043 1395802358422 {{c1::Ca bachol}} is a choline gic d ug used to
elieve int aocula p essu e.
1404436604169 1395802358422 {{c1::Piloca pine}} is a di ect choline gic agon
ist used to stimulate <b>sweat, tea s</b>&nbsp;and <b>saliva</b>&nbsp;sec etion.
<b /><div><i>"You <b>c y, sweat</b>&nbsp;and <b>d ool</b>&nbsp;onto you pillow
(ca pine) at night."</i></div>
1404436762068 1395802358422 {{c1::Piloca pine}} is a di ect choline gic agon
ist used to t eat <b>openangle glaucoma</b>&nbsp;by cont acting the cilia y mus
cle.
1404436875472 1395802358422 {{c1::Piloca pine}} is a di ct choline gic agoni
st used to t eat <b>closedangle glaucoma</b>&nbsp;by cont acting the pupilla y
sphincte muscle.
1404436904135 1395802358422 {{c1::Bethanechol}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Piloca pine}}
a e di ect choline gic agonists that a e <b> esistant to AChE</b>.
1404436933398 1395802358422 Which di ect choline gic agonist is used in the
challenge test fo the diagnosis of asthma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Methachol
ine}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>It stimulates musca inic ecepto s in the ai
way when inhaled.</i><b /><div><i>Hence the "Methacholine challenge."</i></div
>
1404437035135 1395802358422 {{c1::Methacholine}} is a di ect choline gic ago
nist that is used in challenge tests to diagnose asthma as it stimulates musca i
nic ecepto s in the ai way when inhaled.
1404437160260 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostigmine}} is a cholineste ase inhibito
that t eats <b>postope ative/neu ogenic ileus</b>&nbsp;and <b>u ina y etentio
n</b>. <b /><div><i>Neostigmine is the Bethanechol of cholineste ase inhibito
s.</i></div>
1404437770394 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostigmine}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Py idostigmin
e}} a e cholineste ase inhibito s that a e used to t eat <b>myasthenia g avis</b
>.
1404437830108 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostigmine}} is a cholineste ase inhibito
that is used to eve se postope ative neu omuscula blockade.
1404437878256 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostigmine}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Py idostigmin
e}} a e cholineste ase inhibito s that <b>do not</b>&nbsp;penet ate the CNS.
1404437913573 1395802358422 {{c1::Physostigmine}} is a cholineste ase inhibi
to used to t eat anticholine gic toxicity as it c osses the BBB.
<b /><d
iv><i>"Physostigmine '<b>phyxes</b>' at opine ove dose."</i></div>
1404437962415 1395802358422 {{c1::Donepezil}},&nbsp;{{c2::Rivastigmine}} and
&nbsp;{{c3::Galantamine}} a e 3 cholineste ase inhibito s that a e used to t eat
Alzheime Disease.
1404438052162 1395802358422 {{c1::Ed ophonium}} is a cholineste ase inhibito
that can be used to <b>diagnose</b>&nbsp;myasthenia g avis as it is ext emely
sho t acting.
1404438094002 1395802358422 <div>Which cholineste ase inhibito was histo ic
ally used to <b>diagnose</b>&nbsp;myasthenia g avis?</div><div><b /></div>{{c1:
:Ed ophonium}} <b /><div><i>Now, AntiAcetylcholine Recepto Antibody (antiAC
hR Ab) tests a e used.</i></div>
1404438158182 1395802358422 {{c1::O ganophosphate}} a e a type of <b>i eve
sible</b>&nbsp;AChE inhibito that can cause cholineste ase inhibito poisoning,

especially in fa me s. <b /><div><i>Causes <b>DUMBBELSS</b>:</i></div><div><i>
 Dia hea</i></div><div><i> U ination</i></div><div><i> Miosis</i></div><div>
<i> B onchospasm</i></div><div><i> B adyca dia</i></div><div><i> Excitation o
f skeletal muscle and CNS</i></div><div><i> Lac imation</i></div><div><i> Swea
ting</i></div><div><i> Salivation</i></div>
1404438737203 1395802358422 {{c1::At opine}} is an anticholine gic used to t
eat cholineste ase inhibito poisoning along with P alidoxime.
1404438769859 1395802358422 {{c1::P alidoxime}} is a d ug used to t eat chol
ineste ase inhibito poisoning with At opine as it <b> egene ates AChE </b>if gi
ven ea ly.
1404438806729 1395802358422 {{c1::At opine}},&nbsp;{{c2::homat opine}} and&n
bsp;{{c3::t opicamide}} a e 3 antimusca inics that a e used clinically to p oduc
e myd iasis and cycloplegia.
1404439480932 1395802358422 {{c1::Benzt opine}} is an antimusca inic that is
used to t eat Pa kinson Disease.
<b /><div><i>"<b>Pa k</b>&nbsp;my <b>be
nz</b>, b ah."</i></div>
1404439512204 1395802358422 Which antimusca inic d ug is used to t eat Pa ki
nsons Disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Benzt opine}}</div>
1404439526734 1395802358422 Which antimusca inic d ug is used to t eat motio
n sickness?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Scopolamine}}</div>
1404439540732 1395802358422 {{c1::Scopolamine}} is an antimusca inic d ug us
ed to t eat motion sickness.
1404439557479 1395802358422 {{c1::Ip at opium}} and&nbsp;{{c2::tiot opium}}
a e 2 antimusca inic d ugs used to t eat COPD and asthma.
1404439590883 1395802358422 {{c1::Oxybutynin}},&nbsp;{{c2::Da ifenacin}} and
&nbsp;{{c3::Solifenacin}} a e 3 antimusca inic d ugs used to <b> educe u gency i
n mild cystitis</b>&nbsp;and <b>bladde spasms</b>.
<b /><div><i>Othe agen
ts include tolte odine, fesote odine and t ospium.</i></div>
1404439772987 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycopy olate}} is an antimusca inic d ug
administe ed <b>pa ente ally</b>&nbsp;to <b> educe ai way sec etions</b>&nbsp;i
n p epa ation fo su ge y.
1404439925096 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycopy olate}} is an antimusca inic that
is administe ed <b>o ally</b>&nbsp;to t eat <b>d ooling</b>&nbsp;and <b>peptic
ulce s</b>.
1404440096980 1395802358422 Which antimusca inic is used to t eat b adyca di
a?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::At opine}}</div>
1404440758239 1395802358422 How does At opine influence espi ato y sec etio
ns?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1404440869995 1395802358422 How does At opine influence GI sec etions?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1404440885269 1395802358422 How does at opine influence GI motility?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1404440892458 1395802358422 How does At opine influence u ina y u gency in c
ystitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1404442020564 1395802358422 {{c1::Hype the mia}} is a potential complication
of At opine use due to the significant dec ease in sweating. <b /><div><img
s c="paste15960098472153.jpg" /></div>
1404442090956 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute angleclosu e glaucoma}} is a potent
ial ocula complication of At opine use in the elde ly due to the myd iasis caus
ed.
1404442138994 1395802358422 {{c1::U ina y etention}} is a possible u ina y
complication of At opine use in men with BPH.
1404442169322 1395802358422 {{c1::Jimson weed (<i>Datu a</i>)}} is a weed kn
own to cause <b>Ga dene s pupil</b>, a condition cha acte ized by <b>myd iasis</
b>&nbsp;due to alkaloids in the plant. <b /><div><i>Fo anyone that's played A
ssassin's C eed: think of the Datu a powde bombs!</i></div>
1404447004821 1395802358422 {{c1::Isop ote enol}} is an ad ene gic agonist t
hat is used fo elect ophysiologic evaluation of tachya hythmias.
1404447147578 1395802358422 Which ad ene gic agonist is known to be able to
wo sen ischemia when it is administe ed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Isop ote eno

l}}</div>
1404447315851 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ecepto (s) does Epineph ine
bind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::All (b1, b2, b3, a1, a2)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><b><i>Much highe affinity fo beta ecepto s than alpha.</i></b></div><div><
i>Alpha ecepto effects howeve will p edominate at high doses.</i></div>
1404447502669 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ecepto (s) does No epineph
ine bind to, in o de of descending affinity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::a1 &gt;
a2 &gt; b1}}</div>
1404447534633 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ecepto (s) does Isop ote en
ol bind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::b1, b2, b3}}</div>
1404447565727 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ecepto (s) does Dobutamine
bind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::b1}}</div>
1404447590424 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ecepto (s) does Phenyleph i
ne bind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::a1}}</div>
1404447601774 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ecepto (s) does Albute ol b
ind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::b2}}</div>
1404447655403 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ecepto (s) does Salmete ol
bind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::b2}}</div>
1404447661283 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ecepto (s) does Te butaline
bind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::b2}}</div>
1404447976301 1395802358422 Which ad ene gic is the d ug of choice to t eat
Anaphylaxis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Epineph ine}}</div>
1404448016547 1395802358422 Which beta2 ad ene gic agonist is used to t eat
<b>acute</b>&nbsp;asthma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Albute ol}}</div>
1404448042887 1395802358422 Which beta2 ad ene gic agonist is used to t eat
<b>longte m</b>&nbsp;asthma o COPD?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Salmete ol}}</
div>
1404448068894 1395802358422 Which beta2 agonist is used to <b> educe p emat
u e ute ine cont actions</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Te butaline}}</div>
1404448095264 1395802358422 Which alpha1 ad ene gic agonist is used to t ea
t <b> hinitis</b>&nbsp;via vasocont iction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Phenyleph
ine}}</div>
1404448125358 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenyleph ine}} is an alpha1 ad ene gic a
gonist used in ocula p ocedu es as it causes myd iasis.
1404448154946 1395802358422 {{c1::No epineph ine}} is an ad ene gic agonist
used to t eat hypotension, howeve it <b>dec eases enal pe fusion</b>.
1404448181452 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenyleph ine}} is an alpha1 agonist that
is used to t eat hypotension via <b>vasocont iction.</b>
1404448217135 1395802358422 Which 2 sympathomimetics a e used to t eat ca di
ogenic hea t failu e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dobutamine; Dopamine}}</div>
1404448259722 1395802358422 {{c1::Dobutamine}} is a beta1 ad ene gic agonis
t that t eats hea t failu e and yields <b>g eate inot opic effects than ch onot
opic</b>.
1404448330051 1395802358422 {{c1::Dobutamine}} is a beta1 ad ene gic agonis
t that is used in ca diac st ess testing.
1404448361307 1395802358422 Which ad ene gic agonist is used to t eat opena
ngle glaucoma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Epineph ine}}</div>
1404448390654 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Amphetamines?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::T igge s the elease of catecholamines (E, NE, D); Blocks catecholam
ine euptake}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste1241245549337.jpg" /></div>
1404448679815 1395802358422 {{c1::Amphetamines}} a e a type of indi ect symp
athomimetic that is used to t eat na colepsy.
1404448702486 1395802358422 {{c1::Amphetamines}} a e a type of sympathomimet
ic that is used to t eat ADHD.
1404448717272 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ephed ine?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::T igge s the elease of catecholamines (E, NE, D)}}</div>
1404448748725 1395802358422 {{c1::Ephed ine}} is an indi ect sympathomimetic
that is used to t eat nasal congestion.
1404448773560 1395802358422 {{c1::Ephed ine}} is an indi ect sympathomimetic
used to t eat <b>u ina y incontinence</b> and <b>hypotension</b>.

1404448796261 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Cocaine?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Inhibition of catecholamine euptake}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Neve give
a patient betablocke s if cocaine intoxication is suspected as it can lead to
unopposed alpha1 activation and ext eme hype tension ( emembe , alpha1 ecepto
s mediate vasoconst iction).</i></div>
1404448822662 1395802358422 {{c1::Cocaine}} is an indi ect sympathomimetic t
hat causes <b>local vasoconst iction</b>&nbsp;and is used as a <b>local anaesthe
tic</b>.
<div><i><b /></i></div>
1404491141012 1395802358422 Th ough which ad ene gic ecepto does No epinep
h ine cause an inc ease in systolic and diastolic p essu e?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Alpha1 (via vasoconst iction)}}</div>
1404492106574 1395802358422 How does No epineph ine change blood p essu e?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is th ough al
pha1 mediated vasoconst iction and an inc ease in MAP.</i></div><div><i>Remembe
, <b>no epineph ine does not bind to beta2 ecepto s and hence does not cause
vasodilation.</b></i></div><div><i><img s c="paste1391569404477.jpg" /></i></di
v>
1404492996927 1395802358422 How does No epineph ine change hea t ate?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::B adyca dia (via eflexive dec ease)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>No epineph ine: causes <b>alpha1</b>&nbsp;mediated vasocont iction &gt;
<b>inc eased</b>&nbsp;BP &gt; <b> eflexive b adyca dia</b></i></div><div><i><
img s c="paste2001454760514.jpg" /></i></div>
1404493469940 1395802358422 How does Isop ote enol influence blood p essu e?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Remembe , Isop ote
enol is a <b>nonspecific betaagonist</b>. It causes <b>beta2</b>&nbsp;mediat
es vasodilation and hence a dec ease in MAP. It also activated <b>beta1</b>&nbs
p; ecepto s at the hea t, the eby causing tachyca dia di ectly (as well as efle
xively).</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste1997159793218.jpg" /></i></div>
1404493561582 1395802358422 How does Isop ote enol influence hea t ate?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Remembe , Isop ote
enol is a <b>nonspecific betaagonist</b>.</i></div><div><i>Hence it causes in
c eased HR both di ectly and via eflexive action f om the dec ease in BP.</i></
div><div><i><img s c="paste1997159793218.jpg" /></i></div>
1404494293433 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Clonidine?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Agonist at alpha2<b>auto ecepto s</b>, the eby dec easing ad ene gic t
one}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste1241245549337.jpg" /></div>
1404494300567 1395802358422 {{c1::Clonidine}} is an alpha2 ad ene gic agoni
st that is used to t eat <b>hype tensive u gency</b>&nbsp;by binding to <b>alpha
2 auto ecepto s</b>. <b /><div><i>It does not dec ease enal blood flow.</i>
</div><div><i><img s c="paste1241245549337.jpg" /></i></div>
1404494347894 1395802358422 Which alpha2 agonist is used to t eat ethanol a
nd opioid withd awal?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Clonidine}}</div>
1404494437723 1395802358422 What is the MOA of alphamethyldopa?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Conve ted into Methylno epineph ine which acts at <u>cent al alp
ha2 ecepto s</u>, the eby dec easing ad ene gic tone}}</div> <div><b /></div
><i>It is a false neu ot ansmitte that is taken up by ad ene gic neu ons.</i><b
/><div><img s c="paste1241245549337.jpg" /></div>
1404494580402 1395802358422 {{c1::alphaMethyldopa}} is an indi ect cent al
alpha2 agonist that is used to t eat <b>hype tension in p egnancy</b>. <b /><d
iv><i>Hence, it is safe to use in p egnancy.</i></div>
1404494676496 1395802358422 Which indi ect cent al alpha2 ad ene gic agonis
t is used to t eat Hype tension in p egnancy?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::alphaM
ethyldopa}}</div>
1404494712744 1395802358422 {{c1::Di ect Coombspositive hemolytic anaemia}}
is a hematological complication of alphaMethyldopa use.
1404494750054 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Phenoxybenzamine?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::<u>I eve sible, nonselective</u>&nbsp;alpha ad ene gic blockad
e}}</div>
1404496071325 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Phentolamine?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::<u>Reve sible, nonselective</u>&nbsp;alphaad ene gic blockade}}</di

v>
1404496562438 1395802358422 What is the MOA of P azosin?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Alpha1 ad ene gic antagonism}}</div>
1404496586995 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Te azosin?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Alpha1 ad ene gic antagonism}}</div>
1404496757275 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Doxazosin?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Alpha1 ad ene gic blockade}}</div>
1404496768900 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tamsulosin?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Alpha1 ad ene gic blockade}}</div>
1404496782536 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Mi tazapine?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Alpha2 ad ene gic blockade}}</div>
1404496804758 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenoxybenzamine}} is an alphaad ene gic
antagonist used <b>p eope atively</b>&nbsp;in Pheoch omocytoma to p event hype t
ensive c isis du ing the su ge y.
<b /><div><i>Phenoxybenzamine is an <b>
i eve sible, nonselective alphablocke </b>.</i></div>
1404497078864 1395802358422 {{c1::O thostatic hypotension}} is a systemic co
mplication of Phenoxybenzamine and othe alphaad ene gic blocke s administ atio
n that p esents as a dec ease in blood p essu e upon a change in postu e.
<b /><div><i>Remembe , Phenoxybenzamine i eve sibly blocks alpha ad ene gic e
cepto s.&nbsp;</i></div><div><i>alpha1 ecepto s mediate vasoconst iction.</i><
/div>
1404497186677 1395802358422 {{c1::Phentolamine}} is an alphablocke given t
o patients on MAO inhibito s that have eaten ty aminecontaining foods. <b /><d
iv><i>Remembe , Phentolamine is a <b> eve sible, nonselective alphablocke </b>
.</i></div>
1404497745626 1395802358422 {{c1::P azosin}} is a selective alpha1 blocke
that is used to t eat PTSD.
1404497779415 1395802358422 Which alphaad ene gic blocke is used to t eat
the u ina y symptoms of BPH?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Selective alpha1 blocke
s (P azosin, Te azosin, Doxazosin, Tamsulosin)}}</div>
1404498380515 1395802358422 Which selective alpha1 ad ene gic blocke is <b
>not</b>&nbsp;used to t eat Hype tension?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tamsulosin}
}</div>
1404498431008 1395802358422 {{c1::Mi tazapine}} is a selective alpha2 ad en
e gic blocke that is used to t eat dep ession.
1404498478113 1395802358422 Which selective alpha2 ad ene gic blocke is us
ed to t eat dep ession?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mi tazapine}}</div>
1404498507879 1395802358422 How does Mi tazapine change se um choleste ol le
vels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1404498529176 1395802358422 How does blood p essu e change with Epineph ine
administ ation <b>befo e alphaad ene gic blockade</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5394478924495.jpg" /></div>
1404498942401 1395802358422 How does blood p essu e change with Epineph ine
administ ation <b>afte alphaad ene gic blockade</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Dec ease}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Remembe , Epineph ine activates <b>a
ll</b>&nbsp;ad ene gic ecepto s.</i><b /><div><img s c="paste5390183957199.jp
g" /></div>
1404499365915 1395802358422 How does blood p essu e change with Phenyleph in
e <b>befo e alphaad ene gic blockade</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}
</div> <b /><div><i>via alpha1 ad ene gic activation.</i></div><div><i><img s
c="paste5390183957199.jpg" /></i></div>
1404499400863 1395802358422 How does blood p essu e change with Phenyleph in
e <b>afte alphaad ene gic blockade</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No change;
Phenyleph ine's action is supp essed by the alphablockade}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i>Remembe , Phenyleph ine is a pu e alpha1 agonist.</i><b /><div><im
g s c="paste5390183957199.jpg" /></div>
1404508536054 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Metop olol?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Selective beta1 antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i>Betablocke s that
sta t with a lette in the&nbsp;<b>fi st</b>&nbsp;half of the alphabet (<b>A</b
><b>M</b>)&nbsp;a e selective fo &nbsp;<b>beta1</b>&nbsp; ecepto s.</i></div>

1404509922698 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Acebutolol?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Selective beta1 antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i>Betablocke s that
sta t with a lette in the&nbsp;<b>fi st</b>&nbsp;half of the alphabet (<b>A</b
><b>M</b>)&nbsp;a e selective fo &nbsp;<b>beta1</b>&nbsp; ecepto s.</i></div>
1404509941469 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Betaxolol?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Selective beta1 antagonism}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Betablocke s that
sta t with a lette in the&nbsp;<b>fi st</b>&nbsp;half of the alphabet (<b>A</b
><b>M</b>)&nbsp;a e selective fo &nbsp;<b>beta1</b>&nbsp; ecepto s.</i></div>
1404510023532 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ca vedilol?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Nonselective alpha and beta ad ene gic antagonism}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>D ugs that end in <b>a suffix othe than olol</b>&nbsp;a e <b>nonselecti
ve alpha </b>and <b>beta</b>&nbsp;antagonists.</i></div><div><i>e.g. Ca vedilol
and Labetalol</i></div>
1404510043999 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Esmolol?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Selective beta1 ad ene gic antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i>Betablock
e s that sta t with a lette in the&nbsp;<b>fi st</b>&nbsp;half of the alphabet
(<b>A</b><b>M</b>)&nbsp;a e selective fo &nbsp;<b>beta1</b>&nbsp; ecepto s.</i
></div>
1404510076438 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Atenolol?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Selective beta1 ad ene gic antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i>Betablock
e s that sta t with a lette in the <b>fi st</b>&nbsp;half of the alphabet (<b>A
</b><b>M</b>)&nbsp;a e selective fo <b>beta1</b>&nbsp; ecepto s.</i></div>
1404510226538 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Nadolol?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Nonselective beta ad ene gic antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i>Betablock
e s that sta t with a lette in the <b>2nd</b>&nbsp;half of the alphabet (<b>N</
b><b>Z</b>) a e <b>nonselective beta ad ene gic blocke s</b>.</i></div>
1404510611882 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Timolol?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Nonselective beta ad ene gic antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i></i><i>Bet
ablocke s that sta t with a lette in the&nbsp;<b>2nd</b>&nbsp;half of the alph
abet (<b>N</b><b>Z</b>) a e&nbsp;<b>nonselective beta ad ene gic blocke s</b>.
</i></div>
1404510618675 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Pindolol?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Nonselective beta ad ene gic antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i>Betablock
e s that sta t with a lette in the&nbsp;<b>2nd</b>&nbsp;half of the alphabet (<
b>N</b><b>Z</b>) a e&nbsp;<b>nonselective beta ad ene gic blocke s</b>.</i></d
iv>
1404510643156 1395802358422 What is the MOA of P opanolol?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Nonselective beta ad ene gic antagonism}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Be
tablocke s that sta t with a lette in the&nbsp;<b>2nd</b>&nbsp;half of the alp
habet (<b>N</b><b>Z</b>) a e&nbsp;<b>nonselective beta ad ene gic blocke s</b>
.</i></div>
1404510706957 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Labetalol?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Nonselective alpha and beta ad ene gic antagonism}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><div><i>D ugs that end in&nbsp;<b>a suffix othe than olol</b>&nbsp;a e&nbsp
;<b>nonselective alpha&nbsp;</b>and&nbsp;<b>beta</b>&nbsp;antagonists.</i></div
><div><i>e.g. Ca vedilol and Labetalol</i></div></div>
1404510709841 1395802358422 {{c1::Nebivolol}} is a combined betaad ene gic
agonist and antagonist that has combined <b>ca diacselective</b>&nbsp;<b>beta1
</b>&nbsp;<b>blockade&nbsp;</b>and <b>beta3 activation</b>.
<b /><div><i>Be
ta3 ecepto activates Nit ic Oxide Synthase in the vasculatu e.</i></div>
1404511277397 1395802358422 {{c1::Metop olol}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Esmolol}} a e
2 beta1 selective antagonists that can t eat <b>SVT</b>&nbsp;by dec easing AV n
ode conduction velocity.
1404512849545 1395802358422 Which 2 betablocke s a e commonly used as Class
II Antia hythmics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Metop olol; Esmolol}}</div>
1404512880292 1395802358422 {{c1::Metop olol}},&nbsp;{{c2::Ca vedilol}} and&
nbsp;{{c3::Bisop olol}} a e betablocke s commonly used afte myoca dial infa ct
ion that dec ease patient mo tality.
1404512932082 1395802358422 How do betablocke s influence Renin sec etion?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Due to <b>beta1

ecepto antagonism at JGA cells</b>.</i></div>
1404512969460 1395802358422 {{c1::Timolol}} is a betablocke used to t eat
Glaucoma as it dec eases the sec etion of aqueous humou .
1404513265571 1395802358422 Which betablocke is associated with Dyslipidem
ia as a side effect?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Metop olol}}</div>
1404513293883 1395802358422 Which CNS side effects a e associated with beta
blocke s?<div><b />{{c1::Seizu es, sedation, sleep alte ation}}</div>
1404576489526 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Acetaminophen toxicity
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nacetylcysteine}}</div> <b /><div><i>It functio
ns to eplenish glutathione which is used up by NAPQI.</i></div>
1404576649468 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo AChE Inhibito toxicit
y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::At opine + P alidoxime}}</div>
1404576667814 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo O ganophosphate poison
ing?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::At opine + P alidoxime}}</div>
1404576691367 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Amphetamines (basic d
ugs)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ammonium chlo ide (NH₄Cl)}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Functions to acidify the u ine, the eby keeping Amphetamines insid
e the kidney tubules to be exc eted.</i></div>
1404576777850 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Antimusca inic and Ant
icholine gic toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Physostigmine salicylate}}</di
v>
<b /><div><i>The aim in the apy is to cont ol the hype the mia.</i></di
v>
1404576825849 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Benzodiazepine toxicit
y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Flumanezil}}</div>
1404577610419 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo BetaBlocke induced h
ypoglycemia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Glucagon}}</div>
1404577755163 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Ca bon Monoxide poison
ing?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::100% O₂; Hype ba ic O₂}}</
div>
1404577779154 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Coppe toxicity?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinamine}}</div>
1404577809039 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo A senic toxicity?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinamine; Dime cap ol; Succime }}</div>
1404577819417 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Gold toxicity?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinamine; Dime cap ol; Succime }}</div>
1404577827765 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Cyanide toxicity?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Nit ite + thiosulfate; Hyd oxocobalamin}}</div>
1404577856934 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Digitalis toxicity?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::AntiDigoxin FAb}}</div>
1404577877651 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Hepa in toxicity?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::P otamine sulfate}}</div>
1404577888142 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo I on toxicity?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Defe oxamine; Defe asi ox}}</div>
1404577903340 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Lead toxicity?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::EDTA; Dime cap ol; Succime ; Penicillamine}}</div>
1404579030424 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Me cu y toxicity?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Dime cap ol (BAL); Succime }}</div>
<b /><div><i>Di
<b>MERC</b>ap ol fo <b>MERC</b>u y poisoning.</i></div>
1404579098763 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Methanol poisoning?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fomepizole &gt; ethanol; Dialysis}}</div>
1404579125528 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Ethylene Glycol (antif
eeze) poisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fomepizole &gt; ethanol; Dialysis}}
</div>
1404579165513 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Methemoglobin poisonin
g?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Methylene blue; Vitamin C}}</div>
1404579184497 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Opioid toxicity?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Naloxone}}</div>
1404579192977 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Salicylate (acidic d u
g) toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::NaHCO₃&nbsp;to alkalinize the
u ine; Dialysis}}</div>

1404579218092 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo T icyclic Antidep ess
ants (acidic d ugs) toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::NaHCO₃&nbsp;
to alkalinize the plasma}}</div>
1404579246209 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Tissue Plasminogen Act
ivato toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Aminocap oic Acid}}</div>
1404579291515 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo St eptokinase and U ok
inase toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Aminocap oic Acid}}</div>
1404579306970 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Wa fa in toxicity?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin K; Plasma if the patient is actively bleeding}}<
/div>
1404579329216 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Cocaine?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Co ona y vasospasm}}</div>
1404579761422 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Sumat ipt
an?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Co ona y vasospasm}}</div>
1404579811459 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of E got Alk
aloids?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Co ona y vasospasm}}</div>
1404579820547 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Vancomyci
n?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushing}}</div>
1404579835331 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Adenosine
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushing}}</div>
1404579842234 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Niacin?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushing}}</div>
1404579847932 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Ca²⁺&nbsp;channel blocke s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushing}}</d
iv>
1404579864658 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Dauno ubi
cin and Doxo ubicin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dilated ca diomyopathy}}</div>
1404579877391 1395802358422 Which class of antia hythmics a e associated wi
th To sade de Pointes as toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Class III and Clas
s IA}}</div>
1404580474782 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Mac olide
antibiotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::To sade de pointes}}</div>
1404580493064 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Antipsych
otics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::To sade de pointes}}</div>
1404580503500 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of T icyclic
Antidep essants?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::To sades the pointes}}</div>
1404580527641 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ ep oductive toxicity of T
omixifen?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hot flashes}}</div>
1404580601011 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ ep oductive toxicity of C
lomiphene?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hot flashes}}</div>
1404580608677 1395802358422 {{c1::Ad enoco tical Insufficiency}} is an endoc
ine complication of HPA supp ession seconda y to glucoco ticoid withd awal.
1404580694617 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ ep oductive toxicity of T
ac olimus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hype glycemia}}</div>
1404580712960 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ ep oductive toxicity of P
otease Inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hype glycemia}}</div>
1404580735098 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ ep oductive toxicity of N
iacin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hype glycemia}}</div>
1404580744227 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ ep oductive toxicity of H
yd ochlo othiazide (HCTZ)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hype glycemia}}</div>
1404580773301 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ ep oductive toxicity of b
etablocke s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hype glycemia}}</div>
1404580787753 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ ep oductive toxicity of c
o ticoste oids?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hype glycemia}}</div>
1404580796915 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ ep oductive toxicity of L
ithium?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hypothy oidism}}</div>
1404580838992 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ ep oductive toxicity of A
mioda one?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hypothy oidism}}</div>
1404580847466 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ ep oductive toxicity of S
ulfonamides?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hypothy oidism}}</div>

1404580880918 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of E yth omycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Acute cholestatic hepatitis; Jaundice; Dia hea}}</div>
1404580925722 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Metfo min?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Dia hea}}</div>
1404580932250 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Colchicine?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Dia hea}}</div>
1404580943658 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of O listat?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Dia hea}}</div>
1404580948708 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Aca bose?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Dia hea}}</div>
1404580961889 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Halothane?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive hepatic nec osis}}</div>
1404580989741 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of <i>Amanita phalloides
</i>&nbsp;(death cap mush ooms)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive hep
atic nec osis}}</div>
1404581015482 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Valp oic Acid?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive hepatic nec osis; Panc eatitis}}</div>
1404581026490 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Acetaminophen?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive hepatic nec osis}}</div>
1404581042941 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Isoniazid (INH)?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatitis}}</div>
1404581060839 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Didanosine?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Panc eatitis}}</div>
1404581070126 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Co ticoste oids?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Panc eatitis}}</div>
1404581080822 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Alcohol?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Panc eatits}}</div>
1404581104981 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Azathiop ine?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Panc eatitis}}</div>
1404581119050 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of diu etics?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Panc eatitis}}</div>
1404581189040 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Clindamycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomemb anous colitis}}</div>
1404581199457 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Ampicillin?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomemb anous colitis}}</div>
1404581209017 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Cephalospo ins?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomemb anous colitis}}</div>
1404581225358 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Dapsone?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ag anulocytosis; Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404581792804 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Clozapine?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ag anulocytosis}}</div>
1404581801438 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Ca bamazep
ine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ag anulocytosis; Aplastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581820751 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Colchicine
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ag anulocytosis;}}</div>
1404581836489 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Methimazol
e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ag anulocytosis; Aplastic Anaemia}}</div>
1404581854551 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of P opylthio
u acil?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ag anulocytosis; Aplastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581877224 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of NSAIDs?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Aplastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581882729 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Benzene?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Aplastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581896124 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Chlo amphe
nicol?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Aplastic anaemia; G ay Baby Synd ome}}</div>
1404581924240 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Methyldopa
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Di ect Coombspositive hemolytic anaemia}}</div>
1404582451730 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Penicillin
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Di ect coombspositive hemolytic anaemia}}</div>
1404582476711 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Isoniazid

(INH)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582493485 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Sulfonamid
es?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582513316 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of P imaquine
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G6PD Deficiency}}</div>
1404582520032 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Aspi in?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582562837 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Ibup ofen?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582585408 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Nit ofu an
toin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582625096 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Phenytoin?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Megaloblastic anaemia}}</div>
1404582634334 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Methot exa
te?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Megaloblastic anaemia}}</div>
1404582641957 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Sulfa d ug
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Megaloblastic anaemia}}</div>
1404582648683 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Hepa in?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Th ombocytopenia}}</div>
1404582660811 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Cimetidine
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Th ombocytopenia}}</div>
1404582668081 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of o al cont
aceptives?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Th ombotic complications}}</div>
1404582774834 1395802358422 What is the connective tissue toxicity of P otea
se Inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fat edist ibution}}</div>
1404584320403 1395802358422 What is the connective tissue toxicity of Glucoc
o ticoids?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fat edist ibution}}</div>
1404584343416 1395802358422 Which is the o al complication of Phenytoin?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gingival hype plasia}}</div>
1404584386240 1395802358422 Which is the o al complication of&nbsp;Ve apamil
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gingival hype plasia}}</div>
1404584397310 1395802358422 Which is the o al complication of&nbsp;Cyclospo
ine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gingival hype plasia}}</div>
1404584414970 1395802358422 Which is the o al complication of Nifedipine?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gingival hype plasia}}</div>
1404591568576 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Py azina
mide?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hype u icemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591639648 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Thiazide
s?<div><b />{{c1::Hype u icemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591648055 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Fu osemi
de?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hype u icemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591671235 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Niacin?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hype u icemia/Gout; Myopathy}}</div>
1404591681570 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Cyclospo
ine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hype u icemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591691943 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of fib ates
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Myopathy}}</div>
1404591866243 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of IFNalph
a?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Myopathy}}</div>
1404591902421 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Hyd oxyc
hlo oquine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Myopathy}}</div>
1404591910919 1395802358422 What is the skeletal toxicity of Hepa in?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Osteopo osis}}</div>
1404591967998 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of Sulfonamides?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592038228 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of Amioda one?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592045713 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of Tet acycline a
ntibiotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592057477 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of 5Fluo ou acil

?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592068874 1395802358422 {{c1::StevensJohnson Synd ome}} is a cutaneous
complication associated with antiepileptic d ugs.
1404592323601 1395802358422 {{c1::StevensJohnson Synd ome}} is a cutaneous
complication associated with Allopu inol.
1404592327417 1395802358422 {{c1::StevensJohnson Synd ome}} is a cutaneous
complication associated with Sulfa d ugs.
1404592332986 1395802358422 {{c1::StevensJohnson Synd ome}} is a cutaneous
complication associated with Penicillin.
1404592337138 1395802358422 {{c1::SLElike synd ome}} is an autoimmunelike
complication of sulfa d ug use.
1404592365817 1395802358422 {{c1::SLElike synd ome}} is an autoimmunelike
complication of Hyd alazine use.
1404592369555 1395802358422 {{c1::SLElike synd ome}} is an autoimmunelike
complication of Isoniazid (INH) use.
1404592376054 1395802358422 {{c1::SLElike synd ome}} is an autoimmunelike
complication of P ocainamide use.
1404592379330 1395802358422 {{c1::SLElike synd ome}} is an autoimmunelike
complication of Phenytoin use.
1404592384929 1395802358422 {{c1::SLElike synd ome}} is an autoimmunelike
complication of Etane cept use.
1404592388304 1395802358422 Which class of antibiotics is associated with te
eth discolou ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tet acyclines}}</div>
1404592405978 1395802358422 Which class of antibiotics is associated with te
ndonitis, tendon uptu e and/o ca tilage damage?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Flu
o oquinolones}}</div>
1404592861924 1395802358422 {{c1::Cinchonism}} is a neu ological complicatio
n associated with Quinidine and Quinine use that p esents with tinnitus, blu ed
vision, headache, ve tigo and confusion.
1404592966195 1395802358422 {{c1::Seizu es}} a e a neu ological complication
of Isoniazid use due to the Vit B6 deficiency that the d ug causes.
1404593140712 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Bup opion?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Seizu es}}</div>
1404593166225 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Imipenem/Cilastatin?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Seizu es}}</div>
1404593180324 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of T amadol?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Seizu es}}</div>
1404593191535 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Enflu ane?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Seizu es}}</div>
1404593201171 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Metoclop amide?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Seizu es}}</div>
1404593208496 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Antipsychotics?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa kinsonlike synd ome; Ta dive Dyskinesia}}</div>
1404594097744 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Lithium?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Diabetes Insipidus}}</div>
1404594249814 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Demeclocycline?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Diabetes Insipidus}}</div>
1404594261218 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Cyclophosphamide?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hemo hagic cystitis; SIADH}}</div> <b /><div><i>He
mo hagic cystitis is p evented by Mesna coadminist ation.</i></div>
1404594435607 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Ifosfamide?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Hemo hagic cystitis}}</div>
<b /><div><i>P evented
by Mesna coadminist ation.</i></div>
1404594466000 1395802358422 {{c1::Mesna}} is a d ug that is coadministe ed w
ith Cyclophosphamide and Ifosfamide to p event hemo hagic cystitis.
1404594508159 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Methicillin?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Inte stitial neph itis}}</div>
1404594521981 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of NSAIDs?<div><b />
{{c1::Inte stitial neph itis}}</div>
1404594531307 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Fu osemide?<div><b

/></div><div>{{c1::Inte stitial neph itis}}</div>
1404594544889 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Ca bamazepine?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::SIADH}}</div>
1404594557714 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of SSRIs?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::SIADH}}</div>
1404594581404 1395802358422 {{c1::Fanconi Synd ome}} is a enal complication
of expi ed tet acycline antibiotics that p esents with glucose, amino acids, u
ic acid, phosphate and bica bonate in the u ine instead of being eabso bed.
1404594765985 1395802358422 What is the espi ato y toxicity of ACE inhibito
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::D y cough}}</div>
1404594958498 1395802358422 What is the espi ato y toxicity of Bleomycin?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmona y fib osis}}</div>
1404594967410 1395802358422 What is the espi ato y toxicity of Busulfan?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmona y fib osis}}</div>
1404594972949 1395802358422 What is the espi ato y toxicity of Methot exate
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmona y fib osis}}</div>
1404594979714 1395802358422 What is the espi ato y toxicity of Amioda one?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmona y fib osis}}</div>
1404594986951 1395802358422 How does ch onic alcohol influence cytoch ome p4
50 activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste12421045420686.jpg" /></div>
1404595915141 1395802358422 How does Modafinil influence cytoch ome p450 act
ivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404595943972 1395802358422 How does St. John's Wo t influence cytoch ome p4
50 activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404595978077 1395802358422 How does Phenytoin influence cytoch ome p450 act
ivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404595994582 1395802358422 How does Phenoba bitol influence cytoch ome p450
activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404596007163 1395802358422 How does Nevi apine influence cytoch ome p450 ac
tivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404596019805 1395802358422 How does Rifampin influence cytoch ome p450 acti
vity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404596031061 1395802358422 How does G iseofulvin influence cytoch ome p450
activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404596043577 1395802358422 How does Ca bamazepine influence cytoch ome p450
activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te12416750453390.jpg" /></div>
1404596064040 1395802358422 How does <b>acute </b>alcohol abuse influence cy
toch ome p450 activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste13073880449698.jpg" /></div>
1404596172193 1395802358422 How does Gemfib ozil influence cytoch ome p450 a
ctivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596186617 1395802358422 How does Cip ofloxacin influence cytoch ome p450
activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596207769 1395802358422 How does Isoniazid influence cytoch ome p450 act
ivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596220626 1395802358422 How does G apef uit Juice influence cytoch ome p
450 activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste13069585482402.jpg" /></div>

1404596237681 1395802358422 How does Quinidine influence cytoch ome p450 act
ivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596251666 1395802358422 How does Amioda one influence cytoch ome p450 ac
tivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596265426 1395802358422 How does Ketoconazole influence cytoch ome p450
activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596287510 1395802358422 How do mac olide antibiotics influence cytoch om
e p450 activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596301526 1395802358422 How do Sulfonamides influence the activity of cy
toch ome p450?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596349181 1395802358422 How does Cimetidine influence cytoch ome p450 ac
tivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596362060 1395802358422 How does Ritonavi influence cytoch ome p450 act
ivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te13069585482402.jpg" /></div>
1404596380541 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo E goste ol synthes
is inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::azole}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.
g. Ketoconazole</i></div>
1404597825004 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo antipa asitics/ant
ihelminthics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::bendazole}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.
g. mebendazole</i></div>
1404597853147 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo bacte ial peptidog
lycan synthesis inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cillin}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>e.g. Penicillin</i></div>
1404597872830 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo bacte ial p otein
synthesis inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cycline}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>e.g. Tet acycline</i></div>
1404597891761 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo vi al Neu aminidas
e inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ivi }}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Oselt
amivi </i></div>
1404597917651 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo vi al p otease inh
ibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::navi }}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Riton
avi </i></div>
1404597937489 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo vi al DNA polyme a
se inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ovi }}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Acycl
ovi </i></div>
1404597951240 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Mac olide antibiot
ics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::th omycin}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Azith
omycin</i></div>
1404598042497 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo inhalational gene
al anaesthetics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ane}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.
g. Halothane</i></div>
1404598063652 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Typical antipsycho
tics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::azine}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Thio idazine<
/i></div>
1404598084208 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Ba bitu ates?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::ba bital}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Phenoba bital
</i></div>
1404598102309 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo local anaesthetics
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::caine}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Lidocaine</i>
</div>
1404598126975 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo SSRIs?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::etine}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Fluoxetine</i></div>
1404598142755 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo TCAs?<div><b /></

div><div>{{c1::<i></i>ip amine; t iptyline}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Imip
amine; Amit yptiline</i></div>
1404598157902 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo 5HT<sub>1B/1D</su
b>&nbsp;agonists?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::t iptan}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.
g. Sumat iptan</i></div>
1404598206715 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Benzodiazepines?<d
iv><b />{{c1::zepam; zolam}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Diazepam; Midazolam</
i></div>
1404598244633 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Choline gic agonis
ts?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::chol}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. bethanechol</
i></div>
1404598566025 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo <b>nondepola izin
g pa alytics</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cu ium; cu onium}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>e.g. At acu ium</i></div>
1404598586944 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo betablocke s?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::olol}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. P opanolol</i></div>
1404598597544 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo AChE Inhibito s?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::stigmine}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Neostigmine</
i></div>
1404598612741 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo beta2 ad ene gic
agonists?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::bute ol}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Albut
e ol</i></div>
1404598623140 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo alpha1 ad ene gic
antagonists?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::zosin}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. P azo
sin</i></div>
1404598638443 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo PDE5 Inhibito s?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::afil}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Sildenafil</i
></div>
1404598656974 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo dihyd opy idine Ca
channel blocke s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::dipine}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.
g. Amlodipine</i></div>
1404598705288 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo ACE inhibito s?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::p il}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. captop il</i></div>
1404598719660 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo AngiotensinII ec
epto blocke s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::sa tan}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.
g. Losa tan</i></div>
1404598747952 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo HMGCoA eductase
inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::statin}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Ato v
astatin</i></div>
1404598808413 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Bisphosphonates?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::d onate}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Pamid onate</
i></div>
1404598822221 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo PPARgamma activat
o s (antidiabetics)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::glitazone}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>e.g. Rosiglitazone</i></div>
1404598901157 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo p oton pump inhibi
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::p azole}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Omep
azole</i></div>
1404598926372 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo P ostaglandin anal
ogs?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::p ost}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Latanop ost</
i></div>
1404598941851 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo H₂&nbsp
;(histidine) ecepto antagonists?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::tidine}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Cimetidine</i></div>
1404598968798 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo pituita y ho mones
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::t opin}}</div>
1404598985363 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Chime ic Monoclona
l antibodies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ximab}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Basil
iximab</i></div>
1404599005623 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo humanized monoclon

al antibodies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::zumab}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.
g. Daclizumab</i></div>
1403716405340 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymph nodes}} a e seconda y lymphoid st uc
tu es that a e <b>encapsulated</b>&nbsp;and function to filte passing content,
sto e lymphocyte and mediat eimmune esponse. <b /><div><img s c="paste54546
0847004.jpg" /></div>
1403716839425 1395802358422 In which a ea of the lymph node does <b>Bcell l
ocalization and p olife ation</b>&nbsp;occu ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Follicl
e; found in the oute co tex}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>P ima y follicles a
e dense and do mant.</i><div><i>Seconda y follicles have pale cent al ge minal c
ente s and a e active.<b /></i><div><img s c="paste541165879708.jpg" /></div><
/div>
1403716964276 1395802358422 {{c1::Medulla y Co ds}} a e st uctu es found in
the medulla of lymph nodes that consist of closely packed lymphocytes and plasma
cells. <b /><div><img s c="paste541165879708.jpg" /></div>
1403717222093 1395802358422 {{c1::Medulla y sinuses}} a e st uctu es found i
n the medulla of lymph nodes that contain <b> eticula cells</b>&nbsp;and <b>mac
ophages</b>. <b /><div><i>These medulla y sinuses communicate with effe ent
lymphatics.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste541165879708.jpg" /></i></div>
1403717278166 1395802358422 In which a ea of the lymph node a e T cells foun
d?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa aco tex; the egion of the lymph node between f
ollicles and the medulla}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>The pa aco tex conta
ins many venules th ough which T and B cells ente f om the blood.</i><b /><div
><img s c="paste541165879708.jpg" /></div>
1403717392705 1395802358422 Which a ea of the lymph nodes a e not well devel
oped in patients with DiGeo ge Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa aco tex}}
</div> <div><b /></div><i>Remembe , the pa aco tex houses T cells. DiGeo ge sy
nd ome involves a defect in Tcell matu ation.</i><b /><div><img s c="paste541
165879708.jpg" /></div>
1403717453496 1395802358422 Which a ea of the lymph node enla ges in ext eme
cellula immune esponses (e.g. vi al infection)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa
aco tex}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Pa aco tex = T cells.</i></div><div><i><im
g s c="paste541165879708.jpg" /></i></div>
1403717495660 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the <b>head and
neck</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ce vical}}</div>
1403718149923 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the <b>lungs</b>
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hila }}</div>
1403718158106 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the <b>t achea a
nd esophagus</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mediastinal}}</div>
1403718169671 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the <b>uppe lim
bs</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Axilla y}}</div>
1403718183586 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the <b>b easts</
b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Axilla y}}</div>
1403718189320 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the <b>skin abov
e the umbilicus</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Axilla y}}</div>
1403718201041 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the <b>uppe duo
denum</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718227881 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the <b>live </b>
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718231841 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the <b>stomach</
b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718237913 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the <b>spleen</b
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718252658 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the <b>panc eas<
/b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403719276413 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>lowe
duodenum</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Supe io Mesente ic}}</div>
1403719293404 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>jeju
num</b>&nbsp;and <b>ileum</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Supe io mesente ic}}<
/div>

1403719308692 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>colo
n to the splenic flexu e</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Supe io mesente ic}}</
div>
1403719330371 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>colo
n f om the splenic flexu e to the uppe ectum</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::I
nfe io Mesente ic}}</div>
1403719349605 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>lowe
ectum to the anal canal</b>&nbsp;(above the pectinate line)?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inte nal Iliac}}</div>
1403719373994 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>blad
de </b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inte nal Iliac}}</div>
1403719380734 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>midd
le thi d of the vagina</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inte nal Iliac}}</div>
1403719390032 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>p os
tate</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inte nal Iliac}}</div>
1403719404052 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>test
es</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa aao tic}}</div>
1403719414491 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>ova
ies</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa aao tic}}</div>
1403719421221 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>kidn
eys</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa aao tic}}</div>
1403719432141 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>ute
us</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa aao tic}}</div>
1403719442503 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>anal
canal below the pectinate line</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Supe ficial ingu
inal}}</div>
1403719468681 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>skin
below the umbilicus</b>&nbsp;(except the popliteal te ito y)?<div><b />{{c1::
Supe ficial inguinal}}</div>
1403719501088 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluste d ains the&nbsp;<b>do s
olate al foot</b>&nbsp;and <b>poste io calf</b>?<div><b />{{c1::Popliteal}}</d
iv>
1403719528605 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1:: ight lymphatic duct}} is a majo
lymphatic vessel that d ains the ight side of the body above the diaph agm.
1403720044323 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::tho acic duct}} is a majo lympha
tic vessel that d ains 3/4 of the body into the junction of the left subclavian
and inte nal jugula veins.
<b /><div><i>The Right Lymphatic Duct is what d
ains the emaining 1/4 ( ight side of the body above the diaph agm).</i></div>
1403720136149 1395802358422 In which a ea of the spleen a e T cells found?<d
iv><b />{{c1::Pe ia te ial lymphatic sheath of the white pulp}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste4088808866383.jpg" /></div>
1403724143119 1395802358422 In which a ea of the spleen a e B cells found?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Follicles within the white pulp}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste4088808866383.jpg" /></div>
1403724163251 1395802358422 In which a ea of the spleen a e <b>APCs</b>&nbsp
;and <b>specialized B cells </b>found?<div><b />{{c1::Ma ginal Zone (between th
e ed and white pulp)}}</div> <b /><div><i>This is the a ea whe e APCs p esen
t blood bo ne antigens.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste4088808866383.jpg" /></
i></div>
1403724312462 1395802358422 How does splenic dysfunction, asplenia o splene
ctomy influence the susceptibility to infection by encapsulated o ganisms?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>Splenic dysfunction
= dec eased IgM = dec eased complement activation = dec eased C3b opsonization =
inc eased susceptibility to encapsulated o ganisms</i><b /><div><img s c="past
e4393751544047.jpg" /></div>
1403724935353 1395802358422 {{c1::HowellJolly Bodies}} a e int acellula in
clusions of <b>nuclea emnants&nbsp;</b>seen in RBCs following splenectomy.
1403724963660 1395802358422 How do Th ombocyte levels change postsplenectom
y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease; the e is often Th ombocytosis}}</div>
1403724990252 1395802358422 Which lymphoid o gan is the site of T cell matu

ation and diffe entiation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thymus}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i><b>T</b>&nbsp;cells = <b>T</b>hymus</i></div><div><i><b>B</b>&nbsp;cells =
<b>B</b>one ma ow</i></div>
1403725033195 1395802358422 Which emb yological pha yngeal pouch gives ise
to the Thymus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium of the <u>3 d</u>&nbsp;pha
yngeal pouch}}</div>
1403725083050 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::co tex}} is the a ea of the Thymu
s that is <b>dense</b>&nbsp;and full of <b>immatu e T cells.</b>
1403725113436 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::medulla}} is the a ea of the Thym
us that is <b>pale</b>&nbsp;and full of <b>matu e T cells</b>&nbsp;and <b>Hassal
l co puscles</b>&nbsp;containing epithelial eticula cells.
1403728974095 1395802358422 {{c1::Tolllike Recepto s (TLRs)}} a e patte n
ecognition ecepto s involved in <b>innate immunity</b>&nbsp;that ecognize <b>p
athogenassociated molecula patte ns (PAMPs)</b>.
<b /><div><i>PAMPs incl
ude LPS, Flagellin, ssRNA, etc.</i></div>
1403729873078 1395802358422 {{c1::HLAA}},&nbsp;{{c2::HLAB}} and&nbsp;{{c3:
:HLAC}} a e the HLA loci associated with MHC I.
1403730052424 1395802358422 {{c1::HLADR}},&nbsp;{{c2::HLADP}} and&nbsp;{{c
3::HLADQ}} a e the HLA loci that a e associated with MHC II.
1403730083192 1395802358422 Which type of T cell does MHC I bind to?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::CD8+ T cells}}</div>
1403730116755 1395802358422 Which type of T cell does MHC II bind to?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ T cells}}</div>
1403730128805 1395802358422 Which MHC ecepto is <b>exp essed on all nuclea
ted cells</b>&nbsp;except fo RBCs?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::MHC I}}</div>
1403730276225 1395802358422 Which MHC ecepto is <b>only exp essed on APCs<
/b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
1403730291961 1395802358422 Which MHC ecepto p esents <b>endogenously</b>&
nbsp;synthesized <b>antigens</b>&nbsp;(e.g. vi al)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::M
HC I}}</div>
<b /><div><i>P esented to CD8+ T cells</i></div>
1403730381281 1395802358422 Which MHC ecepto p esents <b>exogenously </b>s
ynthesized <b>p oteins</b>&nbsp;(e.g. bacte ial p oteins; vi al capsid antigens)
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
<b /><div><i>P esents it to CD4
+ T cells.</i></div>
1403730425846 1395802358422 {{c1::TAP}} is a peptide t anspo te found in th
e RER that functions to delive peptide antigens fo loading into MHC I befo e i
t is sec eted.
1403731093160 1395802358422 {{c1::beta2mic oglobulin}} is a p otein that t
anspo ts MHC I molecules to the cell su face. <b /><div><img s c="paste77567
10936791.jpg" /></div>
1403731126065 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Hemoch omat
osis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLAA3}}</div>
1403735608138 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Pso iatic A
th itis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLAB27}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te8138963026013.jpg" /></div>
1403735640890 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Ankylosing
Spondylitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLAB27}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te8134668058717.jpg" /></div>
1403735662015 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with the a th it
is of Inflammato y Bowel Disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLAB27}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste8134668058717.jpg" /></div>
1403735685532 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Reactive A
th itis (Reite Synd ome)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLAB27}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste8134668058717.jpg" /></div>
1403735706703 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with the se oneg
ative a th opathies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLAB27}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="paste8134668058717.jpg" /></div>
1403736071374 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Celiac Dise
ase?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLADQ2/DQ8}}</div>
1403736094921 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Multiple Sc

le osis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLADR2}}</div>
1403736117231 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with hay feve ?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLADR2}}</div>
1403736126754 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with SLE?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::HLADR2; HLADR3}}</div>
1403736132132 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Goodpastu e
Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLADR2}}</div>
1403736141703 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with T1DM?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::HLADR3; HLADR4}}</div>
1403736148376 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with G aves Dise
ase?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLSDR3}}</div>
1403736170707 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Rheumatoid
A th itis??<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLADR4}}</div> <b /><div><i>The e a e
<b>4</b>&nbsp;walls in the <b>" heum</b>".</i></div>
1403736233761 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Pe nicious
Anaemia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLADR5}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Remembe ,
Pe nicious Anaemia can cause Vit B12 deficiency.</i></div>
1403736262399 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Hashimoto T
hy oiditis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HLADR5}}</div>
1403736277187 1395802358422 {{c1::Pe fo in}} and&nbsp;{{c2::G anzyme}} a e e
nzymes used by Natu al Kille cells to induce apoptosis in vi ally infected cell
s and tumou cells.
<b /><div><i>Pe fo in "pe fo ates" the memb ane.</i></d
iv><div><i>G anzyme ente s and induces apoptosis.</i></div>
1403738680003 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is the only lymphocyte that fun
ctions in the innate immune system?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Natu al Kille ce
lls}}</div>
1403738714689 1395802358422 How does IL2 influence NK cell activity?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403738736156 1395802358422 How does IL12 influence NK cell activity?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403738743555 1395802358422 How does IFNbeta influence NK cell activity?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403738753600 1395802358422 How does IFNalpha influence NK cell activity?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403738764683 1395802358422 {{c1::Natu al Kille cells}} a e cells that func
tion in the innate immune system by killing cells when exposed to an<b> activati
on signal</b>&nbsp;o an <b>absence of MHC I</b>&nbsp;on the ta get cell.
1403738896410 1395802358422 {{c1::Antibodydependent cellmediated cytotoxic
ity (ADCC)}} is an immunological killing method pe fo med by NK cells that invol
ves the binding of <b>CD16</b>&nbsp;to the <b>F_c&nbsp;po tion of boun
d immunoglobulins</b>. <b /><div><i>This then activates the NK cell.</i></div>
1403739099878 1395802358422 Which type of T cell functions to help B cells m
ake antibodies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ T cells}}</div>
1403739221373 1395802358422 Which type of T cells function to p oduce cytoki
nes that activate othe cells of the immune system?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::C
D4+ T cells}}</div>
1403739243025 1395802358422 Which type of T cells function to kill vi usinf
ected cells di ectly?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CD8+ T cells}}</div>
1403739263853 1395802358422 Which type of lymphocyte is associated with Type
IV Hype sensitivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1403739342247 1395802358422 Which type of lymphocyte is associated with acut
e and ch onic o gan ejection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1403739360890 1395802358422 In which a ea of the Thymus does <b>positive sel
ection</b>&nbsp;of T cells occu ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Co tex}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste10771777979063.jpg" /></div>
1403739873226 1395802358422 In which a ea of the Thymus does <b>negative sel
ection</b>&nbsp;of T cells occu ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Medulla}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403739903771 1395802358422 {{c1::Positive selection}} is a type of selectio
n unde gone by T cells that involves the su vival of T cells exp essing TCRs tha

t a e <b>capable</b>&nbsp;of binding su face self MHC molecules.
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740110832 1395802358422 {{c1::Negative selection}} is a type of selectio
n unde gone by T cells that involves the <b>apoptosis</b>&nbsp;of T cells exp es
sing TCRs with high affinity fo self antigens. <b /><div><img s c="paste10767
483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740212080 1395802358422 Which cytokine induces the diffe entiation of He
lpe T cells into Th1 cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL12}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740242484 1395802358422 Which cytokine induces the diffe entiation of He
lpe T cells into Th2 cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL4}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740268332 1395802358422 Which cytokine induces the diffe entiation of He
lpe T cells into Th17 cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TGFbeta + IL6}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740302633 1395802358422 Which cytokine induces the diffe entiation of He
lpe T cells into Regulato y T cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TGFbeta}}</div
>
<b /><div><img s c="paste10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740351715 1395802358422 In the activation of T cells, what is the <b>p i
ma y signal </b>between the APC and T cell? &nbsp;<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::An
tigen via MHC II on APC to TCR on CD4+ T cell; Antigen via MHC I on APC to TCR o
n CD8+ T cell}}</div> <b /><div><i>MHC II &lt;&gt; CD4+ T cell</i></div><di
v><i>MHC I &lt;&gt; CD8+ T cell</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste1253271457014
9.jpg" /></i></div><div><i><img s c="paste13735305412787.jpg" /></i></div>
1403742157676 1395802358422 In the activation of T cells, what is the <b>sec
onda y/costimulato y</b>&nbsp;signal between the APC and T cell?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::B7 on APC to CD28 on T cell}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te12537009537445.jpg" /></div><div><img s c="paste13739600380083.jpg" /></div>
1403742217564 1395802358422 In B cell activation, what is the <b>p ima y </b
>signal between the CD4+ T cell and B cell?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Antigen v
ia TCR on CD4+ T cell to MHC II on B cell}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te13224204304801.jpg" /></div><div><img s c="paste13653701034168.jpg" /></div>
1403742535744 1395802358422 In B cell activation, what is the <b>seconda y</
b>&nbsp;signal between the CD4+ T cell and B cell?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CD
40L on CD4+ T cell to CD40 on B cell}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste13219
909337505.jpg" /></div><div><img s c="paste13657996001464.jpg" /></div>
1403803116185 1395802358422 Which type of helpe T cell sec etes I<b>FNgamm
a</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Th1}}</div>
1403803358364 1395802358422 Which type of helpe T cell sec ets <b>IL4, IL
5, IL6, IL10</b>&nbsp;and <b>IL13</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Th2}}</div>
1403803398290 1395802358422 Which type of helpe T cells function to <b>acti
vate mac ophages and cytotoxic T cells</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Th1}}</di
v>
1403803451156 1395802358422 Which type of helpe T cells function to <b> ec
uit eosinophils fo pa asite defense</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Th2}}</div>
1403804426864 1395802358422 Which type of helpe T cells function to <b>p om
ote IgE p oduction by B cells</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Th2}}</div>
1403804476924 1395802358422 {{c2::IL4}} and {{c1::IL10}} a e cytokines&nbs
p;<b>sec eted by Th2</b>&nbsp;cells that <b>inhibits Th1 cell activity</b>.
1403804505594 1395802358422 {{c1::IFNgamma}} is a cytokine <b>sec eted by T
h1</b>&nbsp;cell that <b>inhibits Th2 cell action</b>.
1403804722120 1395802358422 Which cytokine f om mac ophages functions to sti
mulate T cell diffe entiation into Th1 cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL12}}
</div> <b /><div><i> Mac ophages elease IL12 &gt; T cells diffe entiate i
nto Th1 cells.</i></div><div><i> Th1 cells sec ete IFNgamma &gt; Activation
of mac ophages</i></div>
1403804814688 1395802358422 Which cytokine f om Th1 cells functions to activ
ate mac ophages?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IFNgamma}}</div> <b /><div><div>
<i> Mac ophages elease IL12 &gt; T cells diffe entiate into Th1 cells.</i><
/div><div><i> Th1 cells sec ete IFNgamma &gt; Activation of mac ophages</i><

/div></div>
1403805012727 1395802358422 {{c1::Pe fo in}} is an enzyme found in the cytot
oxic g anules of CD8+ T cells that functions to delive the content of g anules
into ta get cells.
1403805121291 1395802358422 {{c1::G anzyme B}} is a <b>se ine p otease</b>&n
bsp;found in the cytotoxic g anules of CD8+ T cells that functions to activate a
poptosis inside ta get cells.
1403805171666 1395802358422 {{c1::G anulysin}} is an <b>antimic obial</b>&nb
sp;p otein found in the cytotoxic g anules of CD8+ T cells that functions to ind
uce apoptosis.
1403805210685 1395802358422 Which type of T cell functions to <b>maintain sp
ecific immune tole ance</b>&nbsp;by <b>supp ession CD4 and CD8 T cell</b>&nbsp;e
ffecto function?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Regulato y T cells}}</div>
1403805941842 1395802358422 Which type of T cell is identified by the exp es
sion of cell su face ma ke s <b>CD3, CD4 and CD25</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Regulato y T cells}}</div>
<b /><div><i>CD25 = alphachain of the IL2 ec
epto </i></div>
1403806196523 1395802358422 Which type of T cell is identified by the exp es
sion of the <b>t ansc iption facto FOXP3</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Regula
to y T cells}}</div>
1403806222535 1395802358422 Which antiinflammato y cytokines a e p oduced b
y egulato y T cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL10; TGFbeta}}</div>
1403806247938 1395802358422 Which f agment in antibodies contains the <b>hea
vy chain only</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fc}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste3513283248542.jpg" /></div>
1403806922331 1395802358422 Which f agment in antibodies contains <b>both</b
>&nbsp;the heavy and light chains?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fab}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste3508988281246.jpg" /></div>
1403806927526 1395802358422 Which f agment in antibodies functions to <b>bin
d antigen</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fab}}</div> <div><b /></div><img s
c="paste3508988281246.jpg" />
1403806951120 1395802358422 Which f agment in antibodies <b>dete mines the i
diotype</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fab}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The e is a
unique antigenbinding pocket as </i><u style="fontstyle: italic; ">only 1 ant
igenic specificity is exp essed pe B cell</u>.</div><div><img s c="paste350898
8281246.jpg" /></div>
1403807109173 1395802358422 Which f agment in antibodies is involved with <b
>complement binding</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fc}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="paste3508988281246.jpg" /><img s c="paste4509715660977.jpg" /></div>
1403807142461 1395802358422 Which f agment of antibodies dete mines the isot
ype (IgM, IgD, etc.)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fc}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste3508988281246.jpg" /><img s c="paste4505420693681.jpg" /></div>
1403807216749 1395802358422 {{c1::Opsonization}} is an immunological phenome
non pe fo med by antibodies that involves the p omotion of phagocytosis.
<b /><div><img s c="paste4707284156818.jpg" /></div>
1403807983588 1395802358422 {{c1::Neut alization}} is an immunological pheno
menon pe fo med by antibodies that involves the p evention of bacte ial adhe enc
e to ta get cells/tissue.
<b /><div><img s c="paste4702989189522.jpg" />
</div>
1403808019293 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin isotypes a e exp essed on t
he su face of matu e, naive B cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgM; IgD}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"We <b>B</b>&nbsp;<b>naive</b>&nbsp;<b>MD</b>'s"</i></div><div><i>
<b /></i></div><div><i>They may diffe entiate in ge minal cente s of lymph node
s by isotype switching into plasma cells that sec ete IgA, IgE and IgG.</i></div
>
1403821717530 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin isotype is the main antibod
y involved in the&nbsp;<b>seconda y/delayed</b>&nbsp; esponse to an antigen?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
1403822705268 1395802358422 What is the most abundant immunoglobulin isotype
in se um?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>

1403823724749 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;immunoglobulin isotype fixes compleme
nt <u style="fontweight: bold; ">and</u>&nbsp;is able to c oss the placenta?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
<b /><div><i>C ossing of the plcenta p
ovides infants with passive immunity.</i></div>
1403823804312 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;immunoglobulin isotype function to <b
>opsonize bacte ia</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
1403823814812 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;immunoglobulin isotype functions to <
b>neut alize bacte ial toxins and vi uses</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}<
/div>
1403823830486 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;immunoglobulin isotype <b>p events th
e attachment of bacte ia and vi uses to </b><u style="fontweight: bold; ">mucou
s memb anes</u>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
1403823874672 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA}} is an&nbsp;immunoglobulin isotype th
at is found as a <b>monome </b>&nbsp;in ci culation but a <b>dime </b>&nbsp;in s
ec etions.
1403823936207 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;immunoglobulin isotype c osses epithe
lial cells by t anscytosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
1403823977131 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;immunoglobulin isotype is the <b>most
p oduced antibody ove all</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>It is eleased into sec etions (tea s, saliva, mucous) and ea ly b east mi
lk (colost um).</i></div><div><i>Befo e it is eleased f om epithelial cells, it
picks up a sec eto y component (i.e. becoming Sec eto yIgA).</i></div>
1403825652154 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;immunoglobulin isotype is p oduced in
the <b>p ima y/immediate</b>&nbsp; esponse to an antigen?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::IgM}}</div>
1403825751831 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;immunoglobulin isotype functions to f
ix complement <b>but does not c oss the placenta</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1:
:IgM}}</div>
1403825784725 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;immunoglobulin isotype exists as a <b
>monome </b>&nbsp;on B cells o a <b>pentame </b>&nbsp;when sec eted?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::IgM}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The shape of the IgM pentame allo
ws it to efficiently t ap f ee antigens out of tissue while the humou al espons
e evolves.</i></div>
1403826232035 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;immunoglobulin isotype binds <b>mast
cells</b>&nbsp;and <b>basophils</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It c osslinks when exposed to the alle gen, the eby causing mast
cell deg anulation.</i></div><div><i>Majo pa t of <b>type I hype sensitivity</b
>.</i></div><div><i>Mediates immunity to wo ms by activating eosinophils.</i></d
iv>
1403826487731 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;immunoglobulin isotype has the lowest
concent ation in se um?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
1403826499478 1395802358422 {{c1::Thymusindependent antigens}} a e a type o
f antigen that <b>lacks</b>&nbsp;a peptide component and hence cannot be p esent
ed by MHC to T cells. <b /><div><i>Weakly immunogenic o nonimmunogenic.</i><
/div><div><i>Vaccines often equi e booste s.</i></div>
1403827703983 1395802358422 {{c1::Thymusdependent antigens}} a e a type of
antigen that <b>contain p otein components</b>. <b /><div><i>Immunologic memo y
occu s as a esult of di ect contact of B cells with Th cells (via CD40 and CD4
0L inte action).</i></div>
1403883361607 1395802358422 {{c1::Acutephase Reactants}} a e p oteins/facto
s whose se um concent ations change significantly in esponse to inflammation.
1403883505004 1395802358422 Whe e a e acutephase eactants made?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Live }}</div> <b /><div><i>In both acute and ch onic inflamma
to y states.</i></div>
1403883525128 1395802358422 {{c1::Se um Amyloid A}} is a positive acute phas
e eactant whose p olonged elevation can lead to Amyloidosis.
1403883964474 1395802358422 {{c1::C eactive p otein}} is a <b>positive</b>&
nbsp;acute phase eactant that functions as an <b>opsonin</b>&nbsp;and <b>fixes
complement</b>. <b /><div><i>It is measu ed clinically as a sign of ongoing inf
lammation.</i></div>

1403884008600 1395802358422 {{c1::Fe itin}} is a <b>positive</b>&nbsp;acute
phase eactant that binds to and sequeste s i on to inhibit mic obial i on scav
enging.
1403884040048 1395802358422 {{c1::Fib inogen}} is a <b>positive</b>&nbsp;acu
te phase eactant that functions as a <b>coagulation facto </b>&nbsp;and <b>p om
otes endothelial epai </b>.
<b /><div><i>It co elates with ESR.</i></div>
1403884093041 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepcidin}} is a <b>positive</b>&nbsp;acute
phase eactant that p events the elease of i on bound by Fe itin.
1403884115768 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepcidin}} is a <b>positive</b>&nbsp;acute
phase eactant that can cause Anaemia of Ch onic Disease when elevated fo a p
olonged pe iod.
1403884151465 1395802358422 {{c1::Albumin}} is a <b>negative</b>&nbsp;acute
phase eactant whose p oduction is educed to conse ve amino acids fo the posit
ive eactants.
1403884176332 1395802358422 {{c1::T ansfe in}} is a <b>negative</b>&nbsp;ac
ute phase eactant that is inte nalized by mac ophages to sequeste i on.
1403884205201 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin isotypes mediate the <b>cla
ssical</b>&nbsp;complement pathway?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgG; IgM}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"<b>GM</b>&nbsp;makes <b>classic</b>&nbsp;ca s."</i></div><div><i>
<img s c="paste15431817495065.jpg" /></i></div>
1403885182126 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated by IgG o
IgM?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Classical}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"<b>GM</b>
&nbsp;makes <b>classic</b>&nbsp;ca s."</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste15427522
527769.jpg" /></i></div>
1403885217365 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated by su face
molecules on mic obes?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Alte native}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885242304 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated by <b>mann
ose</b>&nbsp;o othe suga s on the mic obe su face?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
Lectin}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885267752 1395802358422 What is the function of complement p otein C3b?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Opsonization}}</div> <b /><div><i>C3b binds to bacte
ia.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste15427522527769.jpg" /></i></div>
1403885304656 1395802358422 What is the function of the complement p oteins
C3a, C4a and C5a?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anaphylaxis}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885327291 1395802358422 What is the function of the complement p otein C
5a?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Neut ophil chemotaxis}}</div>
1403885361880 1395802358422 What is the function of the complement p oteins
C5b, C6, C7, C8 and C9?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fo mation of the MAC and subs
equent cytolysis}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste15427522527769.jpg" /
></div>
1403885389569 1395802358422 Which complement p oteins a e involved in anaphy
laxis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::C3a, C4a, C5a}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885490258 1395802358422 Which complement p oteins a e involved in the fo
mation of the MAC?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::C5b, C6, C7, C8, C9}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885515265 1395802358422 Which complement p otein is involved with neut o
phil chemotaxis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::C5a}}</div>
1403885542841 1395802358422 Which complement p otein is involved with opsoni
zation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::C3b}}</div>
1403885554737 1395802358422 Which immunological isotype is one of the two p
ima y opsonins in bacte ial defense?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
1403885628026 1395802358422 Which complement p otein is one of the two p ima
y opsonins in bacte ial defense?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::C3b}}</div>
<b /><div><i>C3b also helps to clea immune complexes.</i></div>
1403885651820 1395802358422 {{c1::Decayaccele ating facto (DAF; CD55)}} an
d&nbsp;{{c2::C1 Este ase Inhibito }} a e 2 p oteins that function to <b>p event<
/b>&nbsp;complement activation on self cells (such as on RBCs).

1403904944918 1395802358422 Which complement p otein diso de causes He edit
a y Angioedema?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::C1 Este ase Inhibito Deficiency}}</d
iv>
1403906276037 1395802358422 {{c1::C1 Este ase Inhibito Deficiency}} is a co
mplement diso de that causes He edita y Angioedema.
<b /><div><i>ACE Inhibi
to s a e cont aindicated in C1 Este ase Inhibito Deficiency.</i></div>
1403906380806 1395802358422 Which complement diso de inc eases the suscepti
bility to Type III hype sensitivity eactions?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::C3 Def
iciency}}</div> <b /><div><i>C<b>3</b>&nbsp;deficiency = Mo e Type&nbsp;<b>3</b
>&nbsp; eactions</i></div>
1403906633826 1395802358422 {{c1::C3 Deficiency}} is a complement diso de t
hat inc eases the susceptibility to Type III Hype sensitivity eactions.
<b /><div><i>C<b>3</b>&nbsp;deficiency = Mo e Type <b>3</b>&nbsp; eactions</i><
/div>
1403906701579 1395802358422 {{c1::C3 Deficiency}} is a complement diso de t
hat p esents with an inc eased isk of seve em ecu ent <b>pyogenic sinus and
espi ato y t act infections</b>.
1403907450352 1395802358422 {{c1::C5C9 Deficiencies}} a e a g oup of comple
ment p otein deficiencies that involve inc eased susceptibility to ecu ent <i>
Neisse ia</i>&nbsp;bacte emia.
1403907493918 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa oxysmal Noctu nal Hemoglobinu ia}} is a
hematological diso de that p esents with <b>complementmediated lysis</b>&nbsp
;of RBCs due to a <b>DAF</b>&nbsp;(CD55; GPI ancho ed enzyme) deficiency.
<b /><div><i>Remembe , DAF functions to inhibit complement mediated cell lysis
on selfcells, especially RBCs.</i></div>
1403907629544 1395802358422 Which p otein is deficient in Pa oxysmal Noctu n
al Hemoglobinu ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::DAF (CD55)}}</div>
1403907916822 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om mac ophages functio
ns as an endogenous py ogen, causing feve and acute inflammation?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::IL1}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste20444044329218.jpg" /
></div>
1403908541187 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om mac ophages is also
called <b>osteoclastactivating facto </b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL1}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste20439749361922.jpg" /></div>
1403908656668 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om mac ophages functio
ns to activate endothelium to exp ess adhesion molecules?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::IL1}}</div>
1403908852818 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om mac ophages functio
ns to induce chemokine sec etion to ec uit leukocytes?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::IL1}}</div>
1403908874318 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om mac ophages causes
feve <u style="fontweight: bold; ">and</u>&nbsp;stimulates the p oduction of a
cutephase p oteins?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL6}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><i>Also sec eted by Th2 cells.</i><b /><div><img s c="paste20439749361922.jpg
" /></div>
1403908946411 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om Mac ophages is a ma
jo chemotactic facto fo Neut ophils?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL8}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"Clean up on <b>aisle 8</b>."</i></div>
1403909369598 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om mac ophages induces
the diffe entiation of T cells to Th1 cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL12}}
</div> <b /><div><i>Also sec eted by B cells.</i></div>
1403909387355 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased by mac ophages activates
NK cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL12}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Also sec e
ted by B cells.</i></div>
1403909456381 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased by mac ophages mediates
septic shock?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TNFalpha}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It
also activates endothelium, causes leukocyte ec uitment and vascula leakage.<
/i></div>
1403909692002 1395802358422 Which cytokine sec eted by all T cells stimulate
s the g owth of all T cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL2}}</div>
<b /><d

iv><img s c="paste20439749361922.jpg" /></div>
1403909694074 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om all T cells functio
ns to suppo t the g owth and diffe entiation of bone ma ow stem cells (i.e. fun
ctions like GMCSF)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL3}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste20439749361922.jpg" /></div>
1403909721098 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om Th1 cells has antiv
i al and antitumou p ope ties?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IFNgamma}}</div>
1403909780321 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om Th1 cells functions
to inc ease MHC exp ession and antigen p esentation in all cells?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::IFNgamma}}</div>
1403910086930 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om Th2 cells functions
to induce diffe entiation into Th2 cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL4}}</di
v>
1403910142484 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om Th2 cells functions
to p omote <b>B cell g owth</b>&nbsp;and <b>enhance class switching to IgE and
IgG</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL4}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te20439749361922.jpg" /></div>
1403910406179 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om Th2 cells functions
to p omote B cell diffe entiation and <b>enhance class switching to IgA</b>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL5}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste2043974936192
2.jpg" /></div>
1403910502179 1395802358422 Which cytokine eleased f om Th2 cells functions
to stimulate the g owth and diffe entiation of eosinophils?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::IL5}}</div>
1403910545340 1395802358422 {{c1::IL10}} is an antiinflammato y cytokine
eleased by Th2 cells that inhibits the actions of activated T cells and Th1 cell
s.
<b /><div><i>Also sec eted by egulato y T cells.</i></div><div><i>Simi
la to TGFbeta which is also antiinflammato y.</i></div>
1403918806326 1395802358422 {{c1::Inte fe ons}} a e immunological glycop ote
ins synthesized by vi alinfected cells that act locally on uninfected cells, th
e eby "p iming them" fo vi al defense. <b /><div><i>When a vi us infected a "p
imed" cell, vi al nucleic acid t igge s the following enzymes and eventually ap
optosis, hence stopping vi al eplication:</i></div><div><i> RNAase L, which d
eg ades vi al/host mRNA</i></div><div><i> P otein Kinases that inhibit vi al/ho
st p otein synthesis</i></div>
1403919003754 1395802358422 {{c1::RNAase L}} is a ibonuclease enzyme that
functions to deg ade vi al/host mRNA as a defense mechanism in vi ally infected
cells. <b /><div><b /></div><div><div><i>When a vi us infected a "p imed" cel
l, vi al nucleic acid t igge s the following enzymes and eventually apoptosis, h
ence stopping vi al eplication:</i></div><div><i> RNAase L, which deg ades vi
al/host mRNA</i></div><div><i> P otein Kinases that inhibit vi al/host p otein
synthesis</i></div></div>
1403919110154 1395802358422 Which cell type is the only cell that does not h
ave MHC I on its su face?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Matu e RBCs}}</div>
1403919956930 1395802358422 Which cell su face ecepto on T cells binds to
the antigenMHC complex?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TCR}}</div>
1403920002488 1395802358422 Which cell su face ecepto on T cells is associ
ated with the TCR fo signal t ansduction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CD3}}</div
>
1403920032758 1395802358422 Which cell su face ecepto on T cells binds to
B7 on APCs du ing the seconda y signal in T cell activation?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::CD28}}</div>
1403920064266 1395802358422 Which cell su face ecepto on B cells is the e
cepto fo EBV?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CD21}}</div> <b /><div><i>"You must
be <b>21</b>&nbsp;to d ink at the <b>EpsteinBa </b>."</i></div>
1403920166350 1395802358422 Which cell su face ecepto on B cells binds to
CD40L on helpe T cells du ing B cell activation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CD4
0}}</div>
1403920196810 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is cha acte ized by CD19, CD20,
CD21 and CD40 cell su face p oteins?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::B cells}}</div>

1403920249024 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is cha acte ized by CD3 and CD2
8 cell su face p oteins?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1403920377502 1395802358422 {{c1::CD14}} and&nbsp;{{c2::CD40}} a e the 2 CD
cell su face p oteins found on mac ophages.
1403920412901 1395802358422 Which cell su face p otein on NK cells binds to
the Fc po tion of IgG?<div><b /></div><div>{{c2::CD16}}</div>
1403920430120 1395802358422 Which cell su face p otein on NK cells is a uniq
ue ma ke fo NK cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CD56}}</div>
1403920455001 1395802358422 {{c1::Ane gy}} is an immunological phenomenon th
at involves T cells becoming non eactive without a costimulato y molecule.
<b /><div><i>B cells also become ane gic, but tole ance is less complete than i
n T cells.</i></div>
1403921380619 1395802358422 {{c1::Supe antigens}} a e bacte ial toxins that
function to c osslink the <b>beta egion of TCRs on all T cells to MHC II on AP
Cs</b>, the eby causing massive elease of cytokines. <b /><div><i>Especially
eleased f om St eptococcus pyogenes and Staphylococcus au eus.</i></div>
1403922093744 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin/LPS}} is a bacte ial toxin f om
g amnegative bacte ia that functions to <b>di ectly stimulate mac ophages by bi
nding to the endotoxin ecepto CD14</b>.
<b /><div><i>Th cells a e not i
nvolved.</i></div>
1403922433630 1395802358422 Which cell su face p otein on mac ophages is the
ecepto fo <b>endotoxin/LPS</b>&nbsp;f om g amnegative bacte ia?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::CD14}}</div>
1403972465428 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Salmonella</i>}} is a g amnegative bac
te ia that yiels antigenic va iation due to it having 2 flagella va iants.
1403973380580 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Bo elia spp.</i>}} is a Spi ochete tha
t yields antigenic va iation and hence causes Relapsing Feve .
1403973457267 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>}} is a specie
s of <i>Neisse ia </i>that yield antigenic va iation due to its pilus p otein.
1403973514544 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>T ypanosoma</i>}} is a genus of pa asit
e that yields antigenic va iation th ough p og ammed ea angement of nucleic ac
id.
1403973818647 1395802358422 How is passive immunity acqui ed?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Receiving p efo med antibodies}}</div>
1403974182943 1395802358422 What is the halflife of antibodies?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::3 weeks}}</div>
1403974216209 1395802358422 Which type of vaccine induces a st ong and often
lifelong immunity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Live attenuated}}</div>
1403974569126 1395802358422 Which type of vaccine often induces a weake imm
une esponse and hence equi es booste shots?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inacti
vated/killed vaccine}}</div>
1403974602027 1395802358422 Which type of hype sensitivity eaction causes a
naphylaxis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te35566624178432.jpg" /><img s c="paste40510131536095.jpg" /></div>
1403975571117 1395802358422 {{c1::Type I Hype sensitivity}} is a type of hyp
e sensitivity that involves f ee antigens c osslinking IgE on p esensitized mas
t cells and basophils.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste35562329211136.jpg"
/></div>
<b /><div><i>The eby t igge ing immediate, widesp ead elease o
f vasoactive amines that act as postcapilla y venules (i.e. histamine).</i></div
><div><i>The eaction is <b> apid</b>&nbsp;due to p efo med antibodies.</i></div
>
1403975686169 1395802358422 {{c1::Type I Hype sensitivity}} is a type of hyp
e sensitivity that involves a delayed esponse due to p oduction of A achidonic
Acid metabolites (e.g. leukot ienes).<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste35562
329211136.jpg" /></div>
1403975847006 1395802358422 Which hype sensitivity eactions a e mediated by
antibodies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Types I, II, and III}}</div>
1403975961897 1395802358422 What is the diagnostic test fo Type I Hype sens
itivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Skin test fo specific IgE}}</div>
1403975975899 1395802358422 Which type of hype sensitivity involves cytotoxi

city?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="
paste36206574305588.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Type </i><b><i>2</i>&nbsp;
</b><i>is cy<b>2</b>toxic.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste40510131536095.jpg
" /></i></div>
1403976358058 1395802358422 {{c1::Type II Hype sensitivity}} is a type of hy
pe sensitivity that involves IgM o IgG binding to fixed antigens on "enemy" cel
ls, the eby leading to cellula dest uction.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="past
e36202279338292.jpg" /></div> <b /><div><i>3 mechanisms exist:</i></div><div>
<i> Opsonization leading to phagocytosis o complement activation</i></div><div
><i> Complementmediated lysis</i></div><div><i> Antibodydependent cellmedia
ted cytotoxicity, typically by NK cells o mac ophages</i></div>
1403976666920 1395802358422 What is the diagnostic test fo Type II Hype sen
sitivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Indi ect and di ect Coombs' test}}</div><di
v><b /></div><div><img s c="paste36202279338292.jpg" /></div>
1403976724587 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Di ect Coomb's test}} is a type o
f Coomb's test that detects antibodies that <u style="fontweight: bold; ">have
adhe ed</u>&nbsp;to the patient's RBCs. <b /><div><i>e.g. testing an Rhpositiv
e infant of an Rhnegative mothe </i></div>
1403976951442 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Indi ect Coomb's Test}} is a type
of Coomb's test that detects antibodies that <u style="fontweight: bold; ">can
adhe e</u>&nbsp;to othe RBCs. <b /><div><i>e.g. testing an Rhnegative mothe
fo Rhpositive antibodies</i></div>
1403977015655 1395802358422 Which type of hype sensitivity eaction involves
immune complexes?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type III Hype sensitivity}}</div><
div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste37946036060486.jpg" /></div>
<img s c
="paste40510131536095.jpg" /><b /><div><b /></div>
1403977055546 1395802358422 {{c1::Type III Hype sensitivity}} is a type of h
ype sensitivity that involves antigenantibody (IgG) complexes which activate co
mplement, the eby att acting neut ophils.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste3
8100654883105.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Neut ophils elease lysosomal enzy
mes.</i></div>
1403977409517 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin isotype is involved in Type
I Hype sensitivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste38246683771141.jpg" /></div>
1403977596021 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin isotype is involved in Type
II Hype sensitivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgM; IgG}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste38341173051709.jpg" /></div>
1403977623907 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin isotype is involved in Type
III Hype sensitivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="paste38375532790053.jpg" /></div>
1403977660948 1395802358422 {{c1::Se um Sickness}} is a Type III Hype sensit
ivity diso de that involves antibodies p oduced apidly to an antigen (5 days)
fo ming immune complexes that deposit in memb anes, the eby causing tissue damag
e th ough complement fixation. <b /><div><i>Mo e common that the A thus Reacti
on.</i></div>
1403977757423 1395802358422 Which type of hype sensitivity eaction is invol
ved in Se um Sickness?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403977799154 1395802358422 Which type of hype sensitivity eaction is invol
ved in A thus Reaction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste38371237822757.jpg" /></div>
1403977813070 1395802358422 {{c1::Se um Sickness}} is a type III hype sensit
ivity diso de that p esents with feve , u tica ia, a th algia, p oteinu ia, lym
phadenopathy <b>510 days afte antigen exposu e</b>.
1403978313337 1395802358422 {{c1::A thus Reaction}} is a type III hype sensi
tivity diso de that esults f om int ade mal injection of antigens.
1403978462132 1395802358422 {{c1::A thus Reaction}} is a type III hype sensi
tivity diso de that p esents with antigenantibody complexes in the skin.
1403978567048 1395802358422 {{c1::A thus Reaction}} is a type III hype sensi
tivity that is cha acte ized by edema, nec osis of the skin and complement activ
ation.

1403978700931 1395802358422 What diagnostic test is used to diagnose the A t
hus Reaction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Immunofluo escent staining}}</div>
1403978726721 1395802358422 Which type of hype sensitivity involves a delaye
d, Tcell mediated eaction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste39724152520981.jpg" /><img s c="paste40514426503391.jpg" /><
/div>
1403978968306 1395802358422 Which type of hype sensitivity involves sensitiz
ed Tcells that encounte antigen and then elease lymphokines?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>The lymphokines lead to mac
ophage activation.</i><div><i>The e a e no antibodies involves.<b /></i><div><i
mg s c="paste39719857553685.jpg" /></div></div>
1403979101476 1395802358422 Which type of hype sensitivity is not t ansfe a
ble by se um?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste40007620362499.jpg" /></div>
1403979315540 1395802358422 Which type of hype sensitivity is involved in t
ansplant ejection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="paste40003325395203.jpg" /></div>
1403979360773 1395802358422 Which type of hype sensitivity is involved in TB
skin tests?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te40003325395203.jpg" /></div>
1403979372604 1395802358422 Which type of hype sensitivity is involved in co
ntact de matitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste40003325395203.jpg" /></div>
1403979472100 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
anaphylaxis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1403980403798 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
alle gic and atopic diso de s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1403980425763 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980439089 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
Pe nicious Anaemia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980446348 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
Idiopathic Th ombocytopenic Pu pu a?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980480384 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
E yth oblastosis Fetalis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980491424 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
acute hemolytic t ansfusion eactions?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</di
v>
1403980510724 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
Rheumatic Feve ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980521754 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
Goodpastu e Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980533878 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
Bullous Pemphigoid?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980553347 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
Pemphigus Vulga is?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980689240 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
SLE?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403980700885 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
Polya te itis Nodosa?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403980711154 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
Postst eptococcal Glome uloneph itis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</di
v>
1403980732227 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
Se um Sickness?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403980856605 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
A thus Reaction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403980869988 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
vasculitis and systemic manifestations?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</
div>

1403981018779 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
Multiple Scle osis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1403981071040 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
GuillainBa e Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1403981277894 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
G aftve sushost disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1403981292947 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
PPD test fo TB?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1403982071145 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is associated with
Contact De matitis (e.g. poison ivy; nickel alle gy)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Type IV}}</div>
1403993435845 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is involved in feb
ile nonhemolytic t ansfusion eactions?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type II hype
sensitivity}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Involves host antibodies against dono HLA
antigens and leukocytes.</i></div>
1403994370623 1395802358422 What type of hype sensitivity is involved in acu
te hemolytic t ansfusion eactions?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Involves int avascula hemolysis (i.e. ABO blood g oup incompatibi
lity) o ext avascula hemolysis (i.e. host antibody eaction against fo eign an
tigens on dono RBCs).</i></div>
1403994583077 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Myasthenia
G avis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AntiACh Recepto }}</div>
1403995003159 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Goodpastu
e Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Antibasement memb ane}}</div>
1403995012828 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with SLE?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Antica diolipin; AntidsDNA; AntiSmith; ANA (nonspecific
)}}</div>
1403995075505 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Antiphosph
olipid Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Antica diolipin}}</div>
1403995126258 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with <b>limited
</b>&nbsp;Scle ode ma (CREST Synd ome)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anticent ome
e}}</div>
1403995140505 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Pemphigus
Vulga is?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Antidesmoglein}}</div>
1403995155658 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with T1DM?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Antiglutamate deca boxylase}}</div>
1403995179411 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Bullous Pe
mphigoid?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Antihemidesmosome}}</div>
1403995201458 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with D uginduc
ed SLE?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Antihistone}}</div>
1403995574176 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Polyomyosi
tis and De matomyositis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AntiJo1; AntiSRP; AntiMi
2}}</div>
1403995610720 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Hashimoto
Thy oiditis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Antimic osomal; Antithy oglobulin}}</div
>
1403995637713 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with P ima y Bi
lia y Ci hosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Antimitochond ial}}</div>
1403995653877 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with <b>Diffuse
</b>Scle ode ma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AntiScl70 (AntiDNA Topoisome ase
I)}}</div>
1403995681306 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Autoimmune
Hepatitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Antismooth muscle}}</div>
1403995693784 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Sjog en Sy
nd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AntiSSA (Ro); AntiSSB (La)}}</div>
1403996350172 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with G aves Dis
ease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AntiTSH Recepto }}</div>
1403996368467 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Mixed Conn
ective Tissue Disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AntiU1 RNP (Ribonucleop otein
)}}</div>

1403996398329 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Wegene G
anulomatosis (i.e. g anulomatosis with polyangiitis)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1:
:cANCA (PR3ANCA)}}</div>
1403996432198 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Celiac Dis
ease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgA antitissue t ansglutaminase; IgA antiendom
ysial}}</div>
1403996462590 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Mic oscopt
ic Polyangiitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::pANCA (MPOANCA)}}</div>
1403996478102 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Chu gSt a
uss Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::pANCA (MPOANCA)}}</div>
1403996490484 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Rheumatoid
A th itis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rheumatoid facto (IgM specific to the Fc
egion of IgG); antiCCP}}</div>
1403996531568 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisse ia</i>}} is a genus of g amnega
tive bacte ial that commonly cause infection in <b>complement deficiency</b>&nbs
p;as the e is no memb ane attack complex.
1403996587310 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte deficiency tends to p oduce ec
u ent <b>bacte ial </b>infections?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bcell deficiency
}}</div>
1403996626512 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte deficiency tends to p oduce mo
e ecu ent <b>fungal</b>&nbsp;and <b>vi al</b>&nbsp;infections?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Tcell deficiency}}</div>
1403996658354 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Gia dia lamblia</i>}} is a GI p otozoal
infection that is often seen in <b>B cell deficiency</b>&nbsp;due to a lack of
IgA.
1403997709839 1395802358422 Which gene is defective in B uton (Xlinked) Aga
mmglobulinemia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>BTK</i>&nbsp;(B uton's Ty osine Ki
nase); esults in a lack of B cell matu ation}}</div>
1403999757012 1395802358422 {{c1::B uton (Xlinked) Agammaglobulinemia}} is
an XLR immunodeficiency that involves a defect in <i>BTK</i>&nbsp;(B uton Ty osi
ne Kinase gene), the eby esulting in a lack of Bcell matu ation.
1403999799341 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of B uton Agamma
globulinemia??<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div> <b /><div><i>Hence the
e is an inc eased incidence in boys.</i></div>
1403999830500 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is affected in B uton Agammaglo
bulinemia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bcells}}</div>
1403999844692 1395802358422 {{c1::B uton (Xlinked) Agammaglobulinemia}} is
an XLR immunodeficiency that p esents with ecu ent bacte ial and ente ovi al i
nfections <b>afte 6 months</b>&nbsp;of bi th (due to a dec ease in mate nal IgG
in the child).
1404000041802 1395802358422 {{c1::B uton (Xlinked) Agammaglobulinemia}} is
an XLR immunodeficiency that p esents with an <b>absence of CD19+ Bcells</b>&nb
sp;and a dec ease in <b>p oB cells</b>.
1404000232064 1395802358422 How do immunoglobulin levels change in B uton (X
linked) Agammaglobulinemia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased immunoglobulin
s of all classes}}</div>
1404000257469 1395802358422 {{c1::B uton (Xlinked) Agammaglobulinema}} is a
n XLR immunodeficiency that p esents with <b>absent/scanty lymph nodes</b>&nbsp;
and <b>tonsils</b>.
1404007128360 1395802358422 What is the most common p ima y immunodeficiency
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Selective IgA Deficiency}}</div>
1404007373971 1395802358422 What IgA level is diagnostic of Selective IgA De
ficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 7 mg/dL (with no mal IgG and IgM level
s)}}</div>
1404007413143 1395802358422 {{c1::Common Va iable Immunodeficiency}} is a p
ima y immunodeficiency with <b>many causes</b>&nbsp;that involves a defect in B
cell diffe entiation. <b /><div><i>Can be acqui ed in the 20s30s.</i></div><
div><i>Inc eased isk of autoimmune disease, b onchiectasis, lymphoma, sinopulmo
na y infections.</i></div>
1404007637297 1395802358422 How do immunoglobulin levels change in Common Va

iable Immunodeficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>The e is a defect in Bcell diffe entiation, hence the e a e fewe plasma
cells and fewe immunoglobulins.</i></div>
1404007679611 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in DiGeo ge Synd ome
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::22q11}}</div>
1404007721770 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is affected in Common Va iable
Immunodeficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bcells}}</div>
<b /><div><i>He
nce the e a e fewe plasma cells and immunoglobulins.</i></div>
1404007743187 1395802358422 Which pha yngeal pouches fail to develop in DiGe
o ge Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::3 d and 4th}}</div> <b /><div><i>He
nce the e is thymic and pa athy oid aplasia.</i></div>
1404007981537 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetany}} is a muscula complication of DiG
eo ge Synd ome that occu s due to the <b>hypocalcemia</b>&nbsp;seconda y to pa a
thy oid aplasia.
1404008010570 1395802358422 How do PTH levels change in DiGeo ge Synd ome?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1404008073227 1395802358422 How do se um Ca levels change in DiGeo ge Synd o
me?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1404008085107 1395802358422 Which lymphocytes a e affected in DiGeo ge Synd
ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div> <b /><div><i>Due to the thymic
aplasia.</i></div>
1404008108957 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of IL12 Recepto
Deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1404008313963 1395802358422 {{c1::IL12 Recepto Deficiency}} is a p ima y i
mmunodeficiency that involves a dec eased Th1 esponse due to a lack of IL12 ac
tion. <b /><div><i>Remembe , IL12 f om mac ophages activates Th1 cells (whic
h then activate mac ophages via IFNgamma).</i></div>
1404008382813 1395802358422 How do IFNgamma levels change in IL12 Recepto
Deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>IL
12 f om mac ophages causes Th1 cell activation.</i></div><div><i>Activated Th1
cells elease IFNgamma which activations mac ophages.</i></div><div><i><b>No IL
12 action = no IFNgamma elease f om Th1 cells</b></i></div>
1404008442212 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of Job Synd ome
(Hype IgE Synd ome)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1404008490941 1395802358422 {{c1::Autosomal Dominant hype IgE Synd ome (Job
Synd ome)}} is a p ima y immunodeficiency that p esents with a <b>deficiency of
Th17 cells</b>&nbsp;due to a <i style="fontweight: bold; ">STAT3</i>&nbsp;muta
tion. <b /><div><i>The mutation esults in impai ed ec uitment of neut ophil
s to the site of infection.</i></div>
1404008550006 1395802358422 Which gene mutation is seen in Job Synd ome (Aut
osomal Dominant hype IgE Synd ome)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>STAT3</i>; ca
uses a deficiency of Th17 cells which leads to impai ed ec uitment of neut ophi
ls to sites of infection}}</div>
1404008592546 1395802358422 How do IgE levels change in Job Synd ome (Autoso
mal Dominant hype IgE Synd ome)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste49598282334413.jpg" /></div>
1404008632293 1395802358422 How do IFNgamma levels change in Job Synd ome (
Autosomal Dominant hype IgE Synd ome)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased}}</
div>
1404008678484 1395802358422 What type of lymphocyte is affected in Job Synd
ome (Autosomal Dominant hype IgE Synd ome)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}
}</div>
1404009254845 1395802358422 What type of lymphocyte is affected in Ch onic M
ucocutaneous Candidiasis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1404009272434 1395802358422 {{c1::Ch onic Mucocutaneous Candidiasis}} is a p
ima y Tcell immunodeficiency that involves noninvasive <i>Candida albicans</i>
&nbsp;infections of skin and mucous memb anes.
1404010851270 1395802358422 What is the most common etiology of Seve e Combi
ned Immunodeficiency (SCID)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Defective IL2R gamma ch
ain}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Xlinked</i></div>

1404011726248 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of IL2R Gamma C
hain deficiency [and the subsequent Seve e Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)]?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Xlinked Recessive}}</div>
1404011780588 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of Adenosine Dea
minase Deficiency [and the subsequent Seve e Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)]?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1404011821953 1395802358422 What type of lymphocytes a e affected in Seve e
Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T and B cells}}</di
v>
1404011853786 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Seve e Combined Immuno
deficiency (SCID)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bone ma ow t ansplantation}}</div
>
<b /><div><i>The e is no conce n fo ejection.</i></div>
1404011951361 1395802358422 {{c1::Seve e Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID}} i
s a p ima y immunodeficiency that p esents with dec eased Tcell ecepto excisi
on ci cles (TRECs).
1404012084160 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Ataxia Telangiect
asia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>ATM</i>&nbsp;gene; leads to DNA double st an
ded b eaks and a est of the cell cycle}}</div> <b /><div><i>This ultimately ca
uses a deficiency of lymphocytes. (T and B cells).</i></div>
1404012157533 1395802358422 {{c1::Ataxia Telangiectasia}} is a p ima y immun
odeficiency that involves a defect in the <i>ATM</i>&nbsp;gene, the eby leading
to many double st anded DNA b eaks and a est of the cell cycle.
1404012196576 1395802358422 {{c1::Ataxia Telangiectasia}} is a p ima y immun
odeficiency that p esents with a t iad of <b>ataxia, spide angiomas</b>&nbsp;an
d <b>IgA deficiency.</b>
<b /><div><i>Spide angiomas a e a type of tela
ngiectasia.</i></div><div><i>The e is also significant ce ebella at ophy.</i></
div>
1404012232234 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin isotype is deficient in Ata
xia Telangiectasia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Ig
G and IgE a e also dec eased.</i></div>
1404012380967 1395802358422 How do AFP levels change in Ataxia Telangiectasi
a?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1404012403474 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Hype IgM Synd om
e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CD40L; especially at Th cells}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Hence class switching fo B cells is defective.</i></div>
1404012453683 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of Hype IgM Syn
d ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Xlinked ecessive}}</div>
1404012481178 1395802358422 {{c1::Hype IgM Synd ome}} is an XLR p ima y imm
unodeficiency that involves a defect in CD40L on Th cells, the eby yielding a de
fect in Bcell class switching. <b /><div><i>CD40L is equi ed as a costimulat
o y facto in class switching. Since it is defective, Bcells a e "stuck" sec et
ed IgM (which is a default isotype exp essed by naive Bcells).</i></div>
1404012568560 1395802358422 Which cell su face p otein is defective in Hype
IgM Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CD40L on Th cells}}</div>
1404012581402 1395802358422 {{c1::Hype IgM Synd ome}} is a p ima y immunode
ficiency that involves seve e pyogenic infections ea ly in life.
<b /><d
iv><i>Oppo tunistic infections with Pneumocystis, C yptospo idium and CMV a e al
so likely.</i></div>
1404012904857 1395802358422 How do IgG, IgA and IgE levels change in Hype I
gM Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Th
is stems f om why the e is hype IgM.</i></div><div><i><b /></i></div><div><i>R
emembe , the e is a defect in class switching of B cells  they a e stuck sec et
ing IgM due to a CD40L defect on Th cells. As a esult, no IgG, IgA o IgE is ma
de as no B cells a e switching to those isotypes.</i></div>
1404012991885 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in WiskottAld ich S
ynd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>WAS</i>&nbsp;mutation; esults in T cells
that a e unable to eo ganize thei actin cytoskeleton}}</div>
1404013032550 1395802358422 {{c1::WiskotAld ich Synd ome}} is a p ima y imm
unodeficiency that involves a mutation in <i>WAS</i>&nbsp;and hence p esents wit
h Tcells that a e unable to eo ganize thei actin cytoskeleton.

1404013066104 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of WiskottAld i
ch Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Xlinked ecessive}}</div>
1404013081138 1395802358422 {{c1::WiskottAld ich Synd ome}} is a p ima y im
munodeficiency that p esents with <b>th ombocytopenic pu pu a</b>, <b>eczema</b>
&nbsp;and <b> ecu ent infections</b>. <b /><div><img s c="paste5441723564048
8.jpg" /></div>
1404013407607 1395802358422 How do IgG and IgM levels change in WiskottAld
ich Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease to no mal}}</div>
1404013436862 1395802358422 How do IgE and IgA levels change in WiskottAld
ich Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc eased}}</div>
1404013453792 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Leukocyte Adhesio
n Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::LFA1 integ in (CD18) on
phagocytes}}</div>
1404013755387 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1
)}} is a p ima y immunodeficiency that involves a defect in LFA1 integ in (CD18
) on phagocytes, the eby esulting in impai ed phagocyte mig ation and chemotaxi
s.
1404013792319 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of Leukocyte Adh
esion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}
</div>
1404013817379 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1
)}} is a p ima y immunodeficiency that p esents with <b>delayed sepa ation of th
e umbilical co d</b>&nbsp;(&gt; 30 days).
1404014947661 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1
)}} is a p ima y immunodeficiency that p esents with ecu ent bacte ial skin/mu
cosal infections, absent pus fo mation and impai ed wound healing.
1404014982518 1395802358422 Which genetic defect is seen in ChediakHigashi
Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>LYST</i>&nbsp;(Lysosomal t afficking eg
ulato gene)}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Causes mic otubule dysfunction in phagosom
elysosome fusion.</i></div>
1404015046147 1395802358422 {{c1::ChediakHigashi Synd ome}} is a p ima y im
munodeficiency diso de that involves a defect in <i>LYST</i>&nbsp;(Lysosomal t
afficking egulato gene), the eby p esenting with mic otubule dysfunction in ph
agosomelysosome fusion.
<b /><div><b /></div>
1404015100169 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of ChediakHigas
hi Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1404015115816 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa ital Albinism}} is a cutaneous diso de
seen in ChediakHigashi Synd ome that esults f om dysfunctional phagosomelyso
some fusion.
1404015180318 1395802358422 Which g ampositive bacte ial genuses often caus
e ecu ent pyogenic infections in ChediakHigashi Synd ome?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::<i>Staphylococci; St eptococci</i>}}</div>
1404015216936 1395802358422 {{c1::ChediakHigashi Synd ome}} is a p ima y im
munodeficiency diso de that p esents with <b>giant g anules in neut ophils and
platelets</b>. <b /><div><i>The e is pancytopenia and mild coagulation defects
.</i></div>
1404015264002 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Ch onic G anuloma
tous Disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::NADPH Oxidase defect}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>XLR</i></div>
1404015286448 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of Ch onic G anu
lomatous Disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1404015298694 1395802358422 {{c1::Ch onic G anulomatous Disease}} is a p ima
y immunodeficiency that involves an NADPH Oxidase defect, the eby esulting in
deceased ROS and a subsequent lack of espi ato y bu st in neut ophils. <b /><d
iv><i>Remembe , NADPH Oxidase makes supe oxide.</i></div>
1404015355228 1395802358422 What Nit oblue Tet azolium (NZT) dye eduction t
est esult is associated with Ch onic G anulomatous Disease?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1404015422163 1395802358422 Which flow cytomet y test is abno mal in Ch onic
G anulomatous Disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Abno mal Dihyd o hodamine Tes

t}}</div>
1404015447316 1395802358422 A(n) {{c1::autog aft}} is a type of g aft that i
s eceived f om oneself.
1404015985734 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::Syngeneic G aft}} is a type of g
aft that is eceived f om an identical twin o clone.
1404016011128 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::allog aft}} is a type of g aft t
hat is eceived f om a nonidentical individual of the same species.
1404016039210 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::xenog aft}} is a g aft that is
eceived f om a diffe ent species.
1404016054779 1395802358422 What is the onset of Hype acute t ansplant ejec
tion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Minutes}}</div>
1404016076261 1395802358422 What is the onset of Acute t ansplant ejection?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks to months}}</div>
1404016088036 1395802358422 What is the onset of Ch onic t ansplant ejectio
n?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Months to yea s}}</div>
1404016096921 1395802358422 {{c1::Hype acute Rejection}} is a type of t ansp
lant ejection that involves <b>p eexisting ecipient antibodies eacting to do
no antigens</b>&nbsp;via a Type II eaction.
1404016146807 1395802358422 {{c1::Hype acute Rejection}} is a type of t ansp
lant ejection that involves <b>widesp ead th ombosis of g afted vessels</b>, th
e eby leading to ischemia and nec osis. <b /><div><i>The g aft has to be emove
d.</i></div>
1404016180870 1395802358422 {{c1::Cellula Acute Rejection}} is a type of Ac
ute T ansplant Rejection that involves <b>CTLs</b>&nbsp;that become <b>activated
against dono MHCs</b>.
1404016228306 1395802358422 {{c1::Humo al Acute Rejection}} is a type of Acu
te T ansplant Rejection that p esents simila ly to Hype acute ejection, but inv
olves antibodies that <b>develop afte t ansplantation</b>.
1404016531454 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Rejection}} is a type of t ansplant
ejection that p esents with <b>vasculitis of g afted vessels</b>&nbsp;with <b>d
ense inte stitial lymphocytic infilt ate</b>. <b /><div><i>P evented o
eve
sed with immunosupp essants.</i></div>
1404016580569 1395802358422 {{c1::Ch onic Rejection}} is a type of t ansplan
t ejection that involves <b> ecipient T cells that pe ceive dono MHC as ecipi
ent MHC</b>&nbsp;and subsequently <b> eact against dono antigens that a e p ese
nted</b>.
<b /><div><i>Basically, ecipient (host) T cells he e think tha
t the dono MHC molecules a e host MHC molecules. Hence any antigens p esented b
y the dono MHCs t igge both cellmediated and humo al eactions (i.e. eaction
against dono antigens).</i></div>
1404016926300 1395802358422 {{c1::Ch onic Rejection}} is a type of t ansplan
t ejection that p esents with <b>i eve sible Tcell</b>&nbsp;and <b>antibody m
ediated damage</b>.
1404016969952 1395802358422 How does Ch onic t ansplant ejection p esent at
the hea t?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Athe oscle osis}}</div>
1404016988210 1395802358422 How does Ch onic t ansplant ejection p esent at
the Lungs?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::B onchiolitis oblite ans}}</div>
1404016999210 1395802358422 How does Ch onic t ansplant ejection p esent at
the live ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vanishing bile ducts}}</div>
1404017009258 1395802358422 How does Ch onic t ansplant ejection p esent at
the kidney?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vascula fib osis and glome ulopathy}}</
div>
1404017019087 1395802358422 {{c1::G aftve sushost disease}} is a t ansplan
t ejection diso de that involves <b>g afted immunocompetent T cells that p oli
fe ate in the immunocomp omised host</b>&nbsp;and eventually begin <b> ejecting
host cells </b>as if they we e "fo eign."
<b ><div><i>Essentially, the t a
nsplanted, functional T cells attack the immunocomp omised host T cells.</i></di
v><div><i>Causes seve e o gan dysfunction.</i></div>
1404017950425 1395802358422 Which type of t ansplants a e typically associat
ed with g aftve sushost disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bone ma ow and li
ve t ansplants (as they a e ich in lymphocytes)}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Th

is is potentially beneficial in bone ma ow t ansplants to t eat leukemia (G aft
ve sustumou effect).</i></div>
1404059399172 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Cyclospo ine?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Calcineu in by binding to Cyclophilin}}</div> <div><b
/></div><i>The eby blocks Tcell activation by <b>p eventing IL2 t ansc iption
</b>.</i><b /><div><img s c="paste58523224375972.jpg" /></div>
1404063112127 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclospo ine}} is an immunosupp essant tha
t inhibits Calcineu in by binding to Cyclophilin, the eby inhibiting IL2 t ansc
iption and Tcell activation.
1404063162191 1395802358422 Which inte leukin's t ansc iption is p evented b
y Cyclospo ine and Tac olimus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IL2}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Cyclospo ine binds to Cyclophilin and then inhibits Calcineu in.</i></div>
<div><i>Tac olimus binds to FKBP and then inhibits Calcineu in.</i></div><div><i
>Si olimus binds to FKBP and then inhibits mTOR, but <b>inhibits IL2 signal t a
nsduction.</b></i></div><div><i><img s c="paste58518929408676.jpg" /></i></div>
1404063255668 1395802358422 What does Cyclospo ine bind to befo e inhibiting
Calcineu in?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclophilin}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404063535509 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclospo ine}} is an immunosupp essant tha
t is used to <b>pso iasis</b>&nbsp;and heumatoid a th itis.
1404063620151 1395802358422 Which immunosupp essant is associated with <b>ne
ph otoxicity</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclospo ine; Tac olimus}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Both Calcineu in inhibito s a e neph otoxic.</i></div>
1404063651642 1395802358422 Which immunosupp essant is associated with <b>hi
sutism</b>&nbsp;and <b>gingival hype plasia</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cyc
lospo ine}}</div>
1404063677232 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclospo ine}} is an immunosupp essant tha
t is associated with <b>hype tension, hype lipidemia</b>&nbsp;and <b>hype glycem
ia</b>.
1404064623432 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tac olimus?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of Calcineu in via FKBP (FK506 Binding P otein)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404064653178 1395802358422 {{c1::Tac olimus}} is an immunosupp essant that
inhibits Calcineu in by binding to FKBP, the eby inhibiting IL2 t ansc iption.
<b /><div><img s c="paste58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404064716929 1395802358422 Which p otein does Tac olimus bind to in o de t
o inhibit Calcineu in?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::FKBP}}</div> <div><b /></div
><i>The limus d ugs bind to FKBP.</i><b /><div><img s c="paste58518929408676.
jpg" /></div>
1404064776888 1395802358422 {{c1::Tac olimus}} is an immunosupp essant that
inhibits Calcineu in and yields an <b>inc eased isk of diabetes and neu otoxici
ty</b>.
1404064933400 1395802358422 {{c1::Tac olimus}} is an immunosupp essant that
inhibits Calcineu in but <b>does not cause hi sutism o gingival hype plasia</b>
.
1404064975838 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Si olimus (Rapamycin)?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of mTOR via binding to FKBP; the eby inhibits IL
2 signal t ansduction}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste58518929408676.jpg" /
></div>
1404065097406 1395802358422 What p otein does Si olimus (Rapamycin) bind to
befo e inhibiting mTOR?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::FKBP}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="paste58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404065131727 1395802358422 {{c1::Si olimus (Rapamycin)}} is an immunosupp e
ssant that inhibits mTOR via binding to FKBP, the eby inhibiting IL2 <b>signal
t ansduction</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="paste58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404065360707 1395802358422 Which o gan t ansplant is associated with subseq
uent Si olimus (Rapamycin) use?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Kidney t ansplant ej
ection p ophylaxis}}</div>
1404065420288 1395802358422 Which immunosupp essant is associated with insul
in esistance and hype lipidemia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Si olimus (Rapamyci

n)}}</div>
1404065485604 1395802358422 {{c1::Si olimus (Rapamycin)}} is an immunosupp e
ssant that inhibits mTOR and is <b>nonneph otoxic</b>.
1404065544829 1395802358422 {{c1::Si olimus (Rapamycin)}} is an immunosupp e
ssant that wo ks in syne gy with Cyclospo ine. <b /><div><img s c="paste58518
929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404065877680 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the immunosupp essant Basilix
imab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to and blocks the IL2R}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066012709 1395802358422 {{c1::Basiliximab}} is a monoclonal antibody tha
t blocks the <b>IL2R</b>, the eby causing immunosupp ession and acting as a kid
ney t ansplant ejection p ophylactic. <b /><div><img s c="paste5851892940867
6.jpg" /></div>
1404066056607 1395802358422 {{c1::Basiliximab}} is a monoclonal antibody tha
t blocks IL2R and yields <b>edema, HTN</b>&nbsp;and <b>t emo </b>.
<b /><d
iv><b /></div>
1404066078559 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathiop ine (AZT)}} is an immunosupp essa
nt that is the antimetabolite p ecu so of 6MP.
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066128501 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Azathiop ine?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of PRPP Amidot ansfe ase; inhibits lymphocyte p olife ati
on by blocking nucleotide synthesis}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Remembe , AZ
T is the p od ug fo m of 6MP.</i><b /><div><img s c="paste58518929408676.jpg"
/></div>
1404066180132 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathiop ine}} is an immunosupp essant tha
t is used to t eat <b>C ohn Disease</b>.
1404066579885 1395802358422 How does Allopu inol influence the toxicity of A
zathiop ine (6MP)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>6
MP is deg aded by Xanthine Oxidase. Hence Allopu inol inc eases its toxicity.</i
></div>
1404066636967 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathiop ine}} is an immunosupp essant tha
t inhibits PRPP Amidot ansfe ase and causes <b>leukopenia, anaemia</b>&nbsp;and
<b>th ombocytopenia</b>.
1404066691061 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Glucoco ticoids as immunosupp
essants?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of NFkB; The eby supp essing bo
th B and T cell function by dec easing the t ansc iption of many cytokines}}</di
v>
<b /><div><img s c="paste58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066745491 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucoco ticoids}} a e a type of immunosupp
essant that inhibits NFkB, the eby dec easing the t ansc iption of many cytoki
nes.
<b /><div><img s c="paste58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066839371 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathiop ine}} is an immunosupp essant tha
t is conve ted into <b>6MP</b>&nbsp;and inhibits <b>PRPP Amidot ansfe ase</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="paste58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066891524 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucoco ticoids}} a e a type of immunosupp
essant that is associated with <b>cent al obesity</b>&nbsp;and <b>hype glycemia
</b>. <b /><div><img s c="paste58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066937054 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucoco ticoids}} a e a type of immunosupp
essant that a e associated with <b>osteopo osis</b>&nbsp;and <b>muscle b eakdow
n</b>.
1404067164688 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucoco ticoids}} a e a type of immunosupp
essant that a e associated with <b>acne</b>&nbsp;and <b>cata acts</b>.
1404067186993 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucoco ticoids}} a e a type of immunosupp
essant that a e associated with <b>peptic ulce s</b>.
1404067203206 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucoco ticoids}} a e a type of immunosupp
essant that a e known to cause iat ogenic Cushing Synd ome.
1404067580343 1395802358422 {{c1::Epoetin alfa}} is a ecombinant cytokine t
hat functions as E yth opoietin and is used to t eat <b>anaemia</b>, especially
in enal failu e.
1404069394445 1395802358422 {{c1::Th ombopoietin}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Op elvekin
}} a e ecombinant cytokines that a e used to t eat th ombocytopenia.

1404069436564 1395802358422 {{c1::Op elvekin}} is a ecombinant cytokine tha
t functions as <b>IL11</b>&nbsp;and hence is used to t eat Th ombocytopenia.
1404069482968 1395802358422 {{c1::Filg astim}} is a ecombinant cytokine tha
t functions as a <b>g anulocyte colonystimulating facto (GCSF)</b> to induce
bone ma ow ecove y.
1404069605164 1395802358422 {{c1::Sa g amostim}} is a ecombinant cytokine t
hat functions as a <b>g anulocytemac ophage colonystimulating facto (GMCSF)
</b>and is used to induce bone ma ow ecove y.
1404069687174 1395802358422 {{c1::Aldesleukin}} is a ecombinant cytokine th
at function as <b>IL2</b>&nbsp;and is used in enal cell ca cinoma and metastat
ic melanoma.
1404069713578 1395802358422 Which inte fe on is used to t eat ch onic HBV an
d HCV?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IFNalpha}}</div>
1404069732893 1395802358422 Which inte fe on is used to t eat Kaposi Sa coma
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IFNalpha}}</div>
1404069739996 1395802358422 Which inte fe on is used to t eat Hai y Cell Leu
kemia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IFNalpha}}</div>
1404069747185 1395802358422 Which inte fe on is used to t eat Condyloma Acum
inatum?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IFNalpha}}</div>
1404069763176 1395802358422 Which inte fe on is used to t eat Renal Cell Ca
cinoma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IFNalpha}}</div>
1404069770283 1395802358422 Which inte fe on is used to t eat Malignant Mela
noma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IFNalpha}}</div>
1404069778681 1395802358422 Which inte fe on is used to t eat Multiple Scle
osis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IFNbeta}}</div>
1404069788097 1395802358422 Which inte fe on is used to t eat Ch onic G anul
omatous Disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IFNgamma}}</div>
1404069797079 1395802358422 What is the ta get of the monoclonal antibody Al
emtuzumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CD52 in Ch onic Lymphocytic Leukemia}}</di
v>
1404070337638 1395802358422 What is the ta get of the monoclonal antibody Be
vacizumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::VEGF in colo ectal cance , enal cell ca c
inoma}}</div>
1404070364535 1395802358422 What is the ta get of the monoclonal antibody Ce
tuximab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Epide mal g owth facto ecepto (EGFR) in s
tage IV colo ectal cance , head and neck cance }}</div>
1404070414787 1395802358422 What is the ta get of the monoclonal antibody Ri
tuximab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CD20 in Bcell nonHodgkin lymphoma, Rheumao
id A th itis and Idiopathic Th ombocytopenic Pu pu a}}</div>
1404070486754 1395802358422 What is the ta get of the monoclonal antibody T
astuzumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HER2/neu in b east cance and some gast ic
cance }}</div> <b /><div><i>"T as<b>2</b>zumab ta gets HER<b>2</b>"</i></div
>
1404070524214 1395802358422 What is the ta get of the monoclonal antibody In
fliximab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TNFalpha in IBD, Rheumatoid A th itis, Ank
ylosing Spondylitis, Pso iasis}}</div>
1404070711881 1395802358422 What is the ta get of the monoclonal antibody Ad
alimumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TNFalpha in IBD, Rheumatoid A th itis, Ank
ylosing Spondylitis, Pso iasis}}</div>
1404070868387 1395802358422 What is the ta get of the monoclonal antibody Na
talizumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::alpha4integ in in MS and C ohn Disease}}<
/div> <b /><div><i>Alpha4integ in is an integ in p otein involved with leuko
cyte adhesion.</i></div>
1404070920133 1395802358422 {{c1::P og essive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy
(PML)}} is a possible neu ological complication of Natalizumab use in patients
with JC vi us infection.
1404070972875 1395802358422 What is the ta get of the monoclonal antibody Ab
ciximab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::GpIIb/IIIa in patients that need antiplatel
et action}}</div>
<b /><div><i>i.e. fo the p evention of ischemic compli
cations in patients unde going pe cutaneous co ona y inte vention</i></div>

1404071054879 1395802358422 What is the ta get of the monoclonal antibody De
nosumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RANKL in osteopo osis; Blocking of RANKL inh
ibits osteoclast matu ation}}</div>
1404071083682 1395802358422 What is the ta get of the monoclonal antibody Di
goxin Immune Fab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Digoxin; acts as an antidote fo Di
goxin toxicity}}</div>
1404071121555 1395802358422 What is the ta get of the monoclonal antibody Om
alizumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgE; used to p event alle gic asthma and p
events IgE binding to FcERI}}</div>
1404071160652 1395802358422 What is the ta get of the monoclonal antibody Pa
vilizumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RSV F p otein}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Re
membe , F p oteins on RSV allow is to make syncytia. Hence, Respi ato y Syncytia
l Vi us (RSV).</i></div>
1404071589190 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody Alemtuzumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ch onic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) v
ia CD52}}</div>
1404071614787 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody Bevacizumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Colo ectal cance ; Renal cell ca cin
oma; via VEGF}}</div>
1404071654896 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody Cetuximab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Stage IV colo ectal cance ; Head and n
eck cance ; via EGFR}}</div>
1404071682615 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody Rituximab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bcell nonHodgkin lymphoma; Rheumatoi
d A th itis; Idiopathic Th ombocytopenia Pu pu a; via CD20}}</div>
1404071717603 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody T astuzumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::B east cance ; Gast ic cance ; via H
ER2/neu}}</div>
1404071740352 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody Infliximab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IBD; Rheumatoid A th itis; Ankylosing
Spondylitis; Pso iasis; via TNFalpha}}</div>
1404071944718 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody Adalimumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IBD; Rheumatoid A th itis; Ankylosing
Spondylitis; Pso iasis; via TNFalpha}}</div>
1404071967380 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody Natalizumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Multiple Scle osis; C ohn Disease; v
ia alpha4integ in}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Remembe , alpha4integ in is invol
ved with leukocyte adhesion.</i></div>
1404072007193 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody Abciximab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P evention of ischemic complications i
n patients unde going pe cutaneous co ona y inte vention}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>i.e. it's an antiplatelet, b ah!</i></div>
1404072051299 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody Denosumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Osteopo osis; inhibits osteoclast matu
ation via RANKL}}</div>
1404072078422 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody Digoxin Immune Fab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Antidote fo Digitoxin toxici
ty}}</div>
1404072094823 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody Omalizumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Alle gic asthma; p events IgE binding
to FcERI}}</div>
1404072129533 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody Palivizumab?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P ophylaxis in RSV high isk infants
; via RSV F p otein}}</div>
1404072154231 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to t eat C
h onic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Alemtuzumab (via C
D52)}}</div>
1404072803058 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to t eat I
diopathic Th ombocytopenic Pu pu a (ITP)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rituximab}}
</div>

1404073044364 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to t eat B
east Cance ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T astuzumab (via HER2/neu)}}</div>
1404073071781 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to t eat M
ultiple Scle osis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Natalizumab}}</div>
1404073420208 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to t eat C
ohn Disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Natalizumab}}</div>
1404073432419 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to t eat A
nkylosing Spondylitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Infliximab; Adalimumab; both v
ia TNFalpha}}</div>
1404074377437 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to t eat O
steopo osis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Denosumab (via RANKL)}}</div>
1404074417513 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to t eat D
igoxin toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Digoxin Immune Fab}}</div>
1404074435170 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to t eat A
lle gic Asthma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Omalizumab}}</div>
1404074449984 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used as an RSV
p ophylaxis fo high isk infants?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Palivizumab}}</div
>
1402168772948 1395802358422 {{c1::Peptidoglycan}} is a bacte ial st uctu e t
hat gives ipid suppo t to the bacte ia and p otects against osmostic p essu e.
<b /><div><img s c="paste18824841658880.jpg" /></div>
1402169985256 1395802358422 {{c1::Cell wall/memb ane}} is a bacte ial st uct
u e seen in <b>g ampositive</b>&nbsp;bacte ia that functions as the majo su fa
ce antigen.
<b /><div><img s c="paste18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402170021178 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipoteichoic Acid}} is a component of the
cell wall/memb ane of <b>g ampositive</b>&nbsp;bacte ia that induces TNF and IL
1.
<b /><div><img s c="paste18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402170192781 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::oute memb ane}} is a bacte ial s
t uctu e seen in <b>g amnegative</b>&nbsp;bacte ia that is the site of endotoxi
n (lipopolysaccha ide; LPS).
<b /><div><img s c="paste18820546691584.jpg" /
></div>
1402170231877 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::oute memb ane}} is a bacte ial s
t uctu e in <b>g amnegative</b>&nbsp;bacte ia that functions as the majo su fa
ce antigen.
<b /><div><img s c="paste18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402170250338 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipid A}} is a component of the oute memb
ane in <b>g amnegative</b>&nbsp;bacte ia that induces TNF and IL1. <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402170293953 1395802358422 {{c1::O polysaccha ide}} is a component of the o
ute memb ane of <b>g amnegative</b>&nbsp;bacte ia that functions as the su fac
e antigen.
<b /><div><img s c="paste18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402170335667 1395802358422 Which ibosomal subunits make up bacte ial ibos
omes?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::30S; 50S}}</div>
1402171292092 1395802358422 The {{c1::pe iplasm}} is a bacte ial st uctu e t
hat is desc ibed as the space between the cytoplasmic memb ane and the othe mem
b ane in <b>g amnegative</b>&nbsp;bacte ia.
<div><b /></div><i>Many hyd oly
tic enzymes a e found he e, especially betalactamase.</i><b /><div><img s c="p
aste18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402171353900 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::capsule}} is a bacte ial st uctu
e exte nal to peptidoglycan that p otects the bacte ia f om phagocytosis.
<b /><div><img s c="paste18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402171468077 1395802358422 The bacte ial capsule is no mally made of polysa
ccha ides, except in&nbsp;{{c1::<i>Bacillus anth acis</i>}} whose capsule contai
ns Dglutamate.
1402171506190 1395802358422 Which amino acid is a key component of the bacte
ial capsule in <i>Bacillus anth acis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dglutamat
e}}</div>
1402171526417 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::pilus/fimb ia}} is a bacte ial st
uctu e that functions to mediate the adhe ence of the bacte ia to cell su faces
.
<b /><div><img s c="paste18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402172216575 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::pilus}} is a bacte ial st uctu e

that fo ms an attachment between 2 bacte ia du ing conjugation. <b /><div><img
s c="paste18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402172235744 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::glycocalyx}} is a bacte ial st uc
tu e consisting of polysaccha ides that mediates adhe ence to su faces, especial
ly fo eign su faces
<i><div></div></i><i><b /></i>Such as indwelling cathet
e s.
1402172315718 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::spo e}} is a bacte ial st uctu e
that is esistance to dehyd ation, heat and chemicals due to its ke atinlike co
at and composition of peptidoglycan and dipicolinic acid.
1402172371311 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipoteichoic Acid}} is a component of the
bacte al cell wall that is desc ibed as a combination of lipids and teichoic aci
d.
<div><b /></div><i><b>Unique to g ampositive</b>&nbsp;bacte ia.</i><b
/><div><img s c="paste18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402172441531 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Staphylococcus</i>?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173770131 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>St eptococcus</i>?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173776778 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Clost idium</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173785195 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Co ynebacte ium</i>
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173794129 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Bacillus</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173800127 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Liste ia</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173806778 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Mycobacte ium</i>?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive; also acid fast}}</div>
1402173817142 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Ga dne ella</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Va iable}}</div>
1402173824237 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Actinomyces</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive; also filamentous}}</div>
1402173877553 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Noca dia</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive; also weakly acid fast}}</div>
1402173888408 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Mycoplasma</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::None; it doesn't stain as it lacks a cell wall}}</div>
1402173905774 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Neisse ia</i>?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div> <b /><div><i>Neisse ia is also basicall
y the only clinically elevant g amnegative <b>coccus</b>.</i></div>
1402173993961 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174006464 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Shigella</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div> <div><i><b /></i></div>
1402174016838 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of the Ente ic bacte ia?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174029401 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Salmonella</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174037055 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Ye sinia</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174042162 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Klebsiella</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174047882 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>P oteus</i>?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174054743 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Ente obacte </i>?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174067366 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Se atia</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174073541 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Vib io</i>?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174078026 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Campylobacte </i>?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>

1402174087282 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Helicobacte </i>?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174096558 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Pseudomonas</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174102130 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Bacte oides</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174109313 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Haemophilus</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174120219 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Legionella</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174127053 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Bo detella</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174132880 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of the Zoonotic bacte ia?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174142112 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>F ancisella</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174178686 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>B ucella</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174183830 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Pasteu ella</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174191153 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Ba tonella</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174196783 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of the Spi ochetes?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div> <b /><div><i>Bo elia, Leptospi a, T ep
onema</i></div>
1402174232195 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Bo elia</i>?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174240659 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>Leptospi a</i>?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174248064 1395802358422 What is the g am stain of <i>T eponema</i>?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174257516 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoplasma spp.</i>}} is a bacte ial sp
ecies that contains ste ols in thei cell memb ane.
1402174904523 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacte ia</i>}} is a bacte ial speci
es that contains <b>mycolic acid</b>&nbsp;in its cell wall.
1402174930840 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>T eponema</i><b style="fontstyle
: italic; ">&nbsp;</b>g am stain well?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Too thin to be
visualized}}</div>
<b /><div><i>T eponemes equi e da kfield mic oscopy a
nd fluo escent antibody staining.</i></div>
1402175557494 1395802358422 Why dont Mycobacte ia g am stain well?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Rich lipid content in cell wall}}</div>
<b /><div><i>De
tected by <b>Ca bolfuschin in an acidfast stain</b>.</i></div>
1402175604132 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Mycoplasma</i>&nbsp;g am stain we
ll?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No cell wall}}</div>
1402175618870 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Legionella pneunophila</i>&nbsp;g
am stain well?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P ima ily int acellula o ganism}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><i>Legionella equi es a silve stain.</i></div>
1402175654023 1395802358422 What type of stain is used to visualize <i>Legio
nella</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Silve stain}}</div>
1402175671704 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Rickettsia</i>&nbsp;g am stain ce
ll?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Int acellula pa asite}}</div>
1402175764388 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Chlamydia</i>&nbsp;g am stain wel
l?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Intacellula ; <b>lacks mu amic acid</b>&nbsp;in th
e cell wall}}</div>
1402175838315 1395802358422 Which stain is used to best visualize <i>Chlamyd
ia</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa stain}}</div> <div><b /></div><img s
c="paste23106924052545.jpg" />
1402176460130 1395802358422 Which stain is used to best visualize <i>Bo eli
a</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te23106924052545.jpg" /></div>

1402176473561 1395802358422 Which stain is best used to visualize<i>&nbsp;</
i>Rickettsiae?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste23106924052545.jpg" /></div>
1402176494851 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize T ypanosomes?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste23106
924052545.jpg" /></div>
1402176519075 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>Plasmodium</
i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste23106
924052545.jpg" /></div>
1402176532694 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::PAS (Pe iodicacid Schiff) stain}
} is a diagnostic stain that stains fo <b>glycogen</b>&nbsp;and mucopolysaccha
ides. <b /><div><i><b>PAS</b>s the <b>suga </b>&nbsp;(glycogen).</i></div>
1402176592476 1395802358422 Which stain is used to diagnose Whipple Disease
(<i>T ophe yma whipplei</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PAS stain}}</div>
1402176630985 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>T ophe yma w
hipplei</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PAS stain}}</div>
1402176649533 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize acidfast o gan
isms (<i>Mycobacte ium, Noca dia</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ZiehlNeelsen
(ca bol fuschin) stain}}</div>
1402176691861 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>C yptococcus
neofo mans</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::India ink}}</div> <b /><div><i>Mu
cica mine can also be used to stain think polysaccha ide capsule ed.</i></div>
1402176732162 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>Helicobacte
pylo i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Silve stain}}</div>
1402176747181 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize fungi (e.g. <i>
Pneumocystis</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Silve stain}}</div>
1402176772054 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>Legionella</
i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Silve stain}}</div>
1402176794486 1395802358422 Which special cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Chocolate aga s wi
th Facto s V (NAD) and X (Heme)}}</div>
1402177515133 1395802358422 Which special cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>&nbsp;o <i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Thaye Ma tin (VPN) media}}</div>
<b /><div><i>To connect
to Neisse ia, please use you &nbsp;<b>VPN</b>&nbsp;client:</i></div><div><i>V =
Vancomycin which inhibits g ampositive o ganisms</i></div><div><i>P = Polymyxi
n which inhibits g amnegative o ganisms except fo Neisse ia</i></div><div><i>N
= Nystatin which inhibits fungi</i></div>
1402177650176 1395802358422 {{c1::Vancomycin}} is an antibiotic that is used
in Thaye Ma tin (VPN) media as it inhibits g ampositive o gnanisms.
1402177678285 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymyxin}} is an antibiotic used in Thaye
Ma tin (VPN) media that inhibits g amnegative o ganisms except fo <i>Neisse
ia</i>.
1402177702503 1395802358422 {{c1::Nystatin}} is an antifungal used in Thaye
Ma tin (VPN) media that inhibits fungi.
1402177750037 1395802358422 Which special cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Bo detella pe tussis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bo detGengou (potat
o) aga }}</div> <b /><div><i><b>BORDET</b>ella.</i></div>
1402177785061 1395802358422 Which special cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Co ynebacte ium diphthe iae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tellu ite aga
; Loffle medium}}</div>
1402177808321 1395802358422 Which special cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Mycobacte ium tube culosis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::LowensteinJen
sen aga }}</div>
1402177860492 1395802358422 Which special cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Eaton aga (as <i>M
ycoplasma&nbsp;</i> equi es choleste ol)}}</div>
1402177894467 1395802358422 Which special cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate Lactosefe menting ente ic bacte ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::MacConkey Ag
a }}</div>
<b /><div><i>G owth will appea as pink colonies as lactose fe

mentation causes acidity, the eby tu ning the colony pink.</i></div>
1402177955539 1395802358422 Which special cultu e media/aga othe than MacC
onkey aga is used to isolate <i>Esche ichia coli</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::EosinMethylene Blue (EMB) as a <u>g eenmetallic sheen</u>}}</div>
1402178003386 1395802358422 Which special cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate <i>Legionella</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cha coal yeast aga (buffe ed
with cysteine and i on)}}</div>
1402178193265 1395802358422 Which special cultu e media/aga is used to isol
ate&nbsp;fungi?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sabou aud aga }}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i><b>Sab</b>&nbsp;is a <b>funguy</b>!</i></div>
1402332226256 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Noca dia</i>
&nbsp;<i>spp.</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Obligate ae obe}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste579820585086.jpg" /></div><div><img s c="paste592705486895.j
pg" /></div>
1402333336345 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Pseudomonas
ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Obligate ae obe}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><div><img s c="paste579820585086.jpg" /></div><div><img s c="paste592705486
895.jpg" /></div></div>
1402333378017 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Mycobacte iu
m tube culosis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Obligate ae obe}}</div> <b /><d
iv><div><img s c="paste579820585086.jpg" /></div><div><img s c="paste592705486
895.jpg" /></div></div>
1402333396116 1395802358422 Whe e in the lungs does <i>Mycobacte ium tube cu
losis </i> eactivate?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::The lung apices due to high P<s
ub>O2</sub>&nbsp;levels}}</div> <b /><div><i>Reactivation typically occu s afte
immune comp omise o TNFalpha inhibito use.</i></div>
1402333708217 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}} is a g am
negative obligate ae obe that is often seen in bu n wounds.
<b /><div><img
s c="paste1670742278313.jpg" /></div>
1402343309593 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}} is a g am
negative obligate ae obe that is often seen as a complication in diabetes.
<b /><div><img s c="paste1666447311017.jpg" /></div>
1402343335968 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}} is a g am
negative obligate ae obe that often causes nocosomial pneumonia.
1402343358391 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}} is a g am
negative obligate ae obe that is often associated with pneumonia in Cystic Fib o
sis patients. <b /><div><img s c="paste1666447311017.jpg" /></div>
1402343381461 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Clost idium<
/i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Obligate anae obe}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><img s c="paste1971389988896.jpg" /><div><img s c="paste1984274890974.jpg" />
</div>
1402343491814 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Bacte oides<
/i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Obligate anae obe}}</div>
<b /><div><b /
></div><div><img s c="paste1971389988896.jpg" /><div><img s c="paste1984274890
974.jpg" /></div></div>
1402343508003 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Actinomyces<
/i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Obligate ane obe}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><div><img s c="paste1971389988896.jpg" /><div><img s c="paste1984274890974.jp
g" /></div></div>
1402343536706 1395802358422 {{c1::Catalase}} and/o &nbsp;{{c2::Supe oxide di
smutase}} a e enzymes involved with the detoxification of ROS that a e often <b>
absent</b>&nbsp;in obligate anae obes. <div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste19
71389988896.jpg" /><div><img s c="paste1984274890974.jpg" /></div></div>
1402343617358 1395802358422 Which 2 gases a e often p oduced in tissue by ob
ligate anae obic bacte ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CO2; H2}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste1971389988896.jpg" /><div><img s c="paste1984274890974.jpg"
/></div></div>
1402343664468 1395802358422 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} a e a class of antibioti
cs that a e <b>ineffective against anae obic bacte ia</b>&nbsp;as they equi e O
₂&nbsp;to ente bacte ial cells.
<b /><div><i>Amin<b>O</b><sub s

tyle="fontweight: bold; ">2</sub>glycosides equi e <b>O</b><sub style="fontwe
ight: bold; ">2</sub>&nbsp;to ente bacte ia.</i></div>
1402344288287 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Rickettsia spp.</i>}} and&nbsp;{{c2::<i
>Chlamydia spp.</i>}} a e <b>obligate int acellula </b>, pleomo phic, g amnegat
ive bacte ia that cannot make thei own ATP.
<b /><div><img s c="paste24524
26326172.jpg" /></div>
1402347084540 1395802358422 What is the Fi st Aid mnemonic fo <b>facultativ
e int acellula </b>&nbsp;bacte ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="paste27
18714298532.jpg" />}}</div>
<b /><div><b /></div>
1402347087961 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>St eptococcus pneumoniae</i>}} and&nbsp
;{{c2::G oup B <i>St eptococcus </i>(<i>St eptococcus agalactiae</i>)}} a e 2 sp
ecies of <i>St eptococcus</i>&nbsp;that a e encapsulated.
<div><b /></div
><img s c="paste2911987826721.jpg" /><b /><div><img s c="paste2899102924926.j
pg" /></div>
1402347655665 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nbsp;type B}
} is a species of <i>Haemophilus</i>&nbsp;that is encapsulated. <b /><div><img
s c="paste2911987826721.jpg" /><b /><div><img s c="paste2899102924926.jpg" />
</div></div>
1402347679561 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>}} is a speci
es of <i>Neisse ia</i>&nbsp;that is encapsulated.
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te2911987826721.jpg" /><b /><div><img s c="paste2899102924926.jpg" /></div></
div>
1402347707244 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Esche ichia coli</i>}} is a species of
<i>Esche ichia</i>&nbsp;that is encapsulated. <b /><div><img s c="paste29119
87826721.jpg" /><b /><div><img s c="paste2899102924926.jpg" /></div></div>
1402347826775 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Klebsiella pneumoniae</i>}} is a specie
s of <i>Klebsiella</i>&nbsp;that is encapsulated.
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te2911987826721.jpg" /><b /><div><img s c="paste2899102924926.jpg" /></div></
div>
1402347845933 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::capsule}} is a bacte ial st uctu
e that functions as an antiphagocytic vi ulence facto s.
1402347877791 1395802358422 Which o gan is esponsible fo clea ing opsonize
d encapsulated bacte ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Spleen}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Hence, aplenics have dec eased opsonizing and clea ing ability, the eby gi
ving them a significantly inc eased isk fo seve e infection. Such patients sho
uld eceive S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae and N. meningitidis vaccinations.</i></
div>
1402347997872 1395802358422 {{c1::Catalase}} is an enzyme found in many bact
e ia that deg ades H₂O₂&nbsp;befo e it can be made into an
timic obial p oducts by Myelope oxidase.
<b /><div><i>Remembe , Myelope
oxidase in phagocytes makes HOCl f om H2O2.</i></div>
1402349330844 1395802358422 {{c1::Ch onic G anulomatous Disease}} is an immu
ne diso de that involves a deficiency of NADPH Oxidase and subsequent ecu ent
infections with catalasepositive o ganisms. <b /><div><img s c="paste37666
86318661.jpg" /></div><div><img s c="paste3779571220525.jpg" /></div>
1402349542264 1395802358422 What is the catalase exp ession of <i>Pseudomona
s</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><div><img s c
="paste3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img s c="paste3779571220525.jpg" /></d
iv></div>
1402349557832 1395802358422 What is the catalase exp ession of <i>Liste ia</
i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <b /><div><div><img s c="paste
3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img s c="paste3779571220525.jpg" /></div></div
>
1402349567633 1395802358422 What is the catalase exp ession of <i>Aspe gillu
s</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><div><img s c
="paste3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img s c="paste3779571220525.jpg" /></d
iv></div>
1402349580052 1395802358422 What is the catalase exp ession of <i>Candida</i
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <b /><div><div><img s c="paste
3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img s c="paste3779571220525.jpg" /></div></div

>
1402349588984 1395802358422 What is the catalase exp ession of <i>Esche ichi
a coli</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <b /><div><div><img s c
="paste3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img s c="paste3779571220525.jpg" /></d
iv></div>
1402349603442 1395802358422 What is the catalase exp ession of <i>Staphyloco
ccus spp.</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><div>
<img s c="paste3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img s c="paste3779571220525.jp
g" /></div></div>
1402349622197 1395802358422 What is the catalase exp ession of <i>Se atia</
i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402349631858 1395802358422 What is the catalase exp esison of <i>Neisse ia<
/i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>"Staph<
/b>'s <b>N</b>' <b>Ente obacte ia</b>&nbsp;<b>A</b> e <b>List</b>ed <b>C</b>atal
ase <b>P</b>ositive"</i></div><div><i>Staphylococcus</i></div><div><i>Neisse ia<
/i></div><div><i>Ente obacte ia</i></div><div><i>Aspe gillus</i></div><div><i>Li
ste ia</i></div><div><i>Candida</i></div><div><i>Pseudmonas</i></div><div><i>(an
d MTB)</i></div>
1402349703816 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::conjugate vaccine}} is a type of va
ccine that contains polysaccha ide bacte ial capsule antigens conjugated to a ca
ie p otein, the eby enhancing its immunogenicity by p omoting Tcell activati
on and class switching. <b /><div><i>A polysaccha ide antigen alone cannot be p
esented to Tcells.</i></div><div><i>Such vaccines exist fo Pnemococcus, Menin
gococcus and H. influenzae type B.</i></div>
1402351906729 1395802358422 What is the u ease exp ession of <i>C yptococcus
</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te4569845203063.jpg" /></div>
1402352669308 1395802358422 What is the u ease exp ession of <i>Helicobacte
pylo i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352685232 1395802358422 What is the u ease exp ession of <i>P oteus</i>?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste45655
50235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352694298 1395802358422 What is the u ease exp ession of <i>U eaplasma s
pp</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352707385 1395802358422 What is the u ease exp ession of <i>Noca dia spp
</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352717906 1395802358422 What is the u ease exp ession of <i>Klebsiella s
pp.</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352728938 1395802358422 What is the u ease exp ession of <i>Staphylococc
us epide midis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402352742276 1395802358422 What is the u ease exp ession of <i>Staphylococc
us sap ophyticus</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352758008 1395802358422 What colou pigment is associated with <i>Staphy
lococcus au eus</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Yellow}}</div> <b /><div><i>Au
eus is latin fo gold.</i></div>
1402352820920 1395802358422 What colou pigment is associated with <i>Pseudo
monas ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Blueg een}}</div>
1402352852109 1395802358422 What colou pigment is associated with <i>Se at
ia ma cescens</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Red}}</div>
1402352877134 1395802358422 What colou pigment is associated with <i>Actino
mycess is aelii</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Yellow "sulfu " g anules compose
d of filaments of bacte ia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Is ael has yellow sand.</i
></div>
1402352995706 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces is aelii</i>}} is a g ampo
sitive, anae obic, filamentous bacte ia that yields a <b>yellow "sulfu " g anula

pigment</b>&nbsp;composed of filaments of bacte ia.
1402353078926 1395802358422 {{c1::P otein A}} is a vi ulence facto exp esse
d by <i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>&nbsp;that <b>binds to the F_c&nbsp;
egion of IgG</b>&nbsp;the eby p eventing opsonization and phagocytosis.<b>&nbsp;
</b>
1402353650255 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA P otease}} is a bacte ial vi ulence fa
cto that functions to cleave IgA, the eby allowing fo colonization of the esp
i ato y mucosa. <b /><div><img s c="paste5299989643301.jpg" /></div>
1402353710712 1395802358422 {{c1::M P otein}} is a vi ulence facto exp esse
d by G oup A <i>St eptococcus</i>&nbsp;(<i>St eptococcus pyogenes</i>)&nbsp;spec
ies that functions to p event phagocytosis.
1402405792394 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin}} is a vi ulence facto found in
the <b>oute cell memb ane</b>&nbsp;of most <b>g amnegative</b>&nbsp;bacte ia.
1402410456174 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin}} is a vi ulence facto found in
<b>g amnegative</b>&nbsp;bacte ia made of&nbsp;<b>lipopolysaccha ide (LPS)</b>
, the st uctu al pa t of bacte ia.
<b /><div><i>It is eleased when the ba
cte ia is lysed.</i></div>
1402410541171 1395802358422 What is the toxicity of bacte ial exotoxins?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::High; fatal doses a e on the o de of 1 ug}}</div>
1402412496200 1395802358422 What is the toxicity of bacte ial endotoxins?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Low; fatal doses a e on the o de of hund eds of mic og
ams}}</div>
1402412517452 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin}} is a vi ulence facto found in
the oute cell memb ane of g amnegative bacte ia that <b>induces TNF, IL1 </b
>and<b> IL6.</b>
<b /><div><i>It also causes feve , shock, DIC.</i></div
>
1402412580738 1395802358422 {{c1::Exotoxins}} a e sec eted vi ulence facto s
f om bacte ia that induce a hightite antibody esponse called antitoxins.
<div><b /></div><i>Toxoids can hence be used as vaccines.</i><b /><div><i>Endo
toxin on the othe hand is poo ly antigenic and no toxoids/vaccines a e availabl
e.</i></div>
1402412686790 1395802358422 At which tempe atu e do most exotoxins get dest
oyed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::60 C}}</div> <b /><div><i>The exception is s
taphylococcal ente otoxins.</i></div><div><i>Endotoxins a e stable at 100 C fo
1 hou .</i></div>
1402413735630 1395802358422 {{c1::Diphthe ia toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>
Co ynebacte ium diphthe iae</i>&nbsp;that inactivates elongation facto 2 (EF2),
the eby inhibiting p otein synthesis.
1402414258300 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Diphthe ia Toxin f om <i>Co y
nebacte ium diphthe iae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivation of elongati
on facto 2 (EF2) via <b>ADP ibosylation</b>, the eby inhibiting p otein synthe
sis}}</div>
1402414335997 1395802358422 {{c1::Dipthe ia Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>C
o ynebacte ium diphthe iae</i>&nbsp;that causes <b>pha yngitis</b>&nbsp;with <b>
pseudomemb anes in the th oat</b>&nbsp;and <b>seve e lymphadenopathy</b>&nbsp;("
bull neck").
1402414406806 1395802358422 {{c1::Exotoxin A}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Pseudo
monas ae uginosa</i>&nbsp;that inactivated elongation facto 2 (EF2) th ough ADP
ibosylation, the eby inhibiting p otein synthesis and causing cell death.
1402414446987 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Exotoxin A f om <i>Pseudomona
s ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivation of elongation facto 2
(EF2) via ADP ibosylation, the eby inhibiting p otein synthesis and causing ce
ll death}}</div>
1402414488645 1395802358422 {{c1::Shiga Toxin (ST)}} is an exotoxin f om <i>
Shigella spp.</i>&nbsp;that inactivates the 60S ibosomal subunit by emoving ad
enine f om RNA.
<b /><div><i>The eby causes GI mucosal damage, dysente
y and possibly hemolytic u emia synd ome (HUS).</i></div>
1402415821176 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Shiga Toxin (ST) f om <i>Shig
ella spp.</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivation of the 60S ibosome by e
moving adenine f om RNA}}</div>

1402415850406 1395802358422 {{c1::Shiga Toxin (ST)}} is an exotoxin f om <i>
Shigella spp.</i>&nbsp;that causes GI mucosal damage and subsequent <b>dysente y
</b>due to inactivation of the 60S ibosome.
1402415887965 1395802358422 {{c1::Shiga Toxin (ST)}} is an exotoxin f om <i>
Shigella spp.</i>&nbsp;that can enhance cytokine elease, the eby causing Hemoly
tic U emia Synd ome (HUS).
1402415921334 1395802358422 {{c1::Shigalike Toxin (SLT)}} is an exotoxin f
om Ente ohemo hagic <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;(EHEC) that inactivates the 60
S ibosome by emoving adenine f om RNA.
<b /><div><i>Includes the O157:
H7 st ain.</i></div>
1402416008097 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Shigalike Toxin (SLT) f om&n
bsp;Ente ohemo hagic&nbsp;<i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;(EHEC)?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inactivation of the 60S ibosomal subunit by emocing adenine f om R
NA}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Results in enhanced cytokine elease and Hemolytic
U emia Synd ome (HUS).</i></div>
1402416054795 1395802358422 {{c1::Shigalike Toxin (SLT)}} is an exotoxin f
om&nbsp;Ente ohemo hagic&nbsp;<i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;(EHEC) that can caus
e Hemolytic U emia Synd ome (HUS) by enhancing cytokine elease.
<b /><d
iv><i>Especially the O157:H7 st ain.</i></div><div><i><b>EHEC does not invade ho
st cells like Shigella.</b></i></div>
1402416127072 1395802358422 {{c1::Heatlabile toxin (LT)}} is an exotoxin f
om Ente otoxigenic <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;(ETEC) that ove activates adenyl
ate cyclase, the eby causing inc eased Cl sec etion and H2O efflux at the gut.
<div><b /></div><i>Inc eased cAMP = inc eased Cl sec etion and H2O efflux = wat
e y dia hea</i><b /><div><img s c="paste8662949036137.jpg" /></div>
1402416857407 1395802358422 {{c1::Heatstable Toxin (ST)}} is an exotoxin f
om Ente otoxigenic <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;(ETEC) that ove activates Guanyl
ate cyclase, the eby <b>dec easing</b>&nbsp;NaCl and H2O eso ption at the gut.
<div><b /></div><i>Inc eased cGMP = dec eased NaCl and H2O eso ption = wate y
dia hea</i><b /><div><img s c="paste8658654068841.jpg" /></div>
1402416975554 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Heat<b>labile</b>&nbsp;Toxin
f om Ente otoxigenic <i>Esche ichia coli </i>(ETEC)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1:
:Ove activation of adenylate cyclase, the eby inc easing cAMP levels and inc eas
ing Cl sec etion and H2O efflux in the gut}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te8658654068841.jpg" /></div>
1402417045996 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Heat<b>stable</b>&nbsp;Toxin
f om Ente otoxigenic <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;(ETEC)?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Ove activation of Guanylate cyclase, the eby causing inc eased cGMP levels
and a <b>dec ease</b>&nbsp;in NaCl and H2O eso ption at the gut}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste8658654068841.jpg" /></div>
1402417106874 1395802358422 {{c1::Heat<b>labile</b>&nbsp;toxin}} and&nbsp;{
{c2::Heat<b>stable </b>toxin}} a e 2 exotoxins f om Ente otoxigenic <i>Esche ic
hia coli</i>&nbsp;(ETEC) that can cause wate y dia hea by inc easing fluid sec
etion at the GI epithelium.
1402417490502 1395802358422 {{c1::Edema Facto }} is an exotoxin f om <i>Baci
llus anth acis</i>&nbsp;that mimics Adenylate Cyclase, the eby inc easing cAMP l
evels.
1402417553807 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Edema Facto toxin f om <i>Ba
cillus anth acis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mimic y of Adenylate Cyclase, t
he eby inc easing cAMP levels}}</div>
1402417601645 1395802358422 {{c1::Edema Facto toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <
i>Bacillus anth acis</i>&nbsp;that is likely esponsible fo the cha acte istic
edematous bo de s of black escha s seen in cutaneous anth ax.
1402417635906 1395802358422 {{c1::Chole a Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Vib
io chole ae</i>&nbsp;that ove activates Adenylate Cyclase th ough pe manent act
ivation of the G_s&nbsp;subunit via ADP ibosylation, the eby inc easi
ng Cl sec etion and H2O efflux at the gut.
<b /><div><i>Yields " icewate
" dia hea.</i></div>
1402417716210 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Chole a Toxin f om <i>Vib io
chole ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ove activation of Adenylate Cyclase by

pe manently activating the G_s&nbsp;subunit via ADP ibosylation}}</di
v>
<b /><div><i>This the eby causes an inc ease in Cl sec etion and H2O ef
fluc at the gut.</i></div>
1402417771627 1395802358422 {{c1::Chole a Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Vib
io chole ae</i>&nbsp;that causes voluminous <b>" icewate " dia hea</b>&nbsp;d
ue to ove activation of adenylate cyclase th ough pe manent activation of the G<
sub>s</sub>&nbsp;subunit.
1402417815559 1395802358422 {{c1::Pe tussis Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>B
o detella pe tussis</i>&nbsp;that ove activates adenylate cyclase by disabling t
he G_i&nbsp;subunit, the eby impai ing phagocytosis. <b /><div><i>Pe
mits the su vival of the mic obe.</i></div>
1402418691832 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Pe tussis Toxin f om <i>Bo de
tella pe tussis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ove activation of adenylate cycl
ase by disabling the G_i&nbsp;subunit, the eby impai ing phagocytosis}
}</div> <b /><div><i>Occu s via ADP Ribosylation</i></div>
1402418737393 1395802358422 {{c1::Pe tussis Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>B
o detella pe tussis</i>&nbsp;that causes <b>whooping cough</b>.
1402418770100 1395802358422 {{c1::Whooping cough}} is a espi ato y diso de
caused by Pe tussis Toxin f om <i>Bo detella pe tussis</i>&nbsp;and involves a
cough on expi ation and a "whoop" on inspi ation.
<b /><div><i>Typically
affects child en.</i></div><div><i>Toxin may not actually be a cause of the coug
h.</i></div><div><i>Can cause a "100day cough" in adults.</i></div>
1402418941004 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetanospasmin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Clo
st idium tetani</i>&nbsp;that cleaves SNARE p oteins equi ed fo neu ot ansmitt
e elease.
1402418986922 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tetanospasmin toxin f om <i>C
lost idium tetani</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cleavage of SNARE p oteins eq
ui ed fo neu ot ansmitte elease}}</div>
1402419013400 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetanus}} is a neu ological diso de cause
d by Tetanospasmin toxin f om <i>Clost idium tetani</i>&nbsp;that involves <b>sp
asticity, isus sa donicus</b>&nbsp;and <b>"lockjaw"</b>.
1402419160022 1395802358422 {{c1::Risus Sa donicus}} is a featu e of Tetanus
that is desc ibed as facial spasms that often follow t ismus (lockjaw).
1402419199569 1395802358422 {{c1::T ismus}} is a featu e of Tetanus that is
also efe ed to as Lockjaw
1402419218807 1395802358422 Which neu ot ansmitte 's elease is <b>p evented
</b>&nbsp;by the Tetanospasmin toxin f om <i>Clost idium tetani</i>?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::GABA; Glycine}}</div> <b /><div><i>Tetanus = spastic pa alysi
s. Hence, the e must be a <b>lack of inhibito y neu ot ansmitte s</b>.</i></div>
1402419296796 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetanus}} is a neu ological diso de cause
d by <i>Clost idium sp.</i>&nbsp;and is&nbsp;cha acte ized by <b>spastic pa alys
is</b>&nbsp;due to <b>inhibition of inhibito y neu ot ansmitte elease</b>&nbsp
;(GABA; Glycine) f om Renshaw cells of the spinal co d.
1402419379737 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulinum Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>C
lost idium botulinum</i>&nbsp;that cleaves SNARE p oteins equi ed fo neu ot an
smitte elease.
1402419529008 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Botulinum toxin f om <i>Clost
idium botulinum</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cleavage of SNARE p oteins equ
i ed fo neu ot ansmitte elease}}</div>
1402419564804 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulism}} is a neu ological diso de caus
ed by the Botulinum toxin f om <i>Clost idium botulinum</i>&nbsp;that p esents w
ith <b>flaccid pa alysis</b>&nbsp;o as <b>Floppy Baby Synd ome</b>&nbsp;in infa
nts.
1402419652276 1395802358422 Which neu ot ansmitte 's elease is <b>p evented
</b>&nbsp;by the Botulinum toxin f om <i>Clost idium botulinum</i>?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::ACh}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Botulism = flaccid pa alysis. Henc
e the e must be a <b>lack of stimulato y neu ot ansmitte s</b>.</i></div>
1402419732306 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulism}} is a neu ological diso de caus
ed by&nbsp;<i>Clost idium sp.</i>&nbsp;and is&nbsp;cha acte ized by&nbsp;<b>flac
cid pa alysis</b>&nbsp;due to&nbsp;<b>inhibition of stimulato y neu ot ansmitte

elease</b>&nbsp;(ACh) at the neu omuscula junction.
1402428216177 1395802358422 {{c1::Alpha Toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Clost
idium pe f ingens</i>&nbsp;that acts as a phospholipase (Lecithinase) that deg
ades tissue and cell memb anes.
1402428313614 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Alpha Toxin f om <i>Clost idi
um pe f ingens</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Phospholipase (Lecithinase) actio
n, the eby leading to deg adation of tissue and cell memb anes}}</div>
1402432070114 1395802358422 {{c1::Alpha toxin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Clost
idium pe f ingens</i>&nbsp;that deg ades phospholipids, the eby causing myonec
osis ("gas gang ene") and hemolysis.
<b /><div><i>The hemolysis is a "double
zone" of hemolysis on blood aga .</i></div>
1402432155838 1395802358422 {{c1::St eptolysin O}} is an exotoxin f om <i>St
eptococcus pyogenes</i>&nbsp;that functions to deg ade the cell memb ane.
1402432207851 1395802358422 What is the MOA of St eptolysin O f om <i>St ept
ococcus pyogenes</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Deg adation of the cell memb an
e, the eby causing cell lysis}}</div>
1402432235029 1395802358422 {{c1::St eptolysin O}} is an exotoxin made by <i
>St eptococcus pyogenes</i>&nbsp;that functions to lyse RBCs, the eby cont ibuti
ng to betahemolysis.
1402432533724 1395802358422 Which diso de is associated with ASO (AntiSt e
ptolysin O) antibodies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rheumatic feve }}</div>
<b /><div><i>Remembe , St eptolysin O is f om St eptococcus pyogenes.</i></div>
1402432627607 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxic Shock Synd ome Toxin (TSST1)}} is a
supe antigen exotoxin f om <i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>&nbsp;that b ings MHC II
and Tcell ecepto s in close p oximity to the antigen binding site, the eby ca
using ove whelming IFNgamma and IL2 elease. <b /><div><i>The eby causing sh
ock.</i></div>
1402432761359 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Toxic Shock Synd ome Toxin (T
SST1) f om <i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>?<div><b ></div><div>{{c1::B inging of M
HC II and Tcell ecepto s in p oximity to outside of the antigen binding site,
the eby causing ove whelming elease of IFNgamma and IL2}}</div>
<b ><div
><i>And subsequent shock.</i></div>
1402432829156 1395802358422 Which cytokines a e involved in the induction of
Toxic Shock Synd ome by supe antigen exotoxins?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IFN
gamma; IL2}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The eby inducing feve , ash and shock.</i
></div>
1402432869781 1395802358422 {{c1::Exfoliatin}} is an exotoxin f om <i>Staphy
lococcus au eus</i>&nbsp;that causes Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Synd ome (SSSS)
.
1402432972801 1395802358422 {{c1::Exotoxin A}} is a supe antigen exotoxin f
om <i>St eptococcus pyogenes</i>&nbsp;that b ings MHC II and Tcell ecepto s in
p oximity to the antigen binding site, the eby causing toxic shock synd ome.
1402433021202 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Exotoxin A f om <i>St eptococ
cus pyogenes</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Supe antigen; MHC II and TCR activa
tion, the eby causing massive elease of IFNgamma and IL2}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Not to be confused with Exotoxin A f om Pseudomonas ae uginosa which funct
ions to inactivate EF2 and p otein synthesis.</i></div>
1402433146269 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin}} is a vi ulence facto found in
g amnegative bacte ia that is made of Lipopolysaccha ide (LPS)
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste14753212662239.jpg" /></div>
1402433697999 1395802358422 Which activated complement p otein is chemotacti
c fo neut ophils?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::C5a}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste14748917694943.jpg" /></div>
1402433732008 1395802358422 {{c1::T ansfo mation}} is a bacte ial genetic p
ocess th ough with naked DNA is taken up f om the envi onment. <b /><div><i>Es
pecially seen with <b>S</b>t eptococcus pneumoniae, <b>H</b>aemophilus <b>i</b>n
fluenzae type B and <b>N</b>eisse ia spp. (<b>SHiN</b>).</i></div>
1402434152550 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::F+ plasmid}} is a bacte ial plasm
id that contains genes equi ed fo sex pilus and conjugation.
1402435735347 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::Highf equency ecombination (Hf )

cell}} is a bacte ial cell whose <b>F+ plasmid has become inco po ated into the
bacte ial ch omosomal DNA</b>. <b /><div><i>Hence when the plasmid DNA is epl
icated, some flanking ch omosomal DNA is likely to be as well. The efo e, plasmi
d and ch omosomal genes a e t ansfe ed.</i></div>
1402436340967 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::t ansposon}} is a segment of DNA th
at can "jump" f om one location to anothe via excision and einteg ation.
<b /><div><i>Th ough this, genes can be t ansfe ed f om plasmid to ch omosome
and vice ve sa.</i></div><div><i>Excision can include flanking ch omosomal DNA w
hich can be inco po ated into a plasmid and t ansfe ed to anothe bacte ium. Th
is is a way antibiotic esistance can be t ansmitted.</i></div>
1402439166361 1395802358422 {{c1::Gene alized t anduction}} is a type of bac
te ial t ansduction that involves cleavage of bacte ial DNA and pa tial packagin
g of bacte ial ch omosomal DNA into bacte iophage capsids following <b>lytic pha
ge</b>&nbsp;infection. <b /><div><i>The phage then infects anothe bacte ium,
t ansfe ing the genes.</i></div>
1402441659957 1395802358422 {{c1::Specialized t ansduction}} is a type of ba
cte ial t ansduction that involves a <b>lysogenic phage</b>&nbsp;infects a bacte
ium and inco po ates vi al DNA into the bacte ial ch omosome. <b /><div><i>Wh
en phage DNA is excised, flanking bacte ial genes may be excised with it and pac
kaged into vi al capsids.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste16896401342650.jpg" /
></i></div>
1402441976942 1395802358422 What is the Novobiocin sensitivity of <i>Staphyl
ococcus sap ophyticus</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Resistant}}</div> <div><b
/></div><i><b>"NO S</b>t<b>RES</b>s"</i><b /><div><img s c="paste172528836282
84.jpg" /></div>
1402442693838 1395802358422 What is the Novobiocin sensitivity of <i>Staphyl
ococcus epide midis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sensitive}}</div> <div><b
/></div><i>"<b>NO</b>&nbsp;<b>S</b>t<b>RES</b>s"<b /></i><div><img s c="paste
17248588660988.jpg" /></div>
1402442749529 1395802358422 What is the Optochin sensitivity of Vi idans St
eptococci (<i>St eptococcus mutans</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Resistant}}<
/div> <b /><div>"<b>OV</b>e<b>RP</b>a<b>S</b>s"</div><div><img s c="paste172
48588660988.jpg" /></div>
1402442905229 1395802358422 What is the Optochin sensitivity of <i>St eptoco
ccus pneumoniae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sensitive}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i>"<b>OV</b>e<b>RP</b>a<b>S</b>s"</i><b /><div><img s c="paste172485
88660988.jpg" /></div>
1402442951231 1395802358422 What is the Bacit acin sensitivity of G oup B St
ep (<i>St eptococcus agalactiae</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Resistant}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><i>"<b>BBRAS</b>"</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste172485886
60988.jpg" /></i></div>
1402443067677 1395802358422 What is the Bacit acin sensitivity of G oup A St
ep (<i>St eptococcus pyogenes</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sensitive}}</div
>
<b /><div><i>"<b>BBRAS</b>"</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste172485886
60988.jpg" /></i></div>
1402452771084 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is associated with the fo
mation of a g een ing a ound colonies on blood aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Alphahemolysis}}</div>
1402453279253 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is exhibited by&nbsp;<i>S
t eptococcus pneumoniae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Alphahemolysis}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Catalasenegative</i></div><div><i>Optochin sensitive</i></div>
1402453919315 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is exhibited by Vi idans
st eptococci (e.g.<i>&nbsp;St eptococcus mutans</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1:
:Alphahemolysis}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Catalasenegative</i></div><div><i
>Optochin esistant</i></div>
1402453965830 1395802358422 Which type of hemolysis is associated with the f
o mation of a <b>clea a ea</b>&nbsp;of hemolysis on blood aga ?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Betahemolysis}}</div>
1402454001343 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is exhibited by <i>Staphy
lococcus au eus</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Betahemolysis}}</div> <b /><d

iv><i>Catalasepositive</i></div><div><i>Coagulasepositive</i></div>
1402454023825 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is exhibited by G oup A S
t ep (<i>St eptococcus pyogenes</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Betahemolysis}
}</div> <b /><div><i>Catalasenegative</i></div><div><i>Bacit acin sensitive</i
></div>
1402454109380 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is exhibited by G oup B S
t ep (<i>St eptococcus agalactiae</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Betahemolysi
s}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Catalasenegative</i></div><div><i>Bacit acin esi
stant.</i></div>
1402454204136 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is exhibited by <i>Liste
ia monocytogenes</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Betahemolysis}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Tumbling motility; meningitis in newbo ns; unpasteu ized milk.</i></div>
1402454541483 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is associated with G oup
D St ep (and <i>Ente ococcus faecalis</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gammahem
olysis}}</div>
1402454604773 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is associated with <i>St
eptococcus bovis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gammahemolysis}}</div>
1402454645478 1395802358422 Whe e in the espi ato y t act does <i>Staphyloc
occus au eus</i>&nbsp;commonly colonize?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste22
982370001162.jpg" /></div><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nose}}</div>
1402455154189 1395802358422 {{c1::P otein A}} is a vi ulence facto f om <i>
Staphylococcus au eus</i>&nbsp;that binds to the F_c&nbsp;po tion of I
gG, the eby inhibiting complement activation and phagocytosis.
1402456144030 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>
&nbsp;causes Toxic Shock Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Toxic Shock Synd o
me Toxin (TSST1)}}</div>
1402456203626 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>
&nbsp;causes Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Synd ome (SSSS)?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Exfoliatin}}</div>
1402456236692 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>
&nbsp;causes apidonset food poisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Staphylococc
al ente otoxins}}</div> <b /><div><i>Incubation pe iod is ve y sho t (26 h s)
due to the toxins being p efo med. The ente otoxin is heat stable and hence is
not dest oyed by cooking.</i></div>
1402456305846 1395802358422 {{c1::Pneumonia}} is a espi ato y complication
of <i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>&nbsp;infection that commonly a ises afte an inf
luenza vi us infection.
1402456347862 1395802358422 {{c1::Methicillin esistant <i>Staphylococcus au
eus</i>&nbsp;(MRSA)}} is a fo m of <i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>&nbsp;that is e
sistant to methicillin and nafcillin due to alte ed penicillinbinding p oteins.
<b /><div><i>MRSA is an impo tant cause of se ious nocosomial and communityacq
ui ed infections.</i></div>
1402456529801 1395802358422 How does vaginal o nasal tampon use influence t
he isk of getting Toxic Shock Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</
div>
1402456890495 1395802358422 What is the catalase exp ession of <i>Staphyloco
ccus au eus</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402456952709 1395802358422 What is the coagulase exp ession of <i>Staphyloc
occus au eus</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <b /><div><i>Co
agulase helps Staphylococcus au eus fo m fib in clots a ound itself, fo ming a s
o t of abscess.</i></div>
1402456998509 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus epide midis</i>}} is a <
i>Staphylococcus</i>&nbsp;species that commonly infects p osthetic devices and i
nt avenous cathete s by p oducing adhe ent biofilms.
<b /><div><i>Component
of no mal skin flo a.</i></div><div><i>Contaminates blood cultu es.</i></div><di
v><i>Novobiocin sensitive.</i></div>
1402457468984 1395802358422 Which <i>Staphylococcus </i>species is the <b>2n
d most common</b>&nbsp;cause of uncomplicated UTI in young women?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus sap ophyticus</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Es
che ichia coli is the most common.</i></div>

1402457591435 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is the most common cause of menin
gitis?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste26530012987655.jpg" /><b /><div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>St eptococcus pneumoniae</i>}}</div></div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste25396141621449.jpg" /></div>
1402457846530 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is the most common cause of otiti
s media in child en?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste26525718020359.jpg" />
<b /><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St eptococcus pneumoniae</i>}}</div></div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste25396141621449.jpg" /></div>
1402457866068 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is the most common cause of pneum
onia?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste26525718020359.jpg" /><b /><div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>St eptococcus pneumoniae</i>}}</div></div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste25400436588745.jpg" /></div>
1402457903262 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is the most common cause of sinus
itis?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste26525718020359.jpg" /><b /><div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>St eptococcus pneumoniae</i>}}</div></div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste25396141621449.jpg" /></div>
1402458991108 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>St eptococcus pneumoniae</i>}} is a lan
cetshaped&nbsp;<i>St eptococcus</i>&nbsp;species that is associated with <b>" u
sty" sputum</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste26525718020359.jpg" /></di
v>
<b /><div><i>Encapsulated</i></div><div><i>IgA P otease positive.</i></
div>
1402459120332 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>St eptococcus pneumoniae</i>}} is a lan
cetshaped <i>St eptococcus</i>&nbsp;species that is associated with sepsis in s
ickle cell anaemia and splenectomy.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste2652571
8020359.jpg" /></div> <b /><div><i>Encapsulated.</i></div><div><i>IgA P oteas
e positive.</i></div>
1402519769834 1395802358422 Whe e a e Vi idans St eptococci no mally found i
n the body?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::O opha ynx}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"V
i idans St ep live in the mouth because they a e not af aid <b>ofthechin</b>&n
bsp;(<b>optochin</b>&nbsp; esistant)"</i></div>
1402519840481 1395802358422 Which species of Vi idans St eptococci commonly
causes dental ca ies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St eptococcus mutans</i>}}</
div>
1402519869398 1395802358422 Which species of Vi idans St eptococci is known
to cause subacute bacte ial endoca ditis at damaged valves?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::<i>St eptococcus sanguinis</i>}}</div> <b /><div><i>Sanguis = blood =
hea t = endoca ditis</i></div>
1402519948842 1395802358422 {{c1::Dext ans}} is a vi ulence facto f om <i>S
t eptococcus sanguinis </i>that binds to fib inplatelet agg egates on damaged h
ea t valves, the eby allowing fo bacte ial endoca ditis.
1402520542547 1395802358422 Which <i>St eptococcus</i>&nbsp;species is consi
de ed G oup A St ep?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St eptococcus pyogenes</i>}}<
/div>
1402520588882 1395802358422 Which <i>St eptococcus </i>species is conside ed
G oup B St ep?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St eptococcus agalactiae</i>}}</di
v>
1402520605294 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;<i>St eptococcus&nbsp;</i>species is
known to cause&nbsp;Sca let Feve ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St eptococcus p
yogenes</i>&nbsp;(G oup A St ep)}}</div>
1402521425886 1395802358422 Which <i>St eptococcus </i>species is known to c
ause Nec otizing Fasciitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St eptococcus pyogenes
</i>&nbsp;(G oup A St ep)}}</div>
1402521446966 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;<i>St eptococcus&nbsp;</i>species is
known to cause Rheumatic Feve ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St eptococcus pyog
enes</i>&nbsp;(G oup A St ep)}}</div>
1402521470315 1395802358422 Antibodies to {{c1::M P otein}}, a vi ulence fac
to f om <i>St eptococcus pyogenes</i>, enhances host defenses against the bacte
ia but can give ise to Rheumatic Feve .
1402521522702 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;<i>St eptococcus&nbsp;</i>species is
associated with an inc ease in ASO tite s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St epto

coccus pyogenes</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>ASO tite s a e indicative of ecen
t S. pyogenes infection.</i></div>
1402521567796 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatic Feve }} and&nbsp;{{c2::acute glo
me uloneph itis}} a e 2 immunological complications of pha yngitis caused by <i>
St eptococcus pyogenes</i>.
<b /><div><i>"St ep <b>PH</b>a yngitis can beco
me Rheumatic <b>PH</b>eve and glome ulone<b>PH</b> itis."</i></div>
1402522057796 1395802358422 {{c1::Sca let Feve }} is a toxigenic complicatio
n of <i>St eptococcus pyogenes</i>&nbsp;infection that involves a <b>sca let as
h</b>&nbsp;with <b>sandpape like textu e</b>, a <b>st awbe y tongue</b>&nbsp;a
nd <b>ci cumo al pallo </b>.
1402522205348 1395802358422 {{c1::Polya th itis}} is a musculoskeletal featu
e of Rheumatic Feve that involves inflammation at multiple joints.
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste3732326580468.jpg" /></div>
1402522246576 1395802358422 {{c1::Panca ditis}} is a ca diac complication of
Rheumatic Feve that involves inflammation of all 3 laye s of the hea t.
<b /><div><img s c="paste3728031613172.jpg" /></div>
1402522355051 1395802358422 {{c1::Subcutaneous nodules}} is a cutaneous comp
lication of Rheumatic Feve .
<b /><div><img s c="paste3728031613172.jpg" />
</div>
1402522361498 1395802358422 {{c1::E ythema ma ginatum}} is a cutaneous compl
ication of Rheumatic Feve that is desc ibed as an <b>annula , nonp u itic ash<
/b>&nbsp;with <b>e ythematous bo de s</b>.
<b /><div><i>Commonly seen at t
he t unk and limbs.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste3728031613172.jpg" /></i></
div>
1402522678704 1395802358422 {{c1::Sydenham Cho ea}} is a neu ological compli
cation of Rheumatic Feve that involves apid, involunta y muscle movements.
<b /><div><img s c="paste3728031613172.jpg" /></div>
1402522704864 1395802358422 Whe e is G oup B St ep (<i>St eptococcus agalact
iae</i>) no mally found in the body?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vagina}}</div>
<b /><div><i>St eptococcus <b>VAG</b>alactiae</i></div><div><i>P egnant women a
e sc eened fo St eptococcus agalactiae at 3537 weeks of gestation. Patients w
ith a positive cultu e eceive int apa tum penicillin p ophylaxis.</i></div>
1402522917302 1395802358422 Which "g oup" of <i>St eptococcus</i>&nbsp;bacte
ia a e known to cause pneumonia, meningitis and sepsis mainly in <b>babies</b>?
<div><b />{{c1::<i>St eptococcus agalactiae</i>&nbsp;(G oup B St ep)}}</div>
<b /><div><i>G oup <b>B</b>&nbsp;is fo the <b>B</b>abies.</i></div>
1402523212304 1395802358422 {{c1::CAMP Facto }} is a p otein p oduced by <i>
St eptococcus agalactiae</i>&nbsp;(G oup B St ep) that functions to enla gen the
a ea of hemolysis yielded by <i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>.
<b /><div><i>CA
MP ≠ cAMP.</i></div>
1402523420232 1395802358422 What Hippu ate Test esult is yielded by <i>St e
ptococcus agalactiae</i>&nbsp;(G oup B St ep)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positi
ve}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The Hippu ate Test gauges whethe o not the o gan
ism can hyd olyze hippu ate.</i></div>
1402524036532 1395802358422 Whe e in the body a e G oup D St eptococci (<i>E
nte ococcus faecalis</i>&nbsp;and <i>Ente ococcus faecium</i>) no mally found?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div> <b /><div><i>G oup D st eptococci inclu
de:</i></div><div><i>Ente ococcal</i></div><div><i>Nonente ococcal (St eptococc
us bovis)</i></div>
1402524179050 1395802358422 {{c1::Subacute endoca ditis}} is a ca diac compl
ication caused by&nbsp;G oup D St eptococci (<i>Ente ococcus faecalis</i>&nbsp;a
nd&nbsp;<i>Ente ococcus faecium</i>) following GI/GU p ocedu es.
1402524276587 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is Nonente ococcal&nbsp;G oup
D St eptococci (<i>St eptococcus bovis</i>) no mally found?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::GI}}</div>
1402524394914 1395802358422 What type of cance is associated with <b>bacte
emia</b>&nbsp;and <b>subacute endoca ditis</b>&nbsp;caused by&nbsp;Nonente ococ
cal&nbsp;G oup D St eptococci (<i>St eptococcus bovis</i>)?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Colon cance }}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>B</b>ovis in the <b>B</b>lood =
<b>C</b>ance in the <b>C</b>olon.</i></div>

1402524441767 1395802358422 Which g ampositive bacte ia causes Diphthe ia t
h ough a potent extoxin that inhibits p otein synthesis via ADP ibosylation of
EF2?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Co ynebact ium diphthe iae</i>}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>The toxin is encoded by a betap ophage.</i><div><i>Toxoid v
accine can p event Diphthe ia.<b /></i><div><img s c="paste7400228651293.jpg"
/></div></div>
1402525073764 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudomemb anous pha yngitis}} is a featu
e of Diphthe ia that involves a <b>g ayishwhite memb ane</b>&nbsp;fo ming in th
e pha ynx.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste7194070221082.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>The e is also lymphadenopathy, myoca ditis and a hythmias.</i></d
iv>
1402525174067 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Co ynebacte ium spp.</i>}} is a g ampo
sitive, <b>club shaped</b>&nbsp;bacte ia that yields <b>black colonies</b>&nbsp;
on cystinetellu ite aga .
<div><b /></div><i>It also has metach omatic (b
lue and ed) g anules and a positive Elek test fo the toxin.</i><b /><div><img
s c="paste7404523618589.jpg" /></div>
1402525322268 1395802358422 Which chemical compound found in the co e of bac
te ial spo es functions to cont ibute to thei heat esistance?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Dipicolinic Acid}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Spo es must be autoclaved
to be killed (steamed at 121 C fo 15 min).</i></div><div><i>Spo e fo ming g am
positives in soil:</i></div><div><i> Bacillus anth acis</i></div><div><i> Clos
t idium pe f ingens</i></div><div><i> Clost idium tetani</i></div><div><i>Othe
spo e fo ming bacte a:</i></div><div><i> Bacillus ce eus</i></div><div><i> Cl
ost idium botulinum</i></div><div><i> Coxiella bu netti</i></div>
1402526056674 1395802358422 Which toxin f om <i>Clost idium tetani</i>&nbsp;
causes Tetanus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tetanospasmin}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Remembe , tetanospasmin cleaves SNARE p oteins involved in neu ot ansmissi
on. It p events the elease of GABA and Glycine, 2 inhibito y neu ot ansmitte s,
the eby causing <b>spastic pa alysis</b>, t ismus and isus sa donicus.</i></di
v>
1402526161207 1395802358422 {{c1::Floppy Baby Synd ome}} is a fo m of Botuli
num that is seen in babies following ingestion of spo es in honey.
<div><b
/></div><i><b>BOT</b>ulinum is f om bad <b>BOT</b>tles of food and honey.</i><b
/><div><i>In adults, the p efo med toxin is ingested to cause Botulinum.</i></
div>
1402527211303 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Clost idium pe f ingens</
i>&nbsp;functions as a phospholipase, the eby causing myonec osis (gas gang ene)
and hemoylsis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Alphatoxin}}</div> <b /><div><i>Ph
ospholipase, lecithinase activity.</i></div><div><i><b>PERF</b> ingens <b>PERF</
b>o ates a gang enous leg.</i></div>
1402527467355 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxin A}} is an ente otoxin f om <i>Clost
idium difficile</i>&nbsp;that binds to the b ush bo de of the gut.
1402527707136 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Clost idium difficile </i
>functions to bind to the b ush bo de of the gut?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::To
xin A}}</div>
1402527727710 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxin B}} is a cytotoxin f om <i>Clost idi
um difficile</i>&nbsp;that causes cytoskeletal dis uption via actin depola izati
on, the eby causing <b>pseudomemb anous colitis</b> and <b>dia hea</b>.
<b /><div><i><b>DI</b>fficile causes <b>DI</b>a hea.</i></div>
1402527819144 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Clost idium difficile</i>
&nbsp;causes cytoskeletal dis uption via actin depolyme ization?<div><b />{{c1:
:Toxin B}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The eby causes <b>pseudomemb anous colitis
</b>&nbsp;and <b>dia hea</b>.</i></div>
1402528301015 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Clost idium</i>&nbsp;often c
auses infection following antibiotic use, especially clindamycin o ampicillin?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Clost idium difficile</i>}}</div>
1402528339247 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Clost idium diffici
le</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Met onidazole; O al Vancomycin}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Fo ecu ing cases, fecal t ansplant may p event a elapse.</i></
div>

1402528453642 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Bacillus anth acis</i>}} is a g amposi
tive, spo efo ming od that causes Anth ax via the anth ax toxin.<div><b /></d
iv><div><img s c="paste10857677324705.jpg" /></div>
1402529845478 1395802358422 What is the only bacte ium with a polypeptide ca
psule?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bacillus anth acis</i>}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>It contains Dglutamate</i></div>
1402529871324 1395802358422 Which amino acid makes up the polypeptide capsul
e of <i>Bacillus anth acis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dglutamate}}</div>
1402529904606 1395802358422 {{c1::Cutaneous Anth ax}} is a type of anth ax t
hat p esents with <b>boillike lesions</b>&nbsp;and <b>ulce s with black escha s
</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste11132555231651.jpg" /></div> <b /><d
iv><i>The boils/ulce s a e painless but nec otic.</i></div><div><i>Ve y uncommon
ly does cutaneous anth ax p og ess to bacte emia and death.</i></div>
1402530028091 1395802358422 What type of Anth ax p esents with cutaneous ulc
e s with black escha s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous Anth ax}}</div><div
><b /></div><div><img s c="paste11128260264355.jpg" /></div>
1402530059278 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmona y Anth ax}} is a type of Anth ax t
hat is obtained via inhalation of spo es.
1402530422851 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmona y Anth ax}} is a type of Anth ax t
hat p esents with <b>flulike symptoms</b>&nbsp;that apidly p og ess to feve ,
pulmona y hemo hage, mediastinitis and shock.
1402530947653 1395802358422 What type of Anth ax is obtained th ough the inh
alation of <i>Bacillus anth acis</i>&nbsp;spo es?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pul
mona y anth ax}}</div>
1402530981575 1395802358422 {{c1::Woolso te s' Disease}} is a type of pulmon
a y anth ax that is obtained f om the inhalation of spo es f om contaminated woo
d.
1402538199987 1395802358422 What type of food is associated with <i>Bacillus
ce eus</i>&nbsp;food poisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rice}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Hence "<u>Reheated Rice Synd ome</u>".</i></div><div><i>Spo es su
vive the cooking of ice.</i></div><div><i>Keeping ice wa m esults in ge minat
ion of the spo es and subsequent ente otoxin fo mation.</i></div>
1402538430203 1395802358422 {{c1::Ce eulide}} is an ente otoxin f om <i>Baci
llus ce eus</i>&nbsp;that causes the <b>Emetic</b>&nbsp;type of <i>Bacillus ce e
us</i>&nbsp;food poisoning.
1402538473732 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Bacillus ce eus</i>&nbsp;
causes the <b>emetic type</b>&nbsp;of <i>Bacillus ce eus</i>&nbsp;food poisoning
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ce eulide}}</div>
1402538510274 1395802358422 Which type of&nbsp;<i>Bacillus ce eus</i>&nbsp;f
ood poisoning has the sho test incubation pe iod?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Eme
tic type}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Emetic type = nausea and vomiting 15 h s
post consumption</i></div><div><i>Dia heal type = wate y, nonbloody dia hea wi
th GI pain 818 h s post consumption</i></div>
1402538581035 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Emetic}} type of&nbsp;<i>Bacillus
ce eus</i>&nbsp;food poisoning p esents with <b>nausea</b>&nbsp;and <b>vomiting
</b>&nbsp;within <b>15 h s</b>&nbsp;of consumption.
1402538632896 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Dia heal}} type of&nbsp;<i>Bacil
lus ce eus</i>&nbsp;food poisoning p esents with <b>wate y, nonbloody dia hea</
b>&nbsp;and <b>GI pain</b>&nbsp;within 818 h s of consumption.
1402539907068 1395802358422 What foods a e associated with acquisition of <i
>Liste ia monocytogenes</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Unpasteu ized dai y; del
i meats}}</div>
1402539931229 1395802358422 Besides ingestion of contaminated food, how is <
i>Liste ia monocytogenes</i>&nbsp;t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T ansp
lacentally; vaginally du ing childbi th}}</div> <b /><div><i>Liste ia monocytog
enes can cause amnionitis, septicemia and spontaneous abo tion in p egnant women
.</i></div>
1402540262016 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Liste ia monocytogenes</i>}} is a g am
positive facultative int acellula bacte ia that fo ms <b>" ocket tails"</b>&nbs
p;via manipulation of actin filaments, the eby allowing them to move th ough the

cytoplasm and celltocell without ente ing the ECF. <b /><div><i>This way,
Liste ia is able to avoid antibodies.</i></div>
1402540339170 1395802358422 What type of motility does <i>Liste ia monocytog
enes</i>&nbsp;have?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tumbling}}</div>
1402540355262 1395802358422 What is the only g ampositive bacte ia to p odu
ce lipopolysaccha ide (LPS)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Liste ia monocytogene
s</i>}}</div>
1402540822790 1395802358422 {{c1::G anulomatosis Infantiseptica}} is a compl
ication of fetomate nal liste iosis (<i>Liste ia monocytogenes</i>) seen in neon
ates that involves the fo mation of pyogenic g anulomas dist ibuted ove the who
le body.
1402540925193 1395802358422 Which age g oup is commonly affected by meningit
is caused by<i>&nbsp;Liste ia monocytogenes</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Neon
ates; Newbo ns}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , Liste ia can be acqui ed t ansva
ginally du ing childbi th.</i></div>
1402541050124 1395802358422 How does Liste iosis (<i>Liste ia monocytogenes<
/i>) commonly p esent in healthy individuals?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mild ga
st oente itis}}</div>
1402541083693 1395802358422 What is the <b>empi ical</b>&nbsp;t eatment fo
infants, immunocomp omised patients and the elde ly with suspected meningitis f
om <i>Liste ia monocytogenes</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ampicillin}}</div>
1402592222774 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces spp.</i>}} and&nbsp;{{c2::<
i>Noca dia spp.</i>}} a e both g ampositive bacte ia that fo m long, b anching
filaments esembling fungi.
1402593371183 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Actinomyces<
/i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anae obe}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te790273982886.jpg" /></div>
1402593397734 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>Actinomyces</i>&nbsp;no
mally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::O al cavity}}</div>
1402593709544 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces spp.</i>}} is a g ampositi
ve, filamentous bacte ia that causes o al/facial abscesses that d ain th ough th
e sinus t acts. <b /><div><img s c="paste785979015590.jpg" /></div>
1402593749717 1395802358422 What type of pigment is associated with <i>Actin
omyces spp</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Yellow "sulfu g anules"}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste785979015590.jpg" /></div>
1402593770382 1395802358422 Which g ampositive, filamentous bacte ia is ass
ociated with yellow "sulfu g anules"?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Actinomyces
spp.</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste785979015590.jpg" /></div>
1402593795360 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Actinomyces spp.</i
>&nbsp;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillin}}</div>
1402593810596 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Noca dia spp
</i>.?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ae obe}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te1331439862178.jpg" /></div>
1402594064144 1395802358422 Which stain (othe than G am) is equi ed to vis
ualize <i>Noca dia spp.</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Acid Fast; <i>Noca dia</
i> is weakly acid fast}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste1327144894882.jpg" />
</div>
1402594106515 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Noca dia spp.</i>}} is a g ampositive,
filamentous bacte ia that is no mally found in soil.<div><b /></div><div><img
s c="paste1327144894882.jpg" /></div>
1402594127203 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Noca dia spp.</i>}} is a g ampositive,
filamentous bacte ia that causes pulmona y infections in the immunocomp omised
and cutaneous infections afte t auma in the immunocompetent.<div><b /></div><d
iv><img s c="paste1327144894882.jpg" /></div>
1402594170914 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Noca dia spp.</i>&n
bsp;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sulfonamides}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.
g. Sulfamethoxazole (SMX)</i></div>
1402594286235 1395802358422 What is the etiology of P ima y and Seconda y Tu
be culosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium tube culosis</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste1687922148096.jpg" /></div>

1402595044576 1395802358422 Which demog aphic is commonly affected by P ima
y Tube culosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Non immune host (i.e. child en); Immu
nocomp omised}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste1683627180800.jpg" /></div>
1402595083354 1395802358422 Which a ea of the lung is the Ghon focus usually
found in P ima y Tube culosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Middle}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste1683627180800.jpg" /></div>
1402595520978 1395802358422 Whe e in the lung does <b> eactivation</b>&nbsp;
of Tube culosis no mally occu ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Uppe lobe}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste1683627180800.jpg" /></div>
1402595580027 1395802358422 {{c1::Pott Disease}} is a possible complication
of ext apulmona y Tube culosis that involves sp ead of infection to ve teb al bo
dies. <b /><div><img s c="paste1683627180800.jpg" /></div>
1402595697031 1395802358422 {{c1::Caseating G anulomas}} a e a featu e of se
conda y tube culosis desc ibed as fib ocaseous cavita y lesions with cent al nec
osis and multinucleated Lange hans giant cells.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
paste2241972928930.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Cent al pinkish egion is
the nec osis.</i></div><div><i>A ow points to the Lange hans cell.</i></div>
1402596041435 1395802358422 Which Mycobacte ia species is known to cause Tub
e culosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium tube culosis</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Often esistant to many d ugs.</i></div>
1402597026328 1395802358422 Which Mycobacte ia species causes pulmona y <b>T
Blike</b>&nbsp;symptoms (but not TB)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobacte i
um kansasii</i>}}</div> <b /><div><i>TBlike symptoms include feve , night swea
ts, weight loss and hemoptysis.</i></div>
1402597472014 1395802358422 Which Mycobacte ia species causes disseminated,
nonTB disease in AIDS patients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium avi
umint acellula e</i>}}</div> <b /><div><i>Often esistant to multiple d ugs.
</i></div>
1402597564621 1395802358422 Which stain is equi ed to visualize all <i>Myco
bacte ium</i>&nbsp;<i>spp.</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Acidfast}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste3246995276057.jpg" /></div>
1402597655383 1395802358422 {{c1::Co d Facto }} is a vi ulence facto in vi
ulent <i>Mycobacte ium sp.</i>&nbsp;that <b>inhibits mac ophage matu ation</b>&n
bsp;and <b>induces the elease of TNFalpha</b>.
1402597710214 1395802358422 {{c1::Sulfatides}} a e su face glycolipids found
on <i>Mycobacte ium sp.</i>&nbsp;that inhibit phagolysosomal fusion.
1402597758898 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Lep osy (Hansen Disease)
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium lep ae</i>}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Acidfast.</i></div><div><i>Loves cool tempe atu es.</i></div>
1402598428843 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium lep ae</i>}} is an acidf
ast bacillus that causes Lep osy (Hansen Disease).
1402599041268 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium lep ae</i>}} is a the bac
te ial cause of Lep osy that <b>likes cool tempe atu es</b>, the eby esulting i
n infection of the skin and supe ficial ne ves. <b /><div><i>This leads to a <b
>"glove and stocking" loss of sensation.</b></i></div><div><i>This is also means
that Mycobacte ium lep ae cannot be g own in vit o.</i></div>
1402599265400 1395802358422 {{c1::"Glove and Stocking" sensation loss}} is a
neu ological complication of Lep osy due to p efe ential infection of the skin
and supe ficial ne ves by <i>Mycobacte ium lep ae</i>. <b /><div><i>Remembe ,
this is because Mycobacte ium lep ae likes cool tempe atu es (i.e. the su face a
nd ext emities of the body).</i></div>
1402599332424 1395802358422 Which animal is the ese voi fo <i>Mycobacte i
um lep ae</i>&nbsp;in the USA?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A madillo}}</div>
1402599360392 1395802358422 Which fo m of Lep osy (Hansen Disease) is lethal
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Lep omatous fo m}}</div>
1402599578849 1395802358422 Which fo m of Lep osy p esents diffusely ove th
e skin with&nbsp;<b>leonine (lionlike) facies</b>?<div><b /></div><div><img s
c="paste4913442586912.jpg" /><b /><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Lep omatous}}</d
iv></div>
1402599681991 1395802358422 Which fo m of Lep osy p esents with a <b>"glove

and stocking" </b>dist ibution of digit defo mation?<div><b /></div><div><img s
c="paste4956392260002.jpg" /></div><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Lep omatous}}</
div>
<b /><div><i>This is due to senso y loss and epeates t auma in the ext
emities.</i></div><div><i>Remembe , Mycobacte ium lep ae likes coole tempe atu
es and hence infects the skin and supe ficial ne ves at the ext emities.</i></d
iv>
1402599771427 1395802358422 Which fo m of Lep osy is cha acte ized by <b>low
cellmediated immunity</b>&nbsp;with a <b>humo al Th₂&nbsp; esponse<
/b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Lep omatous}}</div>
1402599929170 1395802358422 Which fo m of Lep osy is cha acte ized by <b>hig
h cellmediated immunity </b>with a la gely <b>Th₁&nbsp;immune espon
se</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tube culoid}}</div>
1402600174598 1395802358422 The {{c1::Tube culoid}} fo m of Lep osy is the f
o m limited to a few <b>hypoesthetic, hai less skin plaques</b>.
1402600204809 1395802358422 Which fo m of Lep osy is limited to a few <b>hyp
oesthetic, hai less skin plaques</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tube culoid}}</
div>
1402600237041 1395802358422 {{c1::Dapsone}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Rifampin}} a e 2
antimycobacte ial d ugs used to t eat the Tube culoid fo m of Lep osy. <b /><d
iv><i>The Tube culoid fo m is t eated with a 6 month egimen of Dapson and Rifam
pin.</i></div>
1402600753865 1395802358422 {{c1::Dapsone}},&nbsp;{{c2::Rifampin}}, and&nbsp
;{{c3::Clofazimine}} a e antimycobacte ial d ugs used to t eat the Lep omatous
fo m of Lep osy.
<b /><div><i>The Lep omatous fo m is t eated with a 25
yea egimen of Dapsone, Rifampin and Clofazimine.</i></div>
1402600814505 1395802358422 What colou colonies do lactosefe menting ente
ic bacte ia yield on MacConkey aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>"</b>Ma<b>C</b>on<b>KEE</b>'<b>S</b>"</i></div><div><i><b> C</
b>it obacte </i></div><div><i> <b>K</b>lebsiella</i></div><div><i> <b>E</b>nte
obacte </i></div><div><i> <b>E</b>sche ichia</i></div><div><i> <b>S</b>e ati
a (weak fe mente )</i></div>
1402613840602 1395802358422 What colou colonies do&nbsp;<i>Cit obacte spp.
</i>&nbsp;yield on MacConkey Aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Due to lactose fe mentation.</i></div>
1402613877962 1395802358422 What colou colonies do <i>Klebsiella spp.</i>&n
bsp;yield on MacConkey Aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Due to lactose fe mentation.</i></div>
1402613902009 1395802358422 What colou colonies do <i>Ente obacte spp.</i>
&nbsp;yield on MacConkey Aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Due to lactose fe mentation.</i></div>
1402613927906 1395802358422 What colou colonies do <i>Se atia spp.</i>&nbs
p;yield on MacConkey Aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Due to lactose fe mentation.</i></div>
1402613946370 1395802358422 {{c1::Betagalactosidase}} is an enzyme p oduced
by <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;that b eaks down lactose into glucose and galac
tose.
1402619093228 1395802358422 What colou colonies do lactose fe menting bacte
ia yield on EosinMethylene Blue (EMB) aga ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pu ple/
black}}</div> <b /><div><i>Esche ichia coli g ows pu ple colonies with a g ee
n sheen.</i></div>
1402619167193 1395802358422 How does Penicillin G affect g amnegative bacte
ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No effect}}</div>
<b /><div><i>G amnegat
ives a e esistant to Penicillin G as the oute memb ane laye inhibits ent y.</
i></div>
1402620434178 1395802358422 How does Vancomycin influence g amnegatives bac
te ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No effect}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The oute
memb ane laye of g amnegative bacte ia does not let Vancomycin ente .</i></div
>
1402674610539 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Neisse ia</i>&nbsp;fe ments
glucose <b>only</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia gono heae</i>}}</d

iv>
<b /><div><i><b>G</b>onococcus = <b>G</b>lucose only</i></div>
1402675610097 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Neisse ia</i>&nbsp;fe ments
glucose <b>and</b>&nbsp;maltose?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia meningi
tidis</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>M</b>enin<b>G</b>ococcus = <b>M</b>alto
se and <b>G</b>lucose</i></div>
1402675655473 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA P otease}} is a p otein sec eted by <i
>Neisse ia spp.</i>&nbsp;that functions to cleave sec eted host IgA.
1402676290201 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Neisse ia</i>&nbsp;is often
found int acellula ly in neut ophils?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste10222
02216727.jpg" /></div><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia gono heae</i>}}<
/div>
1402676332023 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Neisse ia</i>&nbsp;has a pol
ysaccha ide capsule?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>}}<
/div> <b /><div><i>Gonococcus <b>does not</b>&nbsp;have a polysaccha ide caps
ule.</i></div>
1402676915794 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>}} is a specie
s of <i>Neisse ia</i>&nbsp;that has no vaccine due to apid antigenic va iation
of pilus p oteins.
1402676951058 1395802358422 Which se otype of <i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>&
nbsp;lacks a vaccine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type B}}</div>
1402676962607 1395802358422 How is <i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>&nbsp;t ansmi
tted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sexually}}</div>
1402677908050 1395802358422 How is <i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>&nbsp;t ansm
itted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Respi ato y and O al sec etions}}</div>
1402677924333 1395802358422 {{c1::FitzHughCu tis Synd ome}} is a a e comp
lication of pelvic inflammato y disease (PID) caused by <i>Neisse ia gono hoeae
</i>&nbsp;that involves inflammation of the live capsule and fo mation of adhes
ions.
1402678005051 1395802358422 {{c1::Neonatal Conjunctivitis}} is an ocula inf
ection seen in neonates due to <i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>&nbsp;infection du in
g childbi th.
1402678045935 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Gono hea?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>}}</div>
1402678070433 1395802358422 {{c1::Septic A th itis}} is a musculoskeletal co
mplication of <i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>&nbsp;infection.
1402678102937 1395802358422 What is the etiology of meningococcemia?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>}}</div>
1402678464715 1395802358422 {{c1::Wate houseF ide ichsen Synd ome}} is a co
mplication of meningococcemia that is desc ibed as <b>ad enal gland failu e</b>&
nbsp;due to <b>hemo haging into the ad enal glands.</b>
1402678661954 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Neisse ia meningiti
dis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ceft iaxone (o Penicillin G)}}</div>
1402678713631 1395802358422 How is <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nbsp;t ansm
itted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ae osol}}</div>
1402679622262 1395802358422 Which st ain of <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nb
sp;causes the most invasive disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Type B}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>The H. influenzae vaccine contains Type B capsula polysacch
a ides conjugated to diphthe ia toxoid o anothe p otein. It is given between 2
and 18 months.</i><b /><div><i>The nontypeable st ains cause mucosal infectio
ns (e.g. otitis media, conjunctivitis, b onchitis).</i></div>
1402679705999 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA P otease}} is a p otein made by <i>Hae
mophilus influenzae</i>&nbsp;that functions to cleave sec eted host IgA.
1402679943109 1395802358422 Which aga is equi ed to cultu e <i>Haemophilus
influenzae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Chocolate aga }}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Chocolate aga contains the equi ed Facto V (NAD+) and Facto X (Hematin
)</i></div>
1402680098931 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>}} is a g amp
ositive bacte ia that can be used to g ow <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nbsp;due
to its ability to p ovide Facto V (NAD+).
1402680179686 1395802358422 {{c1::"Thumbp int Sign"}} is a featu e of Epiglo

ttitis caused by <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nbsp;that is seen on a late al ne
ck x ay.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste3904125272481.jpg" /></div>
1402680282680 1395802358422 {{c1::Epiglottitis}} is a complication of <i>Hae
mophilus influenzae</i>&nbsp;infection that often p esents as a "che y ed" epi
glottis in child en.<div><b /><div><img s c="paste3990024618262.jpg" /></div><
/div> <b /><div><i>Ha<b>EMOP</b>hilus influenzae:</i></div><div><i> <b>E</b>
piglottitis</i></div><div><i> <b>M</b>eningitis</i></div><div><i> <b>O</b>titi
s media</i></div><div><i> <b>P</b>neumonia</i></div><div><i>H. influenzae does
not cause the flu. That is the influenza vi us.</i></div>
1402680394869 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>mucosal</b>&nbsp;<i
>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nbsp;infections?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Amoxicil
lin (+/ Clavulanate)}}</div>
1402680440254 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo meningitis caused by <
i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ceft iaxone}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Rifampin can be used fo p ophylaxis following close contact.</i><
/div>
1402681890002 1395802358422 What stain is equi ed to p ope ly visualize <i>
Legionella pneumophila</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Silve stain}}</div>
1402682772705 1395802358422 What cultu e/aga is equi ed to g ow <i>Legione
lla pneumophila</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cha coal yeast ext act with i on
and cysteine}}</div> <b /><div><i>Legionella is clinically detected by the p
esence of antigen in the u ine.</i></div>
1402682850107 1395802358422 How is <i>Legionella pneumophila</i>&nbsp;t ansm
itted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ae osol f om envi onmental wate sou ce to hab
itat}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. ai conditioning unit; hot wate tanks</i></d
iv><div><i>The e is no pe sontope son t ansmission</i></div>
1402683018488 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Legionella pneumoph
ila</i>&nbsp;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mac olides o Quinolones}}</d
iv>
1402683040477 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Legionnai es' Disease?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Legionella pneumophila</i>}}</div>
1402683239774 1395802358422 {{c1::Legionnai es' Disease}} is a espi ato y d
iso de caused by <i>Legionella pneumophila</i>&nbsp;that p esents with <b>seve
e pneumonia</b>, feve , <b>GI</b>&nbsp;and <b>CNS </b>symptoms.
1402683305813 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Pontiac Feve ?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Legionella pneumophila</i>}}</div>
1402683318268 1395802358422 {{c1::Pontiac Feve }} is a feve caused by <i>Le
gionella pneumophila</i>&nbsp;that p esents as a <b>mild flulike synd ome</b>.
1402683374374 1395802358422 Which elect olyte imbalance is seen in the labs
of a patient with <i>Legionella pneumophila</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hypo
nat emia}}</div>
1402683406615 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Pseudomonas
ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ae obic}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Ps
eudomonas <b>AER</b>uginosa = <b>AER</b>obic</i></div>
1402683469962 1395802358422 What is the oxidase exp ession of <i>Pseudomonas
ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402683513183 1395802358422 Which pigment made by <i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa<
/i>&nbsp;gives it its blueg een pigment?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste7
387343749400.jpg" /></div><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pyocyanin}}</div>
1402683543013 1395802358422 What type of odou is associated with <i>Pseudom
onas ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G apelike odou }}</div>
1402683559398 1395802358422 Which exotoxin f om <i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i
>&nbsp;functions to inactivate EF2 via ADP Ribosylation?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Exotoxin A}}</div>
1402683605448 1395802358422 Which g amnegative bacte ia is associated with
wound and bu n infections?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa<
/i>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste8057358647504.jpg" /></div>
1402684265625 1395802358422 Which g amnegative bacte ia is associated with
pneumonia in cystic fib osis patients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas
ae uginosa</i>}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>Ch onic pneumonia in cystic fib osis

patients is associated with biofilms, an a ea in which Pseudomonas is a sta .</
i><b /><div><img s c="paste8053063680208.jpg" /></div>
1402684318361 1395802358422 Which g amnegative bacte ia is associated with
malignant Otitis Exte na in diabetics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas
ae uginosa</i>}}</div>
1402684350685 1395802358422 Which g amnegative bacte ia is associated with
hot tub folliculitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}}
</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste8053063680208.jpg" /></div>
1402684375413 1395802358422 Which g amnegative bacte ia is associated with
Diabetic Osteomyelitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>
}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste8053063680208.jpg" /></div>
1402684416711 1395802358422 Which g amnegative bacte ia is associated with
Ecthyma Gang enosum?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste8529805050270.jpg" /><
b /><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}}</div></div>
1402684461597 1395802358422 {{c1::Ecthyma Gang enosum}} is a cutaneous diso
de caused by <i>Pseudomonas sp.</i>&nbsp;that is desc ibed as apidly p og essi
ve, nec otic cutaneous lesions.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste85255100829
74.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Typically seen in immunocomp omised patien
ts.</i></div>
1402684552834 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Pseudomonas ae ugin
osa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Betalactam ( Aminoglycoside)}}</div>
1402684942766 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo a&nbsp;<b>UTI</b>&nbsp
;caused by <i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cip ofloxac
in}}</div>
1402701900936 1395802358422 Which vi ulence facto f om <i>Esche ichia coli<
/i>&nbsp;allows it to cause cystitis and pyeloneph itis?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::Fimb iae}}</div>
1402702796660 1395802358422 Which vi ulence facto f om&nbsp;<i>Esche ichia
coli</i>&nbsp;allows it to cause pneumonia and neonatal meningitis?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::K capsule}}</div>
1402702816170 1395802358422 Which vi ulence facto f om&nbsp;<i>Esche ichia
coli</i>&nbsp;allows it to cause septic shock?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::LPS en
dotoxin}}</div>
1402702831849 1395802358422 {{c1::Ente oinvasive <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
p;(EIEC)}} is a st ain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;that <b>invades</b> the i
ntestinal mucosa, the eby causing nec osis and inflammation and subsequent dysen
te y.
1402702967849 1395802358422 {{c1::Ente oinvasive&nbsp;<i>Esche ichia coli</i
>&nbsp;(EIEC)}} is a st ain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;that clinically p es
ents simila to <i>Shigella</i>&nbsp;infection.
1402702989205 1395802358422 {{c1::Ente otoxigenic <i>Esche ichia coli </i>(E
TEC)}} is a st ain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;that p oduces both <u>heatla
bile</u>&nbsp;and <u>heatstable</u>&nbsp;ente otoxins. <b /><div><i>Does not c
ause inflammation and <u>is not invasive</u>.</i></div>
1402703101476 1395802358422 What is the etiology of T avele s' Dia hea?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ente otoxigenic&nbsp;<i>Esche ichia coli&nbsp;</i>(ETEC)
}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Wate y dia hea.</i></div><div><i>E<b>T</b>EC = <b
>T</b> avele s' Dia hea</i></div>
1402703136653 1395802358422 {{c1::Ente opathogenic <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&n
bsp;(EPEC)}} is a st ain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;that <b>adhe es to the
apical su face of GI epithelium, flattens villi</b>&nbsp;and the eby causes <b>m
alabso ption</b>.
<b /><div><i>Causes wate y dia hea, typically in child
en.</i></div><div><i>E<b>P</b>EC = <b>P</b>ediat ic patients</i></div>
1402703308145 1395802358422 {{c1::Ente ohemo hagic <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&
nbsp;(EHEC)}} is a st ain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;that p oduces a <b>Shi
galike&nbsp;toxin</b>&nbsp;that causes Hemolytic U emia Synd ome (HUS).
<b /><div><i>The toxin alone causes nec osis and inflammation, the eby causing
dysente y.</i></div>
1402703401230 1395802358422 What is the most common se otype of&nbsp;Ente oh
emo hagic&nbsp;<i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;(EHEC)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::

O157:H7}}</div>
1402703433847 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic U emia Synd ome (HUS)}} is a hem
atological/ enal complication of&nbsp;Ente ohemo hagic&nbsp;<i>Esche ichia coli
</i>&nbsp;(EHEC) infection that involves a t iad of&nbsp;<b>anaemia, th ombocyto
paenia</b><i style="fontweight: bold; ">&nbsp;</i>and <b>acute enal failu e</b
>.
<b /><div><i>Mic oth ombi fo m on endothelium that is damaged by the Sh
igalike toxin. This then causes mechanical hemolysis and fo mation of schistocy
tes. That also causes a dec ease in enal blood flow.</i></div><div><i>Additiona
lly, the mic oth ombi esults th ombocytopaenia due to the platelet usage.</i></
div>
1402703499005 1395802358422 {{c1::Ente ohemo hagic&nbsp;<i>Esche ichia coli
</i>&nbsp;(EHEC)}} is a st ain of <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;that is also efe
ed to as Shiga toxinp oducing <i>Esche ichia coli</i>.
1402703632090 1395802358422 Which majo st ain of <i>Eche ichia coli</i>&nbs
p;<b>does not</b>&nbsp;fe ment So bitol?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ente ohemo
hagic&nbsp;<i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;(EHEC)}}</div> <b /><div><i>This is ho
w you diffe entiate EHEC f om othe Esche ichia coli st ains.</i></div>
1402704125904 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Klebsiella</i>}} is a g amnegative ins
testinal bacte ia that causes loba pneumonia in alcoholics and diabetics when a
spi ated.
<div><b /></div><i>Also a cause of nocosomial UTIs.</i><b /><d
iv><img s c="paste13327283519705.jpg" /></div>
1402705097593 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Klebsiella spp.</i>}} is a g amnegativ
e intestinal flo a that g ows ve y mucoid colonies due to an abundance of polysa
ccha ide capsules.
1402705143390 1395802358422 Which g amnegative intestinal flo a is associat
ed with <b> ed "cu ant jelly"</b>&nbsp;sputum?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Kl
ebsiella spp.</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste13322988552409.jpg" /
></div>
1402705195876 1395802358422 What type of motility does <i>Salmonella</i>&nbs
p;have?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Flagella}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"Salmon ca
n swim" (i.e. Salmonella has a flagella)</i></div><div><i>Shigella <b>does not</
b>&nbsp;have a flagella.</i></div>
1402705418836 1395802358422 How does <i>Salmonella</i>&nbsp;disseminate in t
he body?<div><b />{{c1::Hematogenously}}</div>
1402705440214 1395802358422 How does <i>Shigella</i>&nbsp;disseminate in the
body?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cell to cell}}</div> <b /><div><i>It <b>does
not</b>&nbsp;sp ead hematogenously (Salmonella does).</i></div>
1402705480143 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyd ogen sulfide}} is a chemical compound
with a cha acte istic smell of otten eggs. It is <b>made by </b><i style="font
weight: bold; ">Salmonella</i>, but <b>not <i>Shigella</i>.</b>
1402706128586 1395802358422 How do antibiotics influence the du ation of fec
al exc etion of <i>Salmonella</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P olongation}}</di
v>
1402706169399 1395802358422 How do antibiotics influence the du ation of fec
al exc etion of <i>Shigella</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sho tening}}</div>
1402706193971 1395802358422 What type of immune esponse is seen once <i>Sal
monella</i>&nbsp;invades the intestinal mucosa?<div><b />{{c1::Monocytic espon
se}}</div>
1402707681139 1395802358422 What type of immune esponse is seen when <i>Shi
gella</i>&nbsp;invades the intestinal mucosa?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PMN Inf
ilt ation}}</div>
1402707714140 1395802358422 What is the etiology fo Typhoid Feve ?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Salmonella typhi</i>}}</div>
1402708338576 1395802358422 {{c1::Typhoid Feve }} is a feve caused by <i>Sa
lmonella typhi</i>&nbsp;that p esents with <b> ose spots on the abdomen</b>, fev
e , headache and dia hea.
1402708366492 1395802358422 What is the ese voi fo <i>Salmonella typhi</i
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Humans only}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It can em
ain in the gallbladde and cause a ca ie state.</i></div>
1402708857743 1395802358422 How is <i>Campylobacte jejuni</i>&nbsp;t ansmit

ted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fecalo al}}</div>
1402708942499 1395802358422 What foods a e associated with <i>Campylobacte
jejuni</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Poult y; Meat; Unpasteu ized Milk}}</div>
1402708972493 1395802358422 What type of dia hea does <i>Campylobacte jeju
ni</i>&nbsp;cause?<div><b />{{c1::Bloody; especially in child en}}</div>
1402708990506 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Campylobacte jejuni</i>}} is a <b>comm
a</b>&nbsp;o <b>Sshaped</b>&nbsp;g amnegative bacillus that is a majo cause
of bloody dia hea, especially in child en.
1402709037963 1395802358422 What is the Oxidase exp ession of <i>Campylobact
e jejuni</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402709054386 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Campylobacte jejuni</i>}} is a <b>comm
a</b>&nbsp;o <b>Sshaped</b>&nbsp;g amnegative bacillus that g ows at 42 C.
<b /><div><i><b>CAMP</b>ylobacte likes the hot <b>CAMP</b>fi e.</i></div>
1402709619219 1395802358422 Which g amnegative bacillus is a common anteced
ent to <b>GuillainBa e Synd ome</b>&nbsp;and eactive a th itis?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Campylobacte jejuni</i>}}</div>
1402709659136 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Vib io chole ae</i>}} is a <b>commasha
ped</b> g amnegative bacillus that p oduces a p ofuse icewate dia hea via a
n ente otoxin that pe manently activates the G_s&nbsp;subunit, the eby
inc easing cAMP.
<b /><div><i>Endemic in developing nations.</i></div><d
iv><i>P ompt o al ehyd ation is necessa y.</i></div>
1402710228196 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Chole a toxin f om <i>Vib io
chole ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pe manent activation of the G<sub>s</su
b>&nbsp;subunit leading to ove activity of Adenylate Cyclase and inc eased cAMP}
}</div>
1402710260851 1395802358422 What is the oxidase exp ession of <i>Vib io chol
e ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402711710666 1395802358422 What type of media is equi ed to cultu e <i>Vib
io chole ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::An alkaline media}}</div>
1402711752320 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ye sinia ente ocolitica</i>}} is a g am
negative bacte ia that causes a mesente ic adenitis that can mimic C ohn Diseas
e o Appendicitis in its p esentation.
1402711796664 1395802358422 How is <i>Ye sinia ente ocolitica</i>&nbsp;t ans
mitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pet feces; Contaminated Milk; Po k}}</div>
1402711828007 1395802358422 What type of gast ointestinal ulce is most comm
only associated with <i>Helicobacte pylo i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Duod
enal}}</div>
1402712439398 1395802358422 What is the Oxidase exp ession of <i>Helicobacte
pylo i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402712470507 1395802358422 What is the Catalase exp ession of <i>Helicobact
e pylo i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402712488672 1395802358422 What is the U ease exp ession of <i>Helicobacte
pylo i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<b /><div><i>A
U ease b eath test o fecal antigen test can be used fo diagnosis.</i></div>
1402712523662 1395802358422 How does the pH of the stomach change with <i>He
licobacte pylo i</i>&nbsp;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mo e alkaline (
inc eased pH)}}</div>
1402712733388 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Helicobacte pylo i
</i>&nbsp;infection?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste16664473108755.jpg" />
<b /><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T iple the apy: PPI + Cla ith omycin + Amoxici
llin/Met onidazole}}</div></div>
1402712785869 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Spi ochetes}} a e a g oup of bact
e ia that a e spi alshaped with axial filaments.<div><b /></div><div><img s c=
"paste16707422781769.jpg" /></div>
<div><b /></div><b><i>BLT</i></b><b />
<div><i>It includes <b>B</b>o elia (big), <b>L</b>eptospi a, <b>T</b> eponema.<
/i></div>
1402712865855 1395802358422 Which is the only Spi ochete that can be visuali
zed using anilin dyes (W ight o Giemsa) in light mic oscopy?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::<i>Bo elia</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Remembe , Bo elia is the
biggest spi ochete.</i></div>

1402712913007 1395802358422 What type of mic oscopy is equi ed to visualize
the Spi ochete&nbsp;<i>T eponema</i>?<div><b />{{c1::Da kfield mic oscopy}}</
div>
1402712939269 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Leptospi osis?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Leptospi a inte ogans</i>}}</div> <b /><div><i>Leptospi o
sis p esents with flulike symptoms, jaundice, photophobia with conjunctival suf
fusion (e ythema without exudate).</i></div>
1402713050920 1395802358422 Which Spi ochete is found in wate contaminated
with animal u ine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Leptospi a inte ogans</i>}}</d
iv>
1402713110665 1395802358422 {{c1::Leptospi osis}} is an infectious disease c
aused by <i>Leptospi a inte ogans</i>&nbsp;that p esents with <b>flulike sympt
oms, jaundice</b>&nbsp;and <b>photophobia with conjunctival suffusion</b>&nbsp;(
e ythema without exudate).
1402713162648 1395802358422 Which demog aphic shows a high p evalence of Lep
tospi osis (<i>Leptospi a inte ogans</i>)?<div><b />{{c1::Su fe s; T opics}}</
div>
<b /><div><i>Hence Hawaii is a big hot spot.</i></div>
1402713204303 1395802358422 {{c1::Weil Disease (Icte ohemo hagic Leptospi o
sis)}} is a seve e fo m of Leptospi osis that p esents with <b>jaundice</b>&nbsp
;and <b>azotemia</b>&nbsp;f om live and enal dysfunction.
<b /><div><i><u
>Also involves feve , hemo hage and anaemia</u>.</i></div>
1402775605621 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Lyme Disease?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>Bo elia bu gdo fe i</i>}}</div>
1402779671287 1395802358422 How is Lyme Disease (<i>Bo elia bu gdo fe i</i>
) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::via the <i>Ixodes</i>&nbsp;tick}}</div
>
<b /><div><img s c="paste2263447765209.jpg" /></div>
1402779699146 1395802358422 Which vecto t ansmits Lyme Disease (<i>Bo elia
bu gdo fe i</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ixodes</i>&nbsp;tick}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste2263447765209.jpg" /></div>
1402779720891 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Babesia</i>}} is a species of p otozoa
t ansmitted by the <i>Ixodes</i>&nbsp;tick that causes a hematological infection
.
<b /><div><img s c="paste2267742732505.jpg" /></div>
1402779823546 1395802358422 Which animal is the natu al ese voi fo <i>Bo
elia bu do fe i</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mouse}}</div> <b /><div><i>Mi
ce a e impo tant in the tick life cycle.</i></div>
1402780394007 1395802358422 In which a ea of the United States is Lyme Disea
se common?<div><b />{{c1::No theaste n United States}}</div>
1402780493044 1395802358422 {{c1::E ythemia Ch onicum Mig ans}} is an <b>ini
tial</b> cutaneous featu e of Lyme Disease that is desc ibed as an expanding <b>
"bull's eye", ed, ta get</b>&nbsp; ash.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste25
76980378017.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Othe initial featu es include flu
like symptoms and  facial ne ve palsy.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste32427003
08685.jpg" /></i></div>
1402780699113 1395802358422 Which ne ve palsy is a potential <b>initial</b>&
nbsp;symptom of Lyme Disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Facial Ne ve Palsy}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="paste3246995275981.jpg" /></div>
1402782513236 1395802358422 {{c1::A th itis}} is a musculoskeletal complicat
ion seen in Lyme Disease.
<b /><div><i>Monoa th itis in la ge joints.</i>
</div><div><i>Mig ato y polya th itis elsewhe e.</i></div><div><i><img s c="past
e3242700308685.jpg" /></i></div>
1402782559050 1395802358422 Which ca diac conduction diso de is seen in <b>
late</b>&nbsp;Lyme Disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AV nodal block}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste3242700308685.jpg" /></div>
1402782592347 1395802358422 {{c1::Facial Ne ve Palsy}} is a neu ological sym
ptom seen in <b>late</b>&nbsp;Lyme Disease that p esents alongside <b>encephalop
athy</b>&nbsp;and <b>polyneu opathy</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="paste32427
00308685.jpg" /></div>
1402783498648 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Lyme Disease?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Doxycycline; Ceft iaxone}}</div>
1402783520457 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Syphilis?<div><b /></di

v><div>{{c1::<i>T eponema pallidum</i>}}</div>
1402784024193 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Syphilis?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Penicillin G}}</div>
1402784054464 1395802358422 {{c1::P ima y Syphilis}} is a type of Syphilis t
hat p esents with localized, <b>painless</b>&nbsp;chanc es.<div><b /></div><div
><img s c="paste4118873637280.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>So y, but you kne
w the e was going to be a dick pic when it came to Syphilis...</i></div>
1402785088773 1395802358422 What type of mic oscopy is equi ed to visualize
<i>T eponema pallidum</i>&nbsp;in the fluid f om Syphilis chanc es?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Da kfield mic oscopy}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste42649
02525152.jpg" /></div>
1402785400150 1395802358422 {{c1::Seconda y Syphilis}} is a fo m of Syphilis
that p esents as a disseminated disease with a&nbsp;<b>maculopapula ash</b>&n
bsp;on the <b>palms</b>&nbsp;and <b>soles</b>. <b /><div><i><b>S</b>econda y =
&nbsp;<b>S</b>ystemic</i></div>
1402785772078 1395802358422 {{c1::Seconda y Syphilis}} is a fo m of Syphilis
that p esents with <b>condylomata lata</b>.
<b /><div><i>These can also be
confi med via da kfield mic oscopy once the T eponemes have been sampled.</i></
div><div><i><b>S</b>econda y = <b>S</b>ystemic</i></div>
1402786184387 1395802358422 {{c1::Te tia y Syphilis}} is a fo m of Syphilis
that p esents with <b>Gummas</b>&nbsp;(ch onic g anulomas that fo m).
1402786224435 1395802358422 {{c1::Ao titis}} is a complication of <b>Te tia
y</b>&nbsp;Syphilis that p esents due to <b>dest uction of the vasa vaso um</b>&
nbsp;at la ge blood vessels.
1402786292768 1395802358422 {{c1::Te tia y Syphilis}} is a fo m of Syphilis
that p esents with <b>ao titis</b>&nbsp;that occu s due to dest uction of the va
sa vaso um.
1402786405306 1395802358422 {{c1::Tabes Do salis (Syphilitic Myelopathy)}} i
s a featu e of <b>Te tia y</b>&nbsp;Syphilis that p esents with&nbsp;<b>gene al
pa esis</b>&nbsp;and <b>loss of sensation</b>&nbsp;due to slow degene ation of t
he do sal column of the spinal co d.
1402786769436 1395802358422 {{c1::A gyllRobe tson pupil}} is a featu e of <
b>Te tia y</b>&nbsp;Syphilis that is desc ibed as a pathological pupil that <b>s
hows accommodation</b>&nbsp;but <b>does not eact to light</b>. <b /><div><i>i.
e. the pupil const icts to focus on a nea object, but <u>does not cont ict</u>&
nbsp;when exposed to b ight light.</i></div><div><i>aka <b>P ostitute</b>&nbsp;P
upil (lol, no lie, it's on page 142 of fi st aid)</i></div>
1402787091177 1395802358422 What fo m of Syphilis is associated with <b>b oa
dbased ataxia</b>&nbsp;and a <b>positive Rombe g sign</b>?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Te tia y syphilis; Neu osyphilis}}</div>
1402787284311 1395802358422 What fo m of Syphilis is associated with <b>Cha
cot joint </b>(Neu opathic a th opathy)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Te tia y Syp
hilis; Neu osyphilis}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Cha cot joint involves p og essive
degene ation of a weight bea ing joint due to dec eased pe iphe al sensation/p
op ioception/moto cont ol (e.g. Neu osyphilis).</i></div>
1402787503569 1395802358422 Which fo m of Syphilis p esents with <b>st oke w
ithout hype tension</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Te tia y Syphilis}}</div>
1402787527065 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Syphilis}} is a fo m of syphili
s that p esents with <b>sabe shin </b>and <b>saddle nose</b>. <b /><div><i>Co
ngenital syphilis can be p evented by ea ly t eatment in the mothe , as placenta
l t ansmission typically occu s <u>afte </u>&nbsp;the fi st t imeste .</i></div>
1402787736314 1395802358422 {{c1::Sabe shin}} is a mo phological featu e of
Congenital Syphilis that p esents as a sha p ante io bowing of the tibia.
1402787765159 1395802358422 {{c1::Saddle Nose}} is a mo phological featu e o
f Congenital Syphilis that p esents with a loss of height of the nose due to a c
ollapsed nose b idge (nasal do sum).
1402787831199 1395802358422 Which fo m of Syphilis is associated with <b>CN
VIII (Vestibulocochlea Ne ve) Deafness</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Congenit
al syphilis}}</div>
1402787876141 1395802358422 {{c1::Hutchinson teeth}} is a mo phological feat

u e of Congenital Syphilis that is desc ibed as teeth that a e <b>notched</b>,&n
bsp;<b>smalle </b> and <b>mo e widely spaced</b> than no mal.<div><b /></div><d
iv><img s c="paste6545530159374.jpg" /></div>
1402787985378 1395802358422 Which type of Syphilis is associated with <b>Hut
chinson teeth?</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div>{{c1::Congenital Syphilis}}</div>
1402788064471 1395802358422 {{c1::Mulbe y mola s}} a e a mo phological feat
u e of Congenital Syphilis that a e desc ibed as multiple ounded udimenta y en
amel cusps on the pe manent fi st mola s.
1402788779441 1395802358422 {{c1::VDRL}} is a nonspecific test fo Syphilis
that detects a nonspecific antibody that eacts with beef ca diolipin.
1402789401319 1395802358422 {{c1::VDRL}} is a nonspecific test fo Syphilis
that involves many false positive test esults.
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te7962869367009.jpg" /></div>
1402789442508 1395802358422 {{c1::Ja ischHe xheime Reaction}} is a flulik
e synd ome that p esents afte antibiotics a e administe ed in a patient due to
widesp ead elease of py ogens f om killed bacte ia.
1402789637427 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Anaplasmosis?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>Anaplasma spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794149604 1395802358422 How it Anaplasmosis (<i>Anaplasma spp.</i>) t an
smitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ixodes</i>&nbsp;tick (which lives on dee
and mice)}}</div>
1402794189885 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Cat Sc atch Disease?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ba tonella spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794201690 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Bacilla y Angiomatosis?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ba tonella spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794228777 1395802358422 How is Bacilla y Angiomatosis (<i>Ba tonella spp
.</i>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cat sc atch}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Ba tonella also causes cat sc atch disease.</i></div>
1402794276603 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Relapsing Feve ?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bo elia ecu entis</i>}}</div>
1402794294219 1395802358422 How is Relapsing Feve (<i>Bo elia ecu entis<
/i>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Louse}}</div>
1402794315636 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::louse}} is an insect that se ves
as the vecto fo <i>Bo elia ecu entis</i>&nbsp;(Relapsing Feve ) as it has v
a iable su face antigens.
<b /><div><i>The antigen va iability makes it
ecu ent.</i></div>
1402794360559 1395802358422 What is the etiology of B ucellosis?<div><b />{
{c1::<i>B ucella spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794808165 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Undulent Feve ?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>B ucella spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794822559 1395802358422 What food is associated with <i>B ucella spp.</i
>&nbsp;infection?<div><b />{{c1::Unpasteu ized dai y}}</div>
1402794842557 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is associated with <i>Camp
ylobacte jejuni</i>?<div><b />{{c1::Bloody dia hea}}</div>
1402795042313 1395802358422 Which pet animals a e associated with <i>Campylo
bacte </i>&nbsp;infection?<div><b />{{c1::Puppies}}</div>
1402795071306 1395802358422 Aside f om puppies, how else is <i>Campylobacte
spp.</i>&nbsp;t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Livestock (fecalo al via
ingestion of unde cooked meat)}}</div>
1402795398398 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Psittacosis?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i>}}</div>
1402795417638 1395802358422 How is Psittacosis (<i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i
>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Pa ots</u>&nbsp;o othe bi ds}}<
/div>
1402795442685 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Q Feve ?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Coxiella bu netti</i>}}</div>
1402795461611 1395802358422 How is Q Feve (<i>Coxiella bu netti</i>) t ansm
itted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ae osols of cattle/sheep amniotic fluid}}</div
>
1402795486165 1395802358422 What is the etiology of E lichiosis?<div><b /><

/div><div>{{c1::<i>E lichia chaffeensis</i>}}</div>
1402795514168 1395802358422 How is E lichiosis (<i>E lichia chaffeensis</i>)
t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Lone Sta ticks}}</div>
1402795542279 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Tula emia?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>F ancisella tula ensis</i>}}</div>
1402795561828 1395802358422 How is Tula emia (<i>F ancisella tula ensis</i>)
t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Rabbits</u>, ticks, dee fly}}</div>
1402795592883 1395802358422 What is the etiology of <b>Epidemic </b>Typhus?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Rickettsia p owazekii</i>}}</div> <b /><div><i>E<
b style="textdeco ation: unde line; ">P</b>idemic = <b style="textdeco ation:
unde line; ">P</b> owazeki</i></div>
1402795760707 1395802358422 What is the vecto fo <b>Epidemic</b>&nbsp;Typh
us&nbsp;(<i>Rickettsia p owazeki</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Human Body Lou
se}}</div>
1402796062112 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Rocky Mountain Spotted F
eve ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Rickettsia ickettsii</i>}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>All Rickettsiae a e&nbsp;<b>Obligate int acellula o ganism</b>&nbsp;as th
ey equi e CoA and NAD+. They cannot synthesize ATP.</i></div>
1402796136402 1395802358422 What is the vecto fo Rocket Mountain Spotted F
eve (<i>Rickettsia ickettsii</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>De macento </
i>&nbsp;ticks}}</div>
1402796160322 1395802358422 What is the etiology of <b>Endemic</b>&nbsp;Typh
us?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Rickettsia typhi</i>}}</div>
1402796183971 1395802358422 What is the vecto fo <b>Endemic</b>&nbsp;Typhu
s (<i>Rickettsia typhi</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fleas}}</div>
1402796200016 1395802358422 What is the cause of Bubonic Plague?<div><b />{
{c1::<i>Ye sinia pestis</i>}}</div>
1402796398454 1395802358422 How is Bubonic Plague (<i>Ye sinia pestis</i>) t
ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fleas}}</div>
1402796422932 1395802358422 What animals a e the ese voi fo <i>Ye sinia p
estis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rats; P ai ie Dogs}}</div>
1402796444702 1395802358422 Which pleomo phic, g am<b>va iable</b>&nbsp; od
is known to be involved in <b>vaginosis</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ga d
ne ella vaginalis</i>}}</div> <div><b /></div>
1402796626970 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ga dne ella vaginalis</i>}} is a pleomo
phic bacillus that causes a vaginosis that p esents with a <b>g ay vaginal disc
ha ge</b>&nbsp;that has a <b>fishy</b>&nbsp;smell.
<b /><div><i>Associated
with sexual activity, but is not sexually t ansmitted.</i></div>
1402796857261 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ga dne ella vaginalis</i>}} is a pleomo
phic, <b>g amva iable</b> bacillus that yields a <b>nonpainful</b>&nbsp;vagino
sis.
<b /><div><i>The nonpainful point is impo tant as vaginitis p esents wi
th pain.</i></div>
1402796943140 1395802358422 {{c1::Clue cells}} a e cells that featu e vagino
sis caused by <i>Ga dne ella vaginalis</i>&nbsp;and a e desc ibed as <b>vaginal
epithelial cells cove ed with </b><i><b>Ga dne ella vaginalis</b>.</i><div><i><b
/></i></div><div><i><img s c="paste11751030522135.jpg" /></i></div> <b /><d
iv><i>Visible unde the mic oscope.</i></div>
1402797071989 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo vaginosis caused by <i
>Ga dne ella vaginalis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Met onidazole}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The anae obic ove g owth of bacte ia seen alongside the vaginosis
can be t eated with Clindamycin.</i></div>
1402797631619 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo all diso de s caused b
y <i>Rickettsia spp</i>.?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Doxycycline}}</div>
1402797720987 1395802358422 Whe e in the United States does Rocky Mountain S
potted Feve p ima ily manifest?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::South Atlantic state
s, especially No th Ca oline}}</div>
1402798047687 1395802358422 {{c1::Rocky Mountain Spotted Feve }} is a zoonot
ic infection caused by <i>Rickettsia ickettsii</i>&nbsp;that p esents with a a
sh that typically sta ts at the <b>w ists and ankles</b>&nbsp;and then sp eads t
o the <b>t unk, palms and soles</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste131511

89860772.jpg" /></div> <b /><div><img s c="paste14160507175097.jpg" /></div>
1402799228982 1395802358422 {{c1::Typhus}} is a Rickettsial disease that p e
sents with a <b> ash that sta ts cent ally and sp eads out</b>, but <b>spa es th
e palms and soles</b>. <b /><div><i><b>R</b>MSF (R. <b><u> </u></b>icketsii) =
palms/soles/w<b>R</b>ists</i></div><div><i><b>T</b>yphus (R. typhi; R. p owazek
ii) = <b>T</b> unk</i></div>
1402799339029 1395802358422 {{c1::Eh lichiosis}} and {{c2::Anaplasmosis}} a
e Rickettsial diseases that p esents with <b>monocytes with mo ulae</b>&nbsp;in
thei cytoplasm.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste14538464297377.jpg" /></di
v>
1402799415933 1395802358422 {{c1::Mo ulae}} a e <b>be ylike</b> cytoplasmi
c inclusions seen in the monocytes of a patient with Eh lichiosis o Anaplasmosi
s.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste14534169330081.jpg" /></div>
1402799666317 1395802358422 {{c1::Q Feve }} is a Rickettsial disease that ca
n be obtained via ae osolized spo es eleased f om tick feces o cattle placenta
.
1402799860948 1395802358422 {{c1::Q Feve }} is a Rickettsial diso de caused
by <i>Coxiella bu netti</i>&nbsp;that p esents as pneumonia. <b /><div><img
s c="paste15302968475811.jpg" /></div>
1402799896649 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Elementa y body}} is the mo pholo
gical fo m of Chlamydiae that is <b>infectious</b>&nbsp;and <b>ente s the host c
ell via endocytosis</b>.
<b /><div><i><b>E</b>lementa y = Is "<b>e</b>nf
ectious" and&nbsp;<b>e</b>nte s ta get host cell via <b>e</b>ndocytosis</i></div
>
1402800491518 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Reticulate body}} is the mo pholo
gical fo m of Chlamydiae that <b> eplicates</b>&nbsp;inside the ta get host cell
by fission.
<b /><div><i><b>R</b>eticulate body = <b>R</b>eplicates into el
ementa y bodies</i></div>
1402800544876 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Reite Synd ome?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>}}</div>
1402800583375 1395802358422 {{c1::Reite Synd ome}} is a type of eactive a
th itis that is caused by <i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>.
1402800604002 1395802358422 Which Chlamydiae o ganism is known to cause Foll
icula Conjunctivitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>}}
</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste15921443766555.jpg" /></div>
1402800819957 1395802358422 Which Chlamydiae o ganism is known to cause nong
onococcal u eth itis and pelvic inflammato y disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1:
:<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>}}</div>
1402800864696 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Chlamydophila pneumoniae</i>}} and&nbsp
;{{c2::<i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i>}} a e 2 Chlamydiae o ganisms that cause aty
pical pneumonia via ae osol t ansmission.
1402800912650 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo all Chlamydiae infecti
ons?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Azith omycin (favou ed Abx due to onetime t eat
ment); Doxycycline}}</div>
1402800943048 1395802358422 {{c1::Mu amic Acid}} is a suga acid commonly fo
und in bacte ial cell walls, howeve <b>not in Chlamydiae</b>.
1402801168380 1395802358422 Which se otypes of <i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&
nbsp;a e associated with ch onic infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A; B; C}}
</div>
1402801299661 1395802358422 Which se otypes of&nbsp;<i>Chlamydia t achomatis
</i>&nbsp;a e associated with blindness due to Follicula Conjunctivitis, especi
ally in Af ica?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A; B; C}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b
>ABC</b>&nbsp;= <b>A</b>f ica; <b>B</b>lindness; <b>C</b>onjunctivitis/<b>C</b>h
onic infection</i></div>
1402801348122 1395802358422 Which se otypes of&nbsp;<i>Chlamydia t achomatis
</i>&nbsp;a e associated with U eth itis and Pelvic Inflammato y Disease (PID)?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::DK}}</div> <b /><div><i>The DK se otypes a e ass
ociated with STD/STI (and eve ything else not specific to se otypes A, B, C, L1
3)</i></div>
1402801435247 1395802358422 Which se otypes of&nbsp;<i>Chlamydia t achomatis

</i>&nbsp;a e associated with ectopic p egnancy?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::DK}
}</div>
1402801445026 1395802358422 Which se otypes of&nbsp;<i>Chlamydia t achomatis
</i>&nbsp;a e associated with Neonatal Pneumonia (Staccato Cough)?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::DK}}</div>
1402801458083 1395802358422 Which se otypes of&nbsp;<i>Chlamydia t achomatis
</i>&nbsp;a e associated with Neonatal Conjunctivitis?<div><b />{{c1::DK}}</di
v>
<b /><div><i>Neonatal disease is typically acqui ed du ing childbi th t
h ough the bi thing canal.</i></div>
1402801479820 1395802358422 Which se otypes of&nbsp;<i>Chlamydia t achomatis
</i>&nbsp;a e associated with <b>Lymphog anuloma Vene eum</b>?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::L1; L2; L3}}</div>
1402801500307 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphog anuloma Vene eum}} is an STD cause
d by <i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&nbsp;(L1, L2, L3) that <b>initially&nbsp;</b>p
esents with <b>small, painless ulce s</b>&nbsp;on the genitals.
1402801569211 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphog anuloma Vene eum}} is an STD cause
d by <i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&nbsp;(L1; L2; L3) that p esents with <b>swolle
n, painful inguinal lymph nodes</b>&nbsp;that ulce ate into <b>"buboes"</b>&nbsp
;in its late stages.
1402801617772 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Lymphog anuloma Vene e
um?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Doxycycline}}</div>
1402801636667 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i>}} is a poo ly
g amstaining bacte ia that is a classic cause of atypical <b>"walking"</b>&nbs
p;pneumonia.
<b /><div><i>Walking pneumonia is pneumonia with an insidious o
nset, headache, nonp oductive cough and patchy/diffuse inte stitial infilt ate.<
/i></div><div><i>Chest x ay often looks wo se than the patient is.</i></div>
1402802277542 1395802358422 Which class of immunoglobulin is found in high l
evels as cold agglutinins in atypical pneumonia caused by <i>Mycoplasma pneumoni
ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IgM}}</div> <b /><div><i>Yes, I know this i
s a te ibly wo ded question. Just emembe that IgM tite s a e elevated in M. p
neumoniae infection.</i></div>
1402802351448 1395802358422 What aga is used to g ow <i>Mycoplasma pneumoni
ae</i>?<div><b />{{c1::Eaton aga }}</div>
1402802366199 1395802358422 How does <i>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i>&nbsp;g am
stain?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::It doesn't; The e is no cell wall}}</div>
1402802390902 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Mycoplasma pneumoni
ae</i>&nbsp;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mac olide, Doxycycline, <b>o <
/b> Fluo oquinolone}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Penicillins a e ineffective as the
e is no cell wall.</i></div>
1402802429526 1395802358422 Which age g oup is mo e commonly affected by myc
oplasmal pneumonia (<i>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&l
t; 30 y/o}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The e a e f equent outb eaks in milita y
ec uits and p isons.</i></div>
1402932958917 1395802358422 Which <b>mo phological</b>&nbsp;type of fungi a
e known to cause Systemic Mycoses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dimo phic fungi; e
xcept fo Coccidiomycosis (sphe ule in tissue, not yeast)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Remembe , Dimo phic fungi a e:</i></div><div><i> <b>Mold in the Cold</b>&
nbsp;(20 C)</i></div><div><i> <b>Yeast in the Heat</b>&nbsp;(37 C)</i></div>
1402933081425 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>local</b>&nbsp;myco
ses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fluconazole o It aconazole}}</div>
1402933128075 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>systemic</b>&nbsp;m
ycoses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Amphote icin B}}</div>
1402933148930 1395802358422 {{c1::Systemic mycoses}} is a <b>b oad type</b>&
nbsp;of mycosis commonly caused by dimo phic fungi.
<b /><div><i>All of the
m can cause pneumonia and can disseminate.</i></div><div><i>All can mimic TB (g
anuloma fo mation), but unlike TB, the e is no pe sontope son t ansmission.</i
></div>
1402933225035 1395802358422 Which Systemic Mycosis is endemic in <b>Mississi
ppi</b>&nbsp;and the <b>Ohio Rive valleys</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Histo
plasmosis}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Causes pneumonia</i>.</div>

1402935063546 1395802358422 How is Histoplasmosis commonly t ansmitted?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Bi d o bat d oppings}}</div>
1402935087414 1395802358422 {{c1::Histoplasmosis}} is a systemic mycosis tha
t p esents with <b>mac ophages filled with </b><i style="fontweight: bold; ">Hi
stoplasma</i>, as they a e smalle than RBCs.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="pas
te7189775253731.jpg" /></div> <b /><div><i style="fontweight: bold; ">H</i><
i>isto <b>H</b>ides in mac ophages</i></div>
1402935257441 1395802358422 {{c1::Blastomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis that
is endemic in <b>states east of the Mississippi Rive </b>&nbsp;and <b>Cent al A
me ica</b>.
1402935487673 1395802358422 {{c1::Blastomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis that
p esents with <b>b oadbase budding</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste7
988639170784.jpg" /></div>
<div><b /></div><i>Causes inflammato y lung dis
ease and can disseminate to skin and bone.</i><div><i>Fo ms g anulomatous nodule
s.<b /></i><div><i>Blasto buds b oadly.</i></div></div>
1402935574119 1395802358422 Which systemic mycosis involves buds that a e th
e <b>same size as RBCs</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Blastomycosis}}</div><div
><b /></div><div><img s c="paste7984344203488.jpg" /></div>
1402935598377 1395802358422 Which systemic mycosis involves int acellula ye
ast that a e <b>smalle than RBCs</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Histoplasmosis
}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste8048768712926.jpg" /></div>
1402935669129 1395802358422 {{c1::Coccidiomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis th
at is endemic in the <b>Southweste n United States</b>&nbsp;and <b>Califo nia</b
>.
<b /><div><i>Causes pneumonia and meningitis.</i></div><div><i>Can diss
eminate to bone and skin.</i></div>
1402935858931 1395802358422 Which systemic mycoses often shows an <b>inc eas
e in case ate afte ea thquakes</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Coccidiomycosis
}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is due to spo es in dust being th own up into
the ai and becoming sphe ules in the lungs.</i></div>
1402935937768 1395802358422 {{c1::Coccidiomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis th
at p esents with <b>sphe ules</b>&nbsp;filled with endospo es.&nbsp;<div><b /><
/div><div><img s c="paste8680128905440.jpg" /></div>
1402936017676 1395802358422 {{c1::Coccidiomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis th
at p esents with <b>e ythema nodosum</b>&nbsp;("Dese t bumps") and <b>a th algia
s</b>&nbsp;("Dese t heumatism").
1402936073073 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa acoccidioidomycosis}} is a systemic myc
osis that is endemic in <b>Latin Ame ica</b>.
1402936094775 1395802358422 {{c1::Coccidiomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis th
at p esents with <b>sphe ules</b>&nbsp;that a e <b>much la ge than RBCs</b>.<di
v><b /></div><div><img s c="paste8675833938144.jpg" /></div>
1402936130721 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa acoccidioidomycosis}} is a systemic myc
osis that p esents with <b>budding yeast</b>&nbsp;with a <b>"captain's wheel</b>
" fo mation that is <b>much la ge than RBCs</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c=
"paste9238474653922.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste9251359555676
.jpg" /></div>
1402952353022 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Tinea Ve sicolou ?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Malassezia spp.</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s
c="paste10849087389973.jpg" /></div> <div><b /></div><i>Malassezia fu fu ; M
alassezia globosa; Malassezia sympodialis</i><b /><div><i>Occu s in hot, humid
weathe .</i></div>
1402954770372 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Ve sicolou }} is a cutaneous mycosis
that involves damage to melanocytes and subsequent <b>hype  o hypopigmented p
atches</b>&nbsp;due to acids p oduced f om deg adation of lipids.
<b /><d
iv><i>Caused by&nbsp;</i><i>Malassezia fu fu ; Malassezia globosa; Malassezia sy
mpodialis</i></div>
1402954965425 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Tinea Ve sicolou ?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Topical Miconazole; Selenium Sulfide (Selsun)}}</div>
1402955340863 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Malassezia spp.</i>}} is a fungus that
commonly causes cutaneous mycosis and has a <b>"Spaghetti and meatball" appea an
ce</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste10844792422677.jpg" /></div>

<b /><div><i>Malassezia fu fu ; Malassezia globosa; Malassezia sympodialis</i><
/div>
1402955392878 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Pedis}} is cutaneous mycosis of the
foot.
1402955655158 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea C u is}} is cutaneous mycosis of the
g oin.
1402955671031 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Co po is}} is a cutaneous mycosis of
the body that p esents with a <b> ingwo m</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="p
aste12537009537268.jpg" /></div>
1402955744163 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Capitis}} is a cutaneous mycosis tha
t affects the head and scalp.
1402955759642 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Unguium (Onychomycosis)}} is a cutan
eous mycosis that is seen at the finge nails.
1402957102602 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mic ospo um</i>}},&nbsp;{{c2::<i>T icho
phyton</i>}} and&nbsp;{{c3::<i>Epide mophyton</i>}} a e 3 species of De matophyt
es that cause cutaneous mycosis that p esent as p u itic lesions with a cent al
clea ing, esembling a ing.
1402957605543 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} is a dimo phic f
ungi that commonly causes o al and esophageal th ush in the immunocomp omised.<d
iv><b /></div><div><img s c="paste13146894893401.jpg" /></div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Neonates, ste oids, diabetes, AIDS.</i></div>
1402958910381 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} is a dimo phic f
ungi that commonly causes <b>vulvovaginitis</b>, especially in diabetics and fol
lowing antibiotic use.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste13142599926105.jpg"
/></div>
1402958973567 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} is a dimo phic f
ungi that commonly causes diape ash.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste1314
2599926105.jpg" /></div>
1402959009960 1395802358422 Which dimo phic fungi commonly causes endoca dit
is in IV d ug use s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste13142599926105.jpg" /></div>
1402959047158 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} is a dimo phic f
ungi that commonly causes oppo tunistic infections and p esents as <b>pseudohyph
ae/budding yeasts</b>&nbsp;at 20 C and <b>ge m tubes</b>&nbsp;at 37 C.<div><b /
></div><div><img s c="paste13142599926105.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Ps
eudohyphae/budding yeast on the left.</i></div><div><i>Ge m tubes on the ight.<
/i></div>
1402959230824 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Vaginal Candidiasis (V
ulvovaginitis)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A topical azole}}</div>
1402959354647 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo O al/Esophageal Candid
iasis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fluconazole; Caspofungin}}</div>
1402959387655 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Systemic Candidiasis?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fluconazole, Amphote icin B o Caspofungin}}</div>
1402959422133 1395802358422 {{c1::Aspe gillosis}} is an oppo tunistic fungal
infection that is commonly seen in patients with Ch onic G anulomatous Disease.
<b /><div><i>Also seen in the immunocomp omised.</i></div>
1402959831123 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Aspe igllus fumigatus</i>}} is an oppo
tunistic fungal species that causes Aspe gillosis and p esents with <b>septate h
yphae that b anch at 45 deg ee angles</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste
13975823581529.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Acute angles in Aspe gillosis.</i>
</div><div><i>Not dimo phic.</i></div>
1402959935910 1395802358422 {{c1::Conidiopho e}} is a st uctu al fo m of <i>
Aspe gillosis fumigatus </i>that is desc ibed as adiating chains of spo es.<div
><b /></div><div><img s c="paste14113262535000.jpg" /></div>
1402959996837 1395802358422 {{c1::Alle gic B onchopulmona y Aspe gillosis (A
BPA)}} is a pulmona y diso de caused by <i>Aspe gillosis fumigatus</i>&nbsp;tha
t is associated with <b>asthma</b> and <b>cystic fib osis</b>. <b /><div><i>Ma
y cause b onchiectasis and eosinophilia.</i></div>
1402960110587 1395802358422 {{c1::B onchiectasis}} and&nbsp;{{c3::eosinophil
ia}} a e 2 possible complications of Alle gic B onchopulmona y Aspe gillosis (AB

PA).
1402960389799 1395802358422 {{c1::Aspe gillomas}} a e masses of <i>Aspe gill
osis fumigatus</i>&nbsp;that a e commonly seen in lung cavities, especially afte
Tube culosis.
1402960482033 1395802358422 {{c1::Aflatoxin}} is a toxin p oduced by <i>Aspe
gillosis sp.</i>&nbsp;that is associated with causing hepatocellula ca cinoma.
1402960556751 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>C yptococcus neofo mans</i>}} is a heav
ily encapsulated yest that is commonly found in soil and pigeon d oppings.<div><
b /></div><div><img s c="paste15427522527574.jpg" /></div>
1402960871101 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>C yptococcus neofo mans</i>}} is an opp
o tunistic fungus that p esents as 510 um yeasts with wide capsula halos and u
nequal budding.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste15423227560278.jpg" /></div
>
<b /><div><i>The stain used is India Ink</i></div>
1402960924078 1395802358422 Which oppo tunistic fungus causes C yptococcal M
eningitis and C yptococcosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>C yptococcus neofo m
ans</i>}}</div>
1402960955725 1395802358422 How is <i>C yptococcus neofo mans</i>&nbsp;infec
tion acqui ed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhalation; sp eads to the meninges he
matogenously}}</div>
1402961020774 1395802358422 What stain is used to visualize <i>C yptococcus
neofo mans</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::India ink and mucica mine}}</div>
1402961071496 1395802358422 Which oppo tunistic fungus is associated with <b
>"soap bubble" lesions</b>&nbsp;in the b ain?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>C yp
tococcus neofo mans</i>}}</div> <img s c="paste15423227560278.jpg" />
1402961188392 1395802358422 {{c1::Latex agglutination test}} is a diagnostic
test used to detect the polysaccha ide capsula antigen of <i>C yptococcus neof
o mans</i>.
<b /><div><i>Specific test.</i></div>
1402961229963 1395802358422 {{c1::Muco mycosis}} is an oppo tunistic yeast i
nfection that is mostly seen in ketoacidotic diabetic and leukemic patients.
<div><b /></div><i>The fungi p olife ate in the blood vessel wall when the e is
an excess of ketones and glucose. F om the e they penet ate the c ibifo m plate
and ente the b ain.</i><b /><div><i>Typically caused by Muco sp. and Rhizopu
s spp.</i></div>
1402961922429 1395802358422 {{c1::Muco mycosis}} is an oppo tunistic fungal
infections that involves p olife ation of fungi in the blood vessel walls due to
an excess of ketones and glucose.
<b /><div><i>F om the e the penet ate t
he c ibifo m plate and ente the b ain.</i></div>
1402961972079 1395802358422 {{c1::Muco mycosis}} is an oppo tunistic fungal
infection that p esents with <b> hinoce eb al</b>&nbsp;and <b>f ontal lobe absce
sses</b>.
1402962164915 1395802358422 {{c1::Muco mycosis}} is an oppo tunistic fungal
infection that p esents with <b>headache</b>, <b>facial pain</b>, and a <u style
="fontweight: bold; ">black nec otic escha on the face</u>. <b /><div><i>Th
e e may be c anial ne ve involvement as well.</i></div>
1402962307146 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Muco spp.</i>}} is a species of oppo t
unistic fungus that can cause Muco mycosis and p esents as <b>i egula , b oad,
nonseptate hyphae</b>&nbsp;b anching at wide angles.<div><b /></div><div><img s
c="paste17532056502616.jpg" /></div>
1402962549139 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Muco mycosis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Amphote icin B}}</div>
1402962563511 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Muco spp.</i>}} and&nbsp;{{c2::<i>Rhiz
opus spp.</i>}} a e 2 species of oppo tunistic fungus that can cause Muco mycosi
s.
1402962603661 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Pneumocystis</i>&nbsp;causes
<i>Pneumocystis</i>&nbsp;Pneumonia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pneumocystis
ji ovecii</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste18120467022102.jpg" /
></div> <b /><div><i>A diffuse inte stitial pneumonia seen in the immunocomp om
ised, especially AIDS.</i></div><div><i>Most infections a e asymptomatic.</i></d
iv><div><i>Diagnosed by lung biopsy o lavage.</i></div>
1402962790436 1395802358422 How is <i>Pneumocystis ji ovecii</i>&nbsp;acqui

ed?<div><b />{{c1::Inhalation}}</div> <div><b /></div>
1402962938143 1395802358422 Which oppo tunistic fungus is associated with a
pneumonia that yields a <b>diffuse, bilate al chest x ay</b>?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::<i>Pneumocystis ji ovecii</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="p
aste18116172054806.jpg" /></div>
1402963075669 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pneumocystis ji ovecii</i>}} is an oppo
tunistic fungus that is a <b>discshaped yeast</b>&nbsp;that fo ms of <b>methen
amine silve stain</b>&nbsp;of lung tissue.<div><img s c="paste18116172054806.j
pg" /></div>
1402963154951 1395802358422 Which d ugs a e used as p ophylaxis fo <i>Pneum
ocystis ji ovecii</i>&nbsp;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dapsone; Atovaq
uone}}</div>
1402963462795 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Pneumocystis ji ove
cii</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TMPSMX; Pentamidine}}</div>
1402963483300 1395802358422 What CD4 count in AIDS patients is equi ed befo
e sta ting p ophylaxis t eatment?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 200 cells/mm<
sup>3</sup>}}</div>
1402963815793 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Spo ot ichosis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Spo oth ix schenckii</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img
s c="paste19524921327895.jpg" /></div>
1402964058744 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Spo oth ix schenkii</i>}} is a <b>dimo
phic, ciga shaped budding yeast</b>&nbsp;that lives on vegetation and causes Sp
o ot ichosis.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste19520626360599.jpg" /></div>
1402964183851 1395802358422 {{c1::Spo ot ichosis}} is an oppo tunistic funga
l infection that is commonly acqui ed th ough t aumatic int oduction into the sk
in, typically by a ose tho n. <b /><div><i>Hence, "<b>Rose Ga dene 's" Diseas
e</b>.</i></div><div><i>T auma and infection causes a local pustule o ulce wit
h nodules along d aining lymphatics (i.e. Ascending Lympangitis).</i></div><div>
<i>The e is little systemic illness.</i></div>
1402964283249 1395802358422 {{c1::Ascending Lymphangitis}} is a complication
of Spo ot ichosis that esults f om local pustule/ulce fo mation with nodules
along d aining lymphatics following t aumatic infection.
1402964422607 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Spo ot ichosis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::It aconazole o Potassium Iodide}}</div>
1403021079329 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Gia diasis?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Gia dia lamblia</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="pas
te579820585185.jpg" /></div>
1403021176541 1395802358422 {{c1::Gia diasis}} is a GI p otozoal infection t
hat p esents with <b>bloating, flatulence, </b>and <b>foulsmelling, fatty dia
hea</b>.
1403021219016 1395802358422 Which demog aphic is often affected by Gia diasi
s (<i>Gia dia lamblia</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Campe s/hike s}}</div>
1403021279364 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is seen in Gia diasis?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fatty, foulsmelling dia hea}}</div>
1403021597178 1395802358422 {{c1::Gia diasis}} is a p otozoal GI infection t
hat is diagnosed by t ophozoites o cysts in the stool.<div><b /></div><div><im
g s c="paste1026497183966.jpg" /><img s c="paste1039382085856.jpg" /></div>
1403021659604 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Gia diasis?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Met onidazole}}</div>
1403021666931 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Amoebiasis?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Entamoeba histolytica</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s
c="paste1610612736224.jpg" /></div>
1403021940684 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is seen in Amoebiasis?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody dia hea (dysente y)}}</div>
1403021960742 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoebiasis}} is a GI p otozoal infection t
hat p esents with a <b>live abscess</b>&nbsp;that is full of an <b>"anchovy pas
te" exudate</b>.
1403021999773 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoebiasis}} is a GI p otozoal infection t
hat p esents with <b>RUQ pain</b>.
<b /><div><i>The RUQ pain is often due
to GI ulce ation and potential colonic uptu e.</i></div>

1403022129908 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoebiasis}} is a GI p otozoal infection t
hat p esents with <b>flaskshaped ulce s</b>&nbsp;at the GI Submucosa. <b /><d
iv><i>Entamoeba histolytica causes the ulce ation.</i></div>
1403022177216 1395802358422 How is Gia diasis t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Cysts in wate }}</div>
1403022186025 1395802358422 How is Amoebiasis (<i>Entamoeba histolytica</i>)
t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cysts in wate }}</div>
1403022347139 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoebiasis}} is a GI p otozoal infection t
hat is diagnosed by <b>t ophozoites</b>&nbsp;in the stool that contain <b>RBCs i
n thei cytoplasm.</b><div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste1606317768928.jpg" /
></div>
1403022448145 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoebiasis}} is a GI p otozoal infection t
hat is diagnosed by <b>cysts</b>&nbsp;with <b>up to 4 nuclei </b>in the stool.<d
iv><b /></div><div><img s c="paste2130303779037.jpg" /></div>
1403022529724 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Amoebiasis (<i>Entamoe
ba histolytica</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Met onidazole}}</div>
1403022588298 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>&nbsp;asymptomatic p
asse s of <i>Entamoeba histolytica </i>cysts</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Iod
oquinol}}</div>
1403022678474 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>C yptospo idium</i>}} is a GI p otozoal
pathogen that causes seve e dia hea in AIDS. <b /><div><i>It causes mild, wa
te y dia hea in the immunocompetent.</i></div>
1403022798976 1395802358422 How is <i>C yptospo idium</i>&nbsp;t ansmitted?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Oocysts in the wate }}</div>
1403022814289 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>C yptospo idium</i>}} is a GI p otozoal
pathogen that is diagnosed by visualizing <b>oocysts</b>&nbsp;on an <b style="t
extdeco ation: unde line; ">acidfast</b>&nbsp;stain.<div><b /></div><div><img
s c="paste2890512990431.jpg" /></div>
1403022865230 1395802358422 What type of stain is equi ed to diagnose <i>C
yptospo idium</i>&nbsp;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Acidfast}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste2886218023135.jpg" /></div>
1403022896510 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>C yptospo idium</i>
&nbsp;infection in <b>immunocompetent</b>&nbsp;hosts?<div><b ></div><div>{{c1::N
itazoxanide}}</div>
1403023184166 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>C yptospo idium</i>
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P evention; via filte ing of city wate supplies}}<
/div>
1403023207692 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Toxoplasmosis?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c
="paste3345779523810.jpg" /></div>
1403023387767 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxoplasmosis}} is a CNS p otozoal infecti
on that p esents with <b>b ain abscesses</b>&nbsp;in HIV patients, that a e seen
as ingenhancing b ain lesions on CT/MRI.
1403023479370 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Toxoplasmosis}} is a CNS p otoz
oal infection that p esents with a classic t iad of <b>cho io etinitis, hyd ocep
halus</b>&nbsp;and <b>int ac anial calcifications</b>.
1403023521487 1395802358422 How is Toxoplasmosis (<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>)
t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cysts in meat; Oocysts in cat feces; T a
nsplacental}}</div>
1403023562093 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxoplasmosis}} is a CNS p otozoal infecti
on that is diagnosed via <b>tachyzoites</b>&nbsp;on biopsy.<div><b /></div><div
><img s c="paste3341484556514.jpg" /></div>
1403023588656 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Toxoplasmosis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Sulfadiazine and Py imethamine}}</div>
1403023615483 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Naegle ia fowle i</i>}} is a CNS p otoz
oal pathogen that causes <b> apidly fatal meningoencephalitis</b>.
1403024607626 1395802358422 How is <i>Naegle ia fowle i</i>&nbsp;t ansmitted
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Swimming in f eshwate lakes; ente s CNS th ough th
e c ibifo m plate}}</div>
1403024642383 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Naegle ia fowle i</i>}} is a CNS p otoz

oal pathogen that causes a apidly fatal meningoencephalitis and is diagnosed by
<b>amoebas in the spinal fluid</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste415323
3375457.jpg" /></div>
1403024689970 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Naegle ia fowle i</
i>&nbsp;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Amphote icin B has been effective
fo a few su vivo s}}</div>
1403024713799 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Af ican Sleeping Sicknes
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>T ypanosoma b ucei hodiense; T ypanosoma b uce
i gambiense</i>}}</div>
1403024810280 1395802358422 {{c1::Af ican Sleeping Sickness}} is a CNS p oto
zoal infection that p esents with <b>enla ged lymph nodes</b>, <b> ecu ing feve
, somnolence</b>&nbsp;and <b>coma</b>. <b /><div><i>The ecu ing feve is due
to antigenic va iation.</i></div>
1403024874932 1395802358422 How is Af ican Sleeping Sickness (<i>T ypanosoma
b ucei sp.</i>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tsetse fly}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Which appa ently has a painful bite.</i></div><div><i><b /></i></
div>
1403024912124 1395802358422 Which subspecies of <i>T ypanosoma b ucei</i>&nb
sp;is f om <b>East</b>&nbsp;Af ica?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>T ypanosoma b
ucei hodiense</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Rhodesia was located in south<b>ea
st</b>&nbsp;Af ica. Kind of... w/e b ah, just emembe it.</i></div>
1403025021992 1395802358422 Which subspecies of&nbsp;<i>T ypanosoma b ucei</
i>&nbsp;is f om <b>West</b>&nbsp;Af ica?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>T ypanoso
ma b ucei gambiense</i>}}</div> <b /><div><i>The <b>G</b>'s a e all f om the <b
>West</b>&nbsp;side.</i></div>
1403025074063 1395802358422 {{c1::Af ican Sleeping Sickness}} is a CNS p oto
zoal infection caused by <i>T ypanosoma b ucei</i>&nbsp;subspecies that is diagn
osed by a <b>blood smea </b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste4771708666084
.jpg" /></div>
1403025135197 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Af ican Sleeping Sickn
ess?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su amin fo bloodbo ne disease <u style="fontw
eight: bold; ">o </u>&nbsp;Mela sop ol fo CNS penet ation}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>"It <b>su </b>e is nice to go to sleep. <b>Mela</b>tonin can help with tha
t."</i></div>
1403040703288 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Mala ia?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Plasmodium spp.</i>}}</div>
1403041120101 1395802358422 {{c1::Mala ia}} is a hematological p otozoal inf
ection that p esents with <b>feve , headache, anaemia</b>&nbsp;and <b>splenomega
ly</b>.
1403041143029 1395802358422 Which <i>Plasmodium</i>&nbsp;species is associat
ed with Mala ia that has a <b>te tian (48 hou ) cycle</b>&nbsp;of feve ?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Plasmodium vivax; Plasmodium ovale</i>}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Te tian cycle includes feve on the fi st and thi d day, hence feve s a e
actually 48 hou s apa t.</i></div>
1403041275223 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;<i>Plasmodium</i>&nbsp;species is ass
ociated with <b>do mant hypnozoites</b>&nbsp;in the live ?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::<i>Plasmodium vivax; Plasmodium ovale</i>}}</div>
1403041300686 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;<i>Plasmodium</i>&nbsp;species is ass
ociated with a&nbsp;<b>qua tan (72 h s) cycle</b>&nbsp;of feve ?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Plasmodium mala iae</i>}}</div>
1403041362011 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;<i>Plasmodium</i>&nbsp;species is ass
ociated with ve y <b>seve e</b>&nbsp;Mala ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Plas
modium falcipa um</i>}}</div>
1403041379866 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;<i>Plasmodium</i>&nbsp;species is ass
ociated with Mala ia that has <b>i egula feve patte ns</b>?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::<i>Plasmodium falcipa um</i>}}</div>
1403041405473 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Plasmodium falcipa um</i>}} is a specie
s of <i>Plasmodium</i>&nbsp;that yields ve y seve e mala ia that p esents with <
b>pa asitized RBCs that occlude capilla ies</b>&nbsp;in the <b>b ain, kidneys</b
>&nbsp;and <b>lungs</b>.

1403041449950 1395802358422 {{c1::Ce eb al Mala ia}} is a seve e fo m of Mal
a ia that p esents with occlusion of capilla ies in the b ain by pa asitized RBC
s.
<b /><div><i>Caused by Plasmodium falcipa um</i></div>
1403041479854 1395802358422 How is Mala ia (<i>Plasmodium spp.</i>) t ansmit
ted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Anopheles</i>&nbsp;mosquito}}</div>
1403041507040 1395802358422 {{c1::Mala ia}} is a hematological p otozoal inf
ection that can be diagnosed by a <b>t ophozoite ing fo m</b>&nbsp;in RBCs on a
pe iphe al blood smea .<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste6575594930399.jpg"
/></div>
1403042066653 1395802358422 {{c1::Mala ia}} is a hematological p otozoal inf
ection that can be diagnosed by <b>schizonts</b>&nbsp;that contain <b>me ozoites
</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste6618544603358.jpg" /></div>
1403042109432 1395802358422 What is the initial t eatment fo Mala ia (<i>Pl
asmodium spp.</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Chlo oquine}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Blocks Plasmodium heme polyme ase.</i></div>
1403042699714 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlo oquine}} is an antiplasmodial d ug us
ed as initial t eatment fo Mala ia that acts by blocking <i>Plasmodium</i>&nbsp
;heme polyme ase.
1403042729126 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Chlo oquine in the t eatment
of Mala ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Blocking of <i>Plasmodium</i>&nbsp;heme p
olyme ase}}</div>
1403042765789 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>Chlo oquine esista
nt</b>&nbsp;Mala ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mefloquine o Atovaquone/P oguan
il}}</div>
1403042797766 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo lifeth eatening Mala
ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IV Quinidine}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Howeve yo
u <u>must test fo G6PD deficiency fi st</u>.</i></div>
1403042860437 1395802358422 Which antiplasmodial d ug is added onto Chlo oqu
ine in <i>Plasmodium vivax/ovale</i>&nbsp;infection to eliminate Hypnozoites?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::P imaquine}}</div>
<b /><div><i>You <u>must test f
o G6PD Deficiency fi st</u>.</i></div>
1403042928159 1395802358422 {{c1::P imaquine}} is an antiplasmodial d ug tha
t is added onto Mala ial t eatment in <i>Plasmodium vivax/ovale</i>&nbsp;infecti
on to eliminate do mant hypnozoites.
<b /><div><i>You <u>must test fo G6PD
Deficiency fi st</u>.</i></div>
1403042994234 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Babesiosis?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Babesia spp.</i>}}</div>
1403046098517 1395802358422 Whe e in the United States is Babesiosis p edomi
nantly found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No theaste n USA}}</div>
1403046116235 1395802358422 How does Asplenia influence the isk of obtainin
g seve e Babesiosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403046141730 1395802358422 {{c1::Babesiosis}} is a hematological p otozoal
infection that p esents with <b>feve </b>&nbsp;and <b>hemolytic anaemia</b>&nbsp
;due to <i>Babesia spp.</i>&nbsp;infection.
1403046196653 1395802358422 How is Babesiosis (<i>Babesia spp.</i>) t ansmit
ted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ixodes</i>&nbsp;tick}}</div> <b /><div><i>Th
is is the same vecto as Bo elia bu gdo fe i</i>&nbsp;<i>which causes Lyme Dise
ase.</i></div><div><i>Coinfection is common.</i></div>
1403046255167 1395802358422 {{c1::Babesiosis}} is a hematological p otozoal
infection that is diagnosed by a <b>"Maltese c oss"</b>&nbsp;in RBCs in a pe iph
e al blood smea .<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste7928509628642.jpg" /></di
v>
<b /><div><i>(1) shows a ing fo m in the RBC, which is also seen in Ma
la ia. So be su e to eithe look fo the Maltese c oss o double check the t ans
mission/p esentation to confi m that it is Babesiosis.</i></div>
1403046338560 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Babesiosis (<i>Babesia
spp.</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Atovaquone + azith omycin}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>The patient's pa tne also eceives Met onidazole as p ophylaxis.</i></div
>
1403046880368 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Chagas Disease?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>T ypanosoma c uzi</i>}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s

c="paste8942121910501.jpg" /></div>
1403046909909 1395802358422 {{c1::Chagas Disease}} is a visce al p otozoal i
nfection that p esents with <b>dilated ca diomyopathy</b>, <b>megacolon</b>&nbsp
;and <b>megaesophagus</b>.
1403046937622 1395802358422 Whe e does Chagas Disease p edominantly occu ?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::South Ame ica}}</div>
1403046948446 1395802358422 How is Chagas Disease (<i>T ypanosoma c uzi</i>)
t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Reduviid bug (aka the "kissing bug") fe
ces}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The bug bite is <b>painless</b>.</i></div>
1403047019226 1395802358422 {{c1::Chagas Disease}} is a <b>visce al</b>&nbsp
;p otozoal infection that is diagnosed by the visualization of <i>T ypanosoma c
uzi</i>&nbsp;on a pe iphe al blood smea .<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste8
937826943205.jpg" /></div>
1403047048998 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Chagas Disease?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Benznidazole o Nifu timox}}</div>
1403047067380 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Visce al Leishmaniasis (
Kalaaza )?<div><b />{{c1::<i>Leishmania donovani</i>}}</div>
1403047111558 1395802358422 {{c1::Visce al Leishmaniasis (Kalaaza )}} is a
visce al p otozoal infection that p esents with <b>spiking feve , hepatosplenome
galy</b>&nbsp;and <b>pancytopenia</b>.
1403047203565 1395802358422 How is Visce al Leishmaniasis (Kalaaza ) t ansm
itted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sandfly}}</div>
<b /><div><i>All Leishm
ania a e t ansmitted via the sandfly.</i></div>
1403047376744 1395802358422 {{c1::Visce al Leishmaniasis (Kalaaza )}} is a
visce al p otozoal infection that is diagnosed by the visualization of <b>mac op
hages containing amastigotes</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste924706458
8515.jpg" /></div>
1403047423596 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Visce al Leishmaniasis
(Kalaaza )?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Amphote icin B, Sodium Stibogluconate}}
</div>
1403047466746 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>T ichomonas vaginalis</i>}} is an STD c
ausing p otozoa that commonly causes vaginitis that p esents with <b>foulsmelli
ng, g eenish discha ge</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste9835475108072.j
pg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Do not confuse this with Ga dne ella vaginalis, a
g amva iable bacte ia that causes vaginosis.</i></div><div><i>Also emembe the
diffe ence between Vagin<b>itis</b>&nbsp;and Vagin<b>osis</b>. Vaginitis is pai
nful.</i></div>
1403047871297 1395802358422 How is <i>T ichomonas vaginalis</i>&nbsp;t ansmi
tted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sexually (it cannot exist outside the human bod
y as it cannot fo m cysts)}}</div>
1403047901306 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>T ichomonas vaginalis</i>}} is a sexual
ly t ansmitted p otoza that is diagnosed by the visualization of <b>mobile t oph
ozoites</b>&nbsp;on a wet mount.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste9831180140
776.jpg" /></div>
1403048000069 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>T ichomonas vaginalis</i>}} is a p otoz
oa that causes vaginitis associated with a <b>"st awbe y ce vix</b>".
1403048026302 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>T ichomonas vaginal
is</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Met onidazole}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Th
e patient's sexual pa tne also eceives Met onidazole as p ophylaxis.</i></div>
1403048054943 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::nematodes}} a e a class of pa asi
te that a e efe ed to as oundwo ms.
1403053610031 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::cestodes}} a e a class of pa asit
e that a e efe ed to as tapewo ms.
1403053631137 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::t ematodes}} a e a class of pa as
ite that a e efe ed to as the flukes.
1403053648160 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ente obius ve micula is</i>}} is a spec
ies of intestinal nematode that is also efe ed to as <b>pinwo m</b>.
1403053940991 1395802358422 How is pinwo m (<i>Ente obius ve micula is</i>)
t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fecalo al}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste13945758810291.jpg" /></div>

1403054242694 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ente obius ve micula is</i>&nbsp;(pinwo
m)}} is an intestinal nematode that is associated with causing <b>anal p u itis
</b>.
1403054673052 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ente obius ve micula is</i>&nbsp;(pinwo
m)}} is an intestinal nematode that can be diagnosed via the <b>Scotch Tape tes
t</b>. <b /><div><i>Lulz, this is lite ally what it sounds like. Take scotch t
ape and see if you can pull off pinwo m eggs f om the anal a ea.</i></div>
1403054738448 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo pinwo m (<i>Ente obius
ve micula is</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bendazoles o Py antel pamoate}}<
/div> <b /><div><i><b>BEND</b>azoles a e used on wo ms because they a e <b>BE
ND</b>y.</i></div>
1403054905831 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Asca is lumb icoides</i>}} is a species
of intestinal nematode that is also efe ed to as <b>giant oundwo m</b>.
1403054940201 1395802358422 How is <i>Asca is lumb icoides</i>&nbsp;(giant
oundwo m) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fecalo al}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Eggs a e visible in feces unde the mic oscope.</i></div><div><i><img s c=
"paste13945758810291.jpg" /></i></div>
1403054985626 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo giant oundwo m (<i>As
ca is lumb icoides</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bendazoles o Py antel pamoa
te}}</div>
1403055014571 1395802358422 How is <i>St ongyloides ste co alis</i>&nbsp;t a
nsmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::La vae in the soil penet ate the skin}}</di
v>
<b /><div><img s c="paste13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403055064847 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>St ongyloides ste co alis</i>}} is an i
ntestinal nematode that causes an intestinal infection that p esents with vomiti
ng, dia hea and <b>epigast ic pain that may mimic peptic ulce like pain</b>.
1403055113739 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>St ongyloides ste c
o alis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Albendazole; o Ive mectin}}</div>
1403055134956 1395802358422 Which 2 species of intestinal nematode a e hookw
o ms?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ancylostoma duodenale; Necato ame icanus</i
>}}</div>
1403055168350 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ancylostoma duodenale</i>}} and&nbsp;{{
c2::<i>Necato ame icanus</i>}} a e 2 species of intestinal nematodes that a e
efe ed to as <b>hookwo m</b>.
1403055198933 1395802358422 How is hookwo m (<i>Ancylostoma duodenale; Necat
o ame icanus</i>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::La vae penet ate the
skin}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403056103275 1395802358422 {{c1::Hookwo m}} is an intestinal nematode that
causes intestinal infection that yields <b>anaemia</b>&nbsp;due to <b>blood bein
g sucked f om the intestinal walls</b>. <b /><div><i>Remembe , Hookwo m = Ancyl
ostoma duodenale &amp; Necato ame icanus</i></div>
1403056181130 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Hookwo m (<i>Ancylosto
ma duodenale; Necato ame icanus</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bendazoles o
Py antel pamoate}}</div>
1403056222232 1395802358422 How is <i>Ochoce ca volvulus</i>&nbsp;t ansmitte
d?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Female blackfly bite}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403056263719 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Rive Blindness?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Onchoce ca volvulus</i>}}</div>
1403056280170 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Onchoce ca volvulus</i>}} is a tissue n
ematode associated with causing <b>hype pigmented skin</b>&nbsp;and <b> ive bli
ndness</b>.
<b /><div><i>Black fly bite; Black skin nodules; "Black" sight.
</i></div><div><i>Alle gic eaction to the mic ofila ia is possible.</i></div>
1403056350991 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Onchoce ca volvulus
</i>&nbsp;infection (e.g. ive blindness)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ive mecti
n}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>IVER</b>mectin is given fo <b>IVER</b>&nbsp;b
lindness.</i></div>
1403056398259 1395802358422 How is <i>Loa loa</i>&nbsp;t ansmitted?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Dee fly; Ho se fly; Mango fly}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste13945758810291.jpg" /></div>

1403056439572 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Loa loa</i>}} is a <b>tissue</b>&nbsp;n
ematode that causes swelling in the skin  wo ms can also be found in the conjun
ctiva.
1403056468069 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Loa loa</i>?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Diethylca bamazine}}</div>
1403057110444 1395802358422 What is the cause of Elephantiasis?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Wuche e ia banc ofti</i>}}</div>
1403058733063 1395802358422 How is Elephantiasis (<i>Wuche e ia banc ofti</i
>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Female mosquito bite}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403058753804 1395802358422 {{c1::Elephantiasis}} is a complication of <i>Wu
che ia banc ofti</i>&nbsp;infection that involves a <b>blockage of lymphatic ves
sels</b>.
<b /><div><i>Takes 9 months to 1 yea afte an infectious bite
to becomes symptomatic.</i></div>
1403058822718 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Elephantiasis?<div><b
/>{{c1::Diethylca bamazine}}</div>
1403058844837 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Visce al La va Mig ans?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Toxoca a canis</i>}}</div>
1403058860859 1395802358422 How is Visce al La va Mig ans (<i>Toxoca a canis
</i>) t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fecalo al}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403058881367 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Toxoca a canis</i>}} is a tissue nemato
de that causes Visce al La va Mig ans.
1403062744302 1395802358422 How is <i>Taenia solium</i>&nbsp;t ansmitted?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ingestion of la vae encysted in unde cooked po k; Inges
tion of eggs}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Basically just emembe "via ingestion" an
d "unde cooked po k" fo the la vae.</i></div>
1403062905086 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystice cosis}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Neu ocystic
e cosis}} a e 2 complications of infection with the <u style="fontweight: bold;
">eggs</u>&nbsp;of <i>Taenia solium</i>.
<b /><div><i>This is ve y impo
tant. Only the eggs of Taenia solium cause Cystice cosis. The la vae cause intes
tinal infection.</i></div>
1403062977570 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Cystice cosis and Neu oc
ystice cosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::The <b><u>eggs</u>&nbsp;</b>of&nbsp;<i>
Taenia solium</i>}}</div>
1403063484085 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>intestinal infectio
n</b>&nbsp;caused by the la vae of <i>Taenia solium</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::P aziquantel}}</div>
1403063512786 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Cystice cosis (eggs of
<i>Taenia solium</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P aziquantel}}</div>
1403063531818 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Neu ocystice cosis (eg
gs of <i>Taenia solium</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Albendazole}}</div>
1403063577185 1395802358422 How is<i>&nbsp;Diphylloboth ium latum</i>&nbsp;t
ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ingestion of la vae f om aw f eshwate f
ish}}</div>
1403063620388 1395802358422 Which vitamin deficiency is caused by <i>Diphyll
oboth ium latum</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin B12}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>The wo m competes with Vitamin B12 in the intestines.</i></div><div><i>Cau
ses megaloblastic anaemia.</i></div>
1403063665929 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Diphylloboth ium la
tum</i><b style="fontstyle: italic; ">&nbsp;</b>infection?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::P aziquantel}}</div>
1403063680581 1395802358422 How is <i>Echinococcus g anulosus</i>&nbsp;t ans
mitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ingestion of eggs f om <b>dog feces</b>}}</di
v>
1403063707249 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Echinococcus g anulosus</i>}} is a cest
ode that yields <b>hydatid cysts</b>&nbsp;in the live , the eby causing anaphyla
xis if the antigens a e eleased.
<b /><div><i>Su geons kills the cysts b
y injecting ethanol befo e emoval.</i></div>
1403063775190 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Echinococcus g anul

osus</i>&nbsp;(hydatid cysts)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Albendazole}}</div>
1403063798409 1395802358422 How is <i>Schistosoma</i>&nbsp;t ansmitted?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Via snails; ce ca iae penet ate the skin}}</div>
1403063839195 1395802358422 Which animal is the host fo <i>Schistosoma spp.
</i>?<div><b />{{c1::Snails}}</div>
1403063871194 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Schistosoma spp.</i>}} is a t ematode t
hat causes <b>live and spleen g anulomas</b>, <b>fib osis</b> and <b>inflammati
on</b>.
1403063925330 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Schistosoma haematobium</i>}} is a spec
ies of <i>Schistosoma</i>&nbsp;that can lead to squamous cell ca cinoma of the b
ladde if the e is ch onic infection.
1403063970490 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Schistosoma</i>&nbsp;is asso
ciated with causing squamous cell ca cinoma if the e is a ch onic infection?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Schistosoma haematobium</i>}}</div>
1403064006246 1395802358422 Which cance is a possible complication of ch on
ic <i>Schistosoma haematobium</i>&nbsp;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Squ
amous cell ca cinoma of the bladde }}</div>
<b /><div><i>P esents with <b>p
ainless hematu ia</b>.</i></div>
1403064044018 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Schistosomiasis (<i>Sc
histosoma</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P aziquantel}}</div>
1403064066257 1395802358422 How is <i>Clono chis sinensis</i>&nbsp;t ansmitt
ed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Unde cooked fish}}</div>
1403064088735 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Clono chis sinensis</i>}} is a species
of t ematode that causes <b>bilia y t act inflammation</b>&nbsp;and subsequent f
o mation of <b>pigmented gallstones</b>.
1403064212687 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Clono his sinensis</i>}} is a species o
f t ematode that is associated with <b>cholangioca cinoma</b>.
1403064246575 1395802358422 Which cance is associated with <i>Clono chis si
nensis</i>&nbsp;infection?<div><b ></div><div>{{c1::Cholangioca cinoma}}</div>
1403064275815 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Clono chis sinensis
</i>&nbsp;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P aziquantel}}</div>
1403064291751 1395802358422 Which cestode (tapewo m) is associated with <b>b
ain cysts</b>&nbsp;and <b>seizu es</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Taenia so
lium</i>&nbsp;(Cystice cosis)}}</div>
1403064353830 1395802358422 Which t ematode (fluke) is associated with <b>he
matu ia</b>&nbsp;and <b>bladde cance </b>?<div><b />{{c1::<i>Schistosoma haema
tobium</i>}}</div>
1403064383942 1395802358422 Which cestode (tapewo m) is associated with live
hydatid cysts?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Echinococcus g anulosus</i>}}</di
v>
1403064411121 1395802358422 Which nematodes a e associated with <b>mic ocyti
c anaemia</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ancylostoma duodenale; Necato ame
icanus</i>}}</div>
1403064575298 1395802358422 Which nematode is associated with <b>pe ianal p
u itis</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ente obius ve micula is</i>&nbsp;(pinw
o m)}}</div>
1403064601056 1395802358422 Which t ematode (fluke) is associated with <b>po
tal hype tension</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Schistosoma mansoni; Schist
osoma japonicum</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Schistosoma is often called a <b>l
ive fluke</b>.</i></div>
1403118693070 1395802358422 In which 2 shapes a e vi al caspids typically fo
und?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Icosahed al; Helical}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste841813590300.jpg" /></div>
1403119676318 1395802358422 {{c1::Reasso tment}} is a vi al genetic phenomen
on that involves the exchange of genetic segments amongst vi uses with segmented
genomes.
<b /><div><i>This is high f equency ecombination.</i></div><di
v><i>e.g. Influenza vi us; in fact, this is why the e a e wo ldwide influenza pa
ndemics.</i></div>
1403120908259 1395802358422 {{c1::Complementation}} is a vi al genetic pheno
menon whe e a <b>nonmutated</b>&nbsp;vi us complements a <b>mutated</b>&nbsp;vi

us by making a functional p otein that se ves fo both vi uses. <b /><div><i>In
this case, the mutated vi us has a <b>nonfunctional</b>&nbsp;ve sion of the p o
tein,</i></div>
1403121030967 1395802358422 What type of immunity is induced by Live Attenua
ted Vaccines?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Humo al <u style="fontweight: bold; ">
and</u>&nbsp;cellmediated immunity}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Some live attenuat
ed vaccines have eve ted back to vi ulence, but on ve y a e occasions.</i></di
v><div><i>Live vaccines <b>do not equi e booste s</b>.</i></div><div><i><img s
c="paste2267742732379.jpg" /></i></div>
1403122989005 1395802358422 What type of immunity is induced by <b>Killed/In
activated</b>&nbsp;Vaccines?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Humo al immunity <b><u>o
nly</u></b>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste2469606195263.jpg" /></div>
1403122998026 1395802358422 {{c1::Live attenuated vaccine}} is a type of vac
cine that is dange ous to give to immunocomp omised patients o thei close cont
acts. <b /><div><i>The exception is MMR, which can be given to HIV+ patients
who do not show signs of immunodeficiency.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste2272
037699675.jpg" /></i></div>
1403123343131 1395802358422 Which types of HPV have available ecombinant va
ccines?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HPV 6, 11, 16, 18}}</div>
1403123430635 1395802358422 What is the only DNA vi us with <b>ss</b>DNA?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa vovi idae}}</div> <i><div></div></i><i><b /></i>T
he est of the DNA vi uses a e dsDNA.
1403123790266 1395802358422 {{c1::Papillomavi us}},&nbsp;{{c2::Polyomavi us}
} and&nbsp;{{c3::Hepadnavi us}} a e the only 3 DNA vi uses that have ci cula ge
nomes. <b /><div><i>The emaining DNA vi uses a e all linea .</i></div>
1403123988848 1395802358422 What is the only RNA vi us that has <b>ds</b>RNA
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Reovi idae}}</div> <b /><div><i>All othe s a e ssR
NA.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste3040836845726.jpg" /></i></div>
1403124101979 1395802358422 Whe e in the cell do DNA vi uses eplicate?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus, <u>except fo Poxvi us</u>}}</div>
1403125210405 1395802358422 Whe e in the cell do RNA vi uses no mally eplic
ate?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplasm, <u>except fo Influenza vi us and Ret
ovi uses</u>}}</div>
1403125256173 1395802358422 {{c1::He pesvi uses}} a e a class of DNA vi uses
that acqui es thei envelope f om the nuclea memb ane. All othe enveloped vi
uses acqui e it f om the plasma memb ane.
<b /><div><img s c="paste40888
08865920.jpg" /></div>
1403126074092 1395802358422 What is the only DNA vi us that <b>does not</b>&
nbsp;have an icosahed al shape?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Poxvi us}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste4363686773147.jpg" /></div>
1403126635353 1395802358422 What is the only DNA vi us that <b>does not</b>&
nbsp; eplicate in the nucleus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Poxvi us}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It ca ies its own DNAdependent RNA polyme ase.</i></div><div><i>
<b /></i></div><div><i><img s c="paste4367981740443.jpg" /></i></div>
1403133798211 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in He pesvi u
ses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136564417 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Hepadnavi
us?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136569891 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Poxvi us?<
div><b />{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136579174 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Papillomav
i us?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136609242 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Polyomavi
us?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136625776 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Adenovi us
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136635213 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Pa vovi us
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ssDNA}}</div>
1403137401302 1395802358422 {{c1::HBV}} is a Hepadnavi us that causes acute
o ch onic hepatitis. <b /><div><i>Not a et ovi us, but has eve se t ansc i

ptase.</i></div>
1403137616859 1395802358422 Which dsDNA vi us is associated with causing Acu
te Hemo hagic Cystitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Adenovi us}}</div>
1403137741089 1395802358422 Which dsDNA vi us is associated with <b>feb ile
pha yngitis, pneumonia</b>&nbsp;and <b>conjunctivitis</b>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Adenovi us}}</div>
1403137771235 1395802358422 What is the smallest DNA vi us?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Pa vovi us}}</div>
1403137788786 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa vovi us B19}} is a ssDNA vi us that cau
ses <b>aplastic c ises</b>&nbsp;in sickle cell disease.
1403137824922 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa vovi us B19}} is a ssDNA vi us that cau
ses <b>"slapped cheeks" ash (e ythema infectiosum; fifth disease)</b>&nbsp;in c
hild en.
1403137863098 1395802358422 {{c1::E ythema Infectiosium (Fifth Disease)}} is
a cutaneous complication of Pa vovi us B19 infection that p esents as a <b>"sla
pped cheeks" ash</b>&nbsp;in child en.
1403137902532 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa vovi us B19}} is a ssDNA vi us that cau
ses RBC dest uction in fetus, the eby leading to hyd ops fetalis and death.
1403137927718 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa vovi us B19}} is a ssDNA vi us that cau
ses pu e RBC aplasia.
1403137935009 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa vovi us B19}} is a ssDNA vi us that cau
ses Rheumatoid A th itislike symptoms in adults.
1403137951253 1395802358422 What is the etiology of P og essive Multifocal L
eukoencephalopathy (PML)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::JC vi us infection in HIV}}
</div>
1403138026081 1395802358422 {{c1::JC Vi us}} is a dsDNA Polyomavi us that ca
uses P og essive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML) in HIV patients..
1403138132467 1395802358422 {{c1::BK Vi us}} is a dsDNA Polyomavi us that co
mmonly ta gets the kidney in t ansplant patients.
<b /><div><i>BK = <b>B<
/b>ad <b>K</b>idney</i></div><div><i>JC = <b>J</b>unky <b>C</b>e eb um (PML)</i>
</div>
1403138210850 1395802358422 {{c1::Cowpox}} is a dsDNA Poxvi us that yields "
<b>milkmaid bliste s</b>".
1403138249124 1395802358422 What is the la gest DNA vi us?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Poxvi uses}}</div>
1403138257021 1395802358422 {{c1::Molluscum contagiosum}} is a cutaneous dis
o de caused by <b>Poxvi uses</b> that p esents with <b>fleshcolou ed dome lesi
ons</b>&nbsp;with a <b>cent al umbilicated dimple</b>.
1403138320042 1395802358422 Which He pesvi us is associated with Gingivostom
atitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HSV1}}</div>
1403139339864 1395802358422 Which He pesvi us is associated with Ke atoconju
nctivitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HSV1}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s
c="paste7546257539403.jpg" /></div>
1403139385203 1395802358422 Which He pesvi us is the most common cause of sp
o adic encephalitis in the USA?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HSV1}}</div>
1403139404471 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV1}} is a He pesvi us that causes tempo
al lobe encephalitis. <b ><div><i>Most common cause of spo adic encephalitis i
n the USA.</i></div>
1403139452818 1395802358422 What is the etiology of He pes Labialis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::HSV1}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste770946629
6652.jpg" /></div>
1403139472305 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV1}} is a He pesvi us that is latent in
<b>t igeminal ganglia</b>.
1403139559264 1395802358422 How is HSV1 t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Respi ato y d oplets; saliva}}</div>
1403139593691 1395802358422 Which He pesvi us is associated with Cowd y Type
A inclusions on a cell smea ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HSV1; HSV2}}</div>
1403139633959 1395802358422 What is the etiology of He pes Genitalis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::HSV2}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste79027398
24973.jpg" /></div>

1403139661451 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV2}} is a He pesvi us that is latent in
<b>sac al ganglia</b>.
1403139685511 1395802358422 Which He pesvi us is associated with Neonatal He
pes?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HSV2}}</div>
1403139710572 1395802358422 How is HSV2 t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Sexual contact; Pe inatally}}</div>
1403139730046 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Chickenpox?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::VZV (Va icellazoste )}}</div>
1403140033058 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Shingles?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::VZV (Va icellazoste )}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste
8808977924430.jpg" /></div>
1403140047263 1395802358422 {{c1::VZV}} is a He pesvi us that is latent in <
b>do sal oot </b>o <b> t igeminal ganglia</b>.
1403140106172 1395802358422 What is the most common complication of Shingles
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Posthe petic Neu algia}}</div>
1403140124899 1395802358422 How is VZV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Respi ato y sec etions}}</div>
1403140169070 1395802358422 What is the most common etiology of Mononucleosi
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140255270 1395802358422 {{c1::Mononucleosis}} is a complication of EBV i
nfection that p esents with feve , hepatosplenomegaly, pha yngitis and lymphaden
opathy. <b /><div><i>Lymphadenopathy is especially seen at the poste io ce vic
al nodes.</i></div>
1403140435215 1395802358422 How is EBV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Respi ato y sec etions; Saliva}}</div>
1403140461354 1395802358422 {{c1::Mononucleosis}} is a disease caused by EBV
that is also commonly efe ed to as "<b>kissing disease</b>" as it is often se
en in teens and young adults.
1403140508210 1395802358422 Whe e is EBV latent?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
B cells}}</div> <b /><div><i>EBV infects B cells.</i></div>
1403140583915 1395802358422 Which ecepto does EBV use to ente B cells?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::CD21 (C3d; CR2)}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"You must
be <b>21</b>&nbsp;to d ink at the <b>EpsteinBa </b>"</i></div>
1403140620392 1395802358422 {{c1::EBV}} is a He pesvi us that can give ise
to <b>atypical lymphocytes (Downey Cells) on a pe iphe al blood smea </b>.<div><
b /></div><div><img s c="paste9152575308110.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Th
e atypical cells a e not B cells. <b>They a e eactive cytotoxic T cells</b>.</i
></div>
1403140678717 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to detect EBV infe
ction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Monospot Test}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>Hete
ophile antibodies a e detected by agglutination of sheep o ho se RBCs.</i><b
/><div><i>Positive esult = EBV infection.</i></div>
1403140742833 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Monospot Test}} is a diagnostic t
est that detects the <b>hete ophile antibodies</b>&nbsp;seen in EBV infection vi
a agglutination of sheep o ho se RBCs.
1403140899061 1395802358422 Which He pesvi us is associated with Hodgkin Lym
phoma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140915952 1395802358422 Which He pesvi us is associated with endemic Bu
kitt Lymphoma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140930710 1395802358422 Which He pesvi us is associated with Nasopha yng
eal Ca cinoma?<div><b />{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140946098 1395802358422 Which He pesvi us causes Mononucleosis with a <b
>negative Monospot test</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div>
1403141234206 1395802358422 Which He pesvi us is associated with causing et
initis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div> <b /><div><i>"Sight"omegalovi
us</i></div>
1403141269124 1395802358422 Which He pesvi us is associated with cha acte is
tic <b>Owl's Eye inclusions</b>&nbsp;in infected cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::CMV}}</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste10479720202575.jpg" /></div>
1403141305744 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is a He pesvi us that is latent in m

ononuclea cells.
1403141339702 1395802358422 How is CMV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Congenitally; T ansfusion; Sexual Contact; Saliva; U ine; T ansplant}}</div>
1403141534427 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Roseola?<div><b />{{c1:
:HHV6}}</div>
1403141586391 1395802358422 {{c1::Roseola}} is an infectious diso de caused
by HHV6 that p esents with <b>high feve </b>&nbsp;fo seve al days and a subse
quent <b>diffuse macula ash</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste10758893
076815.jpg" /></div>
1403141640344 1395802358422 {{c1::Seizu es}} a e a neu ological complication
of Roseola due to the high feve s that can last fo seve al days.
1403141683332 1395802358422 How is Roseola (HHV6) t ansmitted?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Saliva}}</div>
1403141698113 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Kaposi Sa coma?<div><b
/>{{c1::HHV8}}</div>
1403141713141 1395802358422 {{c1::Kaposi Sa coma}} is a neoplasm of endothel
ial cells that is caused by HHV8 in HIV/AIDS and t ansplant patients.
1403141780888 1395802358422 {{c1::Kaposi Sa coma}} is a neoplasm of endothel
ial cells caused by HHV8 that p esents with <b>da k/violaceous, flat</b>&nbsp;a
nd <b>nodula skin lesions</b>&nbsp;that ep esent endothelial g owths.<div><b
/></div><div><img s c="paste10965051507025.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Th
e GI and Lungs can also be affected.</i></div>
1403141883192 1395802358422 How is HHV8 t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Sexual contact}}</div>
1403141901654 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Tzanck test}} is a diagnostic tes
t used to identify HSV th ough a smea of an opened skin vesicle.<div><b /></di
v><div><img s c="paste11192684773794.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>A positive
tzanck smea will show multinucleated giant cells.</i></div>
1403142018149 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to diagnose He pes
Encephalitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CSF PCR}}</div>
1403142048017 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Reovi us?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::dsRNA}}</div>
1403144228014 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Pico navi
us?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144235452 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Hepevi us?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144245759 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Calicivi u
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144253499 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Flavivi us
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144258949 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Flavivi us
??<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144288238 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Togavi us?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144295552 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Ret ovi us
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144302858 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Co onavi u
ses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144312488 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in O thomyxov
i uses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144494015 1395802358422 What type nucleic acid is found in Pa amyxovi us
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144822898 1395802358422 What type nucleic acid is found in Rhabdovi us?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144831545 1395802358422 What type nucleic acid is found in Filovi us?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144839873 1395802358422 What type nucleic acid is found in A enavi us?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144848305 1395802358422 What type nucleic acid is found in Bunyavi us?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>

1403144857131 1395802358422 What type nucleic acid is found in Deltavi us?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403149724209 1395802358422 Which se ological antigen f om EBV is p oduced i
f the infection is active and p oductive?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vi al Capsi
d Antigen (VCA)}}</div>
1403149942402 1395802358422 Which se ological antigen f om EBV is seen in la
tent infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::EpsteinBa Nuclea Antigen (EBNA)}}
</div>
1403149965943 1395802358422 {{c1::EpsteinBa Nuclea Antigen (EBNA)}} is a
se ological antigen f om EBV that cont ibutes to Hodgkin's o Bu kitt's Lymphom
a.
1403150015090 1395802358422 {{c1::Coltivi us}} is a dsRNA A bovi us and Reov
i us that causes Colo ado Tick Feve .
1403151607539 1395802358422 Which type Reovi us is the #1 cause of fatal dia
hea in child en?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rotavi us}}</div>
1403151653610 1395802358422 {{c1::Poliovi us}} is a Pico navi us that causes
Polio. <b /><div><img s c="paste17888538788154.jpg" /></div>
1403151822869 1395802358422 {{c1::Echovi us}} is a Pico navi us that causes
aseptic meningitis.
<b /><div><img s c="paste17884243820858.jpg" /></div>
1403151835081 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhinovi us}} is a Pico navi us that causes
the "common cold".
<b /><div><img s c="paste17884243820858.jpg" /></div>
1403151896208 1395802358422 {{c1::Coxsackievi us}} is a Pico navi us that ca
uses aseptic meningitis, he pangina, handfootmouth disease, myoca ditis and pe
ica ditis.
<b /><div><img s c="paste17884243820858.jpg" /></div>
1403151923416 1395802358422 {{c1::HAV}} is a Pico navi us that causes Acute
Vi al Hepatitis.
<b /><div><img s c="paste17884243820858.jpg" /></div>
1403152447932 1395802358422 {{c1::HEV}} is a Hepevi us that causes hepatitis
.
1403152475119 1395802358422 {{c1::No ovi us}} is a Calicivi us that causes v
i al gast oente itis.
1403152491888 1395802358422 {{c1::HCV}} is a Flavivi us that causes hepatiti
s.
1403152520861 1395802358422 {{c1::A bovi us}} is a g oup of vi uses that a e
t ansmitted by a th opods (e.g. mosquitoes, ticks).
1403152973559 1395802358422 How a e A bovi uses t ansmitted?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::A th opods (mosquitoes; ticks)}}</div>
1403153047912 1395802358422 {{c1::Yellow Feve Vi us (YFV)}} is an A bovi us
and Flavivi us that causes Yellow Feve .
1403153074969 1395802358422 {{c1::Dengue vi us (DENV)}} is an A bovi us and
Flavivi us that causes Dengue.
1403153097390 1395802358422 {{c1::St. Louis Encephalitis Vi us (SLEV)}} is a
n A bovi us and Flavivi us that causes St. Louis Encephalitis.
1403153123179 1395802358422 {{c1::West Nile Vi us (WNV)}} is an A bovi us an
d Flavivi us that causes West Nile.
1403153151020 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella vi us}} is a Togavi us that causes
Rubella.
1403153216093 1395802358422 {{c1::Easte n Equine Encephalitis Vi us (EEEV)}}
is an A bovi us and Togavi us that causes Easte n Equine Encephalitis.
1403153301788 1395802358422 {{c1::Weste n Equine Encephalitis Vi us (WEEV)}}
is an A bovi us and Togavi us that causes Weste n Equine Encephalitis.
1403153333497 1395802358422 {{c1::Human Tlymphot opic vi us (HTLV)}} is a R
et ovi us that causes Adult TCell Leukemia/Lymphoma.
1403153418832 1395802358422 {{c1::Human Immunodeficiency Vi us (HIV)}} is a
Ret ovi us that causes AIDS.
1403153434915 1395802358422 {{c1::Co onavi us}} is a Co onavi us that causes
the common cold and SARS.
1403153483786 1395802358422 {{c1::Influenza Vi us}} is an O thomyxovi us tha
t causes the flu.
1403153501981 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa ainfluenzavi us}} is a Pa amyxovi us th
at causes C oup.
<b /><div><img s c="paste19786914332833.jpg" /></div>

1403153543074 1395802358422 {{c1::Respi ato y Syncytial Vi us (RSV)}} is a P
a amyxovi us that causes b onchiolitis in babies.
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te19782619365537.jpg" /></div>
1403153599484 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Respi ato y Syncytial
Vi us (RSV) infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ribavi in}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste19782619365537.jpg" /></div>
1403153616162 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles vi us}} is a Pa amyxovi us that ca
uses Measles. <b /><div><img s c="paste19782619365537.jpg" /></div>
1403153633173 1395802358422 {{c1::Mumps vi us}} is a Pa amyxovi us that caus
es Mumps.
<b /><div><img s c="paste19782619365537.jpg" /></div>
1403153646671 1395802358422 {{c1::Rabies vi us}} is a Rhabdovi us that cause
s Rabies.
1403153659412 1395802358422 {{c1::Ebola vi us}} is a Filovi us that causes E
bola.
1403153691369 1395802358422 {{c1::Ma bu g vi us}} is a Filovi us that causes
Ma bu g Hemo hagic Feve .
1403153708859 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphocytic Cho iomeningitis Vi us (LCMV)}
} is an A enavi us that causes Lymphocytic Cho iomeningitis.
1403153783307 1395802358422 {{c1::Lassa vi us}} is an A enavi us that causes
Lassa Feve .
1403153795153 1395802358422 {{c1::Hantavi us}} is a Bunyavi us that causes h
emo hagic feve and pneumonia.
1403153931797 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Califo nia Encephalitis?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bunyavi uses}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Which a e
also A bovi uses.</i></div>
1403153959813 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Sandfly/Rift Valley Feve
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bunyavi uses}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Which a e
also A bovi uses.</i></div>
1403153985737 1395802358422 What is the etiology of C imeanCongo Hemo hagi
c Feve ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bunyavi uses}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Wh
ich a e also A bovi uses<b>.</b></i></div>
1403154023641 1395802358422 {{c1::HDV}} is a Deltavi us that causes hepatiti
s <u>when the e is an HBV coinfection</u>.
1403193207560 1395802358422 Negative st anded RNA vi uses must b ing along a
n&nbsp;{{c1::RNAdependent RNA polyme ase}} in o de to t ansc ibe thei negativ
e st and in positive st and RNA (mRNA) <div><b /></div><img s c="paste2200311
7457455.jpg" /><b /><div><img s c="paste21994527522938.jpg" /></div>
1403195008095 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is seen in <b>all</b>&
nbsp;segmented vi uses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RNA}}</div> <div><b /></div
><img s c="paste22157736280214.jpg" />
1403195041732 1395802358422 How a e Pico navi uses t ansmitted?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Fecalo al; all a e ente ovi uses except fo Rhinovi us}}</div>
<div><b /></div><img s c="paste22316650070121.jpg" /><b /><div><img s c="past
e22303765168434.jpg" /></div>
1403195353414 1395802358422 What is the only Pico navi us that <b>does not</
b>&nbsp;infect the GI t act?<div><b />{{c1::Rhinovi us}}</div> <b /><div><i>Th
is is because it is acidlabile and dest oyed in the stomach.</i></div>
1403195537492 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhinovi us}} is a Pico navi us that is <b>
acid labile</b>&nbsp;and hence is dest oyed by stomach acid and doesn't cause GI
infection.
1403195815189 1395802358422 How is Yellow Feve (Yellow Feve Vi us) t ansmi
tted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Aedes</i>&nbsp;mosquito}}</div>
1403195959549 1395802358422 What is the ese voi fo Yellow Feve Vi us?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Monkeys; Humans}}</div>
1403195987559 1395802358422 {{c1::Yellow Feve }} is an infectious diso de c
aused by a Flavivi us (and A bovi us) that p esents with <b>high feve , black vo
mitus</b>&nbsp;and <b>jaundice</b>.
<b /><div><i>Etiology is Yellow Feve V
i us (but I didn't wanna make it too easy, nom sayin?)</i></div>
1403196202956 1395802358422 What is the most impo tant global cause of infan
tile gast oente itis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rotavi us}}</div>
<div><b

/></div><i>dsRNA Reovi us</i><div><i></i><i><b>ROTA = R</b>ight&nbsp;<b>O</b>ut
&nbsp;<b>T</b>he&nbsp;<b>A</b>nus</i><b /><div><img s c="paste23102629085462.j
pg" /></div></div>
1403197164365 1395802358422 {{c1::Rotavi us}} is a dsRNA Reovi us that is a
majo cause of acute dia hea in the USA du ing the winte , especially in dayca
e cente s and kinde ga tens.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste2309833411816
6.jpg" /></div> <b /><div><i><b>ROTA = R</b>ight <b>O</b>ut <b>T</b>he <b>A</b>
nus</i></div>
1403197196511 1395802358422 {{c1::Rotavi us}} is a dsRNA vi us that causes <
b>dest uction and at ophy of GI villi </b>that leads to a <b>dec ease in Na abso
ption</b>&nbsp;and a <b>loss of K</b>. <b /><div><img s c="paste2309833411816
6.jpg" /></div>
1403197495681 1395802358422 How do Na levels change in Rotavi us infection?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease due to a dec ease in Na abso ption (due to v
illous dest uction and at ophy)}}</div>
1403197532531 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Rotavi us infection?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease due to K loss (as a esult of GI villi dest u
ction and at ophy)}}</div>
1403197667789 1395802358422 {{c1::Influenza vi us}} is an enveloped o thomyx
ovi us with an <b>8segment</b> negative ssRNA genome.
1403198437647 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemagglutinin}} is an antigen f om Influen
za vi us that functions to p omote vi al ent y.
1403198474703 1395802358422 {{c1::Neu aminidase}} is a vi al enzyme/antigen
f om Influenza vi us that p omotes the elease of p ogeny vi ions.
1403198511652 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1:: efo mulated}} flu vaccine is the
flu vaccine that contains the vi al st ains most likely to appea du ing the fl
u season.
<b /><div><i>aka "the flu shot"</i></div>
1403198785505 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::killed vi al}} flu vaccine is the
fo m of flu vaccine that is most f equently used.
1403198804519 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::live, attenuated}} flu vaccine is
the flu vaccine that contains a tempe atu esensitive mutant that eplicated in
the nose, but not the lungs. <b /><div><i>Administe ed int anasally.</i></di
v>
1403198837444 1395802358422 {{c1::Genetic/antigenic shift}} is a genetic phe
nomenon that causes <b>flu pandemics</b>.
<b /><div><i>This involves the
easso tment of the vi al genome. Segments unde go highf equency ecombination
(like when human flu A vi us ecombines with swine flu A vi us).</i></div><div><
i></i><i><b>S</b>udden genetic&nbsp;<b>s</b>hifts a e mo e deadly that g a<b>d</
b>ual genetic&nbsp;<b>d</b> ifts.</i></div>
1403198971091 1395802358422 {{c1::Genetic/antigenic d ift}} is a genetic phe
nomenon that yields <b>flu epidemics</b>.
<b /><div><i>Involves mino cha
nges based on andom mutations.</i></div><div><i><b>S</b>udden genetic <b>s</b>h
ifts a e mo e deadly that g a<b>d</b>ual genetic <b>d</b> ifts.</i></div>
1403215046161 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella}} is an infective diso de caused
by a Togavi us that was fo me ly known as Ge man (3day) Measles.
1403215494953 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella}} is an infectious diso de caused
by a Togavi us that p esents with feve , <b>postau icula </b>&nbsp;(and othe )
lymphadenopathy, <b>a th algia</b>&nbsp;and a <b>fine ash</b>.<div><b /></div>
<div><img s c="paste26293789786530.jpg" /></div>
1403215608761 1395802358422 {{c1::Fine (Rubella) Rash}} is a cutaneous featu
e of Rubella that involves <b>fine macules that sta ts on the face and sp eads
cent ifugally</b>&nbsp;to involve the t unk and ext emities.<div><b /></div><di
v><img s c="paste26289494819234.jpg" /></div>
1403215645008 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Rubella}} is a se ious ToRCHeS
infection that p esents with a <b>"bluebe y muffin" appea ance</b>&nbsp;that is
indicative of ext amedulla y hematopoeisis.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="past
e26439818674593.jpg" /></div>
1403215711657 1395802358422 {{c1::"Bluebe y Muffin" appea ance}} is a cutan
eous featu e of Congenital Rubella that is indicative of ext amedulla y hematopo
iesis.

1403215750435 1395802358422 {{c1::C oup}} is a vi al espi ato y infection c
aused by Pa ainfluenzavi us that involves a <b>seallike ba king cough</b>.
<b /><div><i>Commonly seen in infants.</i></div>
1403216570764 1395802358422 {{c1::Su face F (fusion) p otein}} is a su face
p otein found in all Pa amyxovi uses that causes espi ato y epithelial cells to
fuse and fo m multinucleated cells.
1403216622940 1395802358422 {{c1::Palivizumab}} is a monoclonal antibody tha
t ta gets the su face F p otein on pa amyxovi uses, the eby p eventing pneumonia
caused by RSV infection in p ematu e infants.
1403216662021 1395802358422 Which momoclonal antibody is used to ta get the
Su face F p otein on all Pa amyxovi uses?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Palivizumab
}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It can p event the pneumonia caused by RSV infecti
on in p ematu e infants.</i></div>
1403216716841 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles}} is an infectious diso de caused
by a Pa amyxovi us that p esents with cha acte istic <b>Koplik spots</b>&nbsp;o
n the o al/buccal mucosa.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste26976689586594.jp
g" /></div>
1403217185884 1395802358422 {{c1::Koplik Spots}} a e a mucosal featu e of Me
asles that is desc ibed as <b>b ight ed spots</b>&nbsp;with <b>bluewhite cente
s</b>&nbsp;that p ecede the measles ash by 12 days.<div><b /></div><div><img
s c="paste26972394619298.jpg" /></div>
1403217229133 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles}} is an infectious diso de caused
by a Pa amyxovi us that p esents with a cha acte istic <b>descending maculopapu
la ash</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste27131308409250.jpg" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Disc ete e ythematous ash that p esents late and includes the lim
bs as it sp eads downwa ds (vs. Rubella which involves mostly the t unk and sp e
ads cent ifugally to the ext emities)</i></div>
1403217376605 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Subacute Scle osing Pane
ncephalitis (SSPE)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Measles vi us}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Occu s yea s late .</i></div>
1403217416275 1395802358422 {{c1::Giant Cell Pneumonia}} is a a e espi ato
y sequelae of Measles that is seen in the immunosupp essed.
1403217532105 1395802358422 {{c1::Cough}},&nbsp;{{c2::Co yza}} and&nbsp;{{c3
::Conjuncitivits}} is a t iad of symptoms efe ed to as the "Th ee C's of Measl
es."
<b /><div><img s c="paste27577985007779.jpg" /></div>
1403219013819 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitamin A}} is a fat soluble vitamin that
is used to p event seve e exfoliative de matitis in malnou ished child en infect
ed with Measles.
1403219043381 1395802358422 Which fat soluble vitamin is used to p event sev
e e exfoliative de matitis in malnou ished child en with Measles?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Vitamin A}}</div>
1403219447297 1395802358422 {{c1::Mumps}} is an infectious diso de caused b
y Pa amyxovi uses that p esents with <b>pa otitis, o chitis</b>&nbsp;and <b>asep
tic meningitis</b>.
<b /><div><i>"Mumps can make you pa otid glands and te
stes as big as <b>POM</b>poms."</i></div><div><i><b>P</b>a otitis, <b>O</b> chi
tis and aseptic <b>M</b>eningitis.</i></div><div><i>The o chitis can cause ste i
lity, especially afte pube ty.</i></div>
1403219565935 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa otitis}} is a featu e of Mumps that p e
sents with a <b>swollen neck and pa otid glands</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s
c="paste27994596835745.jpg" /></div>
1403226827494 1395802358422 Which Rhabdovi us (negative ssRNA) is shaped lik
e a bullet?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste29145648070934.jpg" /></div><di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rabies}}</div>
1403228947119 1395802358422 {{c1::Neg i Bodies}} a e cha acte istic cytoplas
mic inclusions commonly found in <b>Pu kinje cells of the ce ebellum</b>&nbsp;an
d in <b>hippocampal neu ons</b>&nbsp;in a patient with Rabies.<div><b /></div><
div><img s c="paste29686813950370.jpg" /></div>
1403229150193 1395802358422 What is the incubation pe iod fo Rabies?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Weeks to months befo e symptoms a ise}}</div>
1403229165584 1395802358422 What is the postexposu e t eatment fo Rabies?<d

iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Wound cleaning and vaccination  abies immune globulin}
}</div>
1403229205421 1395802358422 {{c1::Rabies}} is a Rhabdovi us that t avels to
and infects the CNS by mig ating in a et og ade fashion up ne ve axons.
1403229246864 1395802358422 Which animal bites a e the most common causes of
Rabies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bat, accoon and skunk}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Dog bites a e actually not that common in the USA.</i></div>
1403229278593 1395802358422 {{c1::Rabies}} is a CNS diso de caused by a Rha
bdovi us that p esents with <b>agitation, photophobia</b>&nbsp;and <b>hyd ophobi
a</b>. <b /><div><i><u>Disease p og ession</u>:</i></div><div><i>Feve , Malais
e &gt; Agitation, Photophobia, Hyd ophobia &gt; Pa alysis, Coma &gt; Death
.</i></div>
1403229687296 1395802358422 What is the only DNA Hepatitis vi us?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::HBV}}</div>
<b /><div><i>All othe s a e RNA vi uses.</i></d
iv><div><i><img s c="paste33152852557938.jpg" /></i></div>
1403229943935 1395802358422 How do ALT levels change in Hepatitis?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403229952647 1395802358422 How do AST levels change in Hepatitis?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403229961409 1395802358422 How is HAV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::FecalO al}}</div> <b /><div><i><u>The Hepatitis Wo m:&nbsp;<b>ABCDE</
b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends have fecalo al t ansmission (A = mouth; E = an
us).</i></div><div><i>Eve ything else in between (BCD) is t ansmitted pa ente al
ly.</i></div>
1403230069721 1395802358422 How is HBV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Pa ente al}}</div> <b /><div><div><i><u>The Hepatitis Wo m:&nbsp;<b>ABC
DE</b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends have fecalo al t ansmission (A = mouth; E
= anus).</i></div><div><i>Eve ything else in between (BCD) is t ansmitted pa en
te ally.</i></div></div>
1403230087366 1395802358422 How is HCV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Pa ente al}}</div> <div><b /></div><div><div><i><u>The Hepatitis Wo m:&nbs
p;<b>ABCDE</b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends have fecalo al t ansmission (A
= mouth; E = anus).</i></div><div><i>Eve ything else in between (BCD) is t ansm
itted pa ente ally.</i></div></div>
1403230100957 1395802358422 How is HDV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Pa ente al}}</div> <div><b /></div><div><div><i><u>The Hepatitis Wo m:&nbs
p;<b>ABCDE</b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends have fecalo al t ansmission (A
= mouth; E = anus).</i></div><div><i>Eve ything else in between (BCD) is t ansm
itted pa ente ally.</i></div></div>
1403230118689 1395802358422 How is HEV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Fecalo al; especially with wate bo ne epidemics}}</div>
<b /><div><div>
<i><u>The Hepatitis Wo m:&nbsp;<b>ABCDE</b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends ha
ve fecalo al t ansmission (A = mouth; E = anus).</i></div><div><i>Eve ything el
se in between (BCD) is t ansmitted pa ente ally.</i></div></div>
1403230126896 1395802358422 Which 2 Hepatitis vi uses do not yield ca ie s
tatus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A and E}}</div>
1403230464069 1395802358422 Which 2 Hepatitis vi uses a e t ansmitted fecal
o ally?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HAV; HEV}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"The vowel
s hit you bowels."</i></div><div><i>They a e naked vi uses and do not ely on a
n envelope, hence they a e not dest oyed by the gut.</i></div>
1403230706101 1395802358422 What is the incubation pe iod fo HAV?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Sho t (weeks)}}</div>
1403230758993 1395802358422 What is the incubation pe iod fo &nbsp;HBV?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Long (months)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste33157
147525234.jpg" /></div>
1403230766342 1395802358422 What is the incubation pe iod fo &nbsp;HCV?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1403230790060 1395802358422 What is the incubation pe iod fo HDV&nbsp;<b>wh
en it is supe infected on top of HBV</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sho t}}</di
v>

1403230813793 1395802358422 What is the incubation pe iod fo &nbsp;HDV <b>wh
en it causes coinfection with HBV</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1403230847676 1395802358422 What is the incubation pe iod fo &nbsp;HEV?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Sho t}}</div>
1403230932218 1395802358422 Which 2 Hepatitis vi uses <b>do not</b>&nbsp;inc
ease the isk fo Hepatocellula Ca cinoma (HCC)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HA
V; HEV}}</div>
1403231231211 1395802358422 {{c1::HBV}} is a Hepatitis vi us that inc eases
the isk of Hepatocellula Ca cinoma by integ ating into the host genome, the eb
y acting as an oncogene.
<b /><div><img s c="paste33152852557938.jpg" /
></div>
1403231272667 1395802358422 {{c1::HCV}} is a Hepatitis vi us that inc eases
the isk of Hepatocellula Ca cinoma by causing ch onic inflammation.
1403231301609 1395802358422 How does HDV influence the isk of Hepatocellula
Ca cinoma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403231439439 1395802358422 Which Hepatitis vi us is associated with <b>asym
ptomatic</b>, <b>acute</b>&nbsp;hepatitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HAV}}</div
>
<b /><div><img s c="paste32418413150333.jpg" /></div>
1403231921559 1395802358422 Which Hepatitis is most commonly associated with
<b>ch onic</b>&nbsp;hepatitis and subsequent <b>ci hosis</b>&nbsp;o <b>ca cin
oma</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HCV}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste32452
772888671.jpg" /></div>
1403231965914 1395802358422 Which Hepatitis vi us is a defective vi us that
is <b>dependent on HBV coinfection o supe infection</b>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::HDV}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Supe infection yields a wo se p ognosis.</
i></div>
1403232021285 1395802358422 Which Hepatitis vi us is associated with high mo
tality in p egnant women?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HEV}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste32568737005644.jpg" /></div>
1403234379492 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin against HAV indicates <b>ac
tive</b>&nbsp;Hepatitis A?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AntiHAV IgM}}</div>
1403234473918 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin against HAV indicates <b>p
io infection o vaccination to HAV</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AntiHAV IgG
}}</div>
1403234508053 1395802358422 {{c1::AntiHAV IgG}} is an immunoglobulin agains
t HAV that p otects against HAV einfection.
1403234530092 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen indicates the <b>p esence</b>&
nbsp;of an Hepatitis B infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HBsAg (su face)}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste35854386987766.jpg" /></div>
1403234700134 1395802358422 Which antibody against HBV indicates <b>immunity
to Hepatitis B</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AntiHBsAg antibodies}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste35850092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403234741071 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen is associated with the co e of
HBV?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HBcAg}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste35850
092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403235161183 1395802358422 Which antibody is HBV is indicative of an <b>acu
te o ecent infection</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AntiHB<u><b>c</b></u>Ag
IgM}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste35850092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403235215825 1395802358422 Which antibody against HBV is indicative of <b>p
io exposu e</b>&nbsp;o <b>ch onic infection</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A
ntiHBcAg IgG}}</div> <b /><div><i>Positive du ing the window pe iod.</i></di
v><div><i><img s c="paste35850092020470.jpg" /></i></div>
1403235269008 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen is indicative of <b>active vi
al eplication</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HBeAg}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><i>A second, diffe ent antigenic dete minant f om the HBV co e</i>.<b /><div><
img s c="paste35850092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403235411557 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen is indicative of <b>high t ans
missibility</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HBeAg}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste35850092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403235477151 1395802358422 Which antibody against HBV is indicative of <b>l

ow t ansmissibility</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AntiHBeAg}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste35850092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403235515874 1395802358422 Which type of hepatitis is cha acte ized by ALT
&gt; AST?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vi al}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Vi <b>ALT<
/b>.</i></div>
1403236047548 1395802358422 Which type of hepatitis is cha acte ised by AST
&gt; ALT?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Alcoholic hepatitis}}</div>
1403236061859 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen appea s fi st in an HBV infect
ion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HBsAg}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>"<b>SECES</
b>" in the o de of appea ance:</i><div><i> SE a e the antigens (HBsAg; HBeAg)<
/i></div><div><i> CES a e the antibodies<b /></i><div><img s c="paste35850092
020470.jpg" /></div></div>
1403236146801 1395802358422 Which antibody against HBV will be p esent in a
patient that is immunized against HBV?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AntiHBsAg}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste37890201485634.jpg" /></div>
1403236338970 1395802358422 Which vi al gene in HIV codes fo the su face gl
ycop oteins gp120 and gp41?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>env</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The p otein codes fo gp160 which is cleaved into gp120 and gp41.<
/i></div>
1403236458381 1395802358422 Which envelope p otein on HIV functions to allow
<b>attachment to host CD4+ T cells</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::gp120; the d
ocking glycop otein}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste38109244818014.jpg" /
></div>
1403236543841 1395802358422 Which envelope p otein f om HIV functions to med
iate <b>fusion and ent y</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::gp41; the t ansmemb ane
glycop otein}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste38104949850718.jpg" /></div>
1403236571738 1395802358422 Which vi al gene in HIV codes fo the p24 capsid
p otein?<div><b />{{c1::<i>gag</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste38104
949850718.jpg" /></div>
1403236603642 1395802358422 Which vi al p otein in HIV functions as the caps
id p otein?<div><b />{{c1::p24}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste3810494985071
8.jpg" /></div>
1403236619201 1395802358422 Which vi al gene in HIV codes fo its Reve se T
ansc iptase?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>pol</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Re
membe , Reve se T ansc iptase is an <b>RNAdependent DNA Polyme ase</b>&nbsp;whi
ch synthesizes dsDNA f om RNA. The fo med dsDNA integ ates into the host genome.
</i></div>
1403236647898 1395802358422 Which vi al gene in HIV codes fo its Aspa tate
P otease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>pol</i>}}</div>
1403236662137 1395802358422 Which vi al gene in HIV codes fo its Integ ase?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>pol</i>}}</div>
1403236675704 1395802358422 Which vi al p otein in HIV functions as the mat
ix p otein?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::p17}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te38104949850718.jpg" /></div>
1403236800656 1395802358422 To which co ecepto does HIV bind to in <u styl
e="fontweight: bold; ">ea ly infection</u>&nbsp;to ente T cells?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::CCR5}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Alongside CD4.</i></div><div><i>Ho
mozygous CCR5 mutation = immunity.</i></div><div><i>Hete ozygous CCR5 mutation =
slowe disease cou se.</i></div>
1403236845148 1395802358422 To which co ecepto does HIV bind to in <u styl
e="fontweight: bold; ">late infection</u>&nbsp;to ente T cells?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::CXCR4}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Alongside CD4.</i></div>
1403236876930 1395802358422 To which co ecepto does HIV bind to ente Mac
ophages?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CCR5}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Alongside
CD4.</i></div><div><i><div></div></i><i>Homozygous CCR5 mutation = immunity.</i>
</div><div><i>Hete ozygous CCR5 mutation = slowe disease cou se.</i></div>
1403237004609 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used as a <b>p esumptiv
e, uleout</b>&nbsp;test fo HIV infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ELISA}}<
/div> <b /><div><i>Sensitive; high falsepositive ate; low th eshold.</i></d
iv><div><i><img s c="paste40432822124766.jpg" /></i></div>

1403237052080 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to<b>&nbsp;confi m
</b>&nbsp;a positive ELISA test fo HIV infection (i.e. a <b> ulein test</b>)?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Weste n blot assay}}</div> <b /><div><i>Specific;
highfalse negative ate; high th eshold</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste404285
27157470.jpg" /></i></div>
1403237108201 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to dete mine the p
ognosis of HIV infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HIV PCR/vi al load test; d
ete mines the amount of vi al RNA in the plasma}}</div>
1403237168152 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to monito the eff
ect of d ug the apy in HIV infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HIV PCR/vi al l
oad test; dete mines the amount of vi al RNA in the plasma}}</div>
1403237187951 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is equi ed to make an AIDS
diagnosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::≤ 200 CD4+ cells/mm³}}</div>
<b /><div><i>No mal = 5001500 cells/mm³</i></div><div><i>^{<img
s c="paste40870908789351.jpg" />}</i></div>
1403237266319 1395802358422 What CD4 pe centage is needed to make a diagnosi
s of AIDS?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 14%}}</div> <b /><div><i>AIDS can a
lso be diagnosed by the p esence of an AIDSdefining condition (Pneumocystis pne
umonia) in an HIV+ patient.</i></div>
1403237357017 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is indicative of <b>mode at
e immunocomp omisation</b>&nbsp;in HIV infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt
; 400 CD4+ cells/mm³}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste4086661382205
5.jpg" /></div>
1403237616954 1395802358422 Whe e does HIV eplicate du ing the latent phase
of an unt eated infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Lymph nodes}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste40866613822055.jpg" /></div>
1403280640589 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Histoplasma capsulatum</i>}} is an oppo
tunistic fungus that is known to cause <b>systemic&nbsp;</b>disease in HIV pati
ents that involves <b>lowg ade feve s, cough, hepatosplenomegaly</b>&nbsp;and <
b>tongue ulce ation</b>.
<b /><div><i>CD4+ &lt; 100 cell/mm³<
/i></div>
1403283050359 1395802358422 Which CD4+ cell count is associated with oppo tu
nistic <i>Histoplasma capsulatum</i>&nbsp;infections in HIV patients?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::&lt; 100 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403283089460 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} is an oppo tunis
tic fungus that causes o al th ush/esophagitis in HIV patients that p esents wit
h fluffy white cottagecheese lesions.
1403285170219 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <b>o al<
/b>&nbsp;th ush caused by <i>Candida albicans</i>&nbsp;in HIV patients?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 400 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403285201397 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <b>esoph
agitis</b>&nbsp;caused by <i>Candida albicans</i>&nbsp;in HIV patients?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 100 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403285239765 1395802358422 {{c1::Hai y Leukoplakia}} is a de matological in
fection caused by EBV in HIV patients that commonly p esents on the late al tong
ue.
1403285323559 1395802358422 {{c1::Bacilla y Angiomatosis}} is a de matologic
diso de caused by <i>Ba tonella henselae</i>&nbsp;in HIV patients and p esents
with supe ficial vascula p olife ation.
<b /><div><i>Biopsy eveals neu
t ophilic inflammation.</i></div>
1403290054322 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>C yptospo idium spp.</i>}} is a p otozo
a that causes GI infection in HIV patients that p esents with ch onic, wate y di
a hea. <b /><div><i>Acid fast cysts a e seen in the stool.</i></div>
1403290877323 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>C ypt
ospo idium spp.</i>&nbsp;infection in HIV patients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&
lt; 200 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403291284641 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>}} is a p otozoa t
hat causes CNS abscesses in HIV patients that p esent as ingenhancing lesions
on imaging.
1403291731134 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>Toxop

lasma gondii</i>&nbsp;infection in HIV patients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt;
100 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403291771962 1395802358422 {{c1::Dementia}} is a CNS complication seen in H
IV that is di ectly associated with HIV and must be diffe entiated f om othe ca
uses.
1403291810944 1395802358422 {{c1::Encephalopathy (P og essive Multifocal Leu
koencephalopathy; PML)}} is a CNS diso de seen in HIV patients that involves th
e eactivation of latent JC vi us and subsequent demyelination.
1403292436951 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with JC vi us
eactivation in HIV patients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 200 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403292530742 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>C yptococcus neofo mans</i>}} is an opp
o tunistic fungus that causes meningitis in HIV patients.
<b /><div><i>In
diaink stain will eveal a yeast with na owbased budding and la ge capsule.</
i></div>
1403292875373 1395802358422 Which CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>C yp
tococcus neofo mans</i>&nbsp;meningitis in HIV patients?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::&lt; 50 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403292900993 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is a He pesvi us that causes <b> eti
nitis</b> in HIV patients that p esents with <b>cottonwool spots</b>&nbsp;on fu
ndoscopy.
<b /><div><i>May p esent with esophagitis.</i></div>
1403292961137 1395802358422 {{c1::Esophagitis}} is a GI complication that is
often seen alongside CMV Retinitis in HIV patients.
1403293081180 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with CMV eti
nitis in HIV patients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 50 cells/mm³}}
</div>
1403293151310 1395802358422 {{c1::La ge Cell NonHodgkin Lymphoma}} is a Non
Hodgkin Lymphoma that is seen in HIV patients, <b>often on the o opha ynx (Wald
eye Ring).</b> <b /><div><i>May be associated with EBV.</i></div>
1403294217650 1395802358422 {{c1::P ima y Bcell CNS Lymphoma}} is a Lymphom
a often associated with EBV in that can p esent as focal o multiple lesions, th
e eby diffe entiating it f om Toxoplasmosis.
1403295597194 1395802358422 {{c1::Squamous Cel Ca cinoma}} is a cance cause
d by HPV in HIV patients that often p esents at the anus (in MSM's) o the ce vi
x.
1403295677022 1395802358422 {{c1::Kaposi Sa coma}} is a cance caused by HHV
8 in HIV patients that p esents with supe ficial neoplastc p olife ations of va
sculatu e.
<div><b /></div><i>Biopsy will eveal lymphocytic inflammation.
</i><b /><div><i>Do not confuse Kaposi Sa coma with Bacilla y Angiomatosis whic
h is caused by Ba tonella henselae.</i></div>
1403296022011 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is a He pvesvi us that causes inte s
titial pneumonia in HIV patients.
<b /><div><i>Associated with owl eye in
clusions.</i></div>
1403296068600 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Aspe gillus fumigatus</i>}} is an oppo
tunistic fungus that causes invasive Aspe gillosis in HIV patients that p esents
with pleu itic pain, hemoptysis and infilt ates on imaging.
1403296110584 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pneumocystic ji ovecii</i>}} is an oppo
tunistic fungus that causes <i>Pneumocystis</i>&nbsp;pneumonia in HIV patients.
<b /><div><i>Associated with a g ound glass appea ance on imaging.</i></div>
1403296292520 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>Pneum
ocystis</i>&nbsp;pneumonia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 200 cells/mm<sup>3</
sup>}}</div>
1403296320448 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>St ep
tococcus pneumoniae</i>&nbsp;pneumonia in HIV patients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::&lt; 200 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403296589544 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium aviumint acellula e</i>&
nbsp;(MAC)}} is a Mycobacte ial species that causes Tube culosislike disease in
HIV patients.
1403296636460 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated <i>Mycobacte
ium aviumint acellula e</i>&nbsp;infection in HIV patients?<div><b /></div><di

v>{{c1::&lt; 50 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403296696962 1395802358422 Which fo m of p ions a e the infective, t ansmis
sible, pathogenic fo m of the p otein?<div><b />{{c1::P P^sc}}</div>
1403296827842 1395802358422 {{c1::P P^sc}} is the <b>betapleated,
</b>&nbsp;infective and t ansmissible fo m of p ions that is fo med following th
e conve sion f om the no mal, p edominantly alphahelical P P^c&nbsp;p
otein.
1403296910557 1395802358422 {{c1::P P^sc}} is the pathological fo
m of p ions that esists p otease deg adation and hence facilitates the conve si
on of mo e no mal P P^c&nbsp;p ions into the infective, t ansmissible
fo m.
1403296979146 1395802358422 {{c1::C eutzfeldtJakob Disease}} is a <b>spo ad
ic</b> type of spongifo m encephalopathy caused by p ions that is cha acte ized
by apidly p og essive dementia.&nbsp; <b /><div><i>Spongifo m encephalopathy
is cha acte ized by dementia, ataxia and death.</i></div>
1403297018321 1395802358422 {{c1::Ge stmannSt aussle Scheinke Synd ome}}
is an <b>inhe ited</b>&nbsp;spongifo m encephalopathy caused by p ions. <b /><d
iv><i>Spongifo m encephalopathy is cha acte ized by dementia, ataxia and death.<
/i></div>
1403297078245 1395802358422 {{c1::Ku u}} is an <b>acqui ed</b>&nbsp;fo m of
spongifo m encephalopathy that is caused by p ions.
<b /><div><i>Spongifo m
encephalopathy is cha acte ized by dementia, ataxia and death.</i></div>
1403297162366 1395802358422 Whe e on the body is <i>Staphylococcus epide mid
is </i>found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Skin}}</div>
1403298938646 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>Staphylococcus epide mid
is</i>&nbsp;no mally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nose}}</div>
1403298970960 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>Staphylococcus au eus</i
>&nbsp;no mally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nose}}</div>
1403298984246 1395802358422 Whe e in the body a e Vi idans St eptococci no m
ally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::O opha ynx}}</div>
1403299012580 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>St eptococcus mutans </i
>no mally found in the body?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dental plaque}}</div>
1403299072684 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>Esche ichia coli</i>&nbs
p;no mally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div>
1403299701687 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>Bacte oides f agilis</i>
&nbsp;no mally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div>
1403299725154 1395802358422 Whe e in the body is <i>Lactobacillus sp.</i>&nb
sp;no mally found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vagina}}</div>
1403300499736 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Bacillus
ce eus</i>&nbsp;food poisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Reheated ice}}</div>
1403300910954 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Clost idi
um botulinum </i>food poisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Imp ope ly canned fo
ods}}</div>
<b /><div><i>A sign will be <b>bulging cans</b>&nbsp;due to the
gas p oduction.</i></div>
1403300979026 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Clost idi
um pe f ingens</i>&nbsp;food poisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Reheated meat
dishes}}</div>
1403301346841 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Esche ich
ia coli</i>&nbsp;O157:H7 food poisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Unde cooked
meat}}</div>
1403301402601 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Salmonell
a</i>&nbsp;food poisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Poult y, meat, eggs}}</div
>
1403301422588 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Staphyloc
occus au eus </i>food poisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Meats; Mayonnaise; C
usta d}}</div> <b /><div><i>Involves p efo med ente otoxins</i></div>
1403301590798 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Vib io pa
ahaemolyticus</i>&nbsp;food poisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Contaminated
seafood}}</div>
1403302018878 1395802358422 What food sou ce is associated with <i>Vib io vu

lnificus</i>&nbsp;food poisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Contaminated seafoo
d}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Vib io vulnificus also causes wound infections f o
m contact with contaminated wate o shellfish.</i></div>
1403302057461 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is caused by <i>Campylobac
te spp</i>.?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div> <b /><div><i>Comma o S
shaped o ganisms that can g ow at 42 C</i></div>
1403303093917 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is caused by <i>Entamoeba
histolytica</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody (Amoebic Dysente y)}}</div>
1403303114564 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is caused by EHEC?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. O157:H7; makes a Shig
alike toxin</i></div>
1403303139859 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is caused by EIEC?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Due to invasion of the col
onic mucosa</i></div>
1403303154209 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is caused by <i>Salmonella
</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div> <b /><div><i>Flagella motility
; ese voi is in animals, especially poult y and eggs.</i></div>
1403303200013 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is caused by <i>Shigella</
i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div> <b /><div><i>P oduces a Shiga t
oxin.</i></div><div><i>Human ese voi only.</i></div>
1403303227164 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is caused by<i>&nbsp;Ye si
nia ente olytica</i>?<b /><b /><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Ca
uses dayca e outb eaks.</i></div><div><i>May also cause Pseudoappendicitis.</i>
</div>
1403303265838 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is caused by <i>Clost idiu
m difficile</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Wate y}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Al
so causes Pseudomemb anous colitis.</i></div><div><i>Occassionally causes bloody
dia hea.</i></div>
1403303414091 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is caused by <i>Clost idiu
m pe f ingens</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Wate y}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Al
so causes gas gang ene.</i></div>
1403303430032 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is caused by ETEC?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Wate y}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Causes T avele 's dia hea
.</i></div><div><i>P oduces both a heatlabile and heatstable toxin.</i></div>
1403303580284 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is caused by most p otozoa
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Wate y}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Gia dia, C yp
tospo idium</i></div>
1403303598154 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is caused by <i>Vib io cho
le ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Wate y}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Commashap
ed o ganism.</i></div><div><i>Causes ice wate dia hea.</i></div><div><i>Often
found in infected seafood.</i></div>
1403303643873 1395802358422 What type of dia hea is caused by most vi uses?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rotavi us; No ovi us}}</div>
1403303672031 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>St eptococcus pneumoniae</i>}},&nbsp;{{
c2::<i>Klebsiella</i>}} and&nbsp;{{c3::<i>Staphylococcus sp.</i>}} a e bace ia k
nown to cause pneumonia in alcoholics and/o IV d ug use s.
1403304551683 1395802358422 What g oup of bacte ia a e associated with Aspi
ation Pneumonia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anae obic bacte ia}}</div>
1403304573526 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoplasma</i>}},&nbsp;{{c2::<i>Legione
lla</i>}} and&nbsp;{{c3::<i>Chlamydia</i>}} a e bacte ia associated with Atypica
l Pneumonia.
1403304637189 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas sp.</i>}},&nbsp;{{c2::<i>St
aphylococcus au eus</i>}} and&nbsp;{{c3::<i>St eptococcus pneumoniae</i>}} a e b
acte ia associated with pneumonia in Cystic Fib osis patients.
1403304833135 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus</i>}},&nbsp;{{c2::<i>Hae
mophilus influenzae</i>}} and&nbsp;{{c3::<i>St eptococcus pneumoniae</i>}} a e b
acte ial species associated with <b>postvi al</b>&nbsp;pneumonia.
1403304873280 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of bacte ial menin
gitis in teens?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>}}</div>
1403304927377 1395802358422 How does opening p essu e change in bacte ial me

ningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te9929964388565.jpg" /></div>
1403306375270 1395802358422 How does opening p essu e change in Fungal o TB
meningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306391231 1395802358422 How does opening p essu e change in vi al mening
itis?<div><b />{{c1::No mal o Inc eased}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306406607 1395802358422 How do the level of PMNs change in bacte ial men
ingitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306462804 1395802358422 How do lymphocyte levels change in Fungal o TB
meningitis?<div><b />{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste99256
69421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306480307 1395802358422 How do CSF lymphocyte levels change in vi al men
ingitis?<div><b ></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b ><div><img s c="paste
9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306514193 1395802358422 How do CSF p otein levels change in bacte ial me
ningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306533528 1395802358422 How do CSF p otein levels change in fungal o TB
meningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306543116 1395802358422 How do CSF p otein levels change in vi al mening
itis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No mal o Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306580164 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels change in bacte ial me
ningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306789648 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels change in fungal/TB me
ningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306805863 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels change in vi al mening
itis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No mal; vi uses do not use glucose, emembe ?}}
</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403379343634 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is the most common cause of Osteo
myelitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>If no othe info mation is available about the patient, always ass
ume that Staphylococcus au eus is the cause.</i></div>
1403379855778 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with Osteomyelitis
in sexually active patients, albeit a ely?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse
ia gono hoeae</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Osteomyelitis is quite a e. Septi
c a th itis is fa mo e common.</i></div>
1403380080297 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with Osteomyelitis
in diabetics and IV d ug use s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae ugi
nosa</i>&nbsp;(and <i>Se atia sp.</i>)}}</div>
1403380109988 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with Osteomyelitis
in Sickle Cell patients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Salmonella sp.</i>}}</div
>
1403381846562 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with Osteomyelitis
in patients that have eceived a p osthetic joint eplacement?<div><b />{{c1::<
i>Staphylococcus au eus; Staphylococcus epide midis</i>}}</div>
1403381908012 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with Osteomyelitis
at the ve teb ae?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium tube culosis</i>}}
</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , this is called <b>Pott Disease</b></i></div>
1403381931442 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with Osteomyelitis
in patients that have eceived cat and dog bites?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
Pasteu ella multocida</i>}}</div>
1403382032572 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteomyelitis}} is an infectious diso de
of the bone that often yields a <b>subtle</b>&nbsp;lesion on x ay, but a mo e p

ominent lesion on MRI.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste15607911153942.jpg"
/><img s c="paste15620796055832.jpg" /></div>
1403382462738 1395802358422 Which sex is mo e commonly affected by UTIs?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Females}}</div> <b /><div><i>They have sho te u eth as
that a e colonized by fecal flo a.</i></div>
1403386039275 1395802358422 How does p egnancy affect the isk fo obtaining
a UTI?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403386051223 1395802358422 How does diabetes affect the isk fo obtaining
a UTI?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403386063417 1395802358422 What is a <b>positive u ina y leukocyte este ase
test</b>&nbsp;indicative of?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bacte ial UTI}}</div>
1403386313014 1395802358422 What is a <b>positive u ina y nit ite test</b>&n
bsp;indicative of?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<u style="fontweight: bold; ">G a
mnegative</u>&nbsp;bacte ial UTI}}</div>
1403386334411 1395802358422 What kind of bacte ia yield a <b>positive u ina
y nit ite test</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G amnegative bacte ia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is impo tant. G ampositive bacte ia will not yield a positiv
e nit ite test.</i></div>
1403386564988 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of UTI?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>Esche ichia coli</i>}}</div>
1403386615420 1395802358422 What is the second most common cause of UTI in s
exually active women?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus sap ophyticus
</i>}}</div>
1403386637865 1395802358422 What is the 3 d most common cause of UTI?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Klebsiella pneumoniae</i>}}</div>
1403386652204 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Se atia ma censens</i>}} is a species
of bacte ia that causes UTI. Some st ains p oduce a ed pigment.
<b /><d
iv><i>Often nocosomial and d ug esistant.</i></div>
1403386842718 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>P oteus mi abilis</i>}} is a g amnegat
ive bacte ia that causes UTI and is associated with <b>st uvite stones</b>.
1403387010200 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}} is a g am
negative bacte ia that causes UTI and is associated with a blueg een pigment an
d f uity odo . <b /><div><i>Usually nocosomial and d ug esistant.</i></div>
1403387098106 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>P oteus spp.</i>}} and&nbsp;{{c2::<i>Kl
ebsiella spp.</i>}} a e 2 g amnegative bacte ia known to cause UTIs that yield
a &nbsp;<b>positive u ina y u ease test</b>.
1403387151807 1395802358422 Which bacte ia a e associated with a <b>positive
u ina y u ease test</b>&nbsp;in a UTI?<div><b />{{c1::<i>Klebsiella spp.; P ot
eus spp.</i>}}</div>
1403387182020 1395802358422 Which bacte ia a e most likely associated with a
<b>negative&nbsp;u ina y u ease test</b>&nbsp;in a UTI?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::<i>Esche ichia coli</i>; <i>Ente ococcus spp.</i>}}</div>
1403387237718 1395802358422 {{c1::Bacte ial Vaginosis}} is a type of vaginal
infection that p esents with a <b>thin, white discha ge</b>&nbsp;with a <b>fish
y odou </b>.
<b /><div><img s c="paste17738214932836.jpg" /></div>
1403388175462 1395802358422 {{c1::T ichomoniasis}} is a common vaginal infec
tion that p esents with <b>f othy, g eyg een, foulsmelling discha ge</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="paste17733919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388357800 1395802358422 {{c1::Vulvovaginal Candidiasis}} is a common vag
inal infection that p esents with a <b>thick, white, "cottage cheese" discha ge<
/b>.
<b /><div><img s c="paste17733919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388703460 1395802358422 Which vaginal infection is associated with Clue
Cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bacte ial vaginosis}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="paste17733919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388724717 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo bacte ial vaginosis?<d
iv><b />{{c1::Met onidazole}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste1773391996554
0.jpg" /></div>
1403388742871 1395802358422 What is the vaginal pH in Bacte ial Vaginosis?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 4.5}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste17733
919965540.jpg" /></div>

1403388755212 1395802358422 What is the vaginal pH in Vaginal T ichomoniasis
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 4.5}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste17733
919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388781335 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Vaginal T ichomoniasis
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Met onidazole}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The sexual
pa tne must be t eated as well.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste1773391996554
0.jpg" /></i></div>
1403388842309 1395802358422 What is the vaginal pH in Vulvovaginal Candidias
is?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No mal (4.04.5)}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te17733919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388902876 1395802358422 Which common vaginal infection <b>does not</b>&n
bsp;p esent with inflammation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bacte ial vaginosis}}<
/div> <b /><div><img s c="paste17733919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388925963 1395802358422 How a e the ToRCHeS infections commonly t ansmit
ted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T ansplacental in most cases}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>HSV2 is commonly t ansmitted du ing delive y.</i></div>
1403390175556 1395802358422 Which vi al infection is known to cause Hyd ops
Fetalis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa vovi us B19}}</div>
1403390219688 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>St eptococcus agalactiae</i>}},&nbsp;{{
c2::<i>Esche ichia coli</i>}}, and&nbsp;{{c3::<i>Liste ia monocytogenes</i>}} a
e bacte ia that all cause meningitis in neonates.
1403390255400 1395802358422 How is <i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>&nbsp;t ansmitted
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cat feces; ingestion of unde cooked meat}}</div>
1403392505431 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>}} is a ToRCHeS in
fection that p esents as a classic t iad of <b>cho io etinitis, hyd ocephalus</b
>&nbsp;and <b>int ac anial calcifications</b>&nbsp;in neonates.
1403392962813 1395802358422 How is Rubella t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Respi ato y d oplets}}</div>
1403392975603 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella}} is a&nbsp;ToRCHeS infection that
p esents with a classic t iad of <b>Patent Ductus A te iosus, cata acts</b>&nbs
p;and <b>deafness</b>. <b /><div><i>The e may be <b>pulmona y a te y hypoplasi
a</b>&nbsp;instead of PDA.</i></div><div><i>The e may be a <b>"bluebe y muffin"
ash</b>&nbsp;as well.</i></div>
1403393249459 1395802358422 What ca diovascula defects a e associated with
Congenital Rubella (ToRCHeS)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PDA o Pulmona y A te y
Hypoplasia}}</div>
1403393286093 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;ToRCHeS infection is associated with
a <b>"bluebe y muffin"</b>&nbsp; ash?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rubella; CMV}}
</div>
1403393437299 1395802358422 How is CMV t ansmitted?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Sexual contact; o gan t ansplantation}}</div>
1403393439364 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella}} and&nbsp;{{c2::CMV}} a e 2&nbsp;
ToRCHeS infections that a e associated with a <b>"bluebe y muffin</b>" ash.
1403393464088 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is a&nbsp;ToRCHeS infection that p e
sents with <b>hea ing loss, seizu es, petechial ash</b>&nbsp;and a <b>"bluebe
y muffin" ash.</b>
1403393509039 1395802358422 {{c1::HIV}} is a&nbsp;ToRCHeS infection that p e
sents with <b> ecu ent infections</b>&nbsp;and <b>dia hea</b>&nbsp;in neonates
.
1403393766971 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV2}} is a&nbsp;ToRCHeS infection that p
esents with <b>encephalitis</b>&nbsp;and <b>he petic (vesicula ) lesions.</b>
1403394135062 1395802358422 {{c1::Syphilis}} is a&nbsp;ToRCHeS infection tha
t often esults in stillbi th th ough <b>hyd ops fetalis</b>.
1403394254138 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;ToRCHeS infection is associated with
<b>Hutchinson teeth</b>, a congenital dental malfo mation involving notches, wid
ely shaped cent al inciso s?<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste20985210208613
.jpg" /></div><div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Syphilis}}</div>
1403394307733 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhagades}} a e a facial malfo mation seen
in congenital Syphilis that a e desc ibed as <b>linea sca es at the angle of th
e mouth</b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste21071109554532.jpg" /></div>

1403394374955 1395802358422 {{c1::Snuffles}} is a featu e of congenital syph
ilis that is desc ibed as <b>nasal discha ge full of syphilis spi ochetes</b>.<d
iv><b /></div><div><img s c="paste21066814587236.jpg" /></div>
1403394425500 1395802358422 Which ToRCHeS infection is associated with <b>CN
VIII deafness</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Syphilis}}</div>
1403394467045 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;ToRCHeS infection is associated with
<b>saddle nose</b>&nbsp;and a <b>sho t maxilla</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::S
yphilis}}</div>
1403394493807 1395802358422 Which&nbsp;ToRCHeS infection is associated with
<b>sabe shins</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Syphilis}}</div>
1403394506409 1395802358422 What is the etiology of HandFootMouth Disease?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Coxsackievi us Type A}}</div>
1403397115066 1395802358422 {{c1::HandFootMouth Disease}} is a vi al diso
de caused by Coxsackievi us Type A that p esents with a <b>vesicula
ash on th
e palms and soles</b>&nbsp;and <b>vesicles/ulce s on the o al mucosa</b>.<div><b
/></div><div><img s c="paste21685289877861.jpg" /></div>
1403397223545 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Roseola?<div><b />{{c1:
:HHV6}}</div>
1403397232102 1395802358422 {{c1::Roseola}} is a vi al diso de caused by HH
V6 that p esents with a macula ash ove the body that appea s afte seve al d
ays of high feve .
<b /><div><i>Can p esent with feb ile seizu es and usua
lly affects infants.</i></div>
1403397278883 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles (Rubeola)}} is a vi al infection c
aused by a pa amyxovi us that p esents with a ash that <b>begins at the head an
d moves down</b>.
<b /><div><i>The ash is p eceded by cough, co yza, con
junctivitis and Koplik spots on the buccal mucosa.</i></div>
1403397342974 1395802358422 What is the etiology of E ythema Infectiosum (Fi
fth Disease)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa vovi us B19}}</div>
1403397414579 1395802358422 {{c1::E ythema Infectiosum (Fifth Disease)}} is
a vi al infection caused by Pa vovi us B19 that p esents with a <b>"slapped chee
k"</b>&nbsp;on the face.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste22157736280421.jpg
" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Pa vovi us B19 can cause hyd ops fetalis in p egna
nt women.</i></div>
1403397499519 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella}} is a vi al infection that p esen
ts with a <b>postau ical lymphadenopathy</b>&nbsp;and a&nbsp;<b>fine t uncal as
h</b>&nbsp;that initially begins as a ash on the head which moves down.
1403397739006 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Sca let Feve ?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>St eptococcus pyogenes</i>}}</div>
1403397774456 1395802358422 {{c1::Sca let Feve }} is an infection caused by
<i>St eptococcus pyogenes</i>&nbsp;that p esents with an <b>e ythematous, sandpa
pe like ash with feve and so e th oat</b>.
1403397960079 1395802358422 What is the cause of Chickenpox?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::VZV (Va icellaZoste )}}</div>
1403397976390 1395802358422 {{c1::Chickenpox}} is an infectious diso de cau
sed by VZV that p esents with a <b>vesicula ash that begins on the t unk that
sp eads to the face and ext emities.</b>
1403398203672 1395802358422 What is the etiology of AIDS?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::HIV}}</div>
1403398462881 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Chanc oid?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Haemophilus duc eyi</i>}}</div>
1403398478236 1395802358422 {{c1::Chanc oid}} is an STD caused by <i>Haemoph
ilus duc eyi</i>&nbsp;that p esents with <b>painful genital ulce s</b>&nbsp;and
<b>inguinal adenopathy</b>.
1403398503408 1395802358422 What is the cause of Chlamydia?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&nbsp;se otypes DK}}</div>
1403398588067 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlamydia}} is an STD caused by <i>Chlamyd
ia t achomatis</i>&nbsp;that p esents with <b>u eth itis, ce vicitis </b>and <b>
PID</b>.
1403398642783 1395802358422 {{c1::Conjunctivitis}} is an ocula complication
of Chlamydia.

1403398715239 1395802358422 {{c1::Reactive a th itis}} is a musculoskeletal
complication of Chlamydia.
1403398742395 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Condyloma Acuminata?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::HPV6; HPV11}}</div>
1403398772648 1395802358422 Which HPV st ains cause Condyloma Acuminata?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::HPV6; HPV11}}</div>
1403398790620 1395802358422 {{c1::Condyloma Acuminata}} is an STD caused by
HPV6 o HPV11 that p esents with <b>genital wa ts</b>&nbsp;and <b>koilocytes</b>
.
1403398909721 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Genital He pes?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::HSV2; less commonly HSV1}}</div>
1403398935094 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Gono hea?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse ia gono heae</i>}}</div>
1403399191015 1395802358422 {{c1::Gono hea}} is an STD caused by <i>Neisse
ia gono heae</i>&nbsp;that p esents with <b>u eth itis, ce vicitis, p ostatitis
</b>&nbsp;and a <u style="fontweight: bold; ">c eamy pu ulent discha ge</u>.
1403399379143 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Lymphog anuloma Vene eum
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&nbsp;se otypes L1L3}}
</div>
1403399415521 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphog anuloma Vene eum}} is an STD cause
d by <i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&nbsp;se otypes L1L3 that p esents with <b>inf
ection of lymphatics</b>, <b>painless genital ulce s</b>&nbsp;and <b>painful lym
phadenopathy</b>&nbsp;(buboes).
1403399484734 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Syphilis??<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>T eponema pallidum</i>}}</div>
1403399534859 1395802358422 {{c1::P ima y Syphilis}} is a type of Syphilis t
hat p esents with <b>painless chanc es</b>.
1403399558077 1395802358422 {{c1::Seconda y Syphilis}} is a type of Syphilis
that p esents with feve , lymphadenopathy, skin ashes and <b>condylomata lata<
/b>.
1403399595505 1395802358422 {{c1::Te tia y Syphilis}} is a type of Syphilis
that p esents with <b>gummas, tabes do salis, gene al pa esis, ao titis</b>&nbsp
;and <b>A gyllRobe tson pupil</b>.
1403399671136 1395802358422 What is the etiology of T ichomoniasis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>T ichomonas vaginalis</i>}}</div>
1403399818501 1395802358422 {{c1::T ichomoniasis}} is an STD caused by <i>T
ichomonas vaginalis</i>&nbsp;that p esents with <b>vaginitis </b>and<b> st awbe
y ce vix</b>.
1403399869171 1395802358422 Which 2 bacte ia a e the most common causes of P
elvic Inflammato y Disease (PID)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t anch
omatis</i>&nbsp;(subacute; often undiagnosed); <i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>}}</d
iv>
1403402930924 1395802358422 What is the most common bacte ial STD in the Uni
ted States?<div><b />{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>}}</div>
1403402957857 1395802358422 Which bacte ia often causes <b>subacute</b>&nbsp
;Pelvic Inflammato y Disease (PID) and hence often goes undiagnosed?<div><b />{
{c1::<i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>}}</div>
1403402982827 1395802358422 Which bacte ia often causes <b>acute</b>&nbsp;Pe
lvic Inflammato y Disease (PID)?<div><b />{{c1::<i>Neisse ia gono hoeae</i>}}<
/div>
1403402993826 1395802358422 {{c1::Chandelie Sign}} is a complication of Pel
vic Inflammato y Disease (PID) that p esents as ce vical motion tende ness.
1403404030220 1395802358422 {{c1::Pelvic Inflammato y Disease (PID)}} is a g
enitou ina y diso de caused by <i>Chlamydia t achomatis</i>&nbsp;and <i>Neisse
ia gono heae</i>&nbsp;that p esents with <b>pu ulent ce vical discha ge</b>.<di
v><b /></div><div><img s c="paste24803436134755.jpg" /></div>
1403404101084 1395802358422 {{c1::FitzHughCu tis Synd ome}} is a complicat
ion of Pelvic Inflammato y Disease (PID) that p esents as an <b>infection of the
live capsule</b>&nbsp;and subsequent <b>"violin st ing" adhesions pe itoneum t
o live </b>.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="paste24932285153639.jpg" /></div>

1403404184255 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} is a nocosomial
infection that has <b>hype alimentation</b>&nbsp;as a isk facto .
1403404464321 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Esche ichia coli</i>}} and&nbsp;{{c2::<
i>P oteus mi abilis</i>}} a e 2 <b>nocosomial</b>&nbsp;bacte ial infections that
have u ina y cathete ization as a isk facto .
1403404521841 1395802358422 What is the most common nocosomial UTI infection
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Esche ichia coli</i>}}</div>
1403404531311 1395802358422 What is the most common nocosomial wound infecti
on?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>}}</div>
1403404543940 1395802358422 {{c1::HBV}} is a vi al nocosomial infection that
has <b>wo king at a enal dialysis unit</b>&nbsp;as a isk facto .
1403404566023 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Legionella</i>}} is a bacte ial nocosom
ial infection that has <b>wate ae osols</b>&nbsp;as a isk facto .
1403404584966 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}} is a g am
negative nocosomial bacte ial infection that has <b> espi ato y the apy equipmen
t</b>&nbsp;as a isk facto .
<b /><div><i>Think of Pseudomonas "</i><u style
="fontweight: bold; fontstyle: italic; ">ai </u><span style="fontstyle: itali
c">"uginosa when <b>ai </b>&nbsp;o <b>bu ns</b>&nbsp;a e involved.</span></div
>
1403410271881 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubella vi us}} is a vi us that affects un
immunized child en and p esents with a ash that <b>begins at the head and moves
down with <u>postau icula lymphadenopathy</u>.</b>
1403410385653 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles vi us}} is a vi us that affects un
immunized child en and p esents with a ash that is <b>p eceded by cough, co yza
, conjunctivitis</b>&nbsp;and <b>Koplik spots</b>&nbsp;on the buccal mucosa.
<div><b /></div><i>The ash that is seen sta ts at the head and moves down.</i>
<b /><div><i>Co yza = hinitis.</i></div>
1403410485317 1395802358422 {{c1::Poliovi us}} is a vi us that affects unimm
unized child en that causes <b>meningitis</b>&nbsp;and can also lead to <u>myalg
ia</u> and <u>pa alysis</u>.
1403410692341 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Haemophilus influenzae</i><i style="fon
tweight: bold; ">&nbsp;</i>Type B}} is a bacte ia that affects unimmunized chil
d en that causes <b>epiglottitis</b>&nbsp;which p esents with an <b>edematous "c
he y ed" epiglottis</b>&nbsp;and a <b>"thumbp int sign"</b>&nbsp;on x ay.
<b /><div><i>The edematous epiglottis can cause difficulty b eathing.</i></div>
1403410783068 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Co ynebacte ium diphthe iae</i>}} is a
bacte ia that affects unimmunized child en and causes a <b>pha yngitis</b>&nbsp;
that p esents wth a <b>g ayish o opha yngeal exudate</b>&nbsp;that fo ms "<b>pse
udomemb anes</b>".
<b /><div><i>The pseudomemb anes may obst uct the ai wa
y. They also cause th oat pain.</i></div>
1403410856109 1395802358422 Which bug is associated with <b>b anching ods i
n an o al infection</b>&nbsp;with <b>sulfu containing g anules</b>?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::<i>Actinomyces is aelii</i>}}</div>
1403410907022 1395802358422 Which encapsulated mic obes a e associated with
infections in asplenic patients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>St eptococcus pne
umoniae</i>&nbsp;&gt;&gt; <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i><b style="fontstyle: ita
lic; ">&nbsp;</b>Type B &gt; <i>Neisse ia meningitidis</i>}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>"<b>SHiN</b>"</i></div><div><i> <b>S</b>t eptococcus pneumoniae</i></div>
<div><i> <b>H</b>aemophilus <b>i</b>nfluenzae</i></div><div> <i><b>N</b>eisse
ia meningitidis</i></div>
1403411003941 1395802358422 Which bugs a e associated with infection in pati
ents with Ch onic G anulomatous Disease (CGD)?<div><b />{{c1::Catalase positive
mic obes; especially <i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>}}</div>
1403411887468 1395802358422 Which bug is associated with <b> ed "cu ant jel
ly" </b>sputum?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Klebsiella</i>}}</div>
1403411911460 1395802358422 Which bug is associated with dog o cat bites?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pasteu ella multocida</i>}}</div>
1403411935867 1395802358422 Which bug is associated with causing <b>CN VII (
Facial Ne ve) Palsy</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bo elia bu gdo fe i</i>&
nbsp;(Lyme Disease)}}</div>

1403411967243 1395802358422 Which fungi a e associated with infections in ne
ut openic patients?<div><b />{{c1::<i>Candida albicans; Aspe gillus</i>}}</div>
1403412017761 1395802358422 Which He pesvi us is associated with infecting a
n o gan t ansplant ecipient?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div>
1403412036450 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>T ophe yma whipplei</i>}} is a bacte ia
that causes Whipple Disease and yields a <b>positive PAS</b>&nbsp;test.
1403412081384 1395802358422 Which bug is associated with causing pneumonia i
n cystic fib osis patients and causing bu n infections?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::<i>Pseudomonas ae uginosa</i>}}</div>
1403412113014 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is commonly associated with causi
ng sepsis and meningitis in newbo ns?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G oup B St ep (
<i>St eptococcus agalactiae</i>)}}</div>
1403412187186 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with <b>su gical wo
und infections</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>}}</d
iv>
1403412207169 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is associated with <b>t aumatic o
pen wound infection</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Clost idium pe f ingens</
i>}}</div>
1403412222660 1395802358422 Which bacte ia is commonly associated with <b>ep
iglottitis</b>&nbsp;in pediat ic patients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Haemoph
ilus influenzae</i><b style="fontstyle: italic; ">&nbsp;</b>Type B}}</div>
1403412257226 1395802358422 Which Hepatitis vi us is commonly associated wit
h causing <b>needle p icks</b>&nbsp;in health ca e wo ke s?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::HBV}}</div>
1403463223351 1395802358422 What is the ROA of Penicillin G?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::IV o IM}}</div>
1403464056977 1395802358422 What is the ROA of Penicillin V?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::O al}}</div>
1403464068204 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Penicillin?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of T anspeptidase, the eby inhibiting peptidoglycan c ossl
inking; Activation of autolytic enzymes}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste79886
3917541.jpg" /></div>
1403464182073 1395802358422 Which type of bacte ia a e t eated by Penicillin
G and V?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mostly g ampositive(<i>St eptococcus pneum
oniae; St eptococcus pyogenes; Actinomyces</i>); Also <i>Neisse ia meningitidis<
/i>&nbsp;and <i>T eponema pallidum</i>}}</div>
1403464336533 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic anaemia}} is a hematological com
plication of Penicillin G and V use.
1403464350534 1395802358422 {{c1::Penicillinase}} is a type of betalactamas
e bacte ia seen in bacte ia that cleaves betalactam ings and causes Penicillin
esistance.
1403464401468 1395802358422 {{c1::Ampicillin}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Amoxicillin}}
a e <b>aminopenicillins</b>&nbsp;that a e sensitive to penicillinase but have a
wide spect um. <b /><div><i><b>AM</b>ino<b>P</b>enicillins a e <b>AMP</b>ed up
penicillins.</i></div>
1403465941752 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ampicillin?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of T anspeptidase, the eby inhibiting peptidoglycan c ossl
inking}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403465981600 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Amoxicillin?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of T anspeptidase, the eby inhibiting peptidoglycan c oss
linking}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403466059983 1395802358422 {{c1::Clavulanic Acid}} is a betalactamase inhi
bito that is often administe ed with Ampicillin and Amoxicillin as they a e pen
icillinase sensitive.
1403466131627 1395802358422 Which Aminopenicillin has g eate o al bioavaila
bility?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Amoxicillin}}</div> <b /><div><i>Am<b>O</b>
xicillin has g eate <b>O</b> al bioavailability.</i></div>
1403466221895 1395802358422 {{c1::Ampicillin}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Amoxicillin}}
a e aminopenicillins that a e used to kill <i>Haemophilus influenzae, Esche ichi
a coli, Liste ia monocytogenes, P oteus mi abilis, Salmonella</i>&nbsp;and <i>Sh

igella</i>&nbsp;and ente ococci.
<b /><div><i>"Aminopenicillins <b>HELPS
S</b>&nbsp;kill <b>ente ococci</b>"</i></div>
1403466367536 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudomemb anous colitis}} is a GI complic
ation of Aminopenicillin use (Amoxicillin/Ampicillin) that esults f om ove g ow
th of <i>Clost idium difficile</i>&nbsp;in the GI t act.
1403466449813 1395802358422 How is Aminopenicillin esistance achieved?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinase, a betalactamase found in bacte ia}}</div>
1403466476888 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Oxacillin?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of T anspeptidase, the eby inhibition peptidoglycan c ossli
nking}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403467052612 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Nafcillin?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of T anspeptidase, the eby inhibiting peptidoglycan c ossli
nking}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403467069831 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Dicloxacillin?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Inhibition of T anspeptidase, the eby inhibiting the c osslinking
of peptidoglycan}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste798863917541.jpg" /><
/div>
1403467106225 1395802358422 {{c1::Nafcillin}},&nbsp;{{c2::Oxacillin}} and&nb
sp;{{c3::Dicloxacillin}} a e <b>betalactamase esistant</b>&nbsp;penicillins th
at esist penicillinase action due to a bulky Rg oup that blocks access to the
betalactam ing.
1403467177726 1395802358422 {{c1::Inte stitial neph itis}} is a enal compli
cation of <b>betalactamase esistant penicillin</b>&nbsp;(Nafcillin/Oxacillin/D
icloxacillin) administ ation.
1403467244954 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of <b>betalactamase e
sistant</b>&nbsp;penicillins (Nafcillin/Oxacillin/Dicloxacillin)?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>&nbsp;(except fo MRSA)}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"Use <b>'naf'</b>&nbsp;to kill <b>'staph'</b>&nbsp;"</i></div>
1403467360525 1395802358422 {{c1::Tica cillin}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Pipe acillin}
} a e <b>antipseudomonal</b>&nbsp;penicillins used to t eat <i>Pseudomonas spp.<
/i>&nbsp;infections and g amnegative ods.
<b /><div><i>Extended spect um.
</i></div><div><i>Betalactamase sensitive.</i></div><div><i>Used with betalact
amase inhibito s.</i></div>
1403467741278 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tica cillin?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of T anspeptidase, the eby inhibiting peptidoglycan c oss
linking}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403467785303 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Pipe acillin?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of T anspeptidase, the eby inhibiting the c osslinking o
f peptidoglycan}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403467839901 1395802358422 {{c1::Clavulanic Acid}},&nbsp;{{c2::Sulbactam}}
and&nbsp;{{c3::Tazobactam}} a e <b>betalactamase inhibito s</b>&nbsp;that a e o
ften added to penicillin antibiotics to p otect them f om betalactamase action.
1403467907482 1395802358422 Which o ganisms a e typically not cove ed by Cep
halospo ins?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Liste a</i>, Atypicals (<i>Chlamydia,
Mycoplasma</i>), MRSA and Ente ococci}}</div> <div><b /></div><div><i>The exc
eption is Cefta oline (5th gen) which cove s MRSA.</i></div><b /><div><i>"<b>LA
ME</b>"</i></div><div><i> Liste ia</i></div><div><i> Atypicals (Chlamydia, Myc
oplasma)</i></div><div><i> MRSA</i></div><div><i> Ente ococci</i></div>
1403468329356 1395802358422 What gene ation Cephalospo in is Cefazolin?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1403468774347 1395802358422 What gene ation Cephalospo in is Cephalexin?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1403468781359 1395802358422 What gene ation Cephalospo in is Cefoxitin?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1403468787425 1395802358422 What gene ation Cephalospo in is Cefu oxime?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1403468793844 1395802358422 What gene ation Cephalospo in is Cefaclo ?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1403468800346 1395802358422 What gene ation Cephalospo in is Ceft iaxone?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::3 d}}</div>

1403468812671 1395802358422 What gene ation Cephalospo in is Cefotaxime?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::3 d}}</div>
1403468823087 1395802358422 What gene ation Cephalospo in is Ceftazidime?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::3 d}}</div>
1403468834424 1395802358422 What gene ation Cephalospo in is Cefepime?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1403468850398 1395802358422 What gene ation Cephalospo in is Cefta oline?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::5th}}</div>
1403468859221 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefazolin}} is a 1st gene ation Cephalospo
in that is used p io to su ge y to p event <i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>&nbsp;w
ound infections.
1403468913883 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefazolin}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Cephalexin}} a
e 1st gene ation Cephalospo ins that a e used to t eat g ampositive cocci, <i>P
oteus mi abilis, Esche ichia coli</i>&nbsp;and <i>Klebsiella pneumoniae</i>
<b /><div><i>1st gen Cephalospo ins "<b>PEcK</b>":</i></div><div><i> P oteus m
i abilis</i></div><div><i> Esche ichia coli</i></div><div><i> Klebsiella pneum
oniae</i></div>
1403469144643 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefoxitin}},&nbsp;{{c2::Cefaclo }} and&nbs
p;{{c3::Cefu oxime}} a e 2nd gene ation Cephalospo ins that a e used to t eat g
ampositive cocci, <i>Haemophilus influenzae, Ente obacte ae ogenes, Neisse ia
spp, P oteus mi abilis, Esche ichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae </i>and <i>Se a
tia ma cescens.</i>
<b /><div><i>2nd gene ation Cephalospo ins a e "<b>HEN
PEcKS</b>":</i></div><div><i> Haemophilus influenzae</i></div><div><i> Ente ob
acte ae ogenes</i></div><div><i> Neisse ia spp.</i></div><div><i> P oteus mi
abilis</i></div><div><i> Esche ichia coli</i></div><div><i> Klebsiella pneumon
iae</i></div><div><i> Se atia ma cescens</i></div>
1403469366652 1395802358422 {{c1::Ceft iaxone}},&nbsp;{{c2::Cefotaxime}} and
&nbsp;{{c3::Ceftazidime}} a e 3 d gene ation Cephalospo ins that a e used to t e
at <b>se ious g amnegative infections</b>&nbsp;that a e esistant to othe beta
lactams.
1403469569805 1395802358422 Which 3 d gene ation Cephalospo in is used to t
eat <b>meningitis</b>&nbsp;and <b>gono hea</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ceft
iaxone}}</div>
1403469588546 1395802358422 Which 3 d gene ation Cephalospo in is used to t
eat <i>Pseudomonas spp.</i>&nbsp;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ceftaxidi
me}}</div>
1403469605890 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefepime}} is a 4th gene ation Cephalospo
in that has <b>inc eased activity against </b><i><b>Pseudomonas</b>&nbsp;</i>and
g ampositives.
1403469843105 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefta oline}} is a 5th gene ation Cephalos
po in that has <b>b oadspect um cove age</b>&nbsp;against <b>g amnegative</b>&
nbsp;and <b>g ampositive</b>&nbsp;o ganisms, <b>including MRSA</b>.
<b /><d
iv><i>It <b>does not</b>&nbsp;cove Pseudomonas.</i></div>
1403469985799 1395802358422 Which vitamin deficiency is associated with Ceph
alospo in use?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin K}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Re
membe , Vitamin K is made by GI flo a.</i></div>
1403470026928 1395802358422 What is the MOA of all Cephalospo ins?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of T anspeptidase, the eby inhibiting the c osslin
king of peptidoglycan}}</div>
1403470070980 1395802358422 How do Cephalospo in antibiotics influence the n
eph otoxicity of Aminoglycosides?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1403477935122 1395802358422 {{c1::Azt eonam}} is a Monobactam antibiotic tha
t p ecents peptidoglycan c osslinking by binding to <b>penicillinbinding p ote
in 3</b>.
<b /><div><i>Resistant to betalactamases</i></div>
1403478203629 1395802358422 Which penicillinbinding p otein does Azt eonam
bind to in o de to p event peptidoglycan c osslinking?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::Penicillinbinding p otein 3}}</div>
1403478383088 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Azt eonam?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::P evention of peptidoglycan c osslinking by binding to penicillinbind
ing p otein 3}}</div> <b /><div><i>Syne gistic with aminoglycosides.</i></div

>
1403478435539 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Monobactams (Azt eon
am)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G amnegative ods <b>only</b>}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Monobactams a e ineffective against g ampositives and ane obes.</i></div>
1403478476581 1395802358422 {{c1::Azt eonam}} is a Monobactam antibiotic tha
t is used in patients with <b>penicillin alle gy</b>&nbsp;o in patients with <b
> enal insufficiency</b>&nbsp;that cannot tole ate aminoglycosides.
1403485140325 1395802358422 {{c1::Cilastatin}} is a d ug that is <b>always</
b>&nbsp;coadministe ed with Ca bapanem antibiotics in o de to dec ease the ina
ctivation of the d ug in the enal tubules.
1403487376204 1395802358422 {{c1::Cilastatin}} is a d ug that is <b>always</
b>&nbsp;coadministe ed with Ca bapanem antibiotics that <b>inhibits enal dehyd
opeptidase I</b>.
<b /><div><i>This dec eases the inactivation of the Ca
bapanem antibiotic in enal tubules.</i></div>
1403487437234 1395802358422 Which Ca bapanem antibiotic has a dec eased isk
of causing seizu es?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Me openem}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Me openem is also stable to enal dehyd opeptidase I</i></div>
1403487530750 1395802358422 {{c1::GI dist ess}},&nbsp;{{c2::skin ash}} and&
nbsp;{{c3::seizu es}} a e 3 common complications of Ca bapanem administ ation wh
en they a e in high plasma levels.
<b /><div><i>The significant side effec
ts limit the use of Ca bapanem's to lifeth eatening infections o afte othe d
ugs have failed.</i></div>
1403487743530 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Vancomycin?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of peptidoglycan fo mation by binding to DAlaDAla on cel
l wall p ecu so s}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Results in inhibition of T ansglyc
olase action.</i></div>
1403489281091 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Vancomycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::G ampositive <u style="fontweight: bold; ">only</u>; Multid
ug esistant o ganisms (MRSA, Ente ococci, <i>Clost idium difficile</i>)}}</div
>
<b /><div><i>Vancomycin is given as an o al dose in Pseudomemb anous Co
litis.</i></div>
1403489346842 1395802358422 {{c1::Red Man Synd ome}} is a cutaneous complica
tion of Vancomycin that p esents with <b>diffuse flushing</b>&nbsp;a ound the bo
dy.
<b /><div><i>Can be p evented by antihistamine p ophylaxis and a slow i
nfusion ate of Vancomycin.</i></div>
1403489560862 1395802358422 {{c1::Neph otoxicity}},&nbsp;{{c2::Ototoxicity}}
and&nbsp;{{c3::Th ombophlebitis}} a e 3 possible complications associated with
Vancomycin use. <b /><div><i>Howeve in gene al, Vancomycin is well tole ated.<
/i></div><div><i>"It is howeve , <b>NOT</b>&nbsp;t ouble f ee."</i></div><div><i
> Neph otoxicity</i></div><div><i> Ototoxicity</i></div><div><i> Th ombophleb
itis</i></div>
1403489643599 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance fo Vancomyc
in?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bacte ial modification of DAlaDAla to DAlaD
Lac}}</div>
1403542646773 1395802358422 Which bacte ial ibosomal subunit is ta geted by
Aminoglycosides?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::30 S}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste12807592477440.jpg" /></div>
1403542823438 1395802358422 Which bacte ial ibosomal subunit is ta geted by
Tet acyclines?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::30S}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te12803297510144.jpg" /></div>
1403542843264 1395802358422 Which bacte ial ibosomal subunit is ta geted by
Chlo amphenicol?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste12803297510144.jpg" /></div>
1403542865742 1395802358422 Which bacte ial subunit is ta geted by Clindamyc
in?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste12803
297510144.jpg" /></div>
1403542876768 1395802358422 Which bacte ial ibosomal subunit is ta geted by
E yth omycin and othe Mac olides?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste12803297510144.jpg" /></div>
1403542915862 1395802358422 Which bacte ial ibosomal subunit is ta geted by

Linezolid?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te12803297510144.jpg" /></div>
1403542934667 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Gentamicin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste13623
636262982.jpg" /></div>
1403555500182 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Neomycin?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste1361934129568
6.jpg" /></div>
1403555511776 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Amikacin?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste1361934129568
6.jpg" /></div>
1403555520046 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Tob amycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste13619
341295686.jpg" /></div>
1403555527155 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is St eptomycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste13619
341295686.jpg" /></div>
1403555539742 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Aminoglycoside antibiotics?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of the fo mation of the initiation complex
at the 30S subunit, the eby causing mis eading of mRNA; Blocking of t anslocatio
n}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>A</b>&nbsp;(Aminoglycosides) "initiates" the <b
>A</b>lphabet</i></div>
1403555611360 1395802358422 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} a e a type of <b>p otein
synthesis inhibiting antibiotic</b>&nbsp;that <b> equi e O</b><sub style="font
weight: bold; ">2</sub>&nbsp;<b>fo uptake</b>, hence they a e ineffective again
st ane obes.
1403555649655 1395802358422 What is the clinical use fo Aminoglycosides?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Seve e g amnegative <b> od</b>&nbsp;infections}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Syne gistic with betalactams.</i><b /><div><i>Remembe , th
ey a e ineffective against ane obes.</i></div>
1403556046318 1395802358422 Which Aminoglycoside antibiotic is used befo e b
owel su ge y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Neomycin}}</div>
1403556064050 1395802358422 {{c1::Neph otoxicity}} is a enal complication o
f Aminoglycoside use, especially when they a e used alongside Cephalospo ins.
<b /><div><img s c="paste13619341295686.jpg" /></div>
1403556090115 1395802358422 {{c1::Ototoxicity}} is a CNS complication of Ami
noglycoside use, especially when they a e used with loop diu etics.
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste13619341295686.jpg" /></div>
1403556159970 1395802358422 {{c1::Neu omuscula Blockade}} is a neu ological
complication of Aminoglycoside use that p esents at the neu omuscula junction.
<b /><div><img s c="paste13619341295686.jpg" /></div>
1403556218723 1395802358422 What is the p egnancy catego y of Aminoglycoside
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::X; they a e Te atogenic}}</div>
1403556822541 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance of Aminoglyc
osides?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bacte ial t ansfe ase enzymes; they inactivat
e the d ug by acetylation, phospho ylation o adenylation}}</div>
1403556941212 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Tet acycline?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Tet acycline}}</div>
<b /><div><i>(lol)</i></div>
1403556965121 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Doxycycline?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Tet acycline}}</div>
1403556979343 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Minocycline?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Tet acycline}}</div>
1403557094697 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tet acycline antibiotics?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bind to the 30S ibosomal subunit, the eby p eventing th
e attachment of aminoacyltRNA mocs}}</div>
1403557596428 1395802358422 {{c1::Doxycycline}} is a Tet acycline antibiotic
that is enti ely fecally eliminated and hence can be used in patients with ena
l failu e.
1403557626963 1395802358422 {{c1::Tet acyclines}} a e a <b>class</b>&nbsp;of
&nbsp;<b>p otein synthesis inhibiting </b>antibiotics that should not be taken w

ith milk (Ca²⁺), antacids (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺) o i on
containing p epa ations (Fe²⁺).
<b /><div><i>This is because <b
>divalent cations</b>&nbsp;inhibits Tet acycline abso ption at the gut.</i></div
>
1403557829724 1395802358422 What is the p ima y clinical use of Tet acycline
antibiotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bo elia bu gdo fe i; Mycoplasma pne
umoniae; </i>Int acellula bugs such as <i>Rickettsia</i>&nbsp;and <i>Chlamydiae
</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Also used to t eat acne</i></div>
1403557897769 1395802358422 {{c1::Tet acyclines}} a e a class of <b>p otein
synthesis inhibiting</b>&nbsp;antibiotics that a e effective against int acellul
a o ganisms by vi tue of thei ability to accumulate int acellula ly. <b /><d
iv><i>e.g. Rickettsia spp., Chlamydiae spp.</i></div>
1403557954837 1395802358422 {{c1::Tet acyclines}} a e a class of <b>p otein
synthesis inhibiting</b>&nbsp;antibiotics that cause <b>teeth discolou ation</b>
&nbsp;and <b>inhibition of bone g owth</b>&nbsp;in child en.
1403557990915 1395802358422 {{c1::Photosensitivity}} is a CNS complication o
f Tet acycline use.
1403558003216 1395802358422 What is the p egnancy catego y of Tet acycline a
ntibiotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::X; Cont aindicated}}</div>
1403558015598 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance fo Tet acyc
line antibiotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::An inc ease in efflux o dec ease i
n uptake of the d ug by bacte ial pumps}}</div>
1403558064116 1395802358422 What class of antibiotic is Azith omycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Mac olide}}</div>
1403559083549 1395802358422 What type of antibiotic is Cla ith omycin?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Mac olide}}</div>
1403559105447 1395802358422 What type of antibiotic is E yth omycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Mac olide}}</div>
1403559115171 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Mac olide antibiotics?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of <b>t anslocation</b>, by binding to the 23S
RNA of the 50S subunit}}</div>
1403559756635 1395802358422 {{c1::Mac olides}} a e a class of <b>p otein syn
thesis inhibiting</b>&nbsp;antibiotics that t eat atypical pneumonias (<i>Mycopl
asma, Chlamydia, Legionella</i>).
1403559986231 1395802358422 {{c1::Mac olides}} a e a class of <b>p otein syn
thesis inhibiting</b>&nbsp;antibiotics that t eat g ampositive cocci in patient
s that a e alle gic to penicillins.
<b /><div><i>They also t eat STDs (Chla
mydia)</i></div>
1403560023765 1395802358422 {{c1::GI motility issues}} is a GI complication
of Mac olide antibiotic administ ation. <b /><div><img s c="paste1690928624445
8.jpg" /></div>
1403560070396 1395802358422 {{c1::A hythmia}} is a ca diac complication of
Mac olide antibiotic use that is caused by a <b>p olonged QT inte val</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="paste16904991277162.jpg" /></div>
1403560136130 1395802358422 {{c1::Cholestatic hepatitis}} is a hepatic compl
ication of Mac olide antibiotic use.
<b /><div><img s c="paste1690499127716
2.jpg" /></div>
1403560160537 1395802358422 {{c1::Eosinophilia}} is an immunological complic
ation of Mac olide antibiotics. <b /><div><img s c="paste16904991277162.jpg" /
></div>
1403560442386 1395802358422 {{c1::Mac olides}} a e a class of <b>p otein syn
thesis inhibiting</b>&nbsp;antibiotics that inc ease the se um concent ation of
<b>theophyllines</b>&nbsp;and <b>o al anticoagulants</b>.
1403560490754 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance fo Mac olid
e antibiotics?<div><b />{{c1::Methylation of the 23S RNAbinding site, the eby
p eventing binding of the d ug}}</div>
1403560526372 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Chlo amphenicol?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Blocks peptidylt ansfe ase at the 50S ibosomal subunit}}</div>
1403560616138 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlo amphenicol}} is a <b>p otein synthesi
s inhibiting</b>&nbsp;antibiotic that is used to t eat <b>meningitis</b>&nbsp;(<

i>Haemophilus influenzae, Neisse ia meningitidis, St eptococcus pneumoniae</i>).
1403560670649 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlo amphenicol}} is a <b>p otein synthesi
s inhibiting </b>antibiotic that is used to t eat <b>Rocky Mountain Spotted Feve
</b>&nbsp;(<i>Rickettsia ickettsii</i>).
<b /><div><i>Doxycycline (tet a
cyclines) can also be used.</i></div>
1403560716883 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlo amphenicol}} is a <b>p otein synthesi
s inhibiting</b>&nbsp;antibiotic that has limited use due to toxicities but is s
till used widely in developing count ies due to its low cost.
1403560979085 1395802358422 {{c1::Anaemia (and Aplastic Anaemia)}} a e <b>do
sedependent</b>&nbsp;hematological complications of Chlo amphenicol use.
1403561007139 1395802358422 {{c1::G ay Baby Synd ome}} is a complication of
Chlo amphenicol use in p ematu e infants as they lack hepatic <b>UDPGlucu onyl
T ansfe ase</b>.
1403561045116 1395802358422 The lack of which enzyme in p ematu e infants e
sults in G ey Baby Synd ome following Chlo amphenicol use?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::UDPGlucu onyl T ansfe ase}}</div>
1403561104323 1395802358422 Which antibiotic is associated with causing G ey
Baby Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Chlo amphenicol}}</div>
1403561122259 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of Chlo amphenicol esista
nce?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Plasmidencoded acetylt ansfe ases that inactiva
te the d ug}}</div>
1403561149682 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Clindamycin?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Blocks t anslocation at the 50S ibosomal subunit}}</div>
1403561311342 1395802358422 Which <b>p otein synthesis inhibiting</b>&nbsp;a
ntibiotic is known to t eat <b>anae obes <u>above</u>&nbsp;the diaph agm</b>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Clindamycin}}</div>
1403561346128 1395802358422 {{c1::Clindamycin}} is a <b>p otein synthesis in
hibiting</b>&nbsp;antibiotic that is known to t eat anea obic infections above t
he diaph agm (e.g. aspi ation pneumonia, lung abscesses, o al infections).
<b /><div><i> Bacte oides spp.</i></div><div><i> Clost idium pe f ingens</i><
/div>
1403561418436 1395802358422 Besides anae obic infections, what is the clinic
al use of Clindamycin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Invasive G oup A St eptococcal
infection (<i>St eptococcus pyogenes</i>)}}</div>
1403561490959 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudomemb anous colitis}} is a possible c
omplication of Clindamycin use due to esultant <i>Clost idium difficile</i>&nbs
p;ove g owth. <b /><div><i>Also causes feve and dia hea.</i></div>
1403561537538 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Sulfonamide antibiotics?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Dihyd opte oate Synthase, the eby dec easin
g Folate synthesis}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste18906446037602.jpg" /
></div>
1403563275910 1395802358422 What is the clinical use fo Sulfonamide antibio
tics (Sulfamethoxazole (SMX); Sulfisoxazole; Sulfadiazine)?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::G amnegative; G ampositive; <i>Noca dia</i>; <i>Chlamydia</i>}}</div>
1403563528019 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic anaemia}} is a hematological com
plication of Sulfonamide use in patients that have G6PD Deficiency.
1403563565338 1395802358422 {{c1::Tubulointe stitial Neph itis}} is a enal
complication of Sulfonamide antibiotic use.
1403563598701 1395802358422 {{c1::Photosensitivity}} is a cutaneous complica
tion of Sulfonamide use.
1403563611580 1395802358422 {{c1::Ke nicte us}} is a CNS complication of Sul
fonamide use that is seen in <b>infants</b>&nbsp;and&nbsp;a ises due to hype bil
i ubinemia.
1403563778560 1395802358422 Which class of <b>folate synthesis inhibiting</b
>&nbsp;antibiotics displace othe d ugs f om Albumin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1:
:Sulfonamides}}</div>
1403563820098 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of Sulfonamide esistance?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Alte ed Dihyd opte oate Synthase; Dec eased uptake;
Inc eased PABA synthesis}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste1890215107030
6.jpg" /></div>

1403563851364 1395802358422 What is the MOA of T imethop im?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Dihyd ofolate Reductase, the eby inhibiting folate syn
thesis}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste18902151070306.jpg" /></div>
1403563895990 1395802358422 {{c1::T imethop im (TMP)}} is an antibiotic that
is often used in conjunction with Sulfonamides, the eby causing sequential bloc
k of folate synthesis. <b /><div><i><u>TMPSMX: T imethop imSulfamethoxazole<
/u>&nbsp;is typically used fo :</i></div><div><i> UTIs</i></div><div><i> Shige
lla</i></div><div><i> Salmonella</i></div><div><i> Pneumocytis ji ovecii pneum
onia t eatment and p ophylaxis</i></div><div><i> Toxoplasmosis p ophylaxis</i><
/div>
1403563966147 1395802358422 {{c1::T imethop im}} is a <b>folate synthesis in
hibiting</b>&nbsp;antibiotic that is used as a t eatment and p ophylaxis fo <i>
Pneumocytis ji ovecii</i>&nbsp;pneumonia.
1403564021954 1395802358422 {{c1::T imethop im}} is a <b>folate synthesis in
hibiting</b>&nbsp;antibiotic that is used as p ophylaxis fo Toxoplasmosis.
1403564107807 1395802358422 What type of anaemia is a complication of Sulfon
amide use?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Megaloblastic Anaemia}}</div>
1403564135771 1395802358422 {{c1::T imethop im}} is a <b>folate synthesis in
hibiting</b>&nbsp;antibiotic that causes <b>megaloblastic anaemia, leukopenia,</
b>&nbsp;and <b>g anulocytopenia</b>&nbsp;as complications.
<b /><div><i><b
>TMP</b>&nbsp;<b>T</b> eats <b>M</b>a ow <b>P</b>oo ly.</i></div>
1403571366705 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Fluo oquinolone antibiotics?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of DNA Gy ase (Topoisome ase II) and Topoi
some ase IV}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Must not be taken with antacids<b>.</b></i
></div>
1403571429799 1395802358422 {{c1::Nalidixic Acid}} is a quinolone antibiotic
that functions to inhibit DNA Gy ase (Topoisome ase II) and Topoisome ase IV.
1403571501614 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Fluo oquinolone anti
biotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G amnegative ods of u ina y and GI t acts
(including <i>Pseudomonas</i>); <i>Neisse ia</i>}}</div>
1403571546141 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluo oquinolones}} a e a class of antibiot
ics that can possible cause <b>tendonitis, tendon uptue, leg c amps</b>&nbsp;an
d <b>myalgias</b>.
1403571947579 1395802358422 What is the p egnancy ating of Fluo oquinolones
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::X; Cont aindicated due to possible damage to ca til
age}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Fluo oquinolones a e also cont aindicated in nu si
ng mothe s and child en &lt; 18 y/o.</i></div>
1403572037932 1395802358422 {{c1::A hythmia}} is a possible <b>ca diac comp
lication&nbsp;</b>of Fluo oquinolone administ ation that often involves a <b>p o
longed QT inte val</b>.
1403572158030 1395802358422 {{c1::Tendon uptu e}} is a possible connective
tissue complication of Fluo oquinolone administ ation in patients &gt; 60 y/o an
d in patients taking p ednisone.
1403572193542 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance towa ds Fluo
oquinolone antibiotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mutation in DNA Gy ase; Plas
midmediated esistance; Development of efflux pumps}}</div>
1403572237470 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Met onidazole?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Fo mation of f ee adical toxic metabolites in the cell that damage
DNA}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Bacte icidal and antip otozoal.</i></div>
1403572671183 1395802358422 Which antibiotic is known to t eat anae obic inf
ections <b>below</b>&nbsp;the diaph agm?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Met onidazol
e}}</div>
<b /><div><i><u>"OP is a <b>P</b>h<b>AGGET</b>"</u>:</i></div><
div><i> Helicobacte <b><u>p</u></b>ylo i (in t iple the apy)</i></div><div><i>
 <b><u>A</u></b>nae obes (Bacte oides, Clost idium difficile)</i></div><div><i>
 <b><u>G</u></b>ia dia lamblia</i></div><div><i> <b><u>G</u></b>a dne ella vag
inalis</i></div><div><i> <b><u>E</u></b>ntamoeba histolytica</i></div><div><i>
<b><u>T</u></b> ichomonas vaginalis</i></div>
1403573026078 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Met onidazole?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Anae obes; Ente ic infections}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><div><div><i><u>"OP is a&nbsp;<b>P</b>h<b>AGGET</b>"</u>:</i></div><div><i> He

licobacte &nbsp;<b><u>p</u></b>ylo i (in t iple the apy)</i></div><div><i>&nbsp
;<b><u>A</u></b>nae obes (Bacte oides, Clost idium difficile)</i></div><div><i>
&nbsp;<b><u>G</u></b>ia dia lamblia</i></div><div><i>&nbsp;<b><u>G</u></b>a dne
ella vaginalis</i></div><div><i>&nbsp;<b><u>E</u></b>ntamoeba histolytica</i><
/div><div><i>&nbsp;<b><u>T</u></b> ichomonas vaginalis</i></div></div>
1403573724743 1395802358422 {{c1::Met onidazole}} is a DNA damaging antibiot
ic that causes <b>disulfi mlike eactions</b>&nbsp;with alcohol use. <b /><d
iv><i>Seve e flushing, tachyca dia, hypotension.</i></div>
1403573789775 1395802358422 {{c1::Met onidazole}} is a DNA damaging antibiot
ic that yields a metallic taste.
1403573802902 1395802358422 Which antimycobacte ial d ug is used as p ophyla
xis fo <i>Mycobacte ium tube culosis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Isoniazid}
}</div>
1403574264207 1395802358422 Which antimycobacte ial/antibiotic d ug is used
as p ophylaxis fo <i>Mycobacte ium aviumint acellula e</i>?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Azith omycin; Rifabutin}}</div>
1403574292612 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Mycobacte ium tube
culosis</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rifampin; Isoniazid; Py azinamide; Etham
butol}}</div> <b /><div><i>"<b>RIPE</b>" fo t eatment.</i></div>
1403574339038 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifampin}},&nbsp;{{c2::Isoniazid}},&nbsp;{
{c3::Py azinamide}} and&nbsp;{{c4::Ethambutol}} a e the 4 antimycobacte ial d ug
s used to t eat tube culosis.
1403574370113 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacte ium aviumint acellula e</i>}
} is a species of <i>Mycobacte ium</i>&nbsp;that is mo e d ug esistant than <i>
Mycobacte ium tube culosis.</i> <b /><div><i>Hence it equi es Azith omycin/Cla
ith omycin + Ethambutol  Rifabutin/Cip ofloxacin</i></div>
1403575118249 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo the <b>lep ematous</b>
&nbsp;fo m of <i>Mycobacte ium lep ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dapsone +
Rifampin + Clofazimine}}</div>
1403575146960 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo the <b>tube culoid</b>
&nbsp;fo m of <i>Mycobacte ium lep ae</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dapsone +
Rifampin}}</div>
1403575166794 1395802358422 {{c1::Isoniazid (INH)}} is an antimycobacte ial
that equi es bacte ial <b>catalasepe oxidase</b>&nbsp;enzymes in o de to beco
me active metabolites.
1403575251370 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Mycobacte ia is equi ed to acti
vate Isoniazid?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Catalasepe oxidase; encoded by <i>Ka
tG</i>}}</div>
1403575277748 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Isoniazid (INH)?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Dec eases the synthesis of mycolic acid}}</div>
1403575291966 1395802358422 Which wate soluble vitamin deficiency is able t
o p esent with Neu otoxicity and D uginduced SLE caused by Isoniazid (INH)?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin B6 (Py idoxine)}}</div>
1403575350119 1395802358422 {{c1::Isoniazid (INH)}} is an antimycobacte ial
d ug that causes <b>neu otoxicity</b>&nbsp;and <b>hepatotoxicity</b>. <b /><d
iv><i>"<b>INH</b>&nbsp;<b>I</b>nju es <b>N</b>eu ons and <b>H</b>epatocytes."</i
></div>
1403575450041 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifampin}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Rifabutin}} a e
<b> ifamycin antimycobacte ials</b>&nbsp;that function to inhibit DNADependent
RNA Polyme ase.
1403575481402 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Rifamycin antimycobacte ials
(Rifampin; Rifabutin)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of DNAdependent RN
A polyme ase}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste23652384899324.jpg" /></div>
1403575507666 1395802358422 Which class of antimycobacte ial is used as chem
op ophylaxis in contact of child en with <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nbsp;type
B?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rifamycins (Rifampin; Rifabutin)}}</div>
1403575602130 1395802358422 How does Rifampin influence cytoch ome P450 acti
vity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<div><b /></div><img s
c="paste23648089932028.jpg" />
1403575643202 1395802358422 How does Rifabutin influence cytoch ome P450 act

ivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No effect}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te23648089932028.jpg" /></div>
1403575655877 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifamycins (Rifampin; Rifabutin)}} is a cl
ass of antimycobacte ials that yield <b>o ange ed bodily fluids</b>. <b /><d
iv><i>A nonhaza doud side effect.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste236480899320
28.jpg" /></i></div>
1403575723021 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifabutin}} is a Rifamycin antimycobacte i
al that is favou ed fo use in patients with HIV due to less cytoch ome P450 sti
mulation.
<b /><div><img s c="paste23648089932028.jpg" /></div>
1403575765063 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antimycobacte ial Py azin
amide?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Unce tain mechanism; Acidifies the int acellul
a envi onment via conve stion to Py azinoic Acid}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Ef
fective in the acidic pH of phagolysosomes (i.e. whe e phagocytosed TB is found
in mac ophages).</i></div>
1403576529771 1395802358422 {{c1::Py azinamide}} is an antimycobacte ial tha
t is effective in the acidic pH of phagolysosomes, whe e engulfed MTB is found i
n mac ophages.
1403576581268 1395802358422 {{c1::Py azinamide}} is an antimycobacte ial tha
t is associated with <b>hype u icemia</b>&nbsp;and <b>hepatotoxicity</b>&nbsp;as
side effects.
1403576608030 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antimycobacte ial Ethambu
tol?<div><b /></div><div>{{c2::Inhibition of A abinosylt ansfe ase, the eby dec
easing ca bohyd ate polyme ization of the mycobacte ium cell wall}}</div>
1403576658700 1395802358422 {{c1::Ethambutol}} is an antimycobacte ial that
is associated with <b>optic neu opathy</b>, specifically <b> edg een colou bli
ndness</b>, as a side effect.
1403576698558 1395802358422 What is the p ophylactic t eatment fo endoca di
tis with su gical/dental p ocedu es?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillins}}</d
iv>
1403576844804 1395802358422 What is the p ophylactic t eatment fo gono hea
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ceft iaxone}}</div>
1403576851982 1395802358422 What is the p ophylactic t eatment fo a histo y
of ecu ent UTIs?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::SMPTMX}}</div>
1403576863917 1395802358422 What is the p ophylactic t eatment fo meningoco
ccal infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cip ofloxacin}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Cip ofloxacin = DOC</i></div><div><i>Rifampin = DOC in child en</i></div>
1403576878077 1395802358422 What is the p ophylactic t eatment fo meningoco
ccal infection <b>in child en</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rifampin}}</div>
1403576911595 1395802358422 What is the p ophylactic t eatment fo p egnant
women ca ying G oup B St ep (<i>St eptococcus agalactiae</i>)?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Ampicillin}}</div>
1403576948437 1395802358422 What is the p ophylactic t eatment fo gonococca
l o chlamydial conjunctivitis in newbo ns?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::E yth omy
cin ointment}}</div>
1403576970093 1395802358422 What is the p ophylactic t eatment fo postsu gi
cal <i>Staphylococcus au eus</i>&nbsp;infection?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cefa
zolin}}</div>
1403576992013 1395802358422 What is the p ophylactic t eatment fo St ep Pha
yngitis in a child with p io histo y of Rheumatic Feve ?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::O al Penicillin}}</div>
1403577017339 1395802358422 What is the p ophylactic t eatment fo Syphilis?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Benzathine Penicillin G}}</div>
1403577734671 1395802358422 What is the p ophylactic t eatment fo &nbsp;<i>P
neumocystis</i>&nbsp;pneumonia in an HIV patient with &lt; 200 CD4+ cells/mm<sup
>3</sup>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TMPSMX}}</div>
1403577776196 1395802358422 What is the p ophylactic t eatment fo &nbsp;<i>P
neumocystis</i>&nbsp;pneumonia and toxoplasmosis in an HIV patient with &lt; 100
CD4+ cells/mm³?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TMPSMX}}</div>
1403577807943 1395802358422 What is the p ophylactic t eatment fo &nbsp;<i>M
ycobacte ium aviumint acellula e</i>&nbsp;in an HIV patient with &lt; 50 CD4+ c

ells/mm³?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Azith omycin}}</div>
1403577838887 1395802358422 {{c1::Vancomycin}} is a glycopeptide antibiotic
that is used to t eat MRSA.
<b /><div><img s c="paste26688926777482.jpg" /
></div>
1403577947679 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefta oline}} is a 5th gene ation cephalos
po in used to t eat MRSA.
<b /><div><img s c="paste26688926777482.jpg" /
></div>
1403577977278 1395802358422 {{c1::Linezolid}} is a p otein synthesis inhibit
ing antibiotic that acts at the 50S ibosomal subunit to t eat MRSA and VRE.
<b /><div><img s c="paste26688926777482.jpg" /></div>
1403583187879 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antifungal Amphote icin B
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to E goste ol in the fungal cell memb ane, th
e eby fo ming a memb ane po e that allows the leakage of elect olytes}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Ampho"<b>tea "</b>icin "<b>tea s</b>" a hole into the funga
l memb ane by fo ming a po e.</i><b /><div><img s c="paste27981711934002.jpg"
/></div>
1403583540443 1395802358422 {{c1::Amphote icin B}} is an antifungal d ug tha
t equi es subsequent K and Mg supplementation due to alte ed enal tubule pe me
ability.
1403583607268 1395802358422 What is the ROA of Amphote icin B in the t eatme
nt of fungal meningitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Int athecally}}</div>
1403583623619 1395802358422 {{c1::Feve /chills}} is a complication of Amphot
e icin B administ ation that is desc ibed as <b>"shake and bake"</b>.
1403583707775 1395802358422 How can Amphote icin B neph otoxicity be dec eas
ed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hyd ation}}</div>
1403583795471 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Nystatin?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Binds to E goste ol in the fungal cell memb ane and fo ms a memb ane po
e, the eby allowing the leakage of elect olytes}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403583828968 1395802358422 What is the ROA of Nystatin?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Topical}}</div> <b /><div><i>It is too toxic fo systemic use.</i></div
>
1403583845859 1395802358422 {{c1::Nystatin}} is a topical antifungal that is
used as a <b>"swish and swallow"</b>&nbsp;t eatment fo o al Candidiasis.
<b /><div><i>Also administe ed topically fo diape ash o vaginal candidiasis
.</i></div>
1403583895951 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Azole antifungals?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of E goste ol synthesis by inhibiting the Cytoch ome
P450 enzyme that conve ts Lanoste ol to E goste ol}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403584192480 1395802358422 {{c1::Amphote icin B}} is an antifungal agent th
at is used in se ious, systemic mycoses.
1403584221817 1395802358422 {{c1::Azoles}} a e a class of antifungals that a
e used fo <b>local</b>&nbsp;and <b>less se ious</b>&nbsp;systemic mycoses.
1403584405410 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluconazole}} is an Azole antifungal that
is used fo <b>ch onic supp ession of c yptococcal meningitis in AIDS patients</
b>&nbsp;and <b>candidal infections</b>&nbsp;of all types.
1403584456114 1395802358422 {{c1::It aconazole}} is an Azole antifungal agen
t that is used to t eat <i>Blastomyces, Coccidioides</i>&nbsp;and <i>Histoplasma
</i>&nbsp;infection.
1403584518878 1395802358422 {{c1::Cot imazole}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Miconazole}}
a e Azole antifungals that a e used topically fo fungal infections.
1403584542223 1395802358422 Which Azole antifungal is especially known to in
hibit testoste one synthesis and cause gynecomastia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
Ketoconazole}}</div>
1403584580357 1395802358422 {{c1::Gynecomastia}} is a ho monal complication
of Azole antifungal use due to inhibition of testoste one synthesis.
<b /><d
iv><i>Especially seen with Ketoconazole.</i></div>
1403584619377 1395802358422 How do Azole antifungals influence Cytoch ome P4
50 activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>

1403584650151 1395802358422 {{c1::Flucytosine}} is an antifungal agent that
inhibits DNA and RNA biosynthesis by conve sion to 5Fluo ou acil by Cytosine De
aminase.
<b /><div><img s c="paste27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403584694209 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antifungal Flucytosine?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of DNA and RNA biosynthesis via conve sion
to 5Fluo ou acil by Cytosine Deaminase}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste27981
711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403584730306 1395802358422 Which enzyme in fungi conve ts Flucytosine into
5Fluo ou acil?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cytosine Deaminase}}</div>
1403584762248 1395802358422 {{c1::Flucytosine}} is an antifungal agent that
is used combination with Amphote icin B to t eat systemic mycoses.
<b /><d
iv><i>Especially meningitis caused by C yptococcus.</i></div>
1403584796865 1395802358422 What toxicity is associated with the antifunal F
lucytosine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bone Ma ow Supp ession}}</div>
1403584830957 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Echinocandin antifungals (Cas
pofungin; Micafungin; Anidulafungin)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of f
ungal cell wall synthesis by inhibiting the synthesis of betaglucan}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403584882499 1395802358422 {{c1::Echinocandins}} a e a class of antifungal
agents that function to inhibit cell wall synthesis by inhibiting the synthesis
of betaglucan. <b /><div><i>Caspofungin; Micafungin; Anidulafungin</i></div><d
iv><i><img s c="paste27981711934002.jpg" /></i></div>
1403584928834 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Echinocandin antifun
gals?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Invasive Aspe gillosis; <i>Candida spp.</i>}}</
div>
1403584965030 1395802358422 {{c1::Flushing}} is a complication of Echinocand
in use that esults due to widesp ead histamine elease.
<b /><div><i>GI
upset is also an adve se effect.</i></div>
1403584990358 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antifungal Te binafine?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Squalen Epoxidase}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403585023946 1395802358422 {{c1::Te binafine}} is an antifungal agent that
inhibits Squalene Epoxidase, the eby inhibiting E goste ol synthesis. <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403585048696 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Te binafine?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::De matophytoses (especially, Onychomycosis)}}</div>
1403585077285 1395802358422 {{c1::Te binafine}} is an antifungal agent that
is used to t eat De matophytoses, especially Onychomycosis.
1403585108293 1395802358422 {{c1::Te binafine}} is an antifungal agent that
is associated with <b>taste distu bance</b>&nbsp;as a side effect.
1403585137181 1395802358422 {{c1::G iseofulvin}} is an antifungal agent that
inte fe es with mic otubule function, the eby dis upting mitosis.
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403585168901 1395802358422 What is the MOA of G iseofulvin?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Inte efe ence with mic otubules, the eby dis upting mitosis}}</div>
1403585191301 1395802358422 Which antifungal agent is known to <b>deposit in
ke atincontaining tissue</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G iseofulvin}}</div>
1403585229350 1395802358422 How does G iseofulvin influence P450 activity?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Especially inc eas
es Wa fa in metabolism.</i></div>
1403585322758 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Toxoplasmosis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Py imethamine}}</div>
1403585353599 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>T ypanosoma b ucei<
/i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su amin + Mela sop ol}}</div>
1403585372396 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Chagas Disease (<i>T y
panosoma c uzi</i>)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nifu timox}}</div>
1403585400998 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Leishmaniasis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Sodium stibogluconate}}</div>
1403585424260 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlo oquine}} is an antip otozoal that fun
ctions to block the detoxification of heme into hemozoin, the eby allowing fo t

oxic heme accumulation.
1403585491597 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antip otozoal Chlo oquine
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks the detoxification of heme into hemozoin, th
e eby allowing fo toxic heme accumulation in the plasmodia}}</div>
1403585527254 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Chlo oquine?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Mala ia caused by <i>Plasmodium sp.</i>&nbsp;othe than <i>P
lasmodium falcipa um</i>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The f equency of Plasmodiu
m falcipa um esistance to Chlo oquine is ve y high.</i></div>
1403585605926 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i style="fontweight:
bold; ">Plasmodium falcipa um</i>&nbsp;Mala ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A te
methe /Lumef ant ine o Atovaquone/P oguanil}}</div>
1403585645064 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <b>lifeth eatening</b
>&nbsp;Mala ia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Quinidine (USA); Quinine ( est of the
wo ld); o A tesunate}}</div>
1403585680403 1395802358422 {{c1::P u itis}} is a cutaneous complication of
Chlo oquine use that is especially seen in da kskinned individuals.
1403585706958 1395802358422 {{c1::Retinopathy}} is an ocula complication of
Chlo oquine use.
1403585722404 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance to Chlo oqui
ne in <i>Plasmodium falcipa um</i>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Memb ane pump tha
t dec eases int acellula concent ation of the d ug}}</div>
1403627084848 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo <i>Schistosoma</i>?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::P aziquantel}}</div>
1403634755407 1395802358422 {{c1::Zanamivi }} and&nbsp;{{c2::Oseltamivi }} a
e antivi al agents that t eat Influenza A and B by <b>inhibiting neu aminidase<
/b>, the eby inhibiting elease of p ogeny vi uses.
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te1279900254982.jpg" /></div>
1403635016809 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Zanamivi and Oseltamivi ?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Neu aminidase, the eby dec easing the el
ease of p ogeny vi uses}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste1275605287686.jpg" />
</div>
1403635049108 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Zanamivi and Oselta
mivi ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T eatment and p evention of Influenza A and B}
}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste1275605287686.jpg" /></div>
1403635068374 1395802358422 {{c1::Ribavi in}} is an antivi al agent that inh
ibits <b>Inosine Monophosphate Dehyd ogenase</b>, the eby inhibiting the synthes
is of guanine nucleotides.
1403635155716 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ribavi in?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of <b>Inosine Monophosphate Dehyd ogenase</b>, the eby inhib
iting guanine nucleotide synthesis}}</div>
1403635184592 1395802358422 {{c1::Ribavi in}} is an antivi al agent that is
used to t eat <b>RSV</b>&nbsp;and <b>HCV</b>&nbsp;by inhibiting <b>Inosine Monop
hosphate Dehyd ogenase</b>.
1403635218748 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic Anaemia}} is a hematological com
plication of Ribavi in use.
1403635238503 1395802358422 Which vi al enzyme monophospho ylates Acyclovi /
Famciclovi /Valacyclovi , the eby activating it?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thym
idine kinase}}</div>
1403635637447 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Acyclovi /Famciclovi /Valacyc
lovi ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Guanosine analog; Inhibition of vi al DNA Poly
me ase, the eby causing chain te mination}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It is only
phospho ylated in infected cells, hence the e a e ve y few adve se effects.</i>
</div><div><i><img s c="paste1275605287686.jpg" /></i></div>
1403635706707 1395802358422 Which He pesvi uses a e t eated by Acyclovi /Fam
ciclovi /Valacyclovi ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HSV; VZV}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Weak activity against EBV.</i></div><div><i>No activity against CMV.</i></
div><div><i>No activity against latent HSV/VZV.</i></div>
1403635783502 1395802358422 {{c1::Valacyclovi }} is the p od ug fo m of Acyc
lovi that has bette o al bioavailability.
1403635811412 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo He pes Zoste ?<div><b

/></div><div>{{c1::Famciclovi }}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste1275605287686
.jpg" /></div>
1403635844394 1395802358422 {{c1::Obst uctive c ystalline neph opathy}} and&
nbsp;{{c2::Acute Renal Failu e}} a e 2 enal complications of Acyclovi /Famciclo
vi /Valacyclovi use if the patient is not hyd ated p ope ly.
1403635898739 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of esistance to Acyclovi
/Famciclovi /Valacyclovi ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mutated Thymidine Kinase}}
</div>
1403636037558 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ganciclovi ?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Guanosine analog; Inhibition of vi al DNA Polyme ase, the eby causing
chain te mination}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste1275605287686.jpg" />
</div>
1403636080596 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo CMV?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Ganciclovi }}</div>
1403636093932 1395802358422 {{c1::Valganciclovi }} is the p od ug fo m of Ga
nciglovi that has bette o al bioavailability.
1403636124030 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukopenia}},&nbsp;{{c2::neut openia}} and
&nbsp;{{c3::th ombocytopenia}} a e hematological complications of Ganciclovi .
<b /><div><i>Ganciclovi is mo e toxic to host enzymes than Acyclovi .</i></div
>
1403636336526 1395802358422 {{c1::Fosca net}} is an antivi al agent that act
s as a vi al DNA polyme ase inhibito by <b>binding to the py ophosphatebinding
site</b>&nbsp;of the enzyme. <b /><div><img s c="paste1275605287686.jpg" />
</div>
1403636395074 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Fosca net?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of vi al DNA polyme ase by binding to the py ophosphatebind
ing site of the enzyme}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste1275605287686.jpg" />
</div>
1403636433207 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo CMV etinitis in immun
ocomp omised patients when Ganciclovi fails?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fosca n
et o Cidofovi }}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste1275605287686.jpg" /></div>
1403636465989 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Acyclovi  esistant HS
V?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fosca net o Cidofovi }}</div>
1403636599345 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Cidofovi ?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::P efe ential inhibition of vi al DNA polyme ase}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste1275605287686.jpg" /></div>
1403636629969 1395802358422 {{c1::P obenecid}} is a d ug that must be coadm
iniste ed with the antivi al Cidofovi to dec ease its neph otixicity. <b /><d
iv><i>IV saline is also given.</i></div>
1403652125487 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Atazanavi ?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste51067
16115718.jpg" /></div>
1403655722005 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Da unavi ?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655744831 1395802358422 What type of HAART is Fosamp enavi ?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655761991 1395802358422 What type of HAART is Indinavi ?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403655774171 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Lopinavi ?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655819688 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Ritonavi ?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655843131 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Saquinavi ?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::P otease inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>

1403655857003 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Abacavi (ABC)?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656100506 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Didanosine (ddI)?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656112841 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Emt icitabine (FTC)?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656129614 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Lamivudine (3TC)?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656188268 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Stavudine (d4T)?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656256726 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Tenofovi (TDF)?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656274379 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Zidovudine (ZDV; AZT)
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403656299595 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Efavi enz?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste5102421148422.jpg" />
</div>
1403656332301 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Nevi apine?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste5102421148422.jpg" />
</div>
1403656356381 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Delavi dine?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656368136 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Ralteg avi ?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Integ ase inhibito }}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403656396345 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Enfuvi tide?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Fusion inhibito }}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403656413870 1395802358422 What type of HAART d ug is Ma avi oc?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Fusioin inhibito (inhibition at the ent y)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste5102421148422.jpg" /></div>
1403656436281 1395802358422 {{c1::HIV1 P otease}} is an HIV vi al enzyme th
at is equi ed fo vi ion assembly as it cleaves the polypeptide p oducts of HIV
mRNA into thei functional pa ts.
<b /><div><i>Hence, p otease inhibito s
p event matu ation of new vi uses.</i></div>
1403657243642 1395802358422 {{c1::Ritonavi }} is an HIV P otease inhibito t
hat <b>inhibits cytoch ome P450</b>, the eby it can inc ease the concent ation o
f othe d ugs.
1403657543194 1395802358422 {{c1::Indinavi }} is an HIV P otease inhibito t
hat is associated with <b>hematu ia</b>&nbsp;and neph opathy.
1403657594880 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipodyst ophy}} is a complication of HIV P
otease inhibito s that affects fat tissue.
1403657626159 1395802358422 What is the MOA of P otease Inhibito HAART d ug
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of HIV1 P otease}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>All p otease inhibito s end in <b>navi </b>.</i></div>
1403657838422 1395802358422 What is the MOA of NRTI HAART d ugs?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Competitively inhibit nucleotide binding to Reve se T ansc iptas
e, the eby te minating DNA chain elongation}}</div>
<b /><div><i>NRTIs lack
3' OH g oups.</i></div>
1403657911373 1395802358422 {{c1::Tenofovi }} is an NRTI that is al eady a n
ucleotide, and hence does not need to be phospho ylated to be activated.
<b /><div><i>The est a e all nucleoside and equi e phospho ylation.</i></div>

1403657949285 1395802358422 {{c1::Zidovudine (ZDV; AZT)}} is an NRTI HAART d
ug that is used fo <b>gene al p ophylaxis.</b>
1403658050087 1395802358422 {{c1::Zidovudine (ZDV; AZT)}} is an NRTI HAART d
ug that is used in <b>p egnancy</b>&nbsp;to&nbsp;<b>dec ease the isk of fetal
t ansmission.</b>
1403658090747 1395802358422 {{c1::Bone ma ow supp ession}} is a hematologic
al complication of NRTI HAART d ugs that can be eve sed with <b>GCSF</b>&nbsp;
d ugs and <b>E yth opoietin</b>.
1403658236640 1395802358422 {{c1::GCSF d ugs}} and&nbsp;{{c2::E yth opoieti
n}} a e 2 d ugs that a e used to co ect the bone ma ow supp ession caused by N
RTI HAART d ugs.
1403658275998 1395802358422 {{c1::Anaemia}} is a hematological diso de of Z
idovudine (ZDV).
1403658304542 1395802358422 {{c1::Didanosine (ddI)}} is an NRTI HAART d ug t
hat is associated with <b>panc eatitis</b>.
1403658318319 1395802358422 What is the MOA of NNRTI HAART d ugs?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c2::Binding to and inhibition of Reve se T ansc iptase at a diffe e
nt site than NRTIs}}</div>
<b /><div><i>They do not equi e phospho ylatio
n to be active.</i></div>
1403658413214 1395802358422 {{c1::Rash}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Hepatotoxicity}} a e
2 complications that a e common to all NNRTI HAART d ugs.
1403658453530 1395802358422 {{c1::Efavi enz}} is an NNRTI HAART d ug that is
associated with <b>vivid d eams</b>&nbsp;and <b>CNS toxicity.</b>
1403658473008 1395802358422 Which NNRTI HAART d ug is associated with <b>viv
id d eams</b>&nbsp;and <b>CNS toxicity</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Efavi enz
}}</div>
1403658494531 1395802358422 {{c1::Delavi dine}} and&nbsp;{{c2::Efavi enz}} a
e the 2 NNRTI HAART d ugs that a e cont aindicated in p egnancy.
1403658540630 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Raselteg avi (HAART d ug)?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of HIV Integ ase, the eby inhibiting HIV ge
nome inse tion into the host cell genome}}</div>
1403658591432 1395802358422 {{c1::Ralteg avi }} is an Integ ase inhibito th
at is associated with <b>hype choleste olemia</b>.
1403658761423 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Enfuvi tide (HAART Fusion inh
ibito )?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to gp41, the eby inhibiting vi al ent
y}}</div>
1403658787752 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ma avi oc (HAART Fusion inhib
ito )?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to CCR5 on T cells/monocytes, the eby in
hibiting inte action with gp120 and vi al ent y}}</div>
1403658874584 1395802358422 {{c1::Enfuvi tide}} is an HAART d ug that <b>bin
ds to gp41</b>, the eby inhibiting vi al ent y.
1403658895002 1395802358422 {{c1::Ma avi oc}} is an HAART d ug that <b>binds
to CCR5</b>&nbsp;on T cells/monocytes, the eby inhibiting gp120 and and stoppin
g vi al ent y.
1403659004221 1395802358422 What toxicity is associated with HAART Fusion In
hibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Skin eaction at the injection site}}</div>
1403659041822 1395802358422 {{c1::Inte fe ons}} a e glycop oteins no mally s
ynthesized by vi usinfected cells that exhibit a wide ange of antivi al and an
titumoual p ope ties.
1403662449834 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of IFNbeta?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Multiple scle osis}}</div>
1403662599988 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of IFNgamma?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Ch onic G anulomatous Disease (CGD)}}</div>
1403662617700 1395802358422 {{c1::IFNalpha}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat
<b>ch onic hepatitis B and C</b>.
1403662788329 1395802358422 {{c1::IFNalpha}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat
Kaposi sa coma.
1403662796116 1395802358422 {{c1::IFNalpha}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat
Hai y Cell Leukemia.
1403662804354 1395802358422 {{c1::IFNalpha}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat

Condyloma Accuminatum.
1403662821873 1395802358422 {{c1::IFNalpha}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat
Renal Cell Ca cinoma.
1403662826216 1395802358422 {{c1::IFNalpha}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat
Malignant Melanoma.
1403662831626 1395802358422 {{c1::IFNbeta}} is an Inte fe on used to t eat
Multiple Scle osis.
1403662843976 1395802358422 {{c1::IFNgamma}} is an inte fe on used to t eat
Ch onic G anulomatous Disease.
1403662857752 1395802358422 {{c1::Sulfonamides}} a e a class of antibiotics
that a e avoided in p egnancy as they cause <b>ke nicte us.</b> <b /><div><img
s c="paste9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663123820 1395802358422 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} a e a class of antibioti
cs that should not be used in p egnancy as they cause <b>ototoxicity</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="paste9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663273810 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluo oquinolones}} a e a class of antibiot
ics that a e avoided in p egnancy as they cause <b>ca tilage damage</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="paste9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663302378 1395802358422 {{c1::Cla ith omycin}} is an antibiotic that is
avoided in p egnancy as it causes <b>emb yotoxicity</b>.
<b /><div><img
s c="paste9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663346534 1395802358422 {{c1::Tet acyclines}} a e a class of antibiotics
that a e avoided in p egnancy as they cause <b>teeth discolou ation</b>&nbsp;an
d <b>inhibit bone g owth</b>. <b /><div><img s c="paste9307194130833.jpg" />
</div>
1403663529183 1395802358422 {{c1::Ribavi in}} is an <b>antivi al</b> agent t
hat is avoided in p egnancy as it is te atogenic.
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663568467 1395802358422 {{c1::G iseofulvin}} is an <b>antifungal</b>&nbs
p;agent that is avoided in p egnancy as it is te atogenic.
<b /><div><img
s c="paste9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663585680 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlo amphenicol}} is an antibiotic that is
avoided in p egnancy as it causes <b>"G ay Baby" Synd ome</b>. <b /><div><img
s c="paste9311489098129.jpg" /></div>
1401045083085 1395802358422 What kind of cha ge is on DNA?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1401045181611 1395802358422 What kind of cha ge is on histone p oteins?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1401045228456 1395802358422 How many times does DNA loop a ound a histone oc
tame ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Twice}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste12283
60646880.jpg" /></div>
1401045281528 1395802358422 Which 2 basic amino acids a e Histones pa ticula
ly ich in?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Lysine; A ginine}}</div>
1401045317058 1395802358422 Which Histone p otein functions to bind to <b>bo
th</b>&nbsp;the nucleosome <b>and</b>&nbsp;the linke DNA, the eby stabilizing t
he ch omatin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::H1}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te1224065679584.jpg" /></div>
1401045403083 1395802358422 Which Histone p oteins a e pa t of the nucleosom
e co e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::H2A; H2B; H3; H4}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Al
l appea twice in the octame .</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste1224065679584.jp
g" /></i></div>
1401045449762 1395802358422 {{c1::H1}} is a Histone p otein that binds to <b
>both</b>&nbsp;the nucleosome and <b>linke DNA</b>, the eby stabilizing the ch
omatin. <b /><div><img s c="paste1224065679584.jpg" /></div>
1401045489137 1395802358422 Which phase of the cell cycle involves DNA and H
istone Synthesis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::S Phase}}</div>
1401045530731 1395802358422 Which Histone p otein is the only Histone not pa
t of the nucleosome co e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::H1}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste1224065679584.jpg" /></div>
1401045553840 1395802358422 Which st uctu al fo m of ch omatin is condensed?

<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hete och omatin}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>H</b>et
e o<b>C</b>h omatin =&nbsp;<b>H</b>ighly&nbsp;<b>C</b>ondensed</i></div>
1401045951004 1395802358422 Which st uctu al fo m of ch omatin is t ansc ipt
ionally inactive?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hete och omatin}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i><b>H</b>ete o<b>C</b>h omatin =&nbsp;<b>H</b>ighly&nbsp;<b>C</b>ondensed</
i></div>
1401045965945 1395802358422 Which st uctu al fo m of ch omatin is ste ically
inaccessible?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hete och omatin}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i><b>H</b>ete o<b>C</b>h omatin = <b>H</b>ighly <b>C</b>ondensed</i></div>
1401045976881 1395802358422 Which st uctu al fo m of ch omatin is less conde
nsed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Euch omatin}}</div>
1401045988784 1395802358422 Which st uctu al fo m of ch omatin is t ansc ipt
ionally active?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Euch omatin}}</div>
1401046000686 1395802358422 Which st uctu al fo m of ch omatin is ste ically
accessible?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Euch omatin}}</div>
1401046050153 1395802358422 Which DNA nucleotides a e methylated on the temp
late st and du ing DNA eplication?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cytosine; Adenine
}}</div>
1401046380947 1395802358422 How does DNA Methylation at CpG islands influenc
e gene t ansc iption?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rep ession}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Methylation mutes DNA.</i></div>
1401046422972 1395802358422 How does Histone methylation influence DNA t ans
c iption?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rep ession; typically eve sible; Histone M
ethylation Mostly Make DNA Mute}}</div>
1401046460897 1395802358422 How does Histone acetylation influence DNA t ans
c iption?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Activation, by elaxing DNA coiling}}</div>
1401046493162 1395802358422 Which 2 nucleotides a e the pu ines?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Adenine; Guanine}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Pu e <b>A</b>s <b>
G</b>old.</i></div>
1401046652042 1395802358422 How many ings a e found in pu ines?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste3225520439573.jpg" />
</div>
1401046673877 1395802358422 Which 3 nucleotides a e py imidines?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Cytosine; Thymine; U acil}}</div>
<b /><div><i>CUT the PY
.</i></div>
1401046705289 1395802358422 How many ings a e found in Py imidine nucleotid
es?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste32813
55014408.jpg" /></div>
1401046727283 1395802358422 Which nucleotide has a methyl g oup?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Thymine}}</div> <b /><div><i><b>THY</b>mine has a me<b>THY</b>l
g oup.</i></div>
1401046747655 1395802358422 Which nucleotide is made following the deaminati
on of cytosine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::U acil}}</div>
1401046761783 1395802358422 Which py imidine is found <b>solely</b>&nbsp;in
RNA?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::U acil}}</div>
1401046776364 1395802358422 Which py imidine is found <b>solel</b>y in DNA?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thymine}}</div>
1401046793678 1395802358422 Which nucleotide base pai ing has the st ongest
bonding?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::GuanineCytosine due to 3 Hyd ogen bonds (vs
2 in AT)}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Inc eased GC base pai content inc eases m
elting point of DNA.</i></div>
1401046860471 1395802358422 Which amino acids a e necessa y fo pu ine synth
esis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Glycine; Glutamine; Aspa tate}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste3500398346511.jpg" /></div>
1401046896568 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycine}},&nbsp;{{c2::Aspa tate}}, and&nbs
p;{{c3::Glutamine}} a e 3 amino acids that a e necessa y fo pu ine synthesis.
<b /><div><img s c="paste3496103379215.jpg" /></div>
1401047823168 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the py imidine synthesis pathway
conve ts ibonucleotides to deoxy ibonucleotides?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ri
bonucleotide Reductase}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste4209067950804.jpg" />

</div>
1401048105101 1395802358422 {{c1::Ca bamoyl Phosphate}} is a metabolite of t
he u ea cycle that is involved in de novo py imidine synthesis as it becomes O o
tic Acid, a tempo a y base in the pathway.
1401048196398 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in nucleotide synthesis co
nve ts Ribose5P into PRPP?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PRPP Synthetase}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401048299145 1395802358422 {{c1::Leflunomide}} is a DMARD d ug that inhibit
s Dihyd oo otate Dehyd ogenase, an enzyme involved in py imidine synthesis.
<b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401048414413 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in py imidine synthesis do
es Leflunomide inhibit?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dihyd oo otate Dehyd ogenase}
}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401048435694 1395802358422 {{c1::Dihyd oo otate Dehyd ogenase}} is an enzym
e involved in py imidine synthesis that conve ts Ca bamoyl Phosphate into O otic
Acid. <b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401048481761 1395802358422 {{c1::Mycophenolate}} is an immunosupp essant th
at inhibits IMP Dehyd ogenase, an enzyme involved in de novo pu ine synthesis.
<b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401048716410 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo pu ine synthesi
s is inhibited by the immunosupp essant Mycophenolate?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::IMP Dehyd ogenase}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508.jpg" />
</div>
1401048765682 1395802358422 {{c1::Ribavi in}} is an antivi al d ug that inh
ibits IMP dehyd ogenase, an enzyme involved in de novo pu ine synthesis.
<b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401048798452 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo pu ine synthesi
s is inhibited by the antivi al agent Ribavi in?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IMP
Dehyd ogenase}}</div>
1401048814859 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyd oxyu ea}} is an antineoplastic d ug th
at inhibits Ribonucleotide Reductase, an enzyme involved in de novo py imidine s
ynthesis.
<b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401048889992 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo py imidine synt
hesis is inhibited by the antineoplastic d ug Hyd oxyu ea?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Ribonucleotide Reductase}}</div>
1401048916613 1395802358422 What is the p od ug of 6Me captopu ine (6MP)?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Azathiop ine}}</div>
1401048938290 1395802358422 {{c1::6Me captopu ine (6MP)}} is an antineoplas
tic d ug that inhibits PRPP Amidot ansfe ase, an enzyme involved in de novo pu i
ne synthesis. <b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401049006281 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo pu ine synthesi
s is inhibited by the antineoplastic 6Me captopu ine (6MP)?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::PRPP Amidot ansfe ase}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508
.jpg" /></div>
1401049040820 1395802358422 {{c1::5Fluo ou acil (5FU)}} is an antineoplast
ic d ug that inhibits Thymidylate Synthase, an enzyme involved in de novo py imi
dine synthesis. <b /><div><i>The eby causes a dec ease in [dTMP]</i></div><div>
<i><img s c="paste4204772983508.jpg" /></i></div>
1401049090567 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo py imidine synt
hesis (specifically dTMP) is inhibited by 5Fluo ou acil?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Thymidylate Synthase}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508
.jpg" /></div>
1401049130565 1395802358422 {{c1::Meth ot exate (MTX)}} is an antineoplastic
d ug that inhibits Dihyd ofolate Reductase in humans, the eby dec easing dTMP l
evels. <b ><div><img s c="paste4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401049222598 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo py imidine synt
hesis is inhibited by the antineoplastic Methot exate (MTX)?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Dihyd ofolate Reductase}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508
.jpg" /></div>
1401049263528 1395802358422 {{c1::T imethop im (TMP)}} is an antibiotic that

inhibits Dihyd ofolate Reductase in bacte ia, the eby inhibiting de novo py imi
dine synthesis. <b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401049369767 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with de novo py imidine sy
nthesis is inhibited by the antibiotic T imethop im (TMP)?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Dihyd ofolate Reductase (in bacte ia)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401049407653 1395802358422 {{c1::Py imethamine}} is an antip otozoal agent
that inhibits Dihyd ofolate Reductase, the eby stopping de novo py imidine synth
esis. <b /><div><img s c="paste4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401049438045 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with de novo py imidine sy
nthesis is inhibited by the antip otozoal agent Py imethamine?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Dihyd ofolate Reductase (in p otozoa)}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="pas
te4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401049511727 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in the pu ine salvage path
way conve ts Hypoxanthine to Xanthine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Xanthine Oxida
se}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste8233452306902.jpg" /></div>
1401052134086 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the pu ine salvage pathway conve
ts Xanthine into U ic Acid?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Xanthine Oxidase}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste8229157339606.jpg" /></div>
1401052151759 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in the pu ine salvage path
way conve ts Adenosine into Inosine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Adenosine Deamin
ase (ADA)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste8229157339606.jpg" /></div>
1401052190591 1395802358422 {{c1::Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) Deficiency}} is
a diso de of the pu ine salvage pathway that esults in excess ATP and dATP, th
e eby causing negative feedback of Ribonucleotide Reductase.
<div><b /></div
><i>The eby causing a dec ease in DNA synthesis and dec eased lymphocyte count.<
/i><b /><div><img s c="paste8229157339606.jpg" /></div>
1401053133192 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with py imidine synthesis
is inhibited by negative feedback in Adenosine Deaminase Deficiency?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Ribonucleotide Reductase, due to the excess ATP and dATP}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste8229157339606.jpg" /></div>
1401053191518 1395802358422 {{c1::Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) Deficiency}} is
a diso de of the pu ine salvage pathway that esults in Seve e Combined Immunod
eficiency (SCID).
<b /><div><i>The inc ease in ATP and dATP causes inhibi
tion of Ribonucleotide Reductase, the eby esulting in de eased DNA synthesis an
d low Lymphocyte count.</i></div>
1401053445823 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of Adenosine Dea
minase (ADA) Deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal ecessive}}</div>
1401053484874 1395802358422 {{c1::LeschNyhan Synd ome}} is a diso de of th
e pu ine salvage pathway that involves a deficiency of HGPRT, an enzyme that con
ve ts Hypoxanthine to IMP and Guanine to GMP. <div><b /></div><i>The eby esu
lts in inc eased U ic Acid p oduction</i><b /><div><img s c="paste822915733960
6.jpg" /></div>
1401053576661 1395802358422 What enzyme is defective o absent in LeschNyha
n Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::HGPRT}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te8229157339606.jpg" /><img s c="paste10647223926981.jpg" /></div>
1401053589883 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of LeschNyhan S
ynd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Xlinked ecessive}}</div>
1401053604387 1395802358422 {{c1::LeschNyhan Synd ome}} is a diso de of th
e pu ine salvage pathway that involves <b>selfmutilation</b>&nbsp;and <b>agg es
sion</b>&nbsp;due to <u>ext emely painful gout</u>.
<b /><div><img s c="pas
te10647223926981.jpg" /></div>
1401053636817 1395802358422 {{c1::LeschNyhan Synd ome}} is a diso de of th
e pu ine salvage pathway that involves <b>intellectual disability</b>&nbsp;and <
b>dystonia.</b> <b /><div><img s c="paste10651518894277.jpg" /></div>
1401053667814 1395802358422 What is the 1st line t eatment of LeschNyhan Sy
nd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Allopu inol; via inhibition of Xanthine Oxida
se}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste8229157339606.jpg" /></div>
1401053680402 1395802358422 What is the 2nd line t eatment of LeschNyhan Sy
nd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Febuxostat; via inhibition of Xanthine Oxidas

e}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste8229157339606.jpg" /></div>
1401053976840 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::unambiguous}} genetic code is on
e whe e each codon specifies fo only 1 amino acid.
1401054001534 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::degene ate/ edundant}} genetic c
ode is one whe e most amino acids a e coded by multiple codons. <b ><div><i>The
exception is Methionine (AUG) and T yptophan (UGG)</i></div>
1401054019598 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::commaless, nonove lapping}} gene
tic code is one that is ead f om a fixed sta ting point as a continuous sequenc
e of bases.
<b /><div><i>Exception is some vi uses.</i></div>
1401054052735 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::unive sal}} genetic code is one
that is conse ved th oughout evolution. <b /><div><i>The exception is mitoch on
dia in humans.</i></div>
1401054609880 1395802358422 The {{c1::O igin of Replication}} is a pa ticula
sequence of base pai s in the genome whe e DNA eplication begins.
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste13215614370212.jpg" /></div>
1401054653471 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA eplication <b>un
winds the DNA template at the eplication fo k</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::H
elicase}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste13211319402916.jpg" /></div>
1401054682823 1395802358422 {{c1::Singlest anded binding p oteins}} a e nuc
lea p oteins involved with DNA eplication that <b>p event the unwound st and f
om eannealing</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="paste13211319402916.jpg" /></div>
1401054714944 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA eplication <b>c
eates a single o doublest anded b eak in the DNA double helix to add o emov
e supe coils</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::DNA Topoisome ase}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="paste13211319402916.jpg" /></div>
1401054753071 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA eplication is in
hibited by Fluo oquinolone antibiotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::DNA Gy ase (p
oka yotic DNA Topoisome ase II)}}</div>
1401054812624 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA eplication <b>ma
kes RNA p ime s on which DNA Polyme ase III can initiate eplication</b>?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::P imase}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste1321131940291
6.jpg" /></div>
1401054871970 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA eplication <b>el
ongates the leading st and by adding deoxynucleotides to the 3' end</b>?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::DNA Polyme ase III}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="paste13211
319402916.jpg" /></div>
1401054917662 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA eplication <b>el
ongates the lagging st and until it eaches the p ime of the p eceding f agment
</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::DNA Polyme ase III}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="paste13211319402916.jpg" /></div>
1401054957246 1395802358422 In which di ection does DNA Polyme ase III have
exonuclease activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::3' to 5'}}</div>
1401055048784 1395802358422 In which di ection does DNA Polyme ase III synth
esize DNA?<div><b />{{c1::5' to 3'}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="paste13211
319402916.jpg" /></div>
1401055087535 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA eplication <b>de
g ades RNA p ime s and eplaces it with DNA</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::DNA
Polyme ase I}}</div>
1401055111746 1395802358422 In which di ection does DNA Polyme ase I have ex
onuclease activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::5' to 3'; it emoves RNA p ime s
in this di ection}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Compa e that to DNA Polyme ase III
which has 3' to 5' exonuclease activity.</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste13211
319402916.jpg" /></i></div>
1401055165699 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA eplication <b>ca
talyzes the fo mation of a phosphodieste bond within a st and of dsDNA?</b><div
><b><b /></b></div><div>{{c1::DNA Ligase}}</div>
<b /><div><i>i.e. it jo
ins Okazaki f agments</i></div><div><i><img s c="paste13211319402916.jpg" /></i
></div>
1401055210164 1395802358422 {{c1::Telome ase}} is an enzyme involved with DN
A eplication that adds DNA to the 3' end of ch omosomes in o de to avoid loss

of genetic mate ial with eve y duplication.
<b /><div><i>It is an RNADepen
dent DNA polyme ase</i></div>
1401055253205 1395802358422 What <b>type</b>&nbsp;of mutation is the most se
ve e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::F ameshift}}</div>
1401055358115 1395802358422 What <b>type</b>&nbsp;of mutation is the least s
eve e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Silent}}</div>
1401055365826 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::t ansition mutation}} is a type of
mutation that involves the switch of a pu ine to pu ine o py imidine to py imid
ine.
1401055395094 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::t ansve sion mutation}} is a type o
f mutation that involves the switch of a pu ine to a py imidine o vice ve sa.
1401055415930 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::silent mutation}} is a type of muta
tion that involves a nucleotide substitution fo the <b>same (synonymous) amino
acid</b>.
1401055576548 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::missense mutation}} is a type of mu
tation that involves a nucleotide substitution that esults in changed amino aci
ds.
1401055616267 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::nonsense mutation}} is a type of mu
tation that involves a nucleotide substitution that yields a stop codon.
<b /><div><i>Stop the nonsense.</i></div>
1401055649205 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::f ameshift mutation}} is a type of
mutation that involves the deletion o inse tion of a numbe of nucleotides not
divisible by 3, the eby causing mis eading of all nucleotides downst eam.
<b /><div><i>The most seve e type of mutation as it typically esults in t unca
ted, nonfunctional p oteins</i>.</div>
1401055701851 1395802358422 Which fo m of DNA epai involves specific endon
ucleases that elease the oligonucleotide that contains damaged bases?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Nucleotide Excision Repai }}</div>
<b /><div><i>DNA Polyme
ase and Ligase then fill and seal the gap espectively.</i></div>
1401056135364 1395802358422 Which type of DNA epai is defective in Xe ode
ma Pigmentosum?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleotide Excision Repai }}</div>
1401056156818 1395802358422 {{c1::Xe ode ma Pigmentosum}} is a cutaneous dis
o de that involves defective Nucleotide Excision Repai , the eby esulting in t
he fo mation of py imidine dime s f om UV light exposu e.
1401056197661 1395802358422 Which type of DNA epai functions to epai bul
ky helixdisto ting lesions?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleotide excision epa
i }}</div>
1401056228512 1395802358422 Which type of DNA epai involves basespecific
glycosylases that ecognize alte ed bases and fo m an Apu inic/Apy imidinic (AP)
site?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Base Excision Repai }}</div> <b /><div><i>1.
AP Endonuclease cleaves the base at the 5' end.</i></div><div><i>2. Lyase cleav
es the base at the 3' end.</i></div><div><i>3. DNA Polyme asebeta fills the gap
with a new/co ect nucleotide.</i></div><div><i>4. DNA ligase seals the b eak.<
/i></div><div><i><b /></i></div>
1401056413958 1395802358422 Which type of DNA epai functions to epai spo
ntaneous/toxic deamination?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Base excision epai }}</d
iv>
1401056969430 1395802358422 Which type of DNA epai involves the emoval of
mismatched nucleotides f om newly synthesized DNA st ands?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::DNA Mismatch Repai }}</div>
1401057000399 1395802358422 What type of DNA epai is defective in He edita
y Nonpolyposis Colo ectal Cance (HNPCC)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mismatch
epai }}</div>
1401057025382 1395802358422 What type of DNA epai involves the b inging to
gethe of 2 ends of DNA f agments to epai doublest anded b aks?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Nonhomologous End Joining Repai }}</div> <b /><div><i>The e is <
b>no equi ement fo homology</b>.</i></div>
1401057085801 1395802358422 What type of DNA epai is mutated in Ataxia Tel
angiectasia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nonhomologous End Joining Repai }}</div>
1401057116627 1395802358422 In which di ection is DNA and RNA synthesized?<d

iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::5' to 3'}}</div>
1401057295662 1395802358422 In which di ection is mRNA ead?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::5' to 3'}}</div>
1401057313674 1395802358422 Which functional g oup on the 3' position of nuc
leotides attacks the t iphosphate bond of the p eceding nucleotide?<div><b ></di
v><div>{{c1::Hyd oxyl g oup (OH)}}</div>
<b ><div><i>D ugs that block DNA
eplication typically have modified 3' OH g oups, the eby p eventing the additi
on of the nucleotide and causing chain te mination.</i></div>
1401057401388 1395802358422 What is the mRNA sta t codon?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::AUG}}</div>
1401057424630 1395802358422 What does the sta t codon AUG code fo in euka y
otes?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Methionine}}</div>
1401057435648 1395802358422 What does the sta t codon AUG code fo in p oka
yotes?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fo mylmethionine (Fmet)}}</div>
1401057452016 1395802358422 What a e the mRNA stop codons?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::UGA; UAA; UAG}}</div>
1401057463828 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::p omote }} is a DNA site whe e RN
A polyme ase and othe t ansc iption facto s can bind to DNA. <b /><div><img
s c="paste17016660426963.jpg" /></div>
1401057831233 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::p omote }} is a DNA site upst eam
f om a gene locus that is ich in AT base pai ing and has both TATA and CAAT b
oxes. <b /><div><img s c="paste17012365459667.jpg" /></div>
1401057868607 1395802358422 How does a mutation in the p omote sequence typ
ically influence gene t ansc iption?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::D amatic dec eas
e}}</div>
1401057895751 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::enhance }} is a st etch of DNA th
at alte s gene exp ession by binding to t ansc iption facto s. <div><b /></div
><i>Can be close to, fa f om o within the gene it egulates.</i><b /><div><im
g s c="paste17012365459667.jpg" /></div>
1401057921423 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::silence }} is a DNA site whe e ne
gative egulato s (gene ep esso s) bind.
<div><b /></div><i>Can be close
to, fa f om o within the gene it egulates.</i><b /><div><img s c="paste170
12365459667.jpg" /></div>
1401058515444 1395802358422 What type of euka yotic RNA Polyme ase makes RN
A?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polyme ase I}}</div> <b /><div><i>Polyme ase
I, II and III a e numbe ed as thei p oducts a e used in p otein synthesis.</i>
</div>
1401058563843 1395802358422 What type of euka yotic RNA Polyme ase makes mRN
A?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polyme ase II}}</div> <b /><div><i>Polyme ase
I, II and III a e numbe ed as thei p oducts a e used in p otein synthesis.</i>
</div>
1401058578970 1395802358422 What type of euka yotic RNA Polyme ase makes tRN
A?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polyme ase III}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Po
lyme ase I, II and III a e numbe ed as thei p oducts a e used in p otein synthe
sis.</i></div>
1401058602230 1395802358422 What is the most nume ous type of RNA?<div><b /
>{{c1:: RNA}}</div>
1401058628961 1395802358422 What is the la gest type of RNA?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::mRNA}}</div>
1401058639640 1395802358422 What is the smallest type of RNA?<div><b ></div>
<div>{{c1::tRNA}}</div> <b ><i>T = tRNA = tiny</i>
1401058648334 1395802358422 Which type of RNA Polyme ase functions to open D
NA at p omote sites?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polyme ase II}}</div>
1401058822031 1395802358422 {{c1::alphaamanitin}} is a toxin found in <i>Am
anita phalloides</i>&nbsp;(death cap mush ooms) that inhibits RNA Polyme ase II.
<b /><div><i>And also causes seve e hepatotoxicity.</i></div>
1401058914807 1395802358422 What is the MOA of alphaamanitin, the active to
xin in <i>Amanita phalloides</i>&nbsp;(death cap mush ooms)?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Inhibition of RNA Polyme ase II}}</div> <b /><div><i>Also causes seve e
hepatotoxicity.</i></div>

1401059043818 1395802358422 Which end of the initial RNA t ansc ipt eceives
a 7methylguanosine cap?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::5'}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="paste20040317403285.jpg" /></div>
1401059773880 1395802358422 Which end of the initial RNA t ansc ipt unde goe
s polyadenylation (~200 A's)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::3'}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="paste20036022435989.jpg" /></div>
1401059810127 1395802358422 Whe e in the cell does t anslation occu ?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Cytosol}}</div>
1401059878769 1395802358422 {{c1::Pbodies}} a e cytoplasmic p otein complex
es that contain exonucleases, decapping enzymes and mic oRNAs and <b>function as
an mRNA quality cont ol mechanism</b>.
1401059966346 1395802358422 What is the polyadenylation signal on mRNA?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::AAUAAA}}</div>
1401059984710 1395802358422 Which enzyme polyadenylates the 3' end of the in
itial RNA t ansc ipt?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PolyA Polyme ase}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Does not equi e a template.</i></div>
1401060028718 1395802358422 {{c1::Small Nuclea Ribonucleop oteins (snRNPs)}
} a e nuclea p oteins involved with p emRNA splicing that fo m the spliceosome
with the p ima y t ansc ipt. <b /><div><img s c="paste20431159427435.jpg" /
></div>
1401060146522 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Spliceosome}} is a p otein comple
x that pe fo ms p emRNA splicing.
<b /><div><img s c="paste2043545439473
1.jpg" /></div>
1401060268638 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::la iatshaped inte mediate}} is an
inte mediate that is gene ated when an int on is excised and 2 exons a e joined.
<b /><div><img s c="paste20431159427435.jpg" /></div>
1401060332543 1395802358422 Which autoimmune diso de is highly associated w
ith <b>antispliceosomal snRNP antibodies</b>&nbsp;(antiSmith antibodies)?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::SLE}}</div>
1401060483198 1395802358422 {{c1::AntiSmith antibodies}} a e an autoantibod
y against spliceosomal snRNPs that a e highly specific fo SLE.
1401060559443 1395802358422 Which <b>type</b>&nbsp;of disease is highly asso
ciated with AntiU1 RNP antibodies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mixed connective
tissue disease}}</div>
1401060579472 1395802358422 {{c1::AntiU1 RNP antibodies}} a e autoantibodie
s against RNPs (Ribonucleop oteins) that a e highly associated with mixed connec
tive tissue disease.
1401060876961 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::int on}} is an inte vening seque
nce of RNA that is excised out of the initial RNA t ansc ipt and stays in the nu
cleus. <div><b /></div><img s c="paste21891448308035.jpg" />
1401061092002 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::exon}} a e coding sequences of R
NA that a e p ocessed afte t ansc iption and exp essed via t anslation in the c
ytostol.
<b /><div><img s c="paste21887153340739.jpg" /></div>
1401061130932 1395802358422 Which t inucleotide sequence is found at the 3'
end of tRNA molecules in both p oka yotes and euka yotes?<div><b ></div><div>{{c
1::CCA}}</div> <div><b ></div><div><i>"CCA; Can Ca y Amino Acids"  CCA is the
amino acid accepto site</i></div><i>The e a e also many chemically modified ba
ses.</i><b ><div><img s c="paste22089016803683.jpg" /></div>
1401061327935 1395802358422 Which t inucleotide sequence found on the Ta m
of tRNA allows fo tRNA ibosome binding?<div><b ></div><div>{{c1::TΨC (Thymine; P
seudouridine; Cytosine)}}</div> <r><div><img src="paste-22488448762213.jpg" /><
/div>
1401061403124 1395802358422 Which chemically modified nucleotide is found in
the D-arm of tRNA and allows for tRNA recognition y the correct aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydrouracil}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-22484153794917.jpg" /></div>
1401061514225 1395802358422 Which enzyme is responsile for charging tRNA mo
lecules with amino acids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase}}
</div> <div><r /></div><i>It scrutinizes amino acids efore and after it inds
to tRNA, if the match is incorrect the ond is hydrolyzed and the AA is release

d.</i><div><i>The AA-tRNA ond contains enough energy to form a peptide ond.</i
></div><div><i>A mischarged (i.e. incorrectly matched) tRNA will still read the
same codon (via the tRNA anticodon) ut will provide the wrong AA.<r /></i><div
><img src="paste-22484153794917.jpg" /></div></div>
1401061838026 1395802358422 Which enzyme is responsile for the accuracy of
amino acid selection for protein synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoacyl
-tRNA Synthetase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The enzyme's selectivity/action an
d the inding of the charged tRNA moc to the appropriate codon is what provides
accuracy.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-22484153794917.jpg" /></i></div>
1401062031076 1395802358422 {{c1::tRNA wole}} is a iochemical phenomenon
that involves accurate ase pairing etween mRNA and tRNA codons despite a diffe
rence in the codon's 3rd position.
<r /><div><i>Accurate ase pairing is o
nly necessary in the first 2 nucleotide positions of an mRNA codon. The 3rd posi
tion (aka the "wole" position) can differ and the same amino acid/tRNA molecul
e will arrive. This is due to the degeneracy of the genetic code.&nsp;</i></div
>
1401062325441 1395802358422 Which eukaryotic riosomal suunit assemles wit
h the initiator tRNA molecule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40S}}</div> <div><r
/></div><i>60S suunit and mRNA molecule arrive after, triggering the disassem
ly of the initiation factors.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-24197845745957.jpg"
/></div>
1401062573586 1395802358422 Which nucleoside triphosphate molecule is used t
o <>activate</>&nsp;(charge) tRNA?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ATP}}</div>
<r /><div><i>ATP = <>A</>ctvation of tRNA</i></div>
1401062673264 1395802358422 Which nucleoside triphosphate is used in transla
tion for&nsp;<>initiation</>&nsp;and <>elongation</>?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::GTP}}</div>
<r /><div><i>GTP = tRNA <>G</>ripping and <>G</>oin
g places</i></div>
1401062747925 1395802358422 Which 2 riosomal suunits make up <>eukaryotic
</>riosomes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40S + 60S = 80S}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i><>E</>ukaryotic = <>E</>ven</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-241935507
78661.jpg" /></i></div>
1401062791111 1395802358422 Which 2 riosomal suunits make up <>prokaryoti
c</>&nsp;riosomes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::30S + 50S = 70S}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pr<>O</>karyotic = <>O</>dd</i></div>
1401062826949 1395802358422 In which riosomal inding site do aminoacyl-tRN
A molecules ind to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A site; except for the initiator
methionine-tRNA which slides into the P site}}</div> <r /><div><i><>A</>&n
sp;site = <>A</>rriving <>A</>mino-acyl tRNA</i></div><div><i><img src="pas
te-24193550778661.jpg" /></i></div>
1401062911224 1395802358422 Which enzyme catalyzes peptide ond formation du
ring translation y transferring the growing polypeptide to the amino acid prese
nt in the A site?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::rRNA (Riozyme)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-24193550778661.jpg" /></div>
1401062965123 1395802358422 In which riosomal inding site does the peptidy
l-tRNA molecule shift to in translocation following peptide ond formation?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::P site}}</div> <div><r /></div><i><>P</>&nsp;site =
growing <>p</>eptide</i><r /><div><img src="paste-24193550778661.jpg" /></di
v>
1401063090835 1395802358422 From which riosomal inding site does the compl
eted polypeptide chain leave the riosome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::E site}}</
div>
<div><r /></div><i><>E</>&nsp;site = <>E</>xit</i><r /><div><img
src="paste-24193550778661.jpg" /></div>
1401063135623 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimming}} is a posttranslational modifica
tion that involves removal of the N- or C-terminal propeptide from zymogen to ge
nerate a mature protein.
<r /><div><i>e.g. Proinsulin to Insulin; Trypsi
nogen to Trypsin</i></div>
1401063212388 1395802358422 {{c1::Chaperone Proteins}} are intracellular pro
teins involved in facilitating and/or maintaining protein folding.
<r /><d
iv><i>In yeast, some are heat-shock proteins (e.g. Hsp60) that are expressed at

high temperatures to prevent protein denaturing/misfolding.</i></div>
1401125552393 1395802358422 What is the shortest phase of the cell cycle?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitosis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-66571
9931167.jpg" /></div>
1401125621152 1395802358422 {{c1::CDKs (Cyclin-Dependent Kinases)}} are prot
ein kinases that regulate the cell cycle and are constitutively expressed in the
cell ut left inactive.
<div><r /></div>
1401125947477 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclins}} are <>phase specific</> regula
tory proteins that control cell cycle events and activate CDKs. <r /><div><i>No
te that Cyclin-CDK complexes must e oth activated and inactivated for the cell
cycle to progress.</i></div>
1401125987156 1395802358422 Which phase specific cell cycle regulatory prote
ins activate CDKs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclins}}</div>
1401126448424 1395802358422 Which cell cycle checkpoint is locked y p53?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::G1 to S}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Hence a muta
tion can cause uncontrolled cell division.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-6614249
63871.jpg" /></div>
1401126657216 1395802358422 Which cell cycle checkpoint is locked y hypoph
osphorylated R?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G1 to S}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><i>Hence a mutation can cause uncontrolled cell division.</i><r /><div><img sr
c="paste-661424963871.jpg" /></div>
1401140293505 1395802358422 {{c1::Permanent}} cells are a <>type</>&nsp;o
f cell that <>remain in G<su>0</su>&nsp;</>and regenerate from stem cells.
<r /><div><i>e.g. neurons, skeletal and cardiac muscle.</i></div>
1401140459553 1395802358422 {{c1::Stale}} cells are a <>type</>&nsp;of c
ells that <>enter G<su>1</su>&nsp;from G<su>0</su>&nsp;when stimulated</
>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. hepatocytes, lymphocytes</i></div>
1401140497429 1395802358422 {{c1::Laile}} cells are a <>type</>&nsp;of c
ell that <>never go to G<su>0</su>&nsp;</>and <>divide rapidly with a shor
t G<su>1</su>.</>
<r /><div><i>These type of cells are the most affected
y chemotherapy</i></div><div><i>e.g. one marrow, gut epithelium, skin, hair fo
llicles and germ cells.</i></div>
1401140571086 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of synthesi
s of secretory (exported) proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Any cells that are highly secretory are rich in RER.</i></div>
1401140650725 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site where <>Nlinked oligosaccharides</>&nsp;are added to proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Rough ER}}</div>
1401140679478 1395802358422 {{c1::Nissl Bodies}} are the Rough ER in neurons
that function to synthesize peptide neurotransmitters for secretion.
1401142296564 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of steroid
synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth ER}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence, ste
roid producing cells are rich in SER.</i></div>
1401142323681 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of drug and
poison detoxification?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth ER}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence, hepatocytes are aundant in SER.</i></div>
1401142338139 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Rough ER}} is a cellular organell
e that is the site of synthesis of secretory proteins as they have surface rios
omes. <r /><div><i>In fact, it is these surface riosomes that make the RER l
ook rough.</i></div>
1401143001013 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle functions as the <>dis
triution center</>&nsp;for proteins and lipids from the ER to the vesicles an
d plasma memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Golgi Apparatus}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4316442133115.jpg" /></div>
1401143055032 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle functions to <>modify
N-oligosaccharides</>&nsp;on asparagine residues?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G
olgi apparatus}}</div>
1401143100313 1395802358422 Which amino acid undergoes N-linked glycosylatio
n in the Rough ER?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asparagine}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>i.e. an N-oligosaccharide is added to Asparagine</i></div>

1401143226244 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of O-linked
glycosylation of proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Golgi Apparatus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>g<>O</>lgi = <>O</>-linked glycosylation</i></div>
1401143284426 1395802358422 Which amino acids are involved in O-linked glyco
sylation in the Golgi apparatus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Serine; Threonine}}<
/div>
1401143313472 1395802358422 {{c1::Mannose-6-phosphate}} is a monosaccharide
that is added to proteins to allow for <>protein trafficking to lysosomes</>.
1401143377052 1395802358422 Which monosaccharisde is added to proteins in th
e Golgi to allow for <>trafficking to lysosomes</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Mannose-6-phosphate}}</div>
1401143424047 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle functions to add mannos
e-6-phosphate to proteins for trafficking to lysosomes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Golgi apparatus}}</div>
1401143457076 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::endosome}} is an organelle that f
unctions as sorting centers for material from outside the cell or from the Golgi
.
<r /><div><i>Therey either sending material to the lysosomes for degra
dation, the memrane for secretion or ack to the Golgi for further use.</i></di
v><div><i><img src="paste-4312147165819.jpg" /></i></div>
1401143527967 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease (Inclusion Cell Disease)}}
is an inherited lysosomal storage disorder that involves a defect in phosphotran
sferase, therey resulting in failure of the Golgi apparatus to phosphorylate ma
nnose residues. <r /><div><i>Hence, proteins enter the default secretory pathwa
y instead of eing sent to lysosomes.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, the lysosomal t
rafficking signal is Mannose-6-Phosphate.</i></div>
1401144019445 1395802358422 Which enzyme is defective in I-Cell Disease, the
rey resulting in defective protein trafficking/secretion?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Phosphotransferase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Mannose residues ca
nnot e phosphorylated on glycoproteins. Therey results in proteins entering th
e default secretory pathway (extracellular secretion) instead of eing sent to l
ysosomes.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, the lysosomal trafficking signal is mannose
-6-phosphate.</i></div>
1401144112641 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of I-Cell Diseas
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1401144172277 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that involves <>high plasma levels of lysosomal enz
ymes</>&nsp;due to a Phosphotransferase defect.
1401144228202 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that involves <>coarse facial features</>&nsp;and
<>clouded corneas</>&nsp;due to a defect in Phosphotransferase.
1401144266688 1395802358422 {{c1::I-cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that involves <>restricted joint movement</>&nsp;
due to a defect in Phosphotransferase.
1401145159202 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that is often <>fatal in childhood</>&nsp;due to
a defect in Phosphotransferase.
1401145197644 1395802358422 {{c1::Signal Recognition Particle (SRP)}} is an
aundant, cytosolic rionucleoprotein that traffics proteins from the riosome t
o the Rough ER. <div><r /></div><i>Asent or defective SRPs result in <>accumu
lation of proteins in the cytosol</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-59828894439
70.jpg" /></div>
1401145469448 1395802358422 {{c1::COPI}} is a vesicular trafficking protein
that carries material through the Golgi in a <>retrograde</>&nsp;direction.
<r /><div><img src="paste-6146098201213.jpg" /></div>
1401145783406 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial through the Golgi in a <>retrograde</>&nsp;direction?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::COPI}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401145802810 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial <>from the Golgi to the ER</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::COPI}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>i.e. COPI goes <>ackwards</></i><r /><div><img src="past

e-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401145831987 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial through the Golgi in the <>anterograde</>&nsp;direction?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::COPII}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" />
</div>
1401145852835 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial <>from the ER to the Golgi</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::COPII}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>i.e. COPII goes <>forward</></i><r /><div><img src="paste
-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401145902833 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein moves materi
al <>throughout the Golgi</>&nsp;(i.e. is <i>trans</i>-Golgi)?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Clathrin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" />
</div>
1401146136741 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial <>from the Golgi to lysosomes</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clathrin}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401146158054 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial <>from the plasma memrane to endosomes</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cl
athrin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401146180723 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein in involved
with receptor-mediated endocytosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clathrin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401146203051 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Peroxisome}} is a memrane-enclos
ed organelle involved in the cataolism of very-long-chain FAs, ranched-chain F
As and amino acids.
1401147474137 1395802358422 Which organelle is involved in the cataolism of
very-long-chain and ranched-chain fatty acids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pero
xisome}}</div>
1401147500313 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::proteasome}} is a arrel-shaped p
rotein complex that degrades damaged or uiquitin-tagged proteins.
<r><div
><i>Uiquitin-proteasome complex defects have een implicated in Parkinson Disea
se.</i></div>
1401147562313 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Microtuule}} is a cylindrical ce
llular structure composed of a helical array of polymerized heterodimers of&nsp
;α- nd&nbsp;β-tuulin. <r /><div><img src="paste-7687991460172.jpg" /></div>
1401148318233 1395802358422 Which nucleoside triphosphate is ound to each&n
sp;α- nd β-tuulin heterodimer in microtuules?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GTP}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>Each dimer has 2 GTP ound.</i></div>
1401148397662 1395802358422 Which cytoskeletal filament is incorporated into
flagella, cilia and mitotic spindles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuules}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-7765300871514.jpg" /></div>
1401148437875 1395802358422 Which cytoskeletal filament is involved in slow
axoplasmic transport in neurons?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuules}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7761005904218.jpg" /></div>
1401148482016 1395802358422 Which molecular motor protein transports cellula
r cargo in the <>retrograde</>&nsp;direction&nsp;towards the <>negative</>
&nsp;(-) end of the microtuule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dynein}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7761005904218.jpg" /></div>
1401149338014 1395802358422 Which molecular motor protein transports cargo i
n an <>anterograde</>&nsp;direction towards the <>positive</>&nsp;(+) end
of the microtuule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kinesin}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-7761005904218.jpg" /></div>
1401149386181 1395802358422 {{c1::Meendazole}} is an anti-helminthic drug t
hat targets microtuules.
<r /><div><img src="paste-8559869821146.jpg" />
</div>
1401149459874 1395802358422 {{c1::Griseofulvin}} is an anti-fungal agent tha
t targets microtuules. <r /><div><img src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" /></div>
1401149487279 1395802358422 {{c1::Colchicine}} is an anti-gout drug that tar
gets microtuules.
<r /><div><img src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" /></div>
1401149511537 1395802358422 {{c1::Vincristine}} and&nsp;{{c2::Vinlastine}}

are vinca-alkaloid anti-cancer drugs that target microtuules. <r /><div><img
src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" /></div>
1401149532767 1395802358422 {{c1::Paclitaxel}} is a taxol anti-cancer drug t
hat targets microtuules.
<r /><div><img src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" />
</div>
1401158079665 1395802358422 What microtuular arrangement is found in cilia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::9 + 2 in the centre}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-9431748182227.jpg" /></div>
1401158163022 1395802358422 {{c1::Axonemal Dynein}} is an ATPase found in ci
lia that links the peripheral 9 microtuule doulets.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-9427453214931.jpg" /></div>
1401158214524 1395802358422 {{c1::Axonemal Dynein}} is an ATPase found in mi
crotuules that causes ending of the cilium y differential sliding of the 9 pe
ripheral doulets.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9427453214931.jpg" /></d
iv>
1401158246963 1395802358422 Which molecular motor protein is found in cilia
and causes ending of the cilium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axonemal Dynein (vi
a ATP hydrolysis)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9427453214931.jpg
" /></div>
1401158285576 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that involves immotile cilia due to
a dynein arm defect.
1401158484461 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritence of&nsp;Kartagen
er Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal R
ecessive}}</div>
1401158502998 1395802358422 {{c1::Infertility}} is a complication of&nsp;Ka
rtagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia) that arises in males due to <>im
motile sperm</>.
1401158598320 1395802358422 {{c1::Infertility}} is a complication of&nsp;Ka
rtagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia) that arises in females due to <>
dysfunctional fallopian tue cilia</>.
1401158625860 1395802358422 How does the risk of ectopic pregnancy change in
&nsp;Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, there are cilia along the fallop
ian tue. Hence defective cilia activity will result in an increased chance of i
mplantation occuring in the fallopian tue instead of the uterus.</i></div>
1401158681823 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that presents with <>ronchiectasis
</>&nsp;and <>recurrent sinusitis</>&nsp;due to a dynein arm defect in cili
a.
1401158732423 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that causes <>situs inversus</>&n
sp;due to a dynein arm defect in cilia.
1401158761127 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that presents with <>dextrocardia</
>&nsp;on chest x-ray due to a dynein arm defect in cilia.
1401159108451 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filament is involved i
n muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin &amp; Myosin}}</div>
1401159153794 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filament is involved i
n microvilli?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin &amp; myosin}}</div>
1401159162085 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filament is involved i
n cytokinesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin; Myosin}}</div>
1401159171813 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filament is involved i
n adherens junctions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin; Myosin}}</div>
1401159188214 1395802358422 {{c1::Myosin}} is a dimeric, ATP-driven motor pr
otein that moves along actin chains.
1401159210960 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filaments are involved
in axonal trafficking?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuule}}</div>
1401159533349 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filament is involved
with movement?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuules}}</div>

1401159869635 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filament is involved
with structure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intermediate filaments}}</div>
1401159888009 1395802358422 {{c1::Ergosterol}} is a sterol molecule that is
uniquely found in fungal plasma memranes.
1401159918917 1395802358422 What type of cell contains the intermediate fila
ment Vimentin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Connective tissue}}</div>
1401159955331 1395802358422 What type of cell contains the intermediate fila
ment Desmin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscle}}</div>
1401159963941 1395802358422 What type of cell contains the intermediate fila
ment Cytokeratin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium}}</div>
1401159971500 1395802358422 What type of cell contains the intermediate fila
ment Glial Firillary Acid Protein (GFAP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroglia}
}</div>
1401159990136 1395802358422 What type of cell contain Neurofilaments?<div><
r></div><div>{{c1::Neurons}}</div>
<r><div><i>Lol @ this card. Just trying
to e complete here.</i></div>
1401160016409 1395802358422 On which side of the plasma memrane is the ATP
inding site on the Na/K ATPase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytosolic}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11196979740887.jpg" /></div>
1401160173996 1395802358422 In which direction across the plasma memrane do
es the Na/K ATPase move Na?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3 Na out per ATP consumed
}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11673721110738.jpg" /></div>
1401160216456 1395802358422 In which direction across the plasma memrane do
es the Na/K ATPase move K?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2 K in per ATP consumed}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11673721110738.jpg" /></div>
1401160286191 1395802358422 {{c1::Ouaain}} is a poisonous cardiac glycoside
commonly used as "arrow poison" that inhiits the Na/K ATPase y inding to the
K inding site.
<r /><div><img src="paste-11678016078034.jpg" /></div>
1401160371962 1395802358422 {{c1::Digoxin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Digitoxin}} are c
ardiac glycosides that directly inhiits the Na/K ATPase.
<r /><div><i>Th
is then causes indirect inhiition of the Na/Ca exchanger and a susequent <>in
crease</>&nsp;in [Ca]<su>i</su>, therey increasing cardiac contractility.</
i></div>
1401160661819 1395802358422 What is the most aundant protein in the human 
ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Collagen}}</div>
1401160767495 1395802358422 What is the most common type of collagen?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I (90%)}}</div>
1401160904834 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in one?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>B<>one</><r /></i
><div><i>Made y osteolasts.</i></div>
1401161078696 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in skin?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161087124 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in tendons?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161094476 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the cornea?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161153453 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in dentin?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161160448 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in fascia?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161173373 1395802358422 Which type of collagen has defective production
in Ostegenesis Imperfecta, Type I?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161203746 1395802358422 Which type of collagen is found in cartilage?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Car<>two</>lage<
/i></div>
1401161225814 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the vitreous 
ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1401161242129 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the nucleus pu
lposus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1401161252761 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in Reticulin?<div

><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1401161317722 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in lood vessel w
alls?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III (as Reticulin)}}</div>
1401161343636 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in granulation ti
ssue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III (as Reticulin)}}</div>
1401161356962 1395802358422 What type of collagen is deficient in the <>vas
cular type</>&nsp;of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I
II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Thre<>E D</></i></div>
1401161403471 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the asement m
emrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Type IV is
under the floor (i.e. asement)</i></div>
1401161708043 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the asal lami
na?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401161716779 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the lens of th
e eye?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401161748636 1395802358422 What type of collagen is defective in Alport Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401161769216 1395802358422 What type of collagen is targeted y autoantiod
ies in Goodpasture Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401215680713 1395802358422 Where inside firolasts is collagen synthesized
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, secreted
proteins are made in the RER.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-489626272441.jpg
" /></i></div>
1401215758397 1395802358422 {{c1::Preprocollagen}} is the initial form of sy
nthesized collagen made at the Rough ER and involves alpha-chains of Glycine-X-
amino acids. <r /><div><i>X and  are either proline or lysine.</i></div>
1401215857964 1395802358422 What is the most aundant amino acid in collagen
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glycine}}</div>
1401215869212 1395802358422 Which organelle in firolasts is the site of hy
droxylation of specific Proline and Lysine residues in Preprocollagen?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.
jpg" /></div>
1401215918908 1395802358422 Which amino acids in Preprocollagen are hydroxyl
ated in the Rough ER?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Proline}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The resultant Hydroxylysine and Hydroxyproline residues are
later integral in collagen firil formation.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-48533
1305145.jpg" /></div>
1401216004988 1395802358422 Which vitamin is an essential cofactor in the hy
droxylation of Preprocollagen in the Rough ER?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitami
n C}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence a deficiency causes scurvy.</i></div><div><i
><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></i></div>
1401216036574 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is a connective tissue disorder c
haracterized y impaired collagen synthesis that results from a deficiency of Vi
tamin C.
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401216069493 1395802358422 Which organelle in firolasts is the site of gl
ycosylation of Preprocollagen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401216608756 1395802358422 {{c1::Procollagen}} is an intermediate of collag
en synthesis that is made y the glycosylation of pro-alpha-chain hydroxylysine
residues and hydrogen/disulfide ond interactions.
<div><r /></div><i>Proc
ollagen is a <>triple helix of 3 collagen alpha-chains</>&nsp;that comes toge
ther via hydrogen and disulfide ond interactions following glycosylation of pro
-alpha-chain hydroxylysine.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></
div>
1401216834649 1395802358422 {{c1::Procollagen}} is an intermediate of collag
en synthesis that is structured as a triple helix of 3 collagen alpha-chains.
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401216860810 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a one disord
er that arises from an <>inaility to form procollagen</>&nsp;(prolems formi
ng a triple helix of collagen alpha-chains).
<r><div><img src="paste-4853313

05145.jpg" /></div>
1401216904238 1395802358422 {{c1::Tropocollagen}} is an intermediate of coll
agen synthesis that is formed following the cleavage of disulfide-rich terminal
regions of procollagen. <r /><div><i>Tropocollagen is insolule. Procollagen is
solule. Keep this in mind to rememer where each is formed. We don't want trop
ocollagen eing formed inside of the cell as it will kill the cell as tropocolla
gen mocs come together. On the flip side, we want this to happen outside of the
cell so that collagen firils can form.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4853313
05145.jpg" /></i></div>
1401217159741 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to cross-link staggered t
ropocollagen molecules into collagen firils through covalent lysine-hydroxylysi
ne cross-links?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lysyl Oxidase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401217327420 1395802358422 {{c1::Lysyl Oxidase}} is a <>Cu-containing</>&
nsp;enzyme responsile for cross-linking staggered tropocollagen molecules into
collagen firils through covalent lysine-hydroxylysine cross-links.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401217425241 1395802358422 Which trace element/metal is found in Lysyl Oxid
ase and is necessary for its function in collagen synthesis?<div><r></div><div>
{{c1::Copper (as Cu²⁺)}}</div>
<r><div><img src="paste-4853313
05145.jpg" /></div>
1401217574190 1395802358422 {{c1::Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome}} is a connective t
issue disorder that arises due to prolems with cross-linking tropocollagen mole
cules into collagen firils.
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /><
/div>
1401217621218 1395802358422 What genetic one disorder is also referred to a
s Brittle Bone Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}}</di
v>
1401217743926 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of the <>most c
ommon form</>&nsp;of Osteogenesis Imperfecta?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autos
omal Dominant}}</div> <r /><div><i>Defect involves a decreased production of
otherwise normal Type I collagen.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, Type I collagen is
found in ones.</i></div>
1401217828622 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a genetic on
e disorder that involves severe skeletal deformities, lim shortening and multip
le fractures in a child due to <>defective Type I collagen production</>.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-2933462663475.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>In
the right image, there are ilateral proximal femur fractures; the right femue
is pinned and healing while the left femur has healed</i></div>
1401217945805 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a genetic on
e disorder that presents with multiple one fractures after minimal trauma, poss
ily even during childirth.
1401218009697 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a genetic on
e disorder that presents with <>lue sclera</>&nsp;due to the translucency of
the connective tissue over choroidal veins.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-3135326126287.jpg" /></div>
1401218063902 1395802358422 {{c1::Hearing Loss}} is a complication of Osteog
enesis Imperfecta that results from anormal ossicle formation.
1401218095320 1395802358422 {{c1::Dental imperfections}} are a complication
of Osteogenesis Imperfecta due to a lack of dentin formation.
1401218132265 1395802358422 {{c1::Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome}} is a connective t
issue disorder that presents with hyperextensile skin, tendency to leed and hy
permoile joints due to faulty collagen cross-linking. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-3491808412251.jpg" /></div>
1401229430672 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Ehlers-Danlos
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Can e AD or AR}}</div>
1401229484480 1395802358422 What is the <>most common type</>&nsp;of Ehle
rs-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypermoility Type (with join ins
taility)}}</div>
1401229513466 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypermoility type}} is the most common <

>type</>&nsp;of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome and involves hypermoile and unstale j
oints.
1401229548064 1395802358422 {{c1::Classical Type}} is a <>type</>&nsp;of
Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome that is caused y a mutation in Type V collagen.
1401229597733 1395802358422 What type of collagen is mutated in the Classica
l type of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type V}}</div>
1401229616243 1395802358422 What is the most severe type of Ehlers-Danlos Sy
ndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vascular type}}</div>
1401229627616 1395802358422 What type of collagen is deficient in the Vascul
ar type of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1401229654417 1395802358422 {{c1::Vascular Type}} is a type of Ehlers-Danlos
syndrome that involves vascular and organ rupture due to a deficiency in type I
II collagen.
1401229695813 1395802358422 {{c1::Menkes Disease}} is a connective tissue di
sorder that is caused y <>impaired copper asorption and transport</>.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Lysyl Oxidase, the enzye responsile for cross-linking t
ropocollagen into collagen firils, requires Copper as a cofactor. Hence there w
ill e decreased collagen.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3487513444955.jpg" /
></i></div>
1401229768194 1395802358422 What trace element sees an impairment in asorpt
ion and transport in Menkes Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Copper}}</div>
1401229794453 1395802358422 {{c1::Menkes Disease}} is a connective tissue di
sorder that involves decreased activity of lysyl oxidase due to impaired copper
asorption and transport.
1401230044123 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with the cross-linking of
collagen firils is impaired in Menkes Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lysyl
Oxidase}}</div>
1401230241423 1395802358422 {{c1::Menkes Disease}} is a connective tissue di
sorder that results in <>rittle, "kinky" hair</>&nsp;due to impaired copper
asorption/transport.
1401230332326 1395802358422 {{c1::Menkes Disease}} is a connective tissue di
sorder that involves <>growth retardation</>&nsp;and <>hypotonia</>&nsp;du
e to impaired copper asorption and transport.
1401230373851 1395802358422 {{c1::Ligamenta Flava}} are ligaments <>rich in
elastin</>&nsp;that connect verterae.
<r /><div><i>They have relaxed
and stretched conformations.</i></div>
1401230443361 1395802358422 Which 2 amino acids are aundant in Elastin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Proline; Glycine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>In their n
onhydroxylated forms (compare to collagen that has hydroxyproline residues).</i>
</div>
1401230492292 1395802358422 Which enzyme reaks down Elastin?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Elastase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Inhiited y&nsp;α₁-nti
trypsin</i></div>
1401230604495 1395802358422 Which ntiprotese normlly inhibits Elstse?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::α₁-ntitrypsin}}</div>
1401230620600 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is  connective tissue d
isorder tht is cused by  defect in fibrillin,  glycoprotein tht forms  she
th round elstin.
1401230899568 1395802358422 Which connective tissue glycoprotein is defectiv
e in Mrfn Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrillin}}</div>
1401230921925 1395802358422 {{c1::Emphysem}} is  COPD tht cn be cused b
y n&nbsp;α₁-ntitrypsin deficiency. <br /><div><i>Deficiency of&nbsp
;α₁-ntitrypsin cuses n excess of Elstse deficiency nd too much br
ekdown of elstin.</i></div>
1401230986013 1395802358422 Which ntiprotese deficiency is ssocited with
cusing Emphysem?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::α₁-ntitrypsin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Leds to overctive Elstse.</i></div>
1401231780209 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymerse Chin Rection (PCR)}} is  mol
eculr biology lbortory procedure used to mplify  desired frgment of DNA.
<br /><div><i>Quite useful s  dignostic tool.</i></div><div><i><img src="pst

e-6266357285141.jpg" /></i></div>
1401232010170 1395802358422 {{c1::Southern Blot}} is  blotting procedure us
ed to identify DNA by cleving, electrophoresis, denturing nd renneling DNA
to rdiolbeled DNA probes with known sequences.
<br /><div><i>The result
nt dsDNA is lbeled nd visulized on  filter when exposed to film.</i></div>
1401232854224 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify DNA
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Southern Blot}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-6498285518984.jpg" /></div>
1401232872658 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify RNA
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Northern Blot}}</div>
1401232888355 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify pro
tein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Western blot}}</div>
1401232899598 1395802358422 {{c1::Northern Blot}} is  blotting procedure us
ed to identify RNA by clevge, electrophoresis, nd lbelling of RNA vi rdiol
beled RNA probes.
<br /><div><i>Similr procedure to Southern Blot except
with RNA.</i></div><div><i>Useful to mesure mRNA levels which re reflective of
gene expression.</i></div>
1401233036153 1395802358422 {{c1::Western Blot}} is  blotting procedure th
t is used to identify protein by electrophoresis nd lbelling of proteins with
ntibodies.
<br /><div><i>Used to confirm HIV fter  positive ELISA.</i></d
iv>
1401233124413 1395802358422 {{c1::Southwestern Blot}} is  blotting procedur
e used to indentify <b>DNA-binding proteins</b>&nbsp;by using lbeled oligonucle
otide probes. <br /><div><i>e.g. identifiction of trnscription fctors.</i><
/div>
1401233162723 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify DNA
-binding proteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Southwestern Blot}}</div>
1401233178499 1395802358422 {{c1::Microrry}} is  lbortory technique th
t involves thousnds of nucleic cid sequences rrnged in grids on glss or sil
icon. DNA/RNA probes subsequently hybridize to the chip, llowing the scnner to
detect the mount of complementry binding.
<br><div><i>Used to profile gene
expression levels of thousnds of genes simultneously to study certin disese
s nd Tx.</i></div><div><i>Cn detect nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) nd copy n
umber vrition (CNVs) for  vriety of pplictions such s genotyping, clinic
l genetic testing, forensic nlysis, cncer muttions nd genetic linkge nly
sis.</i></div>
1401233720061 1395802358422 {{c1::Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assy (ELISA)}
} is  lbortory technique used to detect the presence of either  specific nt
igen (direct) or specific ntibody (indirect) in  ptient's blood.
<br /><d
iv><i>Used widely to detect specific ntibodies (esp. nti-HIV).</i></div><div><
i>Specificity nd sensitivity both pproch 100%, but flse results still occur.
</i></div>
1401235652556 1395802358422 {{c1::Indirect ELISA}} is  type of ELISA tht <
b>uses  test ntigen</b>&nbsp;<b>to detect  specific ntibody</b>&nbsp;in  p
tient's blood. <br /><div><i>Secondry ntibody coupled to  colour-generting
enzyme is dded to detect the first ntibody.</i></div><div><i>If there is n in
tense colour rection, the test is positive.</i></div>
1401235750404 1395802358422 {{c1::Direct ELISA}} is  type of ELISA tht <b>
uses  test ntibody to detect  specific ntigen</b>&nbsp;in the ptient's bloo
d.
<br /><div><i>A secondry ntibody is coupled to  colour-generting enz
yme nd is dded to detect the ntigen.</i></div><div><i></i><i>If there is n i
ntense colour rection, the test is positive.</i></div>
1401236082830 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluorescence in situ hybridiztion}} is 
lbortory technique tht uses fluorescent DNA or RNA probes to bind to specific
gene sites of interest <u>on chromosomes</u>. <br /><div><i>Used to specificl
ly loclize genes nd directly visulize nomlies t the moleculr level, espec
illy when microdeletions re too smll to be visulized by kryotyping.</i></di
v>
1401236240324 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluorescence in situ hybridiztion}} is 
lbortory technique used to specificlly loclize genes nd directly visulize

nomlies t the moleculr level, especilly when microdeletions re too smll t
o be visulized by kryotyping. <br /><div><i>Fluorescence &nbsp;= gene is prese
nt. No fluorescence = gene is bsent nd hs been deleted.</i></div>
1401236286523 1395802358422 {{c1::Cloning}} is  lbortory technique tht p
roduces  recombinnt DNA molecule tht is self-perpetuting. <br /><div><img
src="pste-9281424326843.jpg" /></div>
1401236519866 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Cre-Lox System}} is  gene expres
sion modifiction tht cn inducibly mnipulte genes t specific developmentl
points. <br /><div><i>e.g. to study  gene whose deletion cuses embryonic deth
</i></div>
1401236661580 1395802358422 {{c1::RNA Interference (RNAi)}} is  gene expres
sion modifiction tht employs dsRNA molecules tht re injected into trget cel
ls, seprte nd promote the degrdtion of mRNA.
<br /><div><i>Thereby "k
nocking down" gene expression.</i></div>
1401236732256 1395802358422 {{c1::Kryotyping}} is  lbortory technique th
t obtins metphse chromosomes nd then stins, orders nd numbers them ccord
ing to morphology, size, rm-length rtio nd bnding pttern. <br /><div><i>C
n be performed on  smple of blood, bone mrrow, mniotic fluid, or plcentl t
issue.</i></div>
1401236822313 1395802358422 Which lbortory technique is used to dignose c
hromosoml imblnces?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Kryotyping}}</div>
1401305014970 1395802358422 {{c1::Codominnce}} is  genetic term defined s
both lleles contributing to the phenotype of  heterozygote. <br /><div><i>e.
g. AB blood group; lph-1-ntitrypsin deficiency</i></div>
1401305135635 1395802358422 {{c1::Vrible Expressivity}} is  genetic term
defined s phenotype vrition mong individuls with the sme genotype.
<br /><div><i>e.g. 2 ptients with NF1 my hve vrying disese severity</i></di
v>
1401305292576 1395802358422 {{c1::Incomplete Penetrnce}} is  genetic pheno
menon described s not ll individuls with  mutnt genotype hving  mutnt ph
enotype.
<br /><div><i>e.g. BRCA1 muttions do not lwys cuse brest/ov
rin cncer.</i></div>
1401305457826 1395802358422 {{c1::Pleiotropy}} is  genetic term tht descri
bes one gene contributing to multiple phenotypic effects.
<br /><div><i>e.
g. Untreted PKU mnifests s light skin tone, intellectul disbility nd must
body odor/urine.</i></div>
1401305530423 1395802358422 {{c1::Anticiption}} is  genetic term described
s n incresed severity or erlier onset of disese in succeeding genertions.
<br><div><i>e.g. Huntington's Disese (or other trinucleotide repet disorders)<
/i></div>
1401305623612 1395802358422 {{c1::Loss of Heterozygosity}} is  genetic phen
omenon tht occurs when  ptient inherits/develops  muttion in  tumour suppr
essor gene <b>nd</b>&nbsp;the complementry llele is deleted/mutted. <br /><d
iv><i>This loss of heterozygosity must occur before cncer develops.</i></div><d
iv><i>Also, <b>this does not pply to oncogenes</b>.</i></div><div><i>e.g. Retin
oblstom nd the "2 hit hypothesis"</i></div>
1401305725509 1395802358422 {{c1::Dominnt Negtive Muttion}} is  genetic
phenomenon tht involves  heterozygote producing  <u>nonfunctionl ltered pro
tein tht prevents the norml gene product from functioning</u>.
<br /><d
iv><i>e.g. Muttion of  trnscription fctor <u>t its llosteric site</u>; hen
ce, the nonfunctioning mutnt cn still bind DNA nd prevent the wild-type trns
cription fctor from binding</i></div>
1401305951154 1395802358422 {{c1::Linkge Disequilibrium}} is  genetic phen
omenon tht is described by the tendency for certin lleles t 2 linked loci to
occur together more often thn expected by chnce.
<br /><div><i>Mesured i
n popultions, not fmilies.</i></div><div><i>Vries mongst popultions.</i></d
iv>
1401306026318 1395802358422 {{c1::Mosicism}} is  genetic term defined s t
he presence of geneticlly distinct cell lines the <b>sme</b>&nbsp;individul d
ue to mitotic errors fter fertiliztion.
<br><div><i>McCune-Albright Synd

rome is lethl if the muttion is somtic, but survivble if mosic.</i></div>
1401306121127 1395802358422 {{c1::Somtic Mosicism}} is  type of genetic m
osicism where the muttion propgtes through multiple tissues or orgns.
1401306159940 1395802358422 {{c1::Gondl Mosicism}} is  type of genetic m
osicism where the muttion is only in egg or sperm cells.
1401306179125 1395802358422 {{c1::Locus Heterogeneity}} is  genetic phenome
non tht occurs when muttions t different loci cn produce  similr phenotype
.
<br /><div><i>e.g. lbinism</i></div>
1401306574918 1395802358422 {{c1::Allelic heterogeneity}} is  genetic pheno
menon where different muttions in the sme locus produce the sme phenotype.
<br /><div><i>e.g. bet-thlssemi</i></div>
1401306620685 1395802358422 {{c1::Heteroplsmy}} is  genetic term defined 
s the presence of both norml nd mutted mtDNA, thereby resulting in vrible e
xpression in mitochondril inherited disese.
1401306671117 1395802358422 {{c1::Uniprentl Disomy}} is  genetic phenomen
on tht involves offspring receiving 2 copies of  chromosome from 1 prents nd
no copies from the other prent.
<br /><div><i>The individul is euploid,
not neuploid.</i></div><div><i>Most UPD occurrences yield norml phenotypes.</
i></div><div><i>Alwys consider UPD in n individul mnifesting  recessive dis
order when only one prent is  crrier.</i></div>
1401307301450 1395802358422 {{c1::Heterodisomy}} is  type of Uniprentl Di
somy tht is cused by  meiosis I error.
1401307335934 1395802358422 {{c1::Isodisomy}} is  type of Uniprentl Disom
y cn be cused by  meiosis II error.
1401307393948 1395802358422 {{c1::Isodisomy}} is  type of Uniprentl Disom
y tht cn be cused by  postzygotic chromosoml dupliction of 1 or  pir of
chromosomes nd the loss of the originl pir.
1401307515398 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>freq
uency of homozygosity for llele p</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::p²
}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img src="pste-13645111099592.jpg" />
1401307915884 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>freq
uency of homozygosity for llele q</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::q²
}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-13640816132296.jpg" /></div>
1401307944084 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>freq
uency of heterozygosity</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2pq}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-13640816132296.jpg" /></div>
1401307999053 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>crr
ier frequency of n utosoml recessive disese</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
2pq}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>i.e. wht is the vlue for the frequency of
Heterozygous crriers</i><br /><div><img src="pste-13640816132296.jpg" /></div>
1401308029683 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg eqution?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::p²&nbsp;+ 2pq + q²&nbsp;= 1}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Also, p + q = 1</i><br /><div><img src="pste-13640816132296
.jpg" /><img src="pste-14508399526045.jpg" /></div>
1401308082709 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for <b>the freq
uency of n X-linked recessive disorder </b><u style="font-weight: bold; ">in m
les</u>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::q}}</div>
1401308223314 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>freq
uency of n X-linked recessive disorder </b><b style="text-decortion: underline
; ">in femles</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::q²}}</div>
1401308284814 1395802358422 {{c1::Imprinting}} is  genetic phenomenon descr
ibed by only one llele being ctive t  locus while the other is inctive due
to methyltion. <br /><div><i>With tht one llele inctivted, deletion/muttio
n of the ctive llele will cuse disese.</i></div>
1401309940398 1395802358422 Which chromosome is implicted in both Prder-Wi
lli nd Angelmn Syndromes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 15}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both re imprinting disorders.</i></div><div><i>Both cn lso be c
used by uniprentl disomy.</i></div>
1401310233410 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht cn result from deletion of the <b>pternl</b>&nbsp;gene s

the mternl gene is normlly silent. <br /><div><i><b>P</b>rder-Willi = <b>p
</b>ternl gene is deleted/mutted <u>or</u>&nbsp;mternl uniprentl disomy.<
/i></div>
1401310757919 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht cn result due to mternl uniprentl disomy.
<br /><d
iv><i>2 mternlly imprinted genes re received, hence there is no pternl gene
. This is synonymous to pternl gene deletion/muttion.</i></div>
1401310827381 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht results from pternl gene deletion nd presents with <b>hyp
erphgi</b>&nbsp;nd <b>obesity</b>.
1401310870123 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht results from pternl gene deletion nd presents with&nbsp;<
b>intellectul disbility</b>&nbsp;nd <b>hypotoni</b>.
1401310888407 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht results from pternl gene deletion nd presents with&nbsp;<
b>hypogondism</b>.
1401311316361 1395802358422 {{c1::Angelmn Syndrome}} is  genetic imprintin
g disorder tht cn result from deletion of the <b>mternl</b>&nbsp;gene s the
pternl gene is normlly silent.
<br /><div><i>Angel<b>M</b>n = <b>M</b>
ternl gene deletion/muttion <u>or</u>&nbsp;pternl uniprentl disomy</i></d
iv>
1401311367226 1395802358422 {{c1::Angelmn Syndrome}} is  genetic imprintin
g disorder tht cn result from pternl uniprentl disomy
<br /><div>2<i>&
nbsp;pternlly imprinted genes re inherited nd no mterl gene is received. T
his is synonymous with  mternl gene deletion.</i></div>
1401311434739 1395802358422 {{c1::Angelmn Syndrome}} is  genetic imprintin
g disorder cused by <b>mternl</b>&nbsp;gene deletion tht presents with <b>in
pproprite lughter ("hppy puppet")</b>.
1401311473899 1395802358422 {{c1::Angelmn Syndrome}} is  genetic imprintin
g disorder cused by&nbsp;<b>mternl</b>&nbsp;gene deletion tht presents with&
nbsp;<b>seizures, txi </b>nd <b>severe intellectul disbility</b>.
1401311491675 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence often involves
defects in structurl genes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><img src="pste-16664473108669.jpg" /></div>
1401312280600 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence ffects mny g
enertions nd both mles nd femles somewht eqully?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16660178141373.jpg" /
></div>
1401312311299 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is often ssoc
ited with pleiotropic disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}
}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16660178141373.jpg" /></div>
1401312346790 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is often ssoc
ited with enzyme deficiencies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}
</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16849156702401.jpg" /></div>
1401312388196 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is usully see
n in only 1 genertion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Typiclly more severe thn dominnt disorders.</i><br /><div
><img src="pste-16844861735105.jpg" /></div>
1401312665793 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is often ssoc
ited with disorders tht present in childhood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autos
oml Recessive}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16844861735105.jpg" /></div>
1401312695125 1395802358422 How does the risk of Autosoml Recessive disorde
rs chnge in cosnguineous fmilies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div
>
1401312718534 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is commonly s
socited with disorders more severe in mles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linke
d recessive}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Femles must be homozygous to be ff
ected.</i><div><i>Sons of heterozygous mothers (crriers) hve  50% chnce of b
eing ffected.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-17437567221940.jpg" /></div></div>
1401313949767 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence will never occ

ur from fther to son?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive or Dominnt
(i.e. ny X-linked trnsmission)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>And mitochon
dril s well.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-17433272254644.jpg" /></div>
1401314206993 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hypophosphte
mic Rickets?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Dominnt}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-18627273162934.jpg" /></div>
1401314526121 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypophosphtemic Rickets}} is n X-linked
dominnt disorder tht results in incresed phosphte wsting t the proximl tu
bule. <br /><div><i>Yields  rickets-like presenttion.</i></div>
1401314561716 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypophosphtemic Rickets}} is n X-linked
dominnt disorder tht ws formerly known s Vitmin D-Resistnt Rickets.
<br /><div><i><br /></i></div>
1401314610940 1395802358422 Wht type of genetic inheritnce is trnsmitted
<b>exclusively</b>&nbsp;through the mother?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochond
ril Inheritnce}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>All offspring of ffected fe
mles re likely to show disese.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-18713172508868.j
pg" /></div>
1401314742506 1395802358422 Wht mode of genetic inheritence is ssocited w
ith disorders tht show vrible expression in  popultion/fmily due to hetero
plsmy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondril Inheritnce}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-18708877541572.jpg" /></div>
1401314812810 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitochondril Myopthies}} re  group of
rre myopthies tht often show <b>"rgged red fibers"</b>&nbsp;on  muscle biop
sy.<br />
<br /><div><i>Also present with myopthy, lctic cidosis nd CN
S disese.</i></div><div><i>Secondry to  filure in oxidtive phosphoryltion<
/i></div>
1401314957055 1395802358422 {{c1::Autosoml Dominnt Polycystic Kidney Dise
se (ADPKD)}} is n utosoml dominnt renl disorder tht involves <b>bilterl<
/b>, mssive enlrgement of the kidneys due to <b>multiple lrge cysts</b>.
1401318249013 1395802358422 Wht is the most common gene mutted in Autosom
l Dominnt Polycystic Kidney Disese (ADPKD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>PKD1
</i>&nbsp;on Chromosome 16 (85% of cses)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Chromosome
<b>16</b>; <b>16</b>&nbsp;letters&nbsp;</i></div>
1401318544275 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>second</b>&nbsp;most common gene
mutted in&nbsp;Autosoml Dominnt Polycystic Kidney Disese (ADPKD)?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>PKD2</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 4}}</div>
<div><i><br /></
i></div>
1401318732326 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Adenomtous Polyposis (FAP)}} is
n utosoml dominnt GI disorder tht involves numerous denomtous polyps fte
r puberty.
<br /><div><i>Progresses to colon cncer if the colon is not rem
oved.</i></div>
1401319063590 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in&nbsp;Fmilil Adenomtou
s Polyposis (FAP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>APC</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 5}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>"People use <b>A PC</b> to <b>FAP</b>."</i></div><div><i>C
hromosome 5; 5 letters in polyp.</i></div>
1401319113672 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi}} is n uto
soml dominnt crdiovsculr disorder tht involves n <b>elevted LDL</b>&nbsp
;due to defective or bsent LDL receptors.
<br /><div><i>Cuses severe the
rosclerotic disese erly in life nd <b>tendon xnthoms</b>&nbsp;(esp t the A
chilles tendon).</i></div>
1401319221991 1395802358422 {{c1::Hereditry Hemorrhgic Telngiectsi}} is
n utosoml dominnt vsculr disorder tht is lso known s Osler-Weber-Rendu
Syndrome.
<br /><div><i>Involves telngiectsi, recurrent epistxis, skin
discolourtion, rteriovenous mlformtions, GI bleeding nd hemturi.</i></di
v>
1401319326505 1395802358422 {{c1::Hereditry Spherocytosis}} is n utosoml
dominnt hemtologicl disorder tht involves <b>spheroid erythrocytes</b>&nbsp
;due to  <b>spectrin </b>or<b> nkyrin defect</b>.
<br><div><i>Cuses hemol
ytic nemi, increses MCHC.</i></div>
1401319402488 1395802358422 How does MCHC chnge in Hereditry Spherocytosis

?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
1401319417415 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Hereditry Spherocytos
is??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Splenectomy}}</div>
1401319441109 1395802358422 {{c1::Huntington Disese}} is n utosoml domin
nt neurologicl disorder tht presents with <b>progressive dementi</b>, <b>cho
reiform movement</b>, nd&nbsp;<b>cudte trophy.</b> <br /><div><i>Also invol
ves decresed levels of GABA nd ACh in the brin.</i></div>
1401320017517 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the gene implicted in Hu
ntington Disese found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 4}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i><b>Hunting 4</b>&nbsp;food (chromosome 4)</i></div>
1401320040652 1395802358422 Which trinucleotide repet is involved in Huntin
gton Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The higher
the number of repets, the erlier the ge of onset.</i></div>
1401320376203 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is n utosoml dominnt
connective tissue disorder tht involves  Fibrillin-1 gene muttion. <br /><d
iv><i>Presents with long extremities, pectus excvtum, hypermobile joints, rc
hnodctyly, floppy mitrl vlve nd lens subluxtion.</i></div>
1401320431100 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in Mrfn Syndrome?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Fibrillin-1}}</div>
1401320441186 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is n utosoml dominnt
connective tissue disorder tht involves cystic medil necrosis of the ort, t
hereby leding to ortic incompetence nd ortic dissection.
1401320496509 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is n utosoml dominnt
connective tissue disorder tht involves subluxtion of the lenses, typiclly u
pwrd nd temporlly. <br /><div><i>Lens subluxtion is lso  key feture of
Homocystinuri, so keep tht shiet in mind, brh</i></div>
1401320603432 1395802358422 {{c1::Multiple Endocrine Neoplsi (MEN)}} is n
utosoml dominnt endocrine disorder tht involves fmilil tumours of endocri
ne glnds.
1401320650191 1395802358422 Which gene is ssocited with Multiple Endocrine
Neoplsi (MEN) 2A nd 2B?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>ret</i>}}</div>
1401320679948 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurofibromtosis Type 1 (NFT1)}} is n u
tsoml dominnt neurocutneous disorder chrcterized by cfe-u-lit spots nd
cutneous neurofibroms.
<br /><div><i>100% penetrnce</i></div>
1401320751795 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurofibromtosis Type 1 (NFT1)}} is n u
tosoml dominnt neurocutneous disorder tht is lso known s von Recklinhusen
disese.
1401320784152 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in&nbsp;Neurofibromtosis T
ype 1 (NFT1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>NF1</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 17}}</div
>
1401320821406 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>NF1</i>&nbsp;gene
found on?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::17}}</div> <br /><div><i>17 letters in von
Recklinghusen [Neurofibromtosis Type 1 (NFT1)]</i></div>
1401320856177 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurofibromtosis Type 2 (NFT2)}} is n u
tosoml dominnt neurologicl tumour disorder tht presents with <b>bilterl c
oustic schwnnoms</b>, juvenile ctrcts, meningioms nd ependymoms.
1401320914908 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in&nbsp;Neurofibromtosis T
ype 2 (NFT2)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>NF2</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 22}}</div
>
1401320929038 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>NF2</i>&nbsp;gene
found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 22}}</div>
1401320945013 1395802358422 {{c1::Tuberous Sclerosis}} is n utosoml domin
nt neurocutneous disorder tht presents with numerous benign hmrtoms with m
ulti-orgn system involvement.
1401321000685 1395802358422 {{c1::von Hippel-Lindu Disese}} is n utosom
l dominnt tumour disorder tht is chrcterized by the development of numerous
tumours s  result of deletion of the <i>VHL</i>&nbsp;tumour suppressor gene.
1401321052248 1395802358422 Which gene is deleted/mutted in von Hippel-Lind
u Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>VHL</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 3p; tumour
suppressor}}</div>

1401321103249 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>VHL</i>&nbsp;tumou
r suppressor gene found (von Hippel-Lindu Disese)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
3}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Chromosome 3; 3 words in VHL</i></div>
1401321188984 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Autosoml Dom
innt Polycystic Kidney Disese (ADPKD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Do
minnt}}</div> <br /><div><i>Just checking if you're still wke.</i></div>
1401321193442 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fmilil Aden
omtous Polyposis (FAP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</div>
1401321205737 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fmilil Hype
rcholesterolemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321222117 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hereditry He
morrhgic Telngiectsi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321237565 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hereditry Sp
herocytosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321245254 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Huntington Di
sese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321252099 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Mrfn Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321257717 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Multiple Endo
crine Neoplsi (MEN)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321266037 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Neurofibromt
osis Type 1 (NFT1; von Recklinghusen Disese)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}<
/div>
1401321292854 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Neurofibromt
osis Type 2 (NFT2)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321306910 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Tuberous Scle
rosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321314551 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of von Hippel-Li
ndu Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321323852 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Albinism?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321462608 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Autosoml Rec
essive Polycystic Kidney Disese (ARPKD; Infntile PKD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::AR}}</div> <br /><div><i>I men, if you're getting these kind of crds wron
g...</i></div>
1401321505781 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Cystic Fibros
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321511643 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hemochromtos
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321519029 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Krtgener Sy
ndrome (Primry Ciliry Dyskinesi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321547131 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Phenylketonur
i (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321581789 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Sickle Cell A
nemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321590038 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Wilson Dises
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321597841 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Thlssemis?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321796775 1395802358422 Wht gene is defective in Cystic Fibrosis?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>CFTR</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 7}}</div>
1401321845201 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>CFTR</i>&nbsp;gene
found (Cystic Fibrosis)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 7}}</div>
1401321860737 1395802358422 Wht muttion is commonly seen in the <i>CFTR</i
>&nbsp;gene in Cystic Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phe508 deletion; <i>C
FTR </i>gene; chromosome 7}}</div>
1401321903496 1395802358422 Wht is the most lethl genetic disese in the c
ucsin popultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cystic Fibrosis}}</div>
1401321931814 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b>&nbsp;of ion chnnel is normlly
encoded by the <i>CFTR</i>&nbsp;gene (Cystic Fibrosis)?<div><br /></div><div>{{

c1::ATP-gted Cl- chnnel}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The CFTR (Cystic Fibrosis
Trnsmembrne Conductnce Regultor) Cl chnnel <b>secretes </b>Cl into&nbsp;the
lungs nd GI trct nd <b>rebsorbs</b>&nbsp;Cl in swet glnds.</i></div><div>
<i><div></div></i><i>When it is mutted it is not trnsported to the membrne, r
esulting in decresed Cl secretion in the GI nd respirtory trcts nd decrese
d Cl rebsorption t swet glnds.</i></div><div><i>Incresed intrcellulr Cl t
riggers compenstory N rebsorption which then cuses incresed H2O rebsorptio
n, thereby cusing&nbsp;<b>thick mucus secretion into the lungs nd GI trct</b>
.</i></div><div><i>There is lso subsequently  more negtive trnsepithelil po
tentil difference.</i></div>
1401323194603 1395802358422 Where in the cell is misfolded CFTR (Cystic Fibr
osis Trnsmembrne Conductnce Regultor) retined?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::R
ough ER}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence it is not trnsported to the membrne, resul
ting in decresed Cl secretion in the GI nd respirtory trcts nd decresed Cl
rebsorption t swet glnds.</i></div><div><i>Incresed intrcellulr Cl trigg
ers compenstory N rebsorption which then cuses incresed H2O rebsorption, t
hereby cusing <b>thick mucus secretion into the lungs nd GI trct</b>.</i></di
v><div><i>There is lso subsequently  more negtive trnsepithelil potentil d
ifference.</i></div>
1401323478191 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystic Fibrosis}} is n utosoml recessiv
e genetic disorder tht is dignosed by <b>incresed [Cl^-] (&gt; 60 m
Eq/L) in swet</b>.
1401323556626 1395802358422 {{c2::Alklosis}} nd {{c1::Hypoklemi}} re po
ssible complictions of Cystic Fibrosis due to the loss of H₂O nd N
from the extrcellulr fluid nd resultnt K⁺&nbsp;nd H⁺
&nbsp;wsting. <br /><div><i>The loss of H2O nd N from the ECF is nlogous t
o the ptient tking  loop diuretic.</i></div>
1401323651080 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>}} is  grmnegtive bcteri tht commonly cuses recurrent pulmonry infections in ptient
s with Cystic Fibrosis.
1401323873866 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchiectsis}} is  pulmonry complicti
on of Cystic Fibrosis tht presents with  <b>reticulonodulr pttern </b>on CXR
.
1401323972934 1395802358422 {{c1::Pncretic Insufficiency}} is n endocrine
compliction of Cystic Fibrosis due to decresed dringe of pncretic secreti
ons nd subsequent chronic pncretitis.
<br /><div><i>This brings bout
further complictions such s mlbsorption, stetorrhe, nd Vit A, D, E &mp;
K deficiencies</i></div>
1401324204908 1395802358422 {{c1::Meconium ileus}} is  GI compliction of C
ystic Fibrosis commonly seen in newborns.
1401324263674 1395802358422 {{c1::Infertility}} is  compliction of Cystic
Fibrosis seen in mles due to the bsence of the vs deferens nd sperm.
1401324301134 1395802358422 Which vitmin deficiencies re commonly seen in
Cystic Fibrosis ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A, D, E, K; i.e. th
e ft soluble vitmins}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, there is pncretic insu
fficiency nd mlbsorption.</i></div>
1401324348713 1395802358422 {{c1::N-cetylcysteine}} is  mucolytic gent us
ed to tret the mucous plugs seen in Cystic Fibrosis by cleving disulfide bonds
within mucous glycoproteins.
1401324408282 1395802358422 Which mucolytic gent is used to tret the mucou
s plugs seen in Cystic Fibrosis by cleving the disulfide bonds within mucous gl
ycoproteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N-cetylcysteine}}</div>
1401324444771 1395802358422 {{c1::Dornse Alf}} is  recombinnt humn DNAs
e used to tret Cystic Fibrosis s it clers the leukocytic debris in thick muco
us secretions.
1401324499032 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of N-cetylcysteine in the tret
ment of Cystic Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clevge of the disulfide bo
nds in mucous glycoproteins, thereby clering mucous plugs}}</div>
1401324534107 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Dornse Alf in the tretment
of Cystic Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clering of Leukocytic debris vi

 DNAse ction}}</div>
1401329999520 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Bruton Agmm
globulinemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330068064 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Wiskott-Aldri
ch Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330086165 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fbry Disese
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330093193 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of G6PD Deficien
cy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330107840 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Oculr Albini
sm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330115977 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Lesch-Nyhn S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330124484 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Duchenne's Mu
sculr Dystrophy (DMD)?<div><br />{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330138385 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Becker Muscul
r Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330146297 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hunter Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330160575 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hemophili A?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330169018 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hemophili B?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330174521 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Ornithine Tr
nscrbmylse Deficiency (OTCD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330197163 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b>&nbsp;of muttion is seen in Duc
henne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frmeshift muttion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Cuses  truncted Dystrophin protein nd ccelerted muscle brek
down</i></div>
1401331110594 1395802358422 Wht gene undergoes  frmeshift muttion in Duc
henne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophin; muttion trunc
tes the proteins; results in ccelerted muscle brekdown}}</div>
1401331142047 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudohypertrophy}} is  feture of Duchen
ne Musculr Dystrophy tht typiclly presents t the clf muscles due to <b>fibr
oftty replcement of muscle</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-304298432
92370.jpg" /></div>
<div><br /></div>
1401331453911 1395802358422 Where in the body does muscle wekness first pp
er in Duchenne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic Girdle}}</
div>
1401331482248 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Gower mneuver}} is  feture of
Duchenne Musculr Dystrophy tht involves ptients using their upper extremities
to help them stnd up. <br><div><i>These ptients re typiclly young (&lt; 5 y
/o) nd mle (X-linked recessive).</i></div>
1401331561774 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth in Duchen
ne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dilted Crdiomyopthy}}</div>
1401331658845 1395802358422 Which humn gene hs the longest coding region?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophin (<i>DMD</i>)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Fo
r this reson there is n incresed risk of spontneous muttion</i></div>
1401331700101 1395802358422 {{c1::Dystrophin}} is  structurl protein found
in muscle tht functions to connect the intrcellulr cytoskeleton to the trns
membrne proteins lph- nd bet-dystroglycn, which subsequently re ttched
to the ECM.
<br /><div><i>Hence, the loss of dystrophin in Duchenne Musculr
Dystrophy results in myonecrosis</i></div>
1401331809518 1395802358422 Which trnsmembrne proteins does Dystrophin bin
d to in muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alph- nd Bet-Dystroglycn}}</div>
1401331833982 1395802358422 How do CK-MM (Cretine Kinse) levels chnge in
Duchenne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401331928387 1395802358422 How do Aldolse levels chnge in Duchenne Muscul
r Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401331949289 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to dignose Duc

henne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Western Blot}}</div>
1401332007700 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b>&nbsp;of muttion is seen in Bec
ker Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Point muttion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both DMD nd BMD re X-linked Recessive.</i></div><div><i>DMD hs
 frmeshift muttion.</i></div>
1401332135129 1395802358422 Which gene is mutted in Becker Musculr Dystrop
hy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophin}}</div>
<div><i><br /></i></div>
<div><i>DMD = <b>frmeshift</b>&nbsp;muttion in Dystrophin cusing deletion of
the protein</i></div><div><i><!--nki--></i><i>BMD =&nbsp;<b>point</b>&nbsp;mut
tion in Dystrophin, hence less severe</i></div><div><i>Both BMD nd DMD = X-link
ed recessive</i></div>
1401332584029 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of Duchenne Musculr
Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~20 y/o}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence, re
d the dmn vignette properly. If the ptient is 30+ y/o, DMD is unlikely.</i></d
iv>
1401332759049 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of Becker Musculr D
ystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Well into dulthood}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i><br /></i></div>
1401332843193 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Myotonic Mu
sculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CTG; in the <i>DMPK</i>&nbsp
;gene}}</div>
1401332880553 1395802358422 Which gene is ffected by CTG trinucleotide repe
ts in Myotonic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>DMPK</i
>&nbsp;gene; cuses bnorml expression of Myotonin Protein Kinse nd subsequen
t pthology}}</div>
1401333004894 1395802358422 {{c1::Myotonic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1}} is 
musculr dystrophy cused by CTG trinucleotide repets in the <i>DMPK </i>gene,
thereby cusing bnorml expression of myotonin protein kinse. <br /><div><i>Ab
norml myotonin protein kinse deficiency cues myotoni, muscle wsting, front
l blding, ctrcts, testiculr trophy nd rrhythmi.</i></div>
1401333127454 1395802358422 Which enzyme is ffected in Myotonic Musculr Dy
strophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myotonin Protein Kinse}}</div>
1401333348144 1395802358422 Wht crdic complictions re seen in&nbsp;Myot
onic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arrhythmi}}</div>
1401333408045 1395802358422 Wht gondl complictions re seen in&nbsp;Myot
onic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Testiculr trophy}}<
/div>
1401333439541 1395802358422 Wht oculr complictions re seen in&nbsp;Myoto
nic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ctrcts}}</div>
1401333454369 1395802358422 Wht gene is ffected in Frgile X Syndrome?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>FMR1</i>}}</div>
1401333843231 1395802358422 {{c1::Frgile X Syndrome}} is n X-linked disord
er ffecting the methyltion nd expression of the <i>FMR1</i>&nbsp;gene.
1401333863062 1395802358422 Wht is the 2nd most common cuse of genetic int
ellectul disbility?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frgile X Syndrome}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Down Syndrome is #1.</i></div>
1401333956775 1395802358422 {{c1::Mcroorchidism}} is  gondl compliction
of Frgile X syndrome typiclly seen in mles fter puberty. <br /><div><i>i.
e. big blls</i></div>
1401334222388 1395802358422 Wht crdic vlvulr disorder is seen in Frgil
e X syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitrl Vlve Prolpse}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>For the NBA fns:</i><div><i><br /></i><div><img src="pste-34063385
625082.jpg" /></div></div>
1401334353239 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Frgile X S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CGG}}</div>
1401334387032 1395802358422 {{c1::Frgile X Syndrome}} is n X-linked trinuc
leotide repet disorder ffecting the <i>FMR1</i>&nbsp;gene tht presents with 
<b>long fce, lrge jw</b>&nbsp;nd <b>lrge everted ers</b>.
1401334514040 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Friedrich A
txi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GAA}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-34329

673597094.jpg" /></div>
1401334592021 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Frgile X S
yndrome??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CGG}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img sr
c="pste-34333968564390.jpg" />
1401334633017 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Huntinton D
isese??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-34329
673597094.jpg" /></div>
1401334645439 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Myotonic Dy
strophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CTG}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-34329
673597094.jpg" /></div>
1401334663114 1395802358422 Wht is the most common etiology of Down Syndrom
e (Trisomy 21)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Meiotic Nondisjunction of homologous
chromosomes}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Associted with incresed mternl ge</i>
</div><div><i><img src="pste-35360465748483.jpg" /></i></div>
1401335194239 1395802358422 How does incresed mternl ge influence the ri
sk of hving  child with Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed; e
specilly through meiotic nondisjunction of homologous chromosomes}}</div>
<br /><div><i>1:1500 in mothers &lt; 20</i></div><div><i>1:25 in mothers &gt; 45
</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-35356170781187.jpg" /></i></div>
1401335311099 1395802358422 Wht is the 2nd most common etiology of Down Syn
drome (Trisomy 21)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Robertsonin trnsloction}}</div
>
1401335359271 1395802358422 Wht is the most common vible chromosoml disor
der?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1401335425518 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of genetic intelle
ctul disbility?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1401335437238 1395802358422 {{c1::Down Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy di
sorder tht is ssocited with <b>incresed nuchl trnslucency</b>&nbsp;nd  <
b>hypoplstic nsl bone</b>&nbsp;in  first trimester ultrsound.
1401335791564 1395802358422 How do serum PAPP-A (Pregnncy-ssocited plsm
protein A) levels chnge in the first trimester of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401336066058 1395802358422 How do free bet-hCG levels chnge in the first
trimester of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401336087973 1395802358422 How do lph-fetoprotein levels chnge in the se
cond trimester qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese
}}</div>
1401336228278 1395802358422 How do bet-hCG levels chnge in the second trim
ester qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401336349343 1395802358422 How do estriol levels chnge in the second trime
ster qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401336369013 1395802358422 How do Inhibin A levels chnge in the second tri
mester qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401336437343 1395802358422 {{c1::Down Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy di
sorder tht is ssocited with <b>flt fcies</b>, <b>prominent epicnthl folds
</b>, <b>single plmr crese</b>&nbsp;nd  <b>gp between the 1st 2 toes</b>.
1401336689876 1395802358422 {{c1::Down Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy di
sorder tht is ssocited with <b>duodenl tresi</b>&nbsp;nd <b>Hirschprung d
isese</b>.
1401336706094 1395802358422 {{c1::Down Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy di
sorder tht is ssocited with ostium primum-type tril septl defects.
1401336751869 1395802358422 Wht type of septl defect is ssocited with Do
wn Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ostium primum-type tril septl defect}
}</div>
1401336784440 1395802358422 {{c1::Brushfield Spots}} re  morphologicl fe
ture of Down Syndrome described s smll white or gryish/brown spots on the per
iphery of the iris.
1401381184439 1395802358422 How does the risk of Acute Lymphocytic Leukemi
(ALL) chnge in Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401381222405 1395802358422 How does the risk of Acute Myeloblstic Leukemi

(AML) chnge in Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401381241911 1395802358422 How does the risk of Alzheimer Disese chnge in
Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>So
me Down Syndrome ptients hve AD by 40 y/o.</i></div><div><i>Risk significntly
increses &gt; 35 y/o.</i></div>
1401381279814 1395802358422 Which chromosoml trisomy is seen in Down Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 21}}</div>
1401381329907 1395802358422 Wht is the most common utosoml trisomy?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome; 1:700}}</div>
1401381348391 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml trisomy is found in Edwrds Syn
drome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 18}}</div>
1401381371613 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of someone with Edw
rds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 1 y/o}}</div>
1401382414957 1395802358422 {{c1::Edwrds Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy
tht is ssocited with rocker-bottom feet&nbsp;nd <b>micrognthi</b>.
<br /><div><i>Micrognthi = smll jw</i></div>
1401382452160 1395802358422 {{c1::Edwrds Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy
tht is ssocited with <b>low-set ers</b>&nbsp;nd <b>clenched hnds</b>.
1401382477941 1395802358422 {{c1::Edwrds Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy
ssocited with  <b>prominent occiput</b>.
1401382602910 1395802358422 How do PAPP-A (Pregnncy ssocited plsm prote
in A) levels chnge in the first trimester in Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401382655003 1395802358422 How do bet-hCG levels chnge in the first trime
ster in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}
}</div>
1401382667029 1395802358422 How do lph-fetoprotein levels chnge in the qu
d screen in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decr
ese}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Everything is decresed in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (
Trisomy 18)</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>"All these hoes re going d
own on Edwrd."</i></div>
1401382696928 1395802358422 How do bet-hCG levels chnge in the qud screen
in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Everything is decresed in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy
18)</i></div>
1401382720973 1395802358422 How do estriol levels chnge in the qud screen
in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>Everything decreses in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)
</i></div>
1401383374670 1395802358422 How do Inhibin A levels chnge in the qud scree
n in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese (or
norml)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Everything decreses in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndr
ome (Trisomy 18)</i></div>
1401383405923 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml trisomy is seen in Ptu Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 13}}</div>
1401383464593 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)}} is n utoso
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with rocker-bottom feet nd <b>microphthlmi</b>
.
1401384404467 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)}} is n utoso
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with <b>microcephly</b>&nbsp;nd <b>holoprosence
phly</b>.
1401384439188 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)}} is n utoso
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with <b>cleft lip</b>&nbsp;nd <b>cleft plte</b
>.
1401384458897 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)}} is n utoso
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with <b>polydctyly</b>.
1401384507165 1395802358422 How do free bet-hCG levels chnge in the first
trimester in&nbsp;Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
1401384543445 1395802358422 How do PAPP-A (pregnncy ssocited plsm prote

in A) levels chnge in the first trimester in&nbsp;Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401384569961 1395802358422 How does nuchl trnslucency chnge in the first
trimester in&nbsp;Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
se}}</div>
1401384602177 1395802358422 {{c1::Robertsonin Trnsloction}} is  chromoso
ml trnsloction tht tht involves the fusion of the long rms of 2 crocentri
c chromosomes t the centromere nd the loss of the 2 short rms.<div><br /></di
v><div><img src="pste-3354369458776.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Nonrecipro
cl trnsloction</i></div><div><i>Cn be blnced or unblnced</i></div><div><
i>One of the most common</i></div>
1401384991580 1395802358422 Which chromosoml pirs re commonly involved in
Robertsonin Trnsloctions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::13; 14; 15; 21; 22}}</d
iv>
1401385053793 1395802358422 {{c1::Cri-du-cht Syndrome}} is n utosoml chr
omosome disorder cused by  <b>congenitl microdeletion of the short rm of chr
omosome 5</b>. <br /><div><i>i.e. 46,XX,5p- or 46,XY,5p-</i></div>
1401385548158 1395802358422 {{c1::Cri-du-cht Syndrome}} is  congenitl chr
omosoml microdeletion tht involves <b>high-pitched crying/mewing</b>.
1401385598203 1395802358422 Wht type of crdic septl defect is seen in Cr
i-du-cht Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ventriculr Septl Defect (VSD)}}
</div>
1401385626537 1395802358422 Which chromosome undergoes  microdeletion in Cr
i-du-cht Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 5}}</div>
1401386676276 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is n utosoml chromo
some disorder tht involves  congenitl microdeletion of the long rm of chromo
some 7, including the elstin gene.
1401386974825 1395802358422 Which chromosome undergoes  microdeletion in Wi
llims Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 7; including the elstin
gene}}</div>
1401386993470 1395802358422 Which importnt gene on Chromosome 7 is deleted
in Willims Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elstin}}</div>
1401387024811 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is  congenitl chromo
soml microdeletion disorder tht is ssocited with distinctive <b>"elfin"</b>&
nbsp;fcies.
1401387067281 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is  congenitl chromo
soml microdeletion disorder tht is ssocited with <b>well-developed verbl sk
ills</b>&nbsp;nd <b>extreme friendliness with strngers</b>.
1401387085772 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is  congenitl chromo
soml microdeletion disorder tht is ssocited with <b>hyperclcemi</b>&nbsp;t
ht hs n <b>incresed sensitivity&nbsp;to vitmin D.</b>
1401387108466 1395802358422 {{c1::DiGeorge Syndrome}} is  22q11 deletion sy
ndrome tht presents with <b>thymic plsi</b>, <b>prthyroid plsi</b>&nbsp
;nd <b>crdic defects</b>.
<br /><div><img src="pste-5158255722652.jpg" />
</div>
1401387565210 1395802358422 {{c1::Velocrdiofcil Syndrome}} is  22q11 del
etion syndrome tht presents with <b>cleft plte</b>, <b>bnorml fcies</b>&nb
sp;nd <b>crdic defects</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-5153960755356.jpg" />
</div>
1401387638673 1395802358422 {{c1::22q11 deletion syndromes}} re  group of
chromosoml deletion syndromes tht yield  specific series of complictions due
to  microdeletion t chromosome 22q11.
<br /><div><img src="pste-51539
60755356.jpg" /></div>
1401387692793 1395802358422 Which brnchil pouches re ffected in 22q11 de
letion syndromes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd; 4th}}</div>
1401387724107 1395802358422 {{c1::T-cell Deficiency}} is n immunologicl co
mpliction of 22q11 deletion syndromes due to the thymic plsi seen.
1401387754048 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoclcemi}} is  serum electrolyte comp
liction of 22q11 deletion syndromes tht rises s  result of prthyroid pl
si.
<br /><div><i>Remember, PTH increses serum [C]; Clcitonin decreses s

erum [C]</i></div>
1401387927154 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml deletion is seen in DiGeorge Sy
ndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::22q11}}</div>
1401387958636 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml deletion is seen in Velocrdiof
cil Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::22q11}}</div>
1401389801179 1395802358422 Wht re the ft soluble vitmins?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Vitmin A, D, E, nd K}}</div>
<div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>
All others re wter soluble.</i></div><div><i>Absorption is therefore dependent
on the gut nd pncres.</i></div><div><i>Mlbsorption syndromes often cuse f
t-soluble vitmin deficiency.</i></div>
1401390200622 1395802358422 Vitmins with which type of solubility hve more
common toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ft soluble due to ccumultion in
body ft stores}}</div>
1401390337900 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Thimine (TPP)?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::B1}}</div>
1401391000309 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Riboflvin (FAD; FMN)?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::B2}}</div>
1401391011894 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Nicin (NAD+)?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::B3}}</div>
1401391026121 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Pnthothenic Acid (CoA)?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::B5}}</div>
1401391213415 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Pyridoxine (PLP)?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::B6}}</div>
1401391224209 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Biotin?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::B7}}</div>
1401391229424 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Folte?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::B9}}</div>
1401391234182 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Coblmin<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::B12}}</div>
1401391243366 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is Ascorbic Acid?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Vitmin C}}</div>
1401391279216 1395802358422 Which B-vitmin is the only one tht does not w
sh out esily from the body?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12; Coblmin}}
</div> <br /><div><i>It is stored in the liver</i></div>
1401391313688 1395802358422 Wht trid of symptoms is commonly seen in Vitm
in B-complex deficiencies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dirrhe; Dermtitis; Glos
sitis}}</div>
1401391481670 1395802358422 {{c1::Dirrhe}},&nbsp;{{c2::dermtitis}}, nd&n
bsp;{{c3::glossitis}} is  trid of symptoms commonly seen in Vitmin B-complex
deficiencies
<br><i>Enteritis is lso common</i>
1401391504040 1395802358422 Which vitmin is  constituent of visul pigment
s (Retinl)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A (Retinol)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i><b>Retin</b>ol = Vitmin <b>A</b>; <b>Retin-A</b>; <b>Retin</b>l</i></div
>
1401391975504 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is essentil for norm
l differentition of epithelil cells into specilized tissue?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Vitmin A (Retinol)}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.g. pncretic cells; muc
ous-secreting cells</i></div>
1401392014083 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is known to prevent sq
umous metplsi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1401392329929 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is used s  tretment
for <b>Mesles</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1401392348131 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is used s  tretment
for <b>AML-M3</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1401392359900 1395802358422 {{c1::Nyctlopi}} is  visul deficit seen in V
itmin A deficiency nd is described s night blindness.
1401392580790 1395802358422 {{c1::Xerosis cutis}} is  cutneous complictio
n of vitmin A deficiency nd is described s dry, scly skin.
1401392605760 1395802358422 {{c1::Alopeci}} is  cutneous compliction of
vitmin A deficiency nd involves loss of hir.

1401392628425 1395802358422 {{c1::Kertomlci}} is n oculr compliction
of vitmin A deficiency nd is described s cornel degenertion.
1401392649118 1395802358422 How does vitmin A deficiency ffect the immune
system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cuses immunosuppression}}</div>
1401392671875 1395802358422 Wht cutneous chnges re seen when there is n
excess of Vitmin A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Scliness; lopeci}}</div>
1401394260873 1395802358422 Wht bone complictions re seen when there is 
n excess of Vitmin A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoporosis}}</div>
1401394277936 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is highly tertogenic
when it is in excess?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence,  negtive pregnncy test <b>nd</b>&nbsp;relible contrception is
required before  ptient cn be prescribed isoretinoin for severe cne.</i></d
iv>
1401394720445 1395802358422 Wht tertogenic effects re yielded by vitmin
A (Retinol) when it is in excess mounts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cleft plt
e; crdic bnormlities}}</div>
1401394756002 1395802358422 {{c1::Thimine Pyrophosphte (TPP)}} is the enzy
me cofctor form of Vitmin B1 (Thimine).
1401394831658 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte dehydrogense}} is  metbolic en
zyme tht links glycolysis to the TCA cycle nd requires Vitmin B1 (Thimine) 
s  cofctor. <br /><div><img src="pste-9925669421121.jpg" /></div>
1401394880917 1395802358422 {{c1::Alph-ketoglutrte dehydrogense}} is n
enzyme involved in the TCA cycle tht requires&nbsp;Vitmin B1 (Thimine) s  c
ofctor.
<div><br /></div><img src="pste-9925669421121.jpg" />
1401394914859 1395802358422 {{c1::Trnsketolse}} is n enzyme involved in t
he HMP shunt tht requires&nbsp;Vitmin B1 (Thimine) s  cofctor.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-9929964388417.jpg" /></div>
1401394997033 1395802358422 {{c1::Brnched-chin ketocid dehydrogense}} is
n enzyme involved in brnched chin mino cid metbolism tht requires&nbsp;V
itmin B1 (Thimine) s  cofctor.
1401395083455 1395802358422 How does Vitmin B1 (Thimine) deficiency ffect
glucose brekdown?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Impirs it; the resultnt ATP dep
letion is worsened by glucose dministrtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember t
he 2 importnt enzymes in glucose brekdown tht require Thimine. Highly erobi
c tissues such s the hert nd brin re ffected first (i.e. Wernicke-Korskof
f).</i></div><div><i>This is lso why we </i><b style="font-style: itlic; ">lw
ys dminister Thimine <u>before</u>&nbsp;glucose</b>.&nbsp;</div>
1401396795238 1395802358422 {{c1::Dry Beriberi}} is  disorder cused by Vit
min B1 (Thimine) deficiency nd involves <b>polyneuritis </b>nd<b>&nbsp;symme
tricl muscle wsting</b>.
1401396866631 1395802358422 {{c1::Wet Beriberi}} is  disorder cused by Vit
min B1 (Thimine) deficiency tht involves <b>high-output crdic filure</b>&n
bsp;(due to dilted crdiomyopthy) nd <b>edem</b>. <br /><div><i>Wet beribe
ri = wet</i></div><div><i>Blood = wet</i></div><div><i>Hence, wet beriberi = blo
od.&nbsp;</i></div><div><i>So think hert nd edem.</i></div>
1401396982797 1395802358422 {{c1::Trnsketolse}} is n enzyme found in RBCs
tht is used to dignose Vitmin B1 deficiency.
<br /><div><i>An incres
e in RBC Trnsketolse ctivity fter vitmin B1 dministrtion helps us ensure
tht the tretment is working.</i></div>
1401397245268 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke-Korskoff Syndrome}} is  neurolo
gicl disorder cused by Vitmin B1 deficiency nd involves  clssic trid of <
b>confusion, ophthlmoplegi</b>, nd <b>txi</b>.
1401397311883 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke-Korskoff Syndrome}} is  neurolo
gicl disorder tht occurs due to Vitmin B1 deficiency nd involves <u style="f
ont-weight: bold; ">permnent</u>&nbsp;<b>confbultion, personlity chnge</b>&
nbsp;nd <b>memory loss</b>.
1401397354715 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the thlmus is dmged in Wern
icke-Korskoff Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Medil Dorsl Nucleus}}</div
>
1401397382488 1395802358422 Which re of the limbic system is dmged in We

rnicke-Korskoff Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mmmillry Bodies}}</div>
1401404544210 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient in Wernicke-Korskoff
Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B1 (Thimine)}}</div>
1401404581312 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient is deficient in Beribe
ri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B1 (Thimine)}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-12738872999999.jpg" /></div>
1401405243314 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is  component of th
e flvins FAD nd FMN?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B2 (Riboflvin)}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>FAD nd FMN re used s cofctors in redox rections.</i><
/div><div><i><img src="pste-12872016986186.jpg" /></i></div>
1401407636254 1395802358422 {{c1::Cheilosis}} is n orl compliction of Vit
min B2 (Riboflvin) deficiency nd involves <b>inflmmtion of the lips</b> nd
<b>scling/fissure t the corners of the mouth</b>.
1401407704149 1395802358422 {{c1::Cornel vsculriztion}} is n oculr com
pliction of Vitmin B2 (Riboflvin) deficiency.
1401407732466 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is  constituent of
NAD+ nd NADP+?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>NAD nd NADP re both used in redox rections.</i></div><div><i><img src="
pste-13207024435234.jpg" /></i></div>
1401408275262 1395802358422 Which mino cid is used to derive Vitmin B3 (N
icin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn}}</div>
1401408291829 1395802358422 Which 2 wter soluble vitmins re needed to syn
thesize Vitmin B3 (Nicin) from Tryptophn?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmins
B2 nd B6}}</div>
1401408327252 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used to tret dys
lipidemi s it lowers the levels of VLDL nd rises HDL?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
1401408353017 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}} is  wter soluble v
itmin tht is used to tret dyslipidemi s it functions to lower the levels of
VLDL nd rise HDL.
1401408385983 1395802358422 {{c1::Hrtnup Disese}} is n utosoml recessiv
e metbolic disorder tht cn cuse Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency by decresing
tryptophn bsorption. <br /><div><i>The muttion in SLC6A19,  N-dependent ne
utrl mino cid trnsporter, yields  decrese in Tryptophn sborption.</i></d
iv>
1401409148309 1395802358422 {{c1::Mlignnt Crcinoid Syndrome}} is  neopl
stic syndrome tht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency though n incre
se in tryptophn metbolism. <br /><div><i>Remember, Tryptophn cn be conver
ted to serotonin nd meltonin in ddition to nicin. If serotonin production in
creses, less tryptophn is vilble to be mde into nicin.</i></div>
1401409238001 1395802358422 {{c1::Isonizid}} is n nti-TB drug tht cn c
use&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency by decresing Vitmin B6 levels.
<br /><div><i>Remember, Vitmin B6 is needed for the synthesis of Nicin.</i></d
iv><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Iso<b>NIAZ</b>id cuses <b>NIAZ</b>in deficie
ncy.</i></div>
1401409864161 1395802358422 {{c1::Pellgr}} is  vitmin deficiency disorde
r cused by  deficiency in&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin). <br /><div><i>Presents w
ith the 3 (or 4) D's:</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Dirrhe</i></div
><div><i>Dementi (with hllucintions)</i></div><div><i>Dermtitis</i></div><di
v><i>(Deth)</i></div>
1401410055440 1395802358422 {{c1::Pellgr}} is &nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) d
eficiency disorder tht presents with <b>dirrhe, dermtitis, dementi</b>&nbsp
;nd possibly <b>deth</b>.
<br /><div><i>The 3 (or 4) D's of Pellgr.</i><
/div>
1401410092495 1395802358422 {{c1::Glossitis}} is n orl compliction of&nbs
p;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency tht primrily ffects the tongue.
1401410119028 1395802358422 {{c1::Fcil flushing}} is  morphologicl fetu
re of&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) excess tht is cused by n increse in prostgl
ndin levels.
<br /><div><i>Not cused by Histmine.</i></div>
1401410259636 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient in Pellgr?<div><br /

></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
1401410494871 1395802358422 Wht vitmin deficiency cn be cused by Hrtnup
Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Decrese in tryptophn bsorption cuses  decrese in&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Ni
cin) production.</i></div>
1401410503168 1395802358422 Wht vitmin deficiency cn be cused by Mlign
nt Crcinoid Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Increse in serotonin production cuses incresed metbolism of tr
yptophn, thereby tking wy tryptophn from&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) productio
n.</i></div>
1401410593954 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is n essentil comp
onent of Coenzyme A (CoA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B5 (Pnthothente)
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>B5 = <b>pento</b>thente</i></div>
1401410642021 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is n essentil comp
onent of Ftty Acid Synthse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B5 (Pnthothen
te)}}</div>
1401410672835 1395802358422 {{c1::Adrenl Insufficiency}} is n endocrine co
mpliction of&nbsp;Vitmin B5 (Pnthothente) deficiency.
1401410697947 1395802358422 Wht 2 cutneous complictions re seen in&nbsp;
Vitmin B5 (Pnthothente) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dermtitis; l
opeci}}</div>
1401410730505 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is converted to Pyri
doxl Phosphte,  cofctor used in trnsmintion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V
itmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401411929992 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is converted to Pyri
doxl pyrophosphte,  cofctor used in decrboxyltion rections?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401411964563 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is converted to Pyri
doxl pyrophosphte,  cofctor used in Glycogen Phosphorylse?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401411998663 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for the
synthesis of neurotrnsmitters?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxin
e)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>NTs include serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine
, dopmine, GABA</i></div>
1401412056890 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for the
synthesis of heme?<div><br />{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401412072490 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for the
synthesis of Vitmin B3 (Nicin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridox
ine)}}</div>
1401412090744 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for the
synthesis of Cystthionine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}
</div>
1401412108425 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is needed for the sy
nthesis of Histmine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401412120629 1395802358422 {{c1::Sideroblstic nemi}} is  hemtologicl
compliction of&nbsp;Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) deficiency tht rises due to imp
ired hemoglobin synthesis nd iron excess.
1401412190668 1395802358422 {{c1::Peripherl neuropthy}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::con
vulsions}} re both neurologicl complictions of&nbsp;Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) d
eficiency.
1401412263053 1395802358422 {{c1::Isonizid}} is n nti-TB drug tht cn in
duce&nbsp;Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) deficiency. <br /><div><i>Wht other vitmin
deficiency cn isonizid cuse? Vitmin B3 (Nicin)</i></div>
1401412362953 1395802358422 {{c1::Orl contrceptives}} re  type of hormon
l drug tht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) deficiency.
1401412520400 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin functions s  cofc
tor for mny crboxyltion enzymes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B7 (Bioti
n)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img src="pste-16767552323759.jpg" />
1401412615206 1395802358422 {{c1::Avidin}} is  protein found in egg whites
tht cn bind to&nbsp;Vitmin B7 (Biotin).

1401412876331 1395802358422 Wht re the cutneous complictions seen in&nbs
p;Vitmin B7 (Biotin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dermtitis; lopeci
}}</div>
1401412915969 1395802358422 Wht is the GI compliction seen in&nbsp;Vitmin
B7 (Biotin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Enteritis}}</div>
1401412927691 1395802358422 Excessive ingestion of&nbsp;{{c1::rw egg whites
}} is  potentil cuse of&nbsp;Vitmin B7 (Biotin) due to Avidin's bility to b
ind to Biotin. <br /><div><i>In generl,&nbsp;Vitmin B7 (Biotin) deficiency is
quite rre nd the only other cuse is ntibiotic use.</i></div>
1401413039537 1395802358422 Which wter soluble enzyme is converted to Tetr
hydrofolte (THF),  coenzyme for 1-crbon trnsfer/methyltion rections?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid)}}</div>
1401414272434 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmine is importnt in the
synthesis of nitrogenous bses in DNA nd RNA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitm
in B9 (Folic Acid)}}</div>
1401414290353 1395802358422 In which portion of the smll intestine is&nbsp;
Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) bsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Jejunum}}</div>
1401414313912 1395802358422 In which type of foods is&nbsp;Vitmin B9 (Folic
Acid) found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lefy green vegetbles}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i><b>FOL</b>ic cid = <b>FOL</b>ige</i></div>
1401414341457 1395802358422 Where in the body is the smll reserve pool of&n
bsp;Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) stored?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div>
1401414360650 1395802358422 Wht type of nemi is seen in&nbsp;Vitmin B9
(Folic Acid) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Megloblstic nemi}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>With hypersegmented polymorphonucler cells (PMNs).</i></d
iv>
1401414756869 1395802358422 How do homocysteine levels chnge in&nbsp;Vitmi
n B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401414784317 1395802358422 How do methylmlonic cid levels chnge in&nbsp;
Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chnge; they s
ty norml}}</div>
<i><div></div></i><i><br />Increse in B12 deficiency</i
>
1401414825003 1395802358422 Wht is the most common vitmin deficiency in th
e United Sttes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Seen in lcoholism nd pregnncy</i></div>
1401414851986 1395802358422 {{c1::Methotrexte}} is n ntineoplstic drug t
ht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency.
1401414880832 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenytoin}} is n nticonvulsnt tht cn
cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency.
1401414935097 1395802358422 How does the risk of neurl tube defects chnge
following dministrtion of supplementl mternl folic cid?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401415336987 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used s  cofcto
r for Homocysteine Methyltrnsferse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12 (Co
blmin)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>It trnsfers  methyl group s methy
lcoblmin.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-19155554140667.jpg" /></div>
1401415597758 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used s  cofcto
r for Methylmlonyl-CoA Mutse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12 (Coblmi
n)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-19151259173371.jpg" /></div>
1401415635866 1395802358422 Wht type of nemi is seen in Vitmin B12 (Cob
lmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Megloblstic nemi}}</div>
<br /><div><i>With hypersegmented PMNs</i></div>
1401415670506 1395802358422 {{c1::Subcute Combined Degenertion}} is  neur
ologicl compliction of Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency nd involves degener
tion of the dorsl columns, lterl corticospinl trcts nd spinocerebellr tr
cts due to bnorml myelin.
<br /><div><i>Prolonged B12 deficiency cn cuse
<b>irreversible nerve dmge</b>.</i></div>
1401415953858 1395802358422 How do homocysteine levels chnge in Vitmin B12
(Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><img src="pste-19151259173371.jpg" />

1401415975915 1395802358422 How do methylmlonic cid levels chnge in Vitm
in B12 (Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-19151259173371.jpg" /></div>
1401416030134 1395802358422 Where in the body is the very lrge reserve pool
of Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) stored?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div>
1401416061316 1395802358422 Wht kind of diet is known to induce Vitmin B12
(Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vegn}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Due to the lck of niml products in the diet.</i></div>
1401416133599 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Diphyllobothrium ltum</i>}} is  tpew
orm tht cn cuse Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency through mlbsorption.
1401416520742 1395802358422 {{c1::Pernicious nemi}} is  type of nemi
tht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency due to  lck of intrinsi
c fctor.
1401416964353 1395802358422 Which portion of the smll intestine is the site
of&nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) bsorption?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Terminl
Ileum}}</div>
1401416995400 1395802358422 {{c1::Crohn Disese}} is n inflmmtory bowel d
isese tht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency due to dmge to t
he terminl ileum.
1401417025901 1395802358422 {{c1::Pernicious nemi}} is  type of nemi
tht cuses&nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency through nti-intrinsic fcto
r ntibodies.
1401417051698 1395802358422 Wht utontibodies in pernicious nemi cuse&
nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-intrins
ic fctor ntibodies}}</div>
1401417072870 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin fcilittes iron bs
orption by reducing it to the Fe²⁺&nbsp;stte?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417575830 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is necessry for the
hydroxyltion of proline nd lysine in collgen synthesis?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417615246 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is necessry for Dop
mine bet-hydroxylse, the enzyme tht converts DA to NE?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417696664 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used s n ncill
ry tretment for Methemoglobinemi by reducing Fe³⁺&nbsp;to Fe^2
+?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417750782 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is  connective tissue disorder c
used by&nbsp;Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficiency tht presents with <b>"corksc
rew" hir&nbsp;</b>nd&nbsp;<b>swollen gums</b>.
1401417824087 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is  connective tissue disorder c
used by&nbsp;Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficiency tht presents with <b>bruisin
g</b>, <b>hemrthrosis</b>, nd <b>poor wound heling</b>.
1401417846875 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is  connective tissue disorder c
used by&nbsp;Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficiency tht presents with <b>perifol
liculr </b>nd <b>subperiostel hemorrhges</b>.
1401417879033 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient in Scurvy?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417895593 1395802358422 How does&nbsp;Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficien
cy ffect the immune system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Wekened}}</div>
1401417909129 1395802358422 Wht type of nephrolithisis is seen in&nbsp;Vit
min C (Ascorbic Acid) excess?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clcium oxlte}}</div
>
1401417957145 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}} is  wter sol
uble vitmin tht increses the risk of iron toxicity in predisposed individuls
.
<br /><div><i>i.e. those people with trnsfusions nd hereditry hemochr
omtosis</i></div>
1401418025681 1395802358422 {{c1::Ergoclciferol (D₂)}} is the fo
rm of Vitmin D tht is ingested from plnts.
1401418802085 1395802358422 {{c1::Choleclciferol (D₃)}} is the f

orm of Vitmin D tht is consumed in milk.
1401418826868 1395802358422 In which lyer of sun-exposed skin is Choleclci
ferol (Vitmin D₃) formed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Strtum bsle}
}</div>
1401418871576 1395802358422 {{c1::25-OH D₃}} is the storge form
of Vitmin D.
1401419169898 1395802358422 {{c1::Clcitriol [1,25-(OH)₂&nbsp;D<s
ub>3</sub>]}} is the ctive form of Vitmin D.
1401419206278 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin functions to increse
intestinl bsorption of C nd PO₄?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitm
in D}}</div>
1401419237505 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin functions to increse
bone minerliztion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin D}}</div>
1401419252256 1395802358422 {{c1::Rickets}} is  bone disorder cused by Vit
min D deficiency in children. <div><br /></div><i>Involves bone pin nd defor
mity.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-22535693402514.jpg" /></div>
1401419297030 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteomlci}} is  bone disorder cused b
y Vitmin D deficiency in dults.
<br /><div><i>Involves bone pin nd mus
cle wekness.</i></div>
1401419461841 1395802358422 {{c1::Srcoidosis}} is  grnulomtous immune di
sorder tht involves incresed ctivtion of Vitmin D by epithelioid mcrophge
s.
1401419632024 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin cts s n ntioxidnt
, especilly in RBCs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrien
ol)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Proteins RBCs nd membrnes from free rdicl dm
ge</i></div>
1401419707427 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is ble to enhnce the
nticogulnt effects of Wrfrin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin E (Tocoph
erol/Tocotrienol)}}</div>
1401419862590 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrienol)}} is 
ft soluble vitmin tht cuses <b>posterior column</b>&nbsp;nd <b>spinocerebel
lr trct demyelintion </b>if it is deficient. <br /><div><i>This my hve  si
milr neurologicl presenttion to Vitmin V12 deficiency, but without meglobl
stic nemi, hypersegmented PMNs or incresed methylmlonic cid.</i></div>
1401420404066 1395802358422 {{c1::Acnthocytosis}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::hemolytic
nemi}} re hemtologicl complictions seen in Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrie
nol) deficiency.
<br /><div><i>Remember,&nbsp;Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocot
rienol) is n importnt ntioxidnt in RBCs.</i></div>
1401420466162 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is the cofctor for g
mm-crboxyltion of glutmic cid residues on vrious proteins involved in bloo
d clotting?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421037310 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is synthesized by inte
stinl flor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421047625 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is necessry for the 
ctivtion of clotting fctors II, VII, IX, X nd proteins C nd S?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421081854 1395802358422 Aginst which ft soluble vitmin is Wrfrin n
ntgonist?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421108243 1395802358422 {{c1::Neontl hemorrhging}} is  hemtologicl
disorder seen in neontes with Vitmin K deficiency nd involves n <b>increse
d PT</b>&nbsp;nd <b>incresed PTT</b>, but norml bleeding time.
<br /><d
iv><i>Vitmin K is not found in brest milk. Neontes re given Vitmin K inject
ions t birth to prevent bleeding dithesis.</i></div>
1401421216682 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is  trce element essentil for th
e ctivity of 100+ enzymes, especilly the formtion of trnscription fctor mot
ifs.
<br /><div><i>i.e. Zinc-finger trnscription fctor motifs</i></div>
1401421247311 1395802358422 {{c1::Acrodermtitis enteropthic}} is  cutne
ous disorder seen in Zinc deficiency.
1401421281528 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypogondism}} is  gondl compliction s
een in Zinc deficiency.

1401421296898 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is  trce element tht is ssocit
ed with <b>dysgeusi</b>&nbsp;nd <b>nosmi</b>&nbsp;when it is deficient.
1401421321859 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is  trce element tht cn predisp
ose to lcoholic cirrhosis when it is deficient.
1401421486821 1395802358422 How mny clories per grm re obtined from Cr
bohydrtes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl/g}}</div>
1401421807049 1395802358422 How mny clories per grm re obtined from Pro
tein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl/g}}</div>
1401421820077 1395802358422 How mny clories per grm re obtined from ft
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::9 kcl/g}}</div>
1401421835795 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Ethnol into Acetldehyde
in lcohol metbolism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol dehydrogense}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Functions vi zero-order kinetics</i><br /><div><img src="p
ste-25327422144653.jpg" /></div>
1401422094047 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Acetldehyde into Acette
in lcohol metbolism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acetldehyde dehydrogense}}</
div>
<i><div></div></i><i><br /></i>Requires <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For N
ncy</b>:<div><i>- Thimine (B1)</i></div><div><i>- Lipoic Acid</i></div><div><i>
- CoA (Pntothente)</i></div><div><i>- FAD (Riboflvin)</i></div><div><i>- NAD
(Nicin)<br /></i><div><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></div></div>
1401422453854 1395802358422 {{c1::NAD⁺}} is  coenzyme molecule d
eveloped from Nicin tht cts s the limiting regent in lcohol metbolism.
<br /><div><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></div>
1401422534567 1395802358422 How do NADH levels chnge in lcohol metbolism?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse; lcohol metbolism forms NADH from NAD+}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>NADH:NAD⁺&nbsp;rtio increses.</i></div><div><
i><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></i></div>
1401422563613 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetldehyde}} is  metbolite of lcohol
metbolism tht is toxic nd forms dducts with proteins, thereby cusing dmge
.
<br /><div><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></div>
1401422772024 1395802358422 {{c1::Acette}} is  metbolite of lcohol metb
olism tht cn cuse metbolic cidosis when it ccumultes.
1401422795947 1395802358422 How does ethnol ffect GABA ction?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::It is GABA-mimetic, hence it is dditive to CNS depressnts}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Becuse of this, it cn excerbte dverse effects nd cu
se com/deth.</i></div>
1401422962869 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctic cidosis}} is  compliction of eth
nol metbolism due to n increse in the NADH:NAD rtio which drives the conver
sion of pyruvte to lctte.
<br /><div><img src="pste-27354646708362.jpg" /
></div>
1401423025592 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoglycemi}} is  compliction of ethno
l metbolism due to the incresed NADH:NAD rtio driving the conversion of oxlo
cette to mlte, thereby preventing gluconeogenesis. <div><br></div><i>We cor
rect the hypoglycemi with <u style="font-weight: bold; ">IV&nbsp;thimine befor
e glucose</u>&nbsp;s thimine is  required cofctor for glucose metbolism.</i
><br><div><img src="pste-27440546054293.jpg" /></div>
1401423079007 1395802358422 How does ethnol metbolism ffect gluconeogenes
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition due to incresed NADH:NAD rtio}}</div
>
<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-27436251086997.jpg" /></div>
1401423161498 1395802358422 {{c1::Heptostetosis}} is  compliction of eth
nol metbolism due to the incresed NADH:NAD rtio cusing the conversion of gl
ycerldehyde-3-phosphte to glycerol-3-phosphte, thereby cusing n increse in
triglyceride levels. <br /><div><i>Heptostetosis is lso cused by the incr
esed use of cetyl-CoA for lipogenesis.</i></div>
1401423225950 1395802358422 {{c1::Ketocidosis}} is  compliction of lcoho
l metbolism due to the incresed NADH:NAD rtio disfvouring TCA production of
NADH nd cusing subsequent use of cetyl-CoA for ketogenesis.
1401423326567 1395802358422 {{c1::Fomepizole}} is n zole drug tht is used
to competitively inhibit lcohol dehydrogense, thereby cting s n ntidote f
or methnol or ethylene glycol poisoning.

1401423671336 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Fomepizole in the tretment o
f methnol or ethylene glycol poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Competitive
inhibition of lcohol dehydrogense}}</div>
1401423705003 1395802358422 {{c1::Disulfirm}} is  drug tht trets lcohol
ddiction by inhibiting cetlydehyde dehydrogense. <br /><div><i>This resul
ts in the buildup of cetldehyde nd induces  strong toxicity (i.e. hngover s
ymptoms) tht deter ptients from drinking lcohol.</i></div><div><i>This is ls
o wht is referred to with "Disulfirm-like rection"</i></div>
1401424946667 1395802358422 {{c1::Kwshiorkor}} is  type of <b>protein</b>&
nbsp;mlnutrition tht results in skin lesions, edem nd liver mlfunction.<div
><br /></div><div><img src="pste-29424820945212.jpg" /></div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-29399051141302.jpg" /></div>
1401425003905 1395802358422 {{c1::Ftty chnge of the liver}} is  heptic c
ompliction of Kwshiorkor tht rises due to decresed polipoprotein synthesis
s  result of protein mlnutrition.
1401425038269 1395802358422 {{c1::Kwshiorkor}} is  type of mlnutrition th
t presents s  smll child with  swollen belly.<div><br /></div><div><img src
="pste-28991029248321.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>The edem is due to the se
vere protein mlnutrition.</i></div>
1401425104870 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrsmus}} is  type of mlnutrition tht
involves <b>totl clorie mlnutrition</b>&nbsp;nd resultnt tissue/muscle wst
ing, loss of subQ ft nd vrible edem.
<br /><div><i><b>M</b>rsmus =
<b>M</b>uscle wsting</i></div>
1401425163401 1395802358422 Where in the body is ethnol metbolised?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Liver <b>only</b>}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-29854
317674625.jpg" /></div>
1401473784107 1395802358422 Where in the cell does ftty cid oxidtion (bet
-oxidtion) occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473828782 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;cetyl-CoA productio
n occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473842020 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;the TCA cycle occur?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473852838 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;oxidtive phosphoryl
tion occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473862920 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;glycolysis occur?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
1401473879365 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;Ftty cid synthesis
occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
1401473888009 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;the HMP shunt occur?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
1401473896162 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;Heme synthesis occur
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both mitochondri nd cytoplsm}}</div>
1401474705901 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;the Ure Cycle occur
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both mitochondri nd cytoplsm}}</div>
1401474722855 1395802358422 Where in the cell does Gluconeogenesis occur?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both mitochondri nd cytoplsm}}</div>
1401474752691 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::kinse}} is  type of enzyme tht u
ses ATP to dd high-energy phosphte groups onto substrtes.
1401474851000 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::phosphorylse}} is  type of enzyme
tht dds inorgnic phosphte onto substrtes without using ATP.
1401474882837 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::phosphtse}} is  type of enzyme t
ht removes phosphte groups from substrtes.
1401474896128 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::dehydrogense}} is  type of enzyme
tht ctlyzes oxidtion-reduction rections.
1401474916397 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::hydroxylse}} is  type of enzyme t
ht dds hydroxyl groups (-OH) to substrtes.
1401474934495 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::crboxylse}} enzyme is  type of e
nzyme tht trnsfers CO2 groups with the help of Vitmin B7 (Biotin).
1401474984573 1395802358422 A {{c1::mutse}} is  type of enzyme tht reloc
tes  functionl group within  molecule.

1401475003447 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT5}} is  crbohydrte trnsporter foun
d t the <b>luminl membrne</b>&nbsp;of the GI trct tht llows <b>fructose</b
>&nbsp;to be bsorbed.
1401475059128 1395802358422 Which crbohydrte trnsporter on the <b>luminl
membrne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium functions to llow <b>fructose</b>&nbsp;to b
e bsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT5}}</div>
1401475085182 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT2}} is  crbohydrte trnsporter loc
ted t the <b>bsolterl membrne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium tht moves <b>gluco
se nd fructose</b>&nbsp;from the cell into the blood.
1401475119464 1395802358422 Which crbohydrte trnsporter on the <b>bsolt
erl membrne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium moves <b>fructose nd glucose</b>&nbsp;f
rom the cell into the blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2}}</div>
1401475151890 1395802358422 {{c1::S-GLUT1}} is  N cotrnsporter on the <b>
luminl membrne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium tht moves<b>&nbsp;glctose nd gluc
ose</b>&nbsp;into the cell <b>with N.</b>
1401475197728 1395802358422 Which trnsporter on the <b>luminl membrne</b>
&nbsp;of GI epithelium moves <b>glctose nd glucose</b>&nbsp;into the cell <b>
with N</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S-GLUT1}}</div>
1401475223934 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Glycolysi
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK-1)}}</div>
1401475517311 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Gluconeog
enesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fructose-1,6-bisphosphtse}}</div>
1401475530289 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of the TCA c
ycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isocitrte dehydrogense}}</div>
1401475539831 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Glycogene
sis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen synthse}}</div>
1401475549215 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Glycogeno
lysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen phosphorylse}}</div>
1401475563451 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of the HMP s
hunt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphte dehydrogense (G6PD)}}</div
>
1401475580012 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of de novo p
yrimidine synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crbmoyl phosphte synthetse I
I}}</div>
1401475598719 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of de novo p
urine synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PRPP Amidotrnsferse}}</div>
1401475623943 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of the Ure
cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crbmoyl phosphte synthetse I}}</div>
1401475634516 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of ftty ci
d synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acetyl-CoA crboxylse (ACC)}}</div>
1401475651685 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of ftty ci
d oxidtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crnitine cyltrnsferse I}}</div>
1401475663656 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of ketogenes
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA synthse}}</div>
1401475673235 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of cholester
ol synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA Reductse}}</div>
1401475685825 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 i
n Glycolysis chnge with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse; vi
 llosteric ctivtion}}</div>
1401475741699 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 i
n Glycolysis chnge with fructose-2,6-bisphosphte regultion?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401475756152 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 i
n Glycolysis chnge with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</
div>
1401475762459 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 i
n Glycolysis chnge with Citrte regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese
}}</div>
1401475785362 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Fructose-1,6-bisphosph
te in Gluconeogenesis chnge with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inc

rese}}</div>
1401475813397 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Fructose-1,6-bisphosph
tse in Gluconeogenesis chnge with cetyl-CoA regultion?<div><br></div><div>{{
c1::Increse}}</div>
<br><div><i>This is especilly true in fsting sttes wh
en cetyl-CoA levels re elevted.</i></div>
1401475837287 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Fructose-1,6-bisphosph
te in Gluconeogenesis chnge with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dec
rese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, gluconeogenesis only occurs in high ener
gy sttes.</i></div>
1401475843908 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Fructose-1,6-bisphosph
tse in Gluconeogenesis chnge with fructose-2,6-bisphosphte regultion?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401475873367 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Isocitrte dehydrogens
e chnge in the TCA cycle with ADP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
se}}</div>
1401475896228 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Isocitrte dehydrogens
e chnge in the TCA cycle with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
1401475902854 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Isocitrte dehydrogens
e chnge in the TCA cycle with NADH regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence the incresed NADH in lcohol metbolism shu
ts off the TCA cycle.</i></div>
1401475925423 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with glucose-6-phosphte regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Increse}}</div>
1401475958060 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with Insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}
</div>
1401475964370 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with cortisol regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}
}</div>
1401475972972 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with Epinephrine regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
1401475981019 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}
}</div>
1401476119682 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with epinephrine regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Increse}}</div>
1401476148413 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::In
crese}}</div>
1401476154312 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incres
e}}</div>
1401476158486 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with glucose-6-phosphte regultion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476168141 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with Insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dec
rese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin ctivted Protein Phosphtse 1, which the
n dephosphoryltes Glycogen phosphorylse, thereby inctivting it.</i></div>
1401476176797 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decres
e}}</div>
1401476181878 1395802358422 How does G6PD ctivity in the HMP shunt chnge w
ith NADP+ regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476200186 1395802358422 How does G6PD ctivity in the HMP shunt chnge w
ith NADPH regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>

1401476206560 1395802358422 How does PRPP Amidotrnsferse ctivity in de no
vo purine synthesis chnge with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
1401476243742 1395802358422 How does PRPP Amidotrnsferse ctivity in de no
vo purine synthesis chnge with&nbsp;IMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Decrese}}</div>
1401476250937 1395802358422 How does PRPP Amidotrnsferse ctivity in de no
vo purine synthesis chnge with&nbsp;GMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Decrese}}</div>
1401476256782 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Crbmoyl phosphte syn
thetse I ctivity in the Ure cycle chnge with N-cetylglutmte regultion?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476282820 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of cetyl-CoA crboxylse
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476311930 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of cetyl-CoA crboxylse
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with citrte regultion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476317326 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of cetyl-CoA crboxylse
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476323038 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of cetyl-CoA crboxylse
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with plmitoyl-CoA regultion?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476333693 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Crnitine cyltrnsfer
se I in ftty cid oxidtion chnge with mlonyl-CoA regultion?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476365489 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of HMG-CoA reductse in ch
olesterol synthesis chnge with insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrese}}</div>
1401476453966 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of HMG-CoA reductse in ch
olesterol synthesis chnge with Thyroxine regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Increse}}</div>
1401476459014 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of HMG-CoA reductse in ch
olesterol synthesis chnge with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Decrese}}</div>
1401476464474 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of HMG-CoA reductse in ch
olesterol synthesis chnge with cholesterol regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476495043 1395802358422 How mny pyruvte molecules re mde from the me
tbolism of 1 Glucose molecule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>1Glc + 2ADP + 2P_i&nbsp;+ 2NAD⁺&nbsp;--&gt; 2Pyruvte
+ 2ATP + 2NADH</i></div>
1401478374227 1395802358422 How much net ATP is produced in nerobic glycol
ysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2/moc Glc}}</div>
1401479036239 1395802358422 {{c1::Arsenic}} is  metlloid element tht cn
cuse glycolysis to produce net zero ATP.
1401479098580 1395802358422 How much net ATP is produced vi the mlte-sp
rtte shuttle in erobic metbolism t the hert nd liver?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::32}}</div>
1401479146930 1395802358422 How much net ATP is mde vi the glycerol-3-phos
phte shuttle in erobic metbolism t muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::30}}</
div>
1401479173491 1395802358422 Wht does ATP crry when it is in its ctivted
form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphoryl groups}}</div>
1401479255203 1395802358422 Wht does NADH, NADPH nd FADH2&nbsp;crry when
it is in its ctivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Electrons}}</div>
1401479271035 1395802358422 Wht does CoA&nbsp;crry when it is in its ctiv
ted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acyl groups}}</div>
1401479279717 1395802358422 Wht does lipomide&nbsp;crry when it is in its

ctivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acyl groups}}</div>
1401479288717 1395802358422 Wht does Biotin&nbsp;crry when it is in its c
tivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CO2}}</div>
1401479296971 1395802358422 Wht do Tetrhydrofoltes&nbsp;crry when they 
re in their ctivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1-crbon units}}</div>
1401479322876 1395802358422 Wht does SAM&nbsp;crry when it is in its ctiv
ted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CH₃&nbsp;groups}}</div>
1401479338751 1395802358422 Wht does TPP&nbsp;crry when it is in its ctiv
ted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aldehydes}}</div>
1401479350081 1395802358422 {{c1::NAD+}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::NADP+}} re nicotin
mides tht function s universl electron cceptors.
1401494685439 1395802358422 {{c1::FAD+}} is  flvin nucleotide mde from Vi
tmin B2 tht functions s  universl electron cceptor.
1401494704964 1395802358422 Which nicotinmide electron cceptor is generll
y used in <b>ctbolic</b>&nbsp;processes to crry reducing equivlents wy s
NADH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NAD+}}</div>
1401494755285 1395802358422 Which nicotinmide electron donor is used in <b>
nbolic </b>processes s  supply of reducing equivlents?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::NADPH}}</div>
1401494782730 1395802358422 Which nicotinmide electron donor is  product o
f the HMP shunt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NADPH}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-6171868004510.jpg" /></div>
1401494829059 1395802358422 Which enzyme in glycolysis phosphoryltes glucos
e to glucose-6-phosphte, the first metbolite in the pthwy?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Hexokinse or Glucokinse depending on the tissue}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hexokinse = most tissue, but not liver or pncretic bet-cells</i></div>
<div><i>Glucokinse = liver; pncretic bet-cells</i></div>
1401495317535 1395802358422 Wht is the K_m&nbsp;of Hexokinse com
pred to Glucokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div> <br /><div><i>He
nce, Hexokinse hs higher ffinity for glucose. This is importnt s Hexokinse
is found outside of the liver. We wnt our tissues to be ble to use glucose wh
en it is in lower concentrtions.</i></div>
1401495797717 1395802358422 Wht is the K_m&nbsp;of Glucokinse co
mpred to Hexokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Higher; by 100x}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence, Glucokinse hs  lower ffinity for glucose. This is very
importnt, s in hypoglycemic situtions, we do not wnt the liver or pncretic
bet-cells to be using too much Glc. Conversely, this ensures tht the liver n
d pncretic bet-cells re more inclined to utilize glucose when it is vilbl
e in higher concentrtions. Both of the bove points exist so tht the liver doe
s not tke glucose wy from tissue nd store it when we don't need it to; nd s
o tht the pncretic bet-cells don't mke nd secrete insulin when glucose lev
els re low.</i></div>
1401495962648 1395802358422 Which GLUT trnsporter protein hs the highest K
_m&nbsp;vlue (i.e. lowest ffinity)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, GLUT2 is found on the <b>bsolterl mem
brne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium.</i></div>
1401496077564 1395802358422 Wht is the V_mx&nbsp;of Hexokinse c
ompred to Glucokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div>
1401496136074 1395802358422 Wht is the V_mx&nbsp;of Glucokinse
compres to Hexokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Higher}}</div>
1401496153822 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse hs both <b>lower</b
>&nbsp;K_m&nbsp;nd V_mx?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexoki
nse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hexokinse = lower</i></div><div><i>Glucokinse =
higher</i></div>
1401496356269 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse is inducible by insu
lin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucokinse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Think bou
t this. Which form is in the liver? Where do we wnt to store glucose? Wht horm
one is elevted only when glucose is elevted?</i></div><div><i>Also remember, t
ht induction = incresed expression = incresed Vmx. This is why GK hs higher
Vmx.</i></div><div><i>Tht is lso why n increse in sugrs in the diet will

result in increse ft deposition s GK expression hs incresed.</i></div>
1401496797663 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse is inhibited by gluc
ose-6-phosphte feedbck?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexokinse}}</div>
1401496824656 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse is ssocited with M
turity-onset Dibetes of the Young (MODY)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucokin
se}}</div>
1401496867570 1395802358422 How does regultion by Glucose-6-phosphte ffec
t Hexokinse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-8160437862481.jpg" /></div>
1401497455669 1395802358422 How does regultion by Fructose-6-phosphte ffe
ct Glucokinse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div> <div><br
/></div><img src="pste-8156142895185.jpg" />
1401497473230 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-limiting enzyme in glycolysis?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK1)}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-8349416423508.jpg" /></div>
1401497503816 1395802358422 How does regultion by ATP ffect Phosphofructok
inse-1 (PFK-1) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>When ATP levels re high, PFK-1 is inhibited nd upstrem glucose-6phosphte builds up. When tht occurs, G6P is stored s glycogen by the liver.</
i><br /><div><img src="pste-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497529282 1395802358422 How does regultion by AMP influence phosphofruc
tokinse-1 (PFK1) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497563689 1395802358422 How does regultion by citrte influence the ct
ivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</
div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497591274 1395802358422 How does regultion by fructose-2,6-bisphosphte
(F2,6BP) influence Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK1) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Activtion; vi llosteric binding}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497713589 1395802358422 How does regultion by ATP influence the ctivit
y of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div><div><br /></
div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>ATP/AMP re
gultion is pretty logicl overll. When ATP exists, we don't need to mke more.
</i></div>
1401497755622 1395802358422 How does regultion by lnine influence the ct
ivity of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div><div><br
/></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Th
is is  pretty logicl negtive feedbck loop when you remember tht <b>pyruvte
is converted to lnine by ALT nd Vitmin B6</b>.</i></div>
1401497774801 1395802358422 How does regultion by fructose-1,6-bisphosphte
influence the ctivity of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtio
n}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, <b>F1,6BP is n upstrem metbolite in glycolysis</b>. D
o not confuse tht with <b>F<u>2</u>,6BP</b>&nbsp;which is n llosteric ctivt
or of PFK-1.</i></div>
1401497919743 1395802358422 How does Glucgon ction influence the ctivity
of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition; vi phosphoryltion}}
</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
1401497951667 1395802358422 How does Insulin ction influence the ctivity o
f Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion; vi dephosphoryltion}
}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>One of my biochem profs sid this nd I'll never forget it: "<b>In
sulin drives the <u>utiliztion</u>&nbsp;of glucose."</b></i></div>
1401498020219 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose bisphosphtse-2}} nd&nbsp;{{c2:
:Phosphofructokinse-2}} re 2 enzymes prt of the sme bifunctionl enzyme comp
lex tht function to regulte PFK-1 through F2,6BP.
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-9955734192342.jpg" /></div>
1401499337024 1395802358422 Which Protein Kinse controls Fructose Bisphosph
te-2 nd PFK-2 in the regultion of PFK-1?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Protein Kin

se A}}</div> <br><div><img src="pste-10544144712085.jpg" /></div>
1401499353645 1395802358422 {{c1::Phosphofructokinse-2 (PFK-2)}} is n enzy
me tht forms F2,6BP, n llosteric ctivtor of PFK-1, in response to insulin.
<br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401499588764 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Bisphosphtse-2}} is n enzyme t
ht <b>breks down</b>&nbsp;F2,6BP, n llosteric ctivtor of PFK-1, in respons
e to glucgon. <br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401499636707 1395802358422 How does Glucgon influence Phosphofructokinse2 ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inctivtion, by <u>ctivting protein ki
nse A nd subsequent phosphoryltion of PFK-2</u>}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Thereby cuses <b>less glycolysis nd more gluconeogenesis</b>&nbsp;in the f
sting stte.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401499795869 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Phosphofructokinse-2
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion; vi <u>inhibition of protein k
inse A nd subsequent dephosphoryltion of PFK-2</u>}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>Thereby cuses <b>more glycolysis nd less gluconeogenesis</b>&nbsp;in the f
ed stte.</i><div><i>This is lso why dibetics hve decresed rtes of glycolys
is.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div></div>
1401499901998 1395802358422 Which secondry messenger is involved in the ct
ivtion nd inctivtion of PFK-2 through protein kinse A?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401574581943 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte Dehydrogense}} is  mitochondri
l enzyme tht links glycolysis nd the TCA cycle by converting pyruvte to cety
l CoA. <br><div><i>Pyruvte + NAD + CoA --&gt; Acetyl-CoA + CO2 + NADH</i></div
><div><i><br></i></div><div><i>This rection is <b>irreversible</b></i></div>
1401574687733 1395802358422 Wht re the 5 key cofctors required by&nbsp;Py
ruvte Dehydrogense?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thimine; Lipoic Acid; CoA; FAD
; NAD}}</div> <br /><div><i>k <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b></i></d
iv><div><i><b><img src="pste-16870631538902.jpg" /></b></i></div><div><i><b><br
/></b></i></div><div><i>This is lso  good wy to understnd Wernicke-Korskof
f:</i></div><div><i>Alcoholism --&gt; Thimine deficiency --&gt; decresed Acety
l CoA --&gt; myelintion nd CNS deficits</i></div>
1401574873524 1395802358422 How does n incresed NAD+:NADH rtio ffect Pyr
uvte Dehydrogense ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401574900778 1395802358422 How does n increse in ADP levels ffect Pyruv
te Dehydrogense ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401574916600 1395802358422 How do incresed C levels ffect Pyruvte Dehyd
rogense ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401574932422 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Pyruvte Dehydrogens
e ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
1401574945166 1395802358422 How does Glucgon ffect Pyruvte Dehydrogense
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1401575033135 1395802358422 {{c1::lph-ketoglutrte dehydrogense}} is n
enzyme complex tht converts lph-ketoglutrte to succinyl-CoA in the TCA cycl
e nd requires the sme cofctors s pyruvte dehydrogense.
<br /><div><i>Re
member, those cofctors re <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy </b>(Thimine; L
ipoic Acid; CoA; FAD; NAD)</i></div>
1401575327070 1395802358422 {{c1::Brnched Chin Ketocid Dehydrogense}} is
n enzyme involved in the metbolism of brnched chin mino cids nd involves
the sme cofctors s pyruvte dehydrogense. <br /><div><i>Remember, those co
fctors re <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>&nbsp;(Thimine, Lipoic Acid,
CoA, FAD, NAD)</i></div>
1401576743029 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetylldehyde dehydrogense}} is n enzym
e involved in lcohol metbolism tht uses the sme cofctors s pyruvte dehydr
ogense.
<br><div><i>Remember, those cofctors re <b>Tender Love &mp; C
re For Nncy</b>: (Thimine, Lipoic Acid, CoA, FAD, NAD)</i></div><div><i><br><
/i></div><div><i>This is lso  brillint tie into thimine deficiency nd Werni
cke-Korskoff in lcoholism. All of tht lcohol needs to be metbolised, tht m
ens ll vilble thimine needs to be used. As  consequence, there will be le
ss PDH ctivity, less cetyl CoA nd subsequent Wernicke-Korskoff.</i></div>

1401577288486 1395802358422 {{c1::Arsenic}} is  metlloid element tht inhi
bits lipoic cid,  key cofctor of Pyruvte Dehydrogense, Acetldehyde DH, lp
h-Ketoglutrte DH, nd Brnched-Chin Ketocid DH.
<div><br /></div><i>Pres
ents with vomiting, rice-wter stools nd <b>grlic breth</b>.</i><br /><div><i
>Lipoic cid is the <b>Love</b>&nbsp;in <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>.
</i></div>
1401577835900 1395802358422 Which enzyme <b>irreversibly</b>&nbsp;converts P
yruvte into Acetyl CoA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvte Dehydrogense}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>"Sugr cn become ft, but ft cnnot become sugr."</i></
div><div><i>Glc &lt;---&gt; Pyruvte <b><u>---&gt;</u></b>&nbsp;Acetyl-CoA &lt;--&gt; Ft</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>The Pyruvte tht is involve
d in gluconeogenesis comes from the conversion of Alnine (vi ALT) nd Lctte
to Pyruvte.</i></div>
1401583796468 1395802358422 How do pyruvte levels chnge in Pyruvte dehydr
ogense deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The build up of Pyruvte gets shunted to Lctte (vi LDH) nd Alnine (vi
 ALT).</i></div>
1401585139762 1395802358422 Wht re the 2 <b>only purely</b>&nbsp;ketogenic
mino cids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Leucine}}</div>
1401585162913 1395802358422 How do lctte levels chnge in Pyruvte Dehydro
gense deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th
e excess pyruvte gets mde into lctte vi LDH, thereby cusing <b>lctic cid
osis</b>.</i></div>
1401585323923 1395802358422 How do serum lnine levels chnge in Pyruvte D
ehydrogense deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The excess pyruvte gets shunted to lnine by ALT.</i></div>
1401585356004 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Pyruvte Dehydrogense
deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed intke of ketogenic nutrients}
}</div> <br /><div><i>e.g. high ft diet or Lysine/Leucine rich diet</i></div>
1401585398262 1395802358422 {{c1::Alnine midotrnsferse (ALT)}} is n enz
yme involved in pyruvte metbolism tht forms Alnine from pyruvte to llow m
ino groups to be tken to the liver from muscle.
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-19331647799898.jpg" /></div>
1401585530196 1395802358422 Wht wter soluble vitmin is required by Alnin
e Aminotrnsferse (ALT)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</
div>
1401585722133 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte crboxylse}} is n enzyme involv
ed in pyruvte metbolism tht converts pyruvte into oxlocette, which cn go
on to replenish the TCA cycle or feed gluconeogenesis. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-19327352832602.jpg" /></div>
1401585774062 1395802358422 Wht wter soluble vitmin is needed for Pyruvt
e Crboxylse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B7 (Biotin)}}</div>
1401585798623 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte Dehydrogense}} is n enzyme invo
lved in pyruvte metbolism tht converts pyruvte to cetyl-CoA, thereby linkin
g glycolysis to the TCA cycle. <div><br /></div><i>Remember, PDH requires <b>Te
nder Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>&nbsp;cofctors (Vitmins B1, B2, B3, B5 nd L
ipoic Acid)</i><br /><div><img src="pste-19327352832602.jpg" /></div>
1401585964325 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctic Acid Dehydrogense (LDH)}} is n en
zyme involved in pyruvte metbolism tht converts pyruvte to lctte. <br /><d
iv><i>This is the end stge of <b>nerobic glycolysis</b>&nbsp;(key in RBCs, le
ukocytes, renl medull, lens, testes nd the corne) nd lso prt of the <b>Co
ri Cycle.</b></i></div><div><i>The generted NAD+ molecules feed bck into glyco
lysis for substrte level phosphoryltion.</i></div><div><i><u>This rection is
extremely vitl in sttes of low O₂&nbsp;or mitochondril dmge s i
t replenishes NAD needed for glycolysis.</u></i></div><div><i><b><img src="pste
-19327352832602.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401586160301 1395802358422 How mny NADH molecules re mde in the TCA cycl
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
1401587946656 1395802358422 How mny FADH₂&nbsp;molecules re md
e in the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>

1401587965683 1395802358422 How mny ATP molecules re mde per Acetyl-CoA m
olecule tht enters the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::10}}</div>
1401588001838 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the TCA cycle occur??<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401588020285 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the TCA cycle is the mjor regul
tion point of the pthwy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isocitrte Dehydrogense}
}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Remember, the Krebs cycle is not influenced by Insul
in or Glucgon. <b>It is entirely regulted by locl levels of energy (i.e. ATP,
NADH).</b></i><div><i>The other key regultory steps re t <b>Citrte Synthse
</b>&nbsp;nd <b>lph-ketoglurte dehydrogense</b><br /></i><div><img src="ps
te-20882130993800.jpg" /></div></div>
1401588366248 1395802358422 How does n increse in ATP levels influence the
TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hi
gh ATP = high energy = inhibitions of Krebs.</i></div><div><i>ATP nd ADP ct s
llosteric regultors.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-20877836026504.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1401588408409 1395802358422 How does n increse of ADP levels influence the
TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>In
cresed ADP = low energy stte = ctivtion of Krebs</i></div><div><i>ADP nd AT
P ct s llosteric regultors.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-20877836026504.
jpg" /></i></div>
1401588433623 1395802358422 How does n increse in NADH levels influence th
e TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibitions}}</div>
<br /><div><i>In
cresed NADH = high energy stte = inhibition of Krebs.</i></div><div><i>NADH c
ts s  competitive inhibitor.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-20877836026504.j
pg" /></i></div>
1401588472767 1395802358422 How does n increse in NAD+ levels influence th
e TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hi
gh NAD+ = low energy stte = ctivted Krebs.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-2
0877836026504.jpg" /></i></div>
1401588681226 1395802358422 Wht is the First Aid mnemonic for the intermedi
tes of the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Citrte Is Krebs' Strting Sub
strte For Mking Oxlocette}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-2087783602650
4.jpg" /></div>
1401588727100 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Pyruvte to Oxlocette,
which cn then be fed into the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvte c
rboxylse}}</div>
1401589173566 1395802358422 Which mino cid cn be converted into Pyruvte
by ALT?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alnine; requires B6}}</div>
1401589230593 1395802358422 Which mino cid cn be converted into Oxlocet
te by AST?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asprtte; requires B6}}</div>
1401589257724 1395802358422 Which mino cid cn be converted into lph-ket
oglutrte vi Trnsminse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glutmte; requires B6}}
</div>
1401589281420 1395802358422 Which intermedite of the TCA cycle cn be mde
from Alnine by AST with B6?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvte}}</div>
1401589315193 1395802358422 Which intermedite in the TCA cycle cn be mde
from Asprtte vi AST with B6?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oxlocette}}</div>
1401589347353 1395802358422 Which intermedite in the TCA cycle cn be mde
from Glutmte vi Trnsminse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-ketoglutrte}
}</div>
1401589369960 1395802358422 The {{c1::Mlte-Asprtte shuttle}} nd&nbsp;{{
c2::Glycerol-3-phosphte shuttle}} re 2 metbolic shuttles tht function to bri
ng NADH nd FADH2 electrons into the mitochondri from glycolysis.
<br><div
><i>FADH2 comes in vi the G3P shuttle.</i></div>
1401590348780 1395802358422 Which metbolic shuttle is responsible for bring
ing FADH₂&nbsp;electrons from glycolysis into the mitochondri?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycerol-3-phosphte shuttle}}</div>
1401590394880 1395802358422 Which mitochondril enzyme receives electrons fr
om FADH₂&nbsp;in the electron trnsport chin?<div><br /></div><div>{

{c1::Complex II (k Succinte Dehydrogense)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-23441931502034.jpg" /></div>
1401590448508 1395802358422 {{c1::Succinte Dehydrogense}} is  mitochondri
l enzyme prt of the electron trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Compl
ex II. <br /><div><img src="pste-23437636534738.jpg" /></div>
1401590533116 1395802358422 {{c1::NADH Dehydrogense}} is  mitochondril en
zyme prt of the electron trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Complex I.
<br /><div><img src="pste-23682449670599.jpg" /></div>
1401590587246 1395802358422 {{c1::Ubiquinone}} is n enzyme in the electron
trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Coenzyme Q. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590622172 1395802358422 {{c1::Cytochrome Oxidse}} is n enzyme in the e
lectron trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Complex IV. <br /><div><img
src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590657862 1395802358422 {{c1::ATP Synthse}} is n enzyme in the electro
n trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Complex V.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590749133 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin pro
duces H₂O?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytochrome Oxidse (Complex IV)
}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590817835 1395802358422 How mny ATP molecules re produced by ATP synth
se for every molecule of NADH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2.5 (so we just use ~
3 in clcultions)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Steve hd sex with <b>NAD</b>i <b
>H</b>. <b>3</b>&nbsp;times during frosh week nd got n STI.&nbsp;</i></div><di
v><i><br /></i></div><div><i>(True story. Will never forget the regret on Steve'
s fce. Will lso never forget this mnemonic.)</i></div>
1401591083458 1395802358422 How mny ATP molecules re produced by ATP Synth
se for every FADH₂&nbsp;molecule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1.5 (so
we just use ~2 for clcultion)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>FADH<sub style="fo
nt-weight: bold; ">2</sub>&nbsp;= <b>2</b>&nbsp;ATP</i></div>
1401591134161 1395802358422 {{c1::Rotenone}} is n electron trnsport inhibi
tor tht directly inhibits the ETC t Complex I.
<div><br /></div><i>This
<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton grdient nd <b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><
br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591408045 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin is
inhibited by Rotenone?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex I (NADH Dehydrogense)
}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This&nbsp;<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton g
rdient nd&nbsp;<b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-2367
8154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591510868 1395802358422 {{c1::Cynide}} nd {{c2::CO}} re electron trn
sport inhibitors tht directly inhibit the ETC t Complex IV. <div><br /></div
><i>Cynide is detoxified by nitrites nd thiosulftes.</i><div><i></i><i>This&n
bsp;<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton grdient nd&nbsp;<b>blocks ATP synthesis</
b>.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div></div>
1401591770484 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin is
inhibited by Cynide nd CO?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex IV (Cytochrome O
xidse)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591797642 1395802358422 {{c1::Antimycin A}} is n electron trnsport inh
ibitor tht directly inhibits the ETC t Complex III. <div><br /></div><i>This
&nbsp;<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton grdient nd&nbsp;<b>blocks ATP synthesis
</b>.</i><br /><div><i>"<b>RACCO</b>" from left to right.</i></div><div><img src
="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591997268 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin is
inhibited by Antimycin A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex III}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This&nbsp;<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton grdient nd&nbsp
;<b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><div><i><b>"RACCO"</b>&nbsp;from left to right
in the ETC.<br /></i><div><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div></div
></div>
1401592020484 1395802358422 {{c1::Oligomycin}} is n ATP Synthse inhibitor
tht directly inhibits ATP synthse in the ETC. <br /><div><i>This <b>increses<

/b>&nbsp;the proton grdient, but no ATP is produced s the ETC is inhibited.</i
></div><div><i>"<b>RACCO</b>" from left to right in the ETC.</i></div><div><i><i
mg src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></i></div>
1401592337244 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the ETC is inhibited by Oligomyc
in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ATP Synthse}}</div>
<div><br /></div>"<i><b>
ROCCO</b>" from left to right.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg"
/></div>
1401592420020 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin is
inhibited by Doxorubicin nd Dunorubicin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Coenzyme Q
(Ubiquinone)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401592449592 1395802358422 {{c1::Doxorubicin}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::Dunorubicin}
} re ntineoplstic gents tht inhibit Coenzyme Q (Ubiquinone) in the electron
trnsport chin.
<br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401592484059 1395802358422 How do FADH₂&nbsp;nd NADH levels ch
nge when the electron trnsport chin is inhibited?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrese}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is pretty obvious, but think of the consequen
ces: Inhibition of the TCA cycle, decresed ATP production, nd decresed O₂&nbsp;utiliztion.</i></div>
1401592821605 1395802358422 {{c1::2,4-Dinitrophenol}} is n uncoupling gent
tht is sometimes used illicitly for weight loss.
1401592888587 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Uncoupling Agents in the inhi
bition of ATP synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Incresed permebility of
the mitochondril membrne</b>, thereby cusing  decresed proton grdient nd
incresed O2 consumption}}</div>
<br /><div><i>ATP synthesis stops, but e
lectron trnsport continues. This increse in metbolic rte produces  consider
ble bout of het s well.</i></div>
1401593017448 1395802358422 {{c1::Aspirin}} is n NSAID tht cn ct s n u
ncoupling gent, thereby cusing fevers in n overdose.
1401593221266 1395802358422 {{c1::Thermogenin}} is n uncoupling gent found
in brown ft.
1401593299761 1395802358422 How do incresed ATP levels influence Gluconeoge
nesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Gluconeoge
nesis only occurs in high energy sttes (high ATP nd high NADH) becuse <b>Oxl
ocette must be converted to Mlte in the TCA cycle</b>. Mlte then leves to
gluconeogenesis vi the mlte shuttle.</i></div>
1401593619539 1395802358422 How do incresed NADH levels influence Gluconeog
enesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gluconeoge
nesis only occurs in high energy sttes (high ATP nd high NADH) becuse&nbsp;<b
>Oxlocette must be converted to Mlte in the TCA cycle</b>. Mlte then lev
es to gluconeogenesis vi the mlte shuttle.</i></div>
1401593640147 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte crboxylse}} is n irreversible
enzyme tht converts pyruvte to oxlocette in gluconeogenesis.
1401594066010 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for Pyru
vte Crboxylse ctivity in gluconeogenesis?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B
7 (Biotin)}}</div>
<br><i>Remember, Avidin from rw eggs binds to Biotin</i
>
1401594091941 1395802358422 How do incresed Acetyl-CoA levels influence Pyr
uvte Crboxylse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
1401594112417 1395802358422 {{c1::Phosphoenolpyruvte crboxykinse}} is n
irreversible enzyme in gluconeogenesis tht converts oxlocette to phosphoenol
pyruvte.
<br /><div><i>Requires GTP.</i></div>
1401594161811 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphtse}} is n irreve
rsible enzyme tht converts F1,6BP to F6P in gluconeogenesis.
1401594203282 1395802358422 How do incresed Citrte levels influence Fructo
se-1,6-bisphosphtse ctivity in gluconeogenesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ac
tivtion}}</div>
1401594251409 1395802358422 How do incresed Fructose-<b>2,6</b>-bisphospht
e levels influence Fructose-1,6-bisphosphtse ctivity in gluconeogenesis?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1401594297420 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucose-6-phosphtse}} is n irreversible

enzyme of gluconeogenesis tht converts Glucose-6-phosphte to glucose.
1401594333809 1395802358422 Where in the body does gluconeogenesis primrily
occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Essentill
y, it will occur wherever the enzymes exist. Hence it lso occurs t the kidneys
nd intestinl epithelium. Along the sme lines, it does not occur t muscle du
e to their lck of Glucose-6-phosphtse</i></div>
1401594455163 1395802358422 {{c1::Propionyl-CoA}} is  product of odd-chin
ftty cid metbolism tht cn enter the TCA cycle s succinyl-CoA, undergo gluc
oneogenesis nd hence serve s  glucose source.
<br /><div><i>Even-chin
ftty cids provide Acetyl-CoA equivlents.</i></div>
1401594545605 1395802358422 Which metbolic shunt cts s  vitl source of
NADPH from glucose-6-phosphte?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMP Shunt (Pentose Ph
osphte Pthwy)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, NADPH is required for re
ductive rections, esp. glutthione in RBCs.</i></div><div><i>Also, <u>do not co
nfuse NADPH for NADH nd its role in ATP synthesis</u></i></div><div><i><u><br /
></u></i></div><div><i><u><img src="pste-29794188132607.jpg" /></u></i></div>
1401596199885 1395802358422 Which metbolic shunt is  vitl source of ribos
e for nucleotide synthesis nd glycolytic intermedites?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::HMP Shunt (Pentose Phosphte Pthwy)}}</div>
1401596236051 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the HMP Shunt occur?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
<br /><div><i>No ATP is used or
produced.</i></div>
1401596268083 1395802358422 Wht is the rte limiting enzyme in the HMP shun
t?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G6PD (Glucose-6-phosphte dehydrogense)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-29253022253225.jpg" /></div>
1401596354823 1395802358422 Wht wter soluble vitmin is required in the no
noxidtive, reversible step of the HMP shunt conducted by Trnsketolses?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B1 (Thimine)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Acti
vity of these trnsketolses re used to guge the level of Thimine deficiency.
<br /></i><div><img src="pste-29386166239378.jpg" /></div>
1401596476373 1395802358422 {{c1::Myeloperoxidse}} is n enzyme involved in
the respirtory burst tht gives sputum its blue-green colour. <br /><div><img
src="pste-29918742184491.jpg" /></div>
1401597532687 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respirtory burst forms supe
roxide rdicls from O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NAPDH Oxidse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-29914447217195.jpg" /></div>
1401597575169 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respirtory burst forms H2O2
from superoxide rdicls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide dismutse}}</di
v>
<br /><div><img src="pste-29914447217195.jpg" /></div>
1401597595981 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respirtory burst forms Hypo
chlorite (HOCl) from H2O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myeloperoxidse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-29914447217195.jpg" /></div>
1401597622507 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Grnulomtous Disese}} is  metb
olic disorder tht involves deficiency of NADPH Oxidse.
1401597727422 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Grnulomtous Disese}} is n immu
ne disorder cused by NADPH Oxidse deficiency tht involves n incresed risk f
or recurrent infections nd grnulom formtion by <b>ctlse-positive orgnism
s</b>. <br /><div><i>Ctlse positive orgnisms re cpble of neutrlizing th
eir own H2O2, thereby leving phgocytes without ny ROS to fight the infection.
Ctlse negtive orgnisms on the other hnd essentilly provide H2O2 to phgo
cytes.</i></div>
1401597935365 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctoferrin}} is  protein found in secret
ory fluids nd neutrophils tht functions to inhibits microbil growth vi iron
cheltion.
1401597960554 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyocynin}} is  protein found in <i>Pseud
omons eruginos</i>&nbsp;tht functions to generte ROS tht kill competing mi
crobes.
1401598127447 1395802358422 Wht type of orgnisms hve  higher rte of rec
urrent infection nd grnulom formtion in Chronic Grnulomtous Disese (CGD)?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ctlse-positive orgnisms}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th

e mjor Ctlse-positive bugs: <b>Stphs N' Enterobctericee Are Listed Ctl
se Positive.</b></i></div><div><i>[Stphylococcus, Neisseri, Enterobcteri, A
spergillus, Listeri, Cndid, Pseudomons (nd TB!)]</i></div>
1401645975656 1395802358422 {{c1::G6PD Deficiency}} is n X-linked recessive
enzyme deficiency tht results in decresed NADPH levels in RBCs, thereby mkin
g them susceptible to oxidizing gents nd cusing hemolytic nemi. <div><br
/></div><i>Remember, NADPH is needed to Glutthione reduced so tht is cn deto
xify free rdicls nd ROS. No G6PD = No NADPH required for Glutthione reducts
e.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-648540061960.jpg" /></div>
1401646194700 1395802358422 {{c1::Primquine}} is n ntimlril drug tht
cn trigger hemolytic nemi in G6PD Deficiency.
1401646785061 1395802358422 {{c1::Fv Bens}} re  type of ben tht cn t
rigger hemolytic nemi in G6PD deficiency.
<br /><div><i><b>Infection cn 
lso trigger hemolytic nemi</b>&nbsp;s the free rdicls generted from the i
nflmmtory response cn diffuse into RBCs nd cuse oxidtive dmge.</i></div>
1401646866490 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of G6PD Deficien
cy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive}}</div>
1401646887023 1395802358422 Wht is the most common humn enzyme deficiency?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G6PD Deficiency}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-644245094664.jpg" /></div>
1401646897922 1395802358422 Which rce hs  higher prevlence of G6PD Defic
iency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blcks; Middle Esterns}}</div>
1401646923798 1395802358422 How does the resistnce to mlri chnge in G6P
D Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401646968353 1395802358422 {{c1::Heinz Bodies}} re intrcellulr inclusion
s of oxidized hemoglobin tht precipitte within RBCs in G6PD Deficiency.
1401647000972 1395802358422 {{c1::Bite Cells}} re  pthologicl form of RB
Cs tht form s  result of the phgocytic removl of Heinz bodies by splenic m
crophges in G6PD Deficiency.
1401647037205 1395802358422 {{c1::Essentil Fructosuri}} is  disorder of f
ructose metbolism tht involves  defect in <b>Fructokinse</b>.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-1705102016881.jpg" /></div>
1401647919414 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is defective in Essentil Fructosuri
<br /><div><img src="ps
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fructokinse}}</div>
te-1700807049585.jpg" /></div>
1401647943624 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Essentil Fru
ctosuri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" /></div>
1401647959360 1395802358422 {{c1::Essentil Fructosuri}} is n <b>symptom
tic</b>&nbsp;disorder of fructose metbolism s Hexokinse is ble to perform th
e sme function s Fructokinse, hence Fructose is not trpped in cells.
<div><br /></div><i>The symptoms tht pper re benign (fructosuri; fructosemi
).</i><div><i>Disorders of fructose metbolism generlly cuse milder symptoms
thn nlogous disorders of glctose metbolism.<br /></i><div><div><img src="p
ste-1700807049585.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1401648271389 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Intolernce}} is  disorder of fr
uctose metbolism tht results from  deficiency of <b>Aldolse B</b>. <div><br
/></div><i>Aldolse B should not be confused with Aldolse A, the enzyme in gly
colysis. However, through Aldolse B, Fructose requires less ATP to enter glycol
ysis. For this reson, fructose is in mny sports drinks. For this sme reson,
high fructose corn syrups re quite bd, s the quick, chep supply of sugr ene
rgy leds to n excess of sugrs tht then get turned into ft.</i><br /><div><i
mg src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" /></div>
1401648410695 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Fructose Intolernc
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aldolse B}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember,
Aldolse B is unique to fructose metbolism. Aldolse A is the enzyme in glycoly
sis.</i></div>
1401648440884 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fructose Into
lernce?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401648455934 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Intolernce}} is  disorder of fr

uctose metbolism tht presents with n ccumultion of Fructose-1-Phosphte, th
ereby cusing  decrese in vilble phosphte.
<br /><div><i>This in tu
rn results in inhibition of glycogenolysis nd gluconeogenesis.</i></div><div><i
><img src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" /></i></div>
1401649701708 1395802358422 {{c1::Fstic hypoglycemi}},&nbsp;{{c2::jundice
}} nd&nbsp;{{c3::cirrhosis}} re heptic complictions of Fructose Intolernce
tht rise due to the extensive liver dmge seen.
1401649802545 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperuricemi/Gout}} is  compliction of
Fructose Intolernce s the trpping of phosphte on Fructose molecules forces P
urines towrds Uric Acid.
<br /><div><img src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" />
</div>
1401649865039 1395802358422 Which of the <b>mjor</b>&nbsp;monoscchrides i
s <b>not</b>&nbsp; reducing sugr?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fructose (it's 
ketose sugr)}}</div> <br /><div><i>For this reson, ctrcts re not  sympt
oms of fructose metbolism disorders</i></div>
1401649969484 1395802358422 Which renl tubule cn get dmged in Fructose I
ntolernce?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Proximl Convoluted Tubule (PCT)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Similr to Renl Tubulr Acidosis, Type 2.</i></div>
1401650173302 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucose}} is  reducing sugr (ldose) th
t becomes Sorbitol vi Aldose Reductse.
<br /><div><i>The other ldose (
reducing) sugrs include:&nbsp;</i></div><div><i>Glctose --&gt; Glctitol;&nb
sp;</i></div><div><i>Inose --&gt; Inositol;&nbsp;</i></div><div><i>Mnnose --&gt
; Mnnitol</i></div>
1401650177776 1395802358422 {{c1::Sucrose}} is  discchride tht consists
of Fructose nd Glucose.
1401650501102 1395802358422 {{c1::Mltose}} is  discchride tht consists
of Glucose nd Glucose.
1401650512131 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctose}} is  discchride tht consists
of Glctose nd Glucose.
1401650525781 1395802358422 {{c1::Glctokinse Deficiency}} is  disorder o
f glctose metbolism tht involves  hereditry deficiency of <b>Glctokinse
</b>. <div><br /></div><i>Thereby results in the ccumultion of Glctitol, 
the reducing form of Glctose.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4969277161823.jpg
" /></div>
1401650861584 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Glctokinse
Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401650874333 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is deficient in Glctokinse Defici
ency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glctokinse, duh.}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401650898779 1395802358422 {{c1::Glctokinse Deficiency}} is  <b>reltiv
ely mild </b>disorder of glctose metbolism tht is essentilly benign except
for <b>infntile ctrcts</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" />
</div>
1401650972248 1395802358422 {{c1::Ctrcts}} re n oculr compliction of
disorders of glctose metbolism due to the ccumultion of Glctitol,  reduc
ing product of Glctose.
<div><br /></div><i>For this reson, disorders o
f fructose metbolism <b>do not present with ctrcts</b>&nbsp;s Fructose is n
ot  reducing sugr.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401651076546 1395802358422 {{c1::Glctokinse Deficiency}} is  disorder o
f glctose metbolism tht my initilly present s filure to trck objects or
to develop  socil smile.
1401651108768 1395802358422 {{c1::Clssic Glctosemi}} is  disorder of g
lctose metbolism tht involves the bsence of <b>Glctose-1-phosphte Uridylt
rnsferse</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401651661214 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is bsent in Clssic Glctosemi?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glctose-1-phosphte Uridyltrnsferse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401651684872 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Clssic Glc
tosemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401651699438 1395802358422 {{c1::Clssic Glctosemi}} is  disorder of g

lctose metbolism tht presents with <b>jundice, heptomegly, infntile ctr
cts</b>&nbsp;nd <b>intellectul disbility</b>&nbsp;due to the ccumultion of
toxic substnces.
<div><br /></div><div><i>Especilly Glctitol.</i></div
><div><i>The more serious defects cn lso involve PO4 depletion.</i></div><i><u
>Clssic Glctosemi is similr to Fructose Intolernce (Aldolse B deficiency)
except tht it includes ctrcts.</u></i><br /><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i
><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></i></div>
1401651844000 1395802358422 {{c1::Clssic Glctosemi}} is  disorder of g
lctose metbolism tht presents similrly to Fructose Intolernce (Aldolse B d
eficiency) except tht it includes ctrcts. <br /><div><i><b>F</b>ructose is
to <b>A</b>ldolse <b>B</b> s <b>G</b>lctose is to <b>U</b>ridyl<b>T</b>rns
ferse. (<b>FAB GUT</b>).</i></div>
1401652005087 1395802358422 Which disorder of Glctose metbolism cn led
to <i>Escherichi coli </i>sepsis in neontes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clssi
c Glctosemi}}</div>
1401652055363 1395802358422 {{c1::Sorbitol}} is the lcohol counterprt of G
lucose formed by Aldose Reductse nd stnds s n lterntive method of trppin
g glucose in the cell. <div><br /></div><i>Some tissues re ble to then conver
t Sorbitol into Fructose vi Sorbitol Dehydrogense.</i><div><i>Other tissue th
t do not hve the bove enzyme re t risk for intrcellulr sorbitol ccumulti
on, thereby cusing osmotic dmge (e.g. <b>ctrcts, retinopthy, peripherl n
europthy</b>). This is especilly seen in hyperglycemi.</i></div><div><i>Glc
titol cn cuse similr problems vi Aldose Reductse.<br /></i><div><img src="p
ste-6300717023664.jpg" /></div></div>
1401653655500 1395802358422 Which enzyme found on the brush border of the GI
epithelium functions to digest Lctose into glucose nd glctose?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Lctse}}</div>
1401654170558 1395802358422 {{c1::Primry Lctse Deficiency}} is  type of
Lctse Deficiency tht presents with n ge-dependent decline in Lctse ctivi
ty fter childhood due to the bsence of  lctse-persistent llele. <br /><d
iv><i>Common in Asins, Africns, nd North Americns.</i></div>
1401654269199 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondry Lctse Deficiency}} is  type o
f Lctse Deficiency tht commonly rises due to the loss of the brush border du
e to gstroenteritis or utoimmune disese.
1401655187287 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenitl Lctse Deficiency}} is  <b>r
re</b>&nbsp;type of lctse deficiency tht is due to  defective lctse gene.
1401655253607 1395802358422 How does the pH of stool chnge in Lctse Defic
iency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
<br /><div><i>GI complic
tions involve bloting, crmping, fltulence nd osmotic dirrhe.</i></div>
1401655299070 1395802358422 How does the hydrogen content of stool chnge in
Lctse deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse (i.e. decresed pH)}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>This is  nice tie into Lctulose, n osmotic lxtive th
t cidifies the GI lumen to tret hypermmonemi. It's essentilly the sme MOA
here where Lctose stys in the GI lumen due to the lctse deficiency.</i></div
>
1401655355919 1395802358422 Which stereoisomer of Amino Acids is found in pr
oteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L-form}}</div>
1401656107716 1395802358422 Wht re the 2 ketogenic mino cids?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Leucine}}</div>
1401656175204 1395802358422 Wht re the 2 cidic mino cids?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Asprtte; Glutmte}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both re negtivel
y chrged t body pH.</i></div>
1401656239623 1395802358422 Wht re the 3 bsic mino cids?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Arginine; Lysine; Histidine}}</div>
1401656259170 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>most bsic</b>&nbsp;mino cid?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div>
1401656272310 1395802358422 Which 2 bsic mino cids re required during pe
riods of growth?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine; Histidine}}</div>
1401656329284 1395802358422 Which essentil mino cids re <b>both</b>&nbsp
;ketogenic nd glucogenic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isoleucine; Phenyllnine;

Threonine; Tryptophn}}</div>
1401656369270 1395802358422 Which metbolic pthwy functions to get rid of
ny excess nitrogen (NH3) generted by mino cid ctbolism?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Ure Cycle}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-8735963480780.jpg" />
</div>
1401657269820 1395802358422 Which 2 sources provide the Ammoni tht enters
the Ure Cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The gut vi Glutminse; Glutmte vi
 Glutmte Dehydrogense}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-8731668513484
.jpg" /></div>
1401657331838 1395802358422 Which intermedite of the TCA cycle is supplied
by the Ure Cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fumrte}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>In fct, the Ure Cycle is  very key Fumrte source.</i><br /><div><img sr
c="pste-8731668513484.jpg" /></div>
1401657382050 1395802358422 Wht is the First Aid mnemonic for the intermedi
tes of the Ure Cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ordinrily, Creless Crppers
Are Also Frivolous About Urintion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Ornithine, Crbmo
yl phosphte,&nbsp;</i><i>Citrulline,&nbsp;</i><i>Asprtte,&nbsp;</i><i>Arginos
uccinte,&nbsp;</i><i>Fumrte,&nbsp;</i><i>Arginine,&nbsp;</i><i>Ure</i></div>
<div><i><img src="pste-8731668513484.jpg" /></i></div>
1401657491417 1395802358422 Which 2 mino cids re necessry for the trnsp
ort of mmoni from muscle nd other tissue to the liver?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Alnine; Glutmte; both re mde nd unmde by Trnsminses}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Asprtte = Oxlocette + NH2</i><div><i>Alnine = Pyruvte
+ NH2</i></div><div><i>Glutmte = lph-Ketoglutrte + NH2<br /></i><div><img
src="pste-9131100471783.jpg" /></div></div>
1401657732704 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required by Trns
minses nd hence in the trnsport of mmoni by Alnine nd Glutmte?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Asp
rtte = Oxlocette + NH2</i><div><i>Alnine = Pyruvte + NH2</i></div><div><i>
Glutmte = lph-Ketoglutrte + NH2</i></div><div><img src="pste-912680550448
7.jpg" /></div>
1401657734354 1395802358422 How do lph-Ketoglutrte levels chnge in Hype
rmmonemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese; thereby inhibiting the TCA cycl
e}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, lph-KG + NH2 = Glutmte.</i></div><di
v><i>Also, since this inhibits the TCA cycle, less ATP will be mde nd less ATP
will be vilble for the Ure Cycle, thereby compounding the hypermmonemi.</
i></div>
1401659651540 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Butyrte in the tretment of
Hypermmonemi?<div><br />{{c1::Binding to mino cids nd leding to their excr
etion, thereby decresing mmoni levels}}</div>
1401659688814 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Phenylbutyrte in the tretme
nt of hypermmonemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binding to mino cids, leding
to their excretion nd decresed mmoni levels}}</div>
1401659726589 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctulose}} is n osmotic lxtive tht c
n tret Hypermmonemi by cidifying the GI trct nd trpping NH4⁺&n
bsp;ions for excretion.
1401659792004 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Lctulose in the tretment of
Hypermmonemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trpping of NH4⁺&nbsp;ion
s in the GI trct by cidifying the lumen}}</div>
1401659849527 1395802358422 {{c1::Asterixis}} is  neurologicl compliction
of Ammoni intoxiction nd is described s repetitive tremor of the hnd when
the wrist is extended. <br /><div><img src="pste-11312943857772.jpg" /></div>
1401660410918 1395802358422 {{c1::N-cetylglutmte}} is  cofctor tht is
required by Crbmoyl Phosphte Synthetse I in the Ure Cycle. <div><br /></div
><i>Hence, N-cetylglutmte deficiency will cuse hypermmonemi.</i><br /><div
><img src="pste-11325828760087.jpg" /></div>
1401660552185 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the Ure Cycle requires N-cetyl
glutmte s  cofctor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crbmoyl Phosphte Synthet
se I}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-11321533792791.jpg" /></div>
1401660580401 1395802358422 {{c1::Hereditry N-cetylglutmte deficiency}}

is  cuse of hypermmonemi tht presents identiclly to Crbmoyl Phosphte Sy
nthetse I deficiency, however <b>the elevtion in Ornithine will be ccompnied
by <u>norml Ure Cycle enzymes</u>.</b>
<br><div><img src="pste-1132153
3792791.jpg" /></div>
1401660667923 1395802358422 Wht is the most common Ure Cycle disorder?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse deficiency (OTCD)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-11321533792791.jpg" /></div>
1401660706834 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Ornithine Tr
nscrbmylse (OTC) Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive}}<
/div> <br /><div><img src="pste-11321533792791.jpg" /></div>
1401660751172 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>only</b>&nbsp;Ure Cycle enzyme d
eficiency tht is X-linked recessive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trns
crbmylse Deficiency}}</div> <br /><div><i>All of the others re utosoml re
cessive.</i></div>
1401660792334 1395802358422 How do BUN levels chnge in Ure Cycle disorders
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Less Ure is being
mde, hence BUN is lower.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-11321533792791.jpg"
/></i></div>
1401661659045 1395802358422 {{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}} is
 ure cycle enzyme deficiency tht presents with <b>orotic ciduri</b>&nbsp;
s the excess crbmoyl phosphte is converted into orotic cid in de novo pyrimi
dine synthesis. <br /><div><i>Remember, Crbmoyl Phosphte is the one intermedi
te of the Ure Cycle tht is prt of the de novo pyrimidine synthesis. Becuse
of this, there my lso be n increse in pyrimidines, especilly Urcil.</i></d
iv><div><i><img src="pste-12262131630802.jpg" /></i></div>
1401661812338 1395802358422 {{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}} is
 Ure Cycle enzyme disorder tht presents with <b>elevted crbmoyl phosphte
</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-12257836663506.jpg" /></div>
1401662114308 1395802358422 Wht is the key difference between Hereditry Or
otic Aciduri nd the orotic ciduri secondry to Ornithine Trnscrbmylse De
ficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::OTCD <b>does not </b>hve megloblstic n
emi}}</div>
1401662194023 1395802358422 Which Ure Cycle enzyme disorder is ssocited w
ith <b>ornge crystls in the urine</b>&nbsp;if it is left to dry?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}}</div>
1401662240535 1395802358422 Which mjor ure cycle enzyme disorder presents
with <b>orotic ciduri</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmyl
se Deficiency}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, the elevted Crbmoyl Phosphte
is shunted to pyrimidine synthesis where it becomes Orotic Acid.</i></div><div>
<i><img src="pste-12257836663506.jpg" /></i></div>
1401662286656 1395802358422 Which mjor ure cycle enzyme disorder presents
with <b>incresed crbmoyl phosphte</b>&nbsp;levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-12257
836663506.jpg" /></div>
1401662378208 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Crbmoyl Pho
sphte Synthetse I deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}
</div>
1401662416290 1395802358422 How do mmoni levels chnge in Ure Cycle enzym
e disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elevted}}</div>
1401663051035 1395802358422 How do crbmoyl phosphte levels chnge in Crb
moyl Phosphte Synthetse I deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</
div>
<div><br /></div><i>This crd isn't entirely stupid becuse it reinforce
s the connection with orotic ciduri. <b>Becuse Crbmoyl Phosphte levels re
low, there will be no Orotic Aciduri </b>vi de novo pyrimidine synthesis.</i>
<br /><div><img src="pste-12257836663506.jpg" /></div>
1401663121999 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycerol Phenylbutyrte}} is  nitrogen sc
venger tht trets hypermmonemi by grbbing mmoni from glutmine. <br /><d
iv><i>It is  prodrug. The ctive form performs the MOA.</i></div>
1401663208151 1395802358422 Which osmotic lxtive is used to tret hypermm
onemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lctulose (or Levulose)}}</div>
<br /><d

iv><i>Lctulose cidifies the gut, thereby trpping NH4⁺&nbsp;in the
lumen nd decresing its bsorption.</i></div>
1401671464765 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Thyroxine derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenyllnine}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-15023795601547.jpg" /></div>
1401671500825 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Melnin derived from?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenylnine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-15019500634251.jpg" /></div>
1401671516012 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Dopmine derived from?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenyllnine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-15019500634251.jpg" /></div>
1401671535231 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is NE nd Epinephrine derived fr
om?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenyllnine}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-15019500634251.jpg" /></div>
1401671562863 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Nicin derived from?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Hence, in Hrtnup Di
sese there is decresed Nicin due to defective Tryptophn bsorption.</i><br /
><div><img src="pste-15715285336166.jpg" /></div>
1401673075760 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Serotonin derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-15710
990368870.jpg" /></div>
1401673110405 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Meltonin derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn vi Serotonin}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-15710990368870.jpg" /></div>
1401673129352 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Histmine derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Histidine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1634664552862
1.jpg" /></div>
1401673202168 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Porphyrin derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1637241533239
6.jpg" /></div>
1401673214892 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Heme derived from?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Glycine vi Porphyrin}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16368
120365100.jpg" /></div>
1401673226030 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is GABA derived from?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Glutmte}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-1672889761802
0.jpg" /></div>
1401673251667 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Glutthione derived from?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glutmte}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-16724
602650724.jpg" /></div>
1401673263381 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Cretine derived from?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1689210637529
2.jpg" /></div>
1401673565846 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Ure derived from?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-1688781140799
6.jpg" /></div>
1401673575935 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Nitric Oxide derived from?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-16887
811407996.jpg" /></div>
1401673630336 1395802358422 Wht re the 3 romtic mino cids?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn; Phenyllnine; Tyrosine}}</div>
1401673790592 1395802358422 {{c1::Albinism}} is  possible cutneous complic
tion of Menkes Disese due to Tyrosinse requiring copper to form Melnin.
<div><br /></div><i><div></div>Remember, Menkes Disese involves  defect in cop
per bsorption.</i><div><i>The lbinism is on the milder side, if present.</i><b
r /><div><img src="pste-17467631993490.jpg" /></div></div>
1401673873130 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylketonuri (PKU)}} is  disorder of 
mino cid metbolism tht occurs due to  deficiency in P<b>henyllnine Hydroxy
lse</b>&nbsp;or <b>Tetrhydrobiopterin cofctor</b>. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401673994657 1395802358422 Which enzyme deficiency cn cuse Phenylketonuri

 (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phenyllnine hydroxylse}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401674051461 1395802358422 Which cofctor deficiency cn cuse Phenylketonu
ri (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tetrhydrobiopterin (BH4)}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>If cused by BH4 deficiency, the PKU is <b>milder</b>.</i><br /><div
><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401674095931 1395802358422 How do phenyllnine levels chnge in Phenylketo
nuri (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed, thereby leds to excess pheny
lketones in the urine}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Phenylketones include: pheny
lcette, phenyllctte nd phenylpyruvte.</i><br /><div><i>Also, tyrosine beco
mes n essentil mino cid.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg
" /></i></div>
1401674190383 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylketonuri (PKU)}} is  disorder of 
mino cid metbolism tht presents with  chrcteristic <b>musty body odour</b>
.
<br /><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401674230704 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylketonuri}} is  disorder of mino 
cid metbolism tht presents with <b>fir skin</b>&nbsp;or <b>prtil lbinism</
b>&nbsp;due to <b>decresed tyrosine production</b>.
<div><br /></div><i>Reme
mber,  significnt mount of Tyrosine is mde from Phenyllnine, whose metbol
ism is impired in PKU.</i><div><i>Also remember tht DA, NE, Epinephrine, Meln
in re ll derived from Tyrosine.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.j
pg" /></div></div>
1401674528009 1395802358422 {{c1::Asprtme}} is  rtificil sweetener used
in food tht must be voided in Phenylketonuri s it is  phenyllnine deriv
tive.
1401674669660 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Phenylketonuri (PKU)?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Less</b>&nbsp;phenyllnine nd <b>more</b>&nbsp;
tyrosine in the diet}}</div>
1401674746052 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Phenylketonur
i (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Incidence 1:10,000</i></div><div><i>Screened for 2-3 dys fter birth s m
ternl enzymes t birth cn give norml redings during.</i></div>
1401675101072 1395802358422 {{c1::Mternl PKU}} is  form of phenylketonuri
 tht rises due to  lck of proper dietry therpy during pregnncy. <br /><d
iv><i>Infnt presents with microcephly, intellectul disbility, growth retrd
tion nd congenitl hert defects.</i></div>
1401675173336 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht involves deficiency of <b>Homogentiste Oxidse </b>in the degr
dtive pthwy of tyrosine to fumrte.
<div><br /></div><i>The disorder
is <b>benign</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401675242641 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Alkptonuri?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Homogentiste Oxidse}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Foun
d in the degrdtive pthwy of tyrosine to fumrte.</i><div><div><img src="ps
te-17463337026194.jpg" /></div></div>
1401675603698 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Alkptonuri?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401675619786 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht presents with <b>drk connective tissue </b>nd <b>brown pigmen
ted sclere</b>.
1401675645122 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht presents with <b>urine tht turns blck </b>following prolonged
exposure to ir.
1401675743456 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht my present with <b>debilitting rthrlgis</b>&nbsp;nd <b>de
genertive rthritis</b>&nbsp;due to homogentisic cid's toxicity towrds crtil
ge.
<br /><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401675782552 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Homocystinuri
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive (ll types re AR)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-21509196218551.jpg" /></div>

1401675860107 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht cn be due to  deficiency of Cystthionine synthse.
<div><br /></div><i>Tx: decresed methionine, incresed cysteine, incresed B12
nd incresed B9 (folte) in the diet.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-21504901251
255.jpg" /></div>
1401675941832 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht cn result from  decresed ffinity of Cystthionine Synths
e for Pyridoxl Phosphte (Vitmin B6). <br /><div><i>Tretment: <b>gretly</b>&
nbsp;incresed B6 nd incresed cysteine in the diet.</i></div><div><i><img src=
"pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></i></div>
1401676005888 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht cn be due to  deficiency of Homocysteine Methyltrnsferse
(k Methionine Synthse).
<div><br /></div><i>Tretment: Incresed methion
ine in the diet.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></div>
1401677529173 1395802358422 Which 2 enzyme deficiencies cn cuse Homocystin
uri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cystthionine Synthse <u style="font-weight: b
old; ">or</u>&nbsp;Homocysteine Methyltrnsferse (Methionine Synthse)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>A deficiency in either cn cuse Homocystinuri</i></div><div><i><
img src="pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></i></div>
1401677584196 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin deficiencies cn cu
se Homocystinuri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine), B9 (Folt
e) nd B12 (Coblmin)}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Notice how B12 nd B6 re bo
th needed s cofctors.</i><div><i>Vitmin B9 is needed to drive Methionine Synt
hse s N5-Methyl-THF.</i></div><div><i><u>Remember, Methionine Synthse is the
only enzyme tht cn rectivte folte (N5-Methyl-THF to THF).</u><br /></i><div
><img src="pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></div></div>
1401677719641 1395802358422 Which is the only humn enzyme tht cn rectiv
te Folte (N5-Methyl-THF to THF)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Homocysteine Methyl
trnsferse (Methionine Synthse)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-21504
901251255.jpg" /></div>
1401677752307 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht presents very similrly to Mrfn Syndrome (tll stture, kyp
hosis, <b>lens subluxtion</b>).
1401677812519 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht presents with <b>downwrd nd inwrd lens subluxtion</b>.
1401677833612 1395802358422 {{c1::Thrombosis}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::Atherosclerosi
s}} re 2 vsculr complictions of Homocystinuri due to dmge sustined to ve
ssels s  result of disulfide bond formtion vi Homocysteine. <br /><div><i>Ho
mocysteine hs  free -SH group tht cn cuse disulfide bone formtion with oth
er -SH groups on proteins or blood vessel wlls.</i></div>
1401678012593 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht is lso referred to s Onchronosis.
1401678036330 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystinuri}} is  disorder of mino cid m
etbolism tht involves  hereditry defect of the renl PCT nd intestinl min
o cid trnsporter for Cysteine, Ornithine, Lysine nd Arginine.
<br /><d
iv><i><b>COLA</b>: Cysteine, Ornithine, Lysine, Arginine</i></div>
1401680647663 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystinuri}} is disorder of mino cid met
bolism tht cn involve <b>hexgonl cystine stones</b>&nbsp;in the urine due t
o excess cystine content.
<br /><div><i>Cystine is mde of 2 cysteine mole
cules connected by  disulfide bond.</i></div>
1401680677671 1395802358422 Which 4 mino cids hve defective trnsport in
Cystinuri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cysteine; Ornithine; Lysine; Arginine}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>COLA</i></div>
1401680703039 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Cystinuri?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div> <br /><div><i>Common (1:
7000).</i></div>
1401681073994 1395802358422 Wht dignostic test is used to dignose Cystinu
ri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Urinry cynide-nitroprusside test}}</div>
1401681092469 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Cystinuri?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Urinry lkliniztion nd cheltors tht increse the solubili

ty of cystine stones}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Agents include Potssium Citrte 
nd Acetzolmide.</i></div>
1401811267040 1395802358422 {{c1::Mple Syrup Urine Disese}} is  disorder
of mino cid metbolism tht occurs due to  deficiency in <b>Brnched Chin&nb
sp;lph-Ketocid dehydrogense</b>.
<br /><div><i>Remember, &nbsp;BCKDH is o
ne of the enzymes tht requires <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>:</i></di
v><div><i>Thimine (B1)</i></div><div><i>Lipoic Acid</i></div><div><i>CoA (B5)</
i></div><div><i>FAD (B2)</i></div><div><i>NAD (B3)</i></div>
1401813093714 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Mple Syrup Urine D
isese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brnched Chin lph-Ketocid Dehydrogense}}
</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, this enzyme requires <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre F
or Nncy</b>:</i></div><div><i>Thimine (B1)</i></div><div><i>Lipoic Acid</i></d
iv><div><i>CoA (B5)</i></div><div><i>FAD (B2)</i></div><div><i>NAD (B3)</i></div
>
1401813158862 1395802358422 Wht re the 3 brnched chin mino cids?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Vline; Leucine; Isoleucine}}</div>
1401813191515 1395802358422 {{c1::Mple Syrup Urine Disese}} is  disorder
of brnched mino cid metbolism tht results in <b>incresed lph-ketocids</
b>&nbsp;in the blood, especilly those of leucine.
1401813227620 1395802358422 How do the levels of lph-ketocids chnge in M
ple Syrup Urine Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse; especilly those
of leucine}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, MSUD involves  defect or defici
ency in Brnched Chin lph-Ketocid Dehydrogense.</i></div>
1401813299130 1395802358422 {{c1::Mple Syrup Urine Disese}} is  disorder
of brnched chin mino cid metbolism tht involves <b>severe CNS defects, int
ellectul disbility</b>&nbsp;nd <b>deth</b>.
1401813428800 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Mple Syrup U
rine Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401813441502 1395802358422 {{c1::Mple Syrup Urine Disese}} is  disorder
of mino cid metbolism tht presents with urine tht smells like mple syrup/b
urnt sugr.
1401813474986 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Mple Syrup Urine Dise
se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Restriction of BCAAs in the diet (Leu, Ile, Vl)
; Thimine supplementtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Thimine is  required cof
ctor for Brnched Chin lph-Ketocid Dehydrogense.</i></div>
1401813535554 1395802358422 How does Glucgon influence Glycogenolysis?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Glucgon cuses th
e <b>phosphoryltion of Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>&nbsp;vi Protein Kinse A, th
ereby <b>ctivting it.</b></i></div><div><i>Glucgon cuses the <b>phosphorylt
ion of Glycogen Synthse</b>&nbsp;vi Protein Kinse A, thereby <b>inctivting
it.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819069138 1395802358422 How does Epinephrine influence Glycogenolysis?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<div><br /></div><div><div><i>Ep
inephrine cuses the&nbsp;<b>phosphoryltion of Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>&nbsp;
vi Protein Kinse A, thereby&nbsp;<b>ctivting it.</b></i></div><div><i>Epinep
hrine cuses the&nbsp;<b>phosphoryltion of Glycogen Synthse</b>&nbsp;vi Prote
in Kinse A, thereby&nbsp;<b>inctivting it.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="
pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div></div>
1401819219969 1395802358422 Which type of G-protein is involved in Glucgon
nd Epinephrine signlling?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Thereby cusing n increse in [cAMP].</i></div><div><i><div></div
></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819279758 1395802358422 Which protein kinse enzyme is involved in the r
egultion of Glycogen Phosphorylse nd Glycogen Synthse by Glucgon nd Epinep
hrine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Protein Kinse A}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>And remember, <b>Insulin ctivtes phosphtses</b>&nbsp;hence it does the o
pposite.</i><br /><div><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg
" /></b></i></div>
1401819363556 1395802358422 Which protein phosphtse enzyme is involved in
the regultion of Glycogen Synthse nd Glycogen Phosphorylse by Insulin?<div><

br /></div><div>{{c1::Protein Phosphtse 1}}</div>
<br /><div><i><div></div
></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819410506 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Glycogenolysis?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Insulin ctivtes
<b>Glycogen Synthse</b>.</i></div><div><i>Insulin ctivtes <b>Protein Phospht
se 1</b>&nbsp;which <b>dephosphoryltes Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>, thereby in
ctivting it.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-21646
63517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819491519 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Glycogenesis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin ctivtes <b>Glyco
gen Synthse</b>.</i></div><div><i>Insulin ctivted <b>Protein Phosphtse 1</b
>&nbsp;which dephosphoryltes <b>Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>, thereby inctivtin
g it.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742
.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401820462778 1395802358422 How does AMP influence Glycogenolysis t muscle?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>This only occurs 
t muscle. <b>AMP hs no effect on heptic glycogenolysis</b>.</i></div>
1401820512824 1395802358422 Which enzyme in muscle ctivtes Glycogen Phosph
orylse when it is bound to C?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clmodulin}}</div>
<br /><div><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i>
</div>
1401820582800 1395802358422 How does Glucose-6-phosphte influence Glycogene
sis in both liver nd muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>G6P ctivted Glycogen Synthse in  feed-forwrd mnner to drive
glycogenesis.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-21646
63517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401833353374 1395802358422 Wht type of glycosidic bond is seen in <b>glyco
gen brnches</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-(1,6)}}</div>
1401833612783 1395802358422 Wht type of glycosidic bond is seen in <b>glyco
gen links</b>&nbsp;(i.e. liner glycogen)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-(1,4
)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-4475355922733.jpg" /></div>
1401833683064 1395802358422 In skeletl muscle, Glycogen is broken into&nbsp
;{{c1::Glucose-1-phosphte}} molecules nd then converted to&nbsp;{{c2::Glucose6-phosphte}}, which is rpidly metbolized during exercise nd enters nerobic
glycolysis.
<br /><div><i>The brekdown is the reverse of glycogen synthesis
:</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></i></div>
1401833835675 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver cleves Glucose-1-phos
phte residues off brnched glycogen until there re four remining before  br
nch point?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen phosphorylse}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></div>
1401834039050 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver moves <b>three</b>&nbs
p;Glucose-1-phosphte molecules from the brnch to the glycogen linkge in Glyco
genolysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4-lph-D-Glucnotrnsferse (Debrnching
Enzyme)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></div>
1401834231654 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver cleves off the lst g
lucose-1-phosphte molecule from  brnch in Glycogenolysis?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::lph-1,6-Glucosidse (Debrnching Enzyme)}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></div>
1401834270124 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver removes  phosphte gr
oup from Glucose-6-phosphte, thereby llowing glucose to be trnsported into th
e blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphtse}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Remember, glycogenolysis t the liver is imed to mintin blood sugr. Th
is finl step is vitl in both gluconeongenesis nd glycogenolysis to llow gluc
ose to enter circultion.</i></div><div><i>In fct, <b>the liver hs  unique Gl
ucose-6-phosphtse</b>&nbsp;tht lets this lst step occur.</i></div>
1401834466570 1395802358422 Which enzyme reversibly converts Glucose-1-phosp
hte to Glucose-6-phosphte (nd vice vers)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Epimer
se}}</div>
1401834493200 1395802358422 Which enzyme in <b>lysosomes</b>&nbsp;degrdes 
smll mount of glycogen?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-1,4-glucosidse (Aci

d Mltse)}}</div>
1401834550708 1395802358422 Wht is the primry role of Glycogenolysis t th
e liver?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mintennt of blood glucose}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Glycogenolysis only lsts  short time. Soon fter, gluconeogenesis tkes
over to keep blood glucose levels mintined.</i></div>
1401834674758 1395802358422 How do Glycogen levels chnge in glycogen storg
e disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Lo
l. Just mking sure you're still live.</i></div><div><i>Also, keep in mind of <
b>where</b>&nbsp;glycogen is mde/stored: <b>Liver</b>&nbsp;nd <b>muscle</b>. H
ence, it is these 2 tissues tht re ffected in these disorders. Glycogen stor
ge disorders cn be sorted into liver, muscle or mixed types.</i></div>
1401835653689 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke disese}} is  glycogen storge
disorder tht is lso referred to s Type I Glycogen Storge Disorder.
1401835707649 1395802358422 {{c1::Pompe Disese}} is  glycogen storge diso
rder tht is lso referred to s Type II&nbsp;Glycogen Storge Disorder
1401835724855 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is  glycogen storge disor
der tht is lso referred to s Type III&nbsp;Glycogen Storge Disorder.
1401835744015 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht is lso referred to s Type V&nbsp;Glycogen Storge Disorder.
1401835786447 1395802358422 Wht is the only glycogen storge disorder tht
ffects <b>both</b>&nbsp;the liver nd muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pompe
Disese}}</div>
1401835912232 1395802358422 Wht is the only glycogen storge disorder tht
hs severe fsting hypoglycemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Von Gierke Disese}}
</div>
1401835936881 1395802358422 Which enzyme is defective in Von Gierke Disese?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphtse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Re
member, <b>only the liver expresses Glucose-6-phosphtse.</b></i></div><div><i>
Of the glycogen storge disorders, Von Gierke is bsiclly the only one with re
lly shitty biochemistry.</i></div>
1401835993657 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke Disese}} is  glycogen storge
disorder tht presents with <b>severe fsting hypoglycemi</b>&nbsp;due to  Gl
ucose-6-phosphtse deficiency.
1401836050525 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke Disese}} is  glycogen storge
disorder tht presents with <b>heptomegly</b>&nbsp;due to  severe increse i
n Glucose-6-phosphte levels. <br /><div><i>G6P is very osmoticlly ctive nd
hence cuses cell swelling nd ultimtely heptosplenomegly.</i></div>
1401836115317 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke Disese}} is  glycogen storge
disorder tht presents with <b>hypermmonemi</b>&nbsp;nd <b>lctic cidosis</
b>&nbsp;due to the liver filure tht rises. <br /><div><i>Von Gierke Disese
is essentilly  genetic cuse of liver filure due to the Glucose-6-phosphts
e deficiency.</i></div>
1401836262125 1395802358422 {{c1::Ketocidosis}} is  compliction of Von Gi
erke Disese tht rises due to Acetyl CoA being shunted towrds ketogenesis.
1401836445601 1395802358422 {{c1::Gout/Hyperuricemi}} is  possible complic
tion of Von Gierke Disese due to the phosphte trpping tht occurs with Gluco
se-6-phosphte ccumultion nd the resultnt lck of phosphte for purine slv
ge.
<br /><div><i>Anything tht cuses phosphte trpping cn cuse hyperuri
cemi/gout.</i></div><div><i>Fructose Intolernce (Aldolse B deficiency; F1P c
cumultion) is nother exmple.</i></div><div><i>Clssic Glctosemi (Gl-1-P U
ridyltrnsferse defect; Gl-1-P ccumultion) is one s well.</i></div>
1401836484479 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Von Gierke Di
sese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401836496319 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Von Gierke Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frequent orl glucose/cornstrch; voidnce of fructose
nd glctose}}</div>
1401848975352 1395802358422 {{c1::Pompe Disese}} is  glycogen storge diso
rder tht involves <b>crdiomyopthy.</b>
<br /><div><i>Along with systemi
c findings, heptomegly nd muscle wekness there is erly deth.</i></div>
1401849196084 1395802358422 {{c1::Pompe Disese}} is  glycogen storge diso

rder tht involves  deficiency of Lysosoml lph-1,4-glucosidse (Acid Mltse
).
1401849223920 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is deficient in Pompe Disese?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Alph-1,4-glucosidse (Acid Mltse)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Found in lysosomes.</i></div>
1401849315370 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth in Pompe
Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CHF or rrhythmi}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i><b>P</b>ompe trshes the <b>p</b>ump.</i><br /><div><i>However remember, the
<b>liver is still ffected</b>. Pompe ffects both muscle nd the liver.</i></d
iv>
1401849357548 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Pompe Disese
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401849391388 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is  glycogen storge disor
der tht is considered  milder form of Von Gierke Disese (Glycogen Storge Dis
order Type I) with norml lctte levels.
<br /><div><i>Gluconeogenesis is
intct.</i></div>
1401849487279 1395802358422 Which glycogen storge disorder is considered 
milder form of Von Gierke Disese (Glycogen Storge Disorder Type I)?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Cori Disese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gluconeogenesis is intct
nd there re norml lctte levels.</i></div>
1401849548573 1395802358422 How do lctte levels chnge in Cori Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is  very key point.
There is no lctic cidosis in Cori Disese.</i></div>
1401849589562 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Cori Disese?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Debrnching enzyme (lph-1,6-Glucosidse)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Mnemonic to remember Anderson nd Cori Disese:</i></div><div><i><
b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson = <b>B</b>rnching enzyme deficie
ncy</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori = <b>D</b>ebrnching enzyme deficiency</i></div
>
1401849667566 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is  glycogen storge dise
se tht involves deficiency of Debrnching Enzyme (lph-1,6-glucosidse).
<div><br /></div><div><div><i>Mnemonic to remember Anderson nd Cori Disese:</i
></div><div><i><b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson =&nbsp;<b>B</b>r
nching enzyme deficiency</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori =&nbsp;<b>D</b>ebrnching
enzyme deficiency</i></div></div>
1401849717567 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Cori Disese?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401849734132 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is  glycogen storge disor
der tht involves cellulr glycogen with <b>too mny brnches </b>due to  defic
iency of Debrnching Enzyme.
1401849834426 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht presents with <b>myoglobinuri</b>&nbsp;with <b>red urine</b>&nbsp;f
ollowing strenuous exercise.
1401851325675 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht presents with pinful muscle crmps due to glycogen ccumultion in
muscle.
1401851374058 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht presents with <b>rrhythmi</b>&nbsp;due to electrolyte bnormlitie
s.
1401851414844 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in McArdle Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Skeletl muscle glycogen phosphorylse (Myophosphoryls
e)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Therefore <b>glycogenolysis is defective.</b></i><
/div>
1401851474427 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht involves  skeletl muscle glycogen phosphorylse (Myophosphorylse)
deficiency.
<br /><div><i>Therefore <b>glycogenolysis is defective</b>.</i><
/div>
1401851515196 1395802358422 {{c1::Pinful muscle crmps}} is  compliction
of McArdle Disese tht rises due to the significnt glycogen buildup in muscle
s.
<br /><div><i>There is no lctic cidosis in McArdle Disese s glucose

is <b>unvilble</b>&nbsp;due to  glycogen phosphorylse deficiency. Hence, no
glucose is vilble to be mde into Lctte vi Anerobic Glycolysis. Therefor
e, this muscle crmping hs nothing to do with lctte.</i></div>
1401851670334 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of McArdle Dise
se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401852097481 1395802358422 Which mjor glycogen storge disorder is ssoci
ted with muscle dmge?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::McArdle Disese}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>M</b>cArdle = <b>M</b>uscle</i></div>
1401852141165 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the glycogen storg
e disorder Anderson Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brnching Enzyme}}</div>
<br /><div><div><i>Mnemonic for remembering Anderson nd Cori disese:</i></div>
</div><div><i><b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson = <b>B</b>rnching
enzyme deficiency</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori = <b>D</b>ebrnching enzyme defi
ciency</i></div>
1401923761587 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b>&nbsp;of bnorml products ccum
ulte in lysosoml storge diseses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sphingolipids}}<
/div> <br /><div><i><b>Cermide</b> is the 'prent' of ll sphingolipids.</i><
/div>
1401926578906 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disese is ssocited wi
th <b>ngiokertoms</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fbry Disese}}</div>
1401926647468 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith crdiovsculr/renl disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fbry Disese}}</di
v>
1401926672207 1395802358422 {{c1::Fbry Disese}} is  lysosoml storge dis
order tht involves peripherl neuropthy of the hnds nd feet due to n <b>lp
h-glctosidse A</b> deficiency.
1401927090547 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml stor
ge disorder Fbry Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-Glctosidse A}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401927126436 1395802358422 {{c1::Fbry Disese}} is  lysosoml storge dis
order tht involves  deficiency of lph-Glctosidse A.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401927150689 1395802358422 {{c1::Fbry Disese}} is  lysosoml storge dis
order tht involves ccumultion of <b>cermide hexoside</b>. <br /><div><img
src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401927173282 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of the lysosoml
storge disorder Fbry Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}
</div> <br /><div><i>All lysosoml storge disorders <b>except Fbry nd Hunter
's syndromes&nbsp;</b>&nbsp;re utosoml recessive disorders.</i></div>
1401927409823 1395802358422 Wht is the only lysosoml storge disorder tht
is X-linked recessive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fbry Disese nd Hunter's Sy
ndrome}}</div> <br /><div><i>All other lysosoml storge disorders re utosom
l recessive.</i></div>
1401928007277 1395802358422 Wht is the most common lysosoml storge disord
er?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gucher Disese}}</div>
1401928040370 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder ffects t
he Reticuloendothelil System (RES; Mononucler Phgocyte System) only?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Gucher}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence there will be <b>hep
tosplenomegly</b>.</i></div>
1401928923199 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith <b>pncytopeni</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gucher Disese}}</div>
1401928967551 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith <b>septic necrosis of the femur</b>&nbsp;nd <b>bone crises</b>?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Gucher Disese}}</div>
1401928997477 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Cells}} re  pthologicl cell se
en in Gucher Disese tht re described s <b>lipid-lden mcrophges resemblin
g crumpled tissue pper</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-3685081940158.
jpg" /></div> <br /><div><i>Visulized with  <b>PAS stin.</b></i></div>
1401929060078 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for the lysosoml storge
disorder Gucher Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Recombinnt glucocerebrosid

se}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. the deficient enzyme</i></div>
1401929097241 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Gucher Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucocerebrosidse (bet-Glucosidse)}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i><b>"G-G-Glucose!</b>" (Gucher; Glucocerebrosidse; Glucocerebroside
).</i><br /><div><img src="pste-3878355468684.jpg" /></div>
1401929406864 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Disese}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves  deficiency of <b>Glucocerebrosidse</b>&nbsp;(bet-Gluco
sidse) nd  subsequent ccumultion of <b>Glucocerebroside</b>.
<div><br
/></div><i>Gucher = "<b><u>GGG</u></b>"</i><br /><div><img src="pste-38740605
01388.jpg" /></div>
1401929481745 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Disese}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves  Glucocerebrosidse deficiency. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401929530946 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Disese}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves the ccumultion of Glucocerebroside.
<div><br /></div
><i>"<b>G-G-Glucose!</b>" (Gucher, Glucocerebrosidse, Glucocerebroside)</i><br
/><div><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401929935588 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder ffects <
b>both</b>&nbsp;the CNS nd Reticuloendothelil System (RES)?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence there is <b>heptosp
lenomegly, progressive neurodegenertion</b>&nbsp;<b><u>nd</u>&nbsp;cherry-red
mcul</b>.</i></div>
1401929998180 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder presents
with <b>both</b>&nbsp;heptosplenomegly nd cherry-red mcul?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}}</div>
1401930068039 1395802358422 {{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}} is  lysosoml stor
ge disorder tht presents with progressive neurodegenertion, <b>heptosplenome
gly</b>&nbsp;nd <b>cherry-red</b>&nbsp;spot on the mcul.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401930503169 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml stor
ge disorder Niemnn-Pick Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sphingomyelinse}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>My friend <b>Nmn</b>&nbsp;picks (Niemnn-Pick) his nose
with his <b>sphing</b>er (sphingomyelin; sphingomyelinse).</i></div><div><i>...
. true story, if you ever see Nmn D. on the wrds, cll him out on it.</i></di
v><div><i><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></i></div>
1401930887198 1395802358422 {{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}} is  lysosoml stor
ge disorder tht involves  deficiency of Sphingomyelinse.
<div><br /></div
><i>My friend <b>Nmn</b>&nbsp;picks (Niemnn-Pick) his nose with his <b>sphing
</b>er (sphingomyelin; sphingomyelinse).</i><div><i>... true story, if you ever
see Nmn D. on the wrds, cll him out on it.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-38
74060501388.jpg" /></div></div>
1401930953025 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Gucher Dise
se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401931228389 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Niemnn-Pick
Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401931245436 1395802358422 {{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}} is  lysosoml stor
ge disorder tht presents with n ccumultion of Sphingomyelin.
<br /><d
iv><br /></div><div><i>My friend&nbsp;<b>Nmn</b>&nbsp;picks (Niemnn-Pick) his
nose with his&nbsp;<b>sphing</b>er (sphingomyelin; sphingomyelinse).</i><div><
i>... true story, if you ever see Nmn D. on the wrds, cll him out on it.<br
/></i><div><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1401931274881 1395802358422 {{c1::Cherry-red spot on the mcul}} is n ocul
r compliction of lysosoml storge disorders ffecting the CNS nd is describe
d s the mcul ppering on  very ple bckground retin with neurons full of
sphingolipids. <br /><div><i>Here's  good mnemonic: <b>Cherry-red is hyphente
d, so is Niemnn-Pick nd Ty-Schs</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="pste-7911
329759427.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401931429176 1395802358422 {{c1::Fom cells}} re  pthologicl cell seen
in Niemnn-Pick Disese tht re described s lipid-lden mcrophges.<div><br /
></div><div><img src="pste-7022271529157.jpg" /></div>

1401931470977 1395802358422 {{c1::Zebr Bodies}} re intrcellulr fetures
of mcrophges nd neurons in Niemnn-Pick disese seen on electron microscopy 
nd re described s striped ptterns of ccumulted sphingolipids.<div><br /></d
iv><div><img src="pste-7176890351902.jpg" /></div>
1401931654715 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder ffects t
he CNS only?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence there is <b>progressive neurodegenertion nd cherry-red mcul</b>.
</i></div>
1401932275945 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}} is  lysosoml storge
disorder tht presents with <b>progressive neurodegenertion</b>&nbsp;nd <b>de
velopmentl dely</b>&nbsp;due to  Hexosminidse A defect.
1401932315388 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}} is  lysosoml storge
disorder tht presents with  <b>"cherry-red" spot on the mcul</b>&nbsp;due t
o  Hexosminidse A deficiency.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-7907034792
131.jpg" /></div>
1401932350503 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder presents with <
b>lysosomes with onion skin</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}}<
/div>
1401932454875 1395802358422 Wht is the key distinguishing feture between N
iemnn-Pick nd Ty-Schs Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs <b>does
not</b>&nbsp;hve heptosplenomegly}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Niemnn-Pick = CNS
nd RES</i></div><div><i>Ty-Schs = CNS only</i></div>
1401932505408 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy for someone with Ty
-Schs Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3-4 y/o}}</div>
<br /><div><i>He
nce  vignette with  40 y/o ptient does not hve Ty-Schs.</i></div>
1401932531668 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml stor
ge disorder Ty-Schs Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexosminidse A}}</di
v>
<div><br /></div><i>Ty-S<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>&nbsp;= He
<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>osminidse A deficiency</i><br /><div><img
src="pste-8383776162186.jpg" /></div>
1401932604193 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}} is  lysosoml storge
disorder tht involves  Hexosminidse A deficiency. <br /><div><i>Ty-S<u s
tyle="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>&nbsp;= He<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>os
minidse A deficiency</i><br /><div><img src="pste-8383776162186.jpg" /></div>
</div>
1401932644047 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}} is  lysosoml storge
disorder tht involves n ccumultion of GM₂&nbsp;Gnglioside.
<br /><div><i>Ty-S<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>&nbsp;= He<u style="font
-weight: bold; ">X</u>osminidse A deficiency</i><br /><div><img src="pste-838
3776162186.jpg" /></div></div>
1401932687196 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Ty-Schs Dis
ese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401932704046 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith Globoid Cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Krbbe Disese}}</div>
1401933097915 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith <b>optic trophy</b>&nbsp;s well s peripherl neuropthy nd developmentl
dely?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Krbbe Disese}}</div>
1401933127517 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml storg
e disorder Krbbe Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glctocerebrosidse}}</di
v>
<br /><div><img src="pste-9229884719498.jpg" /></div>
1401933369573 1395802358422 {{c1::Krbbe Disese}} is  lysosoml storge di
sorder tht presents with n ccumultion of Glctocerebroside.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933395457 1395802358422 {{c1::Krbbe Disese}} is  lysosoml storge di
sorder tht involves  Glctocerebrosidse deficiency. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933451333 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Krbbe Dises
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401933463784 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of  ptient with Kr
bbe Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~ 2 y/o}}</div>

1401933483703 1395802358422 {{c1::Metchromtic Leukodystrophy}} is  lysoso
ml storge disorder tht presents with <b>centrl nd peripherl demyelintion,
txi</b> nd <b>dementi</b>.
1401933530940 1395802358422 {{c1::Metchromtic Leukodystrophy}} is  lysoso
ml storge disorder tht involves n Arylsulftse A deficiency.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933565132 1395802358422 Which enzyme deficiency is seen in the lysosoml
storge disorder Metchromtic Leukodystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aryls
ulftse A}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933594019 1395802358422 {{c1::Metchromtic Leukodystrophy}} is  lysoso
ml storge disorder tht presents with n ccumultion of Cerebroside Sulfte.
<br /><div><img src="pste-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933647288 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Metchromtic
Leukodystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401933927937 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents with <b>grgoylism</b>&nbsp;nd <b>cornel clouding</b>.
1401933986744 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents with <b>irwy obstruction</b>&nbsp;nd heptosplenomegly
.
1401934028029 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml stor
ge disorder Hurler Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-L-iduronidse}}</d
iv>
1401934069500 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves  deficieny of lph-L-iduronidse.
1401934092467 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::Hunter Sy
ndrome}} re lysosoml storge disorders tht present with ccumultion of <b>he
prn sulfte</b>&nbsp;nd <b>dermtn sulfte</b>.
1401934123572 1395802358422 {{c1::Hunter Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents similr to Hurler Syndrome, but <b>lcks cornel clouding<
/b>.
1401934149732 1395802358422 {{c1::Hunter Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents similr to Hurler Syndrome but <b>includes ggressive beh
viour</b>.
1401934185984 1395802358422 {{c1::Hunter Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves  deficiency of iduronte sulftse.
1401934211249 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of the lysosoml
storge disorder Hunter Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hunters lwys im for the <b>X</b>.</i></div>
1401934246419 1395802358422 Which 3 lysosoml storge disorder hve n incre
sed incidence in Ashkenzi Jews?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs; NiemnnPick; Gucher}}</div>
1401934288337 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}},&nbsp;{{c2::Niemnn-Pi
ck Disese}} nd&nbsp;{{c3::Gucher Disese}} re lysosoml storge disorders th
t hve incresed incidence in Ashkenzi Jews.
1401934344648 1395802358422 Adipose tissue cn only mke Glycerol-3-Phospht
e by reducing {{c1::Dihydroxycetone Phosphte (DHAP)}},  glycolytic intermedi
te.
<br /><div><i>Hence, dipose tissue requires incresed glucose uptke vi
 the GLUT4 trnsporter in order for there to be spre DHAP vilble for mking
nd storing triglycerides. This is prt of why excess sugr intke becomes ft.
</i></div><div><i>Also this is why&nbsp;</i><b><i>dibetics will hve hyperlipid
emi</i>.</b></div>
1401936293497 1395802358422 {{c1::Ftty Acid Synthse}} is n enzyme in ftt
y cid synthesis tht mkes Plmitte through 7 rounds of rection (vi 7 ATP) b
y dding 2 crbons from Acetyl CoA to  growing ftty cid chin.
<br /><d
iv><i>This rection lso uses NADPH.</i></div><div><i>Only crbons from Acetyl C
oA re dded.</i></div><div><i>Plmitte is essentilly  storge form of 8 cet
yl-CoA mocs (2 C ech).</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-11463267713772.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1401937489319 1395802358422 {{c1::Avidin}} is  protein in rw eggs tht cn
bind to Vitmin B7 (Biotin), thereby cusing  possible deficiency of ftty ci

ds due to impired Mlonyl-CoA production.
<div><br /></div><i>Biotin is re
quired for Mlonyl-CoA production in FA Synthesis.</i><br /><div><img src="pste
-11458972746476.jpg" /></div>
1401937981267 1395802358422 Which metbolic shuttle is involved in Ftty Aci
d <b>Synthesis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Citrte Shuttle}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>This is importnt to remember becuse <b>Citrte inhibits glycolysis
.</b>&nbsp;Hence, when Citrte is high the body is essentilly sying "Stop burn
ing sugr, brh. I'm gonn mke ft. How bout you use tht G6P to mke glycogen
or NADPH vi the HMP shunt insted?".</i><br /><div><img src="pste-11458972746
476.jpg" /></div>
1401938332490 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Ftty Acid Synthse 
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed vi induction}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-11458972746476.jpg" /></div>
1401938390760 1395802358422 {{c1::Ftty Acid CoA Synthetse}} is n enzyme i
nvolved in ftty cid <b>degrdtion</b>&nbsp;tht "ctivtes" ftty cids by d
ding  CoA group.
<br /><div><img src="pste-12167642350321.jpg" /></div>
1401938575082 1395802358422 Which nucleoside disphosphte molecule is dded
to sugrs to "ctivte" them for metbolic rections?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:UDP (Uridine Diphosphte)}}</div>
1401938879605 1395802358422 How does Mlonyl-CoA influence Ftty Acid Degrd
tion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition (t Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse
1)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Remember, <b>Mlonyl-CoA is n intermedite
of FA Synthesis</b>. Hence, if your ss is mking fts, ft brekdown is going t
o be inhibited.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939128667 1395802358422 Wht is the rte limiting enzyme of Ftty Acid D
egrdtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse <u><b>1</
b></u> (CPT1)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939154201 1395802358422 Which metbolic shuttle is involved in Ftty Aci
d Degrdtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crnitine Shuttle}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>Involves 2 key enzymes:</i><div><i><b>Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsfers
e 1 (CPT1)&nbsp;</b>nd&nbsp;</i><i><b>Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse 2 (CPT2).
</b></i></div><div><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div></div>
1401939211497 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse <b>1</b>}}
is n enzyme involved in the crnitine shuttle tht dds Crnitine to Acyl-CoA
molecules, thereby llowing it to cross the mitochondril membrne.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939260807 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse <b>2</b>}}
is n enzyme in the crnitine shuttle tht <b>removes</b>&nbsp;Crnitine from C
rnitine-Acyl-CoA, thereby freeing Acyl-CoA into the mitochondri.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939309807 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetyl-CoA}} is the finl brekdown produc
t of ftty cids tht then feeds into ketogenesis nd the TCA cycle.
<div><br
/></div><i>Hence, when there is incresed ATP (such s in dibetics), the <b>ex
cess Acetyl-CoA cuses ketocidosis</b>.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-121633473
83025.jpg" /></div>
1401939401190 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Deficiency}} is  disorder of f
tty cid brekdown tht involves the <b>inbility to trnsport long-chin ftty
cids into the mitochondri</b>, thereby resulting in toxic ccumultion.
<br /><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939467652 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Deficiency}} is  disorder of f
tty cid brekdown tht presents with <b>wekness</b>&nbsp;nd <b>hypotoni</b>.
1401939523409 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoketotic hypoglycemi}} is  feture of
Crnitine deficiency due to significntly lower levels of Acetyl-CoA s  resul
t of impired ftty cid brekdown.
<div><br /></div><i>Remember, Acetyl-CoA
feeds into ketogenesis. Acetyl-CoA is lso  positive llosteric regultor of P
yruvte Decrboxylse in gluconeogenesis.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-12163347
383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939640650 1395802358422 {{c1::Acyl-CoA Dehydrogense Deficiency}} is  d
isorder of ftty cid brekdown tht involves <b>elevted levels of dicrboxylic
cids </b>nd <b>low levels of Acetyl-CoA.</b> <br /><div><i>Becuse there is l

ess Acetyl-CoA, there is lso <b>hypoketotic hypoglycemi</b>&nbsp;s cetyl-CoA
drives both ketogenesis nd gluconeogenesis.</i></div>
1401939781619 1395802358422 How does Acetyl-CoA influence Pyruvte Crboxyl
se in Gluconeogenesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive llosteric regultor}
}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence, decresed Acetyl-CoA = decresed fsting glucose =
fsting hypoglycemi</i></div>
1401939841483 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetyl-CoA}} is  brekdown product of ft
ty cids tht directly feeds into ketogenesis, especilly when it is found in ex
cess. <br /><div><i>In prolonged strvtion nd DKA, Oxlocette is depleted
for gluconeogenesis.</i></div><div><i>In lcoholism, elevted NADH levels shunt
Oxlocette to mlte.</i></div><div><i><u>Both of the bove occurrences cuse
 buildup of Acetyl-CoA, which shunts both Glucose nd free ftty cids towrds
Ketogenesis.</u></i></div>
1401940643620 1395802358422 How does Glucgon influence Ketogenesis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence Ketogenesis occurs p
ost mel nd in between mels.</i></div>
1401940667657 1395802358422 Which breth smell is ssocited with Ketosis?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fruity Odour}}</div>
1401940705348 1395802358422 Where in the body does Ketolysis occur?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Renl cortex, muscle nd brin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
e liver is unble to peform Ketolysis becuse <b>it lcks Thiophorse </b>(Succi
nyl-CoA Acetocette Trnsferse), nd is hence unble to ctivte its own keton
es.</i></div><div><i>Ketolysis involves the ctivtion of Hydroxybutyrte to Ace
tocette nd subsequent NADH production.</i></div>
1401941075357 1395802358422 Linolenic Acid is n omeg-{{c1::3}} ftty cid.
<br /><div><i>i.e. fish oil.</i></div>
1401941118259 1395802358422 Linoleic Acid is n omeg-{{c1::6}} ftty cid.
1401941135122 1395802358422 Archidonic Acid is n omeg-{{c1::6}} ftty ci
d.
1401941147674 1395802358422 Which omeg-6 ftty cid is used to mke Archid
onic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Linoleic Acid}}</div>
1401941166429 1395802358422 How mny crbons re in the ftty cid Plmitic
Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::16:0}}</div>
1401941209238 1395802358422 How mny crbons re in the <b>essentil</b>&nbs
p;ftty cid Linoleic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::18:2}}</div>
1401941226068 1395802358422 How mny crbons re in the <b>essentil</b>&nbs
p;ftty cid Linolenic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::18:3}}</div>
1401988556499 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of p
rotein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl}}</div>
1401988983762 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of c
rbohydrte?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl}}</div>
1401989001496 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of f
t?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::9 kcl}}</div>
1401989012640 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of 
lcohol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::7 kcl}}</div>
1401989035680 1395802358422 {{c1::Cretine Phosphte}} is  high energy phos
phorylted molecule tht functions s the <b>second</b>&nbsp;mjor source of ene
rgy in exercise fter ATP stores.
<br /><div><img src="pste-979252544012.
jpg" /></div>
1401989465450 1395802358422 Which metbolic process is the mjor source of e
nergy in the fed stte (just fter  mel)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycolysi
s; Aerobic Respirtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin fter  mel stimultes th
e storge of lipids, proteins nd glycogen.</i></div>
1401990702186 1395802358422 Which metbolic process is the <b>mjor</b>&nbsp
;source of energy in the fsting stte (between mels)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Heptic glycogenolysis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Glucgon nd NE stimulte
use of fuel/energy reserves.</i></div>
1401990764617 1395802358422 Which metbolic process is the <b>secondry</b>&
nbsp;source of energy in the fstic stte (between mels)?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Heptic gluconeogenesis; Adipose relese of FFA}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gl

ucgon nd NE stimulte the use of fuel/energy reserves.</i></div>
1401990812842 1395802358422 How mny dys into strvtion do Glycogen reserv
es usully become depleted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dy 1}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-1541893259754.jpg" /><img src="pste-2435246457278.jpg" /></d
iv>
1401991850330 1395802358422 Which energy store is the <b>mjor</b>&nbsp;sour
ce of energy fter dy 3 of strvtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adipose store
s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This fr into strvtion, ketones become the min
energy source for the brin.</i></div><div><i>After ft stores deplete, degrdt
ion of vitl proteins ccelertes, leding to orgn filure nd deth.</i></div>
<div><i>The mount of excess energy stores vilble determines how long someone
will survive in strvtion.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-1541893259754.jpg"
/><img src="pste-2435246457278.jpg" /></i></div>
1401992066409 1395802358422 How do incresed cholesterol levels influence th
e expression of LDL receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1402010858583 1395802358422 Which receptor on heptocytes binds to LDL, llo
wing for its uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL Receptors (ApoB100 Receptor)
}}</div>
1402011383789 1395802358422 Which receptor on heptocytes binds to HDL, llo
wing for its uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SR-B1 receptor}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Scvenger receptor B1</i></div>
1402011413644 1395802358422 Wht is the rte limiting enzyme in cholesterol
synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA Reductse}}</div>
1402011452174 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence HMG-CoA Reductse ct
ivity in cholesterol synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse vi inductio
n}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, Induction = incresed expression = incre
sed V_mx</i></div>
1402011491725 1395802358422 How does Mevlonte, n intermedite in choleste
rol synthesis, influence HMG CoA Reductse expression?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Repression}}</div>
<br /><div><i>HMG-CoA is converted into Mevlonte</i></
div>
1402011923634 1395802358422 Which enzyme bound to HDL nd LDL esterifies 2/3
of plsm cholesterol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lechitin-Cholesterol Acyltrn
sferse (LCAT)}}</div>
1402012081011 1395802358422 {{c1::Sttins}} re  clss of ntihyperlipidemi
c drugs tht competitively nd reversibly inhibit HMG-CoA Reductse.
<br /><d
iv><i>e.g. Lovsttin</i></div>
1402012556117 1395802358422 {{c1::Frnesyl PPi}} is  byproduct of cholester
ol synthesis tht functions s  source of Coenzyme Q. <br /><div><i>Hence, dm
inistrtion of Sttins, which inhibit cholesterol synthesis, cn impir function
of the electron trnsport chin by inhibiting Frnesyl PPi production. This is
prt of&nbsp;<b>Sttin-induced Rhbdomyolysis</b>&nbsp;s myocytes re prticul
rly rich in mitochondri.</i></div>
1402022178378 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipse}} is  pncretic enzyme tht degr
des dietry triglycerides in the smll intestine.
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-2250562863813.jpg" /></div>
1402022600834 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL)}} is n enzyme fo
und on the surfce of vsculr endothelium tht degrdes triglycerides circulti
ng in chylomicrons nd VLDLs. <br /><div><img src="pste-2246267896517.jpg" />
</div>
1402022656036 1395802358422 {{c1::Heptic Lipse (HL)}} is  heptic enzyme
tht degrdes triglycerides tht remin in IDL. <br /><div><img src="pste-22462
67896517.jpg" /></div>
1402022687158 1395802358422 How do decresed Insulin levels influence Hormon
e Sensitive Lipse (HSL) ctivity?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<div><br></div><i>This is very importnt to remember. <b>Hormone Sensitive Lips
e detects <u>decreses</u>&nbsp;in Insulin</b>. This contributes to the hyperlip
idemi seen in dibetics. Lower insulin levels cuses n increse in HSL ctivit
y nd hence more FFAs in the blood.</i><div><i>Also remember tht without Insuli
n, lipids re not stored in dipose tissue nd they sty in blood (s VLDL, LDL

nd Chylomicrons), thereby contributing to dibetic hyperlipidemi.<br></i><div>
<img src="pste-2246267896517.jpg" /></div></div>
1402022799822 1395802358422 How do incresed Insulin levels influence Lipopr
otein Lipse (LPL) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-2246267896517.jpg" /></div>
1402022830108 1395802358422 {{c1::Hormone Sensitive Lipse (HSL)}} is  lip
se enzyme found in dipocytes tht degrdes stored triglycerides.
1402022977509 1395802358422 {{c1::Lechitin-cholesterol Acyltrnsferse (LCAT
)}} is n enzyme found on HDL tht ctlyzes the esterifiction of cholesterol,
thereby forming mture HDL.
<br /><div><img src="pste-3534758084974.jpg" />
</div>
1402023608036 1395802358422 {{c1::Cholesterol ester trnsfer protein (CETP)}
} is n enzyme found in HDL tht medites the trnsfer of cholesterol esters to
other lipoprotein prticles (such s VLDL, IDL, LDL). <div><br /></div><i>As I
DL becomes richer nd richer in cholesterol vi CETP ction, it becomes LDL.</i>
<br /><div><img src="pste-3530463117678.jpg" /></div>
1402023680505 1395802358422 Wht receptor on heptocytes binds to HDL, there
by mediting its uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SR-B1}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>k Scvenger B1 Receptor</i></div><div><i>Remember, <b>HDL brings exposed
or unused cholesterol to the liver from peripherl tissue</b>.&nbsp;</i></div><
div><i>When LDL levels re in excess in the blood, they become oxidized nd cn
yield  ftty strek on blood vessel wlls. HDL lso functions to "clen up" thi
s deposited cholesterol.</i></div>
1402023855461 1395802358422 Which GLUT trnsporter is involved in Insulin-me
dited storge of Glucose?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT4}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>In dipose, the stored glucose is converted to Glycerol nd then dded to
ftty cids to form ft when there is high energy.</i></div>
1402024881005 1395802358422 {{c1::ApoE}} is n polipoprotein tht medites
the uptke of lipoprotein remnnts.
<br /><div><img src="pste-4986457031063
.jpg" /></div>
1402025312771 1395802358422 {{c1::ApoA-I}} is n polipoprotein tht functio
ns to elevte LCAT.
<br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025594492 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to medite lipopr
otein remnnt uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoE}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025612444 1395802358422 {{c1::ApoA-1}} is n polipoprotein tht is rth
er unique to HDL.
<br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025638385 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to ctivte LCAT?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoA-1}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-49821
62063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025701816 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions s  cofctor for
Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoC-II}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025730094 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to medite chylom
icron secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-48}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Only found in chylomicrons.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg"
/></div>
1402025772256 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein is unique to chylomicrons?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-48}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-49821
62063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025784799 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein is relesed by the gut or f
ound in the diet?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-48}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Seen in exogenous lipids.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /
></div>
1402026032782 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions s the LDL recept
or?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-100}}</div> <br /><div><i>The LDL receptor i
s the ApoB-100 Receptor nd is <b>found in ll endogenously mde lipoproteins fr
om the liver</b>.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></i></di
v>
1402026445101 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to trnsport cholest

erol from liver to tissues?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402026758577 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to trnsport cholest
erol from peripherl tissue to the liver?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is why HDL is considered "<b>H</b>elthy".</i></div><div><i><
img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402026833181 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to deliver <b>dietr
y</b>&nbsp;<b>triglycerides</b>&nbsp;to peripherl tissue?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Chylomicrons}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It lso delivers cholesterol to th
e liver s chylomicron remnnts, which re mostly depleted of their tricylglyce
rols.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402027042896 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein is secreted by intestinl epit
helil cells <b>only</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chylomicrons (with ApoB48)}
}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027180249 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to deliver <b>hep
tic triglycerides</b>&nbsp;to peripherl tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::VLD
L}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Secreted by the liver.</i></div><div><i><img src="
pste-7189775254219.jpg" /></i></div>
1402027283013 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein is formed through the degrdt
ion of VLDL?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IDL (k VLDL remnnts)}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027399022 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to deliver <b>hepti
c cholesterol</b>&nbsp;to peripherl tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027586977 1395802358422 {{c1::LDL}} is  lipoprotein formed by Heptic L
ipse modifiction of IDL in the peripherl tissue.
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027650538 1395802358422 Which receptor does LDL bind to t trget cells
for receptor-medited endocytosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL Receptor (ApoB
100 Receptor)}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>The trget cell is bsiclly ny cel
l tht cn use cholesterol.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /><
/div>
1402027788627 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to medite <b>revers
e cholesterol trnsport</b>&nbsp;from peripherl tissue to the liver nd steroid
ogenic tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
1402027831340 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein cts s  repository for ApoC
nd ApoE?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both of th
ese re needed for chylomicron nd VLDL metbolism. ApoC-II is hnded off to oth
er lipoproteins nd then ctivted LPL, thereby driving VLDL nd CM metbolism.<
/i></div><div><i><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402027886301 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein is secreted from&nbsp;<b>both<
/b>&nbsp;the liver nd intestines?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027984325 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions s  repository for
ApoA-1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-71854
80286923.jpg" /></div>
1402028044386 1395802358422 How does lcohol ffect HDL synthesis?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1402028054872 1395802358422 Which dyslipidemi is referred to s Type I Dysl
ipidemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (or Hypertriglyceridem
i)}}</div>
1402028786714 1395802358422 Which dyslipidemi is referred to s Type II Dy
slipidemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi}}</div>
1402028809366 1395802358422 Which dyslipidemi is referred to s&nbsp;Type I
V Dyslipidemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertriglyceridemi}}</div>
1402028822734 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I)}} is  fmil
il dyslipidemi tht involves elevtion of chylomicrons, TGs nd cholesterol.
1402029015585 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II)}}
is &nbsp;fmilil dyslipidemi tht involves elevtion of LDL nd cholesterol.
1402029044973 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertriglyceridemi (Type IV)}} is &nbsp

;fmilil dyslipidemi tht involves elevtion of VLDL nd TGs.
1402029066291 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hyperchylomic
ronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosom
l recessive}}</div>
1402029099556 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil
dyslipidemi)}} is  fmilil dyslipidemi tht cn be cused by  deficiency o
f Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL).
1402029135973 1395802358422 <div>Which enzyme deficiency cn cuse&nbsp;Hype
rchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil dyslipidemi)?</div><div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL)}}</div>
1402029179367 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil
dyslipidemi)}} is  fmilil dyslipidemi tht cn be cused by ltered ApoC-I
I function.
<br /><div><i>Remember, ApoC-II ctivtes Lipoprotein Lipse.</i
></div>
1402029210128 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil
dyslipidemi)}} is  fmilil dyslipidemi tht cuses pncretitis, <b>heptos
plenomegly</b>&nbsp;nd <b>eruptive/pruritic xnthoms</b>.
1402029262107 1395802358422 How does the risk of therosclerosis chnge in&n
bsp;Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::No incresed risk}}</div>
1402029276024 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fmilil Hype
rcholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Au
tosoml dominnt}}</div>
1402029452609 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II f
milil dyslipidemi)}} is  fmilil dyslipidemi tht involves bsent or defect
ive LDL receptors.
1402029481789 1395802358422 Which receptors re bsent or defective in&nbsp;
Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::LDL receptor (k ApoB-100 receptor)}}</div>
1402029496083 1395802358422 Wht is the typicl blood cholesterol for  pti
ent heterozygous for&nbsp;Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dysli
pidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~ 300 mg/dL}}</div>
1402029546051 1395802358422 Wht is the typicl blood cholesterol level for
ptients homozygous for&nbsp;Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dy
slipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::≥ 700 mg/dL}}</div>
1402029574265 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa fa
milial dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <>accelera
ted atherosclerosis</>.
<r /><div><i>MI is possile efore 20 y/o.</i><
/div>
1402029676063 1395802358422 Which tendon is commonly the site of xanthomas i
n&nsp;Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa familial dyslipidemia)?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Achilles tendon}}</div>
1402029696859 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa fa
milial dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <>corneal
arcus</>.
1402029710322 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa fa
milial dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <>achilles
tendon xanthomas</>.
1402029735385 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Hypertriglyce
ridemia (Type IV Familial Dyslipidemia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal do
minant}}</div>
1402029770739 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertriglyceridemia (Type IV Familial Dys
lipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <>hepatic overproduc
tion of VLDL</>.
1402029800982 1395802358422 Which endocrine complication is associated with&
nsp;Hypertriglyceridemia (Type IV Familial Dyslipidemia)?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Pancreatitis}}</div>
1402029833751 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Familial Hypercholeste
rolemia (Type IIa familial dyslipidemia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mipomersen}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Mipomersen inds to the mRNA that is translated into ApoB-

100. The dsRNA molecule is then degraded and ApoB-100 production is inhiited. H
ence <>VLDL production is inhiited. </>Rememer, Type IIa dyslipidemia involv
es elevated levels of LDL due to defective LDL receptors.</i></div>
1405565407044 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
GI tract <>from the pharynx to the duodenum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::For
egut}}</div>
1405566256174 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
GI tract <>from the duodenum to the proximal 2/3 of the transverse colon</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Midgut}}</div>
1405566288463 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
GI tract <>from the distal 1/3 of the colon to the anal canal <u>aove the pect
inate line</u>?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Hindgut}}</div>
1405566320891 1395802358422 Which adominal wall fold is associated with <>
sternal defects</>&nsp;if it fails to close?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rostra
l fold}}</div>
1405566421202 1395802358422 Which adominal wall fold is associated with <>
omphalocele</>&nsp;and <>gastroschisis</>&nsp;if it fails to close?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lateral fold}}</div>
1405566451425 1395802358422 Which adominal wall fold is associated with <>
ladder exstrophy</>&nsp;if it fails to close?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caud
al fold}}</div>
1405566528943 1395802358422 Which chromosomal trisomy is associated with duo
denal atresia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 21}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Oc
curs due to a failure of the duodenum to recanalize.</i></div>
1405566586051 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the midgut h
erniate through the umilical ring?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::6th week}}</div>
1405566635415 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the midgut <
>return</>&nsp;into the adominal cavity<>&nsp;</>and <>rotate</>&nsp;a
round the superior mesenteric artery (SMA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::10th week
}}</div>
1405566669366 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastroschisis}} is a congenital GI disorde
r that involves <>extrusion of the adominal contents through the lateral adom
inal folds</>. <r /><div><i>The contents <>are not covered y peritoneum</>.
</i></div>
1405566805616 1395802358422 {{c1::Omphalocele}} is a congenital GI disorder
that involves the <>persistence of herniation of adominal contents into the um
ilical cord.</><div><><r /></></div><div><><img src="paste-27492085662009.
jpg" /></></div>
<r /><div><i>The contents are <>sealed y peritoneum</
>.</i></div>
1405566984163 1395802358422 What is the most common tracheoesophageal anomal
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Esophageal atresia with distal tracheoesophageal f
istula}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>Presents with <>drooling, choking and vomit
ing with the first feeding</>.</i><div><i>Presence of a TEF will allow for <>a
ir to enter the stomach</>, which is noticeale on chest x-ray.<r /></i><div><
img src="paste-27504970564040.jpg" /></div></div>
1405567161887 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyanosis}} is a feature of congenital tran
cheoesophageal anomalies that occurs <>secondary to laryngospasm</>&nsp;which
occurs to avoid reflux-related aspiration.
1405567207195 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyloric Stenosis}} is a congenital GI diso
rder that involves <>hypertrophy of the pylorus</>, therey causing ostructio
n and a <>palpale "olive" mass</>&nsp;in the <>epigastric region</>.
1405567259392 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyloric Stenosis}} is a congenital GI diso
rder due to hypertrophy of the pylorus that presents with <><u>nonilious</u>&n
<r /><div><i>Occurs in
sp;projectile vomit</>&nsp;at ~2-6 weeks old.
1/600 live irths.</i></div>
1405567307738 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Congenita
l Pyloric Stenosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Se
en in 1/600 live irths.</i></div>
1405567329764 1395802358422 Which emryological structure gives rise to the
pancreas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Foregut}}</div>

1405567368628 1395802358422 Which emryological pancreatic uds contriute t
o the <>head of the pancreas</>&nsp;and the <>main pancreatic duct</>?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral pancreatic uds}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-28140625723863.jpg" /></div>
1405567410884 1395802358422 Which emryological pancreatic uds contriute t
o the <>uncinate process</>&nsp;of the pancreas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V
entral ud}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-28136330756567.jpg" /></div>
1405567431621 1395802358422 Which emryological pancreatic ud contriutes t
o the <>ody, tail and isthmus of the pancreas</>&nsp;and <>accessory pancre
atic ducts</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dorsal ud}}</div>
1405567474558 1395802358422 {{c1::Annular Pancreas}} is a congenital GI diso
rder that involves a <>ring of pancreatic tissue around the duodenum</>&nsp;d
ue to anormal development of the <>ventral pancreatic ud</>.
<div><r
/></div><div><i>This can cause <>duodenal narrowing</>.</i></div><i>Normally,
the ventral pancreatic ud goes entirely one way around the duodenum to form th
e head of the pancreas. Sometimes it can split, forming a <>ring</>.</i><r />
<div><img src="paste-28136330756567.jpg" /></div>
1405567570204 1395802358422 {{c1::Pancreas divisum}} is a congenital GI diso
rder that involves <>failure of the ventral and dorsal pancreatic uds to fuse
at 8 weeks</>.
1405567605170 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue layer gives rise to t
he spleen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div> <r /><div><i>The spleen
arises in the mesentary of the stomach ut <>it is supplied y the foregut</>
&nsp;(i.e. the <>celiac artery</>).</i></div>
1405568459179 1395802358422 Which parts of the duodenum are <>retroperitone
al</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd-4th}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-28647431864744.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-28660316766626.jpg" /></div>
1405568732703 1395802358422 Which parts of the pancreas are <>retroperitone
al</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::All parts except the tail}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><div><img src="paste-28647431864744.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-2866031
6766626.jpg" /></div></div>
1405568756078 1395802358422 Which parts of the colon are <>retroperitoneal<
/>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ascending and descending}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><div><img src="paste-28647431864744.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-2866031
6766626.jpg" /></div></div>
1405568775293 1395802358422 Which portion of the esophagus is retroperitonea
l?<div><r />{{c1::Lower 2/3}}</div>
<r /><div><div><img src="paste-28647431
864744.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-28660316766626.jpg" /></div></div>
1405568828366 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::falciform ligament}} is a GI liga
ment that connects the <>liver to the anterior adominal wall.</>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-28870770164375.jpg" /></div>
1405569029658 1395802358422 What structure is contained within the Falciform
ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum teres hepatis}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Which develops from the fetal umilical vein.</i></div>
1405569069698 1395802358422 The {{c1::hepatoduodenal ligament}} is a GI liga
ment that connects the <>liver to the duodenum</>.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-28866475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569095842 1395802358422 What structure is contained within the Hepatoduo
denal Ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Portal Triad}}</div> <r /><div><i>Po
rtal vein; Proper hepatic artery; Common ile duct.</i></div><div><i><img src="p
aste-28866475197079.jpg" /></i></div>
1405569142852 1395802358422 What structures make up the portal triad?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Proper hepatic artery; Portal vein; Common ile duct}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-28866475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569161801 1395802358422 {{c1::Pringle maneuver}} is a surgical maneuver
that involves <>compression of the hepatoduodenal ligament etween the thum an
d index finger to control leeding</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-2886647519707
9.jpg" /></div>
1405569229890 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::gastrohepatic ligament}} is a GI
ligament that connects the <>liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach</>.

<r /><div><img src="paste-28866475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569258433 1395802358422 What structure is contained in the Gastrohepatic
Ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric arteries}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-28866475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569284058 1395802358422 Which GI ligament separates the greater and less
er adominal sacs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastrohepatic ligament}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It may e cut during surgery to access the lesser sac.</i></div><d
iv><i><img src="paste-28866475197079.jpg" /></i></div>
1405569323370 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Gastrocolic ligament}} is a GI li
gament that connects the <>greater curvature of the stomach to the transverse c
olon</>.
1405569351262 1395802358422 What structure is contained in the Gastrocolic L
igament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastroepiploic arteries}}</div>
1405569368989 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::gastrosplenic ligament}} is a GI
ligament that connects the <>greater curvature of the stomach to the spleen</>
.
<r /><div><img src="paste-28866475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569398462 1395802358422 What structures are found in the Gastrosplenic l
igament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Short Gastric vessels; Left Gastroepiploic v
essels}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-28866475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569430873 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Splenorenal ligament}} is a GI li
gament that connects the <>spleen to the anterior surface of the left kidney</
>, extending to the posterior adominal wall. <r /><div><img src="paste-28866
475197079.jpg" /></div>
1405569468351 1395802358422 What structures are found in the Splenorenal lig
ament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Splenic artery; Splenic vein; Tail of the panc
reas}}</div>
1405569494312 1395802358422 In which layer of the GI wall is the <>Meissner
plexus</>&nsp;found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sumucosa}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>i.e. Sumucosal plexus</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-29978871726822.jpg
" /></i></div>
1405569901022 1395802358422 In which layer of the GI wall is the <>Myenteri
c/Auerach plexus</>&nsp;found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscularis externa}
}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-29983166694118.jpg" /></div>
1405569926798 1395802358422 Which layer of the GI wall contains the <>epith
elium, lamina propria</>&nsp;and <>muscularis mucosa</>?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Mucosa}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-29978871726822.jpg" /></div>
1405569993692 1395802358422 Which layer of the GI wall is affected y <>ero
sions</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mucosa only}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-29978871726822.jpg" /></div>
1405570020993 1395802358422 What is the frequency of asal electric rhythm a
t the stomach?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3 waves/min}}</div>
1405570045396 1395802358422 What is the frequency of asal electric rhythm a
t the duodenum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::12 waves/min}}</div>
1405570051697 1395802358422 What is the frequency of asal electric rhythm a
t the ileum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::8-9 waves/min}}</div>
1405570058908 1395802358422 What histological type of epithelium is seen at
the esophagus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epi
thelium}}</div>
1405570101393 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine is associat
ed with <>Brunner glands</>&nsp;(in the sumucosa)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Duodenum}}</div>
1405570139478 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine is associat
ed with <>Crypts of Lieerkuhn</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::All of them (duo
denum, jejunum, ileum)}}</div> <r /><div>:)</div>
1405570153564 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine is associat
ed with <>plicae circulares</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Jejunum; Ileum}}</d
iv>
1405570199211 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine is associat
ed with <>Peyer's patches</>&nsp;(in the lamina propria and sumucosa)?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Ileum}}</div>

1405570229712 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine has the lar
gest numer of golet cells in the small intestine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I
leum}}</div>
1405570258538 1395802358422 In which anatomical direction do <>arteries tha
t supply the GI tract</>&nsp;ranch off the adominal aorta?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Anteriorly}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-31336081392355.jpg" /
></div>
1405570411394 1395802358422 In which anatomical direction to arteries that <
>supply non-GI tract structures</>&nsp;ranch off the adominal aorta?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Laterally}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3133178642505
9.jpg" /></div>
1405570432601 1395802358422 {{c1::Superior Mesenteric Arter (SMA) Syndrome}}
is a cardiovascular syndrome that occurs when the <>transverse/third portion o
f the duodenum is entrapped etween the SMA and aorta</>, therey causing intes
tinal ostruction.
1405570487968 1395802358422 What is the main artery that supplies derivative
s of the foregut?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac artery}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>Includes the <>pharynx and lower esophagus to the proximal duodenum
</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-31331786425059.jpg" /></div>
1405570511338 1395802358422 What is the main artery that supplies derivative
s of the midgut?<div><r />{{c1::SMA}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Includes <>
distal duodenum to the proximal 2/3 of the transverse colon.</></i><r /><div><
img src="paste-31331786425059.jpg" /></div>
1405570525909 1395802358422 What is the main artery that supplies derivative
s of the hindgut?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IMA}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><i>Includes <>distal 1/3 of the transverse colon to the upper portion of the r
ectum</>.</i><div><i>Splenic flexure is watershed region.<r /></i><div><img sr
c="paste-31331786425059.jpg" /></div></div>
1405570539700 1395802358422 What is the parasympathetic innervation of deriv
atives of the foregut?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X (vagus)}}</div>
1405570562557 1395802358422 What is the parasympathetic innervation of deriv
atives of the midgut?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X (vagus)}}</div>
1405570582079 1395802358422 What is the parasympathetic innervation of deriv
atives of the hindgut?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic Nerve}}</div>
1405570596358 1395802358422 What is the verteral level of the celiac trunk?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T12}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3133178642505
9.jpg" /></div>
1405570629599 1395802358422 What is the verteral level of the Superior Mese
nteric Artery (SMA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L1}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-31331786425059.jpg" /></div>
1405570646561 1395802358422 What is the verteral level of the left renal ar
tery?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L1}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-31331
786425059.jpg" /></div>
1405570657129 1395802358422 What is the verteral level of the Inferior Mese
nteric Artery (IMA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L3}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-31331786425059.jpg" /></div>
1405570671218 1395802358422 What is the verteral level of the ifurcation o
f the adominal aorta?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Bi
-<>four</>-cation of the adominal aorta.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-313
31786425059.jpg" /></i></div>
1405570701879 1395802358422 What are the 3 main ranches of the celiac trunk
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Common hepatic artery; Splenic artery; Left gastric
artery}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>Notice the strong anastamoses etween the le
ft and right gastric/gastroepiploic arteries.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-3246
9952758485.jpg" /></div>
1405572858389 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Common Hepatic Artery}},&nsp;{{c
2::Splenic Artery}} and&nsp;{{c3::Left Gastric artery}} are the 3 main ranches
of the celiac trunk. <r /><div><img src="paste-32465657791189.jpg" /></div>
1405572931616 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::superior epigastric artery}} anas
tamoses with the&nsp;{{c2::inferior epigastric artery}}.

1405573100149 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::superior pancreaticoduodenal arte
ry}} anastamoses with the&nsp;{{c2::inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery}}.
1405573123796 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::middle colic artery}} anastamoses
with the&nsp;{{c2::left colic artery}}.
1405573134859 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::superior rectal artery}} anastamo
ses with the&nsp;{{c2::middle and inferior arteries}}.
1405620938992 1395802358422 {{c1::Esophageal varices}} is a clinical manifes
tation of portal HTN at the esophagus due to portosystemic anastomoses etween t
he <>left gastric vein</>&nsp;and the <>esophageal veins</>.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-962072675088.jpg" /></div>
1405621064989 1395802358422 {{c1::Caput medusae}} are a feature of portal HT
N that presents at the umilicus due to the portosystemic anastamoses etween th
e <>paraumilical vein</>&nsp;and the <>small epigastric veins of the anteri
or adominal wall</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-957777707792.jpg" /></div>
1405621314812 1395802358422 {{c1::Anorectal varices}} are a feature of porta
l HTN that presents at the rectum due to portosystemic anastomoses etween the <
>superior rectal vein</>&nsp;and the <>middle/inferior rectal veins</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-957777707792.jpg" /></div>
1405621474819 1395802358422 {{c1::Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Sh
unt (TIPS)}} is a surgically places shunt that is used to treat portal HTN as it
shunts lood flow <>from the portal vein to the hepatic vein</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>i.e. it directly shunts the portal system into systemic circulation</i></d
iv><div><i><img src="paste-957777707792.jpg" /></i></div>
1405621568341 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::pectinate/dentate line}} is an an
atomical landmark at the rectum that forms <>where the endoderm</>&nsp;(i.e.
hidgut) <>meets the invaginating ectoderm</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-14688
78815729.jpg" /></div>
1405621629761 1395802358422 {{c1::Internal hemorrhoids}} are a type of hemor
rhoids found <>aove the pectinate line</>&nsp;that are <>not painful</>&n
sp;as they receive visceral innervation.
<r /><div><img src="paste-14645
83848433.jpg" /></div>
1405621886357 1395802358422 Which type of hemorrhoids are found <>aove the
pectinate line</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal hemorrhoids}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1464583848433.jpg" /></div>
1405621903659 1395802358422 Which type of hemorrhoids are <>not painful</>
&nsp;as they receive visceral innervation from <>aove the pectinate line</>?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal hemorrhoids}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-1464583848433.jpg" /></div>
1405621937279 1395802358422 Which artery supplies the rectum <>aove the pe
ctinate line</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Rectal artery (from the IM
A)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1464583848433.jpg" /></div>
1405621977089 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage of the rectum <>ao
ve the pectinate line</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior rectal vein to In
ferior Mesenteric Vein to Portal System}}</div>
1405622011279 1395802358422 What is the lymphatic drainage of the rectum <>
aove the pectinate line</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal iliac nodes}}<
/div>
1405622029720 1395802358422 {{c1::External hemorrhoids}} are a type of hemor
rhoids that are found <>elow the pectinate line</>&nsp;and are <>painful</
>&nsp;as they receive <>somatic innervation</>&nsp;from the inferior rectal
ranch of the pudendal nerve. <r /><div><img src="paste-1464583848433.jpg" />
</div>
1405622078487 1395802358422 Which type of hemorrhoids are found <>elow the
pectinate line</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::External hemorrhoids}}</div>
1405622105412 1395802358422 Which type of hemorroids are <>painful</>&nsp
;as they receive <>somatic innervation</>&nsp;from the <>inferior rectal ra
nch of the pudendal nerve</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::External hemorrhoids}}
</div>
1405622133488 1395802358422 What artery supplies the rectum <>elow the pec
tinate line</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior Rectal Artery from the Inte

rnal Pudendal Artery}}</div>
1405622165494 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage of the rectum <>el
ow the pectinate line</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior rectal vein to In
ternal pudendal vein to Internal iliac vein to the IVC}}</div>
1405622205409 1395802358422 Which somatic nerve innervates the <>external h
emorrhoids</>&nsp;found <>elow the pectinate line</>?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Inferior Rectal Branch of the Pudendal Nerve}}</div>
1405622243987 1395802358422 What is the lymphatic drainage of the rectum <>
elow the pectinate line</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superficial Inguinal No
des}}</div>
1405622264490 1395802358422 {{c1::Anal Fissure}} is a GI disorder descried
as a <>tear in the anal mucosa elow the pectinate line</>. <div><r /></div
><i>Presents with <>pain while pooping, lood on the toilet paper</>.</i><div>
<i>Typically located <>posteriorly</>&nsp;due to <>poor perfusion</>&nsp;i
n that area.<r /></i><div><img src="paste-1464583848433.jpg" /></div></div>
1405622325895 1395802358422 Which surface of hepatocytes faces the ile cana
liculi?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Apical surface}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-2680059593271.jpg" /></div>
1405623565819 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is affected 1st y viral
hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 1/Periportal Zone}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-2675764625975.jpg" /></div>
1405623604926 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is affected first y ing
ested toxins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 1/Periportal Zone}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-2675764625975.jpg" /></div>
1405623624360 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is affected first y <>
ischemia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Centriloular Zone}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2675764625975.jpg" /></div>
1405623678152 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver contains the cytochrome
P450 system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Centriloular Zone}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2675764625975.jpg" /></div>
1405623698320 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is most sensitive to met
aolic toxins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Centriloular Zone}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2675764625975.jpg" /></div>
1405623735692 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is the site of alcoholic
hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Centriloular Zone}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2675764625975.jpg" /></div>
1405623762956 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Ampulla of Vater}} is the common
opening of the common ile duct and main pancreatic duct into the duodenum.
<r /><div><i>Ostruction here can lock oth pancreatic and iliary function.</
i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3148211028581.jpg" /></i></div>
1405624047603 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Sphincter of Oddi}} is the sphinc
ter that surrounds the common ile duct.
<r /><div><img src="paste-31439
16061285.jpg" /></div>
1405624096295 1395802358422 What are the contents of the <>Femoral Triangle
</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Femoral nerve, artery and vein (from lateral th
e medial)}}</div>
<div><r /></div><img src="paste-3470333575239.jpg" /><
r /><div><img src="paste-3371549327974.jpg" /></div>
1405624556600 1395802358422 What are the contents of the <>femoral sheath</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Femoral artery; Femoral vein; Deep Inguinal Lymph
Nodes}}</div> <r /><div><i>Note, it <>does not</>&nsp;include the femoral
nerve.</i></div><div><i><div><img src="paste-3371549327974.jpg" /></div></i></di
v>
1405624610504 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::femoral sheath}} is a fascial tu
e found 3-4 cm elow the inguinal ligament that contains the femoral vein, arter
y and deep inguinal lymph nodes.
<r /><div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-3470333575239.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-3371549327974.jpg" /></div><
/div>
1405624653846 1395802358422 What are the contents of the Spermatic Cord?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::External spermatic fascia; Cremasteric muscle and fascia
; Internal spermatic fascia}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3685081940611

.jpg" /></div>
1405624731408 1395802358422 Which adominal muscle gives rise to the externa
l spermatic fascia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::External olique}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-3680786973315.jpg" /></div>
1405624746962 1395802358422 Which adominal muscle gives rise to the cremast
eric muscle and fascia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal olique}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3680786973315.jpg" /></div>
1405624764206 1395802358422 Which adominal fascia gives rise to the interna
l spermatic fascia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transversalis fascia}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3680786973315.jpg" /></div>
1405624789382 1395802358422 What is the site of protrustion in an <>Indirec
t Inguinal Hernia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Inguinal Ring}}</div>
<r /><div><i><><u>I</u></>ndirect = <><u>I</u></>nternal</i></div><div><i><
img src="paste-3680786973315.jpg" /></i></div>
1405624864376 1395802358422 What is the site of protrusion in a <>Direct In
guinal Hernia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adominal Wall}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-3680786973315.jpg" /></div>
1405626669368 1395802358422 An {{c1::diaphragmatic hernia}} is a type of her
nia that involves protrusion of <>adominal structures into the thorax</>&nsp
;through the diaphragm. <r /><div><i>Occurs in infants as a result of defective
development of the pleuroperitoneal memrane.</i></div>
1405627288168 1395802358422 What is the most common type of diaphragmatic he
rnia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hiatal Hernia}}</div>
1405627307900 1395802358422 {{c1::Hiatal Hernia}} is a type of diaphragmatic
hernia where the <>stomach herniates upward through the esophageal hiatus</>&
nsp;of the diaphragm.
1405627355552 1395802358422 What is the most common type of Hiatal Hernia?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sliding Hiatal hernia}}</div>
1405627788927 1395802358422 {{c1::Sliding Hiatal Hernia}} is a type of Hiata
l hernia that involves <>superior displacement of the gastroesophageal junction
</>, therey yielding an "<>hourglass stomach</>."
1405627835481 1395802358422 {{c1::Paraesophageal Hernia}} is a type of diaph
ragmatic hernia that involves <>protrustion of the fundus of the stomach into t
he thorax</>&nsp;with <u>preservation of the gastroesophageal junction</u>.
1405627885148 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia involves protrusio
n of the owel <>through the internal inguinal ring, external inguinal ring and
into the scrotum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indirect Inguinal hernia}}</di
v>
1405628101362 1395802358422 {{c1::Indirect Inguinal hernia}} is a type of in
guinal hernia that involves protrustion of tissue <>through the internal inguin
al ring, external inguinal ring and into the scrotum</>.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-4969277161873.jpg" /></div>
1405628138791 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia herniates <>later
al</>&nsp;to the inferior epigastric artery?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indire
ct}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4964982194577.jpg" /></div><div><img
src="paste-6627134537923.jpg" /></div>
1405628330292 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia herniates <>media
l</>&nsp;to the Inferior Epigastric Artery?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Direct
inguinal hernia}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-4964982194577.jpg" /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-6622839570627.jpg" /></div>
1405628356042 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia is associated with
<>failure of the processus vaginalis to close</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Indirect inguinal hernia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Can also result in hydroce
le.</i></div><div><i>The path of an indirect inguinal hernia follows the path of
descent of testes and it is covered y all 3 layers of the spermatic fascia.</i
></div>
1405628647449 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y <>Indire
ct </>Inguinal Hernia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
1405628673305 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia protrudes through
the <>inguinal (Hasselach's) triangle?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::D

irect inguinal hernia}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-4964982194577.jpg" />
</div>
1405629207039 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia involves herniatio
n through the <>external (superficial) inguinal ring only</>?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Direct inguinal hernia}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-49649
82194577.jpg" /></div>
1405629272514 1395802358422 Which type of inguinal hernia is typically seen
in older men?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Direct}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-4964982194577.jpg" /></div>
1405629287694 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Femoral H
ernias?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Females}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-4964982194577.jpg" /></div>
1405629882717 1395802358422 {{c1::Femoral hernia}} is a type of gastrointest
inal hernia that protrudes <>elow the inguinal ligament through the femoral ca
nal</>&nsp;and <>elow/lateral to the puic tuercle</>.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-4964982194577.jpg" /></div>
1405629925596 1395802358422 What is the leading cause of owel incarceration
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Femoral hernia}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-4964982194577.jpg" /></div>
1405629935597 1395802358422 What are the contents of the <>inguinal (Hassel
ach's) triangle</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior epigastric vessels; La
teral order of the rectus adominus; Inguinal Ligament}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-4964982194577.jpg" /></div>
1405632598871 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete CCK?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::I cells}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7610682049286
.jpg" /></div>
1405632721675 1395802358422 Where in the small intestine are I-cells found?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum; Jejunum}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>
1405632745651 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Gastrin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::G cells}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-7606387081990
.jpg" /></div>
1405632756689 1395802358422 Where in the stomach are G cells found?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Antrum}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7606387081990
.jpg" /></div>
1405632770077 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Glucose-depe
ndent Insulinotropic Peptide (GIP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::K cells}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>
1405632797797 1395802358422 Where in the small intestine are K cells found?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum; Jejunum}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>
1405632814187 1395802358422 What section of the GI tract secretes Motilin?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small intestine}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633167210 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Secretin?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::S cells}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-76063
87081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633181366 1395802358422 Where in the small intestine are S cells located
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-76063
87081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633190521 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Somatostatin
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D cells}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-76063
87081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633210167 1395802358422 Which areas of the GI tract secrete Vasoactive I
ntestinal Polypeptide (VIP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parasympathetic ganglia
in GI sphincters, gallladder and SI}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-76063
87081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633324647 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Intrinsic Fa
ctor?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parietal cells of the stomach}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>

1405633350505 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Gastric Acid
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parietal cells of the stomach}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633366497 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Pepsin?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Chief cells of the stomach}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-7606387081990.jpg" /></div>
1405633380083 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete HCO<su>3</s
u>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mucosal cells of the stomach, duodenum, salivary
glands and pancreas}}</div>
1405633416483 1395802358422 Which sumucosal glands of the duodenum secrete
HCO<su>3</su>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brunner glands}}</div>
1405633433902 1395802358422 How does CCK influence pancreatic secretion?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is done indir
ectly.</i></div><div><i><>CCK acts on neural muscarinic pathways to trigger pan
creatic secretion</>.</i></div>
1405633926244 1395802358422 How does CCK influence&nsp;gallladder contract
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405633932561 1395802358422 How does CCK influence&nsp;gastric emptying?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405633942954 1395802358422 How does CCK influence&nsp;sphincter of Oddi to
ne?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, CCK trig
gers gallladder contraction, so the sphincter of Oddi must e relaxed at the sa
me time.</i></div>
1405633983503 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in fatty acids
and amino acids influence CCK release?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</di
v>
1405634006773 1395802358422 How does Gastrin influence gastric acid secretio
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634062475 1395802358422 How does Gastrin influence growth of the gastric
mucosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634072789 1395802358422 How does Gastrin influence gastric motility?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634082007 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in stomach pH in
fluence Gastrin release?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405634103047 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in stomach pH i
nfluence Gastrin secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634132338 1395802358422 How does stomach distention influence Gastrin re
lease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634143178 1395802358422 How do Gastrin levels change in Zollinger-Ellisi
on Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634174789 1395802358422 How do Gastrin levels change in chronic PPI use?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>PPI's work to decr
ease stomach acid (i.e. increase stomach pH).</i></div><div><i>This in turn trig
gers Gastrin release.</i></div>
1405634201844 1395802358422 How does Phenylalanine influence Gastrin release
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634213294 1395802358422 How does Tryptophan influence Gastrin release?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634226096 1395802358422 Which GI hormone is also known as Gastric Inhii
tory Peptide (GIP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic
Peptide (GIP)}}</div>
1405634288960 1395802358422 How does&nsp;Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic P
eptide (GIP) influence gastric acid secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrea
se}}</div>
1405634311394 1395802358422 How does&nsp;Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic P
eptide (GIP) influence insulin release?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
1405634316693 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in fatty acids,
amino acids and oral glucose influence&nsp;Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Pe
ptide (GIP) release?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><d

iv><i>Oral glucose loads are used more rapidly y the ody versus equivalent IV
doses due to the GIP secretion it stimulates.</i></div>
1405634390780 1395802358422 {{c1::Motilin}} is a GI hormone secreted y the
small intestine that <>functions to produce migratory motor complexes (MMCs)</
>.
<r /><div><i>Hence, <>motilin receptor agonists are used to stimulate
intestinal peristalsis</>.</i></div>
1405634449679 1395802358422 How do Motilin levels change in the <>fasting</
<r /><div><i>Th
>&nsp;state?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
is is why we tell patients to <>not feed their children</>&nsp;if they happen
to swallow something like a coin or marle.</i></div><div><i>Fasting state = in
creased motilin = increased frequency of MMCs = whatever was ingested will e po
oped out sooner.</i></div>
1405634509864 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythromycin}} is a macrolide antiiotic t
hat also acts as a Motilin agonist, therey stimulating intestinal peristalsis.
1405635139648 1395802358422 How does Secretin influence pancreatic HCO<su>3
</su>&nsp;secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<i><div>
</div></i><i><r /></i>This is integral for duodenal digestion.<div><i>The HCO<s
u>3</su>&nsp;secretion into the duodenum neutralizes the incoming acidic ile
and allows pancreatic enzymes to function.</i></div>
1405635161215 1395802358422 How does Secretin influence ile secretion?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405635168567 1395802358422 How does Secretin influence gastric acid secreti
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635183257 1395802358422 How does a decrease in duodenal pH influence Sec
retin levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Re
memer, Secretin induces pancreatic HCO<su>3</su>&nsp;secretion.</i></div>
1405635631032 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence gastric acid and
pepsinogen secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635656154 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence pancreatic secre
tion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635665033 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence small intestine
secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635673104 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence gallladder cont
raction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635683572 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence insulin and gluc
agon release?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635803442 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in gastric pH in
fluence Somatostatin release?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Somatostatin decreases gastric acid secretion.</i></div>
1405635837426 1395802358422 How does vagal stimulation influence Somatostati
n release?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer,
the PSNS generally <>increases</>&nsp;GI secretion. Somatostatin however work
s to generally <>decrease</>&nsp;GI secretion. Hence, the PSNS <>inhiits so
matostatin release</>.</i></div>
1405635895477 1395802358422 How does Nitric Oxide influence Lower Esophageal
Sphincter (LES) tone?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>NO pretty much causes smooth muscle relaxation everywhere. LES included.</
i></div>
1405636029560 1395802358422 {{c1::Achalasia}} is a GI disorder that involves
an <>increase in lower esophageal sphincter (LES) resting tone</>&nsp;due to
<>loss of NO secretion</>.
1405636065728 1395802358422 How does Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide (VIP)
influence intestinal water and electrolyte secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Increase}}</div>
1405636107010 1395802358422 How does Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide (VIP)
influence relaxation of intestinal smooth muscle and sphincters?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405636145891 1395802358422 {{c1::VIPoma}} is a <>non-alpha, non-eta </>i
slet cell pancreatic tumour&nsp;that <>secretes VIP</>, therey causing copio
us <>watery diarrhea, hypokalemia and achlorhydria.</>
<r /><div><><i

>WDHA Syndrome:</i></></div><div><i>- <>W</>atery <>D</>iarrhea</i></div><d
iv><i>- <>H</>ypokalemia</i></div><div><i>- <>A</>chlorhydria</i></div>
1405636267369 1395802358422 {{c1::Intrinsic Factor}} is a protein secreted 
y parietal cells of the stomach that <>inds to vitamin B12</>&nsp;in order f
or it to e asored in the terminal ileum.
1405636307521 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract is vitamin B12 asored?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Terminal ileum}}</div>
1405636340567 1395802358422 How does Histamine influence gastric acid secret
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-11918534246988.jpg" /></div>
1405636375184 1395802358422 How does ACh influence gastric acid secretion?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11914
239279692.jpg" /></div>
1405636390786 1395802358422 How does Gastrin influence gastric acid secretio
n??<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11914
239279692.jpg" /></div>
1405636402999 1395802358422 How does GIP influence gastric acid secretion?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405636438775 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence gastric acid sec
retion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405636451474 1395802358422 How do prostaglandins influence gastric acid sec
retion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is wh
y chronic NSAID use can result in gastric ulcers due to increased gastric acid s
ecretion.</i></div>
1405636488649 1395802358422 How does Secretin influence gastric acid secreti
on??<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><r /></div>
1405636518630 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastrinoma}} is a gastrin-secreting tumour
that yields high levels of acid secretion and ulcers refractory to medical ther
apy.
1405636569029 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in pH influence
pepsin activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pe
psin is activated y gastric acid via conversion from pepsinogen.</i></div>
1405636616266 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP)}} is a par
asympathetic transmitter that triggers release of Gastrin from G cells. <r /><d
iv><i>It is <>unaffected y Atropine which locks ACh action.</></i></div><div
><i><><img src="paste-11914239279692.jpg" /></></i></div>
1405636695260 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastrin}} is a GI hormone secreted from G
cells that triggers Histamine release from Enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells in
order to increase gastric acid secretion.
<div><r /></div><i>Hence, <>Ga
strin has oth direct and indirect effects on parietal cells to govern gastric a
cid release</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-11914239279692.jpg" /></div>
1405636927071 1395802358422 Which receptor does ACh ind to at parietal cell
s to trigger gastric acid secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::M<su>3</su>}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-13056700580485.jpg" /></div>
1405637625859 1395802358422 Which receptor does Gastrin ind to at parietal
cells to trigger gastric acid secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CCK<su>B</s
u>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13052405613189.jpg" /></div>
1405637645685 1395802358422 Which receptor does Histamine ind to on parieta
l cells in order to trigger gastric acid secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::H
<su>2</su>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13052405613189.jpg" /></div>
1405637666661 1395802358422 Which intracellular signalling cascade is associ
ated with ACh (M<su>3</su>) and Gastrin (CCK<su>B</su>) action at parietal c
ells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G<su>q</su>&nsp;--&gt; IP<su>3</su>/DAG -&gt; increased Ca}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13052405613189.jpg" /
></div>
1405637751823 1395802358422 Which intracellular signalling cascade is associ
ated with Histamine (H<su>2</su>) action at parietal cells?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::G<su>s</su>&nsp;--&gt; cAMP --&gt; gastric acid secretion}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13052405613189.jpg" /></div>
1405638636482 1395802358422 Which pancreatic enzyme functions in starch dige

stion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::alpha-amylase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Secreted i
n its active form.</i></div>
1405638719216 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipase}},&nsp;{{c2::phospholipase A}} and
&nsp;{{c3::colipase}} are pancreatic enzymes that function in fat digestion.
1405638745450 1395802358422 {{c1::Trypsin}},&nsp;{{c2::chymotrypsin}},&nsp
;{{c3::elastase}} and&nsp;{{c4::caroxypeptidase}} are 4 pancreatic enzymes tha
t function in <>protein digestion</>&nsp;and are secreted as proenzymes in zy
mogen form.
1405638803329 1395802358422 {{c1::Trypsinogen}} is a pancreatic enzyme that
functions to convert <>proenzyme/zymogens from the pancreas</>&nsp;in its act
ive form.
<r /><div><i>Trypsin is its active form.</i></div>
1405638862605 1395802358422 {{c1::Enterkinase/Enteropeptidase}} is a rush-
order enzyme on the duodenal and jejunal mucosa that functions to convert Trypsi
nogen into Trypsin.
1405638891173 1395802358422 Which enzyme on the rush order of the duodenum
and jejunum functions to convert trypsinogen into trypsin?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Enterokinase/Enteropeptidase}}</div>
1405638914313 1395802358422 Which monosaccharide transporter uptakes glucose
and galactose at the enterocyte rush order?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::SGLUT1
(with Na)}}</div>
1405639641453 1395802358422 Which monosaccharide transporter uptakes fructos
e at the enterocyte rush order via facilitated diffusion?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::GLUT-5}}</div>
1405639668103 1395802358422 Which monosaccharide transporter <>transports a
ll monosaccharides across the asolateral memrane</>&nsp;of enterocytes into
the lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2}}</div>
1405639695188 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract is iron asored?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum as Fe²⁺}}</div>
1405639737857 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract is folate asored?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Jejunum; Ileum}}</div>
1405639751146 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract is Vitamin B12 asored?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Terminal ileum}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Requires i
ntrinsic factor.</i></div>
1405639772272 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract are ile acids asored?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Terminal ileum}}</div>
1405639783509 1395802358422 {{c1::Peyer's patches}} are <>unencapsulated</
>&nsp;lymphoid tissue found in the lamina propria and sumucosa of the<div>ileu
m.</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14396730376506.jpg" /></div>
1405639892498 1395802358422 {{c1::M cells}} are a specialized cell found in
peyer patches that <>sample</>&nsp;and <>present antigens</>&nsp;to immune
cells.
1405639929817 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotype is transported acro
ss the epithelium into the gut from Peyer patches in the lamina propria to deal
with <>intraluminal antigens?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. secretory IgA</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-15045270438102
.jpg" /></i></div>
1405640417990 1395802358422 Which enzyme catalyzes the rate-limiting step of
ile synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::7-alpha hydroxylase}}</div>
1405640538740 1395802358422 To which compound is iliruin conjugated?<div><
<r /><div><img src="paste-15131
r /></div><div>{{c1::Glucuronate}}</div>
169784371.jpg" /></div>
1405640617654 1395802358422 Which type of iliruin is <>conjugated with gl
ucuronate</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Direct}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640641932 1395802358422 Which type of iliruin is <>water solule</>?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Direct iliruin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640654605 1395802358422 Which type of iliruin is <>unconjugated</>?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indirect}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15126
874817075.jpg" /></div>

1405640665134 1395802358422 Which type of iliruin is <>not water solule<
/>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indirect}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640678977 1395802358422 To which plasma protein does <>unconjugated/ind
irect</>&nsp;iliruin ind?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alumin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640704703 1395802358422 Which hepatic enzyme functions to conjugate ili
ruin with glucuronate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UDP-glucuronyl transferase}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640731401 1395802358422 Which metaolite of Uroilinogen gives feces its
rown colour?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stercoilin}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640767115 1395802358422 Which metaolite of Uroilinogen gives urine its
yellow colour?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uroilin}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-15126874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405640782457 1395802358422 Where is Uroilinogen made?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::In the gut y normal flora}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15126
874817075.jpg" /></div>
1405187801441 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Sonic hedgehog gene}} is an impor
tant gene of emryogenesis that is produced at the ase of lims in the zone of
polarizing activity.
1405187930710 1395802358422 {{c1::Sonic hedgehog}} is a gene important in em
ryogenesis that is involved in <>patterning along the anterior-posterior axis<
/>&nsp;and in <>CNS development</>.
1405187968943 1395802358422 Which congenital defect is associated with Sonic
Hedgehog mutations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Holoprosencephaly}}</div>
1405187987735 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Wnt-7</i>}} is an important gene in em
ryogenesis that is produced at the apical ectodermal ridge; and is needed for <
>dorsal-ventral axis organization</>. <r /><div><i>The apical ectodermal ridg
e is a <>ridge of thickened ectoderm at the distal end of developing lims</>.
</i></div>
1405188074585 1395802358422 Which gene important for emryogenesis is involv
ed in <>anterior-posterior axis patterning</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Soni
c Hedgehog}}</div>
1405188098958 1395802358422 Which gene important for emryogenesis is needed
for <>dorsal-ventral axis organization</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Wnt7</i>}}</div>
1405188127165 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>FGF</i>}} is a gene important in emryo
genesis that is produced at the apical ectodermal ridge and functions to <>stim
ulate mitosis of underlying mesoderm</>, therey causing lengthening of lims.
1405188170991 1395802358422 {{c1::Homeoox (<i>Hox</i>) genes}} are genes im
portant for emryogenesis that is involved in <>segmental organization of the e
mryo in the craniocaudal direction</>.
1405188234322 1395802358422 A mutation in which gene important in emryogene
sis is associated with <>appendages eing found in the wrong locations</>?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Homeoox (<i>Hox</i>) genes}}</div>
1405188274504 1395802358422 On which day after fertilization is the zygote f
ormed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-48881
022796163.jpg" /></div>
1405189423019 1395802358422 On which day following fertilization is the <>m
orula</>&nsp;formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-48876727828867.jpg" /></div>
1405189436675 1395802358422 On which day following fertilization is the <>
lastocyst</>&nsp;formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-48876727828867.jpg" /></div>
1405189449032 1395802358422 On which day following fertilization does <>imp
lantation</>&nsp;occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::7-10}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>hCG secretion egins around this time.</i><r /><div><img src="paste
-48876727828867.jpg" /></div>
1405189480591 1395802358422 During which week of gestation is the <>ilamin

ar disc</>&nsp;(of epilast and hypolast) formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Week 2}}</div> <r /><div><i><>2</>&nsp;weeks =&nsp;<>2</>&nsp;layers</i
></div>
1405189572077 1395802358422 During which week of gestation is the <>trilami
nar</>&nsp;disc formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div> <r /><div><i><
>3</>&nsp;weeks = <>3</>&nsp;layers</i></div>
1405189607684 1395802358422 During which week of gestation&nsp;does gastrul
ation occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-49997714292844.jpg" /></div>
1405189616150 1395802358422 During which week of gestation&nsp;does the pri
mitive streak appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pr
imitive streak, notochord, mesoderm and its organization and neural plate all e
gin to form in week 3.</i></div>
1405189647980 1395802358422 During which week of gestation&nsp;does the neu
ral tue form and close?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
1405189673617 1395802358422 During which weeks of gestation&nsp;does organo
genesis occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-8}}</div>
1405189692284 1395802358422 During which weeks of gestation is the emryo ex
tremely susceptile to teratogens?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-8}}</div>
1405189710397 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the heart e
gin to eat?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
1405189724199 1395802358422 During which week of gestation do the <>upper a
nd lower lim uds</>&nsp;egin to form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>4</>&nsp;weeks = <>4</>&nsp;lims</i></div>
1405189748896 1395802358422 During which week of gestation is fetal cardiac
activity visile y transvaginal ultrasound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::6}}</div
>
1405189766131 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the fetal ge
nitalia gain male/female characteristics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::10}}</div>
1405190441441 1395802358422 {{c1::Craniopharyngioma}} is a enign tumour of
Rathke's Pouch that presents with <>cholesterol crystals</>&nsp;and <>calcif
ications</>.
1405190495474 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the l
ens of the eye form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190598843 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does senso
ry organs of the ear form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190612914 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does olfac
tory epithelium form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190623972 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the e
pidermis form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190640750 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer do parotid
, sweat and mammary glands form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</
div>
1405190654004 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the a
nal canal elow the pectinate line form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface Ecto
derm}}</div>
1405190671066 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the e
pithelial lining of the oral cavity form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ect
oderm}}</div>
1405190687783 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the C
NS form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190701065 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does retin
a form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190708163 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the o
ptic nerve form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190720066 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the s
pinal cord form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190729933 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the P
NS form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190740203 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer do melanoc

ytes form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190788282 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the Chromaffin Cells of the adrenal medulla?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190799414 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the parafollicular cells of the thyroid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ne
ural Crest}}</div>
1405190815053 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the ones of the skull?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div
>
1405190823755 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to Odontolasts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190833676 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the aorticopulmonary septum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}
</div>
1405190850123 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to muscle, one, CT and serous lining of ody cavities?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405191021105 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the spleen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405191028608 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the cardiovascular structures?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-52901112185109.jpg" /></div>
1405192554037 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the lymphatics and lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405192566362 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the wall of the gut tues?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-52905407152405.jpg" /></div>
1405192571401 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the vagina, testes and ovaries?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}<
/div>
1405192585157 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the kidneys and adrenal cortex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-52901112185109.jpg" /></div>
1405192597844 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the dermis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405192604044 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the<>&nsp;epithelium</>&nsp;of the gut tue?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Endoderm}}</div>
1405192621253 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to most of the urethra?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endoderm}}</div>
1405192646938 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to luminal epithelial derivatives?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endoderm}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>e.g. lungs, liver, galllader, pancreas, thymus, parathyro
id, thyroid follicles, eustachian tue</i></div>
1405192693279 1395802358422 What is the only postnatal derivative of the not
ochord?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus Pulposus of the interverteral disc}}
</div>
1405193713758 1395802358422 {{c1::Agenesis}} is an error in organ morphogene
sis that is defined as the <>asence of an organ due to asent primordial tissu
e</>.
1405193749960 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplasia}} is an error in organ morphogenes
is that is defined as the <>asence of an organ</>&nsp;<u style="font-weight:
old; ">despite the presence of primordial tissue</u>. <r /><div><i>In aplasia
, <u>primordial tissue is present</u>.</i></div>
1405193786627 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoplasia}} is a type of error in organ m
orphogenesis that is defined as <>incomplete organ development</>&nsp;despite
primordial tissue eing present.
1405193949062 1395802358422 {{c1::Deformation}} is a type of error in organ
morphogenesis that is defined as <>extrinsic disruption of organ morphogenesis<

/>.
<r /><div><i>Occurs after the emryonic period.</i></div>
1405193994529 1395802358422 {{c1::Disruption}} is an error is organ morphoge
nesis that is defined as the <>secondary reakdown of a previously normal tissu
e or structure</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. amniotic and syndrome</i></div>
1405194044038 1395802358422 {{c1::Malformation}} is an error in organ morpho
genesis that is defined as <>intrinsic disruption</>&nsp;of organ formation <
u><>during the emryonic period</>&nsp;(weeks 3-8).</u>
1405194087199 1395802358422 {{c1::Sequence}} is an error in organ morphogene
sis that is defined as a <>series of anormalities resulting from a single prim
ary emryological event</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. oligohydramnios causes Potter
sequence.</i></div>
1405194129948 1395802358422 During which weeks of gestation do teratogens ha
ve an "<>all-or-none</>" effect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Before week 3}}</d
iv>
1405194547645 1395802358422 Which which weeks of gestation do teratogens onl
y affect <>growth and function</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 8}}</div>
1405194569378 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of ACE Inhiitor
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal damage}}</div>
1405194633580 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of alkylating ag
ents?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Digit aplasia; many other anormalities}}</div>
1405194651448 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Aminoglycosid
es?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VIII toxicity}}</div>
1405194660571 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Carampazepin
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural tue defect; Craniofacial defects; Fingerna
il hypoplasia; IUGR}}</div>
1405194682748 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Diethylstile
strol (DES)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vaginal clear cell adenocarcinoma; Conge
nital Mullerian anomalies}}</div>
1405194714115 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of folate antago
nists?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural tue defects}}</div>
1405194851042 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Lithium?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Estein anomaly}}</div> <r /><div><i>Involves an atrial
ized right ventricle.</i></div>
1405194872240 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Methimazole?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aplasia cutis congenita}}</div>
1405194879556 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Phenytoin?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal hydantoin syndrome}}</div>
<r /><div><i>In
volves <>microcephaly, dysmorphic craniofacial features, hypoplastic nails, hyp
oplastic distal phalanges, cardiac defects, IUGR</>&nsp;and <>intellectual di
saility</>.</i></div>
1405194936602 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Tetracyclines
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Discoloured teeth}}</div>
1405194941954 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Thalidomide?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phocomelia; Micromelia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.
e. lim defects</i></div>
1405194956886 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Valproic Acid
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural tue defects due to inhiition of maternal f
olate asorption}}</div>
1405194978814 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Warfarin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bone deformities; fetal hemorrhage; aortion; opthalmolo
gic anormalities}}</div>
1405195005246 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of alcohol?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal Alcohol Syndrome; Intellectual disaility}}</div>
1405195076581 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of cocaine?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Placental aruption; anormal fetal growth; aortion}}</d
iv>
1405195090284 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of nicotine or C
O (via smoking)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low irth weight; premature laour;
IUGR; ADHD}}</div>
1405195113597 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of either a lack

or excess of Iodine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital goiter; Cretinism}}<
/div>
1405195161309 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Maternal Dia
etes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caudal regression syndrome; Congenital heart de
fects; Neural tue defects}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Caudal Regression Syndrome
involves <>anal atresia to sirenomelia</>.</i></div>
1405195198881 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of excess Vitami
n A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spontaneous aortion; Cleft palate; Cardiac ano
rmalities}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Extremely high risk for all 3</i></div>
1405195816470 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of X-rays?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Microcephaly; Intellectual Disaility}}</div>
1405195831089 1395802358422 Which facial anormalities are associated with F
etal Alcohol Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth philtrum; Thin Upper Li
p; Small Palperal Fissure; Hypertelorism}}</div>
1405195892553 1395802358422 {{c1::Dizygotic twins}} are a type of twins that
<>arise from 2 eggs</>&nsp;that are <>separately fertilized y 2 different
sperm</>.
<div><r /></div><i>Hence they will have 2 zygotes, 2 amniotic s
acs and 2 separate placentas.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-55228984460061.jpg"
/></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div>
1405199081659 1395802358422 Which type of twins is associated with <>2 sepa
rate amniotic sacs</>&nsp;and <>2 separate placentas</>?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Dizygotic twins}}</div> <r /><div><div><img src="paste-55228984460061.j
pg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></div>
1405199116169 1395802358422 {{c1::Monozygotic twins}} are a type of twins th
at arise from <>1 fertilized egg</>&nsp;and <>1 sperm</>&nsp;that <>split
s into 2 zygotes in early pregnancy</>.
<r /><div><i>The degree of sepa
ration etween the monozygotic twins depends on when the egg splits into 2 zygot
es.</i></div><div><i>The time of the split determines the numer of chorions and
the numer of amnions.</i></div><div><i><div><img src="paste-55228984460061.jpg
" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /> </div></i></div>
1405199351228 1395802358422 {{c1::Dichorionic diamniotic monozygotic twins}}
are a type of monozygotic twinning that occurs if the cleavage occurs etween <
<r /><div><div><img src="paste-55228984
>0-4 days</> of fertilization.
460061.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></div>
1405199537731 1395802358422 {{c1::Monochorionic diamniotic monozygotic twins
}} is a type of monozygotic twinning that occurs if the cleavage occurs <>4-8 d
ays</>&nsp;after fertilization.
<r /><div><div><img src="paste-55228984
460061.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></div>
1405199570954 1395802358422 {{c1::Monochorionic monoamniotic monozygotic twi
ns}} is a type of monozygotic twinning that occurs if the cleavage occurs <>8-1
2 days</>&nsp;after fertilization.
<r /><div><div><img src="paste-55228984
460061.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></div>
1405199607258 1395802358422 {{c1::Monochorionic monoamniotic conjoined twins
}} are a type of monozygotic twinning that occurs if the cleavage occurs <>afte
r 13 days</>&nsp;following fertilization.
<r /><div><div><img src="paste55228984460061.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></d
iv>
1405199866006 1395802358422 {{c1::Decidua Basalis}} is the <>maternal compo
nent</>&nsp;of the placenta that is derived from the <>endometrium</>.
<r /><div><i>Hence it is maternal lood that fills the lacunae.</i></div><div><
i><img src="paste-56672093471228.jpg" /></i></div>
1405199987066 1395802358422 Which fetal tissue group contriutes to the <>i
nner</>&nsp;later of chorionic villi?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytotrophola
st}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-56667798503932.jpg" /></div>
1405200119895 1395802358422 Which fetal tissue group contriutes to the <>o
uter</>&nsp;layer of the chorionic villi?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Syncytiot
ropholast}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-56667798503932.jpg" /></div>
1405200144824 1395802358422 {{c1::hCG}} is a hormone secreted y the syncyti
otropholast that stimulated the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone during th
e first trimester.
<r /><div><i>It is structurally similar to LH.</i></div

><div><i><img src="paste-56667798503932.jpg" /></i></div>
1405200192138 1395802358422 {{c1::Umilical arteries}} are the lood vessels
that <>return deoxygenated lood from the fetal internal iliac arteries to the
placenta</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-57320633532807.jpg" /></div>
1405201815263 1395802358422 {{c1::Umilical Vein}} is the lood vesse that <
>supplies oxygenated lood from the placenta to the fetus</>. <r /><div><i>It
drains into the IVC via the liver or via the ductus venosus.</i></div><div><i><
img src="paste-57316338565511.jpg" /></i></div>
1405201858770 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::urachus}} is a fetal structure th
at develops from the allantois that acts as a <>duct &nsp;etween the fetal l
adder and yolk sac</>.
1405201929545 1395802358422 {{c1::Patent Urachus}} is a congenital anomaly t
hat occurs due to a failure of the urachus to oliterate and presents with <>ur
ine discharge from the umilicus</>.
1405201990258 1395802358422 {{c1::Urachal Cyst}} is a congenital anomaly tha
t results from <>partial failure</>&nsp;of the urachus to oliterate and pres
ents as a <>fluid-filled davity lined with uroepithelium</>&nsp;etween the u
milicus and ladder. <r /><div><i>Can lead to infection and adenocarcinoma.<
/i></div>
1405202052062 1395802358422 {{c1::Vesicourachal Diverticulum}} is a congenit
al anomaly that results from failure of the urachus to oliterate and presents a
s an <>outpouching of the ladder</>.
1405202140734 1395802358422 In which week of gestation does the vitelline du
ct oliterate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::7th}}</div>
1405202321049 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitelline fistula}} is a congenital anomal
y that occurs due to failure of the vitelline duct to close and presents with <
>meconium discharge from the umilicus</>.
1405202349818 1395802358422 {{c1::Meckel Diverticulum}} is a congenital anom
aly that occurs due to <>partial</>&nsp;failure of the vitelline duct to oli
terate and presents with a patent vitelline duct portion attached to the ileum.
<r /><div><i>May have ectopic gastric mucosa or pancreatic tissue and hence can
yield <>melena, periumilical pain</>&nsp;or <>ulcers</>.</i></div>
1405203472835 1395802358422 What does the 1st aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Part of the Maxillary Artery}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-58660663329382.jpg" /></div>
1405203494100 1395802358422 What does the 2nd aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Stapedial Artery; Hyoid Artery}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203509487 1395802358422 What does the 3rd aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Common Carotid Artery; proximal portion of the Internal C
arotid Artery}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203539751 1395802358422 What does the 4th aortic arch develop into <>on
the left</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic Arch}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203562875 1395802358422 What does the 4th aortic arch develop into <>on
the right</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal part of the Right suclavian
artery}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203586945 1395802358422 What does the 5th aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::There is no 5th arch}}</div>
1405203602648 1395802358422 What does the 6th aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal portion of the pulmonary arteries and ductus art
eriosus}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203629465 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue layer gives rise to t
he ranchial clefts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ectoderm}}</div><div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-59292023521689.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>aka Branch
ial grooves</i></div>
1405203664747 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue layer gives rise to t
he ranchial <>arches</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm; neural crest}}<
/div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-59287728554393.jpg" /></div>
1405203681425 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue layer gives rise to t

he ranchial <>pouches</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endoderm}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-59287728554393.jpg" /></div>
1405203691537 1395802358422 Which ranchial cleft develops into the <>exter
nal auditory meatus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405203778779 1395802358422 Which ranchial cleft develops into temporary ce
rvical sinuses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2-4}}</div> <r /><div><i>They are o
literated y proliferation of the 2nd arch's mesenchyme.</i></div><div><i>Persi
stence of the cervical sinuses results in a <>ranchial cleft cyst within the l
ateral neck</>.</i></div>
1405203836849 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Meckel's Cart
ilage (mandile, malleus, incus, spheno-mandiular ligament)?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204285795 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the muscles o
f mastication?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <r /><div><i>Masseter;
medial and lateral pterygoids; temporalis.</i></div>
1405204314256 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the <>Tensor
Tympani</>&nsp;muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204335779 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the <>Tensor
Veli Palatini</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204374307 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to mylohyoid mus
cle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204386539 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to anterior ell
y of the digastric?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204404042 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the 1st 
ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>2</su>&nsp;(sensory); CN V<
su>3</su>&nsp;(motor)}}</div>
1405204428625 1395802358422 {{c1::Treacher Collins Syndrome}} is a congenita
l anomaly of the 1st ranchial arch that is due to <>failure of neural crest ce
lls to migrate</>&nsp;and presents with <>madiular hypoplasia</>&nsp;and <
>facial anormalities</>.
1405204465012 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch is associated with Treacher
Collins Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204483489 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch is associated with a Congen
ital Pharyngocutaneous Fistula?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204499419 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Reichert Cart
ilage (stapes; styloid process; lesser horn of the hyoid; stylohyoid ligament)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204539760 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the muscles o
f facial expression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204549067 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Stapedius mus
cle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204554793 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the Stylohoid
muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204565018 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Platysma musc
le?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204573676 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the elly of
the digastric muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204592492 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the 2nd 
ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII (facial nerve)}}</div>
1405204621241 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Pharyngocutaneous Fistula}} is
a congenital anomaly of the 2nd ranchial arch that presents with <>persistence
of the cleft and pouch</>&nsp;and <>susequent fistula etween the tonsillar
area and lateral neck</>.
1405204662404 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the greater h
orn of the hyoid one?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1405204672373 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Stylopharynge
us muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1405204686606 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the 3rd 
ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div>
1405204710274 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the thyroid,

cricoid, arytenoid, corniculate and cuneiform cartilages?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::4-6}}</div>
1405205011179 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to <>pharyngeal
constrictors</>&nsp;and the <>cricothyroid</>&nsp;muscle?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1405205040180 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the <>levato
r veli palatini</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1405205050057 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to <>all intrin
sic muscles of the larynx except the cricothyroid</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::6th}}</div>
1405205070605 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the <>4t
h</>&nsp;ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior laryngeal ranch
of CN X}}</div>
1405205100282 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the <>6t
h</>&nsp;ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Recurrent laryngeal ranch
of CN X}}</div>
1405205142260 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the middle e
ar cavity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205773911 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the eustachi
an tue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-62504
659059030.jpg" /></div>
1405205783192 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to mastoid air
cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <r /><div><r /></div>
1405205792549 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the epitheli
al lining of the palatine tonsils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205810725 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the <>infer
ior parathyroids</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd (dorsal wing)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205835929 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the <>thymu
s</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd (ventral wing)}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205853619 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the <>super
ior parathyroids</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4th (dorsal wings)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205868504 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch contriutes to the endoder
m-lined structures of the ear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405205950212 1395802358422 {{c1::DiGeorge syndrome}} is a 22q11 deletion sy
ndrome that involves <>aerrant development of the 3rd and 4th ranchial pouche
s</>. <r /><div><i>Therefore there is thymic and parathyroid aplasia.</i></di
v>
1405206012036 1395802358422 {{c1::Cleft lip}} is a congenital anomaly that i
s descried as <>failure of the fusion of the maxillary and medial nasal proces
ses</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-62947040690438.jpg" /></div>
1405206096479 1395802358422 {{c1::Cleft Palate}} is a congenital anomaly tha
t involves the failure of fusion of the <>two lateral palatine processes</>&n
sp;<u>or</u>&nsp;failure of fusion of the <>lateral palatine processes with th
e nasal septum or medial palatine process</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-63097364545849.jpg" /></div>
1405206287882 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
female internal genitalia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paramesonephric (Mullerian
) Duct}}</div> <r /><div><i>Develops into the fallopian tues, uterus, upper p
ortion of the vagina.</i></div><div><i>Defects can present as <>primary amenorr
hea</>&nsp;despite fully developed secondary characteristics (i.e. functional
ovaries).</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-63823214019232.jpg" /></i></div>
1405206493278 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
male internal genitalia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesonephric (Wolffian) Duct}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Develops into <>SEED. </>Does not give rise to the prost
ate.</i></div><div><i>- Seminal vesicles</i></div><div><i>- Epididymis</i></div>

<div><i>- Ejaculatory duct</i></div><div><i>- Ductus deferens</i></div><div><i><
img src="paste-63823214019232.jpg" /></i></div>
1405206556049 1395802358422 Which gene on the -chromosome produces <>testi
s-determining factor</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>SR</i>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-64587718197875.jpg" /></div>
1405206625264 1395802358422 {{c1::Mullerian Inhiitory Factor (MIF)}} is a p
rotein secreted y Sertoli cells that functions to suppress the development of t
he paramesonephric (Mullerian) duct.
<r /><div><i>Lack of MIF results in the
<>development of oth male and female internal genitalia</>&nsp;and <>male
external genitalia</>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-64583423230579.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1405206658945 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete Mullerian Inhi
itor Factor (MIF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</div>
1405206675137 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete androgens that
stimulate the development of the mesonephric (Wolffian) ducts?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Leydig Cells}}</div>
1405206710482 1395802358422 {{c1::Bicornuate uterus}} is a congenital genita
l anomaly that results from <>incomplete fusion of the paramesonephric ducts</
>.
<r /><div><i>Complete failure of fusions results in <>doule uterus an
d vagina</>.</i></div>
1405206775532 1395802358422 {{c1::5-alpha-reductase deficiency}} is an enzym
e deficiency that results in the <>inaility to convert testosterone into DHT</
>, therey yielding male internal genitalia ut <>amiguous external genitalia
until puerty</>.
<div><r /></div><i>The increase in testosterone at pue
rty results in masculization.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-64583423230579.jpg"
/></div>
1405208347086 1395802358422 What is the male equivalent to the clitoris?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Penis}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6538658211494
5.jpg" /></div>
1405208369079 1395802358422 What is the male equivalent to the vestiular u
ls?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Corpus cavernosum and spongiosum}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-65382287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208385752 1395802358422 What is the male equivalent to the Greater Vesti
ular Glands (Bartholin Glands)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bulourethral (Cowpe
r) glands}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-65382287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208410695 1395802358422 What is the male holomog to the urethral and par
aurethral glands (glands of Skene)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prostate gland}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-65382287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208437361 1395802358422 What is the male homolog to the laia minora?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral shaft of the penis}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-65382287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208457256 1395802358422 What is the male homolog to the laia majora?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scrotum}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-65382
287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208474780 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypospadias}} is a congenital penile anoma
ly that is descried as an <>inferiorly displaced opening of the urethra</>&n
sp;on the ventral side of the penis due to <>failure of the urethral folds to c
lose</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-65695819759730.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>More common that epispadias.</i></div><div><i>Must e fixed to pre
vent UTIs.</i></div>
1405208544910 1395802358422 {{c1::Epispadias}} is a congenital penile anomal
y that is descried as a <>superiorly displaced opening of the penile urethra</
>&nsp;on the dorsal surface of the penis due to <>faulty positioning of the g
enital tuercle</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-65781719105666.jpg" />
</div> <r /><div><i>Associated with <>exstrophy of the ladder</>.</i></div>
1405208631191 1395802358422 {{c1::Guernaculum}} is an emryological structu
re descried as a and of firous tissue that anchors the testes to the floor of
the scrotum.
1405208704099 1395802358422 What is the female remnant of the guernaculum?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian ligament; Round ligament of the uterus}}</div

>
1405208727771 1395802358422 What is the male remnant of the processus vagina
lis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tunica vaginalis}}</div>
1405208745519 1395802358422 What is the female remnant of the processus vagi
nalis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None; it is oliterated}}</div>
1405281810652 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage of the <>left</>&n
sp;ovary and testis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left gonadal vein --&gt; Left r
enal vein --&gt; IVC}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"The <>left</>&nsp;gonadal vein
takes the <>l</>ongest way."</i></div><div><i>The left spermatic vein enters
the left renal vein at a 90 degree angle, hence flow is less continuous on the l
eft than on the right.</i></div>
1405292830484 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage of the <>right</>&
nsp;ovary and testis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right gonadal vein --&gt; IVC}
}</div>
1405292857923 1395802358422 Which side of the ody is more commonly affected
y varicocele?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left testis}}</div>
1405292989858 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the ovaries?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1405293461001 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the testes?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1405293465481 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the distal vagina and vu
lva?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superficial inguinal nodes}}</div>
1405293479897 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the scrotum?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Superficial inguinal nodes}}</div>
1405293496834 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the proximal vagina and
uterus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oturator; External Iliac; Hypogastric}}</div
>
1405293578834 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the ovaries to the later
al pelvic wall?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infundiulopelvic ligament}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-69015829480013.jpg" /></div>
1405294160891 1395802358422 Which lood vessels are contained in the Infundi
ulopelvic ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian vessels}}</div> <div><r
/></div><i>Vessels must e ligated during oopherectomy to avoid leeding.</i><d
iv><i>Ureter courses retriperitoneally, close to the vessels. There is significa
nt risk of injury when ligating the vessels.<r /></i><div><img src="paste-69011
534512717.jpg" /></div></div>
1405294268946 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the cervix to the side w
all of the pelvis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cardinal ligament}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></div>
1405294404407 1395802358422 Which lood vessels are contained in the cardina
l ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uterine vessels}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
e ureter is at risk of injury during ligation of these vessels in hysterectomy.<
/i></div><div><i><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></i></div>
1405294429111 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the fundus of the uterus
to the laia majora?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Round ligament of the uterus}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Travels through the round inguinal canal aove the artery
of Sampson.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></i></div>
1405294536096 1395802358422 Which emryological structure gives rise to the
Roung Ligament of the Uterus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Guernaculum}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></div>
1405294558776 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the uterus, fallopian tu
es and ovaries to the side wall of the pelvis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Broad
ligament}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Composed of the <>mesosalpinx, meso
metrium</>&nsp;and <>mesovarium</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-6901153451
2717.jpg" /></div>
1405294595265 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the medial pole of the o
vary to the lateral aspect of the uterus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian Lig
ament}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></div>
1405296290287 1395802358422 Which emryological structure gives rise to the
Ovarian Ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Guernaculum}}</div>

1405296304736 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the vagina?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Non-keratinized</u>&nsp;stratified squamous epith
elium}}</div>
1405296485791 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the <>ecto<
/>cervix?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Non-keratinized</u>&nsp;stratified squ
amous epithelium}}</div>
1405296538021 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the <>endo<
/>cervix?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple columnar epithelium}}</div>
1405296571886 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the transfor
mation zone of the cervix?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamocolumnar junction}}<
/div>
1405296614121 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the uterus?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple columnar epithelium with long tuular glands}}
</div>
1405296637205 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the fallopia
n tues?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Ciliated</u>&nsp;simple columnar epithel
ium with <u style="font-weight: old; ">peg</u>&nsp;cells}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Peg cells are secretory cells of the fallopian tue epithelium.</i></div>
1405296693483 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the outer su
rface of the ovary?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple cuoidal epithelium (germi
nal epithelium covering surface of the ovary)}}</div>
1405296731800 1395802358422 What is the pathway of sperm during ejaculation?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>StEVE</i>: Seminiferous tuules, epididymis, vas
deferens, ejaculatory ducts}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i><>StEVE</>: Semini
ferous tuules, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory ducts</i><r /><div><img s
rc="paste-71554155151887.jpg" /></div>
1405297977162 1395802358422 Which ranch of the ANS yields male&nsp;<>erec
tion</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parasympathetic}}</div>
<r /><div><i>vi
a the <>Pelvic Nerve</></i></div><div><i><><img src="paste-72344429134007.jpg
" /></></i></div>
1405298093455 1395802358422 Which ranch of the ANS causes male <>emission<
/>&nsp;(following erection)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sympathetic}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>via the <>Hypogastric Nerve</></i><r /><div><img src="pas
te-72348724101303.jpg" /></div>
1405298122265 1395802358422 Which nerve causes male ejaculation?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Pudendal nerve}}</div>
1405298331021 1395802358422 {{c1::Sildenafil}} and&nsp;{{c2::Vardenafil}} a
re drugs that inhiits cGMP reakdown and hence are used as treatment for erecti
le dysfunction.
1405298370115 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling pathway is associated
with male erection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-72344429134007.jp
g" />}}</div>
1405302611405 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted y Sertoli cells function
s to <>inhiit FSH</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiin}}</div>
1405302798883 1395802358422 {{c1::Androgen-inding protein}} is a protein se
creted y Sertoli cells that functions to maintain local levels of testosterone.
1405303192760 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes form the lood-testis
arrier?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Formed y tight junctions etween adjacent S
ertoli cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Functions to <>isolate gametes from autoi
mmune attaack</>.</i></div>
1405303258484 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes function to support an
d nourish developing spermatozoa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</di
v>
1405303281590 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes function to regulate s
permatogenesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</div>
1405303309026 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete Mullerian Inhi
iting Factor (MIF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</div>
1405303335104 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in temperature
affect sperm production and inhiin secretion via Sertoli cells?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Temperature increase is seen in va

ricocele and cryptorchidism.</i></div>
1405303386801 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Sertoli cells functions to conve
rt <>testosterone</>&nsp;and <>androstenedione</>&nsp;into <>estrogen</>
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
1405303837728 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete testosterone?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Leydig cells}}</div>
1405303869121 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in temperature
affect testosterone production y Leydig cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No ch
ange}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Temperature does not affect testosterone productio
n.</i></div>
1405303891116 1395802358422 Which form of estrogen is made y the ovaries?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::17-eta-estradiol}}</div>
1405304208565 1395802358422 Which form of estrogen is made y the placenta?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estriol}}</div>
1405304217159 1395802358422 Which form of estrogen is made y adipose tissue
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrone via aromatization}}</div>
1405304232174 1395802358422 What is the most potent form of Estrogen?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Estradiol &gt; estrone &gt; estriol}}</div>
1405304250875 1395802358422 What is the weakest form of Estrogen?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Estriol}}</div>
1405304258214 1395802358422 How does estrogen change myometrial excitaility
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304279556 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence prolactin secretion?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304311443 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence the production of st
eroid hormone-inding gloulin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304340167 1395802358422 How does estrogen influence HDL levels?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304349989 1395802358422 How does estrogen influence LDL levels?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405304361684 1395802358422 {{c1::Estriol}} is a form of estrogen that is us
ed as an indicator of fetal well-eing as it sees a 1000x fold increase in pregn
ancy.
1405304418222 1395802358422 Which cells of the follicle/ovary secrete estrog
en?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granulosa cells}}</div> <r /><div><i>Estro<>G<
/>en = <>G</>ranulosa cells</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-74702366179656.j
pg" /></i></div>
1405304460981 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Granulosa cells converts Androst
enedione into estrogens?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
1405304488996 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Theca cells converts Cholesterol
into Androstenedione?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmolase}}</div>
1405304513023 1395802358422 How does Progesterone influence myometrial excit
aility?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405306532541 1395802358422 {{c1::Progesterone}} is a hormone secreted y th
e corpus luteum and placenta that triggers the production of thick cervical mucu
s which prevents sperm from entering the uterus.
1405306573294 1395802358422 How does Progesterone influence ody temperature
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405306585065 1395802358422 How does Progesterone influence gonadotropin act
ivity (LH; FSH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405306611080 1395802358422 How does progesterone influence uterine smooth m
uscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405306635834 1395802358422 How does progesterone influence endometrial hype
rplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405306662206 1395802358422 {{c1::Progesterone}} is a hormone secreted y th
e corpus luteum and placenta that functions to <>maintain</>&nsp;pregnancy.
<r /><div><i><>Progest</>erone is <>pro-gest</>ation.</i></div>
1405306942418 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with prepuescence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I}}</div>
1405307331656 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso

ciated with puarche (appearance of puic hair)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::II}}
</div>
1405307357332 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with thelarche (formation of the reast uds)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:II}}</div>
1405307374385 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with darkening and curling of the puic hair?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
III}}</div>
1405307421317 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with increase in penis size and length?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::III}}<
/div>
1405307432536 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with reast enlargement?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::III}}</div>
1405307440156 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with thickening of the penis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV}}</div>
1405307451011 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with darkening of the scrotal skin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV}}</div>
1405307459514 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with development of the glans of the penis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV
}}</div>
1405307466517 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with raised areolae?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV}}</div>
1405307474003 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with flattening of the areolae?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V}}</div>
1405307484943 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with adulthood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V}}</div>
1405307489694 1395802358422 How long is the luteal (secretory) phase of mens
truation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::14 days}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Typically
stays constant.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-76038101009164.jpg" /></i></div
>
1405307610329 1395802358422 How long is the follicular (proliferative) phase
of the menstrual cycle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Variale}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-76033806041868.jpg" /></div>
1405307625608 1395802358422 Which sex hormone functions to <>stimulate</>&
nsp;endometrial production?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrogen}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-76033806041868.jpg" /></div>
1405307721201 1395802358422 Which sex hormone functions to <>maintain </>t
he endometrium and <>support</>&nsp;implantation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Progesterone}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>Progest</>erone is <>pro-gest</>atio
n.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-76033806041868.jpg" /></i></div>
1405307755215 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in progesterone
level influence fertility?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405307772807 1395802358422 {{c1::Oligomenorrhea}} is a disorder of the mens
trual cycle that is defined as a cycle <>&gt; 35 days</>.
1405307805771 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymenorrhea}} is a disorder of the menst
rual cycle that is defined as a cycle <>&lt; 21 days</>.
1405307830941 1395802358422 How many days in the menstrual cycle is diagnost
ic of <>oligomenorrhea</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 35 days}}</div>
1405307848047 1395802358422 How many days in the menstrual cycle is diagnost
ic of <>polymenorrhea</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 21 days}}</div>
1405307876268 1395802358422 {{c1::Metrorrhagia}} is a disorder of the menstr
ual cycle descried as <>intermenstrual leeding</>&nsp;with <>frequent</>&
nsp;ut <>irregular</>&nsp;menstruation.
1405308107900 1395802358422 {{c1::Menorrhagia}} is a disorder of the menstru
al cycle that is descried as <>heavy menstrual leeding</>&nsp;of <>&gt; 80
mL</>&nsp;of lood loss or <>&gt; 7 days</>&nsp;of menses.
1405308155518 1395802358422 {{c1::Menometrorrhagia}} is a disorder of the me
nstrual cycle that is descried as <>heavy, irregular menstruation</>&nsp;at
<>irregular</>&nsp;intervals.
1405308183516 1395802358422 A surge of which gonadotropin is associated with

the triggering of ovulation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LH}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><img src="paste-77008763617647.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-760338
06041868.jpg" /></div>
1405308232216 1395802358422 In which phase of the cell cycle is meiosis I in
the primary oocyte arrested from fetal life to ovulation in puerty?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Prophase I}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7715479250614
1.jpg" /></div>
1405308466267 1395802358422 In which phase of the cell cycle is meiosis II o
f the secondary oocyte arrested from ovulation to fertilization?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Metaphase II}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7715049753884
5.jpg" /></div>
1405308504898 1395802358422 How does estrogen influence the expression of Gn
RH receptors at the anterior pituitary?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>This enstrogen surge then stimulates an LH surge, therey
causing ovulation.</i></div>
1405308971628 1395802358422 {{c1::Mittelschmerz}} is a disorder of ovulation
that refers to the <>transient mid-cycle ovulatory pain</>&nsp;that is class
ically associated with peritoneal irritation. <r /><div><i>Can mimic appendic
itis.</i></div>
1405309016332 1395802358422 What is the most common site of <>fertilization
</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ampulla of the fallopian tue}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Typically within 1 day of ovulation.</i></div>
1405309250934 1395802358422 How many days after fertilization does implantat
ion occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::6 days}}</div>
1405309268791 1395802358422 Which fat solule vitamin is required in infants
that are exclusively fed reastmilk?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin D}}</di
v>
1405309690517 1395802358422 How does reastfeeding influence the risk of mat
ernal reast and ovarian cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405309721680 1395802358422 How does prolactin influence reproductive functi
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405309848672 1395802358422 {{c1::hCG}} is a hormone secreted y the placent
a/corpus that functions to maintain the corpus luteum <>in the 1st trimester</
>&nsp;y acting like LH.
<r /><div><i>Otherwise there is a lack of lutea
l cell stimulation and aortion results.</i></div><div><i>In the 2nd and 3rd tri
mesters, the placenta synthesizes its own estriol and progesterone, resulting in
corpus luteum degeneration.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-78773995176237.jpg
" /></i></div>
1405310008420 1395802358422 Which hormone is used to detect pregnancy as it
appears early in the urine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::hCG}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>hCG is detectale in the lood 1 week after conception and after 2 w
eeks in the urine.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-78769700208941.jpg" /></div>
1405310145915 1395802358422 Which suunit of hCG is structurally identical t
o LH, FSH and TSH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::alpha}}</div>
1405310228997 1395802358422 Which suunit of hCG is unique and detected y p
regnancy tests?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::eta}}</div>
1405310248554 1395802358422 What is the average age of onset of menopause?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::51}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Earlier in smokers.</i></d
iv>
1405310483913 1395802358422 {{c1::Menopause}} is a hormonal disorder seen in
women that is descried as a <>decline in estrogen production due to age-linke
d decline in the numer of ovarian follicles</>.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-79925046411392.jpg" /></div>
1405310520081 1395802358422 Which form of estrogen is the predominant form i
n menopause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrone}}</div> <r /><div><i>Formed y
peripheral conversion of androgens.</i></div><div><i>Increased androgens = hirsu
tism.</i></div>
1405310597503 1395802358422 How do FSH levels change in menopause?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Significant increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>In fact, this incr
ease is specific for menopause as there is a <>loss of negative feedack on FSH

due to a decrease in estrogen</>.</i></div>
1405310639116 1395802358422 How do LH levels change in menopause?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405310656174 1395802358422 How do GnRH levels change in menopause?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405310702001 1395802358422 Before which age does the onset of menopause lik
ely indicate Premature Ovarian Failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40}}</div>
1405310903925 1395802358422 How long does spermatogenesis take?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::2 months}}</div>
1405311234921 1395802358422 {{c1::Spermatozoa}} are <>mature</>&nsp;sperm
that are ale to fertilize an egg.
<r /><div><i>Spermato<>zoon</>&nsp;<
>zoom</>&nsp;to eggs.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-80118319940200.jpg" />
</i></div>
1405311299206 1395802358422 {{c1::Spermatogonia}} are sperm that have yet to
develop/mature.
<r /><div><i>Spermato<>gonia</>&nsp;are <>going</>
&nsp;to ecome mature.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-80114024972904.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1405311332467 1395802358422 {{c1::Sper<u>mio</u>genesis}} is the process thr
ough which spermatids lose their cytoplasmic contents, gain an acrosomal cap and
form mature spermatozoon.
<r /><div><img src="paste-80114024972904.jpg" /
></div>
1405311492528 1395802358422 {{c1::Androstenedione}} is an androgen made prim
arily at the adrenals.
1405311773256 1395802358422 What is the most potent androgen?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::DHT &gt; testosterone &gt; androstenedione}}</div>
1405311790316 1395802358422 What is the least potent androgen?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Androstenedione}}</div>
1405311805452 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with the differenti
ation of the epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles and genitalia (except th
e prostate)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone}}</div>
1405311914276 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with the growth spu
rt in the penis, sperm, muscle and RBCs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone
}}</div>
1405311936185 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with deepening of t
he voice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone}}</div>
1405311945912 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with closing of the
epiphyseal plates?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone (via estrogen after
conversion)}}</div>
1405311972283 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with liido?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone}}</div>
1405311984727 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with <>differentia
tion</>&nsp;of the penis, scrotum and prostate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DHT
}}</div>
1405312007606 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with prostate growt
h?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DHT}}</div>
1405312014465 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with alding?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::DHT}}</div>
1405312018679 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with seaceous glan
d activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DHT}}</div>
1405312029602 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts testosterone to DHT?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::5-alpha-reductase}}</div>
1405312045717 1395802358422 {{c1::Finasteride}} is an anti-hormone agent tha
t inhiits 5-alpha-reductase.
1405312065213 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Finasteride?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhiition of 5-alpha-reductase}}</div>
1405312074789 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to convert androgens into
estrogens in males?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Primarily in adipose tissue and the testes.</i></div>
1405312142668 1395802358422 How do exogenous testosterones influence the siz
e of testicles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Ex

ogenous testosterone inhiits the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, therey d
ecreased intratesticular testosterone and ultimately causing a reduction in oth
testicular size and spermatogenesis.</i></div>
1405827187068 1395802358422 {{c1::Classical conditioning}} is a type of cond
itioning where a <>natural response is elicited y a conditioned or learned sti
mulus that was presented with an unconditioned stimulus</>.
<r /><div><i><u
>e.g. Pavlov's dog.</u></i></div><div><i>Natural response = salivation</i></div>
<div><i>Conditioned Stimulus = ell</i></div><div><i>Unconditioned stimulus = fo
od</i></div>
1405828425670 1395802358422 Which type of conditioning usually deals with <
>involuntary </>responses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Classical Conditioning}}<
/div>
1405828440359 1395802358422 {{c1::Operant Conditioning}} is a type of condit
ioning where a <>particular action is elicited ecause it produces a punishment
or reward</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-54503134986454.jpg" /></div>
1405828472197 1395802358422 Which type of conditioning deals with <>volunta
ry </>responses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Operant Conditioning}}</div>
1405828486414 1395802358422 {{c1::Transference}} is a psychological phemonen
on where the <>patient </>projects feeling aout formative or other important
persons onto the physician.
<r /><div><i>e.g. the physician is seen as a pa
rent.</i></div>
1405828647046 1395802358422 {{c1::Countertransference}} is a psychological p
henomenon where the <>physician</>&nsp;projects feelings aout formative or o
ther important persons onto the patient.
<r /><div><i>e.g. patient remin
ds the physician of a younger siling.</i></div>
1405828734471 1395802358422 {{c1::Ego Defenses}} are unconscious mental proc
esses used to resolve conflict and prevent undesirale feelings.
1405829389229 1395802358422 {{c1::Acting out}} is an immature ego defense th
at involves expressing unacceptale feelings and thoughts through actions.
<r /><div><i>e.g. tantrums</i></div>
1405829572571 1395802358422 {{c1::Dissociation}} is an immature ego defense
that involves temporary, drastic change in personality, memory, consciousness or
motor ehaviour to avoid emotional stress.
<r /><div><i>Extreme forms can
result in Dissociative Identity Disorder (multiple personality disorder).</i></d
iv>
1405829607547 1395802358422 {{c1::Denial}} is an immature ego defense that i
nvolves avoiding the awareness of some painful reality.
1405829633902 1395802358422 {{c1::Displacement}} is an immature ego defense
that involves transferring avoided ideas and feelings to some <>neutral person
or oject</>. <r /><div><i>i.e. mother yells at her child ecause her husand
yelled at her</i></div>
1405829827102 1395802358422 {{c1::Fixation}} is an immature ego defense that
involves partially remaining at a more childish level of development.
1405829870338 1395802358422 {{c1::Identification}} is an immature ego defens
e that involves modeling ehaviour after another person who is more powerful (th
ough not necessarily admired) <r /><div><i>e.g. ausee indentifying with the
auser</i></div>
1405829917276 1395802358422 {{c1::Isolation (of affect)}} is an immature ego
defense that involves separating feelings from ideas and events.
<r /><d
iv><i>e.g. descried murder is graphic detail with no emotional response</i></di
v>
1405829966612 1395802358422 {{c1::Projection}} is an immature ego defense th
at involves <>attriuting an unacceptale internal impulse to an external sourc
e</>. <r /><div><i>e.g. a man who wants to e with another woman thinking his
wife is cheating on him</i></div>
1405830030465 1395802358422 {{c1::Rationalization}} is an immature ego defen
se that involves proclaiming logical reasons for actions that are actually perfo
rmed for other reasons, usually to avoid self-lame.
<r /><div><i>e.g. after
getting fired, the person claims the jo wasn't even important</i></div>
1405830075689 1395802358422 {{c1::Reaction formation}} is an immature ego de

fense that involves replacing a warded-off idea or feeling y an unconsciously d
erived emphasis on its opposite.
1405830120230 1395802358422 {{c1::Regression}} is an immature ego defense th
at involves <>turning ack</>&nsp;of the maturational clock and going ack to
earlier modes of dealing with the world.
<r /><div><i>e.g. children unde
r stress</i></div>
1405830175638 1395802358422 {{c1::Repression}} is an immature ego defense th
at involves<> involuntary </>withholding of an idea or feeling from conscious
awareness.
1405830327441 1395802358422 {{c1::Splitting}} is an immature ego defense tha
t involves the elief that people are either all good or ad at different times
due to an intolerance of amiguity.
e.g., A patient says that all nurses are
cold/insensitive ut all doctors are warm/friendly.
1405830367538 1395802358422 Which ego defense is commonly associated with Bo
rderline Personality Disorder?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Splitting}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. a patient says that all nurses are cold and insensitive ut t
hat doctors are warm and friendly</i></div>
1405830380441 1395802358422 {{c1::Altruism}} is a <>mature</>&nsp;ego def
ense that involves alleviating of guilty feelings y unsolicited generosity towa
rds others.
<r /><div><i>e.g. mafia oss making a large donation to charity
</i></div>
1405830450866 1395802358422 {{c1::Humour}} is a <>mature</>&nsp;ego defen
se that involves appreciating the amusing nature of an anxiety-provoking or adve
rse situation. <r /><div><i>e.g. MS2's making jokes aout how much Step 1 is g
oing to destroy them</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><d
iv><i><r /></i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><
r /></i></div><div><i>.... i want my life ack, pls</i></div>
1405830502966 1395802358422 {{c1::Sulimation}} is a <>mature</>&nsp;ego
defense that involves replacing of an unacceptale wish with a course of action
that is similar to the wish ut does not conflict with one's value system.
1405830543713 1395802358422 {{c1::Suppression}} is a <>mature</>&nsp;ego
defense that involves <>intentional</>&nsp;withholding of an idea or feeling
from conscious awareness.
<r /><div><i>Versus repression with involves <
>involuntary withdrawal</>.</i></div><div><i>e.g. choosing not to worry aout t
he Step 1 until test day (LOL A RIGHT, BRAH)</i></div>
1397317135284 1395802358422 What is the outermost layer of the epidermis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stratum Corneum}}</div>
<r /><div><i>California
ns Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img sr
c="paste-1254130450966.jpg" /></i></div>
1397323054173 1395802358422 {{c1::Stratum Corneum}} is the outermost layer o
f the epidermis and primarily full of keratin. <r /><div><r /></div><div><div
><i>Californians Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><
div><i><img src="paste-1254130450966.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1397323079471 1395802358422 {{c1::Stratum Spinosum}} is a layer of the epide
rmis that involves visile spines etween keratinocytes that are formed y desmo
somes. <r /><div><r /></div><div><div><i>Californians Love Girls in String Bi
kinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1254130450966.jpg
" /></i></div></div>
1397323193363 1395802358422 Which layer of the epidermis is the stell cell l
ayer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stratum Basale}}</div> <r /><div><r /></div><
div><div><i>Californians Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i
></div><div><i><img src="paste-1254130450966.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1397323208442 1395802358422 {{c1::Stratum Basale}} is the deepest layer of t
he epidermis and is the layer that contains <>stem cells</>. <r /><div><div>
<i>Californians Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><d
iv><i><img src="paste-1254130450966.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1397323236305 1395802358422 {{c1::Tight Junctions (Zonula Occludens)}} are a
type of epithelial cell junction that prevent paracellular movement of solutes.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397323803527 1395802358422 Which type of Epithelial Cell Junction prevents

the paracellular movement of solutes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tight Junctions
}}</div>
1397323832600 1395802358422 {{c1::Tight Junction (Zonula Occludens)}} is a t
ype of epithelial cell junction that is composed of Claudins and Occludins.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397323864739 1395802358422 {{c1::Claudins}} and&nsp;{{c2::Occludins}} are
the 2 epithelial cell junction proteins that make up tight junctions (Zonula Occ
ludens).
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397323901053 1395802358422 {{c1::Tight Junction}} is a type of epithelial c
ell junction that is also known as Zonula Occludens.
1397323959545 1395802358422 {{c1::Adherens Junction (Zonula Adherens)}} is a
type of epithelial cell junction found just elow tight junctions that form <>
"elt-like"</>&nsp;connections etween actin cytoskeletons of adjacent cells.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324311204 1395802358422 What type of epithelial cell junction is found j
ust elow tight junctions and forms <>"elt-like"</>&nsp;connections etween
actin cytoskeletons of adjacent cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adherens Junct
ion (Zonula Adherens)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" />
</div>
1397324355398 1395802358422 {{c1::Adherens Junction}} is a type of epithelia
l cell junction that is also known as Zonula Adherens. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324376155 1395802358422 Which adhesion protein is associated with Adhere
ns Junctions (Zonula Adherens)?<div><r />{{c1::Cadherins}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i style="font-weight: old; ">CAD</i><i>herins are <>Ca</><sup style="font
-weight: old; ">2+</sup>&nsp;dependent <>ad</>hesion proteins</i></div><div>
<i><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></i></div>
1397324450216 1395802358422 The loss of which adhesion protein in Adherens J
unctions promotes metastasis of epithelial neoplasms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:E-cadherin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324506076 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmosome (Macula Adherens)}} are a type o
f epithelial cell junction that act as structural support via keratin interactio
ns.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324647010 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmosome}} is a type of epithelial cell j
unction that is also known as Macula Adherens. <r /><div><img src="paste-20315
19531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324715667 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filaments are Desmoso
mes associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Keratin}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324745232 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filaments are Adheren
s Junctions (Zonula Adherens) associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin
Filaments}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324773148 1395802358422 What adhesion protein is associated with Desmoso
mes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmoplakin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324790934 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmoplakin}} is an adhesion protein that
is associated with Desmosomes and couples with keratin. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324814071 1395802358422 Which epithelial cell junction is targeted y th
e autoantiodies in Pemphigus Vulgaris?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmosomes}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324844724 1395802358422 {{c1::Gap Junctions}} are a type of epithelial c
ell junction that involve channel proteins called Connexons that allow for elect
rical and chemical communication etween cells. <r /><div><img src="paste-20315
19531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324904822 1395802358422 What transmemrane channels are associate with G
ap Junctions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Connexons}}</div>
1397324927042 1395802358422 What type of epithelial cell junction allow for
electrical and chemical communication etween cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Gap Junctions via Connexons}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533

.jpg" /></div>
1397324959844 1395802358422 {{c1::Integrins}} are memrane adhesion proteins
that maintain the integrity of the <>asolateral memrane</>&nsp;y inding
to <>collagen and laminin</>&nsp;on the asement memrane. <div><r /></div
><i><>INTEG</>rins maintain the <>INTEG</>rity of the asolateral memrane.<
/i><r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397325374651 1395802358422 What does Integrin ind to in the asement memr
ane to maintain integrity of the cell's asolateral memrane?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Collagen and Laminin}}</div>
1397325402722 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemidesmosome}} is an epithelial cell junc
tion that connects keratin in asal cells to the underlying asement memrane.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397325441886 1395802358422 Which type of epithelial cell junction connects
keratin in asal cells to the underlying asement memrane?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Hemidesmosomes}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" />
</div>
1397325465093 1395802358422 Which epithelial cell junction do autoantiodies
in Bullous Pemphigoid target?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemidesmosome}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397325518295 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with an Anterior
Drawer Sign?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACL injury}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-5716601471227.jpg" /></div>
1397325755670 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with a Posterior
Drawer Sign?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PCL injury}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397325767329 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with anormal pa
ssive <>aduction </>(valgus stress)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MCL injury}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397325951674 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with anormal pa
ssive <>adduction</>&nsp;(varus stress)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LCL injur
y}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326018932 1395802358422 Which clinical test looks for the presnce of a m
eniscus knee injury?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::McMurray Test}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326046210 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with pain on <>
external rotation</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial Meniscus injury}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326069174 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with pain on <>
internal rotation</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral meniscus injury}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326095938 1395802358422 Which cruciate ligament in the knee attaches to
the anterior aspect of the tiia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACL}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The naming refers to the site of tiial attachment.</i><r /
><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326146119 1395802358422 Which cruciate ligament in the knee attaches to
the posterior aspect of the tiia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PCL}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The naming refers to the site of tiial attachment.</i></div><div>
<i><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></i></div>
1397326180110 1395802358422 {{c1::Unhappy Triad}} is a common sports injury
that presents due to <>lateral force applied to a planted leg</>.
1397326222696 1395802358422 {{c1::Unhappy Triad}} is a common sports injury
that classically involves damage to the ACL, MCL and Medial Meniscus as it is at
tached to the MCL.
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326476784 1395802358422 Which 3 structures in the knee are commonly inju
red in Unhappy Triad?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACL; MCL; Medial Meniscus}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326515369 1395802358422 Which side of the knee involves a meniscus that
is attached to a collateral ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial (MCL + M
edial Meniscus)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326542847 1395802358422 Which meniscus in the knee is attached to a coll

ateral ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial Meniscus (and MCL)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326562076 1395802358422 Which meniscus in the knee is more commonly inju
red?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral meniscus}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326616531 1395802358422 Which anatomical landmark is associated with the
Pudendal Nerve for Pudendal Nerve Block in relieving the pain of delivery?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Ischial spine}}</div>
1397326664588 1395802358422 Which anatomical surface landmark is associated
with the Appendix?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::McBurney's Point (2/3 of the dista
nce etween the umilicus and ASIS)}}</div>
1397326716442 1395802358422 Which anatomical surface landmark is associated
with Lumar Puncture?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The level of the Iliac Crest}}<
/div>
1397326744170 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Rotator Cuff Muscles}} are a grou
p of shoulder muscles that form the rotator cuff.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-8538394984672.jpg" /></div>
1397326791714 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle is most commonly injur
ed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supraspinatus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327008289 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the Supraspinatus?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Suprascapular N}}</div>
1397327029752 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle aducts the arm initia
lly efore the action of the deltoid takes over?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supr
aspinatus}}</div>
1397327061525 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle injury is commonly see
n in aseall pitchers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infraspinatus injury}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327105520 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the Infraspinatus mus
cle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suprascapular nerve}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327137355 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle laterally rotates the
arm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infraspinatus}}</div>
1397327167103 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle oth adducts <u>and</u
>&nsp;laterally rotates the arm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Teres Minor}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327191613 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the Teres Minor muscl
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary Nerve}}</div>
1397327369287 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle medially rotates and a
dducts the arm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suscapularis}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327392350 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the Suscapular muscl
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suscapular nerve}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327410469 1395802358422 Which spinal cord nerve roots primarily innervat
e the Rotator Cuff Muscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-C6}}</div>
1397327444207 1395802358422 What are the 4 rotator cuff muscles?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Supraspinatus; Infraspinatus; Teres Minor; Suscapularis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"SItS"</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></i><
/div>
1397327482467 1395802358422 What is the most commonly fractured carpal one?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scaphoid}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10286
446674205.jpg" /></div>
1397327788124 1395802358422 Which carpal one can e palpated in the anatomi
cal snuff ox?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scaphoid}}</div>
1397327804309 1395802358422 {{c1::Scaphoid}} is a carpal one that is the mo
st commonly fractured carpal one and is prone to avascular necrosis due to retr
ograde lood supply.
<r /><div><img src="paste-10282151706909.jpg" /></div>
1397327847711 1395802358422 Dislocation of which carpal one may cause Acute
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lunate}}</div>
<r /><d

iv><img src="paste-10282151706909.jpg" /></div>
1397327889757 1395802358422 Which nerve can e damaged following a fall onto
an outstretched that results in fracture to the hook of the Hamate?<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-10282151706909.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Ulnar Nerve}}</div>
1397328031852 1395802358422 {{c1::Carpal Tunnel Syndrome}} is a wrist injury
that involves entrapment of the Median Nerve in the carpal tunnel and hence pre
sents with paresthesia, pain and numness.
1397328122571 1395802358422 Which nerve is entrapped in the carpal tunnel to
cause Carpal Tunnel Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Median Nerve}}</div>
1397328148762 1395802358422 {{c1::Guyon Canal Syndrome}} is a wrist injury t
hat involves compression of the Ulnar Nerve at the wrist of hand, presenting wit
h paresthesia, pain and numness.
1397328194858 1395802358422 Which nerve is compressed at the wrist or hand i
n Guyon Canal Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulnar Nerve}}</div>
1397328209301 1395802358422 {{c1::Guyon Canal Syndrome}} is a wrist injury t
hat is classically seen in cyclists due to constant pressure on the wrist/hand f
rom the handlears.
1397328233085 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Er Palsy (Waiter's Tip)?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lesion to the <>upper</>&nsp;trunk at C5-C6 roots
}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i><>ERB</>er = Upper trunk<r /></i><div><im
g src="paste-11858404704811.jpg" /></div>
1397330340192 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Er Palsy in <
>infants</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral traction on the neck during del
ivery}}</div>
1397330363923 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Er Palsy in <
>adults</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trauma}}</div>
1397330380176 1395802358422 {{c1::Er Palsy}} is a Brachial Plexus lesion th
at involves lesion to the <>upper trunk</>&nsp;(C5-C6) and presents as an add
ucted, medially rotated, extended and pronated ipsilateral upper lim.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-12141872546039.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /></div
><i>Due to deficit of the deltoid, supraspinatus, infraspinatus and iceps rach
ii.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397330522125 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Klumpke's Palsy?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lesion of the <>lower trunk</>&nsp;(C8-T1 roots)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397330681779 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Klumpke's Palsy
in <>infants</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upward force on the arm during de
livery}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397330708506 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Klumpke Palsy i
n adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trauma (e.g. graing a tree ranch while f
alling down a tree)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /
></div>
1397330757872 1395802358422 {{c1::Klumpke Palsy}} is a rachial plexus lesio
n that is due to lesion of the <>lower trunk</>&nsp;at C8-T1 roots and involv
es a <>total claw hand</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13052405612715
.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397331125784 1395802358422 {{c1::Thoracic Outlet Syndrome}} is a rachial p
lexus lesion that involves compression of the <>lower trunk</>&nsp;and <>su
clavian vessels</>.
<r /><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-118541097375
15.jpg" /></div>
1397331202876 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Thoracic Outlet Syndrome?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Compression of the <>lower</>&nsp;trunk of the r
achial plexus and <>suclavian vessels</>}}</div>
<r /><div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397331267972 1395802358422 Which type of tumour is associated with Thoracic
Outlet Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pancoast tumour (at the apex of the
lung)}}</div>
1397331286413 1395802358422 {{c1::Cervical Ri}} is a congenital anatomical
anomaly that may cause Thoracic Outlet Syndrome.

1397331337403 1395802358422 {{c1::Thoracic Outlet Syndrome}} is a rachial p
lexus lesion that involves the atrophy of intrinsic hand muscles along with isch
emic, pain, edema of the hand due to vascular compression.
1397331385231 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Winged Scapula?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Lesion of the Long Thoracic Nerve}}</div>
1397331400731 1395802358422 What muscle deficit is seen in Winged Scapula?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Serratus Anterior}}</div>
1397331428745 1395802358422 {{c1::Winged Scapula}} is a rachial plexus lesi
on that involves lesion to the Long Thoracic Nerve and presents with an inailit
y to anchor the scapula to the thoracic cage due to a Serratus Anterior defect.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14242111553704.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1404608091119 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the A
xillary Nerve (C5-C6)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fracture surgical neck of the
humerus; Anterior dislocation of the humerus}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Pres
ents with <>flattened deltoid</>, <>loss of arm aduction at the shoulder </
>(&gt; 15 degrees), <>loss of sensation over the deltoid muscle and lateral arm
</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-17141214478924.jpg" /></div>
1404609666551 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the M
usculocutaneous Nerve (C5-C7)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upper trunk compressio
n}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Presents with <>loss of forearm flexion and
supination</>&nsp;and <>loss of sensation over the lateral forearm</>.</i><
r /><div><img src="paste-17136919511628.jpg" /></div>
1404609714536 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the R
adial Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Midshaft fracture of the humerus
; Compression of the axilla (crutches; Saturday Night Palsy)}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>Presents with <>wrist drop</>, <>decreased grip strength, loss of
sensation over posterior arm/forearm/dorsal hand.</></i><r /><div><img src="p
aste-17136919511628.jpg" /></div>
1404610097409 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>proximal</>
injury to the Median Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supracondylar fr
acture of the humerus}}</div> <div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1713691951
1628.jpg" /></div>
1404610169014 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>distal</>&n
sp;injury to the Median Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Carpal Tunnel
Syndrome; Wrist laceration}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Presents with <>Ape
Hand</>&nsp;or <>Benedict's Hand</>.</i><div><i>Presents with <>loss of wr
ist and lateral finger flexion, thum opposition.</><r /></i><div><img src="pa
ste-17136919511628.jpg" /></div></div>
1404610467566 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>proximal </
>injury to the Ulnar Nerve (C8-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fracture of the m
edial epicondyle of the humerus (i.e. "funny one")}}</div>
<r /><div><i></
i><i></i><i>Presents with&nsp;<>Claw Hand</>&nsp;upon digit extension.</i></
div><div><i>Presents with&nsp;<>radial deviation of wrist upon extension</>.<
/i></div><div><i>Presents with <>loss of flexion of wrist and medial fingers, a
duction and adduction of fingers.</></i></div><div><i>Presents with <>loss of
sensation over the medial 1/2 of fingers including hypothenar eminence</>.</i>
</div><div><i><div style="font-weight: old; "><div><img src="paste-171369195116
28.jpg" /></div></div></i></div>
1404611375079 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>distal</>&n
sp;injury to the Ulnar Nerve (C8-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fractured hook
of the hamate}}</div> <div><div><i></i><i><r class="Apple-interchange-newline
" />Presents with&nsp;<>Claw Hand</>&nsp;upon digit extension.</i></div><div
><i>Presents with&nsp;<>loss of flexion of wrist and medial fingers, aduction
and adduction of fingers.</></i></div><div><i>Presents with&nsp;<>loss of se
nsation over the medial 1/2 of fingers including hypothenar eminence</>.</i></d
iv><div><i><div style="font-weight: old; "><div><img src="paste-17136919511628.
jpg" /></div></div></i></div></div>
1404611388759 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the R
ecurrent Branch of the Median Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superfic

ial laceration of the palm}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Presents with <>Ape
Hand</></i><div><i>Presents with <>loss of thenar muscle groups</>&nsp;(opp
osition, aduction, flexion of the thum).</i></div><div><i>No loss of sensation
.<r /></i><div><i><div style="font-weight: old; "><div><img src="paste-1713691
9511628.jpg" /></div></div></i></div></div>
1404611452458 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Axillary Nerve?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-C6}}</div>
<r /><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musc
ulocutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassin
ated (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all
5 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><di
v><i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="paste-19219
978650178.jpg" /></div>
1404611478769 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Musculocutaneou
s Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-C7}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>3 Mus
keteers (Musculocutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><di
v><i>Assassinated (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Media
n nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)
</i></div><div><i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src
="paste-19219978650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404611488223 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Radial Nerve?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-T1}}</div> <r /><div><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musculo
cutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassinate
d (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all 5
roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><
i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="paste-19219978
650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404611497410 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Median Nerve?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-T1}}</div> <r /><div><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musculo
cutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassinate
d (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all 5
roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><
i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="paste-19219978
650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404611505977 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Ulnar Nerve?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::C8-T1}}</div> <r /><div><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musculo
cutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassinate
d (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all 5
roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><
i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="paste-19219978
650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404611518719 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Recurrent ranc
h of the Median Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-T1}}</div> <r /><div><div>
<i>3 Musketeers (Musculocutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i><
/div><div><i>Assassinated (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 me
n (Median nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all
5 roots)</i></div><div><i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div>
<img src="paste-19219978650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404614495031 1395802358422 {{c1::Clawing}} is a distortion of the hand that
is commonly seen est with <>distal</>&nsp;lesions of the median or ulnar ne
rves. <r /><div><i>The remaining extrinsic flexors of the digits exaggerate t
he loss of the lumricals. Hence the <>fingers extend at the MCP ut flex at th
e DIPs and PIPs.</></i></div><div><i>In <>proximal lesions</>, deficits prese
nt during voluntary flexion of the digits.</i></div>
1404614907599 1395802358422 {{c1::Claw Hand (Ulnar Claw)}} is a distortion o
f the hand due to a <>distal ulnar nerve</>&nsp;<>lesion</>&nsp;that prese
nts with a <>loss of flexion of the medial digits and wrist</>&nsp;<u style="
font-weight: old; ">at rest</u>&nsp;or while <u style="font-weight: old; ">ex
tending the fingers</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21118354194697.jpg
" /></div>
1404615452035 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Ulnar Claw (Claw Hand)?<d

iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distal Ulnar Nerve lesion}}</div><div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-21114059227401.jpg" /></div>
1404615471575 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Benedict's Hand (Pope's B
lessing)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Proximal</u>&nsp;median nerve lesion}}<
/div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21114059227401.jpg" /></div>
1404615539717 1395802358422 {{c1::Benedict's Hand (Pope's Blessing)}} is a d
istortion of the hand that is due to <>proximal median nerve lesion</>&nsp;an
d presents with <>loss of lateral digit flexion</>&nsp;when prompted to <u st
yle="font-weight: old; ">make a fist</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste21114059227401.jpg" /></div>
1404615608564 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Ape Hand (Median Claw)?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Distal</u>&nsp;median nerve lesion}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-21530671055107.jpg" /></div>
1404616013207 1395802358422 {{c1::Ape Hand (Median Claw)}} is a distortion o
f the hand that is due to a <>distal median nerve</>&nsp;lesion and presents
with <>loss of thum opposition</>&nsp;and <>medial digit flexion</>&nsp;<
u style="font-weight: old; ">at rest</u>&nsp;or when <u style="font-weight: o
ld; ">extending the fingers</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2153067105
5107.jpg" /></div>
1404616245928 1395802358422 {{c1::"OK Gesture"}} is a distortion of the hand
that is due to a <>proximal ulnar nerve lesion</>&nsp;and presents with <>f
lexion of the first 3 digits only</>&nsp;upon <u style="font-weight: old; ">m
aking a fist</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21530671055107.jpg" /></d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Strong creativity with the naming here. "OK Gesture". Lol.
</i></div>
1404616520821 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in the "OK Gesture" hand dis
tortion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal ulnar nerve lesion}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-21530671055107.jpg" /></div>
1404616621226 1395802358422 Which <>group</>&nsp;of hand muscles can eco
me atrophied in <>median nerve lesions</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thenar}}
</div> <div><r /></div><i>Hence there will e unopposale thum.</i><r /><div
><img src="paste-23351737188724.jpg" /></div>
1404616684829 1395802358422 Which <>group</>&nsp;of hand muscles can eco
me atrophied in <>ulnar nerve lesions</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypothena
r muscles}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-23347442221428.jpg" /></div>
1404622467026 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the Thenar muscles?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Median Nerve}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste597000454487.jpg" /></div>
1404622498946 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the Hypothenar muscles?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulnar Nerve}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-601295421783.jpg" /></div>
1404670901243 1395802358422 {{c1::Opponens pollicis}},&nsp;{{c2::Aductor p
ollicis revis}} and&nsp;{{c3::Flexor pollicis revis}} are the 3 hand muscles
that make up the thenar group.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-592705487210
.jpg" /></div> <div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-605590388941.jpg" /></div>
1404671073406 1395802358422 {{c1::Opponens digiti minimi}},&nsp;{{c2::aduc
tor digiti minimi}} and&nsp;{{c3::flexor digiti minimi revis}} are the 3 hand
muscles that make up the hypothenar group.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste592705487210.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /><div><img src="paste-605590388941.jpg
" /></div></div>
1404671129671 1395802358422 What is the action of the <>dorsal</>&nsp;int
erosseous muscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Finger aduction}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i><>"DAB"</>&nsp;= <>D</>orsals <>AB</>duct the fingers</i></div>
1404671175861 1395802358422 What is the action of the <>palmar</>&nsp;int
erosseous muscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adduction of the fingers}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>PAD</>" = <>P</>almars <>AD</>duct the fingers.</i></div>
1404671228254 1395802358422 What is the action of the Lumrical muscles?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Flexion of the MCP joint; Extension of the PIP and DIP j
oints}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-833223655794.jpg" /></div>
1404671357521 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Oturator Nerve

?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L2-L4}}</div>
1404672355915 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Femoral Nerve?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L2-L4}}</div>
1404672382737 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Common Peroneal
Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S2}}</div>
1404672389705 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Tiial Nerve?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S3}}</div>
1404672396153 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Superior Glutea
l Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S1}}</div>
1404672402099 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Inferior Glutea
l Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L5-S2}}</div>
1404672412114 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Sciatic Nerve?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S3}}</div>
1404672424927 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the O
turator Nerve (L2-L4)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic Surgery}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>loss of medial thigh sensation</>&nsp;and <>lo
ss of adduction</>.</i></div>
1404672719909 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the F
emoral Nerve (L2-L4)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic fracture}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>loss of thigh flexion and leg extension</>.</i><
/div>
1404673296558 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the C
ommon Peroneal Nerve (L4-S2)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trauma/compression to t
he <u>lateral leg</u>; Fiular neck fracture}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents a
s <>Foot Drop</>&nsp;(inverted and plantarflexed foot at rest; loss of eversi
on and dorsiflexion; Steppage gait; loss of sensation on the dorsum of the foot)
.</i></div>
1404673420680 1395802358422 {{c1::Foot Drop}} is a leg injury that results d
ue to injury to the <>common peroneal nerve</>&nsp;and presents with <>inver
sion/plantarflexion of the foot at rest</>&nsp;and a <>loss of eversion and d
orsiflexion</>.
1404673605898 1395802358422 Which nerve injury causes <>Foot Drop</>?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Common peroneal nerve}}</div>
1404673624105 1395802358422 {{c1::Foot Drop}} is a leg injury due to injury
to the <>common peroneal nerve</>&nsp;and presents with a <>"steppage gait."
</>
1404673661071 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>proximal</>
injury to the Tiial Nerve (L4-S3)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Knee trauma; Bak
er cyst}}</div> <r /><div><i>Presents with <>loss of aility to curl toes</>&
nsp;and <>loss of sensation on the sole of the foot</>.</i></div><div><i>Prox
imal lesion presents with <>foot eversion at rest</>&nsp;with <>loss of inve
rsion and plantarflexion</>.</i></div>
1404673709617 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>distal</> i
njury to the Tiial Nerve (S4-L3)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tarsal tunnel synd
rome}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with&nsp;<>loss of aility to curl toes
</>&nsp;and&nsp;<>loss of sensation on the sole of the foot</>.</i></div>
1404673804292 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the S
uperior Gluteal Nerve (L4-S1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior hip dislocat
ion; Polio}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>Trendelenurg Sign/Gait</
>&nsp;(pelvis tilts ecause the weight-earing leg cannot maintain alignment o
f the pelvis through hip aduction.</i></div><div><i>The lesion is <>contralate
ral to the side of the hip that drops</>&nsp;and <>ipsilateral to the side of
the weight earing lim</>.</i></div>
1404673946434 1395802358422 Which gluteal muscles are innervated y the Supe
rior Gluteal Nerve (L4-S1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gluteus medius; Gluteus m
inimus}}</div>
1404674435457 1395802358422 Which nerve injury can cause Trendelenurg Sign/
Gait?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Gluteal Nerve}}</div> <r /><div><div>
<i>Presents with&nsp;<>Trendelenurg Sign/Gait</>&nsp;(pelvis tilts ecause
the weight-earing leg cannot maintain alignment of the pelvis through hip aduc

tion.</i></div><div><i>The lesion is&nsp;<>contralateral to the side of the hi
p that drops</>&nsp;and&nsp;<>ipsilateral to the side of the weight earing
lim</>.</i></div></div>
1404674460830 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the I
nferior Gluteal Nerve (L5-S2)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior hip dislocat
ion}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>difficulty climing stairs</>&n
sp;and <>rising from a seated position</>&nsp;due to a <>loss of hip extensi
on</>.</i></div>
1404674833365 1395802358422 Which gluteal muscles are innervated y the <>I
nferior</>&nsp;Gluteal Nerve (L5-S2)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gluteus maxim
us}}</div>
1404674891756 1395802358422 Which nerve of the leg mediates <>eversion</>&
nsp;and <>dorsiflexion</>&nsp;of the foot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Common
peroneal nerve (L4-S2)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3560527888510.jpg" />
</div>
1404674952723 1395802358422 Which nerve of the leg <>inverts</>&nsp;and <
>plantarflexes</>&nsp;the foot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tiial nerve}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3556232921214.jpg" /></div>
1404674973741 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Long Thoraci
c Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Thoracic Artery}}</div>
1404675302359 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Axillary ner
ve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Circumflex Artery}}</div>
1404675347363 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Radial nerve
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Deep Brachial Artery}}</div>
1404675358136 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Median Nerve
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brachial artery}}</div>
1404675372598 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Tiial Nerve
<>at the popliteal fossa</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Popliteal artery}}</d
iv>
1404675387127 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Tiial Nerve
<>posterior to the medial malleolus</>?<div><r />{{c1::Posterior Tiial Arte
ry}}</div>
1404676055360 1395802358422 The {{c1::dihydropyridine receptor}} is a voltag
e-gated receptor that is mechanically coupled to the ryanodine receptor on the s
arcoplasmic reticulum of muscle.
<r /><div><i>Depolarization of the Dihy
dropyridine Receptor induces a conformational change in the Ryanodine Receptor a
nd susequent Ca²⁺&nsp;release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.</i><
/div><div><i><img src="paste-4398046511753.jpg" /></i></div>
1404676262836 1395802358422 Which receptor on the cell memrane of muscle ce
lls is mechanically coupled to the Ryanodine Receptor on the sarcoplasmic reticu
lum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydropyridine Receptor}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Depolarization of the Dihydropyridine Receptor induces a conformational ch
ange in the Ryanodine Receptor and susequent release of Ca²⁺&nsp;fr
om the sarcoplasmic reticulum.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4393751544457.jp
g" /></i></div>
1404676357104 1395802358422 {{c1::Troponin C}} is a protein in muscle that 
inds to Ca²⁺&nsp;and causes a conformational change that moves tropo
myosin out of the myosin-inding site on actin filaments.
1404676820705 1395802358422 How does the length of the H and I ands of the
sarcomere change in muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both <u>decre
ase</u>}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-4393751544457.jpg" /></div>
1404676900232 1395802358422 How does the length of the A and of the sarcome
re change in muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>A</>-and is <>A</>lways the same length."</i></div><div><i
><img src="paste-4393751544457.jpg" /></i></div>
1404676932303 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fiers are referred to as <
>slow</>&nsp;twitch fiers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 1}}</div>
1404677844113 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fiers are referred to as <
>fast </>twitch fiers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 2}}</div>
1404677865821 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fiers are <>red </>fier

s due to an <>increased mitochondria</>&nsp;and <>myogloin concentration</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 1}}</div>
1404678139240 1395802358422 {{c1::Type 1 muscle fiers}} are a type of muscl
e fier that perform <>sustained contraction</>&nsp;due to an <>increased co
ncentration of mitochondria and myogloin</>&nsp;(i.e. increased oxidative pho
sphorylation capacity). <r /><div><i>Hence these fiers are "red" fiers.</i></
div>
1404678196261 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fier is referred to as <>
white</>&nsp;fiers due to their decreased mitochondria and myogloin concentr
ation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 2}}</div>
1404678228499 1395802358422 {{c1::Type 2 muscle fiers}} are a type of muscl
e fier that are <>white</>&nsp;as there is a <>decreased concentration of m
itochondria </>and <>myogloin concentration</>&nsp;(i.e. increased anaeroi
c glycosis).
<div><i><r /></i></div>
1404678287456 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fiers typically yield hype
rtrophy as a result of weight training?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 2, fasttwitch, white muscle fiers}}</div>
1404678329753 1395802358422 Which type of Ca²⁺&nsp;channels on s
mooth muscle govern smooth muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>L-t
ype</u>&nsp;voltage-gated Ca²⁺&nsp;channels}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-5858335392481.jpg" /></div>
1404678963543 1395802358422 Which protein in smooth muscle inds to Ca^2
+&nsp;in order to activate Myosin Light-chain Kinase (MLCK)?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Calmodulin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185
.jpg" /></div>
1404679015149 1395802358422 Which enzyme in smooth muscle functions to phosp
horylate myosin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myosin Light-chain kinase (MLCK)}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679044249 1395802358422 How does an increase in Ca²⁺&nsp;lev
el influence smooth muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679687526 1395802358422 Which enzyme in smooth muscle cells does Nitric
Oxide activated to trigger muscle relaxation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Guanyla
te cyclase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679691862 1395802358422 Which enzyme in smooth muscle cells functions to
<>dephosphorylate</>&nsp;myosin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myosin Light-cha
in Phosphatase (MLCP)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" />
</div>
1404679732651 1395802358422 Which secondary messenger in smooth muscle cells
functions to activate Myosin Light-chain Phosphatase (MLCP)?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::cGMP (via NO activating Guanylate Cyclase)}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679773180 1395802358422 How does Nitric Oxide influence smooth muscle re
laxation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679791660 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with ones of the axial and appendicular skeleton?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::En
dochondral ossification}}</div>
1404681302876 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;the ase of the skull?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossific
ation}}</div>
1404681316438 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;ones of the calvarium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memranous ossifica
tion}}</div>
1404681330677 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;facial ones?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memranous ossification}}</di
v>
1404681338966 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;a cartilaginous model of one first made y chondrocytes?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossification}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The cartil

aginous model of one is first made y chondrocytes.</i></div><div><i>Osteoclast
s and osteolasts then later replace it with woven one and then remodel it to l
amellar one.</i></div>
1404681376860 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;the replacement of cartilaginous one with woven one y osteoclasts a
nd osteolasts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossification}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>The cartilaginous model of one is first made y chondrocytes
.</i></div><div><i>Osteoclasts and osteolasts then later replace it with woven
one and then remodel it to lamellar one.</i></div></div>
1404681404737 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with <>direct formation</>&nsp;of woven one without cartilage?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Memranous ossification}}</div> <r /><div><i>Woven one is form
ed directly without cartilage and is later remodeled to lamellar one.</i></div>
1404681541884 1395802358422 Which one cells function to uild one y secre
ting collagen and catalyzing mineralization?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteola
sts}}</div>
1404681690759 1395802358422 Which one cells differentiate from the <>mesen
chymal stem cell population</>&nsp;in the periosteum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Osteo<u></u>lasts}}</div>
1404681732635 1395802358422 Which one cells are multinucleated cells that f
unction to <>dissolve one</>&nsp;y secreting acid and collagenases?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Osteoclasts}}</div>
1404681760694 1395802358422 Which one cells differentiate from monocytes an
d macrophages?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoclasts}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
is is very important to rememer when it comes to the treatment of Osteopetrosis
(one marrow transplantation, as osteoclasts form from monocytes).</i></div>
1404681863809 1395802358422 {{c1::Parathyroid Hormone}} is a hormone that ca
uses <>anaolic</>&nsp;effects at the one via osteolasts and osteoclasts wh
en it is present in <u style="font-weight: old; ">low, intermittent levels</u>.
<r /><div><i>It uilds one directly via osteolasts and indirectly via osteocl
asts.</i></div>
1404681945984 1395802358422 {{c1::Parathyroid Hormone}} is a hormone from th
e parathyroid that causes <>cataolic effects</>&nsp;when it is found in <u s
tyle="font-weight: old; ">chronic, high levels</u>.
1404682004948 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteitis Firosa Cystica}} is a skeletal c
omplication of chronic high PTH levels that results from the cataolic effects t
he hormone yields.
1404682971482 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence apoptosis in Osteol
asts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Est
rogen favours one formation.</i></div>
1404682997924 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence apoptosis in Osteocl
asts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Est
rogen inhiits one resorption.</i></div><div><i>Hence, in estrogen deficiency (
surgical or menopausal), excess remodelling cycles carried out y Osteoclasts le
ads to osteoporosis.</i></div>
1396878226295 1395802358422 What is the life span of Erythrocytes?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::120 days}}</div>
1396878244547 1395802358422 What is the primary source of energy for Erythro
cytes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose}}</div>
<r /><div><i>90% is use
d in Glycolysis, 10% is used in the HMP shunt</i></div>
1396878284412 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythrocytosis (Polycythemia)}} is a hemat
ological disorder that is primarily characterized y an <>elevated</>&nsp;hem
atocrit.
1396878419942 1395802358422 {{c1::Anisocytosis}} is a hematological disorder
that is characterized y varying Erythrocyte <>size</>.
1396878441656 1395802358422 {{c1::Poikilocytosis}} is a hematological disord
er that is descried y varying Erythrocyte <>shape</>.
1396878470660 1395802358422 A(n) {{c1::Reticulocyte}} is an immature erythro
cyte that is commonly used as a marker of erythroid proliferation.
1396878511436 1395802358422 Which precursor cell are Platelets (Thromocytes

) derived from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Megakaryocytes}}</div>
1396878580550 1395802358422 What is the life span of Platelets (Thromocytes
)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::8-10 days}}</div>
1396878596280 1395802358422 Which lymphoid organ stores approximately 1/3 of
the platelet pool?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spleen}}</div>
1396878965203 1395802358422 Which platelet receptor does von Willerand's Fa
ctor (vWF) ind to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpI}}</div>
1396879047967 1395802358422 Which platelet receptor does Firinogen ind to?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpII/IIIa}}</div>
1396879228618 1395802358422 What is the most aundant Leukocyte in a normal
person?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neutrophils (54-62% of total WBCs)}}</div>
<div><div class="page" title="Page 397"><div class="section"><div class="layoutA
rea"><div class="column"><p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt;font-family: 'El
ectraLH';font-weight: 700;color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">N</span
><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">eutrophils (54–62%
)&nsp;</span></p><p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraL
H'; font-weight: 700; color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">L</span><sp
an style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">ymphocytes (25–33%)&n
sp;</span></p><p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH';
font-weight: 700; color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">M</span><span s
tyle="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">onocytes (3–7%)&nsp;</spa
n></p><p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'; font-wei
ght: 700; color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">E</span><span style="fo
nt-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">osinophils (1–3%)&nsp;</span></p>
<p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'; font-weight: 7
00; color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">B</span><span style="font-siz
e: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">asophils (0–0.75%)&nsp;</span></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div></div>
1396879515608 1395802358422 Which vitamin deficiency is associated with the
presence of hypersegmented Neutrophils with 5+ loes?<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-2173253451950.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin B12 (C
oalamin) Deficiency; Vitamin B9 (Folate) Deficiency}}</div></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence these are seen in Megalolastic Anaemia</i></div>
1396879521588 1395802358422 What is an increase in the numer of Band Cells
(immature Neutrophil) indicative of?<div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myeloid Pro
liferation}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Can e due to a acterial infectio
n or CML</i></div>
1396879666428 1395802358422 What do Monocytes differentiate into once they e
nter tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Macrophages}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.
e. Monocytes are <>only found in the lood</>&nsp;and Macrophages are <>only
found in tissue</></i></div>
1396879730590 1395802358422 Which type of Interferon activates Macrophages?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::gamma-Interferon}}</div>
1396879797069 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker (CD) is expressed main
ly y Macrophages?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD14}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It
is involved in the detection of acterial LPS.</i></div>
1396879950180 1395802358422 Which MHC molecule is found on Macrophages?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
1396880031833 1395802358422 Which Leukocyte is the primary defense against H
elminthic infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Eosinophils}}</div>
1396880210877 1395802358422 Which sustance from Eosinophils is primarily in
volved in fighting Helminthic infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Major Basic
Protein}}</div>
1396880705193 1395802358422 {{c1::Histaminase}} and&nsp;{{c2::Arylsulfatase
}} are enzymes produced y Eosinophils that function to limit the reaction follo
wing Mast Cell degranulation.
1396880890336 1395802358422 Which Leukocyte is primarily involved in mediati

ng allergic reactions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basophils}}</div>
1396880945282 1395802358422 Which Leukotriene is commonly found in the granu
les of Basophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LTD4}}</div>
1396881008712 1395802358422 {{c1::Heparin}} is an anticoagulant that is foun
d in the densely asophilic granules of Basophils.
1396881011799 1395802358422 {{c1::Histamine}} is a vasodilator that is commo
nly found in the densely asophilic granules of Basophils.
1396881033662 1395802358422 Which leukocyte is involved with mediating aller
gic reactions at <>local tissue</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mast Cells}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Mast Cells are similar in structure and function to Basoph
ils ut are a different cell type.</i></div>
1396881143091 1395802358422 Which type of immunogloulin inds to Mast Cells
to sensitize them to degranulation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgE (via the F<s
u>c</su>&nsp;portion)}}</div>
1396881277956 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin ound on the surface of Mas
t Cells will cross-link upon antigen inding and trigger degranulation?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
1396881397054 1395802358422 {{c1::Cromolyn Sodium}} is a Mast Cell stailize
r used for asthma prophylaxis as it prevents Mast Cell degranulation.
1396881537399 1395802358422 {{c1::Dendritic Cells}} are a type of highly pha
gocytic Antigen Presenting Cell that function as the link etween innate and ada
ptive immune systems. <r /><div><i>aka Langerhans Cell at the skin</i></div>
1396881625698 1395802358422 Where in the ody do B Cells mature?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Bone Marrow}}</div>
1396881930365 1395802358422 What do B Cells differentiate into when they enc
ounter an antigen at peripheral lymphoid tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Plas
ma Cells}}</div>
1396881983638 1395802358422 Which MHC molecule is found on B Cells?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
1396882048513 1395802358422 Where in the ody do T Cells mature?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Thymus}}</div>
1396882081154 1395802358422 What is the most aundant Lymphocyte in a normal
person?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells (80%)}}</div>
1396882108788 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker is associated with cyt
otoxic T Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD8}}</div>
1396882129253 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker is associated with hel
per T Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4}}</div>
1396882141444 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker interacts with 7 for
regulatory T Cell differentiation from naive CD4+ T Cells? <r /><r />{{c1::CD2
8}}
1396882161143 1395802358422 Which type of T Cell is the primary target of HI
V?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ helper T cells}}</div>
1396882263664 1395802358422 {{c1::Mutiple Myeloma}} is a Plasma Cell Cancer.
1396882322233 1395802358422 {{c1::Plasma Cells}} are an immune cell that dif
ferentiate from B Cells and produce large amounts of antiody specific to a part
icular antigen.
1396882358169 1395802358422 Which immune cell is associated with a clock-fac
e distruution of chromatin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Plasma Cells}}</div>
1396882419626 1395802358422 Which lood group antiody is found in a person
with Group A lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-B}}</div>
1396883190435 1395802358422 Which lood group antiody is found in a person
with Group&nsp;B lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-A}}</div>
1396883196939 1395802358422 Which lood group antiody is found in a person
with Group&nsp;AB lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div>
1396883218290 1395802358422 Which lood group is the universal <>recipient<
/>&nsp;of <>RBCs</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AB}}</div> <r /><div><i>Be
cause the patient's plasma lacks antiodies against lood group antigens.</i></d
iv>
1396883287334 1395802358422 Which lood group is the universal <>donor</>&
nsp;of <>plasma</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AB}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Be

cause the patient's plasma lacks antiodies against lood group antigens.</i></d
iv>
1396883317448 1395802358422 Which lood group antiody is found in a person
with Group&nsp;O lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both Anti-A and Anti-B}}</di
v>
1396883360161 1395802358422 Which lood group is the universal <>donor</>&
nsp;of <>RBCs</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::O}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Be
cause the patient's RBCs lack A and B antigens.</i></div>
1396883373663 1395802358422 Which lood group is the universal <>recipient<
/>&nsp;of <>plasma</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::O}}</div> <r /><div><i>Be
cause the patient's RBCs lack A and B antigens.</i></div>
1396883453618 1395802358422 Which type of immunogloulins are Anti-A and Ant
i-B lood group antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgM}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence the <>cannot cross the placenta</></i></div>
1396883508977 1395802358422 Which type of immunogloulin are Anti-Rh lood g
roup antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence they
<>can cross the placenta</>.</i></div>
1396883552377 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is deficient in Haemoph
ilia A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VIII}}</div>
1396884336778 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is deficient in Haemoph
ilia B (Christmas Disease)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IX}}</div>
1396884359219 1395802358422 How do ACE-Inhiitors affect Bradykinin levels?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is why patien
ts receiving ACE Inhiitors have an "ACE Inhiitor cough."</i></div>
1396884385283 1395802358422 Which enzyme reduces Vitamin K so that it can ac
t as a cofactor in coagulation factor synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epox
ide Reductase}}</div> <r /><div><i>This is the enzyme inhiits y Warfarin</i
></div>
1396884585917 1395802358422 Which coagulation factors require Vitamin K as a
cofactor in their synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factors II, VII, IX and
X (as well as Protein C and Protein S)}}</div>
1396884648381 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is carried y von Wille
<r /><d
rand's Factor (vWF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor VIII}}</div>
iv><r /></div>
1396884682904 1395802358422 Which coagulation factors are inactivated y Pro
tein C?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factors V<su>a</su>&nsp;and VIII<su>a</su
>}}</div>
1396884946509 1395802358422 Which enzyme cleaves the Firin mesh, therey r
eaking down clots?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Plasmin}}</div>
1396884999133 1395802358422 Which coagulation factors are inhiited y Antit
hromin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factors IIa, VIIa, IXa, Xa, XIa, and XIIa}}<
/div>
1396885149021 1395802358422 {{c1::Heparin}} is an anticoagulant drug enhance
s the activity of antithromin.
1396885172691 1395802358422 What are the 2 principal targets of antithromin
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor II<su>a</su>&nsp;(Thromin)&nsp;and Fact
or X<su>a</su>}}</div>
1396885194671 1395802358422 What is Factor V Leiden?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Factor V that is resistant to inactivation y Protein C}}</div>
1396885230664 1395802358422 {{c1::Factor V Leiden}} is a mutant form of coag
ulation Factor V that is resistant to inhiition y activated Protein C.
1396885261026 1395802358422 {{c1::Tissue Plasminogen Activators (tPA's)}} ar
e a <>class</>&nsp;of anticoagulant drugs that function as thromolytics y a
ctivating Plasminogen into Plasmin.
1396885390251 1395802358422 In platelet adhesion, what receptor does von Wil
lerand's Factor (vWF) ind to on Platelets?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpI}}</
div>
1396885458748 1395802358422 In platelet activation, which molecule inding a
t the Platelet surface induces the movement of GpII/IIIa receptors to the Plate
let surface?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ADP}}</div>

1396885564750 1395802358422 In platelet aggregation, which receptor does Fi
rinogen ind to on Platelets in order to link them together?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::GpII/IIIa}}</div>
1396885615272 1395802358422 What happens first in Platelet Plug Formation, P
latelet Adhesion or Platelet Aggregation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adhesion}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>D's efore G's, rah.</i></div>
1395771507741 1390229673821 In which week of gestation do the neuropores nor
mally fuse?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1395772170509 1390229673821 Which vitamin/mineral is associated with Neural
Tue Defects?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Folic Acid (Vitamin B9/M)}}</div>
1395772254745 1390229673821 Low intake of the vitamin {{c1::Folic Acid (Vita
min B9/M)}} efore conception and during pregnancy is associated with neural tu
e defects.
1395772321641 1390229673821 Which serum protein marker is associated with Ne
ural Tue Defects?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)}}</div>
1395772350314 1390229673821 Which amniotic fluid protein marker is associate
d with Neural Tue Defects?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)}}
</div>
1395772378187 1390229673821 Which enzyme in the amniotic fluid is a helpful
confirmatory test in the diagnosis of Neural Tue Defects if it is elevated?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Fetal AChE in the CSF transudates across/through the neural tue defect in
to the amniotic fluid.</i></div>
1395772565076 1390229673821 {{c1::Spina Bifida Occulta}} is a Neural Tue De
fect that results from a failure of the ony spinal canal to close, ut does not
involve a structural herniation.
<r /><div><i>Seen at lower verteral le
vels with tuft of hair or dimple of skin.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div>
<i><img src="paste-32083405701545.jpg" /></i></div>
1395773085765 1390229673821 {{c1::Spina Bifida Occulta}} is a Neural Tue De
fect that is associated with a tuft of hair or dimple of the skin at the level o
f the defect. <r /><div><img src="paste-32087700668841.jpg" /></div>
1395773113205 1390229673821 {{c1::Meningocele}} is a Neural Tue Defect that
involves normal AFP levels and herniation of the <>meninges only</>&nsp;thro
ugh the defect. <r /><div><img src="paste-32083405701545.jpg" /></div>
1395773183831 1390229673821 {{c1::Meningomyelocele}} is a Neural Tue Defect
that involves hernation of <>meninges and spinal cord</>&nsp;through the def
ect.
<r /><div><img src="paste-32083405701545.jpg" /></div>
1395773206448 1390229673821 {{c1::Anencephaly}} is a congenital CNS malforma
tion that involves malformation of the anterior neural tue, resulting in no for
erain and an open calvarium. <r /><div><i>Note the "frog-like appearance".</
i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3242700308680.jpg" /></i
></div>
1395773632547 1390229673821 How does the level of Alpha-Fetoprotein change i
n Anencephaly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1395773686471 1390229673821 {{c1::Polyhydramnios}} is a feature of Anencepha
ly that results from a lack of the swallowing center in the rain, therey resul
ting in an increased volume of amniotic fluid.
1395773765653 1390229673821 Which maternal endocrine disorder is associated
with Anencephaly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T1DM}}</div>
1395773794951 1390229673821 {{c1::Holoprosencephaly}} is a congenital CNS ma
lformation that involves failure of the left and right hemispheres to separate.
<r><div><img src="paste-3539053052624.jpg" /></div>
1395773879202 1390229673821 In which weeks of gestation do the left and righ
t hemispheres fail to separate, therey causing Holoprosencephaly?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::5-6}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Etiology is multifactorial; may e
related to sonic hedgehog signaling pathway.</i></div>
1395773986971 1390229673821 {{c1::Cyclopia}} is a characteristic of severe H
oloprosencephaly and involves a single, midline eye due to failure of the prosen
cephalon to divide.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3740916515199.jpg" /></
div>

1395774086394 1390229673821 {{c1::Arnold-Chiari (Chiari II) Malformation}} i
s a congenital CNS malformation that involves significant herniation of the cere
ellar tonsils and vermis through the foramen magnum.
1395774192578 1390229673821 {{c1::Hydrocephalus (via Cereral Aqueductal Ste
nosis)}} is a complication of Arnold-Chiari (Chiari II) Malformation due to comp
ression of the cereral aqueduct as a result of the cereellar herniation.
1395774272454 1390229673821 {{c1::Lumosacral Myeomeningocele}} is a type of
Myelomeningocele that often presents alongside Arnold-Chiari (Chiari II) Malfor
mations.
<r /><div><i>There is also often <>paralysis</>&nsp;elow th
e defect.</i></div>
1395774317566 1390229673821 {{c1::Dandy-Walker Malformation}} is a congenita
l CNS malformation that involves agenesis of the cereellar vermis with a cystic
enlargement of the 4th ventricle.
<r /><div><i>Associated with hydrocepha
lus and spina ifida.</i></div>
1395774447103 1390229673821 Which Neural Tue Defect is associated with Arno
ld-Chiari (Chiari II) Malformations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lumosacral Meni
ngomyelocele}}</div>
1395774478476 1390229673821 Which Neural Tue Defect is associated with Dand
y-Walker Malformations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spina Bifida}}</div>
1395774511584 1390229673821 {{c1::Syringomyelia}} is a congenital CNS malfor
mation that involves cystic cavitation of the spinal cord.
<div><r /></div
><div><i>Syrinx = tue/cystic cavity</i></div><r /><div><img src="paste-3231962
8902866.jpg" /></div>
1395775441722 1390229673821 {{c1::Hydromyelia}} is a specific type of Syring
omyelia that involves cystic cavitation of the central canal.
1395775513974 1390229673821 {{c1::Syringomyelia}} is a congenital spinal cor
d malformation that results in a <>ilateral "cape-like"</>&nsp;loss of pain
and temperature sensation from the upper extremities. <r /><div><i>Touch is p
reserved as the dorsal column is typically unnaffected.</i></div><div><i><r /><
/i></div><div><i><img src="paste-32315333935570.jpg" /></i></div>
1395775599511 1390229673821 Which verteral levels are the most common locat
ion of Syringomyelia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C8-T1}}</div>
1395775620034 1390229673821 Which Chiari malformation is associated with Syr
ingomyelia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chiari I (Type I)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4367981740214.jpg" /></div>
1395775655239 1390229673821 What spinal cord malformation is associated with
Chiari I (Type I) malformations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Syringomyelia}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4367981740214.jpg" /></div>
1395775679351 1390229673821 {{c1::Chiari I}} is a congenital CNS malformatio
n that involves a &gt; 3-5 mm cereellar tonsillar ectopia and is usually asympt
omatic. <r /><div><img src="paste-4367981740214.jpg" /></div>
1395775781031 1390229673821 Which type of Chiari malformation is usually asy
mptomatic?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1395775819639 1390229673821 Which Dopamine receptor is involved in the direc
t pathway of the Basal Ganglia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D1}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>"<>D1</>rect"</i></div>
1395776362419 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::Basal Ganglia}} is a deep structu
re of the rain that involves a group of nuclei that collectively govern volunta
ry movement and postural adjustments. <r /><div><i>It received cortical input
and provides negative feedack to the motor cortex to modulate movement.</i></d
iv><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></i></d
iv>
1395776440373 1390229673821 What is the only excitatory nucleus of the Basal
Ganglia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suthalamic Nucleus (STN)}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>The rest are all inhiitory.</i></div>
1395776597738 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::direct}} pathway of the Basal Ban
glia <>disinhiits</>&nsp;the Thalamus, therey resulting in cortical activat
ion and movement.
<r /><div><i>"<>DI</>rect <>DI</>sinhiits the Thal
amus causing <>activation</>&nsp;of movement"</i></div><div><i><r /></i></di
v><div><i><img src="paste-5729486373230.jpg" /></i></div>

1395776653470 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::indirect}} pathway of the Basal G
anglia <>inhiits</>&nsp;the Thalamus, therey resulting in no cortical activ
ation and a lack of movement. <r /><div><i>"<>IN</>direct <>IN</>hiits t
he Thalamus causing <>inhiition</>&nsp;of movement"</i></div><div><i><r /><
/i></div><div><i><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></i></div>
1395776806143 1390229673821 What Dopamine receptor is involved with the Indi
rect Pathway of the Basal Ganglia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D2}}</div>
1395776941011 1390229673821 The SNc of the Basal Ganglia <>inhiits</>&ns
p;the&nsp;{{c1::indirect}} pathway of the Basal Ganglia via&nsp;{{c2::D2}} rec
eptors, therey leading to the initiation of the movement.
<r /><div><i>"S
Nc <>IN</>hiits the <>IN</>direct pathway"</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div
><div><i><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></i></div>
1395777039552 1390229673821 The SNc of the Basal Ganglia&nsp;<>activates</
>&nsp;the&nsp;{{c1::direct}} pathway of the Basal Ganglia via&nsp;{{c2::D1}}
receptors, therey leading to the initiation of the movement. <r /><div><i>"S
Nc <>activates</>&nsp;the <>D1</>rect pathway"</i></div><div><i><r /></i><
/div><div><i><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></i></div>
1395777128397 1390229673821 <u>The Direct Basal Ganglia Pathway</u><div><u><
r /></u></div><div>Motor Cortex --&gt;&nsp;{{c1::Striatum}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c2::
GPi}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c3::Thalamus}} --&gt; Motor Cortex</div>
<r /><div><i>"T
he Glous Pallidus <u style="font-weight: old; ">IN</u>ternus is always <u styl
e="font-weight: old; ">IN</u>cluded in Basal Ganglia pathways."</i></div><div><
i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-48765058679580.jpg" /></i></div>
1395777310186 1390229673821 <u>The Indirect Basal Ganglia Pathway</u><div><u
><r /></u></div><div>Motor Cortex --&gt;&nsp;{{c1::Striatum}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c2
::GPe}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c3::STN}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c4::GPi}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c5::Thalam
us}} --&gt; Motor Cortex</div> <div><r /></div><div><i>"The Glous Pallidus <u
style="font-weight: old; ">IN</u>ternus is always <u style="font-weight: old;
">IN</u>cluded in Basal Ganglia pathways."</i></div><div><i>"<>I</>&nsp;(GPi
) efore <>E</>&nsp;(GPe), except after <>C</>&nsp;(cortex)"</i></div><r
/><div><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></div>
1395777819017 1390229673821 {{c1::Parkinson's Disease}} is a movement disord
er that involves degeneration of dopaminergic neurons of the SNc of the Basal Ga
nglia, therey resulting in decreased movement.
1395778019298 1390229673821 {{c1::Lewy Bodies}} are intracellular inclusions
seen in Parkinson's Disease and are composed of alpha-synuclein.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-8177617731835.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>(The small
er, dark purple inclusions)</i></div>
1395778199299 1390229673821 What protein is found in the Lewy Bodies of Park
insons and Lewy Body Dementia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-synuclein}}</div
>
1395778271752 1390229673821 {{c1::Parkinson's Disease}} is a movement disord
er of the Basal Ganglia that presents with a <>resting tremor</>, <>cogwheel
rigidity</>, akinesia/radykinesia, postural instaility and a <>shuffling gai
t</>.
1395778333705 1390229673821 {{c1::MPTP}} is a contaminant in illicit IV drug
s and is a rare cause of Parkinson's Disease.
1395778428732 1390229673821 {{c1::Huntington's Disease}} is a movement disor
der of the Basal Ganglia that is characterized y ilateral degeneration of the
Caudate Nucleus, especially its cholinergic and GABAergic neurons.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-9457517986694.jpg" /></div>
1395778551807 1390229673821 What is the genetic inheritance of Huntington's
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1395778569980 1390229673821 {{c1::Huntington's Disease}} is an&nsp;<u>autos
omal dominant</u>&nsp;movement disorder of the Basal Ganglia that involves <>c
horeiform movements</>, aggression, depression and dementia. <r /><div><i>Pr
esentation typically egins at 20-30 y/o and progresses from frontal loe ehavi
our prolems to chorea to dementia and eventually death in 5-10 years from Dx.</
i></div>
1395778613975 1390229673821 How do CNS levels of GABA change in Huntington's

Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1395778635218 1390229673821 How do CNS levels of ACh change in Huntington's
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1395778651313 1390229673821 {{c1::Huntington's Disease}} is an&nsp;<u>autos
omal dominant</u>&nsp;movement disorder that involves neurodegeneration via NMD
A Receptor Glutamate toxicity. <r /><div><r /></div>
1395778771287 1390229673821 Which nuclei of the Basal Ganglia are atrophied
in Huntington's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caudate Nucleus, especially
the head}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9457517986694.jpg" /></div>
1395778961004 1390229673821 Which trinucleotide repeat is associated with Hu
ntington's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Au
tosomal dominant with anticipation.</i></div>
1395779153784 1390229673821 {{c1::Hemiallismus}} is a movement disorder tha
t involves sudden, <>wild flailing</>&nsp;of <u>1 arm and potentially the ips
ilateral leg</u>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. half of the ody is allistic</i></di
v>
1395779374113 1390229673821 What nucleus is characteristically lesioned in H
emiallismus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The <u style="font-weight: old; ">cont
ralateral</u>&nsp;Suthalamic Nucleus (STN)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hemiallis
mus is a contralateral lesion and typically presents unilaterally. Often due to
a lacunar stroke.</i></div>
1395779539462 1390229673821 What is the most common cause of Hemiallismus?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lacunar Stroke at the Suthalamic Nucleus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, it will cause <>contralateral</>&nsp;deficits.</i></d
iv>
1395779619390 1390229673821 {{c1::Chorea}} is a movement disorder that invol
ves sudden, <>jerky</>, <>purposeless</>&nsp;movements.
1395779719497 1390229673821 {{c1::Athetosis}} is a movement disorder that in
volves slow, <>writhing "snake-like" </>movements, especially in the fingers.
1395779746345 1390229673821 {{c1::Myoclonus}} is a movement disorder that in
volves sudden, <>rief, uncontrolled muscle contractions</>&nsp;such as in je
rks and hiccups.
<r /><div><i>Also common in metaolic anormalities suc
h as renal and liver failure.</i></div>
1395779886566 1390229673821 {{c1::Dystonia}} is a movement disorder that inv
olves <>sustained, involuntary</>&nsp;muscle contraction.
1395779914792 1390229673821 {{c1::Blepharospasm}} is a type of Dystonia desc
ried as a sustained eyelid twitch.
1395779952957 1390229673821 {{c1::Essential/Postural Tremor}} is a type of t
remor that is descried as an action tremor and is exacerated y holding postur
e/lim position.
<r /><div><i>Has a genetic predisposition.</i></div>
1395780228727 1390229673821 What do patients often use to self-medicate with
to treat their Essential Tremor?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol as it decre
ases tremor amplitude}}</div>
1395780284575 1390229673821 {{c1::Beta-lockers}} are a <>type</>&nsp;of
drug (other than Primidone) that can e given to treat Essential Tremors.
1395780476746 1390229673821 {{c1::Primidone}} is a Bariturate that can e g
iven to treat Essential Tremors.
1395780490634 1390229673821 {{c1::Resting Tremor}} is a type of tremor that
involves uncontrolled movement of the distal appendages at rest and is most noti
ceale in the hands.
1395780554690 1390229673821 {{c1::Resting Tremor}} is a type of tremor that
is alleviated y initiating <>intentional</>&nsp;movement.
1395780571397 1390229673821 What type of tremor is commonly seen in Parkinso
n's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Resting Tremor (specifically, a pill-rol
ling tremor at the hands)}}</div>
1395780608517 1390229673821 {{c1::Intention Tremor}} is a type of tremor tha
t involves slow, zigzag motion when pointing or extending towards a target.
1395780642036 1390229673821 {{c1::Intention Tremor}} is a type of tremor tha
t is due to cereellar dysfunction.
1395780666981 1390229673821 {{c1::Central Pontine Myelinolysis}} is an osmot

ic demyelination syndrome that can cause Locked-In Syndrome.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-12627203850381.jpg" /></div>
1395781903511 1390229673821 {{c1::Central Pontine Myelinolysis}} is an osmot
ic demyelination syndrome that involves massive axonal demyelination in pontine
white matter tracts.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12631498817677.jpg" />
</div>
1395781905062 1390229673821 {{c1::Central Pontine Myelinolysis}} is an osmot
ic demyelination syndrome that is commonly iatrogenic, typically caused y <>ov
erly rapid correction of hyponatremia</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste12627203850381.jpg" /></div>
1395781992263 1390229673821 What is the most common <>iatrogenic</>&nsp;c
ause of Central Pontine Myelinolysis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Overly rapid co
rrection of Hyponatremia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Bring serum Na too fast f
rom low to high and your pons will die."</i></div>
1395783524556 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::Circle of Willis}} is a system of
vascular anastomoses etween the anterior and posterior lood supplies to the 
rain. <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395783689422 1390229673821 Which cereral artery supplies the anteromedial
surface of the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Cereral Artery}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2761663971827.jpg" /></div>
1395783719922 1390229673821 Which cereral artery supplies the lateral surfa
ce of the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Cereral Artery (MCA)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2757369004531.jpg" /></div>
1395783738861 1390229673821 Which cereral artery supplies the posterior and
inferior surfaces of the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Cereral A
rtery}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2757369004531.jpg" /></div>
1395783763903 1390229673821 An occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::Middle Cereral}}
Artery will result in contralateral sensory/motor deficits to the <>upper lim
and face</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395784056169 1390229673821 Which cereral hemisphere is most commonly assoc
iated with aphasia following a stroke of the Middle Cereral Artery?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Left hemisphere (commonly the dominant hemisphere)}}</div>
1395784206001 1390229673821 Which cereral hemisphere is most commonly assoc
iated with hemineglect following a stroke of the Middle Cereral Artery?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Right (commonly the non-dominant side)}}</div>
1395784225701 1390229673821 Occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::Anterior Cereral}}
Artery will result in contralateral sensory/motor deficits to the <>lower lims
</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395784455868 1390229673821 How does an occlusion of the Lenticulostriate Ar
tery present?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral hemiparesis/hemiplegia}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395784530993 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::Lenticulostriate}} Artery is an a
rtery of the anterior CNS circulation that is a common location of lacunar infar
cts, especially in unmanaged hypertension.
<r /><div><img src="paste-26371
09920499.jpg" /></div>
1395784595461 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery will cause Medial M
edullary Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Spinal Artery}}</div>
<div><r /></div><div><i>Specifically the paramedian ranches of the ASA (or eve
n Verteral Artery).</i></div><r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></
div>
1395785011167 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Lateral Medu
llary (Wallenerg's) Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Inferior Cer
eellar Artery (PICA)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" />
</div>
1395785069629 1390229673821 {{c1::Lateral Medullary Syndrome}} is a stroke s
yndrome caused y occlusion to the Posterior Inferior Cereellar Artery (PICA) a
nd is also referred to as Wallenerg's Syndrome.
1395785092954 1390229673821 {{c1::Medial Medullary Syndrome}} is a stroke sy
ndrome that is caused y an occlusion to the Anterior Spinal Artery (ASA).
1395785142153 1390229673821 Which CNS artery is associated with Nucleus Ami

guus defects following a stroke?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Inferior Cer
eellar Artery (PICA)}}</div>
1395785977234 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Lateral Pont
ine Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Inferior Cereellar Artery (AI
CA)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395786002276 1390229673821 {{c1::Lateral Pontine Syndrome}} is a stroke syn
drome that occurs due to occlusion of the Anterior Inferior Cereellar Artery.
1395786119211 1390229673821 {{c1::Lateral Pontine Syndrome}} is a stroke syn
drome that presents similar to Wallenerg's Syndrome ut <>lacks hoarseness, dy
sphagia and taste deficits</>.
1395786187939 1390229673821 Which stroke syndrome is associated with <>para
lysis</>&nsp;of the face?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Pontine Syndrome}
}</div> <r /><div><i>"Facial droop means the AICA is pooped."</i></div>
1395786227603 1390229673821 Which stroke syndrome is associated with hoarsen
ess and dysphagia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Medullary (Wallenerg's) S
yndrome}}</div> <r /><div><i>aka Nucleus Amiguus deficits</i></div>
1395786319554 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Superior Alt
ernating (Weer's) Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Cereral Arter
y}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395786600644 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Benedict's S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Cereral Artery}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395786654858 1390229673821 {{c1::Superior Alternating (Weer's) Syndrome}}
is a stroke syndrome that results from an occlusion to the Posterior Cereral Ar
tery and presents with <>CN III palsy</>&nsp;and <>contralateral hemiplegia<
/>.
1395786697163 1390229673821 {{c1::Benedict's Syndrome}} is a stroke syndrome
that presents similarly to Superior Alternating (Weer's) Syndrome, except it i
ncludes ataxia.
1395786730199 1390229673821 {{c1::Benedict's Syndrome}} is a stroke syndrome
due to occlusion of the Posterior Cereral Artery and involves <>CN III palsy<
/>, <>contralateral hemiplegia</>&nsp;and <>ataxia</>.
1395786775134 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery will cause "LockedIn" Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basilar Artery}}</div> <div><i><r /></
i></div>
1395787174337 1390229673821 {{c1::Locked-In Syndrome}} is a stroke syndrome
due to occlusion of the Basilar Artery and involves <>quadriplegia</>&nsp;wit
h <>preserved consciousness/linking</>&nsp;and a loss of voluntary facial, m
outh and tongue movements.
<r /><div><i>This was also a pretty cool House
episode with Mos Def...</i></div>
1395787180165 1390229673821 What is the most common site of a Berry (Saccula
r) Aneurysm?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3667902071128.jpg" /><r /><di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Communicating Artery}}</div></div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-18605798326561.jpg" /></div>
1395787245574 1390229673821 What is the 2nd most common site of Berry (Saccu
lar) Aneurysm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Communicating Artery}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18601503359265.jpg" /></div>
1395787288466 1390229673821 {{c1::CN III Palsy}} is a common cranial nerve p
alsy involved with strokes that presents with <>"down and out" eyes</>&nsp;wi
th ptosis and mydriasis.<div><r /><div><img src="paste-18769007083916.jpg" /></
div></div>
1395787523740 1390229673821 {{c1::Bitemporal Hemianopia}} is a possile comp
lication of Berry Aneurysm due to compression of the Optic Chiasm.
1395787615018 1390229673821 Which genetic renal disorder is associated with
Berry Aneurysms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney
Disease (ADPKD)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence <u>always</u>&nsp;get a cra
nial angiogram/CT/MRI of a patient with ADPKD.</i></div>
1395787667212 1390229673821 {{c1::Berry Aneurysm}} is a type of cereral ane
urysm that is associated with connective tissue disorders such as Ehlers-Danlos
Syndrome and Marfan's Syndrome. <r /><div><img src="paste-3663607103832.jpg" />

</div>
1395787712622 1390229673821 Which race has an increased risk of developing a
Berry Aneurysm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blacks}}</div>
1395787909353 1390229673821 {{c1::Charcot-Bouchard Microaneurysm}} is a type
of CNS aneurysm that is associated with chronic hypertension and commonly affec
ts the small vessels of the deep rain (i.e. at the asal ganglia, thalamus).
1395787972725 1390229673821 Which type of CNS aneurysm is commonly associate
d with chronic Hypertension?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Charcot-Bouchard microan
eurysm}}</div>
1395788000135 1390229673821 Which artery is commonly ruptured in Epidural He
matoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Meningeal Artery (ranch of the Maxill
ary Artery)}}</div>
1395797998860 1390229673821 Which cranial one is most commonly fractured in
an Epidural Hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Temporal Bone}}</div>
1395798040267 1390229673821 What type of CNS herniation is seen in an Epidur
al Hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transtentorial herniation (with CN III P
alsy)}}</div>
1395798157863 1390229673821 {{c1::CN III (Oculomotor) Palsy}} is a complicat
ion of Epidural Hematoma that will present with <>"down and out" eyes</>&nsp;
and mydriasis due to compression of the Oculomotor Nerve via herniation.
1395798220380 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hematoma presents as a
<>iconvex</>&nsp;(lentiform), <>lens-shaped</> lesion on CT?<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-3740916515098.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Epidural Hematoma}}</div></div>
1395798348470 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hematoma <>cannot</>
&nsp;cross cranial <>suture lines</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epidural Hem
atoma}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3740916515098.jpg" /></div>
1395798391876 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hematoma <>can</>&n
sp;cross the midline, falx and tentorium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epidural He
matoma}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3745211482394.jpg" /></div>
1395798482213 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hematoma involves a <
>lucid interval</>&nsp;efore neurological symptoms present?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Epidural Hematoma}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3740916515098
.jpg" /></div>
1395798509902 1390229673821 {{c1::Epidural Hematoma}} is a type of intracran
ial hematoma that involves a collection of lood etween the dura and the skull.
1395798607964 1390229673821 Which lood vessels are commonly ruptured in Su
dural Hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bridging vessels etween the dura and
arachnoid mater}}</div>
1395798894538 1390229673821 Which intracranial hematoma results in <>rapid
expansion</>&nsp;of the hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epidural Hematoma
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Attriuted to the fact that it is the arterial pre
ssure that feeds into the hematoma out of the ruptured artery.</i></div>
1395798974108 1390229673821 Which intracranial hematoma involves <>slow le
eding</>&nsp;over time?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural hematoma}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Attriuted to the fact that it is the venous system that feeds int
o the hematoma, resulting in a slow growing hematoma.</i></div>
1395799025178 1390229673821 Which kind of intracranial hematoma is associate
d with rain atrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural Hematoma}}</div>
1395799044939 1390229673821 Which type of intracranial hematoma displays a <
>crescent</>&nsp;shaped lesion on CT?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-38
35405795608.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural Hematoma}}</div></
div>
1395799106587 1390229673821 Which type of intracranial hemorrhage <>can</>
&nsp;cross cranial <>suture lines</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural Hem
atoma}}</div>
1395799136620 1390229673821 Which type of intracranial hematoma <>cannot</
>&nsp;cross the midline, falx or tentorium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural
Hematoma}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3839700762904.jpg" /></div>
1395799181989 1390229673821 {{c1::Sudural Hematoma}} is a type of intracran

ial hematoma that involves collection of the lood underneath the dura over the
surface of the rain. <r /><div><img src="paste-22346714841200.jpg" /></div>
1395799241563 1390229673821 {{c1::Suarachnoid hemorrhage}} is a type of int
racranial hemorrhage that involves leeding into the suarachnoid space.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-3934190043415.jpg" /></div>
1395799568907 1390229673821 What is the most common cause of Suarachnoid He
morrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rupture of a Berry (Saccular) aneurysm}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Don't forget the association with Autosomal Dominant Polyc
ystic Kidney Disease, rah!!</i></div>
1395799621586 1390229673821 What is the 2nd most common cause of Suarachnoi
d Hemorrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arteriovenous Malformations}}</div>
1395799661587 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hemorrhage is often de
scried as "the worst headache of my life"?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suarachn
oid Hemorrhage}}</div>
1395800369260 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hemorrhage is associat
ed with a loody or <>xanthochromatic</>&nsp;(yellow) fluid after Lumar Punc
ture?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suarachnoid Hemorrhage}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The yellow hue is due to the iliruin reakdown that occurs in the CSF.</
i></div>
1395800469980 1390229673821 {{c1::Suarachnoid Hemorrhage}} is a type of int
racranial hemorrhage that involves a risk of <>vasospasm</>&nsp;<>2-3 days</
>&nsp;after onset of the injury due to lood reakdown.
1395800525948 1390229673821 Which drug is commonly used to treat the vasospa
sm seen in Suarachnoid Hemorrhage 2-3 days after the injury?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Nimodipine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>A Calcium channel locker</i></div
>
1395800810690 1390229673821 {{c1::Intracereral/Intraparenchymal Hemorrhage}
} is a type of intracranial hemorrhage that involves leeding into the rain par
enchyma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3972844749079.jpg" /></div>
1395800892646 1390229673821 What is the most common cause of Intracereral/I
ntraparenchymal Hemorrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rupture of Charcot-Boucha
rd microaneurysms due to systemic hypertension}}</div>
1395800930959 1390229673821 Where are&nsp;Intracereral/Intraparenchymal He
morrhages typically located in the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal Gangl
ia and Internal Capsule (i.e. deep rain)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Basal gang
lia is the most common however it can e loar.</i></div>
1395801002154 1390229673821 Which cereral vessels are typically affected in
&nsp;Intracereral/Intraparenchymal Hemorrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lent
iculostriate vessels (at/around the deep rain)}}</div>
1405725640979 1395802358422 Which emryological structure induces the overly
ing ectoderm to differentiate into the neuroectoderm and form the neural plate?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Notochord}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30094
835843424.jpg" /></div>
1405725776381 1395802358422 What does the notochord develop into?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Nucleus pulposus of the interverteral disc in adults}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30090540876128.jpg" /></div>
1405725804658 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
<>dorsal/sensory</>&nsp;portion of the spinal cord?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Alar Plate}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Give <>DAP</>s to the spinal cord, rah
."</i></div>
1405725889948 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
<>ventral/motor</>&nsp;portion of the spinal cord?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Basal plate}}</div>
1405725918702 1395802358422 On which day of gestation does the neural plate
form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Day 18}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-30090
540876128.jpg" /></div>
1405725935400 1395802358422 Which <>primary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops i
nto the Telencephalon and Diencephalon?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prosencephalo
n}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Or what I like to call it: the Brosencephalon.</i>
</div><div><i><img src="paste-30305289241310.jpg" /></i></div>

1405726030425 1395802358422 Which <>primary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops i
nto the Mesencephalon?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesencephalon}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726051334 1395802358422 Which <>primary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops i
nto the Metencephalon and Myelencephalon?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rhomenceph
alon}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726091147 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the cereral hemispheres?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Telencephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726121328 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the lateral ventricles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Telencephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726144218 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the thalamus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diencephalon}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726156848 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the third ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diencephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726205795 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the midrain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesencephalon}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i></div><div><i>- From rostral to
caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon and Myelencephalon whic develops
into the rainstem structures (midrain, pons, medulla respectively)</i></div><
div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1405726219663 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the cereral aqueduct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesencephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i></div><div><i>- From ro
stral to caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon and Myelencephalon whic
develops into the rainstem structures (midrain, pons, medulla respectively)</i
></div><div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1405726267826 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the <>pons</>&nsp;and <>cereellum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Met
encephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i
></div><div><i>- From rostral to caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon
and Myelencephalon whic develops into the rainstem structures (midrain, pons,
medulla respectively)</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i
></div></div>
1405726290799 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the upper part of the fourth ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metence
phalon}}</div> <r /><div><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i></div><
div><i>- From rostral to caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon and Myel
encephalon whic develops into the rainstem structures (midrain, pons, medulla
respectively)</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i></div><
/div>
1405726339159 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the medulla?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myelencephalon}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i></div><div><i>- From rostral to caud
al, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon and Myelencephalon whic develops into
the rainstem structures (midrain, pons, medulla respectively)</i></div><div><
i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i></div>
1405726430212 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the lower part of the fourth ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myelenc
ephalon}}</div> <r /><div><r /></div><div><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rai
nstem"</i></div><div><i>- From rostral to caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Meten
cephalon and Myelencephalon whic develops into the rainstem structures (midrai
n, pons, medulla respectively)</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.j
pg" /></i></div></div>
1405726449490 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do ependymal cells develop?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}&nsp;</d
iv>

1405726544750 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do oligodendrocytes develop?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405726558275 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do astrocytes develop?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405726570257 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do Schwann cells form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural crest}}</div>
1405726583584 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do microglia form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405726596990 1395802358422 Which ranchial arches develop into the <>anter
ior 2/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st and 2nd}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Hence the sensation (CN V<su>3</su>)&nsp;and taste (CN VI
I) is in line with the associated cranial nerves.</i><r /><div><img src="paste32654636352006.jpg" /></div>
1405727024434 1395802358422 Which ranchial arches develop into the <>poste
rior 1/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd and 4th}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Hence sensory (CN IX, CN X) and taste (CN IX, CN X) innervat
ion is via the associated cranial nerves.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-32650341
384710.jpg" /></div>
1405727100789 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs the motor innervatio
n of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN XII}}</div>
1405727115491 1395802358422 Which emryological myotomes develops into the m
uscles of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Occipital myotomes}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-32650341384710.jpg" /></div>
1405727142116 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs the <>sensation</>
&nsp;of the <>anterior 2/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
CN V<su>3</su>}}</div>
1405727162340 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs <>taste</>&nsp;at
the <>anterior 2/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-32650341384710.jpg" /></div>
1405727195901 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve <>mainly</> governs taste
and sensation at the <>posterior 1/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::CN IX}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-32650341384710.jpg" /></div>
1405727233846 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs taste and sensation
at the <>extreme posterior </>of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}
</div>
1405727262948 1395802358422 Which 3 cranial nerves govern <>taste</>&nsp;
at the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII; CN IX; CN X}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>via the <>Solitary nucleus</></i></div><div><i><><img src="paste-326503
41384710.jpg" /></></i></div>
1405727292154 1395802358422 Which <>nucleus</>&nsp;is involved in taste p
erception from the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Solitary nucleus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>via CN VII, IX, X</i></div>
1405727311689 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves are involves with pain and
sensation from the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>; CN IX; C
N X}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-32650341384710.jpg" /></div>
1405735410086 1395802358422 {{c1::Wallerian degeneration}} is a type of axon
al degeneration that involves <>degeneration distal to the injury</>&nsp;and
<>axonal retraction proximally</>.
<r /><div><i>This allows for potential
regeneration of the PNS.</i></div>
1405737348696 1395802358422 Which protein is used as an astrocyte marker?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::GFAP}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3640414280110
8.jpg" /></div>
1405737371569 1395802358422 Which cells are the phagocytes of the CNS?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Microglia}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-364
64272343244.jpg" /></div>
1405737384858 1395802358422 Which type of CNS cell fuse to form multinucleat
ed giants cells in the CNS if they are HIV infected?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Microglia}}</div>
1405737430020 1395802358422 Which cells produce myelin in the CNS?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-36021

890711803.jpg" /></div>
1405737627458 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS yield a<>&nsp;"fried eg
g"&nsp;</>appearance on H&amp;E stain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendroc
ytes}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-36490042147069.jpg" /></div>
1405737706774 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS are targeted in Multiple
Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
1405737718746 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS are targeted in leukodyst
rophies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
1405737733357 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS are targeted in Progressi
ve Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendroc
ytes}}</div>
1405737756265 1395802358422 Which cell of the PNS produce myelin?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Schwann Cells}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3667472574072
6.jpg" /></div>
1405737816394 1395802358422 Which cells of the PNS are targeted in Gullain-B
arré Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Schwann Cells}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-36670430773430.jpg" /></div>
1405737841637 1395802358422 {{c1::Acoustic Neuroma}} is a type of schwannoma
that is typically located in the <>internal acoustic meatus</>, therey affec
ting CN VIII.
1405737887058 1395802358422 {{c1::C fiers}} are a type of free nerve ending
that is <>slow</>&nsp;and <>unmyelinated</>.
1405737971879 1395802358422 {{c1::A∂ fiers}} are a type of free nerve endings
that are <>fast</>&nsp;and <>myelinated</>.
1405737995347 1395802358422 What do free nerve endings sense?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Pain and temperature}}</div>
1405738018985 1395802358422 Which type of sensory corpuscle sense <>dynamic
, fine/light touch</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Meissner corpuscle}}</div>
1405738046691 1395802358422 Which type of sensory corpuscle sense <>virati
on</>&nsp;and <>rapid changes in&nsp;pressure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Pacinian corpuscle}}</div>
1405738061330 1395802358422 Which type of sensory corpuscle sense <>pressur
e, deep static touch</>&nsp;and <>position sense</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Merkel Disc}}</div>
1405738081941 1395802358422 What type of adaptation is exhiited y Meissner
corpuscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fast}}</div>
1405738111285 1395802358422 What type of adaptation is exhiited y Pacinian
Corpuscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fast}}</div>
1405738117420 1395802358422 What type of adaptation is exhiited y Merkel D
isc?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Slow}}</div>
1405738123808 1395802358422 {{c1::Perineurium}} is a connective tissue layer
that surrounds a <>fascicle of nerve fiers</>.
<div><r /></div><i>Endo
, peri, epi =&nsp;</i><i>Inner, middle, outer</i><div><div><img src="paste-3757
2373905617.jpg" /></div></div>
1405738214377 1395802358422 {{c1::Epineurium}} is a dense connective tissue
that surrounds entire nerves. <r /><div><i>Endo, peri, epi =&nsp;</i><i>Inne
r, middle, outer</i><div><div><img src="paste-37572373905617.jpg" /></div></div>
</div>
1405738246776 1395802358422 Which connective tissue surrounding single nerve
fier layers is the site of inflammatory infiltration in Guillain-Barré Syndrome?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endoneurium}}</div> <r /><div><i>Endo, peri, epi =&
nsp;</i><i>Inner, middle, outer</i><div><div><img src="paste-37572373905617.jpg
" /></div></div></div>
1405738286683 1395802358422 How do Norepinephrine levels change in anxiety?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405738649658 1395802358422 How do Norepinephrine levels change in depressio
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738655565 1395802358422 How do Dopamine levels change in Huntington Dise
ase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405738669763 1395802358422 How do Dopamine levels change in Parkinson Disea

se?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738678624 1395802358422 How do Dopamine levels change in depression?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738684190 1395802358422 How do 5-HT levels change in Parkinson?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405738695411 1395802358422 How do 5-HT levels change in anxiety?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738700084 1395802358422 How do 5-HT levels change in depression?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738707468 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in Parkinson?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405738723515 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in Alzheimer Disease?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738733299 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in Huntington Disease?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738740730 1395802358422 How do GABA levels change in anxiety?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738752452 1395802358422 How do GABA levels change in Huntington Disease?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738761954 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of Norepin
ephrine ?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Locus ceruleus (which also governs pain)}}<
/div>
1405738956168 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nsp;Do
pamine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral tegmentum; SNc}}</div>
1405738969295 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nsp;5HT?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Raphe nuclei}}</div>
1405738979030 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nsp;AC
h?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal nucleus of Meynert}}</div>
1405738989730 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nsp;GA
BA?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus accumens}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Nu
cleus accumens is also a <>reward center</>&nsp;and it governs <>pleasure,
addiction and fear</>.</i></div>
1405739026255 1395802358422 Which 3 structures make up the lood-rain arri
er?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tight junctions etween nonfenestrated capillary
endothelium; Basement memrane; Astrocyte foot processes}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-39041252720857.jpg" /></div>
1405739077438 1395802358422 {{c1::Area Postrema}} is a nucleus that is part
of the circumventricular system that governs <>vomiting.</>
1405739171726 1395802358422 {{c1::Organ Vasculosum of the Lamina Terminalis
(OVLT)}} is a nucleus part of the circumventricular system that <>senses change
s in osmolarity</>.
1405739191843 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::circumventricular system}} is a g
roup of specialized rain regions that have <>fenestrated capillaries</>&nsp;
and <>no lood-rain arrier</>, therey allowing for molecules in the lood t
o affect rain function.
<r /><div><i>Normally there are non-fenestrated
capillaries and a lood-rain arrier.</i></div>
1405739240133 1395802358422 {{c1::Vasogenic edema}} is a type of cereral ed
ema that involves <>infarction</>&nsp;or <>neoplastic damage</>&nsp;to the
endothelial tight junctions.
1405739502861 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the hypothalamus makes ADH?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supraoptic nucleus}}</div>
1405739705032 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the hypothalamus makes Oxytocin
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paraventricular Nucleus}}</div>
1405739723108 1395802358422 How does Leptin influence the activity of the la
teral area of the hypothalamus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405739759666 1395802358422 How does Leptin influence the activity of the Ve
ntromedial Area of the Hypothalamus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</di
v>
1405739778535 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs <>hunger
</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral area}}</div>

1405740013016 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs <>satiet
y</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventromedial area}}</div>
1405740024639 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs <>coolin
g</>&nsp;and the <>parasympathetic</>&nsp;system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Anterior hypothalamus}}</div> <r /><div><i>"AC = air conditioning = <>anteri
or, cooling</>."</i></div>
1405740065988 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs <>heatin
g</>&nsp;and the <>sympathetic </>nervous system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Posterior hypothalamus}}</div>
1405740080879 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs circadian
rhythms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suprachiasmatic Nucleus}}</div>
1405740097741 1395802358422 Lesion to which area of the hypothalamus will re
sult in <>anorexia</>&nsp;and <>failure to thrive </>(in infants)?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lateral area}}</div>
1405740135331 1395802358422 Lesion to which area of the hypothalamus will re
sult in <>hyperphagia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventromedial area}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. y a craniopharyngioma</i></div>
1405740155309 1395802358422 How does the amount of sleep change with increas
ing age?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405741500451 1395802358422 How does the <>length</>&nsp;of REM sleep cha
nge with increasing age?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405741525933 1395802358422 How does the <>proportion</>&nsp;of REM sleep
change with increasing age?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Constant}}</div>
1405741546373 1395802358422 {{c1::Sleep Fragmentation}} is a sleep disorder
that involves the <>chopping up of sleep cycles</>, therey resulting in a lac
k of rest and groggyness.
<r /><div><i>Do not confuse this with sleep dep
rivation, which is a straight up lack of sleep.</i></div><div><i>This is also a
great tie into why aies ruin the lives of young parents. Baies have 30-40 min
ute sleep cycles, which are much shorter than an adults. Hence when they wake up
and cry, they cause <>sleep fragmentation</>&nsp;in adults, leading to the p
arents hating their lives.</i></div>
1405741668037 1395802358422 Which stages of sleep are lost in the elderly?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::3 and 4; i.e. they lose delta sleep}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Hence, <u>always look at the patient's age in the vignette</u>. A 15 year
old with a lack of stage 3 or 4 sleep is ad news ears. But in the elderly it m
ay not e pathological.</i></div>
1405741784528 1395802358422 What are the 4 key neurotransmitters involved wi
th sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5-HT; ACh; NE; DA}}</div> <r /><div><i>"<
>SAND</>man"</i></div>
1405741809877 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter is involved in the <>ini
tiation</>&nsp;of sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5-HT (Serotonin)}}</div>
1405741829446 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in REM sleep?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>An increased ACh:NE ratio
triggers REM sleep.</i></div><div><i>This is also why <>erections occur in men
during REM sleep</>&nsp;(i.e. dat dere morning wood).</i></div>
1405741852420 1395802358422 How do NE levels change in REM sleep?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>An increased ACh:NE ratio
triggers REM sleep.</i></div>
1405741863367 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter ratio is the trigger for
REM sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACh:NE}}</div>
<r /><div><i>An increas
ed ACh:NE ratio triggers REM sleep.</i></div>
1405741887748 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter is associated with <>aro
usal</>&nsp;and <>wakefulness</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dopamine}}</div
>
1405741944855 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in the <>durat
ion and frequency</>&nsp;of REM sleep influence the susceptiility for depress
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405741989281 1395802358422 How does light influence suprachiasmatic nucleus
activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742330685 1395802358422 Which pontine nucleus governs the extraocular mo

vements during REM sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paramedian Pontine Reticula
r Formation (PPRF)}}</div>
1405742489274 1395802358422 What is the normal length of an adult sleep cycl
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::90 min}}</div>
1405742502563 1395802358422 How does alcohol influence REM sleep and delta w
ave sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742535465 1395802358422 How do enzodiazepines influence REM sleep and d
elta wave sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742546236 1395802358422 How do ariturates influence REM sleep and delt
a wave sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742557976 1395802358422 What is the treatment for sleep enuresis (edwet
ting)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oral desmopressin acetate (DDAVP)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Preferred over <>Imipramine</>&nsp;due to a etter adverse effe
ct profile.</i></div>
1405742603688 1395802358422 What type of EEG waves are seen in <>eyes open<
/>&nsp;wakefulness?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta}}</div> <i><div></div></
i><i><r />Highest frequency, lowest amplitude.</i><div><i><img src="paste-43319
040147775.jpg" /></i></div>
1405742889875 1395802358422 What type of EEG waves are seen in <>eyes close
d</>&nsp;wakefulness?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>8-12 cps</i><r /><div><img src="paste-43314745180479.jpg" /></div>
1405742904673 1395802358422 What type of EEG waves are seen in <>Stage N1</
>&nsp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Theta}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>3-7
cps</i><r /><div><img src="paste-43314745180479.jpg" /></div>
1405742938118 1395802358422 What type of EEG waves are seen in <>Stage N2</
>&nsp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sleep spindles and K complexes}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>12-14 cps</i><r /><div><img src="paste-43314745180479.jpg"
/></div>
1405742955674 1395802358422 What type of EEG waveforms are seen in <>Stage
N3</>&nsp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Partial Delta}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Lowest frequency, highest amplitude.</i></div><div><i>Delta = deepest slee
p = slow-wave sleep</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-43314745180479.jpg" /></i><
/div>
1405743023647 1395802358422 Which type of EEG waves are seen in <>Stage N4<
/>&nsp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Full delta}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-43314745180479.jpg" /></div>
1405743046860 1395802358422 Which type of EEG waves are seen in <>REM</>&n
<r /><div><img src="pas
sp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta}}</div>
te-43314745180479.jpg" /></div>
1405743065766 1395802358422 Which phase of NREM sleep is the phase where neu
rotransmitters are replaced?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stages 3 and 4}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. the stores are refilled</i></div>
1405743107835 1395802358422 A loss of which phase of sleep is<>&nsp;associ
ated with</>&nsp;(not causal) dementia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Delta sleep
(i.e. stage 3 and 4 NREM)}}</div>
1405743141407 1395802358422 What is the most common stage of sleep?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Stage N2}}</div>
1405743151287 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep is where <>ruxism</>&ns
p;occurs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stage N2}}</div>
1405743173876 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves <>sleepwalking, n
ight terrors</>&nsp;and <>edwetting</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stages 3
and 4}}</div>
1405743223116 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves <>loss of motor t
one</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM}}</div>
1405743853321 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves an <>increase in
rain O<su>2</su>&nsp;usage</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</div>
1405743870356 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves an <>increase in
variale pulse and lood pressure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</d
iv>
1405743942182 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves <>dreaming</>?<d

iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This includes thos
e kinky wet dreams you have of me, Sohai.</i></div><div><i>If you wake up and r
ememer your dream, you likely woke up out of REM sleep.</i></div><div><i>If you
wake up and don't rememer your dream (ut still know you dreamt), you likely w
oke up out of Stage 2 sleep.</i></div><div><i>If you wake up groggy and disorien
ted, you likely woke up out of delta sleep (stage 3 or 4). This is why alarm clo
cks suck.</i></div>
1405743969914 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves <>penil and clitt
oral tumescence</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</div>
1405743985373 1395802358422 What is the second most common stage of sleep?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stage N3}}</div>
1405744022317 1395802358422 {{c1::Sleep latency}} is defined as the time it
takes to fall asleep.
1405744348978 1395802358422 {{c1::REM latency}} is defined as the time it ta
kes <>from sleep to the first REM period</>. <r /><div><i>Typically ~90 min.
</i></div>
1405744395457 1395802358422 What is the normal cycle of sleep stages?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM......}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i><>Notice how stage 2 sleep is the crossroad</>, this is wh
y it is the most common stage.</i><r /><div><div><i>If you wake up and rememer
your dream, you likely woke up out of REM sleep.</i></div><div><i>If you wake u
p and don't rememer your dream (ut still know you dreamt), you likely woke up
out of Stage 2 sleep.</i></div><div><i>If you wake up groggy and disoriented, yo
u likely woke up out of delta sleep (stage 3 or 4). This is why alarm clocks suc
k.</i></div></div>
1405744552015 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the s
pinothalamic tract?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPL}}</div>
1405745430016 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the d
orsal column/medial lemniscus (DCML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPL}}</div>
1405745448345 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the t
rigeminal pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPM}}</div>
1405745461749 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the g
ustatory pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPM}}</div>
1405745467649 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the o
ptic pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LGN}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Lateral ge
niculate nucleus.</i></div>
1405745484187 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the s
uperior olivary nucleus (auditory pathway)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MGN}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Medial geniculate nucleus.</i></div><div><i><>M</>&nsp;
for <>M</>usic.</i></div>
1405745518357 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the i
nferior colliculus of the tectum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MGN}}</div>
<r /><div><i>In the auditory pathway.</i></div>
1405745534095 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the 
asal ganglia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral lateral (VL)}}</div>
1405745545486 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the c
ereellum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral lateral (VL)}}</div>
1405745553532 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
VPL send pain and temperature information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primary s
omatosensory cortex}}</div>
1405745607230 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
VPL send pressure, touch, viration and proprioception information?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Primary somatosensory cortex}}</div>
1405745642591 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
VPM send face sensation and taste information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prima
ry Somatosensory Cortex}}</div>
1405745666093 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
LGN send visual information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcarine sulcus}}</div
>
1405745743931 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus

MGN send hearing information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Auditory cortex of the
temporal loe}}</div>
1405745761652 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
VL send motor information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Motor cortex}}</div>
1405745771137 1395802358422 {{c1::Limic system}} is a collection of neural
structures involved in <>emotion, long-term memory, olfaction, ehaviour</>&n
sp;and <>autonomic function</>.
<r /><div><i>Basically, the 5 F's.</i><
/div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>Fighting, fleeing, feeding, feeling and for
nication.</i></div>
1405745861356 1395802358422 Through which cereellar peduncle does the <>co
ntralateral motor cortex</>&nsp;communicate with the cereellum?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Middle Cereellar Peduncle}}</div>
1405746136895 1395802358422 Through which cereellar peduncle does the <>ip
silateral proprioceptive information</>&nsp;from the spinal cord project to th
e cereellum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior cereellar peduncle}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, <>cereellar proprioceptive tracts are always ipsilater
al</>.</i></div>
1405746204993 1395802358422 From <>lateral to medial</>, what are the deep
nuclei of the cereellum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dentate; Emoliform; Gloo
se; Fastigial}}</div> <r /><div><i>"<>D</>on't <>E</>at <>G</>reasy <>
F</>oods"</i></div>
1405746261619 1395802358422 Which cells of the cereellum are the <>output
cells</>&nsp;that send signals to the contralateral motor cortex via the super
ior cereellar peduncle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Purkinje cells}}</div>
1405746299184 1395802358422 Lesions to the&nsp;{{c1::lateral}} side of the
cereellum affects <>voluntary movement of the extremities</>&nsp;and present
s with the <>propensity to fall towards the injured (ipsilateral) side</>.
1405746376983 1395802358422 Lesions to the&nsp;{{c1::medial}} side of the c
ereellum result in <>truncal ataxia, nystagmus</>&nsp;and <>head tilting</
>&nsp;due to damage to the vermis, fastigial nuclei or flocconodular loe.
<r /><div><i>The <>vermis</>&nsp;and <>fastigial nuclei</>&nsp;are midlin
e structures.</i></div>
1405746579633 1395802358422 Which area of cereral cortex governs <>motor s
peech</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Broca Area}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-49417893708241.jpg" /></div>
1405747595669 1395802358422 Which area of the cereral cortex functions as t
he <>associative auditory area</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wernicke area}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-49413598740945.jpg" /></div>
1405747675305 1395802358422 In which loe of the rain is the principal visu
al cortex found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Occipital loe}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-49413598740945.jpg" /></div>
1405747733973 1395802358422 In which loe of the rain is primary auditory c
ortex found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Temporal loe}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-49413598740945.jpg" /></div>
1405747755176 1395802358422 Which ody parts are represented on the <>later
al</>&nsp;side of the rain in the homunculus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rost
ral structures (head, tongue, etc)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-49838
800503311.jpg" /></div>
1405747950499 1395802358422 Which parts of the ody are found on the <>medi
al</>&nsp;side of the rain on the homunculus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caud
al structures (legs; feet)}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>"The feet hang off t
he edge."</i><r /><div><img src="paste-49834505536015.jpg" /></div>
1405786797020 1395802358422 {{c1::Kluver-Bucy Syndrome}} is a CNS lesion tha
t results from <>ilateral amygdala lesion</>&nsp;and presents with <>hypero
rality, hypersexuality</>&nsp;and <>disinhiited ehaviour</>.
1405786856914 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Kluver-Bucy Syndrome?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral amygdala}}</div>
1405786876709 1395802358422 Which herpesvirus is associated with Kluver-Bucy
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div>
1405786887860 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::frontal loe lesion}} is a CNS lesi

on that presents with <>disinhiition and deficits in concentration, orientatio
n</>&nsp;and <>judgement</>.
<r /><div><i>May involve re-emergence o
f primitive reflexes.</i></div>
1405786943021 1395802358422 {{c1::Spatial Neglect Syndrome}} is a CNS disord
er due to a <>right parietal-temporal cortex lesion</>&nsp;and presents with
<>agnosia of the contralateral side of the world</>.
1405787033295 1395802358422 Which lesion is seen in spatial neglect syndrome
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right parietal-temporal cortex lesion}}</div>
1405787051947 1395802358422 {{c1::Gerstmann Syndrome}} is a CNS disorder tha
t is due to a <>left parietal-temporal cortex lesion</>&nsp;and presents with
<>agraphia, acalculia, finger agnosia</>&nsp;and <>left-right disorientatio
n</>.
1405787090039 1395802358422 Which CNS lesion is seen in Gerstmann Syndrome?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left parietal-temporal cortex lesion}}</div>
1405787108302 1395802358422 A CNS lesion to the&nsp;{{c1::reticular activat
ing system}} in the <>midrain</>&nsp;presents with <>reduced levels of arou
sal and wakefulness</>.
1405787140819 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome}} is a CNS dis
order due to <>thiamine deficiency&nsp;</>that presents with <>confusion, op
hthalmoplegia, ataxia</>&nsp;and <>memory loss</>. <r /><div><i>Can e cau
sed y excessive alcohol use.</i></div>
1405787210806 1395802358422 Which CNS lesion is seen in Wernicke-Korsakoff S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral mamillary ody lesion}}</div>
1405787226276 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Wernicke-Korsakoff Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thiamine (Vitamin B<su>1</su>) <u>efore</u>
&nsp;Glucose}}</div> <r /><div><i>Giving glucose efore thiamine can exacer
ate the thiamine deficiency.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, thiamine is a vital cofa
ctor in 2 major enzymes involved in glucose metaolism. Administering glucose in
a Vitamin B<su>1</su>&nsp;deficiency patient simply further exacerates the
deficiency.</i></div>
1405787312589 1395802358422 Which cereellar lesion is associated with <>tr
uncal ataxia</>&nsp;and <>dysarthria</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cereell
ar vermis}}</div>
1405787353044 1395802358422 Which lesion is seen in Hemiallismus?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral suthalamic nucleus lesion}}</div>
1405787372934 1395802358422 Which CNS lesion can cause <>anterograde</>&n
sp;amnesia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral hippocampal lesion}}</div>
1405787394123 1395802358422 In which direct do the eyes turn following a PPR
F lesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Away</u>&nsp;from the lesion}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Wrong way eyes."</i></div>
1405787423245 1395802358422 In which direction do the eyes turn in a Frontal
Eye Field lesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Towards</u>&nsp;the lesion}}</
div>
<r /><div>"<i>Right way eyes"</i></div>
1405787441014 1395802358422 {{c1::Dysarthria}} is a CNS movement disorder th
at is descried as the inaility to speak.
1405787480489 1395802358422 {{c1::Aphasia}} is a CNS language deficit descri
ed as a high-order inaility to speak.
1405787502375 1395802358422 {{c1::Broca Aphasia}} is a type of aphasia that
involves <>nonfluent speech</>&nsp;with <>intact comprehension</>. <r><div
><i>Due to Broca's Area lesion.</i></div><div><i>These type of patients will app
ear to e visily frustrated as they can comprehend what you're saying, ut cann
ot reply. They can also hear what their saying and will realise the prolem, get
ting even more frustrated.</i></div><div><i>This is often is not the case in Wer
nicke Aphasia as comprehension is defective in a Wernicke lesion.</i></div>
1405787568806 1395802358422 Which speech center is located at the <>inferio
r frontal gyrus of the frontal loe?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Broca
's Area}}</div>
1405787610394 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke Aphasia}} is a type of aphasia th
at involves <>fluent speech</>&nsp;with <>impaired comprehension</>&nsp;an
d <>repetition</>.
<r /><div><i><>W</>ernicke's = <>W</>ord vomit.</i>

</div><div><i><r /></i></div>
1405787675043 1395802358422 Which speech center is located at the <>superio
r temporal gyrus of the temporal loe</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wernicke's
Area}}</div>
1405787694509 1395802358422 {{c1::Gloal Aphasia}} is a type of aphasia that
involves <>nonfluent speech</>&nsp;with <>impaired comprehension</>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. Broca's <>and</>&nsp;Wernicke's lesions</i></div>
1405787790970 1395802358422 {{c1::Conduction Aphasia}} is a type of aphasia
that involves <>poor repetition ut fluent speech and intact comprehension</>.
<r /><div><i>These patients cannot repeat the phrase "No ifs, ands or uts."</i
></div>
1405787834268 1395802358422 Which lesion causes Conduction Aphasia?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Left superior temporal loe and/or left supramarginal gyrus}}
</div>
1405787859922 1395802358422 {{c1::Tanscortical Motor Aphasia}} is a type of
aphasia that involves <>nonfluent speech</>&nsp;with <>good comprehension an
d repetition</>.
1405787889049 1395802358422 {{c1::Transcortical Sensory Aphasia}} is a type
of aphasia that involves <>poor comprehension</>&nsp;with <>fluent speech an
d repetition</>.
1405787957662 1395802358422 {{c1::Mixed Transcortical Aphasia}} is a type of
aphasia that involves <>nonfluent speech, poor comprehension</>&nsp;and <>g
ood repetition</>.
1405787979379 1395802358422 Which arterial lood gas primarily drives cerer
al perfusion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::P<su>CO2</su>&nsp;(increased CO<su>
2</su>&nsp;results in increased cereral perfusion)}}</div> <r /><div><i>P<
su>O2</su>&nsp;modulates perfusion in severe hypoxia.</i></div><div><i><>Thi
s is why therapeutic hyperventilation (i.e. a decrease in P<su>CO2</su>) helps
decrease ICP in cases of cereral edema as the decrease in P<su>CO2</su>&nsp
;will decrease cereral perfusion via vasoconstriction.</></i></div><div><i><im
g src="paste-2843268350545.jpg" /></i></div>
1405788260884 1395802358422 After how long in hypoxia does irreversile CNS
damage egin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5 minutes}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Mo
st vulnerale area is hippocampus, neocortex, cereellum, watershed areas</i></d
iv>
1405788824936 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event do red neuro
ns appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::12-48 hrs}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-4428111282360.jpg" /></div>
1405788905173 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event does necrosi
s and neutrophils appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::24-72 hrs}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4423816315064.jpg" /></div>
1405788922042 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event do macrophag
es appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-5 days}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-4423816315064.jpg" /></div>
1405788935689 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event does <>reac
tive gliosis</>&nsp;and <>vascular proliferation</>&nsp;appear?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::1-2 weeks}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4423816315064
.jpg" /></div>
1405788959655 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event does a <>gl
ial scar</>&nsp;appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 2 weeks}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4423816315064.jpg" /></div>
1405788973267 1395802358422 What is the most common site of intracereral he
morrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal ganglia}}</div>
1405789036808 1395802358422 {{c1::Ischemic Stroke}} is a type of stroke that
involves <>acute lockage of vessels</>&nsp;and resulting ischemia.
1405789064364 1395802358422 What type of necrosis is seen following an ische
mic stroke?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefactive necrosis}}</div>
1405789076539 1395802358422 {{c1::Thromotic stroke}} is a type of ischemic
stroke that involves <>clot formation directly at the site of infarction</>, t
ypically over <>atherosclerotic plaque</>.

1405789125130 1395802358422 Which major cereral lood vessel is commonly th
e site of thromotic stroke?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MCA}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4999341932777.jpg" /></div>
1405789139374 1395802358422 {{c1::Emolic Stroke}} is a type of ischemic str
oke that involves <>emolus formation from another part of the ody ostructing
a vessel</>.
1405789173434 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoxic Stroke}} is a type of ischemic str
oke that involves <>hypoperfusion</>&nsp;and <>hypoxemia</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>Commony during cardiovascular surgery, especially at watershed zones.</i><
/div>
1405789259481 1395802358422 {{c1::Transient Ischemia Attack}} is an ischemic
rain disorder that involves <>rief, reversile episode(s) of focal neurologi
cal dysfunction</>&nsp;lasting <u style="font-weight: old; ">&lt; 24 hrs</u>&
nsp;without acute infarction. <r /><div><i>The negative MRI confirms a lack o
f acute infarction.</i></div><div><i>Majority resolves in &lt; 15 min.</i></div>
1405789334565 1395802358422 Into which major cereral vein do the dural veno
us sinuses drain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal jugular vein}}</div>
1405789380053 1395802358422 Which dural venous sinus is the main location of
CSF return via arachnoid granulations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior sagg
ital sinus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5622112190931.jpg" /></div>
1405789413799 1395802358422 Which foramen joins the lateral ventricles to th
e 3rd ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Interventricular Foramen (of Monro)}
}</div> <r /><div><i>On oth sides.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-5759551144
305.jpg" /></i></div>
1405789482456 1395802358422 Which structure joins the 3rd ventricle to the 4
th ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cereral Aqueduct (of Sylvius)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5755256177009.jpg" /></div>
1405789513070 1395802358422 Which foramina join the 4th ventricle to the su
arachoid space?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Foramina of Luschka (laterally) and t
he Foramen of Magendie (medially)}}</div>
1405789559602 1395802358422 Where is CSF made?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ep
endymal cells of the choroid plexus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-57552
56177009.jpg" /></div>
1405789572333 1395802358422 How many spinal nerves are there in total?<div><
<r /><div><i>8 cervical + 12 thoracic +
r /></div><div>{{c1::31}}</div>
5 lumar + 5 sacral + 1 coccygeal.</i></div>
1405789823704 1395802358422 Which spinal nerves exit <>aove</>&nsp;their
corresponding vertera?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C1-C7}}</div>
1405789865811 1395802358422 Which spinal nerves <>do not</> exit <>elow<
/>&nsp;their corresponding verterae?<div><r />{{c1::C8 and elow}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. <>only C1-C7 exit aove their corresponding verterae</></i
></div>
1405789934849 1395802358422 At which verteral levels does Verteral Disc He
rniation usually occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-L5; L5-S1}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Typically occurs posterolaterally.</i></div>
1405789992247 1395802358422 Which portion of the verteral disc herniates in
disc herniation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus pulposus}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, this is the only derivative of the notochord.</i></div>
1405790023202 1395802358422 Where does the spinal cord end in a<>dults</>?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L1-L2}}</div>
1405790048631 1395802358422 Where does the suarachnoid space end in a<>dul
ts</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lower order of S2 vertera}}</div>
1405790072718 1395802358422 At which verteral levels are lumar punctures n
ormally performed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L3-L4; L4-L5}}</div>
1405790099255 1395802358422 Which ascending spinal tract carries information
aout <>pressure, touch, viration</>&nsp;and <>proprioception?</><div><>
<r /></></div><div>{{c1::Dorsal Column}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-7490422964789.jpg" /></div>
1405790857180 1395802358422 {{c1::Fasciculus Gracilis}} is an ascending sect
ion of the spinal cord that carries pressure/touch/viration information <>from

the lower ody and leg</>.
<div><r /></div><i><>T7 and elow</></i><r /
><div><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></div>
1405790942260 1395802358422 {{c1::Fasciculus Cuneatus}} is an ascending sect
ion of the spinal cord that carries pressure/touch/viration information from th
e <>upper ody and arms</>. <r /><div><><i>T6 and aove</i></></div><div>
<><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i></></div>
1405790990404 1395802358422 Which section of the dorsal column is found medi
ally?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fasciculus gracilis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.
e. the dorsal column is organized as humans are; with the hands on the side; arm
s outside, legs inside</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i
></div>
1405791129424 1395802358422 Which section of the dorsal column is found late
rally?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fasciculus cuneatus}}</div> <div><r /></div
><div><div><i>i.e. the dorsal column is organized as humans are; with the hands
on the side; arms outside, legs inside</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-74861279
97493.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1405791150197 1395802358422 Which ascending spinal tract carries <>pain and
temperature</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral spinothalamic tract}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1405791226232 1395802358422 Which ascending spinal tract carries <>crude to
uch</>&nsp;and pressure information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Spino
thalamic Tract}}</div> <r /><div><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i><
/div>
1405791258967 1395802358422 Which descending spinal tract carries <>volunta
ry motor</>&nsp;information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior/Lateral Corti
cospinal Tract}}</div> <r /><div><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i><
/div>
1405791287164 1395802358422 What is the first synapse in the Dorsal Column/M
edial Lemniscus (DCML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Ipsilateral</u>&nsp;nucle
us cuneatus or nucleus gracilis at the medulla}}</div>
1405791750609 1395802358422 Where does the&nsp;Dorsal Column/Medial Lemnisc
us (DCML) decussate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medulla}}</div>
1405791763932 1395802358422 What is the 2nd synapse in the&nsp;Dorsal Colum
n/Medial Lemniscus (DCML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPL of the thalamus}}</div
>
1405791786121 1395802358422 What is the 1st synapse of the Spinothalamic Tra
ct (STT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ipsilateral gray matter of the dorsal horn}
}</div>
1405791845625 1395802358422 Where does the&nsp;Spinothalamic Tract (STT) de
cussate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior White Commisure}}</div>
1405791860785 1395802358422 What is the 2nd synapse of the&nsp;Spinothalami
c Tract (STT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPL}}</div>
1405791867608 1395802358422 What is the 1st synapse of the Lateral Corticosp
inal Tract (LCT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LMN of the anterior horn of the spi
nal cord}}</div>
1405791908071 1395802358422 What is the 2nd synapse of the&nsp;Lateral Cort
icospinal Tract (LCT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NMJ at the target voluntary mu
scle}}</div>
1405791928058 1395802358422 Where does the&nsp;Lateral Corticospinal Tract
(LCT) decussate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pyramidal decussation at the caudal
medulla}}</div>
1405791961624 1395802358422 How do reflexes and muscle tone change in UMN le
sions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9702331121811.jpg" /></div>
1405792717468 1395802358422 How do reflexes and muscle tone change in LMN le
sions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9706626089107.jpg" /></div>
1405792741530 1395802358422 What type of paralysis is seen in UMN lesions?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spastic paralysis}}</div>
1405792770376 1395802358422 What type of paralysis is seen in LMN lesions?<d

iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Flaccid paralysis}}</div>
1405792783586 1395802358422 What motor neuron lesion is associated with a <
>positive</>&nsp;Bainski sign?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UMN}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Positive ainski is normal in infants.</i></div>
1405792842113 1395802358422 {{c1::Werdnig-Hoffman Disease (spinal muscular a
trophy)}} and {{c2::Poliomyelitis}} are spinal cord lesions that present with <
>LMN lesions only</>&nsp;due to <>destruction of the anterior horn</>, there
y presenting with flaccid paralysis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10136
122818707.jpg" /></div>
1405792997125 1395802358422 {{c1::Multiple Sclerosis}} is a spinal cord lesi
on that occurs due to <>demyelination</>&nsp;of mostly white matter of the <
>cervical region</>, therey presenting with <>random, asymmetric lesions</>.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10325101379736.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>There is often scanning speech, intention tremor and nystagmus.</i></div>
1405793074339 1395802358422 {{c1::Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)}} is a
spinal cord lesion that involves <>comined UMN and LMN deficits</>&nsp;with
<u><>no sensory, cognitive or oculomotor deficits</>.</u><div><u><r /></u></
div><div><u><img src="paste-10591389352092.jpg" /></u></div>
1405793134499 1395802358422 Which enzyme deficiency can cause&nsp;Amyotroph
ic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide Dismutase 1}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, SOD is required to eliminate ROS.</i></div>
1405793160853 1395802358422 {{c1::Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)}} is a
spinal cord lesions that often initially presents with <>fasciculations, atrop
hy</>&nsp;and <>weakness of the hands</>.
1405793188900 1395802358422 {{c1::Riluzole}} is a drug that can modestly inc
rease survival of&nsp;Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) y <>decreasing pres
ynaptic glutamate release</>. <r /><div><i>Ri<>lou</>zole can e used in <
>Lou</>&nsp;Gehrig's Disease.</i></div>
1405793251109 1395802358422 An occlusion to the&nsp;{{c1::Anterior Spinal A
rtery}} results in lesion to the <>entire spinal cord except the dorsal column
and Lissauer tract</>. <div><r /></div><i>The upper thoracic ASA territory is
a watershed area due to the <>artery of Adamkiewicz</>&nsp;supplying the ASA
area elow ~T8.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-10866267259120.jpg" /></div>
1405793592670 1395802358422 {{c1::Taes Dorsalis}} is a spinal cord lesion t
hat is caused y <>tertiary syphilis</>&nsp;and involves <>degeneration of t
he dorsal columns and roots</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1121845457
7316.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence this will present with <>impaired s
ensation and proprioception and progressive sensory ataxia</>.</i></div>
1405793652061 1395802358422 Which spinal cord lesion is associated with <>C
harcot joints?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Taes Dorsalis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11214159610020.jpg" /></div>
1405793675436 1395802358422 Which spinal cord lesion is associated with <>A
rgyll-Roertson pupils?</><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Taes Dorsalis}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Argyll-Roertson pupil is a a pupil that exhiits accomodati
on and convergence, ut not to light.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-112141596100
20.jpg" /></div>
1405793759057 1395802358422 Which spinal cord lesion is associated with a <
>positive Romerg sign</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Taes Dorsalis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11214159610020.jpg" /></div>
1405793774076 1395802358422 {{c1::Syringomyelia}} is a spinal cord lesion th
at involves <>expansion of the syrinx</>&nsp;and <>damage to the anterior wh
ite commissure of the STT</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-117381456201
24.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence this will present with a ilateral l
oss of pain and temperature sensation <>at the level of the lesion</>.</i></di
v><div><i>The syrinx can grow and affect other tracts.</i></div>
1405794043596 1395802358422 Which spinal cord lesion is associated with <>C
hiari type 1 malformations</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Syringomyelia}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11733850652828.jpg" /></div>
1405794069135 1395802358422 {{c1::Suacute Comined Degeneration}} is a spin
al cord lesion that occurs due to <>vitamin B12</>&nsp;or <>vitamin E defici

ency</>&nsp;and involves <>demyelination of the dorsal column, LCST</>&nsp;
and <>STT</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12004433592473.jpg" /></div
>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>ataxic gait, paresthesia, impaires positi
on sense, impaired viration sense.</></i></div>
1405794175984 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Poliomyelitis?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Poliovirus}}</div>
1405794200377 1395802358422 How is poliovirus transmitted?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Fecal oral}}</div>
1405794207918 1395802358422 {{c1::Poliovirus}} is a virus that causes Poliom
yelitis that <>replicates in the oropharynx and small intestines efore enterin
g the CNS via the loodstream</>.
1405794240791 1395802358422 Which area of the spinal cord is targeted in Pol
iomyelitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior horn of the spinal cord (i.e. LM
Ns)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence polio presents with LMN lesion signs.</i></d
iv>
1405794274944 1395802358422 How do CSF WBC levels change in Poliomyelitis?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405794290443 1395802358422 How do CSF protein levels change in Poliomyeliti
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Slight increase}}</div>
1405794299952 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels change in poliomyeliti
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
1405794311078 1395802358422 What is the cause of&nsp;Werdnig-Hoffman Diseas
e (spinal muscular atrophy)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital degeneration
of the anterior horn}}</div>
1405794384894 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of&nsp;WerdnigHoffman Disease (spinal muscular atrophy)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal
recessive}}</div>
1405794397462 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Friedreich At
axia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1405794421954 1395802358422 What trinucleotide repeat is seen in Friedreich
Ataxia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GAA on chromosome 9}}</div>
1405794442471 1395802358422 Which gene is affected y GAA repeated in Friedr
eich Ataxia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Frataxin, an iron inding protein}}</div
>
1405794462725 1395802358422 {{c1::Friedreich Ataxia}} is a CNS disorder due
to GAA repeats in the Frataxin gene that involves <>impairment of mitochondrial
functioning.</>
1405794521339 1395802358422 What is the cause of death in Friedreich Ataxia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1405794542477 1395802358422 {{c1::Friedreich Ataxia}} is a CNS disorder due
to GAA repeats that presents in childhood with <>kyphoscoliosis.</>
1405794574009 1395802358422 {{c1::Friedreich Ataxia}} is a CNS disorder due
to GAA repeats that involves <>staggering gait, frequent falling, nystagmus, dy
sarthria, pes cavus</>&nsp;and <>hammer toes</>.
1405794605952 1395802358422 {{c1::Brown-Séquard Syndrome}} is a spinal cord sy
ndrome due to <>hemisection of the spinal cord.</><div><><r /></></div><div
><><img src="paste-13752485281995.jpg" /></></div>
<r /><div><i>Findings a
re pretty logical if you know your neuroanatomy. Just <>don't forget the last 2
</>:</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-13773960118708.jpg" /><img src="paste-147
18852923951.jpg" /></i></div>
1405796019342 1395802358422 {{c1::Brown-Séquard Syndrome}} is a spinal cord sy
ndrome that presents with <>ipsilateral loss of all sensation </><u style="fon
t-weight: old; ">at the level of the lesion</u>&nsp;due to hemisection of the
spinal cord.
<r /><div><img src="paste-14718852923951.jpg" /></div>
1405796156219 1395802358422 {{c1::Brown Séquard Syndrome}} is a spinal cord sy
ndrome that presents with <>ipsilateral LMN deficits </><u style="font-weight:
old; ">at the level of the lesion</u>&nsp;due to hemisection of the spinal co
rd.
<r /><div><img src="paste-14723147891247.jpg" /></div>
1405796200589 1395802358422 Aove which verteral level can Brown-Séquard Synd
rome present with Horner Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aove T1}}</div>

<r /><div><i>Due to damage of the oculosympathetic pathway.</i></div>
1405796299101 1395802358422 {{c1::Horner Syndrome}} is an autonomic disorder
that results from spinal cord lesions <>aove T1</>&nsp;and presents with <
>ptosis, miosis</>&nsp;and <>anhidrosis.</><div><><r /></></div> <div><r
/></div><i>"Horny PAM"</i><div><i><img src="paste-15479062134931.jpg" /><r /><
/i><div><img src="paste-14925011354154.jpg" /></div></div>
1405797156788 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptosis}} is a feature of Horner Syndrome t
hat involves <>slight drooping of the eyelid</>&nsp;(via the Superior Tarsal
Muscle).
<r /><div><img src="paste-14925011354154.jpg" /></div>
1405797184151 1395802358422 {{c1::Anhidrosis}} is a feature of Horner Syndro
me that involves the <>asence of sweating</>.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-14925011354154.jpg" /></div>
1405797205008 1395802358422 {{c1::Miosis}} is a feature of Horner Syndrome t
hat involves <>pupil constriction</>. <r><div><img src="paste-14925011354154.
jpg" /></div>
1405797217241 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the posterior half o
f the skull cap?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C2}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-15710990369162.jpg" /></div>
1405797520620 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the <>high turtlene
ck shirt level</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /></div>
1405797537896 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the <>low-collar sh
irt</>&nsp;level?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C4}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /></div>
1405797557839 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the nipple?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::T4}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /></div>
1405797568340 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the xiphoid process?<div><
The even numered thoracic dermatomes ha
r /></div><div>{{c1::T6}}</div>
ve easily rememered sites to test for sensory locks; T2 at axilla anteriorly,
T4 at nipple, T6 at xihoid, T8 at lower margin of ris anteriorly, T10 at umili
cus, T12 at inguinal fold
1405797579780 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the umilicus?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::T10}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /
></div>
1405797589478 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the inguinal ligament?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::L1}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1570669540186
6.jpg" /></div>
1405797658880 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the kneecaps?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::L4}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /
></div>
1405797670093 1395802358422 Which dermatome is involved with <>erection and
sensation of the penile and anal zones</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S1; S3;
S4}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /></div>
1405797715029 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the iceps reflex?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1637241533260
0.jpg" /><img src="paste-16492674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797760045 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the triceps reflex?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::C7}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1636812036530
4.jpg" /><img src="paste-16492674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797770299 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the patellar reflex?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1636812036530
4.jpg" /><img src="paste-16492674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797781911 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the achilles reflex?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S1}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1636812036530
4.jpg" /><img src="paste-16492674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797790832 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the cremaster reflex?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L1,L2}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-16496
969384236.jpg" /></div>
1405797808455 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the anal wink reflex?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S3, S4}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-16492

674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797822766 1395802358422 How long after irth to the primitive reflexes d
isappear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st year}}</div> <r /><div><i>Eventually
, the <>mature/developing frontal loe inhiits these reflexes</>.</i></div>
1405798014578 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::moro reflex}} is a primitive refl
ex that involves <>aduction/extension of the arms when startled</>, following
<r /><div><i>Aka the "Hang on f
y <>drawing of the arms together</>.
or life" reflex.</i></div>
1405798051396 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::rooting reflex}} is a primitive r
eflex that involves <>movement of the head towards one side if the cheek or mou
th is stroked</>&nsp;(i.e. nipple seeking).
1405798083509 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::sucking reflex}} is a primitive r
eflex that involves a <>sucking reflex when the roof of the mouth is touched</
>.
1405798105409 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::palmar reflex}} is a primitive re
flex that involves <>curling of the fingers if the palm is stroked</>.
1405798122918 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::plantar reflex}} is a primitive r
eflex that involves <>dorsiflexion of the large toe and fanning of the other to
es with plantar stimulation</>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. Bainski sign in infa
nts (which is normal, hence called the plantar reflex)</i></div>
1405798266406 1395802358422 The {{c1::Galant reflex}} is a primitive reflex
that involves <>lateral flexion of the lower ody towards the stimulated side f
ollowing stroking along one side of the spine while the neworn is face down</>
.
1405798444295 1395802358422 Which 3 cranial nerves lie medially at the rain
stem?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III, CN VI, CN XII}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-17901423690238.jpg" /></div>
1405798541598 1395802358422 Which gland located at the rainstem secretes <
>melatonin</>&nsp;and influences <>circadian rhythms</>?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Pineal}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-18017387807271.jpg" /></div>
1405798608630 1395802358422 Which nucleus at the dorsal rainstem is the <>
conjugate vertical gaze center</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Collicul
is}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18013092839975.jpg" /></div>
1405798636905 1395802358422 Which nucleus at the dorsal rainstem is is invo
lved in the auditory pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior colliculis}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18013092839975.jpg" /></div>
1405798656442 1395802358422 {{c1::Parinaud Syndrome}} is a CNS disorder that
involves <>paralysis of conjugate vertical gaze due to a lesion to the superio
r colliculis.</>
<div><r /></div><i>e.g. y a pinealoma.</i><r /><div><
img src="paste-18013092839975.jpg" /></div>
1405798684216 1395802358422 Which dorsal rainstem structure is lesioned in
Parinaud Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Colliculis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18013092839975.jpg" /></div>
1405798706026 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve I?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Olfactory}}</div>
1405799777636 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;II?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Optic}}</div>
1405799782085 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;III?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Oculomotor}}</div>
1405799787141 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;IV?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Trochlear}}</div>
1405799792783 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;V?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Trigeminal}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Includes the <>Ophthalmic (V<su>
1</su>), Maxillary (V<su>2</su>) and Mandiular (V<su>3</su>) ranches</>.
</i></div>
1405799822533 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;VI?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Aducens}}</div>
1405799827308 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;VII?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Facial}}</div>
1405799830377 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;VIII?<div><r /></div

><div>{{c1::Vestiulocochlear}}</div>
1405799840247 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;IX?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Glossopharyngeal}}</div>
1405799851801 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;X?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Vagus}}</div>
1405799854651 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;XI?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Spinal accessory}}</div>
1405799859356 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;XII?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Hypoglossal}}</div>
1405799863915 1395802358422 What is the only cranial nerve that <>does not<
/>&nsp;have thalamic relay to the cortex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN I, Olf
actory}}</div>
1405799894101 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls the muscles of mast
ication?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>, Mandiular ranch of the T
rigeminal}}</div>
<r /><div><r /></div>
1405799957568 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs <>sensation</>&ns
p;at the face?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trigeminal}}</div>
1405799969736 1395802358422 What are the three ranches of the Trigeminal ne
rve (CN V)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ophthalmic, Maxillary, Mandiular (V<su>
1</su>, V<su>2</su>, V<su>3</su>&nsp;respectively)}}</div>
1405800029370 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs lacrimation?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Facial}}</div>
1405800047148 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs salivation from the
<>sumandiular and sulingual glands</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}<
/div>
1405800069890 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs <>closing</>&nsp;
of the eyelid via <>Oricularis oculi</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}<
/div>
1405800093083 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls the <>stapedius</
>&nsp;muscle in the ear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}</div>
1405800106497 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is involved with hearing and
alance?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VIII}}</div>
1405800118773 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs salivation from the
<>parotid gland</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div>
1405800136943 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is involved with <>carotid
ody and sinus</>&nsp;aro- and chemoreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN
IX}}</div>
1405800160351 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls the <>stylopharyng
eus</>&nsp;muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div> <r /><div><i>It
elevates the pharynx and larynx.</i></div>
1405800184186 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve carries <>taste from the ep
iglottis region</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800368334 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve innervates the uvula?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800403884 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve monitors <>aortic arch </>
chemo- and aroreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800421768 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls shoulder shrugging
and head turning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN XI via the SCM and trapezius mus
cles.}}</div>
1405800448687 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls tongue movement?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN XII}}</div>
1405800473491 1395802358422 What is the mnemonic for rememering cranial ner
ve modalities?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Sa
ys Big Boos Matter Most}}</div>
<r /><div><i><u>S,S,M,M,B,M,B,S,B,B,M,M
.</u></i></div><div><i>- S = sensory</i></div><div><i>- M = motor</i></div><div>
<i>- B = oth</i></div>
1405800572527 1395802358422 Which is the only cranial nerve whose nucleus is
<>in the spinal cord</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN XI (in the spinal cord
just caudal of the medulla)}}</div>
<img src="paste-20714627268833.jpg" /><d
iv>CN I and II not shown (nuclei not in rainstem or spinal cord)</div>

1405800669193 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the <>afferent</>&nsp;
ranch of the corneal reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>1</su>&nsp;(
ophthalmic; specifically the nasociliary ranch)}}</div>
1405800707292 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>afferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Lacrimation Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>1</su
>&nsp;(loss of reflex does not preclude the loss of emotional tears)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>So you can still cry me a river...</i></div>
1405800752517 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>afferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Jaw Jerk Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>&
nsp;(muscle spindles from the masseter muscle)}}</div>
1405800775487 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>afferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the pupillary reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN II}}</div>
1405800782210 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>afferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Gag Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div>
1405800790099 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the <>efferent</>&nsp;
ranch of the Corneal Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII (temporalis ran
ch to the oricularis oculi which closes the eye)}}</div>
1405800910976 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>efferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Lacrimation Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}</div>
1405800919022 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>efferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Jaw Jerk Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>&
nsp;(to the masseter muscle)}}</div>
1405800935586 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>efferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the pupillary reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
1405800941973 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>efferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Gag Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800948089 1395802358422 Which vagal nucleus is involved with <>visceral
sensory information</>&nsp;such as taste, aroreceptors and gut distention)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus Solitarius}}</div>
1405800989337 1395802358422 Which vagal nucleus is involved with <>motor in
nervation of the pharynx, larynx and upper esophagus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Nucleus Amiguus}}</div>
1405801011375 1395802358422 Which vagal nucleus is associated with sending <
>parasympathetic fiers to the heart, lungs and upper GI</>?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Dorsal Motor Nucleus}}</div>
1405801042108 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::I}} travels through the
&nsp;{{c2::criiform plate}} of the skull.
1405801356266 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::II}} travels through th
e&nsp;{{c2::optic canal}} in the skull.
1405801373529 1395802358422 What are the contents of the optic canal?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::CN II, Ophthalmic Artery, Central Retinal Vein}}</div>
1405801394734 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves travel through the Superior
Orital Fissure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III, IV, V<su>1</su>&nsp;and
VI}}</div>
1405801421954 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::V<su>2</su>}} travels
through the&nsp;{{c2::foramen rotundum}} of the skull.
1405801445175 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::V<su>3</su>}} travels
through the {{c2::foramen ovale}} of the skull.
1405801467925 1395802358422 Which cranial artery travels through the Foramen
Spinosum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Meningeal Artery}}</div>
1405801485946 1395802358422 Through which foramen does the Middle Meningeal
Artery travel in the skull?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Foramen Spinosum}}</div>
1405801507511 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves travel throgh the internal
auditory meatus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII, VIII}}</div>
1405801529791 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves travel through the jugular
foramen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX, X, XI}}</div>
1405801549186 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::CN XII}} travels throug
h the&nsp;{{c2::hypoglossal canal}} of the skull.
1405801566883 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::XI}} travels through th
e&nsp;{{c2::foramen magnum}} of the skull.

1405801618578 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::cavernous sinus}} is a collection
of venous sinuses found on either side of the pituitary that collects lood fro
m the eye and superficial cortex.
<r><div><img src="paste-22230750724601.
jpg" /></div>
1405801761044 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves pass <>through</>&nsp;th
e cavernous sinus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III, IV, V<su>1</su>, V<su>2
</su>, VI}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. all of the CN's that deal with the ey
e + V<su>2</su>&nsp;(and not CN II)</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-22226455
757305.jpg" /></i></div>
1405801821550 1395802358422 Which major cranial artery passes through the ca
vernous sinus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Carotid Artery}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-22226455757305.jpg" /></div>
1405801841200 1395802358422 {{c1::Cavernous sinus syndrome}} is a neurologic
al disorder that results due to <>mass effect, fistula or thromosis</>&nsp;i
n the cavernous sinus that presents with <>ophthalmoplegia</>&nsp;and <>decr
eased corneal/maxillary sensation</>&nsp;with <>normal visual acuity</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-22226455757305.jpg" /></div>
1405801923481 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is commonly affected in Cave
rnous Sinus Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VI}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-22226455757305.jpg" /></div>
1405801940976 1395802358422 Which way does the jaw deviate in a CN V motor l
esion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Towards</u>&nsp;the lesion}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>CN V innervation to the mastication muscles is <>ipsilatera
l</>.</i><r /><div><i>During opening of thw jaw, unopposed force from the oppo
site pterygoid muscle pushes the jaw.</i></div>
1405802012257 1395802358422 Which way does the uvula deviate in a CN X lesio
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Away</u>&nsp;from the lesion}}</div> <div><r
/></div><div><i>The weak side of the uvula collapses and is henced pushed away
when the patient says "Ahhhhhhhhhh".</i></div>
1405802073459 1395802358422 Which way does the <>left</>&nsp;sternocleido
mastoid muscle help turn the head?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right}}</div>
1405802096917 1395802358422 Which side of the ody will see a shoulder droop
following lesion to the <>left</>&nsp;CN XI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left
(ipsilateral)}}</div>
1405802177547 1395802358422 Which side of the ody will the head have weakne
ss turning towards following a <>left</>&nsp;CN XI lesion?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Right (contralateral)}}</div>
1405802197426 1395802358422 Which way does the tongue deviate following a CN
XII LMN lesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Towards</u>&nsp;the lesion}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>i.e. <>"the tongue licks the wound</>"</i></div><div><i>
This is due to weakened tongue muscles on the side of the lesion. Think of it li
ke pushing a shoppig cart with one hand on 1 side, the cart is going to move the
opposite side due to a lack of pushing.</i></div>
1405802275364 1395802358422 What is the Rinne's Test result in conductive he
aring loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anormal (one &gt; air conduction)}}</di
v>
1405802318716 1395802358422 What is the Rinne's Test result in sensorineural
hearing loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal (air &gt; one)}}</div>
1405802337568 1395802358422 To which ear does Weer's Test localize in condu
ctive hearing loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The affected ear}}</div>
1405802365700 1395802358422 To which ear does Weer's Test localize in senso
rineural hearing loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unaffected ear}}</div>
1405802375296 1395802358422 Which frequency of sound is lost first in noiseinduced hearing loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High frequency}}</div>
1405803541663 1395802358422 Which area of the face is paralyzed in a <>cort
icoular (UMN) CN VII lesion</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral <u>L
ower</u>&nsp;face}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The forehead is spared due t
o ilateral UMN innervation of the upper division of the facial nucleus.</i><div
><i><>The lower division of the facial nucleus only receives contralateral inne
rvation</>.<r /></i><div><img src="paste-24068996727271.jpg" /></div></div>

1405804107837 1395802358422 Which area of the face is paralyzed in a <>LMN
CN VII lesion</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Ipsilateral</u>&nsp;upper <u>a
nd</u>&nsp;lower face}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-24064701759975.jpg" /
></div>
1405804151480 1395802358422 {{c1::Facial Nerve Palsy}} is a cranial nerve pa
lsy that presents with <>peripheral ipsilateral facial paralysis</>&nsp;with
the <>inaility to close the eye on the ipsilateral side</>.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-24455543783656.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Due to com
plete destruction of the facial nucleus or it's efferent fiers.</i></div><div><
i><r /></i></div>
1405804484013 1395802358422 {{c1::Bell Palsy}} is a type of facial nerve pal
sy that occurs idiopathically and gradually recovers.
1405804512841 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve palsy is associated with Lym
e disease (<i>Borrelia urgdorferi</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Facial nerve
palsy}}</div>
1405804537062 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve palsy is associated with HSV
and VZV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Facial nerve palsy}}</div> <r /><div><i>HS
V is more common.</i></div>
1405804558708 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve palsy is associated with Sar
coidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Facial nerve palsy}}</div>
1405804566918 1395802358422 What are the muscles of mastication?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Masseter; Temporalis; Medial &amp; lateral pterygoid}}</div>
1405804607561 1395802358422 Which pterygoid muscle <>opens</>&nsp;the jaw
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral pterygoid}}</div> <r /><div><i><>L</>at
eral <>L</>owers the jaw.&nsp;</i></div><div><i>The masseter, temporalis and
medial pterygoid all close the jaw.</i></div>
1405804636657 1395802358422 What is the innervation of all the mastication m
uscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>}}</div>
1405804650095 1395802358422 Which fiers in the eye attach the lens to the c
iliary ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zonula fiers}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-25374666785302.jpg" /></div>
1405806166965 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the lateral rectus mu
scle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VI}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-31533
649887734.jpg" /></div>
1405808058288 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the superior olique
muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IV}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808073626 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the superior rectus m
uscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808089300 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the medial rectus mus
cle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-31529
354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808099700 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the inferior rectus m
uscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808113195 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the inferior olique
muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808124177 1395802358422 {{c1::Oculomotor palsy}} is a cranial nerve pals
y that presents with <>down and out eyes</>, <>ptosis, pupillary dilation</>
&nsp;and <>loss of accommodation</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-3339337072661
3.jpg" /></div>
1405808171192 1395802358422 {{c1::Trochlear Palsy}} is a cranial nerve palsy
that presents with <>upwardly displaced eyes</>, especially with contralatera
l gaze and <>head tilt</>&nsp;<u style="font-weight: old; ">towards</u>&nsp
;the side of the lesion.
<r /><div><i>Hence there is often prolems goin
g down the stairs.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-31529354920438.jpg" /></i></
div>
1405808240053 1395802358422 {{c1::Aducens palsy}} is a cranial nerve palsy

that presents with <>medially directed eyes that cannot aduct</>.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808263899 1395802358422 Which way must a patient look in order to test t
he <>inferior olique</>&nsp;muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upwards}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i><>The olique eye muscles move the eye in </><u style="f
ont-weight: old; ">opposite directions</u>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-32
087700668723.jpg" /></i></div>
1405808324692 1395802358422 Which parasympathetic nucleus sends signals to t
he ciliary ganglion via CN III to achieve <>miosis</>&nsp;(pupillary constric
tion)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Edinger-Westphal nucleus}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The ciliary ganglion then send <>short ciliary nerves</>&nsp;to the pup
illary sphincter muscles.</i></div>
1405808594265 1395802358422 Which ciliary nerves send signals to the <>pupi
llary sphincter muscles</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Short ciliary nerves}}</
div>
1405808616547 1395802358422 Which pupillary muscle is involved in <>miosis<
/>&nsp;(constriction)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sphincter muscles}}</div>
1405808641776 1395802358422 Which sympathetic nucleus receives hypothalamic
input to trigger <>mydriasis</>&nsp;(pupillary dilation)?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Ciliospinal center of Budge (C8-T2)}}</div>
1405808829475 1395802358422 Which ciliary nerves innervate the pupillary <>
dilator</>&nsp;muscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Long</u>&nsp;ciliary ne
rve}}</div>
1405808852219 1395802358422 Which pupillary muscles trigger <>mydriasis?</
><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Pupillary dilator muscles}}</div>
1405808884440 1395802358422 Which midrain nucleus <>directly </>receives
light signals via CN II in the pupillary light reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Pretectal nucleus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-32804960207259.jpg" /
></div>
1405808947978 1395802358422 Which midrain nucleus is activated y the Prete
ctal nuclei in the pupillary light reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Edinger-We
stphal nuclei}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-32800665239963.jpg" /></div>
1405808978140 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the midrain triggers ilateral
pupil contraction in the pupillary light reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Edi
nger-Westphal Nucleus}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-32800665239963.jpg" /
></div>
1405809021284 1395802358422 {{c1::Marcus-Gunn Pupil}} is a pathological pupi
l that occurs due to <>optic nerve damage or a severe retinal injury</>&nsp;a
nd presents with a <>loss/decrease of ilateral pupillary constriction to light
</>. <r /><div><i>Tested with the "<>swinging flashlight test</>"</i></div
><div><i><img src="paste-32800665239963.jpg" /></i></div>
1405809092063 1395802358422 {{c1::Retinal detachment}} is a retinal disorder
defined as separation of the neurosensory layer of the retina from the pigmente
d epithelium, therey leading to degeneration of photoreceptors.
<r /><d
iv><i>The neurosensory layer of the retina = rods and cones.</i></div><div><i>Re
tinal pigmented epithelium = the layer that shields excess light and supports th
e retina.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-33801392619624.jpg" /></i></div>
1405809602325 1395802358422 What visual field defect is seen in <>lesion of
the optic nerve</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ispilateral anopia}}</div>
<div><r /></div>#1<r /><div><img src="paste-34243774251776.jpg" /></div>
1405810216759 1395802358422 What visual field deficit is seen in <>optic ch
iasm lesions</>&nsp;(e.g. with a pituitary tumour)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Bitemporal hemianopia}}</div> <div><r /></div>#2<r /><div><img src="paste-34
239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405810259976 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in an<>&nsp;optic
tract</>&nsp;lesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral homonymous hemia
nopia}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>#3</i><r /><div><img src="paste-34239479284
480.jpg" /></div>
1405810628319 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in <>temporal loe
lesion </>(Meyer's Loop)<>?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Contralatera

l upper quadrant anopia}}</div> <div><r /></div>#4<r /><div><img src="paste-34
239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405810678375 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in a <>parietal lo
e lesion </>(Dorsal Optic Radiation; Baum's Loop)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C
ontralateral lower quadrantic anopia}}</div>
<div><r /></div>#5<r /><div><i
mg src="paste-34239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405810710845 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in <>infarction of
the Posterior Cereral Artery (PCA)</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contralatera
l hemianopia with macular sparing}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is ecause th
e macula has ilateral projection to the occiput.</i></div><div><i>#6</i></div><
div><i><img src="paste-34239479284480.jpg" /></i></div>
1405810785224 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in <>macular degene
ration</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Central scotoma in the affected eye}}</di
v>
<r /><div>#7</div><div><img src="paste-34239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405810822359 1395802358422 {{c1::Meyer's Loop}} is a section of the optic t
ract that carries visual information from the <>inferior retina</>&nsp;around
the <>inferior horn of the lateral ventricle</>&nsp;through the <>temporal
loe</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-34239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405811062562 1395802358422 {{c1::Dorsal Optic Radiation (Baum's Loop)}} is
a section of the optic tract that carries information from the <>superior retin
a</>&nsp;via the internal capsule and <>parietal loe</>. <r /><div><i>Th
is is the shortest route to the occiput.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-342394
79284480.jpg" /></i></div>
1405811109332 1395802358422 {{c1::Medial Longitudinal Fascicle}} is a visual
tract that allows for crosstalk etween <>CN VI</>&nsp;and <>CN III</>&ns
p;nuclei, therey coordinating <>horizontal gaze</>. <div><r /></div><i>It i
s very highly myelinated in order for extremely quick communication.</i><div><i>
Hence, <>demyelinating disorders present with symptoms</>.<r /></i><div><img
src="paste-35781372543332.jpg" /></div></div>
1405811243621 1395802358422 {{c1::Internuclear Ophthalmoplegia (INO)}} is a
visual disorder that results from <>lesion to the MLF</>&nsp;and presents wit
h a <>lack of adduction of the ipsilateral eye</>&nsp;and <>nystagmus</>&n
sp;in the contralateral eye.
<div><r /></div><i>"<>INO</>&nsp;a <>MLF</
>&nsp;that can't <>Add</>(uct)."</i><div><i>When the CN VI nucleus activates
the ipsilateral lateral rectus, the contralateral medial rectus is not activated
y the contralateral CNIII nucleus.</i></div><div><i><u>This to me was unnecess
arily confusing. Whoever named the MLF's sucks alls.</u></i></div><div><i><>Th
e MLF's are named according to which side they <u>synapse on</u>, not the side f
rom which they originate </>(which would make so much more sense to me).<r /><
/i><div><img src="paste-35948876267875.jpg" /></div></div>
1405811550653 1395802358422 Which eye is unale to <>adduct</>&nsp;follow
ing a lesion to the <>MLF</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The <>IPSILATERAL</
>&nsp;eye}}</div>
<r /><div><i>All caps for emphasis ecause this one alw
ays gets me y virtue of the MLF naming.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i>
<i><>The MLF's are named according to which side they&nsp;<u>synapse on</u>, n
ot the side from which they originate&nsp;</>(which would make so much more se
nse to me).</i></div><div><i></i><i>Hence, l<u>esion to the LEFT MLF, result in
a loss of adduction in the LEFT eye (i.e. LEFT INO) even if the MLF is lesioned
in the right side of the ody</u> (i.e. at the right Aducens nucleus).</i></div
><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><div></div></i><i><><r /></></i><div><img sr
c="paste-35948876267875.jpg" /></div></div>
1397777994357 1395802358422 Which type of Pneumocyte is most aundant at alv
eolar surfaces?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I pneumocytes (97%)}}</div>
1397778928590 1395802358422 {{c1::Type I pneumocytes}} are a type of pneumoc
yte that are <>squamous</>&nsp;and thin, hence they are optimal for gas excha
nge.
<r /><div><i>97% of the alveolar lining is Type I pneumocytes</i>.</div
>
1397779013570 1395802358422 Which type of pneumocytes are the <>stem cells<
/>&nsp;of the lungs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II pneumocytes}}</div>
1397779040710 1395802358422 Which type of pneumocytes <>secrete pulmonary s

urfactant</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II pneumocytes}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, pulmonary surfactant works to <>decrease</>&nsp;alveolar surf
ace tension and <>prevents alveolar collapse</>&nsp;(atelectasis).</i></div>
1397779108014 1395802358422 {{c1::Type II pneumocytes}} are a type of pneumo
cyte that is <>cuoidal</>&nsp;and <>clustered</>.
1397779134203 1395802358422 {{c1::Type II pneumocytes}} are a type of pneumo
cyte that function as the stem cells of the lungs, proliferating into Type I and
Type II cells during lung damage.
1397779163603 1395802358422 {{c1::Clara cells}} are a type of pneumocyte tha
t are <>nonciliated</>, <>columnar cells</>&nsp;with secretory granules.
1397779193280 1395802358422 {{c1::Clara cells}} are a type of pneumocyte tha
t degrades toxins and acts as reserve cells.
1397779214201 1395802358422 Which type of pneumocyte degrades toxins and act
s as reserve cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clara cells}}</div>
1397779260542 1395802358422 What is the equation for the <>collapsing press
ure</>&nsp;of an alveolus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Collapsing Pressure = P
= [2(surface tension)]/radius}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence, alveoli have an inc
reased tendency to collapse during expiration as radius decreases (this is Lapla
ce's Law).</i></div>
1397779604235 1395802358422 What is the most important lechitin found in sur
factant?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dipalmitoylphophatidylcholine}}</div>
1397779663483 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does lung surfact
ant production egin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Week 26}}</div>
1397779690179 1395802358422 During which week of gestation are <>mature lev
els of surfactant</>&nsp;achieves?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Week 35}}</div>
1397779717267 1395802358422 Which Lecithin:Sphingomyelin ratio is indicative
of fetal lung maturity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L:S &gt; 2.0}}</div>
1397779796585 1395802358422 Which lung has 3 loes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Right}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30326764077352.jpg" /></div>
1397779819124 1395802358422 Which lung has 2 loes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Left}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-30322469110056.jpg" /></div>
1397779826982 1395802358422 Which lung has the Lingula?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Left}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>L</>eft = <>L</>ingula</i></div><div
><i><img src="paste-30322469110056.jpg" /></i></div>
1397779840806 1395802358422 {{c1::Lingula}} is a region of the left lung tha
t is a homologue of the right middle loe (of the right lung).
1397779877330 1395802358422 Which lung is the more common site for inhaled f
oreign odies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right lung}}</div>
<r /><div><r /
></div>
1397779951676 1395802358422 {{c1::Right Lung}} is the lung that is the most
common site for inhaled foreign odies ecause its main stem ronchus is wider a
nd more vertical than the opposite lung's.
<r /><div><img src="paste-30322
469110056.jpg" /></div>
1397780094689 1395802358422 Which lung &amp; loe will an aspirated foreign
ody get stuck in while the patient is <>upright</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Lower portion of the right inferior loe}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-30322469110056.jpg" /></div>
1397780154188 1395802358422 Which lung &amp; loe will an aspirated foreign
ody get stuck in if the patient is <>supine</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Su
perior portion of the right inferior loe}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-30322469110056.jpg" /></div>
1397780323867 1395802358422 What is the relation of the <>pulmonary artery
to the ronchus</>&nsp;at the <>right lung</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::An
terior}}</div> <r /><div><i><>RALS</>&nsp;= <>R</>ight <>A</>nterior, <
>L</>eft <>S</>uperior</i></div>
1397780414904 1395802358422 What is the relation of the <>pulmonary artery
to the ronchus</>&nsp;at the <>left lung</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sup
erior}}</div> <r /><div><i><>RALS</>&nsp;=&nsp;<>R</>ight&nsp;<>A</>
nterior,&nsp;<>L</>eft&nsp;<>S</>uperior</i></div>
1397780434886 1395802358422 At which verteral level does the IVC perforate

the diaphragm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T8}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>"I 8
10 eggs at 12"</i><r /><div><img src="paste-30988189040954.jpg" /></div>
1397780538042 1395802358422 At which verteral level does the esophagus perf
orate the diaphragm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T10}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><div><i>"I 8 10 eggs at 12"</i><r /><div><img src="paste-30988189040954.jpg" /
></div></div>
1397780558260 1395802358422 At which verteral level does the Vagus Nerve (C
N X) perforate the diaphragm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T10 (oth trunks)}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>"Cranial Nerve <>10</>&nsp;at T<>10</>"</i><r /><div
><img src="paste-30988189040954.jpg" /></div></div>
1397780610916 1395802358422 At which verteral level does the aorta perforat
e the diaphragm?<div><r />{{c1::T12}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"I 8 10 eggs at 12
"</i></div><div><i></i><i>"At&nsp;<>T-1-2</>&nsp;its&nsp;<>red, white and
lue</>" (aorta = red; thoracic duct = white; azygos vein = lue)</i><div><img
src="paste-30988189040954.jpg" /></div></div>
1397780629981 1395802358422 At which verteral level does the Thoracic Duct
perforate the diaphragm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T12}}</div> <r /><div><i>"A
t <>T-1-2</>&nsp;its <>red, white and lue</>" (aorta = red; thoracic duct
= white; azygos vein = lue)</i><r /><div><img src="paste-30988189040954.jpg" /
></div></div>
1397780702805 1395802358422 At which verteral level does the Azygos Vein pe
rforate the diaphragm?<div><r />{{c1::T12}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"At&nsp;<
>T-1-2</>&nsp;its&nsp;<>red, white and lue</>" (aorta = red; thoracic duc
t = white; azygos vein = lue)</i><r /><div><img src="paste-30988189040954.jpg"
/></div></div>
1397780721375 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the diaphragm?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Phrenic Nerve}}</div>
1397781386335 1395802358422 Which <>nerve roots</>&nsp;innervate the diap
hragm via the phrenic nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3, C4, C5}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"C3, 4, 5 keep the diaphragm alive."</i></div><div><i>Hence diaphr
agm pain can radiate the to shoulder (C5) or trapezius ridge (C3, C4).</i></div>
1397829115104 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates the volume of air that
can still e reathed in after normal inspiration?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I
nspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-850403525001.
jpg" /></div>
1397830119483 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates the volume of air that
moves into the lungs with each quiet inspiration?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ti
dal Volume (TV)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-846108557705.jpg" /></div>
1397830145620 1395802358422 What is the typical lung Tidal Volume (TV)?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::500 mL}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-846108557705.
jpg" /></div>
1397830179778 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates to the volume of air t
hat can still e reathed out after normal expiration?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-84610
8557705.jpg" /></div>
1397830209139 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates to the volume of air t
hat remains in the lung after a maximal expiration?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R
esidual Volume (RV)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-846108557705.jpg" /><
/div>
1397830247804 1395802358422 Which lung voume cannot e measured on spirometr
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Residual Volume (RV)}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-846108557705.jpg" /></div>
1397830267863 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make up lung Inspiratory Capa
city (IC)?<div><r />{{c1::IRV + TV}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-17093
96984240.jpg" /></div>
1397830442190 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make up lung Functional Resid
ual Capacity (FRC)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RV + ERV}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-1705102016944.jpg" /></div>
1397830487091 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make up lung (Functional) Vit
al Capacity (VC)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TV + IRV + ERV}}</div>
<r /><d

iv><img src="paste-1705102016944.jpg" /></div>
1397830673103 1395802358422 {{c1::(Functional) Vital Capacity (VC)}} is a lu
ng capacity that equates to the maximum volume of air that can e expired after
a maximal inspiration. <div><r /></div><i>"FVC = inhaling maximally and then e
xhaling maximally = inhaling and lowing out irthday candles."</i><r /><div><i
mg src="paste-1705102016944.jpg" /></div>
1397830828080 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make up Total Lung Capacity (
TLC)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IRV + TV + ERV + RV}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-1705102016944.jpg" /></div>
1397830859114 1395802358422 {{c1::Total Lung Capacity (TLC)}} is a lung capa
city that equates to the volume of air present in the lungs after a maximal insp
iration.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1705102016944.jpg" /></div>
1397830882061 1395802358422 Which lung capacity is equal to the volume of ga
s present in the lungs after a maximal inspiration?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T
otal Lung Capacity (TLC)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1705102016944
.jpg" /></div>
1397830912571 1395802358422 What is the equation for <>Minute Ventilation (
V<su>E</su>)</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V<su>E</su>&nsp;= V<su>T</su
>&nsp;* RR}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Minute Ventilation = total volume of air e
ntering the lungs per minute</i></div><div><i>V<su>T</su>&nsp;= tidal volume<
/i></div><div><i>RR = respiratory rate</i></div>
1397831272415 1395802358422 What is the equation for&nsp;<>Alveolar Ventil
ation (V<su>A</su>)</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V<su>A</su>&nsp;= (V<su
<r /><div><i>Alveolar Ventilati
>T</su>&nsp;- V<su>D</su>) * RR}}</div>
on = volume of gas per unit time that reaches the alveoli</i></div><div><i>V<su
>T</su>&nsp;= tidal volume</i></div><div><i>V<su>D</su>&nsp;= physiological
dead space</i></div><div><i>RR = respiratory rate</i></div>
1397831355730 1395802358422 Which gloin chains are found in adult Hemogloi
n (HA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::α₂β<su>2</su>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-3040836845747.jpg" /></div>
1397832346312 1395802358422 Which <>morphological form</>&nsp;of Hemoglo
in has <>lower</>&nsp;O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Taut (T) form}}</div>
1397832384428 1395802358422 Which <>morphological form</>&nsp;of Hemoglo
in has <>high</>&nsp;O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Relaxed (R) form; 300x more affinity than the taut form}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-3040836845747.jpg" /></div>
1397832421132 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an <>increase</>&nsp;in [H⁺] (i.e. decrease
d pH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dis
sociation curve shifts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832602352 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in CO<su>2</su>?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curve
shifts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832632832 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in 2,3-BPG?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curve shifts
to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832651068 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in temperature?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curve shi
fts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832659431 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in [Cl^-]?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curv
e shifts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832672968 1395802358422 Where in the ody is the <>Taut (T)</>&nsp;fo
rm of Hemogloin typically found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::At tissue (where O2
unloading is needed)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, the Taut form has <>dec

reased O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity</></i></div>
1397832738046 1395802358422 Where in the ody is the <>Relaxed (R)</>&nsp
;form of Hemogloin typically found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lungs; Respirato
ry tract (where O2 loading is required)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, the Rela
xed form of H has <>300x higher O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity than the Taut form
</></i></div>
1397832776938 1395802358422 What gloin chains are found in <>fetal</>&ns
p;Hemogloin (HF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::α₂γ₂}}</div>
1397832817748 1395802358422 Why does feal hemolobin (HbF) have a hiher af
finiy for O₂?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I has lower affiniy for 2
,3-BPG, which decreases O₂&nbsp;affiniy}}</div>
1397832864087 1395802358422 {{c1::Mehemolobin}} is a modified form of Hemo
lobin ha is oxidized and hereby has a <b>ferric (Fe³⁺)</b>&nbsp;a
om in is heme roup.
1397832958447 1395802358422 {{c1::Mehemolobin}} is a modified form of hemo
lobin ha is oxidized, and hence does no bind o O₂&nbsp;as readil
y.
1397832983310 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin has an <b>incr
eased affiniy for cyanide</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mehemolobin}}</div>
1397833023131 1395802358422 In which sae is iron normally found in Hemolo
bin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ferr<b>ous</b>&nbsp;(Fe<sup syle="fon-weih:
bold; ">2+</sup>)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"Jus he <b>2</b>&nbsp;of <b>us</
b>" =&nbsp;Fe<b>²⁺&nbsp;</b>is Ferro<b>us</b></i></div>
1397833230303 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin is associaed
wih cyanosis and&nbsp;<b>chocolae-coloured blood</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Mehemolobin}}</div>
1397833270572 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin is used o re
a cyanide poisonin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mehemolobin}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>We use niraes o oxidize hemolobin ino mehemolobin which hen binds
o cyanide. Thiosulfae is hen used o bind his cyanide, formin hiocyanae w
hich is renally excreed.</i></div>
1397833362782 1395802358422 {{c1::Mehemolobin}} is a modified form of hemo
lobin ha can be used o rea cyanide poisonin.
1397833381907 1395802358422 Wha <b>ype</b>&nbsp;of drus do we use o oxid
ize Hemolobin ino Mehemolobin such ha we can rea cyanide poisonin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Niraes}}</div> <br /><div><i>We use niraes o oxidize
hemolobin ino mehemolobin which hen binds o cyanide. Thiosulfae is hen
used o bind his cyanide, formin hiocyanae which is renally excreed.</i></d
iv>
1397833414786 1395802358422 Wha is he reamen for Mehemolobinemia?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mehylene Blue}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>Meh</b>emolob
inemia is reaed wih <b>meh</b>ylene blue.</i></div>
1397833462085 1395802358422 {{c1::Carboxyhemolobin}} is a modified form of
hemolobin ha is bound o CO in place of O₂.
1397833503353 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin is bound o CO
insead of O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Carboxyhemolobin}}</div>
1397833527560 1395802358422 How does he O2-hemolobin dissociaed curve shi
f in <b>Carboxyhemolobinemia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lef shif; here
is <b>decreased O2 bindin capaciy</b>&nbsp;and <b>decreased O2 unloadin a 
issue</b>}}</div>
1397833584227 1395802358422 How many imes reaer is CO's affiniy for Hb 
han O2's affiniy for Hb?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::200x}}</div>
1397833619153 1395802358422 How does Hemolobin's affiniy for O2 chane if
here is a <b>rih-shif</b>&nbsp;in he Hb sauraion curve?<div><br /></div><
div><im src="pase-6433861009835.jp" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
ased affiniy; i.e. <u>more O2 is needed o saurae Hb</u>}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>An increase in all of he parameers (includin H⁺) will cause
a rih-shif of he curve.</i></div><div><i></i><i>A decrease in all of he par
ameers (includin H⁺) will cause a lef-shif of he curve.</i></div
>

1397835659436 1395802358422 Wha volume of Oxyen can be bound by 1  of Hb?
<div><br />{{c1::1.34 mL}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Normal [Hb] is 15 /dL</i>
</div>
1397835993703 1395802358422 Wha <b>deoxyenaed</b> hemolobin blood concen
raion is associaed wih cyanosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Deoxyenaed Hb
&; 5 /dL}}</div>
1397843144868 1395802358422 Which area of he lun has he&nbsp;<b>hihes V
/Q raio</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex of he lun (V/Q = 3)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence here is wased venilaion.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase
-9332963934649.jp" /></i></div>
1397843864972 1395802358422 Which area of he lun has he <b>lowes V/Q ra
io</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base of lun (V/Q = 0.6)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence here is wased perfusion.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-93286689
67353.jp" /></i></div>
1397843924817 1395802358422 Wha does a V/Q raio <b>close o zero</b>&nbsp;
indicae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Airway obsrucion}}</div> <br /><div><i>i.
e. venilaion = 0.</i></div>
1397844065841 1395802358422 Wha does a V/Q raio close o <b>infiniy</b>&n
bsp;indicae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blood flow obsrucion}}</div>
1397844087625 1395802358422 Which area of he lun has he reaes perfusio
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base}}</div>
1397844128273 1395802358422 Which area of he lun has he reaes venila
ion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base}}</div>
1397844140607 1395802358422 Wha form is he majoriy of CO₂&nbsp
;found in he blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HCO₃^-}}</d
iv>
<div><br /></div><im src="pase-10355166151167.jp" />
1404750780726 1395802358422 {{c1::Conducin Zone}} is a secion of he resp
iraory ree ha funcions o <b>warm, humidify</b>&nbsp;and <b>filer</b>&nbsp
;air bu does no paricipae in as exchane. <br /><div><i>i.e. physioloical
dead space</i></div>
1404752342227 1395802358422 Which ype of epihelium is found in mos of he
counducin zone of he luns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pseudosraified cili
aed columnar epihelium}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Funcions o bea mucous u
p and ou of he luns.</i></div><div><i>Seen up o he erminal bronchioles a
which poin i ransiions o cuboidal cells.</i></div><div><i>Also, <b>airway s
mooh muscle exends o he end of he erminal bronchioles</b>&nbsp;(and is spa
rse beyond ha poin) while <b>carilae and oble cells exend o he end of
he bronchi</b>.</i></div>
1404752491676 1395802358422 {{c1::Respiraory Zone}} is a semen of he res
piraory ree ha <b>paricipaes in as exchane</b>. <br /><div><i>i.e. he l
un parenchyma (respiraory bronchioles, alveolar ducs and alveoli)</i></div><d
iv><i><im src="pase-2357937046019.jp" /></i></div>
1404753310737 1395802358422 Which ype of epihelium is found in he respira
ory zone of he respiraory ree?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cuboidal cells in
respiraory bronchioles; simple s uamous epihelium up o he alveoli}}</div>
<br /><div><i>There are n<b>o cilia</b>&nbsp;in he respiraory zone.</i></div><
div><i>There are also alveolar macrophaes ha clear debris and paricipae in
he immune response.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-2353642078723.jp" /></i><
/div>
1404765729222 1395802358422 {{c1::Physioloical Dead Space}} is a respiraor
y physioloical parameer defined as he <b>volume of anaomical dead space</b>&
nbsp;<u syle="fon-weih: bold; ">plus</u>&nbsp;he <b>volume of funcional de
ad space in alveoli</b>.
<br /><div><i>i.e. he volume of inspired air h
a does no ake par in as exchane</i></div>
1404765844156 1395802358422 {{c1::Physioloical dead space}} is a respiraor
y physioloical parameer ha is defined as he <b>volume of inspired air ha
does no ake par in as exchane</b>. <br /><div><im src="pase-3143916060758
.jp" /></div>
1404765892175 1395802358422 Which area of he lun is he lares conribuo
r of <b>funcional</b>&nbsp;dead space?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex of he l

un}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, funcional dead space = dead space in h
e alveoli.</i></div>
1404765938789 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for deerminin Physioloic
al Dead Space (of he lun)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="pase-31396210
93462.jp" />}}</div> <br /><div><i>V_T&nbsp;= idal volume</i></div
><div><i>P_aCO2&nbsp;= arerial P_CO2</i></div><div><i>P<sub
>E</sub>CO2 = expired air P_CO2</i></div><div><i>_{<im src="pase3393024163950.jp" />}</i></div>
1404766068400 1395802358422 {{c1::Minue venilaion (V_E)}} is a
respiraory physioloical parameer ha is defined as he <b>oal volume of a
s enerin he luns per minue</b>.
<br /><div><i>V_E&nbsp;= V<sub
>T</sub>&nbsp;* RR</i></div>
1404769649028 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for Minue Venilaion (V<s
ub>E</sub>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V_E&nbsp;= V_T&nbsp;
x RR}}</div>
1404769678182 1395802358422 {{c1::Alveolar Venilaion (V_A)}} is
a respiraory physioloical parameer defined as he <b>volume of as per uni 
ime ha reaches he alveoli</b>.
<br /><div><i>V_A&nbsp;= (V<su
b>T</sub>&nbsp;- V_D) x RR</i></div>
1404769834488 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for Alveolar Venilaion (V
_A)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V_A&nbsp;= (V_T&nb
sp;- V_D) x RR}}</div>
<br /><div><i>V_D&nbsp;= physi
oloical dead space</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-3886945402962.jp" /></i></
div>
1404769886426 1395802358422 {{c1::Compliance}} is a physioloical parameer
of he luns ha describes he oran's abiliy o <b>chane in volume for a iv
en chane in pressure</b>.
<br /><div><i>Think of compliance as he <b>abil
iy of he oran o disend/increase in volume wih an increase in ransmural pr
essure</b>.</i></div><div><i>Hence, <b>increased compliance</b>&nbsp;= <b>increa
sed abiliy o expand = less recoil</b></i></div><div><i>Hence, <b>decreased com
pliance = decreased abiliy o expand = more recoil</b></i></div>
1404770264260 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in Pulmonary Fib
rosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404770276592 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in Pneumonia?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404770284408 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in Pulmonary Ede
ma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404770294774 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in emphysema?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404770305266 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane wih normal ain
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404770313052 1395802358422 Wha is he alveolar air pressure a FRC (Funci
onal Residual Capaciy)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::0}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="pase-4170413244941.jp" /></div>
1404770384035 1395802358422 {{c1::Posiive cooperaiviy}} is a kineic fea
ure of oxyen-hemolobin bindin ha ives he dissociaion curve is simoidal
shape and is described as <b>hih affiniy for O₂&nbsp;for each subs
e uen O₂&nbsp;molecule bound</b>, as hemolobin is erameric.
<div><br /></div><i>Myolobin is monomeric and hence does no show posiive coop
eraiviy.</i><br /><div><im src="pase-4574140170838.jp" /><im src="pase-45
95615007330.jp" /></div>
1404781030201 1395802358422 In which direcion does he oxyen-hemolobin di
ssociaion curve shif if here is a <b>decrease</b>&nbsp;in he affiniy of hem
olobin for O₂?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>An <b>increase</b>&nbsp;in all facors (includin [H⁺]) shifs
he curve o he rih.</i></div><div><i>A <b>decrease</b>&nbsp;</i><i>in all fa
cors (includin [H⁺]) shifs he curve o he rih.</i></div><div><
i><b>Feal Hb</b>&nbsp;has hiher affiniy for O₂, hence is curve is
shifed o he lef.</i></div><div><im src="pase-4930622456100.jp" /></div>
1404781484491 1395802358422 Which way does <b>2,3-BPG</b>&nbsp;shif he oxy

en-hemolobin dissociaion curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decrea
ses affiniy)}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782729280 1395802358422 Which way does CO₂&nbsp;shif he oxy
en-hemolobin dissociaion curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decrea
sed affiniy)}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782769339 1395802358422 Which way does acid shif he oxyen-dissociaio
n curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decreased affiniy)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782791164 1395802358422 Which way does increased aliude shif he oxy
en-dissociaion curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decreased affiniy
)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782848212 1395802358422 Which way does increased emperaure shif he o
xyen-dissociaion curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decreased affin
iy)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404832416327 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for he O₂&nbsp;
conen of blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::O₂&nbsp;conen = (O<sub
>2</sub>&nbsp;bindin capaciy * % sauraion) + dissolved O₂}}</div>
<br /><div><i>O₂&nbsp;bindin capaci
y ~ 20.1 mL O₂/dL</i></
div><div><i>O₂&nbsp;delivery o issue = CO * O₂&nbsp;con
en</i></div>
1404832500018 1395802358422 How much O₂&nbsp;does 1  of hemolob
in normally bind?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1.34 mL O₂}}</div>
1404832529966 1395802358422 Wha is he normal concenraion of hemolobin i
n he blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::15 /dL}}</div>
1404832628076 1395802358422 A which concenraion of <b>deoxyenaed hemol
obin</b>&nbsp;does cyanosis occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::&; 5 /dL of deo
xyenaed hemolobin}}</div>
1404833656335 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for he amoun of O<sub>2</
sub>&nbsp;delivered o issue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::O₂&nbsp;del
ivery = CO * O₂&nbsp;conen}}</div>
1404833701334 1395802358422 How does % O₂&nbsp;sauraion of hemo
lobin chane wih CO poisonin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease; CO compee
s wih O₂&nbsp;for bindin on Hb}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This
in urn decreases oal O₂&nbsp;conen despie Hb levels sayin h
e same.</i><br /><div><im src="pase-1748051689886.jp" /></div>
1404834255352 1395802358422 How does % O₂&nbsp;sauraion of Hb c
hane in anaemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chane; Normal}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>Remember, sauraion is a <b>percenae</b>.</i><br /><div><im src=
"pase-1743756722590.jp" /></div>
1404834290657 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b>&nbsp;in <b>PA<sub>O2<
/sub>&nbsp;</b>influence pulmonary circulaion/vasculaure?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Causes <u>hypoxic vasoconsricion</u>}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is o
shif blood <b>away from poorly venilaed reions of he lun o well venila
ed reions of he lun</b>. This is also a uni ue feaure of he luns. All ohe
r issues vasodilae in hypoxic condiions.</i></div><div><i>Normally, he pulmo
nary circulaory sysem is a low-resisance, hih-compliance sysem.</i></div>
1404835583966 1395802358422 {{c1::O₂(when healhy)}},&nbsp;{{c2:
:CO₂}} and&nbsp;{{c3::N₂O}} are 3 <u syle="fon-weih: b
old; ">perfusion limied</u>&nbsp;ases ha e uilibrae early alon he lenh
of he capillary.
<div><br /></div><i>Hence, diffusion can only be increas
ed by an increase in blood flow.</i><br /><div><im src="pase-2379411882402.jp
" /></div>
1404835893294 1395802358422 {{c1::O₂&nbsp;(in emphysema or pulmon
ary fibrosis)}} and&nbsp;{{c2::CO}} are 2 <u syle="fon-weih: bold; ">diffusi
on limied</u>&nbsp;ases ha <b>do no</b>&nbsp;e uilibrae in he blood alon
he lenh of he capillary. <br /><div><i>i.e. by ime he blood reaches he
end of he capillary, he as has no e uilibraed beween he alveolus and cap
illary</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-2611340116381.jp" /></i></div>
1404835987190 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cor pulmonale</i>}} is a cardiac compli
caion of pulmonary hyperension ha involves <b>rih venricular failure</b>&

nbsp;and hence presens wih juular venous disension, edema and hepaomealy.
1404836050035 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for diffusion of a as acro
ss he pulmonary surface?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V_as&nbsp;= A/T
* D_k(P₁-P₂)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>A = area (
<b>decreases in Emphysema</b>)</i></div><div><i>T = hickness (<b>increases in p
ulmonary fibrosis</b>)</i></div><div><i>D_k(P₁-P<sub>2</sub
>) = difference in parial pressure</i></div>
1404837087279 1395802358422 How does he diffusion of O₂&nbsp;a
he luns chane in pulmonary fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><im src="pase-2877628088753.jp" /></div>
1404837126283 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for pulmonary vascular resi
sance?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="pase-3006477107328.jp" />}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This is essenially a rearranemen of <b>MAP = CO * TPR</b>
&nbsp;o salve for TPR (PVR).</i><div><i><br /></i><div><im src="pase-30279519
43949.jp" /></div></div>
1404837218619 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for PA_O2?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="pase-3062311682263.jp" />}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><im src="pase-3075196584337.jp" /></div>
1404837261529 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for he A-a radien?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::A-a radien = PA_O2&nbsp;- Pa_O2&nbsp
;= 10-15 mmH}}</div> <br /><div><i>The A-a radien <b>may increase in hypoxe
mia</b>&nbsp;due o shunin, V/Q mismach and pulmonary fibrosis (which impairs
diffusion).</i></div>
1404837410294 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane wih hih ali
ude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Normal; no chane}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="pase-3354369458521.jp" /></div>
1404837742607 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane wih hypovenil
aion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Normal; no chane}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="pase-3350074491225.jp" /></div>
1404837755431 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane wih V/Q misma
ch?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-33500
74491225.jp" /></div>
1404837769846 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane wih a Rih-o
-lef cardiovascular shun?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><d
iv><im src="pase-3350074491225.jp" /></div>
1404837791346 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane when here is a
pulmonary diffusion limiaion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-3350074491225.jp" /></div>
1404837821138 1395802358422 Which zone of he lun has he hihes V/Q raio
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex (V/Q = 3)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>i.e.
here is <b>wased venilaion a he apex of he lun</b>.</i><div><i>This is
aribued o raviy and i's effec on blood flow (Q), which is lower a he a
pex of he lun vs. he lower lun zones, despie he fac ha venilaion is a
lso he lowes a he apex of he lun.<br /></i><div><im src="pase-3513283248
695.jp" /></div></div>
1404838093864 1395802358422 Which zone of he lun has he lowes V/Q raio?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base (V/Q = 0.6)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. here
is <b>wased perfusion a he base</b>&nbsp;of he lun.</i></div><div><i><im
src="pase-3508988281399.jp" /></i></div><div><i><br /></i></div>
1404838108407 1395802358422 Which zone of he lun has <b>reaer</b>&nbsp;v
enilaion <u syle="fon-weih: bold; ">and</u>&nbsp;perfusion?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Base}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-3508988281399.jp" />
</div>
1404838147427 1395802358422 Wha is he ideal V/Q pulmonary raio?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. ideally, venilaion would e
ual perfusion, allowin for he mos efficien as chane.</i></div><div><i><b>V
/Q approaches 1 durin exercise</b>&nbsp;(increased CO) due o vasodilaion of 
he apical pulmonary capillaries.</i></div>
1404839332950 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacerium uberculosis</i>}} is a M
ycobacerial species ha hrives in hih O₂&nbsp;and flourishes in 

he apex of he lun.
1404839386030 1395802358422 Wha does a V/Q raio of <b>zero</b>&nbsp;indica
<br /><d
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Airway obsrucion (shun)}}</div>
iv><i>In his case, <b>100% O₂&nbsp;will no improve P_O2.<
/b></i></div>
1404839431224 1395802358422 Wha does a V/Q raio of <b>infiniy</b>&nbsp;in
dicae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Obsruced blood flow (i.e. here is a lo of
physioloical dead space)}}</div>
<div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Assumin
here is &l; 100% dead space, <b>100% O₂&nbsp;will improve P_O2.</b></i></div>
1404839509445 1395802358422 In which form is CO₂&nbsp;mos common
ly ranspored from issues o he luns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HCO<sub>3</
sub>^-&nbsp;(90%)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4913442587341
.jp" /></div>
1404841287711 1395802358422 {{c1::Carbaminohemolobin (HbCO₂)}} i
s a molecule used as a form of CO₂&nbsp;ranspor ha is descibed as
<b>CO₂&nbsp;bound o hemolobin a he N-erminus of <u>lobin</u>.<
/b>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4917737554637.jp" /></div>
1404841564207 1395802358422 {{c1::Haldane Effec}} is a respiraory physiolo
ical phenomenon ha involves he <b>release of CO₂&nbsp;from RBCs</
b>&nbsp;a he lun followin oxyenaion of hemolobin and dissociaion of H<su
p>+</sup>&nbsp;from Hb. <br /><div><i>Oxyenaion of Hb promoes he dissociaio
n of H⁺_&nbsp;from Hb, hereby shifin he e uilibrium ow
ards CO₂&nbsp;formaion and resulin in CO₂&nbsp;release
from RBCs.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-5501853106880.jp" /></i></div>
1404842174022 1395802358422 {{c1::Bohr Effec}} is a respiraory physioloic
al phenomenon ha involves he <b>unloadin of O₂&nbsp;a peripheral
issue from RBCs</b>&nbsp;due o an <b>increase in [H⁺]</b>.
<br /><div><im src="pase-5497558139584.jp" /></div>
1404842224730 1395802358422 How does venilaion chane in response o hih
aliude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pas
e-5768141078871.jp" /></div>
1404843519089 1395802358422 How does EPO levels chane in response o hih a
liude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pas
e-5763846111575.jp" /></div>
1404843565757 1395802358422 How do 2,3-BPG levels chane in resposne o hih
aliude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>The raion
ale here is ha <b>2,3-BPG riers O₂&nbsp;release from Hb</b>.</i>
</div><div><i><im src="pase-5763846111575.jp" /></i></div>
1404843621188 1395802358422 How does he amoun of miochondria in a cell ch
ane in response o hih aliude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-5763846111575.jp" /></div>
1404843648596 1395802358422 How does renal excreion of HCO₃&nbsp
;chane in response o hih aliude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>i.e. here is a <b>compensaory meabolic acidosis</b>&nbs
p;due o he respiraory alkalosis caused by he hypervenilaion.</i></div><div
><i><im src="pase-5763846111575.jp" /></i></div>
1404843702295 1395802358422 How does venilaion rae chane in response o
exercise?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is o
mee he increased O₂&nbsp;demand and increased CO₂&nbsp;
producion.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-5961414607166.jp" /></i></div>
1404843748277 1395802358422 How does blood pH chane in response o exercise
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div> <br /><div><i>Secondary o laci
c acidosis</i>.</div><div><im src="pase-5957119639870.jp" /></div>
1397499844689 1395802358422 Wha srucure arises from he embryonic cardiov
ascular srucure called&nbsp;he&nbsp;Truncus Areriosus (TA)?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Ascendin aora; Pulmonary Trunk}}</div>
1397499961848 1395802358422 Wha srucure arises from he embryonic cardiov
ascular srucure called Bulbus Cordis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Smooh par
s</b>&nbsp;of he lef and rih venricle ouflow rac}}</div>

1397500112830 1395802358422 Wha srucure arises from he embryonic cardiov
ascular srucure called&nbsp;he Primiive Aria?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tr
abeculaed par of he lef and rih aria}}</div>
1397500132753 1395802358422 Wha srucure arises from he embryonic cardiov
ascular srucure called&nbsp;he Primiive Venricle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Trabeculaed par of he lef and rih venricles}}</div>
1397500148955 1395802358422 Wha srucure arises from he embryonic cardiov
ascular srucure called&nbsp;he Primiive Pulmonary Vein?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Smooh par of he lef arium}}</div>
1397500165566 1395802358422 Wha srucure arises from he embryonic cardiov
ascular srucure called&nbsp;he Lef Horn of he Sinus Venosus (SV)?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Coronary Sinus}}</div>
1397500181363 1395802358422 Wha srucure arises from he embryonic cardiov
ascular srucure called&nbsp;he Rih Horn of he Sinus Venosus (SV)?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Smooh par of he rih arium}}</div>
1397500195333 1395802358422 Wha srucure arises from he embryonic cardiov
ascular srucure called&nbsp;he Rih Common Cardinal Vein and Rih Anerior
Cardinal Vein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Vena Cava}}</div>
1397500214001 1395802358422 Which embryonic srucures develop ino he Supe
rior Vena Cava?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih Common Cardinal Vein; Rih An
erior Cardinal Vein}}</div>
1397500257288 1395802358422 Which embryonic srucure develop ino he&nbsp;
Ascendin Aora and Pulmonary Trunk?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Truncus Arerios
us (TA)}}</div> <br /><div><i>The Truncus Areriosus roaes as i forms.</i></d
iv><div><i>Neural cres and endocardial cells mirae o form he runcal and bu
lbar rides ha hen spiral and fuse o form he aoricopulmonary sepum, here
by separain he Truncus Areriosus ino he ascendin aora and pulmonary run
k.</i></div>
1397500280855 1395802358422 Which embryonic srucure develop ino he smoo
h pars of he lef and rih venricle ouflow rac?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Bulbus Cordis}}</div>
1397500334274 1395802358422 Which embryonic srucure develop ino he rabe
culaed par of he lef and rih aria?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Primiive A
ria}}</div>
1397500349726 1395802358422 Which embryonic srucure develop ino he rabe
culaed par of he lef and rih venricles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Primi
ive venricles}}</div>
1397500365339 1395802358422 Which embryonic srucure develop ino he smoo
h par of he lef arium?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Primiive pulmonary vein}}
</div>
1397500376033 1395802358422 Which embryonic srucure develop ino he coron
ary sinus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lef Horn of he Sinus Venosus}}</div>
1397500392745 1395802358422 Which embryonic srucure develop ino he smoo
h par of he rih arium?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih Horn of he sinus v
enosus}}</div>
1397500404921 1395802358422 Wha is he firs funcional oran o form in ve
rebrae embryos?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The Hear &l;3}}</div>
1397500452777 1395802358422 Durin which week of developmen does he embryo
nic hear sar beain sponaneously?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Week 4}}</div>
1397500484902 1395802358422 Durin which week of developmen does hear morp
hoenesis bein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Week 4}}</div>
1397500871839 1395802358422 {{c1::Dexrocardia}} is a conenial cardiac dis
order ha is seen in Karaener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia) due o a
defec in lef-o-rih dynein movemen.
<br /><div><i>Lef-o-rih dyne
in movemen is <b>vial</b>&nbsp;in esablishin normal L/R asymmery.</i></div>
1397500977132 1395802358422 {{c1::Karaener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is a eneic disorder ha involves a defec in lef-o-rih dynein mo
vemen and can cause dexrocardia as normal L/R asymmery canno be achieved.
1397501128234 1395802358422 Which ciliary moor proein is defecive in Kar
aener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dynein}

}</div>
1397501202614 1395802358422 {{c1::Cardiac Loopin}} is he firs sae in he
ar morphoenesis and involves he formaion of primary hear ube loops ha es
ablish lef-rih polariy.
1397501307768 1395802358422 Which sepum is he firs sepum o row in embr
yonic sepaion of he cardiac aria?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sepum Primum}}
</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-49237505081673.jp" /></div>
1397502055278 1395802358422 Which foramen develops firs in embryonic sepa
ion of he cardiac aria?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Foramen secundum}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Foramen primum <b>is already presen before he sepaion beins</
b>.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-49233210114377.jp" /></i></div>
1397502201151 1395802358422 Wha is he direcion of he blood shun hrouh
he Foramen Ovale <b>in uero</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih o Lef}}</
div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-49233210114377.jp" /></div>
1397502250660 1395802358422 Which sepum involved in embryonic sepaion of
he cardiac aria becomes he valve of he Foramen Ovale?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Sepum Primum}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-49233210114377.jp" /
></div>
1397502342778 1395802358422 Which 2 embryonic sepums fuse o form he (card
iac) Arial Sepum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sepum Primum and Sepum Secundum
}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-49233210114377.jp" /></div>
1397502380304 1395802358422 Wha normally riers he closure of he Forame
n Ovale soon afer birh?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase in Lef Arial pre
ssure}}</div> <br /><div><i>Increase in LA pressure forces he Sepum Primum u
p aains he Foramen Ovale and Sepum Secundum, drivin heir fusion and closur
e of he Foramen Ovale.</i></div>
1397502442123 1395802358422 {{c1::Paen Foramen Ovale}} is a conenial hea
r defec ha is caused by he failure of he Sepum Primum and Sepum Secundum
o fuse afer birh. <br /><div><i>Mos are lef unreaed</i></div>
1397502662893 1395802358422 {{c1::Paradoxical Emboli}} are a possible compli
caion of a Paen Foramen Ovale and involve venous hromboemboli ha ener he
sysemic arerial circulaion. <br /><div><i>Similar o hose seen in Arial Se
pal Defecs, bu no as common.</i></div><div><i>The emboli are paradoxical as
i involves <b>venous</b>&nbsp;hrombi ha ener <b>arerial</b>&nbsp;circulai
on. (i.e. an embolus from he rih eners he lef side, as opposed o sayin
rih and causin a PE)</i></div>
1397502824683 1395802358422 Which sepum forms firs in embryonic sepaion
of he cardiac venricles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Muscular Venricular Sepu
m}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-51247549776169.jp" /></div>
1397503023035 1395802358422 {{c1::Aoricopulmonary Sepum}} is an embryonic
cardiac sepum ha roaes and fuses wih he muscular venricular sepum, her
eby formin he membranous inervenricular sepum.
<br /><div><im src="pas
e-51243254808873.jp" /></div>
1397503094534 1395802358422 {{c1::Venricular Sepal Defec (VSD)}} is a con
enial hear defec ha commonly presens in he membranous venricular sepum
.
1397503265804 1395802358422 Wha ype of shun is seen hrouh a Venricular
Sepal Defec (VSD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lef o Rih}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Therefore he baby will be <b>acyanoic</b>.</i></div>
1397503290971 1395802358422 Wha embryonic srucures are he Aoric and Pul
monary Valves derived from?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Endocardial cushions of 
he ouflow rac}}</div>
1397503574165 1395802358422 Wha embryonic srucures are he Miral and Tri
cuspid valves derived from?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fused endocardial cushion
s of he Ariovenricular Canal}}</div>
1397503616937 1395802358422 {{c1::Ebsein Anomaly}} is a conenial hear de
fec ha involves displacemen of a ricuspid valve leafle owards he apex of
he rih venricle.
1397503695897 1395802358422 Where does feal eryhropoiesis occur in weeks 3
-8 of developmen?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Yolk Sac}}</div> <div><br /></div

><i><b>"Y</b>oun <b>L</b>iver <b>S</b>ynhesizes <b>B</b>lood" = <b>Y</b>olk Sa
c, <b>L</b>iver, <b>S</b>pleen, <b>B</b>one Marrow<br /></i><div><im src="pase
-52776558133426.jp" /></div>
1397503773883 1395802358422 When does he liver perform feal eryhropoiesis
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Week 6 of developmen o birh}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i><b>"Y</b>oun&nbsp;<b>L</b>iver&nbsp;<b>S</b>ynhesizes&nbsp;<b>B</b
>lood" =&nbsp;<b>Y</b>olk Sac,&nbsp;<b>L</b>iver,&nbsp;<b>S</b>pleen,&nbsp;<b>B<
/b>one Marrow</i><br /><div><im src="pase-52780853100722.jp" /></div>
1397503895621 1395802358422 When does he Yolk Sac perform feal eryhropoie
sis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks 3-8 of developmen}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i><b>"Y</b>oun&nbsp;<b>L</b>iver&nbsp;<b>S</b>ynhesizes&nbsp;<b>B</b
>lood" =&nbsp;<b>Y</b>olk Sac,&nbsp;<b>L</b>iver,&nbsp;<b>S</b>pleen,&nbsp;<b>B<
/b>one Marrow</i><br /><div><im src="pase-52776558133426.jp" /></div>
1397503935722 1395802358422 When does he Spleen perform feal eryhropoiesi
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks 10-28 of developmen}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i><b>"Y</b>oun&nbsp;<b>L</b>iver&nbsp;<b>S</b>ynhesizes&nbsp;<b>B</b
>lood" =&nbsp;<b>Y</b>olk Sac,&nbsp;<b>L</b>iver,&nbsp;<b>S</b>pleen,&nbsp;<b>B<
/b>one Marrow</i><br /><div><im src="pase-52776558133426.jp" /></div>
1397503973137 1395802358422 When does he Bone Marrow perform feal eryhrop
oiesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Week 18 of developmen o birh (and evenual
ly unil deah, lol)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i><b>"Y</b>oun&nbsp;<b>L</b>i
ver&nbsp;<b>S</b>ynhesizes&nbsp;<b>B</b>lood" =&nbsp;<b>Y</b>olk Sac,&nbsp;<b>L
</b>iver,&nbsp;<b>S</b>pleen,&nbsp;<b>B</b>one Marrow</i><br /><div><im src="pa
se-52776558133426.jp" /></div>
1397504092472 1395802358422 Wha is he firs oran/srucure o perform fe
al eryhropoiesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Yolk Sac}}</div> <br /><div><b><i
><im src="pase-54339926229171.jp" /></i></b></div>
1397504493761 1395802358422 Which lobin chains comprise Feal Hemolobin (H
bF)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::α₂γ₂}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="pase-55568286876265.jp" /></div>
1397504679307 1395802358422 Which form of hemolobin involves&nbsp;α<sub>2</su
b>γ₂&nbsp;lobin chains?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Feal Hemolobin}}<
/div> <br /><div><im src="pase-55563991908969.jp" /></div>
1397504698984 1395802358422 Which lobin chains comprise Adul Hemolobin (H
bA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::α₂β<su>2</su>}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397504734677 1395802358422 Which type of hemogloin conists of&nsp;α<sub>2</
sub>β<su>2</su>&nsp;gloin chains?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adult Hemogloin
(HA)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397504751558 1395802358422 Which major form of hemogloin has higher affini
ty for oxygen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HF}}</div>
1397504783005 1395802358422 {{c1::Fetal Hemogloin (HF)}} is a major form o
f hemogloin that has a higher affinity for oxygen than Adult Hemogloin (HA) d
ue to less avid inding of 2,3-BPG.
<r /><div><i>As a result, HF can extra
ct oxygen at the placenta from the mother's adult hemogloin (HA).</i></div>
1397504931088 1395802358422 Which type of hemogloin is predominant at irth
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HF (alpha<su>2</su>-gamma<su>2</su>)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397505196717 1395802358422 How long after irth does the expression of&nsp
;β-gloin exceed the expression of γ-lobin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~6 monhs}}&
nbsp;</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This is why β-Thalassemia is asymptomatic for
the first 6 months of life (and why HF is protective during that time).</i><r
/><div><img src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397505242615 1395802358422 What is the O2 saturation of lood in the<>&ns
p;umilical arteries</>&nsp;of a fetus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, the Umilical Arteries carry lood away from the fetal h
eart <>to the placenta</>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-57067230462728.jpg
" /></i></div>
1397507242543 1395802358422 What is the O2 saturation of lood in the <>um
ilical vein</>&nsp;of the fetus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::80%; it holds oxyg

enated lood coming in from the mother}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-57062
935495432.jpg" /></div>
1397507294913 1395802358422 {{c1::Ductus Venosus}} is a fetal shunt that all
ows for incoming lood in the Umilical Vein to ypass hepatic circulation and e
nter the IVC. <r /><div><img src="paste-57062935495432.jpg" /></div>
1397507387002 1395802358422 Which fetal shunt ypasses hepatic circulation t
o ensure that incoming oxygenated lood from the Umilical Vein is not depleted?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ductus Venosus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-57062935495432.jpg" /></div>
1397507424331 1395802358422 {{c1::Foramen Ovale}} is a fetal shunt that allo
ws for the highly oxygenated lood entering the Right Atrium (via the IVC) to en
ter the aorta and arterial circulation. <r /><div><img src="paste-5706293549543
2.jpg" /></div>
1397507512244 1395802358422 Which fetal shunt allows for highly oxygenated 
lood in the Right Atrium to enter the aorta and arterial system?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Foramen Ovale}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5706293549543
2.jpg" /></div>
1397507565547 1395802358422 {{c1::Ductus Arteriosus}} is a fetal shunt that
allows deoxygenated lood in the Pulmonary Artery to ypass Pulmonary circulatio
n and enter the descending aorta.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, in a fetus, oxyg
enation of lood occurs at the placenta, not lungs. We do not want to flood the
lungs with lood and hinder its development either. Further, in utero the pulmon
ary circuit has high resistance, ensuring that the shunt through the DA is right
to left.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-57062935495432.jpg" /></i></div>
1397507753833 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in Prostaglandin
levels affect the Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased prost
aglandins causes closure of the Ductus Arteriosus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
is occurs after irth once the placenta and ay have separated.</i></div>
1397507840172 1395802358422 {{c1::Fossa Ovalis}} is the structural remnant o
f the Foramen Ovale after it has closed and fused.
<r /><div><i>Rememer,
when the left side of the heart ecomes the high pressure circuit after irth (d
ue to respiration), the foramen ovale shuts as left atrial pressure greatly exce
eds right atrial pressure.</i></div>
1397508049964 1395802358422 Which NSAID is commonly used to help close a Pat
ent Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indomethacin}}</div>
1397508179427 1395802358422 {{c1::Ligamentum Arteriosum}} is the structural
remnant of the Ductus Arteriosus after it has closed.
1397508211612 1395802358422 Which Prostaglandins keep a Patent Ductus Arteri
osus (PDA) open?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prostaglandin E<su>1</su>&nsp;and
E<su>2</su>}}</div>
1397508249548 1395802358422 {{c1::Prostaglandin E<su>1</su>/E<su>2</su>}
} is a type of Prostaglandin that keeps a Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA) open.
1397508282018 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Umilic
al Vein?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum teres hepatis; contained in the f
alciform ligament}}</div>
1397508662312 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Umilic
al Arteries?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial Umilical ligaments}}</div>
1397508678162 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Ductus
Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum arteriosum}}</div>
1397508688319 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Ductus
Venosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum venosum}}</div>
1397508699885 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Foramen
Ovale?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fossa Ovalis}}</div>
1397508707283 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Allanto
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urachus-median Umilical ligament}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The urachus is the part of the allantoic duct etween the ladder
and umilicus.</i></div>
1397508719639 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Notocho
rd?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus Pulposus of interverteral discs}}</div>
1397508829703 1395802358422 What is the post-natal remnant of the Urachus?<d

iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urachal cyst or sinus}}</div> <r /><div><i>The urachu
s is the part of the allantoic duct etween the ladder and umilicus</i></div>
1397519579080 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the Sinoatrial (S
A) and Atrioventricular (AV) nodes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Coronary Ar
tery (RCA)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61100204753514.jpg" /></div>
1397519659874 1395802358422 Infarct of which coronary artery may result in <
>nodal dysfunction</>&nsp;(involving radycardia or heart lock)?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Right Coronary Artery}}</div> <img src="paste-61095909786218.j
pg" />
1397519761060 1395802358422 Which coronary artery does the Posterior Descend
ing/Interventricular Artery (PDA) arise from in a <>right-dominant circulation<
/>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Coronary Artery (RCA)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Right-dominant circulation is found in 85% of people</i></div><div><img sr
c="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397519802495 1395802358422 Which coronary artery does the Posterior Descend
ing/Interventricular Artery (PDA) arise from in a <>left-dominant circulation</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Circumflex Coronary Artery (LCX)}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Left dominant circulation is seen in 8% of people.</i><r />
<div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397519909351 1395802358422 Which coronary artery does the Posterior Descend
ing/Interventricular Artery (PDA) arise from in <>codominant circulation</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both the Left Cirumflex Coronary Artery (LCX) and Righ
t Coronary Artery (RCA)}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>Codominant circulation is se
en in 7% of people</i><r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397519987382 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is most commonly occluded?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Anterior Descending artery (LAD) or LCX}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520015196 1395802358422 In which phase of the cardiac cycle does coronar
y lood flow peak?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diastole}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520037353 1395802358422 What is the <>most posterior</>&nsp;chamer o
f the heart?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atrium}}</div>
<r /><div><i>He
nce enlargment can cause dysphagia or hoarsness.</i></div><div><i><img src="past
e-61095909786218.jpg" /></i></div>
1397520083401 1395802358422 Enlargement of which chamer of the heart can ca
use dysphagia due to esophageal compression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atr
ium}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520120274 1395802358422 Enlargement of which chamer of the heart can ca
use <>hoarseness</>&nsp;due to compression of the <>left recurrent laryngeal
nerve</>&nsp;(a ranch of CN X)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atrium}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520158888 1395802358422 Which nerve can the Left Atrium compress to caus
e <>hoarseness</>&nsp;if it is enlarged?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u style=
"font-weight: old; ">Left</u>&nsp;Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve (a ranch of CN X,
Vagus)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520211991 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>lateral an
d posterior walls</>&nsp;of the left ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lef
t Circumflex Coronary Artery (LCX)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095
909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520243527 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>anterior 2
/3 of the interventricular septum, anterior papillary muscle</>&nsp;and <>ant
erior surface of the left ventricle</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Anterio
r Descending Artery (LAD)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6109590978621
8.jpg" /></div>
1397520285808 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>Right Vent
ricle</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Marginal Artery (a ranch of the Rig
ht Coronary Artery)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /
></div>
1397520336211 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>posterior
2/3 of the interventricular septum</>&nsp;and <>posterior walls of the ventri

cles</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Descending/Interventricular Arter
y (PDA)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520398738 1395802358422 What is the equation for Cardiac Output?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::CO = SV x HR}}</div>
1397521626811 1395802358422 What is the equation for Fick Principle of cardi
ac output?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CO = (rate of O<su>2</su>&nsp;consumpti
on)/(arterial O<su>2</su>&nsp;content - venous O<su>2</su>&nsp;content)}}<
/div>
1397521697545 1395802358422 What is the equation for Mean Arterial Pressure
(MAP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MAP = CO * TPR = 2/3 diastolic pressure + 1/3
systolic pressure}}</div>
1397521744639 1395802358422 What is the equation for Pulse Pressure?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Pulse Pressure = Systolic Pressure - Diastolic Pressure}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Pulse pressure is proportional to SV and inversely proport
ional to arterial compliance.</i></div>
1397521791515 1395802358422 What is the equation for Stroke Volume?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::SV = EDV - ESV}}</div>
1397522500630 1395802358422 Which parameters maintain Cardiac Output in the
<>early stages of exercise</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increases in oth HR
and SV}}</div>
1397522533980 1395802358422 Which parameters maintain Cardiac Output during
the <>late stages of exercise</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased HR only
; SV plateaus}}</div>
1397522567562 1395802358422 How does an increase in HR affect the length of
diastole?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Shortens it}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
erefore there is less filling time and decreased CO</i></div>
1397522606361 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in cardiac cont
ractility affect stroke volume (SV)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397523068921 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in cardiac prel
oad affect stroke volume (SV)?<div><r />{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397523091157 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in cardiac after
load affect stroke volume (SV)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397523108371 1395802358422 How do catecholamines affect cardiac contractili
ty?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase (via increased activity of Ca pump in th
e sarcoplasmic reticulum)}}</div>
1397523160188 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change when there
is an increase in intracellular Ca?<div><r />{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1397523332369 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change when there
is a increase in intracellular Na?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to decreased activity of the Na/Ca exchanger and hence increas
ed intracellular Ca</i></div>
1397523400092 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change in Digital
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Digitalis involves
a <>lockade of the Na/K pump</>, therey causing <>increased intracellular
Na</>, <>decreased Na/Ca exchanger activity</>&nsp;and a susequent <>incre
ase in intracellular Ca</>.</i></div>
1397523466069 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change with&nsp;β1
-lockade?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease; due to decreased cAMP}}</div>
1397523505614 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;in Ac
idosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397523516983 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;in Hy
poxia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397523529853 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;in Hy
percapnea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hypercapne
a can cause acidosis that then can exacerate this decrease in cardiac output.</
i></div>
1397523555710 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;with
the administration of <>non-dihydropyridine Ca channel lockers</>?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397523579652 1395802358422 Which aorticopulmonary valve normally closes fir

st?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic Valve}}</div>
1397524398388 1395802358422 Which cardiac disorder is associated with <>fix
ed splitting</>&nsp;of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-67761699029099.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial Septal Defect (
ASD)}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>There is a <>left to right shunt through
the ASD</>&nsp;which results in <>increased RA and RV volumes</>. As a resul
t, there is <>increased flow through the pulmonic valve</>&nsp;such that, reg
ardless of reath, the pulmonic valve closes later every time.</i></div>
1404876620972 1395802358422 {{c1::Preload}} is a cardiac output variale tha
t is approximated y ventricular EDV. <r /><div><i>Hence it is dependent on v
enous tone and circulating lood volume.</i></div>
1404877598633 1395802358422 How does the left ventricle compensate for an in
crease in afterload?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertrophy (increased wall thic
kness)}}</div>
1404877643246 1395802358422 How do vasodilators influence afterload?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is ecause afterload
is approximated y MAP.</i></div>
1404877668690 1395802358422 What is the equation for cardiac Ejection Fracti
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-20186346291290.jpg" />}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Left ventricular EF is an index of ventricular contractility.</i><
/div><div><i>Normal EF is ≥ 55%.</i></div>
1404878227500 1395802358422 How does cardiac Ejection Fraction change in <>
systolic</>&nsp;heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20182051323994.jpg" /></div>
1404878250994 1395802358422 How does cardiac Ejection Fraction change in <>
diastolic</>&nsp;heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal; no change}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-20182051323994.jpg" /></div>
1404925219925 1395802358422 How does the force of cardiac contraction change
with an increase in preload (ventricular EDV)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
ase (when healthy)}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>This is referred to as Starl
ing's Law. With a higher EDV, the ventricle will contract more forcefully.</i><d
iv><i>This is attriuted to the nature of cardiac muscle fiers. With increased
EDV (i.e. more ventricular filling), the muscle fiers <>stretch into a more id
eal length for contraction</>. Essentially, as these fiers stretch, more actin
-myosin cross ridges are formed and the contraction is more forceful.<r /></i>
<div><img src="paste-472446403119.jpg" /></div></div>
1404925428299 1395802358422 How do catecholamines change cardiac contractili
ty?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404925493970 1395802358422 How does Digoxin change cardiac contractility?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404925528061 1395802358422 How do eta-lockers change cardiac contractilit
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404925547535 1395802358422 How do Ca²⁺&nsp;channel lockers cha
nge cardiac contractility?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404925562427 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change in dilated
cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404925576327 1395802358422 What is the equation for the Resistance of a ves
sel?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-880468295807.jpg" />}}</div>
1404925615581 1395802358422 What is the equation for the <>total resistance
</>&nsp;of vessels in <>series</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="past
e-914828034097.jpg" />}}</div>
1404925654230 1395802358422 What is the equation for the <>total resistance
</>&nsp;of vessels in <>parallel</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="pa
ste-957777707095.jpg" />}}</div>
1404925694380 1395802358422 How does lood viscosity change in Polycythemia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Viscosity is depen
dent on hematocrit.</i></div>
1404926284709 1395802358422 How does lood viscosity change in anaemia?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>Viscosity is dependent on
anaemia.</i></div>

1404926304475 1395802358422 Which type of lood vessels account for most of
the TPR?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arterioles}}</div> <div><i><r /></i></div>
1404926345136 1395802358422 If cardiac output (CO) is 5 L/min, what is venou
s return?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5 L/min}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Don't fall
for this shiet on the step, ruv. Venous return = cardiac ouput (in healthy ind
ividuals).</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>"What goes in must come out!
" - Dr. Hashim Shams</i></div>
1404941821485 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in TPR affect v
enous return (and hence EDV/preload)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div
>
<div><r /></div><i>It also oviously increases afterload.</i><r /><div
><img src="paste-2418066588135.jpg" /></div>
1404941951950 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in TPR affect ve
nous return (and hence EDV/preload)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Afterload also clearly decreases.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste
-2413771620839.jpg" /></i></div>
1404942103315 1395802358422 {{c1::Isovolumetric contraction}} is a phase of
the cardiac cycle descried as the <>period etween the mitral valve closing an
d aortic valve opening</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2710124364571.jpg" />
</div>
1404943128013 1395802358422 Which cardiac cycle is the period of highest O<s
u>2</su>&nsp;consumption?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Isovolumetric contractio
n}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404943608282 1395802358422 {{c1::Systolic Ejection}} is a phase of the card
iac cycle that is descried as the <>period etween aortic valve opening and cl
osing</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404943716880 1395802358422 {{c1::Isovolumetric relaxation}} is a phase of t
he cardiac cycle that is descried as the <>period etween aortic valve closing
and mitral valve opening</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" />
</div>
1404943758272 1395802358422 {{c1::Rapid Ventricular Filling}} is a phase of
the cardiac cycle that is descried as the <>period just after mitral valve ope
ning</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404943806531 1395802358422 {{c1::Reduced Ventricular Filling}} is a phase o
f the cardiac cycle descried as the <>period just efore mitral valve closing<
/>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404943835577 1395802358422 At which valve area is the S1 heart sound the lo
udest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div>
1404944455858 1395802358422 Which heart sound is indicative of <>mitral</>
&nsp;and <>tricuspid</>&nsp;valve closure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S1}}</
div>
1404944493780 1395802358422 Which valves are associated with the S1 heart so
und?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral; Tricuspid}}</div>
1404944526361 1395802358422 Which anatomical location is the S2 heart sound
the loudest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left sternal order}}</div>
1404944553569 1395802358422 Which heart sound is associated with closure of
the <>aortic</>&nsp;and <>pulmonary</>&nsp;valves?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::S2}}</div>
1404944618320 1395802358422 Which valves are associated with the S2 heart so
und?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic; Pulmonary}}</div>
1404944664489 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound is associated wit
h an <>increase in filling pressure</>&nsp;or with <>dilated ventricles</>?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S3}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275
.jpg" /></div>
1404948067025 1395802358422 {{c1::S3}} is an <>extra</>&nsp;heart sound t
hat occurs in <>early diastole</>&nsp;due to an increase in ventricular filli
ng pressure or dilated ventricles.
<div><r /></div><i>S3 is normal in chil
dren and pregnant women.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></di
v>
1404948096181 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound is associated wit
h <>ventricular hypertrophy</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div> <r /><d

iv><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404948947523 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound is associated wit
h <>high atrial pressure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>The left atrium must push against the stiff LV wall.</i><r /><div><
img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404948983033 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound occurs in <>late
</>diastole as an "atrial kick"?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949007050 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound can occur due to
an increase in cardiac afterload?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949021613 1395802358422 Which wave in the Jugular Venous Pulse (JVP) sig
nifies atrial contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::a wave}}</div><div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div> <div><r /></div>
1404949477569 1395802358422 Which wave in the JVP signifies right ventricula
r contraction against a closed tricuspid valve that ulges into the right atrium
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::c wave}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i><>c</>&nsp;wave = <>c</>ontra
ction</i></div>
1404949504592 1395802358422 Which portion of the JVP signifies <>atrial rel
axation</>&nsp;and <>downward displacement of the closed tricuspid valve</>&
nsp;during ventricular contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::x descent}}</div
><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i><>x</>&nsp;descent = rela<>x</>ation</i></div>
1404949599846 1395802358422 {{c1::Tricuspid regurgitation}} is valvular diso
rder that presents with an <>asent x-descent</>&nsp;in the patient's JVP.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949637846 1395802358422 Which wave in the JVP is indicative of <>increa
sed right atrial pressure due to filling against a closed tricuspid valve</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::v wave}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27
05829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949688280 1395802358422 Which portion of the JVP signifies the movement
of lood from the RA to the RV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::y descent}}</div><div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949717044 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop do
es the mitral valve close?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div><div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-6451040879032.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-7301444403914.jpg" /></div>
1404950173968 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop do
es the aortic valve open?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div><div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-72971
49436618.jpg" /></div>
1404950196347 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop do
es the aortic valve close?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div><div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-7297149436618.jpg" /></div>
1404950231259 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop do
es the mitral valve open?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div><div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-72971
49436618.jpg" /></div>
1404950423846 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop is
ESV achieved?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3 (i.e. where the aortic valve closes)
}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7297149436618.jpg" /></div>
1404950489830 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop is
EDV achieved?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1 (i.e. where the mitral valve closes)
}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7297149436618.jpg" /></div>
1404963378952 1395802358422 When is <>normal, physiological splitting</>&n
sp;of S2 heart sound seen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inspiration}}</div><div><

<r /><div><i>In
r /></div><div><img src="paste-8658654068879.jpg" /></div>
spiration = <>decreased</>&nsp;intrathoracic pressure = <>increased</>&nsp
;venous return to the RV = <>increased</>&nsp;RV stroke volume = <>increased
</>&nsp;RV ejection time = <>delayed closure of the pulmonic valve</>.</i></
div><div><i>Inspiration also causes a <>decrease in pulmonary impedance</>&ns
p;(i.e. <>increased capacity</>&nsp;of the pulmonary circulation), therey co
ntriuting to delayed closure of the pulmonic valve.</i></div>
1404964470241 1395802358422 Which cardiac conditions yield <>wide splitting
</>&nsp;of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Any condition that <
>delays RV emptying</>&nsp;(e.g. pulmonic stenosis; right undle ranch lock
)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9281424326799.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>The delay in RV emptying causes a delayed pulmonic sound <>regard
less of reath</>.</i></div><div><i><>Pathological S2 splitting is <u>always</
u>&nsp;seen, whereas physiological splitting is only seen upon inspiration.</>
</i></div>
1404964745013 1395802358422 Which cardiac disorder is associated with <>fix
ed splitting</>&nsp;of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial S
eptal Defect}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9496172691600.jpg" /><
/div> <r /><div><i>ASD = left to right shunt = <>increased </>RA and RV vol
ume = <>increased</>&nsp;flow through the pulmonic valve such that there is a
<>fixed, great delay</>&nsp;in pulmonic valve closure regardless of reath.<
/i></div>
1404965202146 1395802358422 Which cardiac conditions cause <>paradoxical sp
litting </>of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Conditions that de
lay LV emptying (i.e. aortic stenosis; left undle ranch lock)}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-10372346019992.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>No
rmally, <>the pulmonic valve closes after the aortic valve</>. However, <>wit
h delayed LV emptying, the pulmonic valve closes efore the aortic</>, therey
causing a paradoxical splitting of S2.</i></div>
1405006121635 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Aortic Stenosis est h
eard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11347
303596676.jpg" /></div>
1405006199987 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Aortic Valve Sclerosis
est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006219375 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Pulmonic Stenosis est
heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonic}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006241889 1395802358422 At which valvulvar area are <>pansystolic murmu
rs</>&nsp;(Tricuspid regurgitation; VSD) est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Tricuspid}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006294392 1395802358422 At which valvulvar area is Tricuspid Stenosis e
st heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tricuspid}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006313189 1395802358422 At which valvular area is an Atrial Septal Defec
t murmur est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tricuspid}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006459503 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Mitral Stenosis est h
eard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11343
008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006497814 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Mitral Regurgitation 
est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006504614 1395802358422 How does standing influence venous return?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405006551093 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>increase</>&nsp;
the intensity of right heart sounds?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inspiration}}</d
iv>
1405006610436 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>decrease</>&nsp;
the intensity of Aortic Stenosis and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy murmurs?<div><

r /></div><div>{{c1::Hand Grip (as it increases systemic vascular resistance)}}<
/div>
1405006762454 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>increase</>&nsp;
the intensity of Mitral Regurgitation, Aortic Regurgitation and VSD murmurs?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hand grip (as it increases systemic vascular resistance)
}}</div>
1405006807344 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver <>decreases</>&nsp;the
intensity of most murmurs, including aortic stenosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Valsalva; Standing (decreased venous return)}}</div>
1405006876357 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>increase</>&nsp;
the intensity of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy murmurs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Valsalva; standing (due to decreased venous return)}}</div>
1405006915789 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>increase</>&nsp;
the intensity of Aortic Stenosis murmurs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rapid squat
ting}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rapid squatting increases venous return, increases
preload, and increases afterload with prolonged squatting.</i></div>
1405006988446 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>decrease</>&nsp;
the murmur intensity in MVP and yield an earlier onset of the click/murmur?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Valsalva; Standing}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hand grip
and rapid squatting acheive the <>opposite </>when it comes to MVP.</i></div>
1405008293251 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral regurgitation}} and&nsp;{{c2::tric
uspid regurgitation}} are 2 <>systolic</>&nsp;murmurs that present as&nsp;<
>holosystolic, high-pitched "lowing" murmurs.</><div><><r /></></div><div><
<r /><div><img src="pas
><img src="paste-13520557047940.jpg" /></></div>
te-13666585936107.jpg" /></div>
1405008858520 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic Stenosis}} is a <>systolic </>mur
mur that presents as a <>crescendo-decrescendo systolic ejection murmur</>.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13700945674382.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-13756780249289.jpg" /></div>
1405008917858 1395802358422 Which systolic ejection murmur radiates to the c
arotids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic Stenosis}}</div>
1405008939207 1395802358422 {{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect murmur}} is a <
>systolic</>&nsp;murmur that presents as a <>holosystolic, harsh-sounding mur
mur</>&nsp;that is loudest at the tricuspid area.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-13812614824055.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Accentuated with the hand
grip maneuver due to an increase in afterload.</i></div>
1405009003166 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral Valve Prolapse (MVP)}} is a <>syst
olic</>&nsp;murmur that presents as a <>late systolic crescendo murmur with a
midsystolic click</>&nsp;due to sudden tensing of the chordae tendinae.<div><
<r /><div><img
r /></div><div><img src="paste-14023068221579.jpg" /></div>
src="paste-14615773708488.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-14791867367930.jpg"
/></div>
1405009318912 1395802358422 What is the most frequent valvular lesion?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral valve prolapse (FA14), AR (RR path), MR (UpToDate)}
}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-14615773708488.jpg" /></div>
1405009329101 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral valve prolapse}} is a valvular diso
rder with a systolic murmur that can predispose to infective endocarditis.
<div><r /></div><img src="paste-14620068675784.jpg" />
1405009641940 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic regurgitation}} is a <>diastolic</
>&nsp;murmur that presents as a <>high-pitched "lowing" early diastolic decr
escendo murmur</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15161234555008.jpg" /><
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15268608737451.jpg" /></div>
1405017557412 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic regurgitation}} is a <>diastolic</
>&nsp;murmur that can present with <>ounding pulses</>&nsp;and a <>head 
o</>, especially when it is chronic. <r /><div><img src="paste-1526431377015
5.jpg" /></div>
1405017604985 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral stenosis}} is a <>diastolic</>&n
sp;murmur that presents as a <>delayed late diastolic rumle</>&nsp;following
an <>opening snap</>&nsp;due to an&nsp;<u>arupt halt in leaflet motion in
diastole after rapid opening due to fusion at the leaflet tips</u>.
<r /><d

iv><img src="paste-15474767167692.jpg" /></div>
1405017703276 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral stenosis}} is a diastolic murmur th
at often occurs secondary to Rheumatic Fever. <r /><div><img src="paste-15470
472200396.jpg" /></div>
1405017730194 1395802358422 Which cardiac disorder is associated with a <>c
ontinuous, machine-like murmur</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Patent Ductus Art
eriosus (PDA)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15534896709802.jpg" /
></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15590731284581.jpg" /></div>
1405017798322 1395802358422 Where on the ody is the continuous machine-like
murmur of PDA est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left infraclavicular area}
}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15586436317285.jpg" /></div>
1405017828588 1395802358422 In the ventricular action potential, which ion's
movement is responsile for the initial <>depolarization</>&nsp;of the memr
ane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Na⁺influx&nsp;via voltage-gated Na<
sup>+</sup>&nsp;channels}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1574535010781
6.jpg" /></div>
1405018123521 1395802358422 In the ventricular action potential, which ion i
s responsile for the <>plateau phase</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ca²⁺&nsp;influx via voltage-gated Ca²⁺&nsp;channels}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This Ca²⁺&nsp;influx <>alances the K⁺&ns
p;efflux that is happening at the same time</>.</i></div><div><i>This Ca²⁺&nsp;influx also <>triggers the release of Ca²⁺&nsp;from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum</>&nsp;and hence induces myocyte contraction.</i></div
><div><i><img src="paste-15741055140520.jpg" /></i></div>
1405018432012 1395802358422 In the ventricular action potential, which ion i
s responsile for the <>rapid repolarization</>&nsp;of the memrane?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::K⁺&nsp;efflux via <u style="font-weight: old; ">
slow</u>&nsp;voltage-gated K⁺&nsp;channels}}</div> <r /><div><i>Cl
osure of the Ca²⁺&nsp;"plateau" channels also allows for this to occ
ur.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-15741055140520.jpg" /></i></div>
1405018532728 1395802358422 In the pacemaker action potential, which ion is
responsile for the <>upstroke/depolarization</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C
a²⁺&nsp;influx via voltage-gated Ca²⁺&nsp;channels}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, <>ecause of the less negative resting potentia
l of pacemaker cells, fast voltage-gated Na⁺&nsp;channels are perman
ently inactivated</>. Hence, there is a slow conduction velocity used y the AV
node to prolong transmission from the atria to the ventricles.</i></div><div><i
><img src="paste-16552803959163.jpg" /></i></div>
1405019193147 1395802358422 In the pacemaker potential, which ion is reponsi
le for the <>repolarization</>&nsp;of the memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::K⁺&nsp;efflux}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1654850899186
7.jpg" /></div>
1405020341344 1395802358422 In the pacemaker potential, which ions are respo
nsile for the <>slow diastolic depolarization to threshold</>?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Slow Na⁺&nsp;movement via the <>I<su>f</su>&nsp;ach
annels </>(funny current)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1654850899186
7.jpg" /></div>
1405021287387 1395802358422 The {{c1::funny current (I<su>f</su>)}} is an
ion current in pacemaker cells that causes <>spontaneous depolarization</>&ns
p;of the memrane potential as Na⁺&nsp;conductance slowly increases.
<div><r /></div><i>This is what accounts for the automaticity of SA and AV node
s.</i><div><i>The slope of this current (phase 4) determines the HR.<r /></i><d
iv><img src="paste-16548508991867.jpg" /></div></div>
1405021385149 1395802358422 How does ACh change the rate of diastolic depola
rization via the I<su>f</su>&nsp;current in pacemaker cells?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16548508991867
.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Hence it slows HR.</i></div>
1405021430594 1395802358422 How does Adenosine change the rate of diastolic
depolarization via the I<su>f</su>&nsp;current in pacemaker cells?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16548508

991867.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence it decreases HR.</i></div>
1405021441541 1395802358422 How docatecholamines change the rate of diastoli
c depolarization via the I<su>f</su>&nsp;current in pacemaker cells?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1654850
8991867.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Hence they increase HR.</i></div>
1405021523239 1395802358422 Which cardiac conduction fiers have the fastest
speed of conduction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Purkinje &gt; atria &gt; ventri
cles &gt; AV node}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18386754994962.jpg" /
></div>
1405022185863 1395802358422 How long is the normal atrioventricular delay at
the AV node?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::100 msec}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Al
lows for ventricular filling.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-18382460027666.jp
g" /></i></div>
1405022245303 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the P-wave o
n an ECG signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial depolarization}}</div><div><
<r /><div><i>At
r /></div><div><img src="paste-18541373817496.jpg" /></div>
rial repolarization is masked y the QRS complex (ventricular depolarization).</
i></div>
1405022749048 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the PR inter
val signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AV conduction delay}}</div><div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Normally &
lt; 200 msec</i></div>
1405022784549 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the QRS comp
lex signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular depolarization}}</div><div><
<r /><div><i>No
r /></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div>
rmally &lt; 120 msec</i></div>
1405022810889 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the QT inter
val signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular contraction}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div>
1405022834435 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the T-wave s
ignify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular repolarization}}</div><div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>T-wave inv
ersion may e indicative of MI.</i></div>
1405022890358 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the ST segme
nt signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Isoelectricity; ventricles are entirely d
epolarized}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></
div>
1405022928593 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the U wave s
ignify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indicated <u>hypokalemia</u>&nsp;or <u>rady
cardia</u>}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></
div>
1405022998783 1395802358422 {{c1::Torsades de Pointes}} is an electro-cardio
vascular disorder characterized y <>polymorphic ventricular tachycardia</>&n
sp;and a <>shifting sinusoidal waveform on ECG</>.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-20044612370575.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Can progress to V-fi.</i>
</div><div><i>Caused y drugs, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia and other anormaliti
es.</i></div>
1405023694011 1395802358422 Prolongation of which ECG interval can predispos
e to Torsades de Pointes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::QT}}</div>
1405023715839 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Torsades de Pointes?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Magnesium Sulfate}}</div>
1405024012834 1395802358422 Which class of antiiotics can prolong the QT in
terval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Macrolides}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-20817706484036.jpg" /></div>
1405024179018 1395802358422 Which type of antiviral drugs are known to prolo
ng the QT interval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Protease inhiitors (-navir)}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20813411516740.jpg" /></div>
1405024200357 1395802358422 Which type of diuretics are known to prolong the
QT interval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thiazides}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-20813411516740.jpg" /></div>

1405024222702 1395802358422 Which antipsychotic is known to prolong the QT i
nterval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Risperidone}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-20813411516740.jpg" /></div>
1405024239952 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Long QT syndrome}} is an inheri
ted electrical cardiac disorder that presents with <>defective myocardial repol
arization</>&nsp;and <>prolonged QT syndrome</>&nsp;due to ion channel defe
cts.
<r /><div><i>Increased risk of sudden cardiac death due to Torsades de
pointes.</i></div>
1405024336557 1395802358422 {{c1::Romano-Ward Syndrome}} is a type of congen
ital long QT syndrome that is <>autosomal dominant</>&nsp;and involves a <>p
urely cardiac phenotype</>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. no other systems are affected
</i></div>
1405024375011 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Romano-Ward S
yndrome (congenital long QT syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal domi
nant}}</div>
1405024396425 1395802358422 {{c1::Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Syndrome}} is a
type of congenital long QT syndrome that is <>autosomal recessive</>&nsp;and
presents with <>sensorineural deafness</>&nsp;in addition to cardiac defects.
<r /><div><i>Versus Romano-Ward syndrome which is autosomal dominant and purely
cardiac.</i></div>
1405024453349 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Jervell and L
ange-Nielsen Syndrome (congenital long QT syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1405024673609 1395802358422 What is the most common type of ventricular preexcitation syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome}}
</div> <r /><div><i>This straight up sounds like the name of a law firm.</i></
div>
1405024722375 1395802358422 {{c1::Wolff-Parksinson-White Syndrome}} is a ven
tricular pre-excitation syndrome that involves <>anormally fast accessory cond
uction </><u style="font-weight: old; ">from the atria to the ventricles</u>&n
sp;via an accessory pathway called the <>Bundle of Kent</>. <r /><div><i>Th
e Bundle of Kent ypasses the AV node and allows the ventricles to depolarize so
oner.</i></div>
1405024797460 1395802358422 {{c1::Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome}} is a vent
ricular pre-excitation syndrome that involves the presence of the <>Bundle of K
ent</>&nsp;which ypasses the rate-slowing AV node, therey yielding a charact
eristic <>delta wave</>&nsp;and <>shortened PR interval</>&nsp;on ECG.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22033182228924.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Ca
n also involves a re-entry circuit and hence <>supraventricular tachycardia</>
.</i></div>
1405025544274 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Firillation}} is a pathological EC
G tracing that involves a <>chaotic</>&nsp;and <>erratic assline</>&nsp;w
ith <>no discrete P waves </>etween <>irregularly spaced QRS complexes</>.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22269405429968.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Involves irregularly irregular rhythm.</i></div><div><i>Can result in atri
al stasis and lead to thromoemolic stroke.</i></div><div><i>Treatment includes
rate control, anticoagulation and possile pharmacological/electrical cardiover
sion.</i></div>
1405025652000 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial flutter}} is a pathological ECG tra
ce that involves a <>rapid succession of identical, ack-to-ack atrial depolar
ization waves</>&nsp;that appear as <>"sawtooth"</>&nsp;waves.<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-22501333663916.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Pharmacolo
gical conversion to sinus rhythm via <>Class IA, IC or III antiarrhythmics</>.
</i></div><div><i>Rate control via <>eta-lockade, Ca-channel lockade.</></i
></div><div><i>Definitive treatment via <>catheter alation</>.</i></div>
1405025801262 1395802358422 What is the <>definitive</>&nsp;treatment for
Atrial Flutter?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Catheter alation}}</div><div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-22497038696620.jpg" /></div>
1405025823766 1395802358422 {{c1::Ventricular firillation}} is a pathologic
al ECG tracing that presents with a <>completely erratic rhythm with no identif

iale waves</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22776211570866.jpg" /></di
v>
<r /><div><i>Often results in fatal arrhythmia without immediate CPR an
d defirillation.</i></div>
1405026911131 1395802358422 {{c1::1st Degree AV lock}} is a type of AV loc
k that presents with a <>PR interval &gt; 200 msec</>&nsp;ut is otherwise e
nign and asymptomatic.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22819161243897.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>No treatment is required.</i></div>
1405026985814 1395802358422 {{c1::Moitz Type I (Wenckeach) AV lock}} is a
type of 2nd degree AV lock that involves <>progressive lengthening of the PR
interval until a dropped hearteat</>&nsp;(i.e. until a P wave is not followed
y a QRS complex).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23033909608673.jpg" /><
/div> <r /><div><i>Usually asymptomatic.</i></div>
1405027063668 1395802358422 {{c1::Moitz Type II AV Block}} is a type of 2nd
degree AV lock that presents with <>dropped hearteats that are not preceded
y a change in PR interval length</>.<div><!--anki--><!--anki--><><img src="CV
.png" /></></div>
<r /><div><i>This is different that Moitz Type I (Wenc
keach) which involves <>progressive elongation of the PR interval</>.</i></di
v><div><i>Often found as a 2:1 lock (2 p-waves to 1 QRS complex).</i></div><div
><i>May progress to 3rd-degree lock.</i></div><div><i>Often treated with pacema
ker.</i></div>
1405027197277 1395802358422 {{c1::3rd degree AV Block}} is a type of AV loc
k that involves the <>atria and ventricles eating <u>independently</u>&nsp;of
each other</>&nsp;(i.e. oth P-waves and QRS complexes appear at their oth s
eparate rhythms).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23368917057839.jpg" /></d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Atrial rate is faster.</i></div><div><i>Treated with pacem
aker.</i></div>
1405027723945 1395802358422 Which infectious disease is known to e associat
ed with 3rd-degree AV lock?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lyme Disease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-23364622090543.jpg" /></div>
1405027746160 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)}} is a ho
rmone released from <>atrial myocytes</>&nsp;in response to increased lood v
olume and atrial pressure.
1405027804261 1395802358422 What is the function of Atrial Natriuretic Pepti
de (ANP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vasodilation; Decreased Na⁺&nsp
;reasorption at the collecting duct; Constriction of <u>efferent</u>&nsp;renal
arterioles and dilation of <u>afferent</u>&nsp;arterioles via cGMP, therey pr
omoting diuresis}}</div>
1405028963553 1395802358422 {{c1::B-type (Brain) Natriuretic Peptide}} is a
hormone released y <>ventricular myocytes</>&nsp;in response to <>increased
tension</>&nsp;that acts similarly to ANP.
1405029000553 1395802358422 Where is B-type (Brain) Natriuretic Peptide (BNP
) released from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular myocytes}}</div>
1405029025994 1395802358422 {{c1::Nesiritide}} is a recominant form of <>B
-type (rain) Natriuretic Peptide (BNP)</>&nsp;that can e used to treat heart
failure.
1405029064629 1395802358422 Through which cranial nerve do aortic arch aror
eceptors/chemoreceptors transmit their signals to the solitary nucleus of the me
dulla?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X (Vagus)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-23940147708618.jpg" /></div>
1405029530782 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the medulla receives signals fr
om aortic arch aro-/chemoreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Solitary nucleus
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Responds <>only to increases in BP</>.</i></div>
<div><i><img src="paste-23935852741322.jpg" /></i></div>
1405029587074 1395802358422 Through which cranial nerve does the Carotid Sin
us transmit its signals to the solitary nucleus of the medulla?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::CN IX (Glossopharyngeal)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-23935
852741322.jpg" /></div>
1405029629147 1395802358422 How does <>increased</> lood vessel stretchin
g influence cardiovascular aroreceptor afferent firing?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Increased stretch = <u>increased afferent firing</u>&nsp;and eventually a d

ecreased HR}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23935852741322.jpg" /><
/div> <img src="paste-24245090386362.jpg" />
1405030537046 1395802358422 How does a carotid massage influence HR?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2424079541906
6.jpg" /></div>
1405030557352 1395802358422 {{c1::Cushing reaction}} is a cardiovascular phe
nomenon due to <>increased intracranial pressure</>&nsp;that presents with a
triad of <>hypertension, radycardia,</>&nsp;and <>respiratory depression</
>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-24240795419066.jpg" /></div>
1405030654784 1395802358422 Where are peripheral cardiovascular chemorecepto
rs found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic arch; Carotid ody}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-24554328031954.jpg" /></div>
1405030983328 1395802358422 Which level of oxygen stimulates peripheral card
iovascular chemoreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Decreased</>&nsp;P<su
>O2</su>&nsp;&lt; 60 mmHg}}</div>
1405031031193 1395802358422 How does a decrease in pH influence peripheral c
ardiovascular chemoreceptor activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</d
iv>
1405031052317 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in P<su>CO2</s
u>&nsp;influence peripheral cardiovascular chemoreceptor activity?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
1405031080882 1395802358422 Which type of cardiovascular chemoreceptors <>d
o not</>&nsp;respond to P<su>O2</su>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Central}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>They respond to changes in pH and P<su>CO2</su>&nsp;in
the rain interstitial fluid which are in turn affected y arterial CO<su>2</su
>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-24704651886855.jpg" /></i></div>
1405031168384 1395802358422 Which organ has the largest lood flow?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lungs}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Receives 100% of cardiac o
utput.</i></div>
1405031201104 1395802358422 What is the normal Right Atrial pressure?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 5 mmHg}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-24786
256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031233845 1395802358422 What is the normal Right Ventricular pressure?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::25/5 mmHg}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-24790
551232853.jpg" /></div>
1405031267127 1395802358422 What is the normal pressure in the pulmonary tru
nk?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::25/10 mmHg}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-24786256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031294209 1395802358422 What is the normal Left Atrial pressure (PCWP)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 12 mmHg}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>In mitral st
enosis, PCWP (i.e. LAP) &gt; LV diastolic pressure.<r /></i><div><img src="past
e-24786256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031308858 1395802358422 What is the normal Left Ventricular pressure?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::130/10 mmHg}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-24786
256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031322755 1395802358422 What is the normal aortic arch pressure?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::130/90 mmHg}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2478625626555
7.jpg" /></div>
1405031345701 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmonary Capillary Wedge Pressure (PCWP)}
} is a wedge pressure measured with a <>pulmonary artery catheter</>&nsp;(Swa
n-Ganz catheter)&nsp;that is used as an approximation of left atrial pressure.
<r /><div><i>Normal PCWP &lt; 12 mmHg.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-2478625
6265557.jpg" /></i></div>
1405031516368 1395802358422 How does hypoxia affect pulmonary vasculature?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Causes <>vasoconstriction</>}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>This is something unique to the lungs where <>hypoxia causes vasoconstrio
n</>&nsp;such that only well-ventilated areas are perfused. <>In all other ti
ssues, hypoxia causes vasodilation</>.</i></div>
1405031739737 1395802358422 Which Starling forces work to move<> fluid out
of the capillary</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::P<su>c</su>&nsp;(capillary h

ydrostatic pressure); π_i&nbs
;(inte stitial colloid osmotic
essu e)}}
</div> <b /><div><i>π_i&nbs
;no mally equals 0.</i></div><div><i><img
s c="
aste-27157078212835.j
g" /></i></div>
1405031835817 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ces wo k to move <b>fluid into
the ca
illa y</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P_i&nbs
;(inte stitial
hyd ostatic
essu e); π_c(ca
illa y colloid osmotic
essu e)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27152783245539.j
g" /></div>
1405031909875 1395802358422 What is the equation fo <b>Net</b>&nbs
;Filt at
ion P essu e at a ca
illa y bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P_net&nbs

;= [(P_c&nbs
;- P_i) - (π_c&nbs
;- π_i)]}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27152783245539.j
g" /></div>
1405031981615 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the <b>Net </b>Fluid Fl
ow in ca
illa y fluid filt ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::J_v&nbs
;
= K_f&nbs
;* P_net}}</div>
1405033591552 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ce changes in hea t failu e to
cause edema?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc eased P_c}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27758373634259.j
g" /></div>
1405033619467 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ce changes in ne
h otic synd o
me to cause edema?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased π_c}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27754078666963.j
g" /></div>
1405033640958 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ce changes in live failu e to
cause edema?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased π_c}}</div>
1405033663937 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ce changes in lym
hatic blocka
ge to cause edema?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc eased π_i}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27754078666963.j
g" /></div>
1405040462126 1395802358422 What is the no mal emnant of the thy oglossal d
uct?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fo amen cecum}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-28668906701396.j
g" /></div>
1405040782510 1395802358422 What is the most common site of ecto
ic thy oid
tissue?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tongue}}</div>
1405040798341 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::thy oglossal duct}} is an emb yol
ogical st uctu e that connects the descending thy oid to the tongue.
<b /><d
iv><i>It may
e sist as the
y amidal lobe of the thy oid.</i></div><div><i><img
s c="
aste-28664611734100.j
g" /></i></div>
1405040851321 1395802358422 {{c1::Thy oglossal Duct Cyst}} is a congenital t
hy oid anomaly that
esents as an <b>ante io midline neck mass</b>&nbs
;that m
oves with swallowing o
ot usion of the tongue.<div><b /></div><div><img s c=
"
aste-28956669509910.j
g" /></div>
<b /><div><i>Com
a e this to a <b>B anc
hial Cleft Cyst</b>&nbs
;which
esents with a <b>
e sistant ce vical cinus in t
he late al neck</b>.</i></div>
1405041318384 1395802358422 F om which emb yological tissue laye does the A
d enal <b>co tex</b>&nbs
;fo m?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mesode m}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-29231547416921.j
g" /></div>
1405042330143 1395802358422 F om which emb yological tissue
o
ulation does
the ad enal <b>medulla</b>&nbs
;fo m?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Neu al c est ce
lls}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-29227252449625.j
g" /></div>
1405042348905 1395802358422 Which a ea of the ad enal co tex sec etes Mine a
loco ticoids?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Glome ulosa}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i>GFR = salt, suga , sex.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-29227252449625
.j
g" /></div>
1405042661478 1395802358422 Which a ea of the ad enal co tex sec etes Glucoc
o ticoids?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Fasciculata}}</div> <b /><div><i>GF
R = salt, suga , sex</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-29227252449625.j
g" /></i>
</div>
1405042715137 1395802358422 Which a ea of the ad enal co tex sec etes sex ho
mones?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Reticula is}}</div>
<b /><div><i>GF
R = salt, suga , sex</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-29227252449625.j
g" /></i>
</div>
1405042755487 1395802358422 Which
o tion of the ad enal glands sec etes Cat
echolamines?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ch omaffin cells of the Ad enal medulla}

}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-29227252449625.j
g" /></div>
1405042842332 1395802358422 Which ho mones act as the
ima y egulato y con
t ol facto s fo the Zona Glome ulosa?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Renin; Angiote
nsin}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-29227252449625.j
g" /></div>
1405042893479 1395802358422 What is the most common tumou of the ad enal me
dulla in <b>adults</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pheoch omocytoma}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-29227252449625.j
g" /></div>
1405042923714 1395802358422 What is the most common tumou of the ad enal me
dulla in <b>child en</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Neu oblastoma}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-29227252449625.j
g" /></div>
1405042943197 1395802358422 What is the venous d ainage fo the <b>left</b>&
nbs
;ad enal gland?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Left ad enal vein --&gt; <u>Left
enal vein</u>&nbs
;--&gt; IVC}}</div>
1405043142571 1395802358422 What is the venous d ainage fo the <b> ight</b>
&nbs
;ad enal gland?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Right ad enal vein --&gt; IVC}}<
/div> <b /><div><i>The ight ad enal vein <b>does not d ain into the ight e
nal vein</b>&nbs
;(unlike the left side).</i></div>
1405043184450 1395802358422 Which gland sec etes Vaso
essin (ADH)?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Poste io
ituita y (neu ohy
o
hysis)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Made in the hy
othalamus but is shi

ed to the
oste io
ituita y.</i></d
iv>
1405044169837 1395802358422 Which gland sec etes Oxytocin?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Poste io
ituita y (neu ohy
o
hysis)}}</div> <b /><div><i>Made in th
e hy
othalamus but is shi

ed to the
oste io
ituita y.</i></div>
1405044227394 1395802358422 F om which emb yological tissue laye is the
os
te io
ituita y fo med?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Neu oectode m}}</div>
1405044257038 1395802358422 Which gland sec etes FSH?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Ante io
ituita y (adenohy
o
hysis)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-30799210479781.j
g" /></div>
1405044367157 1395802358422 Which gland sec etes LH?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::Ante io
ituita y}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-30794915512485.j
g" /
></div>
1405044376762 1395802358422 Which gland sec etes ACTH?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Ante io
ituita y}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-3079491551248
5.j
g" /></div>
1405044386971 1395802358422 Which gland sec etes TSH?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Ante io
ituita y}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-30794915512485.j
g" /
></div>
1405044395801 1395802358422 Which gland sec etes P olactin?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Ante io
ituita y}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-3079491551248
5.j
g" /></div>
1405044407801 1395802358422 Which gland sec etes GH?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::Ante io
ituita y}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-31293131718810.j
g" /
></div>
1405048148748 1395802358422 Which gland sec etes Melanot o
in?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Ante io
ituita y}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-31288
836751514.j
g" /></div>
1405048167219 1395802358422 F om which emb yological laye is the ante io

ituita y fo med?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::O al ectode m (Rathke's
ouch)}}</di
v>
1405048195911 1395802358422 {{c1::GH}} and&nbs
;{{c2::P olaction}} a e ante
io
ituita y ho mones sec eted by the <b>acido
hils</b>&nbs
;of the gland.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-31288836751514.j
g" /></div>
1405048244530 1395802358422 {{c1::FSH}},&nbs
;{{c2::LH}},&nbs
;{{c3::ACTH}}
and&nbs
;{{c4::TSH}} a e the ante io
ituita y ho mones sec eted by the <b>baso

hils</b>&nbs
;of the gland.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-31288836751514.j
g" /
></div>
1405048276866 1395802358422 Which cells of the
anc eas sec ete glucagon?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::al
ha cells}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Found at the
e i

he y.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-36103495090417.j
g" /></i></div>

1405048997614 1395802358422 Which cells of the
anc eas sec ete insulin?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::beta cells}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Found cent ally.</
i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-36099200123121.j
g" /></i></div><div><i><b /></
i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-38809324486784.j
g" /><b /><div><img s c="
aste
-38203734098560.j
g" /></div></i></div>
1405049012375 1395802358422 Which cells of the
anc eas sec ete somatostatin
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::delta cells}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Found inte
s
e sed th oughout the Islets of Lange hans.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-3
6099200123121.j
g" /></i></div>
1405049041670 1395802358422 Whe e in the cell is
e
oinsulin fo med?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::RER}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It is then cleaved into P
oinsulin which is sto ed in sec eto y g anules.</i></div><div><i>Befo e exocytos
is, it is cleaved into Insulin and C-
e
tide.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-3
6356898161033.j
g" /></i></div>
1405049590664 1395802358422 Which GLUT t ans
o te is moved to the cell memb
ane following Insulin action?<div><b />{{c1::GLUT4}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-36631776068243.j
g" /></div>
1405050093967 1395802358422 How does insulin influence Na<su
>+</su
>&nbs
;
etention at the kidneys?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc eased}}</div>
1405050122871 1395802358422 How does insulin influence
otein synthesis?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405050132340 1395802358422 How does insulin influence cellula u
take of K<
su
>+</su
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405050146959 1395802358422 How does insulin influence the cellula u
take o
f amino acids?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405050165109 1395802358422 How does insulin influence glucagon elease?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405050175309 1395802358422 How does insulin influence t iglyce ide synthesi
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405050188187 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT4}} is an <b>insulin-de
endent</b>&nbs

;glucose t ans
o te found in adi
ose tissue and skeletal muscle.
1405050226690 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT1}} is an <b>insulin-inde
endent</b>&n
bs
;glucose t ans
o te found in<b>&nbs
;RBCs, b ain </b>and the <b>co nea</b>.
1405050257249 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT5}} is an <b>insulin-inde
endent</b>&n
bs
;f uctose t ans
o te that is found in <b>s
e matocytes</b>&nbs
;and the <b>G
I t act</b>.
1405050302200 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT2}} is a <b>bidi ectional</b>, <b>insu
lin-inde
endent</b>&nbs
;glucose t ans
o te found at <b>
anc eatic beta cells,
live , kidney</b>&nbs
;and <b>small intestines</b>.
1405050746298 1395802358422 How do beta-2 ad ene gic agonists influence Insu
lin elease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405051700979 1395802358422 How does GH influence Insulin elease?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease <u>via insulin esistance</u>}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>GH causes insulin esistance and hence insulin elease.</i></div>
1405051731373 1395802358422 Which ad ene gic ece
to t igge s an <b>inc eas
e</b>&nbs
;in Insulin elease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::beta-2}}</div>
1405051754012 1395802358422 Which GLUT t ans
o te on
anc eatic beta cells
is involved with Insulin egulation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2}}</div>
<div><b /></div><img s c="
aste-38809324486784.j
g" /><b /><div><img s c="
ast
e-38203734098560.j
g" /></div>
1405051781108 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence glycogenolysis?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405051964460 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence gluconeogenesis?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405051978262 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence li
olysis?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405051987850 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence ketogenesis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405051997637 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence Glucagon levels?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>

1405052018732 1395802358422 How does <b>hy
oglycemia</b>&nbs
;influence Gluc
agon levels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405052027474 1395802358422 How does <b>hy
e glycemia</b>&nbs
;influence Glu
cagon levels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405052079651 1395802358422 Which hy
othalamic ho mone functions to inc ease
ACTH sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CRH}}</div>
1405053241603 1395802358422 Which hy
othalamic ho mone functions to&nbs
;inc
ease MSH (Melanot o
in) sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CRH}}</div>
1405053262174 1395802358422 Which hy
othalamic ho mone functions to&nbs
;inc
ease beta-endo
hin sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CRH}}</div>
1405053274795 1395802358422 Which hy
othalamic ho mone functions to&nbs
;dec
ease P olactin sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Do
amine}}</div>
1405053291600 1395802358422 Which hy
othalamic ho mone functions to&nbs
;inc
ease FSH sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::GnRH}}</div>
<b /><div><i>To
nic GnRH su

esses the HPA axis.</i><div><i>Pulsatile GnRH t igge s
ube ty and
fe tility.</i></div></div>
1405053299071 1395802358422 Which hy
othalamic ho mone functions to&nbs
;inc
ease LH sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::GnRH}}</div>
<i><div></div></
i><i><b /></i>Tonic GnRH su

esses the HPA axis.<div><i>Pulsatile GnRH t igge
s
ube ty and fe tility.</i></div>
1405053308287 1395802358422 Which HPA axis ho mone functions to&nbs
;dec eas
e GnRH sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P olactin}}</div> <b /><div><i><b
/></i></div>
1405053322022 1395802358422 Which hy
othalamic ho mone functions to&nbs
;dec
ease GH sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Somatostatin}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Somatostatin analogs a e used to t eat ac omegaly.</i></div>
1405053333201 1395802358422 Which hy
othalamic ho mone functions to&nbs
;dec
ease TSH sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Somatostatin}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Somatostatin analogs a e used to t eat ac omegaly.</i></div>
1405053343026 1395802358422 Which hy
othalamic ho mone functions to&nbs
;inc
ease TSH sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TRH}}</div>
1405053394881 1395802358422 Which hy
othalamic ho mone functions to&nbs
;inc
ease P olactin sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TRH}}</div>
1405053414496 1395802358422 {{c1::Pituita y
olactinoma}} is a
ituita y tu
mou that
esents with <b>ameno hea</b>&nbs
;and <b>osteo
o osis</b>.
1405094340172 1395802358422 {{c1::P olactin}} is a ho mone sec eted by the a
nte io
ituita y that functions to stimulate milk
oduction in b easts.
1405094394080 1395802358422 {{c1::P olactin}} is a ho mone
oduced by the a
nte io
ituita y that <b>inhibits ovulation in females and s
e matogenesis in m
ales by inhibiting GnRH synthesis and elease</b>.
<b /><div><i>Hy
e
ola
ctinemia is also associated with dec eased libido.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
a
ste-1039382086420.j
g" /></i></div>
1405094433387 1395802358422 Which ho mone f om the ante io
ituita y functi
ons to <b>inhibit GnRH synthesis and elease</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P o
lactin}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1035087119124.j
g" /></div>
1405094452302 1395802358422 Which neu ot ansmitte sec eted by the Hy
othala
mus functions to tonically inhibit P olactin sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Do
amine}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>P olactin then inhibits its own sec
etion via negative feedback by t igge ing Do
amine elease f om the hy
othalamus
.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-1035087119124.j
g" /></div>
1405094592247 1395802358422 How does Do
amine influence P olactin sec etion?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-10350
87119124.j
g" /></div>
1405094603184 1395802358422 How does TRH influence P olactin sec etion?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1035087119124
.j
g" /></div>
1405094659682 1395802358422 {{c1::B omoc i
tine}} is a do
amine agonist that
is used to t eat P olactinoma as it inhibits
olactin sec etion.
<b /><d
iv><i>Simila ly, do
amine antagonists (anti
sychotics) and est ogens (OCPs;
eg
nancy) stimulate P olactin sec etion.</i></div>

1405094691987 1395802358422 How do est ogens (e.g. OCPs) influence P olactin
sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405099806628 1395802358422 {{c1::GH}} is a ho mone sec eted by the ante io

ituita y that functions to stimulate linea g owth and muscle mass g owth via
<b>IGF-1/Somatomedin</b>&nbs
;sec etion.
1405100021446 1395802358422 How does GH influence insulin esistance?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>GH is diabetogenic.</i></d
iv>
1405100050495 1395802358422 {{c1::GHRH}} is a ho mone that t igge s
ulsatil
e elease of GH.
1405100170048 1395802358422 How does glucose influence GH elease?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405100183271 1395802358422 How does GH sec etion change du ing exe cise and
slee
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405100198833 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence GH elease?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405100210326 1395802358422 {{c1::Ac omegaly}} is an endoc ine diso de caus
ed by excess GH sec etion <b>in adults</b>.
1405100229790 1395802358422 {{c1::Gigantism}} is an endoc ine diso de cause
d by excess GH sec etion <b>in child en</b>.
1405100265583 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the Hy
othalamus synthesized AD
H (Vaso
essin)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su
ao
tic Nuclei}}</div>
1405100373343 1395802358422 Which Vaso
essin ece
to s function to egulate
se um osmola ity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::V₂}}</div>
1405100396503 1395802358422 Which Vaso
essin ece
to functions to egulate
blood
essu e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::V₁}}</div>
1405100429996 1395802358422 {{c1::Vaso
essin (ADH)}} is a ho mone eleased
by the
oste io
ituita y that functions to egulate se um osmola ity (V<sub>2<
/sub>) and blood
essu e (V₁).
1405100482736 1395802358422 {{c1::Vaso
essin (ADH)}} is a ho mone sec eted
f om the
oste io
ituita y that
ima ily <b>dec eases</b>&nbs
;se um osmola i
ty by influencing aqua
o in channel t ansc i
tion in
inci
al cells of the coll
ecting duct.
<b /><div><i>ADH <b>inc eases </b>u ine osmola ity and <b>dec e
ases</b>&nbs
;se um osmola ity by <b>inducing wate
etention</b>.</i></div>
1405100640508 1395802358422 How do ADH levels change in Cent al Diabetes Ins
i
idus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405100759050 1395802358422 How do ADH levels change in Ne
h ogenic Diabetes
Insi
idus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No mal o Inc eased}}</div>
1405100783653 1395802358422 How do ADH levels change in
ima y
olydi
sia?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased}}</div>
1405100795612 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmo
essin}} is an ADH analog used to t
eat Cent al Diabetes Insi
idus.
1405100816809 1395802358422 What is the
ima y cont ol fo ADH elease?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Osmo ece
to s in the hy
othalamus}}</div>
1405100838378 1395802358422 What is the seconda y cont ol of ADH elease?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
ovolemia}}</div>
1405100849436 1395802358422 How does Ketoconazole influence Choleste ol Desm
olase activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-1670742278921.j
g" /></div>
1405105404198 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to conve t Testoste one i
nto Est adiol?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A omatase}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405105553676 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to conve t Testoste one i
nto Dihyd otestoste one (DHT)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::5-al
ha- eductase}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106002238 1395802358422 How do mine aloco ticoid levels change in 17-al

ha-hyd oxylase deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106031534 1395802358422 How do Co tisol levels change in 17-al
ha-hyd ox
ylase?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>

1405106044483 1395802358422 How do sex ho mone levels change in 17-al
ha-hyd
oxylase deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106085056 1395802358422 {{c1::17-al
ha-hyd oxylase deficiency}} is a ty

e of congenital ad enal hy
e
lasia that
esents with <b>hy
e tension</b>&nbs
;
and <b>hy
okalemia</b>. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106370283 1395802358422 {{c1::17-al
ha-hyd oxylase deficiency}} is a ty

e of congenital ad enal hy
e
lasia that
esents with <b>dec eased DHT</b>&nbs

;levels.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106396892 1395802358422 {{c1::17-al
ha-hyd oxylase deficiency}} is a ty

e of congenital ad enal hy
e
lasia that
esents with <b>
seudo-he ma
h oditism
in males</b>&nbs
;(ambiguous genitalia, undescended testes). <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106452412 1395802358422 {{c1::17-al
ha-hyd oxylase deficiency}} is a ty

e of congenital ad enal hy
e
lasia that
esents with a <b>lack of seconda y se
xual develo
ment in females</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1666447311625
.j
g" /></div>
1405106573181 1395802358422 How do mine aloco ticoid levels change in 21-hyd
oxylase activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106613705 1395802358422 How do Co tisol levels change in 21-hyd oxylase
deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106631061 1395802358422 How do sex ho mone levels change in 21-hyd oxyla
se deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106664250 1395802358422 {{c1::21-hyd oxylase deficiency}} is a ty
e of c
ongenital ad enal hy
e
lasia that
esents with <b>hy
otension</b>&nbs
;and <b>
hy
e kalemia</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106708464 1395802358422 How does blood
essu e change in 17-al
ha-hyd o
xylase deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106720676 1395802358422 How do K<su
>+</su
>&nbs
;levels change in 17-al

ha-hyd oxylase deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106738795 1395802358422 How does blood
essu e change in 21-hyd oxylase
deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106754423 1395802358422 How do K<su
>+</su
>&nbs
;levels change in 21-hy
d oxylase deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106772051 1395802358422 {{c1::21-hyd oxylase deficiency}} is a ty
e of c
ongenital ad enal hy
e
lasia that involves an accumulation of <b>17-hyd oxy
og
este one</b>. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106800992 1395802358422 {{c1::21-hyd oxylase deficiency}} is a ty
e of c
ongenital ad enal hy
e
lasia that
esents with <b>inc eased enin activity</b>
.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106842304 1395802358422 What is the most common enzyme deficiency in Con
genital Ad enal Hy
e
lasia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::21-hyd oxylase deficienc
y}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106859497 1395802358422 {{c1::21-hyd oxylase deficiency}} is a ty
e of c
ongenital ad enal hy
e
lasia that
esents in infancy as <b>salt wasting</b>&nb
s
;o in childhood as <b>
ecocious
ube ty</b>.
<div><b /></div><i>Fema
les will see <b>vi ilization</b>.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j

g" /></div>
1405106914693 1395802358422 How do mine aloco ticoid levels change in 11-bet
a-hyd oxylase deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased aldoste one but i
nc eased 11-deoxyco ticoste one}}</div> <b /><div><i>The e is dec eased Aldoste
one but <b>accumulation of 11-deoxyco ticoste one</b>&nbs
;which yields an inc
ease in blood
essu e.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></

i></div>
1405106978074 1395802358422 How do co tisol levels change in 11-beta-hyd oxy
lase deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106999858 1395802358422 How do sex ho mone levels change in 11-beta-hyd
oxylase deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <div><b /></div
><i>Hence females will
esent with <b>vi ilization</b>.</i><b /><div><img s c=
"
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405107013558 1395802358422 {{c1::11-beta-hyd oxylase deficiency}} is a ty
e
of congenital ad enal hy
e
lasia that
esents with <b>hy
e tension</b>&nbs
;w
ith <b>low- enin activity</b>. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" />
</div>
1405107038395 1395802358422 How does blood
essu e change in 11-beta-hyd ox
ylase deficiency?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405107071586 1395802358422 How do ACTH levels change in Congenital Ad enal
Hy
e
lasia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc eased}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Th
is is <b>always</b>&nbs
;the case as <b>Co tisol levels a e always dec eased in
congenital ad enal hy
e
lasia</b>.</i></div><div><i>The lack of Co tisol feedba
ck esults in elevated ACTH levels and subsequent ad enal gland hy
e
lasia.</i>
</div>
1405107555750 1395802358422 Which zone of the ad enal co tex sec etes Co tis
ol?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Fasciculata}}</div>
1405107999349 1395802358422 Which
lasma
otein
ima ily binds to Co tisol
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Co ticoste oid-binding globulin}}</div>
1405108016180 1395802358422 How does Co tisol influence blood
essu e?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>Co tisol <b>u
egulates al

ha-1 ad ene gic ece
to s on a te ioles</b>, the eby inc easing the sensitivity
to no e
ine
h ine and e
ine
h ine.</i></div>
1405108188806 1395802358422 Which ad ene gic ece
to s a e u
egulated by Co
tisol on a te ioles?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Al
ha-1}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>This is how Co tisol inc eases blood
essu e.</i></div>
1405108209770 1395802358422 How does Co tisol influence insulin esistance?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Co tisol is diabet
ogenic.</i></div>
1405108240611 1395802358422 How does co tisol influence gluconeogenesis?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405108255543 1395802358422 How does co tisol influence Li
olysis?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405108260623 1395802358422 How does co tisol influence P oteolysis?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405108268797 1395802358422 How does co tisol influence fib oblast activity?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is how is cau
ses <b>st iae</b>.</i></div>
1405108287793 1395802358422 How does co tisol influence leukot iene and
os
taglandin synthesis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Th ough this Co tisol is anti-inflammato y and immunosu

essive.</i></div
>
1405108337602 1395802358422 How does co tisol influence luekocyte adhesion?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The eby causing <b
>neut o
hilia</b>.</i></div><div><i>This also adds to the anti-inflammato y and
immunosu

essive ole of glucoco ticoids.</i></div>
1405108368578 1395802358422 How does co tisol influence Histamine elease f
om mast cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>He
nce it is anti-inflammato y and immunosu

essive.</i></div>
1405108386985 1395802358422 How does co tisol influence IL-2
oduction?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Hence it is immuno
su

essive and anti-inflammato y.</i></div><div><i>Because of this, <b>exogenou
s co ticoste oids can cause eactivation of TB and candidiasis</b>.</i></div>
1405108416947 1395802358422 How does co tisol influence osteoblast activity?

<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>The eby dec easing
bone fo mation.</i></div>
1405108430948 1395802358422 How does Co tisol influence ACTH sec etion?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405108498352 1395802358422 Whe e is Pa athy oid Ho mone (PTH) sec eted f om
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Chief cells of the
a athy oid}}</div>
1405111334971 1395802358422 How does PTH influence the eso
tion of Ca<su
>
2+</su
>&nbs
;at bone?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-6433861010180.j
g" /></div>
1405111397321 1395802358422 How does PTH influence the eabso
tion of Ca<su

>2+</su
>&nbs
;in the distal convoluted tubule?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc
ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-6429566042884.j
g" /></div>
1405111424232 1395802358422 How does PTH change se um [Ca<su
>2+</su
>]?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-64295
66042884.j
g" /></div>
1405111446988 1395802358422 How does PTH influence PO₄<su
>3-</su

>&nbs
; eso
tion at<b>&nbs
;bone</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-6558415061498.j
g" /></div>
1405111521483 1395802358422 How does PTH influence PO₄<su
>3- </s
u
> eabso
tion at the
oximal convoluted tubule?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::De
c ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-6816113099264.j
g" /></div>
1405111780046 1395802358422 {{c1::PTH}} is a ho mone sec eted by the
a athy
oid ho mone that inc eases Calcit iol [1,25-(OH)₂&nbs
;D₃
]
oduction by activating kidney <b>1-al
ha-hyd oxylase</b>. <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-7301444403975.j
g" /></div>
1405111844244 1395802358422 {{c1::RANKL}} is a ece
to ligand sec eted by O
steoblasts that binds to&nbs
;{{c2::RANK}} on Osteoclasts to stimulate osteoclas
t activity.
<b /><div><i>Resulting in bone eso
tion.</i></div>
1405111924534 1395802358422 Which bone cell sec etes RANKL?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Osteoblasts}}</div>
1405112032076 1395802358422 {{c1::PTH- elated
e
tide (PTH P)}} is a PTH-lik
e ho mone that functions simila ly to PTH and is commonly seen in
a aneo
lastic
synd ome.
1405112079609 1395802358422 How do&nbs
;<b>dec eased</b>&nbs
;Ca<su
>2+</su

>&nbs
;levels influence PTH sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</di
v>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-7297149436679.j
g" /></div>
1405112110458 1395802358422 How do ma ginally dec eased Mg<su
>2+</su
>&nbs

;levels influence PTH elease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><b /></div>
1405112135842 1395802358422 How doe <b>significantly educed</b>&nbs
;Mg<su

>2+</su
>&nbs
;levels influence PTH sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ea
se}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Mg can dec ease in dia hea, aminoglycoside use, d
iu esis and alcohol abuse.</i></div>
1405112173526 1395802358422 How does an inc ease in blood
H influence Album
in's affinity fo Ca<su
>2+</su
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Hence, alkalosis can yield </i><b><i>clinical manifestations of hy

ocalcemia</i>&nbs
;</b><i>(c am
s,
ain,
a esthesias, ca
o
edal s
asm).</i></
div>
1405114053471 1395802358422 Which fo m of Vitamin D is made at the skin?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::D₃}}</div>
1405114088127 1395802358422 Which fo m of Vitamin D is ingested f om
lants?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::D₂}}</div>
1405114101534 1395802358422 Which fo m of Vitamin D is made in the live ?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::25-OH Vitamin D}}</div>
1405114120497 1395802358422 Which fo m of vitamin D is the active fo m made
in the kidneys?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::1,25-(OH)₂&nbs
;Vitamin D}
}</div>
1405114142029 1395802358422 How does Vitamin D influence the abso
tion of d
ieta y Ca<su
>2+</su
>&nbs
;and PO₄<su
>3-</su
>?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>

1405114958754 1395802358422 How does Vitamin D influence bone eso
tion?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Hence inc eased Ca
and PO₄.</i></div>
1405114978976 1395802358422 How does PTH influence Vitamin D
oduction?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405115000577 1395802358422 How does <b>dec eased</b>&nbs
;Ca influence Vita
min D
oduction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405115020016 1395802358422 How does <b>dec eased</b>&nbs
;PO4 influence Vit
amin D
oduction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405115075165 1395802358422 Which gland sec eted Calcitonin?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Pa afollicula cells (C cells) of the Thy oid}}</div>
1405116510202 1395802358422 What is the function of Calcitonin?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Dec eases bone eso
tion of Ca<su
>2+</su
>}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>i.e. o

osite of PTH</i></div><div><i>"Calci<b>TON</b>in <b>TON</b>es down
Ca<su
>2+</su
>&nbs
;levels."</i></div>
1405116528975 1395802358422 How does inc eased se um [Ca<su
>2+</su
>] influ
ence Calcitonin sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405116585372 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is involved wi
th ANP and NO (vasodilato s)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cGMP}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-9470402888212.j
g" /></div>
1405117065010 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with the ADH V₂- ece
to ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117087480 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with FSH?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117103064 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with LH?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117116740 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with ACTH?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117129887 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with TSH?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117143775 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with CRH?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117158585 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with hCG?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117175869 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with MSH?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117194117 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with PTH?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117203936 1395802358422 WHich cellula signalling cascade is associated
with Calcitonin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117216020 1395802358422 &nbs
;Which cellula signalling cascade is assoc
iated with GHRH?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117246675 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with GnRH?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117274580 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with Oxytocin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117285586 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is assocaited

with the ADH V₁&nbs
; ece
to ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117306015 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with the Histamine H₁&nbs
; ece
to ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}
</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117327678 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with Angiotensin II?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117339701 1395802358422 Which cellula signalling cascade is associated
with Gast in?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117350241 1395802358422 Which cellula cascade is associated with
olac
tin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rece
to -associated ty osine kinases}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117377313 1395802358422 Which cellula cascade is associated with GH?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rece
to -associated ty osine kinase}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-9466107920916.j
g" /></div>
1405117396371 1395802358422 How does an <b>inc ease</b>&nbs
;in sex ho monebinding globulin (SHBG) influence f ee testoste one levels?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>In men this causes <b>gynecomastia</b>.</i
></div>
1405117736449 1395802358422 How does a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in sex ho mone-b
inding globulin influence f ee testoste one levels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::I
nc ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>In women this causes <b>hi sutism</b>.</i></div>
1405117779261 1395802358422 How do o al cont ace
tives (o
egnancy) influe
nce sex ho mone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc e
ase}}</div>
<b /><div><i>F ee testoste one levels dec ease.</i></div><div><
i>F ee est ogen levels <b> emain unchanged</b>.</i></div>
1405117856963 1395802358422 Whe e is most T<b>₃&nbs
;</b>made?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::At ta get tissue}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Thy oid fo
llicles
ima ily make T₄.</i></div>
1405119361237 1395802358422 {{c1::T₃/T₄}} is a ho mone
sec eted f om the thy oid that functions to u
egulate <b>beta-1 ad ene gic ec
e
to s</b>&nbs
;in the hea t. <b /><div><i>Simila to Co tisol, it <b>inc eas
es the sensitivity of the tissue to catecholamines</b>.</i></div><div><i>Th ough
this it inc eases CO, HR, SV and cont actility.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
ast
e-11145440133320.j
g" /></i></div>
1405119466323 1395802358422 Which ad ene gic ece
to is u
egulated by thy
oid ho mone?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-1; es
ecially at the hea t}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-11141145166024.j
g" /></div>
1405119500436 1395802358422 {{c1::Thy oid ho mone (T₃/T<sub>4</su
b>)}} is a ho mone sec eted by the thy oid that functions to inc ease basal meta
bolic ate by <b>inc easing Na/K ATPase activity</b>. <b /><div><i>Inc eased
Na/K ATPase activity esults in <b>inc eased O₂&nbs
;consum
tion, RR
and body tem
e atu e</b>.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-11141145166024.j
g" /
></i></div>
1405119710037 1395802358422 How does thy oid ho mone influence basal metabol
ic ate?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405119726409 1395802358422 How does thy oid ho mone influence glycogenolysi
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405119739066 1395802358422 How does thy oid ho mone influence gluconeogenes
is?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405119749619 1395802358422 How does thy oid ho mone influence li
olysis?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405119761351 1395802358422 Which
lasma
otein binds to most T₃
/T₄in the blood?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thy oxine-binding globul
in (TBG)}}</div>
1405120330410 1395802358422 How do Thy oxine-binding globulin (TBG) levels c
hange in he
atic failu e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405120360300 1395802358422 How do Thy oxine-binding globulin (TBG) levels c

hange in OCP use o
egnancy?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc eased}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Due to the est ogen.</i></div>
1405120388244 1395802358422 Which enzyme conve ts T₄&nbs
;into ac
tive T₃&nbs
;in
e i
he al tissue?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::5'-deio
dinase}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , T₄&nbs
;is the majo
oduct
of the thy oid and is conve ted into the active T₃.</i></div>
1405120439205 1395802358422 Which fo m of thy oid ho mone has <b>g eate aff
inity</b>&nbs
;fo Thy oid ho mone ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T₃&nbs
;&gt; T₄}}</div>
1405120469165 1395802358422 Which enzyme is es
onsible fo the oxidation an
d o ganification of Iodide?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pe oxidase}}</div>
1405120541035 1395802358422 Which enzyme is es
onsible fo the cou
ling of
monoiodoty osine (MIT) and diiodoty osine (DIT)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pe o
xidase}}</div>
1405120567844 1395802358422 What is the MOA of P o
ylthiou acil in the t eat
ment of hy
e thy oidism?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of 5'-deiodinase
<u>and</u>&nbs
;
e oxidase}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1243822528955
6.j
g" /></div>
1405120611341 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Methimazole in the t eatment
of hy
e thy oidism?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Pe oxidase <u>only<
/u>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12438225289556.j
g" /></div>
1405120638892 1395802358422 How does TRH f om the hy
othalamus influence TSH
activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405122146293 1395802358422 {{c1::G aves Disease}} is an autoimmune diso de
cha acte ized by <b>hy
e thy oidism</b>&nbs
;due to the
esence of thy oid sti
mulating immunoglobulins.
1405122194189 1395802358422 Negative feedback of T₃&nbs
;and T<su
b>4</sub>&nbs
;to the ante io
ituita y <b>dec eases</b>&nbs
;the sensitivity t
o&nbs
;{{c1::TRH}}, the eby esulting in dec eased Thy oid ho mone
oduction.
<b /><div><b /></div>
1405122334042 1395802358422 {{c1::Wolff-Chaikoff Effect}} is a
henomenon th
at involves the <b>tem
o a y</b>&nbs
;<b>inhibition of thy oid
e oxidase</b>&nb
s
;due to <b>excess iodine levels</b>. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1243822528955
6.j
g" /></div>
1405141647568 1395802358422 Which d ug used to t eat hy
e thy oidism is used
in <b>
egnancy</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P o
ylthiou acil (PTU)}}</div>
1405141731050 1395802358422 {{c1::A
lasia Cutis}} is a
ossible te atogenic
com
lication of Methimazole.
1405141749030 1395802358422 Which d ug used to t eat hy
e thy oidism is a
o
ssible te atogen?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Methimazole}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Can cause a
lasia cutis.</i></div>
1405141770453 1395802358422 {{c1::Ag anulocytosis}} is a a e hematological
com
lication of P o
ylthiou acil and Methimazole use. <b /><div><i>A
lastic a
naemia is also a
ossible com
lication.</i></div>
1405141793183 1395802358422 Which d ug used to t eat hy
e thy oidism is asso
ciated with he
atotoxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P o
ylthiou acil}}</div>
1405141828670 1395802358422 {{c1::Levothy oxine}} and&nbs
;{{c2::T iiodithy
onine}} a e thy oxine e
lacements that a e used to t eat hy
othy oidism and myx
edema.
1405141875461 1395802358422 {{c1::GH}} is a ho mone analog used to t eat Tu
ne Synd ome.
1405141896851 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to t eat Ca ci
noid tumou s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Oct eotide}}</div>
1405141924843 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to t eat Gast
inoma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Oct eotide}}</div>
1405141933394 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to t eat Gluca
gonoma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Oct eotide}}</div>
1405141940741 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to t eat Eso
h
ageal Va ices?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Oct eotide}}</div>
1405141955250 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Cent al Diabetes Insi


idus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::DDAVP}}</div>
1405141973751 1395802358422 {{c1::Oxytocin}} is a
oste io
ituita y ho mon
e that is used to <b>stimulate labou , ute ine cont actions </b>and <b>milk letdown</b>.
1405142007029 1395802358422 Which tet acycline antibiotic is used to t eat S
IADH?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Demeclocycline}}</div>
1405142023011 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Demeclocycline in the t eatme
nt of SIADH?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ADH antagonism}}</div>
1405142036083 1395802358422 What ty
e of Diabetes Insi
idus is a
otential c
om
lication of Demeclocycline use?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ne
h ogenic DI}}</
div>
1405142067031 1395802358422 {{c1::Photosensitivity}} is a cutaneous com
lica
tion of Demeclocycline use.
1405142084123 1395802358422 {{c1::Demeclocycline}} is a d ug used to t eat S
IADH that is associated with <b>abno malities of bone and teeth</b>.
1405142102856 1395802358422 {{c1::NF-kB}} is a t ansc i
tion facto hat is o
ften inhibited by Glucoco ticoids, the eby leading to downst eam anti-inflammato
y and immunosu

essive effects.
1405142159010 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Osteo
o osis seen in I
at ogenic Cushing Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Bis
hos
honates}}</div>
1405142186359 1395802358422 {{c1::Ad enal Insufficiency}} is a com
lication
of <u style="font-weight: bold; ">ab u
t cessation</u>&nbs
;of glucoco ticoids f
ollowing ch onic use.
1405442831774 1395802358422 Which emb yological st uctu e functions as the k
idneys <b>u
to week 4</b>&nbs
;of gestation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P one
h
os}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>At which
oint it degene ates.</i><b /><div
><img s c="
aste-584115552792.j
g" /></div>
1405443374512 1395802358422 Which emb yological st uctu e functions as an in
te im kidney fo the majo ity of the 1st t imeste ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::M
esone
h os}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Afte which it cont ibutes to the ma
le genital system.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-579820585496.j
g" /></div>
1405443425353 1395802358422 Which emb yological st uctu e develo
s into the

e manent kidney(s)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Metane
h os}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-579820585496.j
g" /></div>
1405443482097 1395802358422 Du ing which week of gestation does the Metane
h
os fi st a

ea ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Week 5}}</div>
<b /><div><b /
></div>
1405443505823 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::u ete ic bud}} is an emb yologica
l st uctu e de ived f om the <b>caudal end of the mesone
h ic duct</b>&nbs
;that
gives ise to the <b>u ete , enal
elvises, calyces and collecting ducts</b>.
1405443587389 1395802358422 F om which emb yological st uctu e does the u et
e ic bud develo
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mesone
h ic duct}}</div>
1405443606408 1395802358422 F om which emb yological st uctu e do the enal
collecting ducts develo
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::U ete ic Bud (via the Meson
e
h ic Duct)}}</div>
1405443641224 1395802358422 By which week of gestation is the u ete ic bud f
ully canalized?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::10th week}}</div>
1405443661055 1395802358422 With which emb yological st uctu e does the u et
e ic bud inte act to t igge fo mation of the glome ulus and enal tubules?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Metane
h ic mesenchyme}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-579820585496.j
g" /></div>
1405444063760 1395802358422 F om which emb yological st uctu e does the ena
l glome ulus develo
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Metane
h os}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-579820585496.j
g" /></div>
1405444081563 1395802358422 F om which emb yological st uctu e do the enal
tubules (u
to the distal convoluted tubule) develo
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1:
:Metane
h os}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Hence, <b>eve ything f om the glome ulus t
o the distal convoluted tubule</b>&nbs
;comes f om the <b>metane
h os</b>.</i></
div><div><i>Hence, <b>eve ything f om the collecting duct to the u ete </b>&nbs

;comes f om the <b>mesone
h os</b>&nbs
;(via the <b>u ete ic bud</b>).</i></div>

<div><i><img s c="
aste-579820585496.j
g" /></i></div>
1405444209098 1395802358422 Which emb yological st uctu e gives ise to eve
ything f om the enal glome ulus to the distal convoluted tubule?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Metane
h os}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-579820585496.
j
g" /></div>
1405444251633 1395802358422 Which emb yological st uctu e gives ise to eve
ything f om the enal collecting duct to the u ete ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
U ete ic Bud via the Mesone
h os}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-57982
0585496.j
g" /></div>
1405444291403 1395802358422 What is the most common site of enal obst uctio
n/hyd one
h osis in the fetus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::U ete o
elvic junction
}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Because it is the last to canalize.</i></div>
1405444521741 1395802358422 {{c1::Potte Sequence/Synd ome}} is a congenital
sequence that is caused by <b>oligohyd amnios</b>&nbs
;and subsequent <b>com
e
ssion of fetal limbs, facial featu es and the chest.</b>
<b /><div><i>Yi
elds <b>low-set ea s</b>&nbs
;and <b> et ognathia</b>.</i></div><div><i><img s c
="
aste-2443836391702.j
g" /></i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-2564095475998.j
g
" /></i></div>
1405444589405 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of death in Potte
Sequence?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmona y hy
o
lasia due to com
ession of
the chest}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-2564095475998.j
g" /></div>
1405444612402 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Potte Sequence?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Oligohyd amnios due to an <u>inability o im
ai ment in u in
ation</u>}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. ARPKD, Poste io U eth al Valves, Bil
ate al Renal Agenesis.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-2568390443294.j
g" /></i
></div>
1405444690537 1395802358422 {{c1::Ho seshoe kidney}} is a congenital enal a
bno mality that involved <b>fusion of the infe io
oles of both kidneys</b>.<di
v><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-3874060501409.j
g" /></div> <b /><div><i>Ty

ically found low in abdomen as the ho seshoe kidney is t a

ed unde the infe i
o mesente ic a te y as it ascends.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-32169305049
76.j
g" /></i></div>
1405446794570 1395802358422 How does kidney function change in with a Ho ses
hoe Kidney?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No mal}}</div>
1405446865326 1395802358422 Which sex ch omosomal diso de is associated wit
h Ho seshoe Kidney?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tu ne Synd ome}}</div>
1405446901803 1395802358422 How does the isk fo u ete o
elvic junction obs
t uction change with Ho seshoe Kidney?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</di
v>
1405446922296 1395802358422 How does the isk fo <b>hyd one
h osis</b>&nbs

;and <b>kidney stones</b>&nbs
;change with Ho seshoe Kidney?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405446943441 1395802358422 {{c1::Multicystic Dys
lastic Kidney}} is a conge
nital enal diso de that
esents with a <b>nonfunctional kidney consisting of
cysts and connective tissue</b>&nbs
;due to <b>abno mal inte action between the
u ete ic bud and metane
h ic mesenchyme</b>.
1405447042079 1395802358422 What is the most common ty
e of Multicystic Dys

lastic Kidney?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Unilate al}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Th
is ty
e of gene ally asym
tomatic as the cont alate al kidney unde goes hy
e t o

hy as com
ensation.</i></div>
1405447079974 1395802358422 Which kidney is ty
ically taken du ing living do
no t ans
lantation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Left Kidney as it has a longe
enal vein}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-4097398801059.j
g" /></div>
1405447892943 1395802358422 Which blood vessel ca ies blood <b>into</b>&nbs

;the glome ulus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Affe ent a te iole}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-4544075399686.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-4556960301585
.j
g" /></div>
1405448012983 1395802358422 Which blood vessel ca ies blood <b>out of</b>&n
bs
;the glome ulus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Effe ent a te iole}}</div>
<b /><div><b /></div><div><div><img s c="
aste-4544075399686.j
g" /></div><div

><img s c="
aste-4556960301585.j
g" /></div></div>
1405448031689 1395802358422 Which <b>genital</b>&nbs
;blood vessel does the
u ete un unde in <b>females</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ute ine A te y}}<
/div> <div><b /></div><i>"Wate unde the b idge."</i><div><i>Gynecological

ocedu es that involve mani
ulation o ligation of the ute ine a te y may damage
the u ete .<b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-4690104287633.j
g" /></div></div>
1405448126918 1395802358422 Which <b>genital</b>&nbs
;st uctu e does the u e
te un unde in males?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vas Defe ens}}</div> <div><b
/></div><i>"Wate unde the b idge."</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-468580932033
7.j
g" /></div>
1405448157717 1395802358422 What
e centage of total body weight is wate ?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::60%}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-5304284610900
.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-5978594476186.j
g" /></div>
1405449367551 1395802358422 What
e centage of total body weight is <b>ext a
cellula </b>&nbs
;fluid?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::20%}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-5304284610900.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-5974299508890.j
g" />
</div>
1405449406525 1395802358422 What
e centage of total body weight is <b>int a
cellula </b>&nbs
;fluid?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::40%}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-5304284610900.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-5974299508890.j
g" />
</div>
1405449430973 1395802358422 Which adiolabeled
lasma
otein is often used
to measu e total
lasma volume?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Albumin}}</div>
1405449452076 1395802358422 What
otein is used to measu e <b>ext acellula
</b>&nbs
;volume?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inulin}}</div>
1405449490578 1395802358422 Which glome ula filt ation ba ie acts as a <b
>size</b>&nbs
;ba ie ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fenest ated ca
illa y endothe
lium}}</div>
1405449603572 1395802358422 Which glome ula filt ation ba ie acts as a <b
>negative cha ge</b>&nbs
;ba ie ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fused basement mem
b ane with he
a an sulfate}}</div>
1405449635741 1395802358422 Which glome ula filt ation ba ie is lost in <
b>ne
h otic</b>&nbs
;synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::The negative cha ge ba
ie (fused basement memb ane with he
a an sulfate)}}</div>
1405449686959 1395802358422 What is the equation fo enal clea ance?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::C_x&nbs
;= (U_x&nbs
;* V)/P_x
}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-6468220747953.j
g" /></div>
1405450345308 1395802358422 If C_x&nbs
;&lt; GFR, what is the net
movement of substance <i>x</i>&nbs
;ac oss the tubula e
ithelium?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Net tubula eabso
tion}}</div> <b /><div><i>i.e. if you a e fi
lte ing mo e of x into the kidney tubules than you a e clea ing x f om the
lasm
a, then x must be being eabso bed by the kidneys</i></div>
1405450498929 1395802358422 If C_x&nbs
;&gt; GFR, what is the net
movement of substance <i>x</i>&nbs
;ac oss the enal tubula e
ithelium?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Net tubula sec etion}}</div>
<b /><div><i>i.e. if yo
u a e clea ing mo e
lasma of substance x than you a e filte ing, then substance
x must be being sec eted into the u ine.</i></div>
1405450566634 1395802358422 If C_x&nbs
;= GFR, what is the net mov
ement of substance <i>x</i>&nbs
;ac oss the enal tubula e
ithelium?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::No net sec etion o eabso
tion}}</div>
<b /><div><i>i.
e. you a e clea ing the same amount of
lasma of substance x than you a e filte
ing, hence substance x must not be moving ac oss the tubula e
ithelium at all (
o just not in a net value).</i></div>
1405450649959 1395802358422 What is the enal clea ance of <i>
a a</i>-amino
hi

u ic acid (PAH)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::C_PAH&nbs
;= RPF = 600
mL/min in no mal conditions}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is because <b>PAH is
maximally sec eted</b>&nbs
;f om the blood.</i></div>
1405451095182 1395802358422 What is the enal clea ance of Inulin?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::C_I&nbs
;= C_C&nbs
;= GFR ~ 100 mL/min in
no mal conditions}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is because <b>Inulin is neith

e sec eted o eabso bed, it is <u>f</u></b><s
an style="font-weight: bold"><u>
eely filte ed</u></s
an>.</i></div><div><i>Same thing with c eatinine but small
amounts also a e sec eted. &nbs
;Thus, c eatinine slightly ove estimates GFR</i
></div>
1405451214155 1395802358422 What is the enal clea ance of C eatinine?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::C_I&nbs
;= C_C&nbs
;= GFR ~ 100 mL/mi
n in no mal conditions}}</div> <b /><div><i>This is because along with Inulin,
<b>C eatinine is neithe sec eted o eabso bed. <u>It is
u ely filte ed</u>.<
/b></i></div>
1405451243539 1395802358422 What is the enal clea ance of Glucose?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::C_Glc&nbs
;= 0}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is be
cause <b>Glucose is maximally eabso bed</b>&nbs
;and <b>not exc eted</b>&nbs
;i
n no mal conditions</i></div>
1405451279979 1395802358422 The enal clea ance of which&nbs
;<b>exogenous</
b>&nbs
;com
ound can be clinically used to calculate GFR as it is <b>f eely filt
e ed</b>&nbs
;and <b>neithe sec eted o eabso bed</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::Inulin}}</div>
<b /><div><i>i.e. the amount of
lasma clea ed of the c
om
ound is the same as GFR</i></div>
1405451635737 1395802358422 What is the no mal oncotic
essu e of the bowma
n s
ace at the glome ulus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::π_bs&nbs
;= 0}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><i>This is because, no mally, the e a e not
lasma
oteins f
ilte ed into the glome ulus.</i></div>
1405451700535 1395802358422 What is the no mal GFR?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::~ 100 mL/min}}</div>
1405451714347 1395802358422 The enal clea ance of which <b>endogenous</b>&n
bs
;com
ound is commonly used to clinically estimate GFR?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::C eatinine}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , C_C&nbs
;slightly ove
estimates GFR as C eatinine is mode ately sec eted by the enal tubules.</i></d
iv>
1405451813124 1395802358422 The enal clea ance of which <b>exogenous</b>&nb
s
;com
ound is used to estimate <b>Effective Renal Plasma Flow</b>&nbs
;(ERPF)?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
a a</i>-aminohi

u ic acid (PAH)}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>This is because PAH is f eely filte ed <b>and</b>&nbs
;maximally sec eted
in the PCT. Hence all PAH that ente s the kidney is exc eted.</i></div><div><i>C
_PAH&nbs
;= ERPF = U_PAH&nbs
;* V / P_PAH</i></div
>
1405451945480 1395802358422 What is the equation fo enal <b>blood</b>&nbs

;flow (RBF)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RBF = RPF/(1-Hct)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Hct = hematoc it = the % of ed blood cells in the blood.</i></div>
1405452116985 1395802358422 What is the equation fo enal Filt ation F acti
on (FF)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::FF = GFR / RPF}}</div>
<b /><div><i>i.
e. <b>the f action of
lasma filte ed f om the amount of
lasma that ente s the
kidney</b></i></div>
1405452206648 1395802358422 What is the no mal enal filt ation f action?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::FF = GFR / RPF = 20%}}</div> <b /><div><i>i.e. 20% o
f the
lasma that ente s the kidney is filte ed</i></div>
1405452260492 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the enal <b>Filte ed L
oad</b>&nbs
;of a substance?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::FL = GFR * P_x
}}</div>
<b /><div><i>FL is in mg/min</i></div><div><i>GFR is in mL/min<
/i></div><div><i>P_x&nbs
;is in mg/mL</i></div>
1405452325546 1395802358422 Which glome ula blood vessel is <b>dilated</b>&
nbs
;by P ostaglandins?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Affe ent a te ioles}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Hence, NSAIDs will <b>inhibit affe ent a te iole dilation</b
>.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-10093173146318.j
g" /></div>
1405452372251 1395802358422 Which glome ula blood vessel is
efe entially
<b>const icted</b>&nbs
;by Angiotensin II?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Effe ent a
te iole}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Hence ACE Inhibito s <b>inhibit effe
ent a te iole const iction</b>&nbs
;and <b>cause effe ent a te iole dilation</b
>.<b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-10088878179022.j
g" /></div>
1405452463066 1395802358422 Which glome ula blood vessel is <b>dilated</b>&

nbs
;by ACE Inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Effe ent a te iole as it inhi
bits AT2-mediated const iction}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1008887817902
2.j
g" /></div>
1405458619673 1395802358422 How does RPF change following glome ula affe en
t a te iole const iction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>This about this, b ah. You' e const icting the <b>incoming</b>&nbs
;blood
vessel, hence the e will be less
lasma flowing th ough the glome ulus.</i></div
><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405458711797 1395802358422 How does GFR change following const iction of th
e glome ula affe ent a te iole?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><!--anki--><div><i>This about this, b ah. You' e const icting the&nbs

;<b>incoming</b>&nbs
;blood vessel, hence the e will be less
lasma flowing th
ough the glome ulus and less of it will be filte ed.</i></div><div><i><img s c="

aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405458751599 1395802358422 How does enal filt ation f action change follow
ing affe ent a te iole const iction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div
>
<b /><div><!--anki--><div><i>This about this, b ah. You' e const icting
the&nbs
;<b>incoming</b>&nbs
;blood vessel, hence the e will be less
lasma flo
wing th ough the glome ulus. <b>RPF and GFR both dec ease</b>.</i></div><div><i>
<img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405458786054 1395802358422 How does RPF change following const iction of th
e <b>effe ent</b>&nbs
;a te iole?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><!--anki--><div><i>You' e const icting the&nbs
;<b>outgoing</b>&nbs
;
blood vessel, hence the e will be less
lasma flowing th ough the glome ulus.</i
></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405459525638 1395802358422 How does GFR change following const iction of th
e effe ent a te iole?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Initial inc ease; dec ease with
substantial inc ease in esistance}}</div>
<b /><div><div><i>This one is a
bit t icky. As you const ict the effe ent a te iole, you inc ease the hyd ostat
ic
essu e (P_C)u
st eam at the glome ula ca
illa ies, <b>hence GFR
will inc ease</b>. Howeve , as RPF continues to dec ease with inc easing effe en
t a te iole const iction, <b>GFR etu ns to no mal o dec eases</b>.</i></div><d
iv><i>Hence, <b>with minimal inc eases in effe ent a te iole esistance, P_C&nbs
;dominates and GFR inc eases.</b></i></div><div><i>Hence, <b>with la
ge inc eases in effe ent a te iole esistance, RPF dominates and GFR dec eases</
b>.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405459721377 1395802358422 How does enal Filt ation F action change follow
ing const iction of the effe ent a te iole?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}
}</div> <div><div><i><b /></i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g"
/></i></div></div>
1405459747208 1395802358422 How does GFR change following an inc ease in
la
sma
otein concent ation (i.e. inc eased π_c)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Dec eased}}</div>
<div><div><i><b /></i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-107
97547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405459794360 1395802358422 How does enal filt ation f action change follow
ing an inc ease in
lasma
otein concent ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec
ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459815200 1395802358422 How does GFR change following a <b>dec ease</b>&
nbs
;in
lasma
otein concent ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div
>
<div><b /></div><i>i.e. π_c&nbs
;dec eases</i><b /><div><i><im
g s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459836480 1395802358422 How does enal filt ation f action change follow
ing a dec ease in
lasma
otein concent ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc e
ase}}</div>
<b /><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459879019 1395802358422 How does GFR change following const iction of th
e u ete ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>This
causes an inc ease in hyd ostatic
essu e at the bowman's s
ace.</i><b /><div
><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459919640 1395802358422 How does enal filt ation f action change follow
ing const iction of the u ete ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>

<b /><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459938187 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the enal exc etion at
e of the substance?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ER = V_u&nbs
;* U_x}}</div>
1405461426734 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the enal eabso
tion
ate of a substance?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RR_x = Filte ed load exc etion ate = FL - ER = (GFR * P_x) - (V * U_x)}}</div>
1405461485025 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the enal sec etion at
e of a substance?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::SR_x&nbs
;= exc etion at
e - filte ed load = ER - FL = (V * U_x) - (GFR * P_x)}}</div
>
1405461541013 1395802358422 At which
lasma concent ation of glucose does <b
>glucosu ia</b>&nbs
;begin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::~ 200 mg/dL}}</div>
1405461588228 1395802358422 At which
lasma concent ation of glucose a e all
enal glucose t ans
o te s fully satu ated?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::~ 375 mg
/dL}}</div>
1405461613523 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of Ha tnu
Disea
se?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1405461649054 1395802358422 {{c1::Ha tnu
Disease}} is a diso de of amino a
cid eabso
tion that is cha acte ized by <b>deficiency of neut al amino acid t
ans
o te s in the PCT and ente ocytes</b>.
<b /><div><i>Hence causing neut
al aminoacidu ia and dec eased abso
tion f om the gut.</i></div><div><i>Result
s in <b>
ellag a-like sym
toms</b>&nbs
;due to subsequent <b>Niacin (Vitamin B3)
</b>&nbs
;deficiency.</i></div>
1405461720032 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>glucose</b>&nbs
;
eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT (with Na)}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-12704513262182.j
g" /></div>
1405461835829 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on a e <b>amino acids</b>&n
bs
; eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT (with Na)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405461913260 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed HCO₃&nbs
; eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405461968789 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed Na eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT (es
ecially with gluco
se and amino acids)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /
></div>
1405461995249 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed Cl eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462012606 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed PO₄&nbs
; eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</di
v>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462030541 1395802358422 Whe e along the length of the ne
h on is <b>most
</b>&nbs
;of the filte ed K eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462046908 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed H₂O eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462066632 1395802358422 What ty
e of osmotic abso
tion is seen at the P
CT of the ne
h on?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Isosmotic abso
tion}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462183699 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on functions to <b>gen
e ate and sec ete NH₃&nbs
;</b>which acts as a buffe fo sec eted H<
su
>+</su
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462231006 1395802358422 At which section of the ne
h on does PTH functio
n to <b>inhibit Na/PO₄&nbs
;cot ans
o t</b>&nbs
;to induce PO<sub>4</
sub>&nbs
;exc etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>

1405462394955 1395802358422 At which section of the ne
h on does Angiotensin
II <b>stimulate Na/H exchange</b>, the eby leading to <b>inc eased Na, H<sub>2<
/sub>O and HCO₃&nbs
; eabso
tion</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT
}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13984413516381.j
g" /></div>
1405462726872 1395802358422 What
e centage of filte ed Na is eabso bed at
the PCT?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::65-80%}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-13980118549085.j
g" /></div>
1405462748772 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on <b>
assively eabso
bs H₂O </b>due to the enal medulla's hy
e tonicity?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Thin descending limb of the Loo
of Henle}}</div>
1405462822160 1395802358422 What is the Na
e meability in the thin <b>desce
nding</b>&nbs
;limb of loo
of Henle?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ze o}}</div>
1405462843331 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle is im
e meable t
o Na?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thin descending limb}}</div>
1405462865292 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle functions to mak
e u ine <b>hy
e tonic</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thin descending limb of th
e loo
of Henle}}</div> <b /><div><i>Achieved th ough
assive eabso
tion of H
₂O by vi tue of the medulla's hy
e tonicity and the limb's im
e meabi
lity to Na.</i></div>
1405462924033 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle is im
e meable t
o H₂O?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending limb}}</div>
1405463319257 1395802358422 What is the H₂O
e meability of the t
hick ascending limb of the loo
of Henle?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ze o}}</div
>
1405463346361 1395802358422 At which section of the ne
h on is <b>Mg<su
>2+<
/su
>&nbs
;and Ca<su
>2+ </su
> eabso bed <u>
a acellula ly</u>?</b><div><b><b
/></b></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending limb of the loo
of Henle}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This occu s via a <b>
ositive lumen
otential gene ated by K<su
>+
</su
>&nbs
;backleak.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img s c="
aste-14856291877387.j
g
" /></b></i></div>
1405463438606 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle functions to mak
e u ine <b>less concent ated</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending lim
b}}</div>
1405463460439 1395802358422 What
e centage of filte ed Na is eabso bed at
the thick ascending limb of the loo
of Henle?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::10-20%
}}</div>
1405463491410 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle <b>actively eab
so bs Na, K and Cl</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending limb of the l
oo
of Henle}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-15337328214520.j
g" /></div>
1405463969362 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on <b>actively eabso
bs Na and Cl</b>, the eby making u ine hy
otonic?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ea
ly DCT}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-15491947037217.j
g" /></div>
1405464031942 1395802358422 At which section of the ne
h on does PTH <b>inc
ease Ca/Na exchange</b>, the eby d iving Ca eabso
tion?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Ea ly DCT}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-15487652069921.j
g" /></div>
1405464077041 1395802358422 What
e centage of filte ed Na is eabso bed at
the ea ly DCT?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::5-10%}}</div>
1405464110296 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on functions to <b> ea
bso b Na</b>&nbs
;<b>in exchange fo sec eting K and H</b>?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Collecting duct}}</div> <div><b /></div><div><i>Gove ened by Aldoste on
e.</i></div><img s c="
aste-16011638080254.j
g" />
1405464484483 1395802358422 At which a ea of the ne
h on does Aldoste one go
ve n the <b> eabso
tion of Na in exchange fo K and H?</b><div><b><b /></b></d
iv><div>{{c1::Collecting Duct}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1600734311295
8.j
g" /></div>
1405464508946 1395802358422 {{c1::Aldoste one}} is a mine aloco ticoid that
acts on the collecting duct to inse t Na channels on the luminal memb ane.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-16007343112958.j
g" /></div>
1405464544259 1395802358422 {{c1::ADH}} is a ho mone that acts on the V₂&nbs
; ece
to at the collecting duct and induces the <b>inse tion of aqu

a
o in H₂O channels on the luminal memb ane</b>.
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-16007343112958.j
g" /></div>
1405464585709 1395802358422 At which segment of the ne
h on does ADH act to
inse t aqua
o in H₂O channels into the luminal memb ane?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Collecting duct}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1600734311295
8.j
g" /></div>
1405464609637 1395802358422 What
e centage of filte ed Na is eabso bed in
the collecting duct?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::3-5%}}</div>
1405464633208 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on is defective in Fan
coni Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-16496969384205.j
g" /></div>
1405466046970 1395802358422 {{c1::Fanconi Synd ome}} is a diso de of the PC
T that is associated with <b>inc eased exc etion of nea ly all amino acids, gluc
ose, HCO</b><sub style="font-weight: bold; ">3</sub><b>&nbs
;and PO</b><sub styl
e="font-weight: bold; ">4</sub>.
<b /><div><i>May esult in metabolic ac
idosis due to this (
oximal enal tubula acidosis).</i></div><div><i>Causes in
clude he edita y defects, ischemia and ne
h otoxins/d ugs.</i></div>
1405466102654 1395802358422 {{c1::Metabolic acidosis}} is an acid-base imbal
ance seen in Fanconi Synd ome that
esents due to the inc eased exc etion of HC
O₃.
1405466142205 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on is defective in Ba
ttne Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending loo
of Henle}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-16492674416909.j
g" /></div>
1405466205768 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of the enal tub
ula defect Ba tte Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal ecessive}}</
div>
1405466235909 1395802358422 {{c1::Ba tte Synd ome}} is an autosomal ecessi
ve diso de that affects the <b>Na/K/2Cl cot ans
o te of the thick ascending li
mb of the loo
of Henle</b>.
<b /><div><i>Hence esults in <b>hy
okalemia, m
etabolic alkalosis</b>&nbs
;and <b>hy
ocalcemia</b>.</i></div>
1405466443306 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Ba tte Synd ome?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>Due to defective Na/K/2Cl
cot ans
o te in the thick ascending limb.</i></div>
1405466484251 1395802358422 {{c1::Metabolic Alkalosis}} is an acid-base imba
lance seen in Ba tte Synd ome due to the hy
okalemia that is seen.
<b /><d
iv><i>Hy
okalemia esults due to defective function of the Na/K/2Cl cot ans
o te
in the thick ascending limb.</i></div>
1405466560493 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on is defective in Git
elman Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::DCT}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-16492674416909.j
g" /></div>
1405466585634 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of the enal tub
ula defect Gitelman Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}<
/div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-16492674416909.j
g" /></div>
1405466600971 1395802358422 How do u ina y Ca levels change in Ba tte Synd
ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e calciu ia}}</div> <b /><div><i>Com
a e th
is to Gitelman Synd ome which has <b>hy
ocalciu ia</b>&nbs
;o <b>no mocalciu ia
</b>.</i></div>
1405466675178 1395802358422 {{c1::Gitelman Synd ome}} is an autosomal ecess
ive diso de of NaCl eabso
tion at the DCT that
esents with <b>hy
okalemia,
metabolic alkalosis</b>&nbs
;and <b>hy
ocalciu ia</b>. <b /><div><i>It is less
seve e than Ba tte Synd ome.</i></div>
1405466721402 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on is defective in Lid
dle Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Collecting Duct}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-16492674416909.j
g" /></div>
1405466758810 1395802358422 {{c1::Liddle Synd ome}} is an autosomal dominant
diso de of the collecting duct that is cha acte ized by <b>inc eased Na eabso

tion</b>&nbs
;due to <b>inc eased activity of e
ithelial Na channels</b>.
1405466796938 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of the enal tub
ula diso de Liddle Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</
div>

1405466818146 1395802358422 How do Aldoste one levels change in Liddle Synd
ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased}}</div>
1405466836706 1395802358422 {{c1::Hy
e tension}} is a ca diovascula diso de
seen in Liddle Synd ome due to <b>inc eased Na eabso
tion</b>.
1405466860907 1395802358422 {{c1::Metabolic Alkalosis}} is an acid-base imba
lance seen in Liddle Synd ome due to the hy
okalemia that a ises f om inc eased
Na eabso
tion.
1405466928167 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Liddle Synd ome?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia (due to the inc eased Na eabso
tion)}}</div>
1405466950655 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Liddle Synd ome?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Amilo ide}}</div> <b /><div><i>K-s
a ing diu etic.</i></d
iv>
1405466973484 1395802358422 How does the enal tubula concent ation of Inul
in change along the length of the <b>
oximal tubules</b>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , <b>inulin is neithe eabso bed
o sec eted</b>. Hence, <b>its concent ation inc eases as a esult of wate bein
g eabso bed</b>.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-18438294602410.j
g" /></i></d
iv>
1405467512264 1395802358422 How does a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in blood
essu
e influence the RAAS?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Activation of JG cells}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18687402705510.j
g" /></div>
1405467830062 1395802358422 How does a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in Na delive y t
o the macula densa influence the RAAS?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467848637 1395802358422 How do ad ene gics influence the RAAS?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Activation via beta-1 ad ene gic ece
to s}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467865499 1395802358422 Which ad ene gic ece
to s function to activate
the RAAS?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-1}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467879957 1395802358422 Which enzyme conve ts Angiotensinogen to Angiote
nsin I?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Renin}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467899895 1395802358422 Whe e is Renin made?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
Kidneys}}</div>
1405467907677 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to conve t Angiotensin I
to Angiotensin II?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ACE}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467922527 1395802358422 Whe e is Angiotensin Conve ting Enzyme (ACE) mad
e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Lungs}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18683
107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467935420 1395802358422 Which ece
to does Angiotensin II bind to on va
scula smooth muscle to t igge vasocont iction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AT I
ece
to s}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This inc eases BP.</i></div><div><i><img s
c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468014561 1395802358422 Which glome ula a te iole is <b>const icted</b>
&nbs
;by Angiotensin II action?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Effe ent a te iole}}<
/div> <div><b /></div><i>This is <b>in effo ts to
ese ve GFR</b>&nbs
;(i.e.
kidney function) in states of low blood volume (which activates the RAAS).</i><
div><i>Remembe , <b>dec eased blood volume = dec eased RPF</b>.<b /></i><div><i
mg s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div></div>
1405468093218 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence Aldoste one e
lease f om the ad enal co tex?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>The eby esulting in <b>Na etention, K exc etion, H exc eti
on</b>.</i><div><i>This inc eases BP by t igge ing H₂O eabso
tion.<
b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div></div>
1405468185726 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct es
ond to al
doste one by inse ting Na and Na/K
um
s into the a
ical and basolate al memb an
es es
ectively?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P inci
al cells}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i>This d ives the <b> eabso
tion of Na</b>.</i><b /><div><img s c="


aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405468224452 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct es
ond to Al
doste one by u
egulating luminal K channels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P inci

al Cell}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>This d ives the <b>exc etion of K</b>.</i><b
/><div><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405468267607 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct es
ond to Al
doste one by inc easing the ex
ession of H<su
>+</su
>&nbs
;ATPases on the lumi
nal memb ane?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inte calated Cells}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>This d ives <b>exc etion of H</b>.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-186831
07738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468316467 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence ADH elease f
om the
oste io
ituita y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Remembe , ADH inc eases H₂O eabso
tion y <b>inse ting aqua
o
in channels at the luminal memb ane of
inci
al cells</b>.</i></div><div><i><im
g s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468381954 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence the activity o
f <b>
oximal tubule Na/H t ans
o te s</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}
}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405468407919 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence thi st?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , Angiotensin II's
actions all evolve a ound co ecting/maintaining blood volume/
essu e.</i></d
iv><div><i><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468459868 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II limit eflex b adyca dia
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::By affecting ba o ece
to function}}</div> <div><b
/></div><i>The no mal es
onse to any vaso
essive action would include eflex
b adyca dia (e.g. with al
ha-1 ad ene gic agonists). This es
onse is mitigated
by AT2's action at ba o ece
to s.</i><div><i><b /></i><div><i>S sly though... l
ook at this diag am. Is the e anything AT2 doesn't do?</i></div></div><div><i><i
mg s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468580273 1395802358422 {{c1::At ial Nat iu etic Pe
tide}} is a ho mone
eleased by the ca diac at ia in es
onse to an <b>inc ease</b>&nbs
;in blood vo
lume that functions to <b> elax vascula smooth muscle via cGMP</b>.
<b /><d
iv><i>The eby inc easing GFR and dec easing enin levels.</i></div><div><i>Essen
tially, ANP acts as a "b ake" on the RAAS system. It acts in o

osing fashion if
blood volume inc eases.</i></div>
1405468724299 1395802358422 {{c1::JG cells}} a e a com
onent of the JGA that
a e desc ibed as modified smooth muscle of the affe ent a te iole.
1405468766704 1395802358422 {{c1::Macula Densa}} is a com
onent of the JGA t
hat is desc ibed as a <b>NaCl senso </b>&nbs
;and
a t of the DCT.
1405468791958 1395802358422 Which cells of the JGA sec ete Renin in es
onse
to <b>dec eased</b>&nbs
; enal BP o <b>beta-1 ad ene gic</b>&nbs
;stimulation?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::JG cells}}</div>
1405468846790 1395802358422 Which cells of the JGA sec ete Renin in es
onse
to a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in NaCl delive y to the DCT?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::JG cells}}</div>
1405468873648 1395802358422 {{c1::E yth o
oietin}} is a ho mone eleased by
<b>inte stitial cells in the
e itubula ca
illa y bed of the kidneys</b>&nbs
;i
n es
onse to hy
oxia that functions to stimulate RBC
olife ation.
1405468932028 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on functions to conve
t 25-OH Vitamin D into 1,25-(OH)₂&nbs
;Vitamin D (i.e. the active fo
m)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-21174
188769462.j
g" /></div>
1405468989734 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the
oximal tubule of the kidne
y conve ts 25-OH Vitamin D into 1,25-(OH)₂&nbs
;Vitamin D (i.e. activ
e vitamin D)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::1-al
ha-hyd oxylase}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-21169893802166.j
g" /></div>
1405469032495 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Renal Failu e}} is a
ossible enal
com
lication of NSAID use as they function to <b>block the enal-
otective synt
hesis of
ostaglandins</b>.
<b /><div><i>Remembe ,
ostaglandins functions
to <b>dilate</b>&nbs
;the affe ent a te iole and dec ease GFR.</i></div>

1405469122427 1395802358422 {{c1::Angiotensin II}} is a ho mone synthesized
in es
onse to dec eased BP that functions to <b>const ict the effe ent a te iol
e</b>&nbs
;and <b>inc ease Na and H₂O eabso
tion</b>&nbs
;to mainta
in GFR and FF. <b /><div><i>Just think of <b>why</b>&nbs
;Angiotensin II is se
c eted, b ah.</i></div><div><i><b>Angiotensin II acts to
ese ve enal function
in low blood volume states</b>.</i></div><div><i>It also <b>acts to maintain ci
culating blood volume by inc easing both
oximal and distal Na eabso
tion.</
b></i></div><div><i><b><img s c="
aste-21556440859413.j
g" /></b></i></div>
1405469338329 1395802358422 {{c1::At ial Nat iu etic Pe
tide (ANP)}} is a ho
mone eleased by the ca diac at ia in es
onse to <b>inc eased at ial
essu e<
/b>&nbs
;that functions to <b>inc ease GFR and Na filt ation</b>&nbs
;<u>without
causing com
ensato y Na eabso
tion</u>.
<b /><div><i>The net effect is
<b>Na loss</b>&nbs
;and <b>loss of blood volume</b>.</i></div><div><i>ANP acts i
n an o

osite fashion of the RAAS and can be seen as a "b ake" on the RAAS.</i><
/div><div><i><img s c="
aste-21552145892117.j
g" /></i></div>
1405469431822 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct es
ond to AD
H by inc easing the numbe of aqua
o in channels to inc ease H₂O eab
so
tion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P inci
al cells}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-21552145892117.j
g" /></div>
1405479969734 1395802358422 How does Digitalis change K levels?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It shifts K out of cells.<
/i></div>
1405480134281 1395802358422 How does <b>hy
e </b>osmola ity change K levels?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It b ings
K out of the cell.</i></div>
1405480159841 1395802358422 How does Insulin deficiency influence K levels?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>It b ings K out of
cells.</i></div>
1405480175664 1395802358422 How does cell lysis change K levels?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><b /></div>
1405480189003 1395802358422 How does Acidosis change K levels?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Acidosis b ings K out of c
ells.</i></div>
1405480211508 1395802358422 How do beta-ad ene gic <b>antagonists</b>&nbs
;c
hange K levels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>It
b ings K out of cells.</i></div>
1405480241171 1395802358422 How does se um <b>hy
o</b>-osmola ity change K l
evels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>D ives K i
nto cells.</i></div>
1405480272898 1395802358422 How does Insulin change K levels?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Insulin activates the Na/K
ATPase which moves K into cells.</i></div>
1405480293588 1395802358422 How does Alkalosis change K levels?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Alkalosis shifts K into ce
lls.</i></div>
1405480308898 1395802358422 How do beta-ad ene gic agonists change K levels?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>They t igge K mov
ement into cells.</i></div>
1405480327248 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte <b>deficiency</b>&nbs
;i
s associated with <b>nausea, malaise, stu
o </b>and <b>coma</b>?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Hy
onat emia}}</div>
1405480374724 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>U-waves on an ECG</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
o
kalemia}}</div>
1405480392883 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>flattened T-waves on ECG</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Hy
okalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>A hythmia and muscle weakness is also see
n.</i></div>
1405480415646 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>tetany, seizu es </b>and <b>
olonged QT inte val</b>?

<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
ocalcemia}}</div>
1405480494809 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>tetany</b>&nbs
;and <b>To sades de Pointes</b>?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Hy
omagnesemia}}</div>
1405480513886 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>bone loss</b>&nbs
;and <b>osteomalacia</b>?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Hy
o
hos
hatemia}}</div>
1405480554384 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>i itability</b>, stu
o and coma?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::Hy
e nat emia}}</div>
1405480589250 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>widened QRS inte vals on ECG?</b><div><b><b /></b></div><
div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
1405480614506 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>
eaked T-waves on ECG</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e
kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>A hythmia and muscle weakness a e also se
en.</i></div>
1405480637023 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b> enal stones, bone
ain, abdominal
ain</b>&nbs
;and <b>
s
ychiat ic ove tones</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e calcemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Psychiat ic ove tones = alte ed mental status, anxiety.</i></div>
1405480698432 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>dec eased dee
tendon eflexes</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Hy
e magnesemia}}</div>
1405480751511 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>metastatic calcifications</b>&nbs
;and <b>hy
ocalcemia</b>
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e
hos
hatemia}}</div>
1405480768499 1395802358422 What is the Hende son-Hasselbalch equation?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-24734716657761.j
g" />}}</div>
1405481377695 1395802358422 What is the Winte s fo mula (used to
edict the
es
i ato y com
ensation fo metabolic acidosis)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i
mg s c="
aste-24975234826294.j
g" />}}</div>
<b /><div><i>If the measu ed P<
sub>CO2</sub>&nbs
;diffe s significantly f om the
edicted P_CO2, the
n a mixed acid-base diso de is likely
esent.</i></div>
1405481446894 1395802358422 What is no mal a te ial
H?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::7.4}}</div>
1405481911651 1395802358422 What a te ial
H is diagnostic of acidosis?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 7.4}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-2572255913654
1.j
g" /></div>
1405481929717 1395802358422 What a te ial
H is diagnostic of Alkalosis?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 7.4}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-25718
264169245.j
g" /></div>
1405481940601 1395802358422 What P_CO2&nbs
;value is seen in <b> e
s
i ato y</b>&nbs
;acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P_CO2&nbs
;&gt
; 40 mmHg}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-25718264169245.j
g" /></div>
1405481988628 1395802358422 What P_CO2&nbs
;value is seen in <b>me
tabolic </b>acidosis <u>with es
i ato y com
ensation</u>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::P_CO2&nbs
;&lt; 40 mmHg}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-25718
264169245.j
g" /></div>
1405482079952 1395802358422 What P_CO2&nbs
;value is seen in <b> e
s
i ato y</b>&nbs
;alkalosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P_CO2&nbs
;&l
t; 40 mmHg}}</div>
<div><b /></div><img s c="
aste-25718264169245.j
g" />
1405482109637 1395802358422 What P_CO2&nbs
;value is seen in <b>me
tabolic</b>&nbs
;alkalosis <u>with es
i ato y com
ensation</u>?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::P_CO2&nbs
;&gt; 40 mmHg}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-25718264169245.j
g" /></div>
1405482160888 1395802358422 What is the cause of <b>inc eased anion ga
</b>&
nbs
;metabolic acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-266245022681
31.j
g" />}}</div>
1405482213323 1395802358422 What is the cause of <b>no mal anion ga
</b>&nbs


;metabolic acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-26658862006480.
j
g" />}}</div>
1405482237905 1395802358422 What is the equation to calculate anion ga
?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anion Ga
= Na - (Cl + HCO₃)}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>No mal value is 8-12 mEq/L</i></div>
1405482278691 1395802358422 What is the no mal value fo anion ga
?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::8-12 mEq/L}}</div>
1405482291749 1395802358422 {{c1::Renal Tubula Acidosis}} isa &nbs
;diso de
of the enal tubules that leads to <b>non-anion ga
hy
e chlo emic metabolic a
cidosis</b>.
1405485319006 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e 1 RTA}} is a ty
e of enal tubula ac
idosis that is associated with a <b>defect in the ability of al
ha-inte calated
cells to sec ete H</b><su
style="font-weight: bold; ">+</su
>, hence <b>no new
HCO₃&nbs
;is gene ated</b>. <b /><div><i>The eby esulting in metab
olic acidosis.</i></div>
1405485393969 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is also ef
e ed to as <b>Distal</b>&nbs
;RTA?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1}}</div>
1405485410606 1395802358422 What is the
H of the u ine in <b>Ty
e 1, Distal
</b>&nbs
; enal tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 5.5}}</div>
1405485442152 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with a <b>defect in the ability of al
ha-inte calated cells to sec ete H</b><
su
style="font-weight: bold; ">+</su
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1/Dista
l RTA}}</div> <b /><div><i>Hence, new HCO₃&nbs
;canot be gene ated
.</i></div>
1405485490688 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Ty
e 1, Distal enal t
ubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div>
1405485510541 1395802358422 How does the isk fo calcium
hos
hate kidney s
tones change in Ty
e 1, Distal enal tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Due to an <b>inc ease in u ina y
H</b>&nb
s
;and <b>inc eased bone tu nove </b>.</i></div>
1405485546444 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with Am
hote icin B toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1/Distal}}</div
>
1405486214590 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with analgesic ne
h o
athy?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1/Distal}}</div>
1405486228772 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with a <b>defect in the
oximal tubule's ability to eabso b HCO</b><sub sty
le="font-weight: bold; ">3</sub>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal}}</
div>
<b /><div><i>Hence the e is inc eased exc etion of HCO₃and
metabolic acidosis.</i></div>
1405486276951 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal RTA}} is a ty
e of enal t
ubula acidosis that involves <b>defective HCO₃&nbs
; eabso
tion at
the
oximal tubule</b>, the eby esulting in <b>inc eased HCO₃&nbs
;
exc etion</b>&nbs
;in the u ine.
<b /><div><i>The u ine is eventually ac
idified by the al
ha-inte calated cells of the collecting duct as they sec ete H
.</i></div>
1405486350370 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with <b>hy
okalemia</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1/Distal; Ty
e 2/P o
ximal}}</div>
1405486367675 1395802358422 How does the level of K change in Ty
e 2/P oxima
l enal tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div>
1405486391126 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with <b>inc eased isk of hy
o
hos
hatemic ickets</b>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal}}</div>
1405486415845 1395802358422 What is the u ina y
H in Ty
e 2/P oximal enal
tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 5.5}}</div>
1405486443196 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with <b>Fanconi Synd ome</b>&nbs
;(e.g. Wilson Disease)?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal}}</div>
1405486467252 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is also ef

e ed to as <b>
oximal</b>&nbs
; enal tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::Ty
e 2}}</div>
1405486501294 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with <b>lead</b>&nbs
;o <b>aminoglycosides</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T
y
e 2/P oximal RTA}}</div>
1405486528009 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with Multi
le Myeloma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal RTA}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is due to the amyloid light chains seen.</i></div>
1405486539077 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with Ca bonic Anhyd ase inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oxima
l RTA}}</div>
1405486551977 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with&nbs
;<b>hy
oaldoste onism</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy
e ka
lemic RTA}}</div>
1405486872609 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with&nbs
;<b>aldoste one esistance</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy

e kalemic RTA}}</div>
1405486907092 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with&nbs
;K-s
a ing diu etics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy
e kalemic
RTA}}</div>
1405486924796 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy
e kalemic RTA}} is a ty
e of en
al tubula acidosis that involves <b>hy
e kalemia</b>&nbs
;that <b>im
ai s ammon
iagenesis in the PCT</b>, the eby esulting in <b>dec eased buffe ing ca
acity</
b>&nbs
;and <b>dec eased H exc etion</b>&nbs
;into the u ine.
1405486988523 1395802358422 What is the
H in Ty
e 4/Hy
e kalemic enal tubu
la acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 5.5}}</div>
1405487020740 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with&nbs
;<b>hy
e kalemia</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy
e kalemic
RTA}}</div>
1419967509032 1367090743656 <b>A
o
tosis</b><div><b /></div><div><div>P og
ammed cell death; {{c1::ATP}} equi ed. {{c2::Int insic}} o {{c3::ext insic}}

athway; both
athways lead to activation of cytosolic {{c4::cas
ases}} that medi
ate cellula b eakdown.</div><div><b /></div><div>No significant {{c5::inflamma
tion}} (unlike nec osis).</div><div><b /></div><div>Cha acte ized by dee
ly {{c
6::eosino
hilic}} cyto
lasm, cell {{c7::sh inkage}}, nuclea {{c8::sh inkage}} (
called {{c9::
yknosis}}) and&nbs
;baso
hilia, memb ane {{c10::blebbing}}, nuclea
{{c12::f agmentation}} ({{c11::ka yo hexis}}), and fo mation of&nbs
;{{c13::a

o
totic&nbs
;bodies}}, which a e then {{c14::
hagocytosed}}.</div><div><b /></
div><div>{{c15::DNA ladde ing}} is a sensitive indicato of a
o
tosis; du ing {{
c16::ka yo hexis}}, endonucleases cleave</div><div>at {{c17::inte nucleosomal
egions}}, yielding {{c18::180}}-b
f agments.&nbs
;</div><div><b /></div><div>{
{c19::Radiation the a
y}} causes a
o
tosis of {{c20::tumo s}} and su ounding ti
ssue via {{c21::f ee adical}} fo mation and {{c22::dsDNA b eakage}}. {{c23::Ra

idly dividing}} cells (e.g., {{c24::skin}}, {{c24::GI mucosa}}) a e ve y susce
t
ible to adiation the a
y-induced a
o
tosis.</div></div>
1419968119249 1367090743656 <b>A
o
tosis-Int insic
athway</b><div><b /></d
iv><div><div>Involved in {{c1::tissue emodeling}} in {{c2::emb yogenesis}}. Occ
u s when a {{c3:: egulating facto }} is withd awn f om a
olife ating cell
o
u
lation (e.g., dec eased {{c4::IL-2}} afte a com
leted immunological eaction le
ading to a
o
tosis of
olife ating effecto cells). Also occu s afte ex
osu e
to {{c5::inju ious stimuli (e.g., adiation, toxins, hy
oxia).}}</div><div><b /
></div><div>Changes in
o
o tions of anti- and
o- {{c6::a
o
totic}} facto s l
ead to inc eased {{c7::mitochond ial
e meability}} and {{c8::cytoch ome c}} el
ease. {{c10::BAX}} and {{c9::BAK}} a e {{c11::
o}}-a
o
totic
oteins; {{c12::B
cl-2}} is {{c13::anti}}-a
o
totic.</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c14::Bcl-2}}
e
vents {{c15::cytoch ome c}} elease by binding to and inhibiting {{c16::A
af-1}}
. A
af-1 no mally induces the activation of {{c17::cas
ases}}. If {{c18::Bcl-2}}
is ove ex
essed (e.g., follicula lym
homa), then {{c19::A
af-1}} is ove ly in
hibited, leading to dec eased {{c20::cas
ase}} activation and {{c21::tumo igenes
is}}.</div></div><div><b /></div>

1419997389582 1367090743656 <b>A
o
tosis</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b>
Ext insic
athway</b></div><div><b /></div><div><div>2
athways:</div><div><b
/></div><div>{{c3::<div>Ligand ece
to inte actions (FasL binding</div><div>to
Fas [CD95])</div>}}</div><div><b /></div><div>{{c4::<div>Immune cell (cytotoxic
T-cell elease of</div><div>
e fo in and g anzyme B)</div>}}</div><div><b /></
div><div>{{c5::Fas-FasL}} inte action is necessa y in thymic&nbs
;medulla y {{c6
::negative selection}}. Mutations in {{c7::Fas}} inc eases numbe s of ci culatin
g {{c8::self- eacting}} lym
hocytes due to failu e of clonal deletion.</div><div
><b /></div><div>Afte {{c9::Fas}} c osslinks with {{c10::FasL}}, multi
le {{c1
1::Fas}} molecules coalesce, fo ming a binding site fo a {{c12::death domain}}–co
ntaining adapter protein, {{c13::FADD}}. FADD inds inactive {{c14::caspases}},
activating them.</div></div><div><r /></div><div>Defective {{c2::Fas-FasL}} int
eraction is the asis for {{c1::autoimmune disorders}}</div>
1419997509226 1412253438515 <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e47
78_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_tmp24nosI.png" />
1419997509354 1412253438515 <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e47
78_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_tmp24nosI.png" />
1419997509355 1412253438515 <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e47
78_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_tmp24nosI.png" />
1419997509360 1412253438515 <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e47
78_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_tmp24nosI.png" />
1419997509372 1412253438515 <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e47
78_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_tmp24nosI.png" />
1419997509376 1412253438515 <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e47
78_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_tmp24nosI.png" />
1419997509378 1412253438515 <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e47
78_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_tmp24nosI.png" />
1419997509379 1412253438515 <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e47
78_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_tmp24nosI.png" />
1419997509380 1412253438515 <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e47
78_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_tmp24nosI.png" />
1419997509381 1412253438515 <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e47
78_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d54373600002d8021a2e391ea8e1d39748e4778_tmp24nosI.png" />
1419997644908 1367090743656 <>Necrosis:</>&nsp;{{c1::Enzymatic degradatio
n}} and {{c2::protein denaturation}} of a cell resulting from exogenous injury.
Intracellular components {{c3::leak}}; {{c4::inflammatory}} process (unlike apop
tosis).<div><r /></div><div>TPES</div><div><>{{c5::Coagulative}}</>:&nsp;{{
c12::Heart}}, {{c12::liver}}, {{c12::kidney}}; occurs in tissues supplied y {{c
13::end-arteries}}; increases cytoplasmic inding of {{c14::acidophilic}} dye. {
{c15::Proteins}} denature first, followed y enzymatic degradation.</div><div><

r /></div><div><>{{c6::Liquefactive}}</>:&nsp;{{c16::Brain}}, {{c16::acteria
l ascess}}; occurs in CNS due to high {{c17::fat}} content. In contrast to coag
ulative necrosis, enzymatic degradation due to the release of {{c18::lysosomal e
nzymes}} occurs first.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c7::Caseous}}</>: {{c19:
:TB}}, {{c19::systemic fungi}}, {{c19::Nocardia}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><
>{{c8::Fatty}}</>:&nsp;{{c20::Enzymatic (pancreatitis [saponification])}} and
{{c20::nonenzymatic (e.g., reast trauma)}}; calcium deposits</div><div>appear {
{c21::dark}} lue on staining.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c9::Firinoid}}</
>:&nsp;{{c22::Vasculitides (e.g., Henoch-Schönlein purpura, Churg-Strauss syn
r
ome)}}, {{c23::malignant hypertension}}; {{c24::amorphous}} an
{{c24::pink}} on
H&amp;E.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c10::Gangrenous}}</b>:&nbsp;{{c25::Dry
(ischemic coagulative)}} an
{{c26::wet (infection)}}; common in {{c11::limbs}}
an
{{c11::GI tract}}.</
iv>
1419997952914 1367090743656 <b>Cell injury-&nbsp;</b><b>Reversible vs. Irrev
ersible</b><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b>Reversible with O2:</b></
iv><
iv><
i
v>{{c1::ATP}}
epletion</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Cellular/mitochon
rial {{c8::
swelling}}(
ecrease
ATPlea
ing to
ecrease
activity of {{c2::Na+/K+ pumps}})</

iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c3::Nuclear chromatin}} clumping</
iv><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv>
ecrease
{{c4::glycogen}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c5::Fatty}} chan
ge</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Ribosomal/polysomal
etachment (
ecrease
{{c6::pr
otein}}&nbsp;synthesis)&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Membrane {{c7::blebbing
}}</
iv><
iv style="font-weight: bol
; "><br /></
iv></
iv><
iv><b>Irreversible:
</b></
iv><
iv><
iv>Nuclear {{c10::pyknosis}}, {{c11::karyorrhexis}}, {{c12::kar
yolysis}}&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c13::Plasma membrane}}
amage (
egr
a
ation of</
iv><
iv>membrane phospholipi
)</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c9::Lys
osomal}} rupture</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Mitochon
rial {{c14::permeability/va
cuolization}};</
iv><
iv>{{c15::phospholipi
}}-containing amorphous
ensities wi
thin mitochon
ria (swelling alone is reversible)</
iv></
iv>
1419998426633 1367090743656 <b>Infarcts: re
vs pale</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
i
v>{{c12::Reperfusion}} injury
ue to
amage by {{c1::free ra
icals}}</
iv><
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv><b>Re
</b></
iv><
iv><
iv>Re
(hemorrhagic) infarcts (left in A
) occur in {{c2::loose}} tissues with {{c3::multiple}} bloo
supplies, such as {
{c4::liver}}, {{c5::lungs}}, an
{{c6::intestine}}.</
iv><
iv style="font-weight
: bol
; "><br /></
iv></
iv><
iv><b>Pale</b></
iv><
iv>Pale infarcts (right in A
) occur in {{c7::soli
}} tissues with {{c8::a single}} bloo
supply, such as {{
c9::heart}}, {{c10::ki
ney}}, an
{{c11::spleen}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><i
mg src="paste-30966714204419.jpg" /></
iv>
<
iv>Re
= reperfusion.</
iv>
1419999750969 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999750997 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999750998 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999751071 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999751072 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999751073 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src

="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999751074 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999751075 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999751076 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999751077 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999751078 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999751079 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999751080 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999751081 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1419999751082 1412253438515 <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76c
bf_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="164f1cee2c55b60a31b0a3fa7679692b3ca76cbf_tmpi7bHfQ.png" />
1420000122114 1367090743656 <b>Shock</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>First sign of
shock is {{c1::tachycar
ia}}. Shock in the setting of {{c2::DIC}} 2° to trauma is
likely
ue to {{c3::sepsis}}. Distributive shock inclu
es {{c4::septic}}, {{c5::
neurogenic}}, an
{{c6::anaphylactic}} shock.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Dist
ributive shock</b></
iv><
iv>{{c13::High}}-output failure ({{c7::
ecrease
}} TPR
, {{c8::increase
}} CO2, {{c9::increase
}} venous return)</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv>
<
iv>{{c10::
ecrease
}} PCWP (pumonary capillary we
ge pressure)</
iv><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv>Vaso{{c11::
ilation (warm,
ry skin)}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b
>Hypovolemic/car
iogenic shock</b></
iv><
iv>{{c14::Low}}-output failure ({{c15:
:increase
}} TPR, {{c16::
ecrease
}} CO, {{c12::
ecrease
}} venous return)</
iv>
<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>PCWP {{c17::increase
}} in car
iogenic</
iv><
iv>PCWP {{c1
8::
ecrease
}} in hypovolemic</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Vaso{{c19::constriction
(col
, clammy patient)}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Bloo
pressure {{c20::resto
re
}} with IV flui
s</
iv>
1420000665184 1367090743656 <b>Atrophy</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>{{c1::R
e
uction}} in the size an
/or number of cells.&nbsp;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>
<b>Causes inclu
e:</b></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c3::Decrease
}} {{c2::en
oge
nous hormones (e.g., post-menopausal ovaries)}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c4:
:Increase
}} {{c5::exogenous hormones (e.g., factitious thyrotoxicosis, steroi

use)&nbsp;}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c7::Decrease
}} {{c6::innervation (e.g
., motor neuron
amage)}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c13::Decrease
}} {{c8::bl
oo
flow/nutrients}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c12::Decrease
}} {{c9::metabol
ic
eman
(e.g., prolonge
hospitalization, paralysis)}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><


iv>{{c11::Increase
}} {{c10::pressure (e.g., nephrolithiasis)}}</
iv><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv>Occlusion of {{c14::secretory
ucts (e.g., cystic fibrosis)}}</
iv><
/
iv>
1420000898455 1367090743656 <b>Inflammation:&nbsp;Characterize
by {{c9::rub
or (re
ness)}}, {{c10::
olor (pain)}}, {{c11::calor (heat)}}, {{c12::tumor (swel
ling)}}, an
{{c13::functio laesa (loss of function).}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv
><b>Vascular component: </b>{{c4::increase
}}&nbsp;{{c1::vascular permeability}}
, {{c2::vaso
ilation}}, {{c3::en
othelial}} injury.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
b>Cellular component:&nbsp;</b>Neutrophils {{c5::extravasate}} from circulation
to injure
tissue to participate in inflammation through&nbsp;{{c6::phagocytosis
}}, {{c7::
egranulation}}, an
{{c8::inflammatory me
iator}} release.</
iv><
iv>
<br /></
iv><
iv><b>Acute</b>-{{c14::Neutrophil}}, {{c14::eosinophil}}, an
{{c1
4::antibo
y}} me
iate
. Acute inflammation is {{c15::rapi
}} onset ({{c15::secon

s}} to {{c15::minutes}}), lasts minutes to
ays. Outcomes inclu
e complete reso
lution, {{c16::abscess}} formation, an
progression to {{c17::chronic}} inflamma
tion.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Chronic</b>-{{c18::Mononuclear}} cell an
{{
c18::fibroblast}} me
iate
; characterize
by persistent {{c19::
estruction}} an

{{c19::repair}}. Associate
with {{c20::bloo
vessel}} proliferation, {{c21::fi
brosis}}. {{c22::Granuloma}}: no
ular collections of {{c23::epithelioi
}} {{c24:
:macrophages}} an
{{c25::giant}} cells. Outcomes inclu
e {{c26::scarring}} an

{{c27::amyloi
osis}}.</
iv>
1420001263554 1367090743656 <b>{{c5::Chromatolysis}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
i
v><
iv>Process involving the cell bo
y following {{c6::axonal}} injury. Changes
reflect {{c7::increase
protein synthesis}} in effort to {{c8::repair the
amage

axon.&nbsp;}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Characterize
by:</b></
iv><
iv>Ro
un
{{c1::cellular swelling (as seen in photo)}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Disp
lacement of the {{c3::nucleus}} to {{c2::the periphery}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv>Dispersion of {{c4::Nissl}} substance throughout cytoplasm</
iv></
iv><
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-31933081845911.jpg" /></
iv>
1420001463667 1367090743656 <b>Types of calcification</b><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv><b>Dystrophic calcification</b></
iv><
iv><
iv>Calcium
eposition in tissues
2° to {{c1::necrosis}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Ten
s to be localize
(e.g., on
{{c2::heart valves}}).</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Seen in {{c5::TB}} (lungs an

pericar
ium), {{c6::li uefactive}} necrosis of chronic abscesses, {{c7::fat}} n
ecrosis,&nbsp;{{c8::infarcts}}, {{c9::thrombi}}, {{c10::schistosomiasis}}, {{c11
::Mönckeberg arteriolosclerosis}}, congenital {{c12::CMV}}</
iv><
iv>+ {{c14::tox
oplasmosis}}, {{c13::psammoma}} bo
ies.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Is not
irect
ly associate
with {{c3::hypercalcemia}} (i.e., patients are usually {{c4::normo
calcemic}}).</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Metastatic calcification</b></

iv><
iv><
iv>Wi
esprea
(i.e.,
iffuse, metastatic)
eposition of calcium in nor
mal tissue 2° to {{c19::hypercalcemia}} (e.g., 1° {{c21::hyperparathyroi
ism}}, {{c2
2::sarcoi
osis}}, {{c23::hypervitaminosis D}}) or high {{c20::calcium-phosphate
pro
uct}} (e.g., {{c25::chronic renal failure}} + 2° {{c24::hyperparathyroi
ism}},
long-term {{c26::
ialysis}}, {{c27::calciphylaxis}}, {{c28::warfarin}}).</
iv><

iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Calcium
eposits pre
ominantly in {{c17::interstitial}} tis
sues of {{c16::ki
ney}}, {{c16::lungs}}, an
{{c16::gastric mucosa}} (these tiss
ues lose aci
uickly; {{c18::increase
}} pH favors
eposition).</
iv><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv>Patients are usually not {{c15::normocalcemic}}.</
iv></
iv>
1420001845890 1367090743656 <b>Leukocyte extravasation</b><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv><
iv>Extravasation pre
ominantly occurs at {{c1::postcapillary venules}}.</

iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Leukocytes exit from bloo
vessels at sites of tissu
e injury an
inflammation in 4 steps:</b></
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>St
ep 1: {{c2::Margination &amp; rolling}}</b></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Step 2
: {{c3::Tight-bin
ing}}</b></
iv><
iv><
iv><br /></
iv></
iv><
iv><b>Step 3: {{c
4::Diape
esis-leukocyte travels between en
othelial cells an
exits bloo
vessel
}}</b></
iv><
iv><
iv><br /></
iv></
iv><
iv><b>Step 4: {{c5::Migration-leukocyt
e travels through interstitium to site of injury or infection gui
e
by chemotac
tic signals}}</b></
iv><
iv><
iv><br /></
iv></
iv>
1420002109278 1367090743656 <b>Free ra
ical injury</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>
<
iv>Free ra
icals
amage cells via membrane {{c1::lipi
peroxi
ation}}, {{c2::p

rotein mo
ification}}, an
{{c3::DNA breakage}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Init
iate
via {{c4::ra
iation exposure (e.g., cancer therapy)}}, {{c5::metabolism of

rugs (phase I)}}, {{c6::re
ox reactions}}, {{c7::nitric oxi
e}}, {{c8::transit
ion metals}}, leukocyte {{c9::oxi
ative burst}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Free
ra
icals can be eliminate
by enzymes (e.g., {{c10::catalase}}, {{c11::superoxi

e
ismutase}}, {{c12::glutathione peroxi
ase}}), spontaneous
ecay, {{c13::anti
oxi
ants}} (e.g., {{c14::vitamins A}}, {{c14::C}}, {{c14::E}}).</
iv><
iv><br />
</
iv><
iv><b>Pathologies inclu
e:</b></
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv> {{c15::
Retinopathy of prematurity}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv> {{c18::Bronchopulmonary

ysplasia}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv> {{c17::Carbon tetrachlori
e, lea
ing to l
iver necrosis (fatty change)}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv> {{c16::Acetaminophen o
ver
ose (fulminant hepatitis, renal papillary necrosis)}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv>
<
iv> {{c19::Iron overloa
(hemochromatosis)}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv> {{c20::
Reperfusion injury (e.g., superoxi
e), especially after thrombolytic therapy}}</

iv></
iv>
1420002289106 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289108 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289109 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289110 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289111 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289112 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289113 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289114 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289115 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289141 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289143 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289145 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb


88_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289146 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289147 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289148 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289149 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002289150 1412253438515 <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb

88_Q_16.svg" /> <img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c7fc818
72ef5cb4bcc897ea96ee29
6279fb
88_tmpU Hf54.png" />
1420002445242 1367090743656 <b>Inhalation injury:</b>&nbsp;Most common pulmo
nary complication after exposure to fire. Inhalation of pro
ucts of combustion (
e.g., carbon particles, toxic fumes) lea
ing to chemical {{c1::tracheobronchitis
}}, {{c2::e
ema}}, an
{{c3::pneumonia}}.<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Scar formation
:</b> {{c5::70–80}}% of tensile strength returns at {{c4::3 months}} following wou
n
; {{c6::little}} a

itional tensile strength will be regaine
. Two common path
ologic types. {{c7::Hypertrophic}} scars &amp; {{c8::Keloi
}} scars (a

resse
i
n other car
s)</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv>
1420003088673 1367090743656 <b>Woun
Healing-Tissue Me
iators</b><
iv><b><br
/></b></
iv><
iv><b>Me
iator:</b> {{c1::PDGF}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Ro
le</b>:&nbsp;Secrete
by activate
{{c2::platelets}} an
{{c3::macrophages}}&nbs
p;</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>In
uces {{c5::vascular}} remo
eling an
&nbsp;{{c4:
:smooth&nbsp;muscle}}&nbsp;cell migration</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Stimulates
{{c6::fibroblast}} growth for {{c7::collagen}}</
iv><
iv>synthesis</
iv>
1420003143789 1412253438515 <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e


08_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_A_0.svg" />
<img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_tmpRhBM5u.png" />
1420003143790 1412253438515 <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e


08_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_A_0.svg" />
<img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_tmpRhBM5u.png" />
1420003143791 1412253438515 <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e


08_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_A_0.svg" />
<img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_tmpRhBM5u.png" />
1420003143792 1412253438515 <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e


08_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_A_0.svg" />
<img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_tmpRhBM5u.png" />
1420003143793 1412253438515 <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e


08_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_A_0.svg" />
<img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_tmpRhBM5u.png" />
1420003143814 1412253438515 <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e


08_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_A_0.svg" />
<img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_source_svg.svg" /> <img src

="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_tmpRhBM5u.png" />
1420003143816 1412253438515 <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e


08_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_A_0.svg" />
<img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_tmpRhBM5u.png" />
1420003143817 1412253438515 <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e


08_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_A_0.svg" />
<img src="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="6eb3419f3f81f0
4c627e54
62eff835a47e

08_tmpRhBM5u.png" />
1420003231353 1367090743656 <b>Woun
Healing-Tissue Me
iators</b><
iv><b><br
/></b></
iv><
iv><b>Me
iator: </b>{{c2::FGF}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Rol
e:</b>&nbsp;Stimulates all aspects of {{c1::angiogenesis}}</
iv>
1420003263741 1367090743656 <b>Woun
healing-Tissue me
iators</b><
iv><b><br
/></b></
iv><
iv><b>Me
iator:</b> {{c1::EGF}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Rol
e:&nbsp;</b>Stimulates cell growth via {{c2::tyrosine kinases}} (e.g., {{c3::EGF
R}}, as expresse
by {{c4::ERBB2}})</
iv>
1420003321420 1367090743656 <b>Woun
healing-Tissue me
iators</b><
iv><b><br
/></b></
iv><
iv><b>Me
iator: </b>{{c1::TGF-β}}</div><div><><r /></></div><div
><>Role: </>{{c2::Angiogenesis}}, {{c2::firosis}}, {{c2::cell cycle arrest}}<
/div>
1420003367320 1367090743656 <>Wound healing-Tissue mediators</><div><><r
/></></div><div><>Mediator:&nsp;</>{{c1::Metalloproteinases}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><>Role</>: {{c2::Tissue remodeling}}</div>
1420003401170 1367090743656 <>Iron poisoning:</> One of the leading causes
of fatality from toxicologic agents in {{c8::children}}.<div><r /></div><div><
>Mechanism:</>&nsp;Cell death due to {{c7::peroxidation of memrane lipids.}}
</div><div><r /></div><div><>Symptoms</></div><div>Acute—{{c6::nausea}}, {{c6::
vomiting}}, {{c6::gastric leeding}}, {{c6::lethargy}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></
div><div>Chronic—{{c5::metaolic acidosis}}, {{c5::scarring leading to GI ostruct
ion}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Treatment:&nsp;</>{{c1::Chelation}} (e.g.
, IV {{c2::deferoxamine}}, oral {{c3::deferasirox}}) and {{c4::dialysis}}.</div>
1420004029755 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029859 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029861 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029862 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029863 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029865 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029866 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029879 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37

cf_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029881 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029882 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029884 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029885 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029886 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029887 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029888 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029889 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029890 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_16.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029892 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_17.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029893 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_18.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029894 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_19.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029895 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_20.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029896 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_21.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029897 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37

cf_Q_22.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004029928 1412253438515 <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37
cf_Q_23.svg" /> <img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_A_0.svg" />
<img src="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="59460ee564d9e02ff44743c3a79f21d37cf_tmphNvunU.png" />
1420004265202 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec
02_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004265218 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec
02_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004265219 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec
02_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004265220 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec
02_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004265221 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec
02_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004265222 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec
02_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004265223 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec
02_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004265224 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec
02_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004265225 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec
02_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004265226 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec
02_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004265245 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec
02_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004265247 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec
02_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004265248 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec
02_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004265249 1412253438515 <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec

02_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_A_0.svg" />
<img src="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="463251ca5a57d26d27ea33c7781eea7c03ec02_tmpalevxV.png" />
1420004348931 1412253438515 <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e46
86_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_A_0.svg" />
<img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_tmp0TxU.png" />
1420004348932 1412253438515 <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e46
86_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_A_0.svg" />
<img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_tmp0TxU.png" />
1420004348933 1412253438515 <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e46
86_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_A_0.svg" />
<img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_tmp0TxU.png" />
1420004348934 1412253438515 <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e46
86_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_A_0.svg" />
<img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_tmp0TxU.png" />
1420004348935 1412253438515 <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e46
86_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_A_0.svg" />
<img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_tmp0TxU.png" />
1420004348937 1412253438515 <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e46
86_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_A_0.svg" />
<img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_tmp0TxU.png" />
1420004348938 1412253438515 <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e46
86_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_A_0.svg" />
<img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_tmp0TxU.png" />
1420004348939 1412253438515 <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e46
86_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_A_0.svg" />
<img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_tmp0TxU.png" />
1420004348940 1412253438515 <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e46
86_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_A_0.svg" />
<img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_tmp0TxU.png" />
1420004348941 1412253438515 <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e46
86_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_A_0.svg" />
<img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_tmp0TxU.png" />
1420004348971 1412253438515 <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e46
86_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_A_0.svg" />
<img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_tmp0TxU.png" />
1420004348973 1412253438515 <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e46
86_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_A_0.svg" />
<img src="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="93ec28d902c472a77600299c0c98147e1c0e4686_tmp0TxU.png" />
1420004482986 1367090743656 <>Granulomatous diseases</><div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Th1}} cells secrete {{c2::γ-inerferon}}, acivain {{c3::macrophaes}}.
{{c4::TNF-α}} from {{c5::mcrophges}} induce nd mintin {{c6::grnulom}} form
tion.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c7::Anti-TNF}} drugs cn, s  side ef
fect, cuse sequestering grnuloms to {{c8::brekdown}}, leding to {{c9::disse
minted disese}}.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Alwys test for {{c10::lten
t TB}} before strting {{c11::nti-TNF therpy.}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>
Gint Ass List</b></div><div><div>{{c12::Brtonell hensele (ct scrtch dises
e)}}&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c13::Berylliosis}}</div><div><br /></div

><div>{{c14::Churg-Struss syndrome}}</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c15::Crohn di
sese}}</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c16::Frncisell tulrensis}}</div><div><br
/></div><div>{{c17::Fungl infections (e.g., histoplsmosis, blstomycosis)}}</
div><div><br /></div><div>Grnulomtosis with {{c18::polyngiitis (Wegener)}}</d
iv><div><br /></div><div>{{c19::Listeri monocytogenes}} ({{c20::</div><div>grn
ulomtosis</div><div>infntiseptic</div><div>}})</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c
22::M. lepre}} (leprosy; {{c21::Hnsen}} disese)&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><
div>{{c23::M. tuberculosis}}</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c24::Treponem pllidu
m (tertiry syphilis)}}&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c25::Srcoidosis A}}<
/div><div><br /></div><div>{{c26::Schistosomisis}}</div></div><div><br /></div>
<div><img src="pste-100751342829717.jpg" /></div>
1420061995668 1367090743656 <b>{{c3::Myloidosis}}:&nbsp;</b>Abnorml ggreg
tion of proteins (or their frgments) into {{c1::β-pleated sheet}} structures lead
s to {{c2::damage and apoptosis.}}<div><r /></div><div><>Common types include.
..</></div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c4::AL (primary)}}:</>&nsp;Due to depos
ition of proteins from {{c5::Ig Light chains}}. Can occur as a {{c7::plasma cell
}} disorder or associated with {{c6::multiple myeloma}}. Often affects multiple
organ systems, including r{{c8::enal (nephrotic syndrome)}}, {{c9::cardiac (rest
rictive cardiomyopathy, arrhythmia)}}, {{c10::hematologic (easy ruising)}}, {{c
11::GI (hepatomegaly)}}, and {{c12::neurologic (neuropathy)}}.</div><div><r /><
/div><div><>{{c13::AA (secondary)}}:</>&nsp;Seen with chronic conditions, suc
h as {{c14::rheumatoid arthritis}}, {{c15::IBD}}, {{c16::spondyloarthropathy}},
{{c17::protracted infection}}. Firils composed of serum {{c18::Amyloid A}}. Oft
en {{c19::multisystem}} like AL amyloidosis.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c20
::Dialysis}} related:</>&nsp;Firils composed of {{c21::β2-microgloulin}} in pa
tients with {{c22::ESRD}} and/or on long-term dialysis. May present as {{c23::ca
rpal tunnel syndrome}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c24::Heritale}}:&nsp;<
/>Heterogeneous group of disorders. Example is {{c27::ATTR}} neurologic/cardiac
{{c28::amyloidosis}} due to {{c29::transthyretin (TTR or prealumin)}} gene mut
ation.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c25::Age-related (senile) systemic}}:</>
&nsp;Due to deposition of normal (wild-type) {{c30::TTR}} in {{c31::myocardium}
} and other sites. Slower progression of cardiac dysfunction relative to {{c32::
AL amyloidosis.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c26::Organ specific:}}</> Amy
loid deposition localized to {{c33::a single organ}}. Most important form is {{c
34::amyloidosis}} in {{c35::Alzheimer}} disease due to deposition of {{c36::amyl
oid-β protein}} cleaved from {{c37::amyloid precursor protein (APP)}}. Islet amylo
id polypeptide (IAPP) is commonly seen in {{c38::diaetes mellitus type 2}} and
is caused y deposition of amylin in {{c39::pancreatic islets.}}</div><div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-101253854003464.jpg" /></div>
1420062657508 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Lipofuscin}}</><div><r /></div><div><
div>A yellow-rown {{c2::“wear and tear”}} pigment A associated with normal {{c3::ag
ing}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>Formed y oxidation and polymerization of {{c4
::autophagocytosed}} organellar memranes.</div><div><r /></div><div>Autopsy of
elderly person will reveal {{c5::deposits in heart, liver, kidney, eye, and oth
er organs.}}</div></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-101502962106645.jp
g" /></div>
1420062759108 1367090743656 <>{{c1::P-glycoprotein}}</><div><r /></div><d
iv>Also known as {{c2::multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1)}}. Expressed y som
e cancer cells (e.g., colon, liver) to {{c3::pump out toxins}}, including {{c4::
chemotherapeutic agents}} (one mechanism of decreased responsiveness or resistan
ce to chemotherapy over time).</div>
1420063001073 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001209 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001211 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16

54_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001212 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001214 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001215 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001216 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001217 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001219 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001220 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001221 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001222 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001223 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001224 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063001225 1412253438515 <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d16
54_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_A_0.svg" />
<img src="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="83ffd97897d87d660d0870a7a317edfc20d1654_tmpAGvISf.png" />
1420063055661 1367090743656 <>-plasia definitions</><div><r /></div><div>
<>{{c5::Hyperplasia}}:</> {{c6::increase in numer of cells}}</div><div><r />
</div><div><>{{c3::Metaplasia}}:</>&nsp;{{c4::</div><div>One adult cell type
is replaced y another. Often 2° to irritation (e.g., Barrett esophagus) and/or</d
iv><div>environmental exposure (e.g., smoking-induced tracheal/ronchial squamou
s metaplasia).</div>}}<div><r /></div><div><>{{c2::Dysplasia}}:&nsp;</>{{c1:
:Anormal growth with loss of cellular orientation, shape, and size in compariso
n to normal tissue maturation; commonly preneoplastic.}}</div>
1420063180759 1367090743656 <>Irreversile</><div><r /></div><div><>{{c3

::Anaplasia}}:</>&nsp;{{c4::Loss of structural differentiation and function of
cells, resemling primitive cells of same tissue; often equated with undifferen
tiated malignant neoplasms. May see “giant cells” with single large nucleus or sever
al nuclei.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c2::Neoplasia:}}</>&nsp;{{c5::A c
lonal proliferation of cells that is uncontrolled and excessive. Neoplasia may 
e enign or malignant.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c1::Desmoplasia:}}</>&
nsp;{{c6::Firous tissue formation in response to neoplasm (e.g., linitis plast
ica in diffuse stomach cancer).}}</div>
1420063391744 1367090743656 <>Tumor grade vs stage</><div><r /></div><div
><>Grade</></div><div>Determined y degree of {{c1::cellular differentiation}}
and {{c2::mitotic}} activity on histology. Usually graded 1–4; 1 = {{c3::low grad
e, well differentiated}}; 4 = {{c4::high grade, poorly differentiated, anaplasti
c.}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Stage usually has more {{c5::prognostic}} value
than grade.</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><>Stage</></div><div>D
egree of l{{c6::ocalization/spread}} ased on site and size of 1° lesion, spread t
o regional lymph nodes, presence of metastases. Based on clinical (c) or patholo
gy (p) findings. Example: cT3N1M0</div><div><r /></div><div><div>TNM staging sy
stem (Stage = Spread):&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>T = {{c7::Tumor size}}</
div><div>N = {{c8::Node involvement}}</div><div>M = {{c9::Metastases}}</div><div
><r /></div><div>TMN each has independent {{c10::prognostic}} value.</div></div
>
1420063515986 1367090743656 <>Tumor nomenclature</><div><r /></div><div>T
he term carcinoma implies {{c1::epithelial}} origin, whereas sarcoma denotes {{c
2::mesenchymal}} origin. Both terms imply {{c3::malignancy}}.&nsp;</div><div><
r /></div><div>Most {{c5::carcinomas}} spread {{c4::lymphatically}}, whereas mos
t {{c6::sarcomas}} spread {{c7::hematogenously}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><d
iv>Notale exceptions to carcinomas that spread lymphatically include {{c8::rena
l cell carcinoma (often invades renal vein)}}, {{c9::hepatocellular carcinoma (o
ften invades hepatic vein)}}, {{c10::follicular carcinoma of the thyroid}}, and
{{c11::choriocarcinoma}}, all of which may spread {{c12::hematogenously}}.</div>
1420063735703 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735704 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735782 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735784 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735785 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735786 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735787 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735788 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />

<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735789 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735790 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735791 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735792 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735793 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735794 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735795 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735797 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735798 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_16.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420063735799 1412253438515 <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f76
18_Q_17.svg" /> <img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_A_0.svg" />
<img src="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cd1561a3885f6afdff3e9779354c1178f7618_tmpVVMcME.png" />
1420065107697 1367090743656 <>Tumor differences</><div><r /></div><div><
>{{c6::Benign:}}</> Usually {{c1::well}} differentiated, {{c2::low}} mitotic ac
tivity, {{c3::well}} demarcated, {{c4::no}} metastasis, {{c5::no}} necrosis.</di
v><div><r /></div><div><>{{c7::Malignant}}:&nsp;</>May e {{c15::poorly}} di
fferentiated, {{c16::erratic}} growth, {{c17::locally}} invasive/diffuse, may {{
c18::metastasize}}, decreased {{c19::apoptosis}} (upregulation of telomerase pre
vents chromosome shortening and cell death).</div><div><><r /></></div><div><
>{{c8::Cachexia}}:&nsp;</>Weight {{c9::loss}}, muscle {{c10::atrophy}}, and {
{c11::fatigue}} that occur in chronic disease (e.g., cancer, AIDS, heart failure
, TB). Mediated y {{c12::TNF-α}} (nicknmed cchectin), {{c13::IFN-γ}}, and {{c14::
IL-6}}.</div>
1420065240601 1367090743656 <b>Psammoma bodies</b><div><br /></div><div><div
>{{c1::Laminaed}}, {{c2::concenric}}, {{c3::calcific spherules}}&nbsp;</div><d
iv><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><b>PSaMMoma bodies are seen in:</b></div><d
iv> {{c4::Papillary carcinoma of hyroid}}</div><div>&nbsp;{{c5::</div><div>Serous
papillary cysadenocarcinoma of</div><div>ovary</div>}}<div> {{c6::Meninioma}}<
/div><div> {{c7::Malinan mesohelioma}}</div></div><div><br /></div><div><im s
rc="pase-274319561195736.jp" /></div>

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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485919 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485920 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485921 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485951 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485952 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485953 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485954 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485956 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485957 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485958 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
2f_Q_11.sv" /> <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485959 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485960 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485961 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
2f_Q_14.sv" /> <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_mpz_0X6.pn" />

1420065485962 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485963 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
2f_Q_16.sv" /> <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485964 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485965 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
2f_Q_18.sv" /> <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_mpz_0X6.pn" />
1420065485966 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
2f_Q_19.sv" /> <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_mpz_0X6.pn" />
1420065485967 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
2f_Q_20.sv" /> <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_mpz_0X6.pn" />
1420065485968 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
2f_Q_21.sv" /> <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_mpz_0X6.pn" />
1420065485969 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
2f_Q_22.sv" /> <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_mpz_0X6.pn" />
1420065485970 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
2f_Q_23.sv" /> <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_A_0.sv" />
<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420065485971 1412253438515 <im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f73
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<im src="44d3c588d70a044de133c9f27036813c7d7f732f_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="ea90559d2b33d6425320c865e7593f423c3954ad_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd66c_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420067407961 1412253438515 <im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd6
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<im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd66c_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420067407963 1412253438515 <im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd6
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<im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd66c_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420067407965 1412253438515 <im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd6
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<im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd66c_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420067407966 1412253438515 <im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd6
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<im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd66c_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd66c_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd66c_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd66c_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1420067407971 1412253438515 <im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd6
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<im src="268b6495191dd0f8f8df5701a29663d0345dd66c_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1419885794776 1367090743656 <div><b>Immunosuppressans</b>&nbsp;</div><div><
br /></div><div>Aens ha block {{c1::lymphocye}} acivaion and proliferaio
n. Reduce acue ransplan rejecion by suppressin {{c3::cellular immuniy}}. F
re uenly combined o achieve reaer efficacy wih decreased {{c4::oxiciy}}.<
/div><div><br /></div><div>Chronic suppression increases risk of {{c2::infecion
}} and {{c2::malinancy}}.</div>
1419885856964 1367090743656 <b>Immunosuppressan</b><div><b><br /></b></div>
<div><b>{{c1::Cyclosporine}}</b></div><div><br /></div><div><b>Mechanism:&nbsp;<
/b>{{c2::Calcineurin}} inhibior; binds {{c3::cyclophilin}}. Blocks {{c4::T}} ce
ll acivaion by prevenin {{c5::IL-2}} ranscripion.</div><div><br /></div><d
iv><b>Use:</b>&nbsp;{{c6::Transplan rejecion}} prophylaxis, {{c7::psoriasis}},
{{c8::rheumaoid arhriis}}.</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><b>Toxiciy:</b>&nbsp;
{{c9::Nephrooxiciy}},{{c10::hyperension}}, {{c11::hyperlipidemia}}, {{c12::hy
perlycemia}}, {{c13::remor}}, {{c14::hirsuism}}, {{c15::inival hyperplasia.
}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Noes:</b>&nbsp;Boh {{c17::calcineurin}} inhib
iors are hihly {{c16::nephrooxic}}.</div>
1419885974242 1367090743656 <b>Immunosuppressan</b><div><b><br /></b></div>
<div><b>{{c1::Tacrolimus}}</b></div><div><br /></div><div><b>Mechanism:</b>&nbsp
;{{c13::Calcineurin}} inhibior; binds {{c11::FK506}} bindin proein ({{c12::FK
BP}}).</div><div><br /></div><div>Blocks {{c10::T}} cell acivaion by prevenin
 {{c9::IL-2}} ranscripion.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Use</b>:&nbsp;{{c2::
Transplan rejecion prophylaxis.}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Toxiciy</b>:&
nbsp;Similar o {{c4::cyclosporine}}, increases risk of {{c6::diabees}} and {{c
5::neurooxiciy}}; no {{c7::inival hyperplasia}} or {{c8::hirsuism}}.</div><
div><br /></div><div>Noes:&nbsp;-limus drus bind {{c3::FKBP}}.</div>
1419886061357 1367090743656 <b>Immunosuppressan</b><div><b><br /></b></div>
<div><b>{{c1::Sirolimus (Rapamycin)}}</b></div><div><br /></div><div><b>Mechanis
m:</b>&nbsp;{{c11::mTOR}} inhibior; binds {{c12::FKBP}}.</div><div>Blocks {{c13
::T cel}}l acivaion and&nbsp;{{c14::</div><div>B&nbsp;cell }}&nbsp;differenia
ion by prevenin {{c15::IL-2}} sinal ransducion.</div><div><br /></div><div
><b>Use:</b>&nbsp;{{c10::Kidney ransplan rejecion prophylaxis.}}</div><div><b
r /></div><div><b>Toxiciy:</b>&nbsp;{{c4::Anemia}}, {{c5::hrombocyopenia}}, {
{c7::leukopenia}}, {{c6::insulin}} resisance, {{c8::hyperlipidemia}}; {{c9::non
-nephrooxic}}.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Noes:</b>&nbsp;Kidney “sir-vives.” Sy
nerisic wih</div><div>{{c2::cyclosporine}}. Also used in&nbsp;{{c3::</div><di
v>dru-eluin sens.}}</div><div><br /></div>
1419886276944 1367090743656 <b>Immunosuppressans</b><div><b><br /></b></div
><div><b>{{c1::Basiliximab}}</b></div><div><br /></div><div><b>Mechanism</b>:&nb
sp;{{c5::Monoclonal anibody}}; blocks {{c4::IL-2R}}.</div><div><br /></div><div
><b>Use:</b>&nbsp;{{c3::Kidney ransplan rejecion prophylaxis.}}</div><div><br
/></div><div><b>Toxiciy</b>:&nbsp;{{c2::Edema, hyperension, remor.}}</div><d
iv><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1419886359908 1367090743656 <b>Immunosuppressans</b><div><b><br /></b></div
><div><b>{{c1::Azahioprine}}</b></div><div><br /></div><div><b>Mechanism:</b>&n
bsp;Animeabolie precursor of {{c2::6-mercapopurine.}}</div><div><br /></div>
<div>Inhibis {{c3::lymphocye}} proliferaion by blockin {{c4::nucleoide}} sy
nhesis.</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><b>Use:&nbsp;</b>{{c5::Transplan rejecion
prophylaxis}}, {{c6::rheumaoid arhriis}}, {{c7::Crohn disease}}, {{c8::lomer
ulonephriis}}, oher auoimmune condiions.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Toxic
iy:</b>&nbsp;{{c9::Leukopenia}}, {{c10::anemia}}, {{c11::hrombocyopenia}}.</d
iv><div><br /></div><div><b>Noes:&nbsp;</b>{{c12::6-MP}} deraded by {{c13::xan
hine oxidase}}; oxiciy increased by {{c14::allopurinol}}.</div><div><br /></d

iv><div>Pronounce “azahio- purine.”</div>
1419886710312 1367090743656 <b>Immunosuppressans</b><div><b><br /></b></div
><div><b>{{c1::Glucocoricoids}}</b></div><div><br /></div><div><b>Mechanism:</b
>&nbsp;Inhibi {{c4::NF-κB}}. Suppress&nbsp;{{c5::both B and&nbsp;T cell}}&nbsp;fu
nction by decreased transcription of many {{c6::cytoines}}.</div><div><br /></d
iv><div><b>Use</b>:&nbsp;{{c7::Transplant rejection prophylaxis (immune suppress
ion)}}, many {{c8::autoimmune}} disorders, {{c9::inflammation}}.</div><div><br /
></div><div><b>Toxicity:</b>&nbsp;{{c10::Hyperlycemia}}, {{c11::osteoporosis}},
{{c12::central obesity}}, {{c13::muscle breadown}}, {{c14::psychosis}}, {{c15:
:acne}}, {{c16::hypertension}}, {{c17::cataracts}}, {{c18::peptic ulcers}}.</div
><div><br /></div><div><b>Notes:</b>&nbsp;Can cause {{c2::iatroenic}} {{c3::Cus
hin}} syndrome.</div>
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<im src="0fa9d2e39b1a9301b4db8527e88cd04695d4242c_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="0fa9d2e39b1a9301b4db8527e88cd04695d4242c_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="0fa9d2e39b1a9301b4db8527e88cd04695d4242c_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="0fa9d2e39b1a9301b4db8527e88cd04695d4242c_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1419887566186 1412253438515 <im src="36efee23faedfc16d912b0eadc6c4cb46334a0
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1419887566191 1412253438515 <im src="36efee23faedfc16d912b0eadc6c4cb46334a0
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1419873410907 1367090743656 <b>Hypersensitivity types</b><div><b><br /></b><
/div><div><b>Type I:&nbsp;</b></div><div><br /></div><div><div>{{c1::Anaphylacti
c}} and {{c2::atopic}}—free antien cross-lins {{c3::IE}} on presensitized {{c4:
:mast}} cells and {{c5::basophils}}, trierin immediate release of&nbsp;Fc rec
eptor vasoactive {{c6::amines}} that act at {{c7::postcapillary venules (i.e. hi
stamine).}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Reaction develops {{c8::rapidly}} after a
ntien exposure because of {{c9::preformed}} antibody. Delayed response follows
due to production of {{c10::arachidonic}} acid metabolites (e.., {{c11::leuotr
ienes}}).</div></div><div><br /></div><div><div>{{c12::First (type)}} and {{c12:
:Fast (anaphylaxis)}}. Types I, II, and III are all {{c13::antibody}} mediated.<
/div><div><br /></div><div><b>Test:</b> sin test for specific {{c14::IE.}}</di
v></div><div><br /></div><div><im src="paste-44835163603099.jp" /></div>
1419874150447 1367090743656 <b>Hypersensivity types<br /><br />Type II</b><d
iv><b><br /></b></div><div><div><b>{{c2::Cytotoxic}} ({{c1::antibody}} mediated)—<
/b>{{c3::IM}}, {{c4::IG}} bind to fixed antien on “enemy” cell, leadin to cellul
ar destruction.</div><div><br /></div><div>3 mechanisms:</div><div>&nbsp;{{c5::</

div><div>Opsonization leadin to phaocytosis or</div><div>complement activation
}}</div><div><br /></div><div> {{c6::Complement-mediated lysis}}</div><div><br />
</div><div> Antibody-dependent cell-mediated</div><div>cytotoxicity, usually due
to {{c7::NK}} cells or {{c8::macrophaes}}</div><div style="font-weiht: bold; "
><br /></div><div><div>Test: direct and indirect {{c9::Coombs}}’.</
iv><
iv><br />
</
iv><
iv><b>Direct</b>:
etects {{c10::antibo
ies}} that have a
here
to</
iv>
<
iv>patient’s RBCs (e.g., test an Rh{{c15::+}} infant of an</
iv><
iv>Rh{{c16::-}
} mother).</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>In
irect</b>:
etects {{c11::antibo
ies
}} that can a
here</
iv><
iv>to other RBCs (e.g., test an Rh{{c13::-}} woman for
Rh{{c14::+}} antibo
ies).</
iv></
iv><
iv style="font-weight: bol
; "><br /></

iv></
iv><
iv><
iv>Antibo
y an
complement lea
to&nbsp;{{c12::</
iv><
iv>membra
ne</
iv><
iv>attack complex (MAC).</
iv>}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="
paste-45226005627084.jpg" /></
iv>
<
iv>Type II is cy-2-toxic.</
iv><
iv><b
r /></
iv><
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv></
iv>
1419874577982 1367090743656 <b>Hypersensivity types</b><
iv><b><br /></b></

iv><
iv><b>Type III</b></
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><b>Immune complex—</b>an
tigen-antibo
y (IgG) complexes activate {{c1::complement}}, which attracts {{c2:
:neutrophils}}; neutrophils release {{c3::lysosomal}} enzymes.</
iv><
iv><b><br
/></b></
iv><
iv><
iv><span style="font-weight: bol
">{{c19::Serum sickness}}—</sp
an>an immune complex</
iv><
iv>
isease (type {{c4::III)}} in which antibo
ies to
the foreign proteins are pro
uce
(takes {{c5::5}}
ays). Immune complexes form
an
are
eposite
in {{c6::membranes}}, where they {{c7::fix complement}} (lea

s to tissue
amage). More common than Arthus reaction.</
iv><
iv style="font-wei
ght: bol
; "><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv><b>{{c18::Arthus reaction}}—</b>a local subacut
e antibo
y- me
iate
hypersensitivity (type {{c8::III}}) reaction. Intra
ermal i
njection of antigen in
uces {{c9::antibo
ies}}, which form antigen-antibo
y comp
lexes in the {{c10::skin}}. Characterize
</
iv><
iv>by {{c11::e
ema}}, {{c12::ne
crosis}}, an
activation of {{c13::complement}}.</
iv></
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv>In type III reaction, imagine an immune complex as 3 things stuck togeth
er: {{c14::antigen}}- {{c15::antibo
y}}-{{c16::complement}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv><
iv>Antigen-antibo
y complexes cause the {{c17::Arthus}} reaction.</
iv
><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>Test</b>: {{c20::immunofluorescent staining}}.</
iv></

iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-45969034969271.jpg" /></
iv> <
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv>Most serum sickness is now cause
by
rugs (not serum) acting as h
aptens. Fever, urticaria, arthralgias, proteinuria, lympha
enopathy 5–10
ays afte
r antigen exposure.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv
><br /></
iv>
1419874987388 1367090743656 <b>Hypersensitivity types</b><
iv><b><br /></b><
/
iv><
iv><b>Type IV</b></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b>{{c1::Delaye
}} ({{c2::Tcell}}-me
iate
) type</b>—sensitize
{{c3::T lymphocytes}} encounter antigen an
t
hen release {{c4::lymphokines}} (lea
s to {{c5::macrophage}}&nbsp;activation; no
{{c6::antibo
y}} involve
).</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="paste-46042049
413318.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>4th an
last—
elaye
. Cell me
iate

; therefore, it is not {{c7::transferable}} by serum.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv
>4 T’s = {{c8::T lymphocytes}}, {{c9::Transplant rejections}},&nbsp;{{c10::TB skin
tests}}, {{c11::Touching (contact
ermatitis)}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>Tes
t: {{c13::patch test}}, {{c12::PPD}}.</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></

iv></
iv>
1419875140051 1367090743656 <b>Hypersensitivity types</b><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv><
iv><b>ACID:</b></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Anaphylactic an
Atopic (type I)&nbsp;}}</

iv><
iv>{{c2::Cytotoxic (antibo
y me
iate
) (type II)&nbsp;}}</
iv><
iv>{{c3::Im
mune complex (type III)}}</
iv><
iv>{{c4::Delaye
(cell me
iate
) (type IV)}}</

iv></
iv>
1419875157789 1367090743656 <b>Hypersensitivy
isor
ers</b><
iv><br /></
iv>
<
iv><b>Type I</b></
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><
iv>{{c1::Anaphylaxis}} (e
.g., {{c4::bee sting, some foo
/
rug allergies)}}</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c
2::Allergic an
atopic
isor
ers}} (e.g., r{{c3::hinitis, hay fever, eczema, hiv
es, asthma}})</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><
iv>{{c5::Imme
iate}}, {{c6::ana
phylactic}}, {{c7::atopic}}</
iv></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><b
r /></
iv>

1419875563522 1367090743656 <b>Hypersensitivity
isor
ers</b><
iv><b><br /><
/b></
iv><
iv><b>Type {{c12::II}}</b></
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><
iv>{{c
1::Autoimmune hemolytic}} anemia&nbsp;</
iv><
iv>{{c2::Pernicious}} anemia</
iv>
<
iv>{{c3::I
iopathic thrombocytopenic purpura}}&nbsp;</
iv><
iv>{{c4::Erythrobl
astosis fetalis}}</
iv><
iv>{{c9::Acute hemolytic transfusion reactions}}&nbsp;<
/
iv><
iv>{{c8::Rheumatic fever}}</
iv><
iv>{{c5::Goo
pasture}} syn
rome</
iv><

iv>{{c7::Bullous pemphigoi
}}</
iv><
iv>{{c6::Pemphigus vulgaris}}</
iv><
iv sty
le="font-weight: bol
; "><br /></
iv><
iv>Disease ten
s to be {{c10::specific}}
to tissue or site where {{c11::antigen}} is foun
</
iv><
iv style="font-weight:
bol
; "><br /></
iv></
iv>
1419875642102 1367090743656 <b>Hypersensitivity
isor
ers</b><
iv><b><br /><
/b></
iv><
iv><b>{{c5::Type III}}</b></
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><
iv>{{c
3::SLE}}</
iv><
iv>{{c4::Polyarteritis no
osa}}</
iv><
iv>{{c6::Poststreptococca
l glomerulonephritis}}</
iv><
iv>{{c7::Serum sickness}}</
iv><
iv>{{c8::<
iv>Art
hus reaction (e.g., swelling an
inflammation</
iv><
iv>following tetanus vaccin
e)</
iv>}}</
iv><
iv style="font-weight: bol
; "><br /></
iv><
iv>Can be associa
te
with {{c1::vasculitis}} an
{{c2::systemic}} manifestations</
iv></
iv><
iv>
<br /></
iv>
1419875703894 1367090743656 <b>Hypersensitivity
isor
ers</b><
iv><b><br /><
/b></
iv><
iv><b>Type {{c9::IV}}</b></
iv><
iv><b><br /></b></
iv><
iv><
iv>{{c1
::Multiple sclerosis}}</
iv><
iv>{{c2::Guillain-Barré syndrome&nsp;}}</div><div>
{{c3::Graft-versus-host disease}}</div><div>{{c4::PPD (test for M. tuerculosis)
}}</div><div>{{c5::<div>Contact dermatitis (e.g., poison ivy, nickel</div><div>a
llergy)</div>}}</div><div style="font-weight: old; "><r /></div><div>Response
is {{c6::delayed}} and does not involve {{c7::antiodies}} (vs. types {{c8::I, I
I, and III}})</div></div>
1419875831638 1367090743656 <>Blood transfusion reactions</><div><><r />
</></div><div><>Allergic reaction</></div><div><r /></div><div><>Pathogenes
is:</>&nsp;Type {{c6::I}} hypersensitivity reaction against {{c7::plasma prote
ins}} in transfused lood.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Clinical presentation:<
/>&nsp;{{c2::Urticaria}}, {{c3::pruritus}}, {{c4::wheezing}}, {{c5::fever}}. T
reat with {{c1::antihistamines}}.</div>
1419875887910 1367090743656 <>Blood transfusion reactions</><div><><r />
</></div><div><>Anaphylactic reaction</></div><div><r /></div><div><>Pathog
enesis:</>&nsp;Severe allergic reaction. {{c1::IgA}}-deficient individuals mus
t receive lood products that lack {{c2::IgA}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Cl
inical presentation:</>&nsp;{{c3::Dyspnea}}, {{c4::ronchospasm}}, {{c5::hypot
ension}}, {{c6::respiratory arrest}}, {{c7::shock}}.</div>
1419875948164 1367090743656 <>Blood transfusion reactions</><div><><r />
</></div><div><>Ferile nonhemolytic transfusion reaction</></div><div><r />
</div><div><>Pathogenesis:&nsp;</>Type {{c1::II}} hypersensitivity reaction.
Host {{c2::antiodies}} against donor {{c3::HLA antigens}} and {{c4::leukocytes}
}</div><div><r /></div><div><>Clinical presentation</>:&nsp;{{c5::Fever}}, {
{c6::headaches}}, {{c7::chills}}, {{c8::flushing}}.</div>
1419876009845 1367090743656 <>Blood transfusion reactions</><div><><r />
</></div><div><>Acute hemolytic transfusion reaction</></div><div><><r /></
></div><div><>Pathogenesis:&nsp;</>Type {{c1::II}} hypersensitivity reaction
. {{c2::Intravascular hemolysis}} (ABO lood group incompatiility) or {{c3::ext
ravascular hemolysis}} (host antiody reaction against foreign antigen on donor
RBCs).</div><div><><r /></></div><div><>Clinical presentation:</>&nsp;{{c4
::Fever}}, {{c5::hypotension}}, {{c6::tachypnea}}, {{c7::tachycardia}}, {{c8::fl
ank pain}}, {{c9::hemogloinemia (intravascular)}}, {{c10::jaundice (extravascul
ar hemolysis).}}</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
1419876650252 1367090743656 <>Immune deficiencies-B cell deficiency</><div
><><r /></></div><div><>{{c14::X-linked (Bruton) agammagloulinemia}}</></d
iv><div><><r /></></div><div><>Defect:&nsp;</>Defect in {{c1::BTK}}, a {{c
2::tyrosine kinase}} gene leads to no {{c3::B cell}} maturation. {{c4::X-linked}
} recessive (increased in {{c5::Boys}}).</div><div><><r /></></div><div><>Pr
esentation:&nsp;</>Recurrent {{c6::acterial}} and {{c7::enteroviral}} infecti
ons after 6 months (decreased maternal {{c8::IgG}}).</div><div><><r /></></di

v><div><><r /></></div><div><>Findings:&nsp;</>Asent {{c9::CD19+}} B cell
count, decreased {{c11::pro-B}}, decreased {{c10::Ιg of a casses.}}</div><div>
<br /></div><div><div><div>Absent/scanty {{c12::ymph nodes}} and {{c13::tonsis
}}.</div></div></div>
1419876720151 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720152 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720153 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720154 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720155 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720156 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720158 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720159 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720160 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720176 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720178 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720179 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720180 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720181 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />

1419876720182 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720184 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876720185 1412253438515 <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1b
a7_Q_16.svg" /> <img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_A_0.svg" />
<img src="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="0ca20c92adf412e0edc635fdffc4e4c62d8f1ba7_tmpqrKyk4.png" />
1419876972972 1367090743656 <b>mmune deficiencies-B ce deficiency</b><div
><b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c10::Seective gA deficiency}}</b></div><div><br
/></div><div><b>Defect:</b>&nbsp;Unknown. Most {{c1::common}} 1° immunodeficiency.
</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Presenation:</b>&nbsp;Majority {{c2::Asymptomatic
}}. Can see {{c3::Airway}} and {{c3::G}}&nbsp;infections, {{c4::Autoimmune}} di
sease, {{c5::Atopy}}, {{c6::Anaphyaxis}} to {{c7::gA}}-containing products.</d
iv><div><br /></div><div><b>Findings:</b>&nbsp;gA &t; {{c8::7}} mg/dL with nor
ma {{c9::gG}}, {{c9::gM}} eves.</div><div><br /></div>
1419877318183 1367090743656 <b>mmune deficiencies-B Ce deficiency</b><div
><b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c9::Common variabe immunodeficiency}}</b></div><d
iv><br /></div><div><b>Defect:&nbsp;</b>Defect in {{c8::B-ce}} differentiation
. Many causes.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Presenation:&nbsp;</b>Can be acquir
ed in {{c3::20s–30}}s; increased risk of {{c4::autoimmune}} disease, {{c5::bronchi
ectasis}}, {{c6::ymphoma}}, {{c7::sinopumonary}} infections<b>.</b></div><div>
<br /></div><div><b>Findings: </b>decreased<b>&nbsp;</b>{{c2::pasma ces}}, de
creased&nbsp;{{c1::immunogobuins}}.</div>
1419877479049 1367090743656 <b>mmune deficiencies-T ce disorders</b><div>
<b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c1::Thymic apasia (DiGeorge syndrome)}}</b></div><
div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>Defect:</b>&nbsp;{{c2::22q11}} deetion; faiure<
/div><div>to deveop {{c3::3rd}} and {{c3::4th}} pharyngea pouches eads to abs
ent {{c4::thymus}} and {{c5::parathyroids}}.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Prese
ntation:</b>&nbsp;{{c6::Tetany (hypocacemia)}}, recurrent {{c7::vira/funga in
fections (T-ce deficiency)}}, {{c8::conotrunca abnormaities (e.g., tetraogy
of Faot, truncus arteriosus).}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Findings:</b>&n
bsp;Decreased&nbsp;{{c9::T ces}}, {{c10::PTH}}, and {{c11::Ca2+}}.&nbsp;</div>
<div><br /></div><div>Absent {{c12::thymic shadow}} on&nbsp;CXR.</div><div><br /
></div><div>22q11 deetion detected by</div><div>{{c13::FSH}}.</div><div><b><br
/></b></div>
1419877634829 1367090743656 <b>mmune Deficiencies-T ce disorders</b><div>
<b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c1::L-12 receptor deficiency}}</b></div><div><br /
></div><div><b>Defect:</b> decreased {{c2::Th1}} response. {{c3::Autosoma}} rec
essive.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Presentation:</b>&nbsp;Disseminated {{c4::
mycobacteria}} and {{c5::funga}} infections; may present after administration
of {{c6::BCG}} vaccine.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Findings:</b> decreased {{
c7::FN-γ}}.</div><div><br /></div>
1419877974290 1367090743656 <b>Immune deficiencies-T cell disorders</b><div>
<br /></div><div><b>{{c1::Auosomal dominan hyper-IE syndrome (Job syndrome)}}
</b></div><div><br /></div><div><b>Defec:</b>&nbsp;Deficiency of {{c4::Th17}} c
ells due o {{c5::STAT3}} muaion leads o impaired recruimen of {{c6::neuro
phils}} o sies of infecion.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Presenaion:</b>&n
bsp;FATED: {{c7::coarse Facies}}, cold (noninflamed) saphylococcal {{c8::Absces
ses}}, reained primary {{c9::Teeh}}, increased {{c10::IE}}, {{c11::Dermaolo
ic}} problems (eczema).</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Findins:</b>&nbsp;increas
ed {{c2::IE}}, decreased {{c3::IFN-γ}}.</div><div>&nbsp;</div>
1419878145214 1367090743656 <b>Immune deficiencies-T cell disorders</b><div>
<b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c1::Chronic mucocuaneous candidiasis}}</b></div><d
iv><b><br /></b></div><div><b>Defec:&nbsp;</b>{{c2::T-cell}} dysfuncion. Many
causes.</div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>Presenaion:&nbsp;</b>Noninvasive

<i>{{c3::Candida albicans}}</i> infecions of skin and mucous membranes.</div><d
iv><b><br /></b></div><div><b>Findins:&nbsp;</b>Absen in viro {{c4::T-cell pr
oliferaion}} in response o Candida aniens.</div><div><br /></div><div>Absen
cuaneous reacion o {{c5::Candida}} aniens.</div><div><b><br /></b></div><d
iv><b><br /></b></div>
1419878345854 1367090743656 <b>Immune deficiencies-B &amp; T cell disorders<
/b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c1::Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)
}}</b></div><div><br /></div><div><b>Defec:</b>&nbsp;Several ypes includin de
fecive {{c2::IL-2R}} {{c3::amma chain}} (mos common, X-linked), {{c4::adenosi
ne deaminase deficiency}} (auosomal recessive).</div><div><br /></div><div><b>P
resenaion:</b>&nbsp;Failure o {{c5::hrive}}, chronic {{c6::diarrhea}}, {{c7:
:hrush}}. Recurren {{c8::viral, bacerial, funal, and proozoal}} infecions.
</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Treamen</b>: {{c9::bone marrow ransplan}} (no
concern for {{c10::rejecion}}).</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Findins: </b>de
creased&nbsp;T-cell recepor {{c11::excision circles (TRECs)}}.&nbsp;Absence of
{{c12::hymic shadow (CXR)}}, {{c13::erminal ceners}} (lymph node biopsy), and
{{c14::T cells}} (flow cyomery).</div>
1419878486958 1367090743656 <b>Immune deficiencies-B &amp; T cell disorders<
/b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c1::Aaxia-elaniecasia}}</b></div><div><
b><br /></b></div><div><b>Defec: </b>defecs in {{c4::ATM}} ene leads o {{c3:
:DNA double srand breaks}} leadin o {{c2::cell cycle arres}}.</div><div><br
/></div><div><b>Presenaion:</b>&nbsp;Triad: {{c5::cerebellar defecs (Aaxia)}
}, {{c6::spider Aniomas (elaniecasia)}}, {{c7::IA}} deficiency.</div><div><
br /></div><div><b>Findins:</b> increased&nbsp;{{c8::AFP}}.</div><div>decreased
{{c9::IA}}, {{c9::IG}}, and {{c9::IE}}.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c
10::Lymphopenia}}, {{c11::cerebellar}}&nbsp;arophy.</div>
1419878635196 1367090743656 <b>Immune deficiencies-B &amp; T cell disorders<
/b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c1::Hyper-IM syndrome}}</b></div><div><br
/></div><div><b>Defec:</b> Mos commonly due o defecive {{c4::CD40L}} on {{c5
::Th}} cells = {{c6::class swichin}} defec; X-linked recessive</div><div><br
/></div><div><b>Presenaion</b>: Severe {{c7::pyoenic}} infecions early in li
fe; opporunisic infecion wih {{c8::Pneumocysis}}, {{c8::Cryposporidium}},
{{c8::CMV}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Findins: </b>increase<b>&nbsp;</b>{{c
2::IM}}.</div><div>decreased {{c3::IG}}, {{c3::IA}}, {{c3::IE}}.</div><div><
br /></div><div><br /></div>
1419878874626 1367090743656 <b>Immune deficiencies-B &amp; T cell disorders<
/b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c1::Wisko-Aldrich syndrome}}</b></div><di
v><b><br /></b></div><div><b>Defec:&nbsp;</b>Muaion in {{c2::WAS}} ene ({{c3
::X-linked}} recessive); T cells unable o {{c4::reoranize acin cyoskeleon}}
.</div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>Presenaion:&nbsp;</b>WATER: Wisko-Ald
rich: {{c5::Thrombocyopenic purpura}}, {{c6::Eczema}}, {{c7::Recurren infecio
ns}}.</div><div><br /></div><div>increased risk of {{c8::auoimmune}} disease an
d malinancy.</div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>Findins: </b>decreased<b>&nb
sp;</b>o normal {{c9::IG}}, {{c10::IM}}. Increased {{c11::IE}}, {{c12::IA}}
.</div><div><br /></div><div>Fewer and smaller {{c13::plaeles}}.</div>
1419879054667 1367090743656 <b>Immune deficiencies-phaocye dysfuncion<br
/><br />{{c1::Leukocye adhesion deficiency (ype I)}}</b><div><br /></div><div>
<b>Defec</b>:&nbsp;Defec in {{c2::LFA-1 inerin}} (CD{{c3::18}}) proein on {
{c4::phaocyes}}; impaired {{c5::miraion}} and {{c6::chemoaxis}}; {{c8::auo
somal}} {{c7::recessive}}.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Presenaion</b>:&nbsp;
Recurren bacerial {{c9::skin}} and {{c10::mucosal}} infecions, absen {{c11::
pus}} formaion, impaired {{c12::wound healin}}, delayed separaion of {{c13::u
mbilical cord (&;30 days)}}.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Findins</b>: incre
ased&nbsp;{{c14::neurophils}}.</div><div><br /></div><div>Absence of neurophil
s a&nbsp;{{c15::infecion sies}}.</div>
1419884452104 1367090743656 <b>Immune deficiencies-Phaocye dysfuncion</b>
<div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c1::Chédiak-Higashi syndrome}}</></div><div><
r /></div><div><>Defect:</>&nsp;Defect in {{c2::lysosomal trafficking}} regul
ator gene ({{c3::LST}}).</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c4::Microtuule}} dysfunc
tion in phagosome-lysosome fusion; {{c6::autosomal}} {{c5::recessive}}.</div><di

v><r /></div><div><>Presentation:&nsp;</>Recurrent {{c7::pyogenic}}</div><di
v>infections y {{c8::staphylococci}} and {{c8::streptococci}}, partial {{c9::al
inism}}, {{c10::peripheral neuropathy}}, progressive {{c11::neurodegeneration}}
, infiltrative {{c12::lymphohistiocytosis}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Findi
ngs:</>&nsp;{{c13::Giant granules}} in neutrophils and platelets.</div><div><
r /></div><div>{{c14::Pancytopenia}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>Mild {{c15::coa
gulation}} defects.</div>
1419884606664 1367090743656 <>Immune deficiency-Phagocyte dysfunction</><d
iv><><r /></></div><div><>{{c1::Chronic granulomatous disease}}</></div><di
v><><r /></></div><div><>Defect:&nsp;</>Defect of {{c10::NADPH oxidase}} l
eads to decreased {{c11::reactive oxygen species}} (e.g., superoxide) and asent
{{c12::respiratory urst}}&nsp;in neutrophils; {{c14::X-linked}} {{c13::recess
ive}}.</div><div><><r /></></div><div><>Presentation: </>increased suscepti
ility to {{c9::catalase +}} organisms.&nsp;</div><div><><r /></></div><div>
(PLACESS): {{c2::Pseudomonas}}, {{c3::Listeria}}, {{c4::Aspergillus}}, {{c5::Can
dida}}, {{c6::E. coli}}, {{c7::S. aureus}}, {{c8::Serratia}}.</div><div><><r /
></></div><div><>Findings:&nsp;</>Anormal {{c15::dihydrorhodamine}} (flow c
ytometry) test.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c16::Nitrolue tetrazolium dye}} re
duction test is {{c17::negative}} (test out of favor).</div><div><><r /></></
div><div><><r /></><div><r /></div><div><r /></div></div>
1419884768281 1367090743656 <>Grafts</><div><r /></div><div><>{{c8::Auto
graft:}}</> {{c7::From self.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c5::Syngeneic gr
aft:}} </>{{c6::From identical twin or clone.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{
{c3::Allograft}}:</> {{c4::From nonidentical individual of same species}}</div>
<div><r /></div><div><>{{c2::Xenograft}}:</> {{c1::From different species}}</
div>
1419885026361 1367090743656 <>Transplant rejection</><div><r /></div><div
><>{{c1::Hyperacute}}</></div><div><r /></div><div><>Onset:</> {{c2::within
minutes}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>Pathogenesis:</>&nsp;Pre-existing rec
ipient antiodies react to donor {{c5::antigen}} (type {{c4::II}} reaction), act
ivate {{c6::complement}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Features:</>&nsp;Wides
pread {{c7::thromosis}} of graft vessels leads to {{c8::ischemia/necrosis}}.</d
iv><div><r /></div><div>Graft must e {{c3::removed}}.</div>
1419885124978 1367090743656 <>Transplant rejection</><div><r /></div><div
><>{{c2::Acute}}</></div><div><r /></div><div><>Onset</>: {{c1::Weeks to mo
nths}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>Pathogenesis:</>&nsp;Cellular: {{c3::CTLs
}} activated against donor {{c4::MHCs}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>Humoral: sim
ilar to {{c6::hyperacute}}, except {{c5::antiodies}} develop after transplant.<
/div><div><r /></div><div><>Features:</>&nsp;{{c7::Vasculitis}} of graft ves
sels with dense {{c8::interstitial lymphocytic}} infiltrate.</div><div><r /></d
iv><div>Prevent/reverse with {{c9::immunosuppressants}}.</div>
1419885331063 1367090743656 <>Transplant rejection</><div><><r /></></d
iv><div><>{{c1::Chronic}}</></div><div><r /></div><div><>Onset</>: {{c2::Mo
nths to years}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>Pathogenesis:</>&nsp;Recipient {
{c3::T cells}} perceive donor {{c4::MHC}} as recipient MHC and react against {{c
5::donor}} antigens presented.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c6::Both cellular an
d humoral}} components.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Features:</>&nsp;{{c7::I
rreversile}}. {{c8::T-cell}} and {{c8::antiody}}-mediated damage.</div><div><
r /></div><div><>Organ specific:</> {{c9::Heart}}—{{c10::atherosclerosis}}. {{c1
1::Lungs}}—{{c12::ronchiolitis&nsp;oliterans}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><di
v>Liver—vanishing {{c13::ile ducts}}. Kidney—{{c15::vascular firosis}},&nsp;{{c14
::glomerulopathy}}.</div>
1419885538381 1367090743656 <>Transplant rejection</><div><><r /></></d
iv><div><>{{c2::Graft-versus-host-disease}}</></div><div><><r /></></div><d
iv><>Onset: </>{{c1::Varies}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>Pathogenesis:&nsp
;</>Grafted immunocompetent {{c3::T}} cells proliferate in the&nsp;{{c4::immun
ocompromised}} host and reject host cells with {{c5::“foreign” proteins}}, leads to
{{c6::severe organ dysfunction.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>Features:&nsp;<
/>{{c7::Maculopapular}} rash, {{c8::jaundice}}, {{c9::diarrhea}}, {{c10::hepato
splenomegaly}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>Usually in {{c11::one marrow}} and {

{c12::liver transplants (rich in lymphocytes).}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Pote
ntially eneficial in&nsp;one marrow transplant for {{c13::leukemia (graft-ver
sus-tumor effect).}}</div>
1419776499806 1367090743656 <>Lymphoid structures</><div><r /></div><div>
<>Lymph Node:</>&nsp;A {{c2::2°}} lymphoid organ that has {{c3::many}} afferent
s, {{c3::1 or more}} efferents. Encapsulated, with traeculae. Functions are non
specific filtration y {{c4::macrophages}}, storage of {{c5::B and T}} cells, an
d immune response activation.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Follicle</>:&nsp;S
ite of {{c6::B}}-cell localization and proliferation. In outer cortex. 1° follicle
s are {{c8::dense and dormant}}. 2° follicles have pale central {{c7::germinal cen
ters}} and are active.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Medulla</>:&nsp;Consists
of medullary cords (closely packed {{c9::lymphocytes}} and {{c10::plasma cells}}
) and medullary sinuses. Medullary sinuses communicate with {{c11::efferent}} ly
mphatics and contain {{c12::reticular cells and macrophages.}}</div><div><r /><
/div><div><>Paracortex</>:&nsp;Houses {{c13::T}} cells. Region of cortex etw
een follicles and medulla. Contains {{c14::high endothelial venules}} through wh
ich T and B cells enter from lood. Not well developed in patients with {{c15::D
iGeorge}} syndrome.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paracortex}} enlarges in an
extreme cellular immune response (e.g., viral infection).</div>
1419776736722 1367090743656 <>Sinusoids of spleen:</> Long, vascular chann
els in red pulp with fenestrated "arrel hoop" asement memrane. Macrophages fo
und neary.<div><r /></div><div><div>T cells are found in the {{c1::periarteria
l lymphatic sheath}} within the {{c2::white}} pulp of the spleen.</div><div><r
/></div><div>B cells are found in follicles within the {{c3::white}} pulp of the
spleen.&nsp;The {{c5::marginal zone}}, in etween the red pulp and white pulp,
contains {{c4::APCs}} and specialized B cells, and is where APCs {{c6::present
lood-orne antigens.}}</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c8::Macrophages}} in the sp
leen remove {{c7::encapsulated}} acteria.</div></div><div><r /></div><div><>S
plenic dysfunction</> (e.g., postsplenectomy, sickle cell disease): decreased {
{c9::IgM}} leading to decreased {{c10::complement activation}}, leading to decre
ased {{c11::C3 opsonization}}, which increases susceptiility to {{c12::encapsu
lated}} organisms</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><div><>(SHiNE SKi
S):</></div><div> {{c16::Streptococcus pneumoniae}}</div><div> {{c17::Haemophilus
influenzae type B&nsp;}}</div><div> {{c18::Neisseria meningitidis}}</div><div> {
{c19::Escherichia coli}}</div><div> {{c20::Salmonella spp.}}</div><div> {{c21::Kle
siella pneumoniae}}</div><div> {{c22::Group B Streptococci}}</div><div><r /></d
iv><div><>Postsplenectomy</>:</div><div> {{c13::Howell-Jolly odies (nuclear re
mnants)&nsp;}}</div><div> {{c14::Target cells}}</div><div> {{c15::Thromocytosis}
}</div></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-136128988447166.jpg" /></div>
1419776878533 1412253438515 <img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f5900
94_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_A_0.svg" />
<img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_tmp0pBwnv.png" />
1419776878535 1412253438515 <img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f5900
94_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_A_0.svg" />
<img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_tmp0pBwnv.png" />
1419776878536 1412253438515 <img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f5900
94_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_A_0.svg" />
<img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_tmp0pBwnv.png" />
1419776878537 1412253438515 <img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f5900
94_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_A_0.svg" />
<img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_tmp0pBwnv.png" />
1419776878538 1412253438515 <img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f5900
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<img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_tmp0pBwnv.png" />
1419776878539 1412253438515 <img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f5900

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<img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419776878540 1412253438515 <img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f5900
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<img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419776878541 1412253438515 <img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f5900
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<img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419776878542 1412253438515 <img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f5900
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<img src="049e00141f8a3176e8a89a7550ac435f590094_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419777373373 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419777373374 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419777373375 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419777373376 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419777373377 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419777373379 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419777373380 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_tmpAVqKmK.png" />
1419777373381 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_tmpAVqKmK.png" />
1419777373382 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f

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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419777373383 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_tmpAVqKmK.png" />
1419777373384 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_tmpAVqKmK.png" />
1419777373393 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_tmpAVqKmK.png" />
1419777373395 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_tmpAVqKmK.png" />
1419777373396 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_tmpAVqKmK.png" />
1419777373397 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419777373398 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_tmpAVqKmK.png" />
1419777373399 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_tmpAVqKmK.png" />
1419777373400 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_tmpAVqKmK.png" />
1419777373401 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
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<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_tmpAVqKmK.png" />
1419777373403 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
38_Q_22.svg" /> <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_tmpAVqKmK.png" />
1419777373404 1412253438515 <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f
38_Q_23.svg" /> <img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_A_0.svg" />
<img src="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8c413f4674667a36f793cd46c98234e9d3826f38_tmpAVqKmK.png" />
1419777789280 1367090743656 <>Thymus</><div><r /></div><div>Site of {{c3:
:T}}-cell differentiation and maturation. Encapsulated. From epithelium of {{c4:
:3rd}} pharyngeal pouches. Lymphocytes of {{c5::mesenchymal}} origin. Cortex is
dense with {{c6::immature}} T cells; medulla is pale with {{c7::mature}} T cells
and {{c8::Hassall corpuscles}} containing {{c9::epithelial reticular}} cells.</
div><div><r /></div><div><div>{{c1::T}} cells = {{c1::Thymus}}</div><div>{{c2::
B}} cells = {{c2::Bone marrow}}</div></div>
1419777899724 1412253438515 <img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d17
86_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_A_0.svg" />

<img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_tmpd45nC.png" />
1419777899725 1412253438515 <img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d17
86_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_tmpd45nC.png" />
1419777899726 1412253438515 <img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d17
86_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_tmpd45nC.png" />
1419777899727 1412253438515 <img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d17
86_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_tmpd45nC.png" />
1419777899728 1412253438515 <img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d17
86_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d32c761e1dc5c2cf3ec29a0915a0110a40d1786_tmpd45nC.png" />
1419816901398 1367090743656 <>HLA sutypes associated with diseases</><div
><r /></div><div>{{c5::<>A3</>:}}&nsp;{{c4::hemochromatosis}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><>{{c6::B27}}</>:&nsp;Psoriatic arthritis, Ankylosing spondyliti
s, arthritis of Inflammatory owel disease, Reactive arthritis (formerly Reiter
syndrome).&nsp;PAIR. Also known as seronegative arthropathies.</div><div><r />
</div><div><>{{c7::DQ2/DQ8}}:</> {{c8::Celiac disease}}</div><div><r /></div>
<div><>{{c9::DR2}}:</> {{c10::Multiple sclerosis}}, {{c11::hay fever}}, {{c12:
:SLE}}, {{c13::Goodpasture syndrome}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c17::DR3}}
: </>{{c14::Diaetes mellitus type I}}, {{c15::SLE}}, {{c16::Graves disease}}</
div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c18::DR4}}: </>{{c19::Rhematoid arthritis}}, {{c
20::diaetes mellitus type I}}.</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c21::DR5}}:</>
{{c1::Pernicious anemia}}, associated with {{c2::B12}} deficiency, {{c3::Hashiom
oto thyroiditis}}</div> There are 4 walls in a “rheum” (room).
1419817113615 1412253438515 <img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f
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<img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_tmp9KfUjU.png" />
1419817113737 1412253438515 <img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f
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<img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_tmp9KfUjU.png" />
1419817113739 1412253438515 <img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f
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<img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_tmp9KfUjU.png" />
1419817113740 1412253438515 <img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f
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<img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419817113742 1412253438515 <img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f
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<img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419817113758 1412253438515 <img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f
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<img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419817113760 1412253438515 <img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f
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<img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419817113761 1412253438515 <img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f

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<img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_tmp9KfUjU.png" />
1419817113762 1412253438515 <img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f
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<img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_tmp9KfUjU.png" />
1419817113763 1412253438515 <img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f
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<img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_tmp9KfUjU.png" />
1419817113764 1412253438515 <img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f
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<img src="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9fd6aacddd071fd91f524020fd24e26c43f6c_tmp9KfUjU.png" />
1419817251848 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
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<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419817251886 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251887 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251889 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251890 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251891 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419817251892 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251900 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251901 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251903 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251904 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251905 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126

34_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251906 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251907 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251908 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251909 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817251910 1412253438515 <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae8126
34_Q_16.svg" /> <img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f459d715f63c9d68d7697f3e5c26ae812634_tmpLx5sW.png" />
1419817771282 1367090743656 <>Natural Killer Cells</><div><r /></div><div
><div>Use {{c1::perforin}} and {{c2::granzymes}} to induce {{c3::apoptosis}} of
{{c4::virally infected cells}} and {{c5::tumor cells}}.</div><div><r /></div><d
iv>Only lymphocyte memer of {{c6::innate}} immune system.</div><div><r /></div
><div>Activity enhanced y {{c7::IL-2}}, {{c8::IL-12}}, {{c9::IFN-β}}, and {{c10::
IFN-α}}.</div><div><br /></div><div>Induced to kill when exposed to  {{c11::nonsp
ecific}} ctivtion signl on trget cell nd/or to&nbsp;{{c12::n bsence&nbsp;
of clss I MHC on trget cell surfce.}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Also kills v
i {{c13::ntibody-dependent cell-medited cytotoxicity}} ({{c14::CD16}} binds {
{c15::Fc region}} of bound Ig,ctivting the NK cell).</div></div>
1419818222291 1367090743656 <b>Mjor functions of B nd T cells</b><div><br
/></div><div><b>B cell functions</b>:&nbsp;Recognize ntigen—undergo {{c1::somtic
hypermuttion}} to optimize ntigen specificity.</div><div><br /></div><div>Pro
duce {{c2::ntibody}}—differentite into {{c3::plsm}} cells to secrete specific
immunoglobulins.</div><div><br /></div><div>Mintin {{c4::immunologic memory}}—{{
c6::memory B}} cells persist nd {{c5::ccelerte}} future response to ntigen.<
/div><div><br /></div><div><b>T cell functions</b>:&nbsp;{{c7::CD4+}} T cells he
lp {{c8::B}} cells mke {{c9::ntibody}} nd produce {{c10::cytokines}} to ctiv
te other cells of immune system.</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c11::CD8+}} T cel
ls {{c12::kill virus-infected cells directly}}. Delyed cell-medited hypersensi
tivity (type {{c13::IV}}). Acute nd chronic cellulr {{c14::orgn rejection}}.<
/div> Rule of 8: MHC II × CD4 = 8; MHC I × CD8 = 8.
1419818456459 1367090743656 <b>Differentition of T cells</b><div><br /></di
v><div><b>Positive selection</b>: occurs in {{c1::thymic cortex}}. T-cells expre
ssing TCRs cpble of binding {{c3::surfce self MHC molecules}} {{c4::survive}}
.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Negtive selection:</b> occurs in {{c2::Me
dull}}, T-cells expressing TCRs with high ffinity for {{c6::self ntigens}} {{
c5::undergo poptosis.}}</div>
1419818915154 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915156 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915157 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84

fd_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915158 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915160 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915161 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915162 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915163 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915178 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915180 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915181 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915182 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915184 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915185 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915186 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915187 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915188 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_16.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915189 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84

fd_Q_17.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915190 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_18.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915191 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_19.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915192 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_20.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915193 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_21.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915194 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_22.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419818915195 1412253438515 <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84
fd_Q_23.svg" /> <img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9955872f939bfbf64760f807dd257236c84fd_tmppbZ_wZ.png" />
1419819048509 1367090743656 <b>T nd B cell ctivtion:</b><div><br /></div>
<div>Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) = {{c1::B cells}}, {{c2::mcrophges}}, {{c
3::dendritic cells}}.<div><br /></div><div>Two signls re required for {{c4::T
cell ctivtion}}, {{c5::B cell ctivtion}}, nd {{c6::clss switching}}.</div>
<div><br /></div><div><b>Nive T cell ctivtion</b><br /><div><div>1. Foreign b
ody is phgocytosed by {{c7::dendritic cell}}.</div><div><br /></div><div>2. For
eign ntigen is presented on {{c8::MHC II}} nd recognized by TCR on {{c9::Th (h
elper)}} cell. Antigen is&nbsp;presented on {{c10::MHC I}} to {{c11::Tc (cytotox
ic)}} cells (signl 1).</div><div><br /></div><div>3. “Costimultory signl” is give
n by interction of {{c12::B7}} nd {{c13::CD28}} (signl 2).</div><div><br /></
div><div>4. Th cell ctivtes nd produces {{c14::cytokines}}. Tc cell ctivtes
nd is ble to recognize nd kill&nbsp;{{c15::virus-infected}}&nbsp;cell.</div>
</div><div><br /></div><div><b>B cell ctivtion &mp; clss switching</b></div>
<div><div>1. Helper T cell ctivtion s bove.</div><div><br /></div><div>2. B
cell receptor-medited endocytosis; foreign ntigen is presented on {{c16::MHC I
I}} nd recognized by{{c17::&nbsp;TCR on Th}}&nbsp;cell (signl 1).</div><div><b
r /></div><div>3. {{c18::CD40}} receptor on B cell binds {{c19::CD40 lignd}} on
{{c20::Th}} cell (signl 2).</div><div><br /></div><div>4. Th cell secretes cyt
okines tht determine {{c21::Ig clss switching}} of B cell. B cell ctivtes n
d&nbsp;undergoes {{c23::clss switching}}, {{c24::ffinity mturtion}}, nd {{c
22::ntibody production}}.</div></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-7112
8953389352.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1419819575158 1367090743656 <b>Helper T cells</b><div><b><br /></b></div><di
v>Mcrophge-lymphocyte interction releses {{c1::IL-12}}, which stimultes T c
ells to differentite into {{c2::Th1}} cells. Th1 cells relese&nbsp;{{c3::IFN-γ}}
o simulae {{c4::macrophaes}}. Helper T cells have {{c5::CD4}}, which binds
o {{c5::MHCII}} on APCs<br /><div><br /></div><div><b>Th1 cell</b></div><div>Se
crees {{c6::IFN-γ}}</div><div><br /></div><div><div>Acivaes {{c7::macrophaes}}
and&nbsp;{{c8::cyooxic T&nbsp;lymphocyes (CTLs)}}</div></div><div><br /></di
v><div>Inhibied by {{c9::IL-4}} and {{c10::IL-10}} (from {{c11::Th2}} cell)</di
v><div><br /></div><div><b>Th2 cell</b></div><div><div>Secrees {{c12::IL-4}}, {
{c13::IL-5}}, {{c14::IL-10}}, {{c15::IL-6}}, {{c16::IL-13}}</div><div><br /></di
v><div>Recruis {{c17::eosinophils}} for parasie defense and promoes {{c18::I

E}} producion by {{c19::B cells}}</div></div><div><br /></div><div>Inhibied by
&nbsp;{{c20::IFN-γ}} (from {{c21::Th1}} cells)</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></
div><div><br /></div></div>
1419819623750 1412253438515 <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e363268
96_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_A_0.sv" />
<im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_mp5rUo a.pn" />
1419819623752 1412253438515 <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e363268
96_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_A_0.sv" />
<im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_mp5rUo a.pn" />
1419819623753 1412253438515 <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e363268
96_Q_2.sv" /> <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_A_0.sv" />
<im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_mp5rUo a.pn" />
1419819623754 1412253438515 <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e363268
96_Q_3.sv" /> <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_A_0.sv" />
<im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_mp5rUo a.pn" />
1419819623755 1412253438515 <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e363268
96_Q_4.sv" /> <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_A_0.sv" />
<im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_mp5rUo a.pn" />
1419819623756 1412253438515 <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e363268
96_Q_5.sv" /> <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_A_0.sv" />
<im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_mp5rUo a.pn" />
1419819623757 1412253438515 <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e363268
96_Q_6.sv" /> <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_A_0.sv" />
<im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_mp5rUo a.pn" />
1419819623758 1412253438515 <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e363268
96_Q_7.sv" /> <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_A_0.sv" />
<im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_mp5rUo a.pn" />
1419819623769 1412253438515 <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e363268
96_Q_8.sv" /> <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_A_0.sv" />
<im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_mp5rUo a.pn" />
1419819623770 1412253438515 <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e363268
96_Q_9.sv" /> <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_A_0.sv" />
<im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_mp5rUo a.pn" />
1419819623771 1412253438515 <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e363268
96_Q_10.sv" /> <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_A_0.sv" />
<im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_mp5rUo a.pn" />
1419819623773 1412253438515 <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e363268
96_Q_11.sv" /> <im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_A_0.sv" />
<im src="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="a6dfd53bb3e3c6c98fb651f0bdf72b4e36326896_mp5rUo a.pn" />
1419820041875 1367090743656 <b>Cyooxic T cells</b><div><br /></div><div>Ki
ll {{c1::virus-infeced}}, {{c2::neoplasic}}, and {{c3::donor raf}} cells by
inducin {{c4::apoposis}}.</div><div><br /></div><div><div>Release cyooxic r
anules conainin preformed proeins ({{c5::perforin}}—helps o deliver he conen
&nbsp;of ranules ino are cell; {{c6::ranzyme B}}—a {{c7::serine proease}},
acivaes apoposis inside are cell;{{c8::ranulysin}}—animicrobial, induces
apoposis).</div></div><div><br /></div><div>Cyooxic T cells have {{c9::CD8}},
which binds o {{c10::MHC I}} on virus-infeced cells.</div>
1419820400417 1367090743656 <b>Reulaory T cells</b><div><br /></div><div><

div>Help mainain specific immune olerance by suppressin {{c1::CD4}} and {{c1:
:CD8}} T-cell effecor funcions.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Idenified by
expression of cell surface markers {{c2::CD3}}, {{c3::CD4}}, {{c4::CD25}} (α chi
n of {{c5::IL-2}} receptor), nd&nbsp;trnscription fctor {{c6::FOXP3}}.</div><
div><br /></div><div>Activted regultory T cells produce {{c9::nti-inflmmtor
y}} cytokines like {{c7::IL-10}} nd {{c8::TGF-β}}.</div></div>
1419865743294 1367090743656 <>Antiody structure and function</><div><><
r /></></div><div>{{c1::Variale}} part of {{c2::L}} and {{c3::H}} chains recog
nizes {{c4::antigens}}. Fc portion of {{c5::IgM}} and {{c6::IgG}} fixes compleme
nt. {{c7::Heavy}} chain contriutes to {{c8::Fc}} and {{c9::Fa}} fractions. {{c
10::Light}} chain contriutes only to {{c11::Fa}} fraction.</div><div><><r />
</></div><div><><r /></></div><div><div style="font-weight: old; ">Fa:</di
v><div> {{c12::Antigen}}-inding fragment</div><div><r /></div><div> Determines {
{c14::idiotype}}: {{c13::unique}} antigen-inding pocket; only {{c15::1}} antige
nic specificity expressed per {{c16::B}} cell</div><div style="font-weight: old
; "><r /></div><div><div style="font-weight: old; ">Fc:</div><div> {{c21::Const
ant}}</div><div> {{c20::Caroxy}} terminal</div><div> {{c19::Complement}} inding<
/div><div> {{c18::Carohydrate}} side chains</div><div> Determines {{c17::isotype
(IgM, IgD, etc.)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>Antiody diversity is generated
y:</></div><div> Random “recomination” of {{c22::VJ}} ({{c23::light-chain}})&nsp
;or {{c24::V(D)J}} ({{c25::heavy-chain}}) genes</div><div><r /></div><div> Rando
m comination of {{c26::heavy}} chains with&nsp;light chains</div><div><r /></
div><div> {{c27::Somatic hypermutation}} (following antigenstimulation)</div><div
><r /></div><div> Addition of nucleotides to DNA during&nsp;{{c28::recominatio
n}} (see 1st entry in this list) y {{c29::terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase
}}</div></div></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-399431959101.jpg" /></
div>
1419866021645 1367090743656 <>Immunogloulin isotypes</><div><r /></div><
div>Mature {{c1::B}} lymphocytes express {{c2::IgM}} and {{c2::IgD}} on their su
rfaces. They may differentiate in {{c3::germinal centers}} of lymph nodes y {{c
4::isotype switching}} (gene rearrangement; mediated y cytokines and {{c5::CD40
ligand}}) into {{c6::plasma}} cells that secrete {{c7::IgA, IgE, or IgG.}}</div
>
1419866078789 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078790 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078792 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078793 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078794 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078795 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078796 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src

="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078797 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078798 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078799 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078800 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078801 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078802 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078803 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866078804 1412253438515 <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f7
4a_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c057dc4902f0071946d594da492727ac81f74a_tmpUi9g8N.png" />
1419866166890 1367090743656 <>{{c8::IgG}}</><div><r /></div><div><div>Mai
n antiody in {{c1::2° (delayed)}} response to an antigen. Most {{c2::aundant}} i
sotype in serum. Fixes {{c3::complement}}, crosses the {{c4::placenta}} (provide
s infants with {{c5::passive}} immunity), {{c6::opsonizes}} acteria,&nsp;{{c7:
:neutralizes}} acterial toxins and viruses.</div></div>
1419866349588 1367090743656 <>{{c2::IgA}}</><div><r /></div><div><div>Pre
vents attachment of acteria and viruses to {{c1::mucous memranes}}; does not {
{c4::fix complement}}. {{c5::Monomer (in circulation)}} or {{c6::dimer (when sec
reted)}}. Crosses epithelial cells y {{c7::transcytosis}}.&nsp;</div><div><r
/></div><div>Most&nsp;{{c3::produced}} antiody overall, ut released into {{c8
::secretions (tears, saliva, mucus)}} and early {{c10::reast milk}} (known as {
{c9::colostrum}}). Picks up {{c11::secretory component}} from epithelial cells 
efore secretion.</div></div>
1419866407911 1367090743656 <>{{c1::IgM}}</><div><r /></div><div><div>Pro
duced in the {{c2::1° (immediate)}} response to an antigen. Fixes complement ut d
oes not {{c3::cross the placenta}}. Antigen receptor on the surface of {{c4::B}}
cells. {{c5::Monomer}} on B cell or {{c6::pentamer}} when&nsp;secreted.&nsp;<
/div><div><r /></div><div>Shape of pentamer allows it to {{c7::efficiently trap
free antigens out of tissue while humoral response evolves.}}</div></div>
1419866468789 1367090743656 <>{{c4::IgD}}</><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Un
clear}} function. Found on the surface of many {{c2::B}} cells and in {{c3::seru
m}}.</div>
1419866499673 1367090743656 <div><>{{c1::IgE&nsp;}}</></div><div><r /></
div><div>Binds {{c2::mast cells}} and {{c3::asophils}}; cross-links when expose
d to allergen, mediating immediate (type {{c4::I}}) hypersensitivity through rel
ease of inflammatory mediators such as {{c5::histamine}}. Mediates immunity</div
><div>to {{c6::worms}} y activating {{c7::eosinophils}}.&nsp;</div><div><r />

</div><div>{{c8::Lowest}} concentration in serum.</div>
1419866817448 1367090743656 <>Antigen type and memory</><div><><r /></>
</div><div><>Thymus-{{c1::independent}} antigens</></div><div><r /></div><div
>Antigens lacking a {{c2::peptide}} component (e.g., lipopolysaccharides from gr
am-negative acteria); cannot e presented y {{c3::MHC}} to {{c4::T}} cells.&n
sp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Weakly or {{c6::nonimmunogenic}}; vaccines often
require {{c5::oosters}} (e.g., pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine).</div><div>
<r /></div>
1419866890845 1367090743656 <>Antigen type and memory</><div><><r /></>
</div><div><>Thymus-{{c1::dependent}} antigens</></div><div><><r /></></div
><div>Antigens containing a {{c2::protein}} component (e.g., {{c3::diphtheria}}
vaccine).&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c4::Class switching}} and {{c5::imm
unologic memory}} occur as a result of direct contact of {{c6::B}} cells with {{
c7::Th}} cells ({{c8::CD40–CD40 ligand}} interaction).</div>
1419866952158 1367090743656 <>Acut-phase reactants</><div><r /></div><div
>Factors whose serum concentrations {{c1::change significantly}} in response to
inflammation; produced y the {{c2::liver}} in {{c3::oth acute and chronic infl
ammatory}} states. Induced y {{c4::IL-6}}, {{c5::IL-1}}, {{c6::TNF-α}}, nd {{c7:
:IFN-γ}}.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Posiive (upreulaed)</b></div><div><b>{{
c8::Serum amyloid A}}:</b> {{c9::proloned elevaion can lead o amyloidosis}}</
div><div><br /></div><div><b>{{c10::C-reacive proein:}}</b> {{c11::Opsonin}}:
fixes {{c12::complemen}} and faciliaes {{c13::phaocyosis}}. Measured clinic
ally as a sin of onoin {{c14::inflammaion}}.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>{
{c15::Ferriin}}:</b> binds &amp; se uesers {{c16::iron}} o inhibi {{c17::mic
robial iron scavenin.}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>{{c18::Fibrinoen}}:</b>
{{c19::coaulaion}} facor; promoes endohelial {{c20::repair}}; correlaes w
ih {{c21::ESR}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>{{c22::Hepcidin}}:</b> Prevens r
elease of {{c23::iron}} bound by {{c24::ferriin}} --&; {{c25::anemia}} of chr
onic disease</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Neaive (downreulaed)</b></div><di
v><b>{{c26::Albumin}}: </b>Reducion conserves {{c28::amino acids}} for {{c31::p
osiive}} reacans.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>{{c27::Transferrin}}</b>: In
ernalized by {{c29::macrophaes}} o se ueser {{c30::iron}}.</div>
1419867636941 1367090743656 <b>Complemen</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b
>Overview: </b>Sysem of ineracin plasma proeins ha play a role in {{c1::i
nnae}} immuniy and {{c2::inflammaion}}. {{c4::MAC}} defends aains {{c3::ra
m-neaive}} baceria.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Acivaion</b>:{{c6::Classi
c pahway}}—{{c7::IG}} or {{c7::IM}} mediaed.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>
{{c5::Alernaive}} pahway—microbe surface&nbsp;molecules.</div><div><br /></div>
<div>{{c8::Lecin}} pahway—{{c9::mannose}} or oher suars on&nbsp;microbe surfac
e.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Funcions:</b>&nbsp;{{c10::C3b}}—{{c11::opsoniza
ion}}.</div><div>{{c12::C3a, C4a, C5a}}—{{c13::anaphylaxis}}. {{c14::C5a}}—{{c15::ne
urophil}} chemoaxis. {{c16::C5b-9}}—cyolysis by{{c17::membrane aack complex&n
bsp;(MAC).}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Opsonins:</b> {{c18::C3b}} and {{c18:
:IG}} are he wo 1° opsonins in bacerial defense; {{c19::C3b}} also helps clear
immune complexes.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Inhibiors</b>:&nbsp;{{c21::Dec
ay-accelerain facor (DAF}}, aka {{c20::CD55}}) and {{c22::C1 eserase inhibi
or}} help preven complemen acivaion on self cells (e.., RBC).</div><div><br
/></div><div><im src="pase-17330193039738.jp" /></div>
GM makes classic
cars.<div><br /></div><div>C3b binds baceria.</div>
1419868471734 1367090743656 <b>Complemen disorders</b><div><b><br /></b></d
iv><div><div><b>{{c3::C1 eserase inhibior deficiency}}:&nbsp;</b>Causes {{c1::
herediary anioedema}}. {{c2::ACE inhibiors}} are conraindicaed.</div><div><
br /></div></div><div><b>{{c4::C3 deficiency}}:</b>&nbsp;Increases risk of sever
e, recurren {{c5::pyoenic}} sinus and respiraory rac infecions; increased
suscepibiliy o ype {{c6::III}} hypersensiiviy reacions.</div><div><br /><
/div><div><b>{{c7::C5-C9 Deficiency}}:</b>&nbsp;Increase suscepibiliy o recur
ren {{c8::Neisseria}} baceremia.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>{{c9::DAF (GPI
anchored enzyme) deficiency}}:</b>&nbsp;Causes complemen-mediaed lysis of {{c1
0::RBCs}} and {{c11::paroxysmal nocurnal hemolobinuria.}}</div>
1419868526208 1412253438515 <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1

d8_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_mpBxYZFc.pn" />
1419868526209 1412253438515 <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1
d8_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_mpBxYZFc.pn" />
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<im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_mpBxYZFc.pn" />
1419868526212 1412253438515 <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1
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<im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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<im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1419868526215 1412253438515 <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1
d8_Q_6.sv" /> <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_mpBxYZFc.pn" />
1419868526216 1412253438515 <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1
d8_Q_7.sv" /> <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_A_0.sv" />
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="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_mpBxYZFc.pn" />
1419868526217 1412253438515 <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1
d8_Q_8.sv" /> <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_A_0.sv" />
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="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_mpBxYZFc.pn" />
1419868526218 1412253438515 <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1
d8_Q_9.sv" /> <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_mpBxYZFc.pn" />
1419868526220 1412253438515 <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1
d8_Q_10.sv" /> <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_mpBxYZFc.pn" />
1419868526221 1412253438515 <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1
d8_Q_11.sv" /> <im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_A_0.sv" />
<im src="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="d02e73e531108acfc597c2577904f4182d2fb1d8_mpBxYZFc.pn" />
1419870324385 1367090743656 <b>Imporan cyokines secreed by {{c1::macroph
aes}}</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c8::IL-1}}:&nbsp;</b>An endoenous p
yroen, also called {{c2::oseoclas-acivain}} facor. Causes {{c3::fever}},&
nbsp;{{c4::acue inflammaion}}. Acivaes {{c6::endohelium}} o express {{c5::
adhesion molecules}}; induces chemokine secreion o recrui {{c7::leukocyes}}.
</div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c9::IL-6}}:&nbsp;</b>An endoenous {{c10
::pyroen}}. Also secreed by {{c11::Th2}} cells. Causes {{c12::fever}} and sim
ulaes producion&nbsp;of {{c13::acue-phase &nbsp;proeins.}}</div><div><b><br
/></b></div><div><b>{{c14::IL-8}}:&nbsp;</b>Major {{c15::chemoacic}} facor fo
r {{c16::neurophils}}.</div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c17::IL-12}}:&nbs
p;</b>Induces differeniaion of {{c18::T}} cells ino {{c19::Th1}} cells. Aciv
aes {{c20::NK}} cells. Also secreed by {{c21::B}} cells.</div><div><b><br /></
b></div><div><b>TNF-α:&nbsp;</b>Medites {{c22::septic shock}}. Activtes {{c23::e

ndothelium}}. Cuses leukocyte {{c25::recruitment}}, {{c24::vsculr lek}}.</di
v><div><br /></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><br /></b></div>
<div><b>“H
ot T-bone stEAK”:</b></div><div>IL-1: fever (hot).</div><div>IL-2: stimultes T ce
lls.</div><div>IL-3: stimultes bone mrrow.</div><div>IL-4: stimultes IgE prod
uction. IL-5: stimultes IgA production. IL-6: stimultes Kute-phse protein</d
iv><div>production.</div><div><br /></div><div>Clen up on isle 8.” Neutrophils 
re recruited by IL-8 to cler infections.</div>
1419870748695 1367090743656 <b>Importnt cytokines secreted by {{c8::ll T c
ells}}</b><div><br /></div><div><b>{{c1::IL-2:}}</b>&nbsp;Stimultes growth of {
{c3::helper}}, {{c4::cytotoxic}}, nd {{c5::regultory T}} cells.</div><div>&nbs
p;</div><div><b>{{c2::IL-3:}}</b>&nbsp;Supports the growth nd differentition o
f {{c6::bone mrrow stem cells}}. Functions like {{c7::GM-CSF}}.</div>
1419870892023 1367090743656 <b>Importnt cytokines from {{c1::Th1 cells}}</b
><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c2::Interferon-γ}}:&nbsp;</b>Has {{c4::anivira
l}} and {{c3::aniumor}} properies. Acivaes {{c5::NK cells}} o kill virus-i
nfeced cells,Increases {{c6::MHC}} expression and anien presenaion in all c
ells.</div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><br /></b></div>
1419871461686 1367090743656 <b>Imporan cyokines from Th2 cells</b><div><b
r /></div><div><b>{{c5::IL-4}}:</b>&nbsp;Induces differeniaion ino {{c1::Th2}
} cells. Promoes rowh of {{c2::B}} cells. Enhances class swichin o&nbsp;{{
c3::IE}} and {{c4::IG}}.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>{{c6::IL-5}}:</b>&nbsp;
Promoes differeniaion of {{c7::B}} cells. Enhances class swichin o {{c8::I
A}}. Simulaes he rowh&nbsp;and differeniaion of {{c9::eosinophils}}.</di
v><div><br /></div><div><b>IL-10</b>:&nbsp;Modulaes {{c10::inflammaory respons
e}}. Inhibis acions of acivaed {{c11::T}} cells and {{c12::Th1}}. Also&nbsp;
secreed by {{c13::reulaory T}} cells.</div><div><br /></div> TGF-β has similar
actions to IL-10, ecause it is involved in inhiiting inflammation.
1419871642781 1367090743656 <>{{c11::Interferon α nd β}}</><div><><r /></>
</div><div><div>A part of {{c2::innate}} host defense against {{c3::oth RNA and
DNA}} viruses.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Interferons are {{c4::glycoprot
eins}} synthesized y viral-infected cells that act locally on {{c5::uninfected}
} cells, “priming them” for {{c6::viral defense}}.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>
When a virus infects “primed” cells, {{c12::viral nucleic acids}} activates:</div><d
iv> {{c7::RNAase L}}&nsp;</div><div> {{c8::degradation of viral/host mRNA.}}</div
><div> {{c9::Protein kinase}}&nsp;</div><div> {{c10::inhiition of viral/host pro
tein synthesis.}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Essentially results in {{c1::apopto
sis}}, therey interrupting viral amplification.</div></div>
Interferes with
viruses.
1419872129548 1367090743656 <>Cell surface proteins</>: All cells except {
{c1::mature RBCs}} have {{c2::MHC I}}<div><r /></div><div><>{{c12::T cells}}:<
/>&nsp;</div><div><div>TCR (inds {{c9::antigen-MHC complex}})&nsp;</div><div
><r /></div><div>{{c10::CD3}} (associated with {{c11::TCR}} for signal&nsp;tra
nsduction)&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c6::CD28}} (inds {{c7::B7}} on {{
c8::APC)}}</div></div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c13::Helper T cells}}:</>&nsp
;{{c5::CD4}}, {{c4::CD40 ligand}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>{{c14::Cytotoxic
T cells:}}</> {{c3::CD8}}<r /><r /></div>
1419872338178 1367090743656 <>Cell surface proteins</><div><><r /></></
div><div><>B cells</>:&nsp;Ig (inds antigen)</div><div>{{c2::CD19}}, {{c3::C
D20}}, {{c4::CD21}} (receptor for {{c1::EBV}}), {{c7::CD40&nsp;}}</div><div><r
/></div><div>MHC {{c6::II}}, {{c5::B7}}</div><div><><r /></></div><div><>Ma
crophages:&nsp;</>{{c8::CD14,}} {{c9::CD40}}</div><div>MHC {{c10::II}}, {{c11:
:B7}}</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c12::Fc}} and {{c13::C3}} receptors (enhance
d {{c14::phagocytosis}})</div><div><><r /></></div><div><>NK cells:&nsp;</
>{{c17::CD16}} (inds {{c16::Fc}} of {{c15::IgG}}), {{c18::CD56}} (unique marker
for {{c19::NK}})</div> ou can drink Beer at the Bar when you’re 21: B cells, Eps
tein-Barr virus; CD-21.
1419872693076 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Anergy}}</b><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>T cel
ls become {{c2::nonreactive}} without {{c3::costimulatory}} molecule. {{c5::B}}
cells also become {{c4::anergic}}, but tolerance is less complete than in T cell
s.</
iv>

1419872730711 1367090743656 <b>Effects of bacterial toxins</b><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv><
iv>{{c1::Superantigens}} ({{c2::S. pyogenes}} an
{{c2::S. aureus)}}—cro
ss-link the {{c3::β}} region of the T-cell receptor to the MHC class {{c4::II}} on
APCs.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Can activate any {{c5::T}} cell, leading
to massive release of {{c6::cytokines}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c7::Endot
oxins/lipopolysaccharide}} (gram-negative acteria)—directly stimulate macrophages
y inding to endotoxin receptor {{c8::CD14}}; {{c9::Th}} cells are not involve
d.</div></div>
1419872841064 1367090743656 <>Antigenic variation</><div><><r /></></di
v><div><div style="font-weight: old; ">Classic examples:</div><div style="fontweight: old; "><r /></div><div> Bacteria—{{c1::Salmonella}} (2 {{c2::flagellar}}
variants),</div><div>{{c3::Borrelia}} (relapsing fever),&nsp;{{c5::Neisseria&n
sp;gonorrhoeae}}&nsp;({{c4::pilus}} protein).</div><div><r /></div><div> Virus—in
fluenza (major = {{c6::shift}}, minor =&nsp;{{c7::drift}}).</div><div><r /></d
iv><div> Parasites—{{c9::trypanosomes}} ({{c8::programmed&nsp;rearrangement}}).</d
iv></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>Some mechanisms for variation in
clude {{c10::DNA}} rearrangement and {{c11::RNA}} segment reassortment (e.g., in
fluenza major shift).</div>
1419873112576 1367090743656 <>Vaccination</>:&nsp;Vaccines are used to in
duce an {{c1::active}} immune response ({{c2::humoral}} and/or {{c3::cellular}})
to specific pathogens.
1419873188847 1412253438515 <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70
_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_A_0.svg" />
<img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_tmpS7fwOV.png" />
1419873188848 1412253438515 <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70
_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_A_0.svg" />
<img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_tmpS7fwOV.png" />
1419873188850 1412253438515 <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70
_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_A_0.svg" />
<img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_tmpS7fwOV.png" />
1419873188851 1412253438515 <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70
_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_A_0.svg" />
<img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_tmpS7fwOV.png" />
1419873188852 1412253438515 <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70
_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_A_0.svg" />
<img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_tmpS7fwOV.png" />
1419873188853 1412253438515 <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70
_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_A_0.svg" />
<img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_tmpS7fwOV.png" />
1419873188854 1412253438515 <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70
_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_A_0.svg" />
<img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_tmpS7fwOV.png" />
1419873188855 1412253438515 <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70
_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_A_0.svg" />
<img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_tmpS7fwOV.png" />
1419873188856 1412253438515 <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70
_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_A_0.svg" />
<img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_tmpS7fwOV.png" />
1419873188857 1412253438515 <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70
_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_A_0.svg" />
<img src="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_source_svg.svg" /> <img src

="5e2d7f13e344d80852ada0a053d9c2e85d70_tmpS7fwOV.png" />
1419873221213 1367090743656 <>Live attenuated vaccine</><div><r /></div><
div><>Description:&nsp;</>Microorganism loses its {{c2::pathogenicity}} ut r
etains capacity for {{c1::transient growth}} within inoculated host. Mainly indu
ces a {{c3::cellular}} response.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Pro:</> induces
{{c4::strong}}, often {{c5::lifelong}} immunity.</div><div><r /></div><div><>C
on:</> may revert to {{c6::virulent}} form. Often contraindicated&nsp;in {{c7:
:pregnancy}} and {{c8::immune deficiency.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>Exampl
es:</>&nsp;{{c9::Measles, mumps, ruella, polio (Sain), influenza (intranasal
), varicella, yellow fever.}}</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
1419873326252 1367090743656 <>Inactivated or killed vaccine</><div><><r
/></></div><div><>Description:&nsp;</>Pathogen is inactivated y {{c5::heat}
} or {{c5::chemicals}}; maintaining {{c6::epitope structure}} on surface antigen
s is important for immune response. {{c7::Humoral}} immunity induced.</div><div>
<r /></div><div><>Pro</>:&nsp;stale and safer than {{c4::live}} vaccines.</
div><div><r /></div><div><>Con</>:&nsp;{{c2::weaker}} immune response; {{c3:
:ooster shots}} usually required.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Examples</>: {
{c1::Cholera,&nsp;hepatitis A, polio (Salk), influenza (injection), raies.}}</
div><div><><r /></></div>
1419876543197 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543198 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543199 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543200 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543201 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543202 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543203 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543204 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543205 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543206 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543207 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa

86_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543208 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543234 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543235 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543236 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543237 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543239 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_16.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543240 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_17.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543241 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_18.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543242 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_19.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419876543243 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_20.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543244 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_21.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543245 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_22.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543246 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_23.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543247 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_24.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543249 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa

86_Q_25.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543250 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_26.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543251 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
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<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1419876543253 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_28.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543254 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_29.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543255 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_30.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543256 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_31.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543277 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_32.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543278 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_33.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543279 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_34.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543280 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_35.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543281 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_36.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543283 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_37.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543284 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_38.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543285 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_39.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543286 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa

86_Q_40.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543287 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_41.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543288 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_42.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1419876543289 1412253438515 <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa
86_Q_43.svg" /> <img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_A_0.svg" />
<img src="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="2948ae64a2610857fada0376387649dc0affa86_tmpaDrpZ1.png" />
1395771507741 1390229673821 In which week of gestation do the neuropores nor
mally fuse?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1395772170509 1390229673821 Which vitamin/mineral is associated with Neural
Tue Defects?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Folic Acid (Vitamin B9/M)}}</div>
1395772254745 1390229673821 Low intake of the vitamin {{c1::Folic Acid (Vita
min B9/M)}} efore conception and during pregnancy is associated with neural tu
e defects.
1395772321641 1390229673821 Which serum protein marker is associated with Ne
ural Tue Defects?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)}}</div>
1395772350314 1390229673821 Which amniotic fluid protein marker is associate
d with Neural Tue Defects?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)}}
</div>
1395772378187 1390229673821 Which enzyme in the amniotic fluid is a helpful
confirmatory test in the diagnosis of Neural Tue Defects if it is elevated?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Fetal AChE in the CSF transudates across/through the neural tue defect in
to the amniotic fluid.</i></div>
1395772565076 1390229673821 {{c1::Spina Bifida Occulta}} is a Neural Tue De
fect that results from a failure of the ony spinal canal to close, ut does not
involve a structural herniation.
<r /><div><i>Seen at lower verteral le
vels with tuft of hair or dimple of skin.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div>
<i><img src="paste-32083405701545.jpg" /></i></div>
1395773085765 1390229673821 {{c1::Spina Bifida Occulta}} is a Neural Tue De
fect that is associated with a tuft of hair or dimple of the skin at the level o
f the defect. <r /><div><img src="paste-32087700668841.jpg" /></div>
1395773113205 1390229673821 {{c1::Meningocele}} is a Neural Tue Defect that
involves normal AFP levels and herniation of the <>meninges only</>&nsp;thro
ugh the defect. <r /><div><img src="paste-32083405701545.jpg" /></div>
1395773183831 1390229673821 {{c1::Meningomyelocele}} is a Neural Tue Defect
that involves hernation of <>meninges and spinal cord</>&nsp;through the def
ect.
<r /><div><img src="paste-32083405701545.jpg" /></div>
1395773206448 1390229673821 {{c1::Anencephaly}} is a congenital CNS malforma
tion that involves malformation of the anterior neural tue, resulting in no for
erain and an open calvarium. <r /><div><i>Note the "frog-like appearance".</
i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3242700308680.jpg" /></i
></div>
1395773632547 1390229673821 How does the level of Alpha-Fetoprotein change i
n Anencephaly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1395773686471 1390229673821 {{c1::Polyhydramnios}} is a feature of Anencepha
ly that results from a lack of the swallowing center in the rain, therey resul
ting in an increased volume of amniotic fluid.
1395773765653 1390229673821 Which maternal endocrine disorder is associated
with Anencephaly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T1DM}}</div>
1395773794951 1390229673821 {{c1::Holoprosencephaly}} is a congenital CNS ma
lformation that involves failure of the left and right hemispheres to separate.

<r><div><img src="paste-3539053052624.jpg" /></div>
1395773879202 1390229673821 In which weeks of gestation do the left and righ
t hemispheres fail to separate, therey causing Holoprosencephaly?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::5-6}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Etiology is multifactorial; may e
related to sonic hedgehog signaling pathway.</i></div>
1395773986971 1390229673821 {{c1::Cyclopia}} is a characteristic of severe H
oloprosencephaly and involves a single, midline eye due to failure of the prosen
cephalon to divide.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3740916515199.jpg" /></
div>
1395774086394 1390229673821 {{c1::Arnold-Chiari (Chiari II) Malformation}} i
s a congenital CNS malformation that involves significant herniation of the cere
ellar tonsils and vermis through the foramen magnum.
1395774192578 1390229673821 {{c1::Hydrocephalus (via Cereral Aqueductal Ste
nosis)}} is a complication of Arnold-Chiari (Chiari II) Malformation due to comp
ression of the cereral aqueduct as a result of the cereellar herniation.
1395774272454 1390229673821 {{c1::Lumosacral Myeomeningocele}} is a type of
Myelomeningocele that often presents alongside Arnold-Chiari (Chiari II) Malfor
mations.
<r /><div><i>There is also often <>paralysis</>&nsp;elow th
e defect.</i></div>
1395774317566 1390229673821 {{c1::Dandy-Walker Malformation}} is a congenita
l CNS malformation that involves agenesis of the cereellar vermis with a cystic
enlargement of the 4th ventricle.
<r /><div><i>Associated with hydrocepha
lus and spina ifida.</i></div>
1395774447103 1390229673821 Which Neural Tue Defect is associated with Arno
ld-Chiari (Chiari II) Malformations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lumosacral Meni
ngomyelocele}}</div>
1395774478476 1390229673821 Which Neural Tue Defect is associated with Dand
y-Walker Malformations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spina Bifida}}</div>
1395774511584 1390229673821 {{c1::Syringomyelia}} is a congenital CNS malfor
mation that involves cystic cavitation of the spinal cord.
<div><r /></div
><div><i>Syrinx = tue/cystic cavity</i></div><r /><div><img src="paste-3231962
8902866.jpg" /></div>
1395775441722 1390229673821 {{c1::Hydromyelia}} is a specific type of Syring
omyelia that involves cystic cavitation of the central canal.
1395775513974 1390229673821 {{c1::Syringomyelia}} is a congenital spinal cor
d malformation that results in a <>ilateral "cape-like"</>&nsp;loss of pain
and temperature sensation from the upper extremities. <r /><div><i>Touch is p
reserved as the dorsal column is typically unnaffected.</i></div><div><i><r /><
/i></div><div><i><img src="paste-32315333935570.jpg" /></i></div>
1395775599511 1390229673821 Which verteral levels are the most common locat
ion of Syringomyelia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C8-T1}}</div>
1395775620034 1390229673821 Which Chiari malformation is associated with Syr
ingomyelia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chiari I (Type I)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4367981740214.jpg" /></div>
1395775655239 1390229673821 What spinal cord malformation is associated with
Chiari I (Type I) malformations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Syringomyelia}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4367981740214.jpg" /></div>
1395775679351 1390229673821 {{c1::Chiari I}} is a congenital CNS malformatio
n that involves a &gt; 3-5 mm cereellar tonsillar ectopia and is usually asympt
omatic. <r /><div><img src="paste-4367981740214.jpg" /></div>
1395775781031 1390229673821 Which type of Chiari malformation is usually asy
mptomatic?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1395775819639 1390229673821 Which Dopamine receptor is involved in the direc
t pathway of the Basal Ganglia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D1}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>"<>D1</>rect"</i></div>
1395776362419 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::Basal Ganglia}} is a deep structu
re of the rain that involves a group of nuclei that collectively govern volunta
ry movement and postural adjustments. <r /><div><i>It received cortical input
and provides negative feedack to the motor cortex to modulate movement.</i></d
iv><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></i></d

iv>
1395776440373 1390229673821 What is the only excitatory nucleus of the Basal
Ganglia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suthalamic Nucleus (STN)}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>The rest are all inhiitory.</i></div>
1395776597738 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::direct}} pathway of the Basal Ban
glia <>disinhiits</>&nsp;the Thalamus, therey resulting in cortical activat
ion and movement.
<r /><div><i>"<>DI</>rect <>DI</>sinhiits the Thal
amus causing <>activation</>&nsp;of movement"</i></div><div><i><r /></i></di
v><div><i><img src="paste-5729486373230.jpg" /></i></div>
1395776653470 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::indirect}} pathway of the Basal G
anglia <>inhiits</>&nsp;the Thalamus, therey resulting in no cortical activ
ation and a lack of movement. <r /><div><i>"<>IN</>direct <>IN</>hiits t
he Thalamus causing <>inhiition</>&nsp;of movement"</i></div><div><i><r /><
/i></div><div><i><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></i></div>
1395776806143 1390229673821 What Dopamine receptor is involved with the Indi
rect Pathway of the Basal Ganglia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D2}}</div>
1395776941011 1390229673821 The SNc of the Basal Ganglia <>inhiits</>&ns
p;the&nsp;{{c1::indirect}} pathway of the Basal Ganglia via&nsp;{{c2::D2}} rec
eptors, therey leading to the initiation of the movement.
<r /><div><i>"S
Nc <>IN</>hiits the <>IN</>direct pathway"</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div
><div><i><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></i></div>
1395777039552 1390229673821 The SNc of the Basal Ganglia&nsp;<>activates</
>&nsp;the&nsp;{{c1::direct}} pathway of the Basal Ganglia via&nsp;{{c2::D1}}
receptors, therey leading to the initiation of the movement. <r /><div><i>"S
Nc <>activates</>&nsp;the <>D1</>rect pathway"</i></div><div><i><r /></i><
/div><div><i><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></i></div>
1395777128397 1390229673821 <u>The Direct Basal Ganglia Pathway</u><div><u><
r /></u></div><div>Motor Cortex --&gt;&nsp;{{c1::Striatum}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c2::
GPi}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c3::Thalamus}} --&gt; Motor Cortex</div>
<r /><div><i>"T
he Glous Pallidus <u style="font-weight: old; ">IN</u>ternus is always <u styl
e="font-weight: old; ">IN</u>cluded in Basal Ganglia pathways."</i></div><div><
i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-48765058679580.jpg" /></i></div>
1395777310186 1390229673821 <u>The Indirect Basal Ganglia Pathway</u><div><u
><r /></u></div><div>Motor Cortex --&gt;&nsp;{{c1::Striatum}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c2
::GPe}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c3::STN}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c4::GPi}} --&gt;&nsp;{{c5::Thalam
us}} --&gt; Motor Cortex</div> <div><r /></div><div><i>"The Glous Pallidus <u
style="font-weight: old; ">IN</u>ternus is always <u style="font-weight: old;
">IN</u>cluded in Basal Ganglia pathways."</i></div><div><i>"<>I</>&nsp;(GPi
) efore <>E</>&nsp;(GPe), except after <>C</>&nsp;(cortex)"</i></div><r
/><div><img src="paste-48760763712284.jpg" /></div>
1395777819017 1390229673821 {{c1::Parkinson's Disease}} is a movement disord
er that involves degeneration of dopaminergic neurons of the SNc of the Basal Ga
nglia, therey resulting in decreased movement.
1395778019298 1390229673821 {{c1::Lewy Bodies}} are intracellular inclusions
seen in Parkinson's Disease and are composed of alpha-synuclein.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-8177617731835.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>(The small
er, dark purple inclusions)</i></div>
1395778199299 1390229673821 What protein is found in the Lewy Bodies of Park
insons and Lewy Body Dementia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-synuclein}}</div
>
1395778271752 1390229673821 {{c1::Parkinson's Disease}} is a movement disord
er of the Basal Ganglia that presents with a <>resting tremor</>, <>cogwheel
rigidity</>, akinesia/radykinesia, postural instaility and a <>shuffling gai
t</>.
1395778333705 1390229673821 {{c1::MPTP}} is a contaminant in illicit IV drug
s and is a rare cause of Parkinson's Disease.
1395778428732 1390229673821 {{c1::Huntington's Disease}} is a movement disor
der of the Basal Ganglia that is characterized y ilateral degeneration of the
Caudate Nucleus, especially its cholinergic and GABAergic neurons.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-9457517986694.jpg" /></div>

1395778551807 1390229673821 What is the genetic inheritance of Huntington's
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1395778569980 1390229673821 {{c1::Huntington's Disease}} is an&nsp;<u>autos
omal dominant</u>&nsp;movement disorder of the Basal Ganglia that involves <>c
horeiform movements</>, aggression, depression and dementia. <r /><div><i>Pr
esentation typically egins at 20-30 y/o and progresses from frontal loe ehavi
our prolems to chorea to dementia and eventually death in 5-10 years from Dx.</
i></div>
1395778613975 1390229673821 How do CNS levels of GABA change in Huntington's
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1395778635218 1390229673821 How do CNS levels of ACh change in Huntington's
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1395778651313 1390229673821 {{c1::Huntington's Disease}} is an&nsp;<u>autos
omal dominant</u>&nsp;movement disorder that involves neurodegeneration via NMD
A Receptor Glutamate toxicity. <r /><div><r /></div>
1395778771287 1390229673821 Which nuclei of the Basal Ganglia are atrophied
in Huntington's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caudate Nucleus, especially
the head}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9457517986694.jpg" /></div>
1395778961004 1390229673821 Which trinucleotide repeat is associated with Hu
ntington's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Au
tosomal dominant with anticipation.</i></div>
1395779153784 1390229673821 {{c1::Hemiallismus}} is a movement disorder tha
t involves sudden, <>wild flailing</>&nsp;of <u>1 arm and potentially the ips
ilateral leg</u>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. half of the ody is allistic</i></di
v>
1395779374113 1390229673821 What nucleus is characteristically lesioned in H
emiallismus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The <u style="font-weight: old; ">cont
ralateral</u>&nsp;Suthalamic Nucleus (STN)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hemiallis
mus is a contralateral lesion and typically presents unilaterally. Often due to
a lacunar stroke.</i></div>
1395779539462 1390229673821 What is the most common cause of Hemiallismus?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lacunar Stroke at the Suthalamic Nucleus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, it will cause <>contralateral</>&nsp;deficits.</i></d
iv>
1395779619390 1390229673821 {{c1::Chorea}} is a movement disorder that invol
ves sudden, <>jerky</>, <>purposeless</>&nsp;movements.
1395779719497 1390229673821 {{c1::Athetosis}} is a movement disorder that in
volves slow, <>writhing "snake-like" </>movements, especially in the fingers.
1395779746345 1390229673821 {{c1::Myoclonus}} is a movement disorder that in
volves sudden, <>rief, uncontrolled muscle contractions</>&nsp;such as in je
rks and hiccups.
<r /><div><i>Also common in metaolic anormalities suc
h as renal and liver failure.</i></div>
1395779886566 1390229673821 {{c1::Dystonia}} is a movement disorder that inv
olves <>sustained, involuntary</>&nsp;muscle contraction.
1395779914792 1390229673821 {{c1::Blepharospasm}} is a type of Dystonia desc
ried as a sustained eyelid twitch.
1395779952957 1390229673821 {{c1::Essential/Postural Tremor}} is a type of t
remor that is descried as an action tremor and is exacerated y holding postur
e/lim position.
<r /><div><i>Has a genetic predisposition.</i></div>
1395780228727 1390229673821 What do patients often use to self-medicate with
to treat their Essential Tremor?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol as it decre
ases tremor amplitude}}</div>
1395780284575 1390229673821 {{c1::Beta-lockers}} are a <>type</>&nsp;of
drug (other than Primidone) that can e given to treat Essential Tremors.
1395780476746 1390229673821 {{c1::Primidone}} is a Bariturate that can e g
iven to treat Essential Tremors.
1395780490634 1390229673821 {{c1::Resting Tremor}} is a type of tremor that
involves uncontrolled movement of the distal appendages at rest and is most noti
ceale in the hands.
1395780554690 1390229673821 {{c1::Resting Tremor}} is a type of tremor that

is alleviated y initiating <>intentional</>&nsp;movement.
1395780571397 1390229673821 What type of tremor is commonly seen in Parkinso
n's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Resting Tremor (specifically, a pill-rol
ling tremor at the hands)}}</div>
1395780608517 1390229673821 {{c1::Intention Tremor}} is a type of tremor tha
t involves slow, zigzag motion when pointing or extending towards a target.
1395780642036 1390229673821 {{c1::Intention Tremor}} is a type of tremor tha
t is due to cereellar dysfunction.
1395780666981 1390229673821 {{c1::Central Pontine Myelinolysis}} is an osmot
ic demyelination syndrome that can cause Locked-In Syndrome.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-12627203850381.jpg" /></div>
1395781903511 1390229673821 {{c1::Central Pontine Myelinolysis}} is an osmot
ic demyelination syndrome that involves massive axonal demyelination in pontine
white matter tracts.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12631498817677.jpg" />
</div>
1395781905062 1390229673821 {{c1::Central Pontine Myelinolysis}} is an osmot
ic demyelination syndrome that is commonly iatrogenic, typically caused y <>ov
erly rapid correction of hyponatremia</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste12627203850381.jpg" /></div>
1395781992263 1390229673821 What is the most common <>iatrogenic</>&nsp;c
ause of Central Pontine Myelinolysis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Overly rapid co
rrection of Hyponatremia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Bring serum Na too fast f
rom low to high and your pons will die."</i></div>
1395783524556 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::Circle of Willis}} is a system of
vascular anastomoses etween the anterior and posterior lood supplies to the 
rain. <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395783689422 1390229673821 Which cereral artery supplies the anteromedial
surface of the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Cereral Artery}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2761663971827.jpg" /></div>
1395783719922 1390229673821 Which cereral artery supplies the lateral surfa
ce of the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Cereral Artery (MCA)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2757369004531.jpg" /></div>
1395783738861 1390229673821 Which cereral artery supplies the posterior and
inferior surfaces of the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Cereral A
rtery}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2757369004531.jpg" /></div>
1395783763903 1390229673821 An occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::Middle Cereral}}
Artery will result in contralateral sensory/motor deficits to the <>upper lim
and face</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395784056169 1390229673821 Which cereral hemisphere is most commonly assoc
iated with aphasia following a stroke of the Middle Cereral Artery?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Left hemisphere (commonly the dominant hemisphere)}}</div>
1395784206001 1390229673821 Which cereral hemisphere is most commonly assoc
iated with hemineglect following a stroke of the Middle Cereral Artery?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Right (commonly the non-dominant side)}}</div>
1395784225701 1390229673821 Occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::Anterior Cereral}}
Artery will result in contralateral sensory/motor deficits to the <>lower lims
</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395784455868 1390229673821 How does an occlusion of the Lenticulostriate Ar
tery present?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral hemiparesis/hemiplegia}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395784530993 1390229673821 The&nsp;{{c1::Lenticulostriate}} Artery is an a
rtery of the anterior CNS circulation that is a common location of lacunar infar
cts, especially in unmanaged hypertension.
<r /><div><img src="paste-26371
09920499.jpg" /></div>
1395784595461 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery will cause Medial M
edullary Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Spinal Artery}}</div>
<div><r /></div><div><i>Specifically the paramedian ranches of the ASA (or eve
n Verteral Artery).</i></div><r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></
div>
1395785011167 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Lateral Medu

llary (Wallenerg's) Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Inferior Cer
eellar Artery (PICA)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" />
</div>
1395785069629 1390229673821 {{c1::Lateral Medullary Syndrome}} is a stroke s
yndrome caused y occlusion to the Posterior Inferior Cereellar Artery (PICA) a
nd is also referred to as Wallenerg's Syndrome.
1395785092954 1390229673821 {{c1::Medial Medullary Syndrome}} is a stroke sy
ndrome that is caused y an occlusion to the Anterior Spinal Artery (ASA).
1395785142153 1390229673821 Which CNS artery is associated with Nucleus Ami
guus defects following a stroke?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Inferior Cer
eellar Artery (PICA)}}</div>
1395785977234 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Lateral Pont
ine Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Inferior Cereellar Artery (AI
CA)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395786002276 1390229673821 {{c1::Lateral Pontine Syndrome}} is a stroke syn
drome that occurs due to occlusion of the Anterior Inferior Cereellar Artery.
1395786119211 1390229673821 {{c1::Lateral Pontine Syndrome}} is a stroke syn
drome that presents similar to Wallenerg's Syndrome ut <>lacks hoarseness, dy
sphagia and taste deficits</>.
1395786187939 1390229673821 Which stroke syndrome is associated with <>para
lysis</>&nsp;of the face?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Pontine Syndrome}
}</div> <r /><div><i>"Facial droop means the AICA is pooped."</i></div>
1395786227603 1390229673821 Which stroke syndrome is associated with hoarsen
ess and dysphagia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Medullary (Wallenerg's) S
yndrome}}</div> <r /><div><i>aka Nucleus Amiguus deficits</i></div>
1395786319554 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Superior Alt
ernating (Weer's) Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Cereral Arter
y}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395786600644 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Benedict's S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Cereral Artery}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-2637109920499.jpg" /></div>
1395786654858 1390229673821 {{c1::Superior Alternating (Weer's) Syndrome}}
is a stroke syndrome that results from an occlusion to the Posterior Cereral Ar
tery and presents with <>CN III palsy</>&nsp;and <>contralateral hemiplegia<
/>.
1395786697163 1390229673821 {{c1::Benedict's Syndrome}} is a stroke syndrome
that presents similarly to Superior Alternating (Weer's) Syndrome, except it i
ncludes ataxia.
1395786775134 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery will cause "LockedIn" Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basilar Artery}}</div> <div><i><r /></
i></div>
1395787174337 1390229673821 {{c1::Locked-In Syndrome}} is a stroke syndrome
due to occlusion of the Basilar Artery and involves <>quadriplegia</>&nsp;wit
h <>preserved consciousness/linking</>&nsp;and a loss of voluntary facial, m
outh and tongue movements.
<r /><div><i>This was also a pretty cool House
episode with Mos Def...</i></div>
1395787180165 1390229673821 What is the most common site of a Berry (Saccula
r) Aneurysm?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3667902071128.jpg" /><r /><di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Communicating Artery}}</div></div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-18605798326561.jpg" /></div>
1395787245574 1390229673821 What is the 2nd most common site of Berry (Saccu
lar) Aneurysm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Communicating Artery}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18601503359265.jpg" /></div>
1395787288466 1390229673821 {{c1::CN III Palsy}} is a common cranial nerve p
alsy involved with strokes that presents with <>"down and out" eyes</>&nsp;wi
th ptosis and mydriasis.<div><r /><div><img src="paste-18769007083916.jpg" /></
div></div>
1395787523740 1390229673821 {{c1::Bitemporal Hemianopia}} is a possile comp
lication of Berry Aneurysm due to compression of the Optic Chiasm.
1395787615018 1390229673821 Which genetic renal disorder is associated with

Berry Aneurysms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney
Disease (ADPKD)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence <u>always</u>&nsp;get a cra
nial angiogram/CT/MRI of a patient with ADPKD.</i></div>
1395787667212 1390229673821 {{c1::Berry Aneurysm}} is a type of cereral ane
urysm that is associated with connective tissue disorders such as Ehlers-Danlos
Syndrome and Marfan's Syndrome. <r /><div><img src="paste-3663607103832.jpg" />
</div>
1395787712622 1390229673821 Which race has an increased risk of developing a
Berry Aneurysm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blacks}}</div>
1395787909353 1390229673821 {{c1::Charcot-Bouchard Microaneurysm}} is a type
of CNS aneurysm that is associated with chronic hypertension and commonly affec
ts the small vessels of the deep rain (i.e. at the asal ganglia, thalamus).
1395787972725 1390229673821 Which type of CNS aneurysm is commonly associate
d with chronic Hypertension?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Charcot-Bouchard microan
eurysm}}</div>
1395788000135 1390229673821 Which artery is commonly ruptured in Epidural He
matoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Meningeal Artery (ranch of the Maxill
ary Artery)}}</div>
1395797998860 1390229673821 Which cranial one is most commonly fractured in
an Epidural Hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Temporal Bone}}</div>
1395798040267 1390229673821 What type of CNS herniation is seen in an Epidur
al Hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transtentorial herniation (with CN III P
alsy)}}</div>
1395798157863 1390229673821 {{c1::CN III (Oculomotor) Palsy}} is a complicat
ion of Epidural Hematoma that will present with <>"down and out" eyes</>&nsp;
and mydriasis due to compression of the Oculomotor Nerve via herniation.
1395798220380 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hematoma presents as a
<>iconvex</>&nsp;(lentiform), <>lens-shaped</> lesion on CT?<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-3740916515098.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Epidural Hematoma}}</div></div>
1395798348470 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hematoma <>cannot</>
&nsp;cross cranial <>suture lines</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epidural Hem
atoma}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3740916515098.jpg" /></div>
1395798391876 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hematoma <>can</>&n
sp;cross the midline, falx and tentorium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epidural He
matoma}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3745211482394.jpg" /></div>
1395798482213 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hematoma involves a <
>lucid interval</>&nsp;efore neurological symptoms present?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Epidural Hematoma}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3740916515098
.jpg" /></div>
1395798509902 1390229673821 {{c1::Epidural Hematoma}} is a type of intracran
ial hematoma that involves a collection of lood etween the dura and the skull.
1395798607964 1390229673821 Which lood vessels are commonly ruptured in Su
dural Hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bridging vessels etween the dura and
arachnoid mater}}</div>
1395798894538 1390229673821 Which intracranial hematoma results in <>rapid
expansion</>&nsp;of the hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epidural Hematoma
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Attriuted to the fact that it is the arterial pre
ssure that feeds into the hematoma out of the ruptured artery.</i></div>
1395798974108 1390229673821 Which intracranial hematoma involves <>slow le
eding</>&nsp;over time?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural hematoma}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Attriuted to the fact that it is the venous system that feeds int
o the hematoma, resulting in a slow growing hematoma.</i></div>
1395799025178 1390229673821 Which kind of intracranial hematoma is associate
d with rain atrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural Hematoma}}</div>
1395799044939 1390229673821 Which type of intracranial hematoma displays a <
>crescent</>&nsp;shaped lesion on CT?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-38
35405795608.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural Hematoma}}</div></
div>
1395799106587 1390229673821 Which type of intracranial hemorrhage <>can</>

&nsp;cross cranial <>suture lines</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural Hem
atoma}}</div>
1395799136620 1390229673821 Which type of intracranial hematoma <>cannot</
>&nsp;cross the midline, falx or tentorium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sudural
Hematoma}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3839700762904.jpg" /></div>
1395799181989 1390229673821 {{c1::Sudural Hematoma}} is a type of intracran
ial hematoma that involves collection of the lood underneath the dura over the
surface of the rain. <r /><div><img src="paste-22346714841200.jpg" /></div>
1395799241563 1390229673821 {{c1::Suarachnoid hemorrhage}} is a type of int
racranial hemorrhage that involves leeding into the suarachnoid space.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-3934190043415.jpg" /></div>
1395799568907 1390229673821 What is the most common cause of Suarachnoid He
morrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rupture of a Berry (Saccular) aneurysm}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Don't forget the association with Autosomal Dominant Polyc
ystic Kidney Disease, rah!!</i></div>
1395799621586 1390229673821 What is the 2nd most common cause of Suarachnoi
d Hemorrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arteriovenous Malformations}}</div>
1395799661587 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hemorrhage is often de
scried as "the worst headache of my life"?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suarachn
oid Hemorrhage}}</div>
1395800369260 1390229673821 What type of intracranial hemorrhage is associat
ed with a loody or <>xanthochromatic</>&nsp;(yellow) fluid after Lumar Punc
ture?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suarachnoid Hemorrhage}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The yellow hue is due to the iliruin reakdown that occurs in the CSF.</
i></div>
1395800469980 1390229673821 {{c1::Suarachnoid Hemorrhage}} is a type of int
racranial hemorrhage that involves a risk of <>vasospasm</>&nsp;<>2-3 days</
>&nsp;after onset of the injury due to lood reakdown.
1395800525948 1390229673821 Which drug is commonly used to treat the vasospa
sm seen in Suarachnoid Hemorrhage 2-3 days after the injury?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Nimodipine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>A Calcium channel locker</i></div
>
1395800810690 1390229673821 {{c1::Intracereral/Intraparenchymal Hemorrhage}
} is a type of intracranial hemorrhage that involves leeding into the rain par
enchyma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3972844749079.jpg" /></div>
1395800892646 1390229673821 What is the most common cause of Intracereral/I
ntraparenchymal Hemorrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rupture of Charcot-Boucha
rd microaneurysms due to systemic hypertension}}</div>
1395800930959 1390229673821 Where are&nsp;Intracereral/Intraparenchymal He
morrhages typically located in the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal Gangl
ia and Internal Capsule (i.e. deep rain)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Basal gang
lia is the most common however it can e loar.</i></div>
1395801002154 1390229673821 Which cereral vessels are typically affected in
&nsp;Intracereral/Intraparenchymal Hemorrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lent
iculostriate vessels (at/around the deep rain)}}</div>
1405725640979 1395802358422 Which emryological structure induces the overly
ing ectoderm to differentiate into the neuroectoderm and form the neural plate?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Notochord}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30094
835843424.jpg" /></div>
1405725776381 1395802358422 What does the notochord develop into?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Nucleus pulposus of the interverteral disc in adults}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30090540876128.jpg" /></div>
1405725804658 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
<>dorsal/sensory</>&nsp;portion of the spinal cord?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Alar Plate}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Give <>DAP</>s to the spinal cord, rah
."</i></div>
1405725889948 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
<>ventral/motor</>&nsp;portion of the spinal cord?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Basal plate}}</div>
1405725918702 1395802358422 On which day of gestation does the neural plate

form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Day 18}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-30090
540876128.jpg" /></div>
1405725935400 1395802358422 Which <>primary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops i
nto the Telencephalon and Diencephalon?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prosencephalo
n}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Or what I like to call it: the Brosencephalon.</i>
</div><div><i><img src="paste-30305289241310.jpg" /></i></div>
1405726030425 1395802358422 Which <>primary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops i
nto the Mesencephalon?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesencephalon}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726051334 1395802358422 Which <>primary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops i
nto the Metencephalon and Myelencephalon?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rhomenceph
alon}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726091147 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the cereral hemispheres?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Telencephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726121328 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the lateral ventricles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Telencephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726144218 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the thalamus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diencephalon}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726156848 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the third ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diencephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></div>
1405726205795 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the midrain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesencephalon}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i></div><div><i>- From rostral to
caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon and Myelencephalon whic develops
into the rainstem structures (midrain, pons, medulla respectively)</i></div><
div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1405726219663 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the cereral aqueduct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesencephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i></div><div><i>- From ro
stral to caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon and Myelencephalon whic
develops into the rainstem structures (midrain, pons, medulla respectively)</i
></div><div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1405726267826 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the <>pons</>&nsp;and <>cereellum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Met
encephalon}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i
></div><div><i>- From rostral to caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon
and Myelencephalon whic develops into the rainstem structures (midrain, pons,
medulla respectively)</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i
></div></div>
1405726290799 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the upper part of the fourth ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metence
phalon}}</div> <r /><div><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i></div><
div><i>- From rostral to caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon and Myel
encephalon whic develops into the rainstem structures (midrain, pons, medulla
respectively)</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i></div><
/div>
1405726339159 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the medulla?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myelencephalon}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rainstem"</i></div><div><i>- From rostral to caud
al, it is the Mesencephalon, Metencephalon and Myelencephalon whic develops into
the rainstem structures (midrain, pons, medulla respectively)</i></div><div><
i><img src="paste-30300994274014.jpg" /></i></div>
1405726430212 1395802358422 Which <>secondary</>&nsp;CNS vesicle develops
into the lower part of the fourth ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myelenc
ephalon}}</div> <r /><div><r /></div><div><div><i>"<>Mes met my</>&nsp;rai
nstem"</i></div><div><i>- From rostral to caudal, it is the Mesencephalon, Meten

cephalon and Myelencephalon whic develops into the rainstem structures (midrai
n, pons, medulla respectively)</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-30300994274014.j
pg" /></i></div></div>
1405726449490 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do ependymal cells develop?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}&nsp;</d
iv>
1405726544750 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do oligodendrocytes develop?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405726558275 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do astrocytes develop?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405726570257 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do Schwann cells form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural crest}}</div>
1405726583584 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer/population
do microglia form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405726596990 1395802358422 Which ranchial arches develop into the <>anter
ior 2/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st and 2nd}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Hence the sensation (CN V<su>3</su>)&nsp;and taste (CN VI
I) is in line with the associated cranial nerves.</i><r /><div><img src="paste32654636352006.jpg" /></div>
1405727024434 1395802358422 Which ranchial arches develop into the <>poste
rior 1/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd and 4th}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Hence sensory (CN IX, CN X) and taste (CN IX, CN X) innervat
ion is via the associated cranial nerves.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-32650341
384710.jpg" /></div>
1405727100789 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs the motor innervatio
n of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN XII}}</div>
1405727115491 1395802358422 Which emryological myotomes develops into the m
uscles of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Occipital myotomes}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-32650341384710.jpg" /></div>
1405727142116 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs the <>sensation</>
&nsp;of the <>anterior 2/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
CN V<su>3</su>}}</div>
1405727162340 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs <>taste</>&nsp;at
the <>anterior 2/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-32650341384710.jpg" /></div>
1405727195901 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve <>mainly</> governs taste
and sensation at the <>posterior 1/3</>&nsp;of the tongue?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::CN IX}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-32650341384710.jpg" /></div>
1405727233846 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs taste and sensation
at the <>extreme posterior </>of the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}
</div>
1405727262948 1395802358422 Which 3 cranial nerves govern <>taste</>&nsp;
at the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII; CN IX; CN X}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>via the <>Solitary nucleus</></i></div><div><i><><img src="paste-326503
41384710.jpg" /></></i></div>
1405727292154 1395802358422 Which <>nucleus</>&nsp;is involved in taste p
erception from the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Solitary nucleus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>via CN VII, IX, X</i></div>
1405727311689 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves are involves with pain and
sensation from the tongue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>; CN IX; C
N X}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-32650341384710.jpg" /></div>
1405735410086 1395802358422 {{c1::Wallerian degeneration}} is a type of axon
al degeneration that involves <>degeneration distal to the injury</>&nsp;and
<>axonal retraction proximally</>.
<r /><div><i>This allows for potential
regeneration of the PNS.</i></div>
1405737348696 1395802358422 Which protein is used as an astrocyte marker?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::GFAP}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3640414280110
8.jpg" /></div>
1405737371569 1395802358422 Which cells are the phagocytes of the CNS?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Microglia}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-364

64272343244.jpg" /></div>
1405737384858 1395802358422 Which type of CNS cell fuse to form multinucleat
ed giants cells in the CNS if they are HIV infected?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Microglia}}</div>
1405737430020 1395802358422 Which cells produce myelin in the CNS?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-36021
890711803.jpg" /></div>
1405737627458 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS yield a<>&nsp;"fried eg
g"&nsp;</>appearance on H&amp;E stain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendroc
ytes}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-36490042147069.jpg" /></div>
1405737706774 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS are targeted in Multiple
Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
1405737718746 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS are targeted in leukodyst
rophies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
1405737733357 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS are targeted in Progressi
ve Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendroc
ytes}}</div>
1405737756265 1395802358422 Which cell of the PNS produce myelin?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Schwann Cells}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3667472574072
6.jpg" /></div>
1405737816394 1395802358422 Which cells of the PNS are targeted in Gullain-B
arré Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Schwann Cells}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-36670430773430.jpg" /></div>
1405737841637 1395802358422 {{c1::Acoustic Neuroma}} is a type of schwannoma
that is typically located in the <>internal acoustic meatus</>, therey affec
ting CN VIII.
1405737887058 1395802358422 {{c1::C fiers}} are a type of free nerve ending
that is <>slow</>&nsp;and <>unmyelinated</>.
1405737971879 1395802358422 {{c1::A∂ fiers}} are a type of free nerve endings
that are <>fast</>&nsp;and <>myelinated</>.
1405737995347 1395802358422 What do free nerve endings sense?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Pain and temperature}}</div>
1405738018985 1395802358422 Which type of sensory corpuscle sense <>dynamic
, fine/light touch</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Meissner corpuscle}}</div>
1405738046691 1395802358422 Which type of sensory corpuscle sense <>virati
on</>&nsp;and <>rapid changes in&nsp;pressure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Pacinian corpuscle}}</div>
1405738061330 1395802358422 Which type of sensory corpuscle sense <>pressur
e, deep static touch</>&nsp;and <>position sense</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Merkel Disc}}</div>
1405738081941 1395802358422 What type of adaptation is exhiited y Meissner
corpuscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fast}}</div>
1405738111285 1395802358422 What type of adaptation is exhiited y Pacinian
Corpuscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fast}}</div>
1405738117420 1395802358422 What type of adaptation is exhiited y Merkel D
isc?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Slow}}</div>
1405738123808 1395802358422 {{c1::Perineurium}} is a connective tissue layer
that surrounds a <>fascicle of nerve fiers</>.
<div><r /></div><i>Endo
, peri, epi =&nsp;</i><i>Inner, middle, outer</i><div><div><img src="paste-3757
2373905617.jpg" /></div></div>
1405738214377 1395802358422 {{c1::Epineurium}} is a dense connective tissue
that surrounds entire nerves. <r /><div><i>Endo, peri, epi =&nsp;</i><i>Inne
r, middle, outer</i><div><div><img src="paste-37572373905617.jpg" /></div></div>
</div>
1405738246776 1395802358422 Which connective tissue surrounding single nerve
fier layers is the site of inflammatory infiltration in Guillain-Barré Syndrome?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endoneurium}}</div> <r /><div><i>Endo, peri, epi =&
nsp;</i><i>Inner, middle, outer</i><div><div><img src="paste-37572373905617.jpg
" /></div></div></div>
1405738286683 1395802358422 How do Norepinephrine levels change in anxiety?<

div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405738649658 1395802358422 How do Norepinephrine levels change in depressio
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738655565 1395802358422 How do Dopamine levels change in Huntington Dise
ase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405738669763 1395802358422 How do Dopamine levels change in Parkinson Disea
se?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738678624 1395802358422 How do Dopamine levels change in depression?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738684190 1395802358422 How do 5-HT levels change in Parkinson?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405738695411 1395802358422 How do 5-HT levels change in anxiety?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738700084 1395802358422 How do 5-HT levels change in depression?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738707468 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in Parkinson?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405738723515 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in Alzheimer Disease?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738733299 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in Huntington Disease?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738740730 1395802358422 How do GABA levels change in anxiety?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738752452 1395802358422 How do GABA levels change in Huntington Disease?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738761954 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of Norepin
ephrine ?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Locus ceruleus (which also governs pain)}}<
/div>
1405738956168 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nsp;Do
pamine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral tegmentum; SNc}}</div>
1405738969295 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nsp;5HT?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Raphe nuclei}}</div>
1405738979030 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nsp;AC
h?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal nucleus of Meynert}}</div>
1405738989730 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nsp;GA
BA?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus accumens}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Nu
cleus accumens is also a <>reward center</>&nsp;and it governs <>pleasure,
addiction and fear</>.</i></div>
1405739026255 1395802358422 Which 3 structures make up the lood-rain arri
er?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tight junctions etween nonfenestrated capillary
endothelium; Basement memrane; Astrocyte foot processes}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-39041252720857.jpg" /></div>
1405739077438 1395802358422 {{c1::Area Postrema}} is a nucleus that is part
of the circumventricular system that governs <>vomiting.</>
1405739171726 1395802358422 {{c1::Organ Vasculosum of the Lamina Terminalis
(OVLT)}} is a nucleus part of the circumventricular system that <>senses change
s in osmolarity</>.
1405739191843 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::circumventricular system}} is a g
roup of specialized rain regions that have <>fenestrated capillaries</>&nsp;
and <>no lood-rain arrier</>, therey allowing for molecules in the lood t
o affect rain function.
<r /><div><i>Normally there are non-fenestrated
capillaries and a lood-rain arrier.</i></div>
1405739240133 1395802358422 {{c1::Vasogenic edema}} is a type of cereral ed
ema that involves <>infarction</>&nsp;or <>neoplastic damage</>&nsp;to the
endothelial tight junctions.
1405739502861 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the hypothalamus makes ADH?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supraoptic nucleus}}</div>
1405739705032 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the hypothalamus makes Oxytocin
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paraventricular Nucleus}}</div>
1405739723108 1395802358422 How does Leptin influence the activity of the la

teral area of the hypothalamus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405739759666 1395802358422 How does Leptin influence the activity of the Ve
ntromedial Area of the Hypothalamus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</di
v>
1405739778535 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs <>hunger
</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral area}}</div>
1405740013016 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs <>satiet
y</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventromedial area}}</div>
1405740024639 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs <>coolin
g</>&nsp;and the <>parasympathetic</>&nsp;system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Anterior hypothalamus}}</div> <r /><div><i>"AC = air conditioning = <>anteri
or, cooling</>."</i></div>
1405740065988 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs <>heatin
g</>&nsp;and the <>sympathetic </>nervous system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Posterior hypothalamus}}</div>
1405740080879 1395802358422 Which area of the hypothalamus governs circadian
rhythms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suprachiasmatic Nucleus}}</div>
1405740097741 1395802358422 Lesion to which area of the hypothalamus will re
sult in <>anorexia</>&nsp;and <>failure to thrive </>(in infants)?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lateral area}}</div>
1405740135331 1395802358422 Lesion to which area of the hypothalamus will re
sult in <>hyperphagia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventromedial area}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. y a craniopharyngioma</i></div>
1405740155309 1395802358422 How does the amount of sleep change with increas
ing age?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405741500451 1395802358422 How does the <>length</>&nsp;of REM sleep cha
nge with increasing age?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405741525933 1395802358422 How does the <>proportion</>&nsp;of REM sleep
change with increasing age?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Constant}}</div>
1405741546373 1395802358422 {{c1::Sleep Fragmentation}} is a sleep disorder
that involves the <>chopping up of sleep cycles</>, therey resulting in a lac
k of rest and groggyness.
<r /><div><i>Do not confuse this with sleep dep
rivation, which is a straight up lack of sleep.</i></div><div><i>This is also a
great tie into why aies ruin the lives of young parents. Baies have 30-40 min
ute sleep cycles, which are much shorter than an adults. Hence when they wake up
and cry, they cause <>sleep fragmentation</>&nsp;in adults, leading to the p
arents hating their lives.</i></div>
1405741668037 1395802358422 Which stages of sleep are lost in the elderly?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::3 and 4; i.e. they lose delta sleep}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Hence, <u>always look at the patient's age in the vignette</u>. A 15 year
old with a lack of stage 3 or 4 sleep is ad news ears. But in the elderly it m
ay not e pathological.</i></div>
1405741784528 1395802358422 What are the 4 key neurotransmitters involved wi
th sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5-HT; ACh; NE; DA}}</div> <r /><div><i>"<
>SAND</>man"</i></div>
1405741809877 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter is involved in the <>ini
tiation</>&nsp;of sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5-HT (Serotonin)}}</div>
1405741829446 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in REM sleep?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>An increased ACh:NE ratio
triggers REM sleep.</i></div><div><i>This is also why <>erections occur in men
during REM sleep</>&nsp;(i.e. dat dere morning wood).</i></div>
1405741852420 1395802358422 How do NE levels change in REM sleep?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>An increased ACh:NE ratio
triggers REM sleep.</i></div>
1405741863367 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter ratio is the trigger for
REM sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACh:NE}}</div>
<r /><div><i>An increas
ed ACh:NE ratio triggers REM sleep.</i></div>
1405741887748 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter is associated with <>aro
usal</>&nsp;and <>wakefulness</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dopamine}}</div
>

1405741944855 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in the <>durat
ion and frequency</>&nsp;of REM sleep influence the susceptiility for depress
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405741989281 1395802358422 How does light influence suprachiasmatic nucleus
activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742330685 1395802358422 Which pontine nucleus governs the extraocular mo
vements during REM sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paramedian Pontine Reticula
r Formation (PPRF)}}</div>
1405742489274 1395802358422 What is the normal length of an adult sleep cycl
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::90 min}}</div>
1405742502563 1395802358422 How does alcohol influence REM sleep and delta w
ave sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742535465 1395802358422 How do enzodiazepines influence REM sleep and d
elta wave sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742546236 1395802358422 How do ariturates influence REM sleep and delt
a wave sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742557976 1395802358422 What is the treatment for sleep enuresis (edwet
ting)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oral desmopressin acetate (DDAVP)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Preferred over <>Imipramine</>&nsp;due to a etter adverse effe
ct profile.</i></div>
1405742603688 1395802358422 What type of EEG waves are seen in <>eyes open<
/>&nsp;wakefulness?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta}}</div> <i><div></div></
i><i><r />Highest frequency, lowest amplitude.</i><div><i><img src="paste-43319
040147775.jpg" /></i></div>
1405742889875 1395802358422 What type of EEG waves are seen in <>eyes close
d</>&nsp;wakefulness?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>8-12 cps</i><r /><div><img src="paste-43314745180479.jpg" /></div>
1405742904673 1395802358422 What type of EEG waves are seen in <>Stage N1</
>&nsp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Theta}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>3-7
cps</i><r /><div><img src="paste-43314745180479.jpg" /></div>
1405742938118 1395802358422 What type of EEG waves are seen in <>Stage N2</
>&nsp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sleep spindles and K complexes}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>12-14 cps</i><r /><div><img src="paste-43314745180479.jpg"
/></div>
1405742955674 1395802358422 What type of EEG waveforms are seen in <>Stage
N3</>&nsp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Partial Delta}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Lowest frequency, highest amplitude.</i></div><div><i>Delta = deepest slee
p = slow-wave sleep</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-43314745180479.jpg" /></i><
/div>
1405743023647 1395802358422 Which type of EEG waves are seen in <>Stage N4<
/>&nsp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Full delta}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-43314745180479.jpg" /></div>
1405743046860 1395802358422 Which type of EEG waves are seen in <>REM</>&n
<r /><div><img src="pas
sp;sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta}}</div>
te-43314745180479.jpg" /></div>
1405743065766 1395802358422 Which phase of NREM sleep is the phase where neu
rotransmitters are replaced?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stages 3 and 4}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. the stores are refilled</i></div>
1405743107835 1395802358422 A loss of which phase of sleep is<>&nsp;associ
ated with</>&nsp;(not causal) dementia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Delta sleep
(i.e. stage 3 and 4 NREM)}}</div>
1405743141407 1395802358422 What is the most common stage of sleep?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Stage N2}}</div>
1405743151287 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep is where <>ruxism</>&ns
p;occurs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stage N2}}</div>
1405743173876 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves <>sleepwalking, n
ight terrors</>&nsp;and <>edwetting</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stages 3
and 4}}</div>
1405743223116 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves <>loss of motor t
one</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM}}</div>

1405743853321 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves an <>increase in
rain O<su>2</su>&nsp;usage</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</div>
1405743870356 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves an <>increase in
variale pulse and lood pressure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</d
iv>
1405743942182 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves <>dreaming</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This includes thos
e kinky wet dreams you have of me, Sohai.</i></div><div><i>If you wake up and r
ememer your dream, you likely woke up out of REM sleep.</i></div><div><i>If you
wake up and don't rememer your dream (ut still know you dreamt), you likely w
oke up out of Stage 2 sleep.</i></div><div><i>If you wake up groggy and disorien
ted, you likely woke up out of delta sleep (stage 3 or 4). This is why alarm clo
cks suck.</i></div>
1405743969914 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep involves <>penil and clitt
oral tumescence</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</div>
1405743985373 1395802358422 What is the second most common stage of sleep?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stage N3}}</div>
1405744022317 1395802358422 {{c1::Sleep latency}} is defined as the time it
takes to fall asleep.
1405744348978 1395802358422 {{c1::REM latency}} is defined as the time it ta
kes <>from sleep to the first REM period</>. <r /><div><i>Typically ~90 min.
</i></div>
1405744395457 1395802358422 What is the normal cycle of sleep stages?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM......}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i><>Notice how stage 2 sleep is the crossroad</>, this is wh
y it is the most common stage.</i><r /><div><div><i>If you wake up and rememer
your dream, you likely woke up out of REM sleep.</i></div><div><i>If you wake u
p and don't rememer your dream (ut still know you dreamt), you likely woke up
out of Stage 2 sleep.</i></div><div><i>If you wake up groggy and disoriented, yo
u likely woke up out of delta sleep (stage 3 or 4). This is why alarm clocks suc
k.</i></div></div>
1405744552015 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the s
pinothalamic tract?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPL}}</div>
1405745430016 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the d
orsal column/medial lemniscus (DCML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPL}}</div>
1405745448345 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the t
rigeminal pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPM}}</div>
1405745461749 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the g
ustatory pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPM}}</div>
1405745467649 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the o
ptic pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LGN}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Lateral ge
niculate nucleus.</i></div>
1405745484187 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the s
uperior olivary nucleus (auditory pathway)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MGN}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Medial geniculate nucleus.</i></div><div><i><>M</>&nsp;
for <>M</>usic.</i></div>
1405745518357 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the i
nferior colliculus of the tectum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MGN}}</div>
<r /><div><i>In the auditory pathway.</i></div>
1405745534095 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the 
asal ganglia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral lateral (VL)}}</div>
1405745545486 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives input from the c
ereellum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral lateral (VL)}}</div>
1405745553532 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
VPL send pain and temperature information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primary s
omatosensory cortex}}</div>
1405745607230 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
VPL send pressure, touch, viration and proprioception information?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Primary somatosensory cortex}}</div>
1405745642591 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus

VPM send face sensation and taste information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prima
ry Somatosensory Cortex}}</div>
1405745666093 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
LGN send visual information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcarine sulcus}}</div
>
1405745743931 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
MGN send hearing information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Auditory cortex of the
temporal loe}}</div>
1405745761652 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
VL send motor information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Motor cortex}}</div>
1405745771137 1395802358422 {{c1::Limic system}} is a collection of neural
structures involved in <>emotion, long-term memory, olfaction, ehaviour</>&n
sp;and <>autonomic function</>.
<r /><div><i>Basically, the 5 F's.</i><
/div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>Fighting, fleeing, feeding, feeling and for
nication.</i></div>
1405745861356 1395802358422 Through which cereellar peduncle does the <>co
ntralateral motor cortex</>&nsp;communicate with the cereellum?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Middle Cereellar Peduncle}}</div>
1405746136895 1395802358422 Through which cereellar peduncle does the <>ip
silateral proprioceptive information</>&nsp;from the spinal cord project to th
e cereellum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior cereellar peduncle}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, <>cereellar proprioceptive tracts are always ipsilater
al</>.</i></div>
1405746204993 1395802358422 From <>lateral to medial</>, what are the deep
nuclei of the cereellum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dentate; Emoliform; Gloo
se; Fastigial}}</div> <r /><div><i>"<>D</>on't <>E</>at <>G</>reasy <>
F</>oods"</i></div>
1405746261619 1395802358422 Which cells of the cereellum are the <>output
cells</>&nsp;that send signals to the contralateral motor cortex via the super
ior cereellar peduncle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Purkinje cells}}</div>
1405746299184 1395802358422 Lesions to the&nsp;{{c1::lateral}} side of the
cereellum affects <>voluntary movement of the extremities</>&nsp;and present
s with the <>propensity to fall towards the injured (ipsilateral) side</>.
1405746376983 1395802358422 Lesions to the&nsp;{{c1::medial}} side of the c
ereellum result in <>truncal ataxia, nystagmus</>&nsp;and <>head tilting</
>&nsp;due to damage to the vermis, fastigial nuclei or flocconodular loe.
<r /><div><i>The <>vermis</>&nsp;and <>fastigial nuclei</>&nsp;are midlin
e structures.</i></div>
1405746579633 1395802358422 Which area of cereral cortex governs <>motor s
peech</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Broca Area}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-49417893708241.jpg" /></div>
1405747595669 1395802358422 Which area of the cereral cortex functions as t
he <>associative auditory area</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wernicke area}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-49413598740945.jpg" /></div>
1405747675305 1395802358422 In which loe of the rain is the principal visu
al cortex found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Occipital loe}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-49413598740945.jpg" /></div>
1405747733973 1395802358422 In which loe of the rain is primary auditory c
ortex found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Temporal loe}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-49413598740945.jpg" /></div>
1405747755176 1395802358422 Which ody parts are represented on the <>later
al</>&nsp;side of the rain in the homunculus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rost
ral structures (head, tongue, etc)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-49838
800503311.jpg" /></div>
1405747950499 1395802358422 Which parts of the ody are found on the <>medi
al</>&nsp;side of the rain on the homunculus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caud
al structures (legs; feet)}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>"The feet hang off t
he edge."</i><r /><div><img src="paste-49834505536015.jpg" /></div>
1405786797020 1395802358422 {{c1::Kluver-Bucy Syndrome}} is a CNS lesion tha
t results from <>ilateral amygdala lesion</>&nsp;and presents with <>hypero

rality, hypersexuality</>&nsp;and <>disinhiited ehaviour</>.
1405786856914 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Kluver-Bucy Syndrome?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral amygdala}}</div>
1405786876709 1395802358422 Which herpesvirus is associated with Kluver-Bucy
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div>
1405786887860 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::frontal loe lesion}} is a CNS lesi
on that presents with <>disinhiition and deficits in concentration, orientatio
n</>&nsp;and <>judgement</>.
<r /><div><i>May involve re-emergence o
f primitive reflexes.</i></div>
1405786943021 1395802358422 {{c1::Spatial Neglect Syndrome}} is a CNS disord
er due to a <>right parietal-temporal cortex lesion</>&nsp;and presents with
<>agnosia of the contralateral side of the world</>.
1405787033295 1395802358422 Which lesion is seen in spatial neglect syndrome
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right parietal-temporal cortex lesion}}</div>
1405787051947 1395802358422 {{c1::Gerstmann Syndrome}} is a CNS disorder tha
t is due to a <>left parietal-temporal cortex lesion</>&nsp;and presents with
<>agraphia, acalculia, finger agnosia</>&nsp;and <>left-right disorientatio
n</>.
1405787090039 1395802358422 Which CNS lesion is seen in Gerstmann Syndrome?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left parietal-temporal cortex lesion}}</div>
1405787108302 1395802358422 A CNS lesion to the&nsp;{{c1::reticular activat
ing system}} in the <>midrain</>&nsp;presents with <>reduced levels of arou
sal and wakefulness</>.
1405787140819 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome}} is a CNS dis
order due to <>thiamine deficiency&nsp;</>that presents with <>confusion, op
hthalmoplegia, ataxia</>&nsp;and <>memory loss</>. <r /><div><i>Can e cau
sed y excessive alcohol use.</i></div>
1405787210806 1395802358422 Which CNS lesion is seen in Wernicke-Korsakoff S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral mamillary ody lesion}}</div>
1405787226276 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Wernicke-Korsakoff Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thiamine (Vitamin B<su>1</su>) <u>efore</u>
&nsp;Glucose}}</div> <r /><div><i>Giving glucose efore thiamine can exacer
ate the thiamine deficiency.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, thiamine is a vital cofa
ctor in 2 major enzymes involved in glucose metaolism. Administering glucose in
a Vitamin B<su>1</su>&nsp;deficiency patient simply further exacerates the
deficiency.</i></div>
1405787312589 1395802358422 Which cereellar lesion is associated with <>tr
uncal ataxia</>&nsp;and <>dysarthria</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cereell
ar vermis}}</div>
1405787353044 1395802358422 Which lesion is seen in Hemiallismus?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral suthalamic nucleus lesion}}</div>
1405787372934 1395802358422 Which CNS lesion can cause <>anterograde</>&n
sp;amnesia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral hippocampal lesion}}</div>
1405787394123 1395802358422 In which direct do the eyes turn following a PPR
F lesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Away</u>&nsp;from the lesion}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Wrong way eyes."</i></div>
1405787423245 1395802358422 In which direction do the eyes turn in a Frontal
Eye Field lesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Towards</u>&nsp;the lesion}}</
div>
<r /><div>"<i>Right way eyes"</i></div>
1405787441014 1395802358422 {{c1::Dysarthria}} is a CNS movement disorder th
at is descried as the inaility to speak.
1405787480489 1395802358422 {{c1::Aphasia}} is a CNS language deficit descri
ed as a high-order inaility to speak.
1405787502375 1395802358422 {{c1::Broca Aphasia}} is a type of aphasia that
involves <>nonfluent speech</>&nsp;with <>intact comprehension</>. <r><div
><i>Due to Broca's Area lesion.</i></div><div><i>These type of patients will app
ear to e visily frustrated as they can comprehend what you're saying, ut cann
ot reply. They can also hear what their saying and will realise the prolem, get
ting even more frustrated.</i></div><div><i>This is often is not the case in Wer
nicke Aphasia as comprehension is defective in a Wernicke lesion.</i></div>

1405787568806 1395802358422 Which speech center is located at the <>inferio
r frontal gyrus of the frontal loe?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Broca
's Area}}</div>
1405787610394 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke Aphasia}} is a type of aphasia th
at involves <>fluent speech</>&nsp;with <>impaired comprehension</>&nsp;an
d <>repetition</>.
<r /><div><i><>W</>ernicke's = <>W</>ord vomit.</i>
</div><div><i><r /></i></div>
1405787675043 1395802358422 Which speech center is located at the <>superio
r temporal gyrus of the temporal loe</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wernicke's
Area}}</div>
1405787694509 1395802358422 {{c1::Gloal Aphasia}} is a type of aphasia that
involves <>nonfluent speech</>&nsp;with <>impaired comprehension</>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. Broca's <>and</>&nsp;Wernicke's lesions</i></div>
1405787790970 1395802358422 {{c1::Conduction Aphasia}} is a type of aphasia
that involves <>poor repetition ut fluent speech and intact comprehension</>.
<r /><div><i>These patients cannot repeat the phrase "No ifs, ands or uts."</i
></div>
1405787834268 1395802358422 Which lesion causes Conduction Aphasia?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Left superior temporal loe and/or left supramarginal gyrus}}
</div>
1405787859922 1395802358422 {{c1::Tanscortical Motor Aphasia}} is a type of
aphasia that involves <>nonfluent speech</>&nsp;with <>good comprehension an
d repetition</>.
1405787889049 1395802358422 {{c1::Transcortical Sensory Aphasia}} is a type
of aphasia that involves <>poor comprehension</>&nsp;with <>fluent speech an
d repetition</>.
1405787957662 1395802358422 {{c1::Mixed Transcortical Aphasia}} is a type of
aphasia that involves <>nonfluent speech, poor comprehension</>&nsp;and <>g
ood repetition</>.
1405787979379 1395802358422 Which arterial lood gas primarily drives cerer
al perfusion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::P<su>CO2</su>&nsp;(increased CO<su>
2</su>&nsp;results in increased cereral perfusion)}}</div> <r /><div><i>P<
su>O2</su>&nsp;modulates perfusion in severe hypoxia.</i></div><div><i><>Thi
s is why therapeutic hyperventilation (i.e. a decrease in P<su>CO2</su>) helps
decrease ICP in cases of cereral edema as the decrease in P<su>CO2</su>&nsp
;will decrease cereral perfusion via vasoconstriction.</></i></div><div><i><im
g src="paste-2843268350545.jpg" /></i></div>
1405788260884 1395802358422 After how long in hypoxia does irreversile CNS
damage egin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5 minutes}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Mo
st vulnerale area is hippocampus, neocortex, cereellum, watershed areas</i></d
iv>
1405788824936 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event do red neuro
ns appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::12-48 hrs}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-4428111282360.jpg" /></div>
1405788905173 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event does necrosi
s and neutrophils appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::24-72 hrs}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4423816315064.jpg" /></div>
1405788922042 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event do macrophag
es appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-5 days}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-4423816315064.jpg" /></div>
1405788935689 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event does <>reac
tive gliosis</>&nsp;and <>vascular proliferation</>&nsp;appear?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::1-2 weeks}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4423816315064
.jpg" /></div>
1405788959655 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event does a <>gl
ial scar</>&nsp;appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 2 weeks}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4423816315064.jpg" /></div>
1405788973267 1395802358422 What is the most common site of intracereral he
morrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal ganglia}}</div>
1405789036808 1395802358422 {{c1::Ischemic Stroke}} is a type of stroke that

involves <>acute lockage of vessels</>&nsp;and resulting ischemia.
1405789064364 1395802358422 What type of necrosis is seen following an ische
mic stroke?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefactive necrosis}}</div>
1405789076539 1395802358422 {{c1::Thromotic stroke}} is a type of ischemic
stroke that involves <>clot formation directly at the site of infarction</>, t
ypically over <>atherosclerotic plaque</>.
1405789125130 1395802358422 Which major cereral lood vessel is commonly th
e site of thromotic stroke?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MCA}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4999341932777.jpg" /></div>
1405789139374 1395802358422 {{c1::Emolic Stroke}} is a type of ischemic str
oke that involves <>emolus formation from another part of the ody ostructing
a vessel</>.
1405789173434 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoxic Stroke}} is a type of ischemic str
oke that involves <>hypoperfusion</>&nsp;and <>hypoxemia</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>Commony during cardiovascular surgery, especially at watershed zones.</i><
/div>
1405789259481 1395802358422 {{c1::Transient Ischemia Attack}} is an ischemic
rain disorder that involves <>rief, reversile episode(s) of focal neurologi
cal dysfunction</>&nsp;lasting <u style="font-weight: old; ">&lt; 24 hrs</u>&
nsp;without acute infarction. <r /><div><i>The negative MRI confirms a lack o
f acute infarction.</i></div><div><i>Majority resolves in &lt; 15 min.</i></div>
1405789334565 1395802358422 Into which major cereral vein do the dural veno
us sinuses drain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal jugular vein}}</div>
1405789380053 1395802358422 Which dural venous sinus is the main location of
CSF return via arachnoid granulations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior sagg
ital sinus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5622112190931.jpg" /></div>
1405789413799 1395802358422 Which foramen joins the lateral ventricles to th
e 3rd ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Interventricular Foramen (of Monro)}
}</div> <r /><div><i>On oth sides.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-5759551144
305.jpg" /></i></div>
1405789482456 1395802358422 Which structure joins the 3rd ventricle to the 4
th ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cereral Aqueduct (of Sylvius)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5755256177009.jpg" /></div>
1405789513070 1395802358422 Which foramina join the 4th ventricle to the su
arachoid space?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Foramina of Luschka (laterally) and t
he Foramen of Magendie (medially)}}</div>
1405789559602 1395802358422 Where is CSF made?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ep
endymal cells of the choroid plexus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-57552
56177009.jpg" /></div>
1405789572333 1395802358422 How many spinal nerves are there in total?<div><
<r /><div><i>8 cervical + 12 thoracic +
r /></div><div>{{c1::31}}</div>
5 lumar + 5 sacral + 1 coccygeal.</i></div>
1405789823704 1395802358422 Which spinal nerves exit <>aove</>&nsp;their
corresponding vertera?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C1-C7}}</div>
1405789865811 1395802358422 Which spinal nerves <>do not</> exit <>elow<
/>&nsp;their corresponding verterae?<div><r />{{c1::C8 and elow}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. <>only C1-C7 exit aove their corresponding verterae</></i
></div>
1405789934849 1395802358422 At which verteral levels does Verteral Disc He
rniation usually occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-L5; L5-S1}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Typically occurs posterolaterally.</i></div>
1405789992247 1395802358422 Which portion of the verteral disc herniates in
disc herniation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus pulposus}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, this is the only derivative of the notochord.</i></div>
1405790023202 1395802358422 Where does the spinal cord end in a<>dults</>?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L1-L2}}</div>
1405790048631 1395802358422 Where does the suarachnoid space end in a<>dul
ts</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lower order of S2 vertera}}</div>
1405790072718 1395802358422 At which verteral levels are lumar punctures n
ormally performed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L3-L4; L4-L5}}</div>

1405790099255 1395802358422 Which ascending spinal tract carries information
aout <>pressure, touch, viration</>&nsp;and <>proprioception?</><div><>
<r /></></div><div>{{c1::Dorsal Column}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-7490422964789.jpg" /></div>
1405790857180 1395802358422 {{c1::Fasciculus Gracilis}} is an ascending sect
ion of the spinal cord that carries pressure/touch/viration information <>from
the lower ody and leg</>.
<div><r /></div><i><>T7 and elow</></i><r /
><div><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></div>
1405790942260 1395802358422 {{c1::Fasciculus Cuneatus}} is an ascending sect
ion of the spinal cord that carries pressure/touch/viration information from th
e <>upper ody and arms</>. <r /><div><><i>T6 and aove</i></></div><div>
<><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i></></div>
1405790990404 1395802358422 Which section of the dorsal column is found medi
ally?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fasciculus gracilis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.
e. the dorsal column is organized as humans are; with the hands on the side; arm
s outside, legs inside</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i
></div>
1405791129424 1395802358422 Which section of the dorsal column is found late
rally?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fasciculus cuneatus}}</div> <div><r /></div
><div><div><i>i.e. the dorsal column is organized as humans are; with the hands
on the side; arms outside, legs inside</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-74861279
97493.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1405791150197 1395802358422 Which ascending spinal tract carries <>pain and
temperature</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral spinothalamic tract}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1405791226232 1395802358422 Which ascending spinal tract carries <>crude to
uch</>&nsp;and pressure information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Spino
thalamic Tract}}</div> <r /><div><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i><
/div>
1405791258967 1395802358422 Which descending spinal tract carries <>volunta
ry motor</>&nsp;information?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior/Lateral Corti
cospinal Tract}}</div> <r /><div><i><img src="paste-7486127997493.jpg" /></i><
/div>
1405791287164 1395802358422 What is the first synapse in the Dorsal Column/M
edial Lemniscus (DCML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Ipsilateral</u>&nsp;nucle
us cuneatus or nucleus gracilis at the medulla}}</div>
1405791750609 1395802358422 Where does the&nsp;Dorsal Column/Medial Lemnisc
us (DCML) decussate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medulla}}</div>
1405791763932 1395802358422 What is the 2nd synapse in the&nsp;Dorsal Colum
n/Medial Lemniscus (DCML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPL of the thalamus}}</div
>
1405791786121 1395802358422 What is the 1st synapse of the Spinothalamic Tra
ct (STT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ipsilateral gray matter of the dorsal horn}
}</div>
1405791845625 1395802358422 Where does the&nsp;Spinothalamic Tract (STT) de
cussate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior White Commisure}}</div>
1405791860785 1395802358422 What is the 2nd synapse of the&nsp;Spinothalami
c Tract (STT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VPL}}</div>
1405791867608 1395802358422 What is the 1st synapse of the Lateral Corticosp
inal Tract (LCT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LMN of the anterior horn of the spi
nal cord}}</div>
1405791908071 1395802358422 What is the 2nd synapse of the&nsp;Lateral Cort
icospinal Tract (LCT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NMJ at the target voluntary mu
scle}}</div>
1405791928058 1395802358422 Where does the&nsp;Lateral Corticospinal Tract
(LCT) decussate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pyramidal decussation at the caudal
medulla}}</div>
1405791961624 1395802358422 How do reflexes and muscle tone change in UMN le
sions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9702331121811.jpg" /></div>

1405792717468 1395802358422 How do reflexes and muscle tone change in LMN le
sions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9706626089107.jpg" /></div>
1405792741530 1395802358422 What type of paralysis is seen in UMN lesions?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spastic paralysis}}</div>
1405792770376 1395802358422 What type of paralysis is seen in LMN lesions?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Flaccid paralysis}}</div>
1405792783586 1395802358422 What motor neuron lesion is associated with a <
>positive</>&nsp;Bainski sign?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UMN}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Positive ainski is normal in infants.</i></div>
1405792842113 1395802358422 {{c1::Werdnig-Hoffman Disease (spinal muscular a
trophy)}} and {{c2::Poliomyelitis}} are spinal cord lesions that present with <
>LMN lesions only</>&nsp;due to <>destruction of the anterior horn</>, there
y presenting with flaccid paralysis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10136
122818707.jpg" /></div>
1405792997125 1395802358422 {{c1::Multiple Sclerosis}} is a spinal cord lesi
on that occurs due to <>demyelination</>&nsp;of mostly white matter of the <
>cervical region</>, therey presenting with <>random, asymmetric lesions</>.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10325101379736.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>There is often scanning speech, intention tremor and nystagmus.</i></div>
1405793074339 1395802358422 {{c1::Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)}} is a
spinal cord lesion that involves <>comined UMN and LMN deficits</>&nsp;with
<u><>no sensory, cognitive or oculomotor deficits</>.</u><div><u><r /></u></
div><div><u><img src="paste-10591389352092.jpg" /></u></div>
1405793134499 1395802358422 Which enzyme deficiency can cause&nsp;Amyotroph
ic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide Dismutase 1}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, SOD is required to eliminate ROS.</i></div>
1405793160853 1395802358422 {{c1::Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)}} is a
spinal cord lesions that often initially presents with <>fasciculations, atrop
hy</>&nsp;and <>weakness of the hands</>.
1405793188900 1395802358422 {{c1::Riluzole}} is a drug that can modestly inc
rease survival of&nsp;Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) y <>decreasing pres
ynaptic glutamate release</>. <r /><div><i>Ri<>lou</>zole can e used in <
>Lou</>&nsp;Gehrig's Disease.</i></div>
1405793251109 1395802358422 An occlusion to the&nsp;{{c1::Anterior Spinal A
rtery}} results in lesion to the <>entire spinal cord except the dorsal column
and Lissauer tract</>. <div><r /></div><i>The upper thoracic ASA territory is
a watershed area due to the <>artery of Adamkiewicz</>&nsp;supplying the ASA
area elow ~T8.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-10866267259120.jpg" /></div>
1405793592670 1395802358422 {{c1::Taes Dorsalis}} is a spinal cord lesion t
hat is caused y <>tertiary syphilis</>&nsp;and involves <>degeneration of t
he dorsal columns and roots</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1121845457
7316.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence this will present with <>impaired s
ensation and proprioception and progressive sensory ataxia</>.</i></div>
1405793652061 1395802358422 Which spinal cord lesion is associated with <>C
harcot joints?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Taes Dorsalis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11214159610020.jpg" /></div>
1405793675436 1395802358422 Which spinal cord lesion is associated with <>A
rgyll-Roertson pupils?</><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Taes Dorsalis}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Argyll-Roertson pupil is a a pupil that exhiits accomodati
on and convergence, ut not to light.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-112141596100
20.jpg" /></div>
1405793759057 1395802358422 Which spinal cord lesion is associated with a <
>positive Romerg sign</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Taes Dorsalis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11214159610020.jpg" /></div>
1405793774076 1395802358422 {{c1::Syringomyelia}} is a spinal cord lesion th
at involves <>expansion of the syrinx</>&nsp;and <>damage to the anterior wh
ite commissure of the STT</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-117381456201
24.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence this will present with a ilateral l
oss of pain and temperature sensation <>at the level of the lesion</>.</i></di

v><div><i>The syrinx can grow and affect other tracts.</i></div>
1405794043596 1395802358422 Which spinal cord lesion is associated with <>C
hiari type 1 malformations</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Syringomyelia}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11733850652828.jpg" /></div>
1405794069135 1395802358422 {{c1::Suacute Comined Degeneration}} is a spin
al cord lesion that occurs due to <>vitamin B12</>&nsp;or <>vitamin E defici
ency</>&nsp;and involves <>demyelination of the dorsal column, LCST</>&nsp;
and <>STT</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12004433592473.jpg" /></div
>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>ataxic gait, paresthesia, impaires positi
on sense, impaired viration sense.</></i></div>
1405794175984 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Poliomyelitis?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Poliovirus}}</div>
1405794200377 1395802358422 How is poliovirus transmitted?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Fecal oral}}</div>
1405794207918 1395802358422 {{c1::Poliovirus}} is a virus that causes Poliom
yelitis that <>replicates in the oropharynx and small intestines efore enterin
g the CNS via the loodstream</>.
1405794240791 1395802358422 Which area of the spinal cord is targeted in Pol
iomyelitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior horn of the spinal cord (i.e. LM
Ns)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence polio presents with LMN lesion signs.</i></d
iv>
1405794274944 1395802358422 How do CSF WBC levels change in Poliomyelitis?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405794290443 1395802358422 How do CSF protein levels change in Poliomyeliti
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Slight increase}}</div>
1405794299952 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels change in poliomyeliti
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
1405794311078 1395802358422 What is the cause of&nsp;Werdnig-Hoffman Diseas
e (spinal muscular atrophy)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital degeneration
of the anterior horn}}</div>
1405794384894 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of&nsp;WerdnigHoffman Disease (spinal muscular atrophy)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal
recessive}}</div>
1405794397462 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Friedreich At
axia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1405794421954 1395802358422 What trinucleotide repeat is seen in Friedreich
Ataxia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GAA on chromosome 9}}</div>
1405794442471 1395802358422 Which gene is affected y GAA repeated in Friedr
eich Ataxia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Frataxin, an iron inding protein}}</div
>
1405794462725 1395802358422 {{c1::Friedreich Ataxia}} is a CNS disorder due
to GAA repeats in the Frataxin gene that involves <>impairment of mitochondrial
functioning.</>
1405794521339 1395802358422 What is the cause of death in Friedreich Ataxia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1405794542477 1395802358422 {{c1::Friedreich Ataxia}} is a CNS disorder due
to GAA repeats that presents in childhood with <>kyphoscoliosis.</>
1405794574009 1395802358422 {{c1::Friedreich Ataxia}} is a CNS disorder due
to GAA repeats that involves <>staggering gait, frequent falling, nystagmus, dy
sarthria, pes cavus</>&nsp;and <>hammer toes</>.
1405794605952 1395802358422 {{c1::Brown-Séquard Syndrome}} is a spinal cord sy
ndrome due to <>hemisection of the spinal cord.</><div><><r /></></div><div
><><img src="paste-13752485281995.jpg" /></></div>
<r /><div><i>Findings a
re pretty logical if you know your neuroanatomy. Just <>don't forget the last 2
</>:</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-13773960118708.jpg" /><img src="paste-147
18852923951.jpg" /></i></div>
1405796019342 1395802358422 {{c1::Brown-Séquard Syndrome}} is a spinal cord sy
ndrome that presents with <>ipsilateral loss of all sensation </><u style="fon
t-weight: old; ">at the level of the lesion</u>&nsp;due to hemisection of the
spinal cord.
<r /><div><img src="paste-14718852923951.jpg" /></div>

1405796156219 1395802358422 {{c1::Brown Séquard Syndrome}} is a spinal cord sy
ndrome that presents with <>ipsilateral LMN deficits </><u style="font-weight:
old; ">at the level of the lesion</u>&nsp;due to hemisection of the spinal co
rd.
<r /><div><img src="paste-14723147891247.jpg" /></div>
1405796200589 1395802358422 Aove which verteral level can Brown-Séquard Synd
rome present with Horner Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aove T1}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to damage of the oculosympathetic pathway.</i></div>
1405796299101 1395802358422 {{c1::Horner Syndrome}} is an autonomic disorder
that results from spinal cord lesions <>aove T1</>&nsp;and presents with <
>ptosis, miosis</>&nsp;and <>anhidrosis.</><div><><r /></></div> <div><r
/></div><i>"Horny PAM"</i><div><i><img src="paste-15479062134931.jpg" /><r /><
/i><div><img src="paste-14925011354154.jpg" /></div></div>
1405797156788 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptosis}} is a feature of Horner Syndrome t
hat involves <>slight drooping of the eyelid</>&nsp;(via the Superior Tarsal
Muscle).
<r /><div><img src="paste-14925011354154.jpg" /></div>
1405797184151 1395802358422 {{c1::Anhidrosis}} is a feature of Horner Syndro
me that involves the <>asence of sweating</>.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-14925011354154.jpg" /></div>
1405797205008 1395802358422 {{c1::Miosis}} is a feature of Horner Syndrome t
hat involves <>pupil constriction</>. <r><div><img src="paste-14925011354154.
jpg" /></div>
1405797217241 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the posterior half o
f the skull cap?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C2}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-15710990369162.jpg" /></div>
1405797520620 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the <>high turtlene
ck shirt level</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /></div>
1405797537896 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the <>low-collar sh
irt</>&nsp;level?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C4}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /></div>
1405797557839 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the nipple?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::T4}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /></div>
1405797568340 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the xiphoid process?<div><
The even numered thoracic dermatomes ha
r /></div><div>{{c1::T6}}</div>
ve easily rememered sites to test for sensory locks; T2 at axilla anteriorly,
T4 at nipple, T6 at xihoid, T8 at lower margin of ris anteriorly, T10 at umili
cus, T12 at inguinal fold
1405797579780 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the umilicus?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::T10}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /
></div>
1405797589478 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the inguinal ligament?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::L1}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1570669540186
6.jpg" /></div>
1405797658880 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the kneecaps?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::L4}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /
></div>
1405797670093 1395802358422 Which dermatome is involved with <>erection and
sensation of the penile and anal zones</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S1; S3;
S4}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15706695401866.jpg" /></div>
1405797715029 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the iceps reflex?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1637241533260
0.jpg" /><img src="paste-16492674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797760045 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the triceps reflex?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::C7}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1636812036530
4.jpg" /><img src="paste-16492674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797770299 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the patellar reflex?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1636812036530
4.jpg" /><img src="paste-16492674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797781911 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the achilles reflex?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S1}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1636812036530

4.jpg" /><img src="paste-16492674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797790832 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the cremaster reflex?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L1,L2}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-16496
969384236.jpg" /></div>
1405797808455 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the anal wink reflex?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S3, S4}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-16492
674416940.jpg" /></div>
1405797822766 1395802358422 How long after irth to the primitive reflexes d
isappear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st year}}</div> <r /><div><i>Eventually
, the <>mature/developing frontal loe inhiits these reflexes</>.</i></div>
1405798014578 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::moro reflex}} is a primitive refl
ex that involves <>aduction/extension of the arms when startled</>, following
<r /><div><i>Aka the "Hang on f
y <>drawing of the arms together</>.
or life" reflex.</i></div>
1405798051396 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::rooting reflex}} is a primitive r
eflex that involves <>movement of the head towards one side if the cheek or mou
th is stroked</>&nsp;(i.e. nipple seeking).
1405798083509 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::sucking reflex}} is a primitive r
eflex that involves a <>sucking reflex when the roof of the mouth is touched</
>.
1405798105409 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::palmar reflex}} is a primitive re
flex that involves <>curling of the fingers if the palm is stroked</>.
1405798122918 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::plantar reflex}} is a primitive r
eflex that involves <>dorsiflexion of the large toe and fanning of the other to
es with plantar stimulation</>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. Bainski sign in infa
nts (which is normal, hence called the plantar reflex)</i></div>
1405798266406 1395802358422 The {{c1::Galant reflex}} is a primitive reflex
that involves <>lateral flexion of the lower ody towards the stimulated side f
ollowing stroking along one side of the spine while the neworn is face down</>
.
1405798444295 1395802358422 Which 3 cranial nerves lie medially at the rain
stem?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III, CN VI, CN XII}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-17901423690238.jpg" /></div>
1405798541598 1395802358422 Which gland located at the rainstem secretes <
>melatonin</>&nsp;and influences <>circadian rhythms</>?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Pineal}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-18017387807271.jpg" /></div>
1405798608630 1395802358422 Which nucleus at the dorsal rainstem is the <>
conjugate vertical gaze center</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Collicul
is}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18013092839975.jpg" /></div>
1405798636905 1395802358422 Which nucleus at the dorsal rainstem is is invo
lved in the auditory pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior colliculis}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18013092839975.jpg" /></div>
1405798656442 1395802358422 {{c1::Parinaud Syndrome}} is a CNS disorder that
involves <>paralysis of conjugate vertical gaze due to a lesion to the superio
r colliculis.</>
<div><r /></div><i>e.g. y a pinealoma.</i><r /><div><
img src="paste-18013092839975.jpg" /></div>
1405798684216 1395802358422 Which dorsal rainstem structure is lesioned in
Parinaud Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Colliculis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18013092839975.jpg" /></div>
1405798706026 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve I?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Olfactory}}</div>
1405799777636 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;II?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Optic}}</div>
1405799782085 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;III?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Oculomotor}}</div>
1405799787141 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;IV?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Trochlear}}</div>
1405799792783 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;V?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Trigeminal}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Includes the <>Ophthalmic (V<su>
1</su>), Maxillary (V<su>2</su>) and Mandiular (V<su>3</su>) ranches</>.

</i></div>
1405799822533 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;VI?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Aducens}}</div>
1405799827308 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;VII?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Facial}}</div>
1405799830377 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;VIII?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Vestiulocochlear}}</div>
1405799840247 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;IX?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Glossopharyngeal}}</div>
1405799851801 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;X?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Vagus}}</div>
1405799854651 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;XI?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Spinal accessory}}</div>
1405799859356 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nsp;XII?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Hypoglossal}}</div>
1405799863915 1395802358422 What is the only cranial nerve that <>does not<
/>&nsp;have thalamic relay to the cortex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN I, Olf
actory}}</div>
1405799894101 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls the muscles of mast
ication?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>, Mandiular ranch of the T
rigeminal}}</div>
<r /><div><r /></div>
1405799957568 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs <>sensation</>&ns
p;at the face?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trigeminal}}</div>
1405799969736 1395802358422 What are the three ranches of the Trigeminal ne
rve (CN V)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ophthalmic, Maxillary, Mandiular (V<su>
1</su>, V<su>2</su>, V<su>3</su>&nsp;respectively)}}</div>
1405800029370 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs lacrimation?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Facial}}</div>
1405800047148 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs salivation from the
<>sumandiular and sulingual glands</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}<
/div>
1405800069890 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs <>closing</>&nsp;
of the eyelid via <>Oricularis oculi</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}<
/div>
1405800093083 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls the <>stapedius</
>&nsp;muscle in the ear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}</div>
1405800106497 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is involved with hearing and
alance?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VIII}}</div>
1405800118773 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs salivation from the
<>parotid gland</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div>
1405800136943 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is involved with <>carotid
ody and sinus</>&nsp;aro- and chemoreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN
IX}}</div>
1405800160351 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls the <>stylopharyng
eus</>&nsp;muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div> <r /><div><i>It
elevates the pharynx and larynx.</i></div>
1405800184186 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve carries <>taste from the ep
iglottis region</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800368334 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve innervates the uvula?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800403884 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve monitors <>aortic arch </>
chemo- and aroreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800421768 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls shoulder shrugging
and head turning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN XI via the SCM and trapezius mus
cles.}}</div>
1405800448687 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls tongue movement?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN XII}}</div>
1405800473491 1395802358422 What is the mnemonic for rememering cranial ner
ve modalities?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Sa
ys Big Boos Matter Most}}</div>
<r /><div><i><u>S,S,M,M,B,M,B,S,B,B,M,M

.</u></i></div><div><i>- S = sensory</i></div><div><i>- M = motor</i></div><div>
<i>- B = oth</i></div>
1405800572527 1395802358422 Which is the only cranial nerve whose nucleus is
<>in the spinal cord</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN XI (in the spinal cord
just caudal of the medulla)}}</div>
<img src="paste-20714627268833.jpg" /><d
iv>CN I and II not shown (nuclei not in rainstem or spinal cord)</div>
1405800669193 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the <>afferent</>&nsp;
ranch of the corneal reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>1</su>&nsp;(
ophthalmic; specifically the nasociliary ranch)}}</div>
1405800707292 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>afferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Lacrimation Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>1</su
>&nsp;(loss of reflex does not preclude the loss of emotional tears)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>So you can still cry me a river...</i></div>
1405800752517 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>afferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Jaw Jerk Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>&
nsp;(muscle spindles from the masseter muscle)}}</div>
1405800775487 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>afferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the pupillary reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN II}}</div>
1405800782210 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>afferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Gag Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div>
1405800790099 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the <>efferent</>&nsp;
ranch of the Corneal Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII (temporalis ran
ch to the oricularis oculi which closes the eye)}}</div>
1405800910976 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>efferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Lacrimation Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}</div>
1405800919022 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>efferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Jaw Jerk Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>&
nsp;(to the masseter muscle)}}</div>
1405800935586 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>efferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the pupillary reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
1405800941973 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nsp;<>efferent</>&
nsp;ranch of the Gag Reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800948089 1395802358422 Which vagal nucleus is involved with <>visceral
sensory information</>&nsp;such as taste, aroreceptors and gut distention)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus Solitarius}}</div>
1405800989337 1395802358422 Which vagal nucleus is involved with <>motor in
nervation of the pharynx, larynx and upper esophagus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Nucleus Amiguus}}</div>
1405801011375 1395802358422 Which vagal nucleus is associated with sending <
>parasympathetic fiers to the heart, lungs and upper GI</>?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Dorsal Motor Nucleus}}</div>
1405801042108 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::I}} travels through the
&nsp;{{c2::criiform plate}} of the skull.
1405801356266 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::II}} travels through th
e&nsp;{{c2::optic canal}} in the skull.
1405801373529 1395802358422 What are the contents of the optic canal?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::CN II, Ophthalmic Artery, Central Retinal Vein}}</div>
1405801394734 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves travel through the Superior
Orital Fissure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III, IV, V<su>1</su>&nsp;and
VI}}</div>
1405801421954 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::V<su>2</su>}} travels
through the&nsp;{{c2::foramen rotundum}} of the skull.
1405801445175 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::V<su>3</su>}} travels
through the {{c2::foramen ovale}} of the skull.
1405801467925 1395802358422 Which cranial artery travels through the Foramen
Spinosum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Meningeal Artery}}</div>
1405801485946 1395802358422 Through which foramen does the Middle Meningeal
Artery travel in the skull?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Foramen Spinosum}}</div>
1405801507511 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves travel throgh the internal
auditory meatus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII, VIII}}</div>

1405801529791 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves travel through the jugular
foramen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX, X, XI}}</div>
1405801549186 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::CN XII}} travels throug
h the&nsp;{{c2::hypoglossal canal}} of the skull.
1405801566883 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nsp;{{c1::XI}} travels through th
e&nsp;{{c2::foramen magnum}} of the skull.
1405801618578 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::cavernous sinus}} is a collection
of venous sinuses found on either side of the pituitary that collects lood fro
m the eye and superficial cortex.
<r><div><img src="paste-22230750724601.
jpg" /></div>
1405801761044 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves pass <>through</>&nsp;th
e cavernous sinus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III, IV, V<su>1</su>, V<su>2
</su>, VI}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. all of the CN's that deal with the ey
e + V<su>2</su>&nsp;(and not CN II)</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-22226455
757305.jpg" /></i></div>
1405801821550 1395802358422 Which major cranial artery passes through the ca
vernous sinus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Carotid Artery}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-22226455757305.jpg" /></div>
1405801841200 1395802358422 {{c1::Cavernous sinus syndrome}} is a neurologic
al disorder that results due to <>mass effect, fistula or thromosis</>&nsp;i
n the cavernous sinus that presents with <>ophthalmoplegia</>&nsp;and <>decr
eased corneal/maxillary sensation</>&nsp;with <>normal visual acuity</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-22226455757305.jpg" /></div>
1405801923481 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is commonly affected in Cave
rnous Sinus Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VI}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-22226455757305.jpg" /></div>
1405801940976 1395802358422 Which way does the jaw deviate in a CN V motor l
esion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Towards</u>&nsp;the lesion}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>CN V innervation to the mastication muscles is <>ipsilatera
l</>.</i><r /><div><i>During opening of thw jaw, unopposed force from the oppo
site pterygoid muscle pushes the jaw.</i></div>
1405802012257 1395802358422 Which way does the uvula deviate in a CN X lesio
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Away</u>&nsp;from the lesion}}</div> <div><r
/></div><div><i>The weak side of the uvula collapses and is henced pushed away
when the patient says "Ahhhhhhhhhh".</i></div>
1405802073459 1395802358422 Which way does the <>left</>&nsp;sternocleido
mastoid muscle help turn the head?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right}}</div>
1405802096917 1395802358422 Which side of the ody will see a shoulder droop
following lesion to the <>left</>&nsp;CN XI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left
(ipsilateral)}}</div>
1405802177547 1395802358422 Which side of the ody will the head have weakne
ss turning towards following a <>left</>&nsp;CN XI lesion?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Right (contralateral)}}</div>
1405802197426 1395802358422 Which way does the tongue deviate following a CN
XII LMN lesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Towards</u>&nsp;the lesion}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>i.e. <>"the tongue licks the wound</>"</i></div><div><i>
This is due to weakened tongue muscles on the side of the lesion. Think of it li
ke pushing a shoppig cart with one hand on 1 side, the cart is going to move the
opposite side due to a lack of pushing.</i></div>
1405802275364 1395802358422 What is the Rinne's Test result in conductive he
aring loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anormal (one &gt; air conduction)}}</di
v>
1405802318716 1395802358422 What is the Rinne's Test result in sensorineural
hearing loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal (air &gt; one)}}</div>
1405802337568 1395802358422 To which ear does Weer's Test localize in condu
ctive hearing loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The affected ear}}</div>
1405802365700 1395802358422 To which ear does Weer's Test localize in senso
rineural hearing loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unaffected ear}}</div>
1405802375296 1395802358422 Which frequency of sound is lost first in noiseinduced hearing loss?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High frequency}}</div>

1405803541663 1395802358422 Which area of the face is paralyzed in a <>cort
icoular (UMN) CN VII lesion</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral <u>L
ower</u>&nsp;face}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The forehead is spared due t
o ilateral UMN innervation of the upper division of the facial nucleus.</i><div
><i><>The lower division of the facial nucleus only receives contralateral inne
rvation</>.<r /></i><div><img src="paste-24068996727271.jpg" /></div></div>
1405804107837 1395802358422 Which area of the face is paralyzed in a <>LMN
CN VII lesion</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Ipsilateral</u>&nsp;upper <u>a
nd</u>&nsp;lower face}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-24064701759975.jpg" /
></div>
1405804151480 1395802358422 {{c1::Facial Nerve Palsy}} is a cranial nerve pa
lsy that presents with <>peripheral ipsilateral facial paralysis</>&nsp;with
the <>inaility to close the eye on the ipsilateral side</>.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-24455543783656.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Due to com
plete destruction of the facial nucleus or it's efferent fiers.</i></div><div><
i><r /></i></div>
1405804484013 1395802358422 {{c1::Bell Palsy}} is a type of facial nerve pal
sy that occurs idiopathically and gradually recovers.
1405804512841 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve palsy is associated with Lym
e disease (<i>Borrelia urgdorferi</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Facial nerve
palsy}}</div>
1405804537062 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve palsy is associated with HSV
and VZV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Facial nerve palsy}}</div> <r /><div><i>HS
V is more common.</i></div>
1405804558708 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve palsy is associated with Sar
coidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Facial nerve palsy}}</div>
1405804566918 1395802358422 What are the muscles of mastication?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Masseter; Temporalis; Medial &amp; lateral pterygoid}}</div>
1405804607561 1395802358422 Which pterygoid muscle <>opens</>&nsp;the jaw
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral pterygoid}}</div> <r /><div><i><>L</>at
eral <>L</>owers the jaw.&nsp;</i></div><div><i>The masseter, temporalis and
medial pterygoid all close the jaw.</i></div>
1405804636657 1395802358422 What is the innervation of all the mastication m
uscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>3</su>}}</div>
1405804650095 1395802358422 Which fiers in the eye attach the lens to the c
iliary ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zonula fiers}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-25374666785302.jpg" /></div>
1405806166965 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the lateral rectus mu
scle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VI}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-31533
649887734.jpg" /></div>
1405808058288 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the superior olique
muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IV}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808073626 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the superior rectus m
uscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808089300 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the medial rectus mus
cle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-31529
354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808099700 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the inferior rectus m
uscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808113195 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the inferior olique
muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808124177 1395802358422 {{c1::Oculomotor palsy}} is a cranial nerve pals
y that presents with <>down and out eyes</>, <>ptosis, pupillary dilation</>
&nsp;and <>loss of accommodation</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-3339337072661
3.jpg" /></div>
1405808171192 1395802358422 {{c1::Trochlear Palsy}} is a cranial nerve palsy

that presents with <>upwardly displaced eyes</>, especially with contralatera
l gaze and <>head tilt</>&nsp;<u style="font-weight: old; ">towards</u>&nsp
;the side of the lesion.
<r /><div><i>Hence there is often prolems goin
g down the stairs.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-31529354920438.jpg" /></i></
div>
1405808240053 1395802358422 {{c1::Aducens palsy}} is a cranial nerve palsy
that presents with <>medially directed eyes that cannot aduct</>.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-31529354920438.jpg" /></div>
1405808263899 1395802358422 Which way must a patient look in order to test t
he <>inferior olique</>&nsp;muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upwards}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i><>The olique eye muscles move the eye in </><u style="f
ont-weight: old; ">opposite directions</u>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-32
087700668723.jpg" /></i></div>
1405808324692 1395802358422 Which parasympathetic nucleus sends signals to t
he ciliary ganglion via CN III to achieve <>miosis</>&nsp;(pupillary constric
tion)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Edinger-Westphal nucleus}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The ciliary ganglion then send <>short ciliary nerves</>&nsp;to the pup
illary sphincter muscles.</i></div>
1405808594265 1395802358422 Which ciliary nerves send signals to the <>pupi
llary sphincter muscles</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Short ciliary nerves}}</
div>
1405808616547 1395802358422 Which pupillary muscle is involved in <>miosis<
/>&nsp;(constriction)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sphincter muscles}}</div>
1405808641776 1395802358422 Which sympathetic nucleus receives hypothalamic
input to trigger <>mydriasis</>&nsp;(pupillary dilation)?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Ciliospinal center of Budge (C8-T2)}}</div>
1405808829475 1395802358422 Which ciliary nerves innervate the pupillary <>
dilator</>&nsp;muscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Long</u>&nsp;ciliary ne
rve}}</div>
1405808852219 1395802358422 Which pupillary muscles trigger <>mydriasis?</
><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Pupillary dilator muscles}}</div>
1405808884440 1395802358422 Which midrain nucleus <>directly </>receives
light signals via CN II in the pupillary light reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Pretectal nucleus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-32804960207259.jpg" /
></div>
1405808947978 1395802358422 Which midrain nucleus is activated y the Prete
ctal nuclei in the pupillary light reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Edinger-We
stphal nuclei}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-32800665239963.jpg" /></div>
1405808978140 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the midrain triggers ilateral
pupil contraction in the pupillary light reflex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Edi
nger-Westphal Nucleus}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-32800665239963.jpg" /
></div>
1405809021284 1395802358422 {{c1::Marcus-Gunn Pupil}} is a pathological pupi
l that occurs due to <>optic nerve damage or a severe retinal injury</>&nsp;a
nd presents with a <>loss/decrease of ilateral pupillary constriction to light
</>. <r /><div><i>Tested with the "<>swinging flashlight test</>"</i></div
><div><i><img src="paste-32800665239963.jpg" /></i></div>
1405809092063 1395802358422 {{c1::Retinal detachment}} is a retinal disorder
defined as separation of the neurosensory layer of the retina from the pigmente
d epithelium, therey leading to degeneration of photoreceptors.
<r /><d
iv><i>The neurosensory layer of the retina = rods and cones.</i></div><div><i>Re
tinal pigmented epithelium = the layer that shields excess light and supports th
e retina.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-33801392619624.jpg" /></i></div>
1405809602325 1395802358422 What visual field defect is seen in <>lesion of
the optic nerve</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ispilateral anopia}}</div>
<div><r /></div>#1<r /><div><img src="paste-34243774251776.jpg" /></div>
1405810216759 1395802358422 What visual field deficit is seen in <>optic ch
iasm lesions</>&nsp;(e.g. with a pituitary tumour)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Bitemporal hemianopia}}</div> <div><r /></div>#2<r /><div><img src="paste-34
239479284480.jpg" /></div>

1405810259976 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in an<>&nsp;optic
tract</>&nsp;lesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral homonymous hemia
nopia}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>#3</i><r /><div><img src="paste-34239479284
480.jpg" /></div>
1405810628319 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in <>temporal loe
lesion </>(Meyer's Loop)<>?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Contralatera
l upper quadrant anopia}}</div> <div><r /></div>#4<r /><div><img src="paste-34
239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405810678375 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in a <>parietal lo
e lesion </>(Dorsal Optic Radiation; Baum's Loop)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C
ontralateral lower quadrantic anopia}}</div>
<div><r /></div>#5<r /><div><i
mg src="paste-34239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405810710845 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in <>infarction of
the Posterior Cereral Artery (PCA)</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contralatera
l hemianopia with macular sparing}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is ecause th
e macula has ilateral projection to the occiput.</i></div><div><i>#6</i></div><
div><i><img src="paste-34239479284480.jpg" /></i></div>
1405810785224 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in <>macular degene
ration</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Central scotoma in the affected eye}}</di
v>
<r /><div>#7</div><div><img src="paste-34239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405810822359 1395802358422 {{c1::Meyer's Loop}} is a section of the optic t
ract that carries visual information from the <>inferior retina</>&nsp;around
the <>inferior horn of the lateral ventricle</>&nsp;through the <>temporal
loe</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-34239479284480.jpg" /></div>
1405811062562 1395802358422 {{c1::Dorsal Optic Radiation (Baum's Loop)}} is
a section of the optic tract that carries information from the <>superior retin
a</>&nsp;via the internal capsule and <>parietal loe</>. <r /><div><i>Th
is is the shortest route to the occiput.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-342394
79284480.jpg" /></i></div>
1405811109332 1395802358422 {{c1::Medial Longitudinal Fascicle}} is a visual
tract that allows for crosstalk etween <>CN VI</>&nsp;and <>CN III</>&ns
p;nuclei, therey coordinating <>horizontal gaze</>. <div><r /></div><i>It i
s very highly myelinated in order for extremely quick communication.</i><div><i>
Hence, <>demyelinating disorders present with symptoms</>.<r /></i><div><img
src="paste-35781372543332.jpg" /></div></div>
1405811243621 1395802358422 {{c1::Internuclear Ophthalmoplegia (INO)}} is a
visual disorder that results from <>lesion to the MLF</>&nsp;and presents wit
h a <>lack of adduction of the ipsilateral eye</>&nsp;and <>nystagmus</>&n
sp;in the contralateral eye.
<div><r /></div><i>"<>INO</>&nsp;a <>MLF</
>&nsp;that can't <>Add</>(uct)."</i><div><i>When the CN VI nucleus activates
the ipsilateral lateral rectus, the contralateral medial rectus is not activated
y the contralateral CNIII nucleus.</i></div><div><i><u>This to me was unnecess
arily confusing. Whoever named the MLF's sucks alls.</u></i></div><div><i><>Th
e MLF's are named according to which side they <u>synapse on</u>, not the side f
rom which they originate </>(which would make so much more sense to me).<r /><
/i><div><img src="paste-35948876267875.jpg" /></div></div>
1405811550653 1395802358422 Which eye is unale to <>adduct</>&nsp;follow
ing a lesion to the <>MLF</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The <>IPSILATERAL</
>&nsp;eye}}</div>
<r /><div><i>All caps for emphasis ecause this one alw
ays gets me y virtue of the MLF naming.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i>
<i><>The MLF's are named according to which side they&nsp;<u>synapse on</u>, n
ot the side from which they originate&nsp;</>(which would make so much more se
nse to me).</i></div><div><i></i><i>Hence, l<u>esion to the LEFT MLF, result in
a loss of adduction in the LEFT eye (i.e. LEFT INO) even if the MLF is lesioned
in the right side of the ody</u> (i.e. at the right Aducens nucleus).</i></div
><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><div></div></i><i><><r /></></i><div><img sr
c="paste-35948876267875.jpg" /></div></div>
1405040462126 1395802358422 What is the normal remnant of the thyroglossal d
uct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Foramen cecum}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-28668906701396.jpg" /></div>

1405040782510 1395802358422 What is the most common site of ectopic thyroid
tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tongue}}</div>
1405040798341 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::thyroglossal duct}} is an emryol
ogical structure that connects the descending thyroid to the tongue.
<r /><d
iv><i>It may persist as the pyramidal loe of the thyroid.</i></div><div><i><img
src="paste-28664611734100.jpg" /></i></div>
1405040851321 1395802358422 {{c1::Thyroglossal Duct Cyst}} is a congenital t
hyroid anomaly that presents as an <>anterior midline neck mass</>&nsp;that m
oves with swallowing or protrusion of the tongue.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-28956669509910.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Compare this to a <>Branc
hial Cleft Cyst</>&nsp;which presents with a <>persistant cervical cinus in t
he lateral neck</>.</i></div>
1405041318384 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the A
drenal <>cortex</>&nsp;form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-29231547416921.jpg" /></div>
1405042330143 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue population does
the adrenal <>medulla</>&nsp;form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural crest ce
lls}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></div>
1405042348905 1395802358422 Which area of the adrenal cortex secretes Minera
locorticoids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Glomerulosa}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>GFR = salt, sugar, sex.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-29227252449625
.jpg" /></div>
1405042661478 1395802358422 Which area of the adrenal cortex secretes Glucoc
orticoids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Fasciculata}}</div> <r /><div><i>GF
R = salt, sugar, sex</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></i>
</div>
1405042715137 1395802358422 Which area of the adrenal cortex secretes sex ho
rmones?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Reticularis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>GF
R = salt, sugar, sex</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></i>
</div>
1405042755487 1395802358422 Which portion of the adrenal glands secretes Cat
echolamines?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chromaffin cells of the Adrenal medulla}
}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></div>
1405042842332 1395802358422 Which hormones act as the primary regulatory con
trol factors for the Zona Glomerulosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renin; Angiote
nsin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></div>
1405042893479 1395802358422 What is the most common tumour of the adrenal me
dulla in <>adults</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pheochromocytoma}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></div>
1405042923714 1395802358422 What is the most common tumour of the adrenal me
dulla in <>children</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neurolastoma}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-29227252449625.jpg" /></div>
1405042943197 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage for the <>left</>&
nsp;adrenal gland?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left adrenal vein --&gt; <u>Left
renal vein</u>&nsp;--&gt; IVC}}</div>
1405043142571 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage for the <>right</>
&nsp;adrenal gland?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right adrenal vein --&gt; IVC}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>The right adrenal vein <>does not drain into the right re
nal vein</>&nsp;(unlike the left side).</i></div>
1405043184450 1395802358422 Which gland secretes Vasopressin (ADH)?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Made in the hypothalamus ut is shipped to the posterior pituitary.</i></d
iv>
1405044169837 1395802358422 Which gland secretes Oxytocin?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Made in th
e hypothalamus ut is shipped to the posterior pituitary.</i></div>
1405044227394 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer is the pos
terior pituitary formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405044257038 1395802358422 Which gland secretes FSH?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas

te-30799210479781.jpg" /></div>
1405044367157 1395802358422 Which gland secretes LH?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Anterior pituitary}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-30794915512485.jpg" /
></div>
1405044376762 1395802358422 Which gland secretes ACTH?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Anterior pituitary}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3079491551248
5.jpg" /></div>
1405044386971 1395802358422 Which gland secretes TSH?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Anterior pituitary}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-30794915512485.jpg" /
></div>
1405044395801 1395802358422 Which gland secretes Prolactin?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Anterior pituitary}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3079491551248
5.jpg" /></div>
1405044407801 1395802358422 Which gland secretes GH?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Anterior pituitary}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-31293131718810.jpg" /
></div>
1405048148748 1395802358422 Which gland secretes Melanotropin?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Anterior pituitary}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-31288
836751514.jpg" /></div>
1405048167219 1395802358422 From which emryological layer is the anterior p
ituitary formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oral ectoderm (Rathke's pouch)}}</di
v>
1405048195911 1395802358422 {{c1::GH}} and&nsp;{{c2::Prolaction}} are anter
ior pituitary hormones secreted y the <>acidophils</>&nsp;of the gland.
<r /><div><img src="paste-31288836751514.jpg" /></div>
1405048244530 1395802358422 {{c1::FSH}},&nsp;{{c2::LH}},&nsp;{{c3::ACTH}}
and&nsp;{{c4::TSH}} are the anterior pituitary hormones secreted y the <>aso
phils</>&nsp;of the gland.
<r /><div><img src="paste-31288836751514.jpg" /
></div>
1405048276866 1395802358422 Which cells of the pancreas secrete glucagon?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::alpha cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Found at the perip
hery.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-36103495090417.jpg" /></i></div>
1405048997614 1395802358422 Which cells of the pancreas secrete insulin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::eta cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Found centrally.</
i></div><div><i><img src="paste-36099200123121.jpg" /></i></div><div><i><r /></
i></div><div><i><img src="paste-38809324486784.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste
-38203734098560.jpg" /></div></i></div>
1405049012375 1395802358422 Which cells of the pancreas secrete somatostatin
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::delta cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Found inte
rspersed throughout the Islets of Langerhans.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3
6099200123121.jpg" /></i></div>
1405049041670 1395802358422 Where in the cell is preproinsulin formed?<div><
<r /><div><i>It is then cleaved into Pr
r /></div><div>{{c1::RER}}</div>
oinsulin which is stored in secretory granules.</i></div><div><i>Before exocytos
is, it is cleaved into Insulin and C-peptide.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3
6356898161033.jpg" /></i></div>
1405049590664 1395802358422 Which GLUT transporter is moved to the cell mem
rane following Insulin action?<div><r />{{c1::GLUT4}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-36631776068243.jpg" /></div>
1405050093967 1395802358422 How does insulin influence Na⁺&nsp;r
etention at the kidneys?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1405050122871 1395802358422 How does insulin influence protein synthesis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405050132340 1395802358422 How does insulin influence cellular uptake of K<
sup>+</sup>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405050146959 1395802358422 How does insulin influence the cellular uptake o
f amino acids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405050165109 1395802358422 How does insulin influence glucagon release?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405050175309 1395802358422 How does insulin influence triglyceride synthesi

s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405050188187 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT4}} is an <>insulin-dependent</>&ns
p;glucose transporter found in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle.
1405050226690 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT1}} is an <>insulin-independent</>&n
sp;glucose transporter found in<>&nsp;RBCs, rain </>and the <>cornea</>.
1405050257249 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT5}} is an <>insulin-independent</>&n
sp;fructose transporter that is found in <>spermatocytes</>&nsp;and the <>G
I tract</>.
1405050302200 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT2}} is a <>idirectional</>, <>insu
lin-independent</>&nsp;glucose transporter found at <>pancreatic eta cells,
liver, kidney</>&nsp;and <>small intestines</>.
1405050746298 1395802358422 How do eta-2 adrenergic agonists influence Insu
lin release?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051700979 1395802358422 How does GH influence Insulin release?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase <u>via insulin resistance</u>}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>GH causes insulin resistance and hence insulin release.</i></div>
1405051731373 1395802358422 Which adrenergic receptor triggers an <>increas
e</>&nsp;in Insulin release?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::eta-2}}</div>
1405051754012 1395802358422 Which GLUT transporter on pancreatic eta cells
is involved with Insulin regulation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2}}</div>
<div><r /></div><img src="paste-38809324486784.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="past
e-38203734098560.jpg" /></div>
1405051781108 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence glycogenolysis?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051964460 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence gluconeogenesis?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051978262 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence lipolysis?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051987850 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence ketogenesis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051997637 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence Glucagon levels?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405052018732 1395802358422 How does <>hypoglycemia</>&nsp;influence Gluc
agon levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405052027474 1395802358422 How does <>hyperglycemia</>&nsp;influence Glu
cagon levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405052079651 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to increase
ACTH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CRH}}</div>
1405053241603 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;inc
rease MSH (Melanotropin) secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CRH}}</div>
1405053262174 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;inc
rease eta-endorphin secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CRH}}</div>
1405053274795 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;dec
rease Prolactin secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dopamine}}</div>
1405053291600 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;inc
rease FSH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GnRH}}</div>
<r /><div><i>To
nic GnRH suppresses the HPA axis.</i><div><i>Pulsatile GnRH triggers puerty and
fertility.</i></div></div>
1405053299071 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;inc
rease LH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GnRH}}</div>
<i><div></div></
i><i><r /></i>Tonic GnRH suppresses the HPA axis.<div><i>Pulsatile GnRH trigger
s puerty and fertility.</i></div>
1405053308287 1395802358422 Which HPA axis hormone functions to&nsp;decreas
e GnRH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prolactin}}</div> <r /><div><i><
r /></i></div>
1405053322022 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;dec
rease GH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Somatostatin}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Somatostatin analogs are used to treat acromegaly.</i></div>
1405053333201 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;dec
rease TSH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Somatostatin}}</div>
<r /><d

iv><i>Somatostatin analogs are used to treat acromegaly.</i></div>
1405053343026 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;inc
rease TSH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TRH}}</div>
1405053394881 1395802358422 Which hypothalamic hormone functions to&nsp;inc
rease Prolactin secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TRH}}</div>
1405053414496 1395802358422 {{c1::Pituitary prolactinoma}} is a pituitary tu
mour that presents with <>amenorrhea</>&nsp;and <>osteoporosis</>.
1405094340172 1395802358422 {{c1::Prolactin}} is a hormone secreted y the a
nterior pituitary that functions to stimulate milk production in reasts.
1405094394080 1395802358422 {{c1::Prolactin}} is a hormone produced y the a
nterior pituitary that <>inhiits ovulation in females and spermatogenesis in m
ales y inhiiting GnRH synthesis and release</>.
<r /><div><i>Hyperprola
ctinemia is also associated with decreased liido.</i></div><div><i><img src="pa
ste-1039382086420.jpg" /></i></div>
1405094433387 1395802358422 Which hormone from the anterior pituitary functi
ons to <>inhiit GnRH synthesis and release</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pro
lactin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1035087119124.jpg" /></div>
1405094452302 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter secreted y the Hypothala
mus functions to tonically inhiit Prolactin secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Dopamine}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Prolactin then inhiits its own secr
etion via negative feedack y triggering Dopamine release from the hypothalamus
.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-1035087119124.jpg" /></div>
1405094592247 1395802358422 How does Dopamine influence Prolactin secretion?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10350
87119124.jpg" /></div>
1405094603184 1395802358422 How does TRH influence Prolactin secretion?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1035087119124
.jpg" /></div>
1405094659682 1395802358422 {{c1::Bromocriptine}} is a dopamine agonist that
is used to treat Prolactinoma as it inhiits prolactin secretion.
<r /><d
iv><i>Similarly, dopamine antagonists (antipsychotics) and estrogens (OCPs; preg
nancy) stimulate Prolactin secretion.</i></div>
1405094691987 1395802358422 How do estrogens (e.g. OCPs) influence Prolactin
secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405099806628 1395802358422 {{c1::GH}} is a hormone secreted y the anterior
pituitary that functions to stimulate linear growth and muscle mass growth via
<>IGF-1/Somatomedin</>&nsp;secretion.
1405100021446 1395802358422 How does GH influence insulin resistance?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>GH is diaetogenic.</i></d
iv>
1405100050495 1395802358422 {{c1::GHRH}} is a hormone that triggers pulsatil
e release of GH.
1405100170048 1395802358422 How does glucose influence GH release?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405100183271 1395802358422 How does GH secretion change during exercise and
sleep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405100198833 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence GH release?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405100210326 1395802358422 {{c1::Acromegaly}} is an endocrine disorder caus
ed y excess GH secretion <>in adults</>.
1405100229790 1395802358422 {{c1::Gigantism}} is an endocrine disorder cause
d y excess GH secretion <>in children</>.
1405100265583 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the Hypothalamus synthesized AD
H (Vasopressin)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supraoptic Nuclei}}</div>
1405100373343 1395802358422 Which Vasopressin receptors function to regulate
serum osmolarity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V<su>2</su>}}</div>
1405100396503 1395802358422 Which Vasopressin receptor functions to regulate
lood pressure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V<su>1</su>}}</div>
1405100429996 1395802358422 {{c1::Vasopressin (ADH)}} is a hormone released
y the posterior pituitary that functions to regulate serum osmolarity (V<su>2<

/su>) and lood pressure (V<su>1</su>).
1405100482736 1395802358422 {{c1::Vasopressin (ADH)}} is a hormone secreted
from the posterior pituitary that primarily <>decreases</>&nsp;serum osmolari
ty y influencing aquaporin channel transcription in principal cells of the coll
ecting duct.
<r /><div><i>ADH <>increases </>urine osmolarity and <>decre
ases</>&nsp;serum osmolarity y <>inducing water retention</>.</i></div>
1405100640508 1395802358422 How do ADH levels change in Central Diaetes Ins
ipidus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405100759050 1395802358422 How do ADH levels change in Nephrogenic Diaetes
Insipidus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal or Increased}}</div>
1405100783653 1395802358422 How do ADH levels change in primary polydipsia?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1405100795612 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmopressin}} is an ADH analog used to tr
eat Central Diaetes Insipidus.
1405100816809 1395802358422 What is the primary control for ADH release?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus}}</div>
1405100838378 1395802358422 What is the secondary control of ADH release?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypovolemia}}</div>
1405100849436 1395802358422 How does Ketoconazole influence Cholesterol Desm
olase activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-1670742278921.jpg" /></div>
1405105404198 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to convert Testosterone i
nto Estradiol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405105553676 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to convert Testosterone i
nto Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5-alpha-reductase}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106002238 1395802358422 How do mineralocorticoid levels change in 17-alp
ha-hydroxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106031534 1395802358422 How do Cortisol levels change in 17-alpha-hydrox
ylase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405106044483 1395802358422 How do sex hormone levels change in 17-alpha-hyd
roxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106085056 1395802358422 {{c1::17-alpha-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a typ
e of congenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with <>hypertension</>&nsp;
and <>hypokalemia</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106370283 1395802358422 {{c1::17-alpha-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a typ
e of congenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with <>decreased DHT</>&nsp
;levels.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106396892 1395802358422 {{c1::17-alpha-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a typ
e of congenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with <>pseudo-hermaphroditism
in males</>&nsp;(amiguous genitalia, undescended testes). <r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106452412 1395802358422 {{c1::17-alpha-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a typ
e of congenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with a <>lack of secondary se
xual development in females</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625
.jpg" /></div>
1405106573181 1395802358422 How do mineralocorticoid levels change in 21-hyd
roxylase activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106613705 1395802358422 How do Cortisol levels change in 21-hydroxylase
deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106631061 1395802358422 How do sex hormone levels change in 21-hydroxyla
se deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106664250 1395802358422 {{c1::21-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a type of c
ongenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with <>hypotension</>&nsp;and <>

hyperkalemia</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106708464 1395802358422 How does lood pressure change in 17-alpha-hydro
xylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106720676 1395802358422 How do K⁺&nsp;levels change in 17-al
pha-hydroxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106738795 1395802358422 How does lood pressure change in 21-hydroxylase
deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106754423 1395802358422 How do K⁺&nsp;levels change in 21-hy
droxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106772051 1395802358422 {{c1::21-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a type of c
ongenital adrenal hyperplasia that involves an accumulation of <>17-hydroxyprog
esterone</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106800992 1395802358422 {{c1::21-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a type of c
ongenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with <>increased renin activity</>
.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106842304 1395802358422 What is the most common enzyme deficiency in Con
genital Adrenal Hyperplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::21-hydroxylase deficienc
y}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106859497 1395802358422 {{c1::21-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a type of c
ongenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents in infancy as <>salt wasting</>&n
sp;or in childhood as <>precocious puerty</>.
<div><r /></div><i>Fema
les will see <>virilization</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jp
g" /></div>
1405106914693 1395802358422 How do mineralocorticoid levels change in 11-et
a-hydroxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased aldosterone ut i
ncreased 11-deoxycorticosterone}}</div> <r /><div><i>There is decreased Aldoste
rone ut <>accumulation of 11-deoxycorticosterone</>&nsp;which yields an incr
ease in lood pressure.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></
i></div>
1405106978074 1395802358422 How do cortisol levels change in 11-eta-hydroxy
lase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405106999858 1395802358422 How do sex hormone levels change in 11-eta-hydr
oxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <div><r /></div
><i>Hence females will present with <>virilization</>.</i><r /><div><img src=
"paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405107013558 1395802358422 {{c1::11-eta-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a type
of congenital adrenal hyperplasia that presents with <>hypertension</>&nsp;w
ith <>low-renin activity</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" />
</div>
1405107038395 1395802358422 How does lood pressure change in 11-eta-hydrox
ylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-1666447311625.jpg" /></div>
1405107071586 1395802358422 How do ACTH levels change in Congenital Adrenal
Hyperplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
is is <>always</>&nsp;the case as <>Cortisol levels are always decreased in
congenital adrenal hyperplasia</>.</i></div><div><i>The lack of Cortisol feeda
ck results in elevated ACTH levels and susequent adrenal gland hyperplasia.</i>
</div>
1405107555750 1395802358422 Which zone of the adrenal cortex secretes Cortis
ol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Fasciculata}}</div>
1405107999349 1395802358422 Which plasma protein primarily inds to Cortisol
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Corticosteroid-inding gloulin}}</div>
1405108016180 1395802358422 How does Cortisol influence lood pressure?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Cortisol <>upregulates al
pha-1 adrenergic receptors on arterioles</>, therey increasing the sensitivity

to norepinephrine and epinephrine.</i></div>
1405108188806 1395802358422 Which adrenergic receptors are upregulated y Co
rtisol on arterioles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-1}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>This is how Cortisol increases lood pressure.</i></div>
1405108209770 1395802358422 How does Cortisol influence insulin resistance?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Cortisol is diaet
ogenic.</i></div>
1405108240611 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence gluconeogenesis?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405108255543 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence Lipolysis?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405108260623 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence Proteolysis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405108268797 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence firolast activity?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is how is cau
ses <>striae</>.</i></div>
1405108287793 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence leukotriene and pros
taglandin synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Through this Cortisol is anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive.</i></div
>
1405108337602 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence luekocyte adhesion?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Therey causing <
>neutrophilia</>.</i></div><div><i>This also adds to the anti-inflammatory and
immunosuppressive role of glucocorticoids.</i></div>
1405108368578 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence Histamine release fr
om mast cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>He
nce it is anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive.</i></div>
1405108386985 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence IL-2 production?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence it is immuno
suppressive and anti-inflammatory.</i></div><div><i>Because of this, <>exogenou
s corticosteroids can cause reactivation of TB and candidiasis</>.</i></div>
1405108416947 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence osteolast activity?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Therey decreasing
one formation.</i></div>
1405108430948 1395802358422 How does Cortisol influence ACTH secretion?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405108498352 1395802358422 Where is Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) secreted from
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chief cells of the parathyroid}}</div>
1405111334971 1395802358422 How does PTH influence the resorption of Ca²⁺&nsp;at one?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-6433861010180.jpg" /></div>
1405111397321 1395802358422 How does PTH influence the reasorption of Ca<su
p>2+</sup>&nsp;in the distal convoluted tuule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Incr
ease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6429566042884.jpg" /></div>
1405111424232 1395802358422 How does PTH change serum [Ca²⁺]?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-64295
66042884.jpg" /></div>
1405111446988 1395802358422 How does PTH influence PO<su>4</su><sup>3-</su
p>&nsp;resorption at<>&nsp;one</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6558415061498.jpg" /></div>
1405111521483 1395802358422 How does PTH influence PO<su>4</su><sup>3- </s
up>reasorption at the proximal convoluted tuule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::De
crease}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6816113099264.jpg" /></div>
1405111780046 1395802358422 {{c1::PTH}} is a hormone secreted y the parathy
roid hormone that increases Calcitriol [1,25-(OH)<su>2</su>&nsp;D<su>3</su>
] production y activating kidney <>1-alpha-hydroxylase</>. <r /><div><img
src="paste-7301444403975.jpg" /></div>
1405111844244 1395802358422 {{c1::RANKL}} is a receptor ligand secreted y O
steolasts that inds to&nsp;{{c2::RANK}} on Osteoclasts to stimulate osteoclas
t activity.
<r /><div><i>Resulting in one resorption.</i></div>

1405111924534 1395802358422 Which one cell secretes RANKL?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Osteolasts}}</div>
1405112032076 1395802358422 {{c1::PTH-related peptide (PTHrP)}} is a PTH-lik
e hormone that functions similarly to PTH and is commonly seen in paraneoplastic
syndrome.
1405112079609 1395802358422 How do&nsp;<>decreased</>&nsp;Ca^{2+</sup
>&nsp;levels influence PTH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7297149436679.jpg" /></div>
1405112110458 1395802358422 How do marginally decreased Mg²⁺&nsp
;levels influence PTH release?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><r /></div>
1405112135842 1395802358422 How doe <>significantly reduced</>&nsp;Mg<sup
>2+}&nsp;levels influence PTH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrea
se}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Mg can decrease in diarrhea, aminoglycoside use, d
iuresis and alcohol ause.</i></div>
1405112173526 1395802358422 How does an increase in lood pH influence Alum
in's affinity for Ca²⁺?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, alkalosis can yield </i><><i>clinical manifestations of hy
pocalcemia</i>&nsp;</><i>(cramps, pain, paresthesias, carpopedal spasm).</i></
div>
1405114053471 1395802358422 Which form of Vitamin D is made at the skin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::D<su>3</su>}}</div>
1405114088127 1395802358422 Which form of Vitamin D is ingested from plants?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D<su>2</su>}}</div>
1405114101534 1395802358422 Which form of Vitamin D is made in the liver?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::25-OH Vitamin D}}</div>
1405114120497 1395802358422 Which form of vitamin D is the active form made
in the kidneys?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1,25-(OH)<su>2</su>&nsp;Vitamin D}
}</div>
1405114142029 1395802358422 How does Vitamin D influence the asorption of d
ietary Ca²⁺&nsp;and PO<su>4</su>^3-?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405114958754 1395802358422 How does Vitamin D influence one resorption?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence increased Ca
and PO<su>4</su>.</i></div>
1405114978976 1395802358422 How does PTH influence Vitamin D production?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405115000577 1395802358422 How does <>decreased</>&nsp;Ca influence Vita
min D production?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405115020016 1395802358422 How does <>decreased</>&nsp;PO4 influence Vit
amin D production?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405115075165 1395802358422 Which gland secreted Calcitonin?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Parafollicular cells (C cells) of the Thyroid}}</div>
1405116510202 1395802358422 What is the function of Calcitonin?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Decreases one resorption of Ca²⁺}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>i.e. opposite of PTH</i></div><div><i>"Calci<>TON</>in <>TON</>es down
Ca²⁺&nsp;levels."</i></div>
1405116528975 1395802358422 How does increased serum [Ca²⁺] influ
ence Calcitonin secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405116585372 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is involved wi
th ANP and NO (vasodilators)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cGMP}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-9470402888212.jpg" /></div>
1405117065010 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with the ADH V<su>2</su>-receptor?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117087480 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with FSH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117103064 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with LH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas

te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117116740 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with ACTH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117129887 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with TSH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117143775 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with CRH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117158585 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with hCG?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117175869 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with MSH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117194117 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with PTH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117203936 1395802358422 WHich cellular signalling cascade is associated
with Calcitonin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117216020 1395802358422 &nsp;Which cellular signalling cascade is assoc
iated with GHRH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117246675 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with GnRH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117274580 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with Oxytocin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117285586 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is assocaited
with the ADH V<su>1</su>&nsp;receptor?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117306015 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with the Histamine H<su>1</su>&nsp;receptor?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117327678 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with Angiotensin II?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117339701 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with Gastrin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117350241 1395802358422 Which cellular cascade is associated with prolac
tin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Receptor-associated tyrosine kinases}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117377313 1395802358422 Which cellular cascade is associated with GH?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Receptor-associated tyrosine kinase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-9466107920916.jpg" /></div>
1405117396371 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in sex hormoneinding gloulin (SHBG) influence free testosterone levels?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>In men this causes <>gynecomastia</>.</i
></div>
1405117736449 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in sex hormone-
inding gloulin influence free testosterone levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>In women this causes <>hirsutism</>.</i></div>
1405117779261 1395802358422 How do oral contraceptives (or pregnancy) influe
nce sex hormone-inding gloulin (SHBG) levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
ase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Free testosterone levels decrease.</i></div><div><
i>Free estrogen levels <>remain unchanged</>.</i></div>

1405117856963 1395802358422 Where is most T<><su>3</su>&nsp;</>made?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::At target tissue}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Thyroid fo
llicles primarily make T<su>4</su>.</i></div>
1405119361237 1395802358422 {{c1::T<su>3</su>/T<su>4</su>}} is a hormone
secreted from the thyroid that functions to upregulate <>eta-1 adrenergic rec
eptors</>&nsp;in the heart. <r /><div><i>Similar to Cortisol, it <>increas
es the sensitivity of the tissue to catecholamines</>.</i></div><div><i>Through
this it increases CO, HR, SV and contractility.</i></div><div><i><img src="past
e-11145440133320.jpg" /></i></div>
1405119466323 1395802358422 Which adrenergic receptor is upregulated y thyr
oid hormone?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-1; especially at the heart}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11141145166024.jpg" /></div>
1405119500436 1395802358422 {{c1::Thyroid hormone (T<su>3</su>/T<su>4</su
>)}} is a hormone secreted y the thyroid that functions to increase asal meta
olic rate y <>increasing Na/K ATPase activity</>. <r /><div><i>Increased
Na/K ATPase activity results in <>increased O<su>2</su>&nsp;consumption, RR
and ody temperature</>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-11141145166024.jpg" /
></i></div>
1405119710037 1395802358422 How does thyroid hormone influence asal metaol
ic rate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405119726409 1395802358422 How does thyroid hormone influence glycogenolysi
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405119739066 1395802358422 How does thyroid hormone influence gluconeogenes
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405119749619 1395802358422 How does thyroid hormone influence lipolysis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405119761351 1395802358422 Which plasma protein inds to most T<su>3</su>
/T<su>4 </su>in the lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thyroxine-inding gloul
in (TBG)}}</div>
1405120330410 1395802358422 How do Thyroxine-inding gloulin (TBG) levels c
hange in hepatic failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405120360300 1395802358422 How do Thyroxine-inding gloulin (TBG) levels c
hange in OCP use or pregnancy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to the estrogen.</i></div>
1405120388244 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts T<su>4</su>&nsp;into ac
tive T<su>3</su>&nsp;in peripheral tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5'-deio
dinase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, T<su>4</su>&nsp;is the major product
of the thyroid and is converted into the active T<su>3</su>.</i></div>
1405120439205 1395802358422 Which form of thyroid hormone has <>greater aff
inity</>&nsp;for Thyroid hormone receptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T<su>3
</su>&nsp;&gt; T<su>4</su>}}</div>
1405120469165 1395802358422 Which enzyme is responsile for the oxidation an
d organification of Iodide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Peroxidase}}</div>
1405120541035 1395802358422 Which enzyme is responsile for the coupling of
monoiodotyrosine (MIT) and diiodotyrosine (DIT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pero
xidase}}</div>
1405120567844 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Propylthiouracil in the treat
ment of hyperthyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of 5'-deiodinase
<u>and</u>&nsp;peroxidase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1243822528955
6.jpg" /></div>
1405120611341 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Methimazole in the treatment
of hyperthyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Peroxidase <u>only<
/u>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-12438225289556.jpg" /></div>
1405120638892 1395802358422 How does TRH from the hypothalamus influence TSH
activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405122146293 1395802358422 {{c1::Graves Disease}} is an autoimmune disorder
characterized y <>hyperthyroidism</>&nsp;due to the presence of thyroid sti
mulating immunogloulins.
1405122194189 1395802358422 Negative feedack of T<su>3</su>&nsp;and T<su
>4</su>&nsp;to the anterior pituitary <>decreases</>&nsp;the sensitivity t

o&nsp;{{c1::TRH}}, therey resulting in decreased Thyroid hormone production.
<r /><div><r /></div>
1405122334042 1395802358422 {{c1::Wolff-Chaikoff Effect}} is a phenomenon th
at involves the <>temporary</>&nsp;<>inhiition of thyroid peroxidase</>&n
sp;due to <>excess iodine levels</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-1243822528955
6.jpg" /></div>
1405141647568 1395802358422 Which drug used to treat hyperthyroidism is used
in <>pregnancy</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Propylthiouracil (PTU)}}</div>
1405141731050 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplasia Cutis}} is a possile teratogenic
complication of Methimazole.
1405141749030 1395802358422 Which drug used to treat hyperthyroidism is a po
ssile teratogen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Methimazole}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Can cause aplasia cutis.</i></div>
1405141770453 1395802358422 {{c1::Agranulocytosis}} is a rare hematological
complication of Propylthiouracil and Methimazole use. <r /><div><i>Aplastic a
naemia is also a possile complication.</i></div>
1405141793183 1395802358422 Which drug used to treat hyperthyroidism is asso
ciated with hepatotoxicity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Propylthiouracil}}</div>
1405141828670 1395802358422 {{c1::Levothyroxine}} and&nsp;{{c2::Triiodithyr
onine}} are thyroxine replacements that are used to treat hypothyroidism and myx
edema.
1405141875461 1395802358422 {{c1::GH}} is a hormone analog used to treat Tur
ner Syndrome.
1405141896851 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to treat Carci
noid tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Octreotide}}</div>
1405141924843 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to treat Gastr
inoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Octreotide}}</div>
1405141933394 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to treat Gluca
gonoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Octreotide}}</div>
1405141940741 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to treat Esoph
ageal Varices?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Octreotide}}</div>
1405141955250 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Central Diaetes Insip
idus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DDAVP}}</div>
1405141973751 1395802358422 {{c1::Oxytocin}} is a posterior pituitary hormon
e that is used to <>stimulate laour, uterine contractions </>and <>milk letdown</>.
1405142007029 1395802358422 Which tetracycline antiiotic is used to treat S
IADH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Demeclocycline}}</div>
1405142023011 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Demeclocycline in the treatme
nt of SIADH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ADH antagonism}}</div>
1405142036083 1395802358422 What type of Diaetes Insipidus is a potential c
omplication of Demeclocycline use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrogenic DI}}</
div>
1405142067031 1395802358422 {{c1::Photosensitivity}} is a cutaneous complica
tion of Demeclocycline use.
1405142084123 1395802358422 {{c1::Demeclocycline}} is a drug used to treat S
IADH that is associated with <>anormalities of one and teeth</>.
1405142102856 1395802358422 {{c1::NF-kB}} is a transcription factor hat is o
ften inhiited y Glucocorticoids, therey leading to downstream anti-inflammato
ry and immunosuppressive effects.
1405142159010 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Osteoporosis seen in I
atrogenic Cushing Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bisphosphonates}}</div>
1405142186359 1395802358422 {{c1::Adrenal Insufficiency}} is a complication
of <u style="font-weight: old; ">arupt cessation</u>&nsp;of glucocorticoids f
ollowing chronic use.
1396878226295 1395802358422 What is the life span of Erythrocytes?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::120 days}}</div>
1396878244547 1395802358422 What is the primary source of energy for Erythro
cytes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose}}</div>
<r /><div><i>90% is use
d in Glycolysis, 10% is used in the HMP shunt</i></div>

1396878284412 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythrocytosis (Polycythemia)}} is a hemat
ological disorder that is primarily characterized y an <>elevated</>&nsp;hem
atocrit.
1396878419942 1395802358422 {{c1::Anisocytosis}} is a hematological disorder
that is characterized y varying Erythrocyte <>size</>.
1396878441656 1395802358422 {{c1::Poikilocytosis}} is a hematological disord
er that is descried y varying Erythrocyte <>shape</>.
1396878470660 1395802358422 A(n) {{c1::Reticulocyte}} is an immature erythro
cyte that is commonly used as a marker of erythroid proliferation.
1396878511436 1395802358422 Which precursor cell are Platelets (Thromocytes
) derived from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Megakaryocytes}}</div>
1396878580550 1395802358422 What is the life span of Platelets (Thromocytes
)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::8-10 days}}</div>
1396878596280 1395802358422 Which lymphoid organ stores approximately 1/3 of
the platelet pool?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spleen}}</div>
1396878965203 1395802358422 Which platelet receptor does von Willerand's Fa
ctor (vWF) ind to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpI}}</div>
1396879047967 1395802358422 Which platelet receptor does Firinogen ind to?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpII/IIIa}}</div>
1396879228618 1395802358422 What is the most aundant Leukocyte in a normal
person?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neutrophils (54-62% of total WBCs)}}</div>
<div><div class="page" title="Page 397"><div class="section"><div class="layoutA
rea"><div class="column"><p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt;font-family: 'El
ectraLH';font-weight: 700;color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">N</span
><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">eutrophils (54–62%
)&nsp;</span></p><p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraL
H'; font-weight: 700; color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">L</span><sp
an style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">ymphocytes (25–33%)&n
sp;</span></p><p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH';
font-weight: 700; color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">M</span><span s
tyle="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">onocytes (3–7%)&nsp;</spa
n></p><p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'; font-wei
ght: 700; color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">E</span><span style="fo
nt-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">osinophils (1–3%)&nsp;</span></p>
<p><span style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'; font-weight: 7
00; color: rg(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">B</span><span style="font-siz
e: 10.000000pt; font-family: 'ElectraLH'">asophils (0–0.75%)&nsp;</span></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div></div>
1396879515608 1395802358422 Which vitamin deficiency is associated with the
presence of hypersegmented Neutrophils with 5+ loes?<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-2173253451950.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin B12 (C
oalamin) Deficiency; Vitamin B9 (Folate) Deficiency}}</div></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence these are seen in Megalolastic Anaemia</i></div>
1396879521588 1395802358422 What is an increase in the numer of Band Cells
(immature Neutrophil) indicative of?<div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myeloid Pro
liferation}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Can e due to a acterial infectio
n or CML</i></div>
1396879666428 1395802358422 What do Monocytes differentiate into once they e
nter tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Macrophages}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.
e. Monocytes are <>only found in the lood</>&nsp;and Macrophages are <>only
found in tissue</></i></div>
1396879730590 1395802358422 Which type of Interferon activates Macrophages?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::gamma-Interferon}}</div>
1396879797069 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker (CD) is expressed main
ly y Macrophages?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD14}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It
is involved in the detection of acterial LPS.</i></div>
1396879950180 1395802358422 Which MHC molecule is found on Macrophages?<div>

<r /></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
1396880031833 1395802358422 Which Leukocyte is the primary defense against H
elminthic infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Eosinophils}}</div>
1396880210877 1395802358422 Which sustance from Eosinophils is primarily in
volved in fighting Helminthic infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Major Basic
Protein}}</div>
1396880705193 1395802358422 {{c1::Histaminase}} and&nsp;{{c2::Arylsulfatase
}} are enzymes produced y Eosinophils that function to limit the reaction follo
wing Mast Cell degranulation.
1396880890336 1395802358422 Which Leukocyte is primarily involved in mediati
ng allergic reactions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basophils}}</div>
1396880945282 1395802358422 Which Leukotriene is commonly found in the granu
les of Basophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LTD4}}</div>
1396881008712 1395802358422 {{c1::Heparin}} is an anticoagulant that is foun
d in the densely asophilic granules of Basophils.
1396881011799 1395802358422 {{c1::Histamine}} is a vasodilator that is commo
nly found in the densely asophilic granules of Basophils.
1396881033662 1395802358422 Which leukocyte is involved with mediating aller
gic reactions at <>local tissue</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mast Cells}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Mast Cells are similar in structure and function to Basoph
ils ut are a different cell type.</i></div>
1396881143091 1395802358422 Which type of immunogloulin inds to Mast Cells
to sensitize them to degranulation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgE (via the F<s
u>c</su>&nsp;portion)}}</div>
1396881277956 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin ound on the surface of Mas
t Cells will cross-link upon antigen inding and trigger degranulation?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
1396881397054 1395802358422 {{c1::Cromolyn Sodium}} is a Mast Cell stailize
r used for asthma prophylaxis as it prevents Mast Cell degranulation.
1396881537399 1395802358422 {{c1::Dendritic Cells}} are a type of highly pha
gocytic Antigen Presenting Cell that function as the link etween innate and ada
ptive immune systems. <r /><div><i>aka Langerhans Cell at the skin</i></div>
1396881625698 1395802358422 Where in the ody do B Cells mature?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Bone Marrow}}</div>
1396881930365 1395802358422 What do B Cells differentiate into when they enc
ounter an antigen at peripheral lymphoid tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Plas
ma Cells}}</div>
1396881983638 1395802358422 Which MHC molecule is found on B Cells?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
1396882048513 1395802358422 Where in the ody do T Cells mature?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Thymus}}</div>
1396882081154 1395802358422 What is the most aundant Lymphocyte in a normal
person?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells (80%)}}</div>
1396882108788 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker is associated with cyt
otoxic T Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD8}}</div>
1396882129253 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker is associated with hel
per T Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4}}</div>
1396882141444 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker interacts with 7 for
regulatory T Cell differentiation from naive CD4+ T Cells? <r /><r />{{c1::CD2
8}}
1396882161143 1395802358422 Which type of T Cell is the primary target of HI
V?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ helper T cells}}</div>
1396882263664 1395802358422 {{c1::Mutiple Myeloma}} is a Plasma Cell Cancer.
1396882322233 1395802358422 {{c1::Plasma Cells}} are an immune cell that dif
ferentiate from B Cells and produce large amounts of antiody specific to a part
icular antigen.
1396882358169 1395802358422 Which immune cell is associated with a clock-fac
e distruution of chromatin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Plasma Cells}}</div>
1396882419626 1395802358422 Which lood group antiody is found in a person
with Group A lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-B}}</div>

1396883190435 1395802358422 Which lood group antiody is found in a person
with Group&nsp;B lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-A}}</div>
1396883196939 1395802358422 Which lood group antiody is found in a person
with Group&nsp;AB lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div>
1396883218290 1395802358422 Which lood group is the universal <>recipient<
/>&nsp;of <>RBCs</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AB}}</div> <r /><div><i>Be
cause the patient's plasma lacks antiodies against lood group antigens.</i></d
iv>
1396883287334 1395802358422 Which lood group is the universal <>donor</>&
nsp;of <>plasma</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AB}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Be
cause the patient's plasma lacks antiodies against lood group antigens.</i></d
iv>
1396883317448 1395802358422 Which lood group antiody is found in a person
with Group&nsp;O lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both Anti-A and Anti-B}}</di
v>
1396883360161 1395802358422 Which lood group is the universal <>donor</>&
nsp;of <>RBCs</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::O}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Be
cause the patient's RBCs lack A and B antigens.</i></div>
1396883373663 1395802358422 Which lood group is the universal <>recipient<
/>&nsp;of <>plasma</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::O}}</div> <r /><div><i>Be
cause the patient's RBCs lack A and B antigens.</i></div>
1396883453618 1395802358422 Which type of immunogloulins are Anti-A and Ant
i-B lood group antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgM}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence the <>cannot cross the placenta</></i></div>
1396883508977 1395802358422 Which type of immunogloulin are Anti-Rh lood g
roup antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence they
<>can cross the placenta</>.</i></div>
1396883552377 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is deficient in Haemoph
ilia A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VIII}}</div>
1396884336778 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is deficient in Haemoph
ilia B (Christmas Disease)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IX}}</div>
1396884359219 1395802358422 How do ACE-Inhiitors affect Bradykinin levels?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is why patien
ts receiving ACE Inhiitors have an "ACE Inhiitor cough."</i></div>
1396884385283 1395802358422 Which enzyme reduces Vitamin K so that it can ac
t as a cofactor in coagulation factor synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epox
ide Reductase}}</div> <r /><div><i>This is the enzyme inhiits y Warfarin</i
></div>
1396884585917 1395802358422 Which coagulation factors require Vitamin K as a
cofactor in their synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factors II, VII, IX and
X (as well as Protein C and Protein S)}}</div>
1396884648381 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is carried y von Wille
<r /><d
rand's Factor (vWF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor VIII}}</div>
iv><r /></div>
1396884682904 1395802358422 Which coagulation factors are inactivated y Pro
tein C?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factors V<su>a</su>&nsp;and VIII<su>a</su
>}}</div>
1396884946509 1395802358422 Which enzyme cleaves the Firin mesh, therey r
eaking down clots?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Plasmin}}</div>
1396884999133 1395802358422 Which coagulation factors are inhiited y Antit
hromin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factors IIa, VIIa, IXa, Xa, XIa, and XIIa}}<
/div>
1396885149021 1395802358422 {{c1::Heparin}} is an anticoagulant drug enhance
s the activity of antithromin.
1396885172691 1395802358422 What are the 2 principal targets of antithromin
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor II<su>a</su>&nsp;(Thromin)&nsp;and Fact
or X<su>a</su>}}</div>
1396885194671 1395802358422 What is Factor V Leiden?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Factor V that is resistant to inactivation y Protein C}}</div>
1396885230664 1395802358422 {{c1::Factor V Leiden}} is a mutant form of coag

ulation Factor V that is resistant to inhiition y activated Protein C.
1396885261026 1395802358422 {{c1::Tissue Plasminogen Activators (tPA's)}} ar
e a <>class</>&nsp;of anticoagulant drugs that function as thromolytics y a
ctivating Plasminogen into Plasmin.
1396885390251 1395802358422 In platelet adhesion, what receptor does von Wil
lerand's Factor (vWF) ind to on Platelets?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpI}}</
div>
1396885458748 1395802358422 In platelet activation, which molecule inding a
t the Platelet surface induces the movement of GpII/IIIa receptors to the Plate
let surface?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ADP}}</div>
1396885564750 1395802358422 In platelet aggregation, which receptor does Fi
rinogen ind to on Platelets in order to link them together?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::GpII/IIIa}}</div>
1396885615272 1395802358422 What happens first in Platelet Plug Formation, P
latelet Adhesion or Platelet Aggregation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adhesion}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>D's efore G's, rah.</i></div>
1397317135284 1395802358422 What is the outermost layer of the epidermis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stratum Corneum}}</div>
<r /><div><i>California
ns Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img sr
c="paste-1254130450966.jpg" /></i></div>
1397323054173 1395802358422 {{c1::Stratum Corneum}} is the outermost layer o
f the epidermis and primarily full of keratin. <r /><div><r /></div><div><div
><i>Californians Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><
div><i><img src="paste-1254130450966.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1397323079471 1395802358422 {{c1::Stratum Spinosum}} is a layer of the epide
rmis that involves visile spines etween keratinocytes that are formed y desmo
somes. <r /><div><r /></div><div><div><i>Californians Love Girls in String Bi
kinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1254130450966.jpg
" /></i></div></div>
1397323193363 1395802358422 Which layer of the epidermis is the stell cell l
ayer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stratum Basale}}</div> <r /><div><r /></div><
div><div><i>Californians Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i
></div><div><i><img src="paste-1254130450966.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1397323208442 1395802358422 {{c1::Stratum Basale}} is the deepest layer of t
he epidermis and is the layer that contains <>stem cells</>. <r /><div><div>
<i>Californians Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><d
iv><i><img src="paste-1254130450966.jpg" /></i></div></div>
1397323236305 1395802358422 {{c1::Tight Junctions (Zonula Occludens)}} are a
type of epithelial cell junction that prevent paracellular movement of solutes.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397323803527 1395802358422 Which type of Epithelial Cell Junction prevents
the paracellular movement of solutes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tight Junctions
}}</div>
1397323832600 1395802358422 {{c1::Tight Junction (Zonula Occludens)}} is a t
ype of epithelial cell junction that is composed of Claudins and Occludins.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397323864739 1395802358422 {{c1::Claudins}} and&nsp;{{c2::Occludins}} are
the 2 epithelial cell junction proteins that make up tight junctions (Zonula Occ
ludens).
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397323901053 1395802358422 {{c1::Tight Junction}} is a type of epithelial c
ell junction that is also known as Zonula Occludens.
1397323959545 1395802358422 {{c1::Adherens Junction (Zonula Adherens)}} is a
type of epithelial cell junction found just elow tight junctions that form <>
"elt-like"</>&nsp;connections etween actin cytoskeletons of adjacent cells.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324311204 1395802358422 What type of epithelial cell junction is found j
ust elow tight junctions and forms <>"elt-like"</>&nsp;connections etween
actin cytoskeletons of adjacent cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adherens Junct
ion (Zonula Adherens)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" />
</div>

1397324355398 1395802358422 {{c1::Adherens Junction}} is a type of epithelia
l cell junction that is also known as Zonula Adherens. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324376155 1395802358422 Which adhesion protein is associated with Adhere
ns Junctions (Zonula Adherens)?<div><r />{{c1::Cadherins}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i style="font-weight: old; ">CAD</i><i>herins are <>Ca</><sup style="font
-weight: old; ">2+</sup>&nsp;dependent <>ad</>hesion proteins</i></div><div>
<i><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></i></div>
1397324450216 1395802358422 The loss of which adhesion protein in Adherens J
unctions promotes metastasis of epithelial neoplasms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:E-cadherin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324506076 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmosome (Macula Adherens)}} are a type o
f epithelial cell junction that act as structural support via keratin interactio
ns.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324647010 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmosome}} is a type of epithelial cell j
unction that is also known as Macula Adherens. <r /><div><img src="paste-20315
19531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324715667 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filaments are Desmoso
mes associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Keratin}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324745232 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filaments are Adheren
s Junctions (Zonula Adherens) associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin
Filaments}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324773148 1395802358422 What adhesion protein is associated with Desmoso
mes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmoplakin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324790934 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmoplakin}} is an adhesion protein that
is associated with Desmosomes and couples with keratin. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324814071 1395802358422 Which epithelial cell junction is targeted y th
e autoantiodies in Pemphigus Vulgaris?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmosomes}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324844724 1395802358422 {{c1::Gap Junctions}} are a type of epithelial c
ell junction that involve channel proteins called Connexons that allow for elect
rical and chemical communication etween cells. <r /><div><img src="paste-20315
19531533.jpg" /></div>
1397324904822 1395802358422 What transmemrane channels are associate with G
ap Junctions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Connexons}}</div>
1397324927042 1395802358422 What type of epithelial cell junction allow for
electrical and chemical communication etween cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Gap Junctions via Connexons}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533
.jpg" /></div>
1397324959844 1395802358422 {{c1::Integrins}} are memrane adhesion proteins
that maintain the integrity of the <>asolateral memrane</>&nsp;y inding
to <>collagen and laminin</>&nsp;on the asement memrane. <div><r /></div
><i><>INTEG</>rins maintain the <>INTEG</>rity of the asolateral memrane.<
/i><r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397325374651 1395802358422 What does Integrin ind to in the asement memr
ane to maintain integrity of the cell's asolateral memrane?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Collagen and Laminin}}</div>
1397325402722 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemidesmosome}} is an epithelial cell junc
tion that connects keratin in asal cells to the underlying asement memrane.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>
1397325441886 1395802358422 Which type of epithelial cell junction connects
keratin in asal cells to the underlying asement memrane?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Hemidesmosomes}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" />
</div>
1397325465093 1395802358422 Which epithelial cell junction do autoantiodies
in Bullous Pemphigoid target?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemidesmosome}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2031519531533.jpg" /></div>

1397325518295 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with an Anterior
Drawer Sign?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACL injury}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-5716601471227.jpg" /></div>
1397325755670 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with a Posterior
Drawer Sign?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PCL injury}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397325767329 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with anormal pa
ssive <>aduction </>(valgus stress)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MCL injury}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397325951674 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with anormal pa
ssive <>adduction</>&nsp;(varus stress)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LCL injur
y}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326018932 1395802358422 Which clinical test looks for the presnce of a m
eniscus knee injury?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::McMurray Test}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326046210 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with pain on <>
external rotation</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial Meniscus injury}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326069174 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with pain on <>
internal rotation</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral meniscus injury}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326095938 1395802358422 Which cruciate ligament in the knee attaches to
the anterior aspect of the tiia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACL}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The naming refers to the site of tiial attachment.</i><r /
><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326146119 1395802358422 Which cruciate ligament in the knee attaches to
the posterior aspect of the tiia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PCL}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The naming refers to the site of tiial attachment.</i></div><div>
<i><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></i></div>
1397326180110 1395802358422 {{c1::Unhappy Triad}} is a common sports injury
that presents due to <>lateral force applied to a planted leg</>.
1397326222696 1395802358422 {{c1::Unhappy Triad}} is a common sports injury
that classically involves damage to the ACL, MCL and Medial Meniscus as it is at
tached to the MCL.
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326476784 1395802358422 Which 3 structures in the knee are commonly inju
red in Unhappy Triad?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACL; MCL; Medial Meniscus}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326515369 1395802358422 Which side of the knee involves a meniscus that
is attached to a collateral ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial (MCL + M
edial Meniscus)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326542847 1395802358422 Which meniscus in the knee is attached to a coll
ateral ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial Meniscus (and MCL)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326562076 1395802358422 Which meniscus in the knee is more commonly inju
red?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral meniscus}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-5712306503931.jpg" /></div>
1397326616531 1395802358422 Which anatomical landmark is associated with the
Pudendal Nerve for Pudendal Nerve Block in relieving the pain of delivery?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Ischial spine}}</div>
1397326664588 1395802358422 Which anatomical surface landmark is associated
with the Appendix?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::McBurney's Point (2/3 of the dista
nce etween the umilicus and ASIS)}}</div>
1397326716442 1395802358422 Which anatomical surface landmark is associated
with Lumar Puncture?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The level of the Iliac Crest}}<
/div>
1397326744170 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Rotator Cuff Muscles}} are a grou
p of shoulder muscles that form the rotator cuff.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-8538394984672.jpg" /></div>
1397326791714 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle is most commonly injur
ed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supraspinatus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas

te-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327008289 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the Supraspinatus?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Suprascapular N}}</div>
1397327029752 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle aducts the arm initia
lly efore the action of the deltoid takes over?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supr
aspinatus}}</div>
1397327061525 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle injury is commonly see
n in aseall pitchers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infraspinatus injury}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327105520 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the Infraspinatus mus
cle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suprascapular nerve}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327137355 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle laterally rotates the
arm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infraspinatus}}</div>
1397327167103 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle oth adducts <u>and</u
>&nsp;laterally rotates the arm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Teres Minor}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327191613 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the Teres Minor muscl
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary Nerve}}</div>
1397327369287 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle medially rotates and a
dducts the arm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suscapularis}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327392350 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the Suscapular muscl
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suscapular nerve}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-8534100017376.jpg" /></div>
1397327410469 1395802358422 Which spinal cord nerve roots primarily innervat
e the Rotator Cuff Muscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-C6}}</div>
1397327444207 1395802358422 What are the 4 rotator cuff muscles?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Supraspinatus; Infraspinatus; Teres Minor; Suscapularis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"SItS"</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-8534100017376.jpg" /></i><
/div>
1397327482467 1395802358422 What is the most commonly fractured carpal one?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scaphoid}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10286
446674205.jpg" /></div>
1397327788124 1395802358422 Which carpal one can e palpated in the anatomi
cal snuff ox?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scaphoid}}</div>
1397327804309 1395802358422 {{c1::Scaphoid}} is a carpal one that is the mo
st commonly fractured carpal one and is prone to avascular necrosis due to retr
ograde lood supply.
<r /><div><img src="paste-10282151706909.jpg" /></div>
1397327847711 1395802358422 Dislocation of which carpal one may cause Acute
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lunate}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-10282151706909.jpg" /></div>
1397327889757 1395802358422 Which nerve can e damaged following a fall onto
an outstretched that results in fracture to the hook of the Hamate?<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-10282151706909.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Ulnar Nerve}}</div>
1397328031852 1395802358422 {{c1::Carpal Tunnel Syndrome}} is a wrist injury
that involves entrapment of the Median Nerve in the carpal tunnel and hence pre
sents with paresthesia, pain and numness.
1397328122571 1395802358422 Which nerve is entrapped in the carpal tunnel to
cause Carpal Tunnel Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Median Nerve}}</div>
1397328148762 1395802358422 {{c1::Guyon Canal Syndrome}} is a wrist injury t
hat involves compression of the Ulnar Nerve at the wrist of hand, presenting wit
h paresthesia, pain and numness.
1397328194858 1395802358422 Which nerve is compressed at the wrist or hand i
n Guyon Canal Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulnar Nerve}}</div>
1397328209301 1395802358422 {{c1::Guyon Canal Syndrome}} is a wrist injury t
hat is classically seen in cyclists due to constant pressure on the wrist/hand f
rom the handlears.
1397328233085 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Er Palsy (Waiter's Tip)?

<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lesion to the <>upper</>&nsp;trunk at C5-C6 roots
}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i><>ERB</>er = Upper trunk<r /></i><div><im
g src="paste-11858404704811.jpg" /></div>
1397330340192 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Er Palsy in <
>infants</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral traction on the neck during del
ivery}}</div>
1397330363923 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Er Palsy in <
>adults</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trauma}}</div>
1397330380176 1395802358422 {{c1::Er Palsy}} is a Brachial Plexus lesion th
at involves lesion to the <>upper trunk</>&nsp;(C5-C6) and presents as an add
ucted, medially rotated, extended and pronated ipsilateral upper lim.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-12141872546039.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /></div
><i>Due to deficit of the deltoid, supraspinatus, infraspinatus and iceps rach
ii.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397330522125 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Klumpke's Palsy?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lesion of the <>lower trunk</>&nsp;(C8-T1 roots)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397330681779 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Klumpke's Palsy
in <>infants</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upward force on the arm during de
livery}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397330708506 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Klumpke Palsy i
n adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trauma (e.g. graing a tree ranch while f
alling down a tree)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /
></div>
1397330757872 1395802358422 {{c1::Klumpke Palsy}} is a rachial plexus lesio
n that is due to lesion of the <>lower trunk</>&nsp;at C8-T1 roots and involv
es a <>total claw hand</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13052405612715
.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397331125784 1395802358422 {{c1::Thoracic Outlet Syndrome}} is a rachial p
lexus lesion that involves compression of the <>lower trunk</>&nsp;and <>su
clavian vessels</>.
<r /><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-118541097375
15.jpg" /></div>
1397331202876 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Thoracic Outlet Syndrome?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Compression of the <>lower</>&nsp;trunk of the r
achial plexus and <>suclavian vessels</>}}</div>
<r /><div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1397331267972 1395802358422 Which type of tumour is associated with Thoracic
Outlet Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pancoast tumour (at the apex of the
lung)}}</div>
1397331286413 1395802358422 {{c1::Cervical Ri}} is a congenital anatomical
anomaly that may cause Thoracic Outlet Syndrome.
1397331337403 1395802358422 {{c1::Thoracic Outlet Syndrome}} is a rachial p
lexus lesion that involves the atrophy of intrinsic hand muscles along with isch
emic, pain, edema of the hand due to vascular compression.
1397331385231 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Winged Scapula?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Lesion of the Long Thoracic Nerve}}</div>
1397331400731 1395802358422 What muscle deficit is seen in Winged Scapula?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Serratus Anterior}}</div>
1397331428745 1395802358422 {{c1::Winged Scapula}} is a rachial plexus lesi
on that involves lesion to the Long Thoracic Nerve and presents with an inailit
y to anchor the scapula to the thoracic cage due to a Serratus Anterior defect.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14242111553704.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11854109737515.jpg" /></div>
1404608091119 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the A
xillary Nerve (C5-C6)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fracture surgical neck of the
humerus; Anterior dislocation of the humerus}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Pres
ents with <>flattened deltoid</>, <>loss of arm aduction at the shoulder </
>(&gt; 15 degrees), <>loss of sensation over the deltoid muscle and lateral arm
</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-17141214478924.jpg" /></div>
1404609666551 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the M

usculocutaneous Nerve (C5-C7)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upper trunk compressio
n}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Presents with <>loss of forearm flexion and
supination</>&nsp;and <>loss of sensation over the lateral forearm</>.</i><
r /><div><img src="paste-17136919511628.jpg" /></div>
1404609714536 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the R
adial Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Midshaft fracture of the humerus
; Compression of the axilla (crutches; Saturday Night Palsy)}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>Presents with <>wrist drop</>, <>decreased grip strength, loss of
sensation over posterior arm/forearm/dorsal hand.</></i><r /><div><img src="p
aste-17136919511628.jpg" /></div>
1404610097409 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>proximal</>
injury to the Median Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supracondylar fr
acture of the humerus}}</div> <div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1713691951
1628.jpg" /></div>
1404610169014 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>distal</>&n
sp;injury to the Median Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Carpal Tunnel
Syndrome; Wrist laceration}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Presents with <>Ape
Hand</>&nsp;or <>Benedict's Hand</>.</i><div><i>Presents with <>loss of wr
ist and lateral finger flexion, thum opposition.</><r /></i><div><img src="pa
ste-17136919511628.jpg" /></div></div>
1404610467566 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>proximal </
>injury to the Ulnar Nerve (C8-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fracture of the m
edial epicondyle of the humerus (i.e. "funny one")}}</div>
<r /><div><i></
i><i></i><i>Presents with&nsp;<>Claw Hand</>&nsp;upon digit extension.</i></
div><div><i>Presents with&nsp;<>radial deviation of wrist upon extension</>.<
/i></div><div><i>Presents with <>loss of flexion of wrist and medial fingers, a
duction and adduction of fingers.</></i></div><div><i>Presents with <>loss of
sensation over the medial 1/2 of fingers including hypothenar eminence</>.</i>
</div><div><i><div style="font-weight: old; "><div><img src="paste-171369195116
28.jpg" /></div></div></i></div>
1404611375079 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>distal</>&n
sp;injury to the Ulnar Nerve (C8-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fractured hook
of the hamate}}</div> <div><div><i></i><i><r class="Apple-interchange-newline
" />Presents with&nsp;<>Claw Hand</>&nsp;upon digit extension.</i></div><div
><i>Presents with&nsp;<>loss of flexion of wrist and medial fingers, aduction
and adduction of fingers.</></i></div><div><i>Presents with&nsp;<>loss of se
nsation over the medial 1/2 of fingers including hypothenar eminence</>.</i></d
iv><div><i><div style="font-weight: old; "><div><img src="paste-17136919511628.
jpg" /></div></div></i></div></div>
1404611388759 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the R
ecurrent Branch of the Median Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superfic
ial laceration of the palm}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Presents with <>Ape
Hand</></i><div><i>Presents with <>loss of thenar muscle groups</>&nsp;(opp
osition, aduction, flexion of the thum).</i></div><div><i>No loss of sensation
.<r /></i><div><i><div style="font-weight: old; "><div><img src="paste-1713691
9511628.jpg" /></div></div></i></div></div>
1404611452458 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Axillary Nerve?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-C6}}</div>
<r /><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musc
ulocutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassin
ated (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all
5 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><di
v><i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="paste-19219
978650178.jpg" /></div>
1404611478769 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Musculocutaneou
s Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-C7}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>3 Mus
keteers (Musculocutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><di
v><i>Assassinated (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Media
n nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)
</i></div><div><i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src
="paste-19219978650178.jpg" /></div></div>

1404611488223 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Radial Nerve?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-T1}}</div> <r /><div><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musculo
cutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassinate
d (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all 5
roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><
i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="paste-19219978
650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404611497410 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Median Nerve?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-T1}}</div> <r /><div><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musculo
cutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassinate
d (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all 5
roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><
i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="paste-19219978
650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404611505977 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Ulnar Nerve?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::C8-T1}}</div> <r /><div><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musculo
cutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassinate
d (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all 5
roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><
i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="paste-19219978
650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404611518719 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Recurrent ranc
h of the Median Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5-T1}}</div> <r /><div><div>
<i>3 Musketeers (Musculocutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of rachial plexus)</i><
/div><div><i>Assassinated (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 me
n (Median nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all
5 roots)</i></div><div><i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div>
<img src="paste-19219978650178.jpg" /></div></div>
1404614495031 1395802358422 {{c1::Clawing}} is a distortion of the hand that
is commonly seen est with <>distal</>&nsp;lesions of the median or ulnar ne
rves. <r /><div><i>The remaining extrinsic flexors of the digits exaggerate t
he loss of the lumricals. Hence the <>fingers extend at the MCP ut flex at th
e DIPs and PIPs.</></i></div><div><i>In <>proximal lesions</>, deficits prese
nt during voluntary flexion of the digits.</i></div>
1404614907599 1395802358422 {{c1::Claw Hand (Ulnar Claw)}} is a distortion o
f the hand due to a <>distal ulnar nerve</>&nsp;<>lesion</>&nsp;that prese
nts with a <>loss of flexion of the medial digits and wrist</>&nsp;<u style="
font-weight: old; ">at rest</u>&nsp;or while <u style="font-weight: old; ">ex
tending the fingers</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21118354194697.jpg
" /></div>
1404615452035 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Ulnar Claw (Claw Hand)?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distal Ulnar Nerve lesion}}</div><div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-21114059227401.jpg" /></div>
1404615471575 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Benedict's Hand (Pope's B
lessing)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Proximal</u>&nsp;median nerve lesion}}<
/div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21114059227401.jpg" /></div>
1404615539717 1395802358422 {{c1::Benedict's Hand (Pope's Blessing)}} is a d
istortion of the hand that is due to <>proximal median nerve lesion</>&nsp;an
d presents with <>loss of lateral digit flexion</>&nsp;when prompted to <u st
yle="font-weight: old; ">make a fist</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste21114059227401.jpg" /></div>
1404615608564 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Ape Hand (Median Claw)?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Distal</u>&nsp;median nerve lesion}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-21530671055107.jpg" /></div>
1404616013207 1395802358422 {{c1::Ape Hand (Median Claw)}} is a distortion o
f the hand that is due to a <>distal median nerve</>&nsp;lesion and presents
with <>loss of thum opposition</>&nsp;and <>medial digit flexion</>&nsp;<
u style="font-weight: old; ">at rest</u>&nsp;or when <u style="font-weight: o
ld; ">extending the fingers</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2153067105
5107.jpg" /></div>

1404616245928 1395802358422 {{c1::"OK Gesture"}} is a distortion of the hand
that is due to a <>proximal ulnar nerve lesion</>&nsp;and presents with <>f
lexion of the first 3 digits only</>&nsp;upon <u style="font-weight: old; ">m
aking a fist</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21530671055107.jpg" /></d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Strong creativity with the naming here. "OK Gesture". Lol.
</i></div>
1404616520821 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in the "OK Gesture" hand dis
tortion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal ulnar nerve lesion}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-21530671055107.jpg" /></div>
1404616621226 1395802358422 Which <>group</>&nsp;of hand muscles can eco
me atrophied in <>median nerve lesions</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thenar}}
</div> <div><r /></div><i>Hence there will e unopposale thum.</i><r /><div
><img src="paste-23351737188724.jpg" /></div>
1404616684829 1395802358422 Which <>group</>&nsp;of hand muscles can eco
me atrophied in <>ulnar nerve lesions</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypothena
r muscles}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-23347442221428.jpg" /></div>
1404622467026 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the Thenar muscles?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Median Nerve}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste597000454487.jpg" /></div>
1404622498946 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the Hypothenar muscles?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulnar Nerve}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-601295421783.jpg" /></div>
1404670901243 1395802358422 {{c1::Opponens pollicis}},&nsp;{{c2::Aductor p
ollicis revis}} and&nsp;{{c3::Flexor pollicis revis}} are the 3 hand muscles
that make up the thenar group.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-592705487210
.jpg" /></div> <div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-605590388941.jpg" /></div>
1404671073406 1395802358422 {{c1::Opponens digiti minimi}},&nsp;{{c2::aduc
tor digiti minimi}} and&nsp;{{c3::flexor digiti minimi revis}} are the 3 hand
muscles that make up the hypothenar group.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste592705487210.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /><div><img src="paste-605590388941.jpg
" /></div></div>
1404671129671 1395802358422 What is the action of the <>dorsal</>&nsp;int
erosseous muscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Finger aduction}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i><>"DAB"</>&nsp;= <>D</>orsals <>AB</>duct the fingers</i></div>
1404671175861 1395802358422 What is the action of the <>palmar</>&nsp;int
erosseous muscles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adduction of the fingers}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>PAD</>" = <>P</>almars <>AD</>duct the fingers.</i></div>
1404671228254 1395802358422 What is the action of the Lumrical muscles?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Flexion of the MCP joint; Extension of the PIP and DIP j
oints}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-833223655794.jpg" /></div>
1404671357521 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Oturator Nerve
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L2-L4}}</div>
1404672355915 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Femoral Nerve?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L2-L4}}</div>
1404672382737 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Common Peroneal
Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S2}}</div>
1404672389705 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Tiial Nerve?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S3}}</div>
1404672396153 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Superior Glutea
l Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S1}}</div>
1404672402099 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Inferior Glutea
l Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L5-S2}}</div>
1404672412114 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Sciatic Nerve?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S3}}</div>
1404672424927 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the O
turator Nerve (L2-L4)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic Surgery}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>loss of medial thigh sensation</>&nsp;and <>lo
ss of adduction</>.</i></div>
1404672719909 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the F
emoral Nerve (L2-L4)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic fracture}}</div>

<r /><div><i>Presents with <>loss of thigh flexion and leg extension</>.</i><
/div>
1404673296558 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the C
ommon Peroneal Nerve (L4-S2)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trauma/compression to t
he <u>lateral leg</u>; Fiular neck fracture}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents a
s <>Foot Drop</>&nsp;(inverted and plantarflexed foot at rest; loss of eversi
on and dorsiflexion; Steppage gait; loss of sensation on the dorsum of the foot)
.</i></div>
1404673420680 1395802358422 {{c1::Foot Drop}} is a leg injury that results d
ue to injury to the <>common peroneal nerve</>&nsp;and presents with <>inver
sion/plantarflexion of the foot at rest</>&nsp;and a <>loss of eversion and d
orsiflexion</>.
1404673605898 1395802358422 Which nerve injury causes <>Foot Drop</>?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Common peroneal nerve}}</div>
1404673624105 1395802358422 {{c1::Foot Drop}} is a leg injury due to injury
to the <>common peroneal nerve</>&nsp;and presents with a <>"steppage gait."
</>
1404673661071 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>proximal</>
injury to the Tiial Nerve (L4-S3)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Knee trauma; Bak
er cyst}}</div> <r /><div><i>Presents with <>loss of aility to curl toes</>&
nsp;and <>loss of sensation on the sole of the foot</>.</i></div><div><i>Prox
imal lesion presents with <>foot eversion at rest</>&nsp;with <>loss of inve
rsion and plantarflexion</>.</i></div>
1404673709617 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>distal</> i
njury to the Tiial Nerve (S4-L3)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tarsal tunnel synd
rome}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with&nsp;<>loss of aility to curl toes
</>&nsp;and&nsp;<>loss of sensation on the sole of the foot</>.</i></div>
1404673804292 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the S
uperior Gluteal Nerve (L4-S1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior hip dislocat
ion; Polio}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>Trendelenurg Sign/Gait</
>&nsp;(pelvis tilts ecause the weight-earing leg cannot maintain alignment o
f the pelvis through hip aduction.</i></div><div><i>The lesion is <>contralate
ral to the side of the hip that drops</>&nsp;and <>ipsilateral to the side of
the weight earing lim</>.</i></div>
1404673946434 1395802358422 Which gluteal muscles are innervated y the Supe
rior Gluteal Nerve (L4-S1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gluteus medius; Gluteus m
inimus}}</div>
1404674435457 1395802358422 Which nerve injury can cause Trendelenurg Sign/
Gait?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Gluteal Nerve}}</div> <r /><div><div>
<i>Presents with&nsp;<>Trendelenurg Sign/Gait</>&nsp;(pelvis tilts ecause
the weight-earing leg cannot maintain alignment of the pelvis through hip aduc
tion.</i></div><div><i>The lesion is&nsp;<>contralateral to the side of the hi
p that drops</>&nsp;and&nsp;<>ipsilateral to the side of the weight earing
lim</>.</i></div></div>
1404674460830 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the I
nferior Gluteal Nerve (L5-S2)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior hip dislocat
ion}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>difficulty climing stairs</>&n
sp;and <>rising from a seated position</>&nsp;due to a <>loss of hip extensi
on</>.</i></div>
1404674833365 1395802358422 Which gluteal muscles are innervated y the <>I
nferior</>&nsp;Gluteal Nerve (L5-S2)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gluteus maxim
us}}</div>
1404674891756 1395802358422 Which nerve of the leg mediates <>eversion</>&
nsp;and <>dorsiflexion</>&nsp;of the foot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Common
peroneal nerve (L4-S2)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3560527888510.jpg" />
</div>
1404674952723 1395802358422 Which nerve of the leg <>inverts</>&nsp;and <
>plantarflexes</>&nsp;the foot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tiial nerve}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3556232921214.jpg" /></div>
1404674973741 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Long Thoraci

c Nerve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Thoracic Artery}}</div>
1404675302359 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Axillary ner
ve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Circumflex Artery}}</div>
1404675347363 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Radial nerve
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Deep Brachial Artery}}</div>
1404675358136 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Median Nerve
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brachial artery}}</div>
1404675372598 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Tiial Nerve
<>at the popliteal fossa</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Popliteal artery}}</d
iv>
1404675387127 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Tiial Nerve
<>posterior to the medial malleolus</>?<div><r />{{c1::Posterior Tiial Arte
ry}}</div>
1404676055360 1395802358422 The {{c1::dihydropyridine receptor}} is a voltag
e-gated receptor that is mechanically coupled to the ryanodine receptor on the s
arcoplasmic reticulum of muscle.
<r /><div><i>Depolarization of the Dihy
dropyridine Receptor induces a conformational change in the Ryanodine Receptor a
nd susequent Ca²⁺&nsp;release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.</i><
/div><div><i><img src="paste-4398046511753.jpg" /></i></div>
1404676262836 1395802358422 Which receptor on the cell memrane of muscle ce
lls is mechanically coupled to the Ryanodine Receptor on the sarcoplasmic reticu
lum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydropyridine Receptor}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Depolarization of the Dihydropyridine Receptor induces a conformational ch
ange in the Ryanodine Receptor and susequent release of Ca²⁺&nsp;fr
om the sarcoplasmic reticulum.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4393751544457.jp
g" /></i></div>
1404676357104 1395802358422 {{c1::Troponin C}} is a protein in muscle that 
inds to Ca²⁺&nsp;and causes a conformational change that moves tropo
myosin out of the myosin-inding site on actin filaments.
1404676820705 1395802358422 How does the length of the H and I ands of the
sarcomere change in muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both <u>decre
ase</u>}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-4393751544457.jpg" /></div>
1404676900232 1395802358422 How does the length of the A and of the sarcome
re change in muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>A</>-and is <>A</>lways the same length."</i></div><div><i
><img src="paste-4393751544457.jpg" /></i></div>
1404676932303 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fiers are referred to as <
>slow</>&nsp;twitch fiers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 1}}</div>
1404677844113 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fiers are referred to as <
>fast </>twitch fiers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 2}}</div>
1404677865821 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fiers are <>red </>fier
s due to an <>increased mitochondria</>&nsp;and <>myogloin concentration</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 1}}</div>
1404678139240 1395802358422 {{c1::Type 1 muscle fiers}} are a type of muscl
e fier that perform <>sustained contraction</>&nsp;due to an <>increased co
ncentration of mitochondria and myogloin</>&nsp;(i.e. increased oxidative pho
sphorylation capacity). <r /><div><i>Hence these fiers are "red" fiers.</i></
div>
1404678196261 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fier is referred to as <>
white</>&nsp;fiers due to their decreased mitochondria and myogloin concentr
ation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 2}}</div>
1404678228499 1395802358422 {{c1::Type 2 muscle fiers}} are a type of muscl
e fier that are <>white</>&nsp;as there is a <>decreased concentration of m
itochondria </>and <>myogloin concentration</>&nsp;(i.e. increased anaeroi
c glycosis).
<div><i><r /></i></div>
1404678287456 1395802358422 Which type of muscle fiers typically yield hype
rtrophy as a result of weight training?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type 2, fasttwitch, white muscle fiers}}</div>
1404678329753 1395802358422 Which type of Ca²⁺&nsp;channels on s
mooth muscle govern smooth muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>L-t

ype</u>&nsp;voltage-gated Ca²⁺&nsp;channels}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-5858335392481.jpg" /></div>
1404678963543 1395802358422 Which protein in smooth muscle inds to Ca^2
+&nsp;in order to activate Myosin Light-chain Kinase (MLCK)?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Calmodulin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185
.jpg" /></div>
1404679015149 1395802358422 Which enzyme in smooth muscle functions to phosp
horylate myosin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myosin Light-chain kinase (MLCK)}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679044249 1395802358422 How does an increase in Ca²⁺&nsp;lev
el influence smooth muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679687526 1395802358422 Which enzyme in smooth muscle cells does Nitric
Oxide activated to trigger muscle relaxation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Guanyla
te cyclase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679691862 1395802358422 Which enzyme in smooth muscle cells functions to
<>dephosphorylate</>&nsp;myosin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myosin Light-cha
in Phosphatase (MLCP)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" />
</div>
1404679732651 1395802358422 Which secondary messenger in smooth muscle cells
functions to activate Myosin Light-chain Phosphatase (MLCP)?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::cGMP (via NO activating Guanylate Cyclase)}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679773180 1395802358422 How does Nitric Oxide influence smooth muscle re
laxation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-5854040425185.jpg" /></div>
1404679791660 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with ones of the axial and appendicular skeleton?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::En
dochondral ossification}}</div>
1404681302876 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;the ase of the skull?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossific
ation}}</div>
1404681316438 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;ones of the calvarium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memranous ossifica
tion}}</div>
1404681330677 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;facial ones?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memranous ossification}}</di
v>
1404681338966 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;a cartilaginous model of one first made y chondrocytes?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossification}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The cartil
aginous model of one is first made y chondrocytes.</i></div><div><i>Osteoclast
s and osteolasts then later replace it with woven one and then remodel it to l
amellar one.</i></div>
1404681376860 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with&nsp;the replacement of cartilaginous one with woven one y osteoclasts a
nd osteolasts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossification}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>The cartilaginous model of one is first made y chondrocytes
.</i></div><div><i>Osteoclasts and osteolasts then later replace it with woven
one and then remodel it to lamellar one.</i></div></div>
1404681404737 1395802358422 Which mechanism of one formation is associated
with <>direct formation</>&nsp;of woven one without cartilage?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Memranous ossification}}</div> <r /><div><i>Woven one is form
ed directly without cartilage and is later remodeled to lamellar one.</i></div>
1404681541884 1395802358422 Which one cells function to uild one y secre
ting collagen and catalyzing mineralization?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteola
sts}}</div>
1404681690759 1395802358422 Which one cells differentiate from the <>mesen
chymal stem cell population</>&nsp;in the periosteum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Osteo<u></u>lasts}}</div>

1404681732635 1395802358422 Which one cells are multinucleated cells that f
unction to <>dissolve one</>&nsp;y secreting acid and collagenases?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Osteoclasts}}</div>
1404681760694 1395802358422 Which one cells differentiate from monocytes an
d macrophages?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoclasts}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
is is very important to rememer when it comes to the treatment of Osteopetrosis
(one marrow transplantation, as osteoclasts form from monocytes).</i></div>
1404681863809 1395802358422 {{c1::Parathyroid Hormone}} is a hormone that ca
uses <>anaolic</>&nsp;effects at the one via osteolasts and osteoclasts wh
en it is present in <u style="font-weight: old; ">low, intermittent levels</u>.
<r /><div><i>It uilds one directly via osteolasts and indirectly via osteocl
asts.</i></div>
1404681945984 1395802358422 {{c1::Parathyroid Hormone}} is a hormone from th
e parathyroid that causes <>cataolic effects</>&nsp;when it is found in <u s
tyle="font-weight: old; ">chronic, high levels</u>.
1404682004948 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteitis Firosa Cystica}} is a skeletal c
omplication of chronic high PTH levels that results from the cataolic effects t
he hormone yields.
1404682971482 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence apoptosis in Osteol
asts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Est
rogen favours one formation.</i></div>
1404682997924 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence apoptosis in Osteocl
asts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Est
rogen inhiits one resorption.</i></div><div><i>Hence, in estrogen deficiency (
surgical or menopausal), excess remodelling cycles carried out y Osteoclasts le
ads to osteoporosis.</i></div>
1397499844689 1395802358422 What structure arises from the emryonic cardiov
ascular structure called&nsp;the&nsp;Truncus Arteriosus (TA)?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Ascending aorta; Pulmonary Trunk}}</div>
1397499961848 1395802358422 What structure arises from the emryonic cardiov
ascular structure called Bulus Cordis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Smooth par
ts</>&nsp;of the left and right ventricle outflow tract}}</div>
1397500112830 1395802358422 What structure arises from the emryonic cardiov
ascular structure called&nsp;the Primitive Atria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tr
aeculated part of the left and right atria}}</div>
1397500132753 1395802358422 What structure arises from the emryonic cardiov
ascular structure called&nsp;the Primitive Ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Traeculated part of the left and right ventricles}}</div>
1397500148955 1395802358422 What structure arises from the emryonic cardiov
ascular structure called&nsp;the Primitive Pulmonary Vein?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Smooth part of the left atrium}}</div>
1397500165566 1395802358422 What structure arises from the emryonic cardiov
ascular structure called&nsp;the Left Horn of the Sinus Venosus (SV)?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Coronary Sinus}}</div>
1397500181363 1395802358422 What structure arises from the emryonic cardiov
ascular structure called&nsp;the Right Horn of the Sinus Venosus (SV)?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Smooth part of the right atrium}}</div>
1397500195333 1395802358422 What structure arises from the emryonic cardiov
ascular structure called&nsp;the Right Common Cardinal Vein and Right Anterior
Cardinal Vein?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Vena Cava}}</div>
1397500214001 1395802358422 Which emryonic structures develop into the Supe
rior Vena Cava?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Common Cardinal Vein; Right Ant
erior Cardinal Vein}}</div>
1397500257288 1395802358422 Which emryonic structure develop into the&nsp;
Ascending Aorta and Pulmonary Trunk?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Truncus Arterios
us (TA)}}</div> <r /><div><i>The Truncus Arteriosus rotates as it forms.</i></d
iv><div><i>Neural crest and endocardial cells migrate to form the truncal and u
lar ridges that then spiral and fuse to form the aorticopulmonary septum, there
y separating the Truncus Arteriosus into the ascending aorta and pulmonary trun
k.</i></div>

1397500280855 1395802358422 Which emryonic structure develop into the smoot
h parts of the left and right ventricle outflow tract?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Bulus Cordis}}</div>
1397500334274 1395802358422 Which emryonic structure develop into the trae
culated part of the left and right atria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primitive A
tria}}</div>
1397500349726 1395802358422 Which emryonic structure develop into the trae
culated part of the left and right ventricles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primit
ive ventricles}}</div>
1397500365339 1395802358422 Which emryonic structure develop into the smoot
h part of the left atrium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primitive pulmonary vein}}
</div>
1397500376033 1395802358422 Which emryonic structure develop into the coron
ary sinus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Horn of the Sinus Venosus}}</div>
1397500392745 1395802358422 Which emryonic structure develop into the smoot
h part of the right atrium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Horn of the sinus v
enosus}}</div>
1397500404921 1395802358422 What is the first functional organ to form in ve
rterate emryos?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The Heart &lt;3}}</div>
1397500452777 1395802358422 During which week of development does the emryo
nic heart start eating spontaneously?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Week 4}}</div>
1397500484902 1395802358422 During which week of development does heart morp
hogenesis egin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Week 4}}</div>
1397500871839 1395802358422 {{c1::Dextrocardia}} is a congenital cardiac dis
order that is seen in Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia) due to a
defect in left-to-right dynein movement.
<r /><div><i>Left-to-right dyne
in movement is <>vital</>&nsp;in estalishing normal L/R asymmetry.</i></div>
1397500977132 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is a genetic disorder that involves a defect in left-to-right dynein mo
vement and can cause dextrocardia as normal L/R asymmetry cannot e achieved.
1397501128234 1395802358422 Which ciliary motor protein is defective in Kart
agener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dynein}
}</div>
1397501202614 1395802358422 {{c1::Cardiac Looping}} is the first stage in he
art morphogenesis and involves the formation of primary heart tue loops that es
talish left-right polarity.
1397501307768 1395802358422 Which septum is the first septum to grow in emr
yonic septation of the cardiac atria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Septum Primum}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-49237505081673.jpg" /></div>
1397502055278 1395802358422 Which foramen develops first in emryonic septat
ion of the cardiac atria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Foramen secundum}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Foramen primum <>is already present efore the septation egins</
>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-49233210114377.jpg" /></i></div>
1397502201151 1395802358422 What is the direction of the lood shunt through
the Foramen Ovale <>in utero</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right to Left}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-49233210114377.jpg" /></div>
1397502250660 1395802358422 Which septum involved in emryonic septation of
the cardiac atria ecomes the valve of the Foramen Ovale?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Septum Primum}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-49233210114377.jpg" /
></div>
1397502342778 1395802358422 Which 2 emryonic septums fuse to form the (card
iac) Atrial Septum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Septum Primum and Septum Secundum
}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-49233210114377.jpg" /></div>
1397502380304 1395802358422 What normally triggers the closure of the Forame
n Ovale soon after irth?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase in Left Atrial pre
ssure}}</div> <r /><div><i>Increase in LA pressure forces the Septum Primum u
p against the Foramen Ovale and Septum Secundum, driving their fusion and closur
e of the Foramen Ovale.</i></div>
1397502442123 1395802358422 {{c1::Patent Foramen Ovale}} is a congenital hea
rt defect that is caused y the failure of the Septum Primum and Septum Secundum

to fuse after irth. <r /><div><i>Most are left untreated</i></div>
1397502662893 1395802358422 {{c1::Paradoxical Emoli}} are a possile compli
cation of a Patent Foramen Ovale and involve venous thromoemoli that enter the
systemic arterial circulation. <r /><div><i>Similar to those seen in Atrial Se
ptal Defects, ut not as common.</i></div><div><i>The emoli are paradoxical as
it involves <>venous</>&nsp;thromi that enter <>arterial</>&nsp;circulati
on. (i.e. an emolus from the right enters the left side, as opposed to staying
right and causing a PE)</i></div>
1397502824683 1395802358422 Which septum forms first in emryonic septation
of the cardiac ventricles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscular Ventricular Septu
m}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-51247549776169.jpg" /></div>
1397503023035 1395802358422 {{c1::Aorticopulmonary Septum}} is an emryonic
cardiac septum that rotates and fuses with the muscular ventricular septum, ther
ey forming the memranous interventricular septum.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-51243254808873.jpg" /></div>
1397503094534 1395802358422 {{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)}} is a con
genital heart defect that commonly presents in the memranous ventricular septum
.
1397503265804 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen through a Ventricular
Septal Defect (VSD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left to Right}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Therefore the ay will e <>acyanotic</>.</i></div>
1397503290971 1395802358422 What emryonic structures are the Aortic and Pul
monary Valves derived from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endocardial cushions of t
he outflow tract}}</div>
1397503574165 1395802358422 What emryonic structures are the Mitral and Tri
cuspid valves derived from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fused endocardial cushion
s of the Atrioventricular Canal}}</div>
1397503616937 1395802358422 {{c1::Estein Anomaly}} is a congenital heart de
fect that involves displacement of a tricuspid valve leaflet towards the apex of
the right ventricle.
1397503695897 1395802358422 Where does fetal erythropoiesis occur in weeks 3
-8 of development?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::olk Sac}}</div> <div><r /></div
><i><>"</>oung <>L</>iver <>S</>ynthesizes <>B</>lood" = <></>olk Sa
c, <>L</>iver, <>S</>pleen, <>B</>one Marrow<r /></i><div><img src="paste
-52776558133426.jpg" /></div>
1397503773883 1395802358422 When does the liver perform fetal erythropoiesis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Week 6 of development to irth}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i><>"</>oung&nsp;<>L</>iver&nsp;<>S</>ynthesizes&nsp;<>B</
>lood" =&nsp;<></>olk Sac,&nsp;<>L</>iver,&nsp;<>S</>pleen,&nsp;<>B<
/>one Marrow</i><r /><div><img src="paste-52780853100722.jpg" /></div>
1397503895621 1395802358422 When does the olk Sac perform fetal erythropoie
sis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks 3-8 of development}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i><>"</>oung&nsp;<>L</>iver&nsp;<>S</>ynthesizes&nsp;<>B</
>lood" =&nsp;<></>olk Sac,&nsp;<>L</>iver,&nsp;<>S</>pleen,&nsp;<>B<
/>one Marrow</i><r /><div><img src="paste-52776558133426.jpg" /></div>
1397503935722 1395802358422 When does the Spleen perform fetal erythropoiesi
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks 10-28 of development}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i><>"</>oung&nsp;<>L</>iver&nsp;<>S</>ynthesizes&nsp;<>B</
>lood" =&nsp;<></>olk Sac,&nsp;<>L</>iver,&nsp;<>S</>pleen,&nsp;<>B<
/>one Marrow</i><r /><div><img src="paste-52776558133426.jpg" /></div>
1397503973137 1395802358422 When does the Bone Marrow perform fetal erythrop
oiesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Week 18 of development to irth (and eventual
ly until death, lol)}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i><>"</>oung&nsp;<>L</>i
ver&nsp;<>S</>ynthesizes&nsp;<>B</>lood" =&nsp;<></>olk Sac,&nsp;<>L
</>iver,&nsp;<>S</>pleen,&nsp;<>B</>one Marrow</i><r /><div><img src="pa
ste-52776558133426.jpg" /></div>
1397504092472 1395802358422 What is the first organ/structure to perform fet
al erythropoiesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::olk Sac}}</div> <r /><div><><i
><img src="paste-54339926229171.jpg" /></i></></div>
1397504493761 1395802358422 Which gloin chains comprise Fetal Hemogloin (H

<br /><div><im
F)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::α₂γ₂}}</div>
src="pase-55568286876265.jp" /></div>
1397504679307 1395802358422 Which form of hemolobin involves&nbsp;α<sub>2</su
b>γ₂&nbsp;lobin chains?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Feal Hemolobin}}<
/div> <br /><div><im src="pase-55563991908969.jp" /></div>
1397504698984 1395802358422 Which lobin chains comprise Adul Hemolobin (H
bA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::α₂β<su>2</su>}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397504734677 1395802358422 Which type of hemogloin conists of&nsp;α<sub>2</
sub>β<su>2</su>&nsp;gloin chains?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adult Hemogloin
(HA)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397504751558 1395802358422 Which major form of hemogloin has higher affini
ty for oxygen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HF}}</div>
1397504783005 1395802358422 {{c1::Fetal Hemogloin (HF)}} is a major form o
f hemogloin that has a higher affinity for oxygen than Adult Hemogloin (HA) d
ue to less avid inding of 2,3-BPG.
<r /><div><i>As a result, HF can extra
ct oxygen at the placenta from the mother's adult hemogloin (HA).</i></div>
1397504931088 1395802358422 Which type of hemogloin is predominant at irth
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HF (alpha<su>2</su>-gamma<su>2</su>)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397505196717 1395802358422 How long after irth does the expression of&nsp
;β-gloin exceed the expression of γ-lobin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~6 monhs}}&
nbsp;</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This is why β-Thalassemia is asymptomatic for
the first 6 months of life (and why HF is protective during that time).</i><r
/><div><img src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397505242615 1395802358422 What is the O2 saturation of lood in the<>&ns
p;umilical arteries</>&nsp;of a fetus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, the Umilical Arteries carry lood away from the fetal h
eart <>to the placenta</>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-57067230462728.jpg
" /></i></div>
1397507242543 1395802358422 What is the O2 saturation of lood in the <>um
ilical vein</>&nsp;of the fetus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::80%; it holds oxyg
enated lood coming in from the mother}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-57062
935495432.jpg" /></div>
1397507294913 1395802358422 {{c1::Ductus Venosus}} is a fetal shunt that all
ows for incoming lood in the Umilical Vein to ypass hepatic circulation and e
nter the IVC. <r /><div><img src="paste-57062935495432.jpg" /></div>
1397507387002 1395802358422 Which fetal shunt ypasses hepatic circulation t
o ensure that incoming oxygenated lood from the Umilical Vein is not depleted?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ductus Venosus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-57062935495432.jpg" /></div>
1397507424331 1395802358422 {{c1::Foramen Ovale}} is a fetal shunt that allo
ws for the highly oxygenated lood entering the Right Atrium (via the IVC) to en
ter the aorta and arterial circulation. <r /><div><img src="paste-5706293549543
2.jpg" /></div>
1397507512244 1395802358422 Which fetal shunt allows for highly oxygenated 
lood in the Right Atrium to enter the aorta and arterial system?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Foramen Ovale}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5706293549543
2.jpg" /></div>
1397507565547 1395802358422 {{c1::Ductus Arteriosus}} is a fetal shunt that
allows deoxygenated lood in the Pulmonary Artery to ypass Pulmonary circulatio
n and enter the descending aorta.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, in a fetus, oxyg
enation of lood occurs at the placenta, not lungs. We do not want to flood the
lungs with lood and hinder its development either. Further, in utero the pulmon
ary circuit has high resistance, ensuring that the shunt through the DA is right
to left.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-57062935495432.jpg" /></i></div>
1397507753833 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in Prostaglandin
levels affect the Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased prost
aglandins causes closure of the Ductus Arteriosus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
is occurs after irth once the placenta and ay have separated.</i></div>

1397507840172 1395802358422 {{c1::Fossa Ovalis}} is the structural remnant o
f the Foramen Ovale after it has closed and fused.
<r /><div><i>Rememer,
when the left side of the heart ecomes the high pressure circuit after irth (d
ue to respiration), the foramen ovale shuts as left atrial pressure greatly exce
eds right atrial pressure.</i></div>
1397508049964 1395802358422 Which NSAID is commonly used to help close a Pat
ent Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indomethacin}}</div>
1397508179427 1395802358422 {{c1::Ligamentum Arteriosum}} is the structural
remnant of the Ductus Arteriosus after it has closed.
1397508211612 1395802358422 Which Prostaglandins keep a Patent Ductus Arteri
osus (PDA) open?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prostaglandin E<su>1</su>&nsp;and
E<su>2</su>}}</div>
1397508249548 1395802358422 {{c1::Prostaglandin E<su>1</su>/E<su>2</su>}
} is a type of Prostaglandin that keeps a Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA) open.
1397508282018 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Umilic
al Vein?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum teres hepatis; contained in the f
alciform ligament}}</div>
1397508662312 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Umilic
al Arteries?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial Umilical ligaments}}</div>
1397508678162 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Ductus
Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum arteriosum}}</div>
1397508688319 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Ductus
Venosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum venosum}}</div>
1397508699885 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Foramen
Ovale?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fossa Ovalis}}</div>
1397508707283 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Allanto
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urachus-median Umilical ligament}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The urachus is the part of the allantoic duct etween the ladder
and umilicus.</i></div>
1397508719639 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Notocho
rd?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus Pulposus of interverteral discs}}</div>
1397508829703 1395802358422 What is the post-natal remnant of the Urachus?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urachal cyst or sinus}}</div> <r /><div><i>The urachu
s is the part of the allantoic duct etween the ladder and umilicus</i></div>
1397519579080 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the Sinoatrial (S
A) and Atrioventricular (AV) nodes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Coronary Ar
tery (RCA)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61100204753514.jpg" /></div>
1397519659874 1395802358422 Infarct of which coronary artery may result in <
>nodal dysfunction</>&nsp;(involving radycardia or heart lock)?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Right Coronary Artery}}</div> <img src="paste-61095909786218.j
pg" />
1397519761060 1395802358422 Which coronary artery does the Posterior Descend
ing/Interventricular Artery (PDA) arise from in a <>right-dominant circulation<
/>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Coronary Artery (RCA)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Right-dominant circulation is found in 85% of people</i></div><div><img sr
c="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397519802495 1395802358422 Which coronary artery does the Posterior Descend
ing/Interventricular Artery (PDA) arise from in a <>left-dominant circulation</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Circumflex Coronary Artery (LCX)}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Left dominant circulation is seen in 8% of people.</i><r />
<div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397519909351 1395802358422 Which coronary artery does the Posterior Descend
ing/Interventricular Artery (PDA) arise from in <>codominant circulation</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both the Left Cirumflex Coronary Artery (LCX) and Righ
t Coronary Artery (RCA)}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>Codominant circulation is se
en in 7% of people</i><r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397519987382 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is most commonly occluded?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Anterior Descending artery (LAD) or LCX}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520015196 1395802358422 In which phase of the cardiac cycle does coronar

y lood flow peak?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diastole}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520037353 1395802358422 What is the <>most posterior</>&nsp;chamer o
f the heart?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atrium}}</div>
<r /><div><i>He
nce enlargment can cause dysphagia or hoarsness.</i></div><div><i><img src="past
e-61095909786218.jpg" /></i></div>
1397520083401 1395802358422 Enlargement of which chamer of the heart can ca
use dysphagia due to esophageal compression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atr
ium}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520120274 1395802358422 Enlargement of which chamer of the heart can ca
use <>hoarseness</>&nsp;due to compression of the <>left recurrent laryngeal
nerve</>&nsp;(a ranch of CN X)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atrium}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520158888 1395802358422 Which nerve can the Left Atrium compress to caus
e <>hoarseness</>&nsp;if it is enlarged?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u style=
"font-weight: old; ">Left</u>&nsp;Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve (a ranch of CN X,
Vagus)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520211991 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>lateral an
d posterior walls</>&nsp;of the left ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lef
t Circumflex Coronary Artery (LCX)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095
909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520243527 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>anterior 2
/3 of the interventricular septum, anterior papillary muscle</>&nsp;and <>ant
erior surface of the left ventricle</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Anterio
r Descending Artery (LAD)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6109590978621
8.jpg" /></div>
1397520285808 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>Right Vent
ricle</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Marginal Artery (a ranch of the Rig
ht Coronary Artery)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /
></div>
1397520336211 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>posterior
2/3 of the interventricular septum</>&nsp;and <>posterior walls of the ventri
cles</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Descending/Interventricular Arter
y (PDA)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520398738 1395802358422 What is the equation for Cardiac Output?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::CO = SV x HR}}</div>
1397521626811 1395802358422 What is the equation for Fick Principle of cardi
ac output?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CO = (rate of O<su>2</su>&nsp;consumpti
on)/(arterial O<su>2</su>&nsp;content - venous O<su>2</su>&nsp;content)}}<
/div>
1397521697545 1395802358422 What is the equation for Mean Arterial Pressure
(MAP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MAP = CO * TPR = 2/3 diastolic pressure + 1/3
systolic pressure}}</div>
1397521744639 1395802358422 What is the equation for Pulse Pressure?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Pulse Pressure = Systolic Pressure - Diastolic Pressure}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Pulse pressure is proportional to SV and inversely proport
ional to arterial compliance.</i></div>
1397521791515 1395802358422 What is the equation for Stroke Volume?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::SV = EDV - ESV}}</div>
1397522500630 1395802358422 Which parameters maintain Cardiac Output in the
<>early stages of exercise</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increases in oth HR
and SV}}</div>
1397522533980 1395802358422 Which parameters maintain Cardiac Output during
the <>late stages of exercise</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased HR only
; SV plateaus}}</div>
1397522567562 1395802358422 How does an increase in HR affect the length of
diastole?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Shortens it}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
erefore there is less filling time and decreased CO</i></div>
1397522606361 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in cardiac cont
ractility affect stroke volume (SV)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>

1397523068921 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in cardiac prel
oad affect stroke volume (SV)?<div><r />{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397523091157 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in cardiac after
load affect stroke volume (SV)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397523108371 1395802358422 How do catecholamines affect cardiac contractili
ty?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase (via increased activity of Ca pump in th
e sarcoplasmic reticulum)}}</div>
1397523160188 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change when there
is an increase in intracellular Ca?<div><r />{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1397523332369 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change when there
is a increase in intracellular Na?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to decreased activity of the Na/Ca exchanger and hence increas
ed intracellular Ca</i></div>
1397523400092 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change in Digital
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Digitalis involves
a <>lockade of the Na/K pump</>, therey causing <>increased intracellular
Na</>, <>decreased Na/Ca exchanger activity</>&nsp;and a susequent <>incre
ase in intracellular Ca</>.</i></div>
1397523466069 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change with&nsp;β1
-lockade?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease; due to decreased cAMP}}</div>
1397523505614 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;in Ac
idosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397523516983 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;in Hy
poxia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397523529853 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;in Hy
percapnea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hypercapne
a can cause acidosis that then can exacerate this decrease in cardiac output.</
i></div>
1397523555710 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;with
the administration of <>non-dihydropyridine Ca channel lockers</>?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397523579652 1395802358422 Which aorticopulmonary valve normally closes fir
st?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic Valve}}</div>
1397524398388 1395802358422 Which cardiac disorder is associated with <>fix
ed splitting</>&nsp;of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-67761699029099.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial Septal Defect (
ASD)}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>There is a <>left to right shunt through
the ASD</>&nsp;which results in <>increased RA and RV volumes</>. As a resul
t, there is <>increased flow through the pulmonic valve</>&nsp;such that, reg
ardless of reath, the pulmonic valve closes later every time.</i></div>
1404876620972 1395802358422 {{c1::Preload}} is a cardiac output variale tha
t is approximated y ventricular EDV. <r /><div><i>Hence it is dependent on v
enous tone and circulating lood volume.</i></div>
1404877598633 1395802358422 How does the left ventricle compensate for an in
crease in afterload?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertrophy (increased wall thic
kness)}}</div>
1404877643246 1395802358422 How do vasodilators influence afterload?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is ecause afterload
is approximated y MAP.</i></div>
1404877668690 1395802358422 What is the equation for cardiac Ejection Fracti
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-20186346291290.jpg" />}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Left ventricular EF is an index of ventricular contractility.</i><
/div><div><i>Normal EF is ≥ 55%.</i></div>
1404878227500 1395802358422 How does cardiac Ejection Fraction change in <>
systolic</>&nsp;heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20182051323994.jpg" /></div>
1404878250994 1395802358422 How does cardiac Ejection Fraction change in <>
diastolic</>&nsp;heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal; no change}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-20182051323994.jpg" /></div>
1404925219925 1395802358422 How does the force of cardiac contraction change

with an increase in preload (ventricular EDV)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
ase (when healthy)}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>This is referred to as Starl
ing's Law. With a higher EDV, the ventricle will contract more forcefully.</i><d
iv><i>This is attriuted to the nature of cardiac muscle fiers. With increased
EDV (i.e. more ventricular filling), the muscle fiers <>stretch into a more id
eal length for contraction</>. Essentially, as these fiers stretch, more actin
-myosin cross ridges are formed and the contraction is more forceful.<r /></i>
<div><img src="paste-472446403119.jpg" /></div></div>
1404925428299 1395802358422 How do catecholamines change cardiac contractili
ty?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404925493970 1395802358422 How does Digoxin change cardiac contractility?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404925528061 1395802358422 How do eta-lockers change cardiac contractilit
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404925547535 1395802358422 How do Ca²⁺&nsp;channel lockers cha
nge cardiac contractility?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404925562427 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change in dilated
cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404925576327 1395802358422 What is the equation for the Resistance of a ves
sel?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-880468295807.jpg" />}}</div>
1404925615581 1395802358422 What is the equation for the <>total resistance
</>&nsp;of vessels in <>series</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="past
e-914828034097.jpg" />}}</div>
1404925654230 1395802358422 What is the equation for the <>total resistance
</>&nsp;of vessels in <>parallel</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="pa
ste-957777707095.jpg" />}}</div>
1404925694380 1395802358422 How does lood viscosity change in Polycythemia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Viscosity is depen
dent on hematocrit.</i></div>
1404926284709 1395802358422 How does lood viscosity change in anaemia?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>Viscosity is dependent on
anaemia.</i></div>
1404926304475 1395802358422 Which type of lood vessels account for most of
the TPR?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arterioles}}</div> <div><i><r /></i></div>
1404926345136 1395802358422 If cardiac output (CO) is 5 L/min, what is venou
s return?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5 L/min}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Don't fall
for this shiet on the step, ruv. Venous return = cardiac ouput (in healthy ind
ividuals).</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>"What goes in must come out!
" - Dr. Hashim Shams</i></div>
1404941821485 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in TPR affect v
enous return (and hence EDV/preload)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div
>
<div><r /></div><i>It also oviously increases afterload.</i><r /><div
><img src="paste-2418066588135.jpg" /></div>
1404941951950 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in TPR affect ve
nous return (and hence EDV/preload)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Afterload also clearly decreases.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste
-2413771620839.jpg" /></i></div>
1404942103315 1395802358422 {{c1::Isovolumetric contraction}} is a phase of
the cardiac cycle descried as the <>period etween the mitral valve closing an
d aortic valve opening</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2710124364571.jpg" />
</div>
1404943128013 1395802358422 Which cardiac cycle is the period of highest O<s
u>2</su>&nsp;consumption?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Isovolumetric contractio
n}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404943608282 1395802358422 {{c1::Systolic Ejection}} is a phase of the card
iac cycle that is descried as the <>period etween aortic valve opening and cl
osing</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404943716880 1395802358422 {{c1::Isovolumetric relaxation}} is a phase of t
he cardiac cycle that is descried as the <>period etween aortic valve closing
and mitral valve opening</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" />

</div>
1404943758272 1395802358422 {{c1::Rapid Ventricular Filling}} is a phase of
the cardiac cycle that is descried as the <>period just after mitral valve ope
ning</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404943806531 1395802358422 {{c1::Reduced Ventricular Filling}} is a phase o
f the cardiac cycle descried as the <>period just efore mitral valve closing<
/>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404943835577 1395802358422 At which valve area is the S1 heart sound the lo
udest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div>
1404944455858 1395802358422 Which heart sound is indicative of <>mitral</>
&nsp;and <>tricuspid</>&nsp;valve closure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S1}}</
div>
1404944493780 1395802358422 Which valves are associated with the S1 heart so
und?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral; Tricuspid}}</div>
1404944526361 1395802358422 Which anatomical location is the S2 heart sound
the loudest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left sternal order}}</div>
1404944553569 1395802358422 Which heart sound is associated with closure of
the <>aortic</>&nsp;and <>pulmonary</>&nsp;valves?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::S2}}</div>
1404944618320 1395802358422 Which valves are associated with the S2 heart so
und?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic; Pulmonary}}</div>
1404944664489 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound is associated wit
h an <>increase in filling pressure</>&nsp;or with <>dilated ventricles</>?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S3}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275
.jpg" /></div>
1404948067025 1395802358422 {{c1::S3}} is an <>extra</>&nsp;heart sound t
hat occurs in <>early diastole</>&nsp;due to an increase in ventricular filli
ng pressure or dilated ventricles.
<div><r /></div><i>S3 is normal in chil
dren and pregnant women.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></di
v>
1404948096181 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound is associated wit
h <>ventricular hypertrophy</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404948947523 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound is associated wit
h <>high atrial pressure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>The left atrium must push against the stiff LV wall.</i><r /><div><
img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404948983033 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound occurs in <>late
</>diastole as an "atrial kick"?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949007050 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound can occur due to
an increase in cardiac afterload?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949021613 1395802358422 Which wave in the Jugular Venous Pulse (JVP) sig
nifies atrial contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::a wave}}</div><div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div> <div><r /></div>
1404949477569 1395802358422 Which wave in the JVP signifies right ventricula
r contraction against a closed tricuspid valve that ulges into the right atrium
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::c wave}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i><>c</>&nsp;wave = <>c</>ontra
ction</i></div>
1404949504592 1395802358422 Which portion of the JVP signifies <>atrial rel
axation</>&nsp;and <>downward displacement of the closed tricuspid valve</>&
nsp;during ventricular contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::x descent}}</div
><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i><>x</>&nsp;descent = rela<>x</>ation</i></div>
1404949599846 1395802358422 {{c1::Tricuspid regurgitation}} is valvular diso
rder that presents with an <>asent x-descent</>&nsp;in the patient's JVP.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949637846 1395802358422 Which wave in the JVP is indicative of <>increa

sed right atrial pressure due to filling against a closed tricuspid valve</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::v wave}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27
05829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949688280 1395802358422 Which portion of the JVP signifies the movement
of lood from the RA to the RV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::y descent}}</div><div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949717044 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop do
es the mitral valve close?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div><div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-6451040879032.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-7301444403914.jpg" /></div>
1404950173968 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop do
es the aortic valve open?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div><div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-72971
49436618.jpg" /></div>
1404950196347 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop do
es the aortic valve close?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div><div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-7297149436618.jpg" /></div>
1404950231259 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop do
es the mitral valve open?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div><div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-72971
49436618.jpg" /></div>
1404950423846 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop is
ESV achieved?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3 (i.e. where the aortic valve closes)
}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7297149436618.jpg" /></div>
1404950489830 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop is
EDV achieved?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1 (i.e. where the mitral valve closes)
}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7297149436618.jpg" /></div>
1404963378952 1395802358422 When is <>normal, physiological splitting</>&n
sp;of S2 heart sound seen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inspiration}}</div><div><
<r /><div><i>In
r /></div><div><img src="paste-8658654068879.jpg" /></div>
spiration = <>decreased</>&nsp;intrathoracic pressure = <>increased</>&nsp
;venous return to the RV = <>increased</>&nsp;RV stroke volume = <>increased
</>&nsp;RV ejection time = <>delayed closure of the pulmonic valve</>.</i></
div><div><i>Inspiration also causes a <>decrease in pulmonary impedance</>&ns
p;(i.e. <>increased capacity</>&nsp;of the pulmonary circulation), therey co
ntriuting to delayed closure of the pulmonic valve.</i></div>
1404964470241 1395802358422 Which cardiac conditions yield <>wide splitting
</>&nsp;of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Any condition that <
>delays RV emptying</>&nsp;(e.g. pulmonic stenosis; right undle ranch lock
)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9281424326799.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>The delay in RV emptying causes a delayed pulmonic sound <>regard
less of reath</>.</i></div><div><i><>Pathological S2 splitting is <u>always</
u>&nsp;seen, whereas physiological splitting is only seen upon inspiration.</>
</i></div>
1404964745013 1395802358422 Which cardiac disorder is associated with <>fix
ed splitting</>&nsp;of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial S
eptal Defect}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9496172691600.jpg" /><
/div> <r /><div><i>ASD = left to right shunt = <>increased </>RA and RV vol
ume = <>increased</>&nsp;flow through the pulmonic valve such that there is a
<>fixed, great delay</>&nsp;in pulmonic valve closure regardless of reath.<
/i></div>
1404965202146 1395802358422 Which cardiac conditions cause <>paradoxical sp
litting </>of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Conditions that de
lay LV emptying (i.e. aortic stenosis; left undle ranch lock)}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-10372346019992.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>No
rmally, <>the pulmonic valve closes after the aortic valve</>. However, <>wit
h delayed LV emptying, the pulmonic valve closes efore the aortic</>, therey

causing a paradoxical splitting of S2.</i></div>
1405006121635 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Aortic Stenosis est h
eard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11347
303596676.jpg" /></div>
1405006199987 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Aortic Valve Sclerosis
est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006219375 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Pulmonic Stenosis est
heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonic}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006241889 1395802358422 At which valvulvar area are <>pansystolic murmu
rs</>&nsp;(Tricuspid regurgitation; VSD) est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Tricuspid}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006294392 1395802358422 At which valvulvar area is Tricuspid Stenosis e
st heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tricuspid}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006313189 1395802358422 At which valvular area is an Atrial Septal Defec
t murmur est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tricuspid}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006459503 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Mitral Stenosis est h
eard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11343
008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006497814 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Mitral Regurgitation 
est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006504614 1395802358422 How does standing influence venous return?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405006551093 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>increase</>&nsp;
the intensity of right heart sounds?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inspiration}}</d
iv>
1405006610436 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>decrease</>&nsp;
the intensity of Aortic Stenosis and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy murmurs?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Hand Grip (as it increases systemic vascular resistance)}}<
/div>
1405006762454 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>increase</>&nsp;
the intensity of Mitral Regurgitation, Aortic Regurgitation and VSD murmurs?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hand grip (as it increases systemic vascular resistance)
}}</div>
1405006807344 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver <>decreases</>&nsp;the
intensity of most murmurs, including aortic stenosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Valsalva; Standing (decreased venous return)}}</div>
1405006876357 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>increase</>&nsp;
the intensity of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy murmurs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Valsalva; standing (due to decreased venous return)}}</div>
1405006915789 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>increase</>&nsp;
the intensity of Aortic Stenosis murmurs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rapid squat
ting}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rapid squatting increases venous return, increases
preload, and increases afterload with prolonged squatting.</i></div>
1405006988446 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>decrease</>&nsp;
the murmur intensity in MVP and yield an earlier onset of the click/murmur?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Valsalva; Standing}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hand grip
and rapid squatting acheive the <>opposite </>when it comes to MVP.</i></div>
1405008293251 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral regurgitation}} and&nsp;{{c2::tric
uspid regurgitation}} are 2 <>systolic</>&nsp;murmurs that present as&nsp;<
>holosystolic, high-pitched "lowing" murmurs.</><div><><r /></></div><div><
<r /><div><img src="pas
><img src="paste-13520557047940.jpg" /></></div>
te-13666585936107.jpg" /></div>
1405008858520 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic Stenosis}} is a <>systolic </>mur
mur that presents as a <>crescendo-decrescendo systolic ejection murmur</>.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13700945674382.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img

src="paste-13756780249289.jpg" /></div>
1405008917858 1395802358422 Which systolic ejection murmur radiates to the c
arotids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic Stenosis}}</div>
1405008939207 1395802358422 {{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect murmur}} is a <
>systolic</>&nsp;murmur that presents as a <>holosystolic, harsh-sounding mur
mur</>&nsp;that is loudest at the tricuspid area.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-13812614824055.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Accentuated with the hand
grip maneuver due to an increase in afterload.</i></div>
1405009003166 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral Valve Prolapse (MVP)}} is a <>syst
olic</>&nsp;murmur that presents as a <>late systolic crescendo murmur with a
midsystolic click</>&nsp;due to sudden tensing of the chordae tendinae.<div><
<r /><div><img
r /></div><div><img src="paste-14023068221579.jpg" /></div>
src="paste-14615773708488.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-14791867367930.jpg"
/></div>
1405009318912 1395802358422 What is the most frequent valvular lesion?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral valve prolapse (FA14), AR (RR path), MR (UpToDate)}
}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-14615773708488.jpg" /></div>
1405009329101 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral valve prolapse}} is a valvular diso
rder with a systolic murmur that can predispose to infective endocarditis.
<div><r /></div><img src="paste-14620068675784.jpg" />
1405009641940 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic regurgitation}} is a <>diastolic</
>&nsp;murmur that presents as a <>high-pitched "lowing" early diastolic decr
escendo murmur</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15161234555008.jpg" /><
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15268608737451.jpg" /></div>
1405017557412 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic regurgitation}} is a <>diastolic</
>&nsp;murmur that can present with <>ounding pulses</>&nsp;and a <>head 
o</>, especially when it is chronic. <r /><div><img src="paste-1526431377015
5.jpg" /></div>
1405017604985 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral stenosis}} is a <>diastolic</>&n
sp;murmur that presents as a <>delayed late diastolic rumle</>&nsp;following
an <>opening snap</>&nsp;due to an&nsp;<u>arupt halt in leaflet motion in
diastole after rapid opening due to fusion at the leaflet tips</u>.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-15474767167692.jpg" /></div>
1405017703276 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral stenosis}} is a diastolic murmur th
at often occurs secondary to Rheumatic Fever. <r /><div><img src="paste-15470
472200396.jpg" /></div>
1405017730194 1395802358422 Which cardiac disorder is associated with a <>c
ontinuous, machine-like murmur</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Patent Ductus Art
eriosus (PDA)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15534896709802.jpg" /
></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15590731284581.jpg" /></div>
1405017798322 1395802358422 Where on the ody is the continuous machine-like
murmur of PDA est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left infraclavicular area}
}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15586436317285.jpg" /></div>
1405017828588 1395802358422 In the ventricular action potential, which ion's
movement is responsile for the initial <>depolarization</>&nsp;of the memr
ane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Na⁺influx&nsp;via voltage-gated Na<
sup>+</sup>&nsp;channels}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1574535010781
6.jpg" /></div>
1405018123521 1395802358422 In the ventricular action potential, which ion i
s responsile for the <>plateau phase</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ca²⁺&nsp;influx via voltage-gated Ca²⁺&nsp;channels}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This Ca²⁺&nsp;influx <>alances the K⁺&ns
p;efflux that is happening at the same time</>.</i></div><div><i>This Ca²⁺&nsp;influx also <>triggers the release of Ca²⁺&nsp;from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum</>&nsp;and hence induces myocyte contraction.</i></div
><div><i><img src="paste-15741055140520.jpg" /></i></div>
1405018432012 1395802358422 In the ventricular action potential, which ion i
s responsile for the <>rapid repolarization</>&nsp;of the memrane?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::K⁺&nsp;efflux via <u style="font-weight: old; ">
slow</u>&nsp;voltage-gated K⁺&nsp;channels}}</div> <r /><div><i>Cl

osure of the Ca²⁺&nsp;"plateau" channels also allows for this to occ
ur.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-15741055140520.jpg" /></i></div>
1405018532728 1395802358422 In the pacemaker action potential, which ion is
responsile for the <>upstroke/depolarization</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C
a²⁺&nsp;influx via voltage-gated Ca²⁺&nsp;channels}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, <>ecause of the less negative resting potentia
l of pacemaker cells, fast voltage-gated Na⁺&nsp;channels are perman
ently inactivated</>. Hence, there is a slow conduction velocity used y the AV
node to prolong transmission from the atria to the ventricles.</i></div><div><i
><img src="paste-16552803959163.jpg" /></i></div>
1405019193147 1395802358422 In the pacemaker potential, which ion is reponsi
le for the <>repolarization</>&nsp;of the memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::K⁺&nsp;efflux}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1654850899186
7.jpg" /></div>
1405020341344 1395802358422 In the pacemaker potential, which ions are respo
nsile for the <>slow diastolic depolarization to threshold</>?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Slow Na⁺&nsp;movement via the <>I<su>f</su>&nsp;ach
annels </>(funny current)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1654850899186
7.jpg" /></div>
1405021287387 1395802358422 The {{c1::funny current (I<su>f</su>)}} is an
ion current in pacemaker cells that causes <>spontaneous depolarization</>&ns
p;of the memrane potential as Na⁺&nsp;conductance slowly increases.
<div><r /></div><i>This is what accounts for the automaticity of SA and AV node
s.</i><div><i>The slope of this current (phase 4) determines the HR.<r /></i><d
iv><img src="paste-16548508991867.jpg" /></div></div>
1405021385149 1395802358422 How does ACh change the rate of diastolic depola
rization via the I<su>f</su>&nsp;current in pacemaker cells?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16548508991867
.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Hence it slows HR.</i></div>
1405021430594 1395802358422 How does Adenosine change the rate of diastolic
depolarization via the I<su>f</su>&nsp;current in pacemaker cells?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16548508
991867.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence it decreases HR.</i></div>
1405021441541 1395802358422 How docatecholamines change the rate of diastoli
c depolarization via the I<su>f</su>&nsp;current in pacemaker cells?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1654850
8991867.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Hence they increase HR.</i></div>
1405021523239 1395802358422 Which cardiac conduction fiers have the fastest
speed of conduction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Purkinje &gt; atria &gt; ventri
cles &gt; AV node}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18386754994962.jpg" /
></div>
1405022185863 1395802358422 How long is the normal atrioventricular delay at
the AV node?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::100 msec}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Al
lows for ventricular filling.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-18382460027666.jp
g" /></i></div>
1405022245303 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the P-wave o
n an ECG signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial depolarization}}</div><div><
<r /><div><i>At
r /></div><div><img src="paste-18541373817496.jpg" /></div>
rial repolarization is masked y the QRS complex (ventricular depolarization).</
i></div>
1405022749048 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the PR inter
val signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AV conduction delay}}</div><div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Normally &
lt; 200 msec</i></div>
1405022784549 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the QRS comp
lex signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular depolarization}}</div><div><
<r /><div><i>No
r /></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div>
rmally &lt; 120 msec</i></div>
1405022810889 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the QT inter
val signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular contraction}}</div><div><r

/></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div>
1405022834435 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the T-wave s
ignify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular repolarization}}</div><div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>T-wave inv
ersion may e indicative of MI.</i></div>
1405022890358 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the ST segme
nt signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Isoelectricity; ventricles are entirely d
epolarized}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></
div>
1405022928593 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the U wave s
ignify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indicated <u>hypokalemia</u>&nsp;or <u>rady
cardia</u>}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></
div>
1405022998783 1395802358422 {{c1::Torsades de Pointes}} is an electro-cardio
vascular disorder characterized y <>polymorphic ventricular tachycardia</>&n
sp;and a <>shifting sinusoidal waveform on ECG</>.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-20044612370575.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Can progress to V-fi.</i>
</div><div><i>Caused y drugs, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia and other anormaliti
es.</i></div>
1405023694011 1395802358422 Prolongation of which ECG interval can predispos
e to Torsades de Pointes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::QT}}</div>
1405023715839 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Torsades de Pointes?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Magnesium Sulfate}}</div>
1405024012834 1395802358422 Which class of antiiotics can prolong the QT in
terval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Macrolides}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-20817706484036.jpg" /></div>
1405024179018 1395802358422 Which type of antiviral drugs are known to prolo
ng the QT interval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Protease inhiitors (-navir)}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20813411516740.jpg" /></div>
1405024200357 1395802358422 Which type of diuretics are known to prolong the
QT interval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thiazides}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-20813411516740.jpg" /></div>
1405024222702 1395802358422 Which antipsychotic is known to prolong the QT i
nterval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Risperidone}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-20813411516740.jpg" /></div>
1405024239952 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Long QT syndrome}} is an inheri
ted electrical cardiac disorder that presents with <>defective myocardial repol
arization</>&nsp;and <>prolonged QT syndrome</>&nsp;due to ion channel defe
cts.
<r /><div><i>Increased risk of sudden cardiac death due to Torsades de
pointes.</i></div>
1405024336557 1395802358422 {{c1::Romano-Ward Syndrome}} is a type of congen
ital long QT syndrome that is <>autosomal dominant</>&nsp;and involves a <>p
urely cardiac phenotype</>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. no other systems are affected
</i></div>
1405024375011 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Romano-Ward S
yndrome (congenital long QT syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal domi
nant}}</div>
1405024396425 1395802358422 {{c1::Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Syndrome}} is a
type of congenital long QT syndrome that is <>autosomal recessive</>&nsp;and
presents with <>sensorineural deafness</>&nsp;in addition to cardiac defects.
<r /><div><i>Versus Romano-Ward syndrome which is autosomal dominant and purely
cardiac.</i></div>
1405024453349 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Jervell and L
ange-Nielsen Syndrome (congenital long QT syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1405024673609 1395802358422 What is the most common type of ventricular preexcitation syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome}}
</div> <r /><div><i>This straight up sounds like the name of a law firm.</i></
div>
1405024722375 1395802358422 {{c1::Wolff-Parksinson-White Syndrome}} is a ven

tricular pre-excitation syndrome that involves <>anormally fast accessory cond
uction </><u style="font-weight: old; ">from the atria to the ventricles</u>&n
sp;via an accessory pathway called the <>Bundle of Kent</>. <r /><div><i>Th
e Bundle of Kent ypasses the AV node and allows the ventricles to depolarize so
oner.</i></div>
1405024797460 1395802358422 {{c1::Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome}} is a vent
ricular pre-excitation syndrome that involves the presence of the <>Bundle of K
ent</>&nsp;which ypasses the rate-slowing AV node, therey yielding a charact
eristic <>delta wave</>&nsp;and <>shortened PR interval</>&nsp;on ECG.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22033182228924.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Ca
n also involves a re-entry circuit and hence <>supraventricular tachycardia</>
.</i></div>
1405025544274 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Firillation}} is a pathological EC
G tracing that involves a <>chaotic</>&nsp;and <>erratic assline</>&nsp;w
ith <>no discrete P waves </>etween <>irregularly spaced QRS complexes</>.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22269405429968.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Involves irregularly irregular rhythm.</i></div><div><i>Can result in atri
al stasis and lead to thromoemolic stroke.</i></div><div><i>Treatment includes
rate control, anticoagulation and possile pharmacological/electrical cardiover
sion.</i></div>
1405025652000 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial flutter}} is a pathological ECG tra
ce that involves a <>rapid succession of identical, ack-to-ack atrial depolar
ization waves</>&nsp;that appear as <>"sawtooth"</>&nsp;waves.<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-22501333663916.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Pharmacolo
gical conversion to sinus rhythm via <>Class IA, IC or III antiarrhythmics</>.
</i></div><div><i>Rate control via <>eta-lockade, Ca-channel lockade.</></i
></div><div><i>Definitive treatment via <>catheter alation</>.</i></div>
1405025801262 1395802358422 What is the <>definitive</>&nsp;treatment for
Atrial Flutter?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Catheter alation}}</div><div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-22497038696620.jpg" /></div>
1405025823766 1395802358422 {{c1::Ventricular firillation}} is a pathologic
al ECG tracing that presents with a <>completely erratic rhythm with no identif
iale waves</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22776211570866.jpg" /></di
v>
<r /><div><i>Often results in fatal arrhythmia without immediate CPR an
d defirillation.</i></div>
1405026911131 1395802358422 {{c1::1st Degree AV lock}} is a type of AV loc
k that presents with a <>PR interval &gt; 200 msec</>&nsp;ut is otherwise e
nign and asymptomatic.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22819161243897.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>No treatment is required.</i></div>
1405026985814 1395802358422 {{c1::Moitz Type I (Wenckeach) AV lock}} is a
type of 2nd degree AV lock that involves <>progressive lengthening of the PR
interval until a dropped hearteat</>&nsp;(i.e. until a P wave is not followed
y a QRS complex).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23033909608673.jpg" /><
/div> <r /><div><i>Usually asymptomatic.</i></div>
1405027063668 1395802358422 {{c1::Moitz Type II AV Block}} is a type of 2nd
degree AV lock that presents with <>dropped hearteats that are not preceded
y a change in PR interval length</>.<div><!--anki--><!--anki--><><img src="CV
.png" /></></div>
<r /><div><i>This is different that Moitz Type I (Wenc
keach) which involves <>progressive elongation of the PR interval</>.</i></di
v><div><i>Often found as a 2:1 lock (2 p-waves to 1 QRS complex).</i></div><div
><i>May progress to 3rd-degree lock.</i></div><div><i>Often treated with pacema
ker.</i></div>
1405027197277 1395802358422 {{c1::3rd degree AV Block}} is a type of AV loc
k that involves the <>atria and ventricles eating <u>independently</u>&nsp;of
each other</>&nsp;(i.e. oth P-waves and QRS complexes appear at their oth s
eparate rhythms).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23368917057839.jpg" /></d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Atrial rate is faster.</i></div><div><i>Treated with pacem
aker.</i></div>
1405027723945 1395802358422 Which infectious disease is known to e associat
ed with 3rd-degree AV lock?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lyme Disease}}</div>

<r /><div><img src="paste-23364622090543.jpg" /></div>
1405027746160 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)}} is a ho
rmone released from <>atrial myocytes</>&nsp;in response to increased lood v
olume and atrial pressure.
1405027804261 1395802358422 What is the function of Atrial Natriuretic Pepti
de (ANP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vasodilation; Decreased Na⁺&nsp
;reasorption at the collecting duct; Constriction of <u>efferent</u>&nsp;renal
arterioles and dilation of <u>afferent</u>&nsp;arterioles via cGMP, therey pr
omoting diuresis}}</div>
1405028963553 1395802358422 {{c1::B-type (Brain) Natriuretic Peptide}} is a
hormone released y <>ventricular myocytes</>&nsp;in response to <>increased
tension</>&nsp;that acts similarly to ANP.
1405029000553 1395802358422 Where is B-type (Brain) Natriuretic Peptide (BNP
) released from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular myocytes}}</div>
1405029025994 1395802358422 {{c1::Nesiritide}} is a recominant form of <>B
-type (rain) Natriuretic Peptide (BNP)</>&nsp;that can e used to treat heart
failure.
1405029064629 1395802358422 Through which cranial nerve do aortic arch aror
eceptors/chemoreceptors transmit their signals to the solitary nucleus of the me
dulla?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X (Vagus)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-23940147708618.jpg" /></div>
1405029530782 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the medulla receives signals fr
om aortic arch aro-/chemoreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Solitary nucleus
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Responds <>only to increases in BP</>.</i></div>
<div><i><img src="paste-23935852741322.jpg" /></i></div>
1405029587074 1395802358422 Through which cranial nerve does the Carotid Sin
us transmit its signals to the solitary nucleus of the medulla?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::CN IX (Glossopharyngeal)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-23935
852741322.jpg" /></div>
1405029629147 1395802358422 How does <>increased</> lood vessel stretchin
g influence cardiovascular aroreceptor afferent firing?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Increased stretch = <u>increased afferent firing</u>&nsp;and eventually a d
ecreased HR}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23935852741322.jpg" /><
/div> <img src="paste-24245090386362.jpg" />
1405030537046 1395802358422 How does a carotid massage influence HR?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2424079541906
6.jpg" /></div>
1405030557352 1395802358422 {{c1::Cushing reaction}} is a cardiovascular phe
nomenon due to <>increased intracranial pressure</>&nsp;that presents with a
triad of <>hypertension, radycardia,</>&nsp;and <>respiratory depression</
>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-24240795419066.jpg" /></div>
1405030654784 1395802358422 Where are peripheral cardiovascular chemorecepto
rs found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic arch; Carotid ody}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-24554328031954.jpg" /></div>
1405030983328 1395802358422 Which level of oxygen stimulates peripheral card
iovascular chemoreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Decreased</>&nsp;P<su
>O2</su>&nsp;&lt; 60 mmHg}}</div>
1405031031193 1395802358422 How does a decrease in pH influence peripheral c
ardiovascular chemoreceptor activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</d
iv>
1405031052317 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in P<su>CO2</s
u>&nsp;influence peripheral cardiovascular chemoreceptor activity?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
1405031080882 1395802358422 Which type of cardiovascular chemoreceptors <>d
o not</>&nsp;respond to P<su>O2</su>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Central}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>They respond to changes in pH and P<su>CO2</su>&nsp;in
the rain interstitial fluid which are in turn affected y arterial CO<su>2</su
>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-24704651886855.jpg" /></i></div>
1405031168384 1395802358422 Which organ has the largest lood flow?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lungs}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Receives 100% of cardiac o

utput.</i></div>
1405031201104 1395802358422 What is the normal Right Atrial pressure?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 5 mmHg}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-24786
256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031233845 1395802358422 What is the normal Right Ventricular pressure?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::25/5 mmHg}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-24790
551232853.jpg" /></div>
1405031267127 1395802358422 What is the normal pressure in the pulmonary tru
nk?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::25/10 mmHg}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-24786256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031294209 1395802358422 What is the normal Left Atrial pressure (PCWP)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 12 mmHg}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>In mitral st
enosis, PCWP (i.e. LAP) &gt; LV diastolic pressure.<r /></i><div><img src="past
e-24786256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031308858 1395802358422 What is the normal Left Ventricular pressure?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::130/10 mmHg}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-24786
256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031322755 1395802358422 What is the normal aortic arch pressure?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::130/90 mmHg}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2478625626555
7.jpg" /></div>
1405031345701 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmonary Capillary Wedge Pressure (PCWP)}
} is a wedge pressure measured with a <>pulmonary artery catheter</>&nsp;(Swa
n-Ganz catheter)&nsp;that is used as an approximation of left atrial pressure.
<r /><div><i>Normal PCWP &lt; 12 mmHg.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-2478625
6265557.jpg" /></i></div>
1405031516368 1395802358422 How does hypoxia affect pulmonary vasculature?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Causes <>vasoconstriction</>}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>This is something unique to the lungs where <>hypoxia causes vasoconstrio
n</>&nsp;such that only well-ventilated areas are perfused. <>In all other ti
ssues, hypoxia causes vasodilation</>.</i></div>
1405031739737 1395802358422 Which Starling forces work to move<> fluid out
of the capillary</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::P<su>c</su>&nsp;(capillary h
ydrostatic pressure); π_i&nbs
;(inte stitial colloid osmotic
essu e)}}
</div> <b /><div><i>π_i&nbs
;no mally equals 0.</i></div><div><i><img
s c="
aste-27157078212835.j
g" /></i></div>
1405031835817 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ces wo k to move <b>fluid into
the ca
illa y</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P_i&nbs
;(inte stitial
hyd ostatic
essu e); π_c(ca
illa y colloid osmotic
essu e)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27152783245539.j
g" /></div>
1405031909875 1395802358422 What is the equation fo <b>Net</b>&nbs
;Filt at
ion P essu e at a ca
illa y bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P_net&nbs

;= [(P_c&nbs
;- P_i) - (π_c&nbs
;- π_i)]}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27152783245539.j
g" /></div>
1405031981615 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the <b>Net </b>Fluid Fl
ow in ca
illa y fluid filt ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::J_v&nbs
;
= K_f&nbs
;* P_net}}</div>
1405033591552 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ce changes in hea t failu e to
cause edema?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc eased P_c}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27758373634259.j
g" /></div>
1405033619467 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ce changes in ne
h otic synd o
me to cause edema?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased π_c}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27754078666963.j
g" /></div>
1405033640958 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ce changes in live failu e to
cause edema?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased π_c}}</div>
1405033663937 1395802358422 Which Sta ling fo ce changes in lym
hatic blocka
ge to cause edema?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc eased π_i}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-27754078666963.j
g" /></div>
1423727697176 1369615657128 Which ce eb al blood vessels a e commonly affect
ed by th ombotic st oke?<b />{{c1::Ca otic bifu cation, the o igin of the middl
e ce eb al a te y, and at eithe end of the basila a te y}}
"Sou ce: Robbins

basic
athology 9th ed.
816
1397777994357 1395802358422 Which ty
e of Pneumocyte is most abundant at alv
eola su faces?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e I
neumocytes (97%)}}</div>
1397778928590 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e I
neumocytes}} a e a ty
e of
neumoc
yte that a e <b>squamous</b>&nbs
;and thin, hence they a e o
timal fo gas excha
nge.
<b /><div><i>97% of the alveola lining is Ty
e I
neumocytes</i>.</div
>
1397779013570 1395802358422 Which ty
e of
neumocytes a e the <b>stem cells<
/b>&nbs
;of the lungs?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e II
neumocytes}}</div>
1397779040710 1395802358422 Which ty
e of
neumocytes <b>sec ete
ulmona y s
u factant</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e II
neumocytes}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Remembe ,
ulmona y su factant wo ks to <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;alveola su f
ace tension and <b>
events alveola colla
se</b>&nbs
;(atelectasis).</i></div>
1397779108014 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e II
neumocytes}} a e a ty
e of
neumo
cyte that is <b>cuboidal</b>&nbs
;and <b>cluste ed</b>.
1397779134203 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e II
neumocytes}} a e a ty
e of
neumo
cyte that function as the stem cells of the lungs,
olife ating into Ty
e I and
Ty
e II cells du ing lung damage.
1397779163603 1395802358422 {{c1::Cla a cells}} a e a ty
e of
neumocyte tha
t a e <b>nonciliated</b>, <b>columna cells</b>&nbs
;with sec eto y g anules.
1397779193280 1395802358422 {{c1::Cla a cells}} a e a ty
e of
neumocyte tha
t deg ades toxins and acts as ese ve cells.
1397779214201 1395802358422 Which ty
e of
neumocyte deg ades toxins and act
s as ese ve cells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cla a cells}}</div>
1397779260542 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the <b>colla
sing
ess
u e</b>&nbs
;of an alveolus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Colla
sing P essu e = P
= [2(su face tension)]/ adius}}</div> <b /><div><i>Hence, alveoli have an inc
eased tendency to colla
se du ing ex
i ation as adius dec eases (this is La
la
ce's Law).</i></div>
1397779604235 1395802358422 What is the most im
o tant lechitin found in su
factant?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Di
almitoyl
ho
hatidylcholine}}</div>
1397779663483 1395802358422 Du ing which week of gestation does lung su fact
ant
oduction begin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Week 26}}</div>
1397779690179 1395802358422 Du ing which week of gestation a e <b>matu e lev
els of su factant</b>&nbs
;achieves?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Week 35}}</div>
1397779717267 1395802358422 Which Lecithin:S
hingomyelin atio is indicative
of fetal lung matu ity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::L:S &gt; 2.0}}</div>
1397779796585 1395802358422 Which lung has 3 lobes?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Right}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-30326764077352.j
g" /></div>
1397779819124 1395802358422 Which lung has 2 lobes?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Left}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-30322469110056.j
g" /></div>
1397779826982 1395802358422 Which lung has the Lingula?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Left}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b>L</b>eft = <b>L</b>ingula</i></div><div
><i><img s c="
aste-30322469110056.j
g" /></i></div>
1397779840806 1395802358422 {{c1::Lingula}} is a egion of the left lung tha
t is a homologue of the ight middle lobe (of the ight lung).
1397779877330 1395802358422 Which lung is the mo e common site fo inhaled f
o eign bodies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Right lung}}</div>
<b /><div><b /
></div>
1397779951676 1395802358422 {{c1::Right Lung}} is the lung that is the most
common site fo inhaled fo eign bodies because its main stem b onchus is wide a
nd mo e ve tical than the o

osite lung's.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-30322
469110056.j
g" /></div>
1397780094689 1395802358422 Which lung &am
; lobe will an as
i ated fo eign
body get stuck in while the
atient is <b>u
ight</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Lowe
o tion of the ight infe io lobe}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-30322469110056.j
g" /></div>
1397780154188 1395802358422 Which lung &am
; lobe will an as
i ated fo eign
body get stuck in if the
atient is <b>su
ine</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su

e io
o tion of the ight infe io lobe}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as

te-30322469110056.j
g" /></div>
1397780323867 1395802358422 What is the elation of the <b>
ulmona y a te y
to the b onchus</b>&nbs
;at the <b> ight lung</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::An
te io }}</div> <b /><div><i><b>RALS</b>&nbs
;= <b>R</b>ight <b>A</b>nte io , <
b>L</b>eft <b>S</b>u
e io </i></div>
1397780414904 1395802358422 What is the elation of the <b>
ulmona y a te y
to the b onchus</b>&nbs
;at the <b>left lung</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su

e io }}</div> <b /><div><i><b>RALS</b>&nbs
;=&nbs
;<b>R</b>ight&nbs
;<b>A</b>
nte io ,&nbs
;<b>L</b>eft&nbs
;<b>S</b>u
e io </i></div>
1397780434886 1395802358422 At which ve teb al level does the IVC
e fo ate
the dia
h agm?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T8}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>"I 8
10 eggs at 12"</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-30988189040954.j
g" /></div>
1397780538042 1395802358422 At which ve teb al level does the eso
hagus
e f
o ate the dia
h agm?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T10}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><div><i>"I 8 10 eggs at 12"</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-30988189040954.j
g" /
></div></div>
1397780558260 1395802358422 At which ve teb al level does the Vagus Ne ve (C
N X)
e fo ate the dia
h agm?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T10 (both t unks)}}</di
v>
<b /><div><i>"C anial Ne ve <b>10</b>&nbs
;at T<b>10</b>"</i><b /><div
><img s c="
aste-30988189040954.j
g" /></div></div>
1397780610916 1395802358422 At which ve teb al level does the ao ta
e fo at
e the dia
h agm?<div><b />{{c1::T12}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"I 8 10 eggs at 12
"</i></div><div><i></i><i>"At&nbs
;<b>T-1-2</b>&nbs
;its&nbs
;<b> ed, white and
blue</b>" (ao ta = ed; tho acic duct = white; azygos vein = blue)</i><div><img
s c="
aste-30988189040954.j
g" /></div></div>
1397780629981 1395802358422 At which ve teb al level does the Tho acic Duct

e fo ate the dia
h agm?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T12}}</div> <b /><div><i>"A
t <b>T-1-2</b>&nbs
;its <b> ed, white and blue</b>" (ao ta = ed; tho acic duct
= white; azygos vein = blue)</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-30988189040954.j
g" /
></div></div>
1397780702805 1395802358422 At which ve teb al level does the Azygos Vein
e
fo ate the dia
h agm?<div><b />{{c1::T12}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"At&nbs
;<
b>T-1-2</b>&nbs
;its&nbs
;<b> ed, white and blue</b>" (ao ta = ed; tho acic duc
t = white; azygos vein = blue)</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-30988189040954.j
g"
/></div></div>
1397780721375 1395802358422 Which ne ve inne vates the dia
h agm?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Ph enic Ne ve}}</div>
1397781386335 1395802358422 Which <b>ne ve oots</b>&nbs
;inne vate the dia

h agm via the
h enic ne ve?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::C3, C4, C5}}</div>
<b /><div><i>"C3, 4, 5 kee
the dia
h agm alive."</i></div><div><i>Hence dia
h
agm
ain can adiate the to shoulde (C5) o t a
ezius idge (C3, C4).</i></div>
1397829115104 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates the volume of ai that
can still be b eathed in afte no mal ins
i ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::I
ns
i ato y Rese ve Volume (IRV)}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-850403525001.
j
g" /></div>
1397830119483 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates the volume of ai that
moves into the lungs with each quiet ins
i ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ti
dal Volume (TV)}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-846108557705.j
g" /></div>
1397830145620 1395802358422 What is the ty
ical lung Tidal Volume (TV)?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::500 mL}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-846108557705.
j
g" /></div>
1397830179778 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates to the volume of ai t
hat can still be b eathed out afte no mal ex
i ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Ex
i ato y Rese ve Volume (ERV)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-84610
8557705.j
g" /></div>
1397830209139 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates to the volume of ai t
hat emains in the lung afte a maximal ex
i ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::R
esidual Volume (RV)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-846108557705.j
g" /><
/div>
1397830247804 1395802358422 Which lung voume cannot be measu ed on s
i omet

y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Residual Volume (RV)}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-846108557705.j
g" /></div>
1397830267863 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make u
lung Ins
i ato y Ca
a
city (IC)?<div><b />{{c1::IRV + TV}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-17093
96984240.j
g" /></div>
1397830442190 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make u
lung Functional Resid
ual Ca
acity (FRC)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RV + ERV}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-1705102016944.j
g" /></div>
1397830487091 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make u
lung (Functional) Vit
al Ca
acity (VC)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::TV + IRV + ERV}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-1705102016944.j
g" /></div>
1397830673103 1395802358422 {{c1::(Functional) Vital Ca
acity (VC)}} is a lu
ng ca
acity that equates to the maximum volume of ai that can be ex
i ed afte
a maximal ins
i ation. <div><b /></div><i>"FVC = inhaling maximally and then e
xhaling maximally = inhaling and blowing out bi thday candles."</i><b /><div><i
mg s c="
aste-1705102016944.j
g" /></div>
1397830828080 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make u
Total Lung Ca
acity (
TLC)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IRV + TV + ERV + RV}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><div><img s c="
aste-1705102016944.j
g" /></div>
1397830859114 1395802358422 {{c1::Total Lung Ca
acity (TLC)}} is a lung ca
a
city that equates to the volume of ai
esent in the lungs afte a maximal ins

i ation.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1705102016944.j
g" /></div>
1397830882061 1395802358422 Which lung ca
acity is equal to the volume of ga
s
esent in the lungs afte a maximal ins
i ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T
otal Lung Ca
acity (TLC)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1705102016944
.j
g" /></div>
1397830912571 1395802358422 What is the equation fo <b>Minute Ventilation (
V_E)</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::V_E&nbs
;= V_{T</sub
>&nbs
;* RR}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Minute Ventilation = total volume of ai e
nte ing the lungs
e minute</i></div><div><i>V_T&nbs
;= tidal volume<
/i></div><div><i>RR = es
i ato y ate</i></div>
1397831272415 1395802358422 What is the equation fo &nbs
;<b>Alveola Ventil
ation (V_A)</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::V_A&nbs
;= (V<su
b>T}&nbs
;- V_D) * RR}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Alveola Ventilati
on = volume of gas
e unit time that eaches the alveoli</i></div><div><i>V<sub
>T</sub>&nbs
;= tidal volume</i></div><div><i>V_D&nbs
;=
hysiological
dead s
ace</i></div><div><i>RR = es
i ato y ate</i></div>
1397831355730 1395802358422 Which globin chains a e found in adult Hemoglobi
n (HbA)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::α₂β<su>2</su>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-3040836845747.jpg" /></div>
1397832346312 1395802358422 Which <>morphological form</>&nsp;of Hemoglo
in has <>lower</>&nsp;O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Taut (T) form}}</div>
1397832384428 1395802358422 Which <>morphological form</>&nsp;of Hemoglo
in has <>high</>&nsp;O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Relaxed (R) form; 300x more affinity than the taut form}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-3040836845747.jpg" /></div>
1397832421132 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an <>increase</>&nsp;in [H⁺] (i.e. decrease
d pH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dis
sociation curve shifts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832602352 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in CO<su>2</su>?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curve
shifts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832632832 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in 2,3-BPG?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curve shifts
to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832651068 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>

&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in temperature?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curve shi
fts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832659431 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in [Cl^-]?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curv
e shifts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832672968 1395802358422 Where in the ody is the <>Taut (T)</>&nsp;fo
rm of Hemogloin typically found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::At tissue (where O2
unloading is needed)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, the Taut form has <>dec
reased O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity</></i></div>
1397832738046 1395802358422 Where in the ody is the <>Relaxed (R)</>&nsp
;form of Hemogloin typically found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lungs; Respirato
ry tract (where O2 loading is required)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, the Rela
xed form of H has <>300x higher O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity than the Taut form
</></i></div>
1397832776938 1395802358422 What gloin chains are found in <>fetal</>&ns
p;Hemogloin (HF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::α₂γ₂}}</div>
1397832817748 1395802358422 Why does feal hemolobin (HbF) have a hiher af
finiy for O₂?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I has lower affiniy for 2
,3-BPG, which decreases O₂&nbsp;affiniy}}</div>
1397832864087 1395802358422 {{c1::Mehemolobin}} is a modified form of Hemo
lobin ha is oxidized and hereby has a <b>ferric (Fe³⁺)</b>&nbsp;a
om in is heme roup.
1397832958447 1395802358422 {{c1::Mehemolobin}} is a modified form of hemo
lobin ha is oxidized, and hence does no bind o O₂&nbsp;as readil
y.
1397832983310 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin has an <b>incr
eased affiniy for cyanide</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mehemolobin}}</div>
1397833023131 1395802358422 In which sae is iron normally found in Hemolo
bin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ferr<b>ous</b>&nbsp;(Fe<sup syle="fon-weih:
bold; ">2+</sup>)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"Jus he <b>2</b>&nbsp;of <b>us</
b>" =&nbsp;Fe<b>²⁺&nbsp;</b>is Ferro<b>us</b></i></div>
1397833230303 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin is associaed
wih cyanosis and&nbsp;<b>chocolae-coloured blood</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Mehemolobin}}</div>
1397833270572 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin is used o re
a cyanide poisonin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mehemolobin}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>We use niraes o oxidize hemolobin ino mehemolobin which hen binds
o cyanide. Thiosulfae is hen used o bind his cyanide, formin hiocyanae w
hich is renally excreed.</i></div>
1397833362782 1395802358422 {{c1::Mehemolobin}} is a modified form of hemo
lobin ha can be used o rea cyanide poisonin.
1397833381907 1395802358422 Wha <b>ype</b>&nbsp;of drus do we use o oxid
ize Hemolobin ino Mehemolobin such ha we can rea cyanide poisonin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Niraes}}</div> <br /><div><i>We use niraes o oxidize
hemolobin ino mehemolobin which hen binds o cyanide. Thiosulfae is hen
used o bind his cyanide, formin hiocyanae which is renally excreed.</i></d
iv>
1397833414786 1395802358422 Wha is he reamen for Mehemolobinemia?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mehylene Blue}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>Meh</b>emolob
inemia is reaed wih <b>meh</b>ylene blue.</i></div>
1397833462085 1395802358422 {{c1::Carboxyhemolobin}} is a modified form of
hemolobin ha is bound o CO in place of O₂.
1397833503353 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin is bound o CO
insead of O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Carboxyhemolobin}}</div>
1397833527560 1395802358422 How does he O2-hemolobin dissociaed curve shi
f in <b>Carboxyhemolobinemia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lef shif; here
is <b>decreased O2 bindin capaciy</b>&nbsp;and <b>decreased O2 unloadin a 
issue</b>}}</div>

1397833584227 1395802358422 How many imes reaer is CO's affiniy for Hb 
han O2's affiniy for Hb?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::200x}}</div>
1397833619153 1395802358422 How does Hemolobin's affiniy for O2 chane if
here is a <b>rih-shif</b>&nbsp;in he Hb sauraion curve?<div><br /></div><
div><im src="pase-6433861009835.jp" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
ased affiniy; i.e. <u>more O2 is needed o saurae Hb</u>}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>An increase in all of he parameers (includin H⁺) will cause
a rih-shif of he curve.</i></div><div><i></i><i>A decrease in all of he par
ameers (includin H⁺) will cause a lef-shif of he curve.</i></div
>
1397835659436 1395802358422 Wha volume of Oxyen can be bound by 1  of Hb?
<div><br />{{c1::1.34 mL}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Normal [Hb] is 15 /dL</i>
</div>
1397835993703 1395802358422 Wha <b>deoxyenaed</b> hemolobin blood concen
raion is associaed wih cyanosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Deoxyenaed Hb
&; 5 /dL}}</div>
1397843144868 1395802358422 Which area of he lun has he&nbsp;<b>hihes V
/Q raio</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex of he lun (V/Q = 3)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence here is wased venilaion.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase
-9332963934649.jp" /></i></div>
1397843864972 1395802358422 Which area of he lun has he <b>lowes V/Q ra
io</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base of lun (V/Q = 0.6)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence here is wased perfusion.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-93286689
67353.jp" /></i></div>
1397843924817 1395802358422 Wha does a V/Q raio <b>close o zero</b>&nbsp;
indicae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Airway obsrucion}}</div> <br /><div><i>i.
e. venilaion = 0.</i></div>
1397844065841 1395802358422 Wha does a V/Q raio close o <b>infiniy</b>&n
bsp;indicae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blood flow obsrucion}}</div>
1397844087625 1395802358422 Which area of he lun has he reaes perfusio
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base}}</div>
1397844128273 1395802358422 Which area of he lun has he reaes venila
ion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base}}</div>
1397844140607 1395802358422 Wha form is he majoriy of CO₂&nbsp
;found in he blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HCO₃^-}}</d
iv>
<div><br /></div><im src="pase-10355166151167.jp" />
1404750780726 1395802358422 {{c1::Conducin Zone}} is a secion of he resp
iraory ree ha funcions o <b>warm, humidify</b>&nbsp;and <b>filer</b>&nbsp
;air bu does no paricipae in as exchane. <br /><div><i>i.e. physioloical
dead space</i></div>
1404752342227 1395802358422 Which ype of epihelium is found in mos of he
counducin zone of he luns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pseudosraified cili
aed columnar epihelium}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Funcions o bea mucous u
p and ou of he luns.</i></div><div><i>Seen up o he erminal bronchioles a
which poin i ransiions o cuboidal cells.</i></div><div><i>Also, <b>airway s
mooh muscle exends o he end of he erminal bronchioles</b>&nbsp;(and is spa
rse beyond ha poin) while <b>carilae and oble cells exend o he end of
he bronchi</b>.</i></div>
1404752491676 1395802358422 {{c1::Respiraory Zone}} is a semen of he res
piraory ree ha <b>paricipaes in as exchane</b>. <br /><div><i>i.e. he l
un parenchyma (respiraory bronchioles, alveolar ducs and alveoli)</i></div><d
iv><i><im src="pase-2357937046019.jp" /></i></div>
1404753310737 1395802358422 Which ype of epihelium is found in he respira
ory zone of he respiraory ree?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cuboidal cells in
respiraory bronchioles; simple s uamous epihelium up o he alveoli}}</div>
<br /><div><i>There are n<b>o cilia</b>&nbsp;in he respiraory zone.</i></div><
div><i>There are also alveolar macrophaes ha clear debris and paricipae in
he immune response.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-2353642078723.jp" /></i><
/div>
1404765729222 1395802358422 {{c1::Physioloical Dead Space}} is a respiraor

y physioloical parameer defined as he <b>volume of anaomical dead space</b>&
nbsp;<u syle="fon-weih: bold; ">plus</u>&nbsp;he <b>volume of funcional de
ad space in alveoli</b>.
<br /><div><i>i.e. he volume of inspired air h
a does no ake par in as exchane</i></div>
1404765844156 1395802358422 {{c1::Physioloical dead space}} is a respiraor
y physioloical parameer ha is defined as he <b>volume of inspired air ha
does no ake par in as exchane</b>. <br /><div><im src="pase-3143916060758
.jp" /></div>
1404765892175 1395802358422 Which area of he lun is he lares conribuo
r of <b>funcional</b>&nbsp;dead space?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex of he l
un}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, funcional dead space = dead space in h
e alveoli.</i></div>
1404765938789 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for deerminin Physioloic
al Dead Space (of he lun)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="pase-31396210
93462.jp" />}}</div> <br /><div><i>V_T&nbsp;= idal volume</i></div
><div><i>P_aCO2&nbsp;= arerial P_CO2</i></div><div><i>P<sub
>E</sub>CO2 = expired air P_CO2</i></div><div><i>_{<im src="pase3393024163950.jp" />}</i></div>
1404766068400 1395802358422 {{c1::Minue venilaion (V_E)}} is a
respiraory physioloical parameer ha is defined as he <b>oal volume of a
s enerin he luns per minue</b>.
<br /><div><i>V_E&nbsp;= V<sub
>T</sub>&nbsp;* RR</i></div>
1404769649028 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for Minue Venilaion (V<s
ub>E</sub>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V_E&nbsp;= V_T&nbsp;
x RR}}</div>
1404769678182 1395802358422 {{c1::Alveolar Venilaion (V_A)}} is
a respiraory physioloical parameer defined as he <b>volume of as per uni 
ime ha reaches he alveoli</b>.
<br /><div><i>V_A&nbsp;= (V<su
b>T</sub>&nbsp;- V_D) x RR</i></div>
1404769834488 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for Alveolar Venilaion (V
_A)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V_A&nbsp;= (V_T&nb
sp;- V_D) x RR}}</div>
<br /><div><i>V_D&nbsp;= physi
oloical dead space</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-3886945402962.jp" /></i></
div>
1404769886426 1395802358422 {{c1::Compliance}} is a physioloical parameer
of he luns ha describes he oran's abiliy o <b>chane in volume for a iv
en chane in pressure</b>.
<br /><div><i>Think of compliance as he <b>abil
iy of he oran o disend/increase in volume wih an increase in ransmural pr
essure</b>.</i></div><div><i>Hence, <b>increased compliance</b>&nbsp;= <b>increa
sed abiliy o expand = less recoil</b></i></div><div><i>Hence, <b>decreased com
pliance = decreased abiliy o expand = more recoil</b></i></div>
1404770264260 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in Pulmonary Fib
rosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404770276592 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in Pneumonia?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404770284408 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in Pulmonary Ede
ma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404770294774 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in emphysema?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404770305266 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane wih normal ain
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404770313052 1395802358422 Wha is he alveolar air pressure a FRC (Funci
onal Residual Capaciy)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::0}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="pase-4170413244941.jp" /></div>
1404770384035 1395802358422 {{c1::Posiive cooperaiviy}} is a kineic fea
ure of oxyen-hemolobin bindin ha ives he dissociaion curve is simoidal
shape and is described as <b>hih affiniy for O₂&nbsp;for each subs
e uen O₂&nbsp;molecule bound</b>, as hemolobin is erameric.
<div><br /></div><i>Myolobin is monomeric and hence does no show posiive coop
eraiviy.</i><br /><div><im src="pase-4574140170838.jp" /><im src="pase-45

95615007330.jp" /></div>
1404781030201 1395802358422 In which direcion does he oxyen-hemolobin di
ssociaion curve shif if here is a <b>decrease</b>&nbsp;in he affiniy of hem
olobin for O₂?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>An <b>increase</b>&nbsp;in all facors (includin [H⁺]) shifs
he curve o he rih.</i></div><div><i>A <b>decrease</b>&nbsp;</i><i>in all fa
cors (includin [H⁺]) shifs he curve o he rih.</i></div><div><
i><b>Feal Hb</b>&nbsp;has hiher affiniy for O₂, hence is curve is
shifed o he lef.</i></div><div><im src="pase-4930622456100.jp" /></div>
1404781484491 1395802358422 Which way does <b>2,3-BPG</b>&nbsp;shif he oxy
en-hemolobin dissociaion curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decrea
ses affiniy)}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782729280 1395802358422 Which way does CO₂&nbsp;shif he oxy
en-hemolobin dissociaion curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decrea
sed affiniy)}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782769339 1395802358422 Which way does acid shif he oxyen-dissociaio
n curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decreased affiniy)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782791164 1395802358422 Which way does increased aliude shif he oxy
en-dissociaion curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decreased affiniy
)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782848212 1395802358422 Which way does increased emperaure shif he o
xyen-dissociaion curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rih (i.e. decreased affin
iy)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404832416327 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for he O₂&nbsp;
conen of blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::O₂&nbsp;conen = (O<sub
>2</sub>&nbsp;bindin capaciy * % sauraion) + dissolved O₂}}</div>
<br /><div><i>O₂&nbsp;bindin capaci
y ~ 20.1 mL O₂/dL</i></
div><div><i>O₂&nbsp;delivery o issue = CO * O₂&nbsp;con
en</i></div>
1404832500018 1395802358422 How much O₂&nbsp;does 1  of hemolob
in normally bind?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1.34 mL O₂}}</div>
1404832529966 1395802358422 Wha is he normal concenraion of hemolobin i
n he blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::15 /dL}}</div>
1404832628076 1395802358422 A which concenraion of <b>deoxyenaed hemol
obin</b>&nbsp;does cyanosis occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::&; 5 /dL of deo
xyenaed hemolobin}}</div>
1404833656335 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for he amoun of O<sub>2</
sub>&nbsp;delivered o issue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::O₂&nbsp;del
ivery = CO * O₂&nbsp;conen}}</div>
1404833701334 1395802358422 How does % O₂&nbsp;sauraion of hemo
lobin chane wih CO poisonin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease; CO compee
s wih O₂&nbsp;for bindin on Hb}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This
in urn decreases oal O₂&nbsp;conen despie Hb levels sayin h
e same.</i><br /><div><im src="pase-1748051689886.jp" /></div>
1404834255352 1395802358422 How does % O₂&nbsp;sauraion of Hb c
hane in anaemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chane; Normal}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>Remember, sauraion is a <b>percenae</b>.</i><br /><div><im src=
"pase-1743756722590.jp" /></div>
1404834290657 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b>&nbsp;in <b>PA<sub>O2<
/sub>&nbsp;</b>influence pulmonary circulaion/vasculaure?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Causes <u>hypoxic vasoconsricion</u>}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is o
shif blood <b>away from poorly venilaed reions of he lun o well venila
ed reions of he lun</b>. This is also a uni ue feaure of he luns. All ohe
r issues vasodilae in hypoxic condiions.</i></div><div><i>Normally, he pulmo
nary circulaory sysem is a low-resisance, hih-compliance sysem.</i></div>
1404835583966 1395802358422 {{c1::O₂(when healhy)}},&nbsp;{{c2:
:CO₂}} and&nbsp;{{c3::N₂O}} are 3 <u syle="fon-weih: b
old; ">perfusion limied</u>&nbsp;ases ha e uilibrae early alon he lenh
of he capillary.
<div><br /></div><i>Hence, diffusion can only be increas

ed by an increase in blood flow.</i><br /><div><im src="pase-2379411882402.jp
" /></div>
1404835893294 1395802358422 {{c1::O₂&nbsp;(in emphysema or pulmon
ary fibrosis)}} and&nbsp;{{c2::CO}} are 2 <u syle="fon-weih: bold; ">diffusi
on limied</u>&nbsp;ases ha <b>do no</b>&nbsp;e uilibrae in he blood alon
he lenh of he capillary. <br /><div><i>i.e. by ime he blood reaches he
end of he capillary, he as has no e uilibraed beween he alveolus and cap
illary</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-2611340116381.jp" /></i></div>
1404835987190 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cor pulmonale</i>}} is a cardiac compli
caion of pulmonary hyperension ha involves <b>rih venricular failure</b>&
nbsp;and hence presens wih juular venous disension, edema and hepaomealy.
1404836050035 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for diffusion of a as acro
ss he pulmonary surface?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V_as&nbsp;= A/T
* D_k(P₁-P₂)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>A = area (
<b>decreases in Emphysema</b>)</i></div><div><i>T = hickness (<b>increases in p
ulmonary fibrosis</b>)</i></div><div><i>D_k(P₁-P<sub>2</sub
>) = difference in parial pressure</i></div>
1404837087279 1395802358422 How does he diffusion of O₂&nbsp;a
he luns chane in pulmonary fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><im src="pase-2877628088753.jp" /></div>
1404837126283 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for pulmonary vascular resi
sance?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="pase-3006477107328.jp" />}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This is essenially a rearranemen of <b>MAP = CO * TPR</b>
&nbsp;o salve for TPR (PVR).</i><div><i><br /></i><div><im src="pase-30279519
43949.jp" /></div></div>
1404837218619 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for PA_O2?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="pase-3062311682263.jp" />}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><im src="pase-3075196584337.jp" /></div>
1404837261529 1395802358422 Wha is he e uaion for he A-a radien?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::A-a radien = PA_O2&nbsp;- Pa_O2&nbsp
;= 10-15 mmH}}</div> <br /><div><i>The A-a radien <b>may increase in hypoxe
mia</b>&nbsp;due o shunin, V/Q mismach and pulmonary fibrosis (which impairs
diffusion).</i></div>
1404837410294 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane wih hih ali
ude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Normal; no chane}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="pase-3354369458521.jp" /></div>
1404837742607 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane wih hypovenil
aion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Normal; no chane}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="pase-3350074491225.jp" /></div>
1404837755431 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane wih V/Q misma
ch?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-33500
74491225.jp" /></div>
1404837769846 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane wih a Rih-o
-lef cardiovascular shun?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><d
iv><im src="pase-3350074491225.jp" /></div>
1404837791346 1395802358422 How does he A-a radien chane when here is a
pulmonary diffusion limiaion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-3350074491225.jp" /></div>
1404837821138 1395802358422 Which zone of he lun has he hihes V/Q raio
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex (V/Q = 3)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>i.e.
here is <b>wased venilaion a he apex of he lun</b>.</i><div><i>This is
aribued o raviy and i's effec on blood flow (Q), which is lower a he a
pex of he lun vs. he lower lun zones, despie he fac ha venilaion is a
lso he lowes a he apex of he lun.<br /></i><div><im src="pase-3513283248
695.jp" /></div></div>
1404838093864 1395802358422 Which zone of he lun has he lowes V/Q raio?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base (V/Q = 0.6)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. here
is <b>wased perfusion a he base</b>&nbsp;of he lun.</i></div><div><i><im
src="pase-3508988281399.jp" /></i></div><div><i><br /></i></div>
1404838108407 1395802358422 Which zone of he lun has <b>reaer</b>&nbsp;v

enilaion <u syle="fon-weih: bold; ">and</u>&nbsp;perfusion?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Base}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-3508988281399.jp" />
</div>
1404838147427 1395802358422 Wha is he ideal V/Q pulmonary raio?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. ideally, venilaion would e
ual perfusion, allowin for he mos efficien as chane.</i></div><div><i><b>V
/Q approaches 1 durin exercise</b>&nbsp;(increased CO) due o vasodilaion of 
he apical pulmonary capillaries.</i></div>
1404839332950 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacerium uberculosis</i>}} is a M
ycobacerial species ha hrives in hih O₂&nbsp;and flourishes in 
he apex of he lun.
1404839386030 1395802358422 Wha does a V/Q raio of <b>zero</b>&nbsp;indica
<br /><d
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Airway obsrucion (shun)}}</div>
iv><i>In his case, <b>100% O₂&nbsp;will no improve P_O2.<
/b></i></div>
1404839431224 1395802358422 Wha does a V/Q raio of <b>infiniy</b>&nbsp;in
dicae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Obsruced blood flow (i.e. here is a lo of
physioloical dead space)}}</div>
<div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Assumin
here is &l; 100% dead space, <b>100% O₂&nbsp;will improve P_O2.</b></i></div>
1404839509445 1395802358422 In which form is CO₂&nbsp;mos common
ly ranspored from issues o he luns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HCO<sub>3</
sub>^-&nbsp;(90%)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4913442587341
.jp" /></div>
1404841287711 1395802358422 {{c1::Carbaminohemolobin (HbCO₂)}} i
s a molecule used as a form of CO₂&nbsp;ranspor ha is descibed as
<b>CO₂&nbsp;bound o hemolobin a he N-erminus of <u>lobin</u>.<
/b>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4917737554637.jp" /></div>
1404841564207 1395802358422 {{c1::Haldane Effec}} is a respiraory physiolo
ical phenomenon ha involves he <b>release of CO₂&nbsp;from RBCs</
b>&nbsp;a he lun followin oxyenaion of hemolobin and dissociaion of H<su
p>+</sup>&nbsp;from Hb. <br /><div><i>Oxyenaion of Hb promoes he dissociaio
n of H⁺_&nbsp;from Hb, hereby shifin he e uilibrium ow
ards CO₂&nbsp;formaion and resulin in CO₂&nbsp;release
from RBCs.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-5501853106880.jp" /></i></div>
1404842174022 1395802358422 {{c1::Bohr Effec}} is a respiraory physioloic
al phenomenon ha involves he <b>unloadin of O₂&nbsp;a peripheral
issue from RBCs</b>&nbsp;due o an <b>increase in [H⁺]</b>.
<br /><div><im src="pase-5497558139584.jp" /></div>
1404842224730 1395802358422 How does venilaion chane in response o hih
aliude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pas
e-5768141078871.jp" /></div>
1404843519089 1395802358422 How does EPO levels chane in response o hih a
liude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pas
e-5763846111575.jp" /></div>
1404843565757 1395802358422 How do 2,3-BPG levels chane in resposne o hih
aliude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>The raion
ale here is ha <b>2,3-BPG riers O₂&nbsp;release from Hb</b>.</i>
</div><div><i><im src="pase-5763846111575.jp" /></i></div>
1404843621188 1395802358422 How does he amoun of miochondria in a cell ch
ane in response o hih aliude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-5763846111575.jp" /></div>
1404843648596 1395802358422 How does renal excreion of HCO₃&nbsp
;chane in response o hih aliude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>i.e. here is a <b>compensaory meabolic acidosis</b>&nbs
p;due o he respiraory alkalosis caused by he hypervenilaion.</i></div><div
><i><im src="pase-5763846111575.jp" /></i></div>
1404843702295 1395802358422 How does venilaion rae chane in response o
exercise?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is o
mee he increased O₂&nbsp;demand and increased CO₂&nbsp;

producion.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-5961414607166.jp" /></i></div>
1404843748277 1395802358422 How does blood pH chane in response o exercise
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div> <br /><div><i>Secondary o laci
c acidosis</i>.</div><div><im src="pase-5957119639870.jp" /></div>
1401045083085 1395802358422 Wha kind of chare is on DNA?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Neaive}}</div>
1401045181611 1395802358422 Wha kind of chare is on hisone proeins?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Posiive}}</div>
1401045228456 1395802358422 How many imes does DNA loop around a hisone oc
amer?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Twice}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-12283
60646880.jp" /></div>
1401045281528 1395802358422 Which 2 basic amino acids are Hisones paricula
rly rich in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Arinine}}</div>
1401045317058 1395802358422 Which Hisone proein funcions o bind o <b>bo
h</b>&nbsp;he nucleosome <b>and</b>&nbsp;he linker DNA, hereby sabilizin 
he chromain?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H1}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pas
e-1224065679584.jp" /></div>
1401045403083 1395802358422 Which Hisone proeins are par of he nucleosom
e core?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H2A; H2B; H3; H4}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Al
l appear wice in he ocamer.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-1224065679584.jp
" /></i></div>
1401045449762 1395802358422 {{c1::H1}} is a Hisone proein ha binds o <b
>boh</b>&nbsp;he nucleosome and <b>linker DNA</b>, hereby sabilizin he chr
omain. <br /><div><im src="pase-1224065679584.jp" /></div>
1401045489137 1395802358422 Which phase of he cell cycle involves DNA and H
isone Synhesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S Phase}}</div>
1401045530731 1395802358422 Which Hisone proein is he only Hisone no pa
r of he nucleosome core?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H1}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><im src="pase-1224065679584.jp" /></div>
1401045553840 1395802358422 Which srucural form of chromain is condensed?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Heerochromain}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>H</b>e
ero<b>C</b>hromain =&nbsp;<b>H</b>ihly&nbsp;<b>C</b>ondensed</i></div>
1401045951004 1395802358422 Which srucural form of chromain is ranscrip
ionally inacive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Heerochromain}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i><b>H</b>eero<b>C</b>hromain =&nbsp;<b>H</b>ihly&nbsp;<b>C</b>ondensed</
i></div>
1401045965945 1395802358422 Which srucural form of chromain is serically
inaccessible?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Heerochromain}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i><b>H</b>eero<b>C</b>hromain = <b>H</b>ihly <b>C</b>ondensed</i></div>
1401045976881 1395802358422 Which srucural form of chromain is less conde
nsed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Euchromain}}</div>
1401045988784 1395802358422 Which srucural form of chromain is ranscrip
ionally acive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Euchromain}}</div>
1401046000686 1395802358422 Which srucural form of chromain is serically
accessible?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Euchromain}}</div>
1401046050153 1395802358422 Which DNA nucleoides are mehylaed on he emp
lae srand durin DNA replicaion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cyosine; Adenine
}}</div>
1401046380947 1395802358422 How does DNA Mehylaion a CpG islands influenc
e ene ranscripion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Repression}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Mehylaion mues DNA.</i></div>
1401046422972 1395802358422 How does Hisone mehylaion influence DNA rans
cripion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Repression; ypically reversible; Hisone M
ehylaion Mosly Make DNA Mue}}</div>
1401046460897 1395802358422 How does Hisone aceylaion influence DNA rans
cripion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acivaion, by relaxin DNA coilin}}</div>
1401046493162 1395802358422 Which 2 nucleoides are he purines?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Adenine; Guanine}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Pure <b>A</b>s <b>
G</b>old.</i></div>
1401046652042 1395802358422 How many rins are found in purines?<div><br /><

/div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-3225520439573.jp" />
</div>
1401046673877 1395802358422 Which 3 nucleoides are pyrimidines?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Cyosine; Thymine; Uracil}}</div>
<br /><div><i>CUT he PY
.</i></div>
1401046705289 1395802358422 How many rins are found in Pyrimidine nucleoid
es?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-32813
55014408.jp" /></div>
1401046727283 1395802358422 Which nucleoide has a mehyl roup?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Thymine}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>THY</b>mine has a me<b>THY</b>l
roup.</i></div>
1401046747655 1395802358422 Which nucleoide is made followin he deaminai
on of cyosine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uracil}}</div>
1401046761783 1395802358422 Which pyrimidine is found <b>solely</b>&nbsp;in
RNA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uracil}}</div>
1401046776364 1395802358422 Which pyrimidine is found <b>solel</b>y in DNA?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thymine}}</div>
1401046793678 1395802358422 Which nucleoide base pairin has he srones
bondin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Guanine-Cyosine due o 3 Hydroen bonds (vs
2 in A-T)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Increased GC base pair conen increases m
elin poin of DNA.</i></div>
1401046860471 1395802358422 Which amino acids are necessary for purine synh
esis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycine; Gluamine; Asparae}}</div> <br /><d
iv><im src="pase-3500398346511.jp" /></div>
1401046896568 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycine}},&nbsp;{{c2::Asparae}}, and&nbs
p;{{c3::Gluamine}} are 3 amino acids ha are necessary for purine synhesis.
<br /><div><im src="pase-3496103379215.jp" /></div>
1401047823168 1395802358422 Which enzyme in he pyrimidine synhesis pahway
convers ribonucleoides o deoxyribonucleoides?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ri
bonucleoide Reducase}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4209067950804.jp" />
</div>
1401048105101 1395802358422 {{c1::Carbamoyl Phosphae}} is a meabolie of 
he urea cycle ha is involved in de novo pyrimidine synhesis as i becomes Oro
ic Acid, a emporary base in he pahway.
1401048196398 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in nucleoide synhesis co
nvers Ribose-5-P ino PRPP?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PRPP Synhease}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401048299145 1395802358422 {{c1::Leflunomide}} is a DMARD dru ha inhibi
s Dihydrooroae Dehydroenase, an enzyme involved in pyrimidine synhesis.
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401048414413 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in pyrimidine synhesis do
es Leflunomide inhibi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydrooroae Dehydroenase}
}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401048435694 1395802358422 {{c1::Dihydrooroae Dehydroenase}} is an enzym
e involved in pyrimidine synhesis ha convers Carbamoyl Phosphae ino Oroic
Acid. <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401048481761 1395802358422 {{c1::Mycophenolae}} is an immunosuppressan h
a inhibis IMP Dehydroenase, an enzyme involved in de novo purine synhesis.
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401048716410 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo purine synhesi
s is inhibied by he immunosuppressan Mycophenolae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::IMP Dehydroenase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" />
</div>
1401048765682 1395802358422 {{c1::Ribavirin}} is an ani-viral dru ha inh
ibis IMP dehydroenase, an enzyme involved in de novo purine synhesis.
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401048798452 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo purine synhesi
s is inhibied by he aniviral aen Ribavirin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IMP
Dehydroenase}}</div>
1401048814859 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydroxyurea}} is an anineoplasic dru h

a inhibis Ribonucleoide Reducase, an enzyme involved in de novo pyrimidine s
ynhesis.
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401048889992 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo pyrimidine syn
hesis is inhibied by he anineoplasic dru Hydroxyurea?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Ribonucleoide Reducase}}</div>
1401048916613 1395802358422 Wha is he prodru of 6-Mercapopurine (6-MP)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Azahioprine}}</div>
1401048938290 1395802358422 {{c1::6-Mercapopurine (6MP)}} is an anineoplas
ic dru ha inhibis PRPP Amidoransferase, an enzyme involved in de novo puri
ne synhesis. <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401049006281 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo purine synhesi
s is inhibied by he anineoplasic 6-Mercapopurine (6MP)?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::PRPP Amidoransferase}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508
.jp" /></div>
1401049040820 1395802358422 {{c1::5-Fluorouracil (5-FU)}} is an anineoplas
ic dru ha inhibis Thymidylae Synhase, an enzyme involved in de novo pyrimi
dine synhesis. <br /><div><i>Thereby causes a decrease in [dTMP]</i></div><div>
<i><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></i></div>
1401049090567 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo pyrimidine syn
hesis (specifically dTMP) is inhibied by 5-Fluorouracil?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Thymidylae Synhase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508
.jp" /></div>
1401049130565 1395802358422 {{c1::Mehrorexae (MTX)}} is an anineoplasic
dru ha inhibis Dihydrofolae Reducase in humans, hereby decreasin dTMP l
evels. <br><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401049222598 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo pyrimidine syn
hesis is inhibied by he anineoplasic Mehorexae (MTX)?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Dihydrofolae Reducase}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508
.jp" /></div>
1401049263528 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimehoprim (TMP)}} is an anibioic ha
inhibis Dihydrofolae Reducase in baceria, hereby inhibiin de novo pyrimi
dine synhesis. <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401049369767 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih de novo pyrimidine sy
nhesis is inhibied by he anibioic Trimehoprim (TMP)?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Dihydrofolae Reducase (in baceria)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pas
e-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401049407653 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyrimehamine}} is an aniproozoal aen
ha inhibis Dihydrofolae Reducase, hereby soppin de novo pyrimidine synh
esis. <br /><div><im src="pase-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401049438045 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih de novo pyrimidine sy
nhesis is inhibied by he aniproozoal aen Pyrimehamine?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Dihydrofolae Reducase (in proozoa)}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pas
e-4204772983508.jp" /></div>
1401049511727 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in he purine salvae pah
way convers Hypoxanhine o Xanhine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Xanhine Oxida
se}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-8233452306902.jp" /></div>
1401052134086 1395802358422 Which enzyme in he purine salvae pahway conve
rs Xanhine ino Uric Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Xanhine Oxidase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-8229157339606.jp" /></div>
1401052151759 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in he purine salvae pah
way convers Adenosine ino Inosine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adenosine Deamin
ase (ADA)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-8229157339606.jp" /></div>
1401052190591 1395802358422 {{c1::Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) Deficiency}} is
a disorder of he purine salvae pahway ha resuls in excess ATP and dATP, h
ereby causin neaive feedback of Ribonucleoide Reducase.
<div><br /></div
><i>Thereby causin a decrease in DNA synhesis and decreased lymphocye coun.<
/i><br /><div><im src="pase-8229157339606.jp" /></div>
1401053133192 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih pyrimidine synhesis
is inhibied by neaive feedback in Adenosine Deaminase Deficiency?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Ribonucleoide Reducase, due o he excess ATP and dATP}}</div>

<br /><div><im src="pase-8229157339606.jp" /></div>
1401053191518 1395802358422 {{c1::Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) Deficiency}} is
a disorder of he purine salvae pahway ha resuls in Severe Combined Immunod
eficiency (SCID).
<br /><div><i>The increase in ATP and dATP causes inhibi
ion of Ribonucleoide Reducase, hereby resulin in dereased DNA synhesis an
d low Lymphocye coun.</i></div>
1401053445823 1395802358422 Wha is he eneic inheriance of Adenosine Dea
minase (ADA) Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Auosomal recessive}}</div>
1401053484874 1395802358422 {{c1::Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome}} is a disorder of h
e purine salvae pahway ha involves a deficiency of HGPRT, an enzyme ha con
vers Hypoxanhine o IMP and Guanine o GMP. <div><br /></div><i>Thereby resu
ls in increased Uric Acid producion</i><br /><div><im src="pase-822915733960
6.jp" /></div>
1401053576661 1395802358422 Wha enzyme is defecive or absen in Lesch-Nyha
n Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HGPRT}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pas
e-8229157339606.jp" /><im src="pase-10647223926981.jp" /></div>
1401053589883 1395802358422 Wha is he eneic inheriance of Lesch-Nyhan S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}</div>
1401053604387 1395802358422 {{c1::Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome}} is a disorder of h
e purine salvae pahway ha involves <b>self-muilaion</b>&nbsp;and <b>ares
sion</b>&nbsp;due o <u>exremely painful ou</u>.
<br /><div><im src="pas
e-10647223926981.jp" /></div>
1401053636817 1395802358422 {{c1::Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome}} is a disorder of h
e purine salvae pahway ha involves <b>inellecual disabiliy</b>&nbsp;and <
b>dysonia.</b> <br /><div><im src="pase-10651518894277.jp" /></div>
1401053667814 1395802358422 Wha is he 1s line reamen of Lesch-Nyhan Sy
ndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Allopurinol; via inhibiion of Xanhine Oxida
se}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-8229157339606.jp" /></div>
1401053680402 1395802358422 Wha is he 2nd line reamen of Lesch-Nyhan Sy
ndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Febuxosa; via inhibiion of Xanhine Oxidas
e}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-8229157339606.jp" /></div>
1401053976840 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::unambiuous}} eneic code is on
e where each codon specifies for only 1 amino acid.
1401054001534 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::deenerae/redundan}} eneic c
ode is one where mos amino acids are coded by muliple codons. <br><div><i>The
excepion is Mehionine (AUG) and Trypophan (UGG)</i></div>
1401054019598 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::commaless, nonoverlappin}} ene
ic code is one ha is read from a fixed sarin poin as a coninuous se uenc
e of bases.
<br /><div><i>Excepion is some viruses.</i></div>
1401054052735 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::universal}} eneic code is one
ha is conserved hrouhou evoluion. <br /><div><i>The excepion is miochron
dia in humans.</i></div>
1401054609880 1395802358422 The {{c1::Oriin of Replicaion}} is a paricula
r se uence of base pairs in he enome where DNA replicaion beins.
<br /><d
iv><im src="pase-13215614370212.jp" /></div>
1401054653471 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>un
winds he DNA emplae a he replicaion fork</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H
elicase}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-13211319402916.jp" /></div>
1401054682823 1395802358422 {{c1::Sinle-sranded bindin proeins}} are nuc
lear proeins involved wih DNA replicaion ha <b>preven he unwound srand f
rom reannealin</b>.
<br /><div><im src="pase-13211319402916.jp" /></div>
1401054714944 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>cr
eaes a sinle- or double-sranded break in he DNA double helix o add or remov
e supercoils</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DNA Topoisomerase}}</div> <br /><d
iv><im src="pase-13211319402916.jp" /></div>
1401054753071 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion is in
hibied by Fluoro uinolone anibioics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DNA Gyrase (p
rokaryoic DNA Topoisomerase II)}}</div>
1401054812624 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>ma
kes RNA primers on which DNA Polymerase III can iniiae replicaion</b>?<div><b

r /></div><div>{{c1::Primase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-1321131940291
6.jp" /></div>
1401054871970 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>el
onaes he leadin srand by addin deoxynucleoides o he 3' end</b>?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::DNA Polymerase III}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pase-13211
319402916.jp" /></div>
1401054917662 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>el
onaes he lain srand unil i reaches he primer of he precedin framen
</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DNA Polymerase III}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="pase-13211319402916.jp" /></div>
1401054957246 1395802358422 In which direcion does DNA Polymerase III have
exonuclease aciviy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3' o 5'}}</div>
1401055048784 1395802358422 In which direcion does DNA Polymerase III synh
esize DNA?<div><br />{{c1::5' o 3'}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pase-13211
319402916.jp" /></div>
1401055087535 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>de
rades RNA primers and replaces i wih DNA</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DNA
Polymerase I}}</div>
1401055111746 1395802358422 In which direcion does DNA Polymerase I have ex
onuclease aciviy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5' o 3'; i removes RNA primers
in his direcion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Compare ha o DNA Polymerase III
which has 3' o 5' exonuclease aciviy.</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-13211
319402916.jp" /></i></div>
1401055165699 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved wih DNA replicaion <b>ca
alyzes he formaion of a phosphodieser bond wihin a srand of dsDNA?</b><div
><b><br /></b></div><div>{{c1::DNA Liase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. i jo
ins Okazaki framens</i></div><div><i><im src="pase-13211319402916.jp" /></i
></div>
1401055210164 1395802358422 {{c1::Telomerase}} is an enzyme involved wih DN
A replicaion ha adds DNA o he 3' end of chromosomes in order o avoid loss
of eneic maerial wih every duplicaion.
<br /><div><i>I is an RNA-Depen
den DNA polymerase</i></div>
1401055253205 1395802358422 Wha <b>ype</b>&nbsp;of muaion is he mos se
vere?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frameshif}}</div>
1401055358115 1395802358422 Wha <b>ype</b>&nbsp;of muaion is he leas s
evere?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Silen}}</div>
1401055365826 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::ransiion muaion}} is a ype of
muaion ha involves he swich of a purine o purine or pyrimidine o pyrimid
ine.
1401055395094 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::ransversion muaion}} is a ype o
f muaion ha involves he swich of a purine o a pyrimidine or vice versa.
1401055415930 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::silen muaion}} is a ype of mua
ion ha involves a nucleoide subsiuion for he <b>same (synonymous) amino
acid</b>.
1401055576548 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::missense muaion}} is a ype of mu
aion ha involves a nucleoide subsiuion ha resuls in chaned amino aci
ds.
1401055616267 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::nonsense muaion}} is a ype of mu
aion ha involves a nucleoide subsiuion ha yields a sop codon.
<br /><div><i>Sop he nonsense.</i></div>
1401055649205 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::frameshif muaion}} is a ype of
muaion ha involves he deleion or inserion of a number of nucleoides no
divisible by 3, hereby causin misreadin of all nucleoides downsream.
<br /><div><i>The mos severe ype of muaion as i ypically resuls in runca
ed, nonfuncional proeins</i>.</div>
1401055701851 1395802358422 Which form of DNA repair involves specific endon
ucleases ha release he olionucleoide ha conains damaed bases?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Nucleoide Excision Repair}}</div>
<br /><div><i>DNA Polyme
rase and Liase hen fill and seal he ap respecively.</i></div>
1401056135364 1395802358422 Which ype of DNA repair is defecive in Xeroder

ma Pimenosum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleoide Excision Repair}}</div>
1401056156818 1395802358422 {{c1::Xeroderma Pimenosum}} is a cuaneous dis
order ha involves defecive Nucleoide Excision Repair, hereby resulin in 
he formaion of pyrimidine dimers from UV lih exposure.
1401056197661 1395802358422 Which ype of DNA repair funcions o repair bul
ky helix-disorin lesions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleoide excision repa
ir}}</div>
1401056228512 1395802358422 Which ype of DNA repair involves base-specific
lycosylases ha reconize alered bases and form an Apurinic/Apyrimidinic (AP)
sie?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base Excision Repair}}</div> <br /><div><i>1.
AP Endonuclease cleaves he base a he 5' end.</i></div><div><i>2. Lyase cleav
es he base a he 3' end.</i></div><div><i>3. DNA Polymerase-bea fills he ap
wih a new/correc nucleoide.</i></div><div><i>4. DNA liase seals he break.<
/i></div><div><i><br /></i></div>
1401056413958 1395802358422 Which ype of DNA repair funcions o repair spo
naneous/oxic deaminaion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base excision repair}}</d
iv>
1401056969430 1395802358422 Which ype of DNA repair involves he removal of
mismached nucleoides from newly synhesized DNA srands?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::DNA Mismach Repair}}</div>
1401057000399 1395802358422 Wha ype of DNA repair is defecive in Heredia
ry Nonpolyposis Colorecal Cancer (HNPCC)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mismach r
epair}}</div>
1401057025382 1395802358422 Wha ype of DNA repair involves he brinin o
eher of 2 ends of DNA framens o repair double-sranded braks?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Nonhomoloous End Joinin Repair}}</div> <br /><div><i>There is <
b>no re uiremen for homoloy</b>.</i></div>
1401057085801 1395802358422 Wha ype of DNA repair is muaed in Aaxia Tel
aniecasia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nonhomoloous End Joinin Repair}}</div>
1401057116627 1395802358422 In which direcion is DNA and RNA synhesized?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::5' o 3'}}</div>
1401057295662 1395802358422 In which direcion is mRNA read?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::5' o 3'}}</div>
1401057313674 1395802358422 Which funcional roup on he 3' posiion of nuc
leoides aacks he riphosphae bond of he precedin nucleoide?<div><br></di
v><div>{{c1::Hydroxyl roup (-OH)}}</div>
<br><div><i>Drus ha block DNA
replicaion ypically have modified 3' OH roups, hereby prevenin he addii
on of he nucleoide and causin chain erminaion.</i></div>
1401057401388 1395802358422 Wha is he mRNA sar codon?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::AUG}}</div>
1401057424630 1395802358422 Wha does he sar codon AUG code for in eukary
oes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mehionine}}</div>
1401057435648 1395802358422 Wha does he sar codon AUG code for in prokar
yoes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Formylmehionine (F-me)}}</div>
1401057452016 1395802358422 Wha are he mRNA sop codons?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::UGA; UAA; UAG}}</div>
1401057463828 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::promoer}} is a DNA sie where RN
A polymerase and oher ranscripion facors can bind o DNA. <br /><div><im
src="pase-17016660426963.jp" /></div>
1401057831233 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::promoer}} is a DNA sie upsream
from a ene locus ha is rich in A-T base pairin and has boh TATA and CAAT b
oxes. <br /><div><im src="pase-17012365459667.jp" /></div>
1401057868607 1395802358422 How does a muaion in he promoer se uence yp
ically influence ene ranscripion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dramaic decreas
e}}</div>
1401057895751 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::enhancer}} is a srech of DNA h
a alers ene expression by bindin o ranscripion facors. <div><br /></div
><i>Can be close o, far from or wihin he ene i reulaes.</i><br /><div><im
 src="pase-17012365459667.jp" /></div>
1401057921423 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::silencer}} is a DNA sie where ne

<div><br /></div><i>Can be close
aive reulaors (ene repressors) bind.
o, far from or wihin he ene i reulaes.</i><br /><div><im src="pase-170
12365459667.jp" /></div>
1401058515444 1395802358422 Wha ype of eukaryoic RNA Polymerase makes rRN
A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polymerase I}}</div> <br /><div><i>Polymerase
I, II and III are numbered as heir producs are used in proein synhesis.</i>
</div>
1401058563843 1395802358422 Wha ype of eukaryoic RNA Polymerase makes mRN
A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polymerase II}}</div> <br /><div><i>Polymerase
I, II and III are numbered as heir producs are used in proein synhesis.</i>
</div>
1401058578970 1395802358422 Wha ype of eukaryoic RNA Polymerase makes RN
A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polymerase III}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Po
lymerase I, II and III are numbered as heir producs are used in proein synhe
sis.</i></div>
1401058602230 1395802358422 Wha is he mos numerous ype of RNA?<div><br /
>{{c1::rRNA}}</div>
1401058628961 1395802358422 Wha is he lares ype of RNA?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::mRNA}}</div>
1401058639640 1395802358422 Wha is he smalles ype of RNA?<div><br></div>
<div>{{c1::RNA}}</div> <br><i>T = RNA = iny</i>
1401058648334 1395802358422 Which ype of RNA Polymerase funcions o open D
NA a promoer sies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polymerase II}}</div>
1401058822031 1395802358422 {{c1::alpha-amaniin}} is a oxin found in <i>Am
ania phalloides</i>&nbsp;(deah cap mushrooms) ha inhibis RNA Polymerase II.
<br /><div><i>And also causes severe hepaooxiciy.</i></div>
1401058914807 1395802358422 Wha is he MOA of alpha-amaniin, he acive o
xin in <i>Amania phalloides</i>&nbsp;(deah cap mushrooms)?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Inhibiion of RNA Polymerase II}}</div> <br /><div><i>Also causes severe
hepaooxiciy.</i></div>
1401059043818 1395802358422 Which end of he iniial RNA ranscrip receives
a 7-mehyluanosine cap?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5'}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="pase-20040317403285.jp" /></div>
1401059773880 1395802358422 Which end of he iniial RNA ranscrip underoe
s polyadenylaion (~200 A's)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3'}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><im src="pase-20036022435989.jp" /></div>
1401059810127 1395802358422 Where in he cell does ranslaion occur?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyosol}}</div>
1401059878769 1395802358422 {{c1::P-bodies}} are cyoplasmic proein complex
es ha conain exonucleases, decappin enzymes and microRNAs and <b>funcion as
an mRNA ualiy conrol mechanism</b>.
1401059966346 1395802358422 Wha is he polyadenylaion sinal on mRNA?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::AAUAAA}}</div>
1401059984710 1395802358422 Which enzyme polyadenylaes he 3' end of he in
iial RNA ranscrip?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Poly-A Polymerase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Does no re uire a emplae.</i></div>
1401060028718 1395802358422 {{c1::Small Nuclear Ribonucleoproeins (snRNPs)}
} are nuclear proeins involved wih pre-mRNA splicin ha form he spliceosome
wih he primary ranscrip. <br /><div><im src="pase-20431159427435.jp" /
></div>
1401060146522 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Spliceosome}} is a proein comple
x ha performs pre-mRNA splicin.
<br /><div><im src="pase-2043545439473
1.jp" /></div>
1401060268638 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::laria-shaped inermediae}} is an
inermediae ha is eneraed when an inron is excised and 2 exons are joined.
<br /><div><im src="pase-20431159427435.jp" /></div>
1401060332543 1395802358422 Which auoimmune disorder is hihly associaed w
ih <b>ani-spliceosomal snRNP anibodies</b>&nbsp;(ani-Smih anibodies)?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::SLE}}</div>
1401060483198 1395802358422 {{c1::Ani-Smih anibodies}} are an auoanibod

y aains spliceosomal snRNPs ha are hihly specific for SLE.
1401060559443 1395802358422 Which <b>ype</b>&nbsp;of disease is hihly asso
ciaed wih Ani-U1 RNP anibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mixed connecive
issue disease}}</div>
1401060579472 1395802358422 {{c1::Ani-U1 RNP anibodies}} are auoanibodie
s aains RNPs (Ribonucleoproeins) ha are hihly associaed wih mixed connec
ive issue disease.
1401060876961 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::inron}} is an inervenin se ue
nce of RNA ha is excised ou of he iniial RNA ranscrip and says in he nu
cleus. <div><br /></div><im src="pase-21891448308035.jp" />
1401061092002 1395802358422 A(n)&nbsp;{{c1::exon}} are codin se uences of R
NA ha are processed afer ranscripion and expressed via ranslaion in he c
yosol.
<br /><div><im src="pase-21887153340739.jp" /></div>
1401061130932 1395802358422 Which rinucleoide se uence is found a he 3'
end of RNA molecules in boh prokaryoes and eukaryoes?<div><br></div><div>{{c
1::CCA}}</div> <div><br></div><div><i>"CCA; Can Carry Amino Acids" - CCA is he
amino acid accepor sie</i></div><i>There are also many chemically modified ba
ses.</i><br><div><im src="pase-22089016803683.jp" /></div>
1401061327935 1395802358422 Which rinucleoide se uence found on he T-arm
of RNA allows for RNA-ribosome bindin?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::TΨC (Thymine; P
seudouridine; Cytosine)}}</div> <r><div><img src="paste-22488448762213.jpg" /><
/div>
1401061403124 1395802358422 Which chemically modified nucleotide is found in
the D-arm of tRNA and allows for tRNA recognition y the correct aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydrouracil}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-22484153794917.jpg" /></div>
1401061514225 1395802358422 Which enzyme is responsile for charging tRNA mo
lecules with amino acids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase}}
</div> <div><r /></div><i>It scrutinizes amino acids efore and after it inds
to tRNA, if the match is incorrect the ond is hydrolyzed and the AA is release
d.</i><div><i>The AA-tRNA ond contains enough energy to form a peptide ond.</i
></div><div><i>A mischarged (i.e. incorrectly matched) tRNA will still read the
same codon (via the tRNA anticodon) ut will provide the wrong AA.<r /></i><div
><img src="paste-22484153794917.jpg" /></div></div>
1401061838026 1395802358422 Which enzyme is responsile for the accuracy of
amino acid selection for protein synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoacyl
-tRNA Synthetase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The enzyme's selectivity/action an
d the inding of the charged tRNA moc to the appropriate codon is what provides
accuracy.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-22484153794917.jpg" /></i></div>
1401062031076 1395802358422 {{c1::tRNA wole}} is a iochemical phenomenon
that involves accurate ase pairing etween mRNA and tRNA codons despite a diffe
rence in the codon's 3rd position.
<r /><div><i>Accurate ase pairing is o
nly necessary in the first 2 nucleotide positions of an mRNA codon. The 3rd posi
tion (aka the "wole" position) can differ and the same amino acid/tRNA molecul
e will arrive. This is due to the degeneracy of the genetic code.&nsp;</i></div
>
1401062325441 1395802358422 Which eukaryotic riosomal suunit assemles wit
h the initiator tRNA molecule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40S}}</div> <div><r
/></div><i>60S suunit and mRNA molecule arrive after, triggering the disassem
ly of the initiation factors.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-24197845745957.jpg"
/></div>
1401062573586 1395802358422 Which nucleoside triphosphate molecule is used t
o <>activate</>&nsp;(charge) tRNA?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ATP}}</div>
<r /><div><i>ATP = <>A</>ctvation of tRNA</i></div>
1401062673264 1395802358422 Which nucleoside triphosphate is used in transla
tion for&nsp;<>initiation</>&nsp;and <>elongation</>?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::GTP}}</div>
<r /><div><i>GTP = tRNA <>G</>ripping and <>G</>oin
g places</i></div>
1401062747925 1395802358422 Which 2 riosomal suunits make up <>eukaryotic
</>riosomes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40S + 60S = 80S}}</div>
<r /><d

iv><i><>E</>ukaryotic = <>E</>ven</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-241935507
78661.jpg" /></i></div>
1401062791111 1395802358422 Which 2 riosomal suunits make up <>prokaryoti
c</>&nsp;riosomes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::30S + 50S = 70S}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pr<>O</>karyotic = <>O</>dd</i></div>
1401062826949 1395802358422 In which riosomal inding site do aminoacyl-tRN
A molecules ind to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A site; except for the initiator
methionine-tRNA which slides into the P site}}</div> <r /><div><i><>A</>&n
sp;site = <>A</>rriving <>A</>mino-acyl tRNA</i></div><div><i><img src="pas
te-24193550778661.jpg" /></i></div>
1401062911224 1395802358422 Which enzyme catalyzes peptide ond formation du
ring translation y transferring the growing polypeptide to the amino acid prese
nt in the A site?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::rRNA (Riozyme)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-24193550778661.jpg" /></div>
1401062965123 1395802358422 In which riosomal inding site does the peptidy
l-tRNA molecule shift to in translocation following peptide ond formation?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::P site}}</div> <div><r /></div><i><>P</>&nsp;site =
growing <>p</>eptide</i><r /><div><img src="paste-24193550778661.jpg" /></di
v>
1401063090835 1395802358422 From which riosomal inding site does the compl
eted polypeptide chain leave the riosome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::E site}}</
div>
<div><r /></div><i><>E</>&nsp;site = <>E</>xit</i><r /><div><img
src="paste-24193550778661.jpg" /></div>
1401063135623 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimming}} is a posttranslational modifica
tion that involves removal of the N- or C-terminal propeptide from zymogen to ge
nerate a mature protein.
<r /><div><i>e.g. Proinsulin to Insulin; Trypsi
nogen to Trypsin</i></div>
1401063212388 1395802358422 {{c1::Chaperone Proteins}} are intracellular pro
teins involved in facilitating and/or maintaining protein folding.
<r /><d
iv><i>In yeast, some are heat-shock proteins (e.g. Hsp60) that are expressed at
high temperatures to prevent protein denaturing/misfolding.</i></div>
1401125552393 1395802358422 What is the shortest phase of the cell cycle?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitosis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-66571
9931167.jpg" /></div>
1401125621152 1395802358422 {{c1::CDKs (Cyclin-Dependent Kinases)}} are prot
ein kinases that regulate the cell cycle and are constitutively expressed in the
cell ut left inactive.
<div><r /></div>
1401125947477 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclins}} are <>phase specific</> regula
tory proteins that control cell cycle events and activate CDKs. <r /><div><i>No
te that Cyclin-CDK complexes must e oth activated and inactivated for the cell
cycle to progress.</i></div>
1401125987156 1395802358422 Which phase specific cell cycle regulatory prote
ins activate CDKs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclins}}</div>
1401126448424 1395802358422 Which cell cycle checkpoint is locked y p53?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::G1 to S}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Hence a muta
tion can cause uncontrolled cell division.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-6614249
63871.jpg" /></div>
1401126657216 1395802358422 Which cell cycle checkpoint is locked y hypoph
osphorylated R?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G1 to S}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><i>Hence a mutation can cause uncontrolled cell division.</i><r /><div><img sr
c="paste-661424963871.jpg" /></div>
1401140293505 1395802358422 {{c1::Permanent}} cells are a <>type</>&nsp;o
f cell that <>remain in G<su>0</su>&nsp;</>and regenerate from stem cells.
<r /><div><i>e.g. neurons, skeletal and cardiac muscle.</i></div>
1401140459553 1395802358422 {{c1::Stale}} cells are a <>type</>&nsp;of c
ells that <>enter G<su>1</su>&nsp;from G<su>0</su>&nsp;when stimulated</
>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. hepatocytes, lymphocytes</i></div>
1401140497429 1395802358422 {{c1::Laile}} cells are a <>type</>&nsp;of c
ell that <>never go to G<su>0</su>&nsp;</>and <>divide rapidly with a shor
t G<su>1</su>.</>
<r /><div><i>These type of cells are the most affected

y chemotherapy</i></div><div><i>e.g. one marrow, gut epithelium, skin, hair fo
llicles and germ cells.</i></div>
1401140571086 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of synthesi
s of secretory (exported) proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Any cells that are highly secretory are rich in RER.</i></div>
1401140650725 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site where <>Nlinked oligosaccharides</>&nsp;are added to proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Rough ER}}</div>
1401140679478 1395802358422 {{c1::Nissl Bodies}} are the Rough ER in neurons
that function to synthesize peptide neurotransmitters for secretion.
1401142296564 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of steroid
synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth ER}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence, ste
roid producing cells are rich in SER.</i></div>
1401142323681 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of drug and
poison detoxification?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth ER}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence, hepatocytes are aundant in SER.</i></div>
1401142338139 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Rough ER}} is a cellular organell
e that is the site of synthesis of secretory proteins as they have surface rios
omes. <r /><div><i>In fact, it is these surface riosomes that make the RER l
ook rough.</i></div>
1401143001013 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle functions as the <>dis
triution center</>&nsp;for proteins and lipids from the ER to the vesicles an
d plasma memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Golgi Apparatus}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4316442133115.jpg" /></div>
1401143055032 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle functions to <>modify
N-oligosaccharides</>&nsp;on asparagine residues?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G
olgi apparatus}}</div>
1401143100313 1395802358422 Which amino acid undergoes N-linked glycosylatio
n in the Rough ER?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asparagine}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>i.e. an N-oligosaccharide is added to Asparagine</i></div>
1401143226244 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of O-linked
glycosylation of proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Golgi Apparatus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>g<>O</>lgi = <>O</>-linked glycosylation</i></div>
1401143284426 1395802358422 Which amino acids are involved in O-linked glyco
sylation in the Golgi apparatus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Serine; Threonine}}<
/div>
1401143313472 1395802358422 {{c1::Mannose-6-phosphate}} is a monosaccharide
that is added to proteins to allow for <>protein trafficking to lysosomes</>.
1401143377052 1395802358422 Which monosaccharisde is added to proteins in th
e Golgi to allow for <>trafficking to lysosomes</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Mannose-6-phosphate}}</div>
1401143424047 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle functions to add mannos
e-6-phosphate to proteins for trafficking to lysosomes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Golgi apparatus}}</div>
1401143457076 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::endosome}} is an organelle that f
unctions as sorting centers for material from outside the cell or from the Golgi
.
<r /><div><i>Therey either sending material to the lysosomes for degra
dation, the memrane for secretion or ack to the Golgi for further use.</i></di
v><div><i><img src="paste-4312147165819.jpg" /></i></div>
1401143527967 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease (Inclusion Cell Disease)}}
is an inherited lysosomal storage disorder that involves a defect in phosphotran
sferase, therey resulting in failure of the Golgi apparatus to phosphorylate ma
nnose residues. <r /><div><i>Hence, proteins enter the default secretory pathwa
y instead of eing sent to lysosomes.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, the lysosomal t
rafficking signal is Mannose-6-Phosphate.</i></div>
1401144019445 1395802358422 Which enzyme is defective in I-Cell Disease, the
rey resulting in defective protein trafficking/secretion?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Phosphotransferase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Mannose residues ca
nnot e phosphorylated on glycoproteins. Therey results in proteins entering th
e default secretory pathway (extracellular secretion) instead of eing sent to l

ysosomes.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, the lysosomal trafficking signal is mannose
-6-phosphate.</i></div>
1401144112641 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of I-Cell Diseas
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1401144172277 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that involves <>high plasma levels of lysosomal enz
ymes</>&nsp;due to a Phosphotransferase defect.
1401144228202 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that involves <>coarse facial features</>&nsp;and
<>clouded corneas</>&nsp;due to a defect in Phosphotransferase.
1401144266688 1395802358422 {{c1::I-cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that involves <>restricted joint movement</>&nsp;
due to a defect in Phosphotransferase.
1401145159202 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that is often <>fatal in childhood</>&nsp;due to
a defect in Phosphotransferase.
1401145197644 1395802358422 {{c1::Signal Recognition Particle (SRP)}} is an
aundant, cytosolic rionucleoprotein that traffics proteins from the riosome t
o the Rough ER. <div><r /></div><i>Asent or defective SRPs result in <>accumu
lation of proteins in the cytosol</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-59828894439
70.jpg" /></div>
1401145469448 1395802358422 {{c1::COPI}} is a vesicular trafficking protein
that carries material through the Golgi in a <>retrograde</>&nsp;direction.
<r /><div><img src="paste-6146098201213.jpg" /></div>
1401145783406 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial through the Golgi in a <>retrograde</>&nsp;direction?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::COPI}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401145802810 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial <>from the Golgi to the ER</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::COPI}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>i.e. COPI goes <>ackwards</></i><r /><div><img src="past
e-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401145831987 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial through the Golgi in the <>anterograde</>&nsp;direction?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::COPII}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" />
</div>
1401145852835 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial <>from the ER to the Golgi</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::COPII}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>i.e. COPII goes <>forward</></i><r /><div><img src="paste
-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401145902833 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein moves materi
al <>throughout the Golgi</>&nsp;(i.e. is <i>trans</i>-Golgi)?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Clathrin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" />
</div>
1401146136741 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial <>from the Golgi to lysosomes</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clathrin}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401146158054 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial <>from the plasma memrane to endosomes</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cl
athrin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401146180723 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein in involved
with receptor-mediated endocytosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clathrin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401146203051 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Peroxisome}} is a memrane-enclos
ed organelle involved in the cataolism of very-long-chain FAs, ranched-chain F
As and amino acids.
1401147474137 1395802358422 Which organelle is involved in the cataolism of
very-long-chain and ranched-chain fatty acids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pero
xisome}}</div>
1401147500313 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::proteasome}} is a arrel-shaped p
rotein complex that degrades damaged or uiquitin-tagged proteins.
<r><div

><i>Uiquitin-proteasome complex defects have een implicated in Parkinson Disea
se.</i></div>
1401147562313 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Microtuule}} is a cylindrical ce
llular structure composed of a helical array of polymerized heterodimers of&nsp
;α- nd&nbsp;β-tuulin. <r /><div><img src="paste-7687991460172.jpg" /></div>
1401148318233 1395802358422 Which nucleoside triphosphate is ound to each&n
sp;α- nd β-tuulin heterodimer in microtuules?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GTP}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>Each dimer has 2 GTP ound.</i></div>
1401148397662 1395802358422 Which cytoskeletal filament is incorporated into
flagella, cilia and mitotic spindles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuules}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-7765300871514.jpg" /></div>
1401148437875 1395802358422 Which cytoskeletal filament is involved in slow
axoplasmic transport in neurons?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuules}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7761005904218.jpg" /></div>
1401148482016 1395802358422 Which molecular motor protein transports cellula
r cargo in the <>retrograde</>&nsp;direction&nsp;towards the <>negative</>
&nsp;(-) end of the microtuule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dynein}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7761005904218.jpg" /></div>
1401149338014 1395802358422 Which molecular motor protein transports cargo i
n an <>anterograde</>&nsp;direction towards the <>positive</>&nsp;(+) end
of the microtuule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kinesin}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-7761005904218.jpg" /></div>
1401149386181 1395802358422 {{c1::Meendazole}} is an anti-helminthic drug t
hat targets microtuules.
<r /><div><img src="paste-8559869821146.jpg" />
</div>
1401149459874 1395802358422 {{c1::Griseofulvin}} is an anti-fungal agent tha
t targets microtuules. <r /><div><img src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" /></div>
1401149487279 1395802358422 {{c1::Colchicine}} is an anti-gout drug that tar
gets microtuules.
<r /><div><img src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" /></div>
1401149511537 1395802358422 {{c1::Vincristine}} and&nsp;{{c2::Vinlastine}}
are vinca-alkaloid anti-cancer drugs that target microtuules. <r /><div><img
src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" /></div>
1401149532767 1395802358422 {{c1::Paclitaxel}} is a taxol anti-cancer drug t
hat targets microtuules.
<r /><div><img src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" />
</div>
1401158079665 1395802358422 What microtuular arrangement is found in cilia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::9 + 2 in the centre}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-9431748182227.jpg" /></div>
1401158163022 1395802358422 {{c1::Axonemal Dynein}} is an ATPase found in ci
lia that links the peripheral 9 microtuule doulets.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-9427453214931.jpg" /></div>
1401158214524 1395802358422 {{c1::Axonemal Dynein}} is an ATPase found in mi
crotuules that causes ending of the cilium y differential sliding of the 9 pe
ripheral doulets.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9427453214931.jpg" /></d
iv>
1401158246963 1395802358422 Which molecular motor protein is found in cilia
and causes ending of the cilium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axonemal Dynein (vi
a ATP hydrolysis)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9427453214931.jpg
" /></div>
1401158285576 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that involves immotile cilia due to
a dynein arm defect.
1401158484461 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritence of&nsp;Kartagen
er Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal R
ecessive}}</div>
1401158502998 1395802358422 {{c1::Infertility}} is a complication of&nsp;Ka
rtagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia) that arises in males due to <>im
motile sperm</>.
1401158598320 1395802358422 {{c1::Infertility}} is a complication of&nsp;Ka
rtagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia) that arises in females due to <>

dysfunctional fallopian tue cilia</>.
1401158625860 1395802358422 How does the risk of ectopic pregnancy change in
&nsp;Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, there are cilia along the fallop
ian tue. Hence defective cilia activity will result in an increased chance of i
mplantation occuring in the fallopian tue instead of the uterus.</i></div>
1401158681823 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that presents with <>ronchiectasis
</>&nsp;and <>recurrent sinusitis</>&nsp;due to a dynein arm defect in cili
a.
1401158732423 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that causes <>situs inversus</>&n
sp;due to a dynein arm defect in cilia.
1401158761127 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that presents with <>dextrocardia</
>&nsp;on chest x-ray due to a dynein arm defect in cilia.
1401159108451 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filament is involved i
n muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin &amp; Myosin}}</div>
1401159153794 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filament is involved i
n microvilli?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin &amp; myosin}}</div>
1401159162085 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filament is involved i
n cytokinesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin; Myosin}}</div>
1401159171813 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filament is involved i
n adherens junctions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin; Myosin}}</div>
1401159188214 1395802358422 {{c1::Myosin}} is a dimeric, ATP-driven motor pr
otein that moves along actin chains.
1401159210960 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filaments are involved
in axonal trafficking?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuule}}</div>
1401159533349 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filament is involved
with movement?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuules}}</div>
1401159869635 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filament is involved
with structure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intermediate filaments}}</div>
1401159888009 1395802358422 {{c1::Ergosterol}} is a sterol molecule that is
uniquely found in fungal plasma memranes.
1401159918917 1395802358422 What type of cell contains the intermediate fila
ment Vimentin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Connective tissue}}</div>
1401159955331 1395802358422 What type of cell contains the intermediate fila
ment Desmin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscle}}</div>
1401159963941 1395802358422 What type of cell contains the intermediate fila
ment Cytokeratin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium}}</div>
1401159971500 1395802358422 What type of cell contains the intermediate fila
ment Glial Firillary Acid Protein (GFAP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroglia}
}</div>
1401159990136 1395802358422 What type of cell contain Neurofilaments?<div><
r></div><div>{{c1::Neurons}}</div>
<r><div><i>Lol @ this card. Just trying
to e complete here.</i></div>
1401160016409 1395802358422 On which side of the plasma memrane is the ATP
inding site on the Na/K ATPase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytosolic}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11196979740887.jpg" /></div>
1401160173996 1395802358422 In which direction across the plasma memrane do
es the Na/K ATPase move Na?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3 Na out per ATP consumed
}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-11673721110738.jpg" /></div>
1401160216456 1395802358422 In which direction across the plasma memrane do
es the Na/K ATPase move K?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2 K in per ATP consumed}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11673721110738.jpg" /></div>
1401160286191 1395802358422 {{c1::Ouaain}} is a poisonous cardiac glycoside
commonly used as "arrow poison" that inhiits the Na/K ATPase y inding to the
K inding site.
<r /><div><img src="paste-11678016078034.jpg" /></div>
1401160371962 1395802358422 {{c1::Digoxin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Digitoxin}} are c
ardiac glycosides that directly inhiits the Na/K ATPase.
<r /><div><i>Th

is then causes indirect inhiition of the Na/Ca exchanger and a susequent <>in
crease</>&nsp;in [Ca]<su>i</su>, therey increasing cardiac contractility.</
i></div>
1401160661819 1395802358422 What is the most aundant protein in the human 
ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Collagen}}</div>
1401160767495 1395802358422 What is the most common type of collagen?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I (90%)}}</div>
1401160904834 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in one?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>B<>one</><r /></i
><div><i>Made y osteolasts.</i></div>
1401161078696 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in skin?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161087124 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in tendons?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161094476 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the cornea?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161153453 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in dentin?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161160448 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in fascia?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161173373 1395802358422 Which type of collagen has defective production
in Ostegenesis Imperfecta, Type I?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161203746 1395802358422 Which type of collagen is found in cartilage?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Car<>two</>lage<
/i></div>
1401161225814 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the vitreous 
ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1401161242129 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the nucleus pu
lposus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1401161252761 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in Reticulin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1401161317722 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in lood vessel w
alls?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III (as Reticulin)}}</div>
1401161343636 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in granulation ti
ssue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III (as Reticulin)}}</div>
1401161356962 1395802358422 What type of collagen is deficient in the <>vas
cular type</>&nsp;of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I
II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Thre<>E D</></i></div>
1401161403471 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the asement m
emrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Type IV is
under the floor (i.e. asement)</i></div>
1401161708043 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the asal lami
na?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401161716779 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the lens of th
e eye?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401161748636 1395802358422 What type of collagen is defective in Alport Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401161769216 1395802358422 What type of collagen is targeted y autoantiod
ies in Goodpasture Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401215680713 1395802358422 Where inside firolasts is collagen synthesized
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, secreted
proteins are made in the RER.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-489626272441.jpg
" /></i></div>
1401215758397 1395802358422 {{c1::Preprocollagen}} is the initial form of sy
nthesized collagen made at the Rough ER and involves alpha-chains of Glycine-X-
amino acids. <r /><div><i>X and  are either proline or lysine.</i></div>
1401215857964 1395802358422 What is the most aundant amino acid in collagen
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glycine}}</div>
1401215869212 1395802358422 Which organelle in firolasts is the site of hy
droxylation of specific Proline and Lysine residues in Preprocollagen?<div><r /

></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.
jpg" /></div>
1401215918908 1395802358422 Which amino acids in Preprocollagen are hydroxyl
ated in the Rough ER?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Proline}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The resultant Hydroxylysine and Hydroxyproline residues are
later integral in collagen firil formation.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-48533
1305145.jpg" /></div>
1401216004988 1395802358422 Which vitamin is an essential cofactor in the hy
droxylation of Preprocollagen in the Rough ER?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitami
n C}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence a deficiency causes scurvy.</i></div><div><i
><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></i></div>
1401216036574 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is a connective tissue disorder c
haracterized y impaired collagen synthesis that results from a deficiency of Vi
tamin C.
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401216069493 1395802358422 Which organelle in firolasts is the site of gl
ycosylation of Preprocollagen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401216608756 1395802358422 {{c1::Procollagen}} is an intermediate of collag
en synthesis that is made y the glycosylation of pro-alpha-chain hydroxylysine
residues and hydrogen/disulfide ond interactions.
<div><r /></div><i>Proc
ollagen is a <>triple helix of 3 collagen alpha-chains</>&nsp;that comes toge
ther via hydrogen and disulfide ond interactions following glycosylation of pro
-alpha-chain hydroxylysine.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></
div>
1401216834649 1395802358422 {{c1::Procollagen}} is an intermediate of collag
en synthesis that is structured as a triple helix of 3 collagen alpha-chains.
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401216860810 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a one disord
er that arises from an <>inaility to form procollagen</>&nsp;(prolems formi
ng a triple helix of collagen alpha-chains).
<r><div><img src="paste-4853313
05145.jpg" /></div>
1401216904238 1395802358422 {{c1::Tropocollagen}} is an intermediate of coll
agen synthesis that is formed following the cleavage of disulfide-rich terminal
regions of procollagen. <r /><div><i>Tropocollagen is insolule. Procollagen is
solule. Keep this in mind to rememer where each is formed. We don't want trop
ocollagen eing formed inside of the cell as it will kill the cell as tropocolla
gen mocs come together. On the flip side, we want this to happen outside of the
cell so that collagen firils can form.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4853313
05145.jpg" /></i></div>
1401217159741 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to cross-link staggered t
ropocollagen molecules into collagen firils through covalent lysine-hydroxylysi
ne cross-links?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lysyl Oxidase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401217327420 1395802358422 {{c1::Lysyl Oxidase}} is a <>Cu-containing</>&
nsp;enzyme responsile for cross-linking staggered tropocollagen molecules into
collagen firils through covalent lysine-hydroxylysine cross-links.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></div>
1401217425241 1395802358422 Which trace element/metal is found in Lysyl Oxid
ase and is necessary for its function in collagen synthesis?<div><r></div><div>
{{c1::Copper (as Cu²⁺)}}</div>
<r><div><img src="paste-4853313
05145.jpg" /></div>
1401217574190 1395802358422 {{c1::Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome}} is a connective t
issue disorder that arises due to prolems with cross-linking tropocollagen mole
cules into collagen firils.
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /><
/div>
1401217621218 1395802358422 What genetic one disorder is also referred to a
s Brittle Bone Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}}</di
v>
1401217743926 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of the <>most c
ommon form</>&nsp;of Osteogenesis Imperfecta?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autos

omal Dominant}}</div> <r /><div><i>Defect involves a decreased production of
otherwise normal Type I collagen.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, Type I collagen is
found in ones.</i></div>
1401217828622 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a genetic on
e disorder that involves severe skeletal deformities, lim shortening and multip
le fractures in a child due to <>defective Type I collagen production</>.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-2933462663475.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>In
the right image, there are ilateral proximal femur fractures; the right femue
is pinned and healing while the left femur has healed</i></div>
1401217945805 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a genetic on
e disorder that presents with multiple one fractures after minimal trauma, poss
ily even during childirth.
1401218009697 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a genetic on
e disorder that presents with <>lue sclera</>&nsp;due to the translucency of
the connective tissue over choroidal veins.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-3135326126287.jpg" /></div>
1401218063902 1395802358422 {{c1::Hearing Loss}} is a complication of Osteog
enesis Imperfecta that results from anormal ossicle formation.
1401218095320 1395802358422 {{c1::Dental imperfections}} are a complication
of Osteogenesis Imperfecta due to a lack of dentin formation.
1401218132265 1395802358422 {{c1::Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome}} is a connective t
issue disorder that presents with hyperextensile skin, tendency to leed and hy
permoile joints due to faulty collagen cross-linking. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-3491808412251.jpg" /></div>
1401229430672 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Ehlers-Danlos
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Can e AD or AR}}</div>
1401229484480 1395802358422 What is the <>most common type</>&nsp;of Ehle
rs-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypermoility Type (with join ins
taility)}}</div>
1401229513466 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypermoility type}} is the most common <
>type</>&nsp;of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome and involves hypermoile and unstale j
oints.
1401229548064 1395802358422 {{c1::Classical Type}} is a <>type</>&nsp;of
Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome that is caused y a mutation in Type V collagen.
1401229597733 1395802358422 What type of collagen is mutated in the Classica
l type of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type V}}</div>
1401229616243 1395802358422 What is the most severe type of Ehlers-Danlos Sy
ndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vascular type}}</div>
1401229627616 1395802358422 What type of collagen is deficient in the Vascul
ar type of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1401229654417 1395802358422 {{c1::Vascular Type}} is a type of Ehlers-Danlos
syndrome that involves vascular and organ rupture due to a deficiency in type I
II collagen.
1401229695813 1395802358422 {{c1::Menkes Disease}} is a connective tissue di
sorder that is caused y <>impaired copper asorption and transport</>.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Lysyl Oxidase, the enzye responsile for cross-linking t
ropocollagen into collagen firils, requires Copper as a cofactor. Hence there w
ill e decreased collagen.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3487513444955.jpg" /
></i></div>
1401229768194 1395802358422 What trace element sees an impairment in asorpt
ion and transport in Menkes Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Copper}}</div>
1401229794453 1395802358422 {{c1::Menkes Disease}} is a connective tissue di
sorder that involves decreased activity of lysyl oxidase due to impaired copper
asorption and transport.
1401230044123 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with the cross-linking of
collagen firils is impaired in Menkes Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lysyl
Oxidase}}</div>
1401230241423 1395802358422 {{c1::Menkes Disease}} is a connective tissue di
sorder that results in <>rittle, "kinky" hair</>&nsp;due to impaired copper
asorption/transport.

1401230332326 1395802358422 {{c1::Menkes Disease}} is a connective tissue di
sorder that involves <>growth retardation</>&nsp;and <>hypotonia</>&nsp;du
e to impaired copper asorption and transport.
1401230373851 1395802358422 {{c1::Ligamenta Flava}} are ligaments <>rich in
elastin</>&nsp;that connect verterae.
<r /><div><i>They have relaxed
and stretched conformations.</i></div>
1401230443361 1395802358422 Which 2 amino acids are aundant in Elastin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Proline; Glycine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>In their n
onhydroxylated forms (compare to collagen that has hydroxyproline residues).</i>
</div>
1401230492292 1395802358422 Which enzyme reaks down Elastin?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Elastase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Inhiited y&nsp;α₁-nti
trypsin</i></div>
1401230604495 1395802358422 Which ntiprotese normlly inhibits Elstse?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::α₁-ntitrypsin}}</div>
1401230620600 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is  connective tissue d
isorder tht is cused by  defect in fibrillin,  glycoprotein tht forms  she
th round elstin.
1401230899568 1395802358422 Which connective tissue glycoprotein is defectiv
e in Mrfn Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrillin}}</div>
1401230921925 1395802358422 {{c1::Emphysem}} is  COPD tht cn be cused b
y n&nbsp;α₁-ntitrypsin deficiency. <br /><div><i>Deficiency of&nbsp
;α₁-ntitrypsin cuses n excess of Elstse deficiency nd too much br
ekdown of elstin.</i></div>
1401230986013 1395802358422 Which ntiprotese deficiency is ssocited with
cusing Emphysem?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::α₁-ntitrypsin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Leds to overctive Elstse.</i></div>
1401231780209 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymerse Chin Rection (PCR)}} is  mol
eculr biology lbortory procedure used to mplify  desired frgment of DNA.
<br /><div><i>Quite useful s  dignostic tool.</i></div><div><i><img src="pst
e-6266357285141.jpg" /></i></div>
1401232010170 1395802358422 {{c1::Southern Blot}} is  blotting procedure us
ed to identify DNA by cleving, electrophoresis, denturing nd renneling DNA
to rdiolbeled DNA probes with known sequences.
<br /><div><i>The result
nt dsDNA is lbeled nd visulized on  filter when exposed to film.</i></div>
1401232854224 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify DNA
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Southern Blot}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-6498285518984.jpg" /></div>
1401232872658 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify RNA
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Northern Blot}}</div>
1401232888355 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify pro
tein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Western blot}}</div>
1401232899598 1395802358422 {{c1::Northern Blot}} is  blotting procedure us
ed to identify RNA by clevge, electrophoresis, nd lbelling of RNA vi rdiol
beled RNA probes.
<br /><div><i>Similr procedure to Southern Blot except
with RNA.</i></div><div><i>Useful to mesure mRNA levels which re reflective of
gene expression.</i></div>
1401233036153 1395802358422 {{c1::Western Blot}} is  blotting procedure th
t is used to identify protein by electrophoresis nd lbelling of proteins with
<br /><div><i>Used to confirm HIV fter  positive ELISA.</i></d
ntibodies.
iv>
1401233124413 1395802358422 {{c1::Southwestern Blot}} is  blotting procedur
e used to indentify <b>DNA-binding proteins</b>&nbsp;by using lbeled oligonucle
otide probes. <br /><div><i>e.g. identifiction of trnscription fctors.</i><
/div>
1401233162723 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify DNA
-binding proteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Southwestern Blot}}</div>
1401233178499 1395802358422 {{c1::Microrry}} is  lbortory technique th
t involves thousnds of nucleic cid sequences rrnged in grids on glss or sil
icon. DNA/RNA probes subsequently hybridize to the chip, llowing the scnner to

detect the mount of complementry binding.
<br><div><i>Used to profile gene
expression levels of thousnds of genes simultneously to study certin disese
s nd Tx.</i></div><div><i>Cn detect nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) nd copy n
umber vrition (CNVs) for  vriety of pplictions such s genotyping, clinic
l genetic testing, forensic nlysis, cncer muttions nd genetic linkge nly
sis.</i></div>
1401233720061 1395802358422 {{c1::Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assy (ELISA)}
} is  lbortory technique used to detect the presence of either  specific nt
igen (direct) or specific ntibody (indirect) in  ptient's blood.
<br /><d
iv><i>Used widely to detect specific ntibodies (esp. nti-HIV).</i></div><div><
i>Specificity nd sensitivity both pproch 100%, but flse results still occur.
</i></div>
1401235652556 1395802358422 {{c1::Indirect ELISA}} is  type of ELISA tht <
b>uses  test ntigen</b>&nbsp;<b>to detect  specific ntibody</b>&nbsp;in  p
tient's blood. <br /><div><i>Secondry ntibody coupled to  colour-generting
enzyme is dded to detect the first ntibody.</i></div><div><i>If there is n in
tense colour rection, the test is positive.</i></div>
1401235750404 1395802358422 {{c1::Direct ELISA}} is  type of ELISA tht <b>
uses  test ntibody to detect  specific ntigen</b>&nbsp;in the ptient's bloo
d.
<br /><div><i>A secondry ntibody is coupled to  colour-generting enz
yme nd is dded to detect the ntigen.</i></div><div><i></i><i>If there is n i
ntense colour rection, the test is positive.</i></div>
1401236082830 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluorescence in situ hybridiztion}} is 
lbortory technique tht uses fluorescent DNA or RNA probes to bind to specific
gene sites of interest <u>on chromosomes</u>. <br /><div><i>Used to specificl
ly loclize genes nd directly visulize nomlies t the moleculr level, espec
illy when microdeletions re too smll to be visulized by kryotyping.</i></di
v>
1401236240324 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluorescence in situ hybridiztion}} is 
lbortory technique used to specificlly loclize genes nd directly visulize
nomlies t the moleculr level, especilly when microdeletions re too smll t
o be visulized by kryotyping. <br /><div><i>Fluorescence &nbsp;= gene is prese
nt. No fluorescence = gene is bsent nd hs been deleted.</i></div>
1401236286523 1395802358422 {{c1::Cloning}} is  lbortory technique tht p
roduces  recombinnt DNA molecule tht is self-perpetuting. <br /><div><img
src="pste-9281424326843.jpg" /></div>
1401236519866 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Cre-Lox System}} is  gene expres
sion modifiction tht cn inducibly mnipulte genes t specific developmentl
points. <br /><div><i>e.g. to study  gene whose deletion cuses embryonic deth
</i></div>
1401236661580 1395802358422 {{c1::RNA Interference (RNAi)}} is  gene expres
sion modifiction tht employs dsRNA molecules tht re injected into trget cel
ls, seprte nd promote the degrdtion of mRNA.
<br /><div><i>Thereby "k
nocking down" gene expression.</i></div>
1401236732256 1395802358422 {{c1::Kryotyping}} is  lbortory technique th
t obtins metphse chromosomes nd then stins, orders nd numbers them ccord
ing to morphology, size, rm-length rtio nd bnding pttern. <br /><div><i>C
n be performed on  smple of blood, bone mrrow, mniotic fluid, or plcentl t
issue.</i></div>
1401236822313 1395802358422 Which lbortory technique is used to dignose c
hromosoml imblnces?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Kryotyping}}</div>
1401305014970 1395802358422 {{c1::Codominnce}} is  genetic term defined s
both lleles contributing to the phenotype of  heterozygote. <br /><div><i>e.
g. AB blood group; lph-1-ntitrypsin deficiency</i></div>
1401305135635 1395802358422 {{c1::Vrible Expressivity}} is  genetic term
defined s phenotype vrition mong individuls with the sme genotype.
<br /><div><i>e.g. 2 ptients with NF1 my hve vrying disese severity</i></di
v>
1401305292576 1395802358422 {{c1::Incomplete Penetrnce}} is  genetic pheno
menon described s not ll individuls with  mutnt genotype hving  mutnt ph

enotype.
<br /><div><i>e.g. BRCA1 muttions do not lwys cuse brest/ov
rin cncer.</i></div>
1401305457826 1395802358422 {{c1::Pleiotropy}} is  genetic term tht descri
bes one gene contributing to multiple phenotypic effects.
<br /><div><i>e.
g. Untreted PKU mnifests s light skin tone, intellectul disbility nd must
body odor/urine.</i></div>
1401305530423 1395802358422 {{c1::Anticiption}} is  genetic term described
s n incresed severity or erlier onset of disese in succeeding genertions.
<br><div><i>e.g. Huntington's Disese (or other trinucleotide repet disorders)<
/i></div>
1401305623612 1395802358422 {{c1::Loss of Heterozygosity}} is  genetic phen
omenon tht occurs when  ptient inherits/develops  muttion in  tumour suppr
essor gene <b>nd</b>&nbsp;the complementry llele is deleted/mutted. <br /><d
iv><i>This loss of heterozygosity must occur before cncer develops.</i></div><d
iv><i>Also, <b>this does not pply to oncogenes</b>.</i></div><div><i>e.g. Retin
oblstom nd the "2 hit hypothesis"</i></div>
1401305725509 1395802358422 {{c1::Dominnt Negtive Muttion}} is  genetic
phenomenon tht involves  heterozygote producing  <u>nonfunctionl ltered pro
tein tht prevents the norml gene product from functioning</u>.
<br /><d
iv><i>e.g. Muttion of  trnscription fctor <u>t its llosteric site</u>; hen
ce, the nonfunctioning mutnt cn still bind DNA nd prevent the wild-type trns
cription fctor from binding</i></div>
1401305951154 1395802358422 {{c1::Linkge Disequilibrium}} is  genetic phen
omenon tht is described by the tendency for certin lleles t 2 linked loci to
occur together more often thn expected by chnce.
<br /><div><i>Mesured i
n popultions, not fmilies.</i></div><div><i>Vries mongst popultions.</i></d
iv>
1401306026318 1395802358422 {{c1::Mosicism}} is  genetic term defined s t
he presence of geneticlly distinct cell lines the <b>sme</b>&nbsp;individul d
ue to mitotic errors fter fertiliztion.
<br><div><i>McCune-Albright Synd
rome is lethl if the muttion is somtic, but survivble if mosic.</i></div>
1401306121127 1395802358422 {{c1::Somtic Mosicism}} is  type of genetic m
osicism where the muttion propgtes through multiple tissues or orgns.
1401306159940 1395802358422 {{c1::Gondl Mosicism}} is  type of genetic m
osicism where the muttion is only in egg or sperm cells.
1401306179125 1395802358422 {{c1::Locus Heterogeneity}} is  genetic phenome
non tht occurs when muttions t different loci cn produce  similr phenotype
.
<br /><div><i>e.g. lbinism</i></div>
1401306574918 1395802358422 {{c1::Allelic heterogeneity}} is  genetic pheno
menon where different muttions in the sme locus produce the sme phenotype.
<br /><div><i>e.g. bet-thlssemi</i></div>
1401306620685 1395802358422 {{c1::Heteroplsmy}} is  genetic term defined 
s the presence of both norml nd mutted mtDNA, thereby resulting in vrible e
xpression in mitochondril inherited disese.
1401306671117 1395802358422 {{c1::Uniprentl Disomy}} is  genetic phenomen
on tht involves offspring receiving 2 copies of  chromosome from 1 prents nd
no copies from the other prent.
<br /><div><i>The individul is euploid,
not neuploid.</i></div><div><i>Most UPD occurrences yield norml phenotypes.</
i></div><div><i>Alwys consider UPD in n individul mnifesting  recessive dis
order when only one prent is  crrier.</i></div>
1401307301450 1395802358422 {{c1::Heterodisomy}} is  type of Uniprentl Di
somy tht is cused by  meiosis I error.
1401307335934 1395802358422 {{c1::Isodisomy}} is  type of Uniprentl Disom
y cn be cused by  meiosis II error.
1401307393948 1395802358422 {{c1::Isodisomy}} is  type of Uniprentl Disom
y tht cn be cused by  postzygotic chromosoml dupliction of 1 or  pir of
chromosomes nd the loss of the originl pir.
1401307515398 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>freq
uency of homozygosity for llele p</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::p²
}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img src="pste-13645111099592.jpg" />

1401307915884 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>freq
uency of homozygosity for llele q</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::q²
}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-13640816132296.jpg" /></div>
1401307944084 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>freq
uency of heterozygosity</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2pq}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-13640816132296.jpg" /></div>
1401307999053 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>crr
ier frequency of n utosoml recessive disese</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
2pq}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>i.e. wht is the vlue for the frequency of
Heterozygous crriers</i><br /><div><img src="pste-13640816132296.jpg" /></div>
1401308029683 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg eqution?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::p²&nbsp;+ 2pq + q²&nbsp;= 1}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Also, p + q = 1</i><br /><div><img src="pste-13640816132296
.jpg" /><img src="pste-14508399526045.jpg" /></div>
1401308082709 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for <b>the freq
uency of n X-linked recessive disorder </b><u style="font-weight: bold; ">in m
les</u>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::q}}</div>
1401308223314 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>freq
uency of n X-linked recessive disorder </b><b style="text-decortion: underline
; ">in femles</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::q²}}</div>
1401308284814 1395802358422 {{c1::Imprinting}} is  genetic phenomenon descr
ibed by only one llele being ctive t  locus while the other is inctive due
to methyltion. <br /><div><i>With tht one llele inctivted, deletion/muttio
n of the ctive llele will cuse disese.</i></div>
1401309940398 1395802358422 Which chromosome is implicted in both Prder-Wi
lli nd Angelmn Syndromes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 15}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both re imprinting disorders.</i></div><div><i>Both cn lso be c
used by uniprentl disomy.</i></div>
1401310233410 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht cn result from deletion of the <b>pternl</b>&nbsp;gene s
the mternl gene is normlly silent. <br /><div><i><b>P</b>rder-Willi = <b>p
</b>ternl gene is deleted/mutted <u>or</u>&nbsp;mternl uniprentl disomy.<
/i></div>
1401310757919 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht cn result due to mternl uniprentl disomy.
<br /><d
iv><i>2 mternlly imprinted genes re received, hence there is no pternl gene
. This is synonymous to pternl gene deletion/muttion.</i></div>
1401310827381 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht results from pternl gene deletion nd presents with <b>hyp
erphgi</b>&nbsp;nd <b>obesity</b>.
1401310870123 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht results from pternl gene deletion nd presents with&nbsp;<
b>intellectul disbility</b>&nbsp;nd <b>hypotoni</b>.
1401310888407 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is  genetic impri
nting disorder tht results from pternl gene deletion nd presents with&nbsp;<
b>hypogondism</b>.
1401311316361 1395802358422 {{c1::Angelmn Syndrome}} is  genetic imprintin
g disorder tht cn result from deletion of the <b>mternl</b>&nbsp;gene s the
pternl gene is normlly silent.
<br /><div><i>Angel<b>M</b>n = <b>M</b>
ternl gene deletion/muttion <u>or</u>&nbsp;pternl uniprentl disomy</i></d
iv>
1401311367226 1395802358422 {{c1::Angelmn Syndrome}} is  genetic imprintin
g disorder tht cn result from pternl uniprentl disomy
<br /><div>2<i>&
nbsp;pternlly imprinted genes re inherited nd no mterl gene is received. T
his is synonymous with  mternl gene deletion.</i></div>
1401311434739 1395802358422 {{c1::Angelmn Syndrome}} is  genetic imprintin
g disorder cused by <b>mternl</b>&nbsp;gene deletion tht presents with <b>in
pproprite lughter ("hppy puppet")</b>.
1401311473899 1395802358422 {{c1::Angelmn Syndrome}} is  genetic imprintin
g disorder cused by&nbsp;<b>mternl</b>&nbsp;gene deletion tht presents with&

nbsp;<b>seizures, txi </b>nd <b>severe intellectul disbility</b>.
1401311491675 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence often involves
defects in structurl genes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><img src="pste-16664473108669.jpg" /></div>
1401312280600 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence ffects mny g
enertions nd both mles nd femles somewht eqully?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16660178141373.jpg" /
></div>
1401312311299 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is often ssoc
ited with pleiotropic disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}
}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16660178141373.jpg" /></div>
1401312346790 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is often ssoc
ited with enzyme deficiencies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}
</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16849156702401.jpg" /></div>
1401312388196 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is usully see
n in only 1 genertion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Typiclly more severe thn dominnt disorders.</i><br /><div
><img src="pste-16844861735105.jpg" /></div>
1401312665793 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is often ssoc
ited with disorders tht present in childhood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autos
oml Recessive}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16844861735105.jpg" /></div>
1401312695125 1395802358422 How does the risk of Autosoml Recessive disorde
rs chnge in cosnguineous fmilies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div
>
1401312718534 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is commonly s
socited with disorders more severe in mles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linke
d recessive}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Femles must be homozygous to be ff
ected.</i><div><i>Sons of heterozygous mothers (crriers) hve  50% chnce of b
eing ffected.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-17437567221940.jpg" /></div></div>
1401313949767 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence will never occ
ur from fther to son?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive or Dominnt
(i.e. ny X-linked trnsmission)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>And mitochon
dril s well.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-17433272254644.jpg" /></div>
1401314206993 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hypophosphte
mic Rickets?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Dominnt}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-18627273162934.jpg" /></div>
1401314526121 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypophosphtemic Rickets}} is n X-linked
dominnt disorder tht results in incresed phosphte wsting t the proximl tu
bule. <br /><div><i>Yields  rickets-like presenttion.</i></div>
1401314561716 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypophosphtemic Rickets}} is n X-linked
dominnt disorder tht ws formerly known s Vitmin D-Resistnt Rickets.
<br /><div><i><br /></i></div>
1401314610940 1395802358422 Wht type of genetic inheritnce is trnsmitted
<b>exclusively</b>&nbsp;through the mother?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochond
ril Inheritnce}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>All offspring of ffected fe
mles re likely to show disese.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-18713172508868.j
pg" /></div>
1401314742506 1395802358422 Wht mode of genetic inheritence is ssocited w
ith disorders tht show vrible expression in  popultion/fmily due to hetero
plsmy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondril Inheritnce}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-18708877541572.jpg" /></div>
1401314812810 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitochondril Myopthies}} re  group of
rre myopthies tht often show <b>"rgged red fibers"</b>&nbsp;on  muscle biop
sy.<br />
<br /><div><i>Also present with myopthy, lctic cidosis nd CN
S disese.</i></div><div><i>Secondry to  filure in oxidtive phosphoryltion<
/i></div>
1401314957055 1395802358422 {{c1::Autosoml Dominnt Polycystic Kidney Dise
se (ADPKD)}} is n utosoml dominnt renl disorder tht involves <b>bilterl<
/b>, mssive enlrgement of the kidneys due to <b>multiple lrge cysts</b>.
1401318249013 1395802358422 Wht is the most common gene mutted in Autosom

l Dominnt Polycystic Kidney Disese (ADPKD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>PKD1
</i>&nbsp;on Chromosome 16 (85% of cses)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Chromosome
<b>16</b>; <b>16</b>&nbsp;letters&nbsp;</i></div>
1401318544275 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>second</b>&nbsp;most common gene
mutted in&nbsp;Autosoml Dominnt Polycystic Kidney Disese (ADPKD)?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>PKD2</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 4}}</div>
<div><i><br /></
i></div>
1401318732326 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Adenomtous Polyposis (FAP)}} is
n utosoml dominnt GI disorder tht involves numerous denomtous polyps fte
r puberty.
<br /><div><i>Progresses to colon cncer if the colon is not rem
oved.</i></div>
1401319063590 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in&nbsp;Fmilil Adenomtou
s Polyposis (FAP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>APC</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 5}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>"People use <b>A PC</b> to <b>FAP</b>."</i></div><div><i>C
hromosome 5; 5 letters in polyp.</i></div>
1401319113672 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi}} is n uto
soml dominnt crdiovsculr disorder tht involves n <b>elevted LDL</b>&nbsp
;due to defective or bsent LDL receptors.
<br /><div><i>Cuses severe the
rosclerotic disese erly in life nd <b>tendon xnthoms</b>&nbsp;(esp t the A
chilles tendon).</i></div>
1401319221991 1395802358422 {{c1::Hereditry Hemorrhgic Telngiectsi}} is
n utosoml dominnt vsculr disorder tht is lso known s Osler-Weber-Rendu
Syndrome.
<br /><div><i>Involves telngiectsi, recurrent epistxis, skin
discolourtion, rteriovenous mlformtions, GI bleeding nd hemturi.</i></di
v>
1401319326505 1395802358422 {{c1::Hereditry Spherocytosis}} is n utosoml
dominnt hemtologicl disorder tht involves <b>spheroid erythrocytes</b>&nbsp
;due to  <b>spectrin </b>or<b> nkyrin defect</b>.
<br><div><i>Cuses hemol
ytic nemi, increses MCHC.</i></div>
1401319402488 1395802358422 How does MCHC chnge in Hereditry Spherocytosis
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
1401319417415 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Hereditry Spherocytos
is??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Splenectomy}}</div>
1401319441109 1395802358422 {{c1::Huntington Disese}} is n utosoml domin
nt neurologicl disorder tht presents with <b>progressive dementi</b>, <b>cho
reiform movement</b>, nd&nbsp;<b>cudte trophy.</b> <br /><div><i>Also invol
ves decresed levels of GABA nd ACh in the brin.</i></div>
1401320017517 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the gene implicted in Hu
ntington Disese found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 4}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i><b>Hunting 4</b>&nbsp;food (chromosome 4)</i></div>
1401320040652 1395802358422 Which trinucleotide repet is involved in Huntin
gton Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The higher
the number of repets, the erlier the ge of onset.</i></div>
1401320376203 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is n utosoml dominnt
connective tissue disorder tht involves  Fibrillin-1 gene muttion. <br /><d
iv><i>Presents with long extremities, pectus excvtum, hypermobile joints, rc
hnodctyly, floppy mitrl vlve nd lens subluxtion.</i></div>
1401320431100 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in Mrfn Syndrome?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Fibrillin-1}}</div>
1401320441186 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is n utosoml dominnt
connective tissue disorder tht involves cystic medil necrosis of the ort, t
hereby leding to ortic incompetence nd ortic dissection.
1401320496509 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is n utosoml dominnt
connective tissue disorder tht involves subluxtion of the lenses, typiclly u
pwrd nd temporlly. <br /><div><i>Lens subluxtion is lso  key feture of
Homocystinuri, so keep tht shiet in mind, brh</i></div>
1401320603432 1395802358422 {{c1::Multiple Endocrine Neoplsi (MEN)}} is n
utosoml dominnt endocrine disorder tht involves fmilil tumours of endocri
ne glnds.
1401320650191 1395802358422 Which gene is ssocited with Multiple Endocrine

Neoplsi (MEN) 2A nd 2B?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>ret</i>}}</div>
1401320679948 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurofibromtosis Type 1 (NFT1)}} is n u
tsoml dominnt neurocutneous disorder chrcterized by cfe-u-lit spots nd
cutneous neurofibroms.
<br /><div><i>100% penetrnce</i></div>
1401320751795 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurofibromtosis Type 1 (NFT1)}} is n u
tosoml dominnt neurocutneous disorder tht is lso known s von Recklinhusen
disese.
1401320784152 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in&nbsp;Neurofibromtosis T
ype 1 (NFT1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>NF1</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 17}}</div
>
1401320821406 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>NF1</i>&nbsp;gene
found on?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::17}}</div> <br /><div><i>17 letters in von
Recklinghusen [Neurofibromtosis Type 1 (NFT1)]</i></div>
1401320856177 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurofibromtosis Type 2 (NFT2)}} is n u
tosoml dominnt neurologicl tumour disorder tht presents with <b>bilterl c
oustic schwnnoms</b>, juvenile ctrcts, meningioms nd ependymoms.
1401320914908 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in&nbsp;Neurofibromtosis T
ype 2 (NFT2)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>NF2</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 22}}</div
>
1401320929038 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>NF2</i>&nbsp;gene
found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 22}}</div>
1401320945013 1395802358422 {{c1::Tuberous Sclerosis}} is n utosoml domin
nt neurocutneous disorder tht presents with numerous benign hmrtoms with m
ulti-orgn system involvement.
1401321000685 1395802358422 {{c1::von Hippel-Lindu Disese}} is n utosom
l dominnt tumour disorder tht is chrcterized by the development of numerous
tumours s  result of deletion of the <i>VHL</i>&nbsp;tumour suppressor gene.
1401321052248 1395802358422 Which gene is deleted/mutted in von Hippel-Lind
u Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>VHL</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 3p; tumour
suppressor}}</div>
1401321103249 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>VHL</i>&nbsp;tumou
r suppressor gene found (von Hippel-Lindu Disese)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
3}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Chromosome 3; 3 words in VHL</i></div>
1401321188984 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Autosoml Dom
innt Polycystic Kidney Disese (ADPKD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Do
minnt}}</div> <br /><div><i>Just checking if you're still wke.</i></div>
1401321193442 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fmilil Aden
omtous Polyposis (FAP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</div>
1401321205737 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fmilil Hype
rcholesterolemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321222117 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hereditry He
morrhgic Telngiectsi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321237565 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hereditry Sp
herocytosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321245254 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Huntington Di
sese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321252099 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Mrfn Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321257717 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Multiple Endo
crine Neoplsi (MEN)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321266037 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Neurofibromt
osis Type 1 (NFT1; von Recklinghusen Disese)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}<
/div>
1401321292854 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Neurofibromt
osis Type 2 (NFT2)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321306910 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Tuberous Scle
rosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321314551 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of von Hippel-Li
ndu Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321323852 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Albinism?<div

><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321462608 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Autosoml Rec
essive Polycystic Kidney Disese (ARPKD; Infntile PKD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::AR}}</div> <br /><div><i>I men, if you're getting these kind of crds wron
g...</i></div>
1401321505781 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Cystic Fibros
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321511643 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hemochromtos
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321519029 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Krtgener Sy
ndrome (Primry Ciliry Dyskinesi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321547131 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Phenylketonur
i (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321581789 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Sickle Cell A
nemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321590038 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Wilson Dises
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321597841 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Thlssemis?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321796775 1395802358422 Wht gene is defective in Cystic Fibrosis?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>CFTR</i>&nbsp;on chromosome 7}}</div>
1401321845201 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>CFTR</i>&nbsp;gene
found (Cystic Fibrosis)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 7}}</div>
1401321860737 1395802358422 Wht muttion is commonly seen in the <i>CFTR</i
>&nbsp;gene in Cystic Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phe508 deletion; <i>C
FTR </i>gene; chromosome 7}}</div>
1401321903496 1395802358422 Wht is the most lethl genetic disese in the c
ucsin popultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cystic Fibrosis}}</div>
1401321931814 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b>&nbsp;of ion chnnel is normlly
encoded by the <i>CFTR</i>&nbsp;gene (Cystic Fibrosis)?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::ATP-gted Cl- chnnel}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The CFTR (Cystic Fibrosis
Trnsmembrne Conductnce Regultor) Cl chnnel <b>secretes </b>Cl into&nbsp;the
lungs nd GI trct nd <b>rebsorbs</b>&nbsp;Cl in swet glnds.</i></div><div>
<i><div></div></i><i>When it is mutted it is not trnsported to the membrne, r
esulting in decresed Cl secretion in the GI nd respirtory trcts nd decrese
d Cl rebsorption t swet glnds.</i></div><div><i>Incresed intrcellulr Cl t
riggers compenstory N rebsorption which then cuses incresed H2O rebsorptio
n, thereby cusing&nbsp;<b>thick mucus secretion into the lungs nd GI trct</b>
.</i></div><div><i>There is lso subsequently  more negtive trnsepithelil po
tentil difference.</i></div>
1401323194603 1395802358422 Where in the cell is misfolded CFTR (Cystic Fibr
osis Trnsmembrne Conductnce Regultor) retined?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::R
ough ER}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence it is not trnsported to the membrne, resul
ting in decresed Cl secretion in the GI nd respirtory trcts nd decresed Cl
rebsorption t swet glnds.</i></div><div><i>Incresed intrcellulr Cl trigg
ers compenstory N rebsorption which then cuses incresed H2O rebsorption, t
hereby cusing <b>thick mucus secretion into the lungs nd GI trct</b>.</i></di
v><div><i>There is lso subsequently  more negtive trnsepithelil potentil d
ifference.</i></div>
1401323478191 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystic Fibrosis}} is n utosoml recessiv
e genetic disorder tht is dignosed by <b>incresed [Cl^-] (&gt; 60 m
Eq/L) in swet</b>.
1401323556626 1395802358422 {{c2::Alklosis}} nd {{c1::Hypoklemi}} re po
ssible complictions of Cystic Fibrosis due to the loss of H₂O nd N
from the extrcellulr fluid nd resultnt K⁺&nbsp;nd H⁺
&nbsp;wsting. <br /><div><i>The loss of H2O nd N from the ECF is nlogous t
o the ptient tking  loop diuretic.</i></div>
1401323651080 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>}} is  grmnegtive bcteri tht commonly cuses recurrent pulmonry infections in ptient
s with Cystic Fibrosis.

1401323873866 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchiectsis}} is  pulmonry complicti
on of Cystic Fibrosis tht presents with  <b>reticulonodulr pttern </b>on CXR
.
1401323972934 1395802358422 {{c1::Pncretic Insufficiency}} is n endocrine
compliction of Cystic Fibrosis due to decresed dringe of pncretic secreti
ons nd subsequent chronic pncretitis.
<br /><div><i>This brings bout
further complictions such s mlbsorption, stetorrhe, nd Vit A, D, E &mp;
K deficiencies</i></div>
1401324204908 1395802358422 {{c1::Meconium ileus}} is  GI compliction of C
ystic Fibrosis commonly seen in newborns.
1401324263674 1395802358422 {{c1::Infertility}} is  compliction of Cystic
Fibrosis seen in mles due to the bsence of the vs deferens nd sperm.
1401324301134 1395802358422 Which vitmin deficiencies re commonly seen in
Cystic Fibrosis ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A, D, E, K; i.e. th
e ft soluble vitmins}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, there is pncretic insu
fficiency nd mlbsorption.</i></div>
1401324348713 1395802358422 {{c1::N-cetylcysteine}} is  mucolytic gent us
ed to tret the mucous plugs seen in Cystic Fibrosis by cleving disulfide bonds
within mucous glycoproteins.
1401324408282 1395802358422 Which mucolytic gent is used to tret the mucou
s plugs seen in Cystic Fibrosis by cleving the disulfide bonds within mucous gl
ycoproteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N-cetylcysteine}}</div>
1401324444771 1395802358422 {{c1::Dornse Alf}} is  recombinnt humn DNAs
e used to tret Cystic Fibrosis s it clers the leukocytic debris in thick muco
us secretions.
1401324499032 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of N-cetylcysteine in the tret
ment of Cystic Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clevge of the disulfide bo
nds in mucous glycoproteins, thereby clering mucous plugs}}</div>
1401324534107 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Dornse Alf in the tretment
of Cystic Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clering of Leukocytic debris vi
 DNAse ction}}</div>
1401329999520 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Bruton Agmm
globulinemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330068064 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Wiskott-Aldri
ch Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330086165 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fbry Disese
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330093193 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of G6PD Deficien
cy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330107840 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Oculr Albini
sm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330115977 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Lesch-Nyhn S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330124484 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Duchenne's Mu
sculr Dystrophy (DMD)?<div><br />{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330138385 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Becker Muscul
r Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330146297 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hunter Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330160575 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hemophili A?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330169018 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hemophili B?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330174521 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Ornithine Tr
nscrbmylse Deficiency (OTCD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330197163 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b>&nbsp;of muttion is seen in Duc
henne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frmeshift muttion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Cuses  truncted Dystrophin protein nd ccelerted muscle brek
down</i></div>
1401331110594 1395802358422 Wht gene undergoes  frmeshift muttion in Duc

henne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophin; muttion trunc
tes the proteins; results in ccelerted muscle brekdown}}</div>
1401331142047 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudohypertrophy}} is  feture of Duchen
ne Musculr Dystrophy tht typiclly presents t the clf muscles due to <b>fibr
oftty replcement of muscle</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-304298432
92370.jpg" /></div>
<div><br /></div>
1401331453911 1395802358422 Where in the body does muscle wekness first pp
er in Duchenne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic Girdle}}</
div>
1401331482248 1395802358422 The&nbsp;{{c1::Gower mneuver}} is  feture of
Duchenne Musculr Dystrophy tht involves ptients using their upper extremities
to help them stnd up. <br><div><i>These ptients re typiclly young (&lt; 5 y
/o) nd mle (X-linked recessive).</i></div>
1401331561774 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth in Duchen
ne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dilted Crdiomyopthy}}</div>
1401331658845 1395802358422 Which humn gene hs the longest coding region?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophin (<i>DMD</i>)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Fo
r this reson there is n incresed risk of spontneous muttion</i></div>
1401331700101 1395802358422 {{c1::Dystrophin}} is  structurl protein found
in muscle tht functions to connect the intrcellulr cytoskeleton to the trns
membrne proteins lph- nd bet-dystroglycn, which subsequently re ttched
to the ECM.
<br /><div><i>Hence, the loss of dystrophin in Duchenne Musculr
Dystrophy results in myonecrosis</i></div>
1401331809518 1395802358422 Which trnsmembrne proteins does Dystrophin bin
d to in muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alph- nd Bet-Dystroglycn}}</div>
1401331833982 1395802358422 How do CK-MM (Cretine Kinse) levels chnge in
Duchenne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401331928387 1395802358422 How do Aldolse levels chnge in Duchenne Muscul
r Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401331949289 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to dignose Duc
henne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Western Blot}}</div>
1401332007700 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b>&nbsp;of muttion is seen in Bec
ker Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Point muttion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both DMD nd BMD re X-linked Recessive.</i></div><div><i>DMD hs
 frmeshift muttion.</i></div>
1401332135129 1395802358422 Which gene is mutted in Becker Musculr Dystrop
hy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophin}}</div>
<div><i><br /></i></div>
<div><i>DMD = <b>frmeshift</b>&nbsp;muttion in Dystrophin cusing deletion of
the protein</i></div><div><i><!--nki--></i><i>BMD =&nbsp;<b>point</b>&nbsp;mut
tion in Dystrophin, hence less severe</i></div><div><i>Both BMD nd DMD = X-link
ed recessive</i></div>
1401332584029 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of Duchenne Musculr
Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~20 y/o}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence, re
d the dmn vignette properly. If the ptient is 30+ y/o, DMD is unlikely.</i></d
iv>
1401332759049 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of Becker Musculr D
ystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Well into dulthood}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i><br /></i></div>
1401332843193 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Myotonic Mu
sculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CTG; in the <i>DMPK</i>&nbsp
;gene}}</div>
1401332880553 1395802358422 Which gene is ffected by CTG trinucleotide repe
ts in Myotonic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>DMPK</i
>&nbsp;gene; cuses bnorml expression of Myotonin Protein Kinse nd subsequen
t pthology}}</div>
1401333004894 1395802358422 {{c1::Myotonic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1}} is 
musculr dystrophy cused by CTG trinucleotide repets in the <i>DMPK </i>gene,
thereby cusing bnorml expression of myotonin protein kinse. <br /><div><i>Ab
norml myotonin protein kinse deficiency cues myotoni, muscle wsting, front
l blding, ctrcts, testiculr trophy nd rrhythmi.</i></div>

1401333127454 1395802358422 Which enzyme is ffected in Myotonic Musculr Dy
strophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myotonin Protein Kinse}}</div>
1401333348144 1395802358422 Wht crdic complictions re seen in&nbsp;Myot
onic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arrhythmi}}</div>
1401333408045 1395802358422 Wht gondl complictions re seen in&nbsp;Myot
onic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Testiculr trophy}}<
/div>
1401333439541 1395802358422 Wht oculr complictions re seen in&nbsp;Myoto
nic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ctrcts}}</div>
1401333454369 1395802358422 Wht gene is ffected in Frgile X Syndrome?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>FMR1</i>}}</div>
1401333843231 1395802358422 {{c1::Frgile X Syndrome}} is n X-linked disord
er ffecting the methyltion nd expression of the <i>FMR1</i>&nbsp;gene.
1401333863062 1395802358422 Wht is the 2nd most common cuse of genetic int
ellectul disbility?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frgile X Syndrome}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Down Syndrome is #1.</i></div>
1401333956775 1395802358422 {{c1::Mcroorchidism}} is  gondl compliction
of Frgile X syndrome typiclly seen in mles fter puberty. <br /><div><i>i.
e. big blls</i></div>
1401334222388 1395802358422 Wht crdic vlvulr disorder is seen in Frgil
e X syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitrl Vlve Prolpse}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>For the NBA fns:</i><div><i><br /></i><div><img src="pste-34063385
625082.jpg" /></div></div>
1401334353239 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Frgile X S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CGG}}</div>
1401334387032 1395802358422 {{c1::Frgile X Syndrome}} is n X-linked trinuc
leotide repet disorder ffecting the <i>FMR1</i>&nbsp;gene tht presents with 
<b>long fce, lrge jw</b>&nbsp;nd <b>lrge everted ers</b>.
1401334514040 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Friedrich A
txi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GAA}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-34329
673597094.jpg" /></div>
1401334592021 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Frgile X S
yndrome??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CGG}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img sr
c="pste-34333968564390.jpg" />
1401334633017 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Huntinton D
isese??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-34329
673597094.jpg" /></div>
1401334645439 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Myotonic Dy
strophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CTG}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-34329
673597094.jpg" /></div>
1401334663114 1395802358422 Wht is the most common etiology of Down Syndrom
e (Trisomy 21)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Meiotic Nondisjunction of homologous
chromosomes}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Associted with incresed mternl ge</i>
</div><div><i><img src="pste-35360465748483.jpg" /></i></div>
1401335194239 1395802358422 How does incresed mternl ge influence the ri
sk of hving  child with Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed; e
specilly through meiotic nondisjunction of homologous chromosomes}}</div>
<br /><div><i>1:1500 in mothers &lt; 20</i></div><div><i>1:25 in mothers &gt; 45
</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-35356170781187.jpg" /></i></div>
1401335311099 1395802358422 Wht is the 2nd most common etiology of Down Syn
drome (Trisomy 21)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Robertsonin trnsloction}}</div
>
1401335359271 1395802358422 Wht is the most common vible chromosoml disor
der?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1401335425518 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of genetic intelle
ctul disbility?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1401335437238 1395802358422 {{c1::Down Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy di
sorder tht is ssocited with <b>incresed nuchl trnslucency</b>&nbsp;nd  <
b>hypoplstic nsl bone</b>&nbsp;in  first trimester ultrsound.
1401335791564 1395802358422 How do serum PAPP-A (Pregnncy-ssocited plsm

protein A) levels chnge in the first trimester of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401336066058 1395802358422 How do free bet-hCG levels chnge in the first
trimester of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401336087973 1395802358422 How do lph-fetoprotein levels chnge in the se
cond trimester qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese
}}</div>
1401336228278 1395802358422 How do bet-hCG levels chnge in the second trim
ester qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401336349343 1395802358422 How do estriol levels chnge in the second trime
ster qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401336369013 1395802358422 How do Inhibin A levels chnge in the second tri
mester qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401336437343 1395802358422 {{c1::Down Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy di
sorder tht is ssocited with <b>flt fcies</b>, <b>prominent epicnthl folds
</b>, <b>single plmr crese</b>&nbsp;nd  <b>gp between the 1st 2 toes</b>.
1401336689876 1395802358422 {{c1::Down Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy di
sorder tht is ssocited with <b>duodenl tresi</b>&nbsp;nd <b>Hirschprung d
isese</b>.
1401336706094 1395802358422 {{c1::Down Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy di
sorder tht is ssocited with ostium primum-type tril septl defects.
1401336751869 1395802358422 Wht type of septl defect is ssocited with Do
wn Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ostium primum-type tril septl defect}
}</div>
1401336784440 1395802358422 {{c1::Brushfield Spots}} re  morphologicl fe
ture of Down Syndrome described s smll white or gryish/brown spots on the per
iphery of the iris.
1401381184439 1395802358422 How does the risk of Acute Lymphocytic Leukemi
(ALL) chnge in Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401381222405 1395802358422 How does the risk of Acute Myeloblstic Leukemi
(AML) chnge in Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401381241911 1395802358422 How does the risk of Alzheimer Disese chnge in
Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>So
me Down Syndrome ptients hve AD by 40 y/o.</i></div><div><i>Risk significntly
increses &gt; 35 y/o.</i></div>
1401381279814 1395802358422 Which chromosoml trisomy is seen in Down Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 21}}</div>
1401381329907 1395802358422 Wht is the most common utosoml trisomy?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome; 1:700}}</div>
1401381348391 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml trisomy is found in Edwrds Syn
drome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 18}}</div>
1401381371613 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of someone with Edw
rds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 1 y/o}}</div>
1401382414957 1395802358422 {{c1::Edwrds Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy
tht is ssocited with rocker-bottom feet&nbsp;nd <b>micrognthi</b>.
<br /><div><i>Micrognthi = smll jw</i></div>
1401382452160 1395802358422 {{c1::Edwrds Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy
tht is ssocited with <b>low-set ers</b>&nbsp;nd <b>clenched hnds</b>.
1401382477941 1395802358422 {{c1::Edwrds Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy
ssocited with  <b>prominent occiput</b>.
1401382602910 1395802358422 How do PAPP-A (Pregnncy ssocited plsm prote
in A) levels chnge in the first trimester in Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401382655003 1395802358422 How do bet-hCG levels chnge in the first trime
ster in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}
}</div>
1401382667029 1395802358422 How do lph-fetoprotein levels chnge in the qu
d screen in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decr
ese}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Everything is decresed in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (
Trisomy 18)</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>"All these hoes re going d

own on Edwrd."</i></div>
1401382696928 1395802358422 How do bet-hCG levels chnge in the qud screen
in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Everything is decresed in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy
18)</i></div>
1401382720973 1395802358422 How do estriol levels chnge in the qud screen
in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>Everything decreses in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)
</i></div>
1401383374670 1395802358422 How do Inhibin A levels chnge in the qud scree
n in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese (or
norml)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Everything decreses in&nbsp;Edwrds Syndr
ome (Trisomy 18)</i></div>
1401383405923 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml trisomy is seen in Ptu Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 13}}</div>
1401383464593 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)}} is n utoso
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with rocker-bottom feet nd <b>microphthlmi</b>
.
1401384404467 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)}} is n utoso
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with <b>microcephly</b>&nbsp;nd <b>holoprosence
phly</b>.
1401384439188 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)}} is n utoso
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with <b>cleft lip</b>&nbsp;nd <b>cleft plte</b
>.
1401384458897 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)}} is n utoso
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with <b>polydctyly</b>.
1401384507165 1395802358422 How do free bet-hCG levels chnge in the first
trimester in&nbsp;Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
1401384543445 1395802358422 How do PAPP-A (pregnncy ssocited plsm prote
in A) levels chnge in the first trimester in&nbsp;Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401384569961 1395802358422 How does nuchl trnslucency chnge in the first
trimester in&nbsp;Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
se}}</div>
1401384602177 1395802358422 {{c1::Robertsonin Trnsloction}} is  chromoso
ml trnsloction tht tht involves the fusion of the long rms of 2 crocentri
c chromosomes t the centromere nd the loss of the 2 short rms.<div><br /></di
v><div><img src="pste-3354369458776.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Nonrecipro
cl trnsloction</i></div><div><i>Cn be blnced or unblnced</i></div><div><
i>One of the most common</i></div>
1401384991580 1395802358422 Which chromosoml pirs re commonly involved in
Robertsonin Trnsloctions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::13; 14; 15; 21; 22}}</d
iv>
1401385053793 1395802358422 {{c1::Cri-du-cht Syndrome}} is n utosoml chr
omosome disorder cused by  <b>congenitl microdeletion of the short rm of chr
omosome 5</b>. <br /><div><i>i.e. 46,XX,5p- or 46,XY,5p-</i></div>
1401385548158 1395802358422 {{c1::Cri-du-cht Syndrome}} is  congenitl chr
omosoml microdeletion tht involves <b>high-pitched crying/mewing</b>.
1401385598203 1395802358422 Wht type of crdic septl defect is seen in Cr
i-du-cht Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ventriculr Septl Defect (VSD)}}
</div>
1401385626537 1395802358422 Which chromosome undergoes  microdeletion in Cr
i-du-cht Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 5}}</div>
1401386676276 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is n utosoml chromo
some disorder tht involves  congenitl microdeletion of the long rm of chromo
some 7, including the elstin gene.
1401386974825 1395802358422 Which chromosome undergoes  microdeletion in Wi
llims Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 7; including the elstin
gene}}</div>

1401386993470 1395802358422 Which importnt gene on Chromosome 7 is deleted
in Willims Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elstin}}</div>
1401387024811 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is  congenitl chromo
soml microdeletion disorder tht is ssocited with distinctive <b>"elfin"</b>&
nbsp;fcies.
1401387067281 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is  congenitl chromo
soml microdeletion disorder tht is ssocited with <b>well-developed verbl sk
ills</b>&nbsp;nd <b>extreme friendliness with strngers</b>.
1401387085772 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is  congenitl chromo
soml microdeletion disorder tht is ssocited with <b>hyperclcemi</b>&nbsp;t
ht hs n <b>incresed sensitivity&nbsp;to vitmin D.</b>
1401387108466 1395802358422 {{c1::DiGeorge Syndrome}} is  22q11 deletion sy
ndrome tht presents with <b>thymic plsi</b>, <b>prthyroid plsi</b>&nbsp
;nd <b>crdic defects</b>.
<br /><div><img src="pste-5158255722652.jpg" />
</div>
1401387565210 1395802358422 {{c1::Velocrdiofcil Syndrome}} is  22q11 del
etion syndrome tht presents with <b>cleft plte</b>, <b>bnorml fcies</b>&nb
sp;nd <b>crdic defects</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-5153960755356.jpg" />
</div>
1401387638673 1395802358422 {{c1::22q11 deletion syndromes}} re  group of
chromosoml deletion syndromes tht yield  specific series of complictions due
to  microdeletion t chromosome 22q11.
<br /><div><img src="pste-51539
60755356.jpg" /></div>
1401387692793 1395802358422 Which brnchil pouches re ffected in 22q11 de
letion syndromes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd; 4th}}</div>
1401387724107 1395802358422 {{c1::T-cell Deficiency}} is n immunologicl co
mpliction of 22q11 deletion syndromes due to the thymic plsi seen.
1401387754048 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoclcemi}} is  serum electrolyte comp
liction of 22q11 deletion syndromes tht rises s  result of prthyroid pl
si.
<br /><div><i>Remember, PTH increses serum [C]; Clcitonin decreses s
erum [C]</i></div>
1401387927154 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml deletion is seen in DiGeorge Sy
ndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::22q11}}</div>
1401387958636 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml deletion is seen in Velocrdiof
cil Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::22q11}}</div>
1401389801179 1395802358422 Wht re the ft soluble vitmins?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Vitmin A, D, E, nd K}}</div>
<div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>
All others re wter soluble.</i></div><div><i>Absorption is therefore dependent
on the gut nd pncres.</i></div><div><i>Mlbsorption syndromes often cuse f
t-soluble vitmin deficiency.</i></div>
1401390200622 1395802358422 Vitmins with which type of solubility hve more
common toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ft soluble due to ccumultion in
body ft stores}}</div>
1401390337900 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Thimine (TPP)?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::B1}}</div>
1401391000309 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Riboflvin (FAD; FMN)?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::B2}}</div>
1401391011894 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Nicin (NAD+)?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::B3}}</div>
1401391026121 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Pnthothenic Acid (CoA)?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::B5}}</div>
1401391213415 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Pyridoxine (PLP)?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::B6}}</div>
1401391224209 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Biotin?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::B7}}</div>
1401391229424 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Folte?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::B9}}</div>
1401391234182 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Coblmin<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::B12}}</div>
1401391243366 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is Ascorbic Acid?<div><br /></div><

div>{{c1::Vitmin C}}</div>
1401391279216 1395802358422 Which B-vitmin is the only one tht does not w
sh out esily from the body?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12; Coblmin}}
</div> <br /><div><i>It is stored in the liver</i></div>
1401391313688 1395802358422 Wht trid of symptoms is commonly seen in Vitm
in B-complex deficiencies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dirrhe; Dermtitis; Glos
sitis}}</div>
1401391481670 1395802358422 {{c1::Dirrhe}},&nbsp;{{c2::dermtitis}}, nd&n
bsp;{{c3::glossitis}} is  trid of symptoms commonly seen in Vitmin B-complex
deficiencies
<br><i>Enteritis is lso common</i>
1401391504040 1395802358422 Which vitmin is  constituent of visul pigment
s (Retinl)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A (Retinol)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i><b>Retin</b>ol = Vitmin <b>A</b>; <b>Retin-A</b>; <b>Retin</b>l</i></div
>
1401391975504 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is essentil for norm
l differentition of epithelil cells into specilized tissue?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Vitmin A (Retinol)}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.g. pncretic cells; muc
ous-secreting cells</i></div>
1401392014083 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is known to prevent sq
umous metplsi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1401392329929 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is used s  tretment
for <b>Mesles</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1401392348131 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is used s  tretment
for <b>AML-M3</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1401392359900 1395802358422 {{c1::Nyctlopi}} is  visul deficit seen in V
itmin A deficiency nd is described s night blindness.
1401392580790 1395802358422 {{c1::Xerosis cutis}} is  cutneous complictio
n of vitmin A deficiency nd is described s dry, scly skin.
1401392605760 1395802358422 {{c1::Alopeci}} is  cutneous compliction of
vitmin A deficiency nd involves loss of hir.
1401392628425 1395802358422 {{c1::Kertomlci}} is n oculr compliction
of vitmin A deficiency nd is described s cornel degenertion.
1401392649118 1395802358422 How does vitmin A deficiency ffect the immune
system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cuses immunosuppression}}</div>
1401392671875 1395802358422 Wht cutneous chnges re seen when there is n
excess of Vitmin A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Scliness; lopeci}}</div>
1401394260873 1395802358422 Wht bone complictions re seen when there is 
n excess of Vitmin A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoporosis}}</div>
1401394277936 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is highly tertogenic
when it is in excess?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence,  negtive pregnncy test <b>nd</b>&nbsp;relible contrception is
required before  ptient cn be prescribed isoretinoin for severe cne.</i></d
iv>
1401394720445 1395802358422 Wht tertogenic effects re yielded by vitmin
A (Retinol) when it is in excess mounts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cleft plt
e; crdic bnormlities}}</div>
1401394756002 1395802358422 {{c1::Thimine Pyrophosphte (TPP)}} is the enzy
me cofctor form of Vitmin B1 (Thimine).
1401394831658 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte dehydrogense}} is  metbolic en
zyme tht links glycolysis to the TCA cycle nd requires Vitmin B1 (Thimine) 
s  cofctor. <br /><div><img src="pste-9925669421121.jpg" /></div>
1401394880917 1395802358422 {{c1::Alph-ketoglutrte dehydrogense}} is n
enzyme involved in the TCA cycle tht requires&nbsp;Vitmin B1 (Thimine) s  c
ofctor.
<div><br /></div><img src="pste-9925669421121.jpg" />
1401394914859 1395802358422 {{c1::Trnsketolse}} is n enzyme involved in t
he HMP shunt tht requires&nbsp;Vitmin B1 (Thimine) s  cofctor.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-9929964388417.jpg" /></div>
1401394997033 1395802358422 {{c1::Brnched-chin ketocid dehydrogense}} is
n enzyme involved in brnched chin mino cid metbolism tht requires&nbsp;V
itmin B1 (Thimine) s  cofctor.

1401395083455 1395802358422 How does Vitmin B1 (Thimine) deficiency ffect
glucose brekdown?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Impirs it; the resultnt ATP dep
letion is worsened by glucose dministrtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember t
he 2 importnt enzymes in glucose brekdown tht require Thimine. Highly erobi
c tissues such s the hert nd brin re ffected first (i.e. Wernicke-Korskof
f).</i></div><div><i>This is lso why we </i><b style="font-style: itlic; ">lw
ys dminister Thimine <u>before</u>&nbsp;glucose</b>.&nbsp;</div>
1401396795238 1395802358422 {{c1::Dry Beriberi}} is  disorder cused by Vit
min B1 (Thimine) deficiency nd involves <b>polyneuritis </b>nd<b>&nbsp;symme
tricl muscle wsting</b>.
1401396866631 1395802358422 {{c1::Wet Beriberi}} is  disorder cused by Vit
min B1 (Thimine) deficiency tht involves <b>high-output crdic filure</b>&n
bsp;(due to dilted crdiomyopthy) nd <b>edem</b>. <br /><div><i>Wet beribe
ri = wet</i></div><div><i>Blood = wet</i></div><div><i>Hence, wet beriberi = blo
od.&nbsp;</i></div><div><i>So think hert nd edem.</i></div>
1401396982797 1395802358422 {{c1::Trnsketolse}} is n enzyme found in RBCs
tht is used to dignose Vitmin B1 deficiency.
<br /><div><i>An incres
e in RBC Trnsketolse ctivity fter vitmin B1 dministrtion helps us ensure
tht the tretment is working.</i></div>
1401397245268 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke-Korskoff Syndrome}} is  neurolo
gicl disorder cused by Vitmin B1 deficiency nd involves  clssic trid of <
b>confusion, ophthlmoplegi</b>, nd <b>txi</b>.
1401397311883 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke-Korskoff Syndrome}} is  neurolo
gicl disorder tht occurs due to Vitmin B1 deficiency nd involves <u style="f
ont-weight: bold; ">permnent</u>&nbsp;<b>confbultion, personlity chnge</b>&
nbsp;nd <b>memory loss</b>.
1401397354715 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the thlmus is dmged in Wern
icke-Korskoff Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Medil Dorsl Nucleus}}</div
>
1401397382488 1395802358422 Which re of the limbic system is dmged in We
rnicke-Korskoff Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mmmillry Bodies}}</div>
1401404544210 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient in Wernicke-Korskoff
Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B1 (Thimine)}}</div>
1401404581312 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient is deficient in Beribe
ri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B1 (Thimine)}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-12738872999999.jpg" /></div>
1401405243314 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is  component of th
e flvins FAD nd FMN?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B2 (Riboflvin)}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>FAD nd FMN re used s cofctors in redox rections.</i><
/div><div><i><img src="pste-12872016986186.jpg" /></i></div>
1401407636254 1395802358422 {{c1::Cheilosis}} is n orl compliction of Vit
min B2 (Riboflvin) deficiency nd involves <b>inflmmtion of the lips</b> nd
<b>scling/fissure t the corners of the mouth</b>.
1401407704149 1395802358422 {{c1::Cornel vsculriztion}} is n oculr com
pliction of Vitmin B2 (Riboflvin) deficiency.
1401407732466 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is  constituent of
NAD+ nd NADP+?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>NAD nd NADP re both used in redox rections.</i></div><div><i><img src="
pste-13207024435234.jpg" /></i></div>
1401408275262 1395802358422 Which mino cid is used to derive Vitmin B3 (N
icin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn}}</div>
1401408291829 1395802358422 Which 2 wter soluble vitmins re needed to syn
thesize Vitmin B3 (Nicin) from Tryptophn?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmins
B2 nd B6}}</div>
1401408327252 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used to tret dys
lipidemi s it lowers the levels of VLDL nd rises HDL?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
1401408353017 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}} is  wter soluble v
itmin tht is used to tret dyslipidemi s it functions to lower the levels of
VLDL nd rise HDL.

1401408385983 1395802358422 {{c1::Hrtnup Disese}} is n utosoml recessiv
e metbolic disorder tht cn cuse Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency by decresing
tryptophn bsorption. <br /><div><i>The muttion in SLC6A19,  N-dependent ne
utrl mino cid trnsporter, yields  decrese in Tryptophn sborption.</i></d
iv>
1401409148309 1395802358422 {{c1::Mlignnt Crcinoid Syndrome}} is  neopl
stic syndrome tht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency though n incre
se in tryptophn metbolism. <br /><div><i>Remember, Tryptophn cn be conver
ted to serotonin nd meltonin in ddition to nicin. If serotonin production in
creses, less tryptophn is vilble to be mde into nicin.</i></div>
1401409238001 1395802358422 {{c1::Isonizid}} is n nti-TB drug tht cn c
use&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency by decresing Vitmin B6 levels.
<br /><div><i>Remember, Vitmin B6 is needed for the synthesis of Nicin.</i></d
iv><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Iso<b>NIAZ</b>id cuses <b>NIAZ</b>in deficie
ncy.</i></div>
1401409864161 1395802358422 {{c1::Pellgr}} is  vitmin deficiency disorde
r cused by  deficiency in&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin). <br /><div><i>Presents w
ith the 3 (or 4) D's:</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Dirrhe</i></div
><div><i>Dementi (with hllucintions)</i></div><div><i>Dermtitis</i></div><di
v><i>(Deth)</i></div>
1401410055440 1395802358422 {{c1::Pellgr}} is &nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) d
eficiency disorder tht presents with <b>dirrhe, dermtitis, dementi</b>&nbsp
;nd possibly <b>deth</b>.
<br /><div><i>The 3 (or 4) D's of Pellgr.</i><
/div>
1401410092495 1395802358422 {{c1::Glossitis}} is n orl compliction of&nbs
p;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency tht primrily ffects the tongue.
1401410119028 1395802358422 {{c1::Fcil flushing}} is  morphologicl fetu
re of&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) excess tht is cused by n increse in prostgl
ndin levels.
<br /><div><i>Not cused by Histmine.</i></div>
1401410259636 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient in Pellgr?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
1401410494871 1395802358422 Wht vitmin deficiency cn be cused by Hrtnup
Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Decrese in tryptophn bsorption cuses  decrese in&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Ni
cin) production.</i></div>
1401410503168 1395802358422 Wht vitmin deficiency cn be cused by Mlign
nt Crcinoid Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Increse in serotonin production cuses incresed metbolism of tr
yptophn, thereby tking wy tryptophn from&nbsp;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) productio
n.</i></div>
1401410593954 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is n essentil comp
onent of Coenzyme A (CoA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B5 (Pnthothente)
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>B5 = <b>pento</b>thente</i></div>
1401410642021 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is n essentil comp
onent of Ftty Acid Synthse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B5 (Pnthothen
te)}}</div>
1401410672835 1395802358422 {{c1::Adrenl Insufficiency}} is n endocrine co
mpliction of&nbsp;Vitmin B5 (Pnthothente) deficiency.
1401410697947 1395802358422 Wht 2 cutneous complictions re seen in&nbsp;
Vitmin B5 (Pnthothente) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dermtitis; l
opeci}}</div>
1401410730505 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is converted to Pyri
doxl Phosphte,  cofctor used in trnsmintion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V
itmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401411929992 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is converted to Pyri
doxl pyrophosphte,  cofctor used in decrboxyltion rections?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401411964563 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is converted to Pyri
doxl pyrophosphte,  cofctor used in Glycogen Phosphorylse?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>

1401411998663 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for the
synthesis of neurotrnsmitters?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxin
e)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>NTs include serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine
, dopmine, GABA</i></div>
1401412056890 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for the
synthesis of heme?<div><br />{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401412072490 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for the
synthesis of Vitmin B3 (Nicin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridox
ine)}}</div>
1401412090744 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for the
synthesis of Cystthionine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}
</div>
1401412108425 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is needed for the sy
nthesis of Histmine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401412120629 1395802358422 {{c1::Sideroblstic nemi}} is  hemtologicl
compliction of&nbsp;Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) deficiency tht rises due to imp
ired hemoglobin synthesis nd iron excess.
1401412190668 1395802358422 {{c1::Peripherl neuropthy}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::con
vulsions}} re both neurologicl complictions of&nbsp;Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) d
eficiency.
1401412263053 1395802358422 {{c1::Isonizid}} is n nti-TB drug tht cn in
duce&nbsp;Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) deficiency. <br /><div><i>Wht other vitmin
deficiency cn isonizid cuse? Vitmin B3 (Nicin)</i></div>
1401412362953 1395802358422 {{c1::Orl contrceptives}} re  type of hormon
l drug tht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) deficiency.
1401412520400 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin functions s  cofc
tor for mny crboxyltion enzymes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B7 (Bioti
n)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img src="pste-16767552323759.jpg" />
1401412615206 1395802358422 {{c1::Avidin}} is  protein found in egg whites
tht cn bind to&nbsp;Vitmin B7 (Biotin).
1401412876331 1395802358422 Wht re the cutneous complictions seen in&nbs
p;Vitmin B7 (Biotin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dermtitis; lopeci
}}</div>
1401412915969 1395802358422 Wht is the GI compliction seen in&nbsp;Vitmin
B7 (Biotin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Enteritis}}</div>
1401412927691 1395802358422 Excessive ingestion of&nbsp;{{c1::rw egg whites
}} is  potentil cuse of&nbsp;Vitmin B7 (Biotin) due to Avidin's bility to b
ind to Biotin. <br /><div><i>In generl,&nbsp;Vitmin B7 (Biotin) deficiency is
quite rre nd the only other cuse is ntibiotic use.</i></div>
1401413039537 1395802358422 Which wter soluble enzyme is converted to Tetr
hydrofolte (THF),  coenzyme for 1-crbon trnsfer/methyltion rections?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid)}}</div>
1401414272434 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmine is importnt in the
synthesis of nitrogenous bses in DNA nd RNA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitm
in B9 (Folic Acid)}}</div>
1401414290353 1395802358422 In which portion of the smll intestine is&nbsp;
Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) bsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Jejunum}}</div>
1401414313912 1395802358422 In which type of foods is&nbsp;Vitmin B9 (Folic
Acid) found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lefy green vegetbles}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i><b>FOL</b>ic cid = <b>FOL</b>ige</i></div>
1401414341457 1395802358422 Where in the body is the smll reserve pool of&n
bsp;Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) stored?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div>
1401414360650 1395802358422 Wht type of nemi is seen in&nbsp;Vitmin B9
(Folic Acid) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Megloblstic nemi}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>With hypersegmented polymorphonucler cells (PMNs).</i></d
iv>
1401414756869 1395802358422 How do homocysteine levels chnge in&nbsp;Vitmi
n B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401414784317 1395802358422 How do methylmlonic cid levels chnge in&nbsp;
Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chnge; they s

ty norml}}</div>
<i><div></div></i><i><br />Increse in B12 deficiency</i
>
1401414825003 1395802358422 Wht is the most common vitmin deficiency in th
e United Sttes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Seen in lcoholism nd pregnncy</i></div>
1401414851986 1395802358422 {{c1::Methotrexte}} is n ntineoplstic drug t
ht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency.
1401414880832 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenytoin}} is n nticonvulsnt tht cn
cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency.
1401414935097 1395802358422 How does the risk of neurl tube defects chnge
following dministrtion of supplementl mternl folic cid?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401415336987 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used s  cofcto
r for Homocysteine Methyltrnsferse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12 (Co
blmin)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>It trnsfers  methyl group s methy
lcoblmin.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-19155554140667.jpg" /></div>
1401415597758 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used s  cofcto
r for Methylmlonyl-CoA Mutse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12 (Coblmi
n)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-19151259173371.jpg" /></div>
1401415635866 1395802358422 Wht type of nemi is seen in Vitmin B12 (Cob
lmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Megloblstic nemi}}</div>
<br /><div><i>With hypersegmented PMNs</i></div>
1401415670506 1395802358422 {{c1::Subcute Combined Degenertion}} is  neur
ologicl compliction of Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency nd involves degener
tion of the dorsl columns, lterl corticospinl trcts nd spinocerebellr tr
<br /><div><i>Prolonged B12 deficiency cn cuse
cts due to bnorml myelin.
<b>irreversible nerve dmge</b>.</i></div>
1401415953858 1395802358422 How do homocysteine levels chnge in Vitmin B12
(Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><img src="pste-19151259173371.jpg" />
1401415975915 1395802358422 How do methylmlonic cid levels chnge in Vitm
in B12 (Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-19151259173371.jpg" /></div>
1401416030134 1395802358422 Where in the body is the very lrge reserve pool
of Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) stored?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div>
1401416061316 1395802358422 Wht kind of diet is known to induce Vitmin B12
(Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vegn}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Due to the lck of niml products in the diet.</i></div>
1401416133599 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Diphyllobothrium ltum</i>}} is  tpew
orm tht cn cuse Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency through mlbsorption.
1401416520742 1395802358422 {{c1::Pernicious nemi}} is  type of nemi
tht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency due to  lck of intrinsi
c fctor.
1401416964353 1395802358422 Which portion of the smll intestine is the site
of&nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) bsorption?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Terminl
Ileum}}</div>
1401416995400 1395802358422 {{c1::Crohn Disese}} is n inflmmtory bowel d
isese tht cn cuse&nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency due to dmge to t
he terminl ileum.
1401417025901 1395802358422 {{c1::Pernicious nemi}} is  type of nemi
tht cuses&nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency through nti-intrinsic fcto
r ntibodies.
1401417051698 1395802358422 Wht utontibodies in pernicious nemi cuse&
nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-intrins
ic fctor ntibodies}}</div>
1401417072870 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin fcilittes iron bs
orption by reducing it to the Fe²⁺&nbsp;stte?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417575830 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is necessry for the
hydroxyltion of proline nd lysine in collgen synthesis?<div><br /></div><div

>{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417615246 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is necessry for Dop
mine bet-hydroxylse, the enzyme tht converts DA to NE?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417696664 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used s n ncill
ry tretment for Methemoglobinemi by reducing Fe³⁺&nbsp;to Fe^2
+?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417750782 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is  connective tissue disorder c
used by&nbsp;Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficiency tht presents with <b>"corksc
rew" hir&nbsp;</b>nd&nbsp;<b>swollen gums</b>.
1401417824087 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is  connective tissue disorder c
used by&nbsp;Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficiency tht presents with <b>bruisin
g</b>, <b>hemrthrosis</b>, nd <b>poor wound heling</b>.
1401417846875 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is  connective tissue disorder c
used by&nbsp;Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficiency tht presents with <b>perifol
liculr </b>nd <b>subperiostel hemorrhges</b>.
1401417879033 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient in Scurvy?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417895593 1395802358422 How does&nbsp;Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficien
cy ffect the immune system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Wekened}}</div>
1401417909129 1395802358422 Wht type of nephrolithisis is seen in&nbsp;Vit
min C (Ascorbic Acid) excess?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clcium oxlte}}</div
>
1401417957145 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}} is  wter sol
uble vitmin tht increses the risk of iron toxicity in predisposed individuls
.
<br /><div><i>i.e. those people with trnsfusions nd hereditry hemochr
omtosis</i></div>
1401418025681 1395802358422 {{c1::Ergoclciferol (D₂)}} is the fo
rm of Vitmin D tht is ingested from plnts.
1401418802085 1395802358422 {{c1::Choleclciferol (D₃)}} is the f
orm of Vitmin D tht is consumed in milk.
1401418826868 1395802358422 In which lyer of sun-exposed skin is Choleclci
ferol (Vitmin D₃) formed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Strtum bsle}
}</div>
1401418871576 1395802358422 {{c1::25-OH D₃}} is the storge form
of Vitmin D.
1401419169898 1395802358422 {{c1::Clcitriol [1,25-(OH)₂&nbsp;D<s
ub>3</sub>]}} is the ctive form of Vitmin D.
1401419206278 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin functions to increse
intestinl bsorption of C nd PO₄?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitm
in D}}</div>
1401419237505 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin functions to increse
bone minerliztion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin D}}</div>
1401419252256 1395802358422 {{c1::Rickets}} is  bone disorder cused by Vit
min D deficiency in children. <div><br /></div><i>Involves bone pin nd defor
mity.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-22535693402514.jpg" /></div>
1401419297030 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteomlci}} is  bone disorder cused b
y Vitmin D deficiency in dults.
<br /><div><i>Involves bone pin nd mus
cle wekness.</i></div>
1401419461841 1395802358422 {{c1::Srcoidosis}} is  grnulomtous immune di
sorder tht involves incresed ctivtion of Vitmin D by epithelioid mcrophge
s.
1401419632024 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin cts s n ntioxidnt
, especilly in RBCs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrien
ol)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Proteins RBCs nd membrnes from free rdicl dm
ge</i></div>
1401419707427 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is ble to enhnce the
nticogulnt effects of Wrfrin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin E (Tocoph
erol/Tocotrienol)}}</div>
1401419862590 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrienol)}} is 

ft soluble vitmin tht cuses <b>posterior column</b>&nbsp;nd <b>spinocerebel
lr trct demyelintion </b>if it is deficient. <br /><div><i>This my hve  si
milr neurologicl presenttion to Vitmin V12 deficiency, but without meglobl
stic nemi, hypersegmented PMNs or incresed methylmlonic cid.</i></div>
1401420404066 1395802358422 {{c1::Acnthocytosis}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::hemolytic
nemi}} re hemtologicl complictions seen in Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrie
nol) deficiency.
<br /><div><i>Remember,&nbsp;Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocot
rienol) is n importnt ntioxidnt in RBCs.</i></div>
1401420466162 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is the cofctor for g
mm-crboxyltion of glutmic cid residues on vrious proteins involved in bloo
d clotting?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421037310 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is synthesized by inte
stinl flor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421047625 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is necessry for the 
ctivtion of clotting fctors II, VII, IX, X nd proteins C nd S?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421081854 1395802358422 Aginst which ft soluble vitmin is Wrfrin n
ntgonist?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421108243 1395802358422 {{c1::Neontl hemorrhging}} is  hemtologicl
disorder seen in neontes with Vitmin K deficiency nd involves n <b>increse
d PT</b>&nbsp;nd <b>incresed PTT</b>, but norml bleeding time.
<br /><d
iv><i>Vitmin K is not found in brest milk. Neontes re given Vitmin K inject
ions t birth to prevent bleeding dithesis.</i></div>
1401421216682 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is  trce element essentil for th
e ctivity of 100+ enzymes, especilly the formtion of trnscription fctor mot
ifs.
<br /><div><i>i.e. Zinc-finger trnscription fctor motifs</i></div>
1401421247311 1395802358422 {{c1::Acrodermtitis enteropthic}} is  cutne
ous disorder seen in Zinc deficiency.
1401421281528 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypogondism}} is  gondl compliction s
een in Zinc deficiency.
1401421296898 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is  trce element tht is ssocit
ed with <b>dysgeusi</b>&nbsp;nd <b>nosmi</b>&nbsp;when it is deficient.
1401421321859 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is  trce element tht cn predisp
ose to lcoholic cirrhosis when it is deficient.
1401421486821 1395802358422 How mny clories per grm re obtined from Cr
bohydrtes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl/g}}</div>
1401421807049 1395802358422 How mny clories per grm re obtined from Pro
tein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl/g}}</div>
1401421820077 1395802358422 How mny clories per grm re obtined from ft
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::9 kcl/g}}</div>
1401421835795 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Ethnol into Acetldehyde
in lcohol metbolism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol dehydrogense}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Functions vi zero-order kinetics</i><br /><div><img src="p
ste-25327422144653.jpg" /></div>
1401422094047 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Acetldehyde into Acette
in lcohol metbolism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acetldehyde dehydrogense}}</
div>
<i><div></div></i><i><br /></i>Requires <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For N
ncy</b>:<div><i>- Thimine (B1)</i></div><div><i>- Lipoic Acid</i></div><div><i>
- CoA (Pntothente)</i></div><div><i>- FAD (Riboflvin)</i></div><div><i>- NAD
(Nicin)<br /></i><div><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></div></div>
1401422453854 1395802358422 {{c1::NAD⁺}} is  coenzyme molecule d
eveloped from Nicin tht cts s the limiting regent in lcohol metbolism.
<br /><div><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></div>
1401422534567 1395802358422 How do NADH levels chnge in lcohol metbolism?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse; lcohol metbolism forms NADH from NAD+}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>NADH:NAD⁺&nbsp;rtio increses.</i></div><div><
i><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></i></div>
1401422563613 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetldehyde}} is  metbolite of lcohol
metbolism tht is toxic nd forms dducts with proteins, thereby cusing dmge
.
<br /><div><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></div>

1401422772024 1395802358422 {{c1::Acette}} is  metbolite of lcohol metb
olism tht cn cuse metbolic cidosis when it ccumultes.
1401422795947 1395802358422 How does ethnol ffect GABA ction?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::It is GABA-mimetic, hence it is dditive to CNS depressnts}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Becuse of this, it cn excerbte dverse effects nd cu
se com/deth.</i></div>
1401422962869 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctic cidosis}} is  compliction of eth
nol metbolism due to n increse in the NADH:NAD rtio which drives the conver
sion of pyruvte to lctte.
<br /><div><img src="pste-27354646708362.jpg" /
></div>
1401423025592 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoglycemi}} is  compliction of ethno
l metbolism due to the incresed NADH:NAD rtio driving the conversion of oxlo
cette to mlte, thereby preventing gluconeogenesis. <div><br></div><i>We cor
rect the hypoglycemi with <u style="font-weight: bold; ">IV&nbsp;thimine befor
e glucose</u>&nbsp;s thimine is  required cofctor for glucose metbolism.</i
><br><div><img src="pste-27440546054293.jpg" /></div>
1401423079007 1395802358422 How does ethnol metbolism ffect gluconeogenes
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition due to incresed NADH:NAD rtio}}</div
>
<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-27436251086997.jpg" /></div>
1401423161498 1395802358422 {{c1::Heptostetosis}} is  compliction of eth
nol metbolism due to the incresed NADH:NAD rtio cusing the conversion of gl
ycerldehyde-3-phosphte to glycerol-3-phosphte, thereby cusing n increse in
triglyceride levels. <br /><div><i>Heptostetosis is lso cused by the incr
esed use of cetyl-CoA for lipogenesis.</i></div>
1401423225950 1395802358422 {{c1::Ketocidosis}} is  compliction of lcoho
l metbolism due to the incresed NADH:NAD rtio disfvouring TCA production of
NADH nd cusing subsequent use of cetyl-CoA for ketogenesis.
1401423326567 1395802358422 {{c1::Fomepizole}} is n zole drug tht is used
to competitively inhibit lcohol dehydrogense, thereby cting s n ntidote f
or methnol or ethylene glycol poisoning.
1401423671336 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Fomepizole in the tretment o
f methnol or ethylene glycol poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Competitive
inhibition of lcohol dehydrogense}}</div>
1401423705003 1395802358422 {{c1::Disulfirm}} is  drug tht trets lcohol
ddiction by inhibiting cetlydehyde dehydrogense. <br /><div><i>This resul
ts in the buildup of cetldehyde nd induces  strong toxicity (i.e. hngover s
ymptoms) tht deter ptients from drinking lcohol.</i></div><div><i>This is ls
o wht is referred to with "Disulfirm-like rection"</i></div>
1401424946667 1395802358422 {{c1::Kwshiorkor}} is  type of <b>protein</b>&
nbsp;mlnutrition tht results in skin lesions, edem nd liver mlfunction.<div
><br /></div><div><img src="pste-29424820945212.jpg" /></div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-29399051141302.jpg" /></div>
1401425003905 1395802358422 {{c1::Ftty chnge of the liver}} is  heptic c
ompliction of Kwshiorkor tht rises due to decresed polipoprotein synthesis
s  result of protein mlnutrition.
1401425038269 1395802358422 {{c1::Kwshiorkor}} is  type of mlnutrition th
t presents s  smll child with  swollen belly.<div><br /></div><div><img src
="pste-28991029248321.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>The edem is due to the se
vere protein mlnutrition.</i></div>
1401425104870 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrsmus}} is  type of mlnutrition tht
involves <b>totl clorie mlnutrition</b>&nbsp;nd resultnt tissue/muscle wst
ing, loss of subQ ft nd vrible edem.
<br /><div><i><b>M</b>rsmus =
<b>M</b>uscle wsting</i></div>
1401425163401 1395802358422 Where in the body is ethnol metbolised?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Liver <b>only</b>}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-29854
317674625.jpg" /></div>
1401473784107 1395802358422 Where in the cell does ftty cid oxidtion (bet
-oxidtion) occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473828782 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;cetyl-CoA productio
n occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>

1401473842020 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;the TCA cycle occur?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473852838 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;oxidtive phosphoryl
tion occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473862920 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;glycolysis occur?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
1401473879365 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;Ftty cid synthesis
occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
1401473888009 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;the HMP shunt occur?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
1401473896162 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;Heme synthesis occur
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both mitochondri nd cytoplsm}}</div>
1401474705901 1395802358422 Where in the cell does&nbsp;the Ure Cycle occur
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both mitochondri nd cytoplsm}}</div>
1401474722855 1395802358422 Where in the cell does Gluconeogenesis occur?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both mitochondri nd cytoplsm}}</div>
1401474752691 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::kinse}} is  type of enzyme tht u
ses ATP to dd high-energy phosphte groups onto substrtes.
1401474851000 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::phosphorylse}} is  type of enzyme
tht dds inorgnic phosphte onto substrtes without using ATP.
1401474882837 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::phosphtse}} is  type of enzyme t
ht removes phosphte groups from substrtes.
1401474896128 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::dehydrogense}} is  type of enzyme
tht ctlyzes oxidtion-reduction rections.
1401474916397 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::hydroxylse}} is  type of enzyme t
ht dds hydroxyl groups (-OH) to substrtes.
1401474934495 1395802358422 A&nbsp;{{c1::crboxylse}} enzyme is  type of e
nzyme tht trnsfers CO2 groups with the help of Vitmin B7 (Biotin).
1401474984573 1395802358422 A {{c1::mutse}} is  type of enzyme tht reloc
tes  functionl group within  molecule.
1401475003447 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT5}} is  crbohydrte trnsporter foun
d t the <b>luminl membrne</b>&nbsp;of the GI trct tht llows <b>fructose</b
>&nbsp;to be bsorbed.
1401475059128 1395802358422 Which crbohydrte trnsporter on the <b>luminl
membrne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium functions to llow <b>fructose</b>&nbsp;to b
e bsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT5}}</div>
1401475085182 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT2}} is  crbohydrte trnsporter loc
ted t the <b>bsolterl membrne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium tht moves <b>gluco
se nd fructose</b>&nbsp;from the cell into the blood.
1401475119464 1395802358422 Which crbohydrte trnsporter on the <b>bsolt
erl membrne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium moves <b>fructose nd glucose</b>&nbsp;f
rom the cell into the blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2}}</div>
1401475151890 1395802358422 {{c1::S-GLUT1}} is  N cotrnsporter on the <b>
luminl membrne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium tht moves<b>&nbsp;glctose nd gluc
ose</b>&nbsp;into the cell <b>with N.</b>
1401475197728 1395802358422 Which trnsporter on the <b>luminl membrne</b>
&nbsp;of GI epithelium moves <b>glctose nd glucose</b>&nbsp;into the cell <b>
with N</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S-GLUT1}}</div>
1401475223934 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Glycolysi
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK-1)}}</div>
1401475517311 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Gluconeog
enesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fructose-1,6-bisphosphtse}}</div>
1401475530289 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of the TCA c
ycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isocitrte dehydrogense}}</div>
1401475539831 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Glycogene
sis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen synthse}}</div>
1401475549215 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Glycogeno
lysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen phosphorylse}}</div>
1401475563451 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of the HMP s
hunt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphte dehydrogense (G6PD)}}</div

>
1401475580012 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of de novo p
yrimidine synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crbmoyl phosphte synthetse I
I}}</div>
1401475598719 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of de novo p
urine synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PRPP Amidotrnsferse}}</div>
1401475623943 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of the Ure
cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crbmoyl phosphte synthetse I}}</div>
1401475634516 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of ftty ci
d synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acetyl-CoA crboxylse (ACC)}}</div>
1401475651685 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of ftty ci
d oxidtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crnitine cyltrnsferse I}}</div>
1401475663656 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of ketogenes
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA synthse}}</div>
1401475673235 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of cholester
ol synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA Reductse}}</div>
1401475685825 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 i
n Glycolysis chnge with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse; vi
 llosteric ctivtion}}</div>
1401475741699 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 i
n Glycolysis chnge with fructose-2,6-bisphosphte regultion?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401475756152 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 i
n Glycolysis chnge with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</
div>
1401475762459 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 i
n Glycolysis chnge with Citrte regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese
}}</div>
1401475785362 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Fructose-1,6-bisphosph
te in Gluconeogenesis chnge with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inc
rese}}</div>
1401475813397 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Fructose-1,6-bisphosph
tse in Gluconeogenesis chnge with cetyl-CoA regultion?<div><br></div><div>{{
c1::Increse}}</div>
<br><div><i>This is especilly true in fsting sttes wh
en cetyl-CoA levels re elevted.</i></div>
1401475837287 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Fructose-1,6-bisphosph
te in Gluconeogenesis chnge with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dec
rese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, gluconeogenesis only occurs in high ener
gy sttes.</i></div>
1401475843908 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Fructose-1,6-bisphosph
tse in Gluconeogenesis chnge with fructose-2,6-bisphosphte regultion?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401475873367 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Isocitrte dehydrogens
e chnge in the TCA cycle with ADP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
se}}</div>
1401475896228 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Isocitrte dehydrogens
e chnge in the TCA cycle with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
1401475902854 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Isocitrte dehydrogens
e chnge in the TCA cycle with NADH regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence the incresed NADH in lcohol metbolism shu
ts off the TCA cycle.</i></div>
1401475925423 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with glucose-6-phosphte regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Increse}}</div>
1401475958060 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with Insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}
</div>
1401475964370 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with cortisol regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}

}</div>
1401475972972 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with Epinephrine regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
1401475981019 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}
}</div>
1401476119682 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with epinephrine regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Increse}}</div>
1401476148413 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::In
crese}}</div>
1401476154312 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incres
e}}</div>
1401476158486 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with glucose-6-phosphte regultion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476168141 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with Insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dec
rese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin ctivted Protein Phosphtse 1, which the
n dephosphoryltes Glycogen phosphorylse, thereby inctivting it.</i></div>
1401476176797 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decres
e}}</div>
1401476181878 1395802358422 How does G6PD ctivity in the HMP shunt chnge w
ith NADP+ regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476200186 1395802358422 How does G6PD ctivity in the HMP shunt chnge w
ith NADPH regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476206560 1395802358422 How does PRPP Amidotrnsferse ctivity in de no
vo purine synthesis chnge with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
1401476243742 1395802358422 How does PRPP Amidotrnsferse ctivity in de no
vo purine synthesis chnge with&nbsp;IMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Decrese}}</div>
1401476250937 1395802358422 How does PRPP Amidotrnsferse ctivity in de no
vo purine synthesis chnge with&nbsp;GMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Decrese}}</div>
1401476256782 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Crbmoyl phosphte syn
thetse I ctivity in the Ure cycle chnge with N-cetylglutmte regultion?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476282820 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of cetyl-CoA crboxylse
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476311930 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of cetyl-CoA crboxylse
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with citrte regultion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476317326 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of cetyl-CoA crboxylse
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476323038 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of cetyl-CoA crboxylse
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with plmitoyl-CoA regultion?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476333693 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Crnitine cyltrnsfer
se I in ftty cid oxidtion chnge with mlonyl-CoA regultion?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476365489 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of HMG-CoA reductse in ch
olesterol synthesis chnge with insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrese}}</div>

1401476453966 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of HMG-CoA reductse in ch
olesterol synthesis chnge with Thyroxine regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Increse}}</div>
1401476459014 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of HMG-CoA reductse in ch
olesterol synthesis chnge with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Decrese}}</div>
1401476464474 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of HMG-CoA reductse in ch
olesterol synthesis chnge with cholesterol regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476495043 1395802358422 How mny pyruvte molecules re mde from the me
tbolism of 1 Glucose molecule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>1Glc + 2ADP + 2P_i&nbsp;+ 2NAD⁺&nbsp;--&gt; 2Pyruvte
+ 2ATP + 2NADH</i></div>
1401478374227 1395802358422 How much net ATP is produced in nerobic glycol
ysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2/moc Glc}}</div>
1401479036239 1395802358422 {{c1::Arsenic}} is  metlloid element tht cn
cuse glycolysis to produce net zero ATP.
1401479098580 1395802358422 How much net ATP is produced vi the mlte-sp
rtte shuttle in erobic metbolism t the hert nd liver?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::32}}</div>
1401479146930 1395802358422 How much net ATP is mde vi the glycerol-3-phos
phte shuttle in erobic metbolism t muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::30}}</
div>
1401479173491 1395802358422 Wht does ATP crry when it is in its ctivted
form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphoryl groups}}</div>
1401479255203 1395802358422 Wht does NADH, NADPH nd FADH2&nbsp;crry when
it is in its ctivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Electrons}}</div>
1401479271035 1395802358422 Wht does CoA&nbsp;crry when it is in its ctiv
ted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acyl groups}}</div>
1401479279717 1395802358422 Wht does lipomide&nbsp;crry when it is in its
ctivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acyl groups}}</div>
1401479288717 1395802358422 Wht does Biotin&nbsp;crry when it is in its c
tivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CO2}}</div>
1401479296971 1395802358422 Wht do Tetrhydrofoltes&nbsp;crry when they 
re in their ctivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1-crbon units}}</div>
1401479322876 1395802358422 Wht does SAM&nbsp;crry when it is in its ctiv
ted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CH₃&nbsp;groups}}</div>
1401479338751 1395802358422 Wht does TPP&nbsp;crry when it is in its ctiv
ted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aldehydes}}</div>
1401479350081 1395802358422 {{c1::NAD+}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::NADP+}} re nicotin
mides tht function s universl electron cceptors.
1401494685439 1395802358422 {{c1::FAD+}} is  flvin nucleotide mde from Vi
tmin B2 tht functions s  universl electron cceptor.
1401494704964 1395802358422 Which nicotinmide electron cceptor is generll
y used in <b>ctbolic</b>&nbsp;processes to crry reducing equivlents wy s
NADH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NAD+}}</div>
1401494755285 1395802358422 Which nicotinmide electron donor is used in <b>
nbolic </b>processes s  supply of reducing equivlents?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::NADPH}}</div>
1401494782730 1395802358422 Which nicotinmide electron donor is  product o
f the HMP shunt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NADPH}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-6171868004510.jpg" /></div>
1401494829059 1395802358422 Which enzyme in glycolysis phosphoryltes glucos
e to glucose-6-phosphte, the first metbolite in the pthwy?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Hexokinse or Glucokinse depending on the tissue}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hexokinse = most tissue, but not liver or pncretic bet-cells</i></div>
<div><i>Glucokinse = liver; pncretic bet-cells</i></div>
1401495317535 1395802358422 Wht is the K_m&nbsp;of Hexokinse com
pred to Glucokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div> <br /><div><i>He
nce, Hexokinse hs higher ffinity for glucose. This is importnt s Hexokinse

is found outside of the liver. We wnt our tissues to be ble to use glucose wh
en it is in lower concentrtions.</i></div>
1401495797717 1395802358422 Wht is the K_m&nbsp;of Glucokinse co
mpred to Hexokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Higher; by 100x}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence, Glucokinse hs  lower ffinity for glucose. This is very
importnt, s in hypoglycemic situtions, we do not wnt the liver or pncretic
bet-cells to be using too much Glc. Conversely, this ensures tht the liver n
d pncretic bet-cells re more inclined to utilize glucose when it is vilbl
e in higher concentrtions. Both of the bove points exist so tht the liver doe
s not tke glucose wy from tissue nd store it when we don't need it to; nd s
o tht the pncretic bet-cells don't mke nd secrete insulin when glucose lev
els re low.</i></div>
1401495962648 1395802358422 Which GLUT trnsporter protein hs the highest K
_m&nbsp;vlue (i.e. lowest ffinity)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, GLUT2 is found on the <b>bsolterl mem
brne</b>&nbsp;of GI epithelium.</i></div>
1401496077564 1395802358422 Wht is the V_mx&nbsp;of Hexokinse c
ompred to Glucokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div>
1401496136074 1395802358422 Wht is the V_mx&nbsp;of Glucokinse
compres to Hexokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Higher}}</div>
1401496153822 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse hs both <b>lower</b
>&nbsp;K_m&nbsp;nd V_mx?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexoki
nse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hexokinse = lower</i></div><div><i>Glucokinse =
higher</i></div>
1401496356269 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse is inducible by insu
lin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucokinse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Think bou
t this. Which form is in the liver? Where do we wnt to store glucose? Wht horm
one is elevted only when glucose is elevted?</i></div><div><i>Also remember, t
ht induction = incresed expression = incresed Vmx. This is why GK hs higher
Vmx.</i></div><div><i>Tht is lso why n increse in sugrs in the diet will
result in increse ft deposition s GK expression hs incresed.</i></div>
1401496797663 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse is inhibited by gluc
ose-6-phosphte feedbck?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexokinse}}</div>
1401496824656 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse is ssocited with M
turity-onset Dibetes of the Young (MODY)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucokin
se}}</div>
1401496867570 1395802358422 How does regultion by Glucose-6-phosphte ffec
t Hexokinse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-8160437862481.jpg" /></div>
1401497455669 1395802358422 How does regultion by Fructose-6-phosphte ffe
ct Glucokinse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div> <div><br
/></div><img src="pste-8156142895185.jpg" />
1401497473230 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-limiting enzyme in glycolysis?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK1)}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-8349416423508.jpg" /></div>
1401497503816 1395802358422 How does regultion by ATP ffect Phosphofructok
inse-1 (PFK-1) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>When ATP levels re high, PFK-1 is inhibited nd upstrem glucose-6phosphte builds up. When tht occurs, G6P is stored s glycogen by the liver.</
i><br /><div><img src="pste-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497529282 1395802358422 How does regultion by AMP influence phosphofruc
tokinse-1 (PFK1) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497563689 1395802358422 How does regultion by citrte influence the ct
ivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</
div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497591274 1395802358422 How does regultion by fructose-2,6-bisphosphte
(F2,6BP) influence Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK1) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Activtion; vi llosteric binding}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>

1401497713589 1395802358422 How does regultion by ATP influence the ctivit
y of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div><div><br /></
div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>ATP/AMP re
gultion is pretty logicl overll. When ATP exists, we don't need to mke more.
</i></div>
1401497755622 1395802358422 How does regultion by lnine influence the ct
ivity of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div><div><br
/></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Th
is is  pretty logicl negtive feedbck loop when you remember tht <b>pyruvte
is converted to lnine by ALT nd Vitmin B6</b>.</i></div>
1401497774801 1395802358422 How does regultion by fructose-1,6-bisphosphte
influence the ctivity of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtio
n}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, <b>F1,6BP is n upstrem metbolite in glycolysis</b>. D
o not confuse tht with <b>F<u>2</u>,6BP</b>&nbsp;which is n llosteric ctivt
or of PFK-1.</i></div>
1401497919743 1395802358422 How does Glucgon ction influence the ctivity
of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition; vi phosphoryltion}}
</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
1401497951667 1395802358422 How does Insulin ction influence the ctivity o
f Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion; vi dephosphoryltion}
}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>One of my biochem profs sid this nd I'll never forget it: "<b>In
sulin drives the <u>utiliztion</u>&nbsp;of glucose."</b></i></div>
1401498020219 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose bisphosphtse-2}} nd&nbsp;{{c2:
:Phosphofructokinse-2}} re 2 enzymes prt of the sme bifunctionl enzyme comp
lex tht function to regulte PFK-1 through F2,6BP.
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-9955734192342.jpg" /></div>
1401499337024 1395802358422 Which Protein Kinse controls Fructose Bisphosph
te-2 nd PFK-2 in the regultion of PFK-1?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Protein Kin
se A}}</div> <br><div><img src="pste-10544144712085.jpg" /></div>
1401499353645 1395802358422 {{c1::Phosphofructokinse-2 (PFK-2)}} is n enzy
me tht forms F2,6BP, n llosteric ctivtor of PFK-1, in response to insulin.
<br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401499588764 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Bisphosphtse-2}} is n enzyme t
ht <b>breks down</b>&nbsp;F2,6BP, n llosteric ctivtor of PFK-1, in respons
e to glucgon. <br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401499636707 1395802358422 How does Glucgon influence Phosphofructokinse2 ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inctivtion, by <u>ctivting protein ki
nse A nd subsequent phosphoryltion of PFK-2</u>}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Thereby cuses <b>less glycolysis nd more gluconeogenesis</b>&nbsp;in the f
sting stte.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401499795869 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Phosphofructokinse-2
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion; vi <u>inhibition of protein k
inse A nd subsequent dephosphoryltion of PFK-2</u>}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>Thereby cuses <b>more glycolysis nd less gluconeogenesis</b>&nbsp;in the f
ed stte.</i><div><i>This is lso why dibetics hve decresed rtes of glycolys
is.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div></div>
1401499901998 1395802358422 Which secondry messenger is involved in the ct
ivtion nd inctivtion of PFK-2 through protein kinse A?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401574581943 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte Dehydrogense}} is  mitochondri
l enzyme tht links glycolysis nd the TCA cycle by converting pyruvte to cety
l CoA. <br><div><i>Pyruvte + NAD + CoA --&gt; Acetyl-CoA + CO2 + NADH</i></div
><div><i><br></i></div><div><i>This rection is <b>irreversible</b></i></div>
1401574687733 1395802358422 Wht re the 5 key cofctors required by&nbsp;Py
ruvte Dehydrogense?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thimine; Lipoic Acid; CoA; FAD
; NAD}}</div> <br /><div><i>k <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b></i></d
iv><div><i><b><img src="pste-16870631538902.jpg" /></b></i></div><div><i><b><br
/></b></i></div><div><i>This is lso  good wy to understnd Wernicke-Korskof

f:</i></div><div><i>Alcoholism --&gt; Thimine deficiency --&gt; decresed Acety
l CoA --&gt; myelintion nd CNS deficits</i></div>
1401574873524 1395802358422 How does n incresed NAD+:NADH rtio ffect Pyr
uvte Dehydrogense ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401574900778 1395802358422 How does n increse in ADP levels ffect Pyruv
te Dehydrogense ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401574916600 1395802358422 How do incresed C levels ffect Pyruvte Dehyd
rogense ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401574932422 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Pyruvte Dehydrogens
e ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
1401574945166 1395802358422 How does Glucgon ffect Pyruvte Dehydrogense
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1401575033135 1395802358422 {{c1::lph-ketoglutrte dehydrogense}} is n
enzyme complex tht converts lph-ketoglutrte to succinyl-CoA in the TCA cycl
e nd requires the sme cofctors s pyruvte dehydrogense.
<br /><div><i>Re
member, those cofctors re <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy </b>(Thimine; L
ipoic Acid; CoA; FAD; NAD)</i></div>
1401575327070 1395802358422 {{c1::Brnched Chin Ketocid Dehydrogense}} is
n enzyme involved in the metbolism of brnched chin mino cids nd involves
the sme cofctors s pyruvte dehydrogense. <br /><div><i>Remember, those co
fctors re <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>&nbsp;(Thimine, Lipoic Acid,
CoA, FAD, NAD)</i></div>
1401576743029 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetylldehyde dehydrogense}} is n enzym
e involved in lcohol metbolism tht uses the sme cofctors s pyruvte dehydr
ogense.
<br><div><i>Remember, those cofctors re <b>Tender Love &mp; C
re For Nncy</b>: (Thimine, Lipoic Acid, CoA, FAD, NAD)</i></div><div><i><br><
/i></div><div><i>This is lso  brillint tie into thimine deficiency nd Werni
cke-Korskoff in lcoholism. All of tht lcohol needs to be metbolised, tht m
ens ll vilble thimine needs to be used. As  consequence, there will be le
ss PDH ctivity, less cetyl CoA nd subsequent Wernicke-Korskoff.</i></div>
1401577288486 1395802358422 {{c1::Arsenic}} is  metlloid element tht inhi
bits lipoic cid,  key cofctor of Pyruvte Dehydrogense, Acetldehyde DH, lp
h-Ketoglutrte DH, nd Brnched-Chin Ketocid DH.
<div><br /></div><i>Pres
ents with vomiting, rice-wter stools nd <b>grlic breth</b>.</i><br /><div><i
>Lipoic cid is the <b>Love</b>&nbsp;in <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>.
</i></div>
1401577835900 1395802358422 Which enzyme <b>irreversibly</b>&nbsp;converts P
yruvte into Acetyl CoA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvte Dehydrogense}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>"Sugr cn become ft, but ft cnnot become sugr."</i></
div><div><i>Glc &lt;---&gt; Pyruvte <b><u>---&gt;</u></b>&nbsp;Acetyl-CoA &lt;--&gt; Ft</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>The Pyruvte tht is involve
d in gluconeogenesis comes from the conversion of Alnine (vi ALT) nd Lctte
to Pyruvte.</i></div>
1401583796468 1395802358422 How do pyruvte levels chnge in Pyruvte dehydr
ogense deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The build up of Pyruvte gets shunted to Lctte (vi LDH) nd Alnine (vi
 ALT).</i></div>
1401585139762 1395802358422 Wht re the 2 <b>only purely</b>&nbsp;ketogenic
mino cids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Leucine}}</div>
1401585162913 1395802358422 How do lctte levels chnge in Pyruvte Dehydro
gense deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th
e excess pyruvte gets mde into lctte vi LDH, thereby cusing <b>lctic cid
osis</b>.</i></div>
1401585323923 1395802358422 How do serum lnine levels chnge in Pyruvte D
ehydrogense deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The excess pyruvte gets shunted to lnine by ALT.</i></div>
1401585356004 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Pyruvte Dehydrogense
deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed intke of ketogenic nutrients}
}</div> <br /><div><i>e.g. high ft diet or Lysine/Leucine rich diet</i></div>
1401585398262 1395802358422 {{c1::Alnine midotrnsferse (ALT)}} is n enz

yme involved in pyruvte metbolism tht forms Alnine from pyruvte to llow m
ino groups to be tken to the liver from muscle.
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-19331647799898.jpg" /></div>
1401585530196 1395802358422 Wht wter soluble vitmin is required by Alnin
e Aminotrnsferse (ALT)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</
div>
1401585722133 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte crboxylse}} is n enzyme involv
ed in pyruvte metbolism tht converts pyruvte into oxlocette, which cn go
on to replenish the TCA cycle or feed gluconeogenesis. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-19327352832602.jpg" /></div>
1401585774062 1395802358422 Wht wter soluble vitmin is needed for Pyruvt
e Crboxylse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B7 (Biotin)}}</div>
1401585798623 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte Dehydrogense}} is n enzyme invo
lved in pyruvte metbolism tht converts pyruvte to cetyl-CoA, thereby linkin
g glycolysis to the TCA cycle. <div><br /></div><i>Remember, PDH requires <b>Te
nder Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>&nbsp;cofctors (Vitmins B1, B2, B3, B5 nd L
ipoic Acid)</i><br /><div><img src="pste-19327352832602.jpg" /></div>
1401585964325 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctic Acid Dehydrogense (LDH)}} is n en
zyme involved in pyruvte metbolism tht converts pyruvte to lctte. <br /><d
iv><i>This is the end stge of <b>nerobic glycolysis</b>&nbsp;(key in RBCs, le
ukocytes, renl medull, lens, testes nd the corne) nd lso prt of the <b>Co
ri Cycle.</b></i></div><div><i>The generted NAD+ molecules feed bck into glyco
lysis for substrte level phosphoryltion.</i></div><div><i><u>This rection is
extremely vitl in sttes of low O₂&nbsp;or mitochondril dmge s i
t replenishes NAD needed for glycolysis.</u></i></div><div><i><b><img src="pste
-19327352832602.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401586160301 1395802358422 How mny NADH molecules re mde in the TCA cycl
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
1401587946656 1395802358422 How mny FADH₂&nbsp;molecules re md
e in the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
1401587965683 1395802358422 How mny ATP molecules re mde per Acetyl-CoA m
olecule tht enters the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::10}}</div>
1401588001838 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the TCA cycle occur??<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401588020285 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the TCA cycle is the mjor regul
tion point of the pthwy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isocitrte Dehydrogense}
}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Remember, the Krebs cycle is not influenced by Insul
in or Glucgon. <b>It is entirely regulted by locl levels of energy (i.e. ATP,
NADH).</b></i><div><i>The other key regultory steps re t <b>Citrte Synthse
</b>&nbsp;nd <b>lph-ketoglurte dehydrogense</b><br /></i><div><img src="ps
te-20882130993800.jpg" /></div></div>
1401588366248 1395802358422 How does n increse in ATP levels influence the
TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hi
gh ATP = high energy = inhibitions of Krebs.</i></div><div><i>ATP nd ADP ct s
llosteric regultors.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-20877836026504.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1401588408409 1395802358422 How does n increse of ADP levels influence the
TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>In
cresed ADP = low energy stte = ctivtion of Krebs</i></div><div><i>ADP nd AT
P ct s llosteric regultors.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-20877836026504.
jpg" /></i></div>
1401588433623 1395802358422 How does n increse in NADH levels influence th
e TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibitions}}</div>
<br /><div><i>In
cresed NADH = high energy stte = inhibition of Krebs.</i></div><div><i>NADH c
ts s  competitive inhibitor.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-20877836026504.j
pg" /></i></div>
1401588472767 1395802358422 How does n increse in NAD+ levels influence th
e TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hi
gh NAD+ = low energy stte = ctivted Krebs.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-2
0877836026504.jpg" /></i></div>

1401588681226 1395802358422 Wht is the First Aid mnemonic for the intermedi
tes of the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Citrte Is Krebs' Strting Sub
strte For Mking Oxlocette}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-2087783602650
4.jpg" /></div>
1401588727100 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Pyruvte to Oxlocette,
which cn then be fed into the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvte c
rboxylse}}</div>
1401589173566 1395802358422 Which mino cid cn be converted into Pyruvte
by ALT?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alnine; requires B6}}</div>
1401589230593 1395802358422 Which mino cid cn be converted into Oxlocet
te by AST?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asprtte; requires B6}}</div>
1401589257724 1395802358422 Which mino cid cn be converted into lph-ket
oglutrte vi Trnsminse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glutmte; requires B6}}
</div>
1401589281420 1395802358422 Which intermedite of the TCA cycle cn be mde
from Alnine by AST with B6?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvte}}</div>
1401589315193 1395802358422 Which intermedite in the TCA cycle cn be mde
from Asprtte vi AST with B6?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oxlocette}}</div>
1401589347353 1395802358422 Which intermedite in the TCA cycle cn be mde
from Glutmte vi Trnsminse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-ketoglutrte}
}</div>
1401589369960 1395802358422 The {{c1::Mlte-Asprtte shuttle}} nd&nbsp;{{
c2::Glycerol-3-phosphte shuttle}} re 2 metbolic shuttles tht function to bri
ng NADH nd FADH2 electrons into the mitochondri from glycolysis.
<br><div
><i>FADH2 comes in vi the G3P shuttle.</i></div>
1401590348780 1395802358422 Which metbolic shuttle is responsible for bring
ing FADH₂&nbsp;electrons from glycolysis into the mitochondri?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycerol-3-phosphte shuttle}}</div>
1401590394880 1395802358422 Which mitochondril enzyme receives electrons fr
om FADH₂&nbsp;in the electron trnsport chin?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Complex II (k Succinte Dehydrogense)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-23441931502034.jpg" /></div>
1401590448508 1395802358422 {{c1::Succinte Dehydrogense}} is  mitochondri
l enzyme prt of the electron trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Compl
ex II. <br /><div><img src="pste-23437636534738.jpg" /></div>
1401590533116 1395802358422 {{c1::NADH Dehydrogense}} is  mitochondril en
zyme prt of the electron trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Complex I.
<br /><div><img src="pste-23682449670599.jpg" /></div>
1401590587246 1395802358422 {{c1::Ubiquinone}} is n enzyme in the electron
trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Coenzyme Q. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590622172 1395802358422 {{c1::Cytochrome Oxidse}} is n enzyme in the e
lectron trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Complex IV. <br /><div><img
src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590657862 1395802358422 {{c1::ATP Synthse}} is n enzyme in the electro
n trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Complex V.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590749133 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin pro
duces H₂O?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytochrome Oxidse (Complex IV)
}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590817835 1395802358422 How mny ATP molecules re produced by ATP synth
se for every molecule of NADH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2.5 (so we just use ~
3 in clcultions)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Steve hd sex with <b>NAD</b>i <b
>H</b>. <b>3</b>&nbsp;times during frosh week nd got n STI.&nbsp;</i></div><di
v><i><br /></i></div><div><i>(True story. Will never forget the regret on Steve'
s fce. Will lso never forget this mnemonic.)</i></div>
1401591083458 1395802358422 How mny ATP molecules re produced by ATP Synth
se for every FADH₂&nbsp;molecule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1.5 (so
we just use ~2 for clcultion)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>FADH<sub style="fo
nt-weight: bold; ">2</sub>&nbsp;= <b>2</b>&nbsp;ATP</i></div>

1401591134161 1395802358422 {{c1::Rotenone}} is n electron trnsport inhibi
tor tht directly inhibits the ETC t Complex I.
<div><br /></div><i>This
<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton grdient nd <b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><
br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591408045 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin is
inhibited by Rotenone?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex I (NADH Dehydrogense)
}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This&nbsp;<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton g
rdient nd&nbsp;<b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-2367
8154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591510868 1395802358422 {{c1::Cynide}} nd {{c2::CO}} re electron trn
sport inhibitors tht directly inhibit the ETC t Complex IV. <div><br /></div
><i>Cynide is detoxified by nitrites nd thiosulftes.</i><div><i></i><i>This&n
bsp;<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton grdient nd&nbsp;<b>blocks ATP synthesis</
b>.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div></div>
1401591770484 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin is
inhibited by Cynide nd CO?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex IV (Cytochrome O
xidse)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591797642 1395802358422 {{c1::Antimycin A}} is n electron trnsport inh
ibitor tht directly inhibits the ETC t Complex III. <div><br /></div><i>This
&nbsp;<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton grdient nd&nbsp;<b>blocks ATP synthesis
</b>.</i><br /><div><i>"<b>RACCO</b>" from left to right.</i></div><div><img src
="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591997268 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin is
inhibited by Antimycin A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex III}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This&nbsp;<b>decreses</b>&nbsp;the proton grdient nd&nbsp
;<b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><div><i><b>"RACCO"</b>&nbsp;from left to right
in the ETC.<br /></i><div><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div></div
></div>
1401592020484 1395802358422 {{c1::Oligomycin}} is n ATP Synthse inhibitor
tht directly inhibits ATP synthse in the ETC. <br /><div><i>This <b>increses<
/b>&nbsp;the proton grdient, but no ATP is produced s the ETC is inhibited.</i
></div><div><i>"<b>RACCO</b>" from left to right in the ETC.</i></div><div><i><i
mg src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></i></div>
1401592337244 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the ETC is inhibited by Oligomyc
in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ATP Synthse}}</div>
<div><br /></div>"<i><b>
ROCCO</b>" from left to right.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg"
/></div>
1401592484059 1395802358422 How do FADH₂&nbsp;nd NADH levels ch
nge when the electron trnsport chin is inhibited?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrese}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is pretty obvious, but think of the consequen
ces: Inhibition of the TCA cycle, decresed ATP production, nd decresed O₂&nbsp;utiliztion.</i></div>
1401592821605 1395802358422 {{c1::2,4-Dinitrophenol}} is n uncoupling gent
tht is sometimes used illicitly for weight loss.
1401592888587 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Uncoupling Agents in the inhi
bition of ATP synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Incresed permebility of
the mitochondril membrne</b>, thereby cusing  decresed proton grdient nd
incresed O2 consumption}}</div>
<br /><div><i>ATP synthesis stops, but e
lectron trnsport continues. This increse in metbolic rte produces  consider
ble bout of het s well.</i></div>
1401593017448 1395802358422 {{c1::Aspirin}} is n NSAID tht cn ct s n u
ncoupling gent, thereby cusing fevers in n overdose.
1401593221266 1395802358422 {{c1::Thermogenin}} is n uncoupling gent found
in brown ft.
1401593299761 1395802358422 How do incresed ATP levels influence Gluconeoge
nesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Gluconeoge
nesis only occurs in high energy sttes (high ATP nd high NADH) becuse <b>Oxl
ocette must be converted to Mlte in the TCA cycle</b>. Mlte then leves to
gluconeogenesis vi the mlte shuttle.</i></div>
1401593619539 1395802358422 How do incresed NADH levels influence Gluconeog

enesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gluconeoge
nesis only occurs in high energy sttes (high ATP nd high NADH) becuse&nbsp;<b
>Oxlocette must be converted to Mlte in the TCA cycle</b>. Mlte then lev
es to gluconeogenesis vi the mlte shuttle.</i></div>
1401593640147 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte crboxylse}} is n irreversible
enzyme tht converts pyruvte to oxlocette in gluconeogenesis.
1401594066010 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for Pyru
vte Crboxylse ctivity in gluconeogenesis?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B
7 (Biotin)}}</div>
<br><i>Remember, Avidin from rw eggs binds to Biotin</i
>
1401594091941 1395802358422 How do incresed Acetyl-CoA levels influence Pyr
uvte Crboxylse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
1401594112417 1395802358422 {{c1::Phosphoenolpyruvte crboxykinse}} is n
irreversible enzyme in gluconeogenesis tht converts oxlocette to phosphoenol
pyruvte.
<br /><div><i>Requires GTP.</i></div>
1401594161811 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphtse}} is n irreve
rsible enzyme tht converts F1,6BP to F6P in gluconeogenesis.
1401594203282 1395802358422 How do incresed Citrte levels influence Fructo
se-1,6-bisphosphtse ctivity in gluconeogenesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ac
tivtion}}</div>
1401594251409 1395802358422 How do incresed Fructose-<b>2,6</b>-bisphospht
e levels influence Fructose-1,6-bisphosphtse ctivity in gluconeogenesis?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1401594297420 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucose-6-phosphtse}} is n irreversible
enzyme of gluconeogenesis tht converts Glucose-6-phosphte to glucose.
1401594333809 1395802358422 Where in the body does gluconeogenesis primrily
occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Essentill
y, it will occur wherever the enzymes exist. Hence it lso occurs t the kidneys
nd intestinl epithelium. Along the sme lines, it does not occur t muscle du
e to their lck of Glucose-6-phosphtse</i></div>
1401594455163 1395802358422 {{c1::Propionyl-CoA}} is  product of odd-chin
ftty cid metbolism tht cn enter the TCA cycle s succinyl-CoA, undergo gluc
oneogenesis nd hence serve s  glucose source.
<br /><div><i>Even-chin
ftty cids provide Acetyl-CoA equivlents.</i></div>
1401594545605 1395802358422 Which metbolic shunt cts s  vitl source of
NADPH from glucose-6-phosphte?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMP Shunt (Pentose Ph
osphte Pthwy)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, NADPH is required for re
ductive rections, esp. glutthione in RBCs.</i></div><div><i>Also, <u>do not co
nfuse NADPH for NADH nd its role in ATP synthesis</u></i></div><div><i><u><br /
></u></i></div><div><i><u><img src="pste-29794188132607.jpg" /></u></i></div>
1401596199885 1395802358422 Which metbolic shunt is  vitl source of ribos
e for nucleotide synthesis nd glycolytic intermedites?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::HMP Shunt (Pentose Phosphte Pthwy)}}</div>
1401596236051 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the HMP Shunt occur?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
<br /><div><i>No ATP is used or
produced.</i></div>
1401596268083 1395802358422 Wht is the rte limiting enzyme in the HMP shun
t?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G6PD (Glucose-6-phosphte dehydrogense)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-29253022253225.jpg" /></div>
1401596354823 1395802358422 Wht wter soluble vitmin is required in the no
noxidtive, reversible step of the HMP shunt conducted by Trnsketolses?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B1 (Thimine)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Acti
vity of these trnsketolses re used to guge the level of Thimine deficiency.
<br /></i><div><img src="pste-29386166239378.jpg" /></div>
1401596476373 1395802358422 {{c1::Myeloperoxidse}} is n enzyme involved in
the respirtory burst tht gives sputum its blue-green colour. <br /><div><img
src="pste-29918742184491.jpg" /></div>
1401597532687 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respirtory burst forms supe
roxide rdicls from O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NAPDH Oxidse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-29914447217195.jpg" /></div>

1401597575169 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respirtory burst forms H2O2
from superoxide rdicls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide dismutse}}</di
v>
<br /><div><img src="pste-29914447217195.jpg" /></div>
1401597595981 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respirtory burst forms Hypo
chlorite (HOCl) from H2O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myeloperoxidse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-29914447217195.jpg" /></div>
1401597622507 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Grnulomtous Disese}} is  metb
olic disorder tht involves deficiency of NADPH Oxidse.
1401597727422 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Grnulomtous Disese}} is n immu
ne disorder cused by NADPH Oxidse deficiency tht involves n incresed risk f
or recurrent infections nd grnulom formtion by <b>ctlse-positive orgnism
s</b>. <br /><div><i>Ctlse positive orgnisms re cpble of neutrlizing th
eir own H2O2, thereby leving phgocytes without ny ROS to fight the infection.
Ctlse negtive orgnisms on the other hnd essentilly provide H2O2 to phgo
cytes.</i></div>
1401597935365 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctoferrin}} is  protein found in secret
ory fluids nd neutrophils tht functions to inhibits microbil growth vi iron
cheltion.
1401597960554 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyocynin}} is  protein found in <i>Pseud
omons eruginos</i>&nbsp;tht functions to generte ROS tht kill competing mi
crobes.
1401598127447 1395802358422 Wht type of orgnisms hve  higher rte of rec
urrent infection nd grnulom formtion in Chronic Grnulomtous Disese (CGD)?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ctlse-positive orgnisms}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th
e mjor Ctlse-positive bugs: <b>Stphs N' Enterobctericee Are Listed Ctl
se Positive.</b></i></div><div><i>[Stphylococcus, Neisseri, Enterobcteri, A
spergillus, Listeri, Cndid, Pseudomons (nd TB!)]</i></div>
1401645975656 1395802358422 {{c1::G6PD Deficiency}} is n X-linked recessive
enzyme deficiency tht results in decresed NADPH levels in RBCs, thereby mkin
g them susceptible to oxidizing gents nd cusing hemolytic nemi. <div><br
/></div><i>Remember, NADPH is needed to Glutthione reduced so tht is cn deto
xify free rdicls nd ROS. No G6PD = No NADPH required for Glutthione reducts
e.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-648540061960.jpg" /></div>
1401646194700 1395802358422 {{c1::Primquine}} is n ntimlril drug tht
cn trigger hemolytic nemi in G6PD Deficiency.
1401646785061 1395802358422 {{c1::Fv Bens}} re  type of ben tht cn t
rigger hemolytic nemi in G6PD deficiency.
<br /><div><i><b>Infection cn 
lso trigger hemolytic nemi</b>&nbsp;s the free rdicls generted from the i
nflmmtory response cn diffuse into RBCs nd cuse oxidtive dmge.</i></div>
1401646866490 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of G6PD Deficien
cy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive}}</div>
1401646887023 1395802358422 Wht is the most common humn enzyme deficiency?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G6PD Deficiency}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-644245094664.jpg" /></div>
1401646897922 1395802358422 Which rce hs  higher prevlence of G6PD Defic
iency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blcks; Middle Esterns}}</div>
1401646923798 1395802358422 How does the resistnce to mlri chnge in G6P
D Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401646968353 1395802358422 {{c1::Heinz Bodies}} re intrcellulr inclusion
s of oxidized hemoglobin tht precipitte within RBCs in G6PD Deficiency.
1401647000972 1395802358422 {{c1::Bite Cells}} re  pthologicl form of RB
Cs tht form s  result of the phgocytic removl of Heinz bodies by splenic m
crophges in G6PD Deficiency.
1401647037205 1395802358422 {{c1::Essentil Fructosuri}} is  disorder of f
ructose metbolism tht involves  defect in <b>Fructokinse</b>.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-1705102016881.jpg" /></div>
1401647919414 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is defective in Essentil Fructosuri
<br /><div><img src="ps
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fructokinse}}</div>
te-1700807049585.jpg" /></div>
1401647943624 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Essentil Fru

ctosuri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" /></div>
1401647959360 1395802358422 {{c1::Essentil Fructosuri}} is n <b>symptom
tic</b>&nbsp;disorder of fructose metbolism s Hexokinse is ble to perform th
e sme function s Fructokinse, hence Fructose is not trpped in cells.
<div><br /></div><i>The symptoms tht pper re benign (fructosuri; fructosemi
).</i><div><i>Disorders of fructose metbolism generlly cuse milder symptoms
thn nlogous disorders of glctose metbolism.<br /></i><div><div><img src="p
ste-1700807049585.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1401648271389 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Intolernce}} is  disorder of fr
uctose metbolism tht results from  deficiency of <b>Aldolse B</b>. <div><br
/></div><i>Aldolse B should not be confused with Aldolse A, the enzyme in gly
colysis. However, through Aldolse B, Fructose requires less ATP to enter glycol
ysis. For this reson, fructose is in mny sports drinks. For this sme reson,
high fructose corn syrups re quite bd, s the quick, chep supply of sugr ene
rgy leds to n excess of sugrs tht then get turned into ft.</i><br /><div><i
mg src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" /></div>
1401648410695 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Fructose Intolernc
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aldolse B}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember,
Aldolse B is unique to fructose metbolism. Aldolse A is the enzyme in glycoly
sis.</i></div>
1401648440884 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fructose Into
lernce?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401648455934 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Intolernce}} is  disorder of fr
uctose metbolism tht presents with n ccumultion of Fructose-1-Phosphte, th
ereby cusing  decrese in vilble phosphte.
<br /><div><i>This in tu
rn results in inhibition of glycogenolysis nd gluconeogenesis.</i></div><div><i
><img src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" /></i></div>
1401649701708 1395802358422 {{c1::Fstic hypoglycemi}},&nbsp;{{c2::jundice
}} nd&nbsp;{{c3::cirrhosis}} re heptic complictions of Fructose Intolernce
tht rise due to the extensive liver dmge seen.
1401649802545 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperuricemi/Gout}} is  compliction of
Fructose Intolernce s the trpping of phosphte on Fructose molecules forces P
urines towrds Uric Acid.
<br /><div><img src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" />
</div>
1401649865039 1395802358422 Which of the <b>mjor</b>&nbsp;monoscchrides i
s <b>not</b>&nbsp; reducing sugr?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fructose (it's 
ketose sugr)}}</div> <br /><div><i>For this reson, ctrcts re not  sympt
oms of fructose metbolism disorders</i></div>
1401649969484 1395802358422 Which renl tubule cn get dmged in Fructose I
ntolernce?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Proximl Convoluted Tubule (PCT)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Similr to Renl Tubulr Acidosis, Type 2.</i></div>
1401650173302 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucose}} is  reducing sugr (ldose) th
t becomes Sorbitol vi Aldose Reductse.
<br /><div><i>The other ldose (
reducing) sugrs include:&nbsp;</i></div><div><i>Glctose --&gt; Glctitol;&nb
sp;</i></div><div><i>Inose --&gt; Inositol;&nbsp;</i></div><div><i>Mnnose --&gt
; Mnnitol</i></div>
1401650177776 1395802358422 {{c1::Sucrose}} is  discchride tht consists
of Fructose nd Glucose.
1401650501102 1395802358422 {{c1::Mltose}} is  discchride tht consists
of Glucose nd Glucose.
1401650512131 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctose}} is  discchride tht consists
of Glctose nd Glucose.
1401650525781 1395802358422 {{c1::Glctokinse Deficiency}} is  disorder o
f glctose metbolism tht involves  hereditry deficiency of <b>Glctokinse
</b>. <div><br /></div><i>Thereby results in the ccumultion of Glctitol, 
the reducing form of Glctose.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4969277161823.jpg
" /></div>
1401650861584 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Glctokinse
Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>

1401650874333 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is deficient in Glctokinse Defici
ency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glctokinse, duh.}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401650898779 1395802358422 {{c1::Glctokinse Deficiency}} is  <b>reltiv
ely mild </b>disorder of glctose metbolism tht is essentilly benign except
for <b>infntile ctrcts</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" />
</div>
1401650972248 1395802358422 {{c1::Ctrcts}} re n oculr compliction of
disorders of glctose metbolism due to the ccumultion of Glctitol,  reduc
ing product of Glctose.
<div><br /></div><i>For this reson, disorders o
f fructose metbolism <b>do not present with ctrcts</b>&nbsp;s Fructose is n
ot  reducing sugr.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401651076546 1395802358422 {{c1::Glctokinse Deficiency}} is  disorder o
f glctose metbolism tht my initilly present s filure to trck objects or
to develop  socil smile.
1401651108768 1395802358422 {{c1::Clssic Glctosemi}} is  disorder of g
lctose metbolism tht involves the bsence of <b>Glctose-1-phosphte Uridylt
rnsferse</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401651661214 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is bsent in Clssic Glctosemi?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glctose-1-phosphte Uridyltrnsferse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401651684872 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Clssic Glc
tosemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401651699438 1395802358422 {{c1::Clssic Glctosemi}} is  disorder of g
lctose metbolism tht presents with <b>jundice, heptomegly, infntile ctr
cts</b>&nbsp;nd <b>intellectul disbility</b>&nbsp;due to the ccumultion of
toxic substnces.
<div><br /></div><div><i>Especilly Glctitol.</i></div
><div><i>The more serious defects cn lso involve PO4 depletion.</i></div><i><u
>Clssic Glctosemi is similr to Fructose Intolernce (Aldolse B deficiency)
except tht it includes ctrcts.</u></i><br /><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i
><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></i></div>
1401651844000 1395802358422 {{c1::Clssic Glctosemi}} is  disorder of g
lctose metbolism tht presents similrly to Fructose Intolernce (Aldolse B d
eficiency) except tht it includes ctrcts. <br /><div><i><b>F</b>ructose is
to <b>A</b>ldolse <b>B</b> s <b>G</b>lctose is to <b>U</b>ridyl<b>T</b>rns
ferse. (<b>FAB GUT</b>).</i></div>
1401652005087 1395802358422 Which disorder of Glctose metbolism cn led
to <i>Escherichi coli </i>sepsis in neontes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clssi
c Glctosemi}}</div>
1401652055363 1395802358422 {{c1::Sorbitol}} is the lcohol counterprt of G
lucose formed by Aldose Reductse nd stnds s n lterntive method of trppin
g glucose in the cell. <div><br /></div><i>Some tissues re ble to then conver
t Sorbitol into Fructose vi Sorbitol Dehydrogense.</i><div><i>Other tissue th
t do not hve the bove enzyme re t risk for intrcellulr sorbitol ccumulti
on, thereby cusing osmotic dmge (e.g. <b>ctrcts, retinopthy, peripherl n
europthy</b>). This is especilly seen in hyperglycemi.</i></div><div><i>Glc
titol cn cuse similr problems vi Aldose Reductse.<br /></i><div><img src="p
ste-6300717023664.jpg" /></div></div>
1401653655500 1395802358422 Which enzyme found on the brush border of the GI
epithelium functions to digest Lctose into glucose nd glctose?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Lctse}}</div>
1401654170558 1395802358422 {{c1::Primry Lctse Deficiency}} is  type of
Lctse Deficiency tht presents with n ge-dependent decline in Lctse ctivi
ty fter childhood due to the bsence of  lctse-persistent llele. <br /><d
iv><i>Common in Asins, Africns, nd North Americns.</i></div>
1401654269199 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondry Lctse Deficiency}} is  type o
f Lctse Deficiency tht commonly rises due to the loss of the brush border du
e to gstroenteritis or utoimmune disese.
1401655187287 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenitl Lctse Deficiency}} is  <b>r
re</b>&nbsp;type of lctse deficiency tht is due to  defective lctse gene.

1401655253607 1395802358422 How does the pH of stool chnge in Lctse Defic
iency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
<br /><div><i>GI complic
tions involve bloting, crmping, fltulence nd osmotic dirrhe.</i></div>
1401655299070 1395802358422 How does the hydrogen content of stool chnge in
Lctse deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse (i.e. decresed pH)}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>This is  nice tie into Lctulose, n osmotic lxtive th
t cidifies the GI lumen to tret hypermmonemi. It's essentilly the sme MOA
here where Lctose stys in the GI lumen due to the lctse deficiency.</i></div
>
1401655355919 1395802358422 Which stereoisomer of Amino Acids is found in pr
oteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L-form}}</div>
1401656107716 1395802358422 Wht re the 2 ketogenic mino cids?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Leucine}}</div>
1401656175204 1395802358422 Wht re the 2 cidic mino cids?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Asprtte; Glutmte}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both re negtivel
y chrged t body pH.</i></div>
1401656239623 1395802358422 Wht re the 3 bsic mino cids?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Arginine; Lysine; Histidine}}</div>
1401656259170 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>most bsic</b>&nbsp;mino cid?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div>
1401656272310 1395802358422 Which 2 bsic mino cids re required during pe
riods of growth?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine; Histidine}}</div>
1401656329284 1395802358422 Which essentil mino cids re <b>both</b>&nbsp
;ketogenic nd glucogenic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isoleucine; Phenyllnine;
Threonine; Tryptophn}}</div>
1401656369270 1395802358422 Which metbolic pthwy functions to get rid of
ny excess nitrogen (NH3) generted by mino cid ctbolism?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Ure Cycle}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-8735963480780.jpg" />
</div>
1401657269820 1395802358422 Which 2 sources provide the Ammoni tht enters
the Ure Cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The gut vi Glutminse; Glutmte vi
 Glutmte Dehydrogense}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-8731668513484
.jpg" /></div>
1401657331838 1395802358422 Which intermedite of the TCA cycle is supplied
by the Ure Cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fumrte}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>In fct, the Ure Cycle is  very key Fumrte source.</i><br /><div><img sr
c="pste-8731668513484.jpg" /></div>
1401657382050 1395802358422 Wht is the First Aid mnemonic for the intermedi
tes of the Ure Cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ordinrily, Creless Crppers
Are Also Frivolous About Urintion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Ornithine, Crbmo
yl phosphte,&nbsp;</i><i>Citrulline,&nbsp;</i><i>Asprtte,&nbsp;</i><i>Arginos
uccinte,&nbsp;</i><i>Fumrte,&nbsp;</i><i>Arginine,&nbsp;</i><i>Ure</i></div>
<div><i><img src="pste-8731668513484.jpg" /></i></div>
1401657491417 1395802358422 Which 2 mino cids re necessry for the trnsp
ort of mmoni from muscle nd other tissue to the liver?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Alnine; Glutmte; both re mde nd unmde by Trnsminses}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Asprtte = Oxlocette + NH2</i><div><i>Alnine = Pyruvte
+ NH2</i></div><div><i>Glutmte = lph-Ketoglutrte + NH2<br /></i><div><img
src="pste-9131100471783.jpg" /></div></div>
1401657732704 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required by Trns
minses nd hence in the trnsport of mmoni by Alnine nd Glutmte?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Asp
rtte = Oxlocette + NH2</i><div><i>Alnine = Pyruvte + NH2</i></div><div><i>
Glutmte = lph-Ketoglutrte + NH2</i></div><div><img src="pste-912680550448
7.jpg" /></div>
1401657734354 1395802358422 How do lph-Ketoglutrte levels chnge in Hype
rmmonemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese; thereby inhibiting the TCA cycl
e}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, lph-KG + NH2 = Glutmte.</i></div><di
v><i>Also, since this inhibits the TCA cycle, less ATP will be mde nd less ATP
will be vilble for the Ure Cycle, thereby compounding the hypermmonemi.</

i></div>
1401659651540 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Butyrte in the tretment of
Hypermmonemi?<div><br />{{c1::Binding to mino cids nd leding to their excr
etion, thereby decresing mmoni levels}}</div>
1401659688814 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Phenylbutyrte in the tretme
nt of hypermmonemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binding to mino cids, leding
to their excretion nd decresed mmoni levels}}</div>
1401659726589 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctulose}} is n osmotic lxtive tht c
n tret Hypermmonemi by cidifying the GI trct nd trpping NH4⁺&n
bsp;ions for excretion.
1401659792004 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Lctulose in the tretment of
Hypermmonemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trpping of NH4⁺&nbsp;ion
s in the GI trct by cidifying the lumen}}</div>
1401659849527 1395802358422 {{c1::Asterixis}} is  neurologicl compliction
of Ammoni intoxiction nd is described s repetitive tremor of the hnd when
the wrist is extended. <br /><div><img src="pste-11312943857772.jpg" /></div>
1401660410918 1395802358422 {{c1::N-cetylglutmte}} is  cofctor tht is
required by Crbmoyl Phosphte Synthetse I in the Ure Cycle. <div><br /></div
><i>Hence, N-cetylglutmte deficiency will cuse hypermmonemi.</i><br /><div
><img src="pste-11325828760087.jpg" /></div>
1401660552185 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the Ure Cycle requires N-cetyl
glutmte s  cofctor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crbmoyl Phosphte Synthet
se I}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-11321533792791.jpg" /></div>
1401660580401 1395802358422 {{c1::Hereditry N-cetylglutmte deficiency}}
is  cuse of hypermmonemi tht presents identiclly to Crbmoyl Phosphte Sy
nthetse I deficiency, however <b>the elevtion in Ornithine will be ccompnied
by <u>norml Ure Cycle enzymes</u>.</b>
<br><div><img src="pste-1132153
3792791.jpg" /></div>
1401660667923 1395802358422 Wht is the most common Ure Cycle disorder?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse deficiency (OTCD)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-11321533792791.jpg" /></div>
1401660706834 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Ornithine Tr
nscrbmylse (OTC) Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive}}<
/div> <br /><div><img src="pste-11321533792791.jpg" /></div>
1401660751172 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>only</b>&nbsp;Ure Cycle enzyme d
eficiency tht is X-linked recessive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trns
crbmylse Deficiency}}</div> <br /><div><i>All of the others re utosoml re
cessive.</i></div>
1401660792334 1395802358422 How do BUN levels chnge in Ure Cycle disorders
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Less Ure is being
mde, hence BUN is lower.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-11321533792791.jpg"
/></i></div>
1401661659045 1395802358422 {{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}} is
 ure cycle enzyme deficiency tht presents with <b>orotic ciduri</b>&nbsp;
s the excess crbmoyl phosphte is converted into orotic cid in de novo pyrimi
dine synthesis. <br /><div><i>Remember, Crbmoyl Phosphte is the one intermedi
te of the Ure Cycle tht is prt of the de novo pyrimidine synthesis. Becuse
of this, there my lso be n increse in pyrimidines, especilly Urcil.</i></d
iv><div><i><img src="pste-12262131630802.jpg" /></i></div>
1401661812338 1395802358422 {{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}} is
 Ure Cycle enzyme disorder tht presents with <b>elevted crbmoyl phosphte
</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-12257836663506.jpg" /></div>
1401662114308 1395802358422 Wht is the key difference between Hereditry Or
otic Aciduri nd the orotic ciduri secondry to Ornithine Trnscrbmylse De
ficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::OTCD <b>does not </b>hve megloblstic n
emi}}</div>
1401662194023 1395802358422 Which Ure Cycle enzyme disorder is ssocited w
ith <b>ornge crystls in the urine</b>&nbsp;if it is left to dry?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}}</div>
1401662240535 1395802358422 Which mjor ure cycle enzyme disorder presents

with <b>orotic ciduri</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmyl
se Deficiency}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, the elevted Crbmoyl Phosphte
is shunted to pyrimidine synthesis where it becomes Orotic Acid.</i></div><div>
<i><img src="pste-12257836663506.jpg" /></i></div>
1401662286656 1395802358422 Which mjor ure cycle enzyme disorder presents
with <b>incresed crbmoyl phosphte</b>&nbsp;levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-12257
836663506.jpg" /></div>
1401662378208 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Crbmoyl Pho
sphte Synthetse I deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}
</div>
1401662416290 1395802358422 How do mmoni levels chnge in Ure Cycle enzym
e disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elevted}}</div>
1401663051035 1395802358422 How do crbmoyl phosphte levels chnge in Crb
moyl Phosphte Synthetse I deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</
div>
<div><br /></div><i>This crd isn't entirely stupid becuse it reinforce
s the connection with orotic ciduri. <b>Becuse Crbmoyl Phosphte levels re
low, there will be no Orotic Aciduri </b>vi de novo pyrimidine synthesis.</i>
<br /><div><img src="pste-12257836663506.jpg" /></div>
1401663121999 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycerol Phenylbutyrte}} is  nitrogen sc
venger tht trets hypermmonemi by grbbing mmoni from glutmine. <br /><d
iv><i>It is  prodrug. The ctive form performs the MOA.</i></div>
1401663208151 1395802358422 Which osmotic lxtive is used to tret hypermm
onemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lctulose (or Levulose)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Lctulose cidifies the gut, thereby trpping NH4⁺&nbsp;in the
lumen nd decresing its bsorption.</i></div>
1401671464765 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Thyroxine derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenyllnine}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-15023795601547.jpg" /></div>
1401671500825 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Melnin derived from?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenylnine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-15019500634251.jpg" /></div>
1401671516012 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Dopmine derived from?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenyllnine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-15019500634251.jpg" /></div>
1401671535231 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is NE nd Epinephrine derived fr
om?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenyllnine}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-15019500634251.jpg" /></div>
1401671562863 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Nicin derived from?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Hence, in Hrtnup Di
sese there is decresed Nicin due to defective Tryptophn bsorption.</i><br /
><div><img src="pste-15715285336166.jpg" /></div>
1401673075760 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Serotonin derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-15710
990368870.jpg" /></div>
1401673110405 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Meltonin derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn vi Serotonin}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-15710990368870.jpg" /></div>
1401673129352 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Histmine derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Histidine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1634664552862
1.jpg" /></div>
1401673202168 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Porphyrin derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1637241533239
6.jpg" /></div>
1401673214892 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Heme derived from?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Glycine vi Porphyrin}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16368
120365100.jpg" /></div>
1401673226030 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is GABA derived from?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Glutmte}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-1672889761802
0.jpg" /></div>

1401673251667 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Glutthione derived from?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glutmte}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-16724
602650724.jpg" /></div>
1401673263381 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Cretine derived from?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1689210637529
2.jpg" /></div>
1401673565846 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Ure derived from?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-1688781140799
6.jpg" /></div>
1401673575935 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Nitric Oxide derived from?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-16887
811407996.jpg" /></div>
1401673630336 1395802358422 Wht re the 3 romtic mino cids?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn; Phenyllnine; Tyrosine}}</div>
1401673790592 1395802358422 {{c1::Albinism}} is  possible cutneous complic
tion of Menkes Disese due to Tyrosinse requiring copper to form Melnin.
<div><br /></div><i><div></div>Remember, Menkes Disese involves  defect in cop
per bsorption.</i><div><i>The lbinism is on the milder side, if present.</i><b
r /><div><img src="pste-17467631993490.jpg" /></div></div>
1401673873130 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylketonuri (PKU)}} is  disorder of 
mino cid metbolism tht occurs due to  deficiency in P<b>henyllnine Hydroxy
lse</b>&nbsp;or <b>Tetrhydrobiopterin cofctor</b>. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401673994657 1395802358422 Which enzyme deficiency cn cuse Phenylketonuri
 (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phenyllnine hydroxylse}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401674051461 1395802358422 Which cofctor deficiency cn cuse Phenylketonu
ri (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tetrhydrobiopterin (BH4)}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>If cused by BH4 deficiency, the PKU is <b>milder</b>.</i><br /><div
><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401674095931 1395802358422 How do phenyllnine levels chnge in Phenylketo
nuri (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed, thereby leds to excess pheny
lketones in the urine}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Phenylketones include: pheny
lcette, phenyllctte nd phenylpyruvte.</i><br /><div><i>Also, tyrosine beco
mes n essentil mino cid.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg
" /></i></div>
1401674190383 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylketonuri (PKU)}} is  disorder of 
mino cid metbolism tht presents with  chrcteristic <b>musty body odour</b>
.
<br /><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401674230704 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylketonuri}} is  disorder of mino 
cid metbolism tht presents with <b>fir skin</b>&nbsp;or <b>prtil lbinism</
b>&nbsp;due to <b>decresed tyrosine production</b>.
<div><br /></div><i>Reme
mber,  significnt mount of Tyrosine is mde from Phenyllnine, whose metbol
ism is impired in PKU.</i><div><i>Also remember tht DA, NE, Epinephrine, Meln
in re ll derived from Tyrosine.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.j
pg" /></div></div>
1401674528009 1395802358422 {{c1::Asprtme}} is  rtificil sweetener used
in food tht must be voided in Phenylketonuri s it is  phenyllnine deriv
tive.
1401674669660 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Phenylketonuri (PKU)?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Less</b>&nbsp;phenyllnine nd <b>more</b>&nbsp;
tyrosine in the diet}}</div>
1401674746052 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Phenylketonur
i (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Incidence 1:10,000</i></div><div><i>Screened for 2-3 dys fter birth s m
ternl enzymes t birth cn give norml redings during.</i></div>
1401675101072 1395802358422 {{c1::Mternl PKU}} is  form of phenylketonuri
 tht rises due to  lck of proper dietry therpy during pregnncy. <br /><d
iv><i>Infnt presents with microcephly, intellectul disbility, growth retrd
tion nd congenitl hert defects.</i></div>

1401675173336 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht involves deficiency of <b>Homogentiste Oxidse </b>in the degr
dtive pthwy of tyrosine to fumrte.
<div><br /></div><i>The disorder
is <b>benign</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401675242641 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Alkptonuri?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Homogentiste Oxidse}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Foun
d in the degrdtive pthwy of tyrosine to fumrte.</i><div><div><img src="ps
te-17463337026194.jpg" /></div></div>
1401675603698 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Alkptonuri?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401675619786 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht presents with <b>drk connective tissue </b>nd <b>brown pigmen
ted sclere</b>.
1401675645122 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht presents with <b>urine tht turns blck </b>following prolonged
exposure to ir.
1401675743456 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht my present with <b>debilitting rthrlgis</b>&nbsp;nd <b>de
genertive rthritis</b>&nbsp;due to homogentisic cid's toxicity towrds crtil
ge.
<br /><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401675782552 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Homocystinuri
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive (ll types re AR)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-21509196218551.jpg" /></div>
1401675860107 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht cn be due to  deficiency of Cystthionine synthse.
<div><br /></div><i>Tx: decresed methionine, incresed cysteine, incresed B12
nd incresed B9 (folte) in the diet.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-21504901251
255.jpg" /></div>
1401675941832 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht cn result from  decresed ffinity of Cystthionine Synths
e for Pyridoxl Phosphte (Vitmin B6). <br /><div><i>Tretment: <b>gretly</b>&
nbsp;incresed B6 nd incresed cysteine in the diet.</i></div><div><i><img src=
"pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></i></div>
1401676005888 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht cn be due to  deficiency of Homocysteine Methyltrnsferse
(k Methionine Synthse).
<div><br /></div><i>Tretment: Incresed methion
ine in the diet.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></div>
1401677529173 1395802358422 Which 2 enzyme deficiencies cn cuse Homocystin
uri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cystthionine Synthse <u style="font-weight: b
old; ">or</u>&nbsp;Homocysteine Methyltrnsferse (Methionine Synthse)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>A deficiency in either cn cuse Homocystinuri</i></div><div><i><
img src="pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></i></div>
1401677584196 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin deficiencies cn cu
se Homocystinuri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine), B9 (Folt
e) nd B12 (Coblmin)}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Notice how B12 nd B6 re bo
th needed s cofctors.</i><div><i>Vitmin B9 is needed to drive Methionine Synt
hse s N5-Methyl-THF.</i></div><div><i><u>Remember, Methionine Synthse is the
only enzyme tht cn rectivte folte (N5-Methyl-THF to THF).</u><br /></i><div
><img src="pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></div></div>
1401677719641 1395802358422 Which is the only humn enzyme tht cn rectiv
te Folte (N5-Methyl-THF to THF)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Homocysteine Methyl
trnsferse (Methionine Synthse)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-21504
901251255.jpg" /></div>
1401677752307 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht presents very similrly to Mrfn Syndrome (tll stture, kyp
hosis, <b>lens subluxtion</b>).
1401677812519 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is  disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht presents with <b>downwrd nd inwrd lens subluxtion</b>.
1401677833612 1395802358422 {{c1::Thrombosis}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::Atherosclerosi

s}} re 2 vsculr complictions of Homocystinuri due to dmge sustined to ve
ssels s  result of disulfide bond formtion vi Homocysteine. <br /><div><i>Ho
mocysteine hs  free -SH group tht cn cuse disulfide bone formtion with oth
er -SH groups on proteins or blood vessel wlls.</i></div>
1401678012593 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is  disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht is lso referred to s Onchronosis.
1401678036330 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystinuri}} is  disorder of mino cid m
etbolism tht involves  hereditry defect of the renl PCT nd intestinl min
o cid trnsporter for Cysteine, Ornithine, Lysine nd Arginine.
<br /><d
iv><i><b>COLA</b>: Cysteine, Ornithine, Lysine, Arginine</i></div>
1401680647663 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystinuri}} is disorder of mino cid met
bolism tht cn involve <b>hexgonl cystine stones</b>&nbsp;in the urine due t
o excess cystine content.
<br /><div><i>Cystine is mde of 2 cysteine mole
cules connected by  disulfide bond.</i></div>
1401680677671 1395802358422 Which 4 mino cids hve defective trnsport in
Cystinuri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cysteine; Ornithine; Lysine; Arginine}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>COLA</i></div>
1401680703039 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Cystinuri?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div> <br /><div><i>Common (1:
7000).</i></div>
1401681073994 1395802358422 Wht dignostic test is used to dignose Cystinu
ri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Urinry cynide-nitroprusside test}}</div>
1401681092469 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Cystinuri?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Urinry lkliniztion nd cheltors tht increse the solubili
ty of cystine stones}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Agents include Potssium Citrte 
nd Acetzolmide.</i></div>
1401811267040 1395802358422 {{c1::Mple Syrup Urine Disese}} is  disorder
of mino cid metbolism tht occurs due to  deficiency in <b>Brnched Chin&nb
sp;lph-Ketocid dehydrogense</b>.
<br /><div><i>Remember, &nbsp;BCKDH is o
ne of the enzymes tht requires <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>:</i></di
v><div><i>Thimine (B1)</i></div><div><i>Lipoic Acid</i></div><div><i>CoA (B5)</
i></div><div><i>FAD (B2)</i></div><div><i>NAD (B3)</i></div>
1401813093714 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Mple Syrup Urine D
isese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brnched Chin lph-Ketocid Dehydrogense}}
</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, this enzyme requires <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre F
or Nncy</b>:</i></div><div><i>Thimine (B1)</i></div><div><i>Lipoic Acid</i></d
iv><div><i>CoA (B5)</i></div><div><i>FAD (B2)</i></div><div><i>NAD (B3)</i></div
>
1401813158862 1395802358422 Wht re the 3 brnched chin mino cids?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Vline; Leucine; Isoleucine}}</div>
1401813191515 1395802358422 {{c1::Mple Syrup Urine Disese}} is  disorder
of brnched mino cid metbolism tht results in <b>incresed lph-ketocids</
b>&nbsp;in the blood, especilly those of leucine.
1401813227620 1395802358422 How do the levels of lph-ketocids chnge in M
ple Syrup Urine Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse; especilly those
of leucine}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, MSUD involves  defect or defici
ency in Brnched Chin lph-Ketocid Dehydrogense.</i></div>
1401813299130 1395802358422 {{c1::Mple Syrup Urine Disese}} is  disorder
of brnched chin mino cid metbolism tht involves <b>severe CNS defects, int
ellectul disbility</b>&nbsp;nd <b>deth</b>.
1401813428800 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Mple Syrup U
rine Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401813441502 1395802358422 {{c1::Mple Syrup Urine Disese}} is  disorder
of mino cid metbolism tht presents with urine tht smells like mple syrup/b
urnt sugr.
1401813474986 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Mple Syrup Urine Dise
se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Restriction of BCAAs in the diet (Leu, Ile, Vl)
; Thimine supplementtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Thimine is  required cof
ctor for Brnched Chin lph-Ketocid Dehydrogense.</i></div>
1401813535554 1395802358422 How does Glucgon influence Glycogenolysis?<div>

<br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Glucgon cuses th
e <b>phosphoryltion of Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>&nbsp;vi Protein Kinse A, th
ereby <b>ctivting it.</b></i></div><div><i>Glucgon cuses the <b>phosphorylt
ion of Glycogen Synthse</b>&nbsp;vi Protein Kinse A, thereby <b>inctivting
it.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819069138 1395802358422 How does Epinephrine influence Glycogenolysis?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<div><br /></div><div><div><i>Ep
inephrine cuses the&nbsp;<b>phosphoryltion of Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>&nbsp;
vi Protein Kinse A, thereby&nbsp;<b>ctivting it.</b></i></div><div><i>Epinep
hrine cuses the&nbsp;<b>phosphoryltion of Glycogen Synthse</b>&nbsp;vi Prote
in Kinse A, thereby&nbsp;<b>inctivting it.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="
pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div></div>
1401819219969 1395802358422 Which type of G-protein is involved in Glucgon
nd Epinephrine signlling?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Thereby cusing n increse in [cAMP].</i></div><div><i><div></div
></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819279758 1395802358422 Which protein kinse enzyme is involved in the r
egultion of Glycogen Phosphorylse nd Glycogen Synthse by Glucgon nd Epinep
hrine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Protein Kinse A}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>And remember, <b>Insulin ctivtes phosphtses</b>&nbsp;hence it does the o
pposite.</i><br /><div><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg
" /></b></i></div>
1401819363556 1395802358422 Which protein phosphtse enzyme is involved in
the regultion of Glycogen Synthse nd Glycogen Phosphorylse by Insulin?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Protein Phosphtse 1}}</div>
<br /><div><i><div></div
></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819410506 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Glycogenolysis?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Insulin ctivtes
<b>Glycogen Synthse</b>.</i></div><div><i>Insulin ctivtes <b>Protein Phospht
se 1</b>&nbsp;which <b>dephosphoryltes Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>, thereby in
ctivting it.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-21646
63517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819491519 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Glycogenesis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin ctivtes <b>Glyco
gen Synthse</b>.</i></div><div><i>Insulin ctivted <b>Protein Phosphtse 1</b
>&nbsp;which dephosphoryltes <b>Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>, thereby inctivtin
g it.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742
.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401820462778 1395802358422 How does AMP influence Glycogenolysis t muscle?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>This only occurs 
t muscle. <b>AMP hs no effect on heptic glycogenolysis</b>.</i></div>
1401820512824 1395802358422 Which enzyme in muscle ctivtes Glycogen Phosph
orylse when it is bound to C?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clmodulin}}</div>
<br /><div><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i>
</div>
1401820582800 1395802358422 How does Glucose-6-phosphte influence Glycogene
sis in both liver nd muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>G6P ctivted Glycogen Synthse in  feed-forwrd mnner to drive
glycogenesis.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-21646
63517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401833353374 1395802358422 Wht type of glycosidic bond is seen in <b>glyco
gen brnches</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-(1,6)}}</div>
1401833612783 1395802358422 Wht type of glycosidic bond is seen in <b>glyco
gen links</b>&nbsp;(i.e. liner glycogen)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-(1,4
)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-4475355922733.jpg" /></div>
1401833683064 1395802358422 In skeletl muscle, Glycogen is broken into&nbsp
;{{c1::Glucose-1-phosphte}} molecules nd then converted to&nbsp;{{c2::Glucose6-phosphte}}, which is rpidly metbolized during exercise nd enters nerobic
glycolysis.
<br /><div><i>The brekdown is the reverse of glycogen synthesis
:</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></i></div>

1401833835675 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver cleves Glucose-1-phos
phte residues off brnched glycogen until there re four remining before  br
nch point?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen phosphorylse}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></div>
1401834039050 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver moves <b>three</b>&nbs
p;Glucose-1-phosphte molecules from the brnch to the glycogen linkge in Glyco
genolysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4-lph-D-Glucnotrnsferse (Debrnching
Enzyme)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></div>
1401834231654 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver cleves off the lst g
lucose-1-phosphte molecule from  brnch in Glycogenolysis?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::lph-1,6-Glucosidse (Debrnching Enzyme)}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></div>
1401834270124 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver removes  phosphte gr
oup from Glucose-6-phosphte, thereby llowing glucose to be trnsported into th
e blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphtse}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Remember, glycogenolysis t the liver is imed to mintin blood sugr. Th
is finl step is vitl in both gluconeongenesis nd glycogenolysis to llow gluc
ose to enter circultion.</i></div><div><i>In fct, <b>the liver hs  unique Gl
ucose-6-phosphtse</b>&nbsp;tht lets this lst step occur.</i></div>
1401834466570 1395802358422 Which enzyme reversibly converts Glucose-1-phosp
hte to Glucose-6-phosphte (nd vice vers)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Epimer
se}}</div>
1401834493200 1395802358422 Which enzyme in <b>lysosomes</b>&nbsp;degrdes 
smll mount of glycogen?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-1,4-glucosidse (Aci
d Mltse)}}</div>
1401834550708 1395802358422 Wht is the primry role of Glycogenolysis t th
e liver?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mintennt of blood glucose}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Glycogenolysis only lsts  short time. Soon fter, gluconeogenesis tkes
over to keep blood glucose levels mintined.</i></div>
1401834674758 1395802358422 How do Glycogen levels chnge in glycogen storg
e disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Lo
l. Just mking sure you're still live.</i></div><div><i>Also, keep in mind of <
b>where</b>&nbsp;glycogen is mde/stored: <b>Liver</b>&nbsp;nd <b>muscle</b>. H
ence, it is these 2 tissues tht re ffected in these disorders. Glycogen stor
ge disorders cn be sorted into liver, muscle or mixed types.</i></div>
1401835653689 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke disese}} is  glycogen storge
disorder tht is lso referred to s Type I Glycogen Storge Disorder.
1401835707649 1395802358422 {{c1::Pompe Disese}} is  glycogen storge diso
rder tht is lso referred to s Type II&nbsp;Glycogen Storge Disorder
1401835724855 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is  glycogen storge disor
der tht is lso referred to s Type III&nbsp;Glycogen Storge Disorder.
1401835744015 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht is lso referred to s Type V&nbsp;Glycogen Storge Disorder.
1401835786447 1395802358422 Wht is the only glycogen storge disorder tht
ffects <b>both</b>&nbsp;the liver nd muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pompe
Disese}}</div>
1401835912232 1395802358422 Wht is the only glycogen storge disorder tht
hs severe fsting hypoglycemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Von Gierke Disese}}
</div>
1401835936881 1395802358422 Which enzyme is defective in Von Gierke Disese?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphtse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Re
member, <b>only the liver expresses Glucose-6-phosphtse.</b></i></div><div><i>
Of the glycogen storge disorders, Von Gierke is bsiclly the only one with re
lly shitty biochemistry.</i></div>
1401835993657 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke Disese}} is  glycogen storge
disorder tht presents with <b>severe fsting hypoglycemi</b>&nbsp;due to  Gl
ucose-6-phosphtse deficiency.
1401836050525 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke Disese}} is  glycogen storge
disorder tht presents with <b>heptomegly</b>&nbsp;due to  severe increse i
n Glucose-6-phosphte levels. <br /><div><i>G6P is very osmoticlly ctive nd

hence cuses cell swelling nd ultimtely heptosplenomegly.</i></div>
1401836115317 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke Disese}} is  glycogen storge
disorder tht presents with <b>hypermmonemi</b>&nbsp;nd <b>lctic cidosis</
b>&nbsp;due to the liver filure tht rises. <br /><div><i>Von Gierke Disese
is essentilly  genetic cuse of liver filure due to the Glucose-6-phosphts
e deficiency.</i></div>
1401836262125 1395802358422 {{c1::Ketocidosis}} is  compliction of Von Gi
erke Disese tht rises due to Acetyl CoA being shunted towrds ketogenesis.
1401836445601 1395802358422 {{c1::Gout/Hyperuricemi}} is  possible complic
tion of Von Gierke Disese due to the phosphte trpping tht occurs with Gluco
se-6-phosphte ccumultion nd the resultnt lck of phosphte for purine slv
ge.
<br /><div><i>Anything tht cuses phosphte trpping cn cuse hyperuri
cemi/gout.</i></div><div><i>Fructose Intolernce (Aldolse B deficiency; F1P c
cumultion) is nother exmple.</i></div><div><i>Clssic Glctosemi (Gl-1-P U
ridyltrnsferse defect; Gl-1-P ccumultion) is one s well.</i></div>
1401836484479 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Von Gierke Di
sese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401836496319 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Von Gierke Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frequent orl glucose/cornstrch; voidnce of fructose
nd glctose}}</div>
1401848975352 1395802358422 {{c1::Pompe Disese}} is  glycogen storge diso
rder tht involves <b>crdiomyopthy.</b>
<br /><div><i>Along with systemi
c findings, heptomegly nd muscle wekness there is erly deth.</i></div>
1401849196084 1395802358422 {{c1::Pompe Disese}} is  glycogen storge diso
rder tht involves  deficiency of Lysosoml lph-1,4-glucosidse (Acid Mltse
).
1401849223920 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is deficient in Pompe Disese?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Alph-1,4-glucosidse (Acid Mltse)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Found in lysosomes.</i></div>
1401849315370 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth in Pompe
Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CHF or rrhythmi}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i><b>P</b>ompe trshes the <b>p</b>ump.</i><br /><div><i>However remember, the
<b>liver is still ffected</b>. Pompe ffects both muscle nd the liver.</i></d
iv>
1401849357548 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Pompe Disese
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401849391388 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is  glycogen storge disor
der tht is considered  milder form of Von Gierke Disese (Glycogen Storge Dis
order Type I) with norml lctte levels.
<br /><div><i>Gluconeogenesis is
intct.</i></div>
1401849487279 1395802358422 Which glycogen storge disorder is considered 
milder form of Von Gierke Disese (Glycogen Storge Disorder Type I)?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Cori Disese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gluconeogenesis is intct
nd there re norml lctte levels.</i></div>
1401849548573 1395802358422 How do lctte levels chnge in Cori Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is  very key point.
There is no lctic cidosis in Cori Disese.</i></div>
1401849589562 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Cori Disese?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Debrnching enzyme (lph-1,6-Glucosidse)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Mnemonic to remember Anderson nd Cori Disese:</i></div><div><i><
b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson = <b>B</b>rnching enzyme deficie
ncy</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori = <b>D</b>ebrnching enzyme deficiency</i></div
>
1401849667566 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is  glycogen storge dise
se tht involves deficiency of Debrnching Enzyme (lph-1,6-glucosidse).
<div><br /></div><div><div><i>Mnemonic to remember Anderson nd Cori Disese:</i
></div><div><i><b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson =&nbsp;<b>B</b>r
nching enzyme deficiency</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori =&nbsp;<b>D</b>ebrnching
enzyme deficiency</i></div></div>
1401849717567 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Cori Disese?

<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401849734132 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is  glycogen storge disor
der tht involves cellulr glycogen with <b>too mny brnches </b>due to  defic
iency of Debrnching Enzyme.
1401849834426 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht presents with <b>myoglobinuri</b>&nbsp;with <b>red urine</b>&nbsp;f
ollowing strenuous exercise.
1401851325675 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht presents with pinful muscle crmps due to glycogen ccumultion in
muscle.
1401851374058 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht presents with <b>rrhythmi</b>&nbsp;due to electrolyte bnormlitie
s.
1401851414844 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in McArdle Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Skeletl muscle glycogen phosphorylse (Myophosphoryls
e)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Therefore <b>glycogenolysis is defective.</b></i><
/div>
1401851474427 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is  glycogen storge di
sorder tht involves  skeletl muscle glycogen phosphorylse (Myophosphorylse)
deficiency.
<br /><div><i>Therefore <b>glycogenolysis is defective</b>.</i><
/div>
1401851515196 1395802358422 {{c1::Pinful muscle crmps}} is  compliction
of McArdle Disese tht rises due to the significnt glycogen buildup in muscle
s.
<br /><div><i>There is no lctic cidosis in McArdle Disese s glucose
is <b>unvilble</b>&nbsp;due to  glycogen phosphorylse deficiency. Hence, no
glucose is vilble to be mde into Lctte vi Anerobic Glycolysis. Therefor
e, this muscle crmping hs nothing to do with lctte.</i></div>
1401851670334 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of McArdle Dise
se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401852097481 1395802358422 Which mjor glycogen storge disorder is ssoci
ted with muscle dmge?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::McArdle Disese}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>M</b>cArdle = <b>M</b>uscle</i></div>
1401852141165 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the glycogen storg
e disorder Anderson Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brnching Enzyme}}</div>
<br /><div><div><i>Mnemonic for remembering Anderson nd Cori disese:</i></div>
</div><div><i><b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson = <b>B</b>rnching
enzyme deficiency</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori = <b>D</b>ebrnching enzyme defi
ciency</i></div>
1401923761587 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b>&nbsp;of bnorml products ccum
ulte in lysosoml storge diseses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sphingolipids}}<
/div> <br /><div><i><b>Cermide</b> is the 'prent' of ll sphingolipids.</i><
/div>
1401926578906 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disese is ssocited wi
th <b>ngiokertoms</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fbry Disese}}</div>
1401926647468 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith crdiovsculr/renl disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fbry Disese}}</di
v>
1401926672207 1395802358422 {{c1::Fbry Disese}} is  lysosoml storge dis
order tht involves peripherl neuropthy of the hnds nd feet due to n <b>lp
h-glctosidse A</b> deficiency.
1401927090547 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml stor
ge disorder Fbry Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-Glctosidse A}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401927126436 1395802358422 {{c1::Fbry Disese}} is  lysosoml storge dis
order tht involves  deficiency of lph-Glctosidse A.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401927150689 1395802358422 {{c1::Fbry Disese}} is  lysosoml storge dis
order tht involves ccumultion of <b>cermide hexoside</b>. <br /><div><img
src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401927173282 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of the lysosoml

storge disorder Fbry Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}
</div> <br /><div><i>All lysosoml storge disorders <b>except Fbry nd Hunter
's syndromes&nbsp;</b>&nbsp;re utosoml recessive disorders.</i></div>
1401927409823 1395802358422 Wht is the only lysosoml storge disorder tht
is X-linked recessive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fbry Disese nd Hunter's Sy
ndrome}}</div> <br /><div><i>All other lysosoml storge disorders re utosom
l recessive.</i></div>
1401928007277 1395802358422 Wht is the most common lysosoml storge disord
er?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gucher Disese}}</div>
1401928040370 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder ffects t
he Reticuloendothelil System (RES; Mononucler Phgocyte System) only?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Gucher}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence there will be <b>hep
tosplenomegly</b>.</i></div>
1401928923199 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith <b>pncytopeni</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gucher Disese}}</div>
1401928967551 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith <b>septic necrosis of the femur</b>&nbsp;nd <b>bone crises</b>?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Gucher Disese}}</div>
1401928997477 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Cells}} re  pthologicl cell se
en in Gucher Disese tht re described s <b>lipid-lden mcrophges resemblin
g crumpled tissue pper</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-3685081940158.
jpg" /></div> <br /><div><i>Visulized with  <b>PAS stin.</b></i></div>
1401929060078 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for the lysosoml storge
disorder Gucher Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Recombinnt glucocerebrosid
se}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. the deficient enzyme</i></div>
1401929097241 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Gucher Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucocerebrosidse (bet-Glucosidse)}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i><b>"G-G-Glucose!</b>" (Gucher; Glucocerebrosidse; Glucocerebroside
).</i><br /><div><img src="pste-3878355468684.jpg" /></div>
1401929406864 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Disese}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves  deficiency of <b>Glucocerebrosidse</b>&nbsp;(bet-Gluco
sidse) nd  subsequent ccumultion of <b>Glucocerebroside</b>.
<div><br
/></div><i>Gucher = "<b><u>GGG</u></b>"</i><br /><div><img src="pste-38740605
01388.jpg" /></div>
1401929481745 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Disese}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves  Glucocerebrosidse deficiency. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401929530946 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Disese}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves the ccumultion of Glucocerebroside.
<div><br /></div
><i>"<b>G-G-Glucose!</b>" (Gucher, Glucocerebrosidse, Glucocerebroside)</i><br
/><div><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401929935588 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder ffects <
b>both</b>&nbsp;the CNS nd Reticuloendothelil System (RES)?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence there is <b>heptosp
lenomegly, progressive neurodegenertion</b>&nbsp;<b><u>nd</u>&nbsp;cherry-red
mcul</b>.</i></div>
1401929998180 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder presents
with <b>both</b>&nbsp;heptosplenomegly nd cherry-red mcul?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}}</div>
1401930068039 1395802358422 {{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}} is  lysosoml stor
ge disorder tht presents with progressive neurodegenertion, <b>heptosplenome
gly</b>&nbsp;nd <b>cherry-red</b>&nbsp;spot on the mcul.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401930503169 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml stor
ge disorder Niemnn-Pick Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sphingomyelinse}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>My friend <b>Nmn</b>&nbsp;picks (Niemnn-Pick) his nose
with his <b>sphing</b>er (sphingomyelin; sphingomyelinse).</i></div><div><i>...
. true story, if you ever see Nmn D. on the wrds, cll him out on it.</i></di
v><div><i><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></i></div>
1401930887198 1395802358422 {{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}} is  lysosoml stor

ge disorder tht involves  deficiency of Sphingomyelinse.
<div><br /></div
><i>My friend <b>Nmn</b>&nbsp;picks (Niemnn-Pick) his nose with his <b>sphing
</b>er (sphingomyelin; sphingomyelinse).</i><div><i>... true story, if you ever
see Nmn D. on the wrds, cll him out on it.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-38
74060501388.jpg" /></div></div>
1401930953025 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Gucher Dise
se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401931228389 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Niemnn-Pick
Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401931245436 1395802358422 {{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}} is  lysosoml stor
ge disorder tht presents with n ccumultion of Sphingomyelin.
<br /><d
iv><br /></div><div><i>My friend&nbsp;<b>Nmn</b>&nbsp;picks (Niemnn-Pick) his
nose with his&nbsp;<b>sphing</b>er (sphingomyelin; sphingomyelinse).</i><div><
i>... true story, if you ever see Nmn D. on the wrds, cll him out on it.<br
/></i><div><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1401931274881 1395802358422 {{c1::Cherry-red spot on the mcul}} is n ocul
r compliction of lysosoml storge disorders ffecting the CNS nd is describe
d s the mcul ppering on  very ple bckground retin with neurons full of
sphingolipids. <br /><div><i>Here's  good mnemonic: <b>Cherry-red is hyphente
d, so is Niemnn-Pick nd Ty-Schs</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="pste-7911
329759427.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401931429176 1395802358422 {{c1::Fom cells}} re  pthologicl cell seen
in Niemnn-Pick Disese tht re described s lipid-lden mcrophges.<div><br /
></div><div><img src="pste-7022271529157.jpg" /></div>
1401931470977 1395802358422 {{c1::Zebr Bodies}} re intrcellulr fetures
of mcrophges nd neurons in Niemnn-Pick disese seen on electron microscopy 
nd re described s striped ptterns of ccumulted sphingolipids.<div><br /></d
iv><div><img src="pste-7176890351902.jpg" /></div>
1401931654715 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder ffects t
he CNS only?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence there is <b>progressive neurodegenertion nd cherry-red mcul</b>.
</i></div>
1401932275945 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}} is  lysosoml storge
disorder tht presents with <b>progressive neurodegenertion</b>&nbsp;nd <b>de
velopmentl dely</b>&nbsp;due to  Hexosminidse A defect.
1401932315388 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}} is  lysosoml storge
disorder tht presents with  <b>"cherry-red" spot on the mcul</b>&nbsp;due t
o  Hexosminidse A deficiency.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-7907034792
131.jpg" /></div>
1401932350503 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder presents with <
b>lysosomes with onion skin</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}}<
/div>
1401932454875 1395802358422 Wht is the key distinguishing feture between N
iemnn-Pick nd Ty-Schs Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs <b>does
not</b>&nbsp;hve heptosplenomegly}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Niemnn-Pick = CNS
nd RES</i></div><div><i>Ty-Schs = CNS only</i></div>
1401932505408 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy for someone with Ty
-Schs Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3-4 y/o}}</div>
<br /><div><i>He
nce  vignette with  40 y/o ptient does not hve Ty-Schs.</i></div>
1401932531668 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml stor
ge disorder Ty-Schs Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexosminidse A}}</di
v>
<div><br /></div><i>Ty-S<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>&nbsp;= He
<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>osminidse A deficiency</i><br /><div><img
src="pste-8383776162186.jpg" /></div>
1401932604193 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}} is  lysosoml storge
disorder tht involves  Hexosminidse A deficiency. <br /><div><i>Ty-S<u s
tyle="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>&nbsp;= He<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>os
minidse A deficiency</i><br /><div><img src="pste-8383776162186.jpg" /></div>
</div>
1401932644047 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}} is  lysosoml storge

disorder tht involves n ccumultion of GM₂&nbsp;Gnglioside.
<br /><div><i>Ty-S<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>&nbsp;= He<u style="font
-weight: bold; ">X</u>osminidse A deficiency</i><br /><div><img src="pste-838
3776162186.jpg" /></div></div>
1401932687196 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Ty-Schs Dis
ese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401932704046 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith Globoid Cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Krbbe Disese}}</div>
1401933097915 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith <b>optic trophy</b>&nbsp;s well s peripherl neuropthy nd developmentl
dely?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Krbbe Disese}}</div>
1401933127517 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml storg
e disorder Krbbe Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glctocerebrosidse}}</di
v>
<br /><div><img src="pste-9229884719498.jpg" /></div>
1401933369573 1395802358422 {{c1::Krbbe Disese}} is  lysosoml storge di
sorder tht presents with n ccumultion of Glctocerebroside.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933395457 1395802358422 {{c1::Krbbe Disese}} is  lysosoml storge di
sorder tht involves  Glctocerebrosidse deficiency. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933451333 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Krbbe Dises
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401933463784 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of  ptient with Kr
bbe Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~ 2 y/o}}</div>
1401933483703 1395802358422 {{c1::Metchromtic Leukodystrophy}} is  lysoso
ml storge disorder tht presents with <b>centrl nd peripherl demyelintion,
txi</b> nd <b>dementi</b>.
1401933530940 1395802358422 {{c1::Metchromtic Leukodystrophy}} is  lysoso
ml storge disorder tht involves n Arylsulftse A deficiency.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933565132 1395802358422 Which enzyme deficiency is seen in the lysosoml
storge disorder Metchromtic Leukodystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aryls
ulftse A}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933594019 1395802358422 {{c1::Metchromtic Leukodystrophy}} is  lysoso
ml storge disorder tht presents with n ccumultion of Cerebroside Sulfte.
<br /><div><img src="pste-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933647288 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Metchromtic
Leukodystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401933927937 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents with <b>grgoylism</b>&nbsp;nd <b>cornel clouding</b>.
1401933986744 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents with <b>irwy obstruction</b>&nbsp;nd heptosplenomegly
.
1401934028029 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml stor
ge disorder Hurler Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-L-iduronidse}}</d
iv>
1401934069500 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves  deficieny of lph-L-iduronidse.
1401934092467 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} nd&nbsp;{{c2::Hunter Sy
ndrome}} re lysosoml storge disorders tht present with ccumultion of <b>he
prn sulfte</b>&nbsp;nd <b>dermtn sulfte</b>.
1401934123572 1395802358422 {{c1::Hunter Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents similr to Hurler Syndrome, but <b>lcks cornel clouding<
/b>.
1401934149732 1395802358422 {{c1::Hunter Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents similr to Hurler Syndrome but <b>includes ggressive beh
viour</b>.
1401934185984 1395802358422 {{c1::Hunter Syndrome}} is  lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves  deficiency of iduronte sulftse.
1401934211249 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of the lysosoml

storge disorder Hunter Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hunters lwys im for the <b>X</b>.</i></div>
1401934246419 1395802358422 Which 3 lysosoml storge disorder hve n incre
sed incidence in Ashkenzi Jews?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs; NiemnnPick; Gucher}}</div>
1401934288337 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}},&nbsp;{{c2::Niemnn-Pi
ck Disese}} nd&nbsp;{{c3::Gucher Disese}} re lysosoml storge disorders th
t hve incresed incidence in Ashkenzi Jews.
1401934344648 1395802358422 Adipose tissue cn only mke Glycerol-3-Phospht
e by reducing {{c1::Dihydroxycetone Phosphte (DHAP)}},  glycolytic intermedi
te.
<br /><div><i>Hence, dipose tissue requires incresed glucose uptke vi
 the GLUT4 trnsporter in order for there to be spre DHAP vilble for mking
nd storing triglycerides. This is prt of why excess sugr intke becomes ft.
</i></div><div><i>Also this is why&nbsp;</i><b><i>dibetics will hve hyperlipid
emi</i>.</b></div>
1401936293497 1395802358422 {{c1::Ftty Acid Synthse}} is n enzyme in ftt
y cid synthesis tht mkes Plmitte through 7 rounds of rection (vi 7 ATP) b
y dding 2 crbons from Acetyl CoA to  growing ftty cid chin.
<br /><d
iv><i>This rection lso uses NADPH.</i></div><div><i>Only crbons from Acetyl C
oA re dded.</i></div><div><i>Plmitte is essentilly  storge form of 8 cet
yl-CoA mocs (2 C ech).</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-11463267713772.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1401937489319 1395802358422 {{c1::Avidin}} is  protein in rw eggs tht cn
bind to Vitmin B7 (Biotin), thereby cusing  possible deficiency of ftty ci
ds due to impired Mlonyl-CoA production.
<div><br /></div><i>Biotin is re
quired for Mlonyl-CoA production in FA Synthesis.</i><br /><div><img src="pste
-11458972746476.jpg" /></div>
1401937981267 1395802358422 Which metbolic shuttle is involved in Ftty Aci
d <b>Synthesis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Citrte Shuttle}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>This is importnt to remember becuse <b>Citrte inhibits glycolysis
.</b>&nbsp;Hence, when Citrte is high the body is essentilly sying "Stop burn
ing sugr, brh. I'm gonn mke ft. How bout you use tht G6P to mke glycogen
or NADPH vi the HMP shunt insted?".</i><br /><div><img src="pste-11458972746
476.jpg" /></div>
1401938332490 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Ftty Acid Synthse 
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed vi induction}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-11458972746476.jpg" /></div>
1401938390760 1395802358422 {{c1::Ftty Acid CoA Synthetse}} is n enzyme i
nvolved in ftty cid <b>degrdtion</b>&nbsp;tht "ctivtes" ftty cids by d
ding  CoA group.
<br /><div><img src="pste-12167642350321.jpg" /></div>
1401938575082 1395802358422 Which nucleoside disphosphte molecule is dded
to sugrs to "ctivte" them for metbolic rections?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:UDP (Uridine Diphosphte)}}</div>
1401938879605 1395802358422 How does Mlonyl-CoA influence Ftty Acid Degrd
tion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition (t Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse
1)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Remember, <b>Mlonyl-CoA is n intermedite
of FA Synthesis</b>. Hence, if your ss is mking fts, ft brekdown is going t
o be inhibited.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939128667 1395802358422 Wht is the rte limiting enzyme of Ftty Acid D
egrdtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse <u><b>1</
b></u> (CPT1)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939154201 1395802358422 Which metbolic shuttle is involved in Ftty Aci
d Degrdtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crnitine Shuttle}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>Involves 2 key enzymes:</i><div><i><b>Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsfers
e 1 (CPT1)&nbsp;</b>nd&nbsp;</i><i><b>Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse 2 (CPT2).
</b></i></div><div><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div></div>
1401939211497 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse <b>1</b>}}
is n enzyme involved in the crnitine shuttle tht dds Crnitine to Acyl-CoA
molecules, thereby llowing it to cross the mitochondril membrne.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>

1401939260807 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse <b>2</b>}}
is n enzyme in the crnitine shuttle tht <b>removes</b>&nbsp;Crnitine from C
rnitine-Acyl-CoA, thereby freeing Acyl-CoA into the mitochondri.
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939309807 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetyl-CoA}} is the finl brekdown produc
t of ftty cids tht then feeds into ketogenesis nd the TCA cycle.
<div><br
/></div><i>Hence, when there is incresed ATP (such s in dibetics), the <b>ex
cess Acetyl-CoA cuses ketocidosis</b>.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-121633473
83025.jpg" /></div>
1401939401190 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Deficiency}} is  disorder of f
tty cid brekdown tht involves the <b>inbility to trnsport long-chin ftty
cids into the mitochondri</b>, thereby resulting in toxic ccumultion.
<br /><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939467652 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Deficiency}} is  disorder of f
tty cid brekdown tht presents with <b>wekness</b>&nbsp;nd <b>hypotoni</b>.
1401939523409 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoketotic hypoglycemi}} is  feture of
Crnitine deficiency due to significntly lower levels of Acetyl-CoA s  resul
t of impired ftty cid brekdown.
<div><br /></div><i>Remember, Acetyl-CoA
feeds into ketogenesis. Acetyl-CoA is lso  positive llosteric regultor of P
yruvte Decrboxylse in gluconeogenesis.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-12163347
383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939640650 1395802358422 {{c1::Acyl-CoA Dehydrogense Deficiency}} is  d
isorder of ftty cid brekdown tht involves <b>elevted levels of dicrboxylic
cids </b>nd <b>low levels of Acetyl-CoA.</b> <br /><div><i>Becuse there is l
ess Acetyl-CoA, there is lso <b>hypoketotic hypoglycemi</b>&nbsp;s cetyl-CoA
drives both ketogenesis nd gluconeogenesis.</i></div>
1401939781619 1395802358422 How does Acetyl-CoA influence Pyruvte Crboxyl
se in Gluconeogenesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive llosteric regultor}
}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence, decresed Acetyl-CoA = decresed fsting glucose =
fsting hypoglycemi</i></div>
1401939841483 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetyl-CoA}} is  brekdown product of ft
ty cids tht directly feeds into ketogenesis, especilly when it is found in ex
cess. <br /><div><i>In prolonged strvtion nd DKA, Oxlocette is depleted
for gluconeogenesis.</i></div><div><i>In lcoholism, elevted NADH levels shunt
Oxlocette to mlte.</i></div><div><i><u>Both of the bove occurrences cuse
 buildup of Acetyl-CoA, which shunts both Glucose nd free ftty cids towrds
Ketogenesis.</u></i></div>
1401940643620 1395802358422 How does Glucgon influence Ketogenesis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence Ketogenesis occurs p
ost mel nd in between mels.</i></div>
1401940667657 1395802358422 Which breth smell is ssocited with Ketosis?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fruity Odour}}</div>
1401940705348 1395802358422 Where in the body does Ketolysis occur?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Renl cortex, muscle nd brin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
e liver is unble to peform Ketolysis becuse <b>it lcks Thiophorse </b>(Succi
nyl-CoA Acetocette Trnsferse), nd is hence unble to ctivte its own keton
es.</i></div><div><i>Ketolysis involves the ctivtion of Hydroxybutyrte to Ace
tocette nd subsequent NADH production.</i></div>
1401941075357 1395802358422 Linolenic Acid is n omeg-{{c1::3}} ftty cid.
<br /><div><i>i.e. fish oil.</i></div>
1401941118259 1395802358422 Linoleic Acid is n omeg-{{c1::6}} ftty cid.
1401941135122 1395802358422 Archidonic Acid is n omeg-{{c1::6}} ftty ci
d.
1401941147674 1395802358422 Which omeg-6 ftty cid is used to mke Archid
onic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Linoleic Acid}}</div>
1401941166429 1395802358422 How mny crbons re in the ftty cid Plmitic
Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::16:0}}</div>
1401941209238 1395802358422 How mny crbons re in the <b>essentil</b>&nbs
p;ftty cid Linoleic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::18:2}}</div>
1401941226068 1395802358422 How mny crbons re in the <b>essentil</b>&nbs

p;ftty cid Linolenic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::18:3}}</div>
1401988556499 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of p
rotein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl}}</div>
1401988983762 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of c
rbohydrte?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl}}</div>
1401989001496 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of f
t?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::9 kcl}}</div>
1401989012640 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of 
lcohol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::7 kcl}}</div>
1401989035680 1395802358422 {{c1::Cretine Phosphte}} is  high energy phos
phorylted molecule tht functions s the <b>second</b>&nbsp;mjor source of ene
rgy in exercise fter ATP stores.
<br /><div><img src="pste-979252544012.
jpg" /></div>
1401989465450 1395802358422 Which metbolic process is the mjor source of e
nergy in the fed stte (just fter  mel)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycolysi
s; Aerobic Respirtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin fter  mel stimultes th
e storge of lipids, proteins nd glycogen.</i></div>
1401990702186 1395802358422 Which metbolic process is the <b>mjor</b>&nbsp
;source of energy in the fsting stte (between mels)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Heptic glycogenolysis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Glucgon nd NE stimulte
use of fuel/energy reserves.</i></div>
1401990764617 1395802358422 Which metbolic process is the <b>secondry</b>&
nbsp;source of energy in the fstic stte (between mels)?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Heptic gluconeogenesis; Adipose relese of FFA}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gl
ucgon nd NE stimulte the use of fuel/energy reserves.</i></div>
1401990812842 1395802358422 How mny dys into strvtion do Glycogen reserv
es usully become depleted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dy 1}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-1541893259754.jpg" /><img src="pste-2435246457278.jpg" /></d
iv>
1401991850330 1395802358422 Which energy store is the <b>mjor</b>&nbsp;sour
ce of energy fter dy 3 of strvtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adipose store
s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This fr into strvtion, ketones become the min
energy source for the brin.</i></div><div><i>After ft stores deplete, degrdt
ion of vitl proteins ccelertes, leding to orgn filure nd deth.</i></div>
<div><i>The mount of excess energy stores vilble determines how long someone
will survive in strvtion.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-1541893259754.jpg"
/><img src="pste-2435246457278.jpg" /></i></div>
1401992066409 1395802358422 How do incresed cholesterol levels influence th
e expression of LDL receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1402010858583 1395802358422 Which receptor on heptocytes binds to LDL, llo
wing for its uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL Receptors (ApoB100 Receptor)
}}</div>
1402011383789 1395802358422 Which receptor on heptocytes binds to HDL, llo
wing for its uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SR-B1 receptor}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Scvenger receptor B1</i></div>
1402011413644 1395802358422 Wht is the rte limiting enzyme in cholesterol
synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA Reductse}}</div>
1402011452174 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence HMG-CoA Reductse ct
ivity in cholesterol synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse vi inductio
n}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, Induction = incresed expression = incre
sed V_mx</i></div>
1402011491725 1395802358422 How does Mevlonte, n intermedite in choleste
rol synthesis, influence HMG CoA Reductse expression?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Repression}}</div>
<br /><div><i>HMG-CoA is converted into Mevlonte</i></
div>
1402011923634 1395802358422 Which enzyme bound to HDL nd LDL esterifies 2/3
of plsm cholesterol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lechitin-Cholesterol Acyltrn
sferse (LCAT)}}</div>
1402012081011 1395802358422 {{c1::Sttins}} re  clss of ntihyperlipidemi
c drugs tht competitively nd reversibly inhibit HMG-CoA Reductse.
<br /><d

iv><i>e.g. Lovsttin</i></div>
1402012556117 1395802358422 {{c1::Frnesyl PPi}} is  byproduct of cholester
ol synthesis tht functions s  source of Coenzyme Q. <br /><div><i>Hence, dm
inistrtion of Sttins, which inhibit cholesterol synthesis, cn impir function
of the electron trnsport chin by inhibiting Frnesyl PPi production. This is
prt of&nbsp;<b>Sttin-induced Rhbdomyolysis</b>&nbsp;s myocytes re prticul
rly rich in mitochondri.</i></div>
1402022178378 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipse}} is  pncretic enzyme tht degr
des dietry triglycerides in the smll intestine.
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-2250562863813.jpg" /></div>
1402022600834 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL)}} is n enzyme fo
und on the surfce of vsculr endothelium tht degrdes triglycerides circulti
ng in chylomicrons nd VLDLs. <br /><div><img src="pste-2246267896517.jpg" />
</div>
1402022656036 1395802358422 {{c1::Heptic Lipse (HL)}} is  heptic enzyme
tht degrdes triglycerides tht remin in IDL. <br /><div><img src="pste-22462
67896517.jpg" /></div>
1402022687158 1395802358422 How do decresed Insulin levels influence Hormon
e Sensitive Lipse (HSL) ctivity?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<div><br></div><i>This is very importnt to remember. <b>Hormone Sensitive Lips
e detects <u>decreses</u>&nbsp;in Insulin</b>. This contributes to the hyperlip
idemi seen in dibetics. Lower insulin levels cuses n increse in HSL ctivit
y nd hence more FFAs in the blood.</i><div><i>Also remember tht without Insuli
n, lipids re not stored in dipose tissue nd they sty in blood (s VLDL, LDL
nd Chylomicrons), thereby contributing to dibetic hyperlipidemi.<br></i><div>
<img src="pste-2246267896517.jpg" /></div></div>
1402022799822 1395802358422 How do incresed Insulin levels influence Lipopr
otein Lipse (LPL) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-2246267896517.jpg" /></div>
1402022830108 1395802358422 {{c1::Hormone Sensitive Lipse (HSL)}} is  lip
se enzyme found in dipocytes tht degrdes stored triglycerides.
1402022977509 1395802358422 {{c1::Lechitin-cholesterol Acyltrnsferse (LCAT
)}} is n enzyme found on HDL tht ctlyzes the esterifiction of cholesterol,
thereby forming mture HDL.
<br /><div><img src="pste-3534758084974.jpg" />
</div>
1402023608036 1395802358422 {{c1::Cholesterol ester trnsfer protein (CETP)}
} is n enzyme found in HDL tht medites the trnsfer of cholesterol esters to
other lipoprotein prticles (such s VLDL, IDL, LDL). <div><br /></div><i>As I
DL becomes richer nd richer in cholesterol vi CETP ction, it becomes LDL.</i>
<br /><div><img src="pste-3530463117678.jpg" /></div>
1402023680505 1395802358422 Wht receptor on heptocytes binds to HDL, there
by mediting its uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SR-B1}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>k Scvenger B1 Receptor</i></div><div><i>Remember, <b>HDL brings exposed
or unused cholesterol to the liver from peripherl tissue</b>.&nbsp;</i></div><
div><i>When LDL levels re in excess in the blood, they become oxidized nd cn
yield  ftty strek on blood vessel wlls. HDL lso functions to "clen up" thi
s deposited cholesterol.</i></div>
1402023855461 1395802358422 Which GLUT trnsporter is involved in Insulin-me
dited storge of Glucose?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT4}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>In dipose, the stored glucose is converted to Glycerol nd then dded to
ftty cids to form ft when there is high energy.</i></div>
1402024881005 1395802358422 {{c1::ApoE}} is n polipoprotein tht medites
the uptke of lipoprotein remnnts.
<br /><div><img src="pste-4986457031063
.jpg" /></div>
1402025312771 1395802358422 {{c1::ApoA-I}} is n polipoprotein tht functio
ns to elevte LCAT.
<br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025594492 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to medite lipopr
otein remnnt uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoE}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025612444 1395802358422 {{c1::ApoA-1}} is n polipoprotein tht is rth

er unique to HDL.
<br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025638385 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to ctivte LCAT?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoA-1}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-49821
62063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025701816 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions s  cofctor for
Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoC-II}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025730094 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to medite chylom
icron secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-48}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Only found in chylomicrons.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg"
/></div>
1402025772256 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein is unique to chylomicrons?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-48}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-49821
62063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025784799 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein is relesed by the gut or f
ound in the diet?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-48}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Seen in exogenous lipids.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /
></div>
1402026032782 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions s the LDL recept
or?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-100}}</div> <br /><div><i>The LDL receptor i
s the ApoB-100 Receptor nd is <b>found in ll endogenously mde lipoproteins fr
om the liver</b>.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></i></di
v>
1402026445101 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to trnsport cholest
erol from liver to tissues?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402026758577 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to trnsport cholest
erol from peripherl tissue to the liver?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is why HDL is considered "<b>H</b>elthy".</i></div><div><i><
img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402026833181 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to deliver <b>dietr
y</b>&nbsp;<b>triglycerides</b>&nbsp;to peripherl tissue?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Chylomicrons}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It lso delivers cholesterol to th
e liver s chylomicron remnnts, which re mostly depleted of their tricylglyce
rols.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402027042896 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein is secreted by intestinl epit
helil cells <b>only</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chylomicrons (with ApoB48)}
}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027180249 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to deliver <b>hep
tic triglycerides</b>&nbsp;to peripherl tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::VLD
L}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Secreted by the liver.</i></div><div><i><img src="
pste-7189775254219.jpg" /></i></div>
1402027283013 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein is formed through the degrdt
ion of VLDL?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IDL (k VLDL remnnts)}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027399022 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to deliver <b>hepti
c cholesterol</b>&nbsp;to peripherl tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027586977 1395802358422 {{c1::LDL}} is  lipoprotein formed by Heptic L
ipse modifiction of IDL in the peripherl tissue.
<br /><div><img src="ps
te-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027650538 1395802358422 Which receptor does LDL bind to t trget cells
for receptor-medited endocytosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL Receptor (ApoB
100 Receptor)}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>The trget cell is bsiclly ny cel
l tht cn use cholesterol.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /><
/div>
1402027788627 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to medite <b>revers
e cholesterol trnsport</b>&nbsp;from peripherl tissue to the liver nd steroid
ogenic tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
1402027831340 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein cts s  repository for ApoC

nd ApoE?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both of th
ese re needed for chylomicron nd VLDL metbolism. ApoC-II is hnded off to oth
er lipoproteins nd then ctivted LPL, thereby driving VLDL nd CM metbolism.<
/i></div><div><i><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402027886301 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein is secreted from&nbsp;<b>both<
/b>&nbsp;the liver nd intestines?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027984325 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions s  repository for
ApoA-1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-71854
80286923.jpg" /></div>
1402028044386 1395802358422 How does lcohol ffect HDL synthesis?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1402028054872 1395802358422 Which dyslipidemi is referred to s Type I Dysl
ipidemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (or Hypertriglyceridem
i)}}</div>
1402028786714 1395802358422 Which dyslipidemi is referred to s Type II Dy
slipidemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi}}</div>
1402028809366 1395802358422 Which dyslipidemi is referred to s&nbsp;Type I
V Dyslipidemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertriglyceridemi}}</div>
1402028822734 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I)}} is  fmil
il dyslipidemi tht involves elevtion of chylomicrons, TGs nd cholesterol.
1402029015585 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II)}}
is &nbsp;fmilil dyslipidemi tht involves elevtion of LDL nd cholesterol.
1402029044973 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertriglyceridemi (Type IV)}} is &nbsp
;fmilil dyslipidemi tht involves elevtion of VLDL nd TGs.
1402029066291 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hyperchylomic
ronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosom
l recessive}}</div>
1402029099556 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil
dyslipidemi)}} is  fmilil dyslipidemi tht cn be cused by  deficiency o
f Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL).
1402029135973 1395802358422 <div>Which enzyme deficiency cn cuse&nbsp;Hype
rchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil dyslipidemi)?</div><div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL)}}</div>
1402029179367 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil
dyslipidemi)}} is  fmilil dyslipidemi tht cn be cused by ltered ApoC-I
I function.
<br /><div><i>Remember, ApoC-II ctivtes Lipoprotein Lipse.</i
></div>
1402029210128 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil
dyslipidemi)}} is  fmilil dyslipidemi tht cuses pncretitis, <b>heptos
plenomegly</b>&nbsp;nd <b>eruptive/pruritic xnthoms</b>.
1402029262107 1395802358422 How does the risk of therosclerosis chnge in&n
bsp;Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I&nbsp;fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::No incresed risk}}</div>
1402029276024 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fmilil Hype
rcholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Au
tosoml dominnt}}</div>
1402029452609 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II f
milil dyslipidemi)}} is  fmilil dyslipidemi tht involves bsent or defect
ive LDL receptors.
1402029481789 1395802358422 Which receptors re bsent or defective in&nbsp;
Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::LDL receptor (k ApoB-100 receptor)}}</div>
1402029496083 1395802358422 Wht is the typicl blood cholesterol for  pti
ent heterozygous for&nbsp;Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dysli
pidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~ 300 mg/dL}}</div>
1402029546051 1395802358422 Wht is the typicl blood cholesterol level for
ptients homozygous for&nbsp;Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dy
slipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::≥ 700 mg/dL}}</div>
1402029574265 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa fa

milial dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <>accelera
ted atherosclerosis</>.
<r /><div><i>MI is possile efore 20 y/o.</i><
/div>
1402029676063 1395802358422 Which tendon is commonly the site of xanthomas i
n&nsp;Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa familial dyslipidemia)?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Achilles tendon}}</div>
1402029696859 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa fa
milial dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <>corneal
arcus</>.
1402029710322 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa fa
milial dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <>achilles
tendon xanthomas</>.
1402029735385 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Hypertriglyce
ridemia (Type IV Familial Dyslipidemia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal do
minant}}</div>
1402029770739 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertriglyceridemia (Type IV Familial Dys
lipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <>hepatic overproduc
tion of VLDL</>.
1402029800982 1395802358422 Which endocrine complication is associated with&
nsp;Hypertriglyceridemia (Type IV Familial Dyslipidemia)?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Pancreatitis}}</div>
1402029833751 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Familial Hypercholeste
rolemia (Type IIa familial dyslipidemia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mipomersen}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Mipomersen inds to the mRNA that is translated into ApoB100. The dsRNA molecule is then degraded and ApoB-100 production is inhiited. H
ence <>VLDL production is inhiited. </>Rememer, Type IIa dyslipidemia involv
es elevated levels of LDL due to defective LDL receptors.</i></div>
1403716405340 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymph nodes}} are secondary lymphoid struc
tures that are <>encapsulated</>&nsp;and function to filter passing content,
store lymphocyte and mediat eimmune response. <r /><div><img src="paste-54546
0847004.jpg" /></div>
1403716839425 1395802358422 In which area of the lymph node does <>B-cell l
ocalization and proliferation</>&nsp;occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Follicl
e; found in the outer cortex}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Primary follicles ar
e dense and dormant.</i><div><i>Secondary follicles have pale central germinal c
enters and are active.<r /></i><div><img src="paste-541165879708.jpg" /></div><
/div>
1403716964276 1395802358422 {{c1::Medullary Cords}} are structures found in
the medulla of lymph nodes that consist of closely packed lymphocytes and plasma
cells. <r /><div><img src="paste-541165879708.jpg" /></div>
1403717222093 1395802358422 {{c1::Medullary sinuses}} are structures found i
n the medulla of lymph nodes that contain <>reticular cells</>&nsp;and <>mac
rophages</>. <r /><div><i>These medullary sinuses communicate with efferent
lymphatics.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-541165879708.jpg" /></i></div>
1403717278166 1395802358422 In which area of the lymph node are T cells foun
d?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paracortex; the region of the lymph node etween f
ollicles and the medulla}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The paracortex conta
ins many venules through which T and B cells enter from the lood.</i><r /><div
><img src="paste-541165879708.jpg" /></div>
1403717392705 1395802358422 Which area of the lymph nodes are not well devel
oped in patients with DiGeorge Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paracortex}}
</div> <div><r /></div><i>Rememer, the paracortex houses T cells. DiGeorge sy
ndrome involves a defect in T-cell maturation.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-541
165879708.jpg" /></div>
1403717453496 1395802358422 Which area of the lymph node enlarges in extreme
cellular immune responses (e.g. viral infection)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pa
racortex}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Paracortex = T cells.</i></div><div><i><im
g src="paste-541165879708.jpg" /></i></div>
1403717495660 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>head and
neck</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cervical}}</div>

1403718149923 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>lungs</>
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hilar}}</div>
1403718158106 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>trachea a
nd esophagus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mediastinal}}</div>
1403718169671 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>upper lim
s</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary}}</div>
1403718183586 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>reasts</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary}}</div>
1403718189320 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>skin aov
e the umilicus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary}}</div>
1403718201041 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>upper duo
denum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718227881 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>liver</>
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718231841 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>stomach</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718237913 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>spleen</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718252658 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <>pancreas<
/>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403719276413 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>lowe
r duodenum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Mesenteric}}</div>
1403719293404 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>jeju
num</>&nsp;and <>ileum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior mesenteric}}<
/div>
1403719308692 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>colo
n to the splenic flexure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior mesenteric}}</
div>
1403719330371 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>colo
n from the splenic flexure to the upper rectum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I
nferior Mesenteric}}</div>
1403719349605 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>lowe
r rectum to the anal canal</>&nsp;(aove the pectinate line)?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Internal Iliac}}</div>
1403719373994 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>lad
der</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Iliac}}</div>
1403719380734 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>midd
le third of the vagina</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Iliac}}</div>
1403719390032 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>pros
tate</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Iliac}}</div>
1403719404052 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>test
es</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1403719414491 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>ovar
ies</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1403719421221 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>kidn
eys</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1403719432141 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>uter
us</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1403719442503 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>anal
canal elow the pectinate line</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superficial ingu
inal}}</div>
1403719468681 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>skin
elow the umilicus</>&nsp;(except the popliteal territory)?<div><r />{{c1::
Superficial inguinal}}</div>
1403719501088 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the&nsp;<>dors
olateral foot</>&nsp;and <>posterior calf</>?<div><r />{{c1::Popliteal}}</d
iv>
1403719528605 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::right lymphatic duct}} is a major
lymphatic vessel that drains the right side of the ody aove the diaphragm.
1403720044323 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::thoracic duct}} is a major lympha

tic vessel that drains 3/4 of the ody into the junction of the left suclavian
and internal jugular veins.
<r /><div><i>The Right Lymphatic Duct is what d
rains the remaining 1/4 (right side of the ody aove the diaphragm).</i></div>
1403720136149 1395802358422 In which area of the spleen are T cells found?<d
iv><r />{{c1::Periarterial lymphatic sheath of the white pulp}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4088808866383.jpg" /></div>
1403724143119 1395802358422 In which area of the spleen are B cells found?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Follicles within the white pulp}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4088808866383.jpg" /></div>
1403724163251 1395802358422 In which area of the spleen are <>APCs</>&nsp
;and <>specialized B cells </>found?<div><r />{{c1::Marginal Zone (etween th
e red and white pulp)}}</div> <r /><div><i>This is the area where APCs presen
t lood orne antigens.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4088808866383.jpg" /></
i></div>
1403724312462 1395802358422 How does splenic dysfunction, asplenia or splene
ctomy influence the susceptiility to infection y encapsulated organisms?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>Splenic dysfunction
= decreased IgM = decreased complement activation = decreased C3 opsonization =
increased susceptiility to encapsulated organisms</i><r /><div><img src="past
e-4393751544047.jpg" /></div>
1403724935353 1395802358422 {{c1::Howell-Jolly Bodies}} are intracellular in
clusions of <>nuclear remnants&nsp;</>seen in RBCs following splenectomy.
1403724963660 1395802358422 How do Thromocyte levels change post-splenectom
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase; there is often Thromocytosis}}</div>
1403724990252 1395802358422 Which lymphoid organ is the site of T cell matur
ation and differentiation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thymus}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i><>T</>&nsp;cells = <>T</>hymus</i></div><div><i><>B</>&nsp;cells =
<>B</>one marrow</i></div>
1403725033195 1395802358422 Which emryological pharyngeal pouch gives rise
to the Thymus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium of the <u>3rd</u>&nsp;phar
yngeal pouch}}</div>
1403725083050 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::cortex}} is the area of the Thymu
s that is <>dense</>&nsp;and full of <>immature T cells.</>
1403725113436 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::medulla}} is the area of the Thym
us that is <>pale</>&nsp;and full of <>mature T cells</>&nsp;and <>Hassal
l corpuscles</>&nsp;containing epithelial reticular cells.
1403728974095 1395802358422 {{c1::Toll-like Receptors (TLRs)}} are pattern r
ecognition receptors involved in <>innate immunity</>&nsp;that recognize <>p
athogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)</>.
<r /><div><i>PAMPs incl
ude LPS, Flagellin, ssRNA, etc.</i></div>
1403729873078 1395802358422 {{c1::HLA-A}},&nsp;{{c2::HLA-B}} and&nsp;{{c3:
:HLA-C}} are the HLA loci associated with MHC I.
1403730052424 1395802358422 {{c1::HLA-DR}},&nsp;{{c2::HLA-DP}} and&nsp;{{c
3::HLA-DQ}} are the HLA loci that are associated with MHC II.
1403730083192 1395802358422 Which type of T cell does MHC I ind to?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::CD8+ T cells}}</div>
1403730116755 1395802358422 Which type of T cell does MHC II ind to?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ T cells}}</div>
1403730128805 1395802358422 Which MHC receptor is <>expressed on all nuclea
ted cells</>&nsp;except for RBCs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MHC I}}</div>
1403730276225 1395802358422 Which MHC receptor is <>only expressed on APCs<
/>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
1403730291961 1395802358422 Which MHC receptor presents <>endogenously</>&
nsp;synthesized <>antigens</>&nsp;(e.g. viral)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::M
HC I}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presented to CD8+ T cells</i></div>
1403730381281 1395802358422 Which MHC receptor presents <>exogenously </>s
ynthesized <>proteins</>&nsp;(e.g. acterial proteins; viral capsid antigens)
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents it to CD4
+ T cells.</i></div>
1403730425846 1395802358422 {{c1::TAP}} is a peptide transporter found in th

e RER that functions to deliver peptide antigens for loading into MHC I efore i
t is secreted.
1403731093160 1395802358422 {{c1::eta2-microgloulin}} is a protein that tr
ansports MHC I molecules to the cell surface. <r /><div><img src="paste-77567
10936791.jpg" /></div>
1403731126065 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Hemochromat
osis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-A3}}</div>
1403735608138 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Psoriatic A
rthritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-8138963026013.jpg" /></div>
1403735640890 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Ankylosing
Spondylitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-8134668058717.jpg" /></div>
1403735662015 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with the arthrit
is of Inflammatory Bowel Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8134668058717.jpg" /></div>
1403735685532 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Reactive Ar
thritis (Reiter Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-8134668058717.jpg" /></div>
1403735706703 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with the seroneg
ative arthropathies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-8134668058717.jpg" /></div>
1403736071374 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Celiac Dise
ase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DQ2/DQ8}}</div>
1403736094921 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Multiple Sc
lerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2}}</div>
1403736117231 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with hay fever?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2}}</div>
1403736126754 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with SLE?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2; HLA-DR3}}</div>
1403736132132 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Goodpasture
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2}}</div>
1403736141703 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with T1DM?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR3; HLA-DR4}}</div>
1403736148376 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Graves Dise
ase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLS-DR3}}</div>
1403736170707 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Rheumatoid
Arthritis??<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR4}}</div> <r /><div><i>There are
<>4</>&nsp;walls in the <>"rheum</>".</i></div>
1403736233761 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Pernicious
Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR5}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer,
Pernicious Anaemia can cause Vit B12 deficiency.</i></div>
1403736262399 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Hashimoto T
hyroiditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR5}}</div>
1403736277187 1395802358422 {{c1::Perforin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Granzyme}} are e
nzymes used y Natural Killer cells to induce apoptosis in virally infected cell
s and tumour cells.
<r /><div><i>Perforin "perforates" the memrane.</i></d
iv><div><i>Granzyme enters and induces apoptosis.</i></div>
1403738680003 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is the only lymphocyte that fun
ctions in the innate immune system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Natural Killer ce
lls}}</div>
1403738714689 1395802358422 How does IL-2 influence NK cell activity?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403738736156 1395802358422 How does IL-12 influence NK cell activity?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403738743555 1395802358422 How does IFN-eta influence NK cell activity?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403738753600 1395802358422 How does IFN-alpha influence NK cell activity?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403738764683 1395802358422 {{c1::Natural Killer cells}} are cells that func

tion in the innate immune system y killing cells when exposed to an<> activati
on signal</>&nsp;or an <>asence of MHC I</>&nsp;on the target cell.
1403738896410 1395802358422 {{c1::Antiody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxic
ity (ADCC)}} is an immunological killing method performed y NK cells that invol
ves the inding of <>CD16</>&nsp;to the <>F<su>c</su>&nsp;portion of oun
d immunogloulins</>. <r /><div><i>This then activates the NK cell.</i></div>
1403739099878 1395802358422 Which type of T cell functions to help B cells m
ake antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ T cells}}</div>
1403739221373 1395802358422 Which type of T cells function to produce cytoki
nes that activate other cells of the immune system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C
D4+ T cells}}</div>
1403739243025 1395802358422 Which type of T cells function to kill virus-inf
ected cells directly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD8+ T cells}}</div>
1403739263853 1395802358422 Which type of lymphocyte is associated with Type
IV Hypersensitivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1403739342247 1395802358422 Which type of lymphocyte is associated with acut
e and chronic organ rejection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1403739360890 1395802358422 In which area of the Thymus does <>positive sel
ection</>&nsp;of T cells occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cortex}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10771777979063.jpg" /></div>
1403739873226 1395802358422 In which area of the Thymus does <>negative sel
ection</>&nsp;of T cells occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medulla}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403739903771 1395802358422 {{c1::Positive selection}} is a type of selectio
n undergone y T cells that involves the survival of T cells expressing TCRs tha
t are <>capale</>&nsp;of inding surface self MHC molecules.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740110832 1395802358422 {{c1::Negative selection}} is a type of selectio
n undergone y T cells that involves the <>apoptosis</>&nsp;of T cells expres
sing TCRs with high affinity for self antigens. <r /><div><img src="paste-10767
483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740212080 1395802358422 Which cytokine induces the differentiation of He
lper T cells into Th1 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740242484 1395802358422 Which cytokine induces the differentiation of He
lper T cells into Th2 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-4}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740268332 1395802358422 Which cytokine induces the differentiation of He
lper T cells into Th17 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TGF-eta + IL-6}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740302633 1395802358422 Which cytokine induces the differentiation of He
lper T cells into Regulatory T cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TGF-eta}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10767483011767.jpg" /></div>
1403740351715 1395802358422 In the activation of T cells, what is the <>pri
mary signal </>etween the APC and T cell? &nsp;<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::An
tigen via MHC II on APC to TCR on CD4+ T cell; Antigen via MHC I on APC to TCR o
n CD8+ T cell}}</div> <r /><div><i>MHC II &lt;--&gt; CD4+ T cell</i></div><di
v><i>MHC I &lt;--&gt; CD8+ T cell</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1253271457014
9.jpg" /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-13735305412787.jpg" /></i></div>
1403742157676 1395802358422 In the activation of T cells, what is the <>sec
ondary/co-stimulatory</>&nsp;signal etween the APC and T cell?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::B7 on APC to CD28 on T cell}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-12537009537445.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-13739600380083.jpg" /></div>
1403742217564 1395802358422 In B cell activation, what is the <>primary </
>signal etween the CD4+ T cell and B cell?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antigen v
ia TCR on CD4+ T cell to MHC II on B cell}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-13224204304801.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-13653701034168.jpg" /></div>
1403742535744 1395802358422 In B cell activation, what is the <>secondary</
>&nsp;signal etween the CD4+ T cell and B cell?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD
40L on CD4+ T cell to CD40 on B cell}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13219

909337505.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-13657996001464.jpg" /></div>
1403803116185 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cell secretes I<>FN-gamm
a</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Th1}}</div>
1403803358364 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cell secrets <>IL-4, IL5, IL-6, IL-10</>&nsp;and <>IL-13</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Th2}}</div>
1403803398290 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cells function to <>acti
vate macrophages and cytotoxic T cells</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Th1}}</di
v>
1403803451156 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cells function to <>recr
uit eosinophils for parasite defense</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Th2}}</div>
1403804426864 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cells function to <>prom
ote IgE production y B cells</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Th2}}</div>
1403804476924 1395802358422 {{c2::IL-4}} and {{c1::IL-10}} are cytokines&ns
p;<>secreted y Th2</>&nsp;cells that <>inhiits Th1 cell activity</>.
1403804505594 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-gamma}} is a cytokine <>secreted y T
h1</>&nsp;cell that <>inhiits Th2 cell action</>.
1403804722120 1395802358422 Which cytokine from macrophages functions to sti
mulate T cell differentiation into Th1 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}
</div> <r /><div><i>- Macrophages release IL-12 --&gt; T cells differentiate i
nto Th1 cells.</i></div><div><i>- Th1 cells secrete IFN-gamma --&gt; Activation
of macrophages</i></div>
1403804814688 1395802358422 Which cytokine from Th1 cells functions to activ
ate macrophages?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-gamma}}</div> <r /><div><div>
<i>- Macrophages release IL-12 --&gt; T cells differentiate into Th1 cells.</i><
/div><div><i>- Th1 cells secrete IFN-gamma --&gt; Activation of macrophages</i><
/div></div>
1403805012727 1395802358422 {{c1::Perforin}} is an enzyme found in the cytot
oxic granules of CD8+ T cells that functions to deliver the content of granules
into target cells.
1403805121291 1395802358422 {{c1::Granzyme B}} is a <>serine protease</>&n
sp;found in the cytotoxic granules of CD8+ T cells that functions to activate a
poptosis inside target cells.
1403805171666 1395802358422 {{c1::Granulysin}} is an <>antimicroial</>&n
sp;protein found in the cytotoxic granules of CD8+ T cells that functions to ind
uce apoptosis.
1403805210685 1395802358422 Which type of T cell functions to <>maintain sp
ecific immune tolerance</>&nsp;y <>suppression CD4 and CD8 T cell</>&nsp;e
ffector function?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Regulatory T cells}}</div>
1403805941842 1395802358422 Which type of T cell is identified y the expres
sion of cell surface markers <>CD3, CD4 and CD25</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Regulatory T cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>CD25 = alpha-chain of the IL-2 rec
eptor</i></div>
1403806196523 1395802358422 Which type of T cell is identified y the expres
sion of the <>transcription factor FOXP3</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Regula
tory T cells}}</div>
1403806222535 1395802358422 Which anti-inflammatory cytokines are produced 
y regulatory T cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-10; TGF-eta}}</div>
1403806247938 1395802358422 Which fragment in antiodies contains the <>hea
vy chain only</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fc}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-3513283248542.jpg" /></div>
1403806922331 1395802358422 Which fragment in antiodies contains <>oth</
>&nsp;the heavy and light chains?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fa}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3508988281246.jpg" /></div>
1403806927526 1395802358422 Which fragment in antiodies functions to <>in
d antigen</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fa}}</div> <div><r /></div><img sr
c="paste-3508988281246.jpg" />
1403806951120 1395802358422 Which fragment in antiodies <>determines the i
diotype</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fa}}</div>
<r /><div><i>There is a
unique antigen-inding pocket as </i><u style="font-style: italic; ">only 1 ant
igenic specificity is expressed per B cell</u>.</div><div><img src="paste-350898

8281246.jpg" /></div>
1403807109173 1395802358422 Which fragment in antiodies is involved with <
>complement inding</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fc}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-3508988281246.jpg" /><img src="paste-4509715660977.jpg" /></div>
1403807142461 1395802358422 Which fragment of antiodies determines the isot
ype (IgM, IgD, etc.)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fc}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-3508988281246.jpg" /><img src="paste-4505420693681.jpg" /></div>
1403807216749 1395802358422 {{c1::Opsonization}} is an immunological phenome
non performed y antiodies that involves the promotion of phagocytosis.
<r /><div><img src="paste-4707284156818.jpg" /></div>
1403807983588 1395802358422 {{c1::Neutralization}} is an immunological pheno
menon performed y antiodies that involves the prevention of acterial adherenc
e to target cells/tissue.
<r /><div><img src="paste-4702989189522.jpg" />
</div>
1403808019293 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotypes are expressed on t
he surface of mature, naive B cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgM; IgD}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"We <>B</>&nsp;<>naive</>&nsp;<>MD</>'s"</i></div><div><i>
<r /></i></div><div><i>They may differentiate in germinal centers of lymph node
s y isotype switching into plasma cells that secrete IgA, IgE and IgG.</i></div
>
1403821717530 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotype is the main antiod
y involved in the&nsp;<>secondary/delayed</>&nsp;response to an antigen?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
1403822705268 1395802358422 What is the most aundant immunogloulin isotype
in serum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
1403823724749 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype fixes compleme
nt <u style="font-weight: old; ">and</u>&nsp;is ale to cross the placenta?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Crossing of the plcenta pr
ovides infants with passive immunity.</i></div>
1403823804312 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype function to <
>opsonize acteria</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
1403823814812 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype functions to <
>neutralize acterial toxins and viruses</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}<
/div>
1403823830486 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype <>prevents th
e attachment of acteria and viruses to </><u style="font-weight: old; ">mucou
s memranes</u>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
1403823874672 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA}} is an&nsp;immunogloulin isotype th
at is found as a <>monomer</>&nsp;in circulation ut a <>dimer</>&nsp;in s
ecretions.
1403823936207 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype crosses epithe
lial cells y transcytosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
1403823977131 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype is the <>most
produced antiody overall</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>It is released into secretions (tears, saliva, mucous) and early reast mi
lk (colostrum).</i></div><div><i>Before it is released from epithelial cells, it
picks up a secretory component (i.e. ecoming Secretory-IgA).</i></div>
1403825652154 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype is produced in
the <>primary/immediate</>&nsp;response to an antigen?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::IgM}}</div>
1403825751831 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype functions to f
ix complement <>ut does not cross the placenta</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:IgM}}</div>
1403825784725 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype exists as a <
>monomer</>&nsp;on B cells or a <>pentamer</>&nsp;when secreted?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::IgM}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The shape of the IgM pentamer allo
ws it to efficiently trap free antigens out of tissue while the humoural respons
e evolves.</i></div>
1403826232035 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype inds <>mast
cells</>&nsp;and <>asophils</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>

<r /><div><i>It cross-links when exposed to the allergen, therey causing mast
cell degranulation.</i></div><div><i>Major part of <>type I hypersensitivity</
>.</i></div><div><i>Mediates immunity to worms y activating eosinophils.</i></d
iv>
1403826487731 1395802358422 Which&nsp;immunogloulin isotype has the lowest
concentration in serum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
1403826499478 1395802358422 {{c1::Thymus-independent antigens}} are a type o
f antigen that <>lacks</>&nsp;a peptide component and hence cannot e present
ed y MHC to T cells. <r /><div><i>Weakly immunogenic or nonimmunogenic.</i><
/div><div><i>Vaccines often require oosters.</i></div>
1403827703983 1395802358422 {{c1::Thymus-dependent antigens}} are a type of
antigen that <>contain protein components</>. <r /><div><i>Immunologic memory
occurs as a result of direct contact of B cells with Th cells (via CD40 and CD4
0L interaction).</i></div>
1403883361607 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute-phase Reactants}} are proteins/facto
rs whose serum concentrations change significantly in response to inflammation.
1403883505004 1395802358422 Where are acute-phase reactants made?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div> <r /><div><i>In oth acute and chronic inflamma
tory states.</i></div>
1403883525128 1395802358422 {{c1::Serum Amyloid A}} is a positive acute phas
e reactant whose prolonged elevation can lead to Amyloidosis.
1403883964474 1395802358422 {{c1::C-reactive protein}} is a <>positive</>&
nsp;acute phase reactant that functions as an <>opsonin</>&nsp;and <>fixes
complement</>. <r /><div><i>It is measured clinically as a sign of ongoing inf
lammation.</i></div>
1403884008600 1395802358422 {{c1::Ferritin}} is a <>positive</>&nsp;acute
phase reactant that inds to and sequesters iron to inhiit microial iron scav
enging.
1403884040048 1395802358422 {{c1::Firinogen}} is a <>positive</>&nsp;acu
te phase reactant that functions as a <>coagulation factor</>&nsp;and <>prom
otes endothelial repair</>.
<r /><div><i>It correlates with ESR.</i></div>
1403884093041 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepcidin}} is a <>positive</>&nsp;acute
phase reactant that prevents the release of iron ound y Ferritin.
1403884115768 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepcidin}} is a <>positive</>&nsp;acute
phase reactant that can cause Anaemia of Chronic Disease when elevated for a pr
olonged period.
1403884151465 1395802358422 {{c1::Alumin}} is a <>negative</>&nsp;acute
phase reactant whose production is reduced to conserve amino acids for the posit
ive reactants.
1403884176332 1395802358422 {{c1::Transferrin}} is a <>negative</>&nsp;ac
ute phase reactant that is internalized y macrophages to sequester iron.
1403884205201 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotypes mediate the <>cla
ssical</>&nsp;complement pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG; IgM}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>GM</>&nsp;makes <>classic</>&nsp;cars."</i></div><div><i>
<img src="paste-15431817495065.jpg" /></i></div>
1403885182126 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated y IgG or
IgM?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Classical}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>GM</>
&nsp;makes <>classic</>&nsp;cars."</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-15427522
527769.jpg" /></i></div>
1403885217365 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated y surface
molecules on microes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alternative}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885242304 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated y <>mann
ose</>&nsp;or other sugars on the microe surface?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Lectin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885267752 1395802358422 What is the function of complement protein C3?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Opsonization}}</div> <r /><div><i>C3 inds to acte
ria.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-15427522527769.jpg" /></i></div>
1403885304656 1395802358422 What is the function of the complement proteins
C3a, C4a and C5a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anaphylaxis}}</div>
<r /><d

iv><img src="paste-15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885327291 1395802358422 What is the function of the complement protein C
5a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neutrophil chemotaxis}}</div>
1403885361880 1395802358422 What is the function of the complement proteins
C5, C6, C7, C8 and C9?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Formation of the MAC and sus
equent cytolysis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15427522527769.jpg" /
></div>
1403885389569 1395802358422 Which complement proteins are involved in anaphy
laxis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3a, C4a, C5a}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885490258 1395802358422 Which complement proteins are involved in the fo
rmation of the MAC?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5, C6, C7, C8, C9}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15427522527769.jpg" /></div>
1403885515265 1395802358422 Which complement protein is involved with neutro
phil chemotaxis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5a}}</div>
1403885542841 1395802358422 Which complement protein is involved with opsoni
zation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3}}</div>
1403885554737 1395802358422 Which immunological isotype is one of the two pr
imary opsonins in acterial defense?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
1403885628026 1395802358422 Which complement protein is one of the two prima
ry opsonins in acterial defense?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3}}</div>
<r /><div><i>C3 also helps to clear immune complexes.</i></div>
1403885651820 1395802358422 {{c1::Decay-accelerating factor (DAF; CD55)}} an
d&nsp;{{c2::C1 Esterase Inhiitor}} are 2 proteins that function to <>prevent<
/>&nsp;complement activation on self cells (such as on RBCs).
1403904944918 1395802358422 Which complement protein disorder causes Heredit
ary Angioedema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C1 Esterase Inhiitor Deficiency}}</d
iv>
1403906276037 1395802358422 {{c1::C1 Esterase Inhiitor Deficiency}} is a co
mplement disorder that causes Hereditary Angioedema.
<r /><div><i>ACE Inhii
tors are contraindicated in C1 Esterase Inhiitor Deficiency.</i></div>
1403906380806 1395802358422 Which complement disorder increases the suscepti
ility to Type III hypersensitivity reactions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3 Def
iciency}}</div> <r /><div><i>C<>3</>&nsp;deficiency = More Type&nsp;<>3</
>&nsp;reactions</i></div>
1403906633826 1395802358422 {{c1::C3 Deficiency}} is a complement disorder t
hat increases the susceptiility to Type III Hypersensitivity reactions.
<r /><div><i>C<>3</>&nsp;deficiency = More Type <>3</>&nsp;reactions</i><
/div>
1403906701579 1395802358422 {{c1::C3 Deficiency}} is a complement disorder t
hat presents with an increased risk of severem recurrent <>pyogenic sinus and r
espiratory tract infections</>.
1403907450352 1395802358422 {{c1::C5-C9 Deficiencies}} are a group of comple
ment protein deficiencies that involve increased susceptiility to recurrent <i>
Neisseria</i>&nsp;acteremia.
1403907493918 1395802358422 {{c1::Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemogloinuria}} is a
hematological disorder that presents with <>complement-mediated lysis</>&nsp
;of RBCs due to a <>DAF</>&nsp;(CD55; GPI anchored enzyme) deficiency.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, DAF functions to inhiit complement mediated cell lysis
on self-cells, especially RBCs.</i></div>
1403907629544 1395802358422 Which protein is deficient in Paroxysmal Nocturn
al Hemogloinuria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DAF (CD55)}}</div>
1403907916822 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophages functio
ns as an endogenous pyrogen, causing fever and acute inflammation?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::IL-1}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20444044329218.jpg" /
></div>
1403908541187 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophages is also
called <>osteoclast-activating factor</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-1}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20439749361922.jpg" /></div>
1403908656668 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophages functio

ns to activate endothelium to express adhesion molecules?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::IL-1}}</div>
1403908852818 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophages functio
ns to induce chemokine secretion to recruit leukocytes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::IL-1}}</div>
1403908874318 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophages causes
fever <u style="font-weight: old; ">and</u>&nsp;stimulates the production of a
cute-phase proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-6}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><i>Also secreted y Th2 cells.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-20439749361922.jpg
" /></div>
1403908946411 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Macrophages is a ma
jor chemotactic factor for Neutrophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-8}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Clean up on <>aisle 8</>."</i></div>
1403909369598 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophages induces
the differentiation of T cells to Th1 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}
</div> <r /><div><i>Also secreted y B cells.</i></div>
1403909387355 1395802358422 Which cytokine released y macrophages activates
NK cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Also secre
ted y B cells.</i></div>
1403909456381 1395802358422 Which cytokine released y macrophages mediates
septic shock?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TNF-alpha}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It
also activates endothelium, causes leukocyte recruitment and vascular leakage.<
/i></div>
1403909692002 1395802358422 Which cytokine secreted y all T cells stimulate
s the growth of all T cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-2}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-20439749361922.jpg" /></div>
1403909694074 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from all T cells functio
ns to support the growth and differentiation of one marrow stem cells (i.e. fun
ctions like GM-CSF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-3}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-20439749361922.jpg" /></div>
1403909721098 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th1 cells has antiv
iral and antitumour properties?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-gamma}}</div>
1403909780321 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th1 cells functions
to increase MHC expression and antigen presentation in all cells?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::IFN-gamma}}</div>
1403910086930 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th2 cells functions
to induce differentiation into Th2 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-4}}</di
v>
1403910142484 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th2 cells functions
to promote <>B cell growth</>&nsp;and <>enhance class switching to IgE and
IgG</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-4}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-20439749361922.jpg" /></div>
1403910406179 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th2 cells functions
to promote B cell differentiation and <>enhance class switching to IgA</>?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-5}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2043974936192
2.jpg" /></div>
1403910502179 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th2 cells functions
to stimulate the growth and differentiation of eosinophils?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::IL-5}}</div>
1403910545340 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-10}} is an anti-inflammatory cytokine r
eleased y Th2 cells that inhiits the actions of activated T cells and Th1 cell
s.
<r /><div><i>Also secreted y regulatory T cells.</i></div><div><i>Simi
lar to TGF-eta which is also anti-inflammatory.</i></div>
1403918806326 1395802358422 {{c1::Interferons}} are immunological glycoprote
ins synthesized y viral-infected cells that act locally on uninfected cells, th
erey "priming them" for viral defense. <r /><div><i>When a virus infected a "p
rimed" cell, viral nucleic acid triggers the following enzymes and eventually ap
optosis, hence stopping viral replication:</i></div><div><i>- RNA-ase L, which d
egrades viral/host mRNA</i></div><div><i>- Protein Kinases that inhiit viral/ho
st protein synthesis</i></div>

1403919003754 1395802358422 {{c1::RNA-ase L}} is a rionuclease enzyme that
functions to degrade viral/host mRNA as a defense mechanism in virally infected
cells. <r /><div><r /></div><div><div><i>When a virus infected a "primed" cel
l, viral nucleic acid triggers the following enzymes and eventually apoptosis, h
ence stopping viral replication:</i></div><div><i>- RNA-ase L, which degrades vi
ral/host mRNA</i></div><div><i>- Protein Kinases that inhiit viral/host protein
synthesis</i></div></div>
1403919110154 1395802358422 Which cell type is the only cell that does not h
ave MHC I on its surface?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mature RBCs}}</div>
1403919956930 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on T cells inds to
the antigen-MHC complex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TCR}}</div>
1403920002488 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on T cells is associ
ated with the TCR for signal transduction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD3}}</div
>
1403920032758 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on T cells inds to
B7 on APCs during the secondary signal in T cell activation?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::CD28}}</div>
1403920064266 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on B cells is the re
ceptor for EBV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD21}}</div> <r /><div><i>"ou must
e <>21</>&nsp;to drink at the <>Epstein-Barr</>."</i></div>
1403920166350 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on B cells inds to
CD40L on helper T cells during B cell activation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4
0}}</div>
1403920196810 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is characterized y CD19, CD20,
CD21 and CD40 cell surface proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B cells}}</div>
1403920249024 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is characterized y CD3 and CD2
8 cell surface proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1403920377502 1395802358422 {{c1::CD14}} and&nsp;{{c2::CD40}} are the 2 CDcell surface proteins found on macrophages.
1403920412901 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein on NK cells inds to
the Fc portion of IgG?<div><r /></div><div>{{c2::CD16}}</div>
1403920430120 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein on NK cells is a uniq
ue marker for NK cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD56}}</div>
1403920455001 1395802358422 {{c1::Anergy}} is an immunological phenomenon th
at involves T cells ecoming nonreactive without a costimulatory molecule.
<r /><div><i>B cells also ecome anergic, ut tolerance is less complete than i
n T cells.</i></div>
1403921380619 1395802358422 {{c1::Superantigens}} are acterial toxins that
function to cross-link the <>eta-region of TCRs on all T cells to MHC II on AP
Cs</>, therey causing massive release of cytokines. <r /><div><i>Especially
released from Streptococcus pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus.</i></div>
1403922093744 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin/LPS}} is a acterial toxin from
gram-negative acteria that functions to <>directly stimulate macrophages y i
nding to the endotoxin receptor CD14</>.
<r /><div><i>Th cells are not i
nvolved.</i></div>
1403922433630 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein on macrophages is the
receptor for <>endotoxin/LPS</>&nsp;from gram-negative acteria?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::CD-14}}</div>
1403972465428 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Salmonella</i>}} is a gram-negative ac
teria that yiels antigenic variation due to it having 2 flagellar variants.
1403973380580 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Borrelia spp.</i>}} is a Spirochete tha
t yields antigenic variation and hence causes Relapsing Fever.
1403973457267 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisseria gonorrhoeae</i>}} is a specie
s of <i>Neisseria </i>that yield antigenic variation due to its pilus protein.
1403973514544 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Trypanosoma</i>}} is a genus of parasit
e that yields antigenic variation through programmed rearrangement of nucleic ac
id.
1403973818647 1395802358422 How is passive immunity acquired?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Receiving preformed antiodies}}</div>
1403974182943 1395802358422 What is the half-life of antiodies?<div><r /><

/div><div>{{c1::3 weeks}}</div>
1403974216209 1395802358422 Which type of vaccine induces a strong and often
lifelong immunity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Live attenuated}}</div>
1403974569126 1395802358422 Which type of vaccine often induces a weaker imm
une response and hence requires ooster shots?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inacti
vated/killed vaccine}}</div>
1403974602027 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity reaction causes a
naphylaxis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-35566624178432.jpg" /><img src="paste-40510131536095.jpg" /></div>
1403975571117 1395802358422 {{c1::Type I Hypersensitivity}} is a type of hyp
ersensitivity that involves free antigens cross-linking IgE on presensitized mas
t cells and asophils.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-35562329211136.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>Therey triggering immediate, widespread release o
f vasoactive amines that act as postcapillary venules (i.e. histamine).</i></div
><div><i>The reaction is <>rapid</>&nsp;due to preformed antiodies.</i></div
>
1403975686169 1395802358422 {{c1::Type I Hypersensitivity}} is a type of hyp
ersensitivity that involves a delayed response due to production of Arachidonic
Acid metaolites (e.g. leukotrienes).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-35562
329211136.jpg" /></div>
1403975847006 1395802358422 Which hypersensitivity reactions are mediated y
antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Types I, II, and III}}</div>
1403975961897 1395802358422 What is the diagnostic test for Type I Hypersens
itivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Skin test for specific IgE}}</div>
1403975975899 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity involves cytotoxi
city?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-36206574305588.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Type </i><><i>2</i>&nsp;
</><i>is cy-<>2</>-toxic.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-40510131536095.jpg
" /></i></div>
1403976358058 1395802358422 {{c1::Type II Hypersensitivity}} is a type of hy
persensitivity that involves IgM or IgG inding to fixed antigens on "enemy" cel
ls, therey leading to cellular destruction.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-36202279338292.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>3 mechanisms exist:</i></div><div>
<i>- Opsonization leading to phagocytosis or complement activation</i></div><div
><i>- Complement-mediated lysis</i></div><div><i>- Antiody-dependent cell-media
ted cytotoxicity, typically y NK cells or macrophages</i></div>
1403976666920 1395802358422 What is the diagnostic test for Type II Hypersen
sitivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indirect and direct Cooms' test}}</div><di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-36202279338292.jpg" /></div>
1403976724587 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Direct Coom's test}} is a type o
f Coom's test that detects antiodies that <u style="font-weight: old; ">have
adhered</u>&nsp;to the patient's RBCs. <r /><div><i>e.g. testing an Rh-positiv
e infant of an Rh-negative mother</i></div>
1403976951442 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Indirect Coom's Test}} is a type
of Coom's test that detects antiodies that <u style="font-weight: old; ">can
adhere</u>&nsp;to other RBCs. <r /><div><i>e.g. testing an Rh-negative mother
for Rh-positive antiodies</i></div>
1403977015655 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity reaction involves
immune complexes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III Hypersensitivity}}</div><
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-37946036060486.jpg" /></div>
<img src
="paste-40510131536095.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div>
1403977055546 1395802358422 {{c1::Type III Hypersensitivity}} is a type of h
ypersensitivity that involves antigen-antiody (IgG) complexes which activate co
mplement, therey attracting neutrophils.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3
8100654883105.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Neutrophils release lysosomal enzy
mes.</i></div>
1403977409517 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotype is involved in Type
I Hypersensitivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-38246683771141.jpg" /></div>
1403977596021 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotype is involved in Type

II Hypersensitivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgM; IgG}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-38341173051709.jpg" /></div>
1403977623907 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotype is involved in Type
III Hypersensitivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-38375532790053.jpg" /></div>
1403977660948 1395802358422 {{c1::Serum Sickness}} is a Type III Hypersensit
ivity disorder that involves antiodies produced rapidly to an antigen (5 days)
forming immune complexes that deposit in memranes, therey causing tissue damag
e through complement fixation. <r /><div><i>More common that the Arthus Reacti
on.</i></div>
1403977757423 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity reaction is invol
ved in Serum Sickness?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403977799154 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity reaction is invol
ved in Arthus Reaction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-38371237822757.jpg" /></div>
1403977813070 1395802358422 {{c1::Serum Sickness}} is a type III hypersensit
ivity disorder that presents with fever, urticaria, arthralgia, proteinuria, lym
phadenopathy <>5-10 days after antigen exposure</>.
1403978313337 1395802358422 {{c1::Arthus Reaction}} is a type III hypersensi
tivity disorder that results from intradermal injection of antigens.
1403978462132 1395802358422 {{c1::Arthus Reaction}} is a type III hypersensi
tivity disorder that presents with antigen-antiody complexes in the skin.
1403978567048 1395802358422 {{c1::Arthus Reaction}} is a type III hypersensi
tivity that is characterized y edema, necrosis of the skin and complement activ
ation.
1403978700931 1395802358422 What diagnostic test is used to diagnose the Art
hus Reaction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Immunofluorescent staining}}</div>
1403978726721 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity involves a delaye
d, T-cell mediated reaction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-39724152520981.jpg" /><img src="paste-40514426503391.jpg" /><
/div>
1403978968306 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity involves sensitiz
ed T-cells that encounter antigen and then release lymphokines?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The lymphokines lead to macr
ophage activation.</i><div><i>There are no antiodies involves.<r /></i><div><i
mg src="paste-39719857553685.jpg" /></div></div>
1403979101476 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity is not transferra
<r /><div><img
le y serum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
src="paste-40007620362499.jpg" /></div>
1403979315540 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity is involved in tr
ansplant rejection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-40003325395203.jpg" /></div>
1403979360773 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity is involved in TB
skin tests?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-40003325395203.jpg" /></div>
1403979372604 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity is involved in co
ntact dermatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-40003325395203.jpg" /></div>
1403979472100 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
anaphylaxis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1403980403798 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
allergic and atopic disorders?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1403980425763 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980439089 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Pernicious Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980446348 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Idiopathic Thromocytopenic Purpura?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980480384 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Erythrolastosis Fetalis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>

1403980491424 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
acute hemolytic transfusion reactions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</di
v>
1403980510724 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Rheumatic Fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980521754 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Goodpasture Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980533878 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Bullous Pemphigoid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980553347 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Pemphigus Vulgaris?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1403980689240 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403980700885 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Polyarteritis Nodosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403980711154 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</di
v>
1403980732227 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Serum Sickness?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403980856605 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Arthus Reaction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403980869988 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
vasculitis and systemic manifestations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</
div>
1403981018779 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Multiple Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1403981071040 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Guillain-Barre Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1403981277894 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Graft-versus-host disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1403981292947 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
PPD test for TB?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1403982071145 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Contact Dermatitis (e.g. poison ivy; nickel allergy)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Type IV}}</div>
1403993435845 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is involved in fe
rile nonhemolytic transfusion reactions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II hype
rsensitivity}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Involves host antiodies against donor HLA
antigens and leukocytes.</i></div>
1403994370623 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is involved in acu
te hemolytic transfusion reactions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Involves intravascular hemolysis (i.e. ABO lood group incompatii
lity) or extravascular hemolysis (i.e. host antiody reaction against foreign an
tigens on donor RBCs).</i></div>
1403994583077 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Myasthenia
Gravis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-ACh Receptor}}</div>
1403995003159 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Goodpastur
e Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-asement memrane}}</div>
1403995012828 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with SLE?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-cardiolipin; Anti-dsDNA; Anti-Smith; ANA (nonspecific
)}}</div>
1403995075505 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Antiphosph
olipid Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-cardiolipin}}</div>
1403995126258 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with <>limited
</>&nsp;Scleroderma (CREST Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anticentromer
e}}</div>
1403995140505 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Pemphigus
Vulgaris?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-desmoglein}}</div>
1403995155658 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with T1DM?<div>

<r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-glutamate decaroxylase}}</div>
1403995179411 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Bullous Pe
mphigoid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-hemidesmosome}}</div>
1403995201458 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Drug-induc
ed SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antihistone}}</div>
1403995574176 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Polyomyosi
tis and Dermatomyositis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Jo-1; Anti-SRP; Anti-Mi
-2}}</div>
1403995610720 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Hashimoto
Thyroiditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antimicrosomal; Antithyrogloulin}}</div
>
1403995637713 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Primary Bi
liary Cirrhosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antimitochondrial}}</div>
1403995653877 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with <>Diffuse
</>Scleroderma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Scl-70 (Anti-DNA Topoisomerase
I)}}</div>
1403995681306 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Autoimmune
Hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-smooth muscle}}</div>
1403995693784 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Sjogren Sy
ndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-SSA (Ro); Anti-SSB (La)}}</div>
1403996350172 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Graves Dis
ease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-TSH Receptor}}</div>
1403996368467 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Mixed Conn
ective Tissue Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-U1 RNP (Rionucleoprotein
)}}</div>
1403996398329 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Wegener Gr
anulomatosis (i.e. granulomatosis with polyangiitis)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:c-ANCA (PR3-ANCA)}}</div>
1403996432198 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Celiac Dis
ease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA anti-tissue transglutaminase; IgA antiendom
ysial}}</div>
1403996462590 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Microscopt
ic Polyangiitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p-ANCA (MPO-ANCA)}}</div>
1403996478102 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Churg-Stra
uss Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p-ANCA (MPO-ANCA)}}</div>
1403996490484 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is associated with Rheumatoid
Arthritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rheumatoid factor (IgM specific to the Fc
region of IgG); anti-CCP}}</div>
1403996531568 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisseria</i>}} is a genus of gram-nega
tive acterial that commonly cause infection in <>complement deficiency</>&ns
p;as there is no memrane attack complex.
1403996587310 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte deficiency tends to produce rec
urrent <>acterial </>infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B-cell deficiency
}}</div>
1403996626512 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte deficiency tends to produce mor
e recurrent <>fungal</>&nsp;and <>viral</>&nsp;infections?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::T-cell deficiency}}</div>
1403996658354 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Giardia lamlia</i>}} is a GI protozoal
infection that is often seen in <>B cell deficiency</>&nsp;due to a lack of
IgA.
1403997709839 1395802358422 Which gene is defective in Bruton (X-linked) Aga
mmgloulinemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>BTK</i>&nsp;(Bruton's Tyrosine Ki
nase); results in a lack of B cell maturation}}</div>
1403999757012 1395802358422 {{c1::Bruton (X-linked) Agammagloulinemia}} is
an XLR immunodeficiency that involves a defect in <i>BTK</i>&nsp;(Bruton Tyrosi
ne Kinase gene), therey resulting in a lack of B-cell maturation.
1403999799341 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Bruton Agamma
gloulinemia??<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence ther
e is an increased incidence in oys.</i></div>
1403999830500 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is affected in Bruton Agammaglo

ulinemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B-cells}}</div>
1403999844692 1395802358422 {{c1::Bruton (X-linked) Agammagloulinemia}} is
an XLR immunodeficiency that presents with recurrent acterial and enteroviral i
nfections <>after 6 months</>&nsp;of irth (due to a decrease in maternal IgG
in the child).
1404000041802 1395802358422 {{c1::Bruton (X-linked) Agammagloulinemia}} is
an XLR immunodeficiency that presents with an <>asence of CD19+ B-cells</>&n
sp;and a decrease in <>pro-B cells</>.
1404000232064 1395802358422 How do immunogloulin levels change in Bruton (X
-linked) Agammagloulinemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased immunogloulin
s of all classes}}</div>
1404000257469 1395802358422 {{c1::Bruton (X-linked) Agammagloulinema}} is a
n XLR immunodeficiency that presents with <>asent/scanty lymph nodes</>&nsp;
and <>tonsils</>.
1404007128360 1395802358422 What is the most common primary immunodeficiency
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Selective IgA Deficiency}}</div>
1404007373971 1395802358422 What IgA level is diagnostic of Selective IgA De
ficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 7 mg/dL (with normal IgG and IgM level
s)}}</div>
1404007413143 1395802358422 {{c1::Common Variale Immunodeficiency}} is a pr
imary immunodeficiency with <>many causes</>&nsp;that involves a defect in Bcell differentiation. <r /><div><i>Can e acquired in the 20s-30s.</i></div><
div><i>Increased risk of autoimmune disease, ronchiectasis, lymphoma, sinopulmo
nary infections.</i></div>
1404007637297 1395802358422 How do immunogloulin levels change in Common Va
riale Immunodeficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>There is a defect in B-cell differentiation, hence there are fewer plasma
cells and fewer immunogloulins.</i></div>
1404007679611 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in DiGeorge Syndrome
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::22q11}}</div>
1404007721770 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is affected in Common Variale
Immunodeficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B-cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>He
nce there are fewer plasma cells and immunogloulins.</i></div>
1404007743187 1395802358422 Which pharyngeal pouches fail to develop in DiGe
orge Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd and 4th}}</div> <r /><div><i>He
nce there is thymic and parathyroid aplasia.</i></div>
1404007981537 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetany}} is a muscular complication of DiG
eorge Syndrome that occurs due to the <>hypocalcemia</>&nsp;secondary to para
thyroid aplasia.
1404008010570 1395802358422 How do PTH levels change in DiGeorge Syndrome?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404008073227 1395802358422 How do serum Ca levels change in DiGeorge Syndro
me?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404008085107 1395802358422 Which lymphocytes are affected in DiGeorge Syndr
ome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div> <r /><div><i>Due to the thymic
aplasia.</i></div>
1404008108957 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of IL-12 Recepto
r Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1404008313963 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-12 Receptor Deficiency}} is a primary i
mmunodeficiency that involves a decreased Th1 response due to a lack of IL-12 ac
tion. <r /><div><i>Rememer, IL-12 from macrophages activates Th1 cells (whic
h then activate macrophages via IFN-gamma).</i></div>
1404008382813 1395802358422 How do IFN-gamma levels change in IL-12 Receptor
Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>IL
-12 from macrophages causes Th1 cell activation.</i></div><div><i>Activated Th1
cells release IFN-gamma which activations macrophages.</i></div><div><i><>No IL
-12 action = no IFN-gamma release from Th1 cells</></i></div>
1404008442212 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Jo Syndrome
(Hyper-IgE Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1404008490941 1395802358422 {{c1::Autosomal Dominant hyper-IgE Syndrome (Jo

Syndrome)}} is a primary immunodeficiency that presents with a <>deficiency of
Th17 cells</>&nsp;due to a <i style="font-weight: old; ">STAT3</i>&nsp;muta
tion. <r /><div><i>The mutation results in impaired recruitment of neutrophil
s to the site of infection.</i></div>
1404008550006 1395802358422 Which gene mutation is seen in Jo Syndrome (Aut
osomal Dominant hyper-IgE Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>STAT3</i>; ca
uses a deficiency of Th17 cells which leads to impaired recruitment of neutrophi
ls to sites of infection}}</div>
1404008592546 1395802358422 How do IgE levels change in Jo Syndrome (Autoso
mal Dominant hyper-IgE Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-49598282334413.jpg" /></div>
1404008632293 1395802358422 How do IFN-gamma levels change in Jo Syndrome (
Autosomal Dominant hyper-IgE Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</
div>
1404008678484 1395802358422 What type of lymphocyte is affected in Jo Syndr
ome (Autosomal Dominant hyper-IgE Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}
}</div>
1404009254845 1395802358422 What type of lymphocyte is affected in Chronic M
ucocutaneous Candidiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1404009272434 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Mucocutaneous Candidiasis}} is a p
rimary T-cell immunodeficiency that involves noninvasive <i>Candida alicans</i>
&nsp;infections of skin and mucous memranes.
1404010851270 1395802358422 What is the most common etiology of Severe Comi
ned Immunodeficiency (SCID)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Defective IL-2R gamma ch
ain}}</div>
<r /><div><i>X-linked</i></div>
1404011726248 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of IL-2R Gamma C
hain deficiency [and the susequent Severe Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID)]?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive}}</div>
1404011780588 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Adenosine Dea
minase Deficiency [and the susequent Severe Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID)]?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1404011821953 1395802358422 What type of lymphocytes are affected in Severe
Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T and B cells}}</di
v>
1404011853786 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Severe Comined Immuno
deficiency (SCID)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bone marrow transplantation}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>There is no concern for rejection.</i></div>
1404011951361 1395802358422 {{c1::Severe Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID}} i
s a primary immunodeficiency that presents with decreased T-cell receptor excisi
on circles (TRECs).
1404012084160 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Ataxia Telangiect
asia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>ATM</i>&nsp;gene; leads to DNA doule stran
ded reaks and arrest of the cell cycle}}</div> <r /><div><i>This ultimately ca
uses a deficiency of lymphocytes. (T and B cells).</i></div>
1404012157533 1395802358422 {{c1::Ataxia Telangiectasia}} is a primary immun
odeficiency that involves a defect in the <i>ATM</i>&nsp;gene, therey leading
to many doule stranded DNA reaks and arrest of the cell cycle.
1404012196576 1395802358422 {{c1::Ataxia Telangiectasia}} is a primary immun
odeficiency that presents with a triad of <>ataxia, spider angiomas</>&nsp;an
d <>IgA deficiency.</>
<r /><div><i>Spider angiomas are a type of tela
ngiectasia.</i></div><div><i>There is also significant cereellar atrophy.</i></
div>
1404012232234 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotype is deficient in Ata
xia Telangiectasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Ig
G and IgE are also decreased.</i></div>
1404012380967 1395802358422 How do AFP levels change in Ataxia Telangiectasi
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404012403474 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Hyper IgM Syndrom
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD40L; especially at Th cells}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence class switching for B cells is defective.</i></div>

1404012453683 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Hyper IgM Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}</div>
1404012481178 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyper IgM Syndrome}} is an XLR primary imm
unodeficiency that involves a defect in CD40L on Th cells, therey yielding a de
fect in B-cell class switching. <r /><div><i>CD40L is required as a co-stimulat
ory factor in class switching. Since it is defective, B-cells are "stuck" secret
ed IgM (which is a default isotype expressed y naive B-cells).</i></div>
1404012568560 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein is defective in Hyper
IgM Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD40L on Th cells}}</div>
1404012581402 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyper IgM Syndrome}} is a primary immunode
ficiency that involves severe pyogenic infections early in life.
<r /><d
iv><i>Opportunistic infections with Pneumocystis, Cryptosporidium and CMV are al
so likely.</i></div>
1404012904857 1395802358422 How do IgG, IgA and IgE levels change in Hyper I
gM Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
is stems from why there is hyper-IgM.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>R
ememer, there is a defect in class switching of B cells - they are stuck secret
ing IgM due to a CD40L defect on Th cells. As a result, no IgG, IgA or IgE is ma
de as no B cells are switching to those isotypes.</i></div>
1404012991885 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Wiskott-Aldrich S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>WAS</i>&nsp;mutation; results in T cells
that are unale to reorganize their actin cytoskeleton}}</div>
1404013032550 1395802358422 {{c1::Wiskot-Aldrich Syndrome}} is a primary imm
unodeficiency that involves a mutation in <i>WAS</i>&nsp;and hence presents wit
h T-cells that are unale to reorganize their actin cytoskeleton.
1404013066104 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Wiskott-Aldri
ch Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}</div>
1404013081138 1395802358422 {{c1::Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome}} is a primary im
munodeficiency that presents with <>thromocytopenic purpura</>, <>eczema</>
&nsp;and <>recurrent infections</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-5441723564048
8.jpg" /></div>
1404013407607 1395802358422 How do IgG and IgM levels change in Wiskott-Aldr
ich Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease to normal}}</div>
1404013436862 1395802358422 How do IgE and IgA levels change in Wiskott-Aldr
ich Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1404013453792 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Leukocyte Adhesio
n Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LFA-1 integrin (CD18) on
phagocytes}}</div>
1404013755387 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1
)}} is a primary immunodeficiency that involves a defect in LFA-1 integrin (CD18
) on phagocytes, therey resulting in impaired phagocyte migration and chemotaxi
s.
1404013792319 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Leukocyte Adh
esion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}
</div>
1404013817379 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1
)}} is a primary immunodeficiency that presents with <>delayed separation of th
e umilical cord</>&nsp;(&gt; 30 days).
1404014947661 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1
)}} is a primary immunodeficiency that presents with recurrent acterial skin/mu
cosal infections, asent pus formation and impaired wound healing.
1404014982518 1395802358422 Which genetic defect is seen in Chediak-Higashi
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>LST</i>&nsp;(Lysosomal trafficking reg
ulator gene)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Causes microtuule dysfunction in phagosom
e-lysosome fusion.</i></div>
1404015046147 1395802358422 {{c1::Chediak-Higashi Syndrome}} is a primary im
munodeficiency disorder that involves a defect in <i>LST</i>&nsp;(Lysosomal tr
afficking regulator gene), therey presenting with microtuule dysfunction in ph
agosome-lysosome fusion.
<r /><div><r /></div>
1404015100169 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Chediak-Higas

hi Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1404015115816 1395802358422 {{c1::Parital Alinism}} is a cutaneous disorder
seen in Chediak-Higashi Syndrome that results from dysfunctional phagosome-lyso
some fusion.
1404015180318 1395802358422 Which gram-positive acterial genuses often caus
e recurrent pyogenic infections in Chediak-Higashi Syndrome?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::<i>Staphylococci; Streptococci</i>}}</div>
1404015216936 1395802358422 {{c1::Chediak-Higashi Syndrome}} is a primary im
munodeficiency disorder that presents with <>giant granules in neutrophils and
platelets</>. <r /><div><i>There is pancytopenia and mild coagulation defects
.</i></div>
1404015264002 1395802358422 What genetic defect is seen in Chronic Granuloma
tous Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NADPH Oxidase defect}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>XLR</i></div>
1404015286448 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Chronic Granu
lomatous Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1404015298694 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Granulomatous Disease}} is a prima
ry immunodeficiency that involves an NADPH Oxidase defect, therey resulting in
deceased ROS and a susequent lack of respiratory urst in neutrophils. <r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, NADPH Oxidase makes superoxide.</i></div>
1404015355228 1395802358422 What Nitrolue Tetrazolium (NZT) dye reduction t
est result is associated with Chronic Granulomatous Disease?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1404015422163 1395802358422 Which flow cytometry test is anormal in Chronic
Granulomatous Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anormal Dihydrorhodamine Tes
t}}</div>
1404015447316 1395802358422 A(n) {{c1::autograft}} is a type of graft that i
s received from oneself.
1404015985734 1395802358422 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::Syngeneic Graft}} is a type of g
raft that is received from an identical twin or clone.
1404016011128 1395802358422 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::allograft}} is a type of graft t
hat is received from a nonidentical individual of the same species.
1404016039210 1395802358422 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::xenograft}} is a graft that is r
eceived from a different species.
1404016054779 1395802358422 What is the onset of Hyperacute transplant rejec
tion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Minutes}}</div>
1404016076261 1395802358422 What is the onset of Acute transplant rejection?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks to months}}</div>
1404016088036 1395802358422 What is the onset of Chronic transplant rejectio
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Months to years}}</div>
1404016096921 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperacute Rejection}} is a type of transp
lant rejection that involves <>pre-existing recipient antiodies reacting to do
nor antigens</>&nsp;via a Type II reaction.
1404016146807 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperacute Rejection}} is a type of transp
lant rejection that involves <>widespread thromosis of grafted vessels</>, th
erey leading to ischemia and necrosis. <r /><div><i>The graft has to e remove
d.</i></div>
1404016180870 1395802358422 {{c1::Cellular Acute Rejection}} is a type of Ac
ute Transplant Rejection that involves <>CTLs</>&nsp;that ecome <>activated
against donor MHCs</>.
1404016228306 1395802358422 {{c1::Humoral Acute Rejection}} is a type of Acu
te Transplant Rejection that presents similarly to Hyperacute rejection, ut inv
olves antiodies that <>develop after transplantation</>.
1404016531454 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Rejection}} is a type of transplant
rejection that presents with <>vasculitis of grafted vessels</>&nsp;with <>d
ense interstitial lymphocytic infiltrate</>. <r /><div><i>Prevented or rever
sed with immunosuppressants.</i></div>
1404016580569 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Rejection}} is a type of transplan
t rejection that involves <>recipient T cells that perceive donor MHC as recipi
ent MHC</>&nsp;and susequently <>react against donor antigens that are prese

nted</>.
<r /><div><i>Basically, recipient (host) T cells here think tha
t the donor MHC molecules are host MHC molecules. Hence any antigens presented 
y the donor MHCs trigger oth cell-mediated and humoral reactions (i.e. reaction
against donor antigens).</i></div>
1404016926300 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Rejection}} is a type of transplan
t rejection that presents with <>irreversile T-cell</>&nsp;and <>antiody m
ediated damage</>.
1404016969952 1395802358422 How does Chronic transplant rejection present at
the heart?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atherosclerosis}}</div>
1404016988210 1395802358422 How does Chronic transplant rejection present at
the Lungs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchiolitis oliterans}}</div>
1404016999210 1395802358422 How does Chronic transplant rejection present at
the liver?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vanishing ile ducts}}</div>
1404017009258 1395802358422 How does Chronic transplant rejection present at
the kidney?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vascular firosis and glomerulopathy}}</
div>
1404017019087 1395802358422 {{c1::Graft-versus-host disease}} is a transplan
t rejection disorder that involves <>grafted immunocompetent T cells that proli
ferate in the immunocompromised host</>&nsp;and eventually egin <>rejecting
host cells </>as if they were "foreign."
<r><div><i>Essentially, the tra
nsplanted, functional T cells attack the immunocompromised host T cells.</i></di
v><div><i>Causes severe organ dysfunction.</i></div>
1404017950425 1395802358422 Which type of transplants are typically associat
ed with graft-versus-host disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bone marrow and li
ver transplants (as they are rich in lymphocytes)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
is is potentially eneficial in one marrow transplants to treat leukemia (Graft
-versus-tumour effect).</i></div>
1404059399172 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Cyclosporine?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Calcineurin y inding to Cyclophilin}}</div> <div><r
/></div><i>Therey locks T-cell activation y <>preventing IL-2 transcription
</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-58523224375972.jpg" /></div>
1404063112127 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclosporine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t inhiits Calcineurin y inding to Cyclophilin, therey inhiiting IL-2 transc
ription and T-cell activation.
1404063162191 1395802358422 Which interleukin's transcription is prevented 
y Cyclosporine and Tacrolimus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-2}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Cyclosporine inds to Cyclophilin and then inhiits Calcineurin.</i></div>
<div><i>Tacrolimus inds to FKBP and then inhiits Calcineurin.</i></div><div><i
>Sirolimus inds to FKBP and then inhiits mTOR, ut <>inhiits IL-2 signal tra
nsduction.</></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></i></div>
1404063255668 1395802358422 What does Cyclosporine ind to efore inhiiting
Calcineurin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclophilin}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404063535509 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclosporine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t is used to <>psoriasis</>&nsp;and rheumatoid arthritis.
1404063620151 1395802358422 Which immunosuppressant is associated with <>ne
phrotoxicity</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclosporine; Tacrolimus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Both Calcineurin inhiitors are nephrotoxic.</i></div>
1404063651642 1395802358422 Which immunosuppressant is associated with <>hi
rsutism</>&nsp;and <>gingival hyperplasia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyc
losporine}}</div>
1404063677232 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclosporine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t is associated with <>hypertension, hyperlipidemia</>&nsp;and <>hyperglycem
ia</>.
1404064623432 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tacrolimus?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhiition of Calcineurin via FKBP (FK506 Binding Protein)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404064653178 1395802358422 {{c1::Tacrolimus}} is an immunosuppressant that
inhiits Calcineurin y inding to FKBP, therey inhiiting IL-2 transcription.
<r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>

1404064716929 1395802358422 Which protein does Tacrolimus ind to in order t
o inhiit Calcineurin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FKBP}}</div> <div><r /></div
><i>The -limus drugs ind to FKBP.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.
jpg" /></div>
1404064776888 1395802358422 {{c1::Tacrolimus}} is an immunosuppressant that
inhiits Calcineurin and yields an <>increased risk of diaetes and neurotoxici
ty</>.
1404064933400 1395802358422 {{c1::Tacrolimus}} is an immunosuppressant that
inhiits Calcineurin ut <>does not cause hirsutism or gingival hyperplasia</>
.
1404064975838 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Sirolimus (Rapamycin)?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of mTOR via inding to FKBP; therey inhiits IL
-2 signal transduction}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /
></div>
1404065097406 1395802358422 What protein does Sirolimus (Rapamycin) ind to
efore inhiiting mTOR?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FKBP}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404065131727 1395802358422 {{c1::Sirolimus (Rapamycin)}} is an immunosuppre
ssant that inhiits mTOR via inding to FKBP, therey inhiiting IL-2 <>signal
transduction</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404065360707 1395802358422 Which organ transplant is associated with suseq
uent Sirolimus (Rapamycin) use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kidney transplant rej
ection prophylaxis}}</div>
1404065420288 1395802358422 Which immunosuppressant is associated with insul
in resistance and hyperlipidemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sirolimus (Rapamyci
n)}}</div>
1404065485604 1395802358422 {{c1::Sirolimus (Rapamycin)}} is an immunosuppre
ssant that inhiits mTOR and is <>non-nephrotoxic</>.
1404065544829 1395802358422 {{c1::Sirolimus (Rapamycin)}} is an immunosuppre
ssant that works in synergy with Cyclosporine. <r /><div><img src="paste-58518
929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404065877680 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the immunosuppressant Basilix
ima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to and locks the IL-2R}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066012709 1395802358422 {{c1::Basilixima}} is a monoclonal antiody tha
t locks the <>IL-2R</>, therey causing immunosuppression and acting as a kid
ney transplant rejection prophylactic. <r /><div><img src="paste-5851892940867
6.jpg" /></div>
1404066056607 1395802358422 {{c1::Basilixima}} is a monoclonal antiody tha
t locks IL-2R and yields <>edema, HTN</>&nsp;and <>tremor</>.
<r /><d
iv><r /></div>
1404066078559 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathioprine (AZT)}} is an immunosuppressa
nt that is the antimetaolite precursor of 6-MP.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066128501 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Azathioprine?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhiition of PRPP Amidotransferase; inhiits lymphocyte proliferati
on y locking nucleotide synthesis}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Rememer, AZ
T is the prodrug form of 6-MP.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg"
/></div>
1404066180132 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathioprine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t is used to treat <>Crohn Disease</>.
1404066579885 1395802358422 How does Allopurinol influence the toxicity of A
zathioprine (6MP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>6MP is degraded y Xanthine Oxidase. Hence Allopurinol increases its toxicity.</i
></div>
1404066636967 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathioprine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t inhiits PRPP Amidotransferase and causes <>leukopenia, anaemia</>&nsp;and
<>thromocytopenia</>.
1404066691061 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Glucocorticoids as immunosupp
ressants?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of NF-kB; Therey suppressing o

th B and T cell function y decreasing the transcription of many cytokines}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066745491 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of immunosupp
ressant that inhiits NF-kB, therey decreasing the transcription of many cytoki
nes.
<r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066839371 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathioprine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t is converted into <>6-MP</>&nsp;and inhiits <>PRPP Amidotransferase</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066891524 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of immunosupp
ressant that is associated with <>central oesity</>&nsp;and <>hyperglycemia
</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-58518929408676.jpg" /></div>
1404066937054 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of immunosupp
ressant that are associated with <>osteoporosis</>&nsp;and <>muscle reakdow
n</>.
1404067164688 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of immunosupp
ressant that are associated with <>acne</>&nsp;and <>cataracts</>.
1404067186993 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of immunosupp
ressant that are associated with <>peptic ulcers</>.
1404067203206 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of immunosupp
ressant that are known to cause iatrogenic Cushing Syndrome.
1404067580343 1395802358422 {{c1::Epoetin alfa}} is a recominant cytokine t
hat functions as Erythropoietin and is used to treat <>anaemia</>, especially
in renal failure.
1404069394445 1395802358422 {{c1::Thromopoietin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Oprelvekin
}} are recominant cytokines that are used to treat thromocytopenia.
1404069436564 1395802358422 {{c1::Oprelvekin}} is a recominant cytokine tha
t functions as <>IL-11</>&nsp;and hence is used to treat Thromocytopenia.
1404069482968 1395802358422 {{c1::Filgrastim}} is a recominant cytokine tha
t functions as a <>granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF)</> to induce
one marrow recovery.
1404069605164 1395802358422 {{c1::Sargramostim}} is a recominant cytokine t
hat functions as a <>granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)
</>and is used to induce one marrow recovery.
1404069687174 1395802358422 {{c1::Aldesleukin}} is a recominant cytokine th
at function as <>IL-2</>&nsp;and is used in renal cell carcinoma and metastat
ic melanoma.
1404069713578 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat chronic HBV an
d HCV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069732893 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Kaposi Sarcoma
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069739996 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Hairy Cell Leu
kemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069747185 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Condyloma Acum
inatum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069763176 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Renal Cell Car
cinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069770283 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Malignant Mela
noma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069778681 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Multiple Scler
osis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-eta}}</div>
1404069788097 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Chronic Granul
omatous Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-gamma}}</div>
1404069797079 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Al
emtuzuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD52 in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia}}</di
v>
1404070337638 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Be
vacizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VEGF in colorectal cancer, renal cell carc
inoma}}</div>
1404070364535 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Ce
tuxima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in s

tage IV colorectal cancer, head and neck cancer}}</div>
1404070414787 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Ri
tuxima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD20 in B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Rheumao
id Arthritis and Idiopathic Thromocytopenic Purpura}}</div>
1404070486754 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Tr
astuzuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HER2/neu in reast cancer and some gastric
cancer}}</div> <r /><div><i>"Tras-<>2</>-zuma targets HER<>2</>"</i></div
>
1404070524214 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody In
flixima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TNF-alpha in IBD, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Ank
ylosing Spondylitis, Psoriasis}}</div>
1404070711881 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Ad
alimuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TNF-alpha in IBD, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Ank
ylosing Spondylitis, Psoriasis}}</div>
1404070868387 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Na
talizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::alpha4-integrin in MS and Crohn Disease}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Alpha4-integrin is an integrin protein involved with leuko
cyte adhesion.</i></div>
1404070920133 1395802358422 {{c1::Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy
(PML)}} is a possile neurological complication of Natalizuma use in patients
with JC virus infection.
1404070972875 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody A
cixima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpII/IIIa in patients that need anti-platel
et action}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. for the prevention of ischemic compli
cations in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention</i></div>
1404071054879 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody De
nosuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RANKL in osteoporosis; Blocking of RANKL inh
iits osteoclast maturation}}</div>
1404071083682 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Di
goxin Immune Fa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Digoxin; acts as an antidote for Di
goxin toxicity}}</div>
1404071121555 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Om
alizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgE; used to prevent allergic asthma and pr
events IgE inding to FcERI}}</div>
1404071160652 1395802358422 What is the target of the monoclonal antiody Pa
vilizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RSV F protein}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Re
memer, F proteins on RSV allow is to make syncytia. Hence, Respiratory Syncytia
l Virus (RSV).</i></div>
1404071589190 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Alemtuzuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) v
ia CD52}}</div>
1404071614787 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Bevacizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colorectal cancer; Renal cell carcin
oma; via VEGF}}</div>
1404071654896 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Cetuxima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stage IV colorectal cancer; Head and n
eck cancer; via EGFR}}</div>
1404071682615 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Rituxima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma; Rheumatoi
d Arthritis; Idiopathic Thromocytopenia Purpura; via CD20}}</div>
1404071717603 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Trastuzuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast cancer; Gastric cancer; via H
ER2/neu}}</div>
1404071740352 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Inflixima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IBD; Rheumatoid Arthritis; Ankylosing
Spondylitis; Psoriasis; via TNF-alpha}}</div>
1404071944718 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Adalimuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IBD; Rheumatoid Arthritis; Ankylosing
Spondylitis; Psoriasis; via TNF-alpha}}</div>
1404071967380 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti

ody Natalizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Multiple Sclerosis; Crohn Disease; v
ia alpha4-integrin}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, alpha4-integrin is invol
ved with leukocyte adhesion.</i></div>
1404072007193 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Acixima?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prevention of ischemic complications i
n patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>i.e. it's an antiplatelet, rah!</i></div>
1404072051299 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Denosuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoporosis; inhiits osteoclast matu
ration via RANKL}}</div>
1404072078422 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Digoxin Immune Fa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antidote for Digitoxin toxici
ty}}</div>
1404072094823 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Omalizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Allergic asthma; prevents IgE inding
to FcERI}}</div>
1404072129533 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal anti
ody Palivizuma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prophylaxis in RSV high-risk infants
; via RSV F protein}}</div>
1404072154231 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat C
hronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alemtuzuma (via C
D52)}}</div>
1404072803058 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat I
diopathic Thromocytopenic Purpura (ITP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rituxima}}
</div>
1404073044364 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat B
reast Cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trastuzuma (via HER2/neu)}}</div>
1404073071781 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat M
ultiple Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Natalizuma}}</div>
1404073420208 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat C
rohn Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Natalizuma}}</div>
1404073432419 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat A
nkylosing Spondylitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inflixima; Adalimuma; oth v
ia TNF-alpha}}</div>
1404074377437 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat O
steoporosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Denosuma (via RANKL)}}</div>
1404074417513 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat D
igoxin toxicity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Digoxin Immune Fa}}</div>
1404074435170 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used to treat A
llergic Asthma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Omalizuma}}</div>
1404074449984 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody can e used as an RSVprophylaxis for high-risk infants?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Palivizuma}}</div
>
1405187801441 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Sonic hedgehog gene}} is an impor
tant gene of emryogenesis that is produced at the ase of lims in the zone of
polarizing activity.
1405187930710 1395802358422 {{c1::Sonic hedgehog}} is a gene important in em
ryogenesis that is involved in <>patterning along the anterior-posterior axis<
/>&nsp;and in <>CNS development</>.
1405187968943 1395802358422 Which congenital defect is associated with Sonic
Hedgehog mutations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Holoprosencephaly}}</div>
1405187987735 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Wnt-7</i>}} is an important gene in em
ryogenesis that is produced at the apical ectodermal ridge; and is needed for <
>dorsal-ventral axis organization</>. <r /><div><i>The apical ectodermal ridg
e is a <>ridge of thickened ectoderm at the distal end of developing lims</>.
</i></div>
1405188074585 1395802358422 Which gene important for emryogenesis is involv
ed in <>anterior-posterior axis patterning</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Soni
c Hedgehog}}</div>
1405188098958 1395802358422 Which gene important for emryogenesis is needed

for <>dorsal-ventral axis organization</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Wnt7</i>}}</div>
1405188127165 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>FGF</i>}} is a gene important in emryo
genesis that is produced at the apical ectodermal ridge and functions to <>stim
ulate mitosis of underlying mesoderm</>, therey causing lengthening of lims.
1405188170991 1395802358422 {{c1::Homeoox (<i>Hox</i>) genes}} are genes im
portant for emryogenesis that is involved in <>segmental organization of the e
mryo in the craniocaudal direction</>.
1405188234322 1395802358422 A mutation in which gene important in emryogene
sis is associated with <>appendages eing found in the wrong locations</>?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Homeoox (<i>Hox</i>) genes}}</div>
1405188274504 1395802358422 On which day after fertilization is the zygote f
ormed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-48881
022796163.jpg" /></div>
1405189423019 1395802358422 On which day following fertilization is the <>m
orula</>&nsp;formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-48876727828867.jpg" /></div>
1405189436675 1395802358422 On which day following fertilization is the <>
lastocyst</>&nsp;formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-48876727828867.jpg" /></div>
1405189449032 1395802358422 On which day following fertilization does <>imp
lantation</>&nsp;occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::7-10}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>hCG secretion egins around this time.</i><r /><div><img src="paste
-48876727828867.jpg" /></div>
1405189480591 1395802358422 During which week of gestation is the <>ilamin
ar disc</>&nsp;(of epilast and hypolast) formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Week 2}}</div> <r /><div><i><>2</>&nsp;weeks =&nsp;<>2</>&nsp;layers</i
></div>
1405189572077 1395802358422 During which week of gestation is the <>trilami
nar</>&nsp;disc formed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div> <r /><div><i><
>3</>&nsp;weeks = <>3</>&nsp;layers</i></div>
1405189607684 1395802358422 During which week of gestation&nsp;does gastrul
ation occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-49997714292844.jpg" /></div>
1405189616150 1395802358422 During which week of gestation&nsp;does the pri
mitive streak appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pr
imitive streak, notochord, mesoderm and its organization and neural plate all e
gin to form in week 3.</i></div>
1405189647980 1395802358422 During which week of gestation&nsp;does the neu
ral tue form and close?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
1405189673617 1395802358422 During which weeks of gestation&nsp;does organo
genesis occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-8}}</div>
1405189692284 1395802358422 During which weeks of gestation is the emryo ex
tremely susceptile to teratogens?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-8}}</div>
1405189710397 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the heart e
gin to eat?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
1405189724199 1395802358422 During which week of gestation do the <>upper a
nd lower lim uds</>&nsp;egin to form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>4</>&nsp;weeks = <>4</>&nsp;lims</i></div>
1405189748896 1395802358422 During which week of gestation is fetal cardiac
activity visile y transvaginal ultrasound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::6}}</div
>
1405189766131 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the fetal ge
nitalia gain male/female characteristics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::10}}</div>
1405190441441 1395802358422 {{c1::Craniopharyngioma}} is a enign tumour of
Rathke's Pouch that presents with <>cholesterol crystals</>&nsp;and <>calcif
ications</>.
1405190495474 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the l
ens of the eye form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190598843 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does senso

ry organs of the ear form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190612914 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does olfac
tory epithelium form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190623972 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the e
pidermis form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190640750 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer do parotid
, sweat and mammary glands form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</
div>
1405190654004 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the a
nal canal elow the pectinate line form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface Ecto
derm}}</div>
1405190671066 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the e
pithelial lining of the oral cavity form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ect
oderm}}</div>
1405190687783 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the C
NS form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190701065 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does retin
a form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190708163 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the o
ptic nerve form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190720066 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the s
pinal cord form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190729933 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer does the P
NS form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190740203 1395802358422 From which emryological tissue layer do melanoc
ytes form?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190788282 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the Chromaffin Cells of the adrenal medulla?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190799414 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the parafollicular cells of the thyroid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ne
ural Crest}}</div>
1405190815053 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the ones of the skull?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div
>
1405190823755 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to Odontolasts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190833676 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the aorticopulmonary septum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}
</div>
1405190850123 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to muscle, one, CT and serous lining of ody cavities?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405191021105 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the spleen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405191028608 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the cardiovascular structures?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-52901112185109.jpg" /></div>
1405192554037 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the lymphatics and lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405192566362 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the wall of the gut tues?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-52905407152405.jpg" /></div>
1405192571401 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the vagina, testes and ovaries?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}<
/div>
1405192585157 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the kidneys and adrenal cortex?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-52901112185109.jpg" /></div>
1405192597844 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give

s rise to the dermis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405192604044 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to the<>&nsp;epithelium</>&nsp;of the gut tue?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Endoderm}}</div>
1405192621253 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to most of the urethra?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endoderm}}</div>
1405192646938 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue population/layer give
s rise to luminal epithelial derivatives?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endoderm}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>e.g. lungs, liver, galllader, pancreas, thymus, parathyro
id, thyroid follicles, eustachian tue</i></div>
1405192693279 1395802358422 What is the only postnatal derivative of the not
ochord?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus Pulposus of the interverteral disc}}
</div>
1405193713758 1395802358422 {{c1::Agenesis}} is an error in organ morphogene
sis that is defined as the <>asence of an organ due to asent primordial tissu
e</>.
1405193749960 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplasia}} is an error in organ morphogenes
is that is defined as the <>asence of an organ</>&nsp;<u style="font-weight:
old; ">despite the presence of primordial tissue</u>. <r /><div><i>In aplasia
, <u>primordial tissue is present</u>.</i></div>
1405193786627 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoplasia}} is a type of error in organ m
orphogenesis that is defined as <>incomplete organ development</>&nsp;despite
primordial tissue eing present.
1405193949062 1395802358422 {{c1::Deformation}} is a type of error in organ
morphogenesis that is defined as <>extrinsic disruption of organ morphogenesis<
/>.
<r /><div><i>Occurs after the emryonic period.</i></div>
1405193994529 1395802358422 {{c1::Disruption}} is an error is organ morphoge
nesis that is defined as the <>secondary reakdown of a previously normal tissu
e or structure</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. amniotic and syndrome</i></div>
1405194044038 1395802358422 {{c1::Malformation}} is an error in organ morpho
genesis that is defined as <>intrinsic disruption</>&nsp;of organ formation <
u><>during the emryonic period</>&nsp;(weeks 3-8).</u>
1405194087199 1395802358422 {{c1::Sequence}} is an error in organ morphogene
sis that is defined as a <>series of anormalities resulting from a single prim
ary emryological event</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. oligohydramnios causes Potter
sequence.</i></div>
1405194129948 1395802358422 During which weeks of gestation do teratogens ha
ve an "<>all-or-none</>" effect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Before week 3}}</d
iv>
1405194547645 1395802358422 Which which weeks of gestation do teratogens onl
y affect <>growth and function</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 8}}</div>
1405194569378 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of ACE Inhiitor
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal damage}}</div>
1405194633580 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of alkylating ag
ents?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Digit aplasia; many other anormalities}}</div>
1405194651448 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Aminoglycosid
es?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VIII toxicity}}</div>
1405194660571 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Carampazepin
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural tue defect; Craniofacial defects; Fingerna
il hypoplasia; IUGR}}</div>
1405194682748 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Diethylstile
strol (DES)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vaginal clear cell adenocarcinoma; Conge
nital Mullerian anomalies}}</div>
1405194714115 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of folate antago
nists?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural tue defects}}</div>
1405194851042 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Lithium?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Estein anomaly}}</div> <r /><div><i>Involves an atrial
ized right ventricle.</i></div>
1405194872240 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Methimazole?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aplasia cutis congenita}}</div>

1405194879556 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Phenytoin?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal hydantoin syndrome}}</div>
<r /><div><i>In
volves <>microcephaly, dysmorphic craniofacial features, hypoplastic nails, hyp
oplastic distal phalanges, cardiac defects, IUGR</>&nsp;and <>intellectual di
saility</>.</i></div>
1405194936602 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Tetracyclines
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Discoloured teeth}}</div>
1405194941954 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Thalidomide?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phocomelia; Micromelia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.
e. lim defects</i></div>
1405194956886 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Valproic Acid
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural tue defects due to inhiition of maternal f
olate asorption}}</div>
1405194978814 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Warfarin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bone deformities; fetal hemorrhage; aortion; opthalmolo
gic anormalities}}</div>
1405195005246 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of alcohol?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal Alcohol Syndrome; Intellectual disaility}}</div>
1405195076581 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of cocaine?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Placental aruption; anormal fetal growth; aortion}}</d
iv>
1405195090284 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of nicotine or C
O (via smoking)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low irth weight; premature laour;
IUGR; ADHD}}</div>
1405195113597 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of either a lack
or excess of Iodine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital goiter; Cretinism}}<
/div>
1405195161309 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of Maternal Dia
etes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caudal regression syndrome; Congenital heart de
fects; Neural tue defects}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Caudal Regression Syndrome
involves <>anal atresia to sirenomelia</>.</i></div>
1405195198881 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of excess Vitami
n A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spontaneous aortion; Cleft palate; Cardiac ano
rmalities}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Extremely high risk for all 3</i></div>
1405195816470 1395802358422 Which is the teratogenic effect of X-rays?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Microcephaly; Intellectual Disaility}}</div>
1405195831089 1395802358422 Which facial anormalities are associated with F
etal Alcohol Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth philtrum; Thin Upper Li
p; Small Palperal Fissure; Hypertelorism}}</div>
1405195892553 1395802358422 {{c1::Dizygotic twins}} are a type of twins that
<>arise from 2 eggs</>&nsp;that are <>separately fertilized y 2 different
sperm</>.
<div><r /></div><i>Hence they will have 2 zygotes, 2 amniotic s
acs and 2 separate placentas.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-55228984460061.jpg"
/></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div>
1405199081659 1395802358422 Which type of twins is associated with <>2 sepa
rate amniotic sacs</>&nsp;and <>2 separate placentas</>?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Dizygotic twins}}</div> <r /><div><div><img src="paste-55228984460061.j
pg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></div>
1405199116169 1395802358422 {{c1::Monozygotic twins}} are a type of twins th
at arise from <>1 fertilized egg</>&nsp;and <>1 sperm</>&nsp;that <>split
s into 2 zygotes in early pregnancy</>.
<r /><div><i>The degree of sepa
ration etween the monozygotic twins depends on when the egg splits into 2 zygot
es.</i></div><div><i>The time of the split determines the numer of chorions and
the numer of amnions.</i></div><div><i><div><img src="paste-55228984460061.jpg
" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /> </div></i></div>
1405199351228 1395802358422 {{c1::Dichorionic diamniotic monozygotic twins}}
are a type of monozygotic twinning that occurs if the cleavage occurs etween <
<r /><div><div><img src="paste-55228984
>0-4 days</> of fertilization.
460061.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></div>
1405199537731 1395802358422 {{c1::Monochorionic diamniotic monozygotic twins

}} is a type of monozygotic twinning that occurs if the cleavage occurs <>4-8 d
ays</>&nsp;after fertilization.
<r /><div><div><img src="paste-55228984
460061.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></div>
1405199570954 1395802358422 {{c1::Monochorionic monoamniotic monozygotic twi
ns}} is a type of monozygotic twinning that occurs if the cleavage occurs <>8-1
2 days</>&nsp;after fertilization.
<r /><div><div><img src="paste-55228984
460061.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></div>
1405199607258 1395802358422 {{c1::Monochorionic monoamniotic conjoined twins
}} are a type of monozygotic twinning that occurs if the cleavage occurs <>afte
r 13 days</>&nsp;following fertilization.
<r /><div><div><img src="paste55228984460061.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-55241869361706.jpg" /></div></d
iv>
1405199866006 1395802358422 {{c1::Decidua Basalis}} is the <>maternal compo
nent</>&nsp;of the placenta that is derived from the <>endometrium</>.
<r /><div><i>Hence it is maternal lood that fills the lacunae.</i></div><div><
i><img src="paste-56672093471228.jpg" /></i></div>
1405199987066 1395802358422 Which fetal tissue group contriutes to the <>i
nner</>&nsp;later of chorionic villi?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytotrophola
st}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-56667798503932.jpg" /></div>
1405200119895 1395802358422 Which fetal tissue group contriutes to the <>o
uter</>&nsp;layer of the chorionic villi?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Syncytiot
ropholast}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-56667798503932.jpg" /></div>
1405200144824 1395802358422 {{c1::hCG}} is a hormone secreted y the syncyti
otropholast that stimulated the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone during th
e first trimester.
<r /><div><i>It is structurally similar to LH.</i></div
><div><i><img src="paste-56667798503932.jpg" /></i></div>
1405200192138 1395802358422 {{c1::Umilical arteries}} are the lood vessels
that <>return deoxygenated lood from the fetal internal iliac arteries to the
placenta</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-57320633532807.jpg" /></div>
1405201815263 1395802358422 {{c1::Umilical Vein}} is the lood vesse that <
>supplies oxygenated lood from the placenta to the fetus</>. <r /><div><i>It
drains into the IVC via the liver or via the ductus venosus.</i></div><div><i><
img src="paste-57316338565511.jpg" /></i></div>
1405201858770 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::urachus}} is a fetal structure th
at develops from the allantois that acts as a <>duct &nsp;etween the fetal l
adder and yolk sac</>.
1405201929545 1395802358422 {{c1::Patent Urachus}} is a congenital anomaly t
hat occurs due to a failure of the urachus to oliterate and presents with <>ur
ine discharge from the umilicus</>.
1405201990258 1395802358422 {{c1::Urachal Cyst}} is a congenital anomaly tha
t results from <>partial failure</>&nsp;of the urachus to oliterate and pres
ents as a <>fluid-filled davity lined with uroepithelium</>&nsp;etween the u
milicus and ladder. <r /><div><i>Can lead to infection and adenocarcinoma.<
/i></div>
1405202052062 1395802358422 {{c1::Vesicourachal Diverticulum}} is a congenit
al anomaly that results from failure of the urachus to oliterate and presents a
s an <>outpouching of the ladder</>.
1405202140734 1395802358422 In which week of gestation does the vitelline du
ct oliterate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::7th}}</div>
1405202321049 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitelline fistula}} is a congenital anomal
y that occurs due to failure of the vitelline duct to close and presents with <
>meconium discharge from the umilicus</>.
1405202349818 1395802358422 {{c1::Meckel Diverticulum}} is a congenital anom
aly that occurs due to <>partial</>&nsp;failure of the vitelline duct to oli
terate and presents with a patent vitelline duct portion attached to the ileum.
<r /><div><i>May have ectopic gastric mucosa or pancreatic tissue and hence can
yield <>melena, periumilical pain</>&nsp;or <>ulcers</>.</i></div>
1405203472835 1395802358422 What does the 1st aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Part of the Maxillary Artery}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-58660663329382.jpg" /></div>

1405203494100 1395802358422 What does the 2nd aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Stapedial Artery; Hyoid Artery}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203509487 1395802358422 What does the 3rd aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Common Carotid Artery; proximal portion of the Internal C
arotid Artery}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203539751 1395802358422 What does the 4th aortic arch develop into <>on
the left</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic Arch}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203562875 1395802358422 What does the 4th aortic arch develop into <>on
the right</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal part of the Right suclavian
artery}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203586945 1395802358422 What does the 5th aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::There is no 5th arch}}</div>
1405203602648 1395802358422 What does the 6th aortic arch develop into?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal portion of the pulmonary arteries and ductus art
eriosus}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-58656368362086.jpg" /></div>
1405203629465 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue layer gives rise to t
he ranchial clefts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ectoderm}}</div><div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-59292023521689.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>aka Branch
ial grooves</i></div>
1405203664747 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue layer gives rise to t
he ranchial <>arches</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm; neural crest}}<
/div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-59287728554393.jpg" /></div>
1405203681425 1395802358422 Which emryological tissue layer gives rise to t
he ranchial <>pouches</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endoderm}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-59287728554393.jpg" /></div>
1405203691537 1395802358422 Which ranchial cleft develops into the <>exter
nal auditory meatus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405203778779 1395802358422 Which ranchial cleft develops into temporary ce
rvical sinuses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2-4}}</div> <r /><div><i>They are o
literated y proliferation of the 2nd arch's mesenchyme.</i></div><div><i>Persi
stence of the cervical sinuses results in a <>ranchial cleft cyst within the l
ateral neck</>.</i></div>
1405203836849 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Meckel's Cart
ilage (mandile, malleus, incus, spheno-mandiular ligament)?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204285795 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the muscles o
f mastication?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <r /><div><i>Masseter;
medial and lateral pterygoids; temporalis.</i></div>
1405204314256 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the <>Tensor
Tympani</>&nsp;muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204335779 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the <>Tensor
Veli Palatini</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204374307 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to mylohyoid mus
cle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204386539 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to anterior ell
y of the digastric?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204404042 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the 1st 
ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<su>2</su>&nsp;(sensory); CN V<
su>3</su>&nsp;(motor)}}</div>
1405204428625 1395802358422 {{c1::Treacher Collins Syndrome}} is a congenita
l anomaly of the 1st ranchial arch that is due to <>failure of neural crest ce
lls to migrate</>&nsp;and presents with <>madiular hypoplasia</>&nsp;and <
>facial anormalities</>.
1405204465012 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch is associated with Treacher
Collins Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204483489 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch is associated with a Congen
ital Pharyngocutaneous Fistula?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204499419 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Reichert Cart

ilage (stapes; styloid process; lesser horn of the hyoid; stylohyoid ligament)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204539760 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the muscles o
f facial expression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204549067 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Stapedius mus
cle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204554793 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the Stylohoid
muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204565018 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Platysma musc
le?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204573676 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the elly of
the digastric muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204592492 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the 2nd 
ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII (facial nerve)}}</div>
1405204621241 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Pharyngocutaneous Fistula}} is
a congenital anomaly of the 2nd ranchial arch that presents with <>persistence
of the cleft and pouch</>&nsp;and <>susequent fistula etween the tonsillar
area and lateral neck</>.
1405204662404 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the greater h
orn of the hyoid one?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1405204672373 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to Stylopharynge
us muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1405204686606 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the 3rd 
ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div>
1405204710274 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the thyroid,
cricoid, arytenoid, corniculate and cuneiform cartilages?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::4-6}}</div>
1405205011179 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to <>pharyngeal
constrictors</>&nsp;and the <>cricothyroid</>&nsp;muscle?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1405205040180 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to the <>levato
r veli palatini</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1405205050057 1395802358422 Which ranchial arch gives rise to <>all intrin
sic muscles of the larynx except the cricothyroid</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::6th}}</div>
1405205070605 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the <>4t
h</>&nsp;ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superior laryngeal ranch
of CN X}}</div>
1405205100282 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the <>6t
h</>&nsp;ranchial arch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Recurrent laryngeal ranch
of CN X}}</div>
1405205142260 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the middle e
ar cavity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205773911 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the eustachi
an tue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-62504
659059030.jpg" /></div>
1405205783192 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to mastoid air
cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <r /><div><r /></div>
1405205792549 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the epitheli
al lining of the palatine tonsils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205810725 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the <>infer
ior parathyroids</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd (dorsal wing)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205835929 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the <>thymu
s</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd (ventral wing)}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205853619 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch gives rise to the <>super
ior parathyroids</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4th (dorsal wings)}}</div>

<r /><div><img src="paste-62500364091734.jpg" /></div>
1405205868504 1395802358422 Which ranchial pouch contriutes to the endoder
m-lined structures of the ear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405205950212 1395802358422 {{c1::DiGeorge syndrome}} is a 22q11 deletion sy
ndrome that involves <>aerrant development of the 3rd and 4th ranchial pouche
s</>. <r /><div><i>Therefore there is thymic and parathyroid aplasia.</i></di
v>
1405206012036 1395802358422 {{c1::Cleft lip}} is a congenital anomaly that i
s descried as <>failure of the fusion of the maxillary and medial nasal proces
ses</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-62947040690438.jpg" /></div>
1405206096479 1395802358422 {{c1::Cleft Palate}} is a congenital anomaly tha
t involves the failure of fusion of the <>two lateral palatine processes</>&n
sp;<u>or</u>&nsp;failure of fusion of the <>lateral palatine processes with th
e nasal septum or medial palatine process</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-63097364545849.jpg" /></div>
1405206287882 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
female internal genitalia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paramesonephric (Mullerian
) Duct}}</div> <r /><div><i>Develops into the fallopian tues, uterus, upper p
ortion of the vagina.</i></div><div><i>Defects can present as <>primary amenorr
hea</>&nsp;despite fully developed secondary characteristics (i.e. functional
ovaries).</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-63823214019232.jpg" /></i></div>
1405206493278 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
male internal genitalia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesonephric (Wolffian) Duct}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Develops into <>SEED. </>Does not give rise to the prost
ate.</i></div><div><i>- Seminal vesicles</i></div><div><i>- Epididymis</i></div>
<div><i>- Ejaculatory duct</i></div><div><i>- Ductus deferens</i></div><div><i><
img src="paste-63823214019232.jpg" /></i></div>
1405206556049 1395802358422 Which gene on the -chromosome produces <>testi
s-determining factor</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>SR</i>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-64587718197875.jpg" /></div>
1405206625264 1395802358422 {{c1::Mullerian Inhiitory Factor (MIF)}} is a p
rotein secreted y Sertoli cells that functions to suppress the development of t
he paramesonephric (Mullerian) duct.
<r /><div><i>Lack of MIF results in the
<>development of oth male and female internal genitalia</>&nsp;and <>male
external genitalia</>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-64583423230579.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1405206658945 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete Mullerian Inhi
itor Factor (MIF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</div>
1405206675137 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete androgens that
stimulate the development of the mesonephric (Wolffian) ducts?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Leydig Cells}}</div>
1405206710482 1395802358422 {{c1::Bicornuate uterus}} is a congenital genita
l anomaly that results from <>incomplete fusion of the paramesonephric ducts</
>.
<r /><div><i>Complete failure of fusions results in <>doule uterus an
d vagina</>.</i></div>
1405206775532 1395802358422 {{c1::5-alpha-reductase deficiency}} is an enzym
e deficiency that results in the <>inaility to convert testosterone into DHT</
>, therey yielding male internal genitalia ut <>amiguous external genitalia
until puerty</>.
<div><r /></div><i>The increase in testosterone at pue
rty results in masculization.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-64583423230579.jpg"
/></div>
1405208347086 1395802358422 What is the male equivalent to the clitoris?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Penis}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6538658211494
5.jpg" /></div>
1405208369079 1395802358422 What is the male equivalent to the vestiular u
ls?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Corpus cavernosum and spongiosum}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-65382287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208385752 1395802358422 What is the male equivalent to the Greater Vesti
ular Glands (Bartholin Glands)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bulourethral (Cowpe
r) glands}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-65382287147649.jpg" /></div>

1405208410695 1395802358422 What is the male holomog to the urethral and par
aurethral glands (glands of Skene)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prostate gland}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-65382287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208437361 1395802358422 What is the male homolog to the laia minora?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral shaft of the penis}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-65382287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208457256 1395802358422 What is the male homolog to the laia majora?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scrotum}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-65382
287147649.jpg" /></div>
1405208474780 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypospadias}} is a congenital penile anoma
ly that is descried as an <>inferiorly displaced opening of the urethra</>&n
sp;on the ventral side of the penis due to <>failure of the urethral folds to c
lose</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-65695819759730.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>More common that epispadias.</i></div><div><i>Must e fixed to pre
vent UTIs.</i></div>
1405208544910 1395802358422 {{c1::Epispadias}} is a congenital penile anomal
y that is descried as a <>superiorly displaced opening of the penile urethra</
>&nsp;on the dorsal surface of the penis due to <>faulty positioning of the g
enital tuercle</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-65781719105666.jpg" />
</div> <r /><div><i>Associated with <>exstrophy of the ladder</>.</i></div>
1405208631191 1395802358422 {{c1::Guernaculum}} is an emryological structu
re descried as a and of firous tissue that anchors the testes to the floor of
the scrotum.
1405208704099 1395802358422 What is the female remnant of the guernaculum?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian ligament; Round ligament of the uterus}}</div
>
1405208727771 1395802358422 What is the male remnant of the processus vagina
lis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tunica vaginalis}}</div>
1405208745519 1395802358422 What is the female remnant of the processus vagi
nalis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None; it is oliterated}}</div>
1405281810652 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage of the <>left</>&n
sp;ovary and testis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left gonadal vein --&gt; Left r
enal vein --&gt; IVC}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"The <>left</>&nsp;gonadal vein
takes the <>l</>ongest way."</i></div><div><i>The left spermatic vein enters
the left renal vein at a 90 degree angle, hence flow is less continuous on the l
eft than on the right.</i></div>
1405292830484 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage of the <>right</>&
nsp;ovary and testis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right gonadal vein --&gt; IVC}
}</div>
1405292857923 1395802358422 Which side of the ody is more commonly affected
y varicocele?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left testis}}</div>
1405292989858 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the ovaries?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1405293461001 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the testes?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1405293465481 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the distal vagina and vu
lva?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superficial inguinal nodes}}</div>
1405293479897 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the scrotum?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Superficial inguinal nodes}}</div>
1405293496834 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the proximal vagina and
uterus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oturator; External Iliac; Hypogastric}}</div
>
1405293578834 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the ovaries to the later
al pelvic wall?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infundiulopelvic ligament}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-69015829480013.jpg" /></div>
1405294160891 1395802358422 Which lood vessels are contained in the Infundi
ulopelvic ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian vessels}}</div> <div><r
/></div><i>Vessels must e ligated during oopherectomy to avoid leeding.</i><d
iv><i>Ureter courses retriperitoneally, close to the vessels. There is significa
nt risk of injury when ligating the vessels.<r /></i><div><img src="paste-69011

534512717.jpg" /></div></div>
1405294268946 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the cervix to the side w
all of the pelvis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cardinal ligament}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></div>
1405294404407 1395802358422 Which lood vessels are contained in the cardina
l ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uterine vessels}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
e ureter is at risk of injury during ligation of these vessels in hysterectomy.<
/i></div><div><i><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></i></div>
1405294429111 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the fundus of the uterus
to the laia majora?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Round ligament of the uterus}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Travels through the round inguinal canal aove the artery
of Sampson.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></i></div>
1405294536096 1395802358422 Which emryological structure gives rise to the
Roung Ligament of the Uterus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Guernaculum}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></div>
1405294558776 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the uterus, fallopian tu
es and ovaries to the side wall of the pelvis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Broad
ligament}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Composed of the <>mesosalpinx, meso
metrium</>&nsp;and <>mesovarium</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-6901153451
2717.jpg" /></div>
1405294595265 1395802358422 Which ligament connects the medial pole of the o
vary to the lateral aspect of the uterus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian Lig
ament}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-69011534512717.jpg" /></div>
1405296290287 1395802358422 Which emryological structure gives rise to the
Ovarian Ligament?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Guernaculum}}</div>
1405296304736 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the vagina?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Non-keratinized</u>&nsp;stratified squamous epith
elium}}</div>
1405296485791 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the <>ecto<
/>cervix?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Non-keratinized</u>&nsp;stratified squ
amous epithelium}}</div>
1405296538021 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the <>endo<
/>cervix?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple columnar epithelium}}</div>
1405296571886 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the transfor
mation zone of the cervix?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamocolumnar junction}}<
/div>
1405296614121 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the uterus?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple columnar epithelium with long tuular glands}}
</div>
1405296637205 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the fallopia
n tues?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Ciliated</u>&nsp;simple columnar epithel
ium with <u style="font-weight: old; ">peg</u>&nsp;cells}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Peg cells are secretory cells of the fallopian tue epithelium.</i></div>
1405296693483 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the outer su
rface of the ovary?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple cuoidal epithelium (germi
nal epithelium covering surface of the ovary)}}</div>
1405296731800 1395802358422 What is the pathway of sperm during ejaculation?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>StEVE</i>: Seminiferous tuules, epididymis, vas
deferens, ejaculatory ducts}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i><>StEVE</>: Semini
ferous tuules, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory ducts</i><r /><div><img s
rc="paste-71554155151887.jpg" /></div>
1405297977162 1395802358422 Which ranch of the ANS yields male&nsp;<>erec
tion</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parasympathetic}}</div>
<r /><div><i>vi
a the <>Pelvic Nerve</></i></div><div><i><><img src="paste-72344429134007.jpg
" /></></i></div>
1405298093455 1395802358422 Which ranch of the ANS causes male <>emission<
/>&nsp;(following erection)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sympathetic}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>via the <>Hypogastric Nerve</></i><r /><div><img src="pas
te-72348724101303.jpg" /></div>
1405298122265 1395802358422 Which nerve causes male ejaculation?<div><r /><

/div><div>{{c1::Pudendal nerve}}</div>
1405298331021 1395802358422 {{c1::Sildenafil}} and&nsp;{{c2::Vardenafil}} a
re drugs that inhiits cGMP reakdown and hence are used as treatment for erecti
le dysfunction.
1405298370115 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling pathway is associated
with male erection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-72344429134007.jp
g" />}}</div>
1405302611405 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted y Sertoli cells function
s to <>inhiit FSH</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiin}}</div>
1405302798883 1395802358422 {{c1::Androgen-inding protein}} is a protein se
creted y Sertoli cells that functions to maintain local levels of testosterone.
1405303192760 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes form the lood-testis
arrier?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Formed y tight junctions etween adjacent S
ertoli cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Functions to <>isolate gametes from autoi
mmune attaack</>.</i></div>
1405303258484 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes function to support an
d nourish developing spermatozoa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</di
v>
1405303281590 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes function to regulate s
permatogenesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</div>
1405303309026 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete Mullerian Inhi
iting Factor (MIF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</div>
1405303335104 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in temperature
affect sperm production and inhiin secretion via Sertoli cells?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Temperature increase is seen in va
ricocele and cryptorchidism.</i></div>
1405303386801 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Sertoli cells functions to conve
rt <>testosterone</>&nsp;and <>androstenedione</>&nsp;into <>estrogen</>
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
1405303837728 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete testosterone?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Leydig cells}}</div>
1405303869121 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in temperature
affect testosterone production y Leydig cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No ch
ange}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Temperature does not affect testosterone productio
n.</i></div>
1405303891116 1395802358422 Which form of estrogen is made y the ovaries?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::17-eta-estradiol}}</div>
1405304208565 1395802358422 Which form of estrogen is made y the placenta?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estriol}}</div>
1405304217159 1395802358422 Which form of estrogen is made y adipose tissue
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrone via aromatization}}</div>
1405304232174 1395802358422 What is the most potent form of Estrogen?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Estradiol &gt; estrone &gt; estriol}}</div>
1405304250875 1395802358422 What is the weakest form of Estrogen?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Estriol}}</div>
1405304258214 1395802358422 How does estrogen change myometrial excitaility
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304279556 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence prolactin secretion?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304311443 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence the production of st
eroid hormone-inding gloulin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304340167 1395802358422 How does estrogen influence HDL levels?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304349989 1395802358422 How does estrogen influence LDL levels?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405304361684 1395802358422 {{c1::Estriol}} is a form of estrogen that is us
ed as an indicator of fetal well-eing as it sees a 1000x fold increase in pregn
ancy.
1405304418222 1395802358422 Which cells of the follicle/ovary secrete estrog
en?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granulosa cells}}</div> <r /><div><i>Estro<>G<

/>en = <>G</>ranulosa cells</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-74702366179656.j
pg" /></i></div>
1405304460981 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Granulosa cells converts Androst
enedione into estrogens?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
1405304488996 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Theca cells converts Cholesterol
into Androstenedione?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmolase}}</div>
1405304513023 1395802358422 How does Progesterone influence myometrial excit
aility?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405306532541 1395802358422 {{c1::Progesterone}} is a hormone secreted y th
e corpus luteum and placenta that triggers the production of thick cervical mucu
s which prevents sperm from entering the uterus.
1405306573294 1395802358422 How does Progesterone influence ody temperature
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405306585065 1395802358422 How does Progesterone influence gonadotropin act
ivity (LH; FSH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405306611080 1395802358422 How does progesterone influence uterine smooth m
uscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405306635834 1395802358422 How does progesterone influence endometrial hype
rplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405306662206 1395802358422 {{c1::Progesterone}} is a hormone secreted y th
e corpus luteum and placenta that functions to <>maintain</>&nsp;pregnancy.
<r /><div><i><>Progest</>erone is <>pro-gest</>ation.</i></div>
1405306942418 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with prepuescence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I}}</div>
1405307331656 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with puarche (appearance of puic hair)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::II}}
</div>
1405307357332 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with thelarche (formation of the reast uds)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:II}}</div>
1405307374385 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with darkening and curling of the puic hair?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
III}}</div>
1405307421317 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with increase in penis size and length?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::III}}<
/div>
1405307432536 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with reast enlargement?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::III}}</div>
1405307440156 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with thickening of the penis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV}}</div>
1405307451011 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with darkening of the scrotal skin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV}}</div>
1405307459514 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with development of the glans of the penis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV
}}</div>
1405307466517 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with raised areolae?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV}}</div>
1405307474003 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with flattening of the areolae?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V}}</div>
1405307484943 1395802358422 Which Tanner stage of sexual development is asso
ciated with adulthood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V}}</div>
1405307489694 1395802358422 How long is the luteal (secretory) phase of mens
truation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::14 days}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Typically
stays constant.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-76038101009164.jpg" /></i></div
>
1405307610329 1395802358422 How long is the follicular (proliferative) phase
of the menstrual cycle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Variale}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-76033806041868.jpg" /></div>
1405307625608 1395802358422 Which sex hormone functions to <>stimulate</>&
nsp;endometrial production?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrogen}}</div>

<r /><div><img src="paste-76033806041868.jpg" /></div>
1405307721201 1395802358422 Which sex hormone functions to <>maintain </>t
he endometrium and <>support</>&nsp;implantation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Progesterone}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>Progest</>erone is <>pro-gest</>atio
n.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-76033806041868.jpg" /></i></div>
1405307755215 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in progesterone
level influence fertility?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405307772807 1395802358422 {{c1::Oligomenorrhea}} is a disorder of the mens
trual cycle that is defined as a cycle <>&gt; 35 days</>.
1405307805771 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymenorrhea}} is a disorder of the menst
rual cycle that is defined as a cycle <>&lt; 21 days</>.
1405307830941 1395802358422 How many days in the menstrual cycle is diagnost
ic of <>oligomenorrhea</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 35 days}}</div>
1405307848047 1395802358422 How many days in the menstrual cycle is diagnost
ic of <>polymenorrhea</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 21 days}}</div>
1405307876268 1395802358422 {{c1::Metrorrhagia}} is a disorder of the menstr
ual cycle descried as <>intermenstrual leeding</>&nsp;with <>frequent</>&
nsp;ut <>irregular</>&nsp;menstruation.
1405308107900 1395802358422 {{c1::Menorrhagia}} is a disorder of the menstru
al cycle that is descried as <>heavy menstrual leeding</>&nsp;of <>&gt; 80
mL</>&nsp;of lood loss or <>&gt; 7 days</>&nsp;of menses.
1405308155518 1395802358422 {{c1::Menometrorrhagia}} is a disorder of the me
nstrual cycle that is descried as <>heavy, irregular menstruation</>&nsp;at
<>irregular</>&nsp;intervals.
1405308183516 1395802358422 A surge of which gonadotropin is associated with
the triggering of ovulation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LH}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><img src="paste-77008763617647.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-760338
06041868.jpg" /></div>
1405308232216 1395802358422 In which phase of the cell cycle is meiosis I in
the primary oocyte arrested from fetal life to ovulation in puerty?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Prophase I}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7715479250614
1.jpg" /></div>
1405308466267 1395802358422 In which phase of the cell cycle is meiosis II o
f the secondary oocyte arrested from ovulation to fertilization?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Metaphase II}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-7715049753884
5.jpg" /></div>
1405308504898 1395802358422 How does estrogen influence the expression of Gn
RH receptors at the anterior pituitary?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>This enstrogen surge then stimulates an LH surge, therey
causing ovulation.</i></div>
1405308971628 1395802358422 {{c1::Mittelschmerz}} is a disorder of ovulation
that refers to the <>transient mid-cycle ovulatory pain</>&nsp;that is class
ically associated with peritoneal irritation. <r /><div><i>Can mimic appendic
itis.</i></div>
1405309016332 1395802358422 What is the most common site of <>fertilization
</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ampulla of the fallopian tue}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Typically within 1 day of ovulation.</i></div>
1405309250934 1395802358422 How many days after fertilization does implantat
ion occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::6 days}}</div>
1405309268791 1395802358422 Which fat solule vitamin is required in infants
that are exclusively fed reastmilk?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin D}}</di
v>
1405309690517 1395802358422 How does reastfeeding influence the risk of mat
ernal reast and ovarian cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405309721680 1395802358422 How does prolactin influence reproductive functi
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1405309848672 1395802358422 {{c1::hCG}} is a hormone secreted y the placent
a/corpus that functions to maintain the corpus luteum <>in the 1st trimester</
>&nsp;y acting like LH.
<r /><div><i>Otherwise there is a lack of lutea
l cell stimulation and aortion results.</i></div><div><i>In the 2nd and 3rd tri

mesters, the placenta synthesizes its own estriol and progesterone, resulting in
corpus luteum degeneration.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-78773995176237.jpg
" /></i></div>
1405310008420 1395802358422 Which hormone is used to detect pregnancy as it
appears early in the urine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::hCG}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>hCG is detectale in the lood 1 week after conception and after 2 w
eeks in the urine.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-78769700208941.jpg" /></div>
1405310145915 1395802358422 Which suunit of hCG is structurally identical t
o LH, FSH and TSH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::alpha}}</div>
1405310228997 1395802358422 Which suunit of hCG is unique and detected y p
regnancy tests?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::eta}}</div>
1405310248554 1395802358422 What is the average age of onset of menopause?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::51}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Earlier in smokers.</i></d
iv>
1405310483913 1395802358422 {{c1::Menopause}} is a hormonal disorder seen in
women that is descried as a <>decline in estrogen production due to age-linke
d decline in the numer of ovarian follicles</>.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-79925046411392.jpg" /></div>
1405310520081 1395802358422 Which form of estrogen is the predominant form i
n menopause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrone}}</div> <r /><div><i>Formed y
peripheral conversion of androgens.</i></div><div><i>Increased androgens = hirsu
tism.</i></div>
1405310597503 1395802358422 How do FSH levels change in menopause?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Significant increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>In fact, this incr
ease is specific for menopause as there is a <>loss of negative feedack on FSH
due to a decrease in estrogen</>.</i></div>
1405310639116 1395802358422 How do LH levels change in menopause?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405310656174 1395802358422 How do GnRH levels change in menopause?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405310702001 1395802358422 Before which age does the onset of menopause lik
ely indicate Premature Ovarian Failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40}}</div>
1405310903925 1395802358422 How long does spermatogenesis take?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::2 months}}</div>
1405311234921 1395802358422 {{c1::Spermatozoa}} are <>mature</>&nsp;sperm
that are ale to fertilize an egg.
<r /><div><i>Spermato<>zoon</>&nsp;<
>zoom</>&nsp;to eggs.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-80118319940200.jpg" />
</i></div>
1405311299206 1395802358422 {{c1::Spermatogonia}} are sperm that have yet to
develop/mature.
<r /><div><i>Spermato<>gonia</>&nsp;are <>going</>
&nsp;to ecome mature.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-80114024972904.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1405311332467 1395802358422 {{c1::Sper<u>mio</u>genesis}} is the process thr
ough which spermatids lose their cytoplasmic contents, gain an acrosomal cap and
form mature spermatozoon.
<r /><div><img src="paste-80114024972904.jpg" /
></div>
1405311492528 1395802358422 {{c1::Androstenedione}} is an androgen made prim
arily at the adrenals.
1405311773256 1395802358422 What is the most potent androgen?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::DHT &gt; testosterone &gt; androstenedione}}</div>
1405311790316 1395802358422 What is the least potent androgen?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Androstenedione}}</div>
1405311805452 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with the differenti
ation of the epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles and genitalia (except th
e prostate)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone}}</div>
1405311914276 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with the growth spu
rt in the penis, sperm, muscle and RBCs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone
}}</div>
1405311936185 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with deepening of t
he voice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone}}</div>

1405311945912 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with closing of the
epiphyseal plates?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone (via estrogen after
conversion)}}</div>
1405311972283 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with liido?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone}}</div>
1405311984727 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with <>differentia
tion</>&nsp;of the penis, scrotum and prostate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DHT
}}</div>
1405312007606 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with prostate growt
h?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DHT}}</div>
1405312014465 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with alding?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::DHT}}</div>
1405312018679 1395802358422 Which androgen is associated with seaceous glan
d activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DHT}}</div>
1405312029602 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts testosterone to DHT?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::5-alpha-reductase}}</div>
1405312045717 1395802358422 {{c1::Finasteride}} is an anti-hormone agent tha
t inhiits 5-alpha-reductase.
1405312065213 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Finasteride?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhiition of 5-alpha-reductase}}</div>
1405312074789 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to convert androgens into
estrogens in males?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Primarily in adipose tissue and the testes.</i></div>
1405312142668 1395802358422 How do exogenous testosterones influence the siz
e of testicles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Ex
ogenous testosterone inhiits the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, therey d
ecreased intratesticular testosterone and ultimately causing a reduction in oth
testicular size and spermatogenesis.</i></div>
1402168772948 1395802358422 {{c1::Peptidoglycan}} is a acterial structure t
hat gives ripid support to the acteria and protects against osmostic pressure.
<r /><div><img src="paste-18824841658880.jpg" /></div>
1402169985256 1395802358422 {{c1::Cell wall/memrane}} is a acterial struct
ure seen in <>gram-positive</>&nsp;acteria that functions as the major surfa
ce antigen.
<r /><div><img src="paste-18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402170021178 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipoteichoic Acid}} is a component of the
cell wall/memrane of <>gram-positive</>&nsp;acteria that induces TNF and IL
-1.
<r /><div><img src="paste-18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402170192781 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::outer memrane}} is a acterial s
tructure seen in <>gram-negative</>&nsp;acteria that is the site of endotoxi
n (lipopolysaccharide; LPS).
<r /><div><img src="paste-18820546691584.jpg" /
></div>
1402170231877 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::outer memrane}} is a acterial s
tructure in <>gram-negative</>&nsp;acteria that functions as the major surfa
ce antigen.
<r /><div><img src="paste-18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402170250338 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipid A}} is a component of the outer mem
rane in <>gram-negative</>&nsp;acteria that induces TNF and IL-1. <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402170293953 1395802358422 {{c1::O polysaccharide}} is a component of the o
uter memrane of <>gram-negative</>&nsp;acteria that functions as the surfac
e antigen.
<r /><div><img src="paste-18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402170335667 1395802358422 Which riosomal suunits make up acterial rios
omes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::30S; 50S}}</div>
1402171292092 1395802358422 The {{c1::periplasm}} is a acterial structure t
hat is descried as the space etween the cytoplasmic memrane and the other mem
<div><r /></div><i>Many hydroly
rane in <>gram-negative</>&nsp;acteria.
tic enzymes are found here, especially eta-lactamase.</i><r /><div><img src="p
aste-18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402171353900 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::capsule}} is a acterial structur
e external to peptidoglycan that protects the acteria from phagocytosis.
<r /><div><img src="paste-18820546691584.jpg" /></div>

1402171468077 1395802358422 The acterial capsule is normally made of polysa
ccharides, except in&nsp;{{c1::<i>Bacillus anthracis</i>}} whose capsule contai
ns D-glutamate.
1402171506190 1395802358422 Which amino acid is a key component of the acte
rial capsule in <i>Bacillus anthracis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D-glutamat
e}}</div>
1402171526417 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::pilus/fimria}} is a acterial st
ructure that functions to mediate the adherence of the acteria to cell surfaces
.
<r /><div><img src="paste-18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402172216575 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::pilus}} is a acterial structure
that forms an attachment etween 2 acteria during conjugation. <r /><div><img
src="paste-18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402172235744 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::glycocalyx}} is a acterial struc
ture consisting of polysaccharides that mediates adherence to surfaces, especial
ly foreign surfaces
<i><div></div></i><i><r /></i>Such as indwelling cathet
ers.
1402172315718 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::spore}} is a acterial structure
that is resistance to dehydration, heat and chemicals due to its keratin-like co
at and composition of peptidoglycan and dipicolinic acid.
1402172371311 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipoteichoic Acid}} is a component of the
acteral cell wall that is descried as a comination of lipids and teichoic aci
d.
<div><r /></div><i><>Unique to gram-positive</>&nsp;acteria.</i><r
/><div><img src="paste-18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402172441531 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Staphylococcus</i>?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173770131 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Streptococcus</i>?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173776778 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Clostridium</i>?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173785195 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Coryneacterium</i>
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173794129 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Bacillus</i>?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173800127 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Listeria</i>?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173806778 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Mycoacterium</i>?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive; also acid fast}}</div>
1402173817142 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Gardnerella</i>?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Variale}}</div>
1402173824237 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Actinomyces</i>?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive; also filamentous}}</div>
1402173877553 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Nocardia</i>?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive; also weakly acid fast}}</div>
1402173888408 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Mycoplasma</i>?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::None; it doesn't stain as it lacks a cell wall}}</div>
1402173905774 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Neisseria</i>?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div> <r /><div><i>Neisseria is also asicall
y the only clinically relevant gram-negative <>coccus</>.</i></div>
1402173993961 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Escherichia coli</i
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174006464 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Shigella</i>?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div> <div><i><r /></i></div>
1402174016838 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of the Enteric acteria?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174029401 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Salmonella</i>?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174037055 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>ersinia</i>?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174042162 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Klesiella</i>?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>

1402174047882 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Proteus</i>?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174054743 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Enteroacter</i>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174067366 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Serratia</i>?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174073541 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Virio</i>?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174078026 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Campyloacter</i>?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174087282 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Helicoacter</i>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174096558 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Pseudomonas</i>?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174102130 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Bacteroides</i>?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174109313 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Haemophilus</i>?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174120219 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Legionella</i>?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174127053 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Bordetella</i>?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174132880 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of the Zoonotic acteria?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174142112 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Francisella</i>?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174178686 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Brucella</i>?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174183830 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Pasteurella</i>?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174191153 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Bartonella</i>?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174196783 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of the Spirochetes?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div> <r /><div><i>Borrelia, Leptospira, Trep
onema</i></div>
1402174232195 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Borrelia</i>?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174240659 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Leptospira</i>?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174248064 1395802358422 What is the gram stain of <i>Treponema</i>?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1402174257516 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoplasma spp.</i>}} is a acterial sp
ecies that contains sterols in their cell memrane.
1402174904523 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoacteria</i>}} is a acterial speci
es that contains <>mycolic acid</>&nsp;in its cell wall.
1402174930840 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Treponema</i>< style="font-style
: italic; ">&nsp;</>gram stain well?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Too thin to e
visualized}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Treponemes require dark-field microscopy a
nd fluorescent antiody staining.</i></div>
1402175557494 1395802358422 Why dont Mycoacteria gram stain well?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Rich lipid content in cell wall}}</div>
<r /><div><i>De
tected y <>Carolfuschin in an acid-fast stain</>.</i></div>
1402175604132 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Mycoplasma</i>&nsp;gram stain we
ll?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No cell wall}}</div>
1402175618870 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Legionella pneunophila</i>&nsp;g
ram stain well?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primarily intracellular organism}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Legionella requires a silver stain.</i></div>
1402175654023 1395802358422 What type of stain is used to visualize <i>Legio
nella</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Silver stain}}</div>
1402175671704 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Rickettsia</i>&nsp;gram stain ce

ll?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intracellular parasite}}</div>
1402175764388 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Chlamydia</i>&nsp;gram stain wel
l?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intacellular; <>lacks muramic acid</>&nsp;in th
e cell wall}}</div>
1402175838315 1395802358422 Which stain is used to est visualize <i>Chlamyd
ia</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa stain}}</div> <div><r /></div><img sr
c="paste-23106924052545.jpg" />
1402176460130 1395802358422 Which stain is used to est visualize <i>Borreli
a</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-23106924052545.jpg" /></div>
1402176473561 1395802358422 Which stain is est used to visualize<i>&nsp;</
i>Rickettsiae?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-23106924052545.jpg" /></div>
1402176494851 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize Trypanosomes?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-23106
924052545.jpg" /></div>
1402176519075 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>Plasmodium</
i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Giemsa}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-23106
924052545.jpg" /></div>
1402176532694 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::PAS (Periodic-acid Schiff) stain}
} is a diagnostic stain that stains for <>glycogen</>&nsp;and mucopolysacchar
ides. <r /><div><i><>PAS</>s the <>sugar</>&nsp;(glycogen).</i></div>
1402176592476 1395802358422 Which stain is used to diagnose Whipple Disease
(<i>Tropheryma whipplei</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PAS stain}}</div>
1402176630985 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>Tropheryma w
hipplei</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PAS stain}}</div>
1402176649533 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize acid-fast organ
isms (<i>Mycoacterium, Nocardia</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ziehl-Neelsen
(carol fuschin) stain}}</div>
1402176691861 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>Cryptococcus
neoformans</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::India ink}}</div> <r /><div><i>Mu
cicarmine can also e used to stain think polysaccharide capsule red.</i></div>
1402176732162 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>Helicoacter
pylori</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Silver stain}}</div>
1402176747181 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize fungi (e.g. <i>
Pneumocystis</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Silver stain}}</div>
1402176772054 1395802358422 Which stain is used to visualize <i>Legionella</
i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Silver stain}}</div>
1402176794486 1395802358422 Which special culture media/agar is used to isol
ate <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chocolate agars wi
th Factors V (NAD) and X (Heme)}}</div>
1402177515133 1395802358422 Which special culture media/agar is used to isol
ate <i>Neisseria gonorrhoeae</i>&nsp;or <i>Neisseria meningitidis</i>?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Thayer-Martin (VTCN) media}}</div> <r /><div><i>Very Typic
al Cultures Neisseria:</i></div><div><i>V = Vancomycin which inhiits gram-posit
ive organisms</i></div><div><i>T and C = Trimethoprim and Colistin which inhiit
s gram-negative organisms except for Neisseria</i></div><div><i>N = Nystatin whi
ch inhiits fungi</i></div>
1402177650176 1395802358422 {{c1::Vancomycin}} is an antiiotic that is used
in Thayer-Martin (VTCN) media as it inhiits gram-positive orgnanisms.
1402177678285 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimethoprim and Colistin}} are antiiotic
s used in Thayer-Martin (VTCN) media that inhiits gram-negative organisms excep
t for <i>Neisseria</i>.
1402177702503 1395802358422 {{c1::Nystatin}} is an antifungal used in Thayer
-Martin (VTCN) media that inhiits fungi.
1402177750037 1395802358422 Which special culture media/agar is used to isol
ate <i>Bordetella pertussis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bordet-Gengou (potat
o) agar}}</div> <r /><div><i><>BORDET</>ella.</i></div>
1402177785061 1395802358422 Which special culture media/agar is used to isol
ate <i>Coryneacterium diphtheriae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tellurite aga

r; Loffler medium}}</div>
1402177808321 1395802358422 Which special culture media/agar is used to isol
ate <i>Mycoacterium tuerculosis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lowenstein-Jen
sen agar}}</div>
1402177860492 1395802358422 Which special culture media/agar is used to isol
ate <i>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Eaton agar (as <i>M
ycoplasma&nsp;</i>requires cholesterol)}}</div>
1402177894467 1395802358422 Which special culture media/agar is used to isol
ate Lactose-fermenting enteric acteria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MacConkey Ag
ar}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Growth will appear as pink colonies as lactose fer
mentation causes acidity, therey turning the colony pink.</i></div>
1402177955539 1395802358422 Which special culture media/agar other than MacC
onkey agar is used to isolate <i>Escherichia coli</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Eosin-Methylene Blue (EMB) as a <u>green-metallic sheen</u>}}</div>
1402178003386 1395802358422 Which special culture media/agar is used to isol
ate <i>Legionella</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Charcoal yeast agar (uffered
with cysteine and iron)}}</div>
1402178193265 1395802358422 Which special culture media/agar is used to isol
ate&nsp;fungi?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Saouraud agar}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i><>Sa</>&nsp;is a <>fun-guy</>!</i></div>
1402332226256 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Nocardia</i>
&nsp;<i>spp.</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligate aeroe}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-579820585086.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-592705486895.j
pg" /></div>
1402333336345 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Pseudomonas
aeruginosa</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligate aeroe}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><div><img src="paste-579820585086.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-592705486
895.jpg" /></div></div>
1402333378017 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Mycoacteriu
m tuerculosis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligate aeroe}}</div> <r /><d
iv><div><img src="paste-579820585086.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-592705486
895.jpg" /></div></div>
1402333396116 1395802358422 Where in the lungs does <i>Mycoacterium tuercu
losis </i>reactivate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The lung apices due to high P<s
u>O2</su>&nsp;levels}}</div> <r /><div><i>Reactivation typically occurs afte
r immune compromise or TNF-alpha inhiitor use.</i></div>
1402333708217 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>}} is a gramnegative oligate aeroe that is often seen in urn wounds.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-1670742278313.jpg" /></div>
1402343309593 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>}} is a gramnegative oligate aeroe that is often seen as a complication in diaetes.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311017.jpg" /></div>
1402343335968 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>}} is a gramnegative oligate aeroe that often causes nocosomial pneumonia.
1402343358391 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>}} is a gramnegative oligate aeroe that is often associated with pneumonia in Cystic Firo
sis patients. <r /><div><img src="paste-1666447311017.jpg" /></div>
1402343381461 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Clostridium<
/i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligate anaeroe}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><img src="paste-1971389988896.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-1984274890974.jpg" />
</div>
1402343491814 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Bacteroides<
/i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligate anaeroe}}</div>
<r /><div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-1971389988896.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-1984274890
974.jpg" /></div></div>
1402343508003 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Actinomyces<
/i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligate aneroe}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-1971389988896.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-1984274890974.jp
g" /></div></div>
1402343536706 1395802358422 {{c1::Catalase}} and/or&nsp;{{c2::Superoxide di

smutase}} are enzymes involved with the detoxification of ROS that are often <>
asent</>&nsp;in oligate anaeroes. <div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19
71389988896.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-1984274890974.jpg" /></div></div>
1402343617358 1395802358422 Which 2 gases are often produced in tissue y o
ligate anaeroic acteria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CO2; H2}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-1971389988896.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-1984274890974.jpg"
/></div></div>
1402343664468 1395802358422 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} are a class of antiioti
cs that are <>ineffective against anaeroic acteria</>&nsp;as they require O
<su>2</su>&nsp;to enter acterial cells.
<r /><div><i>Amin<>O</><su s
tyle="font-weight: old; ">2</su>glycosides require <>O</><su style="font-we
ight: old; ">2</su>&nsp;to enter acteria.</i></div>
1402344288287 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Rickettsia spp.</i>}} and&nsp;{{c2::<i
>Chlamydia spp.</i>}} are <>oligate intracellular</>, pleomorphic, gram-negat
ive acteria that cannot make their own ATP.
<r /><div><img src="paste-24524
26326172.jpg" /></div>
1402347084540 1395802358422 What is the First Aid mnemonic for <>facultativ
e intracellular</>&nsp;acteria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-27
18714298532.jpg" />}}</div>
<r /><div><r /></div>
1402347087961 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}} and&nsp
;{{c2::Group B <i>Streptococcus </i>(<i>Streptococcus agalactiae</i>)}} are 2 sp
ecies of <i>Streptococcus</i>&nsp;that are encapsulated.
<div><r /></div
><img src="paste-2911987826721.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-2899102924926.j
pg" /></div>
1402347655665 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nsp;type B}
} is a species of <i>Haemophilus</i>&nsp;that is encapsulated. <r /><div><img
src="paste-2911987826721.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-2899102924926.jpg" />
</div></div>
1402347679561 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisseria meningitidis</i>}} is a speci
es of <i>Neisseria</i>&nsp;that is encapsulated.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-2911987826721.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-2899102924926.jpg" /></div></
div>
1402347707244 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}} is a species of
<i>Escherichia</i>&nsp;that is encapsulated. <r /><div><img src="paste-29119
87826721.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-2899102924926.jpg" /></div></div>
1402347826775 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Klesiella pneumoniae</i>}} is a specie
s of <i>Klesiella</i>&nsp;that is encapsulated.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-2911987826721.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-2899102924926.jpg" /></div></
div>
1402347845933 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::capsule}} is a acterial structur
e that functions as an anti-phagocytic virulence factors.
1402347877791 1395802358422 Which organ is responsile for clearing opsonize
d encapsulated acteria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spleen}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence, aplenics have decreased opsonizing and clearing aility, therey gi
ving them a significantly increased risk for severe infection. Such patients sho
uld receive S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae and N. meningitidis vaccinations.</i></
div>
1402347997872 1395802358422 {{c1::Catalase}} is an enzyme found in many act
eria that degrades H<su>2</su>O<su>2</su>&nsp;efore it can e made into an
timicroial products y Myeloperoxidase.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Myeloper
oxidase in phagocytes makes HOCl from H2O2.</i></div>
1402349330844 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Granulomatous Disease}} is an immu
ne disorder that involves a deficiency of NADPH Oxidase and susequent recurrent
infections with catalase-positive organisms. <r /><div><img src="paste-37666
86318661.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-3779571220525.jpg" /></div>
1402349542264 1395802358422 What is the catalase expression of <i>Pseudomona
s</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<r /><div><div><img src
="paste-3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-3779571220525.jpg" /></d
iv></div>
1402349557832 1395802358422 What is the catalase expression of <i>Listeria</

i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <r /><div><div><img src="paste3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-3779571220525.jpg" /></div></div
>
1402349567633 1395802358422 What is the catalase expression of <i>Aspergillu
s</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<r /><div><div><img src
="paste-3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-3779571220525.jpg" /></d
iv></div>
1402349580052 1395802358422 What is the catalase expression of <i>Candida</i
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <r /><div><div><img src="paste3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-3779571220525.jpg" /></div></div
>
1402349588984 1395802358422 What is the catalase expression of <i>Escherichi
a coli</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <r /><div><div><img src
="paste-3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-3779571220525.jpg" /></d
iv></div>
1402349603442 1395802358422 What is the catalase expression of <i>Staphyloco
ccus spp.</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<r /><div><div>
<img src="paste-3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-3779571220525.jp
g" /></div></div>
1402349622197 1395802358422 What is the catalase expression of <i>Serratia</
i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402349631858 1395802358422 What is the catalase expresison of <i>Neisseria<
/i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>"Staph<
/>'s <>N</>' <>Enteroacteria</>&nsp;<>A</>re <>List</>ed <>C</>atal
ase <>P</>ositive"</i></div><div><i>Staphylococcus</i></div><div><i>Neisseria<
/i></div><div><i>Enteroacteria</i></div><div><i>Aspergillus</i></div><div><i>Li
steria</i></div><div><i>Candida</i></div><div><i>Pseudmonas</i></div><div><i>(an
d MTB)</i></div>
1402349703816 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::conjugate vaccine}} is a type of va
ccine that contains polysaccharide acterial capsule antigens conjugated to a ca
rrier protein, therey enhancing its immunogenicity y promoting T-cell activati
on and class switching. <r /><div><i>A polysaccharide antigen alone cannot e p
resented to T-cells.</i></div><div><i>Such vaccines exist for Pnemococcus, Menin
gococcus and H. influenzae type B.</i></div>
1402351906729 1395802358422 What is the urease expression of <i>Cryptococcus
</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-4569845203063.jpg" /></div>
1402352669308 1395802358422 What is the urease expression of <i>Helicoacter
pylori</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352685232 1395802358422 What is the urease expression of <i>Proteus</i>?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-45655
50235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352694298 1395802358422 What is the urease expression of <i>Ureaplasma s
pp</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352707385 1395802358422 What is the urease expression of <i>Nocardia spp
</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352717906 1395802358422 What is the urease expression of <i>Klesiella s
pp.</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352728938 1395802358422 What is the urease expression of <i>Staphylococc
us epidermidis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402352742276 1395802358422 What is the urease expression of <i>Staphylococc
us saprophyticus</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352758008 1395802358422 What colour pigment is associated with <i>Staphy
lococcus aureus</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ellow}}</div> <r /><div><i>Au
reus is latin for gold.</i></div>

1402352820920 1395802358422 What colour pigment is associated with <i>Pseudo
monas aeruginosa</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blue-green}}</div>
1402352852109 1395802358422 What colour pigment is associated with <i>Serrat
ia marcescens</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Red}}</div>
1402352877134 1395802358422 What colour pigment is associated with <i>Actino
mycess israelii</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ellow "sulfur" granules compose
d of filaments of acteria}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Israel has yellow sand.</i
></div>
1402352995706 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces israelii</i>}} is a gram-po
sitive, anaeroic, filamentous acteria that yields a <>yellow "sulfur" granula
r pigment</>&nsp;composed of filaments of acteria.
1402353078926 1395802358422 {{c1::Protein A}} is a virulence factor expresse
d y <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;that <>inds to the F<su>c</su>&nsp;r
egion of IgG</>&nsp;therey preventing opsonization and phagocytosis.<>&nsp;
</>
1402353650255 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA Protease}} is a acterial virulence fa
ctor that functions to cleave IgA, therey allowing for colonization of the resp
iratory mucosa. <r /><div><img src="paste-5299989643301.jpg" /></div>
1402353710712 1395802358422 {{c1::M Protein}} is a virulence factor expresse
d y Group A <i>Streptococcus</i>&nsp;(<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>)&nsp;spec
ies that functions to prevent phagocytosis.
1402405792394 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin}} is a virulence factor found in
the <>outer cell memrane</>&nsp;of most <>gram-negative</>&nsp;acteria.
1402410456174 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin}} is a virulence factor found in
<>gram-negative</>&nsp;acteria made of&nsp;<>lipopolysaccharide (LPS)</>
, the structural part of acteria.
<r /><div><i>It is released when the a
cteria is lysed.</i></div>
1402410541171 1395802358422 What is the toxicity of acterial exotoxins?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::High; fatal doses are on the order of 1 ug}}</div>
1402412496200 1395802358422 What is the toxicity of acterial endotoxins?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low; fatal doses are on the order of hundreds of microg
rams}}</div>
1402412517452 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin}} is a virulence factor found in
the outer cell memrane of gram-negative acteria that <>induces TNF, IL-1 </
>and<> IL-6.</>
<r /><div><i>It also causes fever, shock, DIC.</i></div
>
1402412580738 1395802358422 {{c1::Exotoxins}} are secreted virulence factors
from acteria that induce a high-titer antiody response called antitoxins.
<div><r /></div><i>Toxoids can hence e used as vaccines.</i><r /><div><i>Endo
toxin on the other hand is poorly antigenic and no toxoids/vaccines are availal
e.</i></div>
1402412686790 1395802358422 At which temperature do most exotoxins get destr
oyed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::60 C}}</div> <r /><div><i>The exception is s
taphylococcal enterotoxins.</i></div><div><i>Endotoxins are stale at 100 C for
1 hour.</i></div>
1402413735630 1395802358422 {{c1::Diphtheria toxin}} is an exotoxin from <i>
Coryneacterium diphtheriae</i>&nsp;that inactivates elongation factor 2 (EF2),
therey inhiiting protein synthesis.
1402414258300 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Diphtheria Toxin from <i>Cory
neacterium diphtheriae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivation of elongati
on factor 2 (EF2) via <>ADP riosylation</>, therey inhiiting protein synthe
sis}}</div>
1402414335997 1395802358422 {{c1::Diptheria Toxin}} is an exotoxin from <i>C
oryneacterium diphtheriae</i>&nsp;that causes <>pharyngitis</>&nsp;with <>
pseudomemranes in the throat</>&nsp;and <>severe lymphadenopathy</>&nsp;("
ull neck").
1402414406806 1395802358422 {{c1::Exotoxin A}} is an exotoxin from <i>Pseudo
monas aeruginosa</i>&nsp;that inactivated elongation factor 2 (EF2) through ADP
riosylation, therey inhiiting protein synthesis and causing cell death.
1402414446987 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Exotoxin A from <i>Pseudomona

s aeruginosa</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivation of elongation factor 2
(EF2) via ADP riosylation, therey inhiiting protein synthesis and causing ce
ll death}}</div>
1402414488645 1395802358422 {{c1::Shiga Toxin (ST)}} is an exotoxin from <i>
Shigella spp.</i>&nsp;that inactivates the 60S riosomal suunit y removing ad
enine from rRNA.
<r /><div><i>Therey causes GI mucosal damage, dysenter
y and possily hemolytic uremia syndrome (HUS).</i></div>
1402415821176 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Shiga Toxin (ST) from <i>Shig
ella spp.</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivation of the 60S riosome y re
moving adenine from rRNA}}</div>
1402415850406 1395802358422 {{c1::Shiga Toxin (ST)}} is an exotoxin from <i>
Shigella spp.</i>&nsp;that causes GI mucosal damage and susequent <>dysentery
</>due to inactivation of the 60S riosome.
1402415887965 1395802358422 {{c1::Shiga Toxin (ST)}} is an exotoxin from <i>
Shigella spp.</i>&nsp;that can enhance cytokine release, therey causing Hemoly
tic Uremia Syndrome (HUS).
1402415921334 1395802358422 {{c1::Shiga-like Toxin (SLT)}} is an exotoxin fr
om Enterohemorrhagic <i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;(EHEC) that inactivates the 60
S riosome y removing adenine from rRNA.
<r /><div><i>Includes the O157:
H7 strain.</i></div>
1402416008097 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Shiga-like Toxin (SLT) from&n
sp;Enterohemorrhagic&nsp;<i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;(EHEC)?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inactivation of the 60S riosomal suunit y remocing adenine from rR
NA}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Results in enhanced cytokine release and Hemolytic
Uremia Syndrome (HUS).</i></div>
1402416054795 1395802358422 {{c1::Shiga-like Toxin (SLT)}} is an exotoxin fr
om&nsp;Enterohemorrhagic&nsp;<i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;(EHEC) that can caus
e Hemolytic Uremia Syndrome (HUS) y enhancing cytokine release.
<r /><d
iv><i>Especially the O157:H7 strain.</i></div><div><i><>EHEC does not invade ho
st cells like Shigella.</></i></div>
1402416127072 1395802358422 {{c1::Heat-laile toxin (LT)}} is an exotoxin fr
om Enterotoxigenic <i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;(ETEC) that overactivates adenyl
ate cyclase, therey causing increased Cl secretion and H2O efflux at the gut.
<div><r /></div><i>Increased cAMP = increased Cl secretion and H2O efflux = wat
ery diarrhea</i><r /><div><img src="paste-8662949036137.jpg" /></div>
1402416857407 1395802358422 {{c1::Heat-stale Toxin (ST)}} is an exotoxin fr
om Enterotoxigenic <i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;(ETEC) that overactivates Guanyl
ate cyclase, therey <>decreasing</>&nsp;NaCl and H2O resorption at the gut.
<div><r /></div><i>Increased cGMP = decreased NaCl and H2O resorption = watery
diarrhea</i><r /><div><img src="paste-8658654068841.jpg" /></div>
1402416975554 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Heat-<>laile</>&nsp;Toxin
from Enterotoxigenic <i>Escherichia coli </i>(ETEC)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Overactivation of adenylate cyclase, therey increasing cAMP levels and increas
ing Cl secretion and H2O efflux in the gut}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-8658654068841.jpg" /></div>
1402417045996 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Heat-<>stale</>&nsp;Toxin
from Enterotoxigenic <i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;(ETEC)?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Overactivation of Guanylate cyclase, therey causing increased cGMP levels
and a <>decrease</>&nsp;in NaCl and H2O resorption at the gut}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8658654068841.jpg" /></div>
1402417106874 1395802358422 {{c1::Heat-<>laile</>&nsp;toxin}} and&nsp;{
{c2::Heat-<>stale </>toxin}} are 2 exotoxins from Enterotoxigenic <i>Escheric
hia coli</i>&nsp;(ETEC) that can cause watery diarrhea y increasing fluid secr
etion at the GI epithelium.
1402417490502 1395802358422 {{c1::Edema Factor}} is an exotoxin from <i>Baci
llus anthracis</i>&nsp;that mimics Adenylate Cyclase, therey increasing cAMP l
evels.
1402417553807 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Edema Factor toxin from <i>Ba
cillus anthracis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mimicry of Adenylate Cyclase, t
herey increasing cAMP levels}}</div>

1402417601645 1395802358422 {{c1::Edema Factor toxin}} is an exotoxin from <
i>Bacillus anthracis</i>&nsp;that is likely responsile for the characteristic
edematous orders of lack eschars seen in cutaneous anthrax.
1402417635906 1395802358422 {{c1::Cholera Toxin}} is an exotoxin from <i>Vi
rio cholerae</i>&nsp;that overactivates Adenylate Cyclase through permanent act
ivation of the G<su>s</su>&nsp;suunit via ADP riosylation, therey increasi
ng Cl secretion and H2O efflux at the gut.
<r /><div><i>ields "rice-water
" diarrhea.</i></div>
1402417716210 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Cholera Toxin from <i>Virio
cholerae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Overactivation of Adenylate Cyclase y
permanently activating the G<su>s</su>&nsp;suunit via ADP riosylation}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>This therey causes an increase in Cl secretion and H2O ef
fluc at the gut.</i></div>
1402417771627 1395802358422 {{c1::Cholera Toxin}} is an exotoxin from <i>Vi
rio cholerae</i>&nsp;that causes voluminous <>"rice-water" diarrhea</>&nsp;d
ue to overactivation of adenylate cyclase through permanent activation of the G<
su>s</su>&nsp;suunit.
1402417815559 1395802358422 {{c1::Pertussis Toxin}} is an exotoxin from <i>B
ordetella pertussis</i>&nsp;that overactivates adenylate cyclase y disaling t
he G<su>i</su>&nsp;suunit, therey impairing phagocytosis. <r /><div><i>Pe
rmits the survival of the microe.</i></div>
1402418691832 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Pertussis Toxin from <i>Borde
tella pertussis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Overactivation of adenylate cycl
ase y disaling the G<su>i</su>&nsp;suunit, therey impairing phagocytosis}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Occurs via ADP Riosylation</i></div>
1402418737393 1395802358422 {{c1::Pertussis Toxin}} is an exotoxin from <i>B
ordetella pertussis</i>&nsp;that causes <>whooping cough</>.
1402418770100 1395802358422 {{c1::Whooping cough}} is a respiratory disorder
caused y Pertussis Toxin from <i>Bordetella pertussis</i>&nsp;and involves a
cough on expiration and a "whoop" on inspiration.
<r /><div><i>Typically
affects children.</i></div><div><i>Toxin may not actually e a cause of the coug
h.</i></div><div><i>Can cause a "100-day cough" in adults.</i></div>
1402418941004 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetanospasmin}} is an exotoxin from <i>Clo
stridium tetani</i>&nsp;that cleaves SNARE proteins required for neurotransmitt
er release.
1402418986922 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tetanospasmin toxin from <i>C
lostridium tetani</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cleavage of SNARE proteins req
uired for neurotransmitter release}}</div>
1402419013400 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetanus}} is a neurological disorder cause
d y Tetanospasmin toxin from <i>Clostridium tetani</i>&nsp;that involves <>sp
asticity, risus sardonicus</>&nsp;and <>"lockjaw"</>.
1402419160022 1395802358422 {{c1::Risus Sardonicus}} is a feature of Tetanus
that is descried as facial spasms that often follow trismus (lockjaw).
1402419199569 1395802358422 {{c1::Trismus}} is a feature of Tetanus that is
also referred to as Lockjaw
1402419218807 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter's release is <>prevented
</>&nsp;y the Tetanospasmin toxin from <i>Clostridium tetani</i>?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::GABA; Glycine}}</div> <r /><div><i>Tetanus = spastic paralysi
s. Hence, there must e a <>lack of inhiitory neurotransmitters</>.</i></div>
1402419296796 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetanus}} is a neurological disorder cause
d y <i>Clostridium sp.</i>&nsp;and is&nsp;characterized y <>spastic paralys
is</>&nsp;due to <>inhiition of inhiitory neurotransmitter release</>&nsp
;(GABA; Glycine) from Renshaw cells of the spinal cord.
1402419379737 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulinum Toxin}} is an exotoxin from <i>C
lostridium otulinum</i>&nsp;that cleaves SNARE proteins required for neurotran
smitter release.
1402419529008 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Botulinum toxin from <i>Clost
ridium otulinum</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cleavage of SNARE proteins requ
ired for neurotransmitter release}}</div>
1402419564804 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulism}} is a neurological disorder caus

ed y the Botulinum toxin from <i>Clostridium otulinum</i>&nsp;that presents w
ith <>flaccid paralysis</>&nsp;or as <>Floppy Bay Syndrome</>&nsp;in infa
nts.
1402419652276 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter's release is <>prevented
</>&nsp;y the Botulinum toxin from <i>Clostridium otulinum</i>?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::ACh}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Botulism = flaccid paralysis. Henc
e there must e a <>lack of stimulatory neurotransmitters</>.</i></div>
1402419732306 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulism}} is a neurological disorder caus
ed y&nsp;<i>Clostridium sp.</i>&nsp;and is&nsp;characterized y&nsp;<>flac
cid paralysis</>&nsp;due to&nsp;<>inhiition of stimulatory neurotransmitter
release</>&nsp;(ACh) at the neuromuscular junction.
1402428216177 1395802358422 {{c1::Alpha Toxin}} is an exotoxin from <i>Clost
ridium perfringens</i>&nsp;that acts as a phospholipase (Lecithinase) that degr
ades tissue and cell memranes.
1402428313614 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Alpha Toxin from <i>Clostridi
um perfringens</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phospholipase (Lecithinase) actio
n, therey leading to degradation of tissue and cell memranes}}</div>
1402432070114 1395802358422 {{c1::Alpha toxin}} is an exotoxin from <i>Clost
ridium perfringens</i>&nsp;that degrades phospholipids, therey causing myonecr
osis ("gas gangrene") and hemolysis.
<r /><div><i>The hemolysis is a "doule
zone" of hemolysis on lood agar.</i></div>
1402432155838 1395802358422 {{c1::Streptolysin O}} is an exotoxin from <i>St
reptococcus pyogenes</i>&nsp;that functions to degrade the cell memrane.
1402432207851 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Streptolysin O from <i>Strept
ococcus pyogenes</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Degradation of the cell memran
e, therey causing cell lysis}}</div>
1402432235029 1395802358422 {{c1::Streptolysin O}} is an exotoxin made y <i
>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>&nsp;that functions to lyse RBCs, therey contriuti
ng to eta-hemolysis.
1402432533724 1395802358422 Which disorder is associated with ASO (Anti-Stre
ptolysin O) antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rheumatic fever}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Streptolysin O is from Streptococcus pyogenes.</i></div>
1402432627607 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin (TSST-1)}} is a
superantigen exotoxin from <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;that rings MHC II
and T-cell receptors in close proximity to the antigen inding site, therey ca
using overwhelming IFN-gamma and IL-2 release. <r /><div><i>Therey causing sh
ock.</i></div>
1402432761359 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin (T
SST-1) from <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Bringing of M
HC II and T-cell receptors in proximity to outside of the antigen inding site,
therey causing overwhelming release of IFN-gamma and IL-2}}</div>
<r><div
><i>And susequent shock.</i></div>
1402432829156 1395802358422 Which cytokines are involved in the induction of
Toxic Shock Syndrome y superantigen exotoxins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IFNgamma; IL-2}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Therey inducing fever, rash and shock.</i
></div>
1402432869781 1395802358422 {{c1::Exfoliatin}} is an exotoxin from <i>Staphy
lococcus aureus</i>&nsp;that causes Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS)
.
1402432972801 1395802358422 {{c1::Exotoxin A}} is a superantigen exotoxin fr
om <i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>&nsp;that rings MHC II and T-cell receptors in
proximity to the antigen inding site, therey causing toxic shock syndrome.
1402433021202 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Exotoxin A from <i>Streptococ
cus pyogenes</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superantigen; MHC II and TCR activa
tion, therey causing massive release of IFN-gamma and IL-2}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Not to e confused with Exotoxin A from Pseudomonas aeruginosa which funct
ions to inactivate EF2 and protein synthesis.</i></div>
1402433146269 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin}} is a virulence factor found in
gram-negative acteria that is made of Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-14753212662239.jpg" /></div>

1402433697999 1395802358422 Which activated complement protein is chemotacti
c for neutrophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5a}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-14748917694943.jpg" /></div>
1402433732008 1395802358422 {{c1::Transformation}} is a acterial genetic pr
ocess through with naked DNA is taken up from the environment. <r /><div><i>Es
pecially seen with <>S</>treptococcus pneumoniae, <>H</>aemophilus <>i</>n
fluenzae type B and <>N</>eisseria spp. (<>SHiN</>).</i></div>
1402434152550 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::F+ plasmid}} is a acterial plasm
id that contains genes required for sex pilus and conjugation.
1402435735347 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::High-frequency recomination (Hfr)
cell}} is a acterial cell whose <>F+ plasmid has ecome incorporated into the
acterial chromosomal DNA</>. <r /><div><i>Hence when the plasmid DNA is repl
icated, some flanking chromosomal DNA is likely to e as well. Therefore, plasmi
d and chromosomal genes are transferred.</i></div>
1402436340967 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::transposon}} is a segment of DNA th
at can "jump" from one location to another via excision and reintegration.
<r /><div><i>Through this, genes can e transferred from plasmid to chromosome
and vice versa.</i></div><div><i>Excision can include flanking chromosomal DNA w
hich can e incorporated into a plasmid and transferred to another acterium. Th
is is a way antiiotic resistance can e transmitted.</i></div>
1402439166361 1395802358422 {{c1::Generalized tranduction}} is a type of ac
terial transduction that involves cleavage of acterial DNA and partial packagin
g of acterial chromosomal DNA into acteriophage capsids following <>lytic pha
ge</>&nsp;infection. <r /><div><i>The phage then infects another acterium,
transferring the genes.</i></div>
1402441659957 1395802358422 {{c1::Specialized transduction}} is a type of a
cterial transduction that involves a <>lysogenic phage</>&nsp;infects a acte
rium and incorporates viral DNA into the acterial chromosome. <r /><div><i>Wh
en phage DNA is excised, flanking acterial genes may e excised with it and pac
kaged into viral capsids.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-16896401342650.jpg" /
></i></div>
1402441976942 1395802358422 What is the Novoiocin sensitivity of <i>Staphyl
ococcus saprophyticus</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Resistant}}</div> <div><r
/></div><i><>"NO S</>t<>RES</>s"</i><r /><div><img src="paste-172528836282
84.jpg" /></div>
1402442693838 1395802358422 What is the Novoiocin sensitivity of <i>Staphyl
ococcus epidermidis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sensitive}}</div> <div><r
/></div><i>"<>NO</>&nsp;<>S</>t<>RES</>s"<r /></i><div><img src="paste17248588660988.jpg" /></div>
1402442749529 1395802358422 What is the Optochin sensitivity of Viridans Str
eptococci (<i>Streptococcus mutans</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Resistant}}<
/div> <r /><div>"<>OV</>e<>RP</>a<>S</>s"</div><div><img src="paste-172
48588660988.jpg" /></div>
1402442905229 1395802358422 What is the Optochin sensitivity of <i>Streptoco
ccus pneumoniae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sensitive}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>"<>OV</>e<>RP</>a<>S</>s"</i><r /><div><img src="paste-172485
88660988.jpg" /></div>
1402442951231 1395802358422 What is the Bacitracin sensitivity of Group B St
rep (<i>Streptococcus agalactiae</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Resistant}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>"<>B-BRAS</>"</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-172485886
60988.jpg" /></i></div>
1402443067677 1395802358422 What is the Bacitracin sensitivity of Group A St
rep (<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sensitive}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>"<>B-BRAS</>"</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-172485886
60988.jpg" /></i></div>
1402452771084 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is associated with the fo
rmation of a green ring around colonies on lood agar?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Alpha-hemolysis}}</div>
1402453279253 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is exhiited y&nsp;<i>S
treptococcus pneumoniae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-hemolysis}}</div>

<r /><div><i>Catalase-negative</i></div><div><i>Optochin sensitive</i></div>
1402453919315 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is exhiited y Viridans
streptococci (e.g.<i>&nsp;Streptococcus mutans</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Alpha-hemolysis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Catalase-negative</i></div><div><i
>Optochin resistant</i></div>
1402453965830 1395802358422 Which type of hemolysis is associated with the f
ormation of a <>clear area</>&nsp;of hemolysis on lood agar?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Beta-hemolysis}}</div>
1402454001343 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is exhiited y <i>Staphy
lococcus aureus</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-hemolysis}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Catalase-positive</i></div><div><i>Coagulase-positive</i></div>
1402454023825 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is exhiited y Group A S
trep (<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-hemolysis}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Catalase-negative</i></div><div><i>Bacitracin sensitive</i
></div>
1402454109380 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is exhiited y Group B S
trep (<i>Streptococcus agalactiae</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-hemolysi
s}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Catalase-negative</i></div><div><i>Bacitracin resi
stant.</i></div>
1402454204136 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is exhiited y <i>Lister
ia monocytogenes</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-hemolysis}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Tumling motility; meningitis in neworns; unpasteurized milk.</i></div>
1402454541483 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is associated with Group
D Strep (and <i>Enterococcus faecalis</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gamma-hem
olysis}}</div>
1402454604773 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis is associated with <i>Str
eptococcus ovis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gamma-hemolysis}}</div>
1402454645478 1395802358422 Where in the respiratory tract does <i>Staphyloc
occus aureus</i>&nsp;commonly colonize?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22
982370001162.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nose}}</div>
1402455154189 1395802358422 {{c1::Protein A}} is a virulence factor from <i>
Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;that inds to the F<su>c</su>&nsp;portion of I
gG, therey inhiiting complement activation and phagocytosis.
1402456144030 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>
&nsp;causes Toxic Shock Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Toxic Shock Syndro
me Toxin (TSST-1)}}</div>
1402456203626 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>
&nsp;causes Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS)?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Exfoliatin}}</div>
1402456236692 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>
&nsp;causes rapid-onset food poisoning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Staphylococc
al enterotoxins}}</div> <r /><div><i>Incuation period is very short (2-6 hrs)
due to the toxins eing pre-formed. The enterotoxin is heat stale and hence is
not destroyed y cooking.</i></div>
1402456305846 1395802358422 {{c1::Pneumonia}} is a respiratory complication
of <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;infection that commonly arises after an inf
luenza virus infection.
1402456347862 1395802358422 {{c1::Methicillin-resistant <i>Staphylococcus au
reus</i>&nsp;(MRSA)}} is a form of <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;that is re
sistant to methicillin and nafcillin due to altered penicillin-inding proteins.
<r /><div><i>MRSA is an important cause of serious nocosomial and community-acq
uired infections.</i></div>
1402456529801 1395802358422 How does vaginal or nasal tampon use influence t
he risk of getting Toxic Shock Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</
div>
1402456890495 1395802358422 What is the catalase expression of <i>Staphyloco
ccus aureus</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402456952709 1395802358422 What is the coagulase expression of <i>Staphyloc
occus aureus</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <r /><div><i>Co
agulase helps Staphylococcus aureus form firin clots around itself, forming a s

ort of ascess.</i></div>
1402456998509 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus epidermidis</i>}} is a <
i>Staphylococcus</i>&nsp;species that commonly infects prosthetic devices and i
ntravenous catheters y producing adherent iofilms.
<r /><div><i>Component
of normal skin flora.</i></div><div><i>Contaminates lood cultures.</i></div><di
v><i>Novoiocin sensitive.</i></div>
1402457468984 1395802358422 Which <i>Staphylococcus </i>species is the <>2n
d most common</>&nsp;cause of uncomplicated UTI in young women?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus saprophyticus</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Es
cherichia coli is the most common.</i></div>
1402457591435 1395802358422 Which acteria is the most common cause of menin
gitis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26530012987655.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}}</div></div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-25396141621449.jpg" /></div>
1402457846530 1395802358422 Which acteria is the most common cause of otiti
s media in children?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26525718020359.jpg" />
<r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}}</div></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-25396141621449.jpg" /></div>
1402457866068 1395802358422 Which acteria is the most common cause of pneum
onia?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26525718020359.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}}</div></div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-25400436588745.jpg" /></div>
1402457903262 1395802358422 Which acteria is the most common cause of sinus
itis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26525718020359.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}}</div></div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-25396141621449.jpg" /></div>
1402458991108 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}} is a lan
cet-shaped&nsp;<i>Streptococcus</i>&nsp;species that is associated with <>"ru
sty" sputum</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26525718020359.jpg" /></di
v>
<r /><div><i>Encapsulated</i></div><div><i>IgA Protease positive.</i></
div>
1402459120332 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}} is a lan
cet-shaped <i>Streptococcus</i>&nsp;species that is associated with sepsis in s
ickle cell anaemia and splenectomy.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2652571
8020359.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Encapsulated.</i></div><div><i>IgA Proteas
e positive.</i></div>
1402519769834 1395802358422 Where are Viridans Streptococci normally found i
n the ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oropharynx}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"V
iridans Strep live in the mouth ecause they are not afraid <>of-the-chin</>&n
sp;(<>optochin</>&nsp;resistant)"</i></div>
1402519840481 1395802358422 Which species of Viridans Streptococci commonly
causes dental caries?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus mutans</i>}}</
div>
1402519869398 1395802358422 Which species of Viridans Streptococci is known
to cause suacute acterial endocarditis at damaged valves?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus sanguinis</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>Sanguis = lood =
heart = endocarditis</i></div>
1402519948842 1395802358422 {{c1::Dextrans}} is a virulence factor from <i>S
treptococcus sanguinis </i>that inds to firin-platelet aggregates on damaged h
eart valves, therey allowing for acterial endocarditis.
1402520542547 1395802358422 Which <i>Streptococcus</i>&nsp;species is consi
dered Group A Strep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>}}<
/div>
1402520588882 1395802358422 Which <i>Streptococcus </i>species is considered
Group B Strep?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus agalactiae</i>}}</di
v>
1402520605294 1395802358422 Which&nsp;<i>Streptococcus&nsp;</i>species is
known to cause&nsp;Scarlet Fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus p
yogenes</i>&nsp;(Group A Strep)}}</div>
1402521425886 1395802358422 Which <i>Streptococcus </i>species is known to c

ause Necrotizing Fasciitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pyogenes
</i>&nsp;(Group A Strep)}}</div>
1402521446966 1395802358422 Which&nsp;<i>Streptococcus&nsp;</i>species is
known to cause Rheumatic Fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pyog
enes</i>&nsp;(Group A Strep)}}</div>
1402521470315 1395802358422 Antiodies to {{c1::M Protein}}, a virulence fac
tor from <i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>, enhances host defenses against the acte
ria ut can give rise to Rheumatic Fever.
1402521522702 1395802358422 Which&nsp;<i>Streptococcus&nsp;</i>species is
associated with an increase in ASO titers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Strepto
coccus pyogenes</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>ASO titers are indicative of recen
t S. pyogenes infection.</i></div>
1402521567796 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatic Fever}} and&nsp;{{c2::acute glo
merulonephritis}} are 2 immunological complications of pharyngitis caused y <i>
Streptococcus pyogenes</i>.
<r /><div><i>"Strep <>PH</>aryngitis can eco
me Rheumatic <>PH</>ever and glomerulone<>PH</>ritis."</i></div>
1402522057796 1395802358422 {{c1::Scarlet Fever}} is a toxigenic complicatio
n of <i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>&nsp;infection that involves a <>scarlet ras
h</>&nsp;with <>sandpaper-like texture</>, a <>strawerry tongue</>&nsp;a
nd <>circumoral pallor</>.
1402522205348 1395802358422 {{c1::Polyarthritis}} is a musculoskeletal featu
re of Rheumatic Fever that involves inflammation at multiple joints.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-3732326580468.jpg" /></div>
1402522246576 1395802358422 {{c1::Pancarditis}} is a cardiac complication of
Rheumatic Fever that involves inflammation of all 3 layers of the heart.
<r /><div><img src="paste-3728031613172.jpg" /></div>
1402522355051 1395802358422 {{c1::Sucutaneous nodules}} is a cutaneous comp
lication of Rheumatic Fever.
<r /><div><img src="paste-3728031613172.jpg" />
</div>
1402522361498 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythema marginatum}} is a cutaneous compl
ication of Rheumatic Fever that is descried as an <>annular, nonpruritic rash<
/>&nsp;with <>erythematous orders</>.
<r /><div><i>Commonly seen at t
he trunk and lims.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3728031613172.jpg" /></i></
div>
1402522678704 1395802358422 {{c1::Sydenham Chorea}} is a neurological compli
cation of Rheumatic Fever that involves rapid, involuntary muscle movements.
<r /><div><img src="paste-3728031613172.jpg" /></div>
1402522704864 1395802358422 Where is Group B Strep (<i>Streptococcus agalact
iae</i>) normally found in the ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vagina}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Streptococcus <>VAG</>alactiae</i></div><div><i>Pregnant women a
re screened for Streptococcus agalactiae at 35-37 weeks of gestation. Patients w
ith a positive culture receive intrapartum penicillin prophylaxis.</i></div>
1402522917302 1395802358422 Which "group" of <i>Streptococcus</i>&nsp;acte
ria are known to cause pneumonia, meningitis and sepsis mainly in <>aies</>?
<div><r />{{c1::<i>Streptococcus agalactiae</i>&nsp;(Group B Strep)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Group <>B</>&nsp;is for the <>B</>aies.</i></div>
1402523212304 1395802358422 {{c1::CAMP Factor}} is a protein produced y <i>
Streptococcus agalactiae</i>&nsp;(Group B Strep) that functions to enlargen the
area of hemolysis yielded y <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>.
<r /><div><i>CA
MP ≠ cAMP.</i></div>
1402523420232 1395802358422 What Hippurate Test result is yielded y <i>Stre
ptococcus agalactiae</i>&nsp;(Group B Strep)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positi
ve}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The Hippurate Test gauges whether or not the organ
ism can hydrolyze hippurate.</i></div>
1402524036532 1395802358422 Where in the ody are Group D Streptococci (<i>E
nterococcus faecalis</i>&nsp;and <i>Enterococcus faecium</i>) normally found?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div> <r /><div><i>Group D streptococci inclu
de:</i></div><div><i>Enterococcal</i></div><div><i>Non-enterococcal (Streptococc
us ovis)</i></div>
1402524179050 1395802358422 {{c1::Suacute endocarditis}} is a cardiac compl

ication caused y&nsp;Group D Streptococci (<i>Enterococcus faecalis</i>&nsp;a
nd&nsp;<i>Enterococcus faecium</i>) following GI/GU procedures.
1402524276587 1395802358422 Where in the ody is Non-enterococcal&nsp;Group
D Streptococci (<i>Streptococcus ovis</i>) normally found?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::GI}}</div>
1402524394914 1395802358422 What type of cancer is associated with <>acter
emia</>&nsp;and <>suacute endocarditis</>&nsp;caused y&nsp;Non-enterococ
cal&nsp;Group D Streptococci (<i>Streptococcus ovis</i>)?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Colon cancer}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>B</>ovis in the <>B</>lood =
<>C</>ancer in the <>C</>olon.</i></div>
1402524441767 1395802358422 Which gram-positive acteria causes Diphtheria t
hrough a potent extoxin that inhiits protein synthesis via ADP riosylation of
EF-2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Coryneactrium diphtheriae</i>}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The toxin is encoded y a eta-prophage.</i><div><i>Toxoid v
accine can prevent Diphtheria.<r /></i><div><img src="paste-7400228651293.jpg"
/></div></div>
1402525073764 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudomemranous pharyngitis}} is a featur
e of Diphtheria that involves a <>grayish-white memrane</>&nsp;forming in th
e pharynx.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7194070221082.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>There is also lymphadenopathy, myocarditis and arrhythmias.</i></d
iv>
1402525174067 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Coryneacterium spp.</i>}} is a gram-po
sitive, <>clu shaped</>&nsp;acteria that yields <>lack colonies</>&nsp;
on cystine-tellurite agar.
<div><r /></div><i>It also has metachromatic (
lue and red) granules and a positive Elek test for the toxin.</i><r /><div><img
src="paste-7404523618589.jpg" /></div>
1402525322268 1395802358422 Which chemical compound found in the core of ac
terial spores functions to contriute to their heat resistance?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Dipicolinic Acid}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Spores must e autoclaved
to e killed (steamed at 121 C for 15 min).</i></div><div><i>Spore forming grampositives in soil:</i></div><div><i>- Bacillus anthracis</i></div><div><i>- Clos
tridium perfringens</i></div><div><i>- Clostridium tetani</i></div><div><i>Other
spore forming actera:</i></div><div><i>- Bacillus cereus</i></div><div><i>- Cl
ostridium otulinum</i></div><div><i>- Coxiella urnetti</i></div>
1402526056674 1395802358422 Which toxin from <i>Clostridium tetani</i>&nsp;
causes Tetanus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tetanospasmin}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, tetanospasmin cleaves SNARE proteins involved in neurotransmissi
on. It prevents the release of GABA and Glycine, 2 inhiitory neurotransmitters,
therey causing <>spastic paralysis</>, trismus and risus sardonicus.</i></di
v>
1402526161207 1395802358422 {{c1::Floppy Bay Syndrome}} is a form of Botuli
num that is seen in aies following ingestion of spores in honey.
<div><r
/></div><i><>BOT</>ulinum is from ad <>BOT</>tles of food and honey.</i><
r /><div><i>In adults, the preformed toxin is ingested to cause Botulinum.</i></
div>
1402527211303 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Clostridium perfringens</
i>&nsp;functions as a phospholipase, therey causing myonecrosis (gas gangrene)
and hemoylsis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-toxin}}</div> <r /><div><i>Ph
ospholipase, lecithinase activity.</i></div><div><i><>PERF</>ringens <>PERF</
>orates a gangrenous leg.</i></div>
1402527467355 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxin A}} is an enterotoxin from <i>Clostr
idium difficile</i>&nsp;that inds to the rush order of the gut.
1402527707136 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Clostridium difficile </i
>functions to ind to the rush order of the gut?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::To
xin A}}</div>
1402527727710 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxin B}} is a cytotoxin from <i>Clostridi
um difficile</i>&nsp;that causes cytoskeletal disruption via actin depolarizati
on, therey causing <>pseudomemranous colitis</> and <>diarrhea</>.
<r /><div><i><>DI</>fficile causes <>DI</>arrhea.</i></div>
1402527819144 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Clostridium difficile</i>

&nsp;causes cytoskeletal disruption via actin depolymerization?<div><r />{{c1:
:Toxin B}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Therey causes <>pseudomemranous colitis
</>&nsp;and <>diarrhea</>.</i></div>
1402528301015 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Clostridium</i>&nsp;often c
auses infection following antiiotic use, especially clindamycin or ampicillin?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Clostridium difficile</i>}}</div>
1402528339247 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Clostridium diffici
le</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidazole; Oral Vancomycin}}</div>
<r /><div><i>For recurring cases, fecal transplant may prevent a relapse.</i></
div>
1402528453642 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Bacillus anthracis</i>}} is a gram-posi
tive, spore-forming rod that causes Anthrax via the anthrax toxin.<div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-10857677324705.jpg" /></div>
1402529845478 1395802358422 What is the only acterium with a polypeptide ca
psule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bacillus anthracis</i>}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>It contains D-glutamate</i></div>
1402529871324 1395802358422 Which amino acid makes up the polypeptide capsul
e of <i>Bacillus anthracis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D-glutamate}}</div>
1402529904606 1395802358422 {{c1::Cutaneous Anthrax}} is a type of anthrax t
hat presents with <>oil-like lesions</>&nsp;and <>ulcers with lack eschars
</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11132555231651.jpg" /></div> <r /><d
iv><i>The oils/ulcers are painless ut necrotic.</i></div><div><i>Very uncommon
ly does cutaneous anthrax progress to acteremia and death.</i></div>
1402530028091 1395802358422 What type of Anthrax presents with cutaneous ulc
ers with lack eschars?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous Anthrax}}</div><div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11128260264355.jpg" /></div>
1402530059278 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmonary Anthrax}} is a type of Anthrax t
hat is otained via inhalation of spores.
1402530422851 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmonary Anthrax}} is a type of Anthrax t
hat presents with <>flu-like symptoms</>&nsp;that rapidly progress to fever,
pulmonary hemorrhage, mediastinitis and shock.
1402530947653 1395802358422 What type of Anthrax is otained through the inh
alation of <i>Bacillus anthracis</i>&nsp;spores?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pul
monary anthrax}}</div>
1402530981575 1395802358422 {{c1::Woolsorters' Disease}} is a type of pulmon
ary anthrax that is otained from the inhalation of spores from contaminated woo
d.
1402538199987 1395802358422 What type of food is associated with <i>Bacillus
cereus</i>&nsp;food poisoning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rice}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence "<u>Reheated Rice Syndrome</u>".</i></div><div><i>Spores sur
vive the cooking of rice.</i></div><div><i>Keeping rice warm results in germinat
ion of the spores and susequent enterotoxin formation.</i></div>
1402538430203 1395802358422 {{c1::Cereulide}} is an enterotoxin from <i>Baci
llus cereus</i>&nsp;that causes the <>Emetic</>&nsp;type of <i>Bacillus cere
us</i>&nsp;food poisoning.
1402538473732 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Bacillus cereus</i>&nsp;
causes the <>emetic type</>&nsp;of <i>Bacillus cereus</i>&nsp;food poisoning
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cereulide}}</div>
1402538510274 1395802358422 Which type of&nsp;<i>Bacillus cereus</i>&nsp;f
ood poisoning has the shortest incuation period?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Eme
tic type}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Emetic type = nausea and vomiting 1-5 hrs
post consumption</i></div><div><i>Diarrheal type = watery, nonloody diarrhea wi
th GI pain 8-18 hrs post consumption</i></div>
1402538581035 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Emetic}} type of&nsp;<i>Bacillus
cereus</i>&nsp;food poisoning presents with <>nausea</>&nsp;and <>vomiting
</>&nsp;within <>1-5 hrs</>&nsp;of consumption.
1402538632896 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Diarrheal}} type of&nsp;<i>Bacil
lus cereus</i>&nsp;food poisoning presents with <>watery, nonloody diarrhea</
>&nsp;and <>GI pain</>&nsp;within 8-18 hrs of consumption.
1402539907068 1395802358422 What foods are associated with acquisition of <i

>Listeria monocytogenes</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unpasteurized dairy; del
i meats}}</div>
1402539931229 1395802358422 Besides ingestion of contaminated food, how is <
i>Listeria monocytogenes</i>&nsp;transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transp
lacentally; vaginally during childirth}}</div> <r /><div><i>Listeria monocytog
enes can cause amnionitis, septicemia and spontaneous aortion in pregnant women
.</i></div>
1402540262016 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Listeria monocytogenes</i>}} is a grampositive facultative intracellular acteria that forms <>"rocket tails"</>&ns
p;via manipulation of actin filaments, therey allowing them to move through the
cytoplasm and cell-to-cell without entering the ECF. <r /><div><i>This way,
Listeria is ale to avoid antiodies.</i></div>
1402540339170 1395802358422 What type of motility does <i>Listeria monocytog
enes</i>&nsp;have?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tumling}}</div>
1402540355262 1395802358422 What is the only gram-positive acteria to produ
ce lipopolysaccharide (LPS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Listeria monocytogene
s</i>}}</div>
1402540822790 1395802358422 {{c1::Granulomatosis Infantiseptica}} is a compl
ication of fetomaternal listeriosis (<i>Listeria monocytogenes</i>) seen in neon
ates that involves the formation of pyogenic granulomas distriuted over the who
le ody.
1402540925193 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y meningit
is caused y<i>&nsp;Listeria monocytogenes</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neon
ates; Neworns}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, Listeria can e acquired transva
ginally during childirth.</i></div>
1402541050124 1395802358422 How does Listeriosis (<i>Listeria monocytogenes<
/i>) commonly present in healthy individuals?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mild ga
stroenteritis}}</div>
1402541083693 1395802358422 What is the <>empirical</>&nsp;treatment for
infants, immunocompromised patients and the elderly with suspected meningitis fr
om <i>Listeria monocytogenes</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ampicillin}}</div>
1402592222774 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces spp.</i>}} and&nsp;{{c2::<
i>Nocardia spp.</i>}} are oth gram-positive acteria that form long, ranching
filaments resemling fungi.
1402593371183 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Actinomyces<
/i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anaeroe}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-790273982886.jpg" /></div>
1402593397734 1395802358422 Where in the ody is <i>Actinomyces</i>&nsp;nor
mally found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oral cavity}}</div>
1402593709544 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces spp.</i>}} is a gram-positi
ve, filamentous acteria that causes oral/facial ascesses that drain through th
e sinus tracts. <r /><div><img src="paste-785979015590.jpg" /></div>
1402593749717 1395802358422 What type of pigment is associated with <i>Actin
omyces spp</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ellow "sulfur granules"}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-785979015590.jpg" /></div>
1402593770382 1395802358422 Which gram-positive, filamentous acteria is ass
ociated with yellow "sulfur granules"?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Actinomyces
spp.</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-785979015590.jpg" /></div>
1402593795360 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Actinomyces spp.</i
>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillin}}</div>
1402593810596 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Nocardia spp
</i>.?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aeroe}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-1331439862178.jpg" /></div>
1402594064144 1395802358422 Which stain (other than Gram) is required to vis
ualize <i>Nocardia spp.</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acid Fast; <i>Nocardia</
i> is weakly acid fast}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1327144894882.jpg" />
</div>
1402594106515 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Nocardia spp.</i>}} is a gram-positive,
filamentous acteria that is normally found in soil.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-1327144894882.jpg" /></div>

1402594127203 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Nocardia spp.</i>}} is a gram-positive,
filamentous acteria that causes pulmonary infections in the immunocompromised
and cutaneous infections after trauma in the immunocompetent.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-1327144894882.jpg" /></div>
1402594170914 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Nocardia spp.</i>&n
sp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sulfonamides}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.
g. Sulfamethoxazole (SMX)</i></div>
1402594286235 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Primary and Secondary Tu
erculosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycoacterium tuerculosis</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1687922148096.jpg" /></div>
1402595044576 1395802358422 Which demographic is commonly affected y Primar
y Tuerculosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non immune host (i.e. children); Immu
nocompromised}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1683627180800.jpg" /></div>
1402595083354 1395802358422 Which area of the lung is the Ghon focus usually
found in Primary Tuerculosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1683627180800.jpg" /></div>
1402595520978 1395802358422 Where in the lung does <>reactivation</>&nsp;
of Tuerculosis normally occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upper loe}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1683627180800.jpg" /></div>
1402595580027 1395802358422 {{c1::Pott Disease}} is a possile complication
of extrapulmonary Tuerculosis that involves spread of infection to verteral o
dies. <r /><div><img src="paste-1683627180800.jpg" /></div>
1402595697031 1395802358422 {{c1::Caseating Granulomas}} are a feature of se
condary tuerculosis descried as firocaseous cavitary lesions with central nec
rosis and multinucleated Langerhans giant cells.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-2241972928930.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Central pinkish region is
the necrosis.</i></div><div><i>Arrow points to the Langerhans cell.</i></div>
1402596041435 1395802358422 Which Mycoacteria species is known to cause Tu
erculosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycoacterium tuerculosis</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Often resistant to many drugs.</i></div>
1402597026328 1395802358422 Which Mycoacteria species causes pulmonary <>T
B-like</>&nsp;symptoms (ut not TB)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycoacteri
um kansasii</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>TB-like symptoms include fever, night swea
ts, weight loss and hemoptysis.</i></div>
1402597472014 1395802358422 Which Mycoacteria species causes disseminated,
non-TB disease in AIDS patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycoacterium avi
um-intracellulare</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>Often resistant to multiple drugs.
</i></div>
1402597564621 1395802358422 Which stain is required to visualize all <i>Myco
acterium</i>&nsp;<i>spp.</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acid-fast}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3246995276057.jpg" /></div>
1402597655383 1395802358422 {{c1::Cord Factor}} is a virulence factor in vir
ulent <i>Mycoacterium sp.</i>&nsp;that <>inhiits macrophage maturation</>&n
sp;and <>induces the release of TNF-alpha</>.
1402597710214 1395802358422 {{c1::Sulfatides}} are surface glycolipids found
on <i>Mycoacterium sp.</i>&nsp;that inhiit phagolysosomal fusion.
1402597758898 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Leprosy (Hansen Disease)
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycoacterium leprae</i>}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Acid-fast.</i></div><div><i>Loves cool temperatures.</i></div>
1402598428843 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoacterium leprae</i>}} is an acid-f
ast acillus that causes Leprosy (Hansen Disease).
1402599041268 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoacterium leprae</i>}} is a the ac
terial cause of Leprosy that <>likes cool temperatures</>, therey resulting i
n infection of the skin and superficial nerves. <r /><div><i>This leads to a <
>"glove and stocking" loss of sensation.</></i></div><div><i>This is also means
that Mycoacterium leprae cannot e grown in vitro.</i></div>
1402599265400 1395802358422 {{c1::"Glove and Stocking" sensation loss}} is a
neurological complication of Leprosy due to preferrential infection of the skin
and superficial nerves y <i>Mycoacterium leprae</i>. <r /><div><i>Rememer,
this is ecause Mycoacterium leprae likes cool temperatures (i.e. the surface a

nd extremities of the ody).</i></div>
1402599332424 1395802358422 Which animal is the reservoir for <i>Mycoacteri
um leprae</i>&nsp;in the USA?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Armadillo}}</div>
1402599360392 1395802358422 Which form of Leprosy (Hansen Disease) is lethal
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lepromatous form}}</div>
1402599578849 1395802358422 Which form of Leprosy presents diffusely over th
e skin with&nsp;<>leonine (lion-like) facies</>?<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-4913442586912.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lepromatous}}</d
iv></div>
1402599681991 1395802358422 Which form of Leprosy presents with a <>"glove
and stocking" </>distriution of digit deformation?<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-4956392260002.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lepromatous}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>This is due to sensory loss and repeates trauma in the ext
remities.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, Mycoacterium leprae likes cooler temperatu
res and hence infects the skin and superficial nerves at the extremities.</i></d
iv>
1402599771427 1395802358422 Which form of Leprosy is characterized y <>low
cell-mediated immunity</>&nsp;with a <>humoral Th<su>2</su>&nsp;response<
/>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lepromatous}}</div>
1402599929170 1395802358422 Which form of Leprosy is characterized y <>hig
h cell-mediated immunity </>with a largely <>Th<su>1</su>&nsp;immune respon
se</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tuerculoid}}</div>
1402600174598 1395802358422 The {{c1::Tuerculoid}} form of Leprosy is the f
orm limited to a few <>hypoesthetic, hairless skin plaques</>.
1402600204809 1395802358422 Which form of Leprosy is limited to a few <>hyp
oesthetic, hairless skin plaques</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tuerculoid}}</
div>
1402600237041 1395802358422 {{c1::Dapsone}} and&nsp;{{c2::Rifampin}} are 2
anti-mycoacterial drugs used to treat the Tuerculoid form of Leprosy. <r /><d
iv><i>The Tuerculoid form is treated with a 6 month regimen of Dapson and Rifam
pin.</i></div>
1402600753865 1395802358422 {{c1::Dapsone}},&nsp;{{c2::Rifampin}}, and&nsp
;{{c3::Clofazimine}} are anti-mycoacterial drugs used to treat the Lepromatous
form of Leprosy.
<r /><div><i>The Lepromatous form is treated with a 2-5
year regimen of Dapsone, Rifampin and Clofazimine.</i></div>
1402600814505 1395802358422 What colour colonies do lactose-fermenting enter
ic acteria yield on MacConkey agar?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>"</>Ma<>C</>on<>KEE</>'<>S</>"</i></div><div><i><>- C</
>itroacter</i></div><div><i>- <>K</>lesiella</i></div><div><i>- <>E</>nte
roacter</i></div><div><i>- <>E</>scherichia</i></div><div><i>- <>S</>errati
a (weak fermenter)</i></div>
1402613840602 1395802358422 What colour colonies do&nsp;<i>Citroacter spp.
</i>&nsp;yield on MacConkey Agar?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to lactose fermentation.</i></div>
1402613877962 1395802358422 What colour colonies do <i>Klesiella spp.</i>&n
<r /><d
sp;yield on MacConkey Agar?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
iv><i>Due to lactose fermentation.</i></div>
1402613902009 1395802358422 What colour colonies do <i>Enteroacter spp.</i>
&nsp;yield on MacConkey Agar?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Due to lactose fermentation.</i></div>
1402613927906 1395802358422 What colour colonies do <i>Serratia spp.</i>&ns
p;yield on MacConkey Agar?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to lactose fermentation.</i></div>
1402613946370 1395802358422 {{c1::Beta-galactosidase}} is an enzyme produced
y <i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;that reaks down lactose into glucose and galac
tose.
1402619093228 1395802358422 What colour colonies do lactose fermenting acte
ria yield on Eosin-Methylene Blue (EMB) agar?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Purple/
lack}}</div> <r /><div><i>Escherichia coli grows purple colonies with a gree
n sheen.</i></div>

1402619167193 1395802358422 How does Penicillin G affect gram-negative acte
ria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No effect}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Gram-negat
ives are resistant to Penicillin G as the outer memrane layer inhiits entry.</
i></div>
1402620434178 1395802358422 How does Vancomycin influence gram-negatives ac
teria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No effect}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The outer
memrane layer of gram-negative acteria does not let Vancomycin enter.</i></div
>
1402674610539 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Neisseria</i>&nsp;ferments
glucose <>only</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria gonorrheae</i>}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i><>G</>onococcus = <>G</>lucose only</i></div>
1402675610097 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Neisseria</i>&nsp;ferments
glucose <>and</>&nsp;maltose?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria meningi
tidis</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>M</>enin<>G</>ococcus = <>M</>alto
se and <>G</>lucose</i></div>
1402675655473 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA Protease}} is a protein secreted y <i
>Neisseria spp.</i>&nsp;that functions to cleave secreted host IgA.
1402676290201 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Neisseria</i>&nsp;is often
found intracellularly in neutrophils?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10222
02216727.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria gonorrheae</i>}}<
/div>
1402676332023 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Neisseria</i>&nsp;has a pol
ysaccharide capsule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria meningitidis</i>}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Gonococcus <>does not</>&nsp;have a polysaccharide caps
ule.</i></div>
1402676915794 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisseria gonorrhoeae</i>}} is a specie
s of <i>Neisseria</i>&nsp;that has no vaccine due to rapid antigenic variation
of pilus proteins.
1402676951058 1395802358422 Which serotype of <i>Neisseria meningitidis</i>&
nsp;lacks a vaccine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type B}}</div>
1402676962607 1395802358422 How is <i>Neisseria gonorrhoeae</i>&nsp;transmi
tted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sexually}}</div>
1402677908050 1395802358422 How is <i>Neisseria meningitidis</i>&nsp;transm
itted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Respiratory and Oral secretions}}</div>
1402677924333 1395802358422 {{c1::Fitz-Hugh-Curtis Syndrome}} is a rare comp
lication of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) caused y <i>Neisseria gonorrhoeae
</i>&nsp;that involves inflammation of the liver capsule and formation of adhes
ions.
1402678005051 1395802358422 {{c1::Neonatal Conjunctivitis}} is an ocular inf
ection seen in neonates due to <i>Neisseria gonorrhoeae</i>&nsp;infection durin
g childirth.
1402678045935 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Gonorrhea?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria gonorrhoeae</i>}}</div>
1402678070433 1395802358422 {{c1::Septic Arthritis}} is a musculoskeletal co
mplication of <i>Neisseria gonorrhoeae</i>&nsp;infection.
1402678102937 1395802358422 What is the etiology of meningococcemia?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria meningitidis</i>}}</div>
1402678464715 1395802358422 {{c1::Waterhouse-Friderichsen Syndrome}} is a co
mplication of meningococcemia that is descried as <>adrenal gland failure</>&
nsp;due to <>hemorrhaging into the adrenal glands.</>
1402678661954 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Neisseria meningiti
dis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ceftriaxone (or Penicillin G)}}</div>
1402678713631 1395802358422 How is <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nsp;transm
itted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aerosol}}</div>
1402679622262 1395802358422 Which strain of <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&n
sp;causes the most invasive disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type B}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The H. influenzae vaccine contains Type B capsular polysacch
arides conjugated to diphtheria toxoid or another protein. It is given etween 2
and 18 months.</i><r /><div><i>The non-typeale strains cause mucosal infectio
ns (e.g. otitis media, conjunctivitis, ronchitis).</i></div>

1402679705999 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA Protease}} is a protein made y <i>Hae
mophilus influenzae</i>&nsp;that functions to cleave secreted host IgA.
1402679943109 1395802358422 Which agar is required to culture <i>Haemophilus
influenzae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chocolate agar}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Chocolate agar contains the required Factor V (NAD+) and Factor X (Hematin
)</i></div>
1402680098931 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}} is a gram-p
ositive acteria that can e used to grow <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nsp;due
to its aility to provide Factor V (NAD+).
1402680179686 1395802358422 {{c1::"Thumprint Sign"}} is a feature of Epiglo
ttitis caused y <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nsp;that is seen on a lateral ne
ck x-ray.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3904125272481.jpg" /></div>
1402680282680 1395802358422 {{c1::Epiglottitis}} is a complication of <i>Hae
mophilus influenzae</i>&nsp;infection that often presents as a "cherry red" epi
glottis in children.<div><r /><div><img src="paste-3990024618262.jpg" /></div><
/div> <r /><div><i>Ha<>EMOP</>hilus influenzae:</i></div><div><i>- <>E</>
piglottitis</i></div><div><i>- <>M</>eningitis</i></div><div><i>- <>O</>titi
s media</i></div><div><i>- <>P</>neumonia</i></div><div><i>H. influenzae does
not cause the flu. That is the influenza virus.</i></div>
1402680394869 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <>mucosal</>&nsp;<i
>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nsp;infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amoxicil
lin (+/- Clavulanate)}}</div>
1402680440254 1395802358422 What is the treatment for meningitis caused y <
i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ceftriaxone}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rifampin can e used for prophylaxis following close contact.</i><
/div>
1402681890002 1395802358422 What stain is required to properly visualize <i>
Legionella pneumophila</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Silver stain}}</div>
1402682772705 1395802358422 What culture/agar is required to grow <i>Legione
lla pneumophila</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Charcoal yeast extract with iron
and cysteine}}</div> <r /><div><i>Legionella is clinically detected y the p
resence of antigen in the urine.</i></div>
1402682850107 1395802358422 How is <i>Legionella pneumophila</i>&nsp;transm
itted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aerosol from environmental water source to ha
itat}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. air conditioning unit; hot water tanks</i></d
iv><div><i>There is no person-to-person transmission</i></div>
1402683018488 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Legionella pneumoph
ila</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Macrolides or Quinolones}}</d
iv>
1402683040477 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Legionnaires' Disease?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Legionella pneumophila</i>}}</div>
1402683239774 1395802358422 {{c1::Legionnaires' Disease}} is a respiratory d
isorder caused y <i>Legionella pneumophila</i>&nsp;that presents with <>sever
e pneumonia</>, fever, <>GI</>&nsp;and <>CNS </>symptoms.
1402683305813 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Pontiac Fever?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Legionella pneumophila</i>}}</div>
1402683318268 1395802358422 {{c1::Pontiac Fever}} is a fever caused y <i>Le
gionella pneumophila</i>&nsp;that presents as a <>mild flu-like syndrome</>.
1402683374374 1395802358422 Which electrolyte imalance is seen in the las
of a patient with <i>Legionella pneumophila</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypo
natremia}}</div>
1402683406615 1395802358422 What is the oxygen dependency of <i>Pseudomonas
aeruginosa</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aeroic}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Ps
eudomonas <>AER</>uginosa = <>AER</>oic</i></div>
1402683469962 1395802358422 What is the oxidase expression of <i>Pseudomonas
aeruginosa</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402683513183 1395802358422 Which pigment made y <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa<
/i>&nsp;gives it its lue-green pigment?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7
387343749400.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pyocyanin}}</div>
1402683543013 1395802358422 What type of odour is associated with <i>Pseudom

onas aeruginosa</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Grape-like odour}}</div>
1402683559398 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i
>&nsp;functions to inactivate EF-2 via ADP Riosylation?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Exotoxin A}}</div>
1402683605448 1395802358422 Which gram-negative acteria is associated with
wound and urn infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa<
/i>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8057358647504.jpg" /></div>
1402684265625 1395802358422 Which gram-negative acteria is associated with
pneumonia in cystic firosis patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas
aeruginosa</i>}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>Chronic pneumonia in cystic firosis
patients is associated with iofilms, an area in which Pseudomonas is a star.</
i><r /><div><img src="paste-8053063680208.jpg" /></div>
1402684318361 1395802358422 Which gram-negative acteria is associated with
malignant Otitis Externa in diaetics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas
aeruginosa</i>}}</div>
1402684350685 1395802358422 Which gram-negative acteria is associated with
hot tu folliculitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-8053063680208.jpg" /></div>
1402684375413 1395802358422 Which gram-negative acteria is associated with
Diaetic Osteomyelitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>
}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8053063680208.jpg" /></div>
1402684416711 1395802358422 Which gram-negative acteria is associated with
Ecthyma Gangrenosum?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8529805050270.jpg" /><
r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>}}</div></div>
1402684461597 1395802358422 {{c1::Ecthyma Gangrenosum}} is a cutaneous disor
der caused y <i>Pseudomonas sp.</i>&nsp;that is descried as rapidly progressi
ve, necrotic cutaneous lesions.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-85255100829
74.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Typically seen in immunocompromised patien
ts.</i></div>
1402684552834 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Pseudomonas aerugin
osa</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-lactam ( Aminoglycoside)}}</div>
1402684942766 1395802358422 What is the treatment for a&nsp;<>UTI</>&nsp
;caused y <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ciprofloxac
in}}</div>
1402701900936 1395802358422 Which virulence factor from <i>Escherichia coli<
/i>&nsp;allows it to cause cystitis and pyelonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Fimriae}}</div>
1402702796660 1395802358422 Which virulence factor from&nsp;<i>Escherichia
coli</i>&nsp;allows it to cause pneumonia and neonatal meningitis?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::K capsule}}</div>
1402702816170 1395802358422 Which virulence factor from&nsp;<i>Escherichia
coli</i>&nsp;allows it to cause septic shock?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LPS en
dotoxin}}</div>
1402702831849 1395802358422 {{c1::Enteroinvasive <i>Escherichia coli</i>&ns
p;(EIEC)}} is a strain of <i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;that <>invades</> the i
ntestinal mucosa, therey causing necrosis and inflammation and susequent dysen
tery.
1402702967849 1395802358422 {{c1::Enteroinvasive&nsp;<i>Escherichia coli</i
>&nsp;(EIEC)}} is a strain of <i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;that clinically pres
ents similar to <i>Shigella</i>&nsp;infection.
1402702989205 1395802358422 {{c1::Enterotoxigenic <i>Escherichia coli </i>(E
TEC)}} is a strain of <i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;that produces oth <u>heat-la
ile</u>&nsp;and <u>heat-stale</u>&nsp;enterotoxins. <r /><div><i>Does not c
ause inflammation and <u>is not invasive</u>.</i></div>
1402703101476 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Travelers' Diarrhea?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Enterotoxigenic&nsp;<i>Escherichia coli&nsp;</i>(ETEC)
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Watery diarrhea.</i></div><div><i>E<>T</>EC = <
>T</>ravelers' Diarrhea</i></div>
1402703136653 1395802358422 {{c1::Enteropathogenic <i>Escherichia coli</i>&n
sp;(EPEC)}} is a strain of <i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;that <>adheres to the

apical surface of GI epithelium, flattens villi</>&nsp;and therey causes <>m
alasorption</>.
<r /><div><i>Causes watery diarrhea, typically in child
ren.</i></div><div><i>E<>P</>EC = <>P</>ediatric patients</i></div>
1402703308145 1395802358422 {{c1::Enterohemorrhagic <i>Escherichia coli</i>&
nsp;(EHEC)}} is a strain of <i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;that produces a <>Shi
ga-like&nsp;toxin</>&nsp;that causes Hemolytic Uremia Syndrome (HUS).
<r /><div><i>The toxin alone causes necrosis and inflammation, therey causing
dysentery.</i></div>
1402703401230 1395802358422 What is the most common serotype of&nsp;Enteroh
emorrhagic&nsp;<i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;(EHEC)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
O157:H7}}</div>
1402703433847 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic Uremia Syndrome (HUS)}} is a hem
atological/renal complication of&nsp;Enterohemorrhagic&nsp;<i>Escherichia coli
</i>&nsp;(EHEC) infection that involves a triad of&nsp;<>anaemia, thromocyto
paenia</><i style="font-weight: old; ">&nsp;</i>and <>acute renal failure</
>.
<r /><div><i>Microthromi form on endothelium that is damaged y the Sh
iga-like toxin. This then causes mechanical hemolysis and formation of schistocy
tes. That also causes a decrease in renal lood flow.</i></div><div><i>Additiona
lly, the microthromi results thromocytopaenia due to the platelet usage.</i></
div>
1402703499005 1395802358422 {{c1::Enterohemorrhagic&nsp;<i>Escherichia coli
</i>&nsp;(EHEC)}} is a strain of <i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;that is also refe
rred to as Shiga toxin-producing <i>Escherichia coli</i>.
1402703632090 1395802358422 Which major strain of <i>Echerichia coli</i>&ns
p;<>does not</>&nsp;ferment Soritol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Enterohemorr
hagic&nsp;<i>Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;(EHEC)}}</div> <r /><div><i>This is ho
w you differentiate EHEC from other Escherichia coli strains.</i></div>
1402704125904 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Klesiella</i>}} is a gram-negative ins
testinal acteria that causes loar pneumonia in alcoholics and diaetics when a
spirated.
<div><r /></div><i>Also a cause of nocosomial UTIs.</i><r /><d
iv><img src="paste-13327283519705.jpg" /></div>
1402705097593 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Klesiella spp.</i>}} is a gram-negativ
e intestinal flora that grows very mucoid colonies due to an aundance of polysa
ccharide capsules.
1402705143390 1395802358422 Which gram-negative intestinal flora is associat
ed with <>red "currant jelly"</>&nsp;sputum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Kl
esiella spp.</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13322988552409.jpg" /
></div>
1402705195876 1395802358422 What type of motility does <i>Salmonella</i>&ns
p;have?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Flagella}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Salmon ca
n swim" (i.e. Salmonella has a flagella)</i></div><div><i>Shigella <>does not</
>&nsp;have a flagella.</i></div>
1402705418836 1395802358422 How does <i>Salmonella</i>&nsp;disseminate in t
he ody?<div><r />{{c1::Hematogenously}}</div>
1402705440214 1395802358422 How does <i>Shigella</i>&nsp;disseminate in the
ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cell to cell}}</div> <r /><div><i>It <>does
not</>&nsp;spread hematogenously (Salmonella does).</i></div>
1402705480143 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydrogen sulfide}} is a chemical compound
with a characteristic smell of rotten eggs. It is <>made y </><i style="fontweight: old; ">Salmonella</i>, ut <>not <i>Shigella</i>.</>
1402706128586 1395802358422 How do antiiotics influence the duration of fec
al excretion of <i>Salmonella</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prolongation}}</di
v>
1402706169399 1395802358422 How do antiiotics influence the duration of fec
al excretion of <i>Shigella</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Shortening}}</div>
1402706193971 1395802358422 What type of immune response is seen once <i>Sal
monella</i>&nsp;invades the intestinal mucosa?<div><r />{{c1::Monocytic respon
se}}</div>
1402707681139 1395802358422 What type of immune response is seen when <i>Shi
gella</i>&nsp;invades the intestinal mucosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PMN Inf

iltration}}</div>
1402707714140 1395802358422 What is the etiology for Typhoid Fever?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Salmonella typhi</i>}}</div>
1402708338576 1395802358422 {{c1::Typhoid Fever}} is a fever caused y <i>Sa
lmonella typhi</i>&nsp;that presents with <>rose spots on the adomen</>, fev
er, headache and diarrhea.
1402708366492 1395802358422 What is the reservoir for <i>Salmonella typhi</i
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Humans only}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It can rem
ain in the gallladder and cause a carrier state.</i></div>
1402708857743 1395802358422 How is <i>Campyloacter jejuni</i>&nsp;transmit
ted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fecal-oral}}</div>
1402708942499 1395802358422 What foods are associated with <i>Campyloacter
jejuni</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poultry; Meat; Unpasteurized Milk}}</div>
1402708972493 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea does <i>Campyloacter jeju
ni</i>&nsp;cause?<div><r />{{c1::Bloody; especially in children}}</div>
1402708990506 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Campyloacter jejuni</i>}} is a <>comm
a</>&nsp;or <>S-shaped</>&nsp;gram-negative acillus that is a major cause
of loody diarrhea, especially in children.
1402709037963 1395802358422 What is the Oxidase expression of <i>Campyloact
er jejuni</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402709054386 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Campyloacter jejuni</i>}} is a <>comm
a</>&nsp;or <>S-shaped</>&nsp;gram-negative acillus that grows at 42 C.
<r /><div><i><>CAMP</>yloacter likes the hot <>CAMP</>fire.</i></div>
1402709619219 1395802358422 Which gram-negative acillus is a common anteced
ent to <>Guillain-Barre Syndrome</>&nsp;and reactive arthritis?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Campyloacter jejuni</i>}}</div>
1402709659136 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Virio cholerae</i>}} is a <>comma-sha
ped</> gram-negative acillus that produces a profuse rice-water diarrhea via a
n enterotoxin that permanently activates the G<su>s</su>&nsp;suunit, therey
increasing cAMP.
<r /><div><i>Endemic in developing nations.</i></div><d
iv><i>Prompt oral rehydration is necessary.</i></div>
1402710228196 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Cholera toxin from <i>Virio
cholerae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Permanent activation of the G<su>s</su
>&nsp;suunit leading to overactivity of Adenylate Cyclase and increased cAMP}
}</div>
1402710260851 1395802358422 What is the oxidase expression of <i>Virio chol
erae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402711710666 1395802358422 What type of media is required to culture <i>Vi
rio cholerae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::An alkaline media}}</div>
1402711752320 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>ersinia enterocolitica</i>}} is a gram
-negative acteria that causes a mesenteric adenitis that can mimic Crohn Diseas
e or Appendicitis in its presentation.
1402711796664 1395802358422 How is <i>ersinia enterocolitica</i>&nsp;trans
mitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pet feces; Contaminated Milk; Pork}}</div>
1402711828007 1395802358422 What type of gastrointestinal ulcer is most comm
only associated with <i>Helicoacter pylori</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Duod
enal}}</div>
1402712439398 1395802358422 What is the Oxidase expression of <i>Helicoacte
r pylori</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402712470507 1395802358422 What is the Catalase expression of <i>Helicoact
er pylori</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402712488672 1395802358422 What is the Urease expression of <i>Helicoacter
pylori</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<r /><div><i>A
Urease reath test or fecal antigen test can e used for diagnosis.</i></div>
1402712523662 1395802358422 How does the pH of the stomach change with <i>He
licoacter pylori</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::More alkaline (
increased pH)}}</div>
1402712733388 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Helicoacter pylori
</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16664473108755.jpg" />
<r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Triple therapy: PPI + Clarithromycin + Amoxici

llin/Metronidazole}}</div></div>
1402712785869 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Spirochetes}} are a group of act
eria that are spiral-shaped with axial filaments.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-16707422781769.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /></div><><i>BLT</i></><r />
<div><i>It includes <>B</>orrelia (ig), <>L</>eptospira, <>T</>reponema.<
/i></div>
1402712865855 1395802358422 Which is the only Spirochete that can e visuali
zed using anilin dyes (Wright or Giemsa) in light microscopy?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::<i>Borrelia</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Borrelia is the
iggest spirochete.</i></div>
1402712913007 1395802358422 What type of microscopy is required to visualize
the Spirochete&nsp;<i>Treponema</i>?<div><r />{{c1::Dark-field microscopy}}</
div>
1402712939269 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Leptospirosis?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Leptospira interrogans</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>Leptospiro
sis presents with flu-like symptoms, jaundice, photophoia with conjunctival suf
fusion (erythema without exudate).</i></div>
1402713050920 1395802358422 Which Spirochete is found in water contaminated
with animal urine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Leptospira interrogans</i>}}</d
iv>
1402713110665 1395802358422 {{c1::Leptospirosis}} is an infectious disease c
aused y <i>Leptospira interrogans</i>&nsp;that presents with <>flu-like sympt
oms, jaundice</>&nsp;and <>photophoia with conjunctival suffusion</>&nsp;(
erythema without exudate).
1402713162648 1395802358422 Which demographic shows a high prevalence of Lep
tospirosis (<i>Leptospira interrogans</i>)?<div><r />{{c1::Surfers; Tropics}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>Hence Hawaii is a ig hot spot.</i></div>
1402713204303 1395802358422 {{c1::Weil Disease (Icterohemorrhagic Leptospiro
sis)}} is a severe form of Leptospirosis that presents with <>jaundice</>&nsp
;and <>azotemia</>&nsp;from liver and renal dysfunction.
<r /><div><i><u
>Also involves fever, hemorrhage and anaemia</u>.</i></div>
1402775605621 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Lyme Disease?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>Borrelia urgdorferi</i>}}</div>
1402779671287 1395802358422 How is Lyme Disease (<i>Borrelia urgdorferi</i>
) transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::via the <i>Ixodes</i>&nsp;tick}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2263447765209.jpg" /></div>
1402779699146 1395802358422 Which vector transmits Lyme Disease (<i>Borrelia
urgdorferi</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ixodes</i>&nsp;tick}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2263447765209.jpg" /></div>
1402779720891 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Baesia</i>}} is a species of protozoa
transmitted y the <i>Ixodes</i>&nsp;tick that causes a hematological infection
.
<r /><div><img src="paste-2267742732505.jpg" /></div>
1402779823546 1395802358422 Which animal is the natural reservoir for <i>Bor
relia urdorferi</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mouse}}</div> <r /><div><i>Mi
ce are important in the tick life cycle.</i></div>
1402780394007 1395802358422 In which area of the United States is Lyme Disea
se common?<div><r />{{c1::Northeastern United States}}</div>
1402780493044 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythemia Chronicum Migrans}} is an <>ini
tial</> cutaneous feature of Lyme Disease that is descried as an expanding <>
"ull's eye", red, target</>&nsp;rash.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25
76980378017.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Other initial features include flu
-like symptoms and  facial nerve palsy.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-32427003
08685.jpg" /></i></div>
1402780699113 1395802358422 Which nerve palsy is a potential <>initial</>&
nsp;symptom of Lyme Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Facial Nerve Palsy}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3246995275981.jpg" /></div>
1402782513236 1395802358422 {{c1::Arthritis}} is a musculoskeletal complicat
ion seen in Lyme Disease.
<r /><div><i>Monoarthritis in large joints.</i>
</div><div><i>Migratory polyarthritis elsewhere.</i></div><div><i><img src="past
e-3242700308685.jpg" /></i></div>

1402782559050 1395802358422 Which cardiac conduction disorder is seen in <>
late</>&nsp;Lyme Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AV nodal lock}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3242700308685.jpg" /></div>
1402782592347 1395802358422 {{c1::Facial Nerve Palsy}} is a neurological sym
ptom seen in <>late</>&nsp;Lyme Disease that presents alongside <>encephalop
athy</>&nsp;and <>polyneuropathy</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-32427
00308685.jpg" /></div>
1402783498648 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Lyme Disease?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Doxycycline; Ceftriaxone}}</div>
1402783520457 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Syphilis?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::<i>Treponema pallidum</i>}}</div>
1402784024193 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Syphilis?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Penicillin G}}</div>
1402784054464 1395802358422 {{c1::Primary Syphilis}} is a type of Syphilis t
hat presents with localized, <>painless</>&nsp;chancres.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-4118873637280.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Sorry, ut you kne
w there was going to e a dick pic when it came to Syphilis...</i></div>
1402785088773 1395802358422 What type of microscopy is required to visualize
<i>Treponema pallidum</i>&nsp;in the fluid from Syphilis chancres?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Dark-field microscopy}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-42649
02525152.jpg" /></div>
1402785400150 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondary Syphilis}} is a form of Syphilis
that presents as a disseminated disease with a&nsp;<>maculopapular rash</>&n
sp;on the <>palms</>&nsp;and <>soles</>. <r /><div><i><>S</>econdary =
&nsp;<>S</>ystemic</i></div>
1402785772078 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondary Syphilis}} is a form of Syphilis
that presents with <>condylomata lata</>.
<r /><div><i>These can also e
confirmed via dark-field microscopy once the Treponemes have een sampled.</i></
div><div><i><>S</>econdary = <>S</>ystemic</i></div>
1402786184387 1395802358422 {{c1::Tertiary Syphilis}} is a form of Syphilis
that presents with <>Gummas</>&nsp;(chronic granulomas that form).
1402786224435 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortitis}} is a complication of <>Tertiar
y</>&nsp;Syphilis that presents due to <>destruction of the vasa vasorum</>&
nsp;at large lood vessels.
1402786292768 1395802358422 {{c1::Tertiary Syphilis}} is a form of Syphilis
that presents with <>aortitis</>&nsp;that occurs due to destruction of the va
sa vasorum.
1402786405306 1395802358422 {{c1::Taes Dorsalis (Syphilitic Myelopathy)}} i
s a feature of <>Tertiary</>&nsp;Syphilis that presents with&nsp;<>general
paresis</>&nsp;and <>loss of sensation</>&nsp;due to slow degeneration of t
he dorsal column of the spinal cord.
1402786769436 1395802358422 {{c1::Argyll-Roertson pupil}} is a feature of <
>Tertiary</>&nsp;Syphilis that is descried as a pathological pupil that <>s
hows accommodation</>&nsp;ut <>does not react to light</>. <r /><div><i>i.
e. the pupil constricts to focus on a near oject, ut <u>does not contrict</u>&
nsp;when exposed to right light.</i></div><div><i>aka <>Prostitute</>&nsp;P
upil (lol, no lie, it's on page 142 of first aid)</i></div>
1402787091177 1395802358422 What form of Syphilis is associated with <>roa
d-ased ataxia</>&nsp;and a <>positive Romerg sign</>?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Tertiary syphilis; Neurosyphilis}}</div>
1402787284311 1395802358422 What form of Syphilis is associated with <>Char
cot joint </>(Neuropathic arthropathy)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tertiary Syp
hilis; Neurosyphilis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Charcot joint involves progressive
degeneration of a weight earing joint due to decreased peripheral sensation/pr
oprioception/motor control (e.g. Neurosyphilis).</i></div>
1402787503569 1395802358422 Which form of Syphilis presents with <>stroke w
ithout hypertension</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tertiary Syphilis}}</div>
1402787527065 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Syphilis}} is a form of syphili
s that presents with <>saer shin </>and <>saddle nose</>. <r /><div><i>Co
ngenital syphilis can e prevented y early treatment in the mother, as placenta

l transmission typically occurs <u>after</u>&nsp;the first trimester.</i></div>
1402787736314 1395802358422 {{c1::Saer shin}} is a morphological feature of
Congenital Syphilis that presents as a sharp anterior owing of the tiia.
1402787765159 1395802358422 {{c1::Saddle Nose}} is a morphological feature o
f Congenital Syphilis that presents with a loss of height of the nose due to a c
ollapsed nose ridge (nasal dorsum).
1402787831199 1395802358422 Which form of Syphilis is associated with <>CN
VIII (Vestiulocochlear Nerve) Deafness</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenit
al syphilis}}</div>
1402787876141 1395802358422 {{c1::Hutchinson teeth}} is a morphological feat
ure of Congenital Syphilis that is descried as teeth that are <>notched</>,&n
sp;<>smaller</> and <>more widely spaced</> than normal.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-6545530159374.jpg" /></div>
1402787985378 1395802358422 Which type of Syphilis is associated with <>Hut
chinson teeth?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Congenital Syphilis}}</div>
1402788064471 1395802358422 {{c1::Mulerry molars}} are a morphological feat
ure of Congenital Syphilis that are descried as multiple rounded rudimentary en
amel cusps on the permanent first molars.
1402788779441 1395802358422 {{c1::VDRL}} is a non-specific test for Syphilis
that detects a nonspecific antiody that reacts with eef cardiolipin.
1402789401319 1395802358422 {{c1::VDRL}} is a non-specific test for Syphilis
that involves many false positive test results.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-7962869367009.jpg" /></div>
1402789442508 1395802358422 {{c1::Jarisch-Herxheimer Reaction}} is a flu-lik
e syndrome that presents after antiiotics are administered in a patient due to
widespread release of pyrogens from killed acteria.
1402789637427 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Anaplasmosis?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>Anaplasma spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794149604 1395802358422 How it Anaplasmosis (<i>Anaplasma spp.</i>) tran
smitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ixodes</i>&nsp;tick (which lives on deer
and mice)}}</div>
1402794189885 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Cat Scratch Disease?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bartonella spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794201690 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Bacillary Angiomatosis?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bartonella spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794228777 1395802358422 How is Bacillary Angiomatosis (<i>Bartonella spp
.</i>) transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cat scratch}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Bartonella also causes cat scratch disease.</i></div>
1402794276603 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Relapsing Fever?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Borrelia recurrentis</i>}}</div>
1402794294219 1395802358422 How is Relapsing Fever (<i>Borrelia recurrentis<
/i>) transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Louse}}</div>
1402794315636 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::louse}} is an insect that serves
as the vector for <i>Borrelia recurrentis</i>&nsp;(Relapsing Fever) as it has v
ariale surface antigens.
<r /><div><i>The antigen variaility makes it r
ecurrent.</i></div>
1402794360559 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Brucellosis?<div><r />{
{c1::<i>Brucella spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794808165 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Undulent Fever?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Brucella spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794822559 1395802358422 What food is associated with <i>Brucella spp.</i
>&nsp;infection?<div><r />{{c1::Unpasteurized dairy}}</div>
1402794842557 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is associated with <i>Camp
yloacter jejuni</i>?<div><r />{{c1::Bloody diarrhea}}</div>
1402795042313 1395802358422 Which pet animals are associated with <i>Campylo
acter</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r />{{c1::Puppies}}</div>
1402795071306 1395802358422 Aside from puppies, how else is <i>Campyloacter
spp.</i>&nsp;transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Livestock (fecal-oral via
ingestion of undercooked meat)}}</div>
1402795398398 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Psittacosis?<div><r /><

/div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i>}}</div>
1402795417638 1395802358422 How is Psittacosis (<i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i
>) transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Parrots</u>&nsp;or other irds}}<
/div>
1402795442685 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Q Fever?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Coxiella urnetti</i>}}</div>
1402795461611 1395802358422 How is Q Fever (<i>Coxiella urnetti</i>) transm
itted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aerosols of cattle/sheep amniotic fluid}}</div
>
1402795486165 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Erlichiosis?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::<i>Erlichia chaffeensis</i>}}</div>
1402795514168 1395802358422 How is Erlichiosis (<i>Erlichia chaffeensis</i>)
transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lone Star ticks}}</div>
1402795542279 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Tularemia?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Francisella tularensis</i>}}</div>
1402795561828 1395802358422 How is Tularemia (<i>Francisella tularensis</i>)
transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Raits</u>, ticks, deer fly}}</div>
1402795592883 1395802358422 What is the etiology of <>Epidemic </>Typhus?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Rickettsia prowazekii</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>E<
 style="text-decoration: underline; ">P</>idemic = < style="text-decoration:
underline; ">P</>rowazeki</i></div>
1402795760707 1395802358422 What is the vector for <>Epidemic</>&nsp;Typh
us&nsp;(<i>Rickettsia prowazeki</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Human Body Lou
se}}</div>
1402796062112 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Rocky Mountain Spotted F
ever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Rickettsia rickettsii</i>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>All Rickettsiae are&nsp;<>Oligate intracellular organism</>&nsp;as th
ey require CoA and NAD+. They cannot synthesize ATP.</i></div>
1402796136402 1395802358422 What is the vector for Rocket Mountain Spotted F
ever (<i>Rickettsia rickettsii</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Dermacentor</
i>&nsp;ticks}}</div>
1402796160322 1395802358422 What is the etiology of <>Endemic</>&nsp;Typh
us?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Rickettsia typhi</i>}}</div>
1402796183971 1395802358422 What is the vector for <>Endemic</>&nsp;Typhu
s (<i>Rickettsia typhi</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fleas}}</div>
1402796200016 1395802358422 What is the cause of Buonic Plague?<div><r />{
{c1::<i>ersinia pestis</i>}}</div>
1402796398454 1395802358422 How is Buonic Plague (<i>ersinia pestis</i>) t
ransmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fleas}}</div>
1402796422932 1395802358422 What animals are the reservoir for <i>ersinia p
estis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rats; Prairie Dogs}}</div>
1402796444702 1395802358422 Which pleomorphic, gram-<>variale</>&nsp;rod
is known to e involved in <>vaginosis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Gard
nerella vaginalis</i>}}</div> <div><r /></div>
1402796626970 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Gardnerella vaginalis</i>}} is a pleomo
rphic acillus that causes a vaginosis that presents with a <>gray vaginal disc
harge</>&nsp;that has a <>fishy</>&nsp;smell.
<r /><div><i>Associated
with sexual activity, ut is not sexually transmitted.</i></div>
1402796857261 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Gardnerella vaginalis</i>}} is a pleomo
rphic, <>gram-variale</> acillus that yields a <>nonpainful</>&nsp;vagino
sis.
<r /><div><i>The nonpainful point is important as vaginitis presents wi
th pain.</i></div>
1402796943140 1395802358422 {{c1::Clue cells}} are cells that feature vagino
sis caused y <i>Gardnerella vaginalis</i>&nsp;and are descried as <>vaginal
epithelial cells covered with </><i><>Gardnerella vaginalis</>.</i><div><i><
r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-11751030522135.jpg" /></i></div> <r /><d
iv><i>Visile under the microscope.</i></div>
1402797071989 1395802358422 What is the treatment for vaginosis caused y <i
>Gardnerella vaginalis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidazole}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The anaeroic overgrowth of acteria seen alongside the vaginosis

can e treated with Clindamycin.</i></div>
1402797631619 1395802358422 What is the treatment for all disorders caused 
y <i>Rickettsia spp</i>.?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Doxycycline}}</div>
1402797720987 1395802358422 Where in the United States does Rocky Mountain S
potted Fever primarily manifest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::South Atlantic state
s, especially North Caroline}}</div>
1402798047687 1395802358422 {{c1::Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever}} is a zoonot
ic infection caused y <i>Rickettsia rickettsii</i>&nsp;that presents with a ra
sh that typically starts at the <>wrists and ankles</>&nsp;and then spreads t
o the <>trunk, palms and soles</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-131511
89860772.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-14160507175097.jpg" /></div>
1402799228982 1395802358422 {{c1::Typhus}} is a Rickettsial disease that pre
sents with a <>rash that starts centrally and spreads out</>, ut <>spares th
e palms and soles</>. <r /><div><i><>R</>MSF (R. <><u>r</u></>icketsii) =
palms/soles/w<>R</>ists</i></div><div><i><>T</>yphus (R. typhi; R. prowazek
ii) = <>T</>runk</i></div>
1402799339029 1395802358422 {{c1::Ehrlichiosis}} and {{c2::Anaplasmosis}} ar
e Rickettsial diseases that presents with <>monocytes with morulae</>&nsp;in
their cytoplasm.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14538464297377.jpg" /></di
v>
1402799415933 1395802358422 {{c1::Morulae}} are <>erry-like</> cytoplasmi
c inclusions seen in the monocytes of a patient with Ehrlichiosis or Anaplasmosi
s.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14534169330081.jpg" /></div>
1402799666317 1395802358422 {{c1::Q Fever}} is a Rickettsial disease that ca
n e otained via aerosolized spores released from tick feces or cattle placenta
.
1402799860948 1395802358422 {{c1::Q Fever}} is a Rickettsial disorder caused
y <i>Coxiella urnetti</i>&nsp;that presents as pneumonia. <r /><div><img
src="paste-15302968475811.jpg" /></div>
1402799896649 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Elementary ody}} is the morpholo
gical form of Chlamydiae that is <>infectious</>&nsp;and <>enters the host c
ell via endocytosis</>.
<r /><div><i><>E</>lementary = Is "<>e</>nf
ectious" and&nsp;<>e</>nters target host cell via <>e</>ndocytosis</i></div
>
1402800491518 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Reticulate ody}} is the morpholo
gical form of Chlamydiae that <>replicates</>&nsp;inside the target host cell
<r /><div><i><>R</>eticulate ody = <>R</>eplicates into el
y fission.
ementary odies</i></div>
1402800544876 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Reiter Syndrome?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>}}</div>
1402800583375 1395802358422 {{c1::Reiter Syndrome}} is a type of reactive ar
thritis that is caused y <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>.
1402800604002 1395802358422 Which Chlamydiae organism is known to cause Foll
icular Conjunctivitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>}}
</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15921443766555.jpg" /></div>
1402800819957 1395802358422 Which Chlamydiae organism is known to cause nong
onococcal urethritis and pelvic inflammatory disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>}}</div>
1402800864696 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Chlamydophila pneumoniae</i>}} and&nsp
;{{c2::<i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i>}} are 2 Chlamydiae organisms that cause aty
pical pneumonia via aerosol transmission.
1402800912650 1395802358422 What is the treatment for all Chlamydiae infecti
ons?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Azithromycin (favoured Ax due to one-time treat
ment); Doxycycline}}</div>
1402800943048 1395802358422 {{c1::Muramic Acid}} is a sugar acid commonly fo
und in acterial cell walls, however <>not in Chlamydiae</>.
1402801168380 1395802358422 Which serotypes of <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&
nsp;are associated with chronic infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A; B; C}}
</div>
1402801299661 1395802358422 Which serotypes of&nsp;<i>Chlamydia trachomatis

</i>&nsp;are associated with lindness due to Follicular Conjunctivitis, especi
ally in Africa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A; B; C}}</div>
<r /><div><i><
>ABC</>&nsp;= <>A</>frica; <>B</>lindness; <>C</>onjunctivitis/<>C</>h
ronic infection</i></div>
1402801348122 1395802358422 Which serotypes of&nsp;<i>Chlamydia trachomatis
</i>&nsp;are associated with Urethritis and Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D-K}}</div> <r /><div><i>The D--K serotypes are ass
ociated with STD/STI (and everything else not specific to serotypes A, B, C, L13)</i></div>
1402801435247 1395802358422 Which serotypes of&nsp;<i>Chlamydia trachomatis
</i>&nsp;are associated with ectopic pregnancy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D-K}
}</div>
1402801445026 1395802358422 Which serotypes of&nsp;<i>Chlamydia trachomatis
</i>&nsp;are associated with Neonatal Pneumonia (Staccato Cough)?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::D-K}}</div>
1402801458083 1395802358422 Which serotypes of&nsp;<i>Chlamydia trachomatis
</i>&nsp;are associated with Neonatal Conjunctivitis?<div><r />{{c1::D-K}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Neonatal disease is typically acquired during childirth t
hrough the irthing canal.</i></div>
1402801479820 1395802358422 Which serotypes of&nsp;<i>Chlamydia trachomatis
</i>&nsp;are associated with <>Lymphogranuloma Venereum</>?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::L1; L2; L3}}</div>
1402801500307 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphogranuloma Venereum}} is an STD cause
d y <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;(L1, L2, L3) that <>initially&nsp;</>p
resents with <>small, painless ulcers</>&nsp;on the genitals.
1402801569211 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphogranuloma Venereum}} is an STD cause
d y <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;(L1; L2; L3) that presents with <>swolle
n, painful inguinal lymph nodes</>&nsp;that ulcerate into <>"uoes"</>&nsp
;in its later stages.
1402801617772 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Lymphogranuloma Venere
um?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Doxycycline}}</div>
1402801636667 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i>}} is a poorly
gram-staining acteria that is a classic cause of atypical <>"walking"</>&ns
p;pneumonia.
<r /><div><i>Walking pneumonia is pneumonia with an insidious o
nset, headache, nonproductive cough and patchy/diffuse interstitial infiltrate.<
/i></div><div><i>Chest x-ray often looks worse than the patient is.</i></div>
1402802277542 1395802358422 Which class of immunogloulin is found in high l
evels as cold agglutinins in atypical pneumonia caused y <i>Mycoplasma pneumoni
ae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgM}}</div> <r /><div><i>es, I know this i
s a terrily worded question. Just rememer that IgM titers are elevated in M. p
neumoniae infection.</i></div>
1402802351448 1395802358422 What agar is used to grow <i>Mycoplasma pneumoni
ae</i>?<div><r />{{c1::Eaton agar}}</div>
1402802366199 1395802358422 How does <i>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i>&nsp;gram
stain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::It doesn't; There is no cell wall}}</div>
1402802390902 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Mycoplasma pneumoni
ae</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Macrolide, Doxycycline, <>or<
/> Fluoroquinolone}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Penicillins are ineffective as the
re is no cell wall.</i></div>
1402802429526 1395802358422 Which age group is more commonly affected y myc
oplasmal pneumonia (<i>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&l
t; 30 y/o}}</div>
<r /><div><i>There are frequent outreaks in military r
ecruits and prisons.</i></div>
1402932958917 1395802358422 Which <>morphological</>&nsp;type of fungi ar
e known to cause Systemic Mycoses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dimorphic fungi; e
xcept for Coccidiomycosis (spherule in tissue, not yeast)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, Dimorphic fungi are:</i></div><div><i>- <>Mold in the Cold</>&
nsp;(20 C)</i></div><div><i>- <>east in the Heat</>&nsp;(37 C)</i></div>
1402933081425 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <>local</>&nsp;myco
ses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fluconazole or Itraconazole}}</div>

1402933128075 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <>systemic</>&nsp;m
ycoses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amphotericin B}}</div>
1402933148930 1395802358422 {{c1::Systemic mycoses}} is a <>road type</>&
nsp;of mycosis commonly caused y dimorphic fungi.
<r /><div><i>All of the
m can cause pneumonia and can disseminate.</i></div><div><i>All can mimic TB (gr
anuloma formation), ut unlike TB, there is no person-to-person transmission.</i
></div>
1402933225035 1395802358422 Which Systemic Mycosis is endemic in <>Mississi
ppi</>&nsp;and the <>Ohio River valleys</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Histo
plasmosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Causes pneumonia</i>.</div>
1402935063546 1395802358422 How is Histoplasmosis commonly transmitted?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Bird or at droppings}}</div>
1402935087414 1395802358422 {{c1::Histoplasmosis}} is a systemic mycosis tha
t presents with <>macrophages filled with </><i style="font-weight: old; ">Hi
stoplasma</i>, as they are smaller than RBCs.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-7189775253731.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i style="font-weight: old; ">H</i><
i>isto <>H</>ides in macrophages</i></div>
1402935257441 1395802358422 {{c1::Blastomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis that
is endemic in <>states east of the Mississippi River</>&nsp;and <>Central A
merica</>.
1402935487673 1395802358422 {{c1::Blastomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis that
presents with <>road-ase udding</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7
988639170784.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /></div><i>Causes inflammatory lung dis
ease and can disseminate to skin and one.</i><div><i>Forms granulomatous nodule
s.<r /></i><div><i>Blasto uds roadly.</i></div></div>
1402935574119 1395802358422 Which systemic mycosis involves uds that are th
e <>same size as RBCs</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blastomycosis}}</div><div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7984344203488.jpg" /></div>
1402935598377 1395802358422 Which systemic mycosis involves intracellular ye
ast that are <>smaller than RBCs</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Histoplasmosis
}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8048768712926.jpg" /></div>
1402935669129 1395802358422 {{c1::Coccidiomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis th
at is endemic in the <>Southwestern United States</>&nsp;and <>California</
>.
<r /><div><i>Causes pneumonia and meningitis.</i></div><div><i>Can diss
eminate to one and skin.</i></div>
1402935858931 1395802358422 Which systemic mycoses often shows an <>increas
e in case rate after earthquakes</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coccidiomycosis
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is due to spores in dust eing thrown up into
the air and ecoming spherules in the lungs.</i></div>
1402935937768 1395802358422 {{c1::Coccidiomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis th
at presents with <>spherules</>&nsp;filled with endospores.&nsp;<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-8680128905440.jpg" /></div>
1402936017676 1395802358422 {{c1::Coccidiomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis th
at presents with <>erythema nodosum</>&nsp;("Desert umps") and <>arthralgia
s</>&nsp;("Desert rheumatism").
1402936073073 1395802358422 {{c1::Paracoccidioidomycosis}} is a systemic myc
osis that is endemic in <>Latin America</>.
1402936094775 1395802358422 {{c1::Coccidiomycosis}} is a systemic mycosis th
at presents with <>spherules</>&nsp;that are <>much larger than RBCs</>.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8675833938144.jpg" /></div>
1402936130721 1395802358422 {{c1::Paracoccidioidomycosis}} is a systemic myc
osis that presents with <>udding yeast</>&nsp;with a <>"captain's wheel</>
" formation that is <>much larger than RBCs</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-9238474653922.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9251359555676
.jpg" /></div>
1402952353022 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Tinea Versicolour?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Malassezia spp.</i>}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-10849087389973.jpg" /></div> <div><r /></div><i>Malassezia furfur; M
alassezia gloosa; Malassezia sympodialis</i><r /><div><i>Occurs in hot, humid
weather.</i></div>

1402954770372 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Versicolour}} is a cutaneous mycosis
that involves damage to melanocytes and susequent <>hyper- or hypopigmented p
atches</>&nsp;due to acids produced from degradation of lipids.
<r /><d
iv><i>Caused y&nsp;</i><i>Malassezia furfur; Malassezia gloosa; Malassezia sy
mpodialis</i></div>
1402954965425 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Tinea Versicolour?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Topical Miconazole; Selenium Sulfide (Selsun)}}</div>
1402955340863 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Malassezia spp.</i>}} is a fungus that
commonly causes cutaneous mycosis and has a <>"Spaghetti and meatall" appearan
ce</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10844792422677.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Malassezia furfur; Malassezia gloosa; Malassezia sympodialis</i><
/div>
1402955392878 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Pedis}} is cutaneous mycosis of the
foot.
1402955655158 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Cruris}} is cutaneous mycosis of the
groin.
1402955671031 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Corporis}} is a cutaneous mycosis of
the ody that presents with a <>ringworm</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-12537009537268.jpg" /></div>
1402955744163 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Capitis}} is a cutaneous mycosis tha
t affects the head and scalp.
1402955759642 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinea Unguium (Onychomycosis)}} is a cutan
eous mycosis that is seen at the fingernails.
1402957102602 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Microsporum</i>}},&nsp;{{c2::<i>Tricho
phyton</i>}} and&nsp;{{c3::<i>Epidermophyton</i>}} are 3 species of Dermatophyt
es that cause cutaneous mycosis that present as pruritic lesions with a central
clearing, resemling a ring.
1402957605543 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida alicans</i>}} is a dimorphic f
ungi that commonly causes oral and esophageal thrush in the immunocompromised.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13146894893401.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Neonates, steroids, diaetes, AIDS.</i></div>
1402958910381 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida alicans</i>}} is a dimorphic f
ungi that commonly causes <>vulvovaginitis</>, especially in diaetics and fol
lowing antiiotic use.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13142599926105.jpg"
/></div>
1402958973567 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida alicans</i>}} is a dimorphic f
ungi that commonly causes diaper rash.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1314
2599926105.jpg" /></div>
1402959009960 1395802358422 Which dimorphic fungi commonly causes endocardit
is in IV drug users?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Candida alicans</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13142599926105.jpg" /></div>
1402959047158 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida alicans</i>}} is a dimorphic f
ungi that commonly causes opportunistic infections and presents as <>pseudohyph
ae/udding yeasts</>&nsp;at 20 C and <>germ tues</>&nsp;at 37 C.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-13142599926105.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Ps
eudohyphae/udding yeast on the left.</i></div><div><i>Germ tues on the right.<
/i></div>
1402959230824 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Vaginal Candidiasis (V
ulvovaginitis)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A topical azole}}</div>
1402959354647 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Oral/Esophageal Candid
iasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fluconazole; Caspofungin}}</div>
1402959387655 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Systemic Candidiasis?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fluconazole, Amphotericin B or Caspofungin}}</div>
1402959422133 1395802358422 {{c1::Aspergillosis}} is an opportunistic fungal
infection that is commonly seen in patients with Chronic Granulomatous Disease.
<r /><div><i>Also seen in the immunocompromised.</i></div>
1402959831123 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Asperigllus fumigatus</i>}} is an oppor
tunistic fungal species that causes Aspergillosis and presents with <>septate h
yphae that ranch at 45 degree angles</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste13975823581529.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Acute angles in Aspergillosis.</i>

</div><div><i>Not dimorphic.</i></div>
1402959935910 1395802358422 {{c1::Conidiophore}} is a structural form of <i>
Aspergillosis fumigatus </i>that is descried as radiating chains of spores.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14113262535000.jpg" /></div>
1402959996837 1395802358422 {{c1::Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (A
BPA)}} is a pulmonary disorder caused y <i>Aspergillosis fumigatus</i>&nsp;tha
t is associated with <>asthma</> and <>cystic firosis</>. <r /><div><i>Ma
y cause ronchiectasis and eosinophilia.</i></div>
1402960110587 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchiectasis}} and&nsp;{{c3::eosinophil
ia}} are 2 possile complications of Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (AB
PA).
1402960389799 1395802358422 {{c1::Aspergillomas}} are masses of <i>Aspergill
osis fumigatus</i>&nsp;that are commonly seen in lung cavities, especially afte
r Tuerculosis.
1402960482033 1395802358422 {{c1::Aflatoxin}} is a toxin produced y <i>Aspe
rgillosis sp.</i>&nsp;that is associated with causing hepatocellular carcinoma.
1402960556751 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cryptococcus neoformans</i>}} is a heav
ily encapsulated yest that is commonly found in soil and pigeon droppings.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-15427522527574.jpg" /></div>
1402960871101 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cryptococcus neoformans</i>}} is an opp
ortunistic fungus that presents as 5-10 um yeasts with wide capsular halos and u
nequal udding.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15423227560278.jpg" /></div
>
<r /><div><i>The stain used is India Ink</i></div>
1402960924078 1395802358422 Which opportunistic fungus causes Cryptococcal M
eningitis and Cryptococcosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Cryptococcus neoform
ans</i>}}</div>
1402960955725 1395802358422 How is <i>Cryptococcus neoformans</i>&nsp;infec
tion acquired?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhalation; spreads to the meninges he
matogenously}}</div>
1402961020774 1395802358422 What stain is used to visualize <i>Cryptococcus
neoformans</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::India ink and mucicarmine}}</div>
1402961071496 1395802358422 Which opportunistic fungus is associated with <
>"soap ule" lesions</>&nsp;in the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Cryp
tococcus neoformans</i>}}</div> <img src="paste-15423227560278.jpg" />
1402961188392 1395802358422 {{c1::Latex agglutination test}} is a diagnostic
test used to detect the polysaccharide capsular antigen of <i>Cryptococcus neof
ormans</i>.
<r /><div><i>Specific test.</i></div>
1402961229963 1395802358422 {{c1::Mucormycosis}} is an opportunistic yeast i
nfection that is mostly seen in ketoacidotic diaetic and leukemic patients.
<div><r /></div><i>The fungi proliferate in the lood vessel wall when there is
an excess of ketones and glucose. From there they penetrate the criiform plate
and enter the rain.</i><r /><div><i>Typically caused y Mucor sp. and Rhizopu
s spp.</i></div>
1402961922429 1395802358422 {{c1::Mucormycosis}} is an opportunistic fungal
infections that involves proliferation of fungi in the lood vessel walls due to
an excess of ketones and glucose.
<r /><div><i>From there the penetrate t
he criiform plate and enter the rain.</i></div>
1402961972079 1395802358422 {{c1::Mucormycosis}} is an opportunistic fungal
infection that presents with <>rhinocereral</>&nsp;and <>frontal loe asce
sses</>.
1402962164915 1395802358422 {{c1::Mucormycosis}} is an opportunistic fungal
infection that presents with <>headache</>, <>facial pain</>, and a <u style
="font-weight: old; ">lack necrotic eschar on the face</u>. <r /><div><i>Th
ere may e cranial nerve involvement as well.</i></div>
1402962307146 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mucor spp.</i>}} is a species of opport
unistic fungus that can cause Mucormycosis and presents as <>irregular, road,
nonseptate hyphae</>&nsp;ranching at wide angles.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-17532056502616.jpg" /></div>
1402962549139 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Mucormycosis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Amphotericin B}}</div>

1402962563511 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mucor spp.</i>}} and&nsp;{{c2::<i>Rhiz
opus spp.</i>}} are 2 species of opportunistic fungus that can cause Mucormycosi
s.
1402962603661 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Pneumocystis</i>&nsp;causes
<i>Pneumocystis</i>&nsp;Pneumonia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pneumocystis
jirovecii</i>}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18120467022102.jpg" /
></div> <r /><div><i>A diffuse interstitial pneumonia seen in the immunocomprom
ised, especially AIDS.</i></div><div><i>Most infections are asymptomatic.</i></d
iv><div><i>Diagnosed y lung iopsy or lavage.</i></div>
1402962790436 1395802358422 How is <i>Pneumocystis jirovecii</i>&nsp;acquir
ed?<div><r />{{c1::Inhalation}}</div> <div><r /></div>
1402962938143 1395802358422 Which opportunistic fungus is associated with a
pneumonia that yields a <>diffuse, ilateral chest x-ray</>?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::<i>Pneumocystis jirovecii</i>}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-18116172054806.jpg" /></div>
1402963075669 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pneumocystis jirovecii</i>}} is an oppo
rtunistic fungus that is a <>disc-shaped yeast</>&nsp;that forms of <>methen
amine silver stain</>&nsp;of lung tissue.<div><img src="paste-18116172054806.j
pg" /></div>
1402963154951 1395802358422 Which drugs are used as prophylaxis for <i>Pneum
ocystis jirovecii</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dapsone; Atovaq
uone}}</div>
1402963462795 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Pneumocystis jirove
cii</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TMP-SMX; Pentamidine}}</div>
1402963483300 1395802358422 What CD4 count in AIDS patients is required efo
re starting prophylaxis treatment?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 200 cells/mm<
sup>3</sup>}}</div>
1402963815793 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Sporotrichosis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Sporothrix schenckii</i>}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-19524921327895.jpg" /></div>
1402964058744 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Sporothrix schenkii</i>}} is a <>dimor
phic, cigar shaped udding yeast</>&nsp;that lives on vegetation and causes Sp
orotrichosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19520626360599.jpg" /></div>
1402964183851 1395802358422 {{c1::Sporotrichosis}} is an opportunistic funga
l infection that is commonly acquired through traumatic introduction into the sk
in, typically y a rose thorn. <r /><div><i>Hence, "<>Rose Gardener's" Diseas
e</>.</i></div><div><i>Trauma and infection causes a local pustule or ulcer wit
h nodules along draining lymphatics (i.e. Ascending Lympangitis).</i></div><div>
<i>There is little systemic illness.</i></div>
1402964283249 1395802358422 {{c1::Ascending Lymphangitis}} is a complication
of Sporotrichosis that results from local pustule/ulcer formation with nodules
along draining lymphatics following traumatic infection.
1402964422607 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Sporotrichosis?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Itraconazole or Potassium Iodide}}</div>
1403021079329 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Giardiasis?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Giardia lamlia</i>}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-579820585185.jpg" /></div>
1403021176541 1395802358422 {{c1::Giardiasis}} is a GI protozoal infection t
hat presents with <>loating, flatulence, </>and <>foul-smelling, fatty diarr
hea</>.
1403021219016 1395802358422 Which demographic is often affected y Giardiasi
s (<i>Giardia lamlia</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Campers/hikers}}</div>
1403021279364 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is seen in Giardiasis?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fatty, foul-smelling diarrhea}}</div>
1403021597178 1395802358422 {{c1::Giardiasis}} is a protozoal GI infection t
hat is diagnosed y trophozoites or cysts in the stool.<div><r /></div><div><im
g src="paste-1026497183966.jpg" /><img src="paste-1039382085856.jpg" /></div>
1403021659604 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Giardiasis?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Metronidazole}}</div>
1403021666931 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Amoeiasis?<div><r /></

div><div>{{c1::<i>Entamoea histolytica</i>}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-1610612736224.jpg" /></div>
1403021940684 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is seen in Amoeiasis?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody diarrhea (dysentery)}}</div>
1403021960742 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoeiasis}} is a GI protozoal infection t
hat presents with a <>liver ascess</>&nsp;that is full of an <>"anchovy pas
te" exudate</>.
1403021999773 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoeiasis}} is a GI protozoal infection t
hat presents with <>RUQ pain</>.
<r /><div><i>The RUQ pain is often due
to GI ulceration and potential colonic rupture.</i></div>
1403022129908 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoeiasis}} is a GI protozoal infection t
hat presents with <>flask-shaped ulcers</>&nsp;at the GI Sumucosa. <r /><d
iv><i>Entamoea histolytica causes the ulceration.</i></div>
1403022177216 1395802358422 How is Giardiasis transmitted?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Cysts in water}}</div>
1403022186025 1395802358422 How is Amoeiasis (<i>Entamoea histolytica</i>)
transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cysts in water}}</div>
1403022347139 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoeiasis}} is a GI protozoal infection t
hat is diagnosed y <>trophozoites</>&nsp;in the stool that contain <>RBCs i
n their cytoplasm.</><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1606317768928.jpg" /
></div>
1403022448145 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoeiasis}} is a GI protozoal infection t
hat is diagnosed y <>cysts</>&nsp;with <>up to 4 nuclei </>in the stool.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2130303779037.jpg" /></div>
1403022529724 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Amoeiasis (<i>Entamoe
a histolytica</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidazole}}</div>
1403022588298 1395802358422 What is the treatment for<>&nsp;asymptomatic p
assers of <i>Entamoea histolytica </i>cysts</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Iod
oquinol}}</div>
1403022678474 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cryptosporidium</i>}} is a GI protozoal
pathogen that causes severe diarrhea in AIDS. <r /><div><i>It causes mild, wa
tery diarrhea in the immunocompetent.</i></div>
1403022798976 1395802358422 How is <i>Cryptosporidium</i>&nsp;transmitted?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oocysts in the water}}</div>
1403022814289 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cryptosporidium</i>}} is a GI protozoal
pathogen that is diagnosed y visualizing <>oocysts</>&nsp;on an < style="t
ext-decoration: underline; ">acid-fast</>&nsp;stain.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-2890512990431.jpg" /></div>
1403022865230 1395802358422 What type of stain is required to diagnose <i>Cr
yptosporidium</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acid-fast}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2886218023135.jpg" /></div>
1403022896510 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Cryptosporidium</i>
&nsp;infection in <>immunocompetent</>&nsp;hosts?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::N
itazoxanide}}</div>
1403023184166 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Cryptosporidium</i>
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prevention; via filtering of city water supplies}}<
/div>
1403023207692 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Toxoplasmosis?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-3345779523810.jpg" /></div>
1403023387767 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxoplasmosis}} is a CNS protozoal infecti
on that presents with <>rain ascesses</>&nsp;in HIV patients, that are seen
as ring-enhancing rain lesions on CT/MRI.
1403023479370 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Toxoplasmosis}} is a CNS protoz
oal infection that presents with a classic triad of <>chorioretinitis, hydrocep
halus</>&nsp;and <>intracranial calcifications</>.
1403023521487 1395802358422 How is Toxoplasmosis (<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>)
transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cysts in meat; Oocysts in cat feces; Tra
nsplacental}}</div>
1403023562093 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxoplasmosis}} is a CNS protozoal infecti

on that is diagnosed via <>tachyzoites</>&nsp;on iopsy.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-3341484556514.jpg" /></div>
1403023588656 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Toxoplasmosis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Sulfadiazine and Pyrimethamine}}</div>
1403023615483 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Naegleria fowleri</i>}} is a CNS protoz
oal pathogen that causes <>rapidly fatal meningoencephalitis</>.
1403024607626 1395802358422 How is <i>Naegleria fowleri</i>&nsp;transmitted
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Swimming in freshwater lakes; enters CNS through th
e criiform plate}}</div>
1403024642383 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Naegleria fowleri</i>}} is a CNS protoz
oal pathogen that causes a rapidly fatal meningoencephalitis and is diagnosed y
<>amoeas in the spinal fluid</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-415323
3375457.jpg" /></div>
1403024689970 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Naegleria fowleri</
i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amphotericin B has een effective
for a few survivors}}</div>
1403024713799 1395802358422 What is the etiology of African Sleeping Sicknes
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Trypanosoma rucei rhodiense; Trypanosoma ruce
i gamiense</i>}}</div>
1403024810280 1395802358422 {{c1::African Sleeping Sickness}} is a CNS proto
zoal infection that presents with <>enlarged lymph nodes</>, <>recurring feve
r, somnolence</>&nsp;and <>coma</>. <r /><div><i>The recurring fever is due
to antigenic variation.</i></div>
1403024874932 1395802358422 How is African Sleeping Sickness (<i>Trypanosoma
rucei sp.</i>) transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tsetse fly}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Which apparently has a painful ite.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></
div>
1403024912124 1395802358422 Which suspecies of <i>Trypanosoma rucei</i>&n
sp;is from <>East</>&nsp;Africa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Trypanosoma r
ucei rhodiense</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rhodesia was located in south<>ea
st</>&nsp;Africa. Kind of... w/e rah, just rememer it.</i></div>
1403025021992 1395802358422 Which suspecies of&nsp;<i>Trypanosoma rucei</
i>&nsp;is from <>West</>&nsp;Africa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Trypanoso
ma rucei gamiense</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>The <>G</>'s are all from the <
>West</>&nsp;side.</i></div>
1403025074063 1395802358422 {{c1::African Sleeping Sickness}} is a CNS proto
zoal infection caused y <i>Trypanosoma rucei</i>&nsp;suspecies that is diagn
osed y a <>lood smear</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4771708666084
.jpg" /></div>
1403025135197 1395802358422 What is the treatment for African Sleeping Sickn
ess?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suramin for lood-orne disease <u style="font-w
eight: old; ">or</u>&nsp;Melarsoprol for CNS penetration}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>"It <>sur</>e is nice to go to sleep. <>Mela</>tonin can help with tha
t."</i></div>
1403040703288 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Malaria?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Plasmodium spp.</i>}}</div>
1403041120101 1395802358422 {{c1::Malaria}} is a hematological protozoal inf
ection that presents with <>fever, headache, anaemia</>&nsp;and <>splenomega
ly</>.
1403041143029 1395802358422 Which <i>Plasmodium</i>&nsp;species is associat
ed with Malaria that has a <>tertian (48 hour) cycle</>&nsp;of fever?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Plasmodium vivax; Plasmodium ovale</i>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Tertian cycle includes fever on the first and third day, hence fevers are
actually 48 hours apart.</i></div>
1403041275223 1395802358422 Which&nsp;<i>Plasmodium</i>&nsp;species is ass
ociated with <>dormant hypnozoites</>&nsp;in the liver?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::<i>Plasmodium vivax; Plasmodium ovale</i>}}</div>
1403041300686 1395802358422 Which&nsp;<i>Plasmodium</i>&nsp;species is ass
ociated with a&nsp;<>quartan (72 hrs) cycle</>&nsp;of fever?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Plasmodium malariae</i>}}</div>

1403041362011 1395802358422 Which&nsp;<i>Plasmodium</i>&nsp;species is ass
ociated with very <>severe</>&nsp;Malaria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Plas
modium falciparum</i>}}</div>
1403041379866 1395802358422 Which&nsp;<i>Plasmodium</i>&nsp;species is ass
ociated with Malaria that has <>irregular fever patterns</>?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::<i>Plasmodium falciparum</i>}}</div>
1403041405473 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Plasmodium falciparum</i>}} is a specie
s of <i>Plasmodium</i>&nsp;that yields very severe malaria that presents with <
>parasitized RBCs that occlude capillaries</>&nsp;in the <>rain, kidneys</
>&nsp;and <>lungs</>.
1403041449950 1395802358422 {{c1::Cereral Malaria}} is a severe form of Mal
aria that presents with occlusion of capillaries in the rain y parasitized RBC
s.
<r /><div><i>Caused y Plasmodium falciparum</i></div>
1403041479854 1395802358422 How is Malaria (<i>Plasmodium spp.</i>) transmit
ted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Anopheles</i>&nsp;mosquito}}</div>
1403041507040 1395802358422 {{c1::Malaria}} is a hematological protozoal inf
ection that can e diagnosed y a <>trophozoite ring form</>&nsp;in RBCs on a
peripheral lood smear.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6575594930399.jpg"
/></div>
1403042066653 1395802358422 {{c1::Malaria}} is a hematological protozoal inf
ection that can e diagnosed y <>schizonts</>&nsp;that contain <>merozoites
</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6618544603358.jpg" /></div>
1403042109432 1395802358422 What is the initial treatment for Malaria (<i>Pl
asmodium spp.</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chloroquine}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Blocks Plasmodium heme polymerase.</i></div>
1403042699714 1395802358422 {{c1::Chloroquine}} is an antiplasmodial drug us
ed as initial treatment for Malaria that acts y locking <i>Plasmodium</i>&nsp
;heme polymerase.
1403042729126 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Chloroquine in the treatment
of Malaria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blocking of <i>Plasmodium</i>&nsp;heme p
olymerase}}</div>
1403042765789 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <>Chloroquine-resista
nt</>&nsp;Malaria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mefloquine or Atovaquone/Proguan
il}}</div>
1403042797766 1395802358422 What is the treatment for life-threatening Malar
ia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV Quinidine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>However yo
u <u>must test for G6PD deficiency first</u>.</i></div>
1403042860437 1395802358422 Which antiplasmodial drug is added onto Chloroqu
ine in <i>Plasmodium vivax/ovale</i>&nsp;infection to eliminate Hypnozoites?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primaquine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>ou <u>must test f
or G6PD Deficiency first</u>.</i></div>
1403042928159 1395802358422 {{c1::Primaquine}} is an antiplasmodial drug tha
t is added onto Malarial treatment in <i>Plasmodium vivax/ovale</i>&nsp;infecti
on to eliminate dormant hypnozoites.
<r /><div><i>ou <u>must test for G6PD
Deficiency first</u>.</i></div>
1403042994234 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Baesiosis?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Baesia spp.</i>}}</div>
1403046098517 1395802358422 Where in the United States is Baesiosis predomi
nantly found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Northeastern USA}}</div>
1403046116235 1395802358422 How does Asplenia influence the risk of otainin
g severe Baesiosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403046141730 1395802358422 {{c1::Baesiosis}} is a hematological protozoal
infection that presents with <>fever</>&nsp;and <>hemolytic anaemia</>&nsp
;due to <i>Baesia spp.</i>&nsp;infection.
1403046196653 1395802358422 How is Baesiosis (<i>Baesia spp.</i>) transmit
ted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ixodes</i>&nsp;tick}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
is is the same vector as Borrelia urgdorferi</i>&nsp;<i>which causes Lyme Dise
ase.</i></div><div><i>Co-infection is common.</i></div>
1403046255167 1395802358422 {{c1::Baesiosis}} is a hematological protozoal
infection that is diagnosed y a <>"Maltese cross"</>&nsp;in RBCs in a periph

eral lood smear.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7928509628642.jpg" /></di
v>
<r /><div><i>(1) shows a ring form in the RBC, which is also seen in Ma
laria. So e sure to either look for the Maltese cross or doule check the trans
mission/presentation to confirm that it is Baesiosis.</i></div>
1403046338560 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Baesiosis (<i>Baesia
spp.</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atovaquone + azithromycin}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>The patient's partner also receives Metronidazole as prophylaxis.</i></div
>
1403046880368 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Chagas Disease?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Trypanosoma cruzi</i>}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-8942121910501.jpg" /></div>
1403046909909 1395802358422 {{c1::Chagas Disease}} is a visceral protozoal i
nfection that presents with <>dilated cardiomyopathy</>, <>megacolon</>&nsp
;and <>megaesophagus</>.
1403046937622 1395802358422 Where does Chagas Disease predominantly occur?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::South America}}</div>
1403046948446 1395802358422 How is Chagas Disease (<i>Trypanosoma cruzi</i>)
transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reduviid ug (aka the "kissing ug") fe
ces}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The ug ite is <>painless</>.</i></div>
1403047019226 1395802358422 {{c1::Chagas Disease}} is a <>visceral</>&nsp
;protozoal infection that is diagnosed y the visualization of <i>Trypanosoma cr
uzi</i>&nsp;on a peripheral lood smear.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8
937826943205.jpg" /></div>
1403047048998 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Chagas Disease?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Benznidazole or Nifurtimox}}</div>
1403047067380 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Visceral Leishmaniasis (
Kala-azar)?<div><r />{{c1::<i>Leishmania donovani</i>}}</div>
1403047111558 1395802358422 {{c1::Visceral Leishmaniasis (Kala-azar)}} is a
visceral protozoal infection that presents with <>spiking fever, hepatosplenome
galy</>&nsp;and <>pancytopenia</>.
1403047203565 1395802358422 How is Visceral Leishmaniasis (Kala-azar) transm
itted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sandfly}}</div>
<r /><div><i>All Leishm
ania are transmitted via the sandfly.</i></div>
1403047376744 1395802358422 {{c1::Visceral Leishmaniasis (Kala-azar)}} is a
visceral protozoal infection that is diagnosed y the visualization of <>macrop
hages containing amastigotes</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-924706458
8515.jpg" /></div>
1403047423596 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Visceral Leishmaniasis
(Kala-azar)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amphotericin B, Sodium Stiogluconate}}
</div>
1403047466746 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Trichomonas vaginalis</i>}} is an STD c
ausing protozoa that commonly causes vaginitis that presents with <>foul-smelli
ng, greenish discharge</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9835475108072.j
pg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Do not confuse this with Gardnerella vaginalis, a
gram-variale acteria that causes vaginosis.</i></div><div><i>Also rememer the
difference etween Vagin<>itis</>&nsp;and Vagin<>osis</>. Vaginitis is pai
nful.</i></div>
1403047871297 1395802358422 How is <i>Trichomonas vaginalis</i>&nsp;transmi
tted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sexually (it cannot exist outside the human od
y as it cannot form cysts)}}</div>
1403047901306 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Trichomonas vaginalis</i>}} is a sexual
ly transmitted protoza that is diagnosed y the visualization of <>moile troph
ozoites</>&nsp;on a wet mount.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9831180140
776.jpg" /></div>
1403048000069 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Trichomonas vaginalis</i>}} is a protoz
oa that causes vaginitis associated with a <>"strawerry cervix</>".
1403048026302 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Trichomonas vaginal
is</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidazole}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
e patient's sexual partner also receives Metronidazole as prophylaxis.</i></div>
1403048054943 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::nematodes}} are a class of parasi

te that are referred to as roundworms.
1403053610031 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::cestodes}} are a class of parasit
e that are referred to as tapeworms.
1403053631137 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::trematodes}} are a class of paras
ite that are referred to as the flukes.
1403053648160 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Enteroius vermicularis</i>}} is a spec
ies of intestinal nematode that is also referred to as <>pinworm</>.
1403053940991 1395802358422 How is pinworm (<i>Enteroius vermicularis</i>)
transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fecal-oral}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403054242694 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Enteroius vermicularis</i>&nsp;(pinwo
rm)}} is an intestinal nematode that is associated with causing <>anal pruritis
</>.
1403054673052 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Enteroius vermicularis</i>&nsp;(pinwo
rm)}} is an intestinal nematode that can e diagnosed via the <>Scotch Tape tes
t</>. <r /><div><i>Lulz, this is literally what it sounds like. Take scotch t
ape and see if you can pull off pinworm eggs from the anal area.</i></div>
1403054738448 1395802358422 What is the treatment for pinworm (<i>Enteroius
vermicularis</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bendazoles or Pyrantel pamoate}}<
/div> <r /><div><i><>BEND</>azoles are used on worms ecause they are <>BE
ND</>y.</i></div>
1403054905831 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ascaris lumricoides</i>}} is a species
of intestinal nematode that is also referred to as <>giant roundworm</>.
1403054940201 1395802358422 How is <i>Ascaris lumricoides</i>&nsp;(giant r
oundworm) transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fecal-oral}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Eggs are visile in feces under the microscope.</i></div><div><i><img src=
"paste-13945758810291.jpg" /></i></div>
1403054985626 1395802358422 What is the treatment for giant roundworm (<i>As
caris lumricoides</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bendazoles or Pyrantel pamoa
te}}</div>
1403055014571 1395802358422 How is <i>Strongyloides stercoralis</i>&nsp;tra
nsmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Larvae in the soil penetrate the skin}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403055064847 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Strongyloides stercoralis</i>}} is an i
ntestinal nematode that causes an intestinal infection that presents with vomiti
ng, diarrhea and <>epigastric pain that may mimic peptic ulcer-like pain</>.
1403055113739 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Strongyloides sterc
oralis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alendazole; or Ivermectin}}</div>
1403055134956 1395802358422 Which 2 species of intestinal nematode are hookw
orms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ancylostoma duodenale; Necator americanus</i
>}}</div>
1403055168350 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ancylostoma duodenale</i>}} and&nsp;{{
c2::<i>Necator americanus</i>}} are 2 species of intestinal nematodes that are r
eferred to as <>hookworm</>.
1403055198933 1395802358422 How is hookworm (<i>Ancylostoma duodenale; Necat
or americanus</i>) transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Larvae penetrate the
skin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403056103275 1395802358422 {{c1::Hookworm}} is an intestinal nematode that
causes intestinal infection that yields <>anaemia</>&nsp;due to <>lood ein
g sucked from the intestinal walls</>. <r /><div><i>Rememer, Hookworm = Ancyl
ostoma duodenale &amp; Necator americanus</i></div>
1403056181130 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Hookworm (<i>Ancylosto
ma duodenale; Necator americanus</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bendazoles or
Pyrantel pamoate}}</div>
1403056222232 1395802358422 How is <i>Ochocerca volvulus</i>&nsp;transmitte
d?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Female lackfly ite}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403056263719 1395802358422 What is the etiology of River Blindness?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Onchocerca volvulus</i>}}</div>
1403056280170 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Onchocerca volvulus</i>}} is a tissue n

ematode associated with causing <>hyperpigmented skin</>&nsp;and <>river li
ndness</>.
<r /><div><i>Black fly ite; Black skin nodules; "Black" sight.
</i></div><div><i>Allergic reaction to the microfilaria is possile.</i></div>
1403056350991 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Onchocerca volvulus
</i>&nsp;infection (e.g. river lindness)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ivermecti
n}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>IVER</>mectin is given for r<>IVER</>&nsp;
lindness.</i></div>
1403056398259 1395802358422 How is <i>Loa loa</i>&nsp;transmitted?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Deer fly; Horse fly; Mango fly}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403056439572 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Loa loa</i>}} is a <>tissue</>&nsp;n
ematode that causes swelling in the skin - worms can also e found in the conjun
ctiva.
1403056468069 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Loa loa</i>?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Diethylcaramazine}}</div>
1403057110444 1395802358422 What is the cause of Elephantiasis?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Wuchereria ancrofti</i>}}</div>
1403058733063 1395802358422 How is Elephantiasis (<i>Wuchereria ancrofti</i
>) transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Female mosquito ite}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403058753804 1395802358422 {{c1::Elephantiasis}} is a complication of <i>Wu
cheria ancrofti</i>&nsp;infection that involves a <>lockage of lymphatic ves
sels</>.
<r /><div><i>Takes 9 months to 1 year after an infectious ite
to ecomes symptomatic.</i></div>
1403058822718 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Elephantiasis?<div><r
/>{{c1::Diethylcaramazine}}</div>
1403058844837 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Visceral Larva Migrans?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Toxocara canis</i>}}</div>
1403058860859 1395802358422 How is Visceral Larva Migrans (<i>Toxocara canis
</i>) transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fecal-oral}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403058881367 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Toxocara canis</i>}} is a tissue nemato
de that causes Visceral Larva Migrans.
1403062744302 1395802358422 How is <i>Taenia solium</i>&nsp;transmitted?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ingestion of larvae encysted in undercooked pork; Inges
tion of eggs}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Basically just rememer "via ingestion" an
d "undercooked pork" for the larvae.</i></div>
1403062905086 1395802358422 {{c1::Cysticercosis}} and&nsp;{{c2::Neurocystic
ercosis}} are 2 complications of infection with the <u style="font-weight: old;
">eggs</u>&nsp;of <i>Taenia solium</i>.
<r /><div><i>This is very impor
tant. Only the eggs of Taenia solium cause Cysticercosis. The larvae cause intes
tinal infection.</i></div>
1403062977570 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Cysticercosis and Neuroc
ysticercosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The <><u>eggs</u>&nsp;</>of&nsp;<i>
Taenia solium</i>}}</div>
1403063484085 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <>intestinal infectio
n</>&nsp;caused y the larvae of <i>Taenia solium</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Praziquantel}}</div>
1403063512786 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Cysticercosis (eggs of
<i>Taenia solium</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Praziquantel}}</div>
1403063531818 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Neurocysticercosis (eg
gs of <i>Taenia solium</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alendazole}}</div>
1403063577185 1395802358422 How is<i>&nsp;Diphylloothrium latum</i>&nsp;t
ransmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ingestion of larvae from raw freshwater f
ish}}</div>
1403063620388 1395802358422 Which vitamin deficiency is caused y <i>Diphyll
oothrium latum</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin B12}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The worm competes with Vitamin B12 in the intestines.</i></div><div><i>Cau
ses megalolastic anaemia.</i></div>
1403063665929 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Diphylloothrium la

tum</i>< style="font-style: italic; ">&nsp;</>infection?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Praziquantel}}</div>
1403063680581 1395802358422 How is <i>Echinococcus granulosus</i>&nsp;trans
mitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ingestion of eggs from <>dog feces</>}}</di
v>
1403063707249 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Echinococcus granulosus</i>}} is a cest
ode that yields <>hydatid cysts</>&nsp;in the liver, therey causing anaphyla
xis if the antigens are released.
<r /><div><i>Surgeons kills the cysts 
y injecting ethanol efore removal.</i></div>
1403063775190 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Echinococcus granul
osus</i>&nsp;(hydatid cysts)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alendazole}}</div>
1403063798409 1395802358422 How is <i>Schistosoma</i>&nsp;transmitted?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Via snails; cercariae penetrate the skin}}</div>
1403063839195 1395802358422 Which animal is the host for <i>Schistosoma spp.
</i>?<div><r />{{c1::Snails}}</div>
1403063871194 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Schistosoma spp.</i>}} is a trematode t
hat causes <>liver and spleen granulomas</>, <>firosis</> and <>inflammati
on</>.
1403063925330 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Schistosoma haematoium</i>}} is a spec
ies of <i>Schistosoma</i>&nsp;that can lead to squamous cell carcinoma of the 
ladder if there is chronic infection.
1403063970490 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Schistosoma</i>&nsp;is asso
ciated with causing squamous cell carcinoma if there is a chronic infection?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Schistosoma haematoium</i>}}</div>
1403064006246 1395802358422 Which cancer is a possile complication of chron
ic <i>Schistosoma haematoium</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squ
amous cell carcinoma of the ladder}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>p
ainless hematuria</>.</i></div>
1403064044018 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Schistosomiasis (<i>Sc
histosoma</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Praziquantel}}</div>
1403064066257 1395802358422 How is <i>Clonorchis sinensis</i>&nsp;transmitt
ed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Undercooked fish}}</div>
1403064088735 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Clonorchis sinensis</i>}} is a species
of trematode that causes <>iliary tract inflammation</>&nsp;and susequent f
ormation of <>pigmented gallstones</>.
1403064212687 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Clonorhis sinensis</i>}} is a species o
f trematode that is associated with <>cholangiocarcinoma</>.
1403064246575 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with <i>Clonorchis si
nensis</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Cholangiocarcinoma}}</div>
1403064275815 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Clonorchis sinensis
</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Praziquantel}}</div>
1403064291751 1395802358422 Which cestode (tapeworm) is associated with <>
rain cysts</>&nsp;and <>seizures</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Taenia so
lium</i>&nsp;(Cysticercosis)}}</div>
1403064353830 1395802358422 Which trematode (fluke) is associated with <>he
maturia</>&nsp;and <>ladder cancer</>?<div><r />{{c1::<i>Schistosoma haema
toium</i>}}</div>
1403064383942 1395802358422 Which cestode (tapeworm) is associated with live
r hydatid cysts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Echinococcus granulosus</i>}}</di
v>
1403064411121 1395802358422 Which nematodes are associated with <>microcyti
c anaemia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ancylostoma duodenale; Necator amer
icanus</i>}}</div>
1403064575298 1395802358422 Which nematode is associated with <>perianal pr
uritis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Enteroius vermicularis</i>&nsp;(pinw
orm)}}</div>
1403064601056 1395802358422 Which trematode (fluke) is associated with <>po
rtal hypertension</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Schistosoma mansoni; Schist
osoma japonicum</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Schistosoma is often called a <>l
iver fluke</>.</i></div>

1403118693070 1395802358422 In which 2 shapes are viral caspids typically fo
und?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Icosahedral; Helical}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-841813590300.jpg" /></div>
1403119676318 1395802358422 {{c1::Reassortment}} is a viral genetic phenomen
on that involves the exchange of genetic segments amongst viruses with segmented
genomes.
<r /><div><i>This is high frequency recomination.</i></div><di
v><i>e.g. Influenza virus; in fact, this is why there are worldwide influenza pa
ndemics.</i></div>
1403120908259 1395802358422 {{c1::Complementation}} is a viral genetic pheno
menon where a <>nonmutated</>&nsp;virus complements a <>mutated</>&nsp;vir
us y making a functional protein that serves for oth viruses. <r /><div><i>In
this case, the mutated virus has a <>nonfunctional</>&nsp;version of the pro
tein,</i></div>
1403121030967 1395802358422 What type of immunity is induced y Live Attenua
ted Vaccines?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Humoral <u style="font-weight: old; ">
and</u>&nsp;cell-mediated immunity}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Some live attenuat
ed vaccines have reverted ack to virulence, ut on very rare occasions.</i></di
v><div><i>Live vaccines <>do not require oosters</>.</i></div><div><i><img sr
c="paste-2267742732379.jpg" /></i></div>
1403122989005 1395802358422 What type of immunity is induced y <>Killed/In
activated</>&nsp;Vaccines?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Humoral immunity <><u>o
nly</u></>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2469606195263.jpg" /></div>
1403122998026 1395802358422 {{c1::Live attenuated vaccine}} is a type of vac
cine that is dangerous to give to immunocompromised patients or their close cont
acts. <r /><div><i>The exception is MMR, which can e given to HIV+ patients
who do not show signs of immunodeficiency.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-2272
037699675.jpg" /></i></div>
1403123343131 1395802358422 Which types of HPV have availale recominant va
ccines?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV 6, 11, 16, 18}}</div>
1403123430635 1395802358422 What is the only DNA virus with <>ss</>DNA?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parvoviridae}}</div> <i><div></div></i><i><r /></i>T
he rest of the DNA viruses are dsDNA.
1403123790266 1395802358422 {{c1::Papillomavirus}},&nsp;{{c2::Polyomavirus}
} and&nsp;{{c3::Hepadnavirus}} are the only 3 DNA viruses that have circular ge
nomes. <r /><div><i>The remaining DNA viruses are all linear.</i></div>
1403123988848 1395802358422 What is the only RNA virus that has <>ds</>RNA
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reoviridae}}</div> <r /><div><i>All others are ssR
NA.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3040836845726.jpg" /></i></div>
1403124101979 1395802358422 Where in the cell do DNA viruses replicate?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus, <u>except for Poxvirus</u>}}</div>
1403125210405 1395802358422 Where in the cell do RNA viruses normally replic
ate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplasm, <u>except for Influenza virus and Ret
roviruses</u>}}</div>
1403125256173 1395802358422 {{c1::Herpesviruses}} are a class of DNA viruses
that acquires their envelope from the nuclear memrane. All other enveloped vir
uses acquire it from the plasma memrane.
<r /><div><img src="paste-40888
08865920.jpg" /></div>
1403126074092 1395802358422 What is the only DNA virus that <>does not</>&
nsp;have an icosahedral shape?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poxvirus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4363686773147.jpg" /></div>
1403126635353 1395802358422 What is the only DNA virus that <>does not</>&
nsp;replicate in the nucleus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poxvirus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It carries its own DNA-dependent RNA polymerase.</i></div><div><i>
<r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4367981740443.jpg" /></i></div>
1403133798211 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Herpesviru
ses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136564417 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Hepadnavir
us?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136569891 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Poxvirus?<
div><r />{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>

1403136579174 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Papillomav
irus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136609242 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Polyomavir
us?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136625776 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Adenovirus
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136635213 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Parvovirus
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ssDNA}}</div>
1403137401302 1395802358422 {{c1::HBV}} is a Hepadnavirus that causes acute
or chronic hepatitis. <r /><div><i>Not a retrovirus, ut has reverse transcri
ptase.</i></div>
1403137616859 1395802358422 Which dsDNA virus is associated with causing Acu
te Hemorrhagic Cystitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenovirus}}</div>
1403137741089 1395802358422 Which dsDNA virus is associated with <>ferile
pharyngitis, pneumonia</>&nsp;and <>conjunctivitis</>?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Adenovirus}}</div>
1403137771235 1395802358422 What is the smallest DNA virus?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Parvovirus}}</div>
1403137788786 1395802358422 {{c1::Parvovirus B19}} is a ssDNA virus that cau
ses <>aplastic crises</>&nsp;in sickle cell disease.
1403137824922 1395802358422 {{c1::Parvovirus B19}} is a ssDNA virus that cau
ses <>"slapped cheeks" rash (erythema infectiosum; fifth disease)</>&nsp;in c
hildren.
1403137863098 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythema Infectiosium (Fifth Disease)}} is
a cutaneous complication of Parvovirus B19 infection that presents as a <>"sla
pped cheeks" rash</>&nsp;in children.
1403137902532 1395802358422 {{c1::Parvovirus B19}} is a ssDNA virus that cau
ses RBC destruction in fetus, therey leading to hydrops fetalis and death.
1403137927718 1395802358422 {{c1::Parvovirus B19}} is a ssDNA virus that cau
ses pure RBC aplasia.
1403137935009 1395802358422 {{c1::Parvovirus B19}} is a ssDNA virus that cau
ses Rheumatoid Arthritis-like symptoms in adults.
1403137951253 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Progressive Multifocal L
eukoencephalopathy (PML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::JC virus infection in HIV}}
</div>
1403138026081 1395802358422 {{c1::JC Virus}} is a dsDNA Polyomavirus that ca
uses Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML) in HIV patients..
1403138132467 1395802358422 {{c1::BK Virus}} is a dsDNA Polyomavirus that co
mmonly targets the kidney in transplant patients.
<r /><div><i>BK = <>B<
/>ad <>K</>idney</i></div><div><i>JC = <>J</>unky <>C</>ererum (PML)</i>
</div>
1403138210850 1395802358422 {{c1::Cowpox}} is a dsDNA Poxvirus that yields "
<>milkmaid listers</>".
1403138249124 1395802358422 What is the largest DNA virus?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Poxviruses}}</div>
1403138257021 1395802358422 {{c1::Molluscum contagiosum}} is a cutaneous dis
order caused y <>Poxviruses</> that presents with <>flesh-coloured dome lesi
ons</>&nsp;with a <>central umilicated dimple</>.
1403138320042 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is associated with Gingivostom
atitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div>
1403139339864 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is associated with Keratoconju
nctivitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-7546257539403.jpg" /></div>
1403139385203 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is the most common cause of sp
oradic encephalitis in the USA?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div>
1403139404471 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV-1}} is a Herpesvirus that causes tempo
ral loe encephalitis. <r><div><i>Most common cause of sporadic encephalitis i
n the USA.</i></div>
1403139452818 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Herpes Laialis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-770946629

6652.jpg" /></div>
1403139472305 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV-1}} is a Herpesvirus that is latent in
<>trigeminal ganglia</>.
1403139559264 1395802358422 How is HSV-1 transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Respiratory droplets; saliva}}</div>
1403139593691 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is associated with Cowdry Type
A inclusions on a cell smear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1; HSV-2}}</div>
1403139633959 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Herpes Genitalis?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-2}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-79027398
24973.jpg" /></div>
1403139661451 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV-2}} is a Herpesvirus that is latent in
<>sacral ganglia</>.
1403139685511 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is associated with Neonatal He
rpes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-2}}</div>
1403139710572 1395802358422 How is HSV-2 transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Sexual contact; Perinatally}}</div>
1403139730046 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Chickenpox?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::VZV (Varicella-zoster)}}</div>
1403140033058 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Shingles?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::VZV (Varicella-zoster)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-8808977924430.jpg" /></div>
1403140047263 1395802358422 {{c1::VZV}} is a Herpesvirus that is latent in <
>dorsal root </>or<> trigeminal ganglia</>.
1403140106172 1395802358422 What is the most common complication of Shingles
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Post-herpetic Neuralgia}}</div>
1403140124899 1395802358422 How is VZV transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Respiratory secretions}}</div>
1403140169070 1395802358422 What is the most common etiology of Mononucleosi
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140255270 1395802358422 {{c1::Mononucleosis}} is a complication of EBV i
nfection that presents with fever, hepatosplenomegaly, pharyngitis and lymphaden
opathy. <r /><div><i>Lymphadenopathy is especially seen at the posterior cervic
al nodes.</i></div>
1403140435215 1395802358422 How is EBV transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Respiratory secretions; Saliva}}</div>
1403140461354 1395802358422 {{c1::Mononucleosis}} is a disease caused y EBV
that is also commonly referred to as "<>kissing disease</>" as it is often se
en in teens and young adults.
1403140508210 1395802358422 Where is EBV latent?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
B cells}}</div> <r /><div><i>EBV infects B cells.</i></div>
1403140583915 1395802358422 Which receptor does EBV use to enter B cells?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD21 (C3d; CR2)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"ou must
e <>21</>&nsp;to drink at the <>Epstein-Barr</>"</i></div>
1403140620392 1395802358422 {{c1::EBV}} is a Herpesvirus that can give rise
to <>atypical lymphocytes (Downey Cells) on a peripheral lood smear</>.<div><
<r /><div><i>Th
r /></div><div><img src="paste-9152575308110.jpg" /></div>
e atypical cells are not B cells. <>They are reactive cytotoxic T cells</>.</i
></div>
1403140678717 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to detect EBV infe
ction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Monospot Test}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>Hete
rophile antiodies are detected y agglutination of sheep or horse RBCs.</i><r
/><div><i>Positive result = EBV infection.</i></div>
1403140742833 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Monospot Test}} is a diagnostic t
est that detects the <>heterophile antiodies</>&nsp;seen in EBV infection vi
a agglutination of sheep or horse RBCs.
1403140899061 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is associated with Hodgkin Lym
phoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140915952 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is associated with endemic Bur
kitt Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140930710 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is associated with Nasopharyng

eal Carcinoma?<div><r />{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140946098 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus causes Mononucleosis with a <
>negative Monospot test</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div>
1403141234206 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is associated with causing ret
initis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div> <r /><div><i>"Sight"-o-megalovi
rus</i></div>
1403141269124 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is associated with characteris
tic <>Owl's Eye inclusions</>&nsp;in infected cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::CMV}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10479720202575.jpg" /></div>
1403141305744 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is a Herpesvirus that is latent in m
ononuclear cells.
1403141339702 1395802358422 How is CMV transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Congenitally; Transfusion; Sexual Contact; Saliva; Urine; Transplant}}</div>
1403141534427 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Roseola?<div><r />{{c1:
:HHV-6}}</div>
1403141586391 1395802358422 {{c1::Roseola}} is an infectious disorder caused
y HHV-6 that presents with <>high fever</>&nsp;for several days and a suse
quent <>diffuse macular rash</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10758893
076815.jpg" /></div>
1403141640344 1395802358422 {{c1::Seizures}} are a neurological complication
of Roseola due to the high fevers that can last for several days.
1403141683332 1395802358422 How is Roseola (HHV-6) transmitted?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Saliva}}</div>
1403141698113 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Kaposi Sarcoma?<div><r
/>{{c1::HHV-8}}</div>
1403141713141 1395802358422 {{c1::Kaposi Sarcoma}} is a neoplasm of endothel
ial cells that is caused y HHV-8 in HIV/AIDS and transplant patients.
1403141780888 1395802358422 {{c1::Kaposi Sarcoma}} is a neoplasm of endothel
ial cells caused y HHV-8 that presents with <>dark/violaceous, flat</>&nsp;a
nd <>nodular skin lesions</>&nsp;that represent endothelial growths.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-10965051507025.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Th
e GI and Lungs can also e affected.</i></div>
1403141883192 1395802358422 How is HHV-8 transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Sexual contact}}</div>
1403141901654 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Tzanck test}} is a diagnostic tes
t used to identify HSV through a smear of an opened skin vesicle.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-11192684773794.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>A positive
tzanck smear will show multinucleated giant cells.</i></div>
1403142018149 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to diagnose Herpes
Encephalitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CSF PCR}}</div>
1403142048017 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Reovirus?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::dsRNA}}</div>
1403144228014 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Picornavir
us?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144235452 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Hepevirus?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144245759 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Caliciviru
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144253499 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Flavivirus
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144258949 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Flavivirus
??<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144288238 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Togavirus?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144295552 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Retrovirus
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144302858 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Coronaviru
ses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144312488 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is found in Orthomyxov
iruses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>

1403144494015 1395802358422 What type nucleic acid is found in Paramyxovirus
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144822898 1395802358422 What type nucleic acid is found in Rhadovirus?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144831545 1395802358422 What type nucleic acid is found in Filovirus?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144839873 1395802358422 What type nucleic acid is found in Arenavirus?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144848305 1395802358422 What type nucleic acid is found in Bunyavirus?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403144857131 1395802358422 What type nucleic acid is found in Deltavirus?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative ssRNA}}</div>
1403149724209 1395802358422 Which serological antigen from EBV is produced i
f the infection is active and productive?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Viral Capsi
d Antigen (VCA)}}</div>
1403149942402 1395802358422 Which serological antigen from EBV is seen in la
tent infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epstein-Barr Nuclear Antigen (EBNA)}}
</div>
1403149965943 1395802358422 {{c1::Epstein-Barr Nuclear Antigen (EBNA)}} is a
serological antigen from EBV that contriutes to Hodgkin's or Burkitt's Lymphom
a.
1403150015090 1395802358422 {{c1::Coltivirus}} is a dsRNA Arovirus and Reov
irus that causes Colorado Tick Fever.
1403151607539 1395802358422 Which type Reovirus is the #1 cause of fatal dia
rrhea in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rotavirus}}</div>
1403151653610 1395802358422 {{c1::Poliovirus}} is a Picornavirus that causes
Polio. <r /><div><img src="paste-17888538788154.jpg" /></div>
1403151822869 1395802358422 {{c1::Echovirus}} is a Picornavirus that causes
aseptic meningitis.
<r /><div><img src="paste-17884243820858.jpg" /></div>
1403151835081 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhinovirus}} is a Picornavirus that causes
the "common cold".
<r /><div><img src="paste-17884243820858.jpg" /></div>
1403151896208 1395802358422 {{c1::Coxsackievirus}} is a Picornavirus that ca
uses aseptic meningitis, herpangina, hand-foot-mouth disease, myocarditis and pe
ricarditis.
<r /><div><img src="paste-17884243820858.jpg" /></div>
1403151923416 1395802358422 {{c1::HAV}} is a Picornavirus that causes Acute
Viral Hepatitis.
<r /><div><img src="paste-17884243820858.jpg" /></div>
1403152447932 1395802358422 {{c1::HEV}} is a Hepevirus that causes hepatitis
.
1403152475119 1395802358422 {{c1::Norovirus}} is a Calicivirus that causes v
iral gastroenteritis.
1403152491888 1395802358422 {{c1::HCV}} is a Flavivirus that causes hepatiti
s.
1403152520861 1395802358422 {{c1::Arovirus}} is a group of viruses that are
transmitted y arthropods (e.g. mosquitoes, ticks).
1403152973559 1395802358422 How are Aroviruses transmitted?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Arthropods (mosquitoes; ticks)}}</div>
1403153047912 1395802358422 {{c1::ellow Fever Virus (FV)}} is an Arovirus
and Flavivirus that causes ellow Fever.
1403153074969 1395802358422 {{c1::Dengue virus (DENV)}} is an Arovirus and
Flavivirus that causes Dengue.
1403153097390 1395802358422 {{c1::St. Louis Encephalitis Virus (SLEV)}} is a
n Arovirus and Flavivirus that causes St. Louis Encephalitis.
1403153123179 1395802358422 {{c1::West Nile Virus (WNV)}} is an Arovirus an
d Flavivirus that causes West Nile.
1403153151020 1395802358422 {{c1::Ruella virus}} is a Togavirus that causes
Ruella.
1403153216093 1395802358422 {{c1::Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus (EEEV)}}
is an Arovirus and Togavirus that causes Eastern Equine Encephalitis.
1403153301788 1395802358422 {{c1::Western Equine Encephalitis Virus (WEEV)}}
is an Arovirus and Togavirus that causes Western Equine Encephalitis.

1403153333497 1395802358422 {{c1::Human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV)}} is a R
etrovirus that causes Adult T-Cell Leukemia/Lymphoma.
1403153418832 1395802358422 {{c1::Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)}} is a
Retrovirus that causes AIDS.
1403153434915 1395802358422 {{c1::Coronavirus}} is a Coronavirus that causes
the common cold and SARS.
1403153483786 1395802358422 {{c1::Influenza Virus}} is an Orthomyxovirus tha
t causes the flu.
1403153501981 1395802358422 {{c1::Parainfluenzavirus}} is a Paramyxovirus th
at causes Croup.
<r /><div><img src="paste-19786914332833.jpg" /></div>
1403153543074 1395802358422 {{c1::Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)}} is a P
aramyxovirus that causes ronchiolitis in aies.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-19782619365537.jpg" /></div>
1403153599484 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Respiratory Syncytial
Virus (RSV) infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Riavirin}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-19782619365537.jpg" /></div>
1403153616162 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles virus}} is a Paramyxovirus that ca
uses Measles. <r /><div><img src="paste-19782619365537.jpg" /></div>
1403153633173 1395802358422 {{c1::Mumps virus}} is a Paramyxovirus that caus
es Mumps.
<r /><div><img src="paste-19782619365537.jpg" /></div>
1403153646671 1395802358422 {{c1::Raies virus}} is a Rhadovirus that cause
s Raies.
1403153659412 1395802358422 {{c1::Eola virus}} is a Filovirus that causes E
ola.
1403153691369 1395802358422 {{c1::Marurg virus}} is a Filovirus that causes
Marurg Hemorrhagic Fever.
1403153708859 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus (LCMV)}
} is an Arenavirus that causes Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis.
1403153783307 1395802358422 {{c1::Lassa virus}} is an Arenavirus that causes
Lassa Fever.
1403153795153 1395802358422 {{c1::Hantavirus}} is a Bunyavirus that causes h
emorrhagic fever and pneumonia.
1403153931797 1395802358422 What is the etiology of California Encephalitis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bunyaviruses}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Which are
also Aroviruses.</i></div>
1403153959813 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Sandfly/Rift Valley Feve
rs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bunyaviruses}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Which are
also Aroviruses.</i></div>
1403153985737 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagi
c Fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bunyaviruses}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Wh
ich are also Aroviruses<>.</></i></div>
1403154023641 1395802358422 {{c1::HDV}} is a Deltavirus that causes hepatiti
s <u>when there is an HBV co-infection</u>.
1403193207560 1395802358422 Negative stranded RNA viruses must ring along a
n&nsp;{{c1::RNA-dependent RNA polymerase}} in order to transcrie their negativ
e strand in positive strand RNA (mRNA) <div><r /></div><img src="paste-2200311
7457455.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-21994527522938.jpg" /></div>
1403195008095 1395802358422 What type of nucleic acid is seen in <>all</>&
nsp;segmented viruses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RNA}}</div> <div><r /></div
><img src="paste-22157736280214.jpg" />
1403195041732 1395802358422 How are Picornaviruses transmitted?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Fecal-oral; all are enteroviruses except for Rhinovirus}}</div>
<div><r /></div><img src="paste-22316650070121.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="past
e-22303765168434.jpg" /></div>
1403195353414 1395802358422 What is the only Picornavirus that <>does not</
>&nsp;infect the GI tract?<div><r />{{c1::Rhinovirus}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
is is ecause it is acid-laile and destroyed in the stomach.</i></div>
1403195537492 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhinovirus}} is a Picornavirus that is <>
acid laile</>&nsp;and hence is destroyed y stomach acid and doesn't cause GI
infection.

1403195815189 1395802358422 How is ellow Fever (ellow Fever Virus) transmi
tted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Aedes</i>&nsp;mosquito}}</div>
1403195959549 1395802358422 What is the reservoir for ellow Fever Virus?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Monkeys; Humans}}</div>
1403195987559 1395802358422 {{c1::ellow Fever}} is an infectious disorder c
aused y a Flavivirus (and Arovirus) that presents with <>high fever, lack vo
mitus</>&nsp;and <>jaundice</>.
<r /><div><i>Etiology is ellow Fever V
irus (ut I didn't wanna make it too easy, nom sayin?)</i></div>
1403196202956 1395802358422 What is the most important gloal cause of infan
tile gastroenteritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rotavirus}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>dsRNA Reovirus</i><div><i></i><i><>ROTA = R</>ight&nsp;<>O</>ut
&nsp;<>T</>he&nsp;<>A</>nus</i><r /><div><img src="paste-23102629085462.j
pg" /></div></div>
1403197164365 1395802358422 {{c1::Rotavirus}} is a dsRNA Reovirus that is a
major cause of acute diarrhea in the USA during the winter, especially in day-ca
re centers and kindergartens.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2309833411816
6.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i><>ROTA = R</>ight <>O</>ut <>T</>he <>A</>
nus</i></div>
1403197196511 1395802358422 {{c1::Rotavirus}} is a dsRNA virus that causes <
>destruction and atrophy of GI villi </>that leads to a <>decrease in Na aso
rption</>&nsp;and a <>loss of K</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-2309833411816
6.jpg" /></div>
1403197495681 1395802358422 How do Na levels change in Rotavirus infection?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease due to a decrease in Na asorption (due to v
illous destruction and atrophy)}}</div>
1403197532531 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Rotavirus infection?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease due to K loss (as a result of GI villi destru
ction and atrophy)}}</div>
1403197667789 1395802358422 {{c1::Influenza virus}} is an enveloped orthomyx
ovirus with an <>8-segment</> negative ssRNA genome.
1403198437647 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemagglutinin}} is an antigen from Influen
za virus that functions to promote viral entry.
1403198474703 1395802358422 {{c1::Neuraminidase}} is a viral enzyme/antigen
from Influenza virus that promotes the release of progeny virions.
1403198511652 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::reformulated}} flu vaccine is the
flu vaccine that contains the viral strains most likely to appear during the fl
u season.
<r /><div><i>aka "the flu shot"</i></div>
1403198785505 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::killed viral}} flu vaccine is the
form of flu vaccine that is most frequently used.
1403198804519 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::live, attenuated}} flu vaccine is
the flu vaccine that contains a temperature-sensitive mutant that replicated in
the nose, ut not the lungs. <r /><div><i>Administered intranasally.</i></di
v>
1403198837444 1395802358422 {{c1::Genetic/antigenic shift}} is a genetic phe
nomenon that causes <>flu pandemics</>.
<r /><div><i>This involves the
reassortment of the viral genome. Segments undergo high-frequency recomination
(like when human flu A virus recomines with swine flu A virus).</i></div><div><
i></i><i><>S</>udden genetic&nsp;<>s</>hifts are more deadly that gra<>d</
>ual genetic&nsp;<>d</>rifts.</i></div>
1403198971091 1395802358422 {{c1::Genetic/antigenic drift}} is a genetic phe
nomenon that yields <>flu epidemics</>.
<r /><div><i>Involves minor cha
nges ased on random mutations.</i></div><div><i><>S</>udden genetic <>s</>h
ifts are more deadly that gra<>d</>ual genetic <>d</>rifts.</i></div>
1403215046161 1395802358422 {{c1::Ruella}} is an infective disorder caused
y a Togavirus that was formerly known as German (3-day) Measles.
1403215494953 1395802358422 {{c1::Ruella}} is an infectious disorder caused
y a Togavirus that presents with fever, <>postauricular</>&nsp;(and other)
lymphadenopathy, <>arthralgia</>&nsp;and a <>fine rash</>.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-26293789786530.jpg" /></div>
1403215608761 1395802358422 {{c1::Fine (Ruella) Rash}} is a cutaneous featu

re of Ruella that involves <>fine macules that starts on the face and spreads
centrifugally</>&nsp;to involve the trunk and extremities.<div><r /></div><di
v><img src="paste-26289494819234.jpg" /></div>
1403215645008 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Ruella}} is a serious ToRCHeS
infection that presents with a <>"lueerry muffin" appearance</>&nsp;that is
indicative of extramedullary hematopoeisis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-26439818674593.jpg" /></div>
1403215711657 1395802358422 {{c1::"Blueerry Muffin" appearance}} is a cutan
eous feature of Congenital Ruella that is indicative of extramedullary hematopo
iesis.
1403215750435 1395802358422 {{c1::Croup}} is a viral respiratory infection c
aused y Parainfluenzavirus that involves a <>seal-like arking cough</>.
<r /><div><i>Commonly seen in infants.</i></div>
1403216570764 1395802358422 {{c1::Surface F (fusion) protein}} is a surface
protein found in all Paramyxoviruses that causes respiratory epithelial cells to
fuse and form multinucleated cells.
1403216622940 1395802358422 {{c1::Palivizuma}} is a monoclonal antiody tha
t targets the surface F protein on paramyxoviruses, therey preventing pneumonia
caused y RSV infection in premature infants.
1403216662021 1395802358422 Which momoclonal antiody is used to target the
Surface F protein on all Paramyxoviruses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Palivizuma
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It can prevent the pneumonia caused y RSV infecti
on in premature infants.</i></div>
1403216716841 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles}} is an infectious disorder caused
y a Paramyxovirus that presents with characteristic <>Koplik spots</>&nsp;o
n the oral/uccal mucosa.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26976689586594.jp
g" /></div>
1403217185884 1395802358422 {{c1::Koplik Spots}} are a mucosal feature of Me
asles that is descried as <>right red spots</>&nsp;with <>lue-white cente
rs</>&nsp;that precede the measles rash y 1-2 days.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-26972394619298.jpg" /></div>
1403217229133 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles}} is an infectious disorder caused
y a Paramyxovirus that presents with a characteristic <>descending maculopapu
lar rash</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27131308409250.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Discrete erythematous rash that presents late and includes the lim
s as it spreads downwards (vs. Ruella which involves mostly the trunk and spre
ads centrifugally to the extremities)</i></div>
1403217376605 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Suacute Sclerosing Pane
ncephalitis (SSPE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Measles virus}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Occurs years later.</i></div>
1403217416275 1395802358422 {{c1::Giant Cell Pneumonia}} is a rare respirato
ry sequelae of Measles that is seen in the immunosuppressed.
1403217532105 1395802358422 {{c1::Cough}},&nsp;{{c2::Coryza}} and&nsp;{{c3
::Conjuncitivits}} is a triad of symptoms referred to as the "Three C's of Measl
es."
<r /><div><img src="paste-27577985007779.jpg" /></div>
1403219013819 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitamin A}} is a fat solule vitamin that
is used to prevent severe exfoliative dermatitis in malnourished children infect
ed with Measles.
1403219043381 1395802358422 Which fat solule vitamin is used to prevent sev
ere exfoliative dermatitis in malnourished children with Measles?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Vitamin A}}</div>
1403219447297 1395802358422 {{c1::Mumps}} is an infectious disorder caused 
y Paramyxoviruses that presents with <>parotitis, orchitis</>&nsp;and <>asep
tic meningitis</>.
<r /><div><i>"Mumps can make your parotid glands and te
stes as ig as <>POM</>-poms."</i></div><div><i><>P</>arotitis, <>O</>rchi
tis and aseptic <>M</>eningitis.</i></div><div><i>The orchitis can cause steri
lity, especially after puerty.</i></div>
1403219565935 1395802358422 {{c1::Parotitis}} is a feature of Mumps that pre
sents with a <>swollen neck and parotid glands</>.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-27994596835745.jpg" /></div>

1403226827494 1395802358422 Which Rhadovirus (negative ssRNA) is shaped lik
e a ullet?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-29145648070934.jpg" /></div><di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Raies}}</div>
1403228947119 1395802358422 {{c1::Negri Bodies}} are characteristic cytoplas
mic inclusions commonly found in <>Purkinje cells of the cereellum</>&nsp;an
d in <>hippocampal neurons</>&nsp;in a patient with Raies.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-29686813950370.jpg" /></div>
1403229150193 1395802358422 What is the incuation period for Raies?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks to months efore symptoms arise}}</div>
1403229165584 1395802358422 What is the postexposure treatment for Raies?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wound cleaning and vaccination  raies immune gloulin}
}</div>
1403229205421 1395802358422 {{c1::Raies}} is a Rhadovirus that travels to
and infects the CNS y migrating in a retrograde fashion up nerve axons.
1403229246864 1395802358422 Which animal ites are the most common causes of
Raies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bat, raccoon and skunk}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Dog ites are actually not that common in the USA.</i></div>
1403229278593 1395802358422 {{c1::Raies}} is a CNS disorder caused y a Rha
dovirus that presents with <>agitation, photophoia</>&nsp;and <>hydrophoi
a</>. <r /><div><i><u>Disease progression</u>:</i></div><div><i>Fever, Malais
e --&gt; Agitation, Photophoia, Hydrophoia --&gt; Paralysis, Coma --&gt; Death
.</i></div>
1403229687296 1395802358422 What is the only DNA Hepatitis virus?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::HBV}}</div>
<r /><div><i>All others are RNA viruses.</i></d
iv><div><i><img src="paste-33152852557938.jpg" /></i></div>
1403229943935 1395802358422 How do ALT levels change in Hepatitis?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403229952647 1395802358422 How do AST levels change in Hepatitis?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403229961409 1395802358422 How is HAV transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Fecal-Oral}}</div> <r /><div><i><u>The Hepatitis Worm:&nsp;<>A-B-C-D-E</
></u></i></div><div><i>The ends have fecal-oral transmission (A = mouth; E = an
us).</i></div><div><i>Everything else in etween (BCD) is transmitted parenteral
ly.</i></div>
1403230069721 1395802358422 How is HBV transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Parenteral}}</div> <r /><div><div><i><u>The Hepatitis Worm:&nsp;<>A-B-CD-E</></u></i></div><div><i>The ends have fecal-oral transmission (A = mouth; E
= anus).</i></div><div><i>Everything else in etween (BCD) is transmitted paren
terally.</i></div></div>
1403230087366 1395802358422 How is HCV transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Parenteral}}</div> <div><r /></div><div><div><i><u>The Hepatitis Worm:&ns
p;<>A-B-C-D-E</></u></i></div><div><i>The ends have fecal-oral transmission (A
= mouth; E = anus).</i></div><div><i>Everything else in etween (BCD) is transm
itted parenterally.</i></div></div>
1403230100957 1395802358422 How is HDV transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Parenteral}}</div> <div><r /></div><div><div><i><u>The Hepatitis Worm:&ns
p;<>A-B-C-D-E</></u></i></div><div><i>The ends have fecal-oral transmission (A
= mouth; E = anus).</i></div><div><i>Everything else in etween (BCD) is transm
itted parenterally.</i></div></div>
1403230118689 1395802358422 How is HEV transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Fecal-oral; especially with waterorne epidemics}}</div>
<r /><div><div>
<i><u>The Hepatitis Worm:&nsp;<>A-B-C-D-E</></u></i></div><div><i>The ends ha
ve fecal-oral transmission (A = mouth; E = anus).</i></div><div><i>Everything el
se in etween (BCD) is transmitted parenterally.</i></div></div>
1403230126896 1395802358422 Which 2 Hepatitis viruses do not yield carrier s
tatus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A and E}}</div>
1403230464069 1395802358422 Which 2 Hepatitis viruses are transmitted fecalorally?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HAV; HEV}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"The vowel
s hit your owels."</i></div><div><i>They are naked viruses and do not rely on a
n envelope, hence they are not destroyed y the gut.</i></div>

1403230706101 1395802358422 What is the incuation period for HAV?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Short (weeks)}}</div>
1403230758993 1395802358422 What is the incuation period for&nsp;HBV?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Long (months)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-33157
147525234.jpg" /></div>
1403230766342 1395802358422 What is the incuation period for&nsp;HCV?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1403230790060 1395802358422 What is the incuation period for HDV&nsp;<>wh
en it is superinfected on top of HBV</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</di
v>
1403230813793 1395802358422 What is the incuation period for&nsp;HDV <>wh
en it causes co-infection with HBV</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1403230847676 1395802358422 What is the incuation period for&nsp;HEV?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1403230932218 1395802358422 Which 2 Hepatitis viruses <>do not</>&nsp;inc
rease the risk for Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HA
V; HEV}}</div>
1403231231211 1395802358422 {{c1::HBV}} is a Hepatitis virus that increases
the risk of Hepatocellular Carcinoma y integrating into the host genome, there
y acting as an oncogene.
<r /><div><img src="paste-33152852557938.jpg" /
></div>
1403231272667 1395802358422 {{c1::HCV}} is a Hepatitis virus that increases
the risk of Hepatocellular Carcinoma y causing chronic inflammation.
1403231301609 1395802358422 How does HDV influence the risk of Hepatocellula
r Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403231439439 1395802358422 Which Hepatitis virus is associated with <>asym
ptomatic</>, <>acute</>&nsp;hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HAV}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-32418413150333.jpg" /></div>
1403231921559 1395802358422 Which Hepatitis is most commonly associated with
<>chronic</>&nsp;hepatitis and susequent <>cirrhosis</>&nsp;or <>carcin
oma</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HCV}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-32452
772888671.jpg" /></div>
1403231965914 1395802358422 Which Hepatitis virus is a defective virus that
is <>dependent on HBV co-infection or superinfection</>?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::HDV}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Superinfection yields a worse prognosis.</
i></div>
1403232021285 1395802358422 Which Hepatitis virus is associated with high mo
rtality in pregnant women?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HEV}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-32568737005644.jpg" /></div>
1403234379492 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin against HAV indicates <>ac
tive</>&nsp;Hepatitis A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HAV IgM}}</div>
1403234473918 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin against HAV indicates <>pr
ior infection or vaccination to HAV</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HAV IgG
}}</div>
1403234508053 1395802358422 {{c1::Anti-HAV IgG}} is an immunogloulin agains
t HAV that protects against HAV reinfection.
1403234530092 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen indicates the <>presence</>&
nsp;of an Hepatitis B infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HBsAg (surface)}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-35854386987766.jpg" /></div>
1403234700134 1395802358422 Which antiody against HBV indicates <>immunity
to Hepatitis B</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HBsAg antiodies}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-35850092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403234741071 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen is associated with the core of
HBV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HBcAg}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-35850
092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403235161183 1395802358422 Which antiody is HBV is indicative of an <>acu
te or recent infection</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HB<u><>c</></u>Ag
IgM}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-35850092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403235215825 1395802358422 Which antiody against HBV is indicative of <>p
rior exposure</>&nsp;or <>chronic infection</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A

nti-HBcAg IgG}}</div> <r /><div><i>Positive during the window period.</i></di
v><div><i><img src="paste-35850092020470.jpg" /></i></div>
1403235269008 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen is indicative of <>active vir
al replication</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HBeAg}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><i>A second, different antigenic determinant from the HBV core</i>.<r /><div><
img src="paste-35850092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403235411557 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen is indicative of <>high trans
missiility</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HBeAg}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-35850092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403235477151 1395802358422 Which antiody against HBV is indicative of <>l
ow transmissiility</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HBeAg}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-35850092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403235515874 1395802358422 Which type of hepatitis is characterized y ALT
&gt; AST?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Viral}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Vir<>ALT<
/>.</i></div>
1403236047548 1395802358422 Which type of hepatitis is characterised y AST
&gt; ALT?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcoholic hepatitis}}</div>
1403236061859 1395802358422 Which HBV antigen appears first in an HBV infect
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HBsAg}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>"<>SE-CES</
>" in the order of appearance:</i><div><i>- SE are the antigens (HBsAg; HBeAg)<
/i></div><div><i>- CES are the antiodies<r /></i><div><img src="paste-35850092
020470.jpg" /></div></div>
1403236146801 1395802358422 Which antiody against HBV will e present in a
patient that is immunized against HBV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HBsAg}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-37890201485634.jpg" /></div>
1403236338970 1395802358422 Which viral gene in HIV codes for the surface gl
ycoproteins gp120 and gp41?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>env</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The protein codes for gp160 which is cleaved into gp120 and gp41.<
/i></div>
1403236458381 1395802358422 Which envelope protein on HIV functions to allow
<>attachment to host CD4+ T cells</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::gp120; the d
ocking glycoprotein}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-38109244818014.jpg" /
></div>
1403236543841 1395802358422 Which envelope protein from HIV functions to med
iate <>fusion and entry</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::gp41; the transmemrane
glycoprotein}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-38104949850718.jpg" /></div>
1403236571738 1395802358422 Which viral gene in HIV codes for the p24 capsid
protein?<div><r />{{c1::<i>gag</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-38104
949850718.jpg" /></div>
1403236603642 1395802358422 Which viral protein in HIV functions as the caps
id protein?<div><r />{{c1::p24}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-3810494985071
8.jpg" /></div>
1403236619201 1395802358422 Which viral gene in HIV codes for its Reverse Tr
anscriptase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>pol</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Re
memer, Reverse Transcriptase is an <>RNA-dependent DNA Polymerase</>&nsp;whi
ch synthesizes dsDNA from RNA. The formed dsDNA integrates into the host genome.
</i></div>
1403236647898 1395802358422 Which viral gene in HIV codes for its Aspartate
Protease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>pol</i>}}</div>
1403236662137 1395802358422 Which viral gene in HIV codes for its Integrase?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>pol</i>}}</div>
1403236675704 1395802358422 Which viral protein in HIV functions as the matr
ix protein?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p17}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-38104949850718.jpg" /></div>
1403236800656 1395802358422 To which co-receptor does HIV ind to in <u styl
e="font-weight: old; ">early infection</u>&nsp;to enter T cells?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::CCR5}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Alongside CD4.</i></div><div><i>Ho
mozygous CCR5 mutation = immunity.</i></div><div><i>Heterozygous CCR5 mutation =
slower disease course.</i></div>
1403236845148 1395802358422 To which co-receptor does HIV ind to in <u styl

e="font-weight: old; ">late infection</u>&nsp;to enter T cells?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::CXCR4}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Alongside CD4.</i></div>
1403236876930 1395802358422 To which co-receptor does HIV ind to enter Macr
ophages?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CCR5}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Alongside
CD4.</i></div><div><i><div></div></i><i>Homozygous CCR5 mutation = immunity.</i>
</div><div><i>Heterozygous CCR5 mutation = slower disease course.</i></div>
1403237004609 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used as a <>presumptiv
e, rule-out</>&nsp;test for HIV infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ELISA}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Sensitive; high false-positive rate; low threshold.</i></d
iv><div><i><img src="paste-40432822124766.jpg" /></i></div>
1403237052080 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to<>&nsp;confirm
</>&nsp;a positive ELISA test for HIV infection (i.e. a <>rule-in test</>)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Western lot assay}}</div> <r /><div><i>Specific;
high-false negative rate; high threshold</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-404285
27157470.jpg" /></i></div>
1403237108201 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to determine the p
rognosis of HIV infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HIV PCR/viral load test; d
etermines the amount of viral RNA in the plasma}}</div>
1403237168152 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to monitor the eff
ect of drug therapy in HIV infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HIV PCR/viral l
oad test; determines the amount of viral RNA in the plasma}}</div>
1403237187951 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is required to make an AIDS
diagnosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::≤ 200 CD4+ cells/mm³}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Normal = 500-1500 cells/mm³</i></div><div><i>^{<img
src="paste-40870908789351.jpg" />}</i></div>
1403237266319 1395802358422 What CD4 percentage is needed to make a diagnosi
s of AIDS?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 14%}}</div> <r /><div><i>AIDS can a
lso e diagnosed y the presence of an AIDS-defining condition (Pneumocystis pne
umonia) in an HIV+ patient.</i></div>
1403237357017 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is indicative of <>moderat
e immunocompromisation</>&nsp;in HIV infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt
; 400 CD4+ cells/mm³}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-4086661382205
5.jpg" /></div>
1403237616954 1395802358422 Where does HIV replicate during the latent phase
of an untreated infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymph nodes}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-40866613822055.jpg" /></div>
1403280640589 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Histoplasma capsulatum</i>}} is an oppo
rtunistic fungus that is known to cause <>systemic&nsp;</>disease in HIV pati
ents that involves <>low-grade fevers, cough, hepatosplenomegaly</>&nsp;and <
<r /><div><i>CD4+ &lt; 100 cell/mm³<
>tongue ulceration</>.
/i></div>
1403283050359 1395802358422 Which CD4+ cell count is associated with opportu
nistic <i>Histoplasma capsulatum</i>&nsp;infections in HIV patients?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::&lt; 100 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403283089460 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida alicans</i>}} is an opportunis
tic fungus that causes oral thrush/esophagitis in HIV patients that presents wit
h fluffy white cottage-cheese lesions.
1403285170219 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <>oral<
/>&nsp;thrush caused y <i>Candida alicans</i>&nsp;in HIV patients?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 400 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403285201397 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <>esoph
agitis</>&nsp;caused y <i>Candida alicans</i>&nsp;in HIV patients?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 100 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403285239765 1395802358422 {{c1::Hairy Leukoplakia}} is a dermatological in
fection caused y EBV in HIV patients that commonly presents on the lateral tong
ue.
1403285323559 1395802358422 {{c1::Bacillary Angiomatosis}} is a dermatologic
disorder caused y <i>Bartonella henselae</i>&nsp;in HIV patients and presents
with superficial vascular proliferation.
<r /><div><i>Biopsy reveals neu
trophilic inflammation.</i></div>

1403290054322 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cryptosporidium spp.</i>}} is a protozo
a that causes GI infection in HIV patients that presents with chronic, watery di
arrhea. <r /><div><i>Acid fast cysts are seen in the stool.</i></div>
1403290877323 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>Crypt
osporidium spp.</i>&nsp;infection in HIV patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&
lt; 200 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403291284641 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>}} is a protozoa t
hat causes CNS ascesses in HIV patients that present as ring-enhancing lesions
on imaging.
1403291731134 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>Toxop
lasma gondii</i>&nsp;infection in HIV patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt;
100 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403291771962 1395802358422 {{c1::Dementia}} is a CNS complication seen in H
IV that is directly associated with HIV and must e differentiated from other ca
uses.
1403291810944 1395802358422 {{c1::Encephalopathy (Progressive Multifocal Leu
koencephalopathy; PML)}} is a CNS disorder seen in HIV patients that involves th
e reactivation of latent JC virus and susequent demyelination.
1403292436951 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with JC virus
reactivation in HIV patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 200 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403292530742 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cryptococcus neoformans</i>}} is an opp
ortunistic fungus that causes meningitis in HIV patients.
<r /><div><i>In
dia-ink stain will reveal a yeast with narrow-ased udding and large capsule.</
i></div>
1403292875373 1395802358422 Which CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>Cryp
tococcus neoformans</i>&nsp;meningitis in HIV patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::&lt; 50 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403292900993 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is a Herpesvirus that causes <>reti
nitis</> in HIV patients that presents with <>cotton-wool spots</>&nsp;on fu
ndoscopy.
<r /><div><i>May present with esophagitis.</i></div>
1403292961137 1395802358422 {{c1::Esophagitis}} is a GI complication that is
often seen alongside CMV Retinitis in HIV patients.
1403293081180 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with CMV reti
nitis in HIV patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 50 cells/mm³}}
</div>
1403293151310 1395802358422 {{c1::Large Cell Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma}} is a Non
-Hodgkin Lymphoma that is seen in HIV patients, <>often on the oropharynx (Wald
eyer Ring).</> <r /><div><i>May e associated with EBV.</i></div>
1403294217650 1395802358422 {{c1::Primary B-cell CNS Lymphoma}} is a Lymphom
a often associated with EBV in that can present as focal or multiple lesions, th
erey differentiating it from Toxoplasmosis.
1403295597194 1395802358422 {{c1::Squamous Cel Carcinoma}} is a cancer cause
d y HPV in HIV patients that often presents at the anus (in MSM's) or the cervi
x.
1403295677022 1395802358422 {{c1::Kaposi Sarcoma}} is a cancer caused y HHV
-8 in HIV patients that presents with superficial neoplastc proliferations of va
sculature.
<div><r /></div><i>Biopsy will reveal lymphocytic inflammation.
</i><r /><div><i>Do not confuse Kaposi Sarcoma with Bacillary Angiomatosis whic
h is caused y Bartonella henselae.</i></div>
1403296022011 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is a Herpvesvirus that causes inters
titial pneumonia in HIV patients.
<r /><div><i>Associated with owl eye in
clusions.</i></div>
1403296068600 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Aspergillus fumigatus</i>}} is an oppor
tunistic fungus that causes invasive Aspergillosis in HIV patients that presents
with pleuritic pain, hemoptysis and infiltrates on imaging.
1403296110584 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pneumocystic jirovecii</i>}} is an oppo
rtunistic fungus that causes <i>Pneumocystis</i>&nsp;pneumonia in HIV patients.
<r /><div><i>Associated with a ground glass appearance on imaging.</i></div>
1403296292520 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>Pneum

ocystis</i>&nsp;pneumonia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 200 cells/mm<sup>3</
sup>}}</div>
1403296320448 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated with <i>Strep
tococcus pneumoniae</i>&nsp;pneumonia in HIV patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::&lt; 200 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403296589544 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoacterium avium-intracellulare</i>&
nsp;(MAC)}} is a Mycoacterial species that causes Tuerculosis-like disease in
HIV patients.
1403296636460 1395802358422 What CD4+ cell count is associated <i>Mycoacter
ium avium-intracellulare</i>&nsp;infection in HIV patients?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::&lt; 50 cells/mm³}}</div>
1403296696962 1395802358422 Which form of prions are the infective, transmis
sile, pathogenic form of the protein?<div><r />{{c1::PrP^sc}}</div>
1403296827842 1395802358422 {{c1::PrP^sc}} is the <>eta-pleated,
</>&nsp;infective and transmissile form of prions that is formed following th
e conversion from the normal, predominantly alpha-helical PrP^c&nsp;p
rotein.
1403296910557 1395802358422 {{c1::PrP^sc}} is the pathological for
m of prions that resists protease degradation and hence facilitates the conversi
on of more normal PrP^c&nsp;prions into the infective, transmissile
form.
1403296979146 1395802358422 {{c1::Creutzfeldt-Jako Disease}} is a <>sporad
ic</> type of spongiform encephalopathy caused y prions that is characterized
y rapidly progressive dementia.&nsp; <r /><div><i>Spongiform encephalopathy
is characterized y dementia, ataxia and death.</i></div>
1403297018321 1395802358422 {{c1::Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker Syndrome}}
is an <>inherited</>&nsp;spongiform encephalopathy caused y prions. <r /><d
iv><i>Spongiform encephalopathy is characterized y dementia, ataxia and death.<
/i></div>
1403297078245 1395802358422 {{c1::Kuru}} is an <>acquired</>&nsp;form of
spongiform encephalopathy that is caused y prions.
<r /><div><i>Spongiform
encephalopathy is characterized y dementia, ataxia and death.</i></div>
1403297162366 1395802358422 Where on the ody is <i>Staphylococcus epidermid
is </i>found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Skin}}</div>
1403298938646 1395802358422 Where in the ody is <i>Staphylococcus epidermid
is</i>&nsp;normally found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nose}}</div>
1403298970960 1395802358422 Where in the ody is <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i
>&nsp;normally found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nose}}</div>
1403298984246 1395802358422 Where in the ody are Viridans Streptococci norm
ally found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oropharynx}}</div>
1403299012580 1395802358422 Where in the ody is <i>Streptococcus mutans </i
>normally found in the ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dental plaque}}</div>
1403299072684 1395802358422 Where in the ody is <i>Escherichia coli</i>&ns
p;normally found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div>
1403299701687 1395802358422 Where in the ody is <i>Bacteroides fragilis</i>
&nsp;normally found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div>
1403299725154 1395802358422 Where in the ody is <i>Lactoacillus sp.</i>&n
sp;normally found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vagina}}</div>
1403300499736 1395802358422 What food source is associated with <i>Bacillus
cereus</i>&nsp;food poisoning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reheated rice}}</div>
1403300910954 1395802358422 What food source is associated with <i>Clostridi
um otulinum </i>food poisoning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Improperly canned fo
ods}}</div>
<r /><div><i>A sign will e <>ulging cans</>&nsp;due to the
gas production.</i></div>
1403300979026 1395802358422 What food source is associated with <i>Clostridi
um perfringens</i>&nsp;food poisoning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reheated meat
dishes}}</div>
1403301346841 1395802358422 What food source is associated with <i>Escherich
ia coli</i>&nsp;O157:H7 food poisoning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Undercooked
meat}}</div>

1403301402601 1395802358422 What food source is associated with <i>Salmonell
a</i>&nsp;food poisoning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poultry, meat, eggs}}</div
>
1403301422588 1395802358422 What food source is associated with <i>Staphyloc
occus aureus </i>food poisoning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Meats; Mayonnaise; C
ustard}}</div> <r /><div><i>Involves preformed enterotoxins</i></div>
1403301590798 1395802358422 What food source is associated with <i>Virio pa
rahaemolyticus</i>&nsp;food poisoning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contaminated
seafood}}</div>
1403302018878 1395802358422 What food source is associated with <i>Virio vu
lnificus</i>&nsp;food poisoning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Contaminated seafoo
d}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Virio vulnificus also causes wound infections fro
m contact with contaminated water or shellfish.</i></div>
1403302057461 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is caused y <i>Campyloac
ter spp</i>.?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div> <r /><div><i>Comma or S
-shaped organisms that can grow at 42 C</i></div>
1403303093917 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is caused y <i>Entamoea
histolytica</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody (Amoeic Dysentery)}}</div>
1403303114564 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is caused y EHEC?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. O157:H7; makes a Shig
a-like toxin</i></div>
1403303139859 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is caused y EIEC?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to invasion of the col
onic mucosa</i></div>
1403303154209 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is caused y <i>Salmonella
</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div> <r /><div><i>Flagellar motility
; reservoir is in animals, especially poultry and eggs.</i></div>
1403303200013 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is caused y <i>Shigella</
i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div> <r /><div><i>Produces a Shiga t
oxin.</i></div><div><i>Human reservoir only.</i></div>
1403303227164 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is caused y<i>&nsp;ersi
nia enterolytica</i>?<r /><r /><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Ca
uses day-care outreaks.</i></div><div><i>May also cause Pseudoappendicitis.</i>
</div>
1403303265838 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is caused y <i>Clostridiu
m difficile</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Watery}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Al
so causes Pseudomemranous colitis.</i></div><div><i>Occassionally causes loody
diarrhea.</i></div>
1403303414091 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is caused y <i>Clostridiu
m perfringens</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Watery}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Al
so causes gas gangrene.</i></div>
1403303430032 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is caused y ETEC?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Watery}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Causes Traveler's diarrhea
.</i></div><div><i>Produces oth a heat-laile and heat-stale toxin.</i></div>
1403303580284 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is caused y most protozoa
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Watery}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. Giardia, Cryp
tosporidium</i></div>
1403303598154 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is caused y <i>Virio cho
lerae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Watery}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Comma-shap
ed organism.</i></div><div><i>Causes rice water diarrhea.</i></div><div><i>Often
found in infected seafood.</i></div>
1403303643873 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is caused y most viruses?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rotavirus; Norovirus}}</div>
1403303672031 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}},&nsp;{{
c2::<i>Klesiella</i>}} and&nsp;{{c3::<i>Staphylococcus sp.</i>}} are aceria k
nown to cause pneumonia in alcoholics and/or IV drug users.
1403304551683 1395802358422 What group of acteria are associated with Aspir
ation Pneumonia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anaeroic acteria}}</div>
1403304573526 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoplasma</i>}},&nsp;{{c2::<i>Legione
lla</i>}} and&nsp;{{c3::<i>Chlamydia</i>}} are acteria associated with Atypica

l Pneumonia.
1403304637189 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas sp.</i>}},&nsp;{{c2::<i>St
aphylococcus aureus</i>}} and&nsp;{{c3::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}} are 
acteria associated with pneumonia in Cystic Firosis patients.
1403304833135 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus</i>}},&nsp;{{c2::<i>Hae
mophilus influenzae</i>}} and&nsp;{{c3::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}} are 
acterial species associated with <>postviral</>&nsp;pneumonia.
1403304873280 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of acterial menin
gitis in teens?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria meningitidis</i>}}</div>
1403304927377 1395802358422 How does opening pressure change in acterial me
ningitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-9929964388565.jpg" /></div>
1403306375270 1395802358422 How does opening pressure change in Fungal or TB
meningitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306391231 1395802358422 How does opening pressure change in viral mening
itis?<div><r />{{c1::Normal or Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306406607 1395802358422 How do the level of PMNs change in acterial men
ingitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306462804 1395802358422 How do lymphocyte levels change in Fungal or TB
meningitis?<div><r />{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-99256
69421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306480307 1395802358422 How do CSF lymphocyte levels change in viral men
ingitis?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r><div><img src="paste
-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306514193 1395802358422 How do CSF protein levels change in acterial me
ningitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306533528 1395802358422 How do CSF protein levels change in fungal or TB
meningitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306543116 1395802358422 How do CSF protein levels change in viral mening
itis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal or Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306580164 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels change in acterial me
ningitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306789648 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels change in fungal/TB me
ningitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306805863 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels change in viral mening
itis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal; viruses do not use glucose, rememer?}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403379343634 1395802358422 Which acteria is the most common cause of Osteo
myelitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>If no other information is availale aout the patient, always ass
ume that Staphylococcus aureus is the cause.</i></div>
1403379855778 1395802358422 Which acteria is associated with Osteomyelitis
in sexually active patients, aleit rarely?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse
ria gonorrhoeae</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Osteomyelitis is quite rare. Septi
c arthritis is far more common.</i></div>
1403380080297 1395802358422 Which acteria is associated with Osteomyelitis
in diaetics and IV drug users?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aerugi
nosa</i>&nsp;(and <i>Serratia sp.</i>)}}</div>
1403380109988 1395802358422 Which acteria is associated with Osteomyelitis
in Sickle Cell patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Salmonella sp.</i>}}</div
>
1403381846562 1395802358422 Which acteria is associated with Osteomyelitis

in patients that have received a prosthetic joint replacement?<div><r />{{c1::<
i>Staphylococcus aureus; Staphylococcus epidermidis</i>}}</div>
1403381908012 1395802358422 Which acteria is associated with Osteomyelitis
at the verterae?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycoacterium tuerculosis</i>}}
</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, this is called <>Pott Disease</></i></div>
1403381931442 1395802358422 Which acteria is associated with Osteomyelitis
in patients that have received cat and dog ites?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
Pasteurella multocida</i>}}</div>
1403382032572 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteomyelitis}} is an infectious disorder
of the one that often yields a <>sutle</>&nsp;lesion on x-ray, ut a more p
rominent lesion on MRI.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15607911153942.jpg"
/><img src="paste-15620796055832.jpg" /></div>
1403382462738 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y UTIs?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Females}}</div> <r /><div><i>They have shorter urethras
that are colonized y fecal flora.</i></div>
1403386039275 1395802358422 How does pregnancy affect the risk for otaining
a UTI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403386051223 1395802358422 How does diaetes affect the risk for otaining
a UTI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403386063417 1395802358422 What is a <>positive urinary leukocyte esterase
test</>&nsp;indicative of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bacterial UTI}}</div>
1403386313014 1395802358422 What is a <>positive urinary nitrite test</>&n
sp;indicative of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u style="font-weight: old; ">Gra
m-negative</u>&nsp;acterial UTI}}</div>
1403386334411 1395802358422 What kind of acteria yield a <>positive urinar
y nitrite test</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gram-negative acteria}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is important. Gram-positive acteria will not yield a positiv
e nitrite test.</i></div>
1403386564988 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of UTI?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}}</div>
1403386615420 1395802358422 What is the second most common cause of UTI in s
exually active women?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus saprophyticus
</i>}}</div>
1403386637865 1395802358422 What is the 3rd most common cause of UTI?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Klesiella pneumoniae</i>}}</div>
1403386652204 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Serratia marcensens</i>}} is a species
of acteria that causes UTI. Some strains produce a red pigment.
<r /><d
iv><i>Often nocosomial and drug resistant.</i></div>
1403386842718 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Proteus mirailis</i>}} is a gram-negat
ive acteria that causes UTI and is associated with <>struvite stones</>.
1403387010200 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>}} is a gramnegative acteria that causes UTI and is associated with a lue-green pigment an
d fruity odor. <r /><div><i>Usually nocosomial and drug resistant.</i></div>
1403387098106 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Proteus spp.</i>}} and&nsp;{{c2::<i>Kl
esiella spp.</i>}} are 2 gram-negative acteria known to cause UTIs that yield
a &nsp;<>positive urinary urease test</>.
1403387151807 1395802358422 Which acteria are associated with a <>positive
urinary urease test</>&nsp;in a UTI?<div><r />{{c1::<i>Klesiella spp.; Prot
eus spp.</i>}}</div>
1403387182020 1395802358422 Which acteria are most likely associated with a
<>negative&nsp;urinary urease test</>&nsp;in a UTI?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>; <i>Enterococcus spp.</i>}}</div>
1403387237718 1395802358422 {{c1::Bacterial Vaginosis}} is a type of vaginal
infection that presents with a <>thin, white discharge</>&nsp;with a <>fish
y odour</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-17738214932836.jpg" /></div>
1403388175462 1395802358422 {{c1::Trichomoniasis}} is a common vaginal infec
tion that presents with <>frothy, grey-green, foul-smelling discharge</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-17733919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388357800 1395802358422 {{c1::Vulvovaginal Candidiasis}} is a common vag
inal infection that presents with a <>thick, white, "cottage cheese" discharge<

/>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-17733919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388703460 1395802358422 Which vaginal infection is associated with Clue
Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bacterial vaginosis}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-17733919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388724717 1395802358422 What is the treatment for acterial vaginosis?<d
iv><r />{{c1::Metronidazole}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1773391996554
0.jpg" /></div>
1403388742871 1395802358422 What is the vaginal pH in Bacterial Vaginosis?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 4.5}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-17733
919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388755212 1395802358422 What is the vaginal pH in Vaginal Trichomoniasis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 4.5}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-17733
919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388781335 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Vaginal Trichomoniasis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidazole}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The sexual
partner must e treated as well.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1773391996554
0.jpg" /></i></div>
1403388842309 1395802358422 What is the vaginal pH in Vulvovaginal Candidias
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal (4.0-4.5)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-17733919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388902876 1395802358422 Which common vaginal infection <>does not</>&n
sp;present with inflammation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bacterial vaginosis}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-17733919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388925963 1395802358422 How are the ToRCHeS infections commonly transmit
ted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transplacental in most cases}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>HSV-2 is commonly transmitted during delivery.</i></div>
1403390175556 1395802358422 Which viral infection is known to cause Hydrops
Fetalis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parvovirus B19}}</div>
1403390219688 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus agalactiae</i>}},&nsp;{{
c2::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}}, and&nsp;{{c3::<i>Listeria monocytogenes</i>}} ar
e acteria that all cause meningitis in neonates.
1403390255400 1395802358422 How is <i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>&nsp;transmitted
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cat feces; ingestion of undercooked meat}}</div>
1403392505431 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>}} is a ToRCHeS in
fection that presents as a classic triad of <>chorioretinitis, hydrocephalus</
>&nsp;and <>intracranial calcifications</>&nsp;in neonates.
1403392962813 1395802358422 How is Ruella transmitted?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Respiratory droplets}}</div>
1403392975603 1395802358422 {{c1::Ruella}} is a&nsp;ToRCHeS infection that
presents with a classic triad of <>Patent Ductus Arteriosus, cataracts</>&ns
p;and <>deafness</>. <r /><div><i>There may e <>pulmonary artery hypoplasi
a</>&nsp;instead of PDA.</i></div><div><i>There may e a <>"lueerry muffin"
rash</>&nsp;as well.</i></div>
1403393249459 1395802358422 What cardiovascular defects are associated with
Congenital Ruella (ToRCHeS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PDA or Pulmonary Artery
Hypoplasia}}</div>
1403393286093 1395802358422 Which&nsp;ToRCHeS infection is associated with
a <>"lueerry muffin"</>&nsp;rash?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ruella; CMV}}
</div>
1403393437299 1395802358422 How is CMV transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Sexual contact; organ transplantation}}</div>
1403393439364 1395802358422 {{c1::Ruella}} and&nsp;{{c2::CMV}} are 2&nsp;
ToRCHeS infections that are associated with a <>"lueerry muffin</>" rash.
1403393464088 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is a&nsp;ToRCHeS infection that pre
sents with <>hearing loss, seizures, petechial rash</>&nsp;and a <>"lueerr
y muffin" rash.</>
1403393509039 1395802358422 {{c1::HIV}} is a&nsp;ToRCHeS infection that pre
sents with <>recurrent infections</>&nsp;and <>diarrhea</>&nsp;in neonates
.
1403393766971 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV-2}} is a&nsp;ToRCHeS infection that p

resents with <>encephalitis</>&nsp;and <>herpetic (vesicular) lesions.</>
1403394135062 1395802358422 {{c1::Syphilis}} is a&nsp;ToRCHeS infection tha
t often results in stillirth through <>hydrops fetalis</>.
1403394254138 1395802358422 Which&nsp;ToRCHeS infection is associated with
<>Hutchinson teeth</>, a congenital dental malformation involving notches, wid
ely shaped central incisors?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20985210208613
.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Syphilis}}</div>
1403394307733 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhagades}} are a facial malformation seen
in congenital Syphilis that are descried as <>linear scares at the angle of th
e mouth</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21071109554532.jpg" /></div>
1403394374955 1395802358422 {{c1::Snuffles}} is a feature of congenital syph
ilis that is descried as <>nasal discharge full of syphilis spirochetes</>.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21066814587236.jpg" /></div>
1403394425500 1395802358422 Which ToRCHeS infection is associated with <>CN
VIII deafness</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Syphilis}}</div>
1403394467045 1395802358422 Which&nsp;ToRCHeS infection is associated with
<>saddle nose</>&nsp;and a <>short maxilla</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S
yphilis}}</div>
1403394493807 1395802358422 Which&nsp;ToRCHeS infection is associated with
<>saer shins</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Syphilis}}</div>
1403394506409 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Hand-Foot-Mouth Disease?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coxsackievirus Type A}}</div>
1403397115066 1395802358422 {{c1::Hand-Foot-Mouth Disease}} is a viral disor
der caused y Coxsackievirus Type A that presents with a <>vesicular rash on th
e palms and soles</>&nsp;and <>vesicles/ulcers on the oral mucosa</>.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-21685289877861.jpg" /></div>
1403397223545 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Roseola?<div><r />{{c1:
:HHV-6}}</div>
1403397232102 1395802358422 {{c1::Roseola}} is a viral disorder caused y HH
V-6 that presents with a macular rash over the ody that appears after several d
ays of high fever.
<r /><div><i>Can present with ferile seizures and usua
lly affects infants.</i></div>
1403397278883 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles (Rueola)}} is a viral infection c
aused y a paramyxovirus that presents with a rash that <>egins at the head an
d moves down</>.
<r /><div><i>The rash is preceded y cough, coryza, con
junctivitis and Koplik spots on the uccal mucosa.</i></div>
1403397342974 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Erythema Infectiosum (Fi
fth Disease)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parvovirus B19}}</div>
1403397414579 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythema Infectiosum (Fifth Disease)}} is
a viral infection caused y Parvovirus B19 that presents with a <>"slapped chee
k"</>&nsp;on the face.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22157736280421.jpg
" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Parvovirus B19 can cause hydrops fetalis in pregna
nt women.</i></div>
1403397499519 1395802358422 {{c1::Ruella}} is a viral infection that presen
ts with a <>postaurical lymphadenopathy</>&nsp;and a&nsp;<>fine truncal ras
h</>&nsp;that initially egins as a rash on the head which moves down.
1403397739006 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Scarlet Fever?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>}}</div>
1403397774456 1395802358422 {{c1::Scarlet Fever}} is an infection caused y
<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>&nsp;that presents with an <>erythematous, sandpa
per-like rash with fever and sore throat</>.
1403397960079 1395802358422 What is the cause of Chickenpox?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::VZV (Varicella-Zoster)}}</div>
1403397976390 1395802358422 {{c1::Chickenpox}} is an infectious disorder cau
sed y VZV that presents with a <>vesicular rash that egins on the trunk that
spreads to the face and extremities.</>
1403398203672 1395802358422 What is the etiology of AIDS?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::HIV}}</div>
1403398462881 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Chancroid?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Haemophilus ducreyi</i>}}</div>

1403398478236 1395802358422 {{c1::Chancroid}} is an STD caused y <i>Haemoph
ilus ducreyi</i>&nsp;that presents with <>painful genital ulcers</>&nsp;and
<>inguinal adenopathy</>.
1403398503408 1395802358422 What is the cause of Chlamydia?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;serotypes D-K}}</div>
1403398588067 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlamydia}} is an STD caused y <i>Chlamyd
ia trachomatis</i>&nsp;that presents with <>urethritis, cervicitis </>and <>
PID</>.
1403398642783 1395802358422 {{c1::Conjunctivitis}} is an ocular complication
of Chlamydia.
1403398715239 1395802358422 {{c1::Reactive arthritis}} is a musculoskeletal
complication of Chlamydia.
1403398742395 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Condyloma Acuminata?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV-6; HPV-11}}</div>
1403398772648 1395802358422 Which HPV strains cause Condyloma Acuminata?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV6; HPV11}}</div>
1403398790620 1395802358422 {{c1::Condyloma Acuminata}} is an STD caused y
HPV6 or HPV11 that presents with <>genital warts</>&nsp;and <>koilocytes</>
.
1403398909721 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Genital Herpes?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::HSV-2; less commonly HSV-1}}</div>
1403398935094 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Gonorrhea?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria gonorrheae</i>}}</div>
1403399191015 1395802358422 {{c1::Gonorrhea}} is an STD caused y <i>Neisser
ia gonorrheae</i>&nsp;that presents with <>urethritis, cervicitis, prostatitis
</>&nsp;and a <u style="font-weight: old; ">creamy purulent discharge</u>.
1403399379143 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Lymphogranuloma Venereum
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;serotypes L1-L3}}
</div>
1403399415521 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphogranuloma Venereum}} is an STD cause
d y <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;serotypes L1-L3 that presents with <>inf
ection of lymphatics</>, <>painless genital ulcers</>&nsp;and <>painful lym
phadenopathy</>&nsp;(uoes).
1403399484734 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Syphilis??<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Treponema pallidum</i>}}</div>
1403399534859 1395802358422 {{c1::Primary Syphilis}} is a type of Syphilis t
hat presents with <>painless chancres</>.
1403399558077 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondary Syphilis}} is a type of Syphilis
that presents with fever, lymphadenopathy, skin rashes and <>condylomata lata<
/>.
1403399595505 1395802358422 {{c1::Tertiary Syphilis}} is a type of Syphilis
that presents with <>gummas, taes dorsalis, general paresis, aortitis</>&nsp
;and <>Argyll-Roertson pupil</>.
1403399671136 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Trichomoniasis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Trichomonas vaginalis</i>}}</div>
1403399818501 1395802358422 {{c1::Trichomoniasis}} is an STD caused y <i>Tr
ichomonas vaginalis</i>&nsp;that presents with <>vaginitis </>and<> strawer
ry cervix</>.
1403399869171 1395802358422 Which 2 acteria are the most common causes of P
elvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia tranch
omatis</i>&nsp;(suacute; often undiagnosed); <i>Neisseria gonorrhoeae</i>}}</d
iv>
1403402930924 1395802358422 What is the most common acterial STD in the Uni
ted States?<div><r />{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>}}</div>
1403402957857 1395802358422 Which acteria often causes <>suacute</>&nsp
;Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) and hence often goes undiagnosed?<div><r />{
{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>}}</div>
1403402982827 1395802358422 Which acteria often causes <>acute</>&nsp;Pe
lvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)?<div><r />{{c1::<i>Neisseria gonorrhoeae</i>}}<
/div>

1403402993826 1395802358422 {{c1::Chandelier Sign}} is a complication of Pel
vic Inflammatory Disease (PID) that presents as cervical motion tenderness.
1403404030220 1395802358422 {{c1::Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)}} is a g
enitourinary disorder caused y <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;and <i>Neisser
ia gonorrheae</i>&nsp;that presents with <>purulent cervical discharge</>.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-24803436134755.jpg" /></div>
1403404101084 1395802358422 {{c1::Fitz-Hugh-Curtis Syndrome}} is a complicat
ion of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) that presents as an <>infection of the
liver capsule</>&nsp;and susequent <>"violin string" adhesions peritoneum t
o liver</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-24932285153639.jpg" /></div>
1403404184255 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Candida alicans</i>}} is a nocosomial
infection that has <>hyperalimentation</>&nsp;as a risk factor.
1403404464321 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}} and&nsp;{{c2::<
i>Proteus mirailis</i>}} are 2 <>nocosomial</>&nsp;acterial infections that
have urinary catheterization as a risk factor.
1403404521841 1395802358422 What is the most common nocosomial UTI infection
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}}</div>
1403404531311 1395802358422 What is the most common nocosomial wound infecti
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div>
1403404543940 1395802358422 {{c1::HBV}} is a viral nocosomial infection that
has <>working at a renal dialysis unit</>&nsp;as a risk factor.
1403404566023 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Legionella</i>}} is a acterial nocosom
ial infection that has <>water aerosols</>&nsp;as a risk factor.
1403404584966 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>}} is a gramnegative nocosomial acterial infection that has <>respiratory therapy equipmen
t</>&nsp;as a risk factor.
<r /><div><i>Think of Pseudomonas "</i><u style
="font-weight: old; font-style: italic; ">air</u><span style="font-style: itali
c">"-uginosa when <>air</>&nsp;or <>urns</>&nsp;are involved.</span></div
>
1403410271881 1395802358422 {{c1::Ruella virus}} is a virus that affects un
immunized children and presents with a rash that <>egins at the head and moves
down with <u>postauricular lymphadenopathy</u>.</>
1403410385653 1395802358422 {{c1::Measles virus}} is a virus that affects un
immunized children and presents with a rash that is <>preceded y cough, coryza
, conjunctivitis</>&nsp;and <>Koplik spots</>&nsp;on the uccal mucosa.
<div><r /></div><i>The rash that is seen starts at the head and moves down.</i>
<r /><div><i>Coryza = rhinitis.</i></div>
1403410485317 1395802358422 {{c1::Poliovirus}} is a virus that affects unimm
unized children that causes <>meningitis</>&nsp;and can also lead to <u>myalg
ia</u> and <u>paralysis</u>.
1403410692341 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Haemophilus influenzae</i><i style="fon
t-weight: old; ">&nsp;</i>Type B}} is a acteria that affects unimmunized chil
dren that causes <>epiglottitis</>&nsp;which presents with an <>edematous "c
herry red" epiglottis</>&nsp;and a <>"thumprint sign"</>&nsp;on xray.
<r /><div><i>The edematous epiglottis can cause difficulty reathing.</i></div>
1403410783068 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Coryneacterium diphtheriae</i>}} is a
acteria that affects unimmunized children and causes a <>pharyngitis</>&nsp;
that presents wth a <>grayish oropharyngeal exudate</>&nsp;that forms "<>pse
udomemranes</>".
<r /><div><i>The pseudomemranes may ostruct the airwa
y. They also cause throat pain.</i></div>
1403410856109 1395802358422 Which ug is associated with <>ranching rods i
n an oral infection</>&nsp;with <>sulfur-containing granules</>?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::<i>Actinomyces israelii</i>}}</div>
1403410907022 1395802358422 Which encapsulated microes are associated with
infections in asplenic patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pne
umoniae</i>&nsp;&gt;&gt; <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>< style="font-style: ita
lic; ">&nsp;</>Type B &gt; <i>Neisseria meningitidis</i>}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>"<>SHiN</>"</i></div><div><i>- <>S</>treptococcus pneumoniae</i></div>
<div><i>- <>H</>aemophilus <>i</>nfluenzae</i></div><div>- <i><>N</>eisser
ia meningitidis</i></div>

1403411003941 1395802358422 Which ugs are associated with infection in pati
ents with Chronic Granulomatous Disease (CGD)?<div><r />{{c1::Catalase positive
microes; especially <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div>
1403411887468 1395802358422 Which ug is associated with <>red "currant jel
ly" </>sputum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Klesiella</i>}}</div>
1403411911460 1395802358422 Which ug is associated with dog or cat ites?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pasteurella multocida</i>}}</div>
1403411935867 1395802358422 Which ug is associated with causing <>CN VII (
Facial Nerve) Palsy</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Borrelia urgdorferi</i>&
nsp;(Lyme Disease)}}</div>
1403411967243 1395802358422 Which fungi are associated with infections in ne
utropenic patients?<div><r />{{c1::<i>Candida alicans; Aspergillus</i>}}</div>
1403412017761 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is associated with infecting a
n organ transplant recipient?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div>
1403412036450 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Tropheryma whipplei</i>}} is a acteria
that causes Whipple Disease and yields a <>positive PAS</>&nsp;test.
1403412081384 1395802358422 Which ug is associated with causing pneumonia i
n cystic firosis patients and causing urn infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>}}</div>
1403412113014 1395802358422 Which acteria is commonly associated with causi
ng sepsis and meningitis in neworns?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Group B Strep (
<i>Streptococcus agalactiae</i>)}}</div>
1403412187186 1395802358422 Which acteria is associated with <>surgical wo
und infections</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</d
iv>
1403412207169 1395802358422 Which acteria is associated with <>traumatic o
pen wound infection</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Clostridium perfringens</
i>}}</div>
1403412222660 1395802358422 Which acteria is commonly associated with <>ep
iglottitis</>&nsp;in pediatric patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Haemoph
ilus influenzae</i>< style="font-style: italic; ">&nsp;</>Type B}}</div>
1403412257226 1395802358422 Which Hepatitis virus is commonly associated wit
h causing <>needle pricks</>&nsp;in health care workers?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::HBV}}</div>
1403463223351 1395802358422 What is the ROA of Penicillin G?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::IV or IM}}</div>
1403464056977 1395802358422 What is the ROA of Penicillin V?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Oral}}</div>
1403464068204 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Penicillin?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhiition of Transpeptidase, therey inhiiting peptidoglycan cross-l
inking; Activation of autolytic enzymes}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-79886
3917541.jpg" /></div>
1403464182073 1395802358422 Which type of acteria are treated y Penicillin
G and V?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mostly gram-positive(<i>Streptococcus pneum
oniae; Streptococcus pyogenes; Actinomyces</i>); Also <i>Neisseria meningitidis<
/i>&nsp;and <i>Treponema pallidum</i>}}</div>
1403464336533 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic anaemia}} is a hematological com
plication of Penicillin G and V use.
1403464350534 1395802358422 {{c1::Penicillinase}} is a type of eta-lactamas
e acteria seen in acteria that cleaves eta-lactam rings and causes Penicillin
resistance.
1403464401468 1395802358422 {{c1::Ampicillin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Amoxicillin}}
are <>aminopenicillins</>&nsp;that are sensitive to penicillinase ut have a
wider spectrum. <r /><div><i><>AM</>ino<>P</>enicillins are <>AMP</>ed up
penicillins.</i></div>
1403465941752 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ampicillin?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhiition of Transpeptidase, therey inhiiting peptidoglycan cross-l
inking}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403465981600 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Amoxicillin?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhiition of Transpeptidase, therey inhiiting peptidoglycan cross-

linking}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403466059983 1395802358422 {{c1::Clavulanic Acid}} is a eta-lactamase inhi
itor that is often administered with Ampicillin and Amoxicillin as they are pen
icillinase sensitive.
1403466131627 1395802358422 Which Aminopenicillin has greater oral ioavaila
ility?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amoxicillin}}</div> <r /><div><i>Am<>O</>
xicillin has greater <>O</>ral ioavailaility.</i></div>
1403466221895 1395802358422 {{c1::Ampicillin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Amoxicillin}}
are aminopenicillins that are used to kill <i>Haemophilus influenzae, Escherichi
a coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Proteus mirailis, Salmonella</i>&nsp;and <i>Sh
igella</i>&nsp;and enterococci.
<r /><div><i>"Aminopenicillins <>HELPS
S</>&nsp;kill <>enterococci</>"</i></div>
1403466367536 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudomemranous colitis}} is a GI complic
ation of Aminopenicillin use (Amoxicillin/Ampicillin) that results from overgrow
th of <i>Clostridium difficile</i>&nsp;in the GI tract.
1403466449813 1395802358422 How is Aminopenicillin resistance achieved?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinase, a eta-lactamase found in acteria}}</div>
1403466476888 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Oxacillin?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhiition of Transpeptidase, therey inhiition peptidoglycan cross-li
nking}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403467052612 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Nafcillin?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhiition of Transpeptidase, therey inhiiting peptidoglycan cross-li
nking}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403467069831 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Dicloxacillin?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Transpeptidase, therey inhiiting the cross-linking
of peptidoglycan}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-798863917541.jpg" /><
/div>
1403467106225 1395802358422 {{c1::Nafcillin}},&nsp;{{c2::Oxacillin}} and&n
sp;{{c3::Dicloxacillin}} are <>eta-lactamase resistant</>&nsp;penicillins th
at resist penicillinase action due to a ulky R-group that locks access to the
eta-lactam ring.
1403467177726 1395802358422 {{c1::Interstitial nephritis}} is a renal compli
cation of <>eta-lactamase resistant penicillin</>&nsp;(Nafcillin/Oxacillin/D
icloxacillin) administration.
1403467244954 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of <>eta-lactamase re
sistant</>&nsp;penicillins (Nafcillin/Oxacillin/Dicloxacillin)?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;(except for MRSA)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Use <>'naf'</>&nsp;to kill <>'staph'</>&nsp;"</i></div>
1403467360525 1395802358422 {{c1::Ticarcillin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Piperacillin}
} are <>antipseudomonal</>&nsp;penicillins used to treat <i>Pseudomonas spp.<
/i>&nsp;infections and gram-negative rods.
<r /><div><i>Extended spectrum.
</i></div><div><i>Beta-lactamase sensitive.</i></div><div><i>Used with eta-lact
amase inhiitors.</i></div>
1403467741278 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ticarcillin?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhiition of Transpeptidase, therey inhiiting peptidoglycan crosslinking}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403467785303 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Piperacillin?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Transpeptidase, therey inhiiting the cross-linking o
f peptidoglycan}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403467839901 1395802358422 {{c1::Clavulanic Acid}},&nsp;{{c2::Sulactam}}
and&nsp;{{c3::Tazoactam}} are <>eta-lactamase inhiitors</>&nsp;that are o
ften added to penicillin antiiotics to protect them from eta-lactamase action.
1403467907482 1395802358422 Which organisms are typically not covered y Cep
halosporins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Listera</i>, Atypicals (<i>Chlamydia,
Mycoplasma</i>), MRSA and Enterococci}}</div> <div><r /></div><div><i>The exc
eption is Ceftaroline (5th gen) which covers MRSA.</i></div><r /><div><i>"<>LA
ME</>"</i></div><div><i>- Listeria</i></div><div><i>- Atypicals (Chlamydia, Myc
oplasma)</i></div><div><i>- MRSA</i></div><div><i>- Enterococci</i></div>
1403468329356 1395802358422 What generation Cephalosporin is Cefazolin?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>

1403468774347 1395802358422 What generation Cephalosporin is Cephalexin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1403468781359 1395802358422 What generation Cephalosporin is Cefoxitin?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1403468787425 1395802358422 What generation Cephalosporin is Cefuroxime?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1403468793844 1395802358422 What generation Cephalosporin is Cefaclor?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1403468800346 1395802358422 What generation Cephalosporin is Ceftriaxone?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1403468812671 1395802358422 What generation Cephalosporin is Cefotaxime?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1403468823087 1395802358422 What generation Cephalosporin is Ceftazidime?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1403468834424 1395802358422 What generation Cephalosporin is Cefepime?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1403468850398 1395802358422 What generation Cephalosporin is Ceftaroline?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::5th}}</div>
1403468859221 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefazolin}} is a 1st generation Cephalospo
rin that is used prior to surgery to prevent <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;w
ound infections.
1403468913883 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefazolin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Cephalexin}} ar
e 1st generation Cephalosporins that are used to treat gram-positive cocci, <i>P
roteus mirailis, Escherichia coli</i>&nsp;and <i>Klesiella pneumoniae</i>
<r /><div><i>1st gen Cephalosporins "<>PEcK</>":</i></div><div><i>- Proteus m
irailis</i></div><div><i>- Escherichia coli</i></div><div><i>- Klesiella pneum
oniae</i></div>
1403469144643 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefoxitin}},&nsp;{{c2::Cefaclor}} and&ns
p;{{c3::Cefuroxime}} are 2nd generation Cephalosporins that are used to treat gr
am-positive cocci, <i>Haemophilus influenzae, Enteroacter aerogenes, Neisseria
spp, Proteus mirailis, Escherichia coli, Klesiella pneumoniae </i>and <i>Serra
tia marcescens.</i>
<r /><div><i>2nd generation Cephalosporins are "<>HEN
PEcKS</>":</i></div><div><i>- Haemophilus influenzae</i></div><div><i>- Entero
acter aerogenes</i></div><div><i>- Neisseria spp.</i></div><div><i>- Proteus mir
ailis</i></div><div><i>- Escherichia coli</i></div><div><i>- Klesiella pneumon
iae</i></div><div><i>- Serratia marcescens</i></div>
1403469366652 1395802358422 {{c1::Ceftriaxone}},&nsp;{{c2::Cefotaxime}} and
&nsp;{{c3::Ceftazidime}} are 3rd generation Cephalosporins that are used to tre
at <>serious gram-negative infections</>&nsp;that are resistant to other eta
-lactams.
1403469569805 1395802358422 Which 3rd generation Cephalosporin is used to tr
eat <>meningitis</>&nsp;and <>gonorrhea</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ceft
riaxone}}</div>
1403469588546 1395802358422 Which 3rd generation Cephalosporin is used to tr
eat <i>Pseudomonas spp.</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ceftaxidi
me}}</div>
1403469605890 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefepime}} is a 4th generation Cephalospor
in that has <>increased activity against </><i><>Pseudomonas</>&nsp;</i>and
gram-positives.
1403469843105 1395802358422 {{c1::Ceftaroline}} is a 5th generation Cephalos
porin that has <>road-spectrum coverage</>&nsp;against <>gram-negative</>&
nsp;and <>gram-positive</>&nsp;organisms, <>including MRSA</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>It <>does not</>&nsp;cover Pseudomonas.</i></div>
1403469985799 1395802358422 Which vitamin deficiency is associated with Ceph
alosporin use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin K}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Re
memer, Vitamin K is made y GI flora.</i></div>
1403470026928 1395802358422 What is the MOA of all Cephalosporins?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Transpeptidase, therey inhiiting the cross-lin
king of peptidoglycan}}</div>
1403470070980 1395802358422 How do Cephalosporin antiiotics influence the n

ephrotoxicity of Aminoglycosides?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403477935122 1395802358422 {{c1::Aztreonam}} is a Monoactam antiiotic tha
t precents peptidoglycan cross-linking y inding to <>penicillin-inding prote
in 3</>.
<r /><div><i>Resistant to eta-lactamases</i></div>
1403478203629 1395802358422 Which penicillin-inding protein does Aztreonam
ind to in order to prevent peptidoglycan cross-linking?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Penicillin-inding protein 3}}</div>
1403478383088 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Aztreonam?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Prevention of peptidoglycan cross-linking y inding to penicillin-ind
ing protein 3}}</div> <r /><div><i>Synergistic with aminoglycosides.</i></div
>
1403478435539 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Monoactams (Aztreon
am)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gram-negative rods <>only</>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Monoactams are ineffective against gram-positives and aneroes.</i></div>
1403478476581 1395802358422 {{c1::Aztreonam}} is a Monoactam antiiotic tha
t is used in patients with <>penicillin allergy</>&nsp;or in patients with <
>renal insufficiency</>&nsp;that cannot tolerate aminoglycosides.
1403485140325 1395802358422 {{c1::Cilastatin}} is a drug that is <>always</
>&nsp;co-administered with Carapanem antiiotics in order to decrease the ina
ctivation of the drug in the renal tuules.
1403487376204 1395802358422 {{c1::Cilastatin}} is a drug that is <>always</
>&nsp;co-administered with Carapanem antiiotics that <>inhiits renal dehyd
ropeptidase I</>.
<r /><div><i>This decreases the inactivation of the Car
apanem antiiotic in renal tuules.</i></div>
1403487437234 1395802358422 Which Carapanem antiiotic has a decreased risk
of causing seizures?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Meropenem}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Meropenem is also stale to renal dehydropeptidase I</i></div>
1403487530750 1395802358422 {{c1::GI distress}},&nsp;{{c2::skin rash}} and&
nsp;{{c3::seizures}} are 3 common complications of Carapanem administration wh
en they are in high plasma levels.
<r /><div><i>The significant side effec
ts limit the use of Carapanem's to life-threatening infections or after other d
rugs have failed.</i></div>
1403487743530 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Vancomycin?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhiition of peptidoglycan formation y inding to D-Ala-D-Ala on cel
l wall precursors}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Results in inhiition of Transglyc
olase action.</i></div>
1403489281091 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Vancomycin?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Gram-positive <u style="font-weight: old; ">only</u>; Multid
rug resistant organisms (MRSA, Enterococci, <i>Clostridium difficile</i>)}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>Vancomycin is given as an oral dose in Pseudomemranous Co
litis.</i></div>
1403489346842 1395802358422 {{c1::Red Man Syndrome}} is a cutaneous complica
tion of Vancomycin that presents with <>diffuse flushing</>&nsp;around the o
dy.
<r /><div><i>Can e prevented y antihistamine prophylaxis and a slow i
nfusion rate of Vancomycin.</i></div>
1403489560862 1395802358422 {{c1::Nephrotoxicity}},&nsp;{{c2::Ototoxicity}}
and&nsp;{{c3::Thromophleitis}} are 3 possile complications associated with
Vancomycin use. <r /><div><i>However in general, Vancomycin is well tolerated.<
/i></div><div><i>"It is however, <>NOT</>&nsp;troule free."</i></div><div><i
>- Nephrotoxicity</i></div><div><i>- Ototoxicity</i></div><div><i>- Thromophle
itis</i></div>
1403489643599 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of resistance for Vancomyc
in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bacterial modification of D-Ala-D-Ala to D-Ala-DLac}}</div>
1403542646773 1395802358422 Which acterial riosomal suunit is targeted y
Aminoglycosides?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::30 S}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-12807592477440.jpg" /></div>
1403542823438 1395802358422 Which acterial riosomal suunit is targeted y
Tetracyclines?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::30S}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-12803297510144.jpg" /></div>

1403542843264 1395802358422 Which acterial riosomal suunit is targeted y
Chloramphenicol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-12803297510144.jpg" /></div>
1403542865742 1395802358422 Which acterial suunit is targeted y Clindamyc
in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-12803
297510144.jpg" /></div>
1403542876768 1395802358422 Which acterial riosomal suunit is targeted y
Erythromycin and other Macrolides?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-12803297510144.jpg" /></div>
1403542915862 1395802358422 Which acterial riosomal suunit is targeted y
Linezolid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-12803297510144.jpg" /></div>
1403542934667 1395802358422 What class of antiiotic is Gentamicin?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13623
636262982.jpg" /></div>
1403555500182 1395802358422 What class of antiiotic is Neomycin?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1361934129568
6.jpg" /></div>
1403555511776 1395802358422 What class of antiiotic is Amikacin?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1361934129568
6.jpg" /></div>
1403555520046 1395802358422 What class of antiiotic is Toramycin?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13619
341295686.jpg" /></div>
1403555527155 1395802358422 What class of antiiotic is Streptomycin?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13619
341295686.jpg" /></div>
1403555539742 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Aminoglycoside antiiotics?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of the formation of the initiation complex
at the 30S suunit, therey causing misreading of mRNA; Blocking of translocatio
n}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>A</>&nsp;(Aminoglycosides) "initiates" the <
>A</>lphaet</i></div>
1403555611360 1395802358422 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} are a type of <>protein
synthesis inhiiting antiiotic</>&nsp;that <>require O</><su style="fontweight: old; ">2</su>&nsp;<>for uptake</>, hence they are ineffective again
st aneroes.
1403555649655 1395802358422 What is the clinical use for Aminoglycosides?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Severe gram-negative <>rod</>&nsp;infections}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Synergistic with eta-lactams.</i><r /><div><i>Rememer, th
ey are ineffective against aneroes.</i></div>
1403556046318 1395802358422 Which Aminoglycoside antiiotic is used efore 
owel surgery?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neomycin}}</div>
1403556064050 1395802358422 {{c1::Nephrotoxicity}} is a renal complication o
f Aminoglycoside use, especially when they are used alongside Cephalosporins.
<r /><div><img src="paste-13619341295686.jpg" /></div>
1403556090115 1395802358422 {{c1::Ototoxicity}} is a CNS complication of Ami
noglycoside use, especially when they are used with loop diuretics.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-13619341295686.jpg" /></div>
1403556159970 1395802358422 {{c1::Neuromuscular Blockade}} is a neurological
complication of Aminoglycoside use that presents at the neuromuscular junction.
<r /><div><img src="paste-13619341295686.jpg" /></div>
1403556218723 1395802358422 What is the pregnancy category of Aminoglycoside
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X; they are Teratogenic}}</div>
1403556822541 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of resistance of Aminoglyc
osides?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bacterial transferase enzymes; they inactivat
e the drug y acetylation, phosphorylation or adenylation}}</div>
1403556941212 1395802358422 What class of antiiotic is Tetracycline?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Tetracycline}}</div>
<r /><div><i>(lol)</i></div>
1403556965121 1395802358422 What class of antiiotic is Doxycycline?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Tetracycline}}</div>

1403556979343 1395802358422 What class of antiiotic is Minocycline?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Tetracycline}}</div>
1403557094697 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tetracycline antiiotics?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bind to the 30S riosomal suunit, therey preventing th
e attachment of aminoacyl-tRNA mocs}}</div>
1403557596428 1395802358422 {{c1::Doxycycline}} is a Tetracycline antiiotic
that is entirely fecally eliminated and hence can e used in patients with rena
l failure.
1403557626963 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetracyclines}} are a <>class</>&nsp;of
&nsp;<>protein synthesis inhiiting </>antiiotics that should not e taken w
ith milk (Ca²⁺), antacids (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺) or ironcontaining preparations (Fe²⁺).
<r /><div><i>This is ecause <
>divalent cations</>&nsp;inhiits Tetracycline asorption at the gut.</i></div
>
1403557829724 1395802358422 What is the primary clinical use of Tetracycline
antiiotics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Borrelia urgdorferi; Mycoplasma pne
umoniae; </i>Intracellular ugs such as <i>Rickettsia</i>&nsp;and <i>Chlamydiae
</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Also used to treat acne</i></div>
1403557897769 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetracyclines}} are a class of <>protein
synthesis inhiiting</>&nsp;antiiotics that are effective against intracellul
ar organisms y virtue of their aility to accumulate intracellularly. <r /><d
iv><i>e.g. Rickettsia spp., Chlamydiae spp.</i></div>
1403557954837 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetracyclines}} are a class of <>protein
synthesis inhiiting</>&nsp;antiiotics that cause <>teeth discolouration</>
&nsp;and <>inhiition of one growth</>&nsp;in children.
1403557990915 1395802358422 {{c1::Photosensitivity}} is a CNS complication o
f Tetracycline use.
1403558003216 1395802358422 What is the pregnancy category of Tetracycline a
ntiiotics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X; Contraindicated}}</div>
1403558015598 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of resistance for Tetracyc
line antiiotics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::An increase in efflux or decrease i
n uptake of the drug y acterial pumps}}</div>
1403558064116 1395802358422 What class of antiiotic is Azithromycin?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Macrolide}}</div>
1403559083549 1395802358422 What type of antiiotic is Clarithromycin?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Macrolide}}</div>
1403559105447 1395802358422 What type of antiiotic is Erythromycin?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Macrolide}}</div>
1403559115171 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Macrolide antiiotics?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of <>translocation</>, y inding to the 23S r
RNA of the 50S suunit}}</div>
1403559756635 1395802358422 {{c1::Macrolides}} are a class of <>protein syn
thesis inhiiting</>&nsp;antiiotics that treat atypical pneumonias (<i>Mycopl
asma, Chlamydia, Legionella</i>).
1403559986231 1395802358422 {{c1::Macrolides}} are a class of <>protein syn
thesis inhiiting</>&nsp;antiiotics that treat gram-positive cocci in patient
s that are allergic to penicillins.
<r /><div><i>They also treat STDs (Chla
mydia)</i></div>
1403560023765 1395802358422 {{c1::GI motility issues}} is a GI complication
of Macrolide antiiotic administration. <r /><div><img src="paste-1690928624445
8.jpg" /></div>
1403560070396 1395802358422 {{c1::Arrhythmia}} is a cardiac complication of
Macrolide antiiotic use that is caused y a <>prolonged QT interval</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-16904991277162.jpg" /></div>
1403560136130 1395802358422 {{c1::Cholestatic hepatitis}} is a hepatic compl
ication of Macrolide antiiotic use.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1690499127716
2.jpg" /></div>
1403560160537 1395802358422 {{c1::Eosinophilia}} is an immunological complic
ation of Macrolide antiiotics. <r /><div><img src="paste-16904991277162.jpg" /
></div>

1403560442386 1395802358422 {{c1::Macrolides}} are a class of <>protein syn
thesis inhiiting</>&nsp;antiiotics that increase the serum concentration of
<>theophyllines</>&nsp;and <>oral anticoagulants</>.
1403560490754 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of resistance for Macrolid
e antiiotics?<div><r />{{c1::Methylation of the 23S rRNA-inding site, therey
preventing inding of the drug}}</div>
1403560526372 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Chloramphenicol?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Blocks peptidyltransferase at the 50S riosomal suunit}}</div>
1403560616138 1395802358422 {{c1::Chloramphenicol}} is a <>protein synthesi
s inhiiting</>&nsp;antiiotic that is used to treat <>meningitis</>&nsp;(<
i>Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>).
1403560670649 1395802358422 {{c1::Chloramphenicol}} is a <>protein synthesi
s inhiiting </>antiiotic that is used to treat <>Rocky Mountain Spotted Feve
r</>&nsp;(<i>Rickettsia rickettsii</i>).
<r /><div><i>Doxycycline (tetra
cyclines) can also e used.</i></div>
1403560716883 1395802358422 {{c1::Chloramphenicol}} is a <>protein synthesi
s inhiiting</>&nsp;antiiotic that has limited use due to toxicities ut is s
till used widely in developing countries due to its low cost.
1403560979085 1395802358422 {{c1::Anaemia (and Aplastic Anaemia)}} are <>do
se-dependent</>&nsp;hematological complications of Chloramphenicol use.
1403561007139 1395802358422 {{c1::Gray Bay Syndrome}} is a complication of
Chloramphenicol use in premature infants as they lack hepatic <>UDP-Glucuronyl
Transferase</>.
1403561045116 1395802358422 The lack of which enzyme in premature infants re
sults in Grey Bay Syndrome following Chloramphenicol use?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::UDP-Glucuronyl Transferase}}</div>
1403561104323 1395802358422 Which antiiotic is associated with causing Grey
Bay Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chloramphenicol}}</div>
1403561122259 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of Chloramphenicol resista
nce?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Plasmid-encoded acetyltransferases that inactiva
te the drug}}</div>
1403561149682 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Clindamycin?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Blocks translocation at the 50S riosomal suunit}}</div>
1403561311342 1395802358422 Which <>protein synthesis inhiiting</>&nsp;a
ntiiotic is known to treat <>anaeroes <u>aove</u>&nsp;the diaphragm</>?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clindamycin}}</div>
1403561346128 1395802358422 {{c1::Clindamycin}} is a <>protein synthesis in
hiiting</>&nsp;antiiotic that is known to treat anearoic infections aove t
he diaphragm (e.g. aspiration pneumonia, lung ascesses, oral infections).
<r /><div><i>- Bacteroides spp.</i></div><div><i>- Clostridium perfringens</i><
/div>
1403561418436 1395802358422 Besides anaeroic infections, what is the clinic
al use of Clindamycin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Invasive Group A Streptococcal
infection (<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>)}}</div>
1403561490959 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudomemranous colitis}} is a possile c
omplication of Clindamycin use due to resultant <i>Clostridium difficile</i>&ns
p;overgrowth. <r /><div><i>Also causes fever and diarrhea.</i></div>
1403561537538 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Sulfonamide antiiotics?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Dihydropteroate Synthase, therey decreasin
g Folate synthesis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18906446037602.jpg" /
></div>
1403563275910 1395802358422 What is the clinical use for Sulfonamide antiio
tics (Sulfamethoxazole (SMX); Sulfisoxazole; Sulfadiazine)?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Gram-negative; Gram-positive; <i>Nocardia</i>; <i>Chlamydia</i>}}</div>
1403563528019 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic anaemia}} is a hematological com
plication of Sulfonamide use in patients that have G6PD Deficiency.
1403563565338 1395802358422 {{c1::Tuulointerstitial Nephritis}} is a renal
complication of Sulfonamide antiiotic use.
1403563598701 1395802358422 {{c1::Photosensitivity}} is a cutaneous complica
tion of Sulfonamide use.

1403563611580 1395802358422 {{c1::Kernicterus}} is a CNS complication of Sul
fonamide use that is seen in <>infants</>&nsp;and&nsp;arises due to hyperil
iruinemia.
1403563778560 1395802358422 Which class of <>folate synthesis inhiiting</
>&nsp;antiiotics displace other drugs from Alumin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Sulfonamides}}</div>
1403563820098 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of Sulfonamide resistance?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Altered Dihydropteroate Synthase; Decreased uptake;
Increased PABA synthesis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1890215107030
6.jpg" /></div>
1403563851364 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Trimethoprim?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Dihydrofolate Reductase, therey inhiiting folate syn
thesis}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-18902151070306.jpg" /></div>
1403563895990 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimethoprim (TMP)}} is an antiiotic that
is often used in conjunction with Sulfonamides, therey causing sequential loc
k of folate synthesis. <r /><div><i><u>TMP-SMX: Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole<
/u>&nsp;is typically used for:</i></div><div><i>- UTIs</i></div><div><i>- Shige
lla</i></div><div><i>- Salmonella</i></div><div><i>- Pneumocytis jirovecii pneum
onia treatment and prophylaxis</i></div><div><i>- Toxoplasmosis prophylaxis</i><
/div>
1403563966147 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimethoprim}} is a <>folate synthesis in
hiiting</>&nsp;antiiotic that is used as a treatment and prophylaxis for <i>
Pneumocytis jirovecii</i>&nsp;pneumonia.
1403564021954 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimethoprim}} is a <>folate synthesis in
hiiting</>&nsp;antiiotic that is used as prophylaxis for Toxoplasmosis.
1403564107807 1395802358422 What type of anaemia is a complication of Sulfon
amide use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Megalolastic Anaemia}}</div>
1403564135771 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimethoprim}} is a <>folate synthesis in
hiiting</>&nsp;antiiotic that causes <>megalolastic anaemia, leukopenia,</
<r /><div><i><
>&nsp;and <>granulocytopenia</>&nsp;as complications.
>TMP</>&nsp;<>T</>reats <>M</>arrow <>P</>oorly.</i></div>
1403571366705 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Fluoroquinolone antiiotics?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of DNA Gyrase (Topoisomerase II) and Topoi
somerase IV}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Must not e taken with antacids<>.</></i
></div>
1403571429799 1395802358422 {{c1::Nalidixic Acid}} is a quinolone antiiotic
that functions to inhiit DNA Gyrase (Topoisomerase II) and Topoisomerase IV.
1403571501614 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Fluoroquinolone anti
iotics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gram-negative rods of urinary and GI tracts
(including <i>Pseudomonas</i>); <i>Neisseria</i>}}</div>
1403571546141 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluoroquinolones}} are a class of antiiot
ics that can possile cause <>tendonitis, tendon ruptue, leg cramps</>&nsp;an
d <>myalgias</>.
1403571947579 1395802358422 What is the pregnancy rating of Fluoroquinolones
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X; Contraindicated due to possile damage to cartil
age}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Fluoroquinolones are also contraindicated in nursi
ng mothers and children &lt; 18 y/o.</i></div>
1403572037932 1395802358422 {{c1::Arrhythmia}} is a possile <>cardiac comp
lication&nsp;</>of Fluoroquinolone administration that often involves a <>pro
longed QT interval</>.
1403572158030 1395802358422 {{c1::Tendon rupture}} is a possile connective
tissue complication of Fluoroquinolone administration in patients &gt; 60 y/o an
d in patients taking prednisone.
1403572193542 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of resistance towards Fluo
roquinolone antiiotics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mutation in DNA Gyrase; Plas
mid-mediated resistance; Development of efflux pumps}}</div>
1403572237470 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Metronidazole?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Formation of free radical toxic metaolites in the cell that damage
DNA}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Bactericidal and antiprotozoal.</i></div>
1403572671183 1395802358422 Which antiiotic is known to treat anaeroic inf

ections <>elow</>&nsp;the diaphragm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidazol
e}}</div>
<r /><div><i><u>"OP is a <>P</>h<>AGGET</>"</u>:</i></div><
div><i>- Helicoacter <><u>p</u></>ylori (in triple therapy)</i></div><div><i>
- <><u>A</u></>naeroes (Bacteroides, Clostridium difficile)</i></div><div><i>
- <><u>G</u></>iardia lamlia</i></div><div><i>- <><u>G</u></>ardnerella vag
inalis</i></div><div><i>- <><u>E</u></>ntamoea histolytica</i></div><div><i><><u>T</u></>richomonas vaginalis</i></div>
1403573026078 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Metronidazole?<div><
<div><r /></div
r /></div><div>{{c1::Anaeroes; Enteric infections}}</div>
><div><div><i><u>"OP is a&nsp;<>P</>h<>AGGET</>"</u>:</i></div><div><i>- He
licoacter&nsp;<><u>p</u></>ylori (in triple therapy)</i></div><div><i>-&nsp
;<><u>A</u></>naeroes (Bacteroides, Clostridium difficile)</i></div><div><i>&nsp;<><u>G</u></>iardia lamlia</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<><u>G</u></>ardne
rella vaginalis</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<><u>E</u></>ntamoea histolytica</i><
/div><div><i>-&nsp;<><u>T</u></>richomonas vaginalis</i></div></div>
1403573724743 1395802358422 {{c1::Metronidazole}} is a DNA damaging antiiot
ic that causes <>disulfirm-like reactions</>&nsp;with alcohol use. <r /><d
iv><i>Severe flushing, tachycardia, hypotension.</i></div>
1403573789775 1395802358422 {{c1::Metronidazole}} is a DNA damaging antiiot
ic that yields a metallic taste.
1403573802902 1395802358422 Which antimycoacterial drug is used as prophyla
xis for <i>Mycoacterium tuerculosis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Isoniazid}
}</div>
1403574264207 1395802358422 Which antimycoacterial/antiiotic drug is used
as prophylaxis for <i>Mycoacterium avium-intracellulare</i>?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Azithromycin; Rifautin}}</div>
1403574292612 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Mycoacterium tuer
culosis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rifampin; Isoniazid; Pyrazinamide; Etham
utol}}</div> <r /><div><i>"<>RIPE</>" for treatment.</i></div>
1403574339038 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifampin}},&nsp;{{c2::Isoniazid}},&nsp;{
{c3::Pyrazinamide}} and&nsp;{{c4::Ethamutol}} are the 4 antimycoacterial drug
s used to treat tuerculosis.
1403574370113 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoacterium avium-intracellulare</i>}
} is a species of <i>Mycoacterium</i>&nsp;that is more drug resistant than <i>
Mycoacterium tuerculosis.</i> <r /><div><i>Hence it requires Azithromycin/Cla
rithromycin + Ethamutol  Rifautin/Ciprofloxacin</i></div>
1403575118249 1395802358422 What is the treatment for the <>leprematous</>
&nsp;form of <i>Mycoacterium leprae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dapsone +
Rifampin + Clofazimine}}</div>
1403575146960 1395802358422 What is the treatment for the <>tuerculoid</>
&nsp;form of <i>Mycoacterium leprae</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dapsone +
Rifampin}}</div>
1403575166794 1395802358422 {{c1::Isoniazid (INH)}} is an antimycoacterial
that requires acterial <>catalase-peroxidase</>&nsp;enzymes in order to eco
me active metaolites.
1403575251370 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Mycoacteria is required to acti
vate Isoniazid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Catalase-peroxidase; encoded y <i>Ka
tG</i>}}</div>
1403575277748 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Isoniazid (INH)?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Decreases the synthesis of mycolic acid}}</div>
1403575291966 1395802358422 Which water solule vitamin deficiency is ale t
o present with Neurotoxicity and Drug-induced SLE caused y Isoniazid (INH)?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1403575350119 1395802358422 {{c1::Isoniazid (INH)}} is an antimycoacterial
drug that causes <>neurotoxicity</>&nsp;and <>hepatotoxicity</>. <r /><d
iv><i>"<>INH</>&nsp;<>I</>njures <>N</>eurons and <>H</>epatocytes."</i
></div>
1403575450041 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifampin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Rifautin}} are
<>rifamycin antimycoacterials</>&nsp;that function to inhiit DNA-Dependent
RNA Polymerase.

1403575481402 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Rifamycin antimycoacterials
(Rifampin; Rifautin)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of DNA-dependent RN
A polymerase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-23652384899324.jpg" /></div>
1403575507666 1395802358422 Which class of antimycoacterial is used as chem
oprophylaxis in contact of children with <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nsp;type
B?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rifamycins (Rifampin; Rifautin)}}</div>
1403575602130 1395802358422 How does Rifampin influence cytochrome P450 acti
vity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<div><r /></div><img sr
c="paste-23648089932028.jpg" />
1403575643202 1395802358422 How does Rifautin influence cytochrome P450 act
ivity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No effect}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-23648089932028.jpg" /></div>
1403575655877 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifamycins (Rifampin; Rifautin)}} is a cl
ass of antimycoacterials that yield <>orange-red odily fluids</>. <r /><d
iv><i>A non-hazardoud side effect.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-236480899320
28.jpg" /></i></div>
1403575723021 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifautin}} is a Rifamycin antimycoacteri
al that is favoured for use in patients with HIV due to less cytochrome P450 sti
mulation.
<r /><div><img src="paste-23648089932028.jpg" /></div>
1403575765063 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antimycoacterial Pyrazin
amide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uncertain mechanism; Acidifies the intracellul
ar environment via converstion to Pyrazinoic Acid}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Ef
fective in the acidic pH of phagolysosomes (i.e. where phagocytosed TB is found
in macrophages).</i></div>
1403576529771 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyrazinamide}} is an antimycoacterial tha
t is effective in the acidic pH of phagolysosomes, where engulfed MTB is found i
n macrophages.
1403576581268 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyrazinamide}} is an antimycoacterial tha
t is associated with <>hyperuricemia</>&nsp;and <>hepatotoxicity</>&nsp;as
side effects.
1403576608030 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antimycoacterial Ethamu
tol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c2::Inhiition of Arainosyltransferase, therey dec
reasing carohydrate polymerization of the mycoacterium cell wall}}</div>
1403576658700 1395802358422 {{c1::Ethamutol}} is an antimycoacterial that
is associated with <>optic neuropathy</>, specifically <>red-green colour li
ndness</>, as a side effect.
1403576698558 1395802358422 What is the prophylactic treatment for endocardi
tis with surgical/dental procedures?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillins}}</d
iv>
1403576844804 1395802358422 What is the prophylactic treatment for gonorrhea
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ceftriaxone}}</div>
1403576851982 1395802358422 What is the prophylactic treatment for a history
of recurrent UTIs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::SMP-TMX}}</div>
1403576863917 1395802358422 What is the prophylactic treatment for meningoco
ccal infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ciprofloxacin}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Ciprofloxacin = DOC</i></div><div><i>Rifampin = DOC in children</i></div>
1403576878077 1395802358422 What is the prophylactic treatment for meningoco
ccal infection <>in children</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rifampin}}</div>
1403576911595 1395802358422 What is the prophylactic treatment for pregnant
women carrying Group B Strep (<i>Streptococcus agalactiae</i>)?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Ampicillin}}</div>
1403576948437 1395802358422 What is the prophylactic treatment for gonococca
l or chlamydial conjunctivitis in neworns?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Erythromy
cin ointment}}</div>
1403576970093 1395802358422 What is the prophylactic treatment for postsurgi
cal <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cefa
zolin}}</div>
1403576992013 1395802358422 What is the prophylactic treatment for Strep Pha
ryngitis in a child with prior history of Rheumatic Fever?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Oral Penicillin}}</div>

1403577017339 1395802358422 What is the prophylactic treatment for Syphilis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Benzathine Penicillin G}}</div>
1403577734671 1395802358422 What is the prophylactic treatment for&nsp;<i>P
neumocystis</i>&nsp;pneumonia in an HIV patient with &lt; 200 CD4+ cells/mm<sup
>3</sup>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TMP-SMX}}</div>
1403577776196 1395802358422 What is the prophylactic treatment for&nsp;<i>P
neumocystis</i>&nsp;pneumonia and toxoplasmosis in an HIV patient with &lt; 100
CD4+ cells/mm³?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TMP-SMX}}</div>
1403577807943 1395802358422 What is the prophylactic treatment for&nsp;<i>M
ycoacterium avium-intracellulare</i>&nsp;in an HIV patient with &lt; 50 CD4+ c
ells/mm³?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Azithromycin}}</div>
1403577838887 1395802358422 {{c1::Vancomycin}} is a glycopeptide antiiotic
that is used to treat MRSA.
<r /><div><img src="paste-26688926777482.jpg" /
></div>
1403577947679 1395802358422 {{c1::Ceftaroline}} is a 5th generation cephalos
porin used to treat MRSA.
<r /><div><img src="paste-26688926777482.jpg" /
></div>
1403577977278 1395802358422 {{c1::Linezolid}} is a protein synthesis inhiit
ing antiiotic that acts at the 50S riosomal suunit to treat MRSA and VRE.
<r /><div><img src="paste-26688926777482.jpg" /></div>
1403583187879 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antifungal Amphotericin B
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to Ergosterol in the fungal cell memrane, th
erey forming a memrane pore that allows the leakage of electrolytes}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Ampho"<>tear"</>-icin "<>tears</>" a hole into the funga
l memrane y forming a pore.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-27981711934002.jpg"
/></div>
1403583540443 1395802358422 {{c1::Amphotericin B}} is an antifungal drug tha
t requires susequent K and Mg supplementation due to altered renal tuule perme
aility.
1403583607268 1395802358422 What is the ROA of Amphotericin B in the treatme
nt of fungal meningitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intrathecally}}</div>
1403583623619 1395802358422 {{c1::Fever/chills}} is a complication of Amphot
ericin B administration that is descried as <>"shake and ake"</>.
1403583707775 1395802358422 How can Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity e decreas
ed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydration}}</div>
1403583795471 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Nystatin?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Binds to Ergosterol in the fungal cell memrane and forms a memrane por
e, therey allowing the leakage of electrolytes}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403583828968 1395802358422 What is the ROA of Nystatin?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Topical}}</div> <r /><div><i>It is too toxic for systemic use.</i></div
>
1403583845859 1395802358422 {{c1::Nystatin}} is a topical antifungal that is
used as a <>"swish and swallow"</>&nsp;treatment for oral Candidiasis.
<r /><div><i>Also administered topically for diaper rash or vaginal candidiasis
.</i></div>
1403583895951 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Azole antifungals?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Ergosterol synthesis y inhiiting the Cytochrome
P450 enzyme that converts Lanosterol to Ergosterol}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403584192480 1395802358422 {{c1::Amphotericin B}} is an antifungal agent th
at is used in serious, systemic mycoses.
1403584221817 1395802358422 {{c1::Azoles}} are a class of antifungals that a
re used for <>local</>&nsp;and <>less serious</>&nsp;systemic mycoses.
1403584405410 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluconazole}} is an Azole antifungal that
is used for <>chronic suppression of cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS patients</
>&nsp;and <>candidal infections</>&nsp;of all types.
1403584456114 1395802358422 {{c1::Itraconazole}} is an Azole antifungal agen
t that is used to treat <i>Blastomyces, Coccidioides</i>&nsp;and <i>Histoplasma
</i>&nsp;infection.

1403584518878 1395802358422 {{c1::Cotrimazole}} and&nsp;{{c2::Miconazole}}
are Azole antifungals that are used topically for fungal infections.
1403584542223 1395802358422 Which Azole antifungal is especially known to in
hiit testosterone synthesis and cause gynecomastia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Ketoconazole}}</div>
1403584580357 1395802358422 {{c1::Gynecomastia}} is a hormonal complication
of Azole antifungal use due to inhiition of testosterone synthesis.
<r /><d
iv><i>Especially seen with Ketoconazole.</i></div>
1403584619377 1395802358422 How do Azole antifungals influence Cytochrome P4
50 activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1403584650151 1395802358422 {{c1::Flucytosine}} is an antifungal agent that
inhiits DNA and RNA iosynthesis y conversion to 5-Fluorouracil y Cytosine De
aminase.
<r /><div><img src="paste-27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403584694209 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antifungal Flucytosine?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of DNA and RNA iosynthesis via conversion
to 5-Fluorouracil y Cytosine Deaminase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-27981
711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403584730306 1395802358422 Which enzyme in fungi converts Flucytosine into
5-Fluorouracil?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytosine Deaminase}}</div>
1403584762248 1395802358422 {{c1::Flucytosine}} is an antifungal agent that
is used comination with Amphotericin B to treat systemic mycoses.
<r /><d
iv><i>Especially meningitis caused y Cryptococcus.</i></div>
1403584796865 1395802358422 What toxicity is associated with the antifunal F
lucytosine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bone Marrow Suppression}}</div>
1403584830957 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Echinocandin antifungals (Cas
pofungin; Micafungin; Anidulafungin)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of f
ungal cell wall synthesis y inhiiting the synthesis of eta-glucan}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403584882499 1395802358422 {{c1::Echinocandins}} are a class of antifungal
agents that function to inhiit cell wall synthesis y inhiiting the synthesis
of eta-glucan. <r /><div><i>Caspofungin; Micafungin; Anidulafungin</i></div><d
iv><i><img src="paste-27981711934002.jpg" /></i></div>
1403584928834 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Echinocandin antifun
gals?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Invasive Aspergillosis; <i>Candida spp.</i>}}</
div>
1403584965030 1395802358422 {{c1::Flushing}} is a complication of Echinocand
in use that results due to widespread histamine release.
<r /><div><i>GI
upset is also an adverse effect.</i></div>
1403584990358 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antifungal Terinafine?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Squalen Epoxidase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403585023946 1395802358422 {{c1::Terinafine}} is an antifungal agent that
inhiits Squalene Epoxidase, therey inhiiting Ergosterol synthesis. <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403585048696 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Terinafine?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Dermatophytoses (especially, Onychomycosis)}}</div>
1403585077285 1395802358422 {{c1::Terinafine}} is an antifungal agent that
is used to treat Dermatophytoses, especially Onychomycosis.
1403585108293 1395802358422 {{c1::Terinafine}} is an antifungal agent that
is associated with <>taste disturance</>&nsp;as a side effect.
1403585137181 1395802358422 {{c1::Griseofulvin}} is an antifungal agent that
interferes with microtuule function, therey disrupting mitosis.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403585168901 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Griseofulvin?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Intereference with microtuules, therey disrupting mitosis}}</div>
1403585191301 1395802358422 Which antifungal agent is known to <>deposit in
keratin-containing tissue</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Griseofulvin}}</div>
1403585229350 1395802358422 How does Griseofulvin influence P450 activity?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Especially increas
es Warfarin metaolism.</i></div>

1403585322758 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Toxoplasmosis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Pyrimethamine}}</div>
1403585353599 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Trypanosoma rucei<
/i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suramin + Melarsoprol}}</div>
1403585372396 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Chagas Disease (<i>Try
panosoma cruzi</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nifurtimox}}</div>
1403585400998 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Leishmaniasis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Sodium stiogluconate}}</div>
1403585424260 1395802358422 {{c1::Chloroquine}} is an antiprotozoal that fun
ctions to lock the detoxification of heme into hemozoin, therey allowing for t
oxic heme accumulation.
1403585491597 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antiprotozoal Chloroquine
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks the detoxification of heme into hemozoin, th
erey allowing for toxic heme accumulation in the plasmodia}}</div>
1403585527254 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Chloroquine?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Malaria caused y <i>Plasmodium sp.</i>&nsp;other than <i>P
lasmodium falciparum</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The frequency of Plasmodiu
m falciparum resistance to Chloroquine is very high.</i></div>
1403585605926 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i style="font-weight:
old; ">Plasmodium falciparum</i>&nsp;Malaria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arte
mether/Lumefrantrine or Atovaquone/Proguanil}}</div>
1403585645064 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <>life-threatening</
>&nsp;Malaria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Quinidine (USA); Quinine (rest of the
world); or Artesunate}}</div>
1403585680403 1395802358422 {{c1::Pruritis}} is a cutaneous complication of
Chloroquine use that is especially seen in dark-skinned individuals.
1403585706958 1395802358422 {{c1::Retinopathy}} is an ocular complication of
Chloroquine use.
1403585722404 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of resistance to Chloroqui
ne in <i>Plasmodium falciparum</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memrane pump tha
t decreases intracellular concentration of the drug}}</div>
1403627084848 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <i>Schistosoma</i>?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Praziquantel}}</div>
1403634755407 1395802358422 {{c1::Zanamivir}} and&nsp;{{c2::Oseltamivir}} a
re antiviral agents that treat Influenza A and B y <>inhiiting neuraminidase<
/>, therey inhiiting release of progeny viruses.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-1279900254982.jpg" /></div>
1403635016809 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Zanamivir and Oseltamivir?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Neuraminidase, therey decreasing the rel
ease of progeny viruses}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1275605287686.jpg" />
</div>
1403635049108 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Zanamivir and Oselta
mivir?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Treatment and prevention of Influenza A and B}
}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1275605287686.jpg" /></div>
1403635068374 1395802358422 {{c1::Riavirin}} is an antiviral agent that inh
iits <>Inosine Monophosphate Dehydrogenase</>, therey inhiiting the synthes
is of guanine nucleotides.
1403635155716 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Riavirin?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhiition of <>Inosine Monophosphate Dehydrogenase</>, therey inhi
iting guanine nucleotide synthesis}}</div>
1403635184592 1395802358422 {{c1::Riavirin}} is an antiviral agent that is
used to treat <>RSV</>&nsp;and <>HCV</>&nsp;y inhiiting <>Inosine Monop
hosphate Dehydrogenase</>.
1403635218748 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic Anaemia}} is a hematological com
plication of Riavirin use.
1403635238503 1395802358422 Which viral enzyme monophosphorylates Acyclovir/
Famciclovir/Valacyclovir, therey activating it?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thym
idine kinase}}</div>
1403635637447 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Acyclovir/Famciclovir/Valacyc
lovir?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Guanosine analog; Inhiition of viral DNA Poly

merase, therey causing chain termination}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It is only
phosphorylated in infected cells, hence there are very few adverse effects.</i>
</div><div><i><img src="paste-1275605287686.jpg" /></i></div>
1403635706707 1395802358422 Which Herpesviruses are treated y Acyclovir/Fam
ciclovir/Valacyclovir?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV; VZV}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Weak activity against EBV.</i></div><div><i>No activity against CMV.</i></
div><div><i>No activity against latent HSV/VZV.</i></div>
1403635783502 1395802358422 {{c1::Valacyclovir}} is the prodrug form of Acyc
lovir that has etter oral ioavailaility.
1403635811412 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Herpes Zoster?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Famciclovir}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1275605287686
.jpg" /></div>
1403635844394 1395802358422 {{c1::Ostructive crystalline nephropathy}} and&
nsp;{{c2::Acute Renal Failure}} are 2 renal complications of Acyclovir/Famciclo
vir/Valacyclovir use if the patient is not hydrated properly.
1403635898739 1395802358422 What is the mechanism of resistance to Acyclovir
/Famciclovir/Valacyclovir?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mutated Thymidine Kinase}}
</div>
1403636037558 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ganciclovir?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Guanosine analog; Inhiition of viral DNA Polymerase, therey causing
chain termination}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1275605287686.jpg" />
</div>
1403636080596 1395802358422 What is the treatment for CMV?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Ganciclovir}}</div>
1403636093932 1395802358422 {{c1::Valganciclovir}} is the prodrug form of Ga
nciglovir that has etter oral ioavailaility.
1403636124030 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukopenia}},&nsp;{{c2::neutropenia}} and
&nsp;{{c3::thromocytopenia}} are hematological complications of Ganciclovir.
<r /><div><i>Ganciclovir is more toxic to host enzymes than Acyclovir.</i></div
>
1403636336526 1395802358422 {{c1::Foscarnet}} is an antiviral agent that act
s as a viral DNA polymerase inhiitor y <>inding to the pyrophosphate-inding
site</>&nsp;of the enzyme. <r /><div><img src="paste-1275605287686.jpg" />
</div>
1403636395074 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Foscarnet?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhiition of viral DNA polymerase y inding to the pyrophosphate-ind
ing site of the enzyme}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1275605287686.jpg" />
</div>
1403636433207 1395802358422 What is the treatment for CMV retinitis in immun
ocompromised patients when Ganciclovir fails?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Foscarn
et or Cidofovir}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1275605287686.jpg" /></div>
1403636465989 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Acyclovir-resistant HS
V?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Foscarnet or Cidofovir}}</div>
1403636599345 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Cidofovir?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Preferential inhiition of viral DNA polymerase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-1275605287686.jpg" /></div>
1403636629969 1395802358422 {{c1::Proenecid}} is a drug that must e co-adm
inistered with the antiviral Cidofovir to decrease its nephrotixicity. <r /><d
iv><i>IV saline is also given.</i></div>
1403652125487 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Atazanavir?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Protease inhiitor}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-51067
16115718.jpg" /></div>
1403655722005 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Darunavir?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Protease inhiitor}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655744831 1395802358422 What type of HAART is Fosamprenavir?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Protease inhiitor}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655761991 1395802358422 What type of HAART is Indinavir?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Protease inhiitor}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5102421148422

.jpg" /></div>
1403655774171 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Lopinavir?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Protease inhiitor}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655819688 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Ritonavir?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Protease inhiitor}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655843131 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Saquinavir?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Protease inhiitor}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655857003 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Aacavir (ABC)?<div><
<r /><div><img src="paste-5102421148422
r /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
.jpg" /></div>
1403656100506 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Didanosine (ddI)?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656112841 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Emtricitaine (FTC)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656129614 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Lamivudine (3TC)?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656188268 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Stavudine (d4T)?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656256726 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Tenofovir (TDF)?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656274379 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Zidovudine (ZDV; AZT)
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403656299595 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Efavirenz?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5102421148422.jpg" />
</div>
1403656332301 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Nevirapine?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5102421148422.jpg" />
</div>
1403656356381 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Delavirdine?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656368136 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Raltegravir?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Integrase inhiitor}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403656396345 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Enfuvirtide?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Fusion inhiitor}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403656413870 1395802358422 What type of HAART drug is Maraviroc?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Fusioin inhiitor (inhiition at the entry)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-5102421148422.jpg" /></div>
1403656436281 1395802358422 {{c1::HIV-1 Protease}} is an HIV viral enzyme th
at is required for virion assemly as it cleaves the polypeptide products of HIV
mRNA into their functional parts.
<r /><div><i>Hence, protease inhiitors
prevent maturation of new viruses.</i></div>
1403657243642 1395802358422 {{c1::Ritonavir}} is an HIV Protease inhiitor t
hat <>inhiits cytochrome P450</>, therey it can increase the concentration o
f other drugs.
1403657543194 1395802358422 {{c1::Indinavir}} is an HIV Protease inhiitor t
hat is associated with <>hematuria</>&nsp;and nephropathy.
1403657594880 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipodystrophy}} is a complication of HIV P
rotease inhiitors that affects fat tissue.

1403657626159 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Protease Inhiitor HAART drug
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of HIV-1 Protease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>All protease inhiitors end in <>-navir</>.</i></div>
1403657838422 1395802358422 What is the MOA of NRTI HAART drugs?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Competitively inhiit nucleotide inding to Reverse Transcriptas
e, therey terminating DNA chain elongation}}</div>
<r /><div><i>NRTIs lack
3' -OH groups.</i></div>
1403657911373 1395802358422 {{c1::Tenofovir}} is an NRTI that is already a n
ucleotide, and hence does not need to e phosphorylated to e activated.
<r /><div><i>The rest are all nucleoside and require phosphorylation.</i></div>
1403657949285 1395802358422 {{c1::Zidovudine (ZDV; AZT)}} is an NRTI HAART d
rug that is used for <>general prophylaxis.</>
1403658050087 1395802358422 {{c1::Zidovudine (ZDV; AZT)}} is an NRTI HAART d
rug that is used in <>pregnancy</>&nsp;to&nsp;<>decrease the risk of fetal
transmission.</>
1403658090747 1395802358422 {{c1::Bone marrow suppression}} is a hematologic
al complication of NRTI HAART drugs that can e reversed with <>G-CSF</>&nsp;
drugs and <>Erythropoietin</>.
1403658236640 1395802358422 {{c1::G-CSF drugs}} and&nsp;{{c2::Erythropoieti
n}} are 2 drugs that are used to correct the one marrow suppression caused y N
RTI HAART drugs.
1403658275998 1395802358422 {{c1::Anaemia}} is a hematological disorder of Z
idovudine (ZDV).
1403658304542 1395802358422 {{c1::Didanosine (ddI)}} is an NRTI HAART drug t
hat is associated with <>pancreatitis</>.
1403658318319 1395802358422 What is the MOA of NNRTI HAART drugs?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c2::Binding to and inhiition of Reverse Transcriptase at a differe
nt site than NRTIs}}</div>
<r /><div><i>They do not require phosphorylatio
n to e active.</i></div>
1403658413214 1395802358422 {{c1::Rash}} and&nsp;{{c2::Hepatotoxicity}} are
2 complications that are common to all NNRTI HAART drugs.
1403658453530 1395802358422 {{c1::Efavirenz}} is an NNRTI HAART drug that is
associated with <>vivid dreams</>&nsp;and <>CNS toxicity.</>
1403658473008 1395802358422 Which NNRTI HAART drug is associated with <>viv
id dreams</>&nsp;and <>CNS toxicity</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Efavirenz
}}</div>
1403658494531 1395802358422 {{c1::Delavirdine}} and&nsp;{{c2::Efavirenz}} a
re the 2 NNRTI HAART drugs that are contraindicated in pregnancy.
1403658540630 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Raseltegravir (HAART drug)?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of HIV Integrase, therey inhiiting HIV ge
nome insertion into the host cell genome}}</div>
1403658591432 1395802358422 {{c1::Raltegravir}} is an Integrase inhiitor th
at is associated with <>hypercholesterolemia</>.
1403658761423 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Enfuvirtide (HAART Fusion inh
iitor)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to gp41, therey inhiiting viral entr
y}}</div>
1403658787752 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Maraviroc (HAART Fusion inhi
itor)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to CCR5 on T cells/monocytes, therey in
hiiting interaction with gp120 and viral entry}}</div>
1403658874584 1395802358422 {{c1::Enfuvirtide}} is an HAART drug that <>in
ds to gp41</>, therey inhiiting viral entry.
1403658895002 1395802358422 {{c1::Maraviroc}} is an HAART drug that <>inds
to CCR5</>&nsp;on T cells/monocytes, therey inhiiting gp120 and and stoppin
g viral entry.
1403659004221 1395802358422 What toxicity is associated with HAART Fusion In
hiitors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Skin reaction at the injection site}}</div>
1403659041822 1395802358422 {{c1::Interferons}} are glycoproteins normally s
ynthesized y virus-infected cells that exhiit a wide range of antiviral and an
titumoual properties.
1403662449834 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of IFN-eta?<div><r />

</div><div>{{c1::Multiple sclerosis}}</div>
1403662599988 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of IFN-gamma?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Granulomatous Disease (CGD)}}</div>
1403662617700 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-alpha}} is an Interferon used to treat
<>chronic hepatitis B and C</>.
1403662788329 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-alpha}} is an Interferon used to treat
Kaposi sarcoma.
1403662796116 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-alpha}} is an Interferon used to treat
Hairy Cell Leukemia.
1403662804354 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-alpha}} is an Interferon used to treat
Condyloma Accuminatum.
1403662821873 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-alpha}} is an Interferon used to treat
Renal Cell Carcinoma.
1403662826216 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-alpha}} is an Interferon used to treat
Malignant Melanoma.
1403662831626 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-eta}} is an Interferon used to treat
Multiple Sclerosis.
1403662843976 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-gamma}} is an interferon used to treat
Chronic Granulomatous Disease.
1403662857752 1395802358422 {{c1::Sulfonamides}} are a class of antiiotics
that are avoided in pregnancy as they cause <>kernicterus.</> <r /><div><img
src="paste-9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663123820 1395802358422 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} are a class of antiioti
cs that should not e used in pregnancy as they cause <>ototoxicity</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663273810 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluoroquinolones}} are a class of antiiot
ics that are avoided in pregnancy as they cause <>cartilage damage</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663302378 1395802358422 {{c1::Clarithromycin}} is an antiiotic that is
avoided in pregnancy as it causes <>emryotoxicity</>.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663346534 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetracyclines}} are a class of antiiotics
that are avoided in pregnancy as they cause <>teeth discolouration</>&nsp;an
d <>inhiit one growth</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-9307194130833.jpg" />
</div>
1403663529183 1395802358422 {{c1::Riavirin}} is an <>antiviral</> agent t
hat is avoided in pregnancy as it is teratogenic.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663568467 1395802358422 {{c1::Griseofulvin}} is an <>antifungal</>&ns
p;agent that is avoided in pregnancy as it is teratogenic.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663585680 1395802358422 {{c1::Chloramphenicol}} is an antiiotic that is
avoided in pregnancy as it causes <>"Gray Bay" Syndrome</>. <r /><div><img
src="paste-9311489098129.jpg" /></div>
1405827187068 1395802358422 {{c1::Classical conditioning}} is a type of cond
itioning where a <>natural response is elicited y a conditioned or learned sti
mulus that was presented with an unconditioned stimulus</>.
<r /><div><i><u
>e.g. Pavlov's dog.</u></i></div><div><i>Natural response = salivation</i></div>
<div><i>Conditioned Stimulus = ell</i></div><div><i>Unconditioned stimulus = fo
od</i></div>
1405828425670 1395802358422 Which type of conditioning usually deals with <
>involuntary </>responses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Classical Conditioning}}<
/div>
1405828440359 1395802358422 {{c1::Operant Conditioning}} is a type of condit
ioning where a <>particular action is elicited ecause it produces a punishment
or reward</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-54503134986454.jpg" /></div>
1405828472197 1395802358422 Which type of conditioning deals with <>volunta
ry </>responses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Operant Conditioning}}</div>
1405828486414 1395802358422 {{c1::Transference}} is a psychological phemonen
on where the <>patient </>projects feeling aout formative or other important

persons onto the physician.
<r /><div><i>e.g. the physician is seen as a pa
rent.</i></div>
1405828647046 1395802358422 {{c1::Countertransference}} is a psychological p
henomenon where the <>physician</>&nsp;projects feelings aout formative or o
ther important persons onto the patient.
<r /><div><i>e.g. patient remin
ds the physician of a younger siling.</i></div>
1405828734471 1395802358422 {{c1::Ego Defenses}} are unconscious mental proc
esses used to resolve conflict and prevent undesirale feelings.
1405829389229 1395802358422 {{c1::Acting out}} is an immature ego defense th
at involves expressing unacceptale feelings and thoughts through actions.
<r /><div><i>e.g. tantrums</i></div>
1405829572571 1395802358422 {{c1::Dissociation}} is an immature ego defense
that involves temporary, drastic change in personality, memory, consciousness or
motor ehaviour to avoid emotional stress.
<r /><div><i>Extreme forms can
result in Dissociative Identity Disorder (multiple personality disorder).</i></d
iv>
1405829607547 1395802358422 {{c1::Denial}} is an immature ego defense that i
nvolves avoiding the awareness of some painful reality.
1405829633902 1395802358422 {{c1::Displacement}} is an immature ego defense
that involves transferring avoided ideas and feelings to some <>neutral person
or oject</>. <r /><div><i>i.e. mother yells at her child ecause her husand
yelled at her</i></div>
1405829827102 1395802358422 {{c1::Fixation}} is an immature ego defense that
involves partially remaining at a more childish level of development.
1405829870338 1395802358422 {{c1::Identification}} is an immature ego defens
e that involves modeling ehaviour after another person who is more powerful (th
ough not necessarily admired) <r /><div><i>e.g. ausee indentifying with the
auser</i></div>
1405829917276 1395802358422 {{c1::Isolation (of affect)}} is an immature ego
defense that involves separating feelings from ideas and events.
<r /><d
iv><i>e.g. descried murder is graphic detail with no emotional response</i></di
v>
1405829966612 1395802358422 {{c1::Projection}} is an immature ego defense th
at involves <>attriuting an unacceptale internal impulse to an external sourc
e</>. <r /><div><i>e.g. a man who wants to e with another woman thinking his
wife is cheating on him</i></div>
1405830030465 1395802358422 {{c1::Rationalization}} is an immature ego defen
se that involves proclaiming logical reasons for actions that are actually perfo
rmed for other reasons, usually to avoid self-lame.
<r /><div><i>e.g. after
getting fired, the person claims the jo wasn't even important</i></div>
1405830075689 1395802358422 {{c1::Reaction formation}} is an immature ego de
fense that involves replacing a warded-off idea or feeling y an unconsciously d
erived emphasis on its opposite.
1405830120230 1395802358422 {{c1::Regression}} is an immature ego defense th
at involves <>turning ack</>&nsp;of the maturational clock and going ack to
earlier modes of dealing with the world.
<r /><div><i>e.g. children unde
r stress</i></div>
1405830175638 1395802358422 {{c1::Repression}} is an immature ego defense th
at involves<> involuntary </>withholding of an idea or feeling from conscious
awareness.
1405830327441 1395802358422 {{c1::Splitting}} is an immature ego defense tha
t involves the elief that people are either all good or ad at different times
due to an intolerance of amiguity.
e.g., A patient says that all nurses are
cold/insensitive ut all doctors are warm/friendly.
1405830367538 1395802358422 Which ego defense is commonly associated with Bo
rderline Personality Disorder?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Splitting}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. a patient says that all nurses are cold and insensitive ut t
hat doctors are warm and friendly</i></div>
1405830380441 1395802358422 {{c1::Altruism}} is a <>mature</>&nsp;ego def
ense that involves alleviating of guilty feelings y unsolicited generosity towa

rds others.
<r /><div><i>e.g. mafia oss making a large donation to charity
</i></div>
1405830450866 1395802358422 {{c1::Humour}} is a <>mature</>&nsp;ego defen
se that involves appreciating the amusing nature of an anxiety-provoking or adve
rse situation. <r /><div><i>e.g. MS2's making jokes aout how much Step 1 is g
oing to destroy them</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><d
iv><i><r /></i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><
r /></i></div><div><i>.... i want my life ack, pls</i></div>
1405830502966 1395802358422 {{c1::Sulimation}} is a <>mature</>&nsp;ego
defense that involves replacing of an unacceptale wish with a course of action
that is similar to the wish ut does not conflict with one's value system.
1405830543713 1395802358422 {{c1::Suppression}} is a <>mature</>&nsp;ego
defense that involves <>intentional</>&nsp;withholding of an idea or feeling
from conscious awareness.
<r /><div><i>Versus repression with involves <
>involuntary withdrawal</>.</i></div><div><i>e.g. choosing not to worry aout t
he Step 1 until test day (LOL A RIGHT, BRAH)</i></div>
1405442831774 1395802358422 Which emryological structure functions as the k
idneys <>up to week 4</>&nsp;of gestation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Proneph
ros}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>At which point it degenerates.</i><r /><div
><img src="paste-584115552792.jpg" /></div>
1405443374512 1395802358422 Which emryological structure functions as an in
terim kidney for the majority of the 1st trimester?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::M
esonephros}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>After which it contriutes to the ma
le genital system.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-579820585496.jpg" /></div>
1405443425353 1395802358422 Which emryological structure develops into the
permanent kidney(s)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metanephros}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-579820585496.jpg" /></div>
1405443482097 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the Metaneph
ros first appear?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Week 5}}</div>
<r /><div><r /
></div>
1405443505823 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::ureteric ud}} is an emryologica
l structure derived from the <>caudal end of the mesonephric duct</>&nsp;that
gives rise to the <>ureter, renal pelvises, calyces and collecting ducts</>.
1405443587389 1395802358422 From which emryological structure does the uret
eric ud develop?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesonephric duct}}</div>
1405443606408 1395802358422 From which emryological structure do the renal
collecting ducts develop?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ureteric Bud (via the Meson
ephric Duct)}}</div>
1405443641224 1395802358422 By which week of gestation is the ureteric ud f
ully canalized?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::10th week}}</div>
1405443661055 1395802358422 With which emryological structure does the uret
eric ud interact to trigger formation of the glomerulus and renal tuules?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Metanephric mesenchyme}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-579820585496.jpg" /></div>
1405444063760 1395802358422 From which emryological structure does the rena
l glomerulus develop?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metanephros}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-579820585496.jpg" /></div>
1405444081563 1395802358422 From which emryological structure do the renal
tuules (up to the distal convoluted tuule) develop?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Metanephros}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, <>everything from the glomerulus t
o the distal convoluted tuule</>&nsp;comes from the <>metanephros</>.</i></
div><div><i>Hence, <>everything from the collecting duct to the ureter</>&nsp
;comes from the <>mesonephros</>&nsp;(via the <>ureteric ud</>).</i></div>
<div><i><img src="paste-579820585496.jpg" /></i></div>
1405444209098 1395802358422 Which emryological structure gives rise to ever
ything from the renal glomerulus to the distal convoluted tuule?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Metanephros}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-579820585496.
jpg" /></div>
1405444251633 1395802358422 Which emryological structure gives rise to ever
ything from the renal collecting duct to the ureter?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::

Ureteric Bud via the Mesonephros}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-57982
0585496.jpg" /></div>
1405444291403 1395802358422 What is the most common site of renal ostructio
n/hydronephrosis in the fetus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ureteropelvic junction
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Because it is the last to canalize.</i></div>
1405444521741 1395802358422 {{c1::Potter Sequence/Syndrome}} is a congenital
sequence that is caused y <>oligohydramnios</>&nsp;and susequent <>compre
ssion of fetal lims, facial features and the chest.</>
<r /><div><i>i
elds <>low-set ears</>&nsp;and <>retrognathia</>.</i></div><div><i><img src
="paste-2443836391702.jpg" /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-2564095475998.jpg
" /></i></div>
1405444589405 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of death in Potter
Sequence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary hypoplasia due to compression of
the chest}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2564095475998.jpg" /></div>
1405444612402 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Potter Sequence?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Oligohydramnios due to an <u>inaility or impairment in urin
ation</u>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. ARPKD, Posterior Urethral Valves, Bil
ateral Renal Agenesis.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-2568390443294.jpg" /></i
></div>
1405444690537 1395802358422 {{c1::Horseshoe kidney}} is a congenital renal a
normality that involved <>fusion of the inferior poles of oth kidneys</>.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3874060501409.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Ty
pically found low in adomen as the horseshoe kidney is trapped under the inferi
or mesenteric artery as it ascends.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-32169305049
76.jpg" /></i></div>
1405446794570 1395802358422 How does kidney function change in with a Horses
hoe Kidney?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
1405446865326 1395802358422 Which sex chromosomal disorder is associated wit
h Horseshoe Kidney?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome}}</div>
1405446901803 1395802358422 How does the risk for ureteropelvic junction os
truction change with Horseshoe Kidney?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</di
v>
1405446922296 1395802358422 How does the risk for <>hydronephrosis</>&nsp
;and <>kidney stones</>&nsp;change with Horseshoe Kidney?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405446943441 1395802358422 {{c1::Multicystic Dysplastic Kidney}} is a conge
nital renal disorder that presents with a <>nonfunctional kidney consisting of
cysts and connective tissue</>&nsp;due to <>anormal interaction etween the
ureteric ud and metanephric mesenchyme</>.
1405447042079 1395802358422 What is the most common type of Multicystic Dysp
lastic Kidney?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unilateral}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
is type of generally asymptomatic as the contralateral kidney undergoes hypertro
phy as compensation.</i></div>
1405447079974 1395802358422 Which kidney is typically taken during living do
nor transplantation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Kidney as it has a longer r
enal vein}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4097398801059.jpg" /></div>
1405447892943 1395802358422 Which lood vessel carries lood <>into</>&ns
p;the glomerulus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Afferent arteriole}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-4544075399686.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-4556960301585
.jpg" /></div>
1405448012983 1395802358422 Which lood vessel carries lood <>out of</>&n
sp;the glomerulus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Efferent arteriole}}</div>
<r /><div><r /></div><div><div><img src="paste-4544075399686.jpg" /></div><div
><img src="paste-4556960301585.jpg" /></div></div>
1405448031689 1395802358422 Which <>genital</>&nsp;lood vessel does the
ureter run under in <>females</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uterine Artery}}<
/div> <div><r /></div><i>"Water under the ridge."</i><div><i>Gynecological p
rocedures that involve manipulation or ligation of the uterine artery may damage
the ureter.<r /></i><div><img src="paste-4690104287633.jpg" /></div></div>
1405448126918 1395802358422 Which <>genital</>&nsp;structure does the ure

ter run under in males?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vas Deferens}}</div> <div><r
/></div><i>"Water under the ridge."</i><r /><div><img src="paste-468580932033
7.jpg" /></div>
1405448157717 1395802358422 What percentage of total ody weight is water?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::60%}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5304284610900
.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-5978594476186.jpg" /></div>
1405449367551 1395802358422 What percentage of total ody weight is <>extra
cellular</>&nsp;fluid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::20%}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-5304284610900.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-5974299508890.jpg" />
</div>
1405449406525 1395802358422 What percentage of total ody weight is <>intra
cellular</>&nsp;fluid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40%}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-5304284610900.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-5974299508890.jpg" />
</div>
1405449430973 1395802358422 Which radiolaeled plasma protein is often used
to measure total plasma volume?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alumin}}</div>
1405449452076 1395802358422 What protein is used to measure <>extracellular
</>&nsp;volume?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inulin}}</div>
1405449490578 1395802358422 Which glomerular filtration arrier acts as a <
>size</>&nsp;arrier?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fenestrated capillary endothe
lium}}</div>
1405449603572 1395802358422 Which glomerular filtration arrier acts as a <
>negative charge</>&nsp;arrier?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fused asement mem
rane with heparan sulfate}}</div>
1405449635741 1395802358422 Which glomerular filtration arrier is lost in <
>nephrotic</>&nsp;syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The negative charge a
rrier (fused asement memrane with heparan sulfate)}}</div>
1405449686959 1395802358422 What is the equation for renal clearance?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::C<su>x</su>&nsp;= (U<su>x</su>&nsp;* V)/P<su>x</su>
}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6468220747953.jpg" /></div>
1405450345308 1395802358422 If C<su>x</su>&nsp;&lt; GFR, what is the net
movement of sustance <i>x</i>&nsp;across the tuular epithelium?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Net tuular reasorption}}</div> <r /><div><i>i.e. if you are fi
ltering more of x into the kidney tuules than you are clearing x from the plasm
a, then x must e eing reasored y the kidneys</i></div>
1405450498929 1395802358422 If C<su>x</su>&nsp;&gt; GFR, what is the net
movement of sustance <i>x</i>&nsp;across the renal tuular epithelium?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Net tuular secretion}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. if yo
u are clearing more plasma of sustance x than you are filtering, then sustance
x must e eing secreted into the urine.</i></div>
1405450566634 1395802358422 If C<su>x</su>&nsp;= GFR, what is the net mov
ement of sustance <i>x</i>&nsp;across the renal tuular epithelium?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::No net secretion or reasorption}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.
e. you are clearing the same amount of plasma of sustance x than you are filter
ing, hence sustance x must not e moving across the tuular epithelium at all (
or just not in a net value).</i></div>
1405450649959 1395802358422 What is the renal clearance of <i>para</i>-amino
hippuric acid (PAH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C<su>PAH</su>&nsp;= RPF = 600
mL/min in normal conditions}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is ecause <>PAH is
maximally secreted</>&nsp;from the lood.</i></div>
1405451095182 1395802358422 What is the renal clearance of Inulin?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::C<su>I</su>&nsp;= C<su>Cr</su>&nsp;= GFR ~ 100 mL/min in
normal conditions}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is ecause <>Inulin is neith
er secreted or reasored, it is <u>f</u></><span style="font-weight: old"><u>
reely filtered</u></span>.</i></div><div><i>Same thing with creatinine ut small
amounts also are secreted. &nsp;Thus, creatinine slightly overestimates GFR</i
></div>
1405451214155 1395802358422 What is the renal clearance of Creatinine?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::C<su>I</su>&nsp;= C<su>Cr</su>&nsp;= GFR ~ 100 mL/mi
n in normal conditions}}</div> <r /><div><i>This is ecause along with Inulin,

<>Creatinine is neither secreted or reasored. <u>It is purely filtered</u>.<
/></i></div>
1405451243539 1395802358422 What is the renal clearance of Glucose?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::C<su>Glc</su>&nsp;= 0}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is e
cause <>Glucose is maximally reasored</>&nsp;and <>not excreted</>&nsp;i
n normal conditions</i></div>
1405451279979 1395802358422 The renal clearance of which&nsp;<>exogenous</
>&nsp;compound can e clinically used to calculate GFR as it is <>freely filt
ered</>&nsp;and <>neither secreted or reasored</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Inulin}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. the amount of plasma cleared of the c
ompound is the same as GFR</i></div>
1405451635737 1395802358422 What is the normal oncotic pressure of the owma
n space at the glomerulus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::π_bs&nbs
;= 0}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><i>This is because, no mally, the e a e not
lasma
oteins f
ilte ed into the glome ulus.</i></div>
1405451700535 1395802358422 What is the no mal GFR?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::~ 100 mL/min}}</div>
1405451714347 1395802358422 The enal clea ance of which <b>endogenous</b>&n
bs
;com
ound is commonly used to clinically estimate GFR?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::C eatinine}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , C_C&nbs
;slightly ove
estimates GFR as C eatinine is mode ately sec eted by the enal tubules.</i></d
iv>
1405451813124 1395802358422 The enal clea ance of which <b>exogenous</b>&nb
s
;com
ound is used to estimate <b>Effective Renal Plasma Flow</b>&nbs
;(ERPF)?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
a a</i>-aminohi

u ic acid (PAH)}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>This is because PAH is f eely filte ed <b>and</b>&nbs
;maximally sec eted
in the PCT. Hence all PAH that ente s the kidney is exc eted.</i></div><div><i>C
_PAH&nbs
;= ERPF = U_PAH&nbs
;* V / P_PAH</i></div
>
1405451945480 1395802358422 What is the equation fo enal <b>blood</b>&nbs

;flow (RBF)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RBF = RPF/(1-Hct)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>Hct = hematoc it = the % of ed blood cells in the blood.</i></div>
1405452116985 1395802358422 What is the equation fo enal Filt ation F acti
on (FF)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::FF = GFR / RPF}}</div>
<b /><div><i>i.
e. <b>the f action of
lasma filte ed f om the amount of
lasma that ente s the
kidney</b></i></div>
1405452206648 1395802358422 What is the no mal enal filt ation f action?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::FF = GFR / RPF = 20%}}</div> <b /><div><i>i.e. 20% o
f the
lasma that ente s the kidney is filte ed</i></div>
1405452260492 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the enal <b>Filte ed L
oad</b>&nbs
;of a substance?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::FL = GFR * P_x
}}</div>
<b /><div><i>FL is in mg/min</i></div><div><i>GFR is in mL/min<
/i></div><div><i>P_x&nbs
;is in mg/mL</i></div>
1405452325546 1395802358422 Which glome ula blood vessel is <b>dilated</b>&
nbs
;by P ostaglandins?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Affe ent a te ioles}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Hence, NSAIDs will <b>inhibit affe ent a te iole dilation</b
>.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-10093173146318.j
g" /></div>
1405452372251 1395802358422 Which glome ula blood vessel is
efe entially
<b>const icted</b>&nbs
;by Angiotensin II?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Effe ent a
te iole}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Hence ACE Inhibito s <b>inhibit effe
ent a te iole const iction</b>&nbs
;and <b>cause effe ent a te iole dilation</b
>.<b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-10088878179022.j
g" /></div>
1405452463066 1395802358422 Which glome ula blood vessel is <b>dilated</b>&
nbs
;by ACE Inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Effe ent a te iole as it inhi
bits AT2-mediated const iction}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1008887817902
2.j
g" /></div>
1405458619673 1395802358422 How does RPF change following glome ula affe en
t a te iole const iction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>This about this, b ah. You' e const icting the <b>incoming</b>&nbs
;blood
vessel, hence the e will be less
lasma flowing th ough the glome ulus.</i></div

><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405458711797 1395802358422 How does GFR change following const iction of th
e glome ula affe ent a te iole?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><!--anki--><div><i>This about this, b ah. You' e const icting the&nbs

;<b>incoming</b>&nbs
;blood vessel, hence the e will be less
lasma flowing th
ough the glome ulus and less of it will be filte ed.</i></div><div><i><img s c="

aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405458751599 1395802358422 How does enal filt ation f action change follow
ing affe ent a te iole const iction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div
>
<b /><div><!--anki--><div><i>This about this, b ah. You' e const icting
the&nbs
;<b>incoming</b>&nbs
;blood vessel, hence the e will be less
lasma flo
wing th ough the glome ulus. <b>RPF and GFR both dec ease</b>.</i></div><div><i>
<img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405458786054 1395802358422 How does RPF change following const iction of th
e <b>effe ent</b>&nbs
;a te iole?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><!--anki--><div><i>You' e const icting the&nbs
;<b>outgoing</b>&nbs
;
blood vessel, hence the e will be less
lasma flowing th ough the glome ulus.</i
></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405459525638 1395802358422 How does GFR change following const iction of th
e effe ent a te iole?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Initial inc ease; dec ease with
substantial inc ease in esistance}}</div>
<b /><div><div><i>This one is a
bit t icky. As you const ict the effe ent a te iole, you inc ease the hyd ostat
ic
essu e (P_C)u
st eam at the glome ula ca
illa ies, <b>hence GFR
will inc ease</b>. Howeve , as RPF continues to dec ease with inc easing effe en
t a te iole const iction, <b>GFR etu ns to no mal o dec eases</b>.</i></div><d
iv><i>Hence, <b>with minimal inc eases in effe ent a te iole esistance, P_C&nbs
;dominates and GFR inc eases.</b></i></div><div><i>Hence, <b>with la
ge inc eases in effe ent a te iole esistance, RPF dominates and GFR dec eases</
b>.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405459721377 1395802358422 How does enal Filt ation F action change follow
ing const iction of the effe ent a te iole?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}
}</div> <div><div><i><b /></i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g"
/></i></div></div>
1405459747208 1395802358422 How does GFR change following an inc ease in
la
sma
otein concent ation (i.e. inc eased π_c)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Dec eased}}</div>
<div><div><i><b /></i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-107
97547782402.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405459794360 1395802358422 How does enal filt ation f action change follow
ing an inc ease in
lasma
otein concent ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec
ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459815200 1395802358422 How does GFR change following a <b>dec ease</b>&
nbs
;in
lasma
otein concent ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div
>
<div><b /></div><i>i.e. π_c&nbs
;dec eases</i><b /><div><i><im
g s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459836480 1395802358422 How does enal filt ation f action change follow
ing a dec ease in
lasma
otein concent ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc e
ase}}</div>
<b /><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459879019 1395802358422 How does GFR change following const iction of th
e u ete ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>This
causes an inc ease in hyd ostatic
essu e at the bowman's s
ace.</i><b /><div
><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459919640 1395802358422 How does enal filt ation f action change follow
ing const iction of the u ete ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i><img s c="
aste-10797547782402.j
g" /></i></div>
1405459938187 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the enal exc etion at
e of the substance?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ER = V_u&nbs
;* U_x}}</div>
1405461426734 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the enal eabso
tion
ate of a substance?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::RR_x = Filte ed load exc etion ate = FL - ER = (GFR * P_x) - (V * U_x)}}</div>

1405461485025 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the enal sec etion at
e of a substance?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::SR_x&nbs
;= exc etion at
e - filte ed load = ER - FL = (V * U_x) - (GFR * P_x)}}</div
>
1405461541013 1395802358422 At which
lasma concent ation of glucose does <b
>glucosu ia</b>&nbs
;begin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::~ 200 mg/dL}}</div>
1405461588228 1395802358422 At which
lasma concent ation of glucose a e all
enal glucose t ans
o te s fully satu ated?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::~ 375 mg
/dL}}</div>
1405461613523 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of Ha tnu
Disea
se?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1405461649054 1395802358422 {{c1::Ha tnu
Disease}} is a diso de of amino a
cid eabso
tion that is cha acte ized by <b>deficiency of neut al amino acid t
ans
o te s in the PCT and ente ocytes</b>.
<b /><div><i>Hence causing neut
al aminoacidu ia and dec eased abso
tion f om the gut.</i></div><div><i>Result
s in <b>
ellag a-like sym
toms</b>&nbs
;due to subsequent <b>Niacin (Vitamin B3)
</b>&nbs
;deficiency.</i></div>
1405461720032 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>glucose</b>&nbs
;
eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT (with Na)}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-12704513262182.j
g" /></div>
1405461835829 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on a e <b>amino acids</b>&n
bs
; eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT (with Na)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405461913260 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed HCO₃&nbs
; eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405461968789 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed Na eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT (es
ecially with gluco
se and amino acids)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /
></div>
1405461995249 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed Cl eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462012606 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed PO₄&nbs
; eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</di
v>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462030541 1395802358422 Whe e along the length of the ne
h on is <b>most
</b>&nbs
;of the filte ed K eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462046908 1395802358422 Whe e along the ne
h on is <b>most</b>&nbs
;of t
he filte ed H₂O eabso bed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462066632 1395802358422 What ty
e of osmotic abso
tion is seen at the P
CT of the ne
h on?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Isosmotic abso
tion}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462183699 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on functions to <b>gen
e ate and sec ete NH₃&nbs
;</b>which acts as a buffe fo sec eted H<
su
>+</su
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462231006 1395802358422 At which section of the ne
h on does PTH functio
n to <b>inhibit Na/PO₄&nbs
;cot ans
o t</b>&nbs
;to induce PO<sub>4</
sub>&nbs
;exc etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-12700218294886.j
g" /></div>
1405462394955 1395802358422 At which section of the ne
h on does Angiotensin
II <b>stimulate Na/H exchange</b>, the eby leading to <b>inc eased Na, H<sub>2<
/sub>O and HCO₃&nbs
; eabso
tion</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT
}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13984413516381.j
g" /></div>
1405462726872 1395802358422 What
e centage of filte ed Na is eabso bed at
the PCT?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::65-80%}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-13980118549085.j
g" /></div>

1405462748772 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on <b>
assively eabso
bs H₂O </b>due to the enal medulla's hy
e tonicity?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::Thin descending limb of the Loo
of Henle}}</div>
1405462822160 1395802358422 What is the Na
e meability in the thin <b>desce
nding</b>&nbs
;limb of loo
of Henle?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ze o}}</div>
1405462843331 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle is im
e meable t
o Na?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thin descending limb}}</div>
1405462865292 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle functions to mak
e u ine <b>hy
e tonic</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thin descending limb of th
e loo
of Henle}}</div> <b /><div><i>Achieved th ough
assive eabso
tion of H
₂O by vi tue of the medulla's hy
e tonicity and the limb's im
e meabi
lity to Na.</i></div>
1405462924033 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle is im
e meable t
o H₂O?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending limb}}</div>
1405463319257 1395802358422 What is the H₂O
e meability of the t
hick ascending limb of the loo
of Henle?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ze o}}</div
>
1405463346361 1395802358422 At which section of the ne
h on is <b>Mg<su
>2+<
/su
>&nbs
;and Ca<su
>2+ </su
> eabso bed <u>
a acellula ly</u>?</b><div><b><b
/></b></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending limb of the loo
of Henle}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This occu s via a <b>
ositive lumen
otential gene ated by K<su
>+
</su
>&nbs
;backleak.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img s c="
aste-14856291877387.j
g
" /></b></i></div>
1405463438606 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle functions to mak
e u ine <b>less concent ated</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending lim
b}}</div>
1405463460439 1395802358422 What
e centage of filte ed Na is eabso bed at
the thick ascending limb of the loo
of Henle?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::10-20%
}}</div>
1405463491410 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo
of Henle <b>actively eab
so bs Na, K and Cl</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending limb of the l
oo
of Henle}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-15337328214520.j
g" /></div>
1405463969362 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on <b>actively eabso
bs Na and Cl</b>, the eby making u ine hy
otonic?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ea
ly DCT}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-15491947037217.j
g" /></div>
1405464031942 1395802358422 At which section of the ne
h on does PTH <b>inc
ease Ca/Na exchange</b>, the eby d iving Ca eabso
tion?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Ea ly DCT}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-15487652069921.j
g" /></div>
1405464077041 1395802358422 What
e centage of filte ed Na is eabso bed at
the ea ly DCT?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::5-10%}}</div>
1405464110296 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on functions to <b> ea
bso b Na</b>&nbs
;<b>in exchange fo sec eting K and H</b>?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Collecting duct}}</div> <div><b /></div><div><i>Gove ened by Aldoste on
e.</i></div><img s c="
aste-16011638080254.j
g" />
1405464484483 1395802358422 At which a ea of the ne
h on does Aldoste one go
ve n the <b> eabso
tion of Na in exchange fo K and H?</b><div><b><b /></b></d
iv><div>{{c1::Collecting Duct}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1600734311295
8.j
g" /></div>
1405464508946 1395802358422 {{c1::Aldoste one}} is a mine aloco ticoid that
acts on the collecting duct to inse t Na channels on the luminal memb ane.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-16007343112958.j
g" /></div>
1405464544259 1395802358422 {{c1::ADH}} is a ho mone that acts on the V₂&nbs
; ece
to at the collecting duct and induces the <b>inse tion of aqu
a
o in H₂O channels on the luminal memb ane</b>.
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-16007343112958.j
g" /></div>
1405464585709 1395802358422 At which segment of the ne
h on does ADH act to
inse t aqua
o in H₂O channels into the luminal memb ane?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Collecting duct}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1600734311295
8.j
g" /></div>
1405464609637 1395802358422 What
e centage of filte ed Na is eabso bed in

the collecting duct?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::3-5%}}</div>
1405464633208 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on is defective in Fan
coni Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-16496969384205.j
g" /></div>
1405466046970 1395802358422 {{c1::Fanconi Synd ome}} is a diso de of the PC
T that is associated with <b>inc eased exc etion of nea ly all amino acids, gluc
ose, HCO</b><sub style="font-weight: bold; ">3</sub><b>&nbs
;and PO</b><sub styl
e="font-weight: bold; ">4</sub>.
<b /><div><i>May esult in metabolic ac
idosis due to this (
oximal enal tubula acidosis).</i></div><div><i>Causes in
clude he edita y defects, ischemia and ne
h otoxins/d ugs.</i></div>
1405466102654 1395802358422 {{c1::Metabolic acidosis}} is an acid-base imbal
ance seen in Fanconi Synd ome that
esents due to the inc eased exc etion of HC
O₃.
1405466142205 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on is defective in Ba
ttne Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending loo
of Henle}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-16492674416909.j
g" /></div>
1405466205768 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of the enal tub
ula defect Ba tte Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal ecessive}}</
div>
1405466235909 1395802358422 {{c1::Ba tte Synd ome}} is an autosomal ecessi
ve diso de that affects the <b>Na/K/2Cl cot ans
o te of the thick ascending li
mb of the loo
of Henle</b>.
<b /><div><i>Hence esults in <b>hy
okalemia, m
etabolic alkalosis</b>&nbs
;and <b>hy
ocalcemia</b>.</i></div>
1405466443306 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Ba tte Synd ome?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>Due to defective Na/K/2Cl
cot ans
o te in the thick ascending limb.</i></div>
1405466484251 1395802358422 {{c1::Metabolic Alkalosis}} is an acid-base imba
lance seen in Ba tte Synd ome due to the hy
okalemia that is seen.
<b /><d
iv><i>Hy
okalemia esults due to defective function of the Na/K/2Cl cot ans
o te
in the thick ascending limb.</i></div>
1405466560493 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on is defective in Git
elman Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::DCT}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-16492674416909.j
g" /></div>
1405466585634 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of the enal tub
ula defect Gitelman Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}<
/div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-16492674416909.j
g" /></div>
1405466600971 1395802358422 How do u ina y Ca levels change in Ba tte Synd
ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e calciu ia}}</div> <b /><div><i>Com
a e th
is to Gitelman Synd ome which has <b>hy
ocalciu ia</b>&nbs
;o <b>no mocalciu ia
</b>.</i></div>
1405466675178 1395802358422 {{c1::Gitelman Synd ome}} is an autosomal ecess
ive diso de of NaCl eabso
tion at the DCT that
esents with <b>hy
okalemia,
metabolic alkalosis</b>&nbs
;and <b>hy
ocalciu ia</b>. <b /><div><i>It is less
seve e than Ba tte Synd ome.</i></div>
1405466721402 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on is defective in Lid
dle Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Collecting Duct}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-16492674416909.j
g" /></div>
1405466758810 1395802358422 {{c1::Liddle Synd ome}} is an autosomal dominant
diso de of the collecting duct that is cha acte ized by <b>inc eased Na eabso

tion</b>&nbs
;due to <b>inc eased activity of e
ithelial Na channels</b>.
1405466796938 1395802358422 What is the genetic inhe itance of the enal tub
ula diso de Liddle Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</
div>
1405466818146 1395802358422 How do Aldoste one levels change in Liddle Synd
ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased}}</div>
1405466836706 1395802358422 {{c1::Hy
e tension}} is a ca diovascula diso de
seen in Liddle Synd ome due to <b>inc eased Na eabso
tion</b>.
1405466860907 1395802358422 {{c1::Metabolic Alkalosis}} is an acid-base imba
lance seen in Liddle Synd ome due to the hy
okalemia that a ises f om inc eased
Na eabso
tion.

1405466928167 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Liddle Synd ome?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia (due to the inc eased Na eabso
tion)}}</div>
1405466950655 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Liddle Synd ome?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Amilo ide}}</div> <b /><div><i>K-s
a ing diu etic.</i></d
iv>
1405466973484 1395802358422 How does the enal tubula concent ation of Inul
in change along the length of the <b>
oximal tubules</b>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , <b>inulin is neithe eabso bed
o sec eted</b>. Hence, <b>its concent ation inc eases as a esult of wate bein
g eabso bed</b>.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-18438294602410.j
g" /></i></d
iv>
1405467512264 1395802358422 How does a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in blood
essu
e influence the RAAS?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Activation of JG cells}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18687402705510.j
g" /></div>
1405467830062 1395802358422 How does a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in Na delive y t
o the macula densa influence the RAAS?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467848637 1395802358422 How do ad ene gics influence the RAAS?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Activation via beta-1 ad ene gic ece
to s}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467865499 1395802358422 Which ad ene gic ece
to s function to activate
the RAAS?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-1}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467879957 1395802358422 Which enzyme conve ts Angiotensinogen to Angiote
nsin I?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Renin}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467899895 1395802358422 Whe e is Renin made?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
Kidneys}}</div>
1405467907677 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to conve t Angiotensin I
to Angiotensin II?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ACE}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467922527 1395802358422 Whe e is Angiotensin Conve ting Enzyme (ACE) mad
e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Lungs}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-18683
107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405467935420 1395802358422 Which ece
to does Angiotensin II bind to on va
scula smooth muscle to t igge vasocont iction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::AT I
ece
to s}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This inc eases BP.</i></div><div><i><img s
c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468014561 1395802358422 Which glome ula a te iole is <b>const icted</b>
&nbs
;by Angiotensin II action?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Effe ent a te iole}}<
/div> <div><b /></div><i>This is <b>in effo ts to
ese ve GFR</b>&nbs
;(i.e.
kidney function) in states of low blood volume (which activates the RAAS).</i><
div><i>Remembe , <b>dec eased blood volume = dec eased RPF</b>.<b /></i><div><i
mg s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div></div>
1405468093218 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence Aldoste one e
lease f om the ad enal co tex?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>The eby esulting in <b>Na etention, K exc etion, H exc eti
on</b>.</i><div><i>This inc eases BP by t igge ing H₂O eabso
tion.<
b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div></div>
1405468185726 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct es
ond to al
doste one by inse ting Na and Na/K
um
s into the a
ical and basolate al memb an
es es
ectively?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P inci
al cells}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i>This d ives the <b> eabso
tion of Na</b>.</i><b /><div><img s c="

aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405468224452 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct es
ond to Al
doste one by u
egulating luminal K channels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P inci

al Cell}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>This d ives the <b>exc etion of K</b>.</i><b
/><div><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405468267607 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct es
ond to Al
doste one by inc easing the ex
ession of H<su
>+</su
>&nbs
;ATPases on the lumi

nal memb ane?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inte calated Cells}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>This d ives <b>exc etion of H</b>.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-186831
07738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468316467 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence ADH elease f
om the
oste io
ituita y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Remembe , ADH inc eases H₂O eabso
tion y <b>inse ting aqua
o
in channels at the luminal memb ane of
inci
al cells</b>.</i></div><div><i><im
g s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468381954 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence the activity o
f <b>
oximal tubule Na/H t ans
o te s</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}
}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></div>
1405468407919 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence thi st?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , Angiotensin II's
actions all evolve a ound co ecting/maintaining blood volume/
essu e.</i></d
iv><div><i><img s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468459868 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II limit eflex b adyca dia
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::By affecting ba o ece
to function}}</div> <div><b
/></div><i>The no mal es
onse to any vaso
essive action would include eflex
b adyca dia (e.g. with al
ha-1 ad ene gic agonists). This es
onse is mitigated
by AT2's action at ba o ece
to s.</i><div><i><b /></i><div><i>S sly though... l
ook at this diag am. Is the e anything AT2 doesn't do?</i></div></div><div><i><i
mg s c="
aste-18683107738214.j
g" /></i></div>
1405468580273 1395802358422 {{c1::At ial Nat iu etic Pe
tide}} is a ho mone
eleased by the ca diac at ia in es
onse to an <b>inc ease</b>&nbs
;in blood vo
lume that functions to <b> elax vascula smooth muscle via cGMP</b>.
<b /><d
iv><i>The eby inc easing GFR and dec easing enin levels.</i></div><div><i>Essen
tially, ANP acts as a "b ake" on the RAAS system. It acts in o

osing fashion if
blood volume inc eases.</i></div>
1405468724299 1395802358422 {{c1::JG cells}} a e a com
onent of the JGA that
a e desc ibed as modified smooth muscle of the affe ent a te iole.
1405468766704 1395802358422 {{c1::Macula Densa}} is a com
onent of the JGA t
hat is desc ibed as a <b>NaCl senso </b>&nbs
;and
a t of the DCT.
1405468791958 1395802358422 Which cells of the JGA sec ete Renin in es
onse
to <b>dec eased</b>&nbs
; enal BP o <b>beta-1 ad ene gic</b>&nbs
;stimulation?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::JG cells}}</div>
1405468846790 1395802358422 Which cells of the JGA sec ete Renin in es
onse
to a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in NaCl delive y to the DCT?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::JG cells}}</div>
1405468873648 1395802358422 {{c1::E yth o
oietin}} is a ho mone eleased by
<b>inte stitial cells in the
e itubula ca
illa y bed of the kidneys</b>&nbs
;i
n es
onse to hy
oxia that functions to stimulate RBC
olife ation.
1405468932028 1395802358422 Which section of the ne
h on functions to conve
t 25-OH Vitamin D into 1,25-(OH)₂&nbs
;Vitamin D (i.e. the active fo
m)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-21174
188769462.j
g" /></div>
1405468989734 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the
oximal tubule of the kidne
y conve ts 25-OH Vitamin D into 1,25-(OH)₂&nbs
;Vitamin D (i.e. activ
e vitamin D)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::1-al
ha-hyd oxylase}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-21169893802166.j
g" /></div>
1405469032495 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Renal Failu e}} is a
ossible enal
com
lication of NSAID use as they function to <b>block the enal-
otective synt
hesis of
ostaglandins</b>.
<b /><div><i>Remembe ,
ostaglandins functions
to <b>dilate</b>&nbs
;the affe ent a te iole and dec ease GFR.</i></div>
1405469122427 1395802358422 {{c1::Angiotensin II}} is a ho mone synthesized
in es
onse to dec eased BP that functions to <b>const ict the effe ent a te iol
e</b>&nbs
;and <b>inc ease Na and H₂O eabso
tion</b>&nbs
;to mainta
in GFR and FF. <b /><div><i>Just think of <b>why</b>&nbs
;Angiotensin II is se
c eted, b ah.</i></div><div><i><b>Angiotensin II acts to
ese ve enal function
in low blood volume states</b>.</i></div><div><i>It also <b>acts to maintain ci
culating blood volume by inc easing both
oximal and distal Na eabso
tion.</

b></i></div><div><i><b><img s c="
aste-21556440859413.j
g" /></b></i></div>
1405469338329 1395802358422 {{c1::At ial Nat iu etic Pe
tide (ANP)}} is a ho
mone eleased by the ca diac at ia in es
onse to <b>inc eased at ial
essu e<
/b>&nbs
;that functions to <b>inc ease GFR and Na filt ation</b>&nbs
;<u>without
causing com
ensato y Na eabso
tion</u>.
<b /><div><i>The net effect is
<b>Na loss</b>&nbs
;and <b>loss of blood volume</b>.</i></div><div><i>ANP acts i
n an o

osite fashion of the RAAS and can be seen as a "b ake" on the RAAS.</i><
/div><div><i><img s c="
aste-21552145892117.j
g" /></i></div>
1405469431822 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct es
ond to AD
H by inc easing the numbe of aqua
o in channels to inc ease H₂O eab
so
tion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P inci
al cells}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-21552145892117.j
g" /></div>
1405479969734 1395802358422 How does Digitalis change K levels?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It shifts K out of cells.<
/i></div>
1405480134281 1395802358422 How does <b>hy
e </b>osmola ity change K levels?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It b ings
K out of the cell.</i></div>
1405480159841 1395802358422 How does Insulin deficiency influence K levels?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>It b ings K out of
cells.</i></div>
1405480175664 1395802358422 How does cell lysis change K levels?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><b /></div>
1405480189003 1395802358422 How does Acidosis change K levels?<div><b /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Acidosis b ings K out of c
ells.</i></div>
1405480211508 1395802358422 How do beta-ad ene gic <b>antagonists</b>&nbs
;c
hange K levels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>It
b ings K out of cells.</i></div>
1405480241171 1395802358422 How does se um <b>hy
o</b>-osmola ity change K l
evels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>D ives K i
nto cells.</i></div>
1405480272898 1395802358422 How does Insulin change K levels?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Insulin activates the Na/K
ATPase which moves K into cells.</i></div>
1405480293588 1395802358422 How does Alkalosis change K levels?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Alkalosis shifts K into ce
lls.</i></div>
1405480308898 1395802358422 How do beta-ad ene gic agonists change K levels?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>They t igge K mov
ement into cells.</i></div>
1405480327248 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte <b>deficiency</b>&nbs
;i
s associated with <b>nausea, malaise, stu
o </b>and <b>coma</b>?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Hy
onat emia}}</div>
1405480374724 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>U-waves on an ECG</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
o
kalemia}}</div>
1405480392883 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>flattened T-waves on ECG</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Hy
okalemia}}</div> <b /><div><i>A hythmia and muscle weakness is also see
n.</i></div>
1405480415646 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>tetany, seizu es </b>and <b>
olonged QT inte val</b>?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
ocalcemia}}</div>
1405480494809 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>tetany</b>&nbs
;and <b>To sades de Pointes</b>?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Hy
omagnesemia}}</div>
1405480513886 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs
;is associated with <b>bone loss</b>&nbs
;and <b>osteomalacia</b>?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Hy
o
hos
hatemia}}</div>

1405480554384 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>i itability</b>, stu
o and coma?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::Hy
e nat emia}}</div>
1405480589250 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>widened QRS inte vals on ECG?</b><div><b><b /></b></div><
div>{{c1::Hy
e kalemia}}</div>
1405480614506 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>
eaked T-waves on ECG</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e
kalemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>A hythmia and muscle weakness a e also se
en.</i></div>
1405480637023 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b> enal stones, bone
ain, abdominal
ain</b>&nbs
;and <b>
s
ychiat ic ove tones</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e calcemia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Psychiat ic ove tones = alte ed mental status, anxiety.</i></div>
1405480698432 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>dec eased dee
tendon eflexes</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{
{c1::Hy
e magnesemia}}</div>
1405480751511 1395802358422 Which se um elect olyte&nbs
;<b>excess</b>&nbs
;
is associated with <b>metastatic calcifications</b>&nbs
;and <b>hy
ocalcemia</b>
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e
hos
hatemia}}</div>
1405480768499 1395802358422 What is the Hende son-Hasselbalch equation?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-24734716657761.j
g" />}}</div>
1405481377695 1395802358422 What is the Winte s fo mula (used to
edict the
es
i ato y com
ensation fo metabolic acidosis)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<i
mg s c="
aste-24975234826294.j
g" />}}</div>
<b /><div><i>If the measu ed P<
sub>CO2</sub>&nbs
;diffe s significantly f om the
edicted P_CO2, the
n a mixed acid-base diso de is likely
esent.</i></div>
1405481446894 1395802358422 What is no mal a te ial
H?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::7.4}}</div>
1405481911651 1395802358422 What a te ial
H is diagnostic of acidosis?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 7.4}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-2572255913654
1.j
g" /></div>
1405481929717 1395802358422 What a te ial
H is diagnostic of Alkalosis?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 7.4}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-25718
264169245.j
g" /></div>
1405481940601 1395802358422 What P_CO2&nbs
;value is seen in <b> e
s
i ato y</b>&nbs
;acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P_CO2&nbs
;&gt
; 40 mmHg}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-25718264169245.j
g" /></div>
1405481988628 1395802358422 What P_CO2&nbs
;value is seen in <b>me
tabolic </b>acidosis <u>with es
i ato y com
ensation</u>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::P_CO2&nbs
;&lt; 40 mmHg}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-25718
264169245.j
g" /></div>
1405482079952 1395802358422 What P_CO2&nbs
;value is seen in <b> e
s
i ato y</b>&nbs
;alkalosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::P_CO2&nbs
;&l
t; 40 mmHg}}</div>
<div><b /></div><img s c="
aste-25718264169245.j
g" />
1405482109637 1395802358422 What P_CO2&nbs
;value is seen in <b>me
tabolic</b>&nbs
;alkalosis <u>with es
i ato y com
ensation</u>?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::P_CO2&nbs
;&gt; 40 mmHg}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-25718264169245.j
g" /></div>
1405482160888 1395802358422 What is the cause of <b>inc eased anion ga
</b>&
nbs
;metabolic acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-266245022681
31.j
g" />}}</div>
1405482213323 1395802358422 What is the cause of <b>no mal anion ga
</b>&nbs

;metabolic acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-26658862006480.
j
g" />}}</div>
1405482237905 1395802358422 What is the equation to calculate anion ga
?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anion Ga
= Na - (Cl + HCO₃)}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>No mal value is 8-12 mEq/L</i></div>
1405482278691 1395802358422 What is the no mal value fo anion ga
?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::8-12 mEq/L}}</div>

1405482291749 1395802358422 {{c1::Renal Tubula Acidosis}} isa &nbs
;diso de
of the enal tubules that leads to <b>non-anion ga
hy
e chlo emic metabolic a
cidosis</b>.
1405485319006 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e 1 RTA}} is a ty
e of enal tubula ac
idosis that is associated with a <b>defect in the ability of al
ha-inte calated
cells to sec ete H</b><su
style="font-weight: bold; ">+</su
>, hence <b>no new
HCO₃&nbs
;is gene ated</b>. <b /><div><i>The eby esulting in metab
olic acidosis.</i></div>
1405485393969 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is also ef
e ed to as <b>Distal</b>&nbs
;RTA?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1}}</div>
1405485410606 1395802358422 What is the
H of the u ine in <b>Ty
e 1, Distal
</b>&nbs
; enal tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 5.5}}</div>
1405485442152 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with a <b>defect in the ability of al
ha-inte calated cells to sec ete H</b><
su
style="font-weight: bold; ">+</su
>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1/Dista
l RTA}}</div> <b /><div><i>Hence, new HCO₃&nbs
;canot be gene ated
.</i></div>
1405485490688 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Ty
e 1, Distal enal t
ubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div>
1405485510541 1395802358422 How does the isk fo calcium
hos
hate kidney s
tones change in Ty
e 1, Distal enal tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Due to an <b>inc ease in u ina y
H</b>&nb
s
;and <b>inc eased bone tu nove </b>.</i></div>
1405485546444 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with Am
hote icin B toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1/Distal}}</div
>
1405486214590 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with analgesic ne
h o
athy?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1/Distal}}</div>
1405486228772 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with a <b>defect in the
oximal tubule's ability to eabso b HCO</b><sub sty
le="font-weight: bold; ">3</sub>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal}}</
div>
<b /><div><i>Hence the e is inc eased exc etion of HCO₃and
metabolic acidosis.</i></div>
1405486276951 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal RTA}} is a ty
e of enal t
ubula acidosis that involves <b>defective HCO₃&nbs
; eabso
tion at
the
oximal tubule</b>, the eby esulting in <b>inc eased HCO₃&nbs
;
exc etion</b>&nbs
;in the u ine.
<b /><div><i>The u ine is eventually ac
idified by the al
ha-inte calated cells of the collecting duct as they sec ete H
.</i></div>
1405486350370 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with <b>hy
okalemia</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 1/Distal; Ty
e 2/P o
ximal}}</div>
1405486367675 1395802358422 How does the level of K change in Ty
e 2/P oxima
l enal tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
okalemia}}</div>
1405486391126 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with <b>inc eased isk of hy
o
hos
hatemic ickets</b>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal}}</div>
1405486415845 1395802358422 What is the u ina y
H in Ty
e 2/P oximal enal
tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 5.5}}</div>
1405486443196 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with <b>Fanconi Synd ome</b>&nbs
;(e.g. Wilson Disease)?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal}}</div>
1405486467252 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is also ef
e ed to as <b>
oximal</b>&nbs
; enal tubula acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{
c1::Ty
e 2}}</div>
1405486501294 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with <b>lead</b>&nbs
;o <b>aminoglycosides</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T
y
e 2/P oximal RTA}}</div>
1405486528009 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with Multi
le Myeloma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oximal RTA}}</div>

<b /><div><i>This is due to the amyloid light chains seen.</i></div>
1405486539077 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with Ca bonic Anhyd ase inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 2/P oxima
l RTA}}</div>
1405486551977 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with&nbs
;<b>hy
oaldoste onism</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy
e ka
lemic RTA}}</div>
1405486872609 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with&nbs
;<b>aldoste one esistance</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy

e kalemic RTA}}</div>
1405486907092 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with&nbs
;K-s
a ing diu etics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy
e kalemic
RTA}}</div>
1405486924796 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy
e kalemic RTA}} is a ty
e of en
al tubula acidosis that involves <b>hy
e kalemia</b>&nbs
;that <b>im
ai s ammon
iagenesis in the PCT</b>, the eby esulting in <b>dec eased buffe ing ca
acity</
b>&nbs
;and <b>dec eased H exc etion</b>&nbs
;into the u ine.
1405486988523 1395802358422 What is the
H in Ty
e 4/Hy
e kalemic enal tubu
la acidosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 5.5}}</div>
1405487020740 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enal tubula acidosis is associat
ed with&nbs
;<b>hy
e kalemia</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ty
e 4/Hy
e kalemic
RTA}}</div>
1405565407044 1395802358422 Which emb yological st uctu e develo
s into the
GI t act <b>f om the
ha ynx to the duodenum</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fo
egut}}</div>
1405566256174 1395802358422 Which emb yological st uctu e develo
s into the
GI t act <b>f om the duodenum to the
oximal 2/3 of the t ansve se colon</b>?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Midgut}}</div>
1405566288463 1395802358422 Which emb yological st uctu e develo
s into the
GI t act <b>f om the distal 1/3 of the colon to the anal canal <u>above the
ect
inate line</u>?</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div>{{c1::Hindgut}}</div>
1405566320891 1395802358422 Which abdominal wall fold is associated with <b>
ste nal defects</b>&nbs
;if it fails to close?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rost a
l fold}}</div>
1405566421202 1395802358422 Which abdominal wall fold is associated with <b>
om
halocele</b>&nbs
;and <b>gast oschisis</b>&nbs
;if it fails to close?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Late al fold}}</div>
1405566451425 1395802358422 Which abdominal wall fold is associated with <b>
bladde exst o
hy</b>&nbs
;if it fails to close?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Caud
al fold}}</div>
1405566528943 1395802358422 Which ch omosomal t isomy is associated with duo
denal at esia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T isomy 21}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Oc
cu s due to a failu e of the duodenum to ecanalize.</i></div>
1405566586051 1395802358422 Du ing which week of gestation does the midgut h
e niate th ough the umbilical ing?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::6th week}}</div>
1405566635415 1395802358422 Du ing which week of gestation does the midgut <
b> etu n</b>&nbs
;into the abdominal cavity<b>&nbs
;</b>and <b> otate</b>&nbs
;a
ound the su
e io mesente ic a te y (SMA)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::10th week
}}</div>
1405566669366 1395802358422 {{c1::Gast oschisis}} is a congenital GI diso de
that involves <b>ext usion of the abdominal contents th ough the late al abdom
inal folds</b>. <b /><div><i>The contents <b>a e not cove ed by
e itoneum</b>.
</i></div>
1405566805616 1395802358422 {{c1::Om
halocele}} is a congenital GI diso de
that involves the <b>
e sistence of he niation of abdominal contents into the um
bilical co d.</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div><b><img s c="
aste-27492085662009.
j
g" /></b></div>
<b /><div><i>The contents a e <b>sealed by
e itoneum</
b>.</i></div>
1405566984163 1395802358422 What is the most common t acheoeso
hageal anomal
y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Eso
hageal at esia with distal t acheoeso
hageal f

istula}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>P esents with <b>d ooling, choking and vomit
ing with the fi st feeding</b>.</i><div><i>P esence of a TEF will allow fo <b>a
i to ente the stomach</b>, which is noticeable on chest x- ay.<b /></i><div><
img s c="
aste-27504970564040.j
g" /></div></div>
1405567161887 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyanosis}} is a featu e of congenital t an
cheoeso
hageal anomalies that occu s <b>seconda y to la yngos
asm</b>&nbs
;which
occu s to avoid eflux- elated as
i ation.
1405567207195 1395802358422 {{c1::Pylo ic Stenosis}} is a congenital GI diso
de that involves <b>hy
e t o
hy of the
ylo us</b>, the eby causing obst uctio
n and a <b>
al
able "olive" mass</b>&nbs
;in the <b>e
igast ic egion</b>.
1405567259392 1395802358422 {{c1::Pylo ic Stenosis}} is a congenital GI diso
de due to hy
e t o
hy of the
ylo us that
esents with <b><u>nonbilious</u>&n
bs
;
ojectile vomit</b>&nbs
;at ~2-6 weeks old.
<b /><div><i>Occu s in
1/600 live bi ths.</i></div>
1405567307738 1395802358422 Which sex is mo e commonly affected by Congenita
l Pylo ic Stenosis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Se
en in 1/600 live bi ths.</i></div>
1405567329764 1395802358422 Which emb yological st uctu e gives ise to the

anc eas?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fo egut}}</div>
1405567368628 1395802358422 Which emb yological
anc eatic buds cont ibute t
o the <b>head of the
anc eas</b>&nbs
;and the <b>main
anc eatic duct</b>?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Vent al
anc eatic buds}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-28140625723863.j
g" /></div>
1405567410884 1395802358422 Which emb yological
anc eatic buds cont ibute t
o the <b>uncinate
ocess</b>&nbs
;of the
anc eas?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::V
ent al bud}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-28136330756567.j
g" /></div>
1405567431621 1395802358422 Which emb yological
anc eatic bud cont ibutes t
o the <b>body, tail and isthmus of the
anc eas</b>&nbs
;and <b>accesso y
anc e
atic ducts</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Do sal bud}}</div>
1405567474558 1395802358422 {{c1::Annula Panc eas}} is a congenital GI diso
de that involves a <b> ing of
anc eatic tissue a ound the duodenum</b>&nbs
;d
ue to abno mal develo
ment of the <b>vent al
anc eatic bud</b>.
<div><b
/></div><div><i>This can cause <b>duodenal na owing</b>.</i></div><i>No mally,
the vent al
anc eatic bud goes enti ely one way a ound the duodenum to fo m th
e head of the
anc eas. Sometimes it can s
lit, fo ming a <b> ing</b>.</i><b />
<div><img s c="
aste-28136330756567.j
g" /></div>
1405567570204 1395802358422 {{c1::Panc eas divisum}} is a congenital GI diso
de that involves <b>failu e of the vent al and do sal
anc eatic buds to fuse
at 8 weeks</b>.
1405567605170 1395802358422 Which emb yological tissue laye gives ise to t
he s
leen?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mesode m}}</div> <b /><div><i>The s
leen
a ises in the mesenta y of the stomach but <b>it is su

lied by the fo egut</b>
&nbs
;(i.e. the <b>celiac a te y</b>).</i></div>
1405568459179 1395802358422 Which
a ts of the duodenum a e <b> et o
e itone
al</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::2nd-4th}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-28647431864744.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-28660316766626.j
g" /></div>
1405568732703 1395802358422 Which
a ts of the
anc eas a e <b> et o
e itone
al</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::All
a ts exce
t the tail}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><div><img s c="
aste-28647431864744.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-2866031
6766626.j
g" /></div></div>
1405568756078 1395802358422 Which
a ts of the colon a e <b> et o
e itoneal<
/b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ascending and descending}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><div><img s c="
aste-28647431864744.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-2866031
6766626.j
g" /></div></div>
1405568775293 1395802358422 Which
o tion of the eso
hagus is et o
e itonea
l?<div><b />{{c1::Lowe 2/3}}</div>
<b /><div><div><img s c="
aste-28647431
864744.j
g" /></div><div><img s c="
aste-28660316766626.j
g" /></div></div>
1405568828366 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::falcifo m ligament}} is a GI liga
ment that connects the <b>live to the ante io abdominal wall.</b>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-28870770164375.j
g" /></div>

1405569029658 1395802358422 What st uctu e is contained within the Falcifo m
ligament?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum te es he
atis}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>Which develo
s f om the fetal umbilical vein.</i></div>
1405569069698 1395802358422 The {{c1::he
atoduodenal ligament}} is a GI liga
ment that connects the <b>live to the duodenum</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-28866475197079.j
g" /></div>
1405569095842 1395802358422 What st uctu e is contained within the He
atoduo
denal Ligament?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Po tal T iad}}</div> <b /><div><i>Po
tal vein; P o
e he
atic a te y; Common bile duct.</i></div><div><i><img s c="

aste-28866475197079.j
g" /></i></div>
1405569142852 1395802358422 What st uctu es make u
the
o tal t iad?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::P o
e he
atic a te y; Po tal vein; Common bile duct}}</div
>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-28866475197079.j
g" /></div>
1405569161801 1395802358422 {{c1::P ingle maneuve }} is a su gical maneuve
that involves <b>com
ession of the he
atoduodenal ligament between the thumb an
d index finge to cont ol bleeding</b>. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-2886647519707
9.j
g" /></div>
1405569229890 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::gast ohe
atic ligament}} is a GI
ligament that connects the <b>live to the lesse cu vatu e of the stomach</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-28866475197079.j
g" /></div>
1405569258433 1395802358422 What st uctu e is contained in the Gast ohe
atic
Ligament?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gast ic a te ies}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-28866475197079.j
g" /></div>
1405569284058 1395802358422 Which GI ligament se
a ates the g eate and less
e abdominal sacs?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gast ohe
atic ligament}}</div>
<b /><div><i>It may be cut du ing su ge y to access the lesse sac.</i></div><d
iv><i><img s c="
aste-28866475197079.j
g" /></i></div>
1405569323370 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::Gast ocolic ligament}} is a GI li
gament that connects the <b>g eate cu vatu e of the stomach to the t ansve se c
olon</b>.
1405569351262 1395802358422 What st uctu e is contained in the Gast ocolic L
igament?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gast oe
i
loic a te ies}}</div>
1405569368989 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::gast os
lenic ligament}} is a GI
ligament that connects the <b>g eate cu vatu e of the stomach to the s
leen</b>
.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-28866475197079.j
g" /></div>
1405569398462 1395802358422 What st uctu es a e found in the Gast os
lenic l
igament?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sho t Gast ic vessels; Left Gast oe
i
loic v
essels}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-28866475197079.j
g" /></div>
1405569430873 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::S
leno enal ligament}} is a GI li
gament that connects the <b>s
leen to the ante io su face of the left kidney</b
>, extending to the
oste io abdominal wall. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-28866
475197079.j
g" /></div>
1405569468351 1395802358422 What st uctu es a e found in the S
leno enal lig
ament?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::S
lenic a te y; S
lenic vein; Tail of the
anc
eas}}</div>
1405569494312 1395802358422 In which laye of the GI wall is the <b>Meissne

lexus</b>&nbs
;found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Submucosa}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>i.e. Submucosal
lexus</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-29978871726822.j
g
" /></i></div>
1405569901022 1395802358422 In which laye of the GI wall is the <b>Myente i
c/Aue bach
lexus</b>&nbs
;found?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Muscula is exte na}
}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-29983166694118.j
g" /></div>
1405569926798 1395802358422 Which laye of the GI wall contains the <b>e
ith
elium, lamina
o
ia</b>&nbs
;and <b>muscula is mucosa</b>?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Mucosa}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-29978871726822.j
g" /></div>
1405569993692 1395802358422 Which laye of the GI wall is affected by <b>e o
sions</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mucosa only}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-29978871726822.j
g" /></div>
1405570020993 1395802358422 What is the f equency of basal elect ic hythm a
t the stomach?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::3 waves/min}}</div>

1405570045396 1395802358422 What is the f equency of basal elect ic hythm a
t the duodenum?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::12 waves/min}}</div>
1405570051697 1395802358422 What is the f equency of basal elect ic hythm a
t the ileum?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::8-9 waves/min}}</div>
1405570058908 1395802358422 What histological ty
e of e
ithelium is seen at
the eso
hagus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nonke atinized st atified squamous e
i
thelium}}</div>
1405570101393 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine is associat
ed with <b>B unne glands</b>&nbs
;(in the submucosa)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Duodenum}}</div>
1405570139478 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine is associat
ed with <b>C y
ts of Liebe kuhn</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::All of them (duo
denum, jejunum, ileum)}}</div> <b /><div>:)</div>
1405570153564 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine is associat
ed with <b>
licae ci cula es</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Jejunum; Ileum}}</d
iv>
1405570199211 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine is associat
ed with <b>Peye 's
atches</b>&nbs
;(in the lamina
o
ia and submucosa)?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Ileum}}</div>
1405570229712 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine has the la
gest numbe of goblet cells in the small intestine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::I
leum}}</div>
1405570258538 1395802358422 In which anatomical di ection do <b>a te ies tha
t su

ly the GI t act</b>&nbs
;b anch off the abdominal ao ta?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Ante io ly}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-31336081392355.j
g" /
></div>
1405570411394 1395802358422 In which anatomical di ection to a te ies that <
b>su

ly non-GI t act st uctu es</b>&nbs
;b anch off the abdominal ao ta?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Late ally}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-3133178642505
9.j
g" /></div>
1405570432601 1395802358422 {{c1::Su
e io Mesente ic A te (SMA) Synd ome}}
is a ca diovascula synd ome that occu s when the <b>t ansve se/thi d
o tion o
f the duodenum is ent a

ed between the SMA and ao ta</b>, the eby causing intes
tinal obst uction.
1405570487968 1395802358422 What is the main a te y that su

lies de ivative
s of the fo egut?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac a te y}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i>Includes the <b>
ha ynx and lowe eso
hagus to the
oximal duodenum
</b>.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-31331786425059.j
g" /></div>
1405570511338 1395802358422 What is the main a te y that su

lies de ivative
s of the midgut?<div><b />{{c1::SMA}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Includes <b>
distal duodenum to the
oximal 2/3 of the t ansve se colon.</b></i><b /><div><
img s c="
aste-31331786425059.j
g" /></div>
1405570525909 1395802358422 What is the main a te y that su

lies de ivative
s of the hindgut?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::IMA}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><i>Includes <b>distal 1/3 of the t ansve se colon to the u

e
o tion of the
ectum</b>.</i><div><i>S
lenic flexu e is wate shed egion.<b /></i><div><img s
c="
aste-31331786425059.j
g" /></div></div>
1405570539700 1395802358422 What is the
a asym
athetic inne vation of de iv
atives of the fo egut?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CN X (vagus)}}</div>
1405570562557 1395802358422 What is the
a asym
athetic inne vation of de iv
atives of the midgut?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CN X (vagus)}}</div>
1405570582079 1395802358422 What is the
a asym
athetic inne vation of de iv
atives of the hindgut?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic Ne ve}}</div>
1405570596358 1395802358422 What is the ve teb al level of the celiac t unk?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T12}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-3133178642505
9.j
g" /></div>
1405570629599 1395802358422 What is the ve teb al level of the Su
e io Mese
nte ic A te y (SMA)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::L1}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-31331786425059.j
g" /></div>
1405570646561 1395802358422 What is the ve teb al level of the left enal a

te y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::L1}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-31331
786425059.j
g" /></div>
1405570657129 1395802358422 What is the ve teb al level of the Infe io Mese
nte ic A te y (IMA)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::L3}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-31331786425059.j
g" /></div>
1405570671218 1395802358422 What is the ve teb al level of the bifu cation o
f the abdominal ao ta?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::L4}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Bi
-<b>fou </b>-cation of the abdominal ao ta.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-313
31786425059.j
g" /></i></div>
1405570701879 1395802358422 What a e the 3 main b anches of the celiac t unk
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Common he
atic a te y; S
lenic a te y; Left gast ic
a te y}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>Notice the st ong anastamoses between the le
ft and ight gast ic/gast oe
i
loic a te ies.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-3246
9952758485.j
g" /></div>
1405572858389 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::Common He
atic A te y}},&nbs
;{{c
2::S
lenic A te y}} and&nbs
;{{c3::Left Gast ic a te y}} a e the 3 main b anches
of the celiac t unk. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-32465657791189.j
g" /></div>
1405572931616 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::su
e io e
igast ic a te y}} anas
tamoses with the&nbs
;{{c2::infe io e
igast ic a te y}}.
1405573100149 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::su
e io
anc eaticoduodenal a te
y}} anastamoses with the&nbs
;{{c2::infe io
anc eaticoduodenal a te y}}.
1405573123796 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::middle colic a te y}} anastamoses
with the&nbs
;{{c2::left colic a te y}}.
1405573134859 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::su
e io ectal a te y}} anastamo
ses with the&nbs
;{{c2::middle and infe io a te ies}}.
1405620938992 1395802358422 {{c1::Eso
hageal va ices}} is a clinical manifes
tation of
o tal HTN at the eso
hagus due to
o tosystemic anastomoses between t
he <b>left gast ic vein</b>&nbs
;and the <b>eso
hageal veins</b>.
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-962072675088.j
g" /></div>
1405621064989 1395802358422 {{c1::Ca
ut medusae}} a e a featu e of
o tal HT
N that
esents at the umbilicus due to the
o tosystemic anastamoses between th
e <b>
a aumbilical vein</b>&nbs
;and the <b>small e
igast ic veins of the ante i
o abdominal wall</b>. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-957777707792.j
g" /></div>
1405621314812 1395802358422 {{c1::Ano ectal va ices}} a e a featu e of
o ta
l HTN that
esents at the ectum due to
o tosystemic anastomoses between the <
b>su
e io ectal vein</b>&nbs
;and the <b>middle/infe io ectal veins</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-957777707792.j
g" /></div>
1405621474819 1395802358422 {{c1::T ansjugula Int ahe
atic Po tosystemic Sh
unt (TIPS)}} is a su gically
laces shunt that is used to t eat
o tal HTN as it
shunts blood flow <b>f om the
o tal vein to the he
atic vein</b>.
<b /><d
iv><i>i.e. it di ectly shunts the
o tal system into systemic ci culation</i></d
iv><div><i><img s c="
aste-957777707792.j
g" /></i></div>
1405621568341 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::
ectinate/dentate line}} is an an
atomical landma k at the ectum that fo ms <b>whe e the endode m</b>&nbs
;(i.e.
hidgut) <b>meets the invaginating ectode m</b>. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-14688
78815729.j
g" /></div>
1405621629761 1395802358422 {{c1::Inte nal hemo hoids}} a e a ty
e of hemo
hoids found <b>above the
ectinate line</b>&nbs
;that a e <b>not
ainful</b>&nb
s
;as they eceive visce al inne vation.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-14645
83848433.j
g" /></div>
1405621886357 1395802358422 Which ty
e of hemo hoids a e found <b>above the

ectinate line</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inte nal hemo hoids}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1464583848433.j
g" /></div>
1405621903659 1395802358422 Which ty
e of hemo hoids a e <b>not
ainful</b>
&nbs
;as they eceive visce al inne vation f om <b>above the
ectinate line</b>?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inte nal hemo hoids}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-1464583848433.j
g" /></div>
1405621937279 1395802358422 Which a te y su

lies the ectum <b>above the
e
ctinate line</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su
e io Rectal a te y (f om the IM
A)}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1464583848433.j
g" /></div>

1405621977089 1395802358422 What is the venous d ainage of the ectum <b>abo
ve the
ectinate line</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su
e io ectal vein to In
fe io Mesente ic Vein to Po tal System}}</div>
1405622011279 1395802358422 What is the lym
hatic d ainage of the ectum <b>
above the
ectinate line</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inte nal iliac nodes}}<
/div>
1405622029720 1395802358422 {{c1::Exte nal hemo hoids}} a e a ty
e of hemo
hoids that a e found <b>below the
ectinate line</b>&nbs
;and a e <b>
ainful</b
>&nbs
;as they eceive <b>somatic inne vation</b>&nbs
;f om the infe io ectal
b anch of the
udendal ne ve. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-1464583848433.j
g" />
</div>
1405622078487 1395802358422 Which ty
e of hemo hoids a e found <b>below the

ectinate line</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Exte nal hemo hoids}}</div>
1405622105412 1395802358422 Which ty
e of hemo oids a e <b>
ainful</b>&nbs

;as they eceive <b>somatic inne vation</b>&nbs
;f om the <b>infe io ectal b a
nch of the
udendal ne ve</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Exte nal hemo hoids}}
</div>
1405622133488 1395802358422 What a te y su

lies the ectum <b>below the
ec
tinate line</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Infe io Rectal A te y f om the Inte
nal Pudendal A te y}}</div>
1405622165494 1395802358422 What is the venous d ainage of the ectum <b>bel
ow the
ectinate line</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Infe io ectal vein to In
te nal
udendal vein to Inte nal iliac vein to the IVC}}</div>
1405622205409 1395802358422 Which somatic ne ve inne vates the <b>exte nal h
emo hoids</b>&nbs
;found <b>below the
ectinate line</b>?<div><b /></div><div>
{{c1::Infe io Rectal B anch of the Pudendal Ne ve}}</div>
1405622243987 1395802358422 What is the lym
hatic d ainage of the ectum <b>
below the
ectinate line</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Su
e ficial Inguinal No
des}}</div>
1405622264490 1395802358422 {{c1::Anal Fissu e}} is a GI diso de desc ibed
as a <b>tea in the anal mucosa below the
ectinate line</b>. <div><b /></div
><i>P esents with <b>
ain while
oo
ing, blood on the toilet
a
e </b>.</i><div>
<i>Ty
ically located <b>
oste io ly</b>&nbs
;due to <b>
oo
e fusion</b>&nbs
;i
n that a ea.<b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-1464583848433.j
g" /></div></div>
1405622325895 1395802358422 Which su face of he
atocytes faces the bile cana
liculi?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A
ical su face}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-2680059593271.j
g" /></div>
1405623565819 1395802358422 Which zone of the live is affected 1st by vi al
he
atitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 1/Pe i
o tal Zone}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-2675764625975.j
g" /></div>
1405623604926 1395802358422 Which zone of the live is affected fi st by ing
ested toxins?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 1/Pe i
o tal Zone}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-2675764625975.j
g" /></div>
1405623624360 1395802358422 Which zone of the live is affected fi st by <b>
ischemia</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Cent ilobula Zone}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-2675764625975.j
g" /></div>
1405623678152 1395802358422 Which zone of the live contains the cytoch ome
P450 system?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Cent ilobula Zone}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-2675764625975.j
g" /></div>
1405623698320 1395802358422 Which zone of the live is most sensitive to met
abolic toxins?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Cent ilobula Zone}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-2675764625975.j
g" /></div>
1405623735692 1395802358422 Which zone of the live is the site of alcoholic
he
atitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Cent ilobula Zone}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-2675764625975.j
g" /></div>
1405623762956 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::Am
ulla of Vate }} is the common
o
ening of the common bile duct and main
anc eatic duct into the duodenum.
<b /><div><i>Obst uction he e can block both
anc eatic and bilia y function.</
i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-3148211028581.j
g" /></i></div>
1405624047603 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::S
hincte of Oddi}} is the s
hinc

te that su ounds the common bile duct.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-31439
16061285.j
g" /></div>
1405624096295 1395802358422 What a e the contents of the <b>Femo al T iangle
</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Femo al ne ve, a te y and vein (f om late al th
e medial)}}</div>
<div><b /></div><img s c="
aste-3470333575239.j
g" /><b
/><div><img s c="
aste-3371549327974.j
g" /></div>
1405624556600 1395802358422 What a e the contents of the <b>femo al sheath</
b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Femo al a te y; Femo al vein; Dee
Inguinal Lym
h
Nodes}}</div> <b /><div><i>Note, it <b>does not</b>&nbs
;include the femo al
ne ve.</i></div><div><i><div><img s c="
aste-3371549327974.j
g" /></div></i></di
v>
1405624610504 1395802358422 The&nbs
;{{c1::femo al sheath}} is a fascial tub
e found 3-4 cm below the inguinal ligament that contains the femo al vein, a te
y and dee
inguinal lym
h nodes.
<b /><div><b /></div><div><img s c="
a
ste-3470333575239.j
g" /><b /><div><img s c="
aste-3371549327974.j
g" /></div><
/div>
1405624653846 1395802358422 What a e the contents of the S
e matic Co d?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Exte nal s
e matic fascia; C emaste ic muscle and fascia
; Inte nal s
e matic fascia}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-3685081940611
.j
g" /></div>
1405624731408 1395802358422 Which abdominal muscle gives ise to the exte na
l s
e matic fascia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Exte nal oblique}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-3680786973315.j
g" /></div>
1405624746962 1395802358422 Which abdominal muscle gives ise to the c emast
e ic muscle and fascia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inte nal oblique}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-3680786973315.j
g" /></div>
1405624764206 1395802358422 Which abdominal fascia gives ise to the inte na
l s
e matic fascia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::T ansve salis fascia}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-3680786973315.j
g" /></div>
1405624789382 1395802358422 What is the site of
ot ustion in an <b>Indi ec
t Inguinal He nia</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inte nal Inguinal Ring}}</div>
<b /><div><i><b><u>I</u></b>ndi ect = <b><u>I</u></b>nte nal</i></div><div><i><
img s c="
aste-3680786973315.j
g" /></i></div>
1405624864376 1395802358422 What is the site of
ot usion in a <b>Di ect In
guinal He nia</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Abdominal Wall}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-3680786973315.j
g" /></div>
1405626669368 1395802358422 An {{c1::dia
h agmatic he nia}} is a ty
e of he
nia that involves
ot usion of <b>abdominal st uctu es into the tho ax</b>&nbs

;th ough the dia
h agm. <b /><div><i>Occu s in infants as a esult of defective
develo
ment of the
leu o
e itoneal memb ane.</i></div>
1405627288168 1395802358422 What is the most common ty
e of dia
h agmatic he
nia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hiatal He nia}}</div>
1405627307900 1395802358422 {{c1::Hiatal He nia}} is a ty
e of dia
h agmatic
he nia whe e the <b>stomach he niates u
wa d th ough the eso
hageal hiatus</b>&
nbs
;of the dia
h agm.
1405627355552 1395802358422 What is the most common ty
e of Hiatal He nia?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sliding Hiatal he nia}}</div>
1405627788927 1395802358422 {{c1::Sliding Hiatal He nia}} is a ty
e of Hiata
l he nia that involves <b>su
e io dis
lacement of the gast oeso
hageal junction
</b>, the eby yielding an "<b>hou glass stomach</b>."
1405627835481 1395802358422 {{c1::Pa aeso
hageal He nia}} is a ty
e of dia
h
agmatic he nia that involves <b>
ot ustion of the fundus of the stomach into t
he tho ax</b>&nbs
;with <u>
ese vation of the gast oeso
hageal junction</u>.
1405627885148 1395802358422 Which ty
e of inguinal he nia involves
ot usio
n of the bowel <b>th ough the inte nal inguinal ing, exte nal inguinal ing and
into the sc otum</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Indi ect Inguinal he nia}}</di
v>
1405628101362 1395802358422 {{c1::Indi ect Inguinal he nia}} is a ty
e of in
guinal he nia that involves
ot ustion of tissue <b>th ough the inte nal inguin
al ing, exte nal inguinal ing and into the sc otum</b>.
<b /><div><img

s c="
aste-4969277161873.j
g" /></div>
1405628138791 1395802358422 Which ty
e of inguinal he nia he niates <b>late
al</b>&nbs
;to the infe io e
igast ic a te y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Indi e
ct}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-4964982194577.j
g" /></div><div><img
s c="
aste-6627134537923.j
g" /></div>
1405628330292 1395802358422 Which ty
e of inguinal he nia he niates <b>media
l</b>&nbs
;to the Infe io E
igast ic A te y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Di ect
inguinal he nia}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-4964982194577.j
g" /></div><d
iv><img s c="
aste-6622839570627.j
g" /></div>
1405628356042 1395802358422 Which ty
e of inguinal he nia is associated with
<b>failu e of the
ocessus vaginalis to close</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
Indi ect inguinal he nia}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Can also esult in hyd oce
le.</i></div><div><i>The
ath of an indi ect inguinal he nia follows the
ath of
descent of testes and it is cove ed by all 3 laye s of the s
e matic fascia.</i
></div>
1405628647449 1395802358422 Which sex is mo e commonly affected by <b>Indi e
ct </b>Inguinal He nia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
1405628673305 1395802358422 Which ty
e of inguinal he nia
ot udes th ough
the <b>inguinal (Hasselbach's) t iangle?</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div>{{c1::D
i ect inguinal he nia}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-4964982194577.j
g" />
</div>
1405629207039 1395802358422 Which ty
e of inguinal he nia involves he niatio
n th ough the <b>exte nal (su
e ficial) inguinal ing only</b>?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Di ect inguinal he nia}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-49649
82194577.j
g" /></div>
1405629272514 1395802358422 Which ty
e of inguinal he nia is ty
ically seen
in olde men?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Di ect}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-4964982194577.j
g" /></div>
1405629287694 1395802358422 Which sex is mo e commonly affected by Femo al H
e nias?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Females}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-4964982194577.j
g" /></div>
1405629882717 1395802358422 {{c1::Femo al he nia}} is a ty
e of gast ointest
inal he nia that
ot udes <b>below the inguinal ligament th ough the femo al ca
nal</b>&nbs
;and <b>below/late al to the
ubic tube cle</b>.
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-4964982194577.j
g" /></div>
1405629925596 1395802358422 What is the leading cause of bowel inca ce ation
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Femo al he nia}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-4964982194577.j
g" /></div>
1405629935597 1395802358422 What a e the contents of the <b>inguinal (Hassel
bach's) t iangle</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Infe io e
igast ic vessels; La
te al bo de of the ectus abdominus; Inguinal Ligament}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-4964982194577.j
g" /></div>
1405632598871 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI t act sec ete CCK?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::I cells}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-7610682049286
.j
g" /></div>
1405632721675 1395802358422 Whe e in the small intestine a e I-cells found?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum; Jejunum}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-7606387081990.j
g" /></div>
1405632745651 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI t act sec ete Gast in?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::G cells}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-7606387081990
.j
g" /></div>
1405632756689 1395802358422 Whe e in the stomach a e G cells found?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Ant um}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-7606387081990
.j
g" /></div>
1405632770077 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI t act sec ete Glucose-de
e
ndent Insulinot o
ic Pe
tide (GIP)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::K cells}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-7606387081990.j
g" /></div>
1405632797797 1395802358422 Whe e in the small intestine a e K cells found?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum; Jejunum}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-7606387081990.j
g" /></div>

1405632814187 1395802358422 What section of the GI t act sec etes Motilin?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Small intestine}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-7606387081990.j
g" /></div>
1405633167210 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI t act sec ete Sec etin?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::S cells}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-76063
87081990.j
g" /></div>
1405633181366 1395802358422 Whe e in the small intestine a e S cells located
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-76063
87081990.j
g" /></div>
1405633190521 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI t act sec ete Somatostatin
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::D cells}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-76063
87081990.j
g" /></div>
1405633210167 1395802358422 Which a eas of the GI t act sec ete Vasoactive I
ntestinal Poly
e
tide (VIP)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa asym
athetic ganglia
in GI s
hincte s, gallbladde and SI}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-76063
87081990.j
g" /></div>
1405633324647 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI t act sec ete Int insic Fa
cto ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa ietal cells of the stomach}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-7606387081990.j
g" /></div>
1405633350505 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI t act sec ete Gast ic Acid
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa ietal cells of the stomach}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-7606387081990.j
g" /></div>
1405633366497 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI t act sec ete Pe
sin?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Chief cells of the stomach}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-7606387081990.j
g" /></div>
1405633380083 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI t act sec ete HCO<sub>3</s
ub>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mucosal cells of the stomach, duodenum, saliva y
glands and
anc eas}}</div>
1405633416483 1395802358422 Which submucosal glands of the duodenum sec ete
HCO₃?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::B unne glands}}</div>
1405633433902 1395802358422 How does CCK influence
anc eatic sec etion?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is done indi
ectly.</i></div><div><i><b>CCK acts on neu al musca inic
athways to t igge
an
c eatic sec etion</b>.</i></div>
1405633926244 1395802358422 How does CCK influence&nbs
;gallbladde cont act
ion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405633932561 1395802358422 How does CCK influence&nbs
;gast ic em
tying?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405633942954 1395802358422 How does CCK influence&nbs
;s
hincte of Oddi to
ne?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , CCK t ig
ge s gallbladde cont action, so the s
hincte of Oddi must be elaxed at the sa
me time.</i></div>
1405633983503 1395802358422 How does an <b>inc ease</b>&nbs
;in fatty acids
and amino acids influence CCK elease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</di
v>
1405634006773 1395802358422 How does Gast in influence gast ic acid sec etio
n?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405634062475 1395802358422 How does Gast in influence g owth of the gast ic
mucosa?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405634072789 1395802358422 How does Gast in influence gast ic motility?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405634082007 1395802358422 How does a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in stomach
H in
fluence Gast in elease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405634103047 1395802358422 How does an <b>inc ease</b>&nbs
;in stomach
H i
nfluence Gast in sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405634132338 1395802358422 How does stomach distention influence Gast in e
lease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405634143178 1395802358422 How do Gast in levels change in Zollinge -Ellisi
on Synd ome?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405634174789 1395802358422 How do Gast in levels change in ch onic PPI use?

<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>PPI's wo k to dec
ease stomach acid (i.e. inc ease stomach
H).</i></div><div><i>This in tu n t ig
ge s Gast in elease.</i></div>
1405634201844 1395802358422 How does Phenylalanine influence Gast in elease
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405634213294 1395802358422 How does T y
to
han influence Gast in elease?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405634226096 1395802358422 Which GI ho mone is also known as Gast ic Inhibi
to y Pe
tide (GIP)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-de
endent Insulinot o
ic
Pe
tide (GIP)}}</div>
1405634288960 1395802358422 How does&nbs
;Glucose-de
endent Insulinot o
ic P
e
tide (GIP) influence gast ic acid sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ea
se}}</div>
1405634311394 1395802358422 How does&nbs
;Glucose-de
endent Insulinot o
ic P
e
tide (GIP) influence insulin elease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</d
iv>
1405634316693 1395802358422 How does an <b>inc ease</b>&nbs
;in fatty acids,
amino acids and o al glucose influence&nbs
;Glucose-de
endent Insulinot o
ic Pe

tide (GIP) elease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>O al glucose loads a e used mo e a
idly by the body ve sus equivalent IV
doses due to the GIP sec etion it stimulates.</i></div>
1405634390780 1395802358422 {{c1::Motilin}} is a GI ho mone sec eted by the
small intestine that <b>functions to
oduce mig ato y moto com
lexes (MMCs)</b
>.
<b /><div><i>Hence, <b>motilin ece
to agonists a e used to stimulate
intestinal
e istalsis</b>.</i></div>
1405634449679 1395802358422 How do Motilin levels change in the <b>fasting</
b>&nbs
;state?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Th
is is why we tell
atients to <b>not feed thei child en</b>&nbs
;if they ha

en
to swallow something like a coin o ma ble.</i></div><div><i>Fasting state = in
c eased motilin = inc eased f equency of MMCs = whateve was ingested will be
o
o
ed out soone .</i></div>
1405634509864 1395802358422 {{c1::E yth omycin}} is a mac olide antibiotic t
hat also acts as a Motilin agonist, the eby stimulating intestinal
e istalsis.
1405635139648 1395802358422 How does Sec etin influence
anc eatic HCO₃&nbs
;sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<i><div>
</div></i><i><b /></i>This is integ al fo duodenal digestion.<div><i>The HCO<s
ub>3</sub>&nbs
;sec etion into the duodenum neut alizes the incoming acidic bile
and allows
anc eatic enzymes to function.</i></div>
1405635161215 1395802358422 How does Sec etin influence bile sec etion?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405635168567 1395802358422 How does Sec etin influence gast ic acid sec eti
on?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405635183257 1395802358422 How does a dec ease in duodenal
H influence Sec
etin levels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Re
membe , Sec etin induces
anc eatic HCO₃&nbs
;sec etion.</i></div>
1405635631032 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence gast ic acid and

e
sinogen sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405635656154 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence
anc eatic sec e
tion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405635665033 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence small intestine
sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405635673104 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence gallbladde cont
action?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405635683572 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence insulin and gluc
agon elease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405635803442 1395802358422 How does a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in gast ic
H in
fluence Somatostatin elease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Remembe , Somatostatin dec eases gast ic acid sec etion.</i></div>
1405635837426 1395802358422 How does vagal stimulation influence Somatostati
n elease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><i>Remembe ,

the PSNS gene ally <b>inc eases</b>&nbs
;GI sec etion. Somatostatin howeve wo k
s to gene ally <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;GI sec etion. Hence, the PSNS <b>inhibits so
matostatin elease</b>.</i></div>
1405635895477 1395802358422 How does Nit ic Oxide influence Lowe Eso
hageal
S
hincte (LES) tone?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>NO
etty much causes smooth muscle elaxation eve ywhe e. LES included.</
i></div>
1405636029560 1395802358422 {{c1::Achalasia}} is a GI diso de that involves
an <b>inc ease in lowe eso
hageal s
hincte (LES) esting tone</b>&nbs
;due to
<b>loss of NO sec etion</b>.
1405636065728 1395802358422 How does Vasoactive Intestinal Poly
e
tide (VIP)
influence intestinal wate and elect olyte sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Inc ease}}</div>
1405636107010 1395802358422 How does Vasoactive Intestinal Poly
e
tide (VIP)
influence elaxation of intestinal smooth muscle and s
hincte s?<div><b /></di
v><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1405636145891 1395802358422 {{c1::VIPoma}} is a <b>non-al
ha, non-beta </b>i
slet cell
anc eatic tumou &nbs
;that <b>sec etes VIP</b>, the eby causing co
io
us <b>wate y dia hea, hy
okalemia and achlo hyd ia.</b>
<b /><div><b><i
>WDHA Synd ome:</i></b></div><div><i>- <b>W</b>ate y <b>D</b>ia hea</i></div><d
iv><i>- <b>H</b>y
okalemia</i></div><div><i>- <b>A</b>chlo hyd ia</i></div>
1405636267369 1395802358422 {{c1::Int insic Facto }} is a
otein sec eted b
y
a ietal cells of the stomach that <b>binds to vitamin B12</b>&nbs
;in o de f
o it to be abso bed in the te minal ileum.
1405636307521 1395802358422 Whe e in the GI t act is vitamin B12 abso bed?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Te minal ileum}}</div>
1405636340567 1395802358422 How does Histamine influence gast ic acid sec et
ion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-11918534246988.j
g" /></div>
1405636375184 1395802358422 How does ACh influence gast ic acid sec etion?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-11914
239279692.j
g" /></div>
1405636390786 1395802358422 How does Gast in influence gast ic acid sec etio
n??<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-11914
239279692.j
g" /></div>
1405636402999 1395802358422 How does GIP influence gast ic acid sec etion?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405636438775 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence gast ic acid sec
etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1405636451474 1395802358422 How do
ostaglandins influence gast ic acid sec
etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is wh
y ch onic NSAID use can esult in gast ic ulce s due to inc eased gast ic acid s
ec etion.</i></div>
1405636488649 1395802358422 How does Sec etin influence gast ic acid sec eti
on??<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><b /></div>
1405636518630 1395802358422 {{c1::Gast inoma}} is a gast in-sec eting tumou
that yields high levels of acid sec etion and ulce s ef acto y to medical the
a
y.
1405636569029 1395802358422 How does a <b>dec ease</b>&nbs
;in
H influence
<b /><div><i>Pe

e
sin activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>

sin is activated by gast ic acid via conve sion f om
e
sinogen.</i></div>
1405636616266 1395802358422 {{c1::Gast in- eleasing
e
tide (GRP)}} is a
a
asym
athetic t ansmitte that t igge s elease of Gast in f om G cells. <b /><d
iv><i>It is <b>unaffected by At o
ine which blocks ACh action.</b></i></div><div
><i><b><img s c="
aste-11914239279692.j
g" /></b></i></div>
1405636695260 1395802358422 {{c1::Gast in}} is a GI ho mone sec eted f om G
cells that t igge s Histamine elease f om Ente och omaffin-like (ECL) cells in
o de to inc ease gast ic acid sec etion.
<div><b /></div><i>Hence, <b>Ga
st in has both di ect and indi ect effects on
a ietal cells to gove n gast ic a
cid elease</b>.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-11914239279692.j
g" /></div>

1405636927071 1395802358422 Which ece
to does ACh bind to at
a ietal cell
s to t igge gast ic acid sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::M₃}}<
/div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-13056700580485.j
g" /></div>
1405637625859 1395802358422 Which ece
to does Gast in bind to at
a ietal
cells to t igge gast ic acid sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::CCK<sub>B</s
ub>}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13052405613189.j
g" /></div>
1405637645685 1395802358422 Which ece
to does Histamine bind to on
a ieta
l cells in o de to t igge gast ic acid sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::H
₂}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13052405613189.j
g" /></div>
1405637666661 1395802358422 Which int acellula signalling cascade is associ
ated with ACh (M₃) and Gast in (CCK_B) action at
a ietal c
ells?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_q&nbs
;--&gt; IP₃/DAG -&gt; inc eased Ca}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13052405613189.j
g" /
></div>
1405637751823 1395802358422 Which int acellula signalling cascade is associ
ated with Histamine (H₂) action at
a ietal cells?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::G_s&nbs
;--&gt; cAMP --&gt; gast ic acid sec etion}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-13052405613189.j
g" /></div>
1405638636482 1395802358422 Which
anc eatic enzyme functions in sta ch dige
stion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::al
ha-amylase}}</div> <b /><div><i>Sec eted i
n its active fo m.</i></div>
1405638719216 1395802358422 {{c1::Li
ase}},&nbs
;{{c2::
hos
holi
ase A}} and
&nbs
;{{c3::coli
ase}} a e
anc eatic enzymes that function in fat digestion.
1405638745450 1395802358422 {{c1::T y
sin}},&nbs
;{{c2::chymot y
sin}},&nbs

;{{c3::elastase}} and&nbs
;{{c4::ca boxy
e
tidase}} a e 4
anc eatic enzymes tha
t function in <b>
otein digestion</b>&nbs
;and a e sec eted as
oenzymes in zy
mogen fo m.
1405638803329 1395802358422 {{c1::T y
sinogen}} is a
anc eatic enzyme that
functions to conve t <b>
oenzyme/zymogens f om the
anc eas</b>&nbs
;in its act
ive fo m.
<b /><div><i>T y
sin is its active fo m.</i></div>
1405638862605 1395802358422 {{c1::Ente kinase/Ente o
e
tidase}} is a b ush-b
o de enzyme on the duodenal and jejunal mucosa that functions to conve t T y
si
nogen into T y
sin.
1405638891173 1395802358422 Which enzyme on the b ush bo de of the duodenum
and jejunum functions to conve t t y
sinogen into t y
sin?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Ente okinase/Ente o
e
tidase}}</div>
1405638914313 1395802358422 Which monosaccha ide t ans
o te u
takes glucose
and galactose at the ente ocyte b ush bo de ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::SGLUT1
(with Na)}}</div>
1405639641453 1395802358422 Which monosaccha ide t ans
o te u
takes f uctos
e at the ente ocyte b ush bo de via facilitated diffusion?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::GLUT-5}}</div>
1405639668103 1395802358422 Which monosaccha ide t ans
o te <b>t ans
o ts a
ll monosaccha ides ac oss the basolate al memb ane</b>&nbs
;of ente ocytes into
the blood?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2}}</div>
1405639695188 1395802358422 Whe e in the GI t act is i on abso bed?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum as Fe<su
>2+</su
>}}</div>
1405639737857 1395802358422 Whe e in the GI t act is folate abso bed?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Jejunum; Ileum}}</div>
1405639751146 1395802358422 Whe e in the GI t act is Vitamin B12 abso bed?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Te minal ileum}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Requi es i
nt insic facto .</i></div>
1405639772272 1395802358422 Whe e in the GI t act a e bile acids abso bed?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Te minal ileum}}</div>
1405639783509 1395802358422 {{c1::Peye 's
atches}} a e <b>unenca
sulated</b
>&nbs
;lym
hoid tissue found in the lamina
o
ia and submucosa of the<div>ileu
m.</div><div><b /></div><div><img s c="
aste-14396730376506.j
g" /></div>
1405639892498 1395802358422 {{c1::M cells}} a e a s
ecialized cell found in

eye
atches that <b>sam
le</b>&nbs
;and <b>
esent antigens</b>&nbs
;to immune
cells.

1405639929817 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin isoty
e is t ans
o ted ac o
ss the e
ithelium into the gut f om Peye
atches in the lamina
o
ia to deal
with <b>int aluminal antigens?</b><div><b><b /></b></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
<b /><div><i>i.e. sec eto y IgA</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-15045270438102
.j
g" /></i></div>
1405640417990 1395802358422 Which enzyme catalyzes the ate-limiting ste
of
bile synthesis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::7-al
ha hyd oxylase}}</div>
1405640538740 1395802358422 To which com
ound is bili ubin conjugated?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Glucu onate}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-15131
169784371.j
g" /></div>
1405640617654 1395802358422 Which ty
e of bili ubin is <b>conjugated with gl
ucu onate</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Di ect}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-15126874817075.j
g" /></div>
1405640641932 1395802358422 Which ty
e of bili ubin is <b>wate soluble</b>?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Di ect bili ubin}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-15126874817075.j
g" /></div>
1405640654605 1395802358422 Which ty
e of bili ubin is <b>unconjugated</b>?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Indi ect}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-15126
874817075.j
g" /></div>
1405640665134 1395802358422 Which ty
e of bili ubin is <b>not wate soluble<
/b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Indi ect}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-15126874817075.j
g" /></div>
1405640678977 1395802358422 To which
lasma
otein does <b>unconjugated/ind
i ect</b>&nbs
;bili ubin bind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Albumin}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-15126874817075.j
g" /></div>
1405640704703 1395802358422 Which he
atic enzyme functions to conjugate bili
ubin with glucu onate?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::UDP-glucu onyl t ansfe ase}}<
/div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-15126874817075.j
g" /></div>
1405640731401 1395802358422 Which metabolite of U obilinogen gives feces its
b own colou ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ste cobilin}}</div> <b /><div><img
s c="
aste-15126874817075.j
g" /></div>
1405640767115 1395802358422 Which metabolite of U obilinogen gives u ine its
yellow colou ?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::U obilin}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-15126874817075.j
g" /></div>
1405640782457 1395802358422 Whe e is U obilinogen made?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::In the gut by no mal flo a}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-15126
874817075.j
g" /></div>
1379539830538 1358629116480 E
ine
h ine is an ad ene gic with a ece
to aff
inity of&nbs
;{{c1::b1=b2=b3 &gt;&gt; a1=a2}}
1379541123732 1358629116480 {{c1::E
ine
h ine}} is the ad ene gic of choice
to t eat ana
hylaxis and angioedema.
1379541217698 1358629116480 {{c1::Dobutamine}} and {{c2::Do
amine}} a e the
ad ene gics/sym
athomimetics of choice to t eat ca diogenic shock.
1379541384454 1358629116480 {{c1::No e
ine
h ine}} and&nbs
;{{c2::
henyle
h
ine}} a e the ad ene gics of choice to t eat vasodilato y shock.
<b /><d
iv><i>Neu ogenic, se
tic, etc shock</i></div>
1379541448677 1358629116480 {{c1::E
ine
h ine}} is the ad ene gic of choice
to t eat ana
hylactic shock.
1379541481648 1358629116480 {{c1::E
ine
h ine}} is the ad ene gic used du in
g ca dio
ulmona y esuscitation (CPR)
1379541500977 1358629116480 {{c1::Iso
ote enol}} is the ad ene gic of choic
e to t eat to sade de
ointes.
1379541559411 1358629116480 {{c1::Clonidine}} and Methyldo
a a e the ad ene
gics used to t eat hy
e tension th ough the activation of cent al a2 ece
to s.
1379541591233 1358629116480 {{c1::E
ine
h ine}} and&nbs
;{{c1::no e
ine
h in
e}} a e the ad ene gics involved with local anaesthesia and the t igge ing of lo
cal vasoconst iction.
1379541644648 1358629116480 {{c1::Phenyle
h ine}} is the ad ene gic used to
t eat nasal congestion and bleeding.
1379541757663 1358629116480 {{c1::E
ine
h ine}} and&nbs
;{{c1::selective b2}

} agonists a e ad ene gics used to t eat asthma and COPD.
1379541803547 1358629116480 {{c1::E
ine
h ine}} and&nbs
;{{c2::A
aclonidine
}} a e ad ene gics used to t eat o
en angle glaucoma.
1379541831196 1358629116480 {{c1::Clonidine}} is an ad ene gic used to t eat
tobacco, alcohol o o
ioid withd awal.
1379541863787 1358629116480 No e
ine
h ine is an a-b agonist with a ece
to
affinity of&nbs
;{{c1::a1 &gt; a2 &gt; b1}}.
1379542145050 1358629116480 Phenyle
h ine is a(n) {{c1::a1}} selective ad en
e gic agonist.
1379542198636 1358629116480 Clonidine is a(n)&nbs
;{{c1::a2}} selective ad e
ne gic agonist. <b /><div><i>Remembe , Clonidine activates a2 auto ece
to s and
a2 cent al ece
to s to dec ease cent al ad ene gic tone.</i></div>
1379542257520 1358629116480 A
aclonidine is a(n)&nbs
;{{c1::a2}} selective
ad ene gic agonist. It is administe ed o
hthalmically.
1379542307767 1358629116480 Iso
ote enol is a(n)&nbs
;{{c1::b1, b2, b3}} ad
ene gic agonist.
1379542340464 1358629116480 Dobutamine is a(n)&nbs
;{{c1::b1}} selective ad
ene gic agonist.
1379542355899 1358629116480 Albute ol is a(n)&nbs
;{{c1::b2}} selective ad e
ne gic agonist.
1379542374732 1358629116480 Salmete ol is a(n)&nbs
;{{c2::b2}} selective ad
ene gic agonist.
1379542429922 1358629116480 {{c1::Methyldo
a}} is conve ted to methylno e
in
e
h ine in ad ene gic neu ons. It then activates cent al {{c2::a2}} ece
to s to
dec ease cent al ad ene gic tone.
1379542523150 1358629116480 {{c1::Ty amine}} is conve ted to Octo
amine in a
d ene gic neu ons. It is then sto ed in vesicles and eleased in
lace of NE.
1379542561813 1358629116480 {{c1::Cocaine}} is a mixed-acting ad ene gic tha
t blocks the eu
take of catecholamines in the CNS and PNS.
1379542597439 1358629116480 {{c1::Am
hetamines}} is a mixed-acting ad ene gi
c that stimulates the elease of monoamine NTs (NE, D, 5-HT) f om thei sto age
vesicles. It also blocks catecholamine eu
take.
1379558429103 1358629116480 {{c2::Phenoxybenzamine}} is an i eve sible nonselective al
ha ad ene gic blocke with an affinity of a1 &gt; a2.
1379558572762 1358629116480 P azosin is a selective&nbs
;{{c1::a1}} ad ene g
ic blocke .
1379558601635 1358629116480 Doxazosin is a selective&nbs
;{{c1::a1}} ad ene
gic blocke .
1379558615718 1358629116480 Tamsulosin is a selective&nbs
;{{c1::a1}} ad ene
gic blocke .
1379558629853 1358629116480 P o
anolol is a non-selective&nbs
;{{c1::beta}}
ad ene gic blocke . It has a local anaesthetic effect.
1379558648135 1358629116480 Pindolol is a nonselective&nbs
;{{c1::beta}} ad
ene gic blocke . It has a local anaesthetic effect.
1379558695127 1358629116480 Timolol is a non-selective&nbs
;{{c1::beta}} ad
ene gic blocke that is commonly used fo o
en angle glaucoma.
1379558728817 1358629116480 Sotalol is a nonselective&nbs
;{{c1::beta}} ad e
ne gic blocke .
1379558754697 1358629116480 Atenolol is a selective&nbs
;{{c1::b1}} ad ene g
ic blocke .
1379558782272 1358629116480 Meto
olol is a selective&nbs
;{{c1::b1}} ad ene
gic blocke .
1379558802870 1358629116480 Esmolol is a selective&nbs
;{{c1::b1}} ad ene gi
c blocke . It is only administe ed
a ente ally.
1379558852507 1358629116480 {{c1::Labetalol}} is an al
ha-beta ad ene gic bl
ocke that has al
ha-antagonist and
a tial beta-agonist function. It is also a
local anaesthetic.
1379558913105 1358629116480 Ca vidilol is a(n)&nbs
;{{c1::a1-beta}} ad ene g
ic blocke .
1379558952458 1358629116480 {{c2::Mety osine}} is an indi ect acting antiad

ene gic that inhibits&nbs
;{{c1::Ty osine Hyd oxylase}}, the ate limiting enzym
e in catecholamine biosynthesis.
1379559008875 1358629116480 {{c1::Phenoxybenzamine}} is an al
ha-ad ene gic
blocke
ima ily used to t eat Pheoch omocytoma as a
e-o
e ative
e
a ation
o when the tumou is metastatic/ino
e able.
1379559702644 1358629116480 Selective a1-ad ene gic blocke s a e
ima ily u
sed to t eat&nbs
;{{c1::HTN}} and&nbs
;{{c2::u ina y incontinence in BPH.}}
<b /><div><i>Remembe , selective a1-ad ene gic blocke s end in -osin</i></div><
div><i>e.g. P azosin, t azosin, &nbs
;doxazosin, &nbs
;tamsulosin</i></div>
1379559801375 1358629116480 Phenoxybenzamine toxicity involves&nbs
;{{c1::o
thostatic hy
otension}} and&nbs
;{{c2:: eflex tachyca dia}}.
1379559878331 1358629116480 Selective a1-blocke s have a toxicity of&nbs
;{{
c1::1st dose o thostatic hy
otension}}.
1379559903975 1358629116480 Timolol is a non-selective beta-blocke
ima il
y used to t eat&nbs
;{{c1::o
en angle glaucoma}}.
1379559964204 1358629116480 {{c1::Meto
olol}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Esmolol}} a e
selective b1-blocke s used to t eat Su
avent icula Tachyca dia (SVT).
1379627871132 1358629116480 {{c1::Bethanechol}} is a di ect musca inic agoni
st used to t eat
osto
e ative nonobst uctive ileus, neu ogenic ileus and u ina
y etention.
<b /><i>Bethanechol = bowels and bladde </i>
1379627972507 1358629116480 {{c1::Piloca
ine}} is a di ect musca inic agoni
st used to t eat o
en angle glaucoma and xe ostomia as it stimulates sweating, t
ea ing and salivation. <b ><div><i style="font-weight: bold; ">Pilo</i><i>ca
i
ne lets you c y, d ool and sweat onto you <b>
illo</b>w</i></div>
1379628145233 1358629116480 {{c1::Mycetism}} is
oisoning due to mush ooms t
hat contain musca ine. Sym
toms a

ea within 30 minutes: salivation, lac imatio
n, b onchos
asm, b adyca dia, t emo s, coma.
1379628340573 1358629116480 {{c1::Ed o
honium}} is a cholineste ase inhibito
clinically used to diagnose myasthenia g avis.
1379628521535 1358629116480 {{c1::Neostigmine}} is used to t eat myasthenia
g avis,
osto
e ative nonobst uctive ileus, u ina y etention and
osto
e ative
NMJ blockade
1379628647497 1358629116480 {{c1::Neostigmine}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Bethanechol}}
can be used to t eat neu ogenic bladde .
1379628861500 1358629116480 {{c1::Done
ezil}} is a cholineste ase inhibito
that is selective fo ChE's in the b ain. As such, it is used to t eat Alzheime
's Disease.
1379628918981 1358629116480 {{c1::O gano
hos
hate}} a e <b>i eve sible</b>&
nbs
;cholineste ase inhibito s.
1379629129053 1358629116480 {{c2::P alidoxime}} is a cholineste ase eactiva
to used to t eat o gano
hos
hate
oisoning.
1379638625360 1358629116480 At o
ine is ty
ically used in o
hthalmology whe
e it causes&nbs
;{{c1::myd iasis}} and&nbs
;{{c2::cyclo
legia}}.
1379638684720 1358629116480 {{c1::Sco
olamine}} is a musca inic blocke used
to t eat motion sickness.
1379638770245 1358629116480 {{c1::Da ifenacin}} is a musca inic blocke used
to t eat ove active bladde (u ge incontinence).
1379638827171 1358629116480 {{c1::Benzot o
ine}} is a musca inic blocke use
d to t eat Pa kinson's Disease. <b /><div><i>Pa k my&nbs
;<b>Benz.</b></i></div
>
1379981560930 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::M2}} ece
to is the majo musca
inic ece
to at the hea t.
1379981594689 1358629116480 The {{c2::M2}} ece
to <b>st ongly</b> dec ease
s conduction and ef acto iness at the&nbs
;{{c1::AV node}}
1379981634633 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ece
to causes v
asodilation.
1379981723221 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ece
to causes s
t ong b onchoconst iction and lung sec etion.
1379981772778 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ece
to causes s
t ong e ection indi ectly via NO.

1379981794571 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ece
to causes a
st ong inc ease in GI motility, a dec ease in s
hincte tone and gallbladde co
nt action.
1379981913792 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ece
to causes <
b>mode ate</b>&nbs
;exoc ine sec etion f om the
anc eas.
1379981953963 1358629116480 The {{c1::M3}} musca inic ece
to causes a st o
ng inc ease in det uso muscle motility and tone.
1379982068167 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ece
to causes s
t ong cont action of the s
incte
u
illae and cilia y muscles.&nbs
;
1379982098869 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ece
to causes a
st ong inc ease in lac imal gland sec etion.
1379982116300 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::M3}} musca inic ece
to causes a
st ong inc ease in sweat gland sec etion.
1379982137526 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::b1}} ad ene gic ece
to is the m
ain ece
to at the hea t.
1379982213560 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::a1}} ad ene gic ece
to is es
o
nsible fo most vasocont iction and smooth muscle cont action.
1379988833840 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ece
to is es
o
nsible fo most vasodilation and b onchodilation.
1379988856732 1358629116480 B onchial muscle elaxation is mediated th ough&
nbs
;{{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ece
to s.
1379988982816 1358629116480 Ejaculation in males is mediated th ough the&nbs

;{{c1::a1}} ad ene gic ece
to .
1379989022198 1358629116480 Relaxation of ute ine muscle in both the
egnan
t and non-
egnant ute uses a e mediated by the&nbs
;{{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ece

to .
1379989068780 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ece
to is the m
ajo mediato of the inc eases in he
atic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
1379989219218 1358629116480 The {{c1::a2}} ad ene gic ece
to st ongly dec
eases insulin sec etion f om the
anc eas.
1379989262187 1358629116480 The {{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ece
to weakly inc ea
ses insulin elease f om the
anc eas.
1379989284393 1358629116480 The&nbs
;{{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ece
to inc ease
s Ca<su
>2+</su
>&nbs
;sequest ation, glycogenolysis and K<su
>+</su
>&nbs
;u
ta
ke at <b>skeletal</b> muscle.
1380063485106 1358629116480 Mast cell deg anulation is inhibited th ough&nbs

;{{c1::b2}} ad ene gic ece
to s.
1380063518711 1358629116480 Platelet agg egation is stimulated by&nbs
;{{c1:
:a2}} ad ene gic ece
to s.
1404332807900 1395802358422 What is the value of K_m&nbs
;in a Mic
haelis-Menten kinetics system?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::[S] at 1/2 V<sub>max</
sub>}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Remembe , K_m&nbs
;is inve sely e
lated to the affinity of the enzyme fo the subst ate. (i.e. K_m&nbs
;
= 1/affinity)</i><div><i>Remembe , V_max&nbs
;is di ectly
o
o tional
to the concent ation of the enzyme.<b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-2808049618148
8.j
g" /></div></div>
1404333476525 1395802358422 {{c1::Lineweave -Bu k
lot}} is a eci
ocal
lo
t of Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetic values.<div><b /></div><div><img s c="
ast
e-28217935134949.j
g" /></div> <b /><div><i>Remembe , K_m&nbs
;is th
e inve se of enzyme affinity (1/affinity).</i></div><div><i>Remembe , V<sub>max<
/sub>&nbs
;is di ectly
o
o tional to the concent ation of the enzyme.</i></div
>
1404333594465 1395802358422 How do<b>&nbs
; eve sible com
etitive inhibito s
</b>&nbs
;change V_max?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<div><b /></div><div><i>Reve sible com
etitive inhibition =&nbs
;<b>inc ease</b
>&nbs
;K_m; unchanged V_max;&nbs
;<b>dec eased</b>&nbs
;
ote
ncy</i></div><img s c="
aste-28561532518663.j
g" /><div><img s c="
aste-28574417
420736.j
g" /></div>
1404334860857 1395802358422 How do <b> eve sible com
etitive inhibito s</b>&
nbs
;change K_m?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <div><b

/></div><i>Reve sible com
etitive inhibition =&nbs
;<b>inc ease</b>&nbs
;K_m; unchanged V_max;&nbs
;<b>dec eased</b>&nbs
;
otency</i><b />
<div><img s c="
aste-28561532518663.j
g" /><div><img s c="
aste-28574417420736.j

g" /></div></div>
1404334889652 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enzyme inhibition is able to be ov
e come by an inc ease in subst ate concent ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Rev
e sible com
etitive inhibition}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>Reve sible com
etiti
ve inhibition =&nbs
;<b>inc ease</b>&nbs
;K_m; unchanged V<sub>max</su
b>;&nbs
;<b>dec eased</b>&nbs
;
otency</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-28561532518
663.j
g" /><div><img s c="
aste-28574417420736.j
g" /></div></div>
1404334917949 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enzyme inhibition causes a <b>dec
ease in
otency</b>&nbs
;of the d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Reve sible com

etitive inhibition}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Reve sible com
etitive inhib
ition = <b>inc ease</b>&nbs
;K_m; unchanged V_max; <b>dec ea
sed</b>&nbs
;
otency</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-28561532518663.j
g" /><div><i
mg s c="
aste-28574417420736.j
g" /></div></div>
1404334988908 1395802358422 How does&nbs
;<b>i eve sible com
etitive inhibi
tion</b>&nbs
;change V_max?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div
>
<div><b /></div><i>I eve sible com
etitive inhibition =&nbs
;<b>dec ea
sed</b>&nbs
;V_max; unchanged K_m;&nbs
;<b>dec eased</b>&nbs

;efficacy</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-28561532518663.j
g" /><div><img s c="
a
ste-28574417420736.j
g" /></div></div>
1404335028881 1395802358422 How does <b>i eve sible com
etitive inhibition<
/b>&nbs
;change K_m?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>I eve sible com
etitive inhibition =&nbs
;<b>dec eased</b>&
nbs
;V_max; unchanged K_m;&nbs
;<b>dec eased</b>&nbs
;effica
cy</i><div><img s c="
aste-28561532518663.j
g" /><div><img s c="
aste-2857441742
0736.j
g" /></div></div>
1404335066834 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enzyme inhibito <b>does not</b>&n
bs
; esemble the subst ate?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Noncom
etitive inhibito }
}</div> <div><b /></div><i>Noncom
etitive inhibition =&nbs
;<b>dec eased</b>&nb
s
;V_max; unchanged K_m;&nbs
;<b>dec eased</b>&nbs
;efficacy
</i><div><i>e.g. alloste ic inhibition</i></div><div><img s c="
aste-28561532518
663.j
g" /><div><img s c="
aste-28574417420736.j
g" /></div></div>
1404335114549 1395802358422 Which ty
e of enzyme inhibition <b>does not</b>&
nbs
;involve binding at the active site?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Noncom
etiti
ve inhibition}}</div> <div><b /></div><i>Noncom
etitive inhibition =&nbs
;<b>
dec eased</b>&nbs
;V_max; unchanged K_m;&nbs
;<b>dec eased</
b>&nbs
;efficacy</i><div><i>e.g. alloste ic inhibition</i></div><div><img s c="

aste-28561532518663.j
g" /><div><img s c="
aste-28574417420736.j
g" /></div></di
v>
1404335148270 1395802358422 How does <b>noncom
etitive inhibition</b>&nbs
;c
hange V_max?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i>Noncom
etitive inhibition =&nbs
;<b>dec eased</b>&nbs
;V<sub>max</su
b>; unchanged K_m;&nbs
;<b>dec eased</b>&nbs
;efficacy</i><div><i>e.g.
alloste ic inhibition</i></div><div><img s c="
aste-28561532518663.j
g" /><div>
<img s c="
aste-28574417420736.j
g" /></div></div>
1404335182462 1395802358422 How does <b>noncom
etitive inhibition </b>change
K_m?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<div><b /></div
><i>Noncom
etitive inhibition = <b>dec eased</b>&nbs
;V_max; unchanged
K_m; <b>dec eased</b>&nbs
;efficacy</i><div><i>e.g. alloste ic inhibi
tion<b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-28561532518663.j
g" /><div><img s c="
aste-28
574417420736.j
g" /></div></div></div>
1404335786517 1395802358422 {{c1::Pha macokinetics}} is a
ha macological su
bfield that ex
lo es the <b>effects of the body on a d ug</b>. <b /><div><i>AD
ME: Abso
tion, Dist ibution, Metabolism, Exc etion</i></div>
1404336407505 1395802358422 {{c1::Pha macodynamics}} is a subfield of
ha ma
cology that ex
lo es the <b>effects of a d ug on the body</b>. <b /><div><i>i.
e. ece
to binding, efficacy,
otency, toxicity, MOA, etc.</i></div>
1404336449213 1395802358422 What is the bioavailability (F) of a d ug admini

ste ed int avenously?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::100%}}</div> <b /><div><i>F<
sub>o al</sub>&nbs
;&lt; 100%; va ies de
ending on incom
lete abso
tion and fi
st-
ass metabolism</i></div>
1404338068244 1395802358422 {{c1::Bioavailability (F)}} is a
ha macokinetic
measu e defined as the f action of administe ed d ug that eaches systemic ci c
ulation unchanged.
1404338105442 1395802358422 {{c1::Volume of Dist ibution (V_d)}} i
s a
ha macokinetic measu e that is defined as the theo etical volume occu
ied b
y the total abso bed d ug amount at the
lasma concent ation. <b /><div><i>He
nce, the V_d&nbs
;of
lasma
otein-bound d ugs can be alte ed by live
and kidney disease (live /kidney disease = dec eased
otein binding = dec eas
ed V_d)</i></div>
1404338469299 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the Volume of Dist ibut
ion (V_d) of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-317784
63023194.j
g" />}}</div>
1404338977373 1395802358422 Which ty
e of d ug is associated with <b>low</b>
&nbs
;volume of dist ibution?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::La ge/cha ged molecules
;
lasma
otein bound d ugs}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-3192019694414
9.j
g" /></div>
1404339014414 1395802358422 To which fluid com
a tment do d ugs with <b>low<
/b>&nbs
;volume of dist ibution s
ead?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Blood (4-8 L)
}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-31920196944149.j
g" /></div>
1404339063295 1395802358422 To which fluid com
a tment do d ugs with <b>medi
um</b>&nbs
;volume of dist ibution s
ead?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::ECF}}</div
>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-31920196944149.j
g" /></div>
1404339087780 1395802358422 To which fluid com
a tment do d ugs with <b>high
</b>&nbs
;volume of dist ibution s
ead?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::All tissue,
including fat}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-31920196944149.j
g" /></div>
1404339111737 1395802358422 Which ty
e of d ug is associated with <b>medium<
/b>&nbs
;volume of dist ibution (V_d)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Smal
l, hyd o
hilic molecules}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-3192019694414
9.j
g" /></div>
1404339137890 1395802358422 Which ty
e of d ug is associated with <b>high</b
>&nbs
;volume of dist ibution (V_d)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Small
li
o
hilic d ugs, es
ecially those bound to tissue
oteins}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-31920196944149.j
g" /></div>
1404339202515 1395802358422 {{c1::Half-life (t1/2)}} is a
ha macokinetic me
asu e that is defined as the time equi ed to educe the amount of a d ug in a b
ody <b>by half</b>&nbs
;via elimination.
<b /><div><i>Stems f om fi st o
de d ug elimination.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-33204392165513.j
g" /></
i></div>
1404339271694 1395802358422 How many half-lives does it take fo a d ug to
each <b>steady state</b>&nbs
;if it is being <b>infused at a constant ate</b>?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::4-5}}</div> <b /><div><i>The ove all time it takes
to each the steady-state concent ation is
ima ily de
endent on t<sub>1/2</sub
>&nbs
;and is inde
endent of dose and dosing f equency.</i></div>
1404339327959 1395802358422 How many half-lives does it take to each <b>90%
of the steady-state level</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::3.3}}</div>
1404339348778 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the half-life of a d ug
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-32688996089953.j
g" />}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Whe e V_d&nbs
;= volume of dist ibution; CL = clea ance<
/i></div>
1404340362563 1395802358422 {{c1::Clea ance (CL)}} is a
ha macokinetic meas
u e that is defined as the <b>volume of
lasma clea ed of a d ug
e unit time</
b>.
1404340395277 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the Clea ance (CL) of a
d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-33238751903844.j
g" />}}</div>
1404340411909 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the Loading dose of a d
ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-33264521707620.j
g" />}}</div>
1404340445940 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the maintenance dose of

a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-33290291511521.j
g" />}}</di
v>
<b /><div><i>In enal/live disease, the <b>maintenance dose dec eases<
/b>&nbs
;but the loading dose is unchanged.</i></div>
1404340544267 1395802358422 What is the equation fo the bioavailability (F)
of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-33809982554188.j
g" />}}<
/div>
1404340626555 1395802358422 {{c1::Ze o-O de Elimination}} is an o de of d
ug elimination that involves a <b>constant ate of elimination</b>&nbs
; ega dle
ss of C.
<div><b /></div><i>Hence C&nbs
;dec eases l
inea ly with time.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-34170759807431.j
g" /></div>
1404343474527 1395802358422 {{c1::Ze o-o de elimination}} is an o de of el
imination that involves elimination of a <b>constant amount of d ug</b>&nbs
;
e
unit time.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-34166464840135.j
g" /></div>
1404343510253 1395802358422 {{c1::Ze o-o de elimination}} is an o de of d
ug elimination that is <b>ca
acity-limited</b>.
1404343541012 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenytoin}},&nbs
;{{c2::Ethanol}} and&nbs

;{{c3::As
i in}} a e th ee d ugs that a e known to exhibit ze o-o de eliminatio
n.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-34166464840135.j
g" /></div>
1404343568539 1395802358422 {{c1::Fi st-o de elimination}} is an o de of d
ug elimination that involves a ate of elimination that is <b>di ectly
o
o ti
onal to the d ug concent ation</b>.
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-3470333575215
6.j
g" /></div>
1404343622571 1395802358422 {{c1::Fi st-o de elimination}} is an o de of e
limination that involves elimination of a <b>constant f action of d ug</b>&nbs
;

e unit time. <div style="font-style: italic; "><i><b /></i></div><i>Hence, C
&nbs
;dec eases ex
onentially with time.</i><div><i>Flow-de
endent e
limination.<b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-34699040784860.j
g" /></div></div>
1404344028791 1395802358422 {{c1::Bica bonate}} is a t eatment fo <b>weak a
cid d ug ove dose</b>&nbs
;that functions by alkalinizing the u ine, the eby t a


ing the weakly acidic d ug.<div><b /></div> <div><b /></div><i>Fo weak aci
d d ugs:</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-35596688949347.j
g" /></div>
1404344650089 1395802358422 {{c1::Ammonium chlo ide}} is a t eatment fo <b>
weak base d ug ove dose</b>&nbs
;and functions by <b>acidifying</b>&nbs
;the u i
ne, the eby t a

ing the weakly basic d ug.
<div><b /></div><i>Fo weakly b
asic d ugs:</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-35759897706601.j
g" /></div>
1404408265963 1395802358422 Which
hase of d ug metabolism yields <b>slightl
y
ola , wate -soluble</b>&nbs
;and <b>active</b>&nbs
;metabolites?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Phase I}}</div> <div><i><b /></i></div><div><i>Involves &nbs
;
eduction, oxidation and hyd olysis of d ugs with cytoch ome P450 enzymes.</i></d
iv>
1404409257639 1395802358422 Which
hase of d ug metabolism is lost fi st in
ge iat ic
atients?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Phase 1}}</div>
1404409501937 1395802358422 Which
hase of d ug metabolism involves conjugat
ion of d ugs into <b>ve y
ola </b>&nbs
;and <b>inactive</b>&nbs
;metabolites?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Phase II}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Glucu onidation, a
cetylation, sulfation.</i></div>
1404409546817 1395802358422 {{c1::Efficacy}} is a
ha macodynamic measu e de
fined as the <b>maximal effect a d ug can
oduce</b>. <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-1434519077352.j
g" /></div>
1404410077779 1395802358422 {{c1::Potency}} is a
ha macodynamic measu e def
ined as the <b>amount of d ug needed fo a given effect</b>.
<div><b /></div
><i>Inc eased
otency = inc eased affinity fo the ece
to .</i><div><i>Potency
is an inde
endent va iable (vs. efficacy).<b /></i><div><img s c="
aste-1477468
750343.j
g" /></div></div>
1404410132265 1395802358422 How does a com
etitive antagonist change the
ot
ency of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec eased; the efo e, cu ve shifts to
the ight}}</div>
<b /><div><i>(i.e. mo e of that d ug is now equ ied to
achieve the desi ed effect)</i></div><div><i>Ove come by inc eased subst ate co
ncent ation.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-1748051689981.j
g" /></i></div>
1404411121856 1395802358422 How does a com
etitive antagonist change efficac

y of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Th
e maximal effect of the d ug is still the same, howeve mo e d ug will be needed
to achieve it.</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-1743756722685.j
g" /></i></div>
1404412018289 1395802358422 How does a <b>noncom
etitive antagonist</b>&nbs

;change the efficacy of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Shits the cu ve down.</i></div><div><i>This makes
e fect sense, b
ah. The antagonist doesn't com
ete with the agonist in o de to block the d ug'
s effect. Hence, the maximal effect that d ug can elicit is significantly educe
d as an inc ease in d ug concent ation cannot ove come the noncom
etitive inhibi
to .</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-1937030251009.j
g" /></i></div>
1404412129590 1395802358422 How does an <b>i eve sible com
etitive antagoni
st</b>&nbs
;change the efficacy of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}
</div> <b /><div><i>i.e. the cu ve shifts downwa ds</i></div><div><i>This is t
he same idea as the noncom
etitive antagonist. Howeve he e, des
ite the antagon
ist com
eting fo the same binding site, the binding is <b>i eve sible</b>. Hen
ce an inc ease in d ug concent ation cannot ove come the antagonist.</i></div><d
iv><i><img s c="
aste-1932735283713.j
g" /></i></div>
1404412343147 1395802358422 How does a <b>
a tial agonist</b>&nbs
;change th
e efficacy of a d ug?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i>The
a tial agonist acts at the same site as the agonist, <b>but wit
h a lowe maximal effect</b>. Hence the ove all d ug effect is educed (i.e. dec
eased efficacy).</i><div><i>Remembe ,
otency is an inde
endent va iable.<b />
</i><div><img s c="
aste-2332167242244.j
g" /></div></div>
1404412714563 1395802358422 What is the equation fo The a
eutic Index?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::<img s c="
aste-3191160701021.j
g" />}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-3234110374059.j
g" /></div>
1404413444375 1395802358422 {{c1::The a
eutic window}} is a
ha macodynamic
measu e of the <b>clinical d ug's effectiveness</b>&nbs
;fo a
atient. <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-3268470112705.j
g" /></div>
1404419935022 1395802358422 Which ty
e of choline gic ece
to s a e found at
all autonomic ganglia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Nicotinic (N_N)}}</
div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-4157528343316.j
g" /></div>
1404421300214 1395802358422 {{c1::Sweat glands}} and the&nbs
;{{c2::ad enal
medulla}} a e 2
a ts of the sym
athetic ne vous system that a e inne vated by <
b>choline gic</b>&nbs
;neu ons. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-4153233376020.j
g" />
</div>
1404421343075 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulinum toxin}} is a toxin f om <i>Clost
idium botulinum</i>&nbs
;that
events the elease of neu ot ansmitte s at all
choline gic te minals. <b /><div><img s c="
aste-12459700126480.j
g" /></div>
1404421380756 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with al
ha-1
ad ene gic ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</div> <div><b
/></div><div><img s c="
aste-4745938862242.j
g" /></div>
1404422968289 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with al
ha-2
ad ene gic ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_i}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-5531917877544.j
g" /></div>
1404422978512 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with beta-1
ad ene gic ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-5527622910248.j
g" /></div>
1404423017554 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with beta-2
ad ene gic ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div> <b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-5527622910248.j
g" /></div>
1404423097307 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with M₂&nbs
;choline gic ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_i}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5527622910248.j
g" /></div>
1404423127644 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with D₁&nbs
;do
amine ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5527622910248.j
g" /></div>
1404423170898 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with D₂&nbs
;do
amine ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_i}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5527622910248.j
g" /></div>

1404423189928 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with H₂&nbs
;histamine ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div
>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5527622910248.j
g" /></div>
1404423222711 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with V₂&nbs
;vaso
essin ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5527622910248.j
g" /></div>
1404423256164 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with M₁&nbs
;choline gic ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-4745938862242.j
g" /></div>
1404423294646 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with M₃&nbs
;choline gic ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-4745938862242.j
g" /></div>
1404423322161 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with H₁&nbs
;histamine ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</div
>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-4745938862242.j
g" /></div>
1404423351175 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with V₁&nbs
;vaso
essin ece
to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</d
iv>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-4745938862242.j
g" /></div>
1404423366684 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with the act
ivation of Phos
holi
ase C?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-4745938862242.j
g" /></div>
1404423801075 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with activat
ion of P otein Kinase C following Phos
holi
ase C activation?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::G_q}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-4745938862242.j
g" />
</div>
1404423836663 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with activat
ion of the IP₃/DAG signalling cascade?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G<s
ub>q</sub>}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Remembe , IP₃&nbs
;inc ea
ses int acellula [Ca].</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-4745938862242.j
g" /></div
>
1404423963414 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with an inc
ease in int acellula [Ca<su
>2+</su
>] via IP₃&nbs
;action?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::G_q}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-47459
38862242.j
g" /></div>
1404424057309 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with activat
ion of Adenylate Cyclase?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5527622910248.j
g" /></div>
1404424085334 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with inc eas
es in int acellula [cAMP]?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5527622910248.j
g" /></div>
1404424120919 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with activat
ion of P otein Kinase A?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G_s}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5527622910248.j
g" /></div>
1404424142151 1395802358422 Which G-
otein class is associated with activat
ion of the cAMP/P otein Kinase A signalling cascade?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::
G_s}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
aste-5527622910248.j
g" /></div>
1404424185531 1395802358422 Which do
amine ece
to functions to elax <b> e
nal vascula smooth muscle</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::D₁}}</div>
1404424536998 1395802358422 Which do
amine ece
to functions to modulate ne
u ot ansmitte elease, es
ecially at the b ain?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::D<su
b>2</sub>}}</div>
1404424557578 1395802358422 Which histamine ece
to mediates inc eases in g
ast ic acid sec etion?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::H₂}}</div>
1404424584996 1395802358422 Which histamine ece
to functions to inc ease v
ascula
e meability?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::H₁}}</div>
1404424602013 1395802358422 Which histamine ece
to functions to inc ease n
asal and b onchial mucus
oduction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::H₁}}<
/div>
1404424620431 1395802358422 Which histamine ece
to mediates
u itis?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::H₁}}</div>

1404424632964 1395802358422 Which histamine ece
to mediates
ain?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::H₁}}</div>
1404424642043 1395802358422 Which histamine ece
to mediates the cont actio
n of b onchioles?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::H₁}}</div>
1404424652948 1395802358422 Which vaso
essin ece
to mediates <b>vascula
smooth muscle cont action</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::V₁}}</div>
1404424674617 1395802358422 Which vaso
essin ece
to is found at the kidne
ys?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::V₂}}</div>
1404424689186 1395802358422 Which vaso
essin ece
to functions to inc ease
H₂O
e meability and eabso
tion in the collecting tubules of the k
idney?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::V₂}}</div>
1404425011618 1395802358422 Which al
ha-ad ene gic ece
to functions to <b>
dec ease</b>&nbs
;sym
athetic outflow?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::al
ha-2}}</div
>
1404425058735 1395802358422 Which al
ha-ad ene gic ece
to functions to <b>
inc ease
latelet agg egation</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::al
ha-2}}</div>
1404425071777 1395802358422 Which musca inic ece
to is mainly found at the
CNS and ente ic ne vous system?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::M₁}}</div
>
1404435364439 1395802358422 {{c1::Bethanecol}} is a choline gic d ug used to
t eat <b>
osto
e ative/neu ogenic ileus</b>&nbs
;and <b>u ina y etention</b>&n
bs
;by activating bladde and bowel smooth muscle.
<b /><div><i>Resistant
to AChE.</i></div><div><i>"<b>Bethan</b>y, <b>chol</b>&nbs
;me to activate you
<b>bowel</b>&nbs
;and <b>bladde </b>."</i></div>
1404436011407 1395802358422 {{c1::Ca bachol}} is a choline gic d ug used to
t eat glaucoma and cause
u
illa y const iction.
1404436586043 1395802358422 {{c1::Ca bachol}} is a choline gic d ug used to
elieve int aocula
essu e.
1404436604169 1395802358422 {{c1::Piloca
ine}} is a di ect choline gic agon
ist used to stimulate <b>sweat, tea s</b>&nbs
;and <b>saliva</b>&nbs
;sec etion.
<b /><div><i>"You <b>c y, sweat</b>&nbs
;and <b>d ool</b>&nbs
;onto you
illow
(-ca
ine) at night."</i></div>
1404436762068 1395802358422 {{c1::Piloca
ine}} is a di ect choline gic agon
ist used to t eat <b>o
en-angle glaucoma</b>&nbs
;by cont acting the cilia y mus
cle.
1404436875472 1395802358422 {{c1::Piloca
ine}} is a di ct choline gic agoni
st used to t eat <b>closed-angle glaucoma</b>&nbs
;by cont acting the
u
illa y
s
hincte muscle.
1404436904135 1395802358422 {{c1::Bethanechol}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Piloca
ine}}
a e di ect choline gic agonists that a e <b> esistant to AChE</b>.
1404436933398 1395802358422 Which di ect choline gic agonist is used in the
challenge test fo the diagnosis of asthma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Methachol
ine}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>It stimulates musca inic ece
to s in the ai
way when inhaled.</i><b /><div><i>Hence the "Methacholine challenge."</i></div
>
1404437035135 1395802358422 {{c1::Methacholine}} is a di ect choline gic ago
nist that is used in challenge tests to diagnose asthma as it stimulates musca i
nic ece
to s in the ai way when inhaled.
1404437160260 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostigmine}} is a cholineste ase inhibito
that t eats <b>
osto
e ative/neu ogenic ileus</b>&nbs
;and <b>u ina y etentio
n</b>. <b /><div><i>Neostigmine is the Bethanechol of cholineste ase inhibito
s.</i></div>
1404437770394 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostigmine}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Py idostigmin
e}} a e cholineste ase inhibito s that a e used to t eat <b>myasthenia g avis</b
>.
1404437830108 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostigmine}} is a cholineste ase inhibito
that is used to eve se
osto
e ative neu omuscula blockade.
1404437878256 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostigmine}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Py idostigmin
e}} a e cholineste ase inhibito s that <b>do not</b>&nbs
;
enet ate the CNS.
1404437913573 1395802358422 {{c1::Physostigmine}} is a cholineste ase inhibi

to used to t eat anticholine gic toxicity as it c osses the BBB.
<b /><d
iv><i>"Physostigmine '<b>
hyxes</b>' at o
ine ove dose."</i></div>
1404437962415 1395802358422 {{c1::Done
ezil}},&nbs
;{{c2::Rivastigmine}} and
&nbs
;{{c3::Galantamine}} a e 3 cholineste ase inhibito s that a e used to t eat
Alzheime Disease.
1404438052162 1395802358422 {{c1::Ed o
honium}} is a cholineste ase inhibito
that can be used to <b>diagnose</b>&nbs
;myasthenia g avis as it is ext emely
sho t acting.
1404438094002 1395802358422 <div>Which cholineste ase inhibito was histo ic
ally used to <b>diagnose</b>&nbs
;myasthenia g avis?</div><div><b /></div>{{c1:
:Ed o
honium}} <b /><div><i>Now, Anti-Acetylcholine Rece
to Antibody (anti-AC
hR Ab) tests a e used.</i></div>
1404438158182 1395802358422 {{c1::O gano
hos
hate}} a e a ty
e of <b>i eve
sible</b>&nbs
;AChE inhibito that can cause cholineste ase inhibito
oisoning,
es
ecially in fa me s. <b /><div><i>Causes <b>DUMBBELSS</b>:</i></div><div><i>
- Dia hea</i></div><div><i>- U ination</i></div><div><i>- Miosis</i></div><div>
<i>- B onchos
asm</i></div><div><i>- B adyca dia</i></div><div><i>- Excitation o
f skeletal muscle and CNS</i></div><div><i>- Lac imation</i></div><div><i>- Swea
ting</i></div><div><i>- Salivation</i></div>
1404438737203 1395802358422 {{c1::At o
ine}} is an anticholine gic used to t
eat cholineste ase inhibito
oisoning along with P alidoxime.
1404438769859 1395802358422 {{c1::P alidoxime}} is a d ug used to t eat chol
ineste ase inhibito
oisoning with At o
ine as it <b> egene ates AChE </b>if gi
ven ea ly.
1404438806729 1395802358422 {{c1::At o
ine}},&nbs
;{{c2::homat o
ine}} and&n
bs
;{{c3::t o
icamide}} a e 3 antimusca inics that a e used clinically to
oduc
e myd iasis and cyclo
legia.
1404439480932 1395802358422 {{c1::Benzt o
ine}} is an antimusca inic that is
used to t eat Pa kinson Disease.
<b /><div><i>"<b>Pa k</b>&nbs
;my <b>be
nz</b>, b ah."</i></div>
1404439512204 1395802358422 Which antimusca inic d ug is used to t eat Pa ki
nsons Disease?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Benzt o
ine}}</div>
1404439526734 1395802358422 Which antimusca inic d ug is used to t eat motio
n sickness?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Sco
olamine}}</div>
1404439540732 1395802358422 {{c1::Sco
olamine}} is an antimusca inic d ug us
ed to t eat motion sickness.
1404439557479 1395802358422 {{c1::I
at o
ium}} and&nbs
;{{c2::tiot o
ium}}
a e 2 antimusca inic d ugs used to t eat COPD and asthma.
1404439590883 1395802358422 {{c1::Oxybutynin}},&nbs
;{{c2::Da ifenacin}} and
&nbs
;{{c3::Solifenacin}} a e 3 antimusca inic d ugs used to <b> educe u gency i
n mild cystitis</b>&nbs
;and <b>bladde s
asms</b>.
<b /><div><i>Othe agen
ts include tolte odine, fesote odine and t os
ium.</i></div>
1404439772987 1395802358422 {{c1::Glyco
y olate}} is an antimusca inic d ug
administe ed <b>
a ente ally</b>&nbs
;to <b> educe ai way sec etions</b>&nbs
;i
n
e
a ation fo su ge y.
1404439925096 1395802358422 {{c1::Glyco
y olate}} is an antimusca inic that
is administe ed <b>o ally</b>&nbs
;to t eat <b>d ooling</b>&nbs
;and <b>
e
tic
ulce s</b>.
1404440096980 1395802358422 Which antimusca inic is used to t eat b adyca di
a?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::At o
ine}}</div>
1404440758239 1395802358422 How does At o
ine influence es
i ato y sec etio
ns?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1404440869995 1395802358422 How does At o
ine influence GI sec etions?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1404440885269 1395802358422 How does at o
ine influence GI motility?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1404440892458 1395802358422 How does At o
ine influence u ina y u gency in c
ystitis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
1404442020564 1395802358422 {{c1::Hy
e the mia}} is a
otential com
lication
of At o
ine use due to the significant dec ease in sweating. <b /><div><img

s c="
aste-15960098472153.j
g" /></div>
1404442090956 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute angle-closu e glaucoma}} is a
otent
ial ocula com
lication of At o
ine use in the elde ly due to the myd iasis caus
ed.
1404442138994 1395802358422 {{c1::U ina y etention}} is a
ossible u ina y
com
lication of At o
ine use in men with BPH.
1404442169322 1395802358422 {{c1::Jimson weed (<i>Datu a</i>)}} is a weed kn
own to cause <b>Ga dene s
u
il</b>, a condition cha acte ized by <b>myd iasis</
b>&nbs
;due to alkaloids in the
lant. <b /><div><i>Fo anyone that's
layed A
ssassin's C eed: think of the Datu a
owde bombs!</i></div>
1404447004821 1395802358422 {{c1::Iso
ote enol}} is an ad ene gic agonist t
hat is used fo elect o
hysiologic evaluation of tachya hythmias.
1404447147578 1395802358422 Which ad ene gic agonist is known to be able to
wo sen ischemia when it is administe ed?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Iso
ote eno
l}}</div>
1404447315851 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ece
to (s) does E
ine
h ine
bind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::All (b1, b2, b3, a1, a2)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><b><i>Much highe affinity fo beta- ece
to s than al
ha.</i></b></div><div><
i>Al
ha- ece
to effects howeve will
edominate at high doses.</i></div>
1404447502669 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ece
to (s) does No e
ine
h
ine bind to, in o de of descending affinity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::a1 &gt;
a2 &gt; b1}}</div>
1404447534633 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ece
to (s) does Iso
ote en
ol bind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::b1, b2, b3}}</div>
1404447565727 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ece
to (s) does Dobutamine
bind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::b1}}</div>
1404447590424 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ece
to (s) does Phenyle
h i
ne bind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::a1}}</div>
1404447601774 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ece
to (s) does Albute ol b
ind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::b2}}</div>
1404447655403 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ece
to (s) does Salmete ol
bind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::b2}}</div>
1404447661283 1395802358422 To which ad ene gic ece
to (s) does Te butaline
bind?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::b2}}</div>
1404447976301 1395802358422 Which ad ene gic is the d ug of choice to t eat
Ana
hylaxis?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::E
ine
h ine}}</div>
1404448016547 1395802358422 Which beta-2 ad ene gic agonist is used to t eat
<b>acute</b>&nbs
;asthma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Albute ol}}</div>
1404448042887 1395802358422 Which beta-2 ad ene gic agonist is used to t eat
<b>long-te m</b>&nbs
;asthma o COPD?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Salmete ol}}</
div>
1404448068894 1395802358422 Which beta-2 agonist is used to <b> educe
emat
u e ute ine cont actions</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Te butaline}}</div>
1404448095264 1395802358422 Which al
ha-1 ad ene gic agonist is used to t ea
t <b> hinitis</b>&nbs
;via vasocont iction?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Phenyle
h
ine}}</div>
1404448125358 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenyle
h ine}} is an al
ha-1 ad ene gic a
gonist used in ocula
ocedu es as it causes myd iasis.
1404448154946 1395802358422 {{c1::No e
ine
h ine}} is an ad ene gic agonist
used to t eat hy
otension, howeve it <b>dec eases enal
e fusion</b>.
1404448181452 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenyle
h ine}} is an al
ha-1 agonist that
is used to t eat hy
otension via <b>vasocont iction.</b>
1404448217135 1395802358422 Which 2 sym
athomimetics a e used to t eat ca di
ogenic hea t failu e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dobutamine; Do
amine}}</div>
1404448259722 1395802358422 {{c1::Dobutamine}} is a beta-1 ad ene gic agonis
t that t eats hea t failu e and yields <b>g eate inot o
ic effects than ch onot
o
ic</b>.
1404448330051 1395802358422 {{c1::Dobutamine}} is a beta-1 ad ene gic agonis
t that is used in ca diac st ess testing.
1404448361307 1395802358422 Which ad ene gic agonist is used to t eat o
en-a

ngle glaucoma?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::E
ine
h ine}}</div>
1404448390654 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Am
hetamines?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::T igge s the elease of catecholamines (E, NE, D); Blocks catecholam
ine eu
take}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1241245549337.j
g" /></div>
1404448679815 1395802358422 {{c1::Am
hetamines}} a e a ty
e of indi ect sym

athomimetic that is used to t eat na cole
sy.
1404448702486 1395802358422 {{c1::Am
hetamines}} a e a ty
e of sym
athomimet
ic that is used to t eat ADHD.
1404448717272 1395802358422 What is the MOA of E
hed ine?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::T igge s the elease of catecholamines (E, NE, D)}}</div>
1404448748725 1395802358422 {{c1::E
hed ine}} is an indi ect sym
athomimetic
that is used to t eat nasal congestion.
1404448773560 1395802358422 {{c1::E
hed ine}} is an indi ect sym
athomimetic
used to t eat <b>u ina y incontinence</b> and <b>hy
otension</b>.
1404448796261 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Cocaine?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Inhibition of catecholamine eu
take}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Neve give
a
atient beta-blocke s if cocaine intoxication is sus
ected as it can lead to
uno

osed al
ha-1 activation and ext eme hy
e tension ( emembe , al
ha-1 ece
to
s mediate vasoconst iction).</i></div>
1404448822662 1395802358422 {{c1::Cocaine}} is an indi ect sym
athomimetic t
hat causes <b>local vasoconst iction</b>&nbs
;and is used as a <b>local anaesthe
tic</b>.
<div><i><b /></i></div>
1404491141012 1395802358422 Th ough which ad ene gic ece
to does No e
ine

h ine cause an inc ease in systolic and diastolic
essu e?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Al
ha-1 (via vasoconst iction)}}</div>
1404492106574 1395802358422 How does No e
ine
h ine change blood
essu e?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>This is th ough al

ha-1 mediated vasoconst iction and an inc ease in MAP.</i></div><div><i>Remembe
, <b>no e
ine
h ine does not bind to beta-2 ece
to s and hence does not cause
vasodilation.</b></i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-1391569404477.j
g" /></i></di
v>
1404492996927 1395802358422 How does No e
ine
h ine change hea t ate?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::B adyca dia (via eflexive dec ease)}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>No e
ine
h ine: causes <b>al
ha-1</b>&nbs
;mediated vasocont iction --&gt;
<b>inc eased</b>&nbs
;BP --&gt; <b> eflexive b adyca dia</b></i></div><div><i><
img s c="
aste-2001454760514.j
g" /></i></div>
1404493469940 1395802358422 How does Iso
ote enol influence blood
essu e?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Remembe , Iso
ote
enol is a <b>non-s
ecific beta-agonist</b>. It causes <b>beta-2</b>&nbs
;mediat
es vasodilation and hence a dec ease in MAP. It also activated <b>beta-1</b>&nbs

; ece
to s at the hea t, the eby causing tachyca dia di ectly (as well as efle
xively).</i></div><div><i><img s c="
aste-1997159793218.j
g" /></i></div>
1404493561582 1395802358422 How does Iso
ote enol influence hea t ate?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Remembe , Iso
ote
enol is a <b>non-s
ecific beta-agonist</b>.</i></div><div><i>Hence it causes in
c eased HR both di ectly and via eflexive action f om the dec ease in BP.</i></
div><div><i><img s c="
aste-1997159793218.j
g" /></i></div>
1404494293433 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Clonidine?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Agonist at al
ha2-<b>auto ece
to s</b>, the eby dec easing ad ene gic t
one}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-1241245549337.j
g" /></div>
1404494300567 1395802358422 {{c1::Clonidine}} is an al
ha-2 ad ene gic agoni
st that is used to t eat <b>hy
e tensive u gency</b>&nbs
;by binding to <b>al
ha
-2 auto ece
to s</b>. <b /><div><i>It does not dec ease enal blood flow.</i>
</div><div><i><img s c="
aste-1241245549337.j
g" /></i></div>
1404494347894 1395802358422 Which al
ha-2 agonist is used to t eat ethanol a
nd o
ioid withd awal?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Clonidine}}</div>
1404494437723 1395802358422 What is the MOA of al
ha-methyldo
a?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Conve ted into Methylno e
ine
h ine which acts at <u>cent al al

ha-2 ece
to s</u>, the eby dec easing ad ene gic tone}}</div> <div><b /></div
><i>It is a false neu ot ansmitte that is taken u
by ad ene gic neu ons.</i><b

/><div><img s c="
aste-1241245549337.j
g" /></div>
1404494580402 1395802358422 {{c1::al
ha-Methyldo
a}} is an indi ect cent al
al
ha-2 agonist that is used to t eat <b>hy
e tension in
egnancy</b>. <b /><d
iv><i>Hence, it is safe to use in
egnancy.</i></div>
1404494676496 1395802358422 Which indi ect cent al al
ha-2 ad ene gic agonis
t is used to t eat Hy
e tension in
egnancy?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::al
ha-M
ethyldo
a}}</div>
1404494712744 1395802358422 {{c1::Di ect Coombs-
ositive hemolytic anaemia}}
is a hematological com
lication of al
ha-Methyldo
a use.
1404494750054 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Phenoxybenzamine?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::<u>I eve sible, non-selective</u>&nbs
;al
ha ad ene gic blockad
e}}</div>
1404496071325 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Phentolamine?<div><b /></div
><div>{{c1::<u>Reve sible, nonselective</u>&nbs
;al
ha-ad ene gic blockade}}</di
v>
1404496562438 1395802358422 What is the MOA of P azosin?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Al
ha-1 ad ene gic antagonism}}</div>
1404496586995 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Te azosin?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Al
ha-1 ad ene gic antagonism}}</div>
1404496757275 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Doxazosin?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Al
ha-1 ad ene gic blockade}}</div>
1404496768900 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tamsulosin?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Al
ha-1 ad ene gic blockade}}</div>
1404496782536 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Mi taza
ine?<div><b /></div>
<div>{{c1::Al
ha-2 ad ene gic blockade}}</div>
1404496804758 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenoxybenzamine}} is an al
ha-ad ene gic
antagonist used <b>
eo
e atively</b>&nbs
;in Pheoch omocytoma to
event hy
e t
ensive c isis du ing the su ge y.
<b /><div><i>Phenoxybenzamine is an <b>
i eve sible, non-selective al
ha-blocke </b>.</i></div>
1404497078864 1395802358422 {{c1::O thostatic hy
otension}} is a systemic co
m
lication of Phenoxybenzamine and othe al
ha-ad ene gic blocke s administ atio
n that
esents as a dec ease in blood
essu e u
on a change in
ostu e.
<b /><div><i>Remembe , Phenoxybenzamine i eve sibly blocks al
ha ad ene gic e
ce
to s.&nbs
;</i></div><div><i>al
ha-1 ece
to s mediate vasoconst iction.</i><
/div>
1404497186677 1395802358422 {{c1::Phentolamine}} is an al
ha-blocke given t
o
atients on MAO inhibito s that have eaten ty amine-containing foods. <b /><d
iv><i>Remembe , Phentolamine is a <b> eve sible, non-selective al
ha-blocke </b>
.</i></div>
1404497745626 1395802358422 {{c1::P azosin}} is a selective al
ha-1 blocke
that is used to t eat PTSD.
1404497779415 1395802358422 Which al
ha-ad ene gic blocke is used to t eat
the u ina y sym
toms of BPH?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Selective al
ha-1 blocke
s (P azosin, Te azosin, Doxazosin, Tamsulosin)}}</div>
1404498380515 1395802358422 Which selective al
ha-1 ad ene gic blocke is <b
>not</b>&nbs
;used to t eat Hy
e tension?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tamsulosin}
}</div>
1404498431008 1395802358422 {{c1::Mi taza
ine}} is a selective al
ha-2 ad en
e gic blocke that is used to t eat de
ession.
1404498478113 1395802358422 Which selective al
ha-2 ad ene gic blocke is us
ed to t eat de
ession?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Mi taza
ine}}</div>
1404498507879 1395802358422 How does Mi taza
ine change se um choleste ol le
vels?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
1404498529176 1395802358422 How does blood
essu e change with E
ine
h ine
administ ation <b>befo e al
ha-ad ene gic blockade</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c
1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
aste-5394478924495.j
g" /></div>
1404498942401 1395802358422 How does blood
essu e change with E
ine
h ine
administ ation <b>afte al
ha-ad ene gic blockade</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1
::Dec ease}}</div>
<div><b /></div><i>Remembe , E
ine
h ine activates <b>a
ll</b>&nbs
;ad ene gic ece
to s.</i><b /><div><img s c="
aste-5390183957199.j


g" /></div>
1404499365915 1395802358422 How does blood
essu e change with Phenyle
h in
e <b>befo e al
ha-ad ene gic blockade</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}
</div> <b /><div><i>via al
ha-1 ad ene gic activation.</i></div><div><i><img s
c="
aste-5390183957199.j
g" /></i></div>
1404499400863 1395802358422 How does blood
essu e change with Phenyle
h in
e <b>afte al
ha-ad ene gic blockade</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::No change;
Phenyle
h ine's action is su

essed by the al
ha-blockade}}</div>
<div><b
/></div><i>Remembe , Phenyle
h ine is a
u e al
ha-1 agonist.</i><b /><div><im
g s c="
aste-5390183957199.j
g" /></div>
1404508536054 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Meto
olol?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Selective beta-1 antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i>Beta-blocke s that
sta t with a lette in the&nbs
;<b>fi st</b>&nbs
;half of the al
habet (<b>A</b
>-<b>M</b>)&nbs
;a e selective fo &nbs
;<b>beta-1</b>&nbs
; ece
to s.</i></div>
1404509922698 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Acebutolol?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Selective beta-1 antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i>Beta-blocke s that
sta t with a lette in the&nbs
;<b>fi st</b>&nbs
;half of the al
habet (<b>A</b
>-<b>M</b>)&nbs
;a e selective fo &nbs
;<b>beta-1</b>&nbs
; ece
to s.</i></div>
1404509941469 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Betaxolol?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Selective beta-1 antagonism}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Beta-blocke s that
sta t with a lette in the&nbs
;<b>fi st</b>&nbs
;half of the al
habet (<b>A</b
>-<b>M</b>)&nbs
;a e selective fo &nbs
;<b>beta-1</b>&nbs
; ece
to s.</i></div>
1404510023532 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ca vedilol?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Nonselective al
ha and beta ad ene gic antagonism}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>D ugs that end in <b>a suffix othe than -olol</b>&nbs
;a e <b>non-selecti
ve al
ha </b>and <b>beta</b>&nbs
;antagonists.</i></div><div><i>e.g. Ca vedilol
and Labetalol</i></div>
1404510043999 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Esmolol?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Selective beta-1 ad ene gic antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i>Beta-block
e s that sta t with a lette in the&nbs
;<b>fi st</b>&nbs
;half of the al
habet
(<b>A</b>-<b>M</b>)&nbs
;a e selective fo &nbs
;<b>beta-1</b>&nbs
; ece
to s.</i
></div>
1404510076438 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Atenolol?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Selective beta-1 ad ene gic antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i>Beta-block
e s that sta t with a lette in the <b>fi st</b>&nbs
;half of the al
habet (<b>A
</b>-<b>M</b>)&nbs
;a e selective fo <b>beta-1</b>&nbs
; ece
to s.</i></div>
1404510226538 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Nadolol?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Nonselective beta ad ene gic antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i>Beta-block
e s that sta t with a lette in the <b>2nd</b>&nbs
;half of the al
habet (<b>N</
b>-<b>Z</b>) a e <b>non-selective beta ad ene gic blocke s</b>.</i></div>
1404510611882 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Timolol?<div><b /></div><div
>{{c1::Nonselective beta ad ene gic antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i></i><i>Bet
a-blocke s that sta t with a lette in the&nbs
;<b>2nd</b>&nbs
;half of the al
h
abet (<b>N</b>-<b>Z</b>) a e&nbs
;<b>non-selective beta ad ene gic blocke s</b>.
</i></div>
1404510618675 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Pindolol?<div><b /></div><di
v>{{c1::Nonselective beta ad ene gic antagonism}}</div> <b /><div><i>Beta-block
e s that sta t with a lette in the&nbs
;<b>2nd</b>&nbs
;half of the al
habet (<
b>N</b>-<b>Z</b>) a e&nbs
;<b>non-selective beta ad ene gic blocke s</b>.</i></d
iv>
1404510643156 1395802358422 What is the MOA of P o
anolol?<div><b /></div><
div>{{c1::Nonselective beta ad ene gic antagonism}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Be
ta-blocke s that sta t with a lette in the&nbs
;<b>2nd</b>&nbs
;half of the al

habet (<b>N</b>-<b>Z</b>) a e&nbs
;<b>non-selective beta ad ene gic blocke s</b>
.</i></div>
1404510706957 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Labetalol?<div><b /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Nonselective al
ha and beta ad ene gic antagonism}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><div><i>D ugs that end in&nbs
;<b>a suffix othe than -olol</b>&nbs
;a e&nbs

;<b>non-selective al
ha&nbs
;</b>and&nbs
;<b>beta</b>&nbs
;antagonists.</i></div
><div><i>e.g. Ca vedilol and Labetalol</i></div></div>

1404510709841 1395802358422 {{c1::Nebivolol}} is a combined beta-ad ene gic
agonist and antagonist that has combined <b>ca diac-selective</b>&nbs
;<b>beta-1
</b>&nbs
;<b>blockade&nbs
;</b>and <b>beta-3 activation</b>.
<b /><div><i>Be
ta-3 ece
to activates Nit ic Oxide Synthase in the vasculatu e.</i></div>
1404511277397 1395802358422 {{c1::Meto
olol}} and&nbs
;{{c2::Esmolol}} a e
2 beta-1 selective antagonists that can t eat <b>SVT</b>&nbs
;by dec easing AV n
ode conduction velocity.
1404512849545 1395802358422 Which 2 beta-blocke s a e commonly used as Class
II Antia hythmics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Meto
olol; Esmolol}}</div>
1404512880292 1395802358422 {{c1::Meto
olol}},&nbs
;{{c2::Ca vedilol}} and&
nbs
;{{c3::Biso
olol}} a e beta-blocke s commonly used afte myoca dial infa ct
ion that dec ease
atient mo tality.
1404512932082 1395802358422 How do beta-blocke s influence Renin sec etion?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Due to <b>beta-1
ece
to antagonism at JGA cells</b>.</i></div>
1404512969460 1395802358422 {{c1::Timolol}} is a beta-blocke used to t eat
Glaucoma as it dec eases the sec etion of aqueous humou .
1404513265571 1395802358422 Which beta-blocke is associated with Dysli
idem
ia as a side effect?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Meto
olol}}</div>
1404513293883 1395802358422 Which CNS side effects a e associated with betablocke s?<div><b />{{c1::Seizu es, sedation, slee
alte ation}}</div>
1404576489526 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Acetamino
hen toxicity
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::N-acetylcysteine}}</div> <b /><div><i>It functio
ns to e
lenish glutathione which is used u
by NAPQI.</i></div>
1404576649468 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo AChE Inhibito toxicit
y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::At o
ine + P alidoxime}}</div>
1404576667814 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo O gano
hos
hate
oison
ing?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::At o
ine + P alidoxime}}</div>
1404576691367 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Am
hetamines (basic d
ugs)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ammonium chlo ide (NH₄Cl)}}</div>
<b /><div><i>Functions to acidify the u ine, the eby kee
ing Am
hetamines insid
e the kidney tubules to be exc eted.</i></div>
1404576777850 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Antimusca inic and Ant
icholine gic toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Physostigmine salicylate}}</di
v>
<b /><div><i>The aim in the a
y is to cont ol the hy
e the mia.</i></di
v>
1404576825849 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Benzodiaze
ine toxicit
y?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Flumanezil}}</div>
1404577610419 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Beta-Blocke induced h
y
oglycemia?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Glucagon}}</div>
1404577755163 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Ca bon Monoxide
oison
ing?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::100% O₂; Hy
e ba ic O₂}}</
div>
1404577779154 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Co

e toxicity?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinamine}}</div>
1404577809039 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo A senic toxicity?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinamine; Dime ca
ol; Succime }}</div>
1404577819417 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Gold toxicity?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinamine; Dime ca
ol; Succime }}</div>
1404577827765 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Cyanide toxicity?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Nit ite + thiosulfate; Hyd oxocobalamin}}</div>
1404577856934 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Digitalis toxicity?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Digoxin FAb}}</div>
1404577877651 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo He
a in toxicity?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::P otamine sulfate}}</div>
1404577888142 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo I on toxicity?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Defe oxamine; Defe asi ox}}</div>
1404577903340 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Lead toxicity?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::EDTA; Dime ca
ol; Succime ; Penicillamine}}</div>
1404579030424 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Me cu y toxicity?<div>

<b /></div><div>{{c1::Dime ca
ol (BAL); Succime }}</div>
<b /><div><i>Di
<b>MERC</b>a
ol fo <b>MERC</b>u y
oisoning.</i></div>
1404579098763 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Methanol
oisoning?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fome
izole &gt; ethanol; Dialysis}}</div>
1404579125528 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Ethylene Glycol (antif
eeze)
oisoning?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fome
izole &gt; ethanol; Dialysis}}
</div>
1404579165513 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Methemoglobin
oisonin
g?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Methylene blue; Vitamin C}}</div>
1404579184497 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo O
ioid toxicity?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Naloxone}}</div>
1404579192977 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Salicylate (acidic d u
g) toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::NaHCO₃&nbs
;to alkalinize the
u ine; Dialysis}}</div>
1404579218092 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo T i-cyclic Antide
ess
ants (acidic d ugs) toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::NaHCO₃&nbs
;
to alkalinize the
lasma}}</div>
1404579246209 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Tissue Plasminogen Act
ivato toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoca
oic Acid}}</div>
1404579291515 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo St e
tokinase and U ok
inase toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoca
oic Acid}}</div>
1404579306970 1395802358422 What is the t eatment fo Wa fa in toxicity?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin K; Plasma if the
atient is actively bleeding}}<
/div>
1404579329216 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Cocaine?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Co ona y vasos
asm}}</div>
1404579761422 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Sumat i
t
an?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Co ona y vasos
asm}}</div>
1404579811459 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of E got Alk
aloids?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Co ona y vasos
asm}}</div>
1404579820547 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Vancomyci
n?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushing}}</div>
1404579835331 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Adenosine
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushing}}</div>
1404579842234 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Niacin?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushing}}</div>
1404579847932 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Ca<su
>2+
</su
>&nbs
;channel blocke s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushing}}</d
iv>
1404579864658 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Dauno ubi
cin and Doxo ubicin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dilated ca diomyo
athy}}</div>
1404579877391 1395802358422 Which class of antia hythmics a e associated wi
th To sade de Pointes as toxicity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Class III and Clas
s IA}}</div>
1404580474782 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Mac olide
antibiotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::To sade de
ointes}}</div>
1404580493064 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of Anti
sych
otics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::To sade de
ointes}}</div>
1404580503500 1395802358422 What is the ca diovascula toxicity of T icyclic
Antide
essants?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::To sades the
ointes}}</div>
1404580527641 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ e
oductive toxicity of T
omixifen?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hot flashes}}</div>
1404580601011 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ e
oductive toxicity of C
lomi
hene?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hot flashes}}</div>
1404580608677 1395802358422 {{c1::Ad enoco tical Insufficiency}} is an endoc
ine com
lication of HPA su

ession seconda y to glucoco ticoid withd awal.
1404580694617 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ e
oductive toxicity of T
ac olimus?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e glycemia}}</div>
1404580712960 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ e
oductive toxicity of P
otease Inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e glycemia}}</div>

1404580735098 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ e
oductive toxicity of N
iacin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e glycemia}}</div>
1404580744227 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ e
oductive toxicity of H
yd ochlo othiazide (HCTZ)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e glycemia}}</div>
1404580773301 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ e
oductive toxicity of b
eta-blocke s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e glycemia}}</div>
1404580787753 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ e
oductive toxicity of c
o ticoste oids?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e glycemia}}</div>
1404580796915 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ e
oductive toxicity of L
ithium?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
othy oidism}}</div>
1404580838992 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ e
oductive toxicity of A
mioda one?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
othy oidism}}</div>
1404580847466 1395802358422 What is the endoc ine/ e
oductive toxicity of S
ulfonamides?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
othy oidism}}</div>
1404580880918 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of E yth omycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Acute cholestatic he
atitis; Jaundice; Dia hea}}</div>
1404580925722 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Metfo min?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Dia hea}}</div>
1404580932250 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Colchicine?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Dia hea}}</div>
1404580943658 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of O listat?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Dia hea}}</div>
1404580948708 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Aca bose?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::Dia hea}}</div>
1404580961889 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Halothane?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive he
atic nec osis}}</div>
1404580989741 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of <i>Amanita
halloides
</i>&nbs
;(death ca
mush ooms)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive he

atic nec osis}}</div>
1404581015482 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Val
oic Acid?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive he
atic nec osis; Panc eatitis}}</div>
1404581026490 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Acetamino
hen?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive he
atic nec osis}}</div>
1404581042941 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Isoniazid (INH)?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::He
atitis}}</div>
1404581060839 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Didanosine?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Panc eatitis}}</div>
1404581070126 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Co ticoste oids?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Panc eatitis}}</div>
1404581080822 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Alcohol?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::Panc eatits}}</div>
1404581104981 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Azathio
ine?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Panc eatitis}}</div>
1404581119050 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of diu etics?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Panc eatitis}}</div>
1404581189040 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Clindamycin?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomemb anous colitis}}</div>
1404581199457 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Am
icillin?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomemb anous colitis}}</div>
1404581209017 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Ce
halos
o ins?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomemb anous colitis}}</div>
1404581225358 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Da
sone?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ag anulocytosis; Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404581792804 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Cloza
ine?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ag anulocytosis}}</div>
1404581801438 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Ca bamaze

ine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ag anulocytosis; A
lastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581820751 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Colchicine
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ag anulocytosis;}}</div>
1404581836489 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Methimazol

e?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ag anulocytosis; A
lastic Anaemia}}</div>
1404581854551 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of P o
ylthio
u acil?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Ag anulocytosis; A
lastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581877224 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of NSAIDs?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::A
lastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581882729 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Benzene?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::A
lastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581896124 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Chlo am
he
nicol?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::A
lastic anaemia; G ay Baby Synd ome}}</div>
1404581924240 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Methyldo
a
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Di ect Coombs-
ositive hemolytic anaemia}}</div>
1404582451730 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Penicillin
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Di ect coombs-
ositive hemolytic anaemia}}</div>
1404582476711 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Isoniazid
(INH)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582493485 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Sulfonamid
es?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582513316 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of P imaquine
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::G6PD Deficiency}}</div>
1404582520032 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of As
i in?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582562837 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Ibu
ofen?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582585408 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Nit ofu an
toin?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582625096 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Phenytoin?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Megaloblastic anaemia}}</div>
1404582634334 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Methot exa
te?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Megaloblastic anaemia}}</div>
1404582641957 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Sulfa d ug
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Megaloblastic anaemia}}</div>
1404582648683 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of He
a in?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Th ombocyto
enia}}</div>
1404582660811 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of Cimetidine
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Th ombocyto
enia}}</div>
1404582668081 1395802358422 What is the hematological toxicity of o al cont
ace
tives?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Th ombotic com
lications}}</div>
1404582774834 1395802358422 What is the connective tissue toxicity of P otea
se Inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fat edist ibution}}</div>
1404584320403 1395802358422 What is the connective tissue toxicity of Glucoc
o ticoids?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Fat edist ibution}}</div>
1404584343416 1395802358422 Which is the o al com
lication of Phenytoin?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gingival hy
e
lasia}}</div>
1404584386240 1395802358422 Which is the o al com
lication of&nbs
;Ve a
amil
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gingival hy
e
lasia}}</div>
1404584397310 1395802358422 Which is the o al com
lication of&nbs
;Cyclos
o
ine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gingival hy
e
lasia}}</div>
1404584414970 1395802358422 Which is the o al com
lication of Nifedi
ine?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Gingival hy
e
lasia}}</div>
1404591568576 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Py azina
mide?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e u icemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591639648 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Thiazide
s?<div><b />{{c1::Hy
e u icemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591648055 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Fu osemi
de?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e u icemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591671235 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Niacin?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e u icemia/Gout; Myo
athy}}</div>
1404591681570 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Cyclos
o
ine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
e u icemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591691943 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of fib ates

?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Myo
athy}}</div>
1404591866243 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of IFN-al
h
a?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Myo
athy}}</div>
1404591902421 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Hyd oxyc
hlo oquine?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Myo
athy}}</div>
1404591910919 1395802358422 What is the skeletal toxicity of He
a in?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Osteo
o osis}}</div>
1404591967998 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of Sulfonamides?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592038228 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of Amioda one?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592045713 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of Tet acycline a
ntibiotics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592057477 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of 5-Fluo ou acil
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592068874 1395802358422 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Synd ome}} is a cutaneous
com
lication associated with anti-e
ile
tic d ugs.
1404592323601 1395802358422 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Synd ome}} is a cutaneous
com
lication associated with Allo
u inol.
1404592327417 1395802358422 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Synd ome}} is a cutaneous
com
lication associated with Sulfa d ugs.
1404592332986 1395802358422 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Synd ome}} is a cutaneous
com
lication associated with Penicillin.
1404592337138 1395802358422 {{c1::SLE-like synd ome}} is an autoimmune-like
com
lication of sulfa d ug use.
1404592365817 1395802358422 {{c1::SLE-like synd ome}} is an autoimmune-like
com
lication of Hyd alazine use.
1404592369555 1395802358422 {{c1::SLE-like synd ome}} is an autoimmune-like
com
lication of Isoniazid (INH) use.
1404592376054 1395802358422 {{c1::SLE-like synd ome}} is an autoimmune-like
com
lication of P ocainamide use.
1404592379330 1395802358422 {{c1::SLE-like synd ome}} is an autoimmune-like
com
lication of Phenytoin use.
1404592384929 1395802358422 {{c1::SLE-like synd ome}} is an autoimmune-like
com
lication of Etane ce
t use.
1404592388304 1395802358422 Which class of antibiotics is associated with te
eth discolou ation?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Tet acyclines}}</div>
1404592405978 1395802358422 Which class of antibiotics is associated with te
ndonitis, tendon u
tu e and/o ca tilage damage?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Flu
o oquinolones}}</div>
1404592861924 1395802358422 {{c1::Cinchonism}} is a neu ological com
licatio
n associated with Quinidine and Quinine use that
esents with tinnitus, blu ed
vision, headache, ve tigo and confusion.
1404592966195 1395802358422 {{c1::Seizu es}} a e a neu ological com
lication
of Isoniazid use due to the Vit B6 deficiency that the d ug causes.
1404593140712 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Bu
o
ion?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Seizu es}}</div>
1404593166225 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Imi
enem/Cilastatin?
<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Seizu es}}</div>
1404593180324 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of T amadol?<div><b />
</div><div>{{c1::Seizu es}}</div>
1404593191535 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Enflu ane?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Seizu es}}</div>
1404593201171 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Metoclo
amide?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Seizu es}}</div>
1404593208496 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Anti
sychotics?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::Pa kinson-like synd ome; Ta dive Dyskinesia}}</div>
1404594097744 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Lithium?<div><b /
></div><div>{{c1::Diabetes Insi
idus}}</div>
1404594249814 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Demeclocycline?<di

v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Diabetes Insi
idus}}</div>
1404594261218 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Cyclo
hos
hamide?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Hemo hagic cystitis; SIADH}}</div> <b /><div><i>He
mo hagic cystitis is
evented by Mesna co-administ ation.</i></div>
1404594435607 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Ifosfamide?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Hemo hagic cystitis}}</div>
<b /><div><i>P evented
by Mesna coadminist ation.</i></div>
1404594466000 1395802358422 {{c1::Mesna}} is a d ug that is coadministe ed w
ith Cyclo
hos
hamide and Ifosfamide to
event hemo hagic cystitis.
1404594508159 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Methicillin?<div><
b /></div><div>{{c1::Inte stitial ne
h itis}}</div>
1404594521981 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of NSAIDs?<div><b />
{{c1::Inte stitial ne
h itis}}</div>
1404594531307 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Fu osemide?<div><b
/></div><div>{{c1::Inte stitial ne
h itis}}</div>
1404594544889 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of Ca bamaze
ine?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::SIADH}}</div>
1404594557714 1395802358422 What is the enal toxicity of SSRIs?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::SIADH}}</div>
1404594581404 1395802358422 {{c1::Fanconi Synd ome}} is a enal com
lication
of ex
i ed tet acycline antibiotics that
esents with glucose, amino acids, u
ic acid,
hos
hate and bica bonate in the u ine instead of being eabso bed.
1404594765985 1395802358422 What is the es
i ato y toxicity of ACE inhibito
s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::D y cough}}</div>
1404594958498 1395802358422 What is the es
i ato y toxicity of Bleomycin?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmona y fib osis}}</div>
1404594967410 1395802358422 What is the es
i ato y toxicity of Busulfan?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmona y fib osis}}</div>
1404594972949 1395802358422 What is the es
i ato y toxicity of Methot exate
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmona y fib osis}}</div>
1404594979714 1395802358422 What is the es
i ato y toxicity of Amioda one?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmona y fib osis}}</div>
1404594986951 1395802358422 How does ch onic alcohol influence cytoch ome
4
50 activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-12421045420686.j
g" /></div>
1404595915141 1395802358422 How does Modafinil influence cytoch ome
450 act
ivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-12416750453390.j
g" /></div>
1404595943972 1395802358422 How does St. John's Wo t influence cytoch ome
4
50 activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-12416750453390.j
g" /></div>
1404595978077 1395802358422 How does Phenytoin influence cytoch ome
450 act
ivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-12416750453390.j
g" /></div>
1404595994582 1395802358422 How does Phenoba bitol influence cytoch ome
450
activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-12416750453390.j
g" /></div>
1404596007163 1395802358422 How does Nevi a
ine influence cytoch ome
450 ac
tivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-12416750453390.j
g" /></div>
1404596019805 1395802358422 How does Rifam
in influence cytoch ome
450 acti
vity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-12416750453390.j
g" /></div>
1404596031061 1395802358422 How does G iseofulvin influence cytoch ome
450
activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-12416750453390.j
g" /></div>
1404596043577 1395802358422 How does Ca bamaze
ine influence cytoch ome
450
activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Inc ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-12416750453390.j
g" /></div>
1404596064040 1395802358422 How does <b>acute </b>alcohol abuse influence cy

toch ome
450 activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><img s c="
aste-13073880449698.j
g" /></div>
1404596172193 1395802358422 How does Gemfib ozil influence cytoch ome
450 a
ctivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-13069585482402.j
g" /></div>
1404596186617 1395802358422 How does Ci
ofloxacin influence cytoch ome
450
activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-13069585482402.j
g" /></div>
1404596207769 1395802358422 How does Isoniazid influence cytoch ome
450 act
ivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-13069585482402.j
g" /></div>
1404596220626 1395802358422 How does G a
ef uit Juice influence cytoch ome

450 activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-13069585482402.j
g" /></div>
1404596237681 1395802358422 How does Quinidine influence cytoch ome
450 act
ivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-13069585482402.j
g" /></div>
1404596251666 1395802358422 How does Amioda one influence cytoch ome
450 ac
tivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-13069585482402.j
g" /></div>
1404596265426 1395802358422 How does Ketoconazole influence cytoch ome
450
activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div> <b /><div><img s c="
as
te-13069585482402.j
g" /></div>
1404596287510 1395802358422 How do mac olide antibiotics influence cytoch om
e
450 activity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-13069585482402.j
g" /></div>
1404596301526 1395802358422 How do Sulfonamides influence the activity of cy
toch ome
450?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img
s c="
aste-13069585482402.j
g" /></div>
1404596349181 1395802358422 How does Cimetidine influence cytoch ome
450 ac
tivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-13069585482402.j
g" /></div>
1404596362060 1395802358422 How does Ritonavi influence cytoch ome
450 act
ivity?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::Dec ease}}</div>
<b /><div><img s c="
as
te-13069585482402.j
g" /></div>
1404596380541 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo E goste ol synthes
is inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-azole}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.
g. Ketoconazole</i></div>
1404597825004 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo anti
a asitics/ant
ihelminthics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-bendazole}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.
g. mebendazole</i></div>
1404597853147 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo bacte ial
e
tidog
lycan synthesis inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-cillin}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>e.g. Penicillin</i></div>
1404597872830 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo bacte ial
otein
synthesis inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-cycline}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>e.g. Tet acycline</i></div>
1404597891761 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo vi al Neu aminidas
e inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-ivi }}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Oselt
amivi </i></div>
1404597917651 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo vi al
otease inh
ibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-navi }}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Riton
avi </i></div>
1404597937489 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo vi al DNA
olyme a
se inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-ovi }}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Acycl
ovi </i></div>
1404597951240 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Mac olide antibiot
ics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-th omycin}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Azith
omycin</i></div>
1404598042497 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo inhalational gene

al anaesthetics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-ane}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.
g. Halothane</i></div>
1404598063652 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Ty
ical anti
sycho
tics?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-azine}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Thio idazine<
/i></div>
1404598084208 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Ba bitu ates?<div>
<b /></div><div>{{c1::-ba bital}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Phenoba bital
</i></div>
1404598102309 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo local anaesthetics
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-caine}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Lidocaine</i>
</div>
1404598126975 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo SSRIs?<div><b /><
/div><div>{{c1::-etine}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Fluoxetine</i></div>
1404598142755 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo TCAs?<div><b /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>-</i>i
amine; -t i
tyline}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Imi

amine; Amit y
tiline</i></div>
1404598157902 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo 5-HT<sub>1B/1D</su
b>&nbs
;agonists?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-t i
tan}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.
g. Sumat i
tan</i></div>
1404598206715 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Benzodiaze
ines?<d
iv><b />{{c1::-ze
am; -zolam}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Diaze
am; Midazolam</
i></div>
1404598244633 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Choline gic agonis
ts?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-chol}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. bethanechol</
i></div>
1404598566025 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo <b>non-de
ola izin
g
a alytics</b>?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-cu ium; -cu onium}}</div> <b /><d
iv><i>e.g. At acu ium</i></div>
1404598586944 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo beta-blocke s?<div
><b /></div><div>{{c1::-olol}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. P o
anolol</i></div>
1404598597544 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo AChE Inhibito s?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::-stigmine}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Neostigmine</
i></div>
1404598612741 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo beta-2 ad ene gic
agonists?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-bute ol}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Albut
e ol</i></div>
1404598623140 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo al
ha-1 ad ene gic
antagonists?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-zosin}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. P azo
sin</i></div>
1404598638443 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo PDE-5 Inhibito s?<
div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-afil}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Sildenafil</i
></div>
1404598656974 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo dihyd o
y idine Ca
channel blocke s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-di
ine}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.
g. Amlodi
ine</i></div>
1404598705288 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo ACE inhibito s?<di
v><b /></div><div>{{c1::-
il}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. ca
to
il</i></div>
1404598719660 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Angiotensin-II ec
e
to blocke s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-sa tan}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.
g. Losa tan</i></div>
1404598747952 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo HMG-CoA eductase
inhibito s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-statin}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Ato v
astatin</i></div>
1404598808413 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Bis
hos
honates?<d
iv><b /></div><div>{{c1::-d onate}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Pamid onate</
i></div>
1404598822221 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo PPAR-gamma activat
o s (antidiabetics)?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-glitazone}}</div>
<b /><d
iv><i>e.g. Rosiglitazone</i></div>
1404598901157 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo
oton
um
inhibi

to s?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-
azole}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Ome

azole</i></div>
1404598926372 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo P ostaglandin anal
ogs?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-
ost}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Latano
ost</
i></div>
1404598941851 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo H₂&nbs

;(histidine) ece
to antagonists?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-tidine}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.g. Cimetidine</i></div>
1404598968798 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo
ituita y ho mones
?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-t o
in}}</div>
1404598985363 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo Chime ic Monoclona
l antibodies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-ximab}}</div> <b /><div><i>e.g. Basil
iximab</i></div>
1404599005623 1395802358422 What is the common suffix fo humanized monoclon
al antibodies?<div><b /></div><div>{{c1::-zumab}}</div>
<b /><div><i>e.
g. Daclizumab</i></div>
1242787540515 1342707643574 Blot used to detect RNA No the n
1242787540516 1342707643574 Blot used to detect DNA Southe n
1242787540517 1342707643574 P ocedu e used to synthesize many co
ies of a de
si ed
iece of DNA
PCR
1242787540518 1342707643574 Blot used to detect
oteins
Weste n
1242787540519 1342707643574 Ste
s of PCR
Denatu e DNA (gene ate 2 se
a at
e st ands by heating)<b />Anneal
ime s<b />Elongate (heat-stable DNA Polyme
ase)
1242787540520 1342707643574 Southe n/No the n blots use what to
obe
DNA
1242787540521 1342707643574 Weste n blots use what to
obe Antibodies
1242787547828 1342707643574 Cell cycle stages that have va iable du ation
G1, G0<b /><b />(S, G2, M elatively constant)<b /><img s c="
asteyslyy_.j
g"
/>
1242787547829 1342707643574 Site of sec eto y
otein synthesis
RER
1242787547830 1342707643574 Te m fo RER found in neu ons Nissl bodies
1242787547831 1342707643574 Cells that ente G1 f om G0 on stimulation
Stable/quiescent cells (he
atocytes, lym
hocytes)
1242787547832 1342707643574 Cells that emain in G0 Pe manent cells (neu ons
, ca diac muscle, RBCs)
1242787547833 1342707643574 Site of ste oid synthesis and detoxification of
d ugs and
oisons
SER
1242787547834 1342707643574 N-linked oligosaccha ide addition occu s whe e
RER
1242787547835 1342707643574 Stages of mitosis
P o
hase, meta
hase, ana

hase, telo
hase
1242787547836 1342707643574 Cells that neve ente G0, sho t G1, a
idly div
ide
Labile cells (ma ow, gut, skin, hai follicles)
1242787547837 1342707643574 Goblet and
lasma cells have a la ge amount of w
hat o ganelle RER
1242787547838 1342707643574 Signs/sym
toms of I-cell Disease
Coa se f
acial featu es, clouded co neas, est icted joints, often fatal in childhood
1242787547839 1342707643574 O ganelle that adds O-oligosaccha ides? To what
amino acids?
Golgi<b /><b />To se ine and th eonine esidues
1242787547840 1342707643574 O ganelle that modifies N-oligosaccha ides on as

a agine
Golgi
1242787547841 1342707643574 O ganelle that adds mannose-6-
hos
hate (ta gets

otein to lysosome) Golgi
1242787547842 1342707643574 Clath in tag esults in t ans-Golgi -&gt; lysoso
me<b /><b />
lasma memb ane -&gt; endosomes ( ece
to -mediated endocytosis)
1242787547843 1342707643574 I-cell disease (inclusion cell disease) is a es
ult of?<b ><b >What ha

ens?
Failu e of mannose-6-
hos
hate addition in Golgi
<b /><b />Enzymes a e sec eted outside the cell instead of being ta geted to l
ysosome: esults in <b>high
lasma levels of lysosomal enzymes</b>

1242787547844 1342707643574 O ganelle that sulfates suga s in
oteoglycans
and selected ty osines Golgi
1242787547845 1342707643574 COPI tag esults in
Ret og ade t ans
o t (Go
lgi --&gt; ER)
1242787547846 1342707643574 O ganelle that assembles
oteoglycans f om co e
Golgi

oteins
1242787547847 1342707643574 Failu e of mannose-6-
hos
hate addition in Golgi
esults in what action Sec etion of lysosomal enzymes (I cell disease)
1242787547848 1342707643574 He
atocytes and ad enal co tex cells a e ich in
what o ganelle SER
1242787547849 1342707643574 COPII tag esults in
Ante og ade t ans
o t (R
ER --&gt; cis-Golgi)
1242787547850 1342707643574 Chediak-Higashi Synd ome<b /><b />Defect?<b /
>Results in?
Mic otubule
olyme ization defect esulting in dec eased
hagoso
me-lysosome fusion<b /><b />Results in ecu ent
yogenic infections,
a tial
albinism,
e i
he al neu o
athy
1242787547851 1342707643574 ATPase that links
e i
he al cilia doublets
Axonemal dynein<b ><b ><img s c="
astekvak w.j
g" />
1242787547852 1342707643574 Anti-b east cance that acts on mic otubules
Taxol
1242787547853 1342707643574 Antifungal that acts on mic otubules
G iseofu
lvin
1242787547854 1342707643574 Anti-cance agent that acts on mic otubules
Vinc istine
1242787547855 1342707643574 Kinesin is involved in what t ans
o t Ante og
ade (- to + end of MT)
1242787547856 1342707643574 Anti-gout that acts on mic otubules
Colchici
ne
1242787547857 1342707643574 Mic otubules: st uctu e, ene gy sou ce, dynamics
Cylind ical helical a ay of
olyme ized dime s of al
ha and beta tubulin<b /><
b />Each dime has 2 GTP bound<b /><b />G ows slowly, colla
ses quickly
1242787547858 1342707643574 α- nd β-tuulin dimers in microtuules ind what
2 GTP
1242787547859 1342707643574 Dynein is involved in what transport
Retrogra
de (+ to - end of MT)
1242787547860 1342707643574 Male/female infertility, ronchiectasis, recurre
nt sinusitis due to dynein arm defect are seen in what syndrome Kartagener's syn
drome
1242787547861 1342707643574 Anti-helminthic that acts on microtuules
Meendazole/thiaendazole
1242787547862 1342707643574 Most aundant human protein; extensively modifie
d?<r /><r />Amino acid structure?
Collagen<r /><r />(Glycine-X-) repeat
ing; X and  often lysine and proline
1242787547863 1342707643574 Cardaic glycosides inhiit what Na+/K+ ATPase
1242787547864 1342707643574 Inhiits Na+/K+ ATPase at the K+ site Ouaain
1242787547865 1342707643574 Lecithin is also known as
Phosphatidylchol
ine
1242787547866 1342707643574 Type III collagen is found where
Reticula
r fiers- skin, lood vessels, uterus, fetal tissue, granulation tissue, organs
1242787547867 1342707643574 Properties that result in increased plasma memr
ane melting temperature Increased cholesterol or long saturated fatty acids
1242787547868 1342707643574 Type I collagen is found where Bone, skin, tend
on, dentin, fascia, cornea, late wound repair
1242787547869 1342707643574 Phosphatidylcholine is found where
RBC mem
ranes, myelin, ile, surfactant
1242787547870 1342707643574 Type II collagen is found where Cartilage, vitre
ous ody, <>nucleus pulposus</>
1242787547871 1342707643574 Compound used in esterfication of cholesterol
Phosphatidylcholine
1242787547872 1342707643574 Defect and signs/symptoms of osteogenesis imperf

ecta
Results from anormal type I collagen synthesis<r><r>Multiple fracture
s, lue sclerae, hearing loss, and dental prolems
1242787547873 1342707643574 First step of collagen synthesis and where it oc
curs
Preprocollagen synthesis; occurs in RER
1242787547874 1342707643574 First form in collagen synthesis that is insolu
le
Tropocollagen
1242787547875 1342707643574 Ehlers-Danlos syndrome is a defect in what type
of collagen
Type III is most common<r /><r />(6 types of dz, w/ varied inh
eritance and severity)
1242787547876 1342707643574 Step of collagen synthesis following hydroxylati
on of proline and lysine residues, and where it occurs Glycosylation of hydroxy
lysine residues &amp; formation of <>procollagen</> (triple helix of 3 collage
n alpha chains);<r />occurs in ER
1242787547877 1342707643574 Two steps of collagen synthesis following exocyt
osis
Proteolytic processing (procollagen --&gt; insolule tropocollagen)<r /
><r />Crosslinking (tropocollagen --&gt; collagen firils)<r />-may e impaire
d in Ehlers Danlos
1242787547878 1342707643574 Glycosylated preprocollagen forms what? Triple h
elix procollagen
1242787547879 1342707643574 Step of collagen synthesis following translation
of preprocollagen, and where it occurs Hydroxylation of proline and lysine resi
dues; occurs in ER
1242787547880 1342707643574 Type IV collagen is found where Basement memran
e
1242787547881 1342707643574 Syndrome from faulty collagen synthesis with hyp
erextensile skin, easy ruising and leeding, and hypermoile joints Ehlers-D
anlos Syndrome
1242787547882 1342707643574 Complications associated with Ehlers-Danlos synd
rome
Berry aneurysms, joint dislocation, organ rupture
1242787547883 1342707643574 Cofactor required for hydroxylation of collagen
(y prolyl and lysly hydroxylase)?<r />Disease association?
Vitamin C<r /><
r />Impaired in scurvy
1242787547884 1342707643574 Osteogenesis imperfecta is a defect in what type
of collagen? Inheritance?
Type I<r><r>Autosomal dominant; incidence ~1:1
0,000
1242787547885 1342707643574 Collagen defect that is lethal in utero Osteogen
esis imperfecta type II
1242787547886 1342707643574 Elastin is rich in what amino acids
Proline,
glycine
1242787547887 1342707643574 Desmin stains what cells/tissue Muscle
1242787547888 1342707643574 GFAP stains what cells/tissue Neuroglia (astro
cytes)
1242787547889 1342707643574 Vimentin stains what cells/tissue
Connecti
ve tissue
1242787547890 1342707643574 Enzyme that inhiits elastase alpha-1-antitryp
sin
1242787547891 1342707643574 Cytokeratin stains what cells/tissue
Epitheli
al cells
1242787547892 1342707643574 Neurofilaments stain what cells/tissue Neurons
1242787554688 1342707643574 Location of HMP shunt Cytoplasm
1242787554689 1342707643574 Biotin is required for what steps of metaolism
Caroxylation reactions<r /><r />1. Pyruvate caroxylase: Pyruvate (3C) → oxaloa
cetate (4C)<r />2. Acetyl-CoA caroxylase: Acetyl-CoA (3C) → malonyl-CoA (4C)<r
/>3. Propionyl-CoA caroxylase: Propionyl-CoA (3C) → methylmalonyl-CoA (4C)
1242787554690 1342707643574 Aeroic metaolism of glucose y glycerol-3-phos
phate shuttle produces how many ATP?<r><r>Where?
30<r><r>Muscle
1242787554691 1342707643574 Location of acetyl-CoA production
Mitochon
dria
1242787554692 1342707643574 Aeroic metaolism of glucose y malate-aspartat
e shuttle produces how many ATP?<r /><r />Where?
32 ATP<r /><r />Heart

and liver
1242787554693 1342707643574 Location of fatty acid (eta) oxidation Mitochon
dria
1242787554694 1342707643574 Location of urea cycle Mitochondria, Cytoplasm
1242787554695 1342707643574 Location of TCA / Kres cycle Mitochondria
1242787554696 1342707643574 Location of steroid synthesis SER
1242787554697 1342707643574 Location of FA synthesis
Cytoplasm
1242787554698 1342707643574 Location of heme synthesis
Mitochondria, Cy
toplasm
1242787554699 1342707643574 Location of glycolysis Cytoplasm
1242787554700 1342707643574 Location of gluconeogenesis
Mitochondria, Cy
toplasm
1242787554701 1342707643574 Important irreversile enzymes of metaolism
Hexokinase/glucokinase<r />G6PD<r />PFK1<r />Citrate synthase, isocitrate deh
ydrogenase, a-KG dehydrogenase<r />Pyruvate kinase, pyruvate dehydrogenase
1242787554702 1342707643574 Anaeroic metaolism produces how many net ATP
2
1242787554703 1342707643574 Most potent activator of phosphofructokinase-1,
leading to enhanced glycolysis (rate-limiting step)
F2,6BP; made y phopshof
ructokinase-2 in fed state
1242787554704 1342707643574 Regulation y fructose-2,6-isphosphate <u>Fasti
ng state</u><r />↑ glucagon→ ↑cAMP→ ↑protein kinase A → ↑FBPase-2, ↓F2,6BP, less glycolysis<
/><r /><u>Fed state</u><r />↑ insulin→ ↓cAMP→ ↓protein kinase A → ↑PFK-2, ↑F2,6BP, more gly
ysis<r /><r /><r /><img src="pastewksqsu.jpg" />
1242787554705 1342707643574 Function of S-adenosyl-methionine (SAM) Transfer
methyl units
1242787554706 1342707643574 Location and characteristics of glucokinase
Liver and eta islet cells of pancreas<r><r>Low affinity (high Km), high capac
ity (high Vmax), induced y insulin
1242787554707 1342707643574 Feedack inhiition of hexokinase and glucokinas
e
Hexokinase: glucose-6-phosphate<r /><r />Glucokinase: no direct feeda
ck inhiition [indirectly via fructose-6=phosphate]<r />(&quot;glucokinase is a
glutton&quot; - high Vmax, allows liver to serve as lood glucose uffer via in
sulin)
1242787554708 1342707643574 Disease from NADPH oxidase deficiency Chronic
granulomatous disease
1242787554709 1342707643574 HMP shunt is active in which tissues? Requires A
TP?
Lactating mammary glands<r />Liver &amp; adrenal cortex (fatty acid &am
p; steroid synthesis)<r />RBCs<r /><r />No ATP used or produced
1242787554710 1342707643574 Universal electron acceptors
NAD+, NADP+, FAD
+<r><r>(NAD+ and NADP+ from B3 / nicotinic acid)<r>(FAD+ from B2 / rioflavin
)
1242787554711 1342707643574 NAD+ is used in (anaolic/cataolic) processes
Cataolic
1242787554712 1342707643574 Uses of NADPH 1) Anaolic processes (Steroid/F
A synthesis)<r />2) Respiratory urst<r />3) P450<r />4) Reduction of glutath
ione in RBCs<r />5) Polyol pathway
1242787554713 1342707643574 Steps of glycolysis that require ATP and produce
ATP
<img src="pasteuugwqo.jpg" />
1242787554714 1342707643574 NADPH is used in (anaolic/cataolic) processes
Anaolic
1242787554715 1342707643574 Action of S-adenosyl-methionine (SAM) is depende
nt on what
B12 and folate (for regeneration of methionine)
1242787554716 1342707643574 Cofactors of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
B1 (TPP), B2, B3, B5, lipoic acid<r /><r />(same as a-ketoglutarate dehydrogen
ase complex)
1242787554717 1342707643574 Location and characteristics of hexokinase
Uiquitous<r><r>High affinity (low Km), low capacity (low Vmax), not induced 
y insulin
1242787554718 1342707643574 Action of arsenic, and findings in toxicity

Inhiits lipoic acid (cofactor in pyruvate dehydogenase complex)<r /><r />Find
ings: vomiting, rice water stools, garlic reath<r><r>*treat overdose with dim
ercaprol
1242787554719 1342707643574 NADPH is a product of what pathway
HMP shun
t (oxidative)
1242787554720 1342707643574 Amino acid that carries amino groups from muscle
to liver<r /><r />Decreased in starvation state
Alanine<r /><r /><img
src="pasteuqwspy.jpg" /><r /><r /><>Follow the nitrogen!</>
1242787554721 1342707643574 Action of electron transport inhiitors Inhiit
electron transport =&gt; decrease proton gradient
1242787554722 1342707643574 ATPase inhiitors<r><r>Examples?<r>What do th
ey do? Oligomycin<r><r>Directly inhiits mitochondrial ATP synthase. <>Incre
ases</> proton gradient (vs. electron transport inhiitors or uncoupling agents
).
1242787554723 1342707643574 Action of ATPase inhiitors
Directly inhiit
ATP synthase. <>Increase</> proton gradient, ut electron transport stops.
1242787554724 1342707643574 Rate limiting step of nonoxidative HMP shunt
Transketolases<r><r><img src="pasteht4q6l.jpg" />
1242787554725 1342707643574 Uncoupling agents<r /><r />Examples?<r />What
do they do?
2,4-dinitrophenol, aspirin (fevers often occur after aspirin ove
rdose), thermogenin in rown fat<r /><r>Increase permeaility of inner mitocho
ndrial memrane, causing &quot;leak&quot; of H+ gradient and increased O2 consum
ption. Lose ATP synthesis, ut electron transport continues; produces heat.
1242787554726 1342707643574 What is produced y TCA cycle (per cycle)?
3 NADH<r />1 FADH2 (succinate --&gt; fumarate)<r />2 CO2<r />1 GTP (succinylcoa --&gt; succinate)<r /><r />= 12 ATP per acetyl-CoA (doule for glucose)<r
/><r /><img src="pastej1lxl.jpg" />
1242787554727 1342707643574 Cofactors for a-KG dehydrogenase complex
B1 (TPP), B2, B3, B5, lipoic acid<r /><r />(same as pyruvate dehydrogenase com
plex)
1242787554728 1342707643574 Irreversile enzymes in gluconeogenesis Pyruvate
caroxylase<r />PEP caroxykinase<r />Fructose-1,6-isphosphatase<r />Glucos
e-6-phosphatase<r /><r /><img src="paste4a5zg0.jpg" />
1242787554729 1342707643574 Pyruvate metaolism: what are 4 important pathwa
ys?<r /><r />(hint: consider enzyme names and reaction types) 1) Transaminated
to alanine, which carries amino groups from muscle to liver (reakdown of muscl
e for energy)<r />2) Caroxylated to oxaloacetate (anapleurotic, or used for gl
uconeogenesis)<r />3) Dehydrogenated to acetyl-CoA (links glycolysis and TCA cy
cle)<r />4) End point of anaeroic glycolysis<r /><r /><img src="pasteygqvd.
jpg" />
1242787554730 1342707643574 Rxn catalyzed y pyruvate caroxylase, cofactors
required, and location in cell <span style="color:#ff0000;">Gluconeogenesis:</s
pan><span style="color:#000000;"> pyruvate --&gt; oxaloacetate (in mito)</span><
r /><r />Biotin, ATP<r /><r /><img src="paste4a5zg0.jpg" />
1242787554731 1342707643574 Electron transport inhiitors<r><r>Examples?<
r>What do they do?
Rotenone, CN-, antimycin A, CO<r><r>Directly inhiit e
lectron transport, causing decrease in proton gradient and lock of ATP synthesi
s
1242787554732 1342707643574 Pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency is seen in wha
t patients?<r /><r />Pathophysiology? Congenital or acquired (alcoholic B1 def
iciency)<r /><r />Backup of sustrate (pyruvate and alanine) =&gt; <>lactic a
cidosis</>
1242787554733 1342707643574 Treatment of pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency
Increased intake of ketogenic nutrients: <>lysine &amp; leucine</>, high fat d
iet
1242787554734 1342707643574 Rxn catalyzed y PEP caroxykinase, and cofactor
s required
<span style="color:#ff0000;">Gluconeogenesis:</span> oxaloacetat
e --&gt; phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)<r /><r />GTP<r /><r /><img src="paste4a5z
g0.jpg" />
1242787554735 1342707643574 Action of uncoupling agents
Decreased proton

gradient, ATP production stops, <>electron transport continues</>
1242787554736 1342707643574 Gluconeogenesis occurs where? Enzyme deficiencie
s lead to what state? Primarily in liver (also kidney, intestine)<r /><r />H
ypoglycemia
1242787554737 1342707643574 What is the purpose of the Cori cycle? How does
it work?
Shifts metaolic urden of anaeroic metaolism from muscle/RBCs
to liver<r /><r />Lactate generated in anaeroic metaolism (eg. muscle, RBCs
) is sent to liver and is converted ack to glucose, at a cost of 4 ATP per cycl
e
1242787554738 1342707643574 Rate limiting step of oxidative HMP shunt
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD)<r><r><img src="pasteht4q6l.jpg" />
1242787554739 1342707643574 Findings in ammonia intoxication
Tremor,
slurred speech, somnolence, vomiting, cereral edema, lurring of vision
1242787554740 1342707643574 Disease with cataracts, hepatosplenomegaly, ment
al retardation; due to uildup of galactitol
Galactosemia
1242787554741 1342707643574 Fructose intolerance<r><r>Inheritance and defe
ct?<r>What accumulates, and pathogenesis?<r>Symptoms?<r>Treatment? AR defic
iency of <>aldolase B</><r><r>Fructose-1-phosphate accumulates, causing decr
ease in availale phosphate, which results in inhiition of glycogenolysis and g
luconeogenesis<r><r>Hypoglycemia, jaundice, cirrhosis, vomiting<r><r>Tx: dec
rease intake of oth fructose and sucrose (= glucose + fructose)<r><r>
1242787554742 1342707643574 Ketogenic amino acids Leucine, lysine
1242787554743 1342707643574 Basic amino acids
Arginine, lysine, histid
ine<r /><r />(positively charged; arginine and lysine are found in histones, w
hich ind neg-charged DNA)
1242787554744 1342707643574 Most asic amino acid Arginine
1242787554745 1342707643574 Disease with loating, cramps, and osmotic diarr
hea; disease is age dependent and hereditary
Lactase deficiency<r /><r />(a
rush-order enzyme; may also transiently follow gastroenteritis)
1242787554746 1342707643574 Nonoxidative HMP shunt is (reversile/irreversi
le)
Reversile
1242787554747 1342707643574 Fructokinase defect that is enign?<r /><r />I
nheritance, defect, symptoms? Essential fructosuria<r /><r />AR defect in <
>fructokinase</>; fructose appears in lood and urine (does not enter cells)<r
/><r />Otherwise asymptomatic<r /><r /><img src="pasteqo84jl.jpg" />
1242787554748 1342707643574 Oxidative HMP shunt is (reversile/irreversile)
Irreversile<r>
1242787554749 1342707643574 Glucogenic amino acids Methionine, valine, argi
nine, histidine
1242787554750 1342707643574 Acidic amino acids
Aspartic acid, glutamic
acid<r /><r />(negatively charged at ody pH)
1242787554751 1342707643574 Fructose intolerance is due to what mutation, an
d inheritance AR deficiency of <>aldolase B</><r><span style=" font-weight:
600;"></span><r><img src="pasteqo84jl.jpg" />
1242787554752 1342707643574 Nonoxidative HMP shunt is used to produce
Riose-5-phosphate, G3P, F6P
1242787554753 1342707643574 Ammonia intoxication is seen with what diseases
Liver disease, ornithine transcaramoylase deficiency
1242787554754 1342707643574 G6P dehydrogenase deficiency- what happens?
NADPH is necessary to keep glutathione reduced (to detox free radicals)<r><r>G
6PD deficiency leads to hemolytic anemia /c RBCs are vulnerale to oxidative st
ress<r>-dapsone<r>-primaquine<r>-sulfonamides<r>-fava eans<r>-infxns
1242787554755 1342707643574 Glucogenic/ketogenic amino acids
Isoleuci
ne, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan
1242787554756 1342707643574 Transketolases require what cofactors Thiamine
(B1)
1242787554757 1342707643574 Precipitates of altered hemogloin in RBCs
Heinz odies
1242787554758 1342707643574 Amino acid with no charge at ody pH
Histidin
e

1242787554759 1342707643574 Classic galactosemia<r /><r />Defect and inher
itance?<r />Pathogenesis?<r />Symptoms?<r />Treatment?
AR loss of <>ga
lactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase</><r /><r />Damage is caused y accumul
ation of toxic sustances (including galactitol, which accumulates in lens of ey
e)<r /><r />Failure to thrive, jaundice, hepatomegaly, infantile cataracts, me
ntal retardation<r /><r />Tx: exclude galactose and lactose (= glucose + galac
tose) from diet<r /><r /><img src="pasteqdzha.jpg" /><r /><r />
1242787554760 1342707643574 Galactokinase deficiency leads to?<r /><r />Sy
mptoms? Accumulation of galactitol if galactose is present in diet<r /><r />Ga
lactosemia, galactosuria, infantile cataracts;<r />may present as failure to tr
ack ojects or develop social smile<r /><r /><img src="pasteqdzha.jpg" />
1242787554761 1342707643574 AR disease with mental retardation, growth retar
dation, fair skin, eczema, and musty ody odor Phenylketonuria
1242787554762 1342707643574 Cystinuria is treated with
Acetazolamide (t
o alkalinize the urine)
1242787554763 1342707643574 Phenylalanine derivatives
Thyroxine, melan
in, dopamine, NE, epinephrine<r /><r /><img src="pastejuuh2y.jpg" />
1242787554764 1342707643574 Black urine on prolonged exposure to air is seen
with what disease
Alkaptonuria (ochronosis)
1242787554765 1342707643574 Amino acids that can't e transported in cystinu
ria
COLA (cystine, ornithine, lysine, arginine)
1242787554766 1342707643574 Congenital defect of homogentisic acid oxidase
Alkaptonuria (ochronosis)
1242787554767 1342707643574 Tryptophan derivatives Niacin (B3) &amp; NAD+/N
ADP+, serotonin, melatonin<r /><r /><img src="pasteqwaydh.jpg" />
1242787554768 1342707643574 Alinism has what inheritance pattern Variale
inheritance due to locus heterogeneity<r>[vs. ocular alinism- X-linked recess
ive]<r><r>Can result from failure of neural crest migration
1242787554769 1342707643574 Disorder with tyrosinase deficiency or defective
tyrosine transporters Alinism<r /><r />(Tyrosinse deficiency: AR, can't syn
thesize melanin from tyrosine)<r />(Defective tyrosine transporters: ↓ amounts of
tyrosine and thus melanin)
1242787554770 1342707643574 Cysteine ecomes essential in what disease?
Homocystinuria<r /><r /><img src="pastepxtmc.jpg" />
1242787554771 1342707643574 Disease due to locked degradation of ranched a
mino acids
Maple syrup urine disease
1242787554772 1342707643574 Homocystinuria can e caused y what three mecha
nisms?<r />Treatment?<r />Inheritance?
1) Cystathionine synthase defici
ency (tx: ↓ Met and ↑ Cys, and ↑ B12 and folate in diet)<r />2) Decreased affinity of
cystathionine synthase for pyridoxal phosphate (tx: ↑↑ vitamin B6 in diet)<r />3)
Methionine synthase deficiency (requires B12)<r /><r />All forms are autosomal
recessive<r /><r /><img src="pastepxtmc.jpg" />
1242787554773 1342707643574 Urea cycle steps
<img src="pasteyrk_3.jp
g" />
1242787554774 1342707643574 Treatment of ammonia intoxication
1) Limit
protein in diet<r /><r />2) Benzoate or phenylutyrate (oth ind amino acids
and lead to excretion) may e given to lower ammonia levels<r /><r />3) Lactu
lose to acidify GI and trap NH4+ for excretion
1242787554775 1342707643574 Common (~1:7,000) autosomal recessive disease wi
th defect in renal PCT amino acid transport for 4 amino acids?<r /><r />Findin
gs?
Cystinuria<r /><r />Can lead to precipitation of <>cystine kidney sto
nes </>(cystine staghorn calculi)<r /><r />[cystine is made from 2 cysteines
connected y disulfide ond]
1242787554776 1342707643574 Arginine derivatives
Creatine, urea, nitric o
xide<r /><r /><img src="pastef_6fmi.jpg" /><r /><r />*arginine + glycine = c
reatine
1242787554777 1342707643574 Glycine derivatives
Porphyrin, heme<r /><r
/><img src="paste0anhl9.jpg" />
1242787554778 1342707643574 Disease with mental retardation, osteoporosis, t
all stature, kyphosis, lens suluxation, atherosclerosis
Homocystinuria

1242787554779 1342707643574 Mechanism of symptoms in ammonia intoxication
NH4+ depletes a-ketoglutarate, leading to inhiition of TCA cycle
1242787554780 1342707643574 Alkaptonuria (ochronosis)<r /><r />Defect?<r
/>Inheritance?<r />Findings? Congenital deficiency of <>homogentisic acid ox
idase</> in degradative pathway of tyrosine to fumarate<r /><r />Autosomal re
cessive<r /><r />Benign disease; dark connective tissue, rown sclera, urine t
urns lack on prolonged exposure to air.<r />May have deilitating arthralgias
/c homogentisic acid is toxic to cartilage.<r /><r /><img src="pasteosge35.jp
g" />
1242787554781 1342707643574 Glutamate derivatives GABA (requires B6), glut
athione<r /><r /><img src="pastez1z8gt.jpg" />
1242787554782 1342707643574 Glycogen storage disease with cardiomegaly and s
ystemic findings leading to early death Pompe's disease (Type II)<r><r><img sr
c="pastexugtnd.jpg" />
1242787554783 1342707643574 GLUT2 receptor is located in
B-islet cells, l
iver, kidney, small intestine
1242787554784 1342707643574 Enzyme deficiency that leads to SCID
Adenosin
e deaminase deficiency<r /><r /><img src="pasteyoqj64.jpg" />
1242787554785 1342707643574 GLUT1 receptor is located in
RBCs, Brain
1242787554786 1342707643574 Presentation of maple syrup urine disease
Severe CNS defects, mental retardation, and death<r /><r />Urine smells like &
quot;urnt sugar&quot; or &quot;caramel&quot; (they're not going to say &quot;ma
ple syrup&quot;...)
1242787554787 1342707643574 Glycogen storage disease that is a milder form o
f Von Gierke's (Type I) with normal lood lactate levels
Cori's disease (
Type III)<r /><r /><img src="pastexugtnd.jpg" />
1242787554788 1342707643574 GLUT receptor that is insulin responsive
GLUT4 (also stereoselective for D-glucose)
1242787554789 1342707643574 Effect of insulin on kidney
Increased sodium
retention
1242787554790 1342707643574 GLUT receptor that is idirectional
GLUT2
1242787554791 1342707643574 End products of liver metaolism in fed state
Glycogen, VLDL
1242787554792 1342707643574 Inheritance of Lesch-Nyhan
X-linked recessi
ve
1242787554793 1342707643574 Enzyme deficiency in maple syrup urine disease?
What is found in lood? Branched chain a-keto acid dehydrogenase (BCKA dehydroge
nase)<r><r>Elevated a-keto acids in lood (especially Leu)
1242787554794 1342707643574 End products of liver metaolism in fasting stat
e
Glucose, ketone odies
1242787554795 1342707643574 GLUT4 receptor is located in
Adipose tissue,
skeletal muscle
1242787554796 1342707643574 Sustance that uilds up in Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
Uric acid<r /><r /><img src="pasteyoqj64.jpg" />
1242787554797 1342707643574 Amino acids not degraded in maple syrup urine di
sease Isoleucine, valine, leucine (ranched chain AAs)
1242787554798 1342707643574 Serum marker present only with endogenous insuli
n
C-peptide
1242787554799 1342707643574 Mechanism in adenosine deaminase deficiency
Excess ATP and dATP imalances nucleotide pool &amp; feedack-inhiits rionucle
ase reductase<r /><r />Prevents DNA synthesis: dec lymphocyte count, SCID<r /
><r /><img src="pasteyoqj64.jpg" />
1242787554800 1342707643574 Glycogen is degraded in lysosomes y
a-1,4-gl
ucosidase (acid maltase)
1242787554801 1342707643574 Disease caused y lack of HGPRTase<r /><r /><i
mg src="pasteyoqj64.jpg" />
Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome
1242787554802 1342707643574 Glycogen storage disease with severe fasting hyp
oglycemia, increased liver glycogen, increased lood lactate, and hepatomegaly
Von Gierke's disease (Type I)<r /><r /><img src="pastexugtnd.jpg" />
1242787554803 1342707643574 Disease with mental retardation, self-mutilation

, aggression, hyperuricemia, gout, and choreoathetosis<r /><r />Excess uric ac
id production, requires more de novo purine synthesis Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome (a
sence of HGPRT)<r /><r /><img src="pasteyoqj64.jpg" />
1242787554804 1342707643574 Disease with hepatosplenomegaly, aseptic necrosi
s of femur, one crises, and macrophages
Gaucher's disease<r><r><img sr
c="pasteiz2un7.jpg" />
1242787554805 1342707643574 Disease with progressive neurodegeneration, hepa
tosplenomegaly, cherry-red spot (on macula)
Niemann-Pick disease<r /><r />
<img src="pasteiz2un7.jpg" />
1242787554806 1342707643574 Deficient enzyme, accumulated sustrate in Tay-S
achs disease
Hexosaminidase A, GM2 ganglioside<r /><r /><img src="pasteiz2u
n7.jpg" />
1242787554807 1342707643574 X-linked recessive lysosomal storage diseases?<
r /><r />Inheritance of other lysosomal storage disease?
Fary's disease,
Hunter's syndrome<r /><r />Others are autosomal recessive
1242787554808 1342707643574 Glycogen storage disease with increased muscle g
lycogen, inaility to reak down muscle glycogen (cramps), and myogloinuria wit
h strenuous exercise
McArdle's disease (Type V)<r><r><img src="pastexugtnd.
jpg" />
1242787554809 1342707643574 Deficient enzyme in Cori's disease
Deranch
ing enzyme a-1,6-glucosidase<r /><r />*liver iopsy shows small chain dextrinlike material in hepatocytes, vs. normal glycogen structure in Von Gierke's<r /
><r /><img src="pastexugtnd.jpg" />
1242787554810 1342707643574 Deficient enzyme, accumulated sustrate in Hunte
r's syndrome
Iduronate sulfatase, Heparan sulfate/dermatan sulfate<r><r><im
g src="pasteifafh.jpg" />
1242787554811 1342707643574 Deficient enzyme in Von Gierke's disease
Glucose-6-phosphatase<r><r><img src="pastexugtnd.jpg" />
1242787554812 1342707643574 Deficient enzyme, accumulated sustrate in Hurle
r's syndrome
a-L-iduronidase, Heparan sulfate/dermatan sulfate<r><r><img sr
c="pasteifafh.jpg" />
1242787554813 1342707643574 Disease with peripheral neuropathy, developmenta
l delay, and optic atrophy
Krae's disease<r><r><img src="pasteiz2un7.jp
g" />
1242787554814 1342707643574 Deficient enzyme in Pompe's disease
Lysosoma
l a-1,4-glucosidase (acid maltase)<r><r><img src="pastexugtnd.jpg" />
1242787554815 1342707643574 Disease with progressive neurodegeneration, deve
lopmental delay, cherry-red spot, lysozymes with onion skin
Tay-Sachs diseas
e<r><r><img src="pasteiz2un7.jpg" />
1242787554816 1342707643574 Disease that is a mild form of Hurler's with agg
resive ehavior, ut no corneal clouding
Hunter's syndrome<r><r><img sr
c="pasteifafh.jpg" />
1242787554817 1342707643574 Enzyme deficient in McArdle's disease Skeletal
muscle glycogen phophorylase<r><r><img src="pastexugtnd.jpg" />
1242787554818 1342707643574 Disease with developmental delay, gargoylism, ai
rway ostruction, corneal clouding, and hepatosplenomegaly
Hurler's syndrom
e (gargoyles in the clouds hurl when their airways are ostructed)<r /><r /><i
mg src="pasteifafh.jpg" />
1242787554819 1342707643574 Deficient enzyme, accumulated sustrate in Gauch
er's disease
B-glucocererosidase, glucocereroside<r><r><img src="pasteiz2
un7.jpg" />
1242787554820 1342707643574 Deficient enzyme, accumulated sustrate in Fary
's disease
a-galactosidase A, Ceramide trihexoside<r /><r /><img src="pas
teiz2un7.jpg" />
1242787554821 1342707643574 Mucopolysaccharidoses Hurler's syndrome, Hunte
r's syndrome<r /><r /><img src="pasteifafh.jpg" />
1242787554822 1342707643574 Disease with central and periphral demyelination
with ataxia and dementia
Metachromatic leukodystrophy<r /><r /><img src
="pasteiz2un7.jpg" />
1242787554823 1342707643574 Deficient enzyme, accumulated sustrate in Niema

nn-Pick disease Sphingomyelinase, sphingomyelin<r /><r /><img src="pasteiz2un7
.jpg" />
1242787554824 1342707643574 Deficient enzyme, accumulated sustrate in metac
hromatic leukodystrophy Arylsulfatase A, cereroside sulfate<r /><r /><img src
="pasteiz2un7.jpg" />
1242787554825 1342707643574 Deficient enzyme, accumulated sustrate in Kra
e's disease
galactocererosidase, galactocereroside<r /><r /><img src="pa
steiz2un7.jpg" />
1242787554826 1342707643574 Disease with peripheral neuropathy of hands/feet
, angiokeratomas, CV, and renal disease Fary's disease<r /><r /><img src="pas
teiz2un7.jpg" />
1242787554827 1342707643574 Action of apolipoprotein E
Mediates remnant
uptake
1242787554828 1342707643574 Catalyzes esterification of cholesterol Lecithin
-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT)
1242787554829 1342707643574 Lipoprotein that transports cholesterol from liv
er to tissue
LDL
1242787554830 1342707643574 What can e metaolized to ketones? Where?<r>
Fatty acids, certain amino acids<r><r>In the liver
1242787554831 1342707643574 Action of apolipoprotein CII
Cofactor for lip
oprotein lipase
1242787554832 1342707643574 Shuttle that moves Acyl-CoA <>into</> mitochon
dria in FA <>degradation</> Carnitine shuttle (&quot;carnitine = carnage of
fatty acids&quot;)<r /><r /><img src="pastej1wuqt.jpg" />
1242787554833 1342707643574 Mediates transfer of cholesterol esters to other
lipoprotein particles Cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP)
1242787554834 1342707643574 Action of apolipoprotein B100 Binds LDL recept
or
1242787554835 1342707643574 2/3 of plasma cholesterol is esterified y
Lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT)
1242787554836 1342707643574 Deficiency that leads to inaility to utilize lo
ng chain fatty acids resulting in toxic accumulation?<r /><r />Symptoms?
Carnitine deficiency<r /><r /><>Hypoketotic hypoglycemia</>, weakness, hypot
onia
1242787554837 1342707643574 Ketogenesis pathway? Metaolized y rain into?
Acetyl-COa --&gt; Acetoacetyl-CoA --&gt; HMG-CoA --&gt; Acetoacetate --&gt; -hy
droxyutyrate<r /><r />2 acetyl-CoA<r /><r /><img src="pasteu0vxqy.jpg" />
1242787554838 1342707643574 Action of apolipoprotein A1
Activates LCAT
1242787554839 1342707643574 Degrades dietary TG in small intestine Pancreat
ic lipase
1242787554840 1342707643574 Action of apolipoprotein B48
Mediates chylomi
cron secretion
1242787554841 1342707643574 Shuttle that moves Acetyl-CoA <>out</> of mito
chondria in FA <>synthesis</> Citrate shuttle (&quot;sytrate = synthesis&quot;
)<r /><r /><img src="pasteoy8zk4.jpg" />
1242787554842 1342707643574 Degrades TG circulating in chylomicrons and VLDL
s
Lipoprotein lipase
1242787554843 1342707643574 Degrades TGs remaining in IDL Hepatic TG lipas
e
1242787554844 1342707643574 Degrades TG stored in adipocytes
Hormonesensitive lipase
1242787554845 1342707643574 Essential fatty acids Linoleic, linolenic acid
s, arachidonic acid if linoleic acid asent
1242787554846 1342707643574 Urine test for ketones detects what?
Acetoace
tate (not B-hydroxyutyrate)
1242787554847 1342707643574 Delivers dietary triglycerides to peripheral tis
sues and dietary cholesterol to liver. Secreted y intestinal epithelial cells.
Chylomicrons
1242787554848 1342707643574 Apolipoproteins found on IDL
B100, E
1242787554849 1342707643574 Lipoprotein that transports cholesterol from per

iphery to liver HDL
1242787554850 1342707643574 Underproduction of heme causes what disease
Microcytic hypochromic anemia
1242787554851 1342707643574 Excess of what lipoprotein leads to pancreatitis
, hepatosplenomegaly, eruptive and pruritic xanthomas Chylomicrons
1242787554852 1342707643574 Formed in the degradation of VLDL, delivers trig
lycerides and cholesterol to liver
IDL
1242787554853 1342707643574 Acts as a repository for apoC and apoE, secreted
from oth liver and intestine HDL
1242787554854 1342707643574 Accumulation of heme intermediates causes what s
yndromes
Porphyrias
1242787554855 1342707643574 Excess of what lipoprotein causes pancreatitis
Chylomicron, VLDL
1242787554856 1342707643574 Excess of what lipoprotein causes atherosclerosi
s, xanthomas, and arcus corneae LDL
1242787554857 1342707643574 Delivers hepatic triglycerides to peripheral tis
sues, secreted y liver VLDL
1242787554858 1342707643574 Apolipoproteins found on chylomicrons B48, A,
C, and E
1242787554859 1342707643574 Apolipoproteins found on LDL
B100
1242787554860 1342707643574 Dyslipidemia with asent or decreased LDL recept
ors?<r />Increased lipoprotein?<r />Elevated lood levels?
Type IIa (famili
al hypercholesterolemia)<r /><r />LDL<r /><r />Cholesterol
1242787554861 1342707643574 Apolipoproteins found on VLDL B100, CII, and E
1242787554862 1342707643574 Dyslipidemia with hepatic overproduction of VLDL
?<r>Increased lipoprotein?<r>Elevated lood levels? Type IV (hypertrigycerid
emia)<r /><r />VLDL<r /><r />TGs
1242787554863 1342707643574 Dyslipidemia with lipoprotein lipase deficiency
or altered apolipoprotein CII?<r>Increased lipoproteins?<r>Elevated lood leve
ls?
Type I (hyperchylomicronemia)<r><r>Chylomicrons<r><r>TGs, cholestero
l
1242787554864 1342707643574 Enzyme affected in lead poisoning
Ferroche
latase and ALA dehydrase
1242787554865 1342707643574 Symptoms of porphyrias Painful adomen, pink ur
ine, polyneuropathy, psychological disturances, precipitated y drugs
1242787554866 1342707643574 What factors lead to increased T form of hemoglo
Increased Cl-, H+, CO2, 2,3-BPG, and temperature
in
1242787554867 1342707643574 Fetal hemogloin has lower affinity for what com
pound 2,3-BPG
1242787554868 1342707643574 Accumuated urine sustrate in lead poisoning
Coproporphyrin and ALA
1242787554869 1342707643574 Methemogloin has high affinity for what compoun
d
CN1242787554870 1342707643574 CO2 inds to what for transport Gloin chain at
N terminus, not heme
1242787554871 1342707643574 T form of hemogloin has what O2 affinity
Low
1242787554872 1342707643574 Uroilinogen reasored into lood is excreted a
s what in urine Uroilin
1242787554873 1342707643574 Biliruin is conjugated with what in the liver
Glucuronate
1242787554874 1342707643574 Form of hemogloin ound to CO rather than O2
Caroxyhemogloin
1242787554875 1342707643574 Oxidized form of hemogloin that does not ind O
2
Methemogloin
1242787554876 1342707643574 Iron in hemogloin is normally in what state
Reduced (Fe2+, &quot;ferrous&quot;)
1242787554877 1342707643574 Treat toxic levels of methemogloin with
Methylene lue
1242787554878 1342707643574 Enzyme affected in porphyria cutanea tarda

Uroporphyrinogen decaroxylase
1242787554879 1342707643574 R form of hemogloin has what O2 affinity
High
1242787554880 1342707643574 Accumulated urine sustrate in porphyria cutanea
tarda Uroporphyrin (tea-colored)
1242787554881 1342707643574 Suunits of fetal hemogloin
2 alpha, 2 gamma
1242787554882 1342707643574 Enzyme affected in acute intermittent porphyria
Porphoilinogen deaminase (Uroporphyrinogen I synthase)
1242787554883 1342707643574 Suunits of adult hemogloin
2 alpha, 2 eta
1242787554884 1342707643574 Accumuated urine sustrate in acute intermittent
porphyria
Porphoilinogen and delta-aminolevulinic acid
1242787561446 1342707643574 Genetics where a heterozygote produces a non-fun
ctioning protein that also prevents the normal gene product from working<r><r>
Example?
Dominant negative<r><r>A transcription factor with mutated all
osteric site; can still ind DNA preventing normal tx factor from inding
1242787561447 1342707643574 Genetics where difference in phenotype depends o
n parental source of mutation Imprinting
1242787561448 1342707643574 If a patient inherits or develops a mutation in
a tumor suppressor gene (1st hit), the complementary allele must e deleted or m
utated efore cancer develops (2nd hit)<r /><r />What is the term descriing t
his event?
Loss of heterozygosity
1242787561449 1342707643574 Tendency for certain alleles to occur together m
ore often than predicted y chance<r><r>Measured in a population, not in a fam
ily;<r>Often varies in different populations Linkage disequilirium
1242787561450 1342707643574 Genetics where neither allele is dominant; effec
ts of oth are visile<r><r>Example? Codominance<r><r>Blood groups (AB codo
minance).
1242787561451 1342707643574 Genetics where mutations at different loci produ
ce the same effect
Locus heterogenity
1242787561452 1342707643574 Genetics where a single genetic mutation results
in mutilple phenotypic manifestations Pleiotropy
1242787561453 1342707643574 Genetics where nature and severity of a phenotyp
e varies y individual Variale Expression<r /><r />Eg. varying dz severity i
n NF1
1242787561454 1342707643574 Genetics where the severity of a disease worsens
or age of onset lessens each generation
Anticipation
1242787561455 1342707643574 Genetics where not all individuals with a genoty
pe show the phenotype Incomplete penetrance
1242787561456 1342707643574 Disease with mental retardation, oesity, hypogo
nadism, and hypotonia from paternal allele deletion
Prader-Willi Syndrome<r
/><r />(maternal allele is inactivated, paternal is deleted)
1242787561457 1342707643574 Inheritance:<r /><r />Either sons or daughters
of affected mother may e affected<r /><r />All daughters of affected father
are affected
X-linked Dominant
1242787561458 1342707643574 Ocular changes in Marfan's syndrome
Suluxat
ion of lenses
1242787561459 1342707643574 Lisch nodules are seen with what disease
Neurofiromatosis I
1242787561460 1342707643574 Disease with mental retardation, seizures, ataxi
a, and inappropriate laughter due to a maternal deletion
Angelman's Syndr
ome<r /><r />(paternal allele is inactivated, maternal is deleted)
1242787561461 1342707643574 Genetic disorder with asent LDL receptor?<r />
<r />Inheritance?<r />
Familial hypercholesterolemia (type IIa hyperlip
idemia)<r /><r />AD
1242787561462 1342707643574 Von Hippel-Lindau mutation is where?<r /><r />
Pathophys?
VHL (tumor suppressor) on chromosome 3p<r /><r />Constitutive
expression of HIF transcription factor and activation of angiogenic growth facto
rs
1242787561463 1342707643574 Tuerous sclerosis signs/symptoms
Facial l
esions, ash leaf spots, cortical/retinal hamartomas, seizures, mental retardatio

n, renal cysts and angiomyolipomas, cardiac rhadomyomas, increased incidence of
astrocytomas
1242787561464 1342707643574 AD disease with hemangiolastomas of retina, cer
eellum, and medulla, 1/2 have ilateral renal cell carcinomas Von Hippel-Linda
u<r><r>(*note: constitutive HIF, angiogenic growth factors =&gt; hemangiolast
omas)
1242787561465 1342707643574 AD disease with ilateral acoustic schwannomas a
nd juvenile cataracts Neurofiromatosis II
1242787561466 1342707643574 Disease that has cystic medial necrosis of aorta
, aortic incompetence, and a floppy mitral valve
Marfan's Syndrome
1242787561467 1342707643574 Genetics where all offspring of affected females
have disease?<r /><r />Three important examples?
Mitochondrial inheritanc
e<r><r>1) Leer hereditary optic neuropathy<r>2) Myoclonic epilepsy w/ ragged
red fiers<r>3) Mitochondrial encepalopathy with lactic acidosis and stroke-li
ke episodes (MELAS)
1242787561468 1342707643574 Juvenile polycystic kidney disease has what form
of inheritance Autosomal recessive
1242787561469 1342707643574 Huntington's disease has a decrease in what neur
otransmitters GABA, ACh
1242787561470 1342707643574 Marfan's syndrome is due to a mutation of what p
rotein Firillin
1242787561471 1342707643574 Neurofiromatosis II mutation is where NF2 on c
hromosome 22
1242787561472 1342707643574 Mutation in neurofiromatosis I Long arm of chro
mosome 17 (17 letters in von Recklinghausen)<r /><r />(17q)
1242787561473 1342707643574 Tuerous sclerosis has what inheritance pattern
AD, incomplete penetrance
1242787561474 1342707643574 Complications associated with adult polycystic k
idney disease Berry aneurysms, mitral prolapse, polycystic liver disease
1242787561475 1342707643574 Always ilateral, large kidney cysts with pain,
hematuria, and HTN, AD inheritance?<r /><r />Gene, chromosome?
Adult Po
lycystic Kidney Disease<r /><r />90% due to mutation in PKD1 (chromosome 16)
1242787561476 1342707643574 Disease with depression, dementia, choreiform mo
vments, caudate atrophy Huntington's Disease
1242787561477 1342707643574 Disease with tall stature, long extremities, pec
tus excavatum, hyperextensive joints, and long fingers/toes
Marfan's Syndrom
e
1242787561478 1342707643574 Neurofiramotosis I signs/symptoms<r><r>
Cafe-au-lait spots, neural tumors, and lisch nodules (pigmented iris hamartomas)
<r /><r />Also skeletal disorders (eg. scoliosis) and optic gliomas
1242787561479 1342707643574 Disease where the colon is covered in polyps fol
lowing puerty Familial adenomatous polyposis
1242787561480 1342707643574 Familial adenomatous polyposis mutation is where
? Gene? Chromosome 5 deletion (APC gene)
1242787561481 1342707643574 Disease caused y mutated, ut not deleted, dyst
rophin. Onset in adolescence or early adulthood.
Becker's
1242787561482 1342707643574 Huntington's mutation is where CAG triplet expa
nsion on chromosome 4
1242787561483 1342707643574 Cystic firosis lung infections are typically du
e to what organisms
Pseudomonas, S. aureus
1242787561484 1342707643574 Disease with macro-orchidism, long face w/ large
jaw, large everted ears, autism, and mitral prolapse Fragile X
1242787561485 1342707643574 Trinucleotide repeat disorders and specific repe
ats
Huntington's (CAG), Fragile X (CGG), Myotonic dystrophy (CTG), Friedreic
h's ataxia (GAA)
1242787561486 1342707643574 La value that is increased with hereditary sphe
rocytosis
MCHC
1242787561487 1342707643574 Disease with spheroid erythrocytes, increased MC
HC, and hemolytic anemia
Hereditary spherocytosis
1242787561488 1342707643574 Achondroplasia<r><r>Phenotype?<r>Associated w

ith?
Disease with dwarfism, short lims, ut normal head/trunk size<r /><r
/>Associated w/ advanced paternal age
1242787561489 1342707643574 Achondroplasia<r><r>Inheritance?<r>Mutation?
AD cell signaling defect of FGF receptor 3
1242787561490 1342707643574 X-linked recessive disorders
Be Wise, Fool's
GOLD Heeds (false) Hope<r /><r />(Bruton's agammagloulinemia, Wiskott-Aldrich
, Fary's, G6PD deficiency, Ocular alinism, Lesch-Nyhan, Duchenne's &amp; Becke
r's, Hemophilia A&amp;B, Hunter's)
1242787561491 1342707643574 Second most common cause of genetic mental retar
dation in US
Fragile X (1st is Down syndrome)
1242787561492 1342707643574 Treatment for cystic firosis N-acetylcysteine
to loosen mucous plugs (cleaves disulfide onds within mucous glycoproteins)
1242787561493 1342707643574 Muscle loss due to Duchenne's is seen where firs
t
Pelvic girdle (progresses superiorly)
1242787561494 1342707643574 Diagnosis of Duchenne's is made y what Increase
d CPK, muscle iopsy
1242787561495 1342707643574 Cystic firosis mutation is where? What is the e
ffect? CFTR on chromosome 7 (deletion of Phe508)<r /><r />Mutation causes an
ormal protein folding, resulting in degradation efore reaching cell memrane
1242787561496 1342707643574 Treatment for hereditary spherocytosis Splenect
omy
1242787561497 1342707643574 Cystic firosis- major s/sx<r> Mucus plugs in l
ungs, pancreas, and liver<r /><r />Also chronic ronchitis, ronchiectasis, <
>nasal polyps</>, <>meconium ileus</> in neworns
1242787561498 1342707643574 Disease due to frame shift deletion of dystrophi
n
Duchenne's
1242787561499 1342707643574 Fragile X is due to what genetic prolem
Methylation disorder of FMR 1<r><r>Trinucleotide repeat of CGG
1242787561500 1342707643574 22q11 microdeletion can varialy present as whic
h diseases?<r><r />Presenation of each?
DiGeorge- thymic, parathyroid, c
ardiac defects<r><r>Velocardiofacial- palate, facial, cardiac defects
1242787561501 1342707643574 Most common chromosomal disorder
Trisomy
21
1242787561502 1342707643574 Disease with microcephaly, mental retardation, e
picanthal folds, cardiac anomalies, and high-pitched cry
Cri-du-chat
1242787561503 1342707643574 Genetic etiology of Down Syndrome
95% meio
tic nondisjunction (a/w advanced maternal age)<r />4% roertsonian translocatio
n<r />1% mosaicism (nondisjunction in early emryo; no maternal association)
1242787561504 1342707643574 Most common cause of genetic mental retardation
in US Trisomy 21
1242787561505 1342707643574 Disease with mental retardation, flat facial pro
file, ga twn first 2 toes, simian crease, duodenal atresia, and ASD Down syn
drome
1242787561506 1342707643574 Trisomy 18 las Edward's syndrome<r><r>↓ a-fetop
rotein<r><>↓ </>eta hCG (contrast with Down)<r>↓ estriol<r>Normal inhiin A (c
ontrast with Down)
1242787561507 1342707643574 Disease with severe mental retardation, rocker-
ottom feet, micropthalmia, microcephaly, cleft lip/palate, holoprosencephaly, an
d polydactyly<r><r>Death w/in 1 year of irth Patau's syndrome
1242787561508 1342707643574 Disease with severe mental retardation, rocker 
ottom feet, low set ears, <>clenched hands</>, congenital heart disease, and m
icrognathia
Edwards' syndrome
1242787561509 1342707643574 Cri-du-chat mutation is where? Associated cardia
c defect?
Deletion of chromosome 5 short arm (46,XX or X, 5p-)<r /><r /
>VSD<r><r>(symptoms include microcephaly, mental retardation, epicanthal folds
, cardiac anomalies, and high-pitched cry)
1242787561510 1342707643574 Numer 1 cause of congenital malformations in US
Fetal alcohol syndrome
1242787561511 1342707643574 Trisomy 13 las Patau's syndrome<r><r>Normal a
-fetoprotein<r>Normal eta hCG<r>Normal estriol<r>Normal inhiin A

1242787561512 1342707643574 Emryological defect in 22q11 deletion syndromes
Aerrant development of 3rd and 4th ranchial pouches
1242787561513 1342707643574 Patients with Down syndrome are at&nsp;&nsp;el
evated risk for what conditions ALL, early Alzheimer's, duodenal atresia, septum
primum-type ASD
1242787561514 1342707643574 La changes in Down syndrome
↓ a-fetoprotein<r
/>↑ B-hCG<r />↓ estriol<r />↑ inhiin A<r><r />Ultrasounds shows nuchal transluce
ncy
1242787569480 1342707643574 Condensed, transcriptionally inactive chromatin
(sterically inaccessile)
Heterochromatin
1242787569481 1342707643574 Purine ases
Adenine, Guanine (A, G)
1242787569482 1342707643574 Histones found in nucleosome core
Two each
of H2A, H2B, H3, H4
1242787569483 1342707643574 Pyrimidine ases
Cytosine, thymine, uraci
n (C, T, U)
1242787569484 1342707643574 Nucleotide with ketone Guanine
1242787569485 1342707643574 Prokaryotic enzyme that excises RNA primer (with
5'-&gt;3' exonuclease) and fills gap with DNA DNA polymerase I
1242787569486 1342707643574 Amino acid that has only one codon
Methioni
ne
1242787569487 1342707643574 Enzyme that nicks helix to relieve supercoils cr
eated in DNA replication
Topoisomerase
1242787569488 1342707643574 Amino acids needed for purine synthesis Glycine,
aspartate, glutamine
1242787569489 1342707643574 Origin of replication in eukarytoes
Multiple
, AT rich sequences
1242787569490 1342707643574 Origin of replication in prokaryotes
oriC (Si
ngle, idirectional)
1242787569491 1342707643574 Primase: what does it do?
Enzyme that crea
tes RNA primer on which prokaryotic DNA polymerase III can initiate DNA replicat
ion
1242787569492 1342707643574 Xeroderma pigmentosa results from mutations in w
hat system, which normally repairs what Nucleotide excision repair, normally rep
airs thymine dimers (from UV light)
1242787569493 1342707643574 Insertions or deletions in RNA that are not mult
iples of 3 are what type of mutation
Frameshift (usually results in premature
stop)
1242787569494 1342707643574 Hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC) res
ults from a mutation in what system
DNA mismatch repair
1242787569495 1342707643574 Numer of hydogen onds in A-T/U
2 onds
1242787569496 1342707643574 RNA with largest size mRNA<r /><r /><>R</>
ampant (rRNA)<r /><>M</>assive (mRNA)<r /><>T</>iny (tRNA)
1242787569497 1342707643574 Sustition of ase with identical type (purine f
or purine, pyrimidine for pyrimidine) Transition
1242787569498 1342707643574 Most aundant type of RNA
rRNA<r /><r />
<>R</>ampant (rRNA)<r /><>M</>assive (mRNA)<r /><>T</>iny (tRNA)
1242787569499 1342707643574 Increases DNA melting temp
High GC content
1242787569500 1342707643574 Deamination of cytosine forms Uracil
1242787569501 1342707643574 Nucleotide with methyl group
Thymine (<>thy<
/>mine has a me<>thy</>l)
1242787569502 1342707643574 Base change in silent mutations Usually 3rd posi
tion (tRNA wole)
1242787569503 1342707643574 Sustition of ase with different type (purine f
or pyrimidine or v/v) Transversion
1242787569504 1342707643574 Enzyme found in ase excision, ut not nucleotid
e excision, repair
Glycosylases
1242787569505 1342707643574 Mutation that results in amino acid with similar
structure
Conservative missense
1242787569506 1342707643574 Prokaryotic enzyme that synthesizes DNA 5'-&gt;3
', has 3'-&gt;5' exonuclease proofreading activity
DNA polymerase III

1242787569507 1342707643574 Numer of hydrogen onds in G-C 3 onds (stronge
r, higher melting temp than A-T)
1242787569508 1342707643574 Enzyme that seals gaps in DNA replication
DNA ligase
1242787569509 1342707643574 Stop codons
UGA, UAA, UAG<r /><r />&quot;U
Go Away, U Are Away, U Are Gone&quot;
1242787569510 1342707643574 Energy source for tRNA translocation
GTP
1242787569511 1342707643574 Bound to the 3' end of tRNA (opposite from antic
odon end)
CCA sequence covalently ound to amino acid (&quot;<>c</>an <
>c</>arry <>a</>minos&quot;)<r /><r /><img src="pastejhgly.jpg" />
1242787569512 1342707643574 Pieces of RNA that are removed y splicing
Introns<r><r>(&quot;only exons are expressed&quot;)
1242787569513 1342707643574 Riosome sites in order 5'-&gt;3'
E, P, A
[note: 5' end of <>mRNA </>corresponds to start codon and protein N terminus]<
r /><r />A site accepts incoming <>aminoacyl</> tRNA<r />P site accomodates
growing <>peptide</><r />E site holds empty tRNA as it <>exits</><r /><r
/><img src="pastez5nstw.jpg" />
1242787569514 1342707643574 Post-transcriptional modifications and location
where they occur
5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, intron splicing<r /><r
/>[Occurs in nucleus, ut 7-methylguanosine addition occurs in cytosol??????]
1242787569515 1342707643574 Enzyme that opens DNA for transcription at the p
romoter RNA Polymerase II
1242787569516 1342707643574 Site of RNA polymerase inding upstream of gene
locus Promoter (TATA, CAAT)
1242787569517 1342707643574 Start codon
AUG (Met - Eukaryote, f-Met - Pr
okaryote)<r><r>Kozak sequence (gcc)gccRccAUGG is initiator for translation (mR
NA inding to riosomes)
1242787569518 1342707643574 Spliceosome contains what?
snRNPs and other
proteins
1242787569519 1342707643574 Name of non-modified RNA transcript
Heteroge
neous nuclear RNA (hnRNA)
1242787569520 1342707643574 Covalent post-translational modifications
Phosphorylation, glycosylation, hydroxylation
1242787569521 1342707643574 Exceptions to the universal genetic code
Mitochondria, achaeacteria, <i>Mycoplasma</i>, some yeasts
1242787569522 1342707643574 Section of DNA that alters gene expression y i
nding transcription factors; may e located anywhere
Enhancer
1242787569523 1342707643574 Attached to proteins to tag them for degradation
? Where does degradation happen?
Uiquitin<r><r>In proteasome
1242787569524 1342707643574 Energy source for tRNA activation
ATP
1242787569525 1342707643574 Smallest type of RNA
tRNA (75-90 nucleotides)
<r /><r /><>R</>ampant (rRNA)<r /><>M</>assive (mRNA)<r /><>T</>iny (t
RNA)
1242787569526 1342707643574 Polymerase that makes mRNA
RNA Polymerase I
I
1242787569527 1342707643574 Polymerase that makes tRNA
RNA Polymerase I
II
1242787569528 1342707643574 Polymerase that makes rRNA
RNA Polymerase I
1242787569529 1342707643574 Inhiits RNA polymerase II
a-amanitin (foun
d in death cap mushrooms; liver failure if ingested)
1242787575080 1342707643574 Diarrhea, dermatitis, and dementia are seen in w
hat disease
Pellagra
1242787575081 1342707643574 Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is required for synthesi
s of what?
Cystathionine (homocysteine reakdown), heme, niacin, GABA<r><
r>*also histamine (from histidine), dopamine from dopa...
1242787575082 1342707643574 Function of B2 Cofactor in oxidation and reduct
ion (eg. FADH2)<r><r>FAD and FMN are derived from rioflavin (B2 = 2 ATP)
1242787575083 1342707643574 B12 deficiency causes what?
Macrocytic megal
olastic anemia with neurologic symptoms and hypersegmented polys<r /><r />Neu
ro symptoms due to anormal myelin. Prolonged deficiency leads to irreversile n

euro damage.
1242787575084 1342707643574 What is pellagra?<r /><r />What is the cause,
and when does it occur? Diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, death (4 D's).<r /><r
/>Due to B3 (niacin) deficiency<r /><r />1) Hartnup disease (decreased tryptop
han asorption)<r />2) Malignant carcinoid syndrome (increased tryptophan meta
olism)<r />3) Isoniazid (decreased B6, which is req'd for B3 synthesis)
1242787575085 1342707643574 Beri-Beri and Wernicke-Korsakoff are due to defi
ciency of what vitamin?<r><r />How do you ecome deficient? B1 (thiamine) de
ficiency<r><r>Malnutrition, alcoholism (malnutrion + malasorption)
1242787575086 1342707643574 Dermatitis, enteritis, alopecia, and <>adrenal
insufficiency</> are seen with what vitamin deficiency B5 (Pantothenate)
1242787575087 1342707643574 Cheilosis (inflammation &amp; fissures at corner
s of mouth) and corneal vascularization are seen in what vitamin deficiency?
B2 (Rioflavin)
1242787575088 1342707643574 Convulsions, hyperirritaility, peripheral neuro
pathies, and siderolastic anemias (excess iron due to impaired H synthesis) ar
e seen in what vitamin deficiency
B6 (Pyridoxine)
1242787575089 1342707643574 Function of vitamin B3?<r><r>Derived from? Syn
thesis requires?
<>N</>iacin is constituent of <>N</>AD+, <>N</>ADP
+, used in redox rxns. (B3 = 3 ATP).<r /><r />Derived from tryptophan. Synthes
is requires B6 (pyridoxine).
1242787575090 1342707643574 Macrocytic megalolastic anemia without neurolog
ic symptoms is seen with what deficiency
Folic acid
1242787575091 1342707643574 Function of vitamin B5 (pantothenate) Essentia
l component of CoA (cofactor for acyl transferases) and fatty acid synthase
1242787575092 1342707643574 Dermatitis and enteritis are seen with what vita
min deficiency B5, Biotin
1242787575093 1342707643574 Cholecalciferol D3 (sun, in milk)
1242787575094 1342707643574 Hypocalcemic tetany, rickets, and osteomalacia a
re seen with what vitamin deficiency
Vitamin D
1242787575095 1342707643574 Vitamin K dependent coagulation factors II, VII,
IX, X, protein C, protein S
1242787575096 1342707643574 Vitamin K antagonist
Warfarin
1242787575097 1342707643574 Storage form of vitamin D
25-OH D3
1242787575098 1342707643574 Function of Vitamin D Increased intestinal as
orption of Ca++/PO4, increased one resorption
1242787575099 1342707643574 Function of folic acid 1 caron transfer, DNA/R
NA ase synthesis<r><r>(converted to tetrahydrofolate, THF)
1242787575100 1342707643574 Erythrocyte fragility, neurologic symptoms (demy
elination) are seen in what vitamin deficiency Vitamin E
1242787575101 1342707643574 Delayed wound healing, anosmia, hypogonadism, in
fertility, and decreased adult hair are seen with what deficiency
Zinc
1242787575102 1342707643574 Function of vitamin K, and las in deficiency
Catalyzes gamma-caroxylation of glutamic acid residues on clotting factors; mad
e y intestinal flora<r /><r />PT, aPTT are increased in deficiency (normal l
eeding time)
1242787575103 1342707643574 Ergocalciferol D2 (from plants)
1242787575104 1342707643574 Active form of vitamin D
1,25(OH)2 D3<r
/><r />(calcitriol)
1242787575105 1342707643574 Mechanism of iotin deficiency Relatively rare;
caused y raw eggs, antiiotic use<r /><r />(avidin in egg whites inds ioti
n avidly)
1242787575106 1342707643574 Generalized symptoms of B vitamin deficiency
Dermatitis, glossitis, diarrhea
1242787575107 1342707643574 Storage location of B12 Liver (many years worth)
1242787575108 1342707643574 Function of vitamin C Antioxidant. Also:<r />
<r />1) Iron asorption (keeps it in reduced Fe2+ ferrous form) --&gt; &quot;a
soric&quot; acid<r />2) Hydroxylation of proline &amp; lysine in preprocollage
n<r />3) Conversion of dopamine to NE y dopamine B-hydroxylase
1242787575109 1342707643574 Neonatal hemorrhage is seen with what vitamin de

ficiency
Vitamin K
1242787575110 1342707643574 Ethanol --&gt; acetaldehyde --&gt; acetate<r />
<r />What cofactors?<r />Where do rxns occur?<r />Limiting reagent? <img src
="pastegrmo3h.jpg" /><r /><r />2 NAD+ --&gt; NADH<r /><r />NAD+ is limiting
reagent
1242787575111 1342707643574 Most common lysosomal storage disease Gaucher'
s Disease<r /><r /><img src="pasteiz2un7.jpg" />
1242787575112 1342707643574 Malnutrition that leads to tissue/muscle wasting
, sucutaneous fat loss, and variale edema
Marasmus
1242787575113 1342707643574 Vitamin name?<r /><r />B1<r />B2<r />B3<r /
>B5<r />B6<r />B9<r />B12
Thiamine<r />Rioflavin<r />Niacin<r />Pantot
henate<r />Pyridoxine<r />Folate<r />Coalamin<r /><r />(&quot;The Rich Nev
er Pan Pyrite Filled Creeks&quot;)<r />
1242787575114 1342707643574 Buildup of NADH has what effect on metaolism in
liver ↑ NADH/NAD+ ratio in liver shunts pyruvate to lactate and OAA to malate, i
nhiiting gluconeogenesis and stimulating fatty acid synthesis<r /><r />Leads
to <>hypoglycemia</> and hepatic fatty change (hepatocellular steatosis) seen
in chronic alcoholics<r /><r /><r /><img src="pastejkpgja.jpg" />
1242787575115 1342707643574 Malnutrition that leads to skin lesions, edema,
anemia, and fatty liver (due to decreasd apoliprotein synthesis)
Kwashior
kor
1242787575116 1342707643574 Marasmus is due to what deficiency
Energy (
calories)
1242787575117 1342707643574 Kwashiorkor is due to what deficiency Protein
1295661192104 1342707643797 3 structures of carotid sheath and their relativ
e positions
<img src="ankiapvwld.jpg" />
1295661269448 1342707643797 coronary artery anatomy:<r /><r />supply RV
acute marginal artery<r /><r /><img src="ankixteodw.jpg" />
1295661346563 1342707643797 coronary artery anatomy:<r /><r />supply poste
rior LV circumflex artery (CFX)<r /><r /><img src="ankixteodw.jpg" />
1295661387310 1342707643797 coronary artery anatomy:<r /><r />supply apex<
r /> left anterior descending (LAD)<r /><r /><img src="ankixteodw.jpg" />
1295661403334 1342707643797 coronary artery anatomy:<r /><r />supply anter
ior interventricular septum<r />
left anterior descending (LAD)<r /><r
/><img src="ankixteodw.jpg" />
1295661520421 1342707643797 coronary artery anatomy:<r /><r />supply poste
rior septum<r />
posterior descending/interventricular artery (PD)<r /><
r /><img src="ankixteodw.jpg" />
1295661857132 1342707643797 coronary artery anatomy:<r /><r />supply SA an
d AV nodes<r>complications if this supply is affected RCA<r><r>infarct right
artery -&gt; conduction anormalities
1295662017644 1342707643797 coronary artery anatomy:<r /><r />80% of the t
ime, ___ supplies posterior descending/interventricular<r />20% of the time, it
is supplied y ___
80% of the time, <u>RCA</u> supplies PDA (right dominant
)<r />20% of the time, it is supplied y <u>CFX</u><r /><r /><img src="ankixt
eodw.jpg" />
1295662048776 1342707643797 coronary artery anatomy:<r /><r />most common
site for coronary artery occlusion
LAD
1295662062233 1342707643797 coronary artery anatomy:<r /><r />coronary art
eries fill during ____ diastole
1295662198496 1342707643797 coronary artery anatomy:<r /><r />most posteri
or part of heart<r />complications due its enlargement LA<r /><r />Enlargemen
t can cause dysphagia (compression of esophagus)<r />or hoarseness (compression
of the recurrent laryngeal nerve, a ranch of the vagus)
1295662263560 1342707643797 coronary steal phenomenom<r /><r />what happen
s?
vasodilator may aggravate ischemia y shunting lood from area of critic
al stenosis to an area of higher perfusion
1295662373401 1342707643797 ascultation of heart:<r /><r />aortic area
<img src="ankildzfon.jpg" />
1295662386303 1342707643797 ascultation of heart:<r /><r />pulmonic area

<img src="ankildzfon.jpg" />
1295662397008 1342707643797 ascultation of heart:<r /><r />tricuspid area
<img src="ankildzfon.jpg" />
1295662405797 1342707643797 ascultation of heart:<r /><r />mitral area
<img src="ankildzfon.jpg" />
1295662421703 1342707643797 ascultation of heart:<r /><r />left sternal o
rder
<img src="ankildzfon.jpg" />
1295662644737 1342707643797 ASD sounds
<img src="pasteoxosen.jpg" />
1295662705832 1342707643797 cardiac output equations?<r /><r />in terms of
oxygen?
<img src="ankipk6pf.jpg" />
1295662724923 1342707643797 mean arterial pressure equations
<img src
="ankihqsgs.jpg" /><r /><r>(like Ohm's law, V=IR)
1295662743585 1342707643797 pulse pressure calculation?<r><r>pulse pressur
e is proportional to? <img src="anki23plhz.jpg" />
1295662757107 1342707643797 stroke volume equations <img src="ankihouhlc.jpg
" />
1295662860083 1342707643797 what artery is venous O2 content measured?
pulmonary artery
1295663608825 1342707643797 factors that affect EDV/ESV that ultimately affe
ct SV <img src="ankihouhlc.jpg" /><r /><r />SV increased y:<r />-increased
EDV<r />-decreased ESV<r /><r />EDV increased y:<r />-increased venous ret
urn<r />-ventricular compliance<r /><r />ESV decreased y: <r />-increased c
ontractility<r />-decreased afterload
1295663721896 1342707643797 effects on CO during early stages of exercise an
d after prolonged exercise<r /><r />what happens to CO if HR is too high
During the early stages of exercise, sufficient cardiac output is maintained y
increased SV;<r>during the the late stages of exercise, CO is maintained y hea
rt rate<r><r>(oth heart rate and stroke volume rise in early exercise, ut SV
plateaus earlier =&gt; further increases in CO depend on increased HR)<r><r>I
f HR is too high, diastolic filling is incomplete and cardiac output falls (eg.
vtach)
1295663784818 1342707643797 factors that affect SV contractility, afterload
, preload<r><r><img src="ankilgdsjt.jpg" />
1295663877939 1342707643797 what increases contractility (and SV)?<r><r>no
n-exercise states with increased contractility and SV? <img src="anki1jntfj.jpg
" /><r /><r /><img src="ankiw6p2fk.jpg" /><r />-anxiety/exercise -&gt; increa
se catecholamines -&gt; increase contractility -&gt; increase SV<r />-pregnancy
-&gt; increase lood volume -&gt; increase preload -&gt; increase SV
1295664001441 1342707643797 what decreases contractility (and SV) <img src
="ankivx3dyo.jpg" />
1295664036014 1342707643797 what increases mycoardial O2 demand
<img src
="ankiuudgh9.jpg" />
1295664049946 1342707643797 Rx that decrease afterload<r />
ACE-I<r
/>ARBs<r />hydralazine
1295664378979 1342707643797 preload and afterload<r /><r />types of Rx tha
t affect each<r />what increases preload<r />what happens with chronic increas
e in afterload <img src="ankire3rmv.jpg" /><r /><r />increase afterload -&gt;
increase ESV -&gt; decrease SV (chronic increase -&gt; hypertrophy)
1295664512627 1342707643797 starling curve<r /><r />factors that affect co
ntractile state of myocardium [(+) and (-)]
<img src="anki07j0ei.jpg" />
1295664564510 1342707643797 ejection fraction equation<r><r>what is normal
<r>what does it measure
<img src="ankime4kik.jpg" />
1295664771637 1342707643797 resistance equations<r><r>series<r>parallel
<img src="ankisczuc.jpg" />
1295664834532 1342707643797 viscosity depends on ____<r><r>it is increased
in _____
<img src="anki29hwa.jpg" />
1295664847627 1342707643797 what accounts for most of TPR <img src="anki_d
p5w8.jpg" />
1295665206642 1342707643797 cardiac and vascular function curves<r><r>x-in
tercept of venous return curve<r><r>causes:<r>-increase/decrease lood volume

<r>-(+)/(-) inotropy<r>-increase/decrease TPR <img src="ankidwq5ql.jpg" /><r>
<r>increase/decrease lood volume<r>-increase: excessive hydration<r>-decreas
e: acute hemorrhage; anaphylaxis<r><r>(+)/(-) inotropy<r>-(+): digitalis, chr
onic anemia (reaction)<r>-(-): MI<r>
1295667678680 1342707643797 phases of cardiac cycle<r /><r />period of hig
hest O2 consumption<r /><r />effects of increased afterload, preload, contract
ility<r />relate with SV, EF, ESV/EDV <img src="ankid_eezy.jpg" /><img src="an
kigrdcge.jpg" />
1295667707414 1342707643797 S1<r /><r>components<r />loudest where
<img src="ankid_rj62.jpg" />
1295667718392 1342707643797 S2<r /><r />components<r />loudest where
<img src="ankiw2vki.jpg" /><r />
1295667759847 1342707643797 S3<r /><r />when<r />associated with<r />nor
mal in<r />diseases
<img src="ankimkgnzt.jpg" /><r /><r />dilated cardiomy
opathy<r />HF<r />after MI<r />L-&gt;R shunts
1295667777975 1342707643797 S4<r /><r />when<r />associated with<r />dis
eases <img src="anki57ouek.jpg" /><r><r>aortic stenosis<r>hypertrophic card
iomyopathy<r>chronic HTN
1295667824619 1342707643797 JVP waves
<img src="ankiidnmpt.jpg" /><r
/><img src="ankivg1yyh.jpg" /><r /><r />&quot;at carter's crossing, vehicles y
ield&quot;
1295667880115 1342707643797 S2 splitting<r /><r />increased with <img src
="ankio60g21.jpg" />
1295667931890 1342707643797 S2 splitting:<r /><r />normal <img src="ankih
k19s.jpg" /><r /><img src="ankixtyqpn.jpg" />
1295667994672 1342707643797 S2 splitting:<r /><r />wide<r /><r />associa
ted with
<img src="ankil8uhgj.jpg" /><r /><img src="ankix6le5.jpg" />
1295668022185 1342707643797 S2 splitting:<r /><r />fixed<r /><r />associ
ated with
<img src="anki_0eihi.jpg" /><r /><img src="anki_pjsfd.jpg" />
1295668061164 1342707643797 S2 splitting:<r /><r />paradoxical<r /><r />
associated with <img src="ankij94ohh.jpg" /><r /><img src="ankirt4vc7.jpg" />
1295668294075 1342707643797 cardiac cycle<r /><r />open/close of valves<r
/>dicrotic notch<r />timing of heart sounds<r />what part affected y syphili
s and Marfan's<r><r>when does systole occur in relation to curves, sounds, JVP
, EKG <img src="ankin3h2ut.jpg" /><r /><r />dicrotic notch - lood locked 
y closure of valve -&gt; &quot;ouncing ack&quot; of lood -&gt; jump in BP<r
/><r />windkessel effect (elastic nature of aorta) allows coronary arteries to
fill; affected y syphilis and Marfan's
1295734279021 1342707643797 diastolic murmurs
mitral/tricuspid stenosi
s<r />aortic/pulmonic regurgitation
1295734297895 1342707643797 systolic murmurs
mitral/tricuspid regurgi
tation<r />aortic/pulmonic stenosis<r />VSD
1295734343387 1342707643797 <img src="ankig46a3w.jpg" />
MR/TR<r><r><im
g src="ankiajfqie.jpg" />
1295734390821 1342707643797 mitral regurgitation<r /><r />characteristic<
r />loudest, radiate<r />enhanced y<r /><span style="color:#ff0000;">causes</
span><r />graphical
<img src="anki43dwko.jpg" /><r /><img src="anki6xzccu.j
pg" /><r /><r /><img src="ankiajfqie.jpg" />[sound:Mitral_Regurgitation_Case1c
_3.mp3]
1295734545100 1342707643797 tricuspid regurgitation<r /><r />characteristi
cs<r />loudest, radiate<r />enhanced y<r />causes<r />graphical
<img src
="ankift7p3v.jpg" /><r /><img src="ankiwrpyuy.jpg" /><r /><r /><img src="anki
ajfqie.jpg" />[sound:psm.wav]
1295734560586 1342707643797 endocarditis causes what murmurs
MR/MS
1295734601942 1342707643797 MVP causes what murmur MR
1295734611519 1342707643797 ischemic heart disease causes what murmur
MR
1295734628961 1342707643797 rheumatic fever causes what murmurs
MR/TR<r
/>AR<r />MP<r>MS
1295734644143 1342707643797 LV dilation causes what murmur MR

1295734665857 1342707643797 syphilis causes what murmurs
AR/AS
1295734747070 1342707643797 aortic stenosis<r /><r />characteristic<r />r
adiate<r />can lead to<r />pulse sounds<r />causes<r />graphical
<img src
="ankiqvps.jpg" /><r /><img src="ankiah8ewe.jpg" />[sound:0010006.wav]<r />
<r /><img src="ankimnuzda.jpg" />
1295734767507 1342707643797 age-related calcific aortic stenosis causes what
murmur AS<r /><r /><img src="ankiah8ewe.jpg" />
1295734774716 1342707643797
icuspid aortic valve causes what murmurs
AS<r>AR<r /><r />
1295734795016 1342707643797 ventral septal defect murmur<r /><r />characte
ristic<r />loudest<r />graphical<r /><r /> <img src="anki3h_y5v.jpg" /><r
/><r /><img src="ankirgmt.jpg" />[sound:vsd.wav]
1295734994181 1342707643797 mitral prolapse<r /><r />characteristics<r />
loudest<r />can predispose to<r /><span style="color:#ff0000;">caused y</span
><r />enhanced y<r /><span style="color:#ff0000;">associated with</span><r /
>graphical
<img src="paste8hlwt.jpg" /><r /><r />associated with anxiety
d/o, adult polycystic disease, marfan's syndrome<r /><r>[sound:mvp (1).wav]
1295735050117 1342707643797 myxomatous degeneration causes what murmur
MP<r /><r /><img src="ankimgm0wk.jpg" />
1295735095410 1342707643797 chordae rupture causes what murmur
MP<r />
<r /><img src="ankimgm0wk.jpg" />
1295735251350 1342707643797 aortic regurgitation<r /><r />characteristics<
r />pulse <r />can present with<r />causes<r />associated with<r />graphica
lly
<img src="ankiflte8q.jpg" /><r />associated with marfan's syndrome, syp
hilis<r /><r /><img src="anki8klgij.jpg" />[sound:ai.wav]<r />
1295735413726 1342707643797 marfan's syndrome is associated with what murmur
s
MP<r />AR (due to cystic medial degeneration of aorta)
1295735581024 1342707643797 aortic root dilation causes what murmurs
AR<r><r><img src="ankiqawauy.jpg" />
1295735630796 1342707643797 mitral stenosis<r /><r />characteristic<r />c
auses<r />chronic can result in<r />enhanced y<r />graphically
<img src
="paste5kq4w.jpg" /><r />[sound:ms (1).wav]
1295735657614 1342707643797 patent ductus arteriosus murmur<r /><r />chara
cteristic<r />loudest <img src="ankisxmljg.jpg" /><r /><img src="anki0rpool.j
pg" />[sound:pda (1).wav]
1295735681252 1342707643797 holosystolic murmurs
MR/TR<r>VSD
1295735699214 1342707643797 crescendo-decrescendo murmur
AS<r><r>
1295735704931 1342707643797 ejection click AS
1295735717832 1342707643797 murmur associated with pulsus parvus et tardus
AS
1295735735043 1342707643797 midsystolic click
MP
1295735754993 1342707643797 &quot;lowing&quot; diastolic murmur
AR
1295735764776 1342707643797 &quot;lowing&quot; systolic murmur
MR/TR
1295735784419 1342707643797 opening snap
MS
1295735794339 1342707643797 rumling murmur MS<r>
1295735930218 1342707643797 source of calcium for cardiac myocyte contractio
n<r><r>what does it do
<img src="ankifjzyjx.jpg" />
1295736199739 1342707643797 cardiac myocyte vs skeletal muscle
<img src
="ankidd8zhf.jpg" />
1295736398222 1342707643797 ventricular AP<r><r>phases<r><r>effects of N
a and K ch. lockers
<img src="ankiis8c1.jpg" /><r><r>Na - phase 0<r>K phase 3
1295738579517 1342707643797 pacemaker AP<r><r>phases<r><r>effects of:<r
>-Ca ch locker<r>-B-locker<r>-ACh<r>-catecholamines<r>-sympathetic stimula
tion
<img src="anki9luied.jpg" /><r><r>-Ca ch locker - phase 0<r>-B-lock
er - phase 4
1295740232664 1342707643797 systolic ejection murmur accentuated y standing
hypertrophic ostructive cardiomyopathy
1295740251020 1342707643797 early diastolic decrescendo murmur decreased y
amyl nitrate<r>
aortic regurgitation<r>

1295740262811 1342707643797 late diastolic murmur eliminated y atrial firi
llation MS/TS
1295743838836 1342707643797 most common cardiac anormality predisposing to
native valve acterial endocarditis
MVP
1295746744182 1342707643797 EKG<r /><r />P wave<r />PR wave<r />QRS comp
lex<r />QT interval<r />T wave<r />Atrial repol.<r />ST segment<r />U wave
<img src="anki6vk5kn.jpg" />
1295746775771 1342707643797 speed of conduction<r><r>order: AV node, atria
, ventricles, purkinje <img src="ankiuctxqu.jpg" />
1295746808689 1342707643797 pacemaker speeds<r><r>order: AV, SA, undle of
His, Purkinje, ventricles
<img src="ankimok7c.jpg" />
1295746843034 1342707643797 cardiac anormality associated with increased PR
interval
1st degree heart lock
1295746930423 1342707643797 torsades de pointes<r><r>characteristics<r>ca
n progress to<r>predisposed y<r>Tx <img src="ankiy8rv3_.jpg" /><r><r>Tx:
Mg2+<r><r><img src="ankicvln6f.jpg" />
1295746944721 1342707643797 anything that prolongs QT interval can predispos
e to
torsades de pointes
1295746989572 1342707643797 congenital long QT syndromes<r><r>defects<r>c
linical presentation
<img src="ankiqyskf6.jpg" />
1295747622577 1342707643797 wolff-parkinson-white syndrome<r /><r />charac
teristic<r />type of wave seen on EKG<r />may result in<r />Tx
<img src
="ankimtnwqm.jpg" /><r /><r />Tx: procainamide, amiodarone<r /><r /><r /><i
mg src="ankim8njfc.jpg" />
1295765694342 1342707643797 atrial firillation<r /><r />characteristic<r
/>can result in<r />Tx<r />prophylaxis<r />complication<r />rate<r /><span
style="color:#ff0000;">precipitating factors</span>
<img src="ankiehuwcl.jpg
" /><r /><r />complication: rapid ventricular rate<r />rate: atrial rate &gt;
300pm<r /><r />-inge drinking<r />-increase cardiac sympathetic tone<r />
-pericarditis
1295765706027 1342707643797 <img src="ankiscodnv.jpg" />
atrial firillat
ion
1295765718121 1342707643797 <img src="ankiyi5rpj.jpg" />
atrial flutter
1295765803157 1342707643797 atrial flutter<r><r>characteristics<r>Tx<r>r
ate
<img src="ankilvrvwe.jpg" /><r><r>atrial rate: 220-300pm
1295765841362 1342707643797 AV lock - 1st<r /><r />characteristics
<img src="ankimgfvop.jpg" />
1295765856301 1342707643797 <img src="ankiqmpys6.jpg" />
AV lock - 1st
1295765948148 1342707643797 AV lock - 2nd type I<r /><r />characteristics
<img src="ankitdvves.jpg" />
1295765960191 1342707643797 <img src="ankit_0ft.jpg" />
AV lock - 2nd t
ype I<r />
1295766085867 1342707643797 AV lock - 2nd type II<r /><r />characteristic
s<r />usual ratio
<img src="ankirqmwr.jpg" />
1295766104738 1342707643797 <img src="ankim9_xm_.jpg" />
AV lock - 2nd t
ype II
1295766283308 1342707643797 AV lock - 3rd<r /><r />characteristics<r />T
x<r />can e caused y <img src="ankito9faq.jpg" />
1295766312214 1342707643797 what does narrow QRS signify
ventricles not s
tarting contraction, AV nodal starting it
1295766332204 1342707643797 <img src="anki7s9ocr.jpg" />
AV lock - 3rd
1295766405343 1342707643797 ventricular firillation<r><r>characteristic<
r>complication if untreated
<img src="ankipu8ah.jpg" />
1295766415351 1342707643797 <img src="ankiuatzwr.jpg" />
VFi
1295768836716 1342707643797 maintenance of MAP<r /><r />reponses to decrea
se in MAP (2)<r />ANP <img src="ankiig24yj.jpg" />
1295769277177 1342707643797
aroreceptors and chemoreceptors<r /><r />rece
ptors - nerves, responds to<r />
<img src="ankiegvjgo.jpg" /><img src="an
kin4gmh.jpg" /><r />
1295769309735 1342707643797
aroreceptors and chemoreceptors<r><r>arorece

ptors - response to hTN, carotid massage
<img src="ankiegvjgo.jpg" /><img
src="ankimghxwt.jpg" />
1295769350505 1342707643797
aroreceptors and chemoreceptors<r><r>chemorec
eptors - peripheral vs central<r><r>responsile for what reaction<r>triad
<img src="ankiegvjgo.jpg" /><img src="ankictslm3.jpg" />
1295769608080 1342707643797 circulation through organs<r><r>liver<r>kidne
y<r>heart
<img src="ankijlrkvs.jpg" />
1295770315078 1342707643797 normal pressures<r /><r />PCWP - measures what
, what happens with MS<r />measured y <img src="ankig5htzf.jpg" />
1295771239429 1342707643797 <img src="ankimh56wq.jpg" /><r /><img src="anki
i2wftx.jpg" /><r /><r />What factors determine autoregulation for each?
<img src="ankifrluo6.jpg" />
1295771469892 1342707643797 capillary fluid exchange<r><r>net filtration p
ressure<r>net fluid flow<r>Kf<r><r>causes of edema <img src="ankiq3aokn.jpg
" />
1295771528243 1342707643797 pitting vs non-pitting edema<r>
pitting
- lots of excess fluid only (&quot;water alloon&quot;)<r>non-pitting - lots of
protein alancing out fluid (&quot;jello&quot;)
1295825085369 1342707643797 congenital heart disease:<r /><r />R-&gt;L shu
nts<r><r>what can children do to make this etter
<img src="ankiqegrjd.jpg
" /><r><r>squat -&gt; increase systemic vascular resistance
1295825103751 1342707643797 congenital heart disease:<r /><r />L-&gt;R shu
nts<r /><r />order of frequency<r />what does this lead to? why?
<img src
="ankir2tivc.jpg" />
1295825422078 1342707643797 eisenmenger's syndrome <img src="anki4ecpcm.jpg
" />
1295826076458 1342707643797 tetralogy of fallot<r /><r />4 prolems<r />s
hunt<r />x-ray<r /><span style="color:#ff0000;">caused y</span><r />how to i
mprove symptoms <img src="ankil_o1pz.jpg" />
1295826650521 1342707643797 patent ductus arteriosus<r /><r />shunt<r />m
urmur<r />maintenance of patency<r />what causes closure of patency<r />conse
quence of uncorrected PDA<r /><span style="color:#ff0000;">associated with what
causes</span><r />emryonic origin
<img src="ankiu469hu.jpg" /><r />-assoc
iated with congenital ruella and prematurity<r />-remnant of 6th aortic arch
1295826696263 1342707643797 congenital cardiac defect associations:<r /><r
/>22q11 syndromes (DiGeorge) <img src="ankiapitr4.jpg" />
1295826711046 1342707643797 congenital cardiac defect associations:<r /><r
/>down syndrome
<img src="ankiekosxq.jpg" />
1295826727462 1342707643797 congenital cardiac defect associations:<r /><r
/>congenital ruella <img src="ankiwl4_8n.jpg" />
1295826746005 1342707643797 congenital cardiac defect associations:<r /><r
/>turner's syndrome
<img src="ankiexv23t.jpg" />
1295826765932 1342707643797 congenital cardiac defect associations:<r /><r
/>marfan's syndrome
<img src="anki_sfpz4.jpg" /><r />cystic media necrosis
of aorta<r />-leads to: dissecting aortic aneurysms, aortic valve incompetence,
MVP
1295826780647 1342707643797 congenital cardiac defect associations:<r /><r
/>infant of diaetic mother
<img src="ankih9lq7.jpg" /><r />hypoglycemia<
r />large for gestational age (LGA) <r />-increase risk for Er-Duchenne palsy,
shoulder dystocia, clavicle fracture, failure to progress<r />
1295826812034 1342707643797 congenital cardiac defect associations:<r /><r
/>friedreich's ataxia hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
1295826835315 1342707643797 congenital cardiac defect associations:<r /><r
/>tuerous sclerosis<r />
valvular ostruction due to cardiac rhaydomyomas
1295827441754 1342707643797 estein's anomaly<r /><r />associated with<r
/>prolems<r />shunt<r />increased risk for<r />physical exam<r />Rx
<img src="ankimmashe.jpg" />
1295901973802 1342707643797 HTN definition <img src="ankipa45_9.jpg" />
1295901996477 1342707643797 HTN risk factors
<img src="ankih2ttll.jpg
" />

1295902036181 1342707643797 HTN features (causes - primary vs secondary)
<img src="ankichgoj9.jpg" /><r />renal disease: renal failure, chronic kidney d
isease, renal artery stenosis
1295902124035 1342707643797 HTN:<r /><r />predisposes to<r /><r />how do
es LVH lead to LHF
<img src="ankizaektd.jpg" /><r /><r />increase wall th
ickness and decrease compliance -&gt; muscles increase, ut heart not getting an
y igger -&gt; occlude chamers -&gt; concentric hypertrophy of LV -&gt; decreas
e LV volume -&gt; LHF
1295902153915 1342707643797 hyperlipidemia signs:<r /><r />atheromas
<img src="ankiwiaivv.jpg" />
1295902168801 1342707643797 hyperlipidemia signs:<r /><r />xanthomas
<img src="anki3nqrf.jpg" />
1295902193183 1342707643797 hyperlipidemia signs:<r><r>tendinous xanthoma
<img src="ankik_chp_.jpg" />
1295902213816 1342707643797 hyperlipidemia signs:<r><r>corneal arcus
<img src="ankinl6q6z.jpg" />
1295902360493 1342707643797 arteriosclerosis:<r /><r />monckeerg<r /><r
/>appearance<r />does it ostruct lood flow? why
<img src="anki34yfzl.jpg
" />
1295902383652 1342707643797 arteriosclerosis:<r /><r />arteriolosclerosis
<img src="ankiiw3ptt.jpg" /><r /><img src="paste2s6ok.jpg" />
1295902413100 1342707643797 arteriosclerosis:<r /><r />atherosclerosis
<img src="anki6io4ac.jpg" /><r><r><img src="ankicgycck.jpg" />
1295902766914 1342707643797 aortic dissection<r /><r /><span style="color:
#ff0000;">associated with</span><r />clinical finding<r />CXR<r />can result
in<r />type of dissection more life threatening<r />Tx
<img src="ankiod
_gio.jpg" /><r />-ascending aorta (type A)<r />-B-lockers<r /><r /><img src
="ankih7yuh6.jpg" />
1295902964762 1342707643797 atherosclerosis:<r><r>affects what structures
<img src="ankiiqmmp.jpg" />
1295902977892 1342707643797 atherosclerosis:<r><r>risk factors
<img src
="ankiupxk_u.jpg" />
1295902995684 1342707643797 atherosclerosis:<r /><r />progression<r />inv
olves what factors
<img src="paste41artt.jpg" /><r /><img src="pastendoqph
.jpg" /><r /><img src="ankiukkcf6.jpg" />
1295903010633 1342707643797 atherosclerosis:<r /><r />complications
<img src="ankih4wsks.jpg" />
1295903026634 1342707643797 atherosclerosis:<r /><r />Most common&nsp;&n
sp;locations
<img src="ankivi2vsg.jpg" />
1295903261927 1342707643797 atherosclerosis:<r /><r>symptoms
<img src
="ankinoon6o.jpg" />
1295903311687 1342707643797 atherosclerosis of adominal aorta predisposes t
o<r /><r />when is Sx indicated
adominal aortic aneurysm (AAA)<r /><r
/>if AAA&gt;5cm, need surgery for repair
1295903560285 1342707643797 angina<r /><r />narrowing%<r /><r />stale<
r />prinzmetal's variant<r />unstale<r /><r /><span style="color:#ff0000;">c
auses</span>; ECG
<img src="ankiskqw1.jpg" /><r><r>*tx with nifedipine
1295903571203 1342707643797 Rx used to test coronary artery spasm Ergonovi
ne (a vasoconstrictive ergot alkaloid)
1295903628656 1342707643797 MI: define<r><r>results in
<img src="ankiyw
kmef.jpg" />
1295903661237 1342707643797 sudden cardiac death: define<r><r>caused y
<img src="ankiqv2vfr.jpg" />
1295903723682 1342707643797 chronic ischemic heart disease: define<r><r>
<img src="ankihxnmnk.jpg" />
1295903874846 1342707643797 red vs pale infarct
-red (hemorrhagic) infar
cts occur in <>loose</> tissues with <u>collaterals</u>, such as liver, lungs,
or intestine, or following reperfusion of ischemic area<r /><r />-pale infarc
ts occur in <>solid</> tissues with <u>single lood supply</u>, such as heart,
kidney, and spleen

1295903898294 1342707643797 reperfusion injury is due to<r /><r />type of
infarct<r /> damage y free radicals due to exaceration of ischemia<r /><r
/>red infarct
1295903949108 1342707643797 5 deadly causes of chest pain &quot;TeMPUrA&qu
ot;<r />MI<r />aortic dissection<r />unstale angina<r />pulmonary emolism<
r />tension pneumothorax <r />
1295904018556 1342707643797 most common site for coronary artery occlusion<
r><r>order: circumflex, LAD, RCA
<img src="ankivo0jqo.jpg" />
1295904036198 1342707643797 MI symptoms
<img src="ankivznnmw.jpg" />
1295904105446 1342707643797 what signifies irreversile damage in MI
appearance of vacuoles and phospholipid-containing amorphous densities within mi
tochondria
1295904144878 1342707643797 MI: time frame for loss of contractility and lac
tatic accumulation <r /><r />what is happening in this process
60 sec a
fter total ischemia<r /><r />aeroic -&gt; anaeroic glycolysis
1295904224785 1342707643797 MI: time frame irreversile ischemic injury<r><
30 min<r><r>15%
r>how much ATP left
1295904972925 1342707643797 evolution of MI: first day<r /><r />0-4 hrs<r
/>4-12 hrs<r />12-24 hrs
<img src="ankipqrcmt.jpg" /><r /><r />0-4 hrs
- minimal change<r />4-12 hrs - early coagulation necrosis, edema, hemorrhage,
wavy fiers<r />12-24 hrs - coagulation and marginal contraction and necrosis
1295905029497 1342707643797 evolution of MI: 2-4 days<r /><r />risk<r />
<img src="ankisswcn.jpg" />
1295905158310 1342707643797 evolution of MI: 5-10 days<r /><r />risk<r />
<img src="anki28kst.jpg" /><r />macropahge phagocytosis of dead cells<r />fre
e wall rupture -&gt; lood spill out to pericardial space -&gt; tamponade of lo
od -&gt; compress heart
1295905191606 1342707643797 evolution of MI: 10-14 days<r />
granulat
ion tissue and neovascularization
1295905312803 1342707643797 evolution of MI: 7 weeks<r /><r />risk<r />
<img src="ankiwicns.jpg" /><r>heart contracts -&gt; scar tissue ulges out -&g
t; aneurysm<r>-aneurysm has lood stasis -&gt; clot -&gt; emolization
1295905401274 1342707643797 evolution of MI: <r><r />0-4 hrs<r />4-12 hrs
<r />12-24 hrs<r>1-5 days<r>5-10 days<r>10-14 days<r>2wks-2mos
0-4 hrs
- minimal change<r />4-12 hrs - early coagulation necrosis, edema, hemorrhage,
wavy fiers<r />12-24 hrs - coagulation and marginal contraction and necrosis<
r>1-5 days - coagulation necrosis and neutrophilic infiltrate<r>5-10 days - ma
crophage phagocytosis of dead cells<r>10-14 days - granulation tissue and neova
sculariation<r>2wks-2mos - collagen deposition and scar formation
1295905971262 1342707643797 Dx of MI:<r /><r />gold standard acutely<r />
enzymes, specificity, time course<r />ECG changes
<img src="ankie7rf_6.jpg
" /><r />CK-MB is useful in diagnosing reinfarction on top of acute MI
1295906108015 1342707643797 types of infarcts:<r><r>transmural vs suendoc
ardial<r><r>amount of muscle affected<r>ECG changes <img src="anki92g4rf.jpg
" /><r>forms Q waves&nsp;&nsp;&nsp;&nsp;&nsp;&nsp;non Q waves
1295906340838 1342707643797 MI complications
<img src="ankidxfqdk.jpg
" />
1295906428933 1342707643797 myocarditis<r /><r />define<r />MCC<r />hist
ology<r />effect on markers
<img src="ankicmoy1.jpg" />
1295991368682 1342707643797 dilated cardiomyopathy:<r /><r /><span style="
color:#ff0000;">etiologies</span><r />physical findings (sound, US, x-ray)<r /
>type of dysfunction<r />type of hypertrophy<r /><r />gene<r />PMI <img src
="ankijrfk67.jpg" /><r /><r />-dystrophin (cytoskeleton protein)<r />-myocard
ial enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation<r /><r />-laterally displace
d apical impulse<r /><r />-wet Berieri associated with VitB1
1295991530757 1342707643797 hypertrophic cardiomyopathy:<r /><r />pathogen
esis<r />etiology<r />associated with<r />pathology finding<r />causes what
hypertrophied IV septum is &quot;too close&quot; to mitral valve leaflet, leadin
g to aortic outflow tract ostruction<r />=&gt; results in systolic murmur and
syncopal episodes, &quot;spike and dome&quot; carotid pulse<r /><r />50% of ca

ses are familial (autosomal dominant; B-myosin heavy chain)<r /><r />associate
d with <>friedreich's ataxia</><r /><r />disorganized, tangled, hypertrophie
d myocardial fiers<r /><r />sudden death in young athletes
1295991572199 1342707643797 causes of sudden death in young athletes
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy<r>homozygous hypercholesterolemia (Chr. 19; MI &lt;
20yo) &quot;think 19&quot;
1295991627677 1342707643797 restrictive cardiomyopathy<r /><r />causes<r
/>type of dysfunction <img src="ankimsckqx.jpg" /><r /><r />&quot;PHASE-L&qu
ot;
1295992888111 1342707643797 CHF:<r /><r />LV failure signs, and causes of
each
<>Dyspnea on exertion</><r />(failure of LV output to increase during
exercise)<r /><r /><>Cardiac dilation</><r />(greater ventricular EDV)<r
/><r /><>Pulmonary edema, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea</><r />(increased pul
monary venous pressure --&gt; distension, fluid transudate;<r />presence of hem
osiderin-laden macrophages - &quot;heart failure cells&quot; - in lungs)<r /><
r /><>Orthopnea</><r />(increased venous return in supine position exacerate
s pulmonary vascular congestion)
1295992923838 1342707643797 CHF:<r><r>RV failure signs
<img src="ankisv
xrd_.jpg" />
1295993035027 1342707643797 CHF:<r /><r />flow chart (compensation)<r />e
ffects of diuretics, ACE-I, B-locker <img src="ankiqjlizg.jpg" /><r />diuret
ics - inhiit peripheral edema<r />ACE-I - inhiit increase renal Na+ and H2O r
easorption<r />B-locker - inhiit compensation
1295993118112 1342707643797 Tx for acute CHF
&quot;LMNOP&quot;<r><r
>Lasix or furosemide -&gt; get rid of fluid<r>Morphine -&gt; decrease air hunge
r, vasdilation to pool fluid elsewhere other than lungs<r>Nitrates -&gt; pool f
luid elsewhere<r>Oxygen<r>Pressors (eg. doutamine)
1295993164351 1342707643797 what is used to Dx HF? BNP<r />-increased y v
olume overload (hypertrophy)
1295993284833 1342707643797 Emolus types<r><r>types<r>associated with<r
>can lead to<r>clinical symptoms
&quot;an emolus moves like a FAT BAT&qu
ot;<r>Fat, Air, Thromus, Bacteria, Amniotic fluid, Tumor<r><r>-fat emoli as
sociated with long one fractures and liposuction<r>-amniotic fluid emoli can
lead to DIC, especially postpartum<r>-pulmonary emolus - chest pain, tachypnea
, dyspnea, tachycardia; 95% arise from deep leg veins
1295993357115 1342707643797 deep vein thromosis:<r /><r />triad<r />can
lead to<r><r>symptoms<r>how to prevent<r>Tx Virchow's triad:<r />-stasis<r
/>-hypercoagulaility (eg. defect in coagulative cascade proteins)<r />-endoth
elial damage (exposed collagen provides impetus for clotting cascade)<r /><r /
>can lead to pulmonary emolism<r><r><img src="anki4x9hvu.jpg" />
1295993513228 1342707643797 peripheral artery disease (PAD) vs DVT DVT: can
get lood down fine (pulses okay), ut prolem getting lood ack up<r>PAD: ca
n get lood ack up fine, ut can't get lood down (weak pulses)<r>
Pallor of LE, poor capillary refill, clot formation<r>
1295993623687 1342707643797 pulmonary emolism<r /><r />usually caused y<
<img src
r />symptoms<r />studies (ECG changes)<r />can lead to<r />Tx
="ankiyz8a28.jpg" />
1295993834554 1342707643797 diastolic vs systolic dysfunction
diastoli
c<r>-decrease ventricle compliance<r>-normal EF<r>-<>normal LVEDV</>, incre
ased LVEDP<r><r>systolic<r>-decrease ventricle contraction<r>-decreased EF<
r>-<>increased LVEDV</>, increased LVEDP
1295994129543 1342707643797
acterial endocarditis:<r /><r />symptoms<r /
>signs of emolism
<img src="anki9sgrsi.jpg" /><img src="ankiscj6ru.jpg" />
<r />also get fatigue<r /><r /><img src="ankikfcfsk.jpg" /><r /><r /><img s
rc="ankidhr4tx.jpg" />
1295994166807 1342707643797 what are janeway lesions<r /> -sign of acteri
al endocarditis<r />-small erythematous lesions on palm or sole<r />-microinfa
rctions, microemoli<r /><r />distal, flat, painless (vs. osler's nodes)
1295994237773 1342707643797
acterial endocarditis:<r /><r />organism that
causes acute <i>Staph aureus </i>(high virulence).<r /><r />Large vegetatio

ns on previously normal valves. Rapid onset.
1295994250865 1342707643797
acterial endocarditis:<r /><r />organism that
causes suacute<r />affects what valves<r /><r />sequela of what? how to pre
vent
<img src="ankicgqqzs.jpg" /><r /><r />prophylaxis with penicillin V
1295994426389 1342707643797
acterial endocarditis:<r /><r />nonacterial
causes<r />organism from colon cancer<r />organism from prosthetic valves<r /
>culture (-) organisms <img src="ankiyy88o.jpg" /><r />Haemophilus<r />Aggre
gatiacter <r />Cardioacterium hominis<r />Eikenella corrodens<r />Kingella<
r />
1295994473497 1342707643797
acterial endocarditis:<r /><r />pathogenesis
turulent lood flow damages valve -&gt; adherence of firin and platelets -&gt;
trapping of acteria or fungi -&gt; proliferation of pathogens and laying down
of firin to encase vegetation<r /><r /><img src="ankimmials.jpg" /><r><r>*n
ote: vegetations are composed of platelets and firin
1295994542009 1342707643797 acterial endocarditis:<r /><r>complications
<img src="ankiuuyhz.jpg" />
1295994594576 1342707643797
acterial endocarditis:<r /><r>most frequent v
alve involved<r>valve associated with IVDA and causative organisms
<img src
="ankixpv2vw.jpg" />
1295995324799 1342707643797 liman-sacks endocarditis:<r /><r />what is it
<r />associated with (valvular)<r />caused y <img src="anki4wtrkt.jpg" />
1295995391671 1342707643797 rheumatic heart disease:<r /><r />symptoms
<img src="ankicpqarl.jpg" /><r />Aschoff odies, anitschkow cells are intracard
iac<r />
1295995512556 1342707643797 rheumatic heart disease:<r /><r />caused y<r
/>death due to<r />late sequelae<r />early lesion vs late lesion<r />associa
ted with<r />antiodies to (la and histo)<r />hypersensitivity
<img src
="ankiq2mn34.jpg" />
1295995631231 1342707643797 cardiac tamponade:<r /><r />what is it<r />le
ads to<r />what happens to diastolic pressure <img src="ankircaqsl.jpg" />
1295995729929 1342707643797 cardiac tamponade:<r /><r />findings <img src
="ankignou08.jpg" /><r />electrical alternans<r />-eat-to-eat variations in
QRS complex<r />-due to heart moving around in &quot;ag of fluid&quot; created
y cardiac tamponade<r /><r />hTN -&gt; dyspnea, fatigue<r />JVD is a result
of compensation, ut inadequate<r />
1295995822140 1342707643797 pulsus paradoxus:<r /><r />what is it<r />see
n in what conditions
<img src="ankiisnqae.jpg" /><r />drop in systolic press
ure &gt; 10 mmHg (normal = drop &lt; 10 mmHg)
1295995876863 1342707643797 serous pericarditis:<r /><r />causes<r />
noninfectious inflammatory diseases (eg. rheumatic fever, SLE)
1295995944193 1342707643797 firinous pericarditis:<r /><r />causes<r />
Most frequent type of pericarditis, caused y Dressler's syndrome, uremia, radia
tion. Presents with loud friction ru.
1295996115078 1342707643797 suppurative pericarditis:<r /><r />causes<r /
>
caused y infectious agents (eg. can complicate acterial endocarditis)
1295996265793 1342707643797 pericarditis:<r /><r />findings (complaint, as
cultation, ECG)<r />what is seen on JVP<r />progression (leads to)<r />Tx
<img src="ankiymsayu.jpg" /><r />Kussmaul's pulse (jugular venous distention wi
th inspiration)<r />pericardial knock<r />rapid y-descent seen on JVP<r /><r
/>Tx: NSAIDs, aspirin (if Hx of heart disease)
1295996466442 1342707643797 syphilitic heart disease<r /><r />what stage o
f syphilis<r />affects what<r />what happens<r />what is seen (type of appear
ance)<r />results in <img src="ankiurpqqz.jpg" />
1295996514422 1342707643797 diagnostic criteria (Jones) for rheumatic fever
<img src="ankienmg3z.jpg" />
1295996595766 1342707643797 Kussmaul's sign vs pulsus paradoxus:<r><r>even
t<r>mechanism<r>disease
<img src="ankipuv5z4.jpg" />
1295997968975 1342707643797 maneuvers that decrease venous return valsalva
<r />standing
1295998089266 1342707643797 maneuvers that increase venous return<r />

squatting<r />sitting<r />lying supine<r>leg raise
1295998152970 1342707643797 manuevers that increase TPR
handgrip
1295998220559 1342707643797 inspiration vs expiration on intensity of heart
sound inspiration - increase heart sound on right side (more lood flows into
RA)<r>expiration - increase heart sound on left side (more lood flow into LA)
1295998300904 1342707643797 what increases murmur in hypertrophic cardiomyop
athy
standing, valsalva (decrease LVEDV)
1296086184291 1342707643797 most common primary cardiac tumor in adults<r /
><r />occur where<r />descried as<r />associated with
<img src="ankiho
juiq.jpg" /><r /><r /><img src="ankijrd4ru.jpg" />
1296086207625 1342707643797 most common cardiac tumor
<img src="anki7z
tf91.jpg" />
1296086257054 1342707643797 most common primary cardiac tumor in children<r
><r>associated with
<img src="ankiitmxho.jpg" />
1296086804056 1342707643797 raynaud's disease<r /><r />what is it<r />aff
ects (ody part, vessel)<r />disease vs phenomenon<r>Tx
<img src="ankitd
aqr.jpg" /><r>Tx: dihydropyridine Ca2+ ch. locker (relax arteries with spasm)
, aspirin (allow easier lood flow), sildenafil (vasodilation)<r><r /><img src
="ankitdrrq9.jpg" />
1296086999748 1342707643797 telangiectasia<r /><r />what is it<r />affect
s (vessel)<r />hereditary form<r />symptoms <img src="ankiczrxpx.jpg" /><r>
<img src="pasteps2j1t.png" />
1296087030555 1342707643797 varicose veins<r /><r />what is it<r />caused
<img src="ankifiggos.jpg
y<r />predisposes to<r />compare with deep veins
" />
1296087381082 1342707643797 wegener's granulomatosis:<r /><r />triad<r>wh
at is this triad similar to (and difference)<r><r>affects what vessels
<img src="ankisyki6z.jpg" /><r><r>goodpasture's syndrome<r>-pathology of lung
s and glomerulus<r>-diff. = not an upper airway disease<r><r>small vessels
1296087565579 1342707643797 wegener's granulomatosis:<r /><r />symptoms<r
/>x-ray
<img src="ankidrdz4y.jpg" /><r /><r />nodular densities on che
st x-ray
1296087592564 1342707643797 wegener's granulomatosis:<r /><r />findings (m
arker, x-ray, cast)
<img src="ankiyu_epu.jpg" />
1296087602679 1342707643797 wegener's granulomatosis:<r /><r />Tx <img src
="ankiayahms.jpg" /><r />~polyarteritis nodosa
1296087670761 1342707643797 microscopic polyangiitis:<r /><r />similar to
(and difference)<r />marker of disease<r />affects (vessel) <img src="ankirk
13r0.jpg" />
1296087703185 1342707643797 primary pauci-immune crescentic glomerulonephrit
is:<r /><r />what is it (affects what)
<img src="ankizkj7gs.jpg" />
1296087775970 1342707643797 churg-strauss syndrome:<r /><r />what is it<r
/>clinical presentation<r />also involves<r />marker of disease
<img src
="anki_op5_a.jpg" />
1296087936266 1342707643797 sturge-weer disease:<r><r>what is it<r>affec
ts what<r>presents with
<img src="ankigdv8gt.jpg" /><r>also presents wi
th MR, hemiplegia<r>port-wine stain - does not regress with age, @ ophthalmic r
egion of CN V
1296088898753 1342707643797 henoch-schonlein purpura:<r /><r />what is it<
r />follows what<r />triad<r />affects (vessels)<r />histopathology <img src
="pastegkcdtw.jpg" /><r /><r />leukocytoclastic small vessel vasculitis due to
IgA immune complexes
1296088980338 1342707643797 uerger's disease:<r /><r />aka<r />what is i
t<r />affects (vessels)<r />type of people
<img src="pasteml9i4e.jpg" />
1296089010087 1342707643797
<img src
uerger's disease:<r><r>symptoms
="ankiuvmh7j.jpg" /><r><img src="ankicvsudj.jpg" />
1296089041490 1342707643797
uerger's disease:<r /><r>common Hx<r>Tx
Hx: young male smoker<r><r><img src="ankiv430oq.jpg" />
1296089081005 1342707643797 kawasaki disease:<r /><r />what is it<r />aff
ects (vessels)<r />age group<r />ethnicity
<img src="ankivr09n9.jpg" />

1296089125231 1342707643797 kawasaki disease:<r /><r />symptoms<r />may d
evelop fever, lymphadenitis, conjunctivitis, changes in lips &amp; oral mucosa
(&quot;strawerry tongue&quot;),<r />hand-foot erythema, and desquamation<r />
<r />may develop coronary aneurysms
1296089132516 1342707643797 kawasaki disease:<r /><r>Tx <img src="ankitk
jlvx.jpg" />
1296089174690 1342707643797 polyarteritis nodosa:<r><r>what is it<r>affec
ts (vessels; does not affect) <img src="ankiym66ey.jpg" /><img src="ankifcj1fr
.jpg" />
1296089197253 1342707643797 polyarteritis nodosa:<r /><r />symptoms
<img src="anki119ag.jpg" />
1296089214374 1342707643797 polyarteritis nodosa:<r /><r />associated with
<>hepatitis B</> seropositivity in 30% of patients;<r />multiple aneurysms an
d constrictions on arteriogram
1296089225517 1342707643797 polyarteritis nodosa:<r /><r />Tx
<img src
="ankidzl8gf.jpg" /><r />~wegener's
1296089350433 1342707643797 vasculitis:<r /><r />lesions of different ages
vs lesions of same age different ages - polyarteritis nodosa<r />same age - he
noch-schonlein purpura
1296089390689 1342707643797 takayasu's arteritis:<r /><r />what is it<r /
>affects (vessels)<r />las<r />ethnicity<r />age
<img src="ankiciavvd.jpg
" />
1296089431811 1342707643797 takayasu's arteritis:<r /><r />symptoms
<img src="ankiqyrgvs.jpg" />
1296089478135 1342707643797 temporal arteritis (giant cell arteritis):<r />
<r />what is it; MC<r />affects (vessels)<r />age/sex
<img src="ankiya
opxw.jpg" />
1296089533482 1342707643797 temporal arteritis (giant cell arteritis):<r><
r>symptoms
<img src="ankid0j_w.jpg" />
1296089598673 1342707643797 temporal arteritis (giant cell arteritis):<r><
r>findings<r>associated with <img src="ankinh48rt.jpg" /><r>polymyalgia rheu
matica - pain and joint stiffness; @ proximal joint -&gt; difficult getting out
of chairs
1296089606271 1342707643797 temporal arteritis (giant cell arteritis):<r />
<r />Dx
iopsy temporal artery
1296089622106 1342707643797 temporal arteritis (giant cell arteritis):<r />
<r />Tx
<img src="ankirclviu.jpg" />
1296089820681 1342707643797 vascular tumors:<r /><r />strawerry hemangiom
a
<img src="ankiinjz4.jpg" />
1296089846253 1342707643797 vascular tumors:<r /><r />cherry hemangioma
<img src="ankikueea.jpg" /><r /><img src="pastevffon.jpg" />
1296089857534 1342707643797 vascular tumors:<r /><r />pyogenic granuloma<
r />associated with
<img src="ankihg5vx0.jpg" /><r /><img src="pasteiusalm.
jpg" />
1296089878060 1342707643797 vascular tumors:<r><r>cystic hygroma<r>associ
ated with
<img src="ankikgn02a.jpg" /><r><img src="pastewpfij.jpg" />
1296089897673 1342707643797 vascular tumors:<r /><r />glomus tumor
<img src="anki24isfq.jpg" /><r /><img src="Glomus_1.jpg" />
1296089912157 1342707643797 vascular tumors:<r /><r />acillary angiomatos
is<r /><r />seen in what kind of patients<r />organism<r />mistaken for
<img src="anki8to29.jpg" />
1296089925734 1342707643797 vascular tumors:<r /><r />angiosarcoma<r /><
r />what is it<r />caused y <img src="ankikuaxt8.jpg" />
1296089940444 1342707643797 vascular tumors:<r /><r />lymphangiosarcoma
<img src="ankilk2csg.jpg" />
1296089952205 1342707643797 vascular tumors:<r /><r />kaposi's sarcoma
<img src="anki03hqwf.jpg" /><r /><img src="pastegtm6g.jpg" />
1296096643822 1342707643797 severe aortic stenosis presents with (clinical s
ymptoms)
exertional <u>s</u>ycope<r /><u>a</u>ngina<r /><u>d</u>yspnea<
r /><r />(SAD)

1296096906999 1342707643797 hemosiderin-containing alveolar macrophages
indicate that episodes of pulmonary congestion and edema associated with chronic
left-sided heart failure<r />-increased intravascular pressures in pulmonary c
apillary ed -&gt; iron-containing proteins and erythrocytes extravasated into a
lveoli -&gt; phagocytosed y macrophages and converted to hemosiderin
1296101614111 1342707643797 ECG triad seen in WPW shortened PR-interval<r
/>delta wave at start of QRS<r />widened QRS<r><r><img src="ankigzhyqn.jpg"
/>
1296158436621 1342707643797 hydrochlorothiazide:<r /><r />type<r />SE
diuretics<r /><r />hypokalemia (arrhythmias)<r />mild <u>hyperlipidemia</u><
r /><u>hyperuricemia</u> (predisposes gout)<r /><>lassitude</><r /><u>hyperc
alcemia</u><r /><u>hyperglycemia</u><r /><>decrease osteoporosis </>(due to
increase in Ca2+)
1296158497137 1342707643797 loop diuretics:<r /><r />type<r />SE diuretic
<r /><r />potassium wasting<r />metaolic alkalosis<r />hypotension<r />oto
toxicity (esp. if add aminoglycosides)<r /><u>lo</u>se Ca2+
1296158549687 1342707643797 clonidine:<r /><r />type<r />SE
sympatho
plegic<r /><r />dry mouth<r />sedation<r />severe reound HTN<r />radycard
ia
1296158579264 1342707643797 methydopa:<r /><r />type<r />SE
sympatho
plegic<r><r>sedation<r>(+) cooms' test<r>pregnancy safe
1296158603274 1342707643797 reserpine:<r /><r />type<r />SE
sympatho
plegic<r><r>sedation<r>depression<r>nasal stuffiness<r>diarrhea
1296158636142 1342707643797 guanethidine:<r /><r />type<r />SE sympatho
plegic<r /><r />orthostatic and exercise hypoTN<r />sexual dysfunction<r />d
iarrhea
1296158660748 1342707643797 prazosin:<r /><r />type<r />SE
sympatho
plegic<r><r>1st-dose orthostatic hTN<r>dizziness<r>HA
1296158720357 1342707643797 B-lockers:<r /><r />type<r />SE
sympatho
plegic<r /><r />impotence<r />asthma<r />CV effects (radycardia, CHF, AV l
ock)<r />CNS effects (sedation, sleep alterations)
1296158827832 1342707643797 verapamil:<r /><r />type<r />SE
vasodila
tor<r />dihydropyridine Ca2+ locker<r /><r />dizziness<r />flushing<r />co
nstipation<r />AV lock<r />nausea<r />edema
1296158858683 1342707643797 nifedipine:<r /><r />type<r />SE
vasodila
tor<r>dihydropyridine Ca2+ locker<r><r>dizziness<r>flushing<r>nausea<r>ed
ema
1296158901524 1342707643797 nitroprusside:<r /><r />type<r />SE vasodila
tor<r><r>CN- toxicity (releases CN) -&gt; itter almond taste
1296158944214 1342707643797 diazoxide:<r /><r />type<r />SE
vasodila
tor<r><r>hyperglycemia (reduces insulin release, hTN)
1296158999799 1342707643797 captopril, enalapril, fosinopril:<r /><r />typ
e<r />SE
ACE-I<r /><r />hyperkalemia<r />cough (radykinins)<r />angi
oedema<r />taste changes<r />hTN<r />pregnancy prolems (fetal renal damage)<
r />rash<r />increase renin
1296159045308 1342707643797 losartan:<r /><r />type<r />SE
ANGII re
ceptor inhiitor (ARB)<r><r>fetal renal toxicity<r>hyperkalemia
1296159107300 1342707643797 hydralazine:<r /><r />mechanism
<img src
="pasteopqrhd.jpg" /><r /><r />&quot;Hydrafterload&quot; reducer
1296159120297 1342707643797 hydralazine:<r><r>clinical use
<img src
="pastenkc9k.jpg" />
1296159151388 1342707643797 hydralazine:<r /><r />toxicity<r />contraindi
cation <img src="pastef3p9w.jpg" />
1296159177680 1342707643797 what Rx is used to prevent reflex tachycardia
B-locker<r>
1296159187501 1342707643797 what Rx is used to lock salt retention diuretic
1296159210981 1342707643797 minoxidil:<r /><r />mechanism <img src="paste0
cvgh1.jpg" />
1296159240681 1342707643797 minoxidil:<r /><r />clinical use
<img src
="pastekph0n.jpg" />

1296159252256 1342707643797 minoxidil:<r /><r />toxicity <img src="pasteo
unpgp.jpg" />
1296159273471 1342707643797 Tx:<r /><r />essential HTN
diuretics<r />A
CE inhiitors<r />angiotensin II receptor lockers (ARBs)<r />calcium channel
lockers
1296159303737 1342707643797 Tx:<r><r>CHF <img src="paste76gygc.jpg" />
1296159326446 1342707643797 Tx:<r><r>diaetes mellitus
<img src="pastee
5loug.jpg" />
1296160398117 1342707643797 dihydropyridine Ca2+ ch locker:<r /><r />type
s<r />characteristics nifedipine<r />amlodipine<r />felodipine<r />nicardip
ine<r />nisoldipine<r /><r />-work @ vascular smooth muscle<r />-do not affe
ct heart<r />-opposite from verapamil<r />-diltizem is in etween these drugs
and verapamil
1296160476603 1342707643797 verapamil vs nifedipine vs diltiazem:<r /><r /
>type<r />mechanism
Ca2+ ch locker<r /><r /><img src="paste8dw6ow.jpg" />
<r />verapamil - cardiac<r />nifedipine - vascular smooth muscle<r />diltiaze
m - oth<r><r><img src="paste71rx4t.jpg" />
1296160565919 1342707643797 verapamil vs nifedipine vs diltiazem:<r /><r /
>clinical use HTN<r />angina (verapamil, diltiazem)<r />arrhythmias (verapam
il, diltiazem)<r />prinzmetal's angina (nifedipine)<r />raynaud's (nifedipine)
1296160647906 1342707643797 verapamil vs nifedipine vs diltiazem:<r /><r /
>toxicity
flushing<r />dizziness<r />peripheral edema (nifedipine)<r />
cardiac depression (verapamil, diltiazem)<r />AV lock (verapamil, diltiazem)<
r />constipation (verapamil, diltiazem)<r />gingival hyperplasia (verapamil)
1296160756865 1342707643797 nitroglycerin, isosoride dinitrate:<r /><r />
mechanism
Vasodilate y releasing nitric oxide in smooth muscle, causing i
ncrease in cGMP and smooth muscle relaxation<r /><r />Dilate veins &gt;&gt; ar
teries; <u>decrease preload</u><r /><r />*large veins are affected
1296160772547 1342707643797 nitroglycerin, isosoride dinitrate:<r><r>clin
ical use
<img src="paste77vltx.jpg" />
1296160791048 1342707643797 nitroglycerin, isosoride dinitrate:<r /><r />
toxicity
<img src="pastezls8rz.jpg" /><r><r>To avoid development of tol
erance, pts on daily maintenance nitrates need a daily nitrate-free period in th
e dosing schedule
1296161370434 1342707643797 Malignant HTN<r /><r />Drugs<r />Mechanisms<
r />Side effects
<>Nitroprusside-</> short acting; ↑cGMP via direct relea
se of NO; can cause cyanide toxicity (releases CN)<r /><r /><>Fenoldopam- </
>dopamine D1 receptor agonist; relaxes renal vascular smooth muscle<r /><r /><
>Diazoxide-</> K+ channel opener; hyperpolarizes and relaxes vascular smooth m
uscle; can cause hyerglycemia (reduces insulin release)
1296161608188 1342707643797 antianginal therapy:<r><r>goal and how it is r
eached <img src="pastep1p53q.jpg" />
1296161692753 1342707643797 antianginal therapy:<r /><r /><img src="pastea
f3jcr.jpg" /><r /><r />how are calcium ch. lockers related to these Rx<r />w
hat Rx are contraindicated
<img src="pastemrh1a.jpg" /><r /><img src="pas
tec9sle.jpg" />
1296162130188 1342707643797 lipid-lowering agents:<r /><r />HMG-CoA reduct
ase inhiitors (types)<r /><r /><img src="paster7azgz.jpg" /> <img src="paste
dg0v2.jpg" /><r /><r />rhadomyolysis<r />-reakdown muscle cells, myogloin
-&gt; lood, myogloins deposited into kidneys -&gt; renal failure<r /><r /><i
mg src="pasteccnhsr.jpg" />
1296162179417 1342707643797 lipid-lowering agents:<r /><r />niacin (nicoti
nic acid)<r /><r /><img src="paster7azgz.jpg" />
<img src="pastesf9tp.jp
g" /><r /><r /><img src="pasteccnhsr.jpg" />
1296162315779 1342707643797 lipid-lowering agents:<r /><r />ile acid resi
ns (types)<r /><r /><img src="paster7azgz.jpg" />
<img src="paste5fvup1.jp
g" /><r /><r /><img src="pasteccnhsr.jpg" />
1296162382674 1342707643797 lipid-lowering agents:<r /><r />cholesterol a
sorption lockers (type)<r /><r /><img src="paster7azgz.jpg" />
<img src
="paste6qtwzq.jpg" />

1296162442600 1342707643797 lipid-lowering agents:<r /><r />firates (type
s)<r /><r /><img src="paster7azgz.jpg" />
<img src="paste2shha_.jpg" /><r
/><r /><img src="pasteccnhsr.jpg" />
1296162473041 1342707643797 lipid-lowering agents:<r /><r />omega 3 FA (fi
sh oils)<r /><r /><img src="paster7azgz.jpg" />
decrease TAG<r /><r />
SE: decrease arrhythmia, decrease heart disease
1296163175436 1342707643797 cardiac glycosides:<r /><r />ioavailaility<
r />%ound to protein<r />half life <r />mechanism
<img src="pastea0d8gm.jp
g" />
1296163187830 1342707643797 cardiac glycosides:<r /><r />clinical use
<img src="pasteoidl0e.jpg" /><r /><r />positive inotrope --&gt; CHF<r /><r /
>negative dromotrope --&gt; afi
1296163215508 1342707643797 cardiac glycosides:<r><r>antidote
<img src
="paste2ok_qp.jpg" />
1296163520517 1342707643797 cardiac Rx and their sites of action:<r><r>out
line process of Ca2+ affecting muscle contraction
<img src="pastehrwscu.jp
g" />
1296176136586 1342707643797 different classes of antiarrhythmics
&quot;No
'Bad Boy' Keeps Clean&quot;<r><r>Na+<r>B-locker<r>K+<r>Ca2+
1296176198414 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class I:<r /><r />what channel
<r />overall mechanism<r />types
<img src="pastex1not.jpg" /><r /><r /
>&quot;The 'police department questioned' 'the little man' 'for pushing ecstacy&
quot;<r />PDQ - IA<r />TLM - IB<r />FPE - IC<r /><r /><img src="pastenmxf3a
.jpg" />
1296176671649 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class IA:<r /><r />types<r />
mechanisms<r />uses<r />
<img src="paste7nyqy.jpg" /><r /><r><img src=
"pastenmxf3a.jpg" />
1296176690418 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class IA:<r /><r />types<r />
toxicity
<img src="pasterphamp.jpg" />
1296176779957 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class IB:<r /><r />types<r />
affects (type of tissue)<r />mechanisms<r />uses<r />
<img src="pastej
6tkvh.jpg" /><r><img src="pastegp8xgg.jpg" /><r><r><img src="pastenmxf3a.jpg"
/>
1296176799230 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class IB:<r /><r />toxicity
<img src="pasteyxwyk6.jpg" />
1296176841164 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class IC:<r /><r />types<r />
mechanisms<r />uses<r />
<img src="pastegkkf2_.jpg" /><r /><r><img src=
"pastenmxf3a.jpg" />
1296176878581 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class IC:<r /><r />toxicity
<img src="pastec7d7xx.jpg" />
1296177093977 1342707643797 what causes increased toxicity for all class I R
x
<img src="paste2eauy_.jpg" />
1296177611597 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class II:<r><r>what channel<r
/>overall mechanism<r />types <img src="pastefo4_2p.jpg" />
1296177625751 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class II:<r /><r />uses<r />
<img src="paste3wuvki.jpg" />
1296177715927 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class II:<r /><r />toxicity<r
/>mask signs of<r />Tx for OD <img src="pastewqj8sg.jpg" />
1296177743826 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class III:<r /><r />what chann
el<r />overall mechanism<r />types
<img src="pasteffw4v.jpg" /><r /><r /
><img src="pastelulshs.jpg" />
1296177850995 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class III:<r /><r>types<r>tox
icity <img src="pastefp87d6.jpg" />
1296177886548 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class III:<r><r>uses atrial f
irillation
1296178148055 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class IV:<r /><r />what channe
l<r />overall mechanism<r>uses<r />types
<img src="pastenk4l9w.jpg" /><r
><r><img src="paste4fkhge.jpg" /><r>decreases slope and amplitude of phase 0
1296178276951 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class IV:<r /><r>toxicity
<img src="pastefye3m.jpg" />

1296178353693 1342707643797 adenosine<r><r>type<r>mechanism<r>uses<r>to
xicity<r>locked y
antiarrhythmics<r><r><img src="pasteqmqaum.jpg" />
1296178390718 1342707643797 K+ effects as antiarrhythmic
<img src="pastef
xzifk.jpg" />
1296178422979 1342707643797 Mg2+ effects as antiarrhythmic Effective in tor
sades de pointes and digoxin toxicity
1296179912311 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics class I:<r /><r />affinity to
Na+ ch.<r />Vmax<r />AP duration
<img src="paste4q2vr9.jpg" />
1296199581456 1342707643797 [sound:Mitral_Regurgitation_Case1c_3.mp3]
MR
1296199661002 1342707643797 [sound:psm.wav] TR
1296199674987 1342707643797 [sound:0010006.wav]
AS
1296199684808 1342707643797 [sound:vsd.wav] VSD
1296200206082 1342707643797 [sound:mvp (1).wav]
MVP
1296200236099 1342707643797 [sound:ai.wav] AR
1296200279003 1342707643797 [sound:ms (1).wav]
MS
1296200303823 1342707643797 [sound:pda (1).wav]
PDA
1296249362219 1342707643797 effects on EKG:<r /><r />antiarrhythmics II/II
I
II - increase PR interval<r />III - increase QT interval<r /><r />dig
oxin, class IA, IV - also prolong PR interval due to effects on AV nodal conduct
ion<r />digoxin also decreases QT
1296249541108 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics associated with torsades de poin
tes
IA (quinidine, procainamide, disopyramide)<r />sotalol - III<r />iuti
lide - III
1296252692358 1342707643797 Tx for OD of B-lockers<r /><r />explain MOA
glucagon<r /><r />B-locker OD -&gt; diffuse non-selective lockade of periphe
ral B-adrenergic receptors -&gt; depression of myocardial contractility, radyca
rdia, varying degrees of AV lock -&gt; low CO<r /><r />glucagon -&gt; G prote
in-coupled receptor -&gt; increase intracellular cAMP -&gt; increase release of
intracellular Ca2+ during muscle contraction -&gt; increase HR and cardiac contr
actility
1296537776858 1342707643797 most effective method of preventing doxoruicin
cardiomyopathy dexrazoxane
1296537960372 1342707643797 what are symptoms of dilated cardiomyopathy caus
ed y anthracycline chemotherapeutic agents (doxoruicin, daunoruicin, epiruic
in, idaruicin) left and right ventricular CHF
1296872046905 1342707643797 antiarrhythmic specific for Tx of MI
MI = isc
hemic tissue = rapidly depolarizing and depolarized cells<r /><r />class IB
1296872096083 1342707643797 antiarrhythmic used for suppressing arrhythmias
arising from centers of normal automaticity rather than areas demonstrating ano
rmal automaticity
class IA
1296872109998 1342707643797 Tx paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia
adenosine
1296873010328 1342707643797 Cardio drugs that increase QT? Decrease QT?
increase QT: class IA, III<r />decrease QT: digoxin
1296873054978 1342707643797 first and second line of Tx for atrial firillat
ion with rapid ventricular response
calcium channel lockers (eg. diltiazem)
<r>digoxin
1296873982817 1342707643797 how does hydralazine lead to fluid retention
vasodilation -&gt; decrease arterial pressure -&gt; stimulate aroreceptor media
ted activation of sympathetic system -&gt; increased HR, contractility, renin ac
tivity -&gt; sodium and fluid retention (edema)
1296875014983 1342707643797 Rx used to prevent increased myocardial oxygen d
emand caused y vasodilators
B-lockers<r><r>slow conduction through AV nod
e and cardiac conduction system y preventing catecholamines from stimulating B1 receptors and causing reflex tachycardia (which leads to increased myocardial
oxygen demand)
1296980594371 1342707643797 rhythm control: atria + ventricles to normal rhy
thm
amiodarone, sotalol
1296980607780 1342707643797 rate control: keep ventricle rate down B-locke

r<r />Ca2+ ch. locker<r />digoxin<r />
1297031026520 1342707643797 transposition of great vessels:<r /><r />anato
my<r />what is needed (what can e used)<r />due to<r />high risk in whom
<img src="paste2nz3aw.jpg" /><r /><r />high risk: children of diaetic mothers
1297031240510 1342707643797 coarctation of aorta:<r /><r />infantile vs ad
ult<r />associated with (findings, syndrome, valve)<r />can result in <img src
="paste2rs_l.jpg" />
1297239869294 1342707643789 List mature ego defenses
SASH<r /><r />
Sulimation<r />Altruism<r />Suppression<r />Humor
1297240257856 1342707643789 Which mature defense mechanism fits the followin
g statement?<r><r>• voluntarily choosing not to think aout a piece of ad news<
r>• Indiana Jones using comedy to express feelings of discomfort<r>• arsonist dona
tes money to the fire department<r>• using ones aggression to succeed in usiness
ventures<r>• realistically planning for future inner discomfort<r>• consciously p
ostponing an inner conflict until after a ig project is completed<r>• redirectin
g impulses to a socially favorale oject
1. Suppression<r>2. Humor<r>3.
Altruism<r>4. Sulimation<r>5. Anticipation<r>6. Suppression<r>7. Sulimati
on
1297240453627 1342707643789 Which immature defense mechanism fits the follow
ing statement?<r><r>• not acknowledging a piece of ad news, as though it was ne
ver said<r>• involuntary withholding of a feeling from conscience awareness<r>• a
veteran that can descrie horrific war details without any emotion<r>• a child a
user was himself aused as a child<r>• man yells at his family when he has a ad
day at work<r>• homosexuals choosing to ecome priests<r>• a closet homosexual hat
es homosexuals ecause of the way they &quot;make&quot; him feel
1. Denia
l<r>2. Repression<r>3. Isolation of affect<r>4. Identification<r>5. Displace
ment<r>6. Reaction formation (feeling replaced y an emphasis on opposite)<r>7
. Projection (unacceptale internal impulse is attriuted to an external source)
1297240571209 1342707643789 Which immature defense mechanism fits the follow
ing statement?<r /><r />• using intellectual processes to avoid affective expres
sion; Dr. Frasier Crane<r />• elief that people are either all good or all ad<
r />• expressing aggression through passivity, masochism, and turning against self
<r />• elieving an external source is responsile for an unacceptale inner impu
lse<r />• changing ones character or personal identity to avoid emotional distres
s<r />• returning to an earlier level of maturation to avoid the conflict at the<
r />current maturational level; stressed children wet the ed 1. Rationalizati
on<r />2. Splitting<r />3. Passive aggressive<r />4. Projection<r />5. Disso
cation<r />6. Regression
1297240720912 1342707643789 Which immature defense mechanism fits the follow
ing statement?<r /><r />• offering an explanation for an unacceptale attitude/
elief/ehavior<r />• a thought that is avoided is replaced y an unconscious emph
asis on the opposite<r />• converting mental conflicts into odily symptoms<r />•
avoiding emotional stress y temporary changes in personality, memory, conscious
ness, or ehavior<r />(extreme forms can result in multiple personalities)<r /
>• chronically giving into an impulse to avoid tension from an unexpressed unconsc
ious wish; tantrums
1. Rationalization<r />2. Reaction formation<r />3. So
matization<r />4. Dissociation<r />5. Acting out
1297240759828 1342707643789 HQ: A 65-year-old asks her husand to stay in t
he hospital overnight with her ecause she is afraid to e alone. What defense m
echanism is she exhiiting?
Regression
1297240782499 1342707643789 HQ: Which defense mechanism underlies all other
defense mechanisms?
Repression
1297240854324 1342707643789 HQ: A 60 year old man admitted for chest pain j
umps out of ed and does 50 push ups to show the nurse he has not had a heart at
tack. What defense mechanism is he using?
Denial
1297241385578 1342707643789 List infant deprivation effects <img src="pastew
RFl0.png" /><r /><r />The 4 W's: Weak, Wordless, Wanting (socially), Wary (la
ck of trust)
1297241402984 1342707643789 After how many months will infant deprivation ef
fects ecome irreversile?
&gt; 6 months

1297241462284 1342707643789 Depression in an infant attriutale to continue
d separation from caregiver; Infant ecomes withdrawn and unresponsive; reversi
le. What is this called?
Anaclitic depression (hospitalism)
1297241680807 1342707643789 What defense mechanism fits the following statem
ent?<r><r>• voluntarily choosing not to think aout a piece of ad news<r>• not a
cknowledging a piece of ad news, as though it was never said<r>• involuntary wit
hholding of a feeling from conscience awareness<r>• a veteran that can descrie h
orrific war details without any emotion<r>• a child auser was himself aused as
a child<r>• man yells at his family when he has a ad day at work<r>• homosexuals
choosing to ecome priests
1. Suppression<r>2. Denial<r>3. Repression<r>
4. Isolation of affect<r>5. Identification<r>6. Displacement<r>7. Reaction fo
rmation
1297241711026 1342707643789 HQ:<r><r>When a young monkey is separated fro
m its mother, it ecomes withdrawn, socially isolated, and grooms poorly. It is
thought that this ehavior is the monkey equivalent of what human prolem?
Anaclitic depression
1297245786621 1342707643789 Evidence of Child physical ause + Auser
<img src="paste5i3nXR.png" />
1297245809467 1342707643789 Signs of child sexual ause + auser + peak inci
dence <img src="pasteLLCQMd.png" /><r /><r />Peak incidence at 9-12 years
1297245847626 1342707643789 HQ: <r />A 4-year-old girl complains of pain i
n her genitalia. On exam a discharge is noticed and a smear of the discharge sho
ws N. gonorrhoeae.&nsp;&nsp;How was she infected?
Sexual ause
1297245929981 1342707643789 Bedwetting in a previously toilet-trained child
when hospitalized is an example of what?
Regression in children
1297246000807 1342707643789 Failure to provide a child with adequate food, s
helter, supervision, education, and/or affection. What is the term for this? How
common? Evidence for it?
Child neglect<r><r>Most common form of child m
altreatment<r /><r />- Poor hygiene<r />- Malnutrition<r />- Withdrawal<r /
>- Impaired social/emotional development<r />- Failure to thrive
1297246020822 1342707643789 Children regress to younger patterns of ehavior
under conditions of stress such as children physical illness, punishment, irth
of a new siling, or fatigue. What is this called?
Regression in children
1297246205146 1342707643789 List the stimulants used in ADHD
• Methylph
enidate<r />• Amphetamines<r />• Atomoxetine (nonstimulant SNRI)
1297246272783 1342707643789 Child with the following<r><r>- Limited attent
ion span<r>- Poor impulse control<r>- Motor impairement<r>- Emotional lailit
y<r>- Normal intelligence<r><r>Dx. What gross finding in the rain is associa
ted with this disorder? ADHD; Decreased frontal loe volumes
1297246416516 1342707643789 Which childhood psychiatric disorder is marked 
y repetitive and pervasive ehavior violating social normals (physical aggressio
n, destruction of property, theft)? What is this disorder called after age 18?
Conduct disorder<r><r>* Antisocial personality disorder
1297246457090 1342707643789 Which childhood psychiatric disorder is marked 
y enduring pattern of hostile, defiant ehavior toward authority figures in the
asence of serious violations of social norms? Oppositional defiant disorder
1297246615063 1342707643789 Which childhood psychiatric disorder is marked 
y sudden, rapid, recurrent, nonrhythmic, sterotyped motor movements or vocalizat
ions (tics) that persist for &gt; 1 year? What is treatment? What other disorder
is this condition associated with?
Tourette's syndrome<r><r>- Antipsychot
ics (haloperidol)<r><r>- Associated with OCD
1297246661945 1342707643789 What childhood psychiatric disorders is marked 
y overwhelming fear of separation from home or loss of attachment figure; may le
ad to factitious physical complaint to avoid going to school? Separation anxie
ty disorder
1297452827228 1342707643797 antiarrhythmics that increase ERP
IA<r>II
I<r>IV
1297647923674 1342707643797 what is the pulse pressure in a pt with systolic
BP of 150 and MAP of 90
Diastolic BP = 60<r />Pulse pressure = 150 - 60
= 90 <r />

1297648011602 1342707643797 heart sound associated with dilated congestive h
eart failure? chronic HTN?
S3; S4
1297648056260 1342707643797 what gives rise to the jugular venous a, c, v wa
ves
a = atrial contraction<r />c = ventricular contraction w/ tricuspid ul
ging out<r />v = completion of atrial filing against closed tricuspid valve -&g
t; ack flow of pressure<r />
1297648149523 1342707643797 what physiology accounts for automaticity of AV/
SA nodes
Phase 4 Na+ conductance <r />
1297648369893 1342707643797 with what type of congenital heart defect would
increasing afterload e eneficial
R -&gt; L shunt either from:<r /><r />
tetralogy of fallot <r />transposition <r />truncal arteriosis <r />Eisenmeng
er's syndrome<r />
1297648407520 1342707643797 where does QRS complex fall in relation to valvu
lar dynamics
@mitral closure<r>
1297648438395 1342707643797 when does isovolumetric contraction take place
During QRS after mitral closure, ut efore aortic valve opens<r />
1297648537847 1342707643797 what cardio specific pathology matches the follo
wing statement:<r /><r />-lines of Zahn<r />-ri notching<r />-protozoal dis
ease associated with cardiomegaly<r />-HTN + hypokalemia<r />-new murmur in a
pediatric pt following an episode of pharyngitis
Arterial thromi (altern
ating clots, RBC clot RBC -&gt; RBC caught up in clot)<r />Coaractation<r />Ch
agas disease caused y trypanosoma cruzi<r />Conn's syndrome<r />Acute rheumat
ic fever due to strep pyogenes<r />
1297648847177 1342707643797 descrie how each of the following affect starli
ng forces of fluid movement through capillaries:<r /><r />heart failure<r />l
iver failure<r />infections/toxins<r />lymphatic lockage
Heart failure ack pressure, congestion, increased hydrostatic pressure -&gt; increase flow in
to interstitium out of capillaries<r /><r />Liver failure - decrease oncotoic
pressure (due to lack of proteins in capillaries) -&gt; fluid drawn out into int
erstitium due to higher interstitial colloid pressure as compared to capillaries
<r /><r />Infections/toxins - increase capillary permeaility -&gt; edema<r /
><r />Lymphatic lockage -&gt; retain protein in interstitium -&gt; pulling mor
e fluid from capillaries into interstitum to alance out excess proteins<r />
1297648870420 1342707643797 what are the two different types of second degre
e AV lock? how do they differ?<r>
Moitz type I (Wenckeach) - progressive
ly prolongs PR interval until it drops one<r>Motiz type II - dropped QRS<r>
1297648895632 1342707643797 outline mechanism y which kidneys regulate BP
Secrete renin to convert angiotensinogen to angiotensin I<r /> Angiotensin I co
nverted to angiotension II y angiotensin converting enzyme (in lung)<r />
Angiotensin II -&gt; vasoconstriction, also stimulates adrenal cortex to release
aldosterone (which increases Na+ and water retention)<r />
1297648911632 1342707643797 normal BPs in R/L ventricles
RV: systolic &lt
;25; diastolic ~5<r>LV: systolic &lt;130; diastolic ~10<r>
1297648940090 1342707643797 what sustances act on smooth muscle myosin ligh
t-chain kinase? how does this affect BP?
Dihydropyridine Ca2+ ch. locker
<r>Epi @ B2 receptors<r>Prostaglandin E2<r>All of these decrease BP<r>
1297649015375 1342707643797 descrie the chain of events which hTN causes re
flex tachycardia
HTn -&gt; decrease arterial pressure -&gt; decreases str
etch -&gt; less stimulation of aroreceptors in carotid sinus -&gt; less stimula
tion&nsp;&nsp;of glossopharyngeal n. -&gt; less stimulation of solitary tract
of medulla -&gt; decrease inhiition of sympathetic output -&gt; less excitation
of parasympathetic output -&gt; tachycardia<r>
1297649070112 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r /><r />paroxysms of increased sympa
thetic tone: anxiety, palpitations, diaphoresis Pheochromocytoma or hyperthyroid
ism<r />
1297649084977 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r /><r />age of onset etween 20 and
50
Primary/idiopathic HTN<r />
1297649107722 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in

a pt with the following clinical clues?<r /><r />elevated serum creatinine an
d anormal urinalysis Renal disease/failure; chronic renal disease<r />
1297649119616 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r><r>adominal ruit Renal artery ste
nosis<r>
1297649130609 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r><r>BP in arms &gt; legs
Coarctat
ion of aorta<r>
1297649138245 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r /><r />family history of HTN
essential (primary) HTN
1297649159748 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r /><r />tachycardia, heat intoleranc
e, diarrhea
Hyperthyroidism<r />
1297649172919 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r><r>hyperkalemia
Renal failure<r
>renal artery stenosis<r>
1297649184936 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r /><r />episodic sweating and tachyc
ardia Pheochromocytoma<r />
1297649211013 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r><r>arupt onset in a pt younger tha
n 20 or older than 50, and depressed serum K+ levels
Elevated aldosterone (Co
nn's syndrome)<r>
1297649228115 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r /><r />central oesity, mon-shaped
face, hirsutisn Cushings syndrome<r />
1297649246761 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r><r>normal urinalysis and normal ser
um K+ levels
Primary HTN<r>
1297649262944 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r><r>young individual with acute onse
t tachycardia Stimulant ause<r>
1297649272897 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r /><r />hypokalemia Hyperaldosteroni
sm (Conn's)
1297649278689 1342707643797 what would you suspect the cause of HTN to e in
a pt with the following clinical clues?<r /><r />proteinuria renal disease
1297649322701 1342707643797 which antihypertensive Rx fits the following SE?
<r /><r />first dose orthostatic hTN a1 lockers (prazosin)
1297649335179 1342707643797 which antihypertensive Rx fits the following SE?
<r><r>ototoxic (esp. with aminoglycosides)
loops
1297649401004 1342707643797 which antihypertensive Rx fits the following SE?
<r><r>hypertrichosis minoxidil
1297649411105 1342707643797 which antihypertensive Rx fits the following SE?
<r><r>cyanide toxicity
Nitroprusside
1297649428203 1342707643797 which antihypertensive Rx fits the following SE?
<r><r>dry mouth, sedation, severe reound HTN Clonidine<r>
1297649444311 1342707643797 which antihypertensive Rx fits the following SE?
<r><r>radycardia, impotence, asthma exaceration<r> B-lockers<r>
1297649453786 1342707643797 which antihypertensive Rx fits the following SE?
<r><r>reflex tachycardia
all vasodilators
1297649459213 1342707643797 which antihypertensive Rx fits the following SE?
<r><r>cough<r>
ACE-I
1297649485545 1342707643797 which antihypertensive Rx fits the following sta
tement?<r><r>avoid in patients with sulfa allergy
Loops and thiazides<r>
1297649493862 1342707643797 which antihypertensive Rx fits the following sta
tement?<r><r>possile angioedema
ACE-I<r>
1297649520118 1342707643797 which antihypertensive Rx fits the following sta
tement?<r><r>possile development of Rx-induced lupus Hydralazine<r>

1297649537773 1342707643797 which antihypertensive Rx fits the following sta
tement?<r /><r />can e used for chronic HTN in pregnant women
Methyldo
pa<r />laetalol<r />hydralazine<r />nifedipine<r />
1297649559276 1342707643797 which antihypertensive Rx fits the following sta
tement?<r /><r>associated with ototoxicity when used with aminoglycosides
loops
1297649599562 1342707643797 while on an ACE-I, a pt develops a cough -&gt; w
hat is a good replacement Rx, and why doesn't it have the same SE?
Angioten
sin II receptor lockers (eg. sartans)<r />
1297649643103 1342707643797 which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r /><r />SE: facial flushing
niacin
1297649667110 1342707643797 which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r><r>SE: elevated LFTs, myositis
Statins, firates<r>
1297649679489 1342707643797 which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r /><r />SE: GI discomfort, ad taste Bile acid resins<r />
1297649684786 1342707643797 which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r><r>est effect on HDL niacin
1297649696788 1342707643797 which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r /><r /><r />est effect on TAG/VLDL (NOT LDL!)
firates
<r />omega 3 fa
1297649704619 1342707643797 which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r><r>est effect on LDL/cholesterol
statins
1297649716284 1342707643797 which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r><r>inds C. diff toxin
Cholestyramine <r>
1297649749187 1342707643797 50 yr old man starts on lipid-lowering medicatio
n. upon his first dose, he develops a rash, pruritis, diarrhea. what Rx is he ta
king? niacin
1297649760773 1342707643797 how can the flushing reaction of niacin e preve
nted? aspirin (the flushing effect is mediated y prostaglandins)
1297649791480 1342707643797 what is the MOA of cardiac glycosides (digoxin,
digitoxin)?
Inhiits Na+/K+ countertransporter -&gt; decrease extracellular
Na+, increase intracellular Ca2+ -&gt; increase contractility<r>
1297649817451 1342707643797 adominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is most likely a
consequence of what process? Atherosclerosis -&gt; AAA<r /><r />not HTN (HT
N -&gt; aortic dissection)<r />
1297649848791 1342707643797 pt with poorly managed HTN has acute, sharp sus
ternal pain that radiates to ack and progresses over a few hours. death occurs
in a few hours. Dx?
aortic dissection
1297649873261 1342707643797 during a high school footall game, a young athl
ete collapses and dies immediately. what type of cardiac disease did he have?
Hypertrophic cardiomypoathy<r />
1297649903073 1342707643797 What is the most likely causes of chest pain the
following scenarios?<r /><r />ST segment elevation only during rief episodes
of chest pain, typically at rest or at night Prinzmetal angina<r />
1297649923724 1342707643797 what is the most likely causes of chest pain the
following scenarios?<r><r>pt is ale to point to localize chest pain using on
e finger
Musculoskeletal pain or chest wall pain<r>
1297649935312 1342707643797 what is the most likely causes of chest pain the
following scenarios?<r><r>chest wall tenderness on palpation Musculoskeletal
pain or chest wall pain<r>
1297649949681 1342707643797 what is the most likely causes of chest pain the
following scenarios?<r><r>rapid onset sharp chest pain that radiates to scapu
la
Aortic dissection<r>
1297649970509 1342707643797 what is the most likely causes of chest pain the
following scenarios?<r><r>rapid onset sharp pain in a 20yo and associated wit
h dyspnea
Spontaneous pneumothorax<r>
1297649984474 1342707643797 what is the most likely causes of chest pain the
following scenarios?<r><r>occurs after heavy meals and improved y antacids
GERD or esophageal spasm<r>
1297650003632 1342707643797 what is the most likely causes of chest pain the

following scenarios?<r><r>sharp pain lasting hrs-days and is somewhat relieve
d y sitting forward
Pericarditis<r>
1297650019673 1342707643797 what is the most likely causes of chest pain the
following scenarios?<r><r>pain made worse y deep reathing and/or motion
Musculoskeletal pain or chest wall pain<r>
1297650037387 1342707643797 What is the most likely causes of chest pain the
following scenarios?<r /><r />Chest pain in a dermatomal distriution
Herpes zoster (shingles)
1297650046848 1342707643797 what is the most likely causes of chest pain the
following scenarios?<r><r>most common cause of noncardiac chest pain GERD
1297650061656 1342707643797 what is the most likely causes of chest pain the
following scenarios?<r><r>acute onset dyspnea, tachycardia, and confusion in
a hospitalized pt
pulmonary emolism
1297650076789 1342707643797 what is the most likely causes of chest pain the
following scenarios?<r><r>pain egan the day following an intensive new exerc
ise program
Musculoskeletal pain<r>
1297650128891 1342707643797 crescendo-decrescendo systolic murmur est heard
in 2nd-3rd right interspace close to sternum AS
1297650141512 1342707643797 early diastolic decrescendo murmur heard est al
ong left side of sternum
PR
1297650153919 1342707643797 late diastolic decrescendo murmur heard est alo
ng left side of sternum TS
1297650177780 1342707643797 pansystolic (aka holosystolic or uniform) murmur
est heard at apex and often radiates to left axilla MR
1297650193292 1342707643797 late systolic murmur usually preceded y a mid-s
ystolic click MP
1297650211385 1342707643797 crescendo-decrescendo systolic murmur est heard
in 2nd-3rd left interspaces close to sternum PS
1297650243164 1342707643797 pansystolic (aka holosystolic or uniform) murmur
est heard along left lower sternal order and generally radiates to right lowe
r sternal order
TR<r />VSD
1297650256972 1342707643797 rumling late diastolic murmur with an opening s
nap
MS
1297650282492 1342707643797 pansystolic (aka holosystolic or uniform) murmur
est heard at 4th-6th left intercostal spaces TR<r>VSD
1297650294483 1342707643797 continuous machine-like murmur (in systole and d
iastole)
PDA
1297650312778 1342707643797 high-pitched diastolic murmur associated with a
widened pulse pressure AR
1297650343089 1342707643797 what are the most common causes of aortic stenos
is?
Congenital icuspid valve (not clinically apparent until after 40yo)<r>
Congenital unicuspid valve<r>Senile or degenerative calcification (after 60yo)<
r>Chronic rheumatic valve disease<r>
1297650362602 1342707643797 what heart sounds are considered enign when the
re is no evidence of disease? Split S1<r />Split S2 on inspiration<r />S3<r
/>Early, quiet systolic murmur<r />
1297650404261 1342707643797 murmur heard est in left lateral decuitus posi
tion
Left sided S3, left sided S4, mitral stenosis<r>
1297650443250 1342707643797 80yo man presents with systolic crescendo-decres
cendo murmur -&gt; what is most likely cause
Aortic stenosis<r><r>Senile or
degenerative calcification<r>
1297650553486 1342707643797 pt suffers stroke after incurring multiple long
Bone laid out lo
one fractures in a skiing accident. what caused infarct?
ng time in cast -&gt; predispose to DVT -&gt; Paradoxical emolism -&gt; goes up
through heart through patent foramen ovale (that has not een Dx) -&gt; [usuall
y DVT goes up to pulmonary circulation -&gt; pulmonary emolism] -&gt; ut Parad
oxical emolism ypasses right side and goes to left side through patent foramen
ovale<r><r>Hip fracture, one fracture -&gt; think fat emolism<r>
1297650810859 1342707643797 IV drug user presents with chest pain, dyspnea,
tachycardia, tachypnea. what is most likely cause?
Bacterial endocarditis w

ith acterial emolism<r>
1297650836498 1342707643797 pt in a MVA presents with chest pain, dyspnea, t
achycardia, tachypnea. what is most likely cause?
Tension pneumothorax<r>
1297650856796 1342707643797 post-op pt presents with chest pain, dyspnea, ta
chycardia, tachypnea. what is most likely cause?
Pulmonary emolism<r>
1297650897310 1342707643797 young girl with congenital valve disease is give
n penicillin prophylactically. in ER, acterial endocarditis is diagnosed. what
is next step in her management? Always assume S. aureus -&gt; start with vancomy
cin<r>
1297650918245 1342707643797 under what circumstances might you see pulsus pa
radoxus?
Cardiac tamponade<r />Exaggerated inspiratory effort (asthma, c
roup, ostructive sleep apnea)<r /><r />to a lesser extent, pericarditis
1297650956188 1342707643797 what heart pathology fits the following statemen
t?<r><r>diffuse myocardial inflammation with necrosis and mononuclear cells
Myocarditis
1297650973916 1342707643797 what heart pathology fits the following statemen
t?<r><r>focal myocardial inflammation with multinucleate giant cells Aschoff
odies of rheumatic fever<r>
1297650984812 1342707643797 what heart pathology fits the following statemen
t?<r /><r />fever + IVDA + new heart murmur Bacterial endocarditis<r />
1297650998023 1342707643797 what heart pathology fits the following statemen
t?<r /><r />chest pain and course ruing heart sounds in pt with Cr of 5
Uremic pericarditis<r />
1297651025184 1342707643797 what heart pathology fits the following statemen
t?<r /><r>tree-arking of aorta
Tertiary syphilis<r>
1297651042675 1342707643797 what heart pathology fits the following statemen
t?<r /><r>child with fever, joint pain, cutaneous nodules 4 wks after throat i
nfection
Acute rheumatic fever<r>
1297651054413 1342707643797 what heart pathology fits the following statemen
t?<r /><r>ST elevations in all EKG leads
Pericarditis<r>
1297651060316 1342707643797 what heart pathology fits the following statemen
t?<r /><r />disordered growth of myocytes
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy<r>
1297651115755 1342707643797 which type of vasculitis fits the following desc
ription?<r><r>weak pulses in upper extremities
Takayasu's<r>
1297651139281 1342707643797 which type of vasculitis fits the following desc
ription?<r><r>necrotizing granulomas of lung and necrotizing glomerulonephriti
s
Wegener's<r>
1297651158221 1342707643797 which type of vasculitis fits the following desc
ription?<r /><r />immune complex inflammation with firinoid necrosis of visce
ral and renal vessels Polyarteritis nodosa<r />
1297651182161 1342707643797 which type of vasculitis fits the following desc
ription?<r /><r>young male smoker
Buerger's<r>
1297651192434 1342707643797 which type of vasculitis fits the following desc
ription?<r /><r>young asian woman
Takayasu's
1297651225846 1342707643797 which type of vasculitis fits the following desc
ription?<r /><r />young asthmatics
Churg-Strauss<r />
1297651273395 1342707643797 which type of vasculitis fits the following desc
ription?<r><r>infants and young children; involved coronary arteries Kawasaki
<r>
1297651283276 1342707643797 which type of vasculitis fits the following desc
ription?<r><r>most common vasculitis Temporal arteritis<r>
1297651293143 1342707643797 which type of vasculitis fits the following desc
ription?<r><r>associated with hepatitis B infection Polyarteritis nodosa<r>
1297651312257 1342707643797 which type of vasculitis fits the following desc
ription?<r><r>occlusion of ophthalmic artery can lead to lindness
Temporal
arteritis<r>
1297651322350 1342707643797 which type of vasculitis fits the following desc
ription?<r><r>perforation of nasal septum
Wegener's<r>
1297651335138 1342707643797 which type of vasculitis fits the following desc
ription?<r><r>unilateral HA, jaw claudication Temporal arteritis<r>

1297651368665 1342707643797 what is the Tx for most of the vasculitides?
Steroids, cyclophosphamide, high dose aspirin<r>
1297651394314 1342707643797 what is the classical presentation of pt with te
mporal arteritis? what la finding helps Dx temporal arteritis? Unilateral HA, j
aw claudication, impaired vision, lindness<r>Elevated ESR<r>
1297651407256 1342707643797 what are differences etween acute and suacute
acterial endocarditis? Acute - S. aureus, affects normal valves, acute onset<r
>Suacute - enterococci, strep viridans, coag (-) staph, insidious onset, anorm
al heart valves<r>
1297651433095 1342707643797 why do kidneys retain fluid in CHF pts? Decrease
d LV contractility -&gt; decreased CO -&gt; decreased pressure in arterial syste
m -&gt; low BP causes decreased aroreceptor firing -&gt; decreased pressure als
o stimulates release of renin -&gt; activates angiotensin-aldosterone system -&g
t; causes kidney to retain fluid<r />
1297651449192 1342707643797 what are common causes of restrictive cardiomyop
athy? Sarcoidosis, amyloidosis, postradiation firosis, endocariofiroelastosi
s, hemachromotosis<r>
1297651458096 1342707643797 what is dressler's syndrome?
Firinous perica
rditis (autoimmune, takes place wks after MI)<r>
1297651471309 1342707643797 what are two most common complications after an
MI?
Ventricular firillation<r>LV failure resulting in pulmonary edema<r>
1297651497271 1342707643797 adult pt with history of HTN presents with sudde
n sharp, tearing pain radiating to ack. what would you expect to see on CXR?
Aortic dissection, widened mediastinum<r>
1297651520649 1342707643797 on auscultation of pt, you hear a pansystolic mu
rmur at apex with radiation to axilla -&gt; what is most likey cause of this mur
mur?
MR<r>
1297651556564 1342707643797 25yo pregnant woman in 3rd trimester has normal
BP when standing and sitting. when supine, her BP drops to 90/50. what is her Dx
?
enlarged uterus is compressiing inferior vena cava<r /><r />thus, shou
ld lay on left side to stay off IVC<r />
1298778126174 1342707643596 polycythemia:<r /><r />asolute vs relative
<img src="paste9xps1i.jpg" />
1301119784799 1342707643375 Renal Anatomy <img src="456a - Kidney Anatomy.
JPG" />
1301119822028 1342707643375 Glomerular Structure
<img src="456 - Glomeru
lar Strxr.JPG" />
1301161185339 1342707643375 Course of ureters
Ureters pass UNDER the u
terine artery and UNDER the ductus deferens <r /><r />&quot;Water under the r
idge&quot; (Ureters [water] pass under ridge [artery/ductus deferens])
1301161288412 1342707643375 Total Body Weight (TBW)<r />(divide it up y wa
ter distriution)
TBWeight:<r />40% nonwater, 60% water<r /><r />TBWate
r:<r />1/3 extracellullar fluid, 2/3 intracellular fluid<r />TBWater - ECF = I
CF<r /><r />ECF:<r />1/4 plasma volume, 3/4 interstitial volume<r />
1301161355409 1342707643375 Ions in ECF vs. ICF
ECF: high NaCl, low K+ (
salty ocean outside cells)<r />ICF: High K+, low NaCl (HIKIN' - HIgh K+ INside)
1301161572303 1342707643375 60-40-20 rule<r>(% ody weight)
60% Weig
ht = TBWater<r>40% = ICF<r>20% = ECF
1301161632062 1342707643375 Directly and indirectly measurale volumes, and
methods <u>Directly measurale volumes</u><r /><r /><>Total ody water-</>&n
sp;&nsp;Use heavy water (deuterium2O) or tritiated water: distriutes througho
ut<r /><>ECF volume- </> Use inulin: distriutes throughout ody ut is exclu
ded from cells<r /><>Plasma volume-</>&nsp;&nsp;Use radiolaeled alumin: s
tays in plasma only<r /><r /><u>Indirectly measurale volumes</u><r /><r /><
>Interstitial volume-</> Equal to the ECV minus the plasma volume (= inulin alumin)<r /><>Intracellular volume-</>&nsp;&nsp;Equal to total water minus
ECV (= D2O - inulin)
1301161713361 1342707643375 Plasma osmolarity
Normal is aout 290 mOsm
1301162855793 1342707643375 Renal Clearance Equation<r />(For Cx, or the vo
lume of plasma from which the sustance is completely cleared per unit time)

For sustance x:<r />Cx = (Ux V) / Px<r /><r />Where: <r />Ux = urine concen
tration of x<r />Px = plasma concentration of x<r />V = urine flow rate
1301162917515 1342707643375 Values for clearance (Cx) vs. GFR
Cx &lt;
GFR: net tuular reasorption of x<r />Cx &gt; GFR: net tuular secretion of x<
r />Cx = GFR: no net secretion or reasorption
1301163034989 1342707643375 Glomerular filtration arrier Responsile for
filtration of plasma according to size and net charge<r /><r />Composition:<r
/>1.) Fenestrated capillary endothelium (size arrier)<r />2.) Fused asement
memrane w/ heparan sulfate (negative charge arrier)<r />3.) Epithelial layer
consisting of podocyte foot processes
1301163084476 1342707643375 What is lost in nephrotic syndrome?<r />What is
the result?
The charge arrier.<r />Result: hypoaluminemia, hypoproteinemi
a, generalized edema, hyperlipidemia, hypercoagulaility.
1301163580906 1342707643375 What sustance is used to calculate GFR (ideally
)?<r /><r />Equations?
Inulin can e used /c it is freely filtered and
is neither reasored nor secreted.<r /><r />So:<r />GFR = (U-inulin V) / Pinulin = C-inulin<r />=Kf [(Pgc - Ps) - (πgc - πbs)]<b /><b />gc = glome ula ca

illa y<b />bs = Bowman's s
ace<b />(πbs no mally = 0)
1301163633736 1342707643375 What substance is used to a

oximate GFR, and h
ow accu ate is it?
C eatinine clea ance is used as an a

oximate measu e o
f GFR. <b /><b />It slightly ove estimates GFR b/c c eatinine is mode ately se
c eted by the enal tubules
1301163709962 1342707643375 Effective Renal Plasma Flow (ERPF)
Can be e
stimated using PAH clea ance b/c it is both filte ed and actively sec eted in th
e
oximal tubule. <b />All PAH ente ing the kidney is exc eted.
1301163764299 1342707643375 Calculating ERPF
Use PAH<b /><b />ERPF
= (U-PAH V) / P-PAH = C-PAH
1301163823802 1342707643375 Calculating Renal Blood Flow (RBF)
RBF = RP
F / (1 - Hct)<b /><b />Can use ERPF fo RPF, but emembe that ERPF unde estim
ates t ue RPF by about 10%.
1301163884860 1342707643375 Filt ation F action<b />(how do you calculate i
t?)
GFR / RPF
1301163920198 1342707643375 Filte ed Load GFR x Plasma Concent ation
1301163952779 1342707643375 Effect of NSAIDs, ACE-I's on GFR and RPF<b />(m
echanism)
<img s c="458 - Pha macologic effects on Glome ulus.JPG" />
1301164066096 1342707643375 Effect of affe ent a te iole const iction
RPF: dec eased<b >GFR: dec eased<b >FF: No change
1301164115554 1342707643375 Effect of Effe ent A te iole Const iction
RPF: Dec eased<b />GFR: Inc eased<b />FF: Inc eased
1301164169972 1342707643375 Effect (on enal fxn) of inc eased
lasma
otei
n concent ation RPF: No change<b />GFR: dec eased<b />FF: dec eased
1301164207235 1342707643375 Effect (on enal fxn) of dec eased
lasma
otei
n concent ation RPF: no change<b />GFR: inc eased<b />FF: inc eased
1301164244679 1342707643375 Effect of const iction of u ete (on enal fxn)
RPF: No change<b >GFR: dec eased<b >FF: dec eased
1301164371772 1342707643375 F ee Wate Clea ance<b /><b />Calculation?
Ability to dilute u ine. <b />Given u ine flow ate, u ine osmola ity, and
las
ma osmola ity, be able to calculate f ee wate clea ance:<b />C-H2O = V - C-osm
<b />(V is u ine flow ate; C-osm = (U-osm V) / P-osm)<b /><b />F ee wate (C
H2O) = total u ine (V) − wate occupied with solute (Cosm)
1301164490462 1342707643375 Effect of ADH on f ee wate clea ance (CH2O)
with ADH: CH2O &lt; 0 ( etention of wate )<b >w/o ADH: CH2O &gt; 0 (ex etion o
f f ee wate )<b ><b >*isotonic u ine:<b >Isotonic u ine: CH2O = 0 (seen w/ loop
diu etics)
1301164657231 1342707643375 Glucose Clea ance ( enal)
Glucose at <u>no
mal plasma level</u> is completely eabso bed in p oximal tubule.<b /><b />At
plasma glucose of <u>160200 mg/dL</u>, glucosu ia begins (<b>th eshold</b>).<b
/><b />At <u>350 mg/dL</u>, t anspo t mechanism is satu ated (<b>Tm</b>).<b
/><b />*glucosu ia is an impo tant clinical clue to DM
1301164740787 1342707643375 Amino Acid clea ance ( enal)
Reabso ption by

at least 3 distinct ca ie systems, w/ competitive inhibition w/in each g oup.<
b ><b >Seconda y active t anspo t occu s in PT and is satu able.
1301241613151 1342707643755 Sonic Hedgehog Gene
P oduced @ base of limbs
in <b>zone of pola izing activity</b> (a ea of mesenchyme involved in di ecting
limb g owth).<b /><b />Involved in patte ning along <b>ante io /poste io</b>
axis.
1301241661839 1342707643755 Wnt7 Gene
P oduced @ <b>apical ectode mal
idge (</b>thickened ectode m @ distal end of each developing limb).<b /><b />
Necessa y fo o ganization along <b>do sal/vent al</b> axis.
1301241702236 1342707643755 FGF Gene (in emb yology): p oduced whe e? does w
hat?
P oduced @ <b>apical ectode mal idge </b>(distal end of each limb bud).
<b /><b />Stimulates mitosis of unde lying mesode m, p oviding fo lengthening
of limbs.
1301241718539 1342707643755 Homeobox Gene Involved in segmental o ganizati
on; code fo t ansc iption facto s<b /><b />Hox mutations &gt; appendages in
w ong locations
1301241852652 1342707643808 1st week
Day 0: fe tilazation &gt; <b
/>about 3d &gt; mo ula<b />about 5d &gt; Blastocyst<b />w/in wk 1 &gt; i
mplantation as blastocyst
1301242001704 1342707643808 2nd week
<span style="fontweight:600; te
xtdeco ation: unde line;">Bilamina disk</span> (epiblast and hypoblast)<b /><
b />Epiblast (ectode m p ecu so ) invaginates to fo m <b>p imitive st eak</b> 
&gt; gives ise to both int aemb yonic mesode m and endode m.
1301242078848 1342707643400 &quot;Rule of 2's&quot; fo 2nd week of developm
ent
2 ge m laye s (bilamina disk  epiblast, hypoblast)<b /><b />2 caviti
es (amniotic cavity, yolk sac)<b /><b />2 components of placenta (cytot ophobl
ast, syncytiot ophoblast)
1301242110691 1342707643808 Week 3 Gast ulation.<b /><b />P imitive st ea
k, notocho d, and neu al plate begin to fo m.<b /><b /><img s c="118a  week 3
.JPG" />
1301242170544 1342707643400 &quot;Rule of 3's&quot; fo 3 d week of developm
ent
3 Ge m laye s (gast ula):<b />1.) Ectode m<b />2.) Mesode m<b />3.) E
ndode m
1301242199417 1342707643808 Week 4 Hea t begins to beat.<b /><b />Uppe a
nd lowe limb buds begin to fo m.
1301242227572 1342707643400 &quot;Rule of 4's&quot; fo 4th week of developm
ent
4 hea t chambe s (hea t begins to beat)<b /><b />4 limb buds g ow
1301242265207 1342707643808 Emb yonic Pe iod (wks 38)
Neu al tube fo m
s, o ganogenesis.<b /><b />Ext emely susceptible to te atogens.<b /><b /><im
g s c="118b  week 38.JPG" />
1301242343195 1342707643808 Fetal Pe iod (afte week 8)
Week 8 (beginnin
g of fetal pe iod)<b />Fetal Movement<b />&quot;Looks like&quot; a baby<b /><
b />Week 10  male/female genitalia
1301242396654 1342707643400 Ala plate
Do sal plate, senso y<b /><b /
>(same position as spinal co d) y
1301242414959 1342707643400 Basal plate
Vent al plate, moto .<b /><b /
>(same o ientation as spinal co d)
y
1301242532106 1342707643400 Su face ectode m de ivatives
Adenohypophysis
(ante io pituita y)<b />Lens of eye<b />Epithelial linings of o al cavity, ey
e, and nose<b />Epide mis<b />Saliva y, sweat, and mamma y glands
y
1301242740314 1342707643400 Neu oectode m de ivatives
(Think &quot;CNS
+ B ain&quot;)<b /><b />B ain: neu ohypophysis (poste io pituita y), CNS neu
ons, oligodend ocytes, ast ocytes, ependymal cells, pineal gland<b /><b>Retina
</b><b />Spinal co d<b /><b />*Notocho d induces ectode m to fo m neu oectode
m, postnatally: becomes nucleus pulposus of IV disks* y
1301242848591 1342707643400 Neu al C est de ivatives<b />(ectode m)
ANS<b />Do sal Root ganglia<b />C anial ne ves<b />Celiac ganglion<b />Melan
ocytes<b />Ch omaffin cells of ad enal medulla<b />Ente och omaffin cells<b /
>Pa afollicula (C) cells of thy oid<b />Schwann cells<b />Bones of skull<b /
>La yngeal ca tilage<b />Pia and a achnoid<b />Odontoblasts <b />Ao ticopulmi

na y septum
y
1301242884583 1342707643400 Endode m de ivatives
Gut tube epithelium and
de ivatives (e.g. lungs, live , panc eas, thymus, pa athy oid, thy oid follicula
cells)
y
1301242978098 1342707643400 Mesode mal de ivatives Muscle, bone, connective
tissue<b />Se ous lining of body cavities<b />Spleen (de ived f om fo egut me
sente y)<b />CV st uctu es, lymphatics, blood<b />U ogenital st uctu es, kidne
ys<b />Ad enal co tex y
1301243030525 1342707643400 Mesode mal defects (VACTERL association)
&quot;VACTERL&quot;<b /><b />Ve teb al defects<b />Anal at esia<b />Ca diac
defects<b />T acheoEsophageal fistula<b />Renal defects<b />Limb defects (in
bone/muscle)<b /><b />VACTERL association (also VATER synd ome) is a non and
om association of bi th defects. The eason it is called an association, athe
than a synd ome is that while the complications a e not pathogenetically elated
they tend to occu togethe mo e f equently than expected by chance. y
1301243086841 1342707643400 Timing of te atogens
Befo e wk 3: allo none
<b /><b />Wk 38 (emb yonic pe iod): o ganogenesis, so most susceptible to ins
ults<b /><b />wk &gt;8: Affect g owth/fxn
1301243246715 1342707643400 Fetal Alcohol Synd ome Leading cause of bi th d
efects/congenital malfo mations and mental eta dation in the US.<b /><b />If
mom d ank, inc eased isk of:<b />p e and postnatal developmental eta dation
<b />mic ocephaly<b />holop osencephaly<b />facial abno malities <b />Limb d
islocation<b />Hea t and lung fistulas
1301243320333 1342707643655 ACEInhibito s<b />
Renal Damage
1301243340237 1342707643655 Cocaine<b /> Abno mal fetal development and f
etal addiction.<b />Placental ab uption.
1301243367224 1342707643655 Diethylstilbest ol (DES)<b />(A synthetic nonst
e oidal est ogen)
Vaginal clea cell ca cinoma.
1301243388451 1342707643655 Iodide (lack o excess) Congenital goite o hyp
othy oidism
1301243422295 1342707643655 Vitamin A (excess)
Ext emely high isk fo
spontaneous abo tions and bi th defects (cleft palate, ca diac abno malities)
1301243434658 1342707643655 Thalidomide
Limb defects (&quot;flippe &quot
; limbs)
1301243467268 1342707643655 Fetal defects? Smoking (nicotine + CO) P ete m
labo <b />Placental p oblems<b />Int aute ine g owth eta dation (IUGR)<b />
ADHD
1301243480010 1342707643655 X ays, Anticonvulsants Multiple anomalies
1301243559637 1342707643655 Wa fa in
Bone defo mities<b />Fetal hemo
hage<b />Abo tion
1301244014807 1342707643400 Twinning timeline
Befo e 3d: Dicho ionic,
diamniotic, 2 placentas<b /><b />Day 3: cho ion fo ms<b /><b />Days 38: Mon
ocho ionic, diamniotic, 1 placenta<b /><b />Day 8: Amnion fo ms<b /><b />Day
&gt;8: monocho ionic, monoamniotic, w/ 1 placenta ( isk fo conjoined twins)
1301244072775 1342707643400 Dizygotic (f ate nal) and ea ly monozygotic twin
s
Monozygotes that split ea ly (&lt;3d) develop w/ 2 placentals, cho ions,
and amniotic sacs<b ><b >Dizygotes develop this way
1301244111723 1342707643400 Monozygotic (late ) twins
1 Zygote splits
evenly: 2 amniotic sacs w/ sha ed cho ion and placenta<b /><b />Conjoined twin
s: 1 cho ion and 1 amniotic sac<b />
1301244173853 1342707643400 Fetal component of placenta
Cytot ophoblast:
inne laye of cho ionic villi<b ><b >Syncytiot ophoblast: oute laye of cho i
onic villi, sec etes HcG
1301244198169 1342707643400 Mate nal component of placenta Decidua basalis:
De ived f om endomet ium, w/ mate nal blood in lacunae
1301244276139 1342707643400 Umbilical co d contents?<b />De ive f om what?
2 Umbilical a te ies: Retu n deoxygenated blood f om fetal inte nal iliac a te i
es to placenta<b /><b />1 Umbilical vein: supplies oxygenated blood f om place
nta to fetus (about 80% O2 sat)<b /><b />*All above de ive f om allantosis*
1301244300954 1342707643400 U achus Removes nit ogenous waste f om fetal bla

dde (like a u eth a)<b /><b />Connects to allantosis
1301244366391 1342707643400 Single umbilical a te y is associated with what?
Single umbilical a te y is associated w/ congenital and ch omosomal abno malitie
s
1301244391241 1342707643400 Vitelline fistula
Fistula btw umbilicus an
d te minal ileum &gt; fecal discha ge<b /><b />(Like a Meckel's dive ticulum
but patent all the way to umbilicus) y
1301244409117 1342707643400 U achal fistula Fistula btw umbilicus and bladde
&gt; u ina y discha ge
y
1301244470042 1342707643400 t uncus a te iosus
Gives ise to ascending
ao ta and pulmona y t unk
1301244490451 1342707643400 Bulbus co dis Gives ise to smooth pa ts (outf
low t act) of LV and RV
1301244508150 1342707643400 P imitive Vent icle
Gives ise to t abeculat
ed pa ts of LV and RV
1301244525310 1342707643400 P imitive At ia Gives ise to t abeculated pa ts
of RA and LA
1301244584681 1342707643400 Sinus Venosus Left ho n of sinus venosus: co o
na y sinus<b >Right ho n of SV: smooth pa t of RA<b ><b >
1301244603771 1342707643400 Right common ca dinal vein and ight ante io ca
dinal vein
Give ise to SVC
1301249713490 1342707643375 Ea ly PCT<b /><b />Histo?<b />Function?<b />
Endoc ine effecto s?
Ea ly PCT: contains b ush bo de . <b />Reabso bs all gl
ucose and AAs, and most bica bonate, Na+, and wate .<b />Isotonic abso ption.<b
/>Sec etes ammonia, which acts as a buffe fo sec eted H+.<b /><img s c="459
 Ea ly PCT.JPG" /><b />PTH: inhibits Na+/phosphate cot anspo t &gt; <span s
tyle="fontweight:600; textdeco ation: unde line; colo :#0000ff;">phosphate exc
etion</span><b />ATII: stimulates Na+/H+ exchange &gt; inc eased Na+ and wat
e eabso ption (can lead to <span style="fontweight:600; textdeco ation: unde
line; colo :#0000ff;">cont action alkalosis</span>)
1301249758379 1342707643375 Thin Descending loop of Henle Passively eabso
bs wate via medulla y hype tonicity (impe meable to sodium).<b /><b />Concen
t ating segment makes u ine hype tonic.
1301249841776 1342707643375 Thick ascending LOH
Actively eabso bs Na+,
K+, and Cl. Indi etly induces pa acellula eabso ption of Mg2+ and Ca2+.<b />
Impe meable to wate .<b />Diluting segment.<b />Makes u ine hypotonic.<b /><i
mg s c="459b  Thick AL of LOH.JPG" />
1301249937150 1342707643375 Ea ly distal convoluted tubule Actively eabso
bs Na+, Cl<b />Makes u ine hypotonic<b /><img s c="459c  Ea ly DCT.JPG" /><b
/>PTH: inc eases Na+/Ca2+ exchange, leading to Ca2+ eabso ption
1301250039210 1342707643375 Collecting tubule<b /><b />Job?<b />Regulato
s?<b />Channels/ ecepto s?
Collecting tubules: eabso b Na+ in exchange fo
sec eting K+ and H+ ( egulated by aldoste one)<b /><img s c="paste7ldmbm.jpg"
/><b />Aldoste one: leads to inse tion of Na+ channels on luminal side.<b />AD
H  acts at V2 ecepto s, inse ting aquapo in H2O channels on luminal side
1301250103311 1342707643375 TF/P &gt;1
Solute is eabso bed mo e slowly
than wate and/o <b />The e is net sec etion of solute.<b /><img s c="460a 
Relative concent ations along PT.JPG" />
y
1301250130943 1342707643375 TF/P = 1
Solute and wate a e eabso bed
at the same ate.<b >Solute is neithe eabso bed no sec eted.<b ><img s c="460
a  Relative concent ations along PT.JPG" />
y
1301250177023 1342707643375 TF/P &lt; 1
Solute is eabso bed mo e quickl
y than wate .<b /><img s c="460a  Relative concent ations along PT.JPG" />
y
1301250231019 1342707643375 C eatinine and inulin along p oximal tubule
Inc ease in concent ation (but not amount) along the p oximal tubule, due to wat
e eabso ption.<b /><img s c="460a  Relative concent ations along PT.JPG" />
1301250283975 1342707643375 Cl vs. Na+ along tubule
Cl is abso bed
distal to whe e Na+ is eabso bed, so its elative concent ation inc eases.<b /
><img s c="460a  Relative concent ations along PT.JPG" />

1301250355011 1342707643375 Na+ along tubule
Reabso ption d ives H2O
eabso ption, so it nea ly matches osm<b /><img s c="460a  Relative concent at
ions along PT.JPG" /> y
1301251137056 1342707643375 Angiotensin II (ATII)<b />Effects on bp/HR egu
lation Affects ba o ecepto function<b />Limits eflex b adyca dia, which woul
d no mally accompany its p esso effects
y
1301251185941 1342707643375 ANP<b /><b />Released f om whe e, in esponse
to what?<b />Mechanism / signaling molecule involved? Released f om at ia in
esponse to inc eased volume<b />May act as a &quot;check&quot; on RAAS: elaxes
enal vasculatu e via cGMP, dec eases enin and inc eases GFR y
1301251209664 1342707643375 ADH egulates...
P ima ily egulates osmo
la ity<b />(In lowvolume states, both ADH and aldoste one act to p otect blood
volume)
y
1301251253963 1342707643375 Aldoste one egulates...
P ima ily egula
tes blood volume <b />(In lowvolume states, both ADH and aldoste one act to p
otect blood volume)
y
1301251521278 1342707643375 Angiotensinogen &gt; Angiotensin I<b /><b />
What is involved, and how is it egulated?
Angiotensinogen (f om live ) is
conve ted to Angiotensin I by enin (f om the kidney).<b /><b />Renin p oducti
on is up egulated by low BP (sensed @ JG cells) and high sympathetic tone; <b /
>it is down egulated by Na+ delive y (sensed @ MD cells)<b /><img s c="460b  A
ng to ATII.JPG" />
1301251607757 1342707643375 Angiotensin I &gt; Angiotensin II
Conve te
d by Angiotensin Conve ting Enzyme (ACE)  p oduced in lungs<b /><b />ACE also
b eaks down b adykinin<b /><img s c="460c  ATI to ATII.JPG" />
1301251634811 1342707643375 ATII on systemic vasculatu e Acts on ATII e
cepto s on smooth muscle to inc ease BP
1301251686822 1342707643375 ATII on glome ulus
Const icts effe ent a te
iole &gt; inc eases FF to p ese ve enal fxn in lowvolume states (i.e. w/ lo
w RBF)
1301251775022 1342707643375 ATII on ad enal gland Stimulates ad enal gland
to p oduce aldoste one<b />&gt; aldoste one causes inc eased Na+ channel, Na
+/K+ pump inse tion in <b>p incipal cells</b><b />&gt;This c eates favo able
Na+ g adient fo H2O eabso ption
1301251831374 1342707643375 ATII on poste io pituita y
Stimulates poste
io pituita y to p oduce ADH.<b >&gt; ADH inc eases H2O channel inse tion in
<b>p incipal cells</b><b >&gt; This causes wate
eabso ption
1301251871013 1342707643375 ATII on p oximal tubule
Inc eases PT Na+
/H+ activity<b >&gt; This leads to H2O eabso ption<b >(Can also lead to cont
action alkalosis)
1301251888342 1342707643375 ATII on hypothalamus Causes thi st y
1301251956540 1342707643375 Juxtaglome ula Appa atus (JGA) JG cells (modifi
ed smooth muscle of affe t a te iole)<b />and Macula Densa (Na+ senso , pa t of
the DCT)<b /><img s c="456b  Glome ula St x .JPG" /><b />*This st uctu e de
fends glome ula filt ation ate via eninangiotensin aldoste one system (RAAS)
*
y
1301252095611 1342707643375 Function of JG Cells
Sec ete enin (leading t
o inc eased angiotensin II and aldoste one levels) in esponse to dec eased ena
l bp, dec eased Na+ delive y to distal tubule, and inc eased sympathetic tone.<b
/><img s c="456b  Glome ula St x .JPG" /> y
1301252212423 1342707643375 NSAIDs and enal failu e
Can cause acute
enal failu e by inhibiting the enal p oduction of p ostaglandins, <b />which
keep the affe ent a te ioles vasodilated to maintain GFR.<b /><img s c="458  P
ha macologic effects on Glome ulus.JPG" />
1301252332486 1342707643375 EPO is p oduced by what?
P oduced by endo
thelial cells of pe itubula capilla ies in esponse to hypoxia y
1301252423731 1342707643375 P oximal Tubule Cells' endoc ine function
Conve t 25OH Vitamin D to 1,25(OH)2 Vitamin D (1alpha hyd oxylase; up egulate
d by PTH)<b />This inc eases intestinal abso ption of both Ca2+ and phosphate.
y

1301252505881 1342707643375 PTH effect on Kidney<b />(Di ect, Indi ect)
Acts di ectly on kidney to inc ease enal Ca2+ eabso ption.<b /><b />Howeve ,
also acts indi ectly, stimulating PT cells to make 1,25(OH)2VitD, which inc e
ases intestinal abso ption of both Ca2+ and phosphate.<b /><img s c="461a  Vit
aminD.JPG" /> y
1301252544968 1342707643375 JG cells' endoc ine function
sec ete enin in
esponse to dec eased enal a te ial p essu e, dec eased Na+ at macula densa, a
nd inc eased enal sympathetic discha ge (beta1 effect)
y
1301252624295 1342707643375 P ostaglandins and GFR PG's a e sec eted to vas
odilate the affe ent a te ioles, in o de to inc ease GFR.
1301253082323 1342707643375 At ial Nat iu etic Peptide's (ANP's) effect on k
idney Sec eted in esponse to inc eased at ial p essu e.<b />Causes inc eased
GFR and inc eased Na+ filt ation w/ <b>no compensato y Na+ eabso ption in the
distal neph on</b> to lowe volume.<b />Net effect: Na+ loss and volume loss.<b
/><img s c="462a  ANP.JPG" /><b />
1301253227638 1342707643375 PTH's effect on kidney Sec eted in esponse to
low plasma [Ca2+].<b /><b />Causes inc eased [Ca2+] eabsoption in DCT, dec ea
sed phosphate eabso ption in PCT (i.e., inc eased exc etion of phosphate), and
1,25(OH)2VitD p oduction (which leads to inc eased Ca2+ and phosphate abso ptio
n f om gut)<b /><img s c="462b  PTH.JPG" />
1301253349944 1342707643375 ATII's effect on kidney Synthesized in esponse
to low bp.<b /><b />Causes effe ent a te iole const iction to inc ease GFR and
FF, but <b>with a compensato y Na+ eabso ption in the distal neph on</b>.<b /
><b />Net effect: p ese vation of enal fxn in lowvolume state (inc eased FF)
<b>w/o additional volume loss</b> (distal Na+ eabso ption).<b /><img s c="462c
 ATII.JPG" />
1301253465547 1342707643375 ADH (Vasop essin) effect on kidney
Sec eted
in esponse to high plasma osmola ity and low blood volume.<b /><b />Binds to
ecepto s on <b>p incipal cells</b>, causing inc eased numbe of wate channels
and inc eased H2O eabso ption.<b /><img s c="462d  ADH and Aldo.JPG" />
1301253529855 1342707643375 Aldoste one<b /><b />Sec eted in esponse to?<
b />Causes what?
Sec eted in esponse to low blood volume (via ATII) and
inc eased plasma [K+]<b /><b />Causes inc eased Na+ eabso ption, inc eased in
di ect K+ sec etion, and inc eased H+ sec etion<b /><img s c="462d  ADH and Al
do.JPG" />
1301253821401 1342707643375 Metabolic Acidosis<b />
pH: Dec eased<b
/>PCO2: Dec eased<b />[HCO3]: Dec eased (*p ima y distu bance)<b />Compensat
o y esponse: Hype ventilation y
1301253883608 1342707643375 Metabolic Alkalosis
pH: Inc eased<b />PCO2:
Inc eased<b />[HCO3]: Inc eased (*p ima y distu bance)<b />Compensato y esp
onse: Hypoventilation y
1301254016694 1342707643375 Respi ato y Acidosis
pH: dec eased<b >PCO2: I
nc eased (*p ima y distu bance) <b >[HCO3]: Inc eased<b >Compensato y esponse:
Inc eased enal [HCO3] eabso ption y
1301254070315 1342707643375 Respi ato y Alkalosis pH: inc eased<b >PCO2: d
ec eased (*p ima y distu bance)<b >[HCO3]: dec eased<b >Compensato y esponse:
dec eased [HCO3] eabso ption y
1301254136651 1342707643375 Hende sonHasselbalch Equation <b >(fo enal Ac
idBase physiology)
pH = pKa + log ( [HCO3] / 0.03PCO2)
1301254250494 1342707643375 Winte 's Fo mula
Respi ato y compensation
in esponse to metabolic acidosis can be quantified w/ this fo mula:<b /><b /
>PCO2 = 1.5(HCO3) + 8 +/2<b />(gives you an &quot;expected&quot; value fo PC
O2 &gt; use this to tell if the espi ato y esponse is adequate.)<b /><b />
1301254730836 1342707643375 Acidemia (pH &lt;7.4) w/ PCO2 &gt; 40mmHg <b />
Ddx
Hypoventilation:<b />Ai way obst uction<b />Acute Lung dz<b />Ch onic
lung dz<b />Opioids, na cotics, sedatives<b />Weakening of espi ato y muscle
s
1301254840071 1342707643375 Acidemia (pH &lt; 7.4) w/ PCO2 &lt; 40 mmHg<b /
>1st step in Ddx
Check anion gap:<b />Anion gap = Na+  (Cl + HCO3)<b
/>No mal = 812 mEq/L

1301254975926 1342707643375 Metabolic Acidosis w/ compensation (hype ventila
tion), elevated anion gap (&gt; 12 mEq/L)
MUDPILES<b />Methanol (fo mic a
cid)<b />U emia<b />Diabetic ketoacidosis<b />Pa aldehyde o Phenfo min <i>(a
discontinued biguanide, like metfo min)</i><b />I on tablets o INH<b />Lacti
c acidosis<b />Ethylene glycol (oxalic acid)<b />Salicylates
1301255029910 1342707643375 Metabolic Acidosis w/ compensation (hype ventila
tion), no mal anion gap (812 mEq/L) ddx?
Dia hea<b />Glue sniffing<b /
>Renal tubula acidosis<b />Hype chlo emia
1301255079197 1342707643375 Alkalemia (pH &gt;7.4) and PCO2 &lt; 40mmHg Ddx
Respi ato y Alkalosis:<b /><b />Hype ventilation (e.g. ea ly highaltitude exp
osu e)<b />Aspi in ingestion (ea ly)<b />P egnancy
1301255127728 1342707643375 Alkalemia (pH &gt; 7.4) w/ PCO2 &gt; 40 mmHg Ddx
?<b /><b />Useful lab value? Metabolic alkalosis w/ compensation (hypoventila
tion):<b /><b />Diu etic use (thiazides)<b />Vomiting<b />Antacid use<b />H
ype aldoste onism<b /><b />Measu e u ina y chlo ide (Cl)<b />low with vomit
ing, NG suction<b />high with thiazides o hype aldoste onism
1301255183851 1342707643375 Renal tubula acidosis type 1 and effects
Defect in collecting tubule's ability to exc ete H+. <b /><b />This can lead t
o hypokalemia, calciumcontaining stones.<b /><b />(think amphote icin B)
y
1301255210266 1342707643375 Renal Tubula Acidosis Type 2 Defect in PT HCO
3 eabso ption.<b /><b />Can lead to hypokalemia.<b /><b />(think acetazola
mide) y
1301255270160 1342707643375 Renal tubula acidosis Type 4 Hypoaldoste onis
m o lack of collecting tubule esponse to aldo. Associated w/ <span style="font
weight:600; textdeco ation: unde line;">hype </span><b>kalemia</b>.<b /><b /
>Inhibition of ammonia exc etion in the PT. This leads to dec eased u ine buffe
ing capacity.<b /><b />(think spi onolactone, eple enone)
y
1301255289784 1342707643375 AcidBase Nomog am
<img s c="464a AcidBase
Nomog am Regions.JPG" />
1301255308060 1342707643375 Plotting on an acidbase nomog am
<img s c
="464b  AcidBase Nomog am plotting.JPG" />
1301255442240 1342707643375 RBC casts
Indicate glome ula inflammation
(neph itic synd omes), ischemia, o malignant HTN<b /><img s c="464c RBC casts
.JPG" /><img s c=" bc casts.jpg" /><b />*P esence of casts indicates that hemat
u ia/pyu ia is of enal o igin*
1301255499489 1342707643375 WBC casts<b />What do they indicate? Indicate
tubuloinste stitial dz, acute pyeloneph itis, glome ula D/O's.<b /><img s c="
464d WBC casts.JPG" /><img s c="WBC casts.jpg" /><b />*P esence of casts indica
tes that hematu ia/pyu ia is of enal o igin*
1301255562982 1342707643375 G anula (&quot;muddy b own&quot;) casts
Acute tubula nec osis<b /><img s c="464f G anula Casts.JPG" /><b />*P esence
of casts indicates hematu ia/pyu ia is of enal o igin*
1301259874571 1342707643375 Hyaline casts <span style="fontweight:600; fo
ntstyle:italic;">Nonspecific</span><b /><img s c="464e Hyaline Casts.JPG" /><i
mg s c="Hyaline_casts.JPG" /><b />*P esence of casts indicates that hematu ia/p
yu ia is of enal o igin*
1301259936659 1342707643375 Neph itic synd ome<b />(What is it?) An Infla
mmato y p ocess involving the glome uli, leading to hematu ia, azotemia, RBC cas
ts in u ine, oligu ia, HTN, and p oteinu ia (&lt;3.5g/day)
1301259954220 1342707643375 U ine findings: Bladde cance RBC's, no casts
1301259977820 1342707643375 U ine findings: acute cystitis WBC's, no casts
1301260687274 1342707643375 Acute Postst eptococcal Glome uloneph itis
LM: Glome uli enla ged and hype cellula , PMN's, &quot;lumpybumpy&quot; appea a
nce.<b /><img s c="Acute postst eptococcal glome uloneph itis LM.JPG" /><b />E
M: Subepithelial immune complex (IC) humps.<b /><img s c="Acute postst eptococc
al glome uloneph itis  EM.JPG" /><b />IF: G anula <b /><img s c="Acute postst
eptococcal glome uloneph itis  IF.JPG" /><b />Most f equently seen in child e
n. Pe iphe al and pe io bital edema. Resolves spontaneously.
1301261255981 1342707643375 Rapidly p og essive (c escentic) glome uloneph i

tis
(A neph itic synd ome)<b />LM and IF  C escentmoon shape.<b /><img s
c="Rapidly p og essive c escentic GN.JPG" /><b />Poo p ognosis.<b />Goodpast
u e's synd ome, Wegene 's g anulomatosis, Mic oscopic polya te itis
y
1301261592385 1342707643375 Goodpastu e synd ome
(A neph itic synd ome)<b
/>A type of apidly p og essive (c escentic) glome uloneph itis<b /><b />Typ
e II hype sensitivity: antibodies to GBM (linea IF)<b /><img s c="Goodpastu e
synd ome IF.JPG" /><b />Maledominant dz.<b />Heatu ia/hemoptysis (lung involv
ement). y
1301261638033 1342707643375 Wegene 's G anulomatosis
(A neph itic syn
d ome)<b />A type of apidly p og essive (c escentic) glome uloneph itis<b /><
b />May involve kidney, lung, and <b>nose </b>( hinitis is often the fi st sign
)<b /><b /><b>cANCA</b><b />(classical antineut ophil cytoplasmic Abs)
y
1301261704052 1342707643375 Mic oscopic polya te itis
(A neph itic syn
d ome)<b />A type of apidly p og essive (c escentic) glome uloneph itis<b /><
b /><b>pANCA</b><b />(pe inuclea antineut ophil cytoplasmic Abs) y
1301261994942 1342707643375 Diffuse p olife ative glome uloneph itis<b />(d
ue to SLE)
(A neph itic synd ome)<b />Subendothelial DNAantiDNA ICs &gt
; &quot;wi e looping&quot; of capilla ies.<b /><img s c="SLE wi elooping.JPG"
/><b />[b ight ed staining of the GBM of pe iphe al capilla y loops (&quot;wi
e loop&quot; lesion) on the ight half of the glome ulus (3 o'clock)]<b /><b /
>G anula IF.<b /><b />Most common cause of death in SLE.<b />SLE can p esent
as neph otic synd ome. y
1301262317253 1342707643375 Be ge 's Disease<b />(IgA Glome uloneph opathy)
(A neph itic synd ome)<b />Inc eased synthesis of IgA.<b />Immunocomplexes dep
osit in mesangium.<b /><img s c="IgA neph opathy.JPG" /><b />Often follows URI
; often p esents as neph otic synd ome. y
1301262435132 1342707643375 Alpo t's synd ome<b /><b />Defect?<b />Sympto
ms?
(A neph itic synd ome)<b />Mutation in type IV collagen &gt; split ba
sment memb ane<b /><b />Ne ve D/O's, ocula D/O's, deafness y
1301262501146 1342707643375 Neph otic synd ome<b />P otein loss?<b />Assoc
iated Sx?
p esents w/ massive p oteinu ia (&gt;3.5g/day), f othy u ine, hy
pe lipidemia, edema.
y
1301262661094 1342707643375 Memb anous glome uloneph itis<b />(diffuse memb
anous glome ulopathy) (a neph otic synd ome)<b /><b />LM  diffuse capilla y
and GBM thickening<b /><img s c="Memb anous Glome uloneph itis LM.JPG" /><img
s c="Memb anous GN LM (1).JPG" /><b />EM  &quot;spike and dome&quot; appea anc
e<b /><img s c="Memb anous Glome uloneph itis EM.JPG" /><b />IF  g anula <b
/><img s c="Memb anous Glome uloneph itis IF.JPG" /><b />SLE's neph otic p esen
tation.<b />Mostly seconda y to d ugs, infxns, SLE (p ima y has antiPLA2R abs)
.<b />Most common cause of adult neph otic synd ome. y
1301262847253 1342707643375 Minimal change disease <b />(Lipoid neph osis)
(a neph otic synd ome)<b /><b />LM  no mal glome uli<b />EM  Foot p ocess e
ffacement<b /><img s c="minimal change dz.JPG" /><b />Often postinfectious.<b
/>Most common in child en.<b />Responds to co ticoste oids. y
1301263024550 1342707643375 Amyloidosis
(A neph otic synd ome)<b /><b
/><b />LM  congo ed stain, appleg een bi ef ingence<b /><img s c="Amyloidos
is  Congo Red.JPG" /><img s c="Amyloidosis  Bi ef ingence.JPG" /><b />Associa
ted w/ multiple myeloma, ch onic conditions, TB, heumatoid a thitis. y
1301263265070 1342707643375 Diabetic glome ulopathy (a neph otic synd ome)<b
/><b />Nonenzymatic glycosylation (NEG) of GBM leads to inc eased pe meabilit
y, thickening.<b /><b />NEG of effe ent a te ioles inc eases GFR (<b>hype filt
ation inju y</b>), leading to mesangial damage, wi e looping.<b /><b />LM: Ki
mmelstielWilson &quot;wi e loop&quot; lesions.<b /><img s c="Diabetic glome ul
oneph opathy.JPG" />
y
1301263531144 1342707643375 Focal segmental glome uloscle osis
(A neph
otic synd ome)<b /><b />LM  segmental scle osis and hyalinosis<b /><img s c=
"Focal segmental glome uloneph itis.JPG" /><b />Most common glome ula dz in HI
V pts, IV d ug use s.<b />Mo e seve e in HIV pts.
y
1301264002604 1342707643375 Memb anop olife ative glome uloneph itis

(A neph otic synd ome)<b /><b />Subendothelial immune complexes w/ g anula IF
.<b /><b />EM  &quot;t amt ack&quot; appea ance due to GBM splitting caused
by mesangial ing owth. <b /><b />Can p esent as eithe neph itic o neph otic
synd ome. <b /><b />Type I associated w/ HBV, HCV.<b />Type II (&quot;dense d
eposits&quot; on EM) associated w/ C3 neph itic facto , which stabilizes C3 conv
e tase leading to excess complement activity. y
1301264689227 1342707643375 Glome ula Histology<b />(No mal)
<img s c
="pastexoeife.jpg" />
1301265378084 1342707643375 Glome ula histopathology
[Below on ight]
<b />1 = subepithelial deposits (memb anous neph opathy)<b />2 = La ge i egul
a subepithelial deposits o &quot;humps&quot; (acute glome uloneph itis)<b />3
= Subendothelial deposits (lupus glome uloneph itis)<b />4 = Mesangial deposit
s (IgA neph opathy)<b />5 = Ab binding to GBM: smooth linea patte n on IF (Goo
dpastu e's)<b />6 = Effacement of epithelial foot p ocesses (common in all fo m
s of glome ula inju y w/ p oteinu ia)<b /><img s c="467  Glome ula Histopath
ology.JPG" />
1301265429523 1342707643375 Kidney stones<b />Lead to?<b />Majo types?
Can lead to complications like hyd oneph osis and pyeloneph itis.<b />4 majo t
ypes:<b />1. Calcium<b />2. Ammonium<b />3. U ic Acid<b />4. Cystine
1301265941249 1342707643375 Calcium Kidney stones<b /><b />Featu es, isk
facto s, etc. Most common kidney stones (7580%).<b />Calcium oxalate (below)
, calcium phosphate (not shown), o both.<b /><img s c="calcium oxalate c ystal
s.JPG" /><b /><b /><b />Conditions that cause hype calcemia (cance , elevated
PTH, high VitD, milkalkali synd ome) can lead to hype calciu ia and stones.<b
/><b />Tend to ecu .<b /><b />Radiopaque. <b /><b />Oxalate c ystals can
esult f om ethylene glycol (antif eeze) o vitamin C abuse.
1301266093675 1342707643375 Ammonium Magnesium Phosphate (st uvite) kidney s
tones 2nd most common kidney stone.<b />Caused by infxn w/ u easepositive bu
gs (<i>P oteus mi abilis, Staphylococcus, Klebsiella</i>), which alkalinize u in
e.<b />Can fo m<b> stagho n calculi</b> that can be a nidus fo ch onic UTIs. [
shown below]<b /><b /><img s c="calcium oxalate stagho n calculi.JPG" /><b />
<b />Radiopaque.<b /><b />Wo sened by alkalu ia.
1301266164701 1342707643375 U ic Acid kidney stones<b /><b />Associated wi
th / seen when?<b />Radiology? St ong association w/ hype u icemia (e.g. gout)<
b /><b />Often seen as a esult of diseases w/ inc eased cell tu nove , such a
s leukemia and myelop olife ative D/O's. <b /><b /> adiol<span style="fontwei
ght:600; textdeco ation: unde line;">U</span>cent
1301266320675 1342707643375 Cystine kidney stones<b /><b />Caused by?<b /
>Shape?<b />Radiodensity?<b />Tx?
Most often seconda y to cystinu ia.<b /
><b />Hexagonal shape.<b /><img s c="Cystine stones.JPG" /><b />Ra ely, may f
o m cystine stagho n calculi.<b /><b />Faintly adiopaque. <b /><b />Tx w/ a
lkalinization of u ine (eg. potassium cit ate, potassium bica b, acetazolamide).
1301266425209 1342707643375 Renal Cell Ca cinoma epidemiology and isk facto
s
Most common enal malignancy<b /><b />Most common in men ages 5070<b
/><b />Inc eased incidence w/ smoking and obesity
y
1301266455471 1342707643375 Genetics of Renal Cell Ca cinoma (RCC) Associat
ed w/ von HippelLindau and gene deletion in Ch omosome 3p.
y
1301266633265 1342707643375 Renal cell ca cinoma<b /><b />Sp ead?<b />Cli
nical manifestations?<b />Cell o igin?<b />G oss appea ance? Invades IVC and
sp eads hematogenously.<b /><b />Manifests clinically w/:<b />hematu ia, palp
able mass, seconda y polycythemia, flank pain, feve , and weight loss.<b /><b
/>O iginates in enal tubule cells &gt; polygonal clea cells (clea b/c packe
d w/ glycogen, lipids)<b /><b /><img s c="RCC clea cells.JPG" /><img s c="RCC
 polygonal cells.JPG" /><b /><b /><b />G oss appea ance:<b /><img s c="RCC
 g oss.JPG" />
y
1301266890837 1342707643375 Pa aneoplastics associated w/ RCC
pa aneop
lastic synd omes: ectopic EPO, ACTH, PTH P, and p olactin
y
1301266942330 1342707643375 Wilm's tumo <b /><b />Epidemiology?<b />P ese
ntation?<b />Histology?<b />Othe findings? Most common enal malignancy of
ea ly childhood (ages 24).<b /><b />P esents w/ huge, palpable flank mass, he

mihype t ophy. <b /><b />Contains emb yonic glome ula st uctu es.<b /><b />
<b>F om Goljan: If AD, f om ch omosome 11 and has 2 classic findings</b><b /><b
>1) ani idia (absent i is)</b><b /><b>2) hemihype t ophy of an ext emity (one i
s bigge than anothe )</b>
y
1301266977701 1342707643375 Wilm's tumo (genetic basis)
Deletion of tumo
supp esso gene WT1 on ch omosome 11. y
1301267100760 1342707643375 WAGR complex
<b>W</b>ilm's tumo <b /><b>A</b
>ni idia (absent i is)<b /><img s c="Ani idia.JPG" /><b /><b>G</b>enitou ina y
malfo mation<b />mentalmoto <b>R</b>eta dation<b /><b />(Can occu togethe
as a complex)
1301267300042 1342707643375 T ansitional Cell Ca cinoma:<b /><b />Location
<b />Symptoms<b />Risk facto s
Most common tumo of u ina y t act syste
m (can occu in enal calyces, enal pelvis, u ete s, and bladde ).<b /><b />P
ainless hematu ia is suggestive of bladde cance .<b /><b />Associated with p
oblems in you <b>P</b>ee <b>SAC</b>:<b />Phenacetin (acetaminophen is a phenac
itin de ivative)<b />Smoking<b />Aniline dyes<b />Cyclophosphamide<b /><b /
><img s c="TCC.JPG" />
1301267409468 1342707643375 Acute Pyeloneph itis<b /><b />Histo?<b />U in
e?<b />S/sx? Affects co tex w/ elative spa ing of glome uli/vessels.<b />Wh
ite cell casts in u ine a e pathognomonic.<b /><img s c="Acute pyeloneph itis.J
PG" /><b /><b />P esents with feve , CVA tende ness.
1301267574007 1342707643375 Ch onic Pyeloneph itis histopathology Coa se,
asymmet ic co ticomedulla y sca ing, blunted calyx.<b />Tubules contain eosino
philic casts (thy oidization of the kidney).<b /><img s c="Ch onic pyeloneph it
is.JPG" />
1301267711058 1342707643375 Diffuse co tical nec osis<b /><b />What is it?
<b />Caused by?<b />Associated with? Acute gene alized infa ction of co tices
of both kidneys.<b /><b />Likely due to a combination of vasospasm and DIC.<b
/><b />Associated w/ obstet ic catast ophes (e.g. ab uptio placentae) and sep
tic shock
y
1301267798948 1342707643375 D uginduced inte stitial neph itis<b /><b />W
hat is it?<b />Signs, symptoms?<b />Mechanism?
Acute inte stitial enal
inflammation.<b /><b />Feve , ash, <b>eosinophilic pyu ia</b>, hematu ia 2 w
ks afte administ ation.<b /><b />D ugs (e.g. methacillin, NSAIDs, fu osemide)
act as haptens, inducing hype sensitivity
1301267946285 1342707643375 Acute tubula nec osis (ATN)<b /><b />Path fin
dings?<b />Epidemiology?<b />P ognosis, t eatment?<b />Associated with?
Loss of cell pola ity, epithelial cell detachment, nec osis, g anula (&quot;mud
dy b own&quot;) casts.<b /><b />Most common cause of ARF in hospital.<b /><b
/>Reve sible, but fatal if left unt eated (Tx w/ dialysis). Death most often oc
cu s du ing initial oligu ic phase; ecove y in 23 wks.<b /><b />Associated w
/ enal ischemia (e.g. shock, sepsis), c ush inju y (myoglobulinu ia), toxins.
1301267951795 1342707643375 Stages of ATN 3 stages:<b />1.) Inciting even
t<b />2.) Maintenance (oligu ic), 13 wks, isk of <b>hype kalemia</b><b />3.)
Recove y (polyu ic), isk of hypokalemia
1301268044877 1342707643375 Renal Papilla y nec osis:<b />What is it?<b />
What is it associated with?
Sloughing of enal papillae, leading to g oss he
matu ia, p oteinu ia.<b /><b />Associated w/:<b />1.) DM<b />2.) Acute pyelo
neph itis<b />3.) Ch onic phenacetin use (acetaminophen is a phenacetin de ivat
ive)<b />4.) Sickle cell anemia
1301268239143 1342707643375 Acute Renal Failu e (ARF)<b /><b />Definition?
<b />Types?
In a no mal neph on, BUN is eabso bed (fo counte cu ent multi
plication), but c eatinine is not.<b /><b />ARF is defined as an<i> ab upt dec
line in enal function w/ inc eased c eatinine and inc eased BUN ove a pe iod o
f seve al days<b /></i><b />Can be: p e enal, int insic enal, o post enal
1301268303409 1342707643375 P e enal azotemia (ARF)
Dec eased RBF (e
.g. hypotension) causing dec eased GFR.<b /><b />Na+/H2O and u ea a e etained
by kidney, so BUN/c eatinine atio inc eases in an attempt to conse ve volume.
1301268397719 1342707643375 Int insic enal ARF<b /><b />Cause?<b />Path?
<b />U ine?<b />BUN/C ?
Gene ally due to ATN o ischemia/toxins (less co

mmonly: RPGN)<b /><b />Patchy nec osis leads to deb is obst ucting tubule and
fluid backflow ac oss nec otic tubule, dec easing GFR.<b /><b />U ine has epit
helial/g anula casts.<b /><b />BUN eabso ption is impai ed &gt; dec eased
BUN/c eatinine atio (&lt;15)
1301268445517 1342707643375 U ine osmola ity in diffe ent types of ARF
P e enal: <b>&gt;500</b><b />Int insic enal o post enal: &lt;350 in eithe
one
1301268517032 1342707643375 U ine [Na+] in diffe ent types of ARF P e ena
l: <b>&lt;10 meq/L</b><b />Int insic enal: &gt;20<b />Post enal: &gt;40
1301268571520 1342707643375 FeNa+ (f actional exc etion of sodium) in diffe
ent types of ARF
P e enal: <b>&lt;1%</b><b >Int insic enal: &gt;2%<b >P
ost enal: &gt;4%
1301268627351 1342707643375 Se um BUN/C e atio in diffe ent types of ARF
P e enal: &gt;20<b />Int insic enal: <b>&lt;15</b><b />Post enal: &gt;15
1301268869137 1342707643375 Consequences of enal failu e Inability to mak
e u ine and exc ete nit ogenous waste &gt; <b>u emia</b> (clinical synd ome ma
ked by inc eased BUN and c eatinine and associated symptoms).<b /><b />Conseq
uences:<b />1) Na+/H2O etention (CHF, pulmona y edema, hype tension)<b />2) <
b>Hype </b>kalemia (leading to a ythmias)<b />3) Metabolic <b>acidosis</b> (de
c eased H+ sec etion, dec eased bica b gene ation)<b />4) U emia (synd ome ma k
ed by inc eased BUN, c eatinine)<b />a. nausea, ano exia<b />b. pe ica ditis<b
/>c. aste ixis<b />d. encephalopathy<b />e. platelet dysfunction<b />5) Ane
mia (failu e of EPO p oduction)<b />6) Renal osteodyst ophy (failu e of active
VitD p oduction)<b />7) Dyslipidemia (especially high TGs)<b />8) G owth eta
dation and developmental delay in kids
1301268945330 1342707643375 Fanconi's Synd ome<b /><b />Defect?<b />Cause
s?
Dec eased PT t anspo t of AA's, glucose, phosphate, u ic acid, p otein,
and elect olytes.<b /><b />Can be congenital o acqui ed.<b /><b />Causes in
clude: Wilson's dz, glycogen sto age dz's, and d ugs (e.g. cisplatin, expi ed TC
N).
y
1301269014338 1342707643375 Defects associated w/ specific Fanconi's synd om
e enal losses<b /><b />Phosphate?<b />HCO3?<b />Na?
Dec eased phosph
ate eabso ption &gt; Rickets<b /><b />Dec eased HCO3 eabso ption &gt; M
etabolic acidosis (type 2 RTA)<b /><b />Dec eased ea ly Na+ eabso ption &gt
; inc eased distal Na+ eapso ption &gt; hypokalemia
1301269234950 1342707643375 Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Dz = ADPKD<
b />(fo me ly adult polycystic kidney dz)<b /><b />Appea ance?<b />P esentat
ion?<b />Genetics?<b />Consequences?<b />A/w?
Multiple, la ge, bilate
al cysts that ultimately dest oy the pa enchyma. Enla ged kidneys.<b /><b />P
esents w/ flank pain, hematu ia, HTN, u ina y infxn, p og essive enal failu e.<
b /><b />Autosomal Dominant mutation in <span style="fontweight:600; fontsty
le:italic;">PKD1 o 2</span>.<b /><b />Death f om u emia o HTN (due to inc ea
sed enin p oduction).<b /><b />Associated w/ polycystic live dz, be y aneu
ysms (due to HTN), and mit al valve p olapse.
1301269286050 1342707643375 Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Dz = ARPKD
<b />(Fo me ly infantile polycystic kidney dz)<b /><b />P esentation?<b />As
sociated with?<b />Late conce ns?
Infantile p esentation in pa enchyma. Au
tosomal ecessive.<b /><b /><b>Associated w/ congenital hepatic fib osis</b>.
Significant enal failu e in ute o can lead to <b>Potte 's</b>.<b /><b />Conce
ns beyond neonatal pe iod: hype tension, po tal HTN, enal insufficiency.
1301269326154 1342707643375 Dialysis cysts Co tical and medulla y cysts es
ulting f om longstanding dialysis.
1301269352282 1342707643375 Medulla y cystic dz
Medulla y cysts, p og es
sive inability to concent ate u ine.<b /><b />Ult asound shows small kidney. 7
0% develop stones.<b /><b />Poo p ognosis.
1301269373086 1342707643375 Medulla y sponge dz
Collecting duct cysts.<b
/><b />Good p ognosis.
1301269478655 1342707643602 Na+
Low: Diso ientation, stupo , coma<b />H
igh: Neu ologic  i itability, deli ium, coma
1301269561234 1342707643602 Cl
Low: seconda y to metabolic alkalosis, h

ypokalemia, hypovolemia, inc eased aldoste one<b /><b />High: seconda y to non
anion gap acidosis
1301269603313 1342707643602 K+
Low: Uwaves on ECG, flattened Twaves,
a hythmias, pa alysis (<b>U</b>boats t avel <b>low</b>)<b /><b /><img s c="p
asteyguvam.jpg" /><b /><b />High: Peaked Twaves, wide QRS, a hythmias<b /><
b /><img s c="pastefn0mvp.jpg" />
1301269647291 1342707643602 Ca2+
Low: tetany, neu omuscula i itability
(eg. Chvostek sign)<b /><b />High: Deli ium, enal stones, abdominal pain, not
necessa ily calciu ia (&quot;stones, bones, &amp; g oans&quot;)
1301269691978 1342707643602 Mg2+
Low: Neu omuscula i itability, a hyth
mias<b ><b >High: Deli ium, dec eased DTRs, ca diopulmona y a est
1301269726473 1342707643602 Phosphate
Low: lowmine al ion p oduct cau
ses bone loss, osteomalacia<b /><b />High: Highmine al ion p oduct causes en
al stones, metastatic calcifications
1301269945983 1342707643386 Mannitol
Osmotic diu etic.<b /><b />Inc
eases tubula fluid osmola ity, p oducing inc eased u ine flow.<b /><b />[#2
below/ ight  continues to wo k in thin descending LOH, collecting duct as well]
<b /><img s c="473a  Mannitol + Acetazolamide.JPG" /><img s c="472a  Diu etic
s PCT.JPG" />
1301270011551 1342707643380 Mannitol
Shock (<i>? appa ently to d aw
wate into int avascula compa tment and p event enal ischemia</i>), d ug ove d
ose, high ICP o int aocula p essu e
1301270037654 1342707643817 Mannitol
Pulmona y edema (<i>? appa entl
y f om int a to ext acellula fluid shift w/ expansion of int avascula volume<
/i>), dehyd ation.<b /><b />Cont aindicated in anu ia, CHF.
1301270243051 1342707643386 Acetazolamide Ca bonic anhyd ase inhibito .<b
/><b />Causes selflimited NaHCO3 diu esis and eduction in totalbody HCO3 s
to es.<b /><b />[#1 below/ ight]<b /><img s c="473a  Mannitol + Acetazolamid
e.JPG" /><img s c="472a  Diu etics PCT.JPG" />
1301270276594 1342707643380 Acetazolamide Glaucoma, u ina y alkalinization
, metabolic alkalosis, altitude sickness.
1301270338913 1342707643817 Acetazolamide Hype chlo emic (no mal aniongap
) metabolic acidosis (&quot;ACIDazolamide causes ACIDosis&quot;)<b />Neu opathy
<b />NH3 (ammonia) toxicity<b />Sulfa alle gy
1301270489680 1342707643386 Fu osemide, to semide, bumetanide
Sulfonam
ide loop diu etic.<b /><b />Inhibits cot anspo t system (Na+, K+, 2Cl) of thi
ck ascending limb of LOH.<b /><b />Abolishes hype tonicity of medulla, p event
ing concent ation of u ine (&quot;washes out&quot; g adient).<b /><b />Stimula
tes PGE elease, vasodilating affe ent a te iole<b /><b />Inc eases Ca2+ exc e
tion (&quot;<span style="fontweight:600; textdeco ation: unde line;">Lo</span>
ops <span style="fontweight:600; textdeco ation: unde line;">Lo</span>se calci
um&quot;)<b /><b /><img s c="473b  Loop Diu etics.JPG" /><img s c="472b  Diu
etics TAL LOH.JPG" />
1301270533559 1342707643380 Fu osemide
Edematous states (CHF, ci hosis
, neph otic synd ome, pulmona y edema)<b />HTN<b />Hype calcemia<b /><b />Re
latively sho tacting (Lasix = lasts six hou s)
1301270597004 1342707643817 Fu osemide
&quot;OH DANG!&quot;<b /><b />
<b>O</b>totoxicity<b /><b>H</b>ypokalemia<b /><b /><b>D</b>ehyd ation<b /><b
>A</b>lle gy (sulfa)<b /><b>N</b>eph itis (inte stitial)<b /><b>G</b>out
1301270672912 1342707643386 Ethac ynic Acid Phenoxyacetic acid de ivative (N
OT a sulfonamide), but essentially same action as fu osemide.<b /><img s c="473
b  Loop Diu etics.JPG" /><img s c="472b  Diu etics TAL LOH.JPG" />
1301270691523 1342707643380 Ethac ynic Acid Diu esis in pts alle gic to sulf
a d ugs.<b /><b />(Phenoxyacetic acid de ivative; NOT sulfa).
1301270782166 1342707643817 Ethac ynic acid Simila to fu osemide (&quot;OH
D_NG!&quot;)
1301270860970 1342707643386 Hyd ochlo othiazide (HCTZ)
Thiazide diu eti
c.<b /><b />Inhibits NaCl eabso ption in ea ly distal tubule, educing diluti
ng capacity of neph on. <b /><b />Dec eases Ca2+ exc etion.<b /><img s c="473
c  HCTZ.JPG" /><img s c="472c  Diu etics DCT.JPG" />

1301270900163 1342707643380 Hyd ochlo othiazide (HCTZ)
HTN<b />CHF<b
/>Idiopathic hype calciu ia<b />Neph ogenic diabetes insipidus (<i>? theo y is
that distal diu esis leads to volume cont action and inc eased p oximal Na+ avi
dity; emembe most Na+ is eso bed in PT)</i>
1301270999647 1342707643817 Hyd ochlo othiazide (HCTZ)
<b>Hypokalemic m
etabolic alkalosis</b> <b />+<b />Hype <b>G</b>lycemia, hype <b>L</b>ipidemia,
hype <b>U</b> icemia, and hype <b>C</b>alcemia (&quot;Hype <b>GLUC</b>&quot;)<
b />Sulfa alle gy.
1301271057763 1342707643375 K+spa ing diu etics
<b>S</b>pi onolactone, <
b>T</b> iamte ene, <b>A</b>milo ide, eple enone<b />(the K+ STAys)
1301271155483 1342707643386 K+spa ing diu etics
Spi onolactone is a comp
etitive aldoste one ecepto antagonist in the co tical collecting tubule.<b />
<b />T iamte ene and amilo ide act at the same pa t of the tubule by blocking N
a+ channels (ENaC) in the CCT<b /><img s c="474a  K+  Spa ing Diu etics.JPG"
/><img s c="472d  Diu etics Collecting Tubule.JPG" />
1301271189978 1342707643380 K+spa ing diu etics
Hype aldoste onism<b />
K+ depletion<b />CHF<b ><b >T eatment?
1301271235315 1342707643817 K+spa ing diu etics
Hype kalemia (can lead t
o a hythmias)<b />Endoc ine effects w/ aldoste one antagonists (e.g. spi onola
ctone causes gynecomastia, antiand ogen effects)<b /><b /><b>Cont aindicated</
b> in c ush inju ies (lysis of cells inc eases se um K+)
1301271267899 1342707643375 U ine NaCl w/ diu etics Inc eases with all diu e
tics; se um NaCl may d op as a esult
1301271291897 1342707643375 U ine K+ w/ diu etics Inc eases w/ all except
K+spa ing diu etics; se um K+ may d op as a esult
1301271456559 1342707643375 Blood pH and diu etics: dec ease (cause acidemia
)? How? <b>Ca bonic anhyd ase inhibito s</b>: dec eased HCO3 eabso ption.<b /
><b /><b>K+spa ing</b>: aldo blockade p events K+ sec etion and H+ sec etion;
additionally hype kalemia leads to K+ ente ing all cells (via H+/K+ exchange ) i
n exchange fo H+ exiting cells.<b /><b />
1301271600148 1342707643375 Blood pH and diu etics: inc ease (alkalinemia)
<b>Loop diu etics</b> and <b>thiazides</b> cause alkalemia th ough seve al mecha
nisms:<b />1.) Volume cont action &gt; inc eased ATII &gt; inc eased Na+/H+
exchange in PT &gt; inc eased HCO3 (&quot;<u>cont action alkalosis</u>&quot;
)<b />2.) K+ loss leads to K+ exiting all cells (via H+/K+ exchange ) in exchan
ge fo H+ ente ing cells<b />3.) In low K+ state, H+ ( athe than K+) is exchan
ged fo Na+ in p incipal cells, leading to alkalosis and &quot;<u>pa adoxical ac
idu ia</u>&quot;
1301271724499 1342707643375 U ine Ca2+ and diu etics (plus mechanisms)
Inc eased by<b> loop diu etics</b>: abolish lumenpositive potential in thick as
cending limb of LOH &gt; dec eased pa acellula Ca2+ eabso ption &gt; hypoc
alcemia, inc eased u ina y Ca2+<b /><b />Dec eased in <b>thiazides</b>: Volume
depletion so up eg of Na+ eso ption, enhanced pa acellula Ca++ eso ption in
PT and TAL. Also, block of luminal Na+/Cl cont anspo t in DCT &gt; inc eased
Na+ g adient &gt; inc eased inte stitial Na+/Ca2+ exchange &gt; hype calcemi
a
1301271760268 1342707643375 ACE inhibito s: names Captop il, enalap il, li
sinop il<b />(&quot;___p il&quot;)<b /><b />*Losa tan is an ATII ecepto a
ntagonist (ARB). It is not an ACEI, and does not cause cough (no inc ease in b
adykinin, kallik ein)
1301271878869 1342707643386 ACE Inhibito s Inhibit angiotensinconve ting e
nzyme, educing levels of ATII and p eventing inactivation of b adykinin, a pote
nt vasodilato .<b /><b />Renin eleases is inc eased due to loss of feedback i
nhibition.
1301271900671 1342707643380 ACEInhibito s HTN<b />CHF<b />Diabetic enal
dz<b /><b />P event unfavo able hea t emodeling f om ch onic HTN
1301272013490 1342707643817 ACEInhibito s &quot;CAPTOPRIL&quot;<b />Cough
<b />Angioedema<b />P oteinu ia<b />Taste changes<b />hypOtension<b />P egn
ancy p oblems (fetal enal damage)<b />Rash<b />Inc eased enin<b />Lowe ang
iotensin II<b /><b />Also, hype kalemia.<b /><b />*Avoid w/ bilate al enal

a te y stenosis b/c ACEI's significantly educe GFR by p eventing const iction
of effe ent a te ioles*
1301273987004 1342707643400 Steps in fo ming <u>inte vent icula </u> septum
1.) Muscula vent icula septum fo ms &gt; emaining opening is the<b> inte ve
nt icula fo amen</b>.<b />2.) Ao ticopulmina y septum divides t uncus a te ios
us into ao ta and pulmona y t unk<b />3.) Ao ticopulmina y septum meets and fus
es w/ muscula vent icula septum to fo m a memb anous inte vent icula septum (
closing the inte vent icula fo amen)<b /><img s c="123a  IV septum developmen
t.JPG" />
1301274173791 1342707643400 Steps in inte at ial septum development 1.) <b>F
o amen p imum</b> na ows as <b>septum p imum</b> g ows towa d the endoca dial c
ushions.<b />2.) Pe fo ations in the septum p imum fo m the <b>fo amen secundum
</b> (fo amen p imum disappea s).<b />3.) Fo amen secundum maintains R &gt; L
shunt while <b>septum secundum</b> g ows.<b />4.) Septum secundum contains a p
e manent opening (the<b> fo amen ovale</b>)<b />5.) Fo amen secundum enla ges a
s uppe half of the septum p imum degene ates<b />6.) Remaining po tion of the
septum p imum fo ms the valve of the fo amen ovale.<b /><img s c="124a  Inte a
t ial septum development.JPG" />
1301274282291 1342707643400 Fetal E yth opoiesis
&quot;Young Live Synthe
sizes Blood&quot;<b />1.) Yolk sac (wks 38)<b />2.) Live (wks 630) &lt;*ove
lap @ both ends*<b />3.) Spleen (wks 928)<b />4.) Bone Ma ow (wks 28+)<b /
><b />
1301274314956 1342707643400 Fetal hemoglobin
(alpha)2,(gamma)2 st uct
u e
1301274397951 1342707643645 Umbilical <u>vein</u> Ligamentum te es hepatis
(contained w/in falcifo m ligament)
1301274454255 1342707643645 Umbilical <u>a te ies</u>
Medial umbilical
ligaments<b /><b />(umbi<b>L</b>ical a te ies &gt; media<b>L</b> umbilical
<b>L</b>igaments)
1301274712249 1342707643645 Ductus a te iosus
Ligamentum a te iosum<b
/><img s c="Ligamentum A te iosum.JPG" />
1301274787124 1342707643645 Ductus Venosus Ligamentum venosum<b /><img s c
="Ligamentum Venosum.JPG" />
1301274943135 1342707643645 Allantosis (u achus)
alla<span style="fontwe
ight:600; textdeco ation: unde line;">N</span>tosis &gt; media<span style="fo
ntweight:600; textdeco ation: unde line;">N</span> umbilical ligament<b /><b
/>U achus is pa t of allantoic duct between bladde and umbilicus.<b /><b />U
achal cyst o sinus is a emnant.
1301275046926 1342707643645 Notocho d
Nucleus pulposus of IV disks<b
/><img s c="nucleus pulposus.JPG" />
1301275144286 1342707643400 Ductus venosus (1 of 3 fetal shunts)
Blood en
te s fetus th u umbilical vein, conducted to ductus venosus into the IVC, thus b
ypassing the hepatic ci culation.<b /><img s c="125a  ductus venosus.JPG" /><b
/>* becomes ligamentum venosum
1301275250883 1342707643400 Fo amen ovale (2 of 3 fetal shunts)
Oxygenat
ed blood eaching hea t th u the IVC is dive ted th u the fo amen ovale and pump
ed to the ao ta &gt; systemic ci cuit<b /><b />(IVC &gt; RA &gt; LA &gt; LV
&gt; Ao &gt; body)<b /><img s c="125b  Fo amen Ovale.JPG" /><b />*becomes fos
sa ovalis
1301275361528 1342707643400 Ductus A te iosus (3 of 3 fetal shunts) Deoxygen
ated blood f om SVC is expelled into pulmona y a te y and ductus a te iosus to t
he lowe body of the fetus.<b /><b />(RV &gt; Pulm. A t. &gt; Ao &gt; Common i
liac a te ies &gt; inte nal iliac a te ies &gt; 2 umbilical a te ies &gt; placen
ta)<b /><img s c="125c  Ductus A te iosus.JPG" /><b />*becomes ligamentum a t
e iosum
1301275444892 1342707643400 Events at 1st b eath
Dec eased esistance in
pulmona y vasculatu e<b /><b />This causes inc eased LAP vs. RAP &gt; the fo
amen ovale closes (is now the fossa ovalis)<b /><b />The inc eased [O2] leads
to a d op in p ostaglandins, which causes the closu e of the ductus a te iosus
1301275479963 1342707643400 Tx fo Patent ductus a te iosus (PDA) Indometh

acin (a potent NSAID) y
1301275520418 1342707643400 To keep ductus a te iosus open (patent) Tx w/ P
ostaglandins
y
1301275600256 1342707643400 1st Ao tic A ch Pa t of the MAXilla y a te y [wh
ich is itself a b anch of the exte nal ca otid]<b /><b />&quot;1st A ch is MAX
imal&quot;
1301275626855 1342707643400 2nd Ao tic A ch Stapedial A te y<b >Hyoid A te y
<b ><b >&quot;Second = Stapedial&quot;
1301275746738 1342707643400 3 d Ao tic A ch <b>C</b>ommon <b>C</b>a otid a t
e y<b />+ p oximal pa t of inte nal ca otid a te y<b /><b />&quot;C is the 3
d lette of the alphabet&quot;<b />(AB<span style="fontweight:600; textdeco a
tion: unde line;">C</span> &gt; <span style="fontweight:600; textdeco ation:
unde line;">3 d</span> ao tic a ch / <span style="fontweight:600; textdeco at
ion: unde line;">C</span>ommon <span style="fontweight:600; textdeco ation: un
de line;">C</span>a otid)
1301275787040 1342707643400 4th Ao tic A ch Left &gt; Ao tic a ch<b >Right
&gt; p oximal pa t of the ight sublcavian a te y<b ><b >&quot;4th a ch = 4 l
imbs (systemic ci cuit)&quot;
1301275845477 1342707643400 6th Ao tic a ch P oximal pa t of pulmona y a te
ies<b /><b />(On left): Ductus a te iosus<b /><b />&quot;6th Ao tic a ch = p
ulmona y and pulmona ytosystemic shunt&quot;
1301276071602 1342707643400 P osencephalon <span style="fontweight:600; te
xtdeco ation: unde line;">Telencephalon</span> Becomes ce eb al hemisphe es and
late al vent icles<b /><b /><span style="fontweight:600; textdeco ation: un
de line;">Diencephalon</span> becomes thalami, etc. and 3 d vent icle<b /><img
s c="126a  emb yonic CNS.JPG" />
1301276157215 1342707643400 Mesencephalon Becomes midb ain and ce eb al aq
ueduct<b ><img s c="126a  emb yonic CNS.JPG" />
1301276221325 1342707643400 Rhombencephalon <span style="fontweight:600; te
xtdeco ation: unde line;">Metencephalon</span>  pons and ce ebellum, 4th vent
icle<b /><b /><span style="fontweight:600; textdeco ation: unde line;">Myele
ncephalon</span>  Medulla<b /><img s c="126a  emb yonic CNS.JPG" />
1301276267031 1342707643400 Neu al tube defects (gene ally)<b />what is dec
eased du ing p egnancy?<b />What is elevated? Associated with <u>dec eased fol
ic acid intake</u> du ing p egnancy.<b /><b /><u>Elevated alphafetop otein</u
> in amniotic fluid and mate nal se um.
1301276303422 1342707643400 Spina bifida occulta
Failu e of bony spinal c
anal to close, w/o st uctu al he niation.<b />Du a intact.<b /><img s c="127a
 Spina Bifida Oculta.JPG" />
1301276357318 1342707643400 Meningocele
Meninges he niate th u the spina
l canal defect (suba achnoid space p ot udes)<b /><img s c="127b  Meningeocele
.JPG" />
1301276495592 1342707643400 Meningomyelocele
Meninges and spinal co d
both he niate th u the spinal canal defect<b /><img s c="127c  Myelomeningeoc
ele.JPG" /><img s c="myelomenigocele.JPG" />
1301276554897 1342707643400 Anencephaly
Fo eb ain anomaly.<b />Malfo ma
tion of the ante io end of the neu al tube: no b ain/calva ium.<b /><b />Inc
eased alphafetop otein (AFP)<b /><b />Polyhyd amnios (b/c no b ain = no swall
owing cente ) y
1301276598263 1342707643400 Holop osencephaly<b /><b />What is it?<b />A/
w?
Fo eb ain anomaly: dec eased sepa ation of hemisphe es ac oss the midlin
e &gt; cyclopia<b /><b />Associated w/ <b>Patau's synd ome</b> and seve e <b
>Fetal Alcohol Synd ome</b>
y
1301276722372 1342707643400 Chia i type II malfo mation
Poste io fossa
malfo mation: ce ebella tonsilla he niation th u the fo amen magnum w/ aqueduc
tal stenosis and hyd ocephaly.<b /><b />Often p esents w/ sy ingomyelia, tho a
columba myelomeningocele.<b /><img s c="127c  Sy ingomyelia.JPG" /><b /><b
/>*Chia i II is mo e seve e than Chia i I, which may p esent in adulthood and be
elatively benigh
y
1301276747994 1342707643400 DandyWalke malfo mation
Poste io fossa

malfo mation: la ge poste io fossa<b /><b />Absent ce ebellum w/ cyst in its
place y
1301276840739 1342707643400 Sy ingomyelia Enla gement of the cent al canal
of the spinal co d: c ossing fibe s of spinothalamic t act a e damaged &gt; &
quot;capelike&quot; bilate al loss of pain and tempe atu e sensation in uppe l
imbs w/ <b>p ese vation</b> of touch sensation.<b /><b />*may have LMN signs i
n upe ext emities, UMN signs in lowe ext emities<b /><b />Often p esents w/
Chia i II type malfo mation<b /><b />Most common @ C8T1<b /><img s c="127c 
Sy ingomyelia.JPG" /> y
1301285671079 1342707643400 B anchial (aka pha yngeal) appa atus
Composed
of:<b />1.) B anchial Clefts aka B anchial G ooves (f om ectode m)<b />2.) B
anchial A ches (f om mesode m &gt; muscle, a te ies, and neu al c est cells 
&gt; bones, ca tilage)<b />3.) B anchial Pouches (de ived f om endode m)<b /><
b />&quot;CAP cove s f om the outside&quot;<b />(outside) Clefts &gt; A ches &
gt; Pouches (inside)<b /><img s c="128a  B anchial appa atus.JPG" />
1301285908631 1342707643400 B anchial A ch 1 ne ves Supplied by CN V2 and V3
&gt; Chewing<b />(ne ves also de ive f om a ch 1)
1301286099690 1342707643400 B anchial A ch 1 st uctu es
<b>Meckel's ca t
ilage</b> (<b>M</b>andible, <b>M</b>alleus, incus, spheno<b>M</b>andibula ligam
ent)<b /><b /><u>Muscles</u>: <b /><b>M</b>uscles of <b>M</b>astication (temp
o alis, <b>M</b>assete , late al and <b>M</b>edial pte ygoids)<b /><b>M</b>yloh
yoid<b />Ante io belly of digast ic<b />Tenso tympani<b />Tenso veli palat
ini<b />Ante io 2/3 ds of the tongue
1301286148202 1342707643400 T eache Collins Synd ome
1st A ch neu al
c est fails to mig ate:<b >Mandibula hypoplasia and facial abno malities
1301286180507 1342707643400 B anchial a ch 2 <u>ne ve(s)</u>
CN VII (
facial exp ession)
1301286316631 1342707643400 B anchial a ch 2 st uctu es
<b>Reicha t's Ca
tilage</b> (<b>St</b>apes, <b>St</b>ylohyoid p ocess, lesse ho n of hyoid, <b>
St</b>ylohyoid ligament)<b /><b /><u>Muscles</u>:<b />Muscles of facial exp e
ssion <b /><b>St</b>apedius <b /><b>St</b>ylohyoid <b />Poste io belly of di
gast ic
1301286370733 1342707643400 B anchial A ch 3 ne ve(s)
CN IX (glossopha
yngeal)<b >
1301286425375 1342707643400 B anchial a ch 3 st uctu es
Ca tilage: g eat
e ho n of hyoid<b /><b />Muscle: stylopha yngeus<b /><b />&quot;Think of th
e pha ynx: stylo<u>pha yngeus</u> inne vated by the glosso<u>pha yngeal</u> ne v
e&quot;
1301286494932 1342707643400 Congenital Pha yngocutaneous Fistula
Pe siste
nce of 3 d b anchial cleft and pouch:<b >Fistula between tonsilla a ea, cleft i
n late al neck. y
1301286586501 1342707643400 B anchial a ches 46 ne ve(s) CN X <b ><b >A c
h 4 = swallowing &gt; <i>supe io </i> la yngeal b anch<b ><b >A ch 6 = speakin
g &gt; <i> ecu ent</i> la yngeal b anch
1301286712028 1342707643400 B anchial a ches 46 st uctu es Ca tilage: thy o
id, c icoid, a ytenoids, co niculate, cuneifo m<b ><b >Muscles: <b >4th  most p
ha yngeal const icto s, c icothy oid ( esponsible fo pitch), levato veli palat
ini<b >6th  all int insic muscles of la ynx <i>except the c icothy oid</i><b ><
span style=" fontstyle:italic;"></span><b >*A ch 5: no majo cont ibutions to a
dult st uctu es*
1301286759987 1342707643400 B anchial a ches and the tongue Poste io 1/3 d:
b anchial a ches 3 and 4<b /><b />Ante io 2/3 ds: b anchial a ch 1
1301286788998 1342707643400 1st B anchial Cleft
Gives ise to the exte n
al audito y meatus
y
1301286822239 1342707643400 2nd th u 4th b anchial clefts Give ise to tem
po a y ce vical sinuses (oblite ated by p olife ation of the 2nd a ch mesenchyme
)
y
1301286852380 1342707643400 Pe sistent ce vical sinus
A b anchial clef
t cyst w/in the late al neck<b /><b /><img s c="pasteapvplu.jpg" /> y
1301286941166 1342707643400 1st b anchial pouch
Gives ise to endode ml

ined st uctu es of the ea :<b />Middle ea cavity<b />Eustachian tube<b />Mas
toid ai cells<b />
y
1301287014467 1342707643400 2nd B anchial Pouch
Gives ise to epithelial
lining of the palatine tonsil y
1301287125955 1342707643400 3 d B anchial Pouch
Do sal wings: give ise
to <u>infe io *</u> pa athy oids<b ><b >Vent al wings: give ise to thymus<b ><b
>3 d pouch = 3 st uctu es (L and R infe io pa athy oid, and thymus)<b ><b >*3
d pouch st uctu es end up below 4th pouch st uctu es*
1301287153662 1342707643400 4th B anchial Pouch
Do sal wings: develop in
to the <u>supe io </u> pa athy oids
y
1301287219050 1342707643400 DiGeo ge Synd ome
Abe ant development of
the 3 d and 4th b anchial pouches:<b >Tcell deficiency/thymic aplasia<b >Hypoca
lcemia (due to failu e of pa athy oid development)
1301287360998 1342707643400 Ea development: 1st and 2nd b anchial a ches
1st A ch:<b />Bones &gt; malleus, incus<b />Muscles &gt; tenso tympani (a
nd its inne vation via V3)<b /><b />2nd A ch:<b />Bone &gt; stapes<b />Mus
cle &gt; stapedius (and its inne vation via CN VII)
1301287454877 1342707643400 Ea development: 1st b anchial cleft, memb ane,
and pouch
1st cleft: Exte nal audito y meatus<b ><b >1st memb ane: tympani
c memb ane<b ><b >1st pouch: Eustachian tube, middle ea cavity, mastoid ai cel
ls
1301287533337 1342707643400 Ante io 2/3 ds of tongue
1st b anchial a
ch (sensation via CN V3)<b />&gt;Taste via CN VII<b />&gt;Moto to all of
the tongue is via CN XII<b /><img s c="130a  Inne vation of tongue.JPG" />
1301287618193 1342707643400 Poste io 1/3 d of tongue
3 d and 4th a ch
es: sensation and taste mainly via CNIX<b />(ext eme poste io via CN X)<b /><
b />*All moto to tongue is via CN XII*<b /><img s c="130a  Inne vation of to
ngue.JPG" />
1301287687556 1342707643400 CN's involved in taste, pain, and moto inne vat
ion of the tongue
Taste: CN VII, IX, and X (solita y nucleus)<b /><b />P
ain: CN V3, IX, X<b /><b />Moto : CN XII <b />(note: muscles of the tongue a
e de ived f om occipital myotomes)
1301334287168 1342707643375 Thy oglossal duct
Connects the thy oid to
the tongue.<b />It no mally disappea s, but may pe sist as the py amidal lobe o
f the thy oid.<b /><img s c="131a  Thy oid development.JPG" />
1301334340727 1342707643375 Thy oid dive ticulum
a ises f om floo of p i
mitive pha ynx and descends into neck.
1301334358687 1342707643375 Most common ectopic site fo thy oid tissue
tongue
1301335675709 1342707643400 Cleft Lip
Failu e of fusion of the <b>maxi
lla y</b> and <b>nasal</b> p ocesses (fo mation of the<b> p ima y palate</b>)<b
><img s c="131b  cleft lip.JPG" />
1301335777209 1342707643400 Cleft Palate
Failu e of fusion of the <b>late
al palatine p ocesses</b> <b />and/o the <b>median palatine p ocesses</b> <b
/>(fo mation of the <b>seconda y palate</b>)<b /><img s c="131c  pa tial clef
t palate.JPG" />
1301335886919 1342707643400 Diaph agm de ives f om...
&quot;Seve al Pa
ts Build Diaph agm&quot;<b /><b>S</b>eptum t ansve sum &gt; cent al tendon<b
/><b>P</b>leu ope itoneal folds<b /><b>B</b>ody wall<b /><b>D</b>o sal mesen
te y of the esophagus &gt; c u a<b /><img s c="131d  Diaph agm emb yology.JP
G" />
1301335939078 1342707643400 Diaph agm inne vation Diaph agm descends du in
g development, but maintains inne vation f om above.<b /><b />&quot;C3, 4, 5:
keep the diaph agm alive&quot;
1301335961283 1342707643596 blood cell diffe entiation<b /><b /><img s c="
paste2bxhto.jpg" />
<img s c="pastepqmxze.jpg" />
1301336002614 1342707643596 blood cell diffe entiation<b /><b /><b /><img
s c="pasteumqwkd.jpg" />
<img s c="pastepqmxze.jpg" />
1301336015472 1342707643400 Diaph agmatic he nia<b /><b />What is it?<b /
>Sequelae?
When abdominal contents he niate into the tho ax b/c of incomple

te development.<b /><b />Leads to: hypoplasia of tho acic o gans due to space
comp ession, scaphoid abdomen, cyanosis.
y
1301336037838 1342707643596 blood cell diffe entiation<b /><b /><img s c="
pasteg823qc.jpg" />
<img s c="pastepqmxze.jpg" />
1301336063004 1342707643596 blood cell diffe entiation<b /><b /><img s c="
paste8s4moo.jpg" />
<img s c="pastepqmxze.jpg" />
1301336074096 1342707643400 3 Divisions in GI emb yology
1.) Fo egut  ph
a ynx to duodenum<b /><b />2.) Midgut  duode num to t ansve se colon<b /><b
/>3.) Hindgut  distal t ansve se colon to ectum
1301336108879 1342707643596 blood cell diffe entiation<b /><b /><img s c="
paste2gps_s.jpg" />
<img s c="pastepqmxze.jpg" />
1301336133758 1342707643596 blood cell diffe entiation<b /><b /><img s c="
pastejbupbm.jpg" />
<img s c="pastepqmxze.jpg" />
1301336148072 1342707643400 Gast oschisis Failu e of late al body wall fol
ds to fuse, <b />causing ext usion of abdominal contents th ough the abdominal
folds. y
1301336238738 1342707643596 e yth ocyte:<b /><b />shape (+fxn)<b />sou ce
of ene gy<b />su vival time<b />ion channel (+fxn) <img s c="pasteguycly.jp
g" />
1301336271385 1342707643400 Omphalocele
Pe sistence of he niation of abd
ominal contents into the umbilical co d.<b /><img s c="Omphalocele.JPG" />
1301336284541 1342707643596 WBC:<b /><b />diffe ential f om most abundant
to least
<img s c="pastebv8p8l.jpg" />
1301336363054 1342707643400 T acheoesophageal Fistula<b /><b />What is it?
<b />Findings? Abno mal connection between esophagus and t achea.<b /><b />Mo
st common subtype is a blind uppe esophagus w/ lowe esophagus connected to t a
chea: esults a e cyanosis, choking and vomiting w/ feeding, ai bubble on CXR,
polyhyd amnios.<b /><img s c="132  T acheoesophageal fistula.JPG" />
1301336439205 1342707643400 Congenital Pylo ic Stenosis
Hype t ophy of t
he pylo us causes obst uction.<b /><b />Palpable &quot;olive&quot; mass in the
epigast ic egion and nonbilous p ojectile vomiting at about 2 wks age.<b /><b
/>Tx w/ su gical excision<b /><b />Incidence: 1/600 live bi ths, often 1stb
o n males.
1301336485826 1342707643596 anisocytosis, poikilocytosis<b /><b />define
anisocytosis va ying sizes (high RDW)<b ><b >poikilocytosis va ying shapes
1301336501243 1342707643400 Panc eas Emb yology
De ived f om fo egut<b
/><b />Vent al and Do sal panc eatic buds<b /><b /><img s c="133a  Panc eas
and spleen emb yology.JPG" />
1301336516342 1342707643596
eticulocyte:<b /><b />define<b >appea ance
immatu e e yth ocyte<b /><b />see &quot;th eads&quot; of pe sistent mRNA; not
all Hb has been synthesized
1301336537351 1342707643400 Vent al panc eatic bud Becomes panc eatic head,
uncinate p ocess (lowe 1/2 of head), and main panc eatic duct<b /><img s c="1
33a  Panc eas and spleen emb yology.JPG" />
y
1301336559920 1342707643596 leukocyte:<b /><b />types<b />fxn<b />no mal
count <img s c="paste8dppio.jpg" />
1301336588220 1342707643400 Do sal panc eatic bud Becomes &quot;eve ything
else&quot;<b />(body, tail, isthmus, and accesso y panc eatic duct)<b /><img
s c="133a  Panc eas and spleen emb yology.JPG" />
y
1301336626988 1342707643596 basophil:<b /><b />fxn<b />%<b />shape<b />
contain what<b />stain with
<img s c="pasteo3ezk6.jpg" />
1301336647862 1342707643400 Annula panc eas
Vent al panc eatic bud a
bno mally enci cles the <span style="fontweight:600; textdeco ation: unde line
;">2nd pa t</span> of the duodenum:<b />fo ms a ing of panc eatic tissue that
may cause duodenal na owing.
1301336697183 1342707643400 Spleen emb yology
A ises f om do sal mesen
te y (hence is mesode mal), <b />but is supplied by a te y of fo egut (celiac a
te y) y
1301336767637 1342707643400 P oneph os
emb yologic kidney that exists u
ntil week 4, then degene ates completely<b /><img s c="133b  Kidney emb yology

.JPG" />
y
1301336807480 1342707643400 Mesoneph os
Functions as inte im kidney fo
the 1st t imeste <b />*Late cont ibutes to the male genital system<b /><img s
c="133b  Kidney emb yology.JPG" />
y
1301336852797 1342707643400 Metaneph os
Pe manent pa t of emb yologic ki
dney.<b /><b />Becomes kidney f om glome ulus to distal convoluted tubule.<b
/><img s c="133b  Kidney emb yology.JPG" />
y
1301336906777 1342707643400 U ogenital Sinus
Develops into the adult
bladde and u eth a, as well as allantosis<b /><img s c="133b  Kidney emb yolo
gy.JPG" />
y
1301336944075 1342707643596 mast cell:<b /><b />function<b />deg anulatio
n esults in<b />can bind<b />found in<b /><b />hype sensitivity type<b />R
x that p events deg anulation <img s c="pastexisgza.jpg" />
1301336968727 1342707643400 U ete ic bud<b /><b />De ived f om?<b />Fo ms
what? De ived f om the mesoneph os,<b />gives ise to collecting duct, calyce
s, pelvises, and u ete .<b /><img s c="133b  Kidney emb yology.JPG" />
y
1301337039097 1342707643400 Potte 's Synd ome
Bilate al enal agenesis
:<b />Oligohyd amnios, limb defo mities, facial defo mities, and <b>pulmona y h
ypoplasia</b>.<b /><b />Caused by malfo mations in the <b>u ete ic bud</b><b
/><b />&quot;Babies with <b>P</b>otte s can't <b>P</b>ee in ute o&quot;
1301337045952 1342707643596 eosinophil:<b /><b />%<b />shape<b />contain
s<b />p oduces, fxn<b />stimulated by<b />seen when <img s c="paste 3skhe.jp
g" /><b /><b />IL5 stimulates activation/p oduction of eosinophils<b /><b /
>Cont ol alle gic esponse f om basophils, mast cells<b /><b />Seen in neoplas
m, asthma, alle gic p ocesses, collagen vascula dz, pa asites (invasive): NAACP
1301337180666 1342707643400 Ho seshoe kidney
Infe io poles of both k
idneys fuse:<b />as they ascend f om the pelvis du ing fetal development, <b /
>ho shoe kidneys a e t apped unde the <u>infe io mesente ic a te y</u> and em
ain low in abdomen.<b /><b />*Kidney functions no mally<b /><img s c="134a 
Ho seshoe kidney.JPG" />
1301337232896 1342707643596 diseases/conditions with eosinophilia D ugs (e
g. d uginduced inte stitial neph itis: eosinophilic pyu ia)<b />Neoplasms<b /
>Alle gy, asthma (eg. Chu gSt auss)<b />Addison's (low co tisol; co tisol no m
ally supp esses eosinophils)<b />Collagen vascula dz<b />Pa asities (invasive
)
1301337268393 1342707643400 Female genital development
Default developm
ent.<b /><b />Mesoneph ic duct degene ates and pa amesoneph ic duct develops.<
b /><b />*Mesoneph ic duct must be induced to emain: default is fo pa ameson
eph ic duct to develop<b /><img s c="134b  genital emb yology.JPG" /> y
1301337406653 1342707643400 Male genital genetics/development
<b>SRY g
ene</b> on Ych omosome encodes <b>testisdete mining facto </b><b /><b /><u>M
ulle ian inhibiting substance</u> is sec eted by testes (se toli cells), supp es
ses development of the pa amesoneph ic ducts.<b /><b />Inc eased and ogens (le
ydig cells) &gt; development of the mesoneph ic ducts.<b /><img s c="134b  g
enital emb yology.JPG" />
1301337412428 1342707643596 neut ophil:<b /><b />fxn<b />%<b />shape<b
/>contain
<img s c="pastebpziyu.jpg" />
1301337435008 1342707643596 neut ophil:<b /><b /> elation to VitB12/folate
deficiency
<img s c="pasteu zk3y.jpg" /><b /><b />*&gt;5 lobes<b /><b /
><img s c="paste4nhgkk.jpg" />
1301337468632 1342707643596 monocyte:<b /><b />%<b />shape<b />appea anc
e of cytoplasm<b />diffe entiates into <img s c="pastetoelfg.jpg" />
1301337510858 1342707643596 mac ophage:<b /><b />fxn<b />lifespan<b />di
ffe entiate f om<b />activated by<b />can fxn as<b />su face ma ke <img s c
="paste2dzux6.jpg" /><b /><b />CD14+
1301337518774 1342707643400 Mesoneph ic (Wolffian) ducts: adult st uctu es?
Develop into male inte nal genital st uctu es (except p ostate): &quot;SEED&quot
;<b /><b />Seminal vesicles<b />Epididymis<b />Ejaculato y duct<b />Ductus
defe ens<b /><img s c="134b  genital emb yology.JPG" /><b /> y

1301337593734 1342707643596 platelet (th ombocyte):<b /><b />de ived f om<
b />involved in<b />activated by<b />g anules, contents<b />sto age<b />lif
espan<b /> ecepto s
<img s c="pasteczjuax.jpg" /><b /><b />~1/3 of platele
t pool sto ed in spleen<b /><b />vWF ecepto = Gp1b<b />Fib inogen ecepto
= GpIIb/IIIa
1301337652804 1342707643400 Pa amesoneph ic (Mulle ian) duct
Develops
into fallopian tubes, ute us, and uppe 1/3 d of vagina <b />(lowe 2/3 ds is
f om the u ogenital sinus)<b /><img s c="134b  genital emb yology.JPG" />
y
1301337680231 1342707643596 platelet (th ombocyte):<b /><b />platelet dysf
xn o th ombocytopenia esults in
<img s c="pastezc 1ul.jpg" /><b /><img
s c="pasteozuump.jpg" />
1301337693875 1342707643400 Bico nuate ute us
Results f om incomplete
fusion of the pa amesoneph ic ducts<b ><b >Associated w/ u ina y t act abno mali
ties and infe tility.<b ><b ><img s c="134c  Bico nuate ute us.JPG" />
1301337792282 1342707643400 Hypospadias
Abno mal opening of penile u eth
a on the infe io (vent al) side of penis due to failu e of the u eth al folds
to close.<b /><b />Mo e common than epispadias<b /><b />Fix it to p event UT
I's<b /><b />&quot;Hypo is below&quot;<b /><img s c="135b  Hypospadias.JPG"
/>
1301338029969 1342707643400 Epispadias
Abno mal opening of the penile u
eth a on the supe io /do sal side of the penis due to faulty positioning of the
genital tube cle <b /><b /><b>E</b>xst ophy of bladde * associated w/ <b>E</b
>pispadias<b /><b />&quot;With <b>E</b>pispadias, you hit you <b>E</b>ye when
you p<b>EE</b>&quot;<b /><img s c="135c  Epispadias.JPG" /><b /><b /><b />
*pe wikipedia &quot;The cause of bladde exst ophy is maldevelopment of the low
e abdominal wall, leading to a uptu e which causes the bladde to communicate
with the amniotic fluid.&quot;
1301338438994 1342707643668 Genital tube cle<b /><img s c="135a  Genital e
mb yology.JPG" />
<b />Glans penis ; Glans clito is<b /><b />Co pus spo
ngiosum and cave nosum ; Vestibula bulbs
1301338500826 1342707643668 U ogenital Sinus<b /><img s c="135a  Genital e
mb yology.JPG" />
<b />Bulbou eth al glands (of Cowpe ) ; G eate vestibu
la glands (of Ba tholin)<b /><b />P ostate gland ; U eth al and pa au eth al
glands (of Skene)
1301338534417 1342707643668 U ogenital folds<b /><img s c="135a  Genital e
mb yology.JPG" />
Vent al shaft of penis (and penile u eth a) ; Labia mino
a
1301338576620 1342707643668 Labiosc otal swellings<b /><img s c="135a  Gen
ital emb yology.JPG" /> Sc otum ; Labia majo a
1301349268200 1342707643596 dend itic cells:<b /><b />fxn<b />exp ess wha
t on su face<b />name if found in skin <img s c="paste ceze.jpg" />
1301349306756 1342707643596 lymphocyte:<b /><b />shape<b />types<b />fxn
<img s c="pastexyw yn.jpg" />
1301349623458 1342707643596 B lymphocyte:<b /><b />fxn<b />de ived f om<b
/>location of matu ation<b />mig ation<b />diffe entiation<b />can fxn as
<img s c="pastemtvxcs.jpg" />
1301349678830 1342707643596 plasma cell:<b /><b />shape<b />de ived f om<
b />fxn
<img s c="pastei084 p.jpg" />
1301349775472 1342707643596 plasma cell:<b ><b >disease
<img s c="pastec
zz j_.jpg" />
1301349868027 1342707643596 T lymphocyte:<b /><b />fxn<b />de ives f om<b
/>location of matu ation<b />diffe entiation<b />% <img s c="pastec0xxbt.jp
g" />
1301351445112 1342707643596 conve gence of coagulation, complement, and kini
n pathways
<img s c="pastecffnk9.jpg" />
1301351488441 1342707643596 <img s c="pastevfc6wx.jpg" /> <img s c="pastex
xm 6s.jpg" />
1301351594008 1342707643596 he edita y th ombosis synd omes (hype coagulable
synd omes):<b /><b />facto V leiden p oduction of mutant facto V that canno

t be deg aded by p otein C =&gt; hype coagulability<b ><b >most common cause of
inhe ited hype coagulability
1301351638919 1342707643596 he edita y th ombosis synd omes (hype coagulable
synd omes):<b /><b />p oth ombin gene mutation<b /><b />(whe e, a/w?)
mutation in 3' unt anslated egion associated with venous clots
1301351693442 1342707643596 he edita y th ombosis synd omes (hype coagulable
synd omes):<b /><b />antith ombin III deficiency
inhe ited deficiency of
antith ombin =&gt; hype coagulability<b />PTT fails to ise afte administ atio
n of hepa in<b /><b />MOA: <b />antith ombin inc eases PTT; no antith ombin w
ill dec ease PTT<b />hepa in wo ks by enhancing antith ombin III, the eby inc e
asing PTT<b />if no antith ombin, hepa in will not inc ease antith ombin =&gt;
no inc ease in PTT
1301351752150 1342707643596 he edita y th ombosis synd omes (hype coagulable
synd omes):<b /><b />p otein C o S deficiency<b ><b >pathophys?<b > isk of? ↓
ability to inactivate facto s V and VIII =&gt; hype coagulability<b /><b />↑ is
k of th ombotic skin nec osis with hemo hage following adminst ation of wa fa i
n
1301387121644 1342707643596 platelet plug fo mation <img s c="paste7k2mpn.jp
g" />
1301387197018 1342707643596 Rx oles in platelet plug fo mation
<img s c
="paste65ojuu.jpg" />
1301387242051 1342707643596 synthetic p ostacyclin (PGI2) used to Tx:
acts to vasodilate<b /><b />pulmona y HTN<b />pe iphe al vascula disease<b
/> aynaud synd ome
1301387503201 1342707643596 components of coagulation cascade:<b /><b />co
agulation<b />anticoagulation <img s c="pasteqvf3jl.jpg" />
1301387684428 1342707643596 gene al steps in platelet stimulation and plug f
o mation
<img s c="paste tcehs.jpg" />
1301388397888 1342707643596 blood g oups:<b /><b />A<b />B<b />AB<b />O
<img s c="pasteoly0wm.jpg" /><b /><b />*named by what's on RBC su face<b />*u
nive sal ecipient because has no Ab on plasma that will eact with dono blood<
b />*unive sal dono because has no antigens on RBC that will eact with dono
plasma<b />*think dOnO &gt; blood g oup O
1301388489307 1342707643596 blood g oups:<b /><b />Rh<b /><b />what is t
he Ag type that Rh+ usually efe s to <img s c="paste81h0 y.jpg" /><b /><img
s c="paste95llk .png" /><b /><b />*give Rh antigen Ig so body can battle Rh+ b
lood without the need to fo m own Abs against Rh+ blood
1301388520124 1342707643596 incompatible blood t ansfusions can cause
immunologic esponse<b />hemolysis<b /> enal failu e<b />shock<b />death
1301388559476 1342707643596 blood g oups:<b /><b />antiAB antibodies that
can/cannot c oss placenta
<img s c="pastex102ck.jpg" />
1301436281883 1342707643407 Peptidoglycan (mu ein cell wall)
Gives i
gid suppo t, p otects against osmotic p essu e;<b />Suga backbone w/ c osslin
ked peptide side chains.
1301436341771 1342707643407 Cell wall / cell memb ane (G+'s)
Majo su
face Ag; <b />Peptidoglycan (mu ein) is st uctu al. Lipoteichoic acid induces
TNF and IL1.
1301436438546 1342707643407 Oute memb ane (G)
Site of endotoxin (LPS),
majo su face Ag; <b /><b />Lipid A induces TNF and IL1 when cell is lysed (
mediates septic shock)<b />Oantigen (polysaccha ide) is the Ag<b /><b /><img
s c="pasteiwjejw.jpg" />
1301436461659 1342707643407 Plasma memb ane Site of oxidative and t anspo t
enzymes;<b /><b />Lipop otein bilaye
1301436477419 1342707643407 Ribosome
P otein synthesis;<b /><b />50
S and 30S subunits
1301436514647 1342707643407 Pe iplasm
Space btw the cytoplasmic memb a
ne and the oute memb ane in G bacte ia;<b ><b >Contains may hyd olytic enzymes
, including betalactamases
1301436560342 1342707643407 Capsule<b /><b />Function?<b />St uctu e? (..
. and exception?)
Antiphagocytic;<b /><b />Polysaccha ide (except in <i>

Bacillus anth acis</i>, which contains Dglutamate polypeptide)
1301436595343 1342707643407 Pilus/fimb ia Mediate adhe ence of bacte ia to
cell su face, sex pilus fo ms attachment btw 2 bacte ia du ing conjugation;<b
/><b />Glycop otein
1301436604383 1342707643407 Flagellum
Motility;<b /><b />P otein
1301436630305 1342707643407 Spo e P ovides esistance to dehyd ation, heat
, and chemicals;<b /><b />Ke atinlike coat, dipiclonic acid
1301436651204 1342707643407 Plasmid Contains a va iety of genes fo ABX esi
stance, enzymes, toxins;<b /><b />DNA
1301436678139 1342707643407 Glycocalyx
Mediates adhe ence to su faces,
especially fo eign su faces (e.g. indwelling cathete s);<b ><b >Polysaccha ide
1301436742306 1342707643552 St uctu es unique to g am (+) o ganisms Lipoteic
hoic acid<b /><b /><img s c="138b  cell wall.JPG" />
1301436776032 1342707643552 St uctu es common to G am +/ o ganisms Flagellu
m, pilus, capsule, PDG, cytoplasmic memb ane<b /><img s c="138a  cell walls.JP
G" />
1301436822625 1342707643552 Featu es unique to G() o ganisms
Endotoxi
n/LPS (oute memb ane)<b />Pe iplasmic space (location of many betalactamases)
<b /><img s c="138c  cell wall g am neg.JPG" />
1301436880290 1342707643552 Bacte ia w/ unusual cell memb anes/walls
Mycoplasma: contain ste ols and have no cell wall<b /><b />Mycobacte ia: Conta
in mycolic acid (stains acidfast). High lipid content.
1301436909391 1342707643552 G(+) cocci
Staphylococcus<b />St eptococcu
s
1301436917323 1342707643552 G() cocci
Neisse ia
1301436946730 1342707643552 G(+) Rods
<b>My</b>cobacte ium (acidfast)
<b /><b>List</b>e ia<b /><b>B</b>acillus<b /><b>C</b>lost idium<b /><b>C</b>
o ynebacte ium<b /><b />&quot;What happened when you we e sending that email t
o<b> G am + Rod</b>?&quot;<b />&quot;<b>My List B</b>ecame <b>CC</b>'d&quot;<b
/><b /><b /> y
1301437019575 1342707643552 G() Rods
&quot;<b>H</b>ave <b>Y</b>ou <b>
E</b>ve <b>L</b>istened to <b>GNR</b> (Guns n' Roses = G am () Rods)?&quot;<b
/>&quot;I like <b>B</b>oy <b>B</b>ands.<b> B</b>esides, <b>F an</b>kly, I <b>P<
/b> efe <b>Ga den</b>s to jungles.&quot;<b /><b />Haemophilus<b />Ye sinia<b
/>Ente ics (sepa ate ca d)<b />Legionella (silve stain)<b /><b />Bo datell
a<b />B ucella<b /><b />Ba tonella<b />F ancisella<b />Pasteu ella<b />Ga
dne ella (g am va iable)<b /><b /><img s c="pastehomhh5.jpg" />
y
1301437070352 1342707643552 B anching Filamentous bacte ia (G+)
Actinomy
ces (not ae obic, not acid fast)<b />Noca dia (ae obic, weakly acidfast)
y
1301437092327 1342707643552 Pleomo phic (G) bacte ia (va y in size/shape)
Rickettsiae<b />Chlamydiae (Giemsa stain)
y
1301437116994 1342707643552 Spi ochetes (G)
Leptospi a<b />Bo elia
(Giemsa stain)<b />T eponema y
1301437136830 1342707643552 No cell wall, contain ste ols Mycoplasma
1301437297258 1342707643552 Bugs that won't G am stain (and eason why)
&quot;<b>T</b>hese <b>R</b>ascals <b>M</b>ay <b>M</b>ic oscopically <b>L</b>ack
<b>C</b>olo &quot;<b /><b />T eponema (too thin to be visualized)<b />Rickett
sia (int acellula pa asite)<b />Mycobacte ia (highlipidcontent cell wall eq
ui es acidfast stain)<b />Mycoplasma (no cell wall)<b />Legionella pneumophil
ia (p ima ily int acellula )<b />Chlamydia (int acellula pa asite; lacks mu am
ic acid in cell wall)
1301437335574 1342707643552 Visualizing T eponemes Da kfield mic oscopy and
fluo escent Ab staining
1301437346940 1342707643552 Visualizing Mycobacte ia
Acidfast stain
1301437357467 1342707643552 Visualizing Legionella Silve stain
1301437384109 1342707643552 Giemsa's stain is used to visualize...? <i>Bo e
lia</i><b /><i>Chlamydia</i><b /><i>Plasmodium</i><b /><i>T ypanosomes</i>
1301437438590 1342707643552 PAS (pe iodic acidSchiff) stain
stains g
lycogen, mucopolysaccha ides*;<b /><b />Used to diagnose Whipple's dz<b />PAS

D of live fo alpha1antit ypsin deficiency<b /><b />(*&quot;PASs the suga &
quot;)
1301437454606 1342707643552 ZiehlNeelsen (ca bol fuchsin) stain
Use to s
tain Acidfast bacte ia
1301437474821 1342707643552 Visualizing c yptococcus neofo mans
India in
k<b /><b />(can also use mucica mine to stain thick polysaccha ide capsule ed
)
1301437500479 1342707643552 Silve stain
used to visualize:<b />Fungi (e
g. <i>Pneumocystis</i>)<b />Legionella
1301437632962 1342707643777 H. influenzae Chocolate aga w/ facto s V (NAD
+) and X (hematin)
1301437646876 1342707643777 N. gono heae Thaye Ma tin (o VPN) media<b
/><b>VPN</b> = <b>V</b>anco (inhibits g am+), <b>P</b>olymixin (inhibits g am),
and <b>N</b>ystatin (inhibits fungi)<b /><b />&quot;To connect to <i>Neisse i
a</i>, please use you <b>VPN</b> client&quot;<b /><b />(Chocolate aga based,
w/ va ious ABX)
1301437658904 1342707643777 Bo detella pe tussis
Bo detGengou (potato) a
ga
1301437676428 1342707643777 Co ynebacte ium diphthe iae
Tellu ite plate,
<b />Loffle 's media
1301437690485 1342707643777 M. tube culosis LowensteinJensen aga
1301437698660 1342707643777 Mycoplasma pneumoniae Eaton's aga
1301437720356 1342707643777 E. coli Eosinmethylene Blue (EMB) aga <b />(g
een colonies w/ metallic sheen)
1301437739948 1342707643777 Lactosefe menting ente ics
Pink colonies on
MacConkey's aga
1301437761697 1342707643777 Legionella
Cha coal yeast ext act aga buff
e ed w/ inc eased i on and cysteine
1301437769903 1342707643777 Fungi Sabou aud's aga
1301437839790 1342707643552 G() Ente ics ( odshaped)
&quot;The <b>K</
b>ing <b>P</b>lays <b>CHESS</b> <b>S</b>tanding, <b>B</b>ut uses <b>EV</b>e <b>Y
P</b>iece w ong.&quot; <b /><b /><b>K</b>lebsiella<b /><b /><b>P</b> oteus<
b /><b /><b>C</b>ampylobacte <b /><b>H</b>elicobacte <b /><b>E</b>nte obacte
<b /><b>S</b>e atia<b /><b>S</b>higella<b /><b /><b>S</b>almonella<b /><b
/><b>B</b>acte oides<b /><b /><b>E</b>. coli<b /><b>V</b>ib io<b /><b>Y</b
>e sinia (&quot;safety pin&quot; appea ance in <i>Y. pestis</i>)<b /><b /><b>P
</b>seudomonas<b />
1301438004248 1342707643552 Obligate ae obes<b /><b />Featu es?<b />Examp
les?
Use an O2dependent system to gene ate ATP<b /><b />Examples: (&quot;<
b>N</b>agging <b>P</b>ests <b>M</b>ust <b>B</b> eathe&quot;)<b /><b>N</b>oca di
a<b /><b>P</b>seudomonas<b /><b>M</b>ycobacte ium tube culosis<b /><b>B</b>ac
illus<b /><b />Reactivation TB (eg. afte immune supp ession, TNFa inhibito )
has p ediliction fo apices of lungs, whe e PO2 is highest<b /><b />Also: to
help emembe Pseudomonas ae uginosa  &quot;<b>AER</b>uginosa is an <b>AER</b>o
be&quot;
1301438043375 1342707643552 Pseudomonas ae uginosa<b />O2 tole ance?<b />W
he e does it show up? P. <b>AER</b>uginosa is an<b> AER</b>obe<b /><b />seen
in bu n wounds, nosocomial pneumonia, and pneumonias in cystic fib osis pts.
1301438498601 1342707643552 Obligate Anae obes<b /><b />Lack what?<b />Fe
atu es?<b />Examples? Lack catalase and/o supe oxide dismutase, and thus a e
susceptible to oxidative damage.<b /><b />Gene ally foulsmelling (sho tchain
FA's), a e difficult to cultu e, and p oduce gas in tissue (CO2 and H2).<b />N
o mal flo a in GI t act, pathogenic elsewhe e.<b /><b />Examples: (&quot;anae
obes <b>C</b>an't <b>B</b> eathe <b>A</b>i &quot;)<b /><b>C</b>lost idium<b />
<b>B</b>acte oides<b /><b>A</b>ctinomyces
1301438545979 1342707643552 Aminoglycosides limitation
Amin<b>O2</b>gly
cosides a e ineffective against anae obes b/c these ABX equi e <b>O2</b> to ent
e into the bacte ial cell.
1301438610462 1342707643552 Obligate int acellula bugs
Rickettsia, Chla
mydia<b />(&quot;Stay inside [cells] when it's <b>R</b>eally<b> C</b>old&quot;)

<b /><b />*Can't make thei own ATP
1301438657614 1342707643552 Facultatively int acellula bugs
"<b>S</b
>ome <b>N</b>asty <b>B</b> utes <b>M</b>ay <b>L</b>ive <b>F</b>acultative<b>LY</
b>"<b ><b ><b>S</b>almonella<b ><b>N</b>eisse ia<b ><b>B</b> ucella<b ><b>M</b>y
cobacte ium<b ><b>L</b>iste ia<b ><b>F</b> ancisella<b ><b>L</b>egionella<b ><b>
Y</b>e sinia
1301438731650 1342707643552 Quellung Reaction
Postive quellung:<b />I
f encapsulated bug is p esent, the capsule &quot;swells&quot; when specific anti
capsula antise a a e added<b /><b />(&quot;Quellung = capsula swellung&quot
;)
1301438794950 1342707643552 Capsule and vaccines
Capsule, conjugated with
a p otein, se ves as Ag fo some vaccines<b />(e.g. Pneumovax, H. influenzae B
, meningococcal vaccines)<b /><b />Conjugation w/ p otein inc eases immunogeni
city and Tcell dependent esponse
1301438876883 1342707643552 Quellung (+) Bacte ia Encapsulated<b />(&quot
;<b>S</b>ome <b>K</b>ille s <b>H</b>ave <b>N</b>ice <b>S</b>hiny <b>B</b>odies&q
uot;)<b /><b /><b>S</b>t eptococcus pneumoniae<b /><b>K</b>lebsiella pneumoni
ae<b /><b>H</b>aemophilus influenzae type B<b /><b>N</b>eisse ia meningitidis<
b /><b>S</b>almonella<b />G oup <b>B</b> st ep (agalactiae)<b /><b />Polysac
cha ide capsule is an antiphagocytic vi ulence facto fo above bacte ia.
1301438910397 1342707643552 U ease (+) bugs &quot;<b>PUNCH</b><b>K</b>&quot
;<b /><b /><b>P</b> oteus<b /><b>U</b> eaplasma<b /><b>N</b>oca dia<b /><b>
C</b> yptococcus<b /><b>H</b>. pylo i<b /><b>K</b>lebsiella
1301439018055 1342707643552 Pigmentp oducing bacte ia
Actinomyces <b>i
s aelii</b> &gt; yellow &quot;sulfu &quot; g anules, which a e composed of a m
ass of filaments and fo med in pus<b />(<b>Is ael</b> has <b>yellow</b> sand)<b
/><b />S. <b>au eus</b> &gt; yellow pigment <b />(<b>Aue us</b> is Latin f
o <b>gold</b>)<b /><b />Pseudomonas <b>ae ug</b>inosa &gt; blueg een pigme
nt<b />(&quot;<b>AERUG</b>ula is <b>g een</b>&quot;)<b /><b />Se atia <b>ma
cescens</b> &gt; ed pigment<b />(Think of ed <b>ma aschino</b> che ies)
1301439043240 1342707643552 Vi ulence facto s
P omote evasion of host
immune esponse
1301439127668 1342707643552 Staph au eus (vi ulence facto s?)
p otein
A: Binds Fc egion of Ig, dis upts opsonization and phagocytosis (flips antibody
backwa ds, sneaky bug).<b /><b />(who has it?)
y
1301439152658 1342707643552 IgA p otease (who has it?)
Sec eted by S. p
neumoniae, H. influenzae, and Neisse ia (<b>SHiN</b>) to p event phagocytosis an
d colonize espi ato y mucosa<b /><b />(vi ulence facto ?)
y
1301439210969 1342707643552 G oup A st eptococcus (vi ulence facto s / mecha
nism?) M p otein: Helps p event phagocytosis<b /><b />(who has it?) y
1301439320197 1342707643665 Sou ce Ce tain species of some G(+) and G() o
ganisms;<b /><b />Oute cell memb ane of most G() bacte ia
1301439334419 1342707643665 Sec eted f om cell?
Yes;<b />No
1301439371379 1342707643665 Chemist y
Polypeptide;<b /><b />Lipopoly
saccha ide (st uctu al pa t of the bacte ia. Released when lysed)
1301439391106 1342707643665 Location of genes
Plasmid o bacte iophage
;<b /><b />bacte ial ch omosome
1301439417126 1342707643665 Toxicity
High (fatal dose on the o de of
1 mic og am);<b /><b />Low (fatal dose on the o de of hund eds of mic og ams
)
1301439429640 1342707643665 Clinical effects
Va ious;<b /><b />Feve
, shock
1301439444035 1342707643665 Mode of action Va ious;<b /><b />Induces TNF
and IL1
1301439473262 1342707643665 Antigenicity
Induces hightite Abs called <b
>antitoxins</b>;<b /><b />Poo ly antigenic (ca bohyd ate)
1301439492678 1342707643665 Vaccines
Toxoids useful as vaccines;<b /
><b />No toxoids fo med and no vaccine available
1301439524404 1342707643665 Heat stability Dest oyed apidly at 60C (except
staphylococcal ente otoxin);<b ><b >Stable at 100C fo 1 hou

1301439548307 1342707643665 Typical diseases
Tetanus, botulism, dipht
he ia;<b /><b />Meningococcemia, sepsis by G() ods
1301477335079 1342707643596 pathologic RBC fo ms:<b /><b />acanthocyte (sp
u cell)<b /><b /><img s c="paste_z0lte.jpg" />
<img s c="pastegmjtbo.jp
g" />
1301477347637 1342707643596 pathologic RBC fo ms:<b /><b />basophilic stip
pling<b /><b /><img s c="paste_z0lte.jpg" /> <img s c="pastelk tzi.jpg" /><b
/><b />Think lead poisoning, othe s a e suspect<b /><b />Stippling is pe sis
tence of ibosomes elated to lead's inhibition of ibonuclease activity
1301477359251 1342707643596 pathologic RBC fo ms:<b /><b />bite cell<b />
<b /><img s c="paste_z0lte.jpg" />
<img s c="pastepsbooz.jpg" />
1301477372084 1342707643596 pathologic RBC fo ms:<b ><b >elliptocyte<b ><b >
<img s c="paste_z0lte.jpg" /> <img s c="pasteolc xx.jpg" />
1301477382660 1342707643596 pathologic RBC fo ms:<b ><b >mac oovalocyte<b >
<b ><img s c="paste_z0lte.jpg" />
<img s c="pastefmw qf.jpg" />
1301477397916 1342707643596 pathologic RBC fo ms:<b /><b /> inged side obl
asts<b /><b /><img s c="paste_z0lte.jpg" /> <img s c="pastehkk8mv.jpg" />
1301477412578 1342707643596 pathologic RBC fo ms:<b ><b >schistocyte, helmet
cell<b ><b ><img s c="paste_z0lte.jpg" />
<img s c="pastez _lqp.jpg" />
1301477424401 1342707643596 pathologic RBC fo ms:<b ><b >sickle cell<b ><b >
<img s c="paste_z0lte.jpg" /> <img s c="pasteztul03.jpg" />
1301477434050 1342707643596 pathologic RBC fo ms:<b /><b />sphe ocyte<b /
><b /><img s c="paste_z0lte.jpg" />
<img s c="pasteqpo2zi.jpg" />
1301477457435 1342707643596 pathologic RBC fo ms:<b /><b />tea d op cell<b
/><b /><img s c="paste_z0lte.jpg" /> <img s c="paste4walmb.jpg" />
1301477483558 1342707643596 pathologic RBC fo ms:<b /><b />ta get cell<b
/><b /><img s c="paste_z0lte.jpg" /> <img s c="pastecyxpsm.jpg" />
1301477504667 1342707643596 RBC pathologies:<b /><b />heinz bodies<b /><b
/><img s c="pastefgvz2l.jpg" />
<img s c="pasteg9vugh.jpg" /><b /><b /
>Fe ous = Fe2+<b />Fe ic = Fe3+<b /><b />Oxidation: fe ous(2+) &gt; fe
ic(3+) &amp; e
1301477514648 1342707643596 RBC pathologies:<b /><b />howelljolly bodies<
b /><b /><img s c="pastefgvz2l.jpg" />
<img s c="pastent2gnp.jpg" />
1301477726488 1342707643596 i on deficiency:<b /><b />type of anemia<b />
caused by
mic ocytic, hypoch omic (MCV&lt;80) anemia:<b /><b /><img s c=
"pasteacmk3u.jpg" />
1301477886986 1342707643596 athalassemia:<b /><b />type of anemia<b />de
fect<b /><b />deletion of 4 genes vs 3 vs 12 mic ocytic, hypoch omic (MCV&lt;
80) anemia:<b /><b /><img s c="paste6zp2ky.jpg" />
1301478041730 1342707643596 HbS/betathalassemia hete ozygote
<img s c
="pasteq4ieek.jpg" />
1301478157384 1342707643596 side oblastic anemia:<b /><b />type of anemia<
b />genetics<b />defect
mic ocytic, hypoch omic (MCV&lt;80) anemia:<b /
><b /><img s c="pastepnbviv.jpg" /><b /><b /><img s c="pasteih3mq0.jpg" />
1301478272500 1342707643596 mac ocytic (MCV &gt; 100) anemia:<b /><b />why
is it mac ocytic?
<img s c="paste9cytql.jpg" />
1301478316871 1342707643596 megaloblastic anemia caused by folate deficiency
:<b /><b />type of anemia<b />findings
mac ocytic (MCV &gt; 100) anemia
:<b /><b /><img s c="pastexo_plp.jpg" /><b /><b /><img s c="pastei4 u7y.jpg"
/><b />
1301478336431 1342707643596 megaloblastic anemia caused by B12 deficiency:<b
/><b />type of anemia<b />findings<b />
mac ocytic (MCV &gt; 100) anemia
:<b /><b /><img s c="pastec298sv.jpg" /><b /><img s c="pasteehgvez.jpg" /><im
g s c="pasteambqaq.jpg" /><b />
1301478546497 1342707643596 nonmegaloblastic mac ocytic anemias:<b /><b />
type<b />caused by
mac ocytic (MCV &gt; 100) anemia:<b /><b /><img s c="p
aste5a9fdi.jpg" />
1301478595516 1342707643596 no mocytic, no moch omic anemia:<b /><b />clas
sification scheme
<img s c="pastei2pdo4.jpg" />
1301478607844 1342707643596 nonhemolytic no mocytic anemia:<b /><b />inclu

des what types <u>ea ly</u> anemia of ch onic disease (ACD)<b />aplastic anemi
a<b />kidney disease (low EPO)
1301478624083 1342707643596 int insic hemolytic anemia:<b /><b />includes
what types
no mocytic, no moch omic anemia:<b /><b />he edita y sphe ocyt
osis (M)<b />pa oxysmal noctu nal hemoglobinu ia (M)<b />sickle cell anemia (A
)<b />HbC defect (A)<b />G6PD deficiency (D)<b />py uvate kinase deficiency (
D)<b /><b /><img s c="pastemdvpet.jpg" />
1301478633897 1342707643596 ext insic hemolytic:<b /><b />includes what ty
pes
no mocytic, no moch omic anemia:<b /><b />autoimmune<b />mic oangiopa
thic (eg. DIC, TTPHUS)<b />mac oangiopathic (eg. p osthetic valves, ao tic ste
nosis)<b />infections (eg. mala ia, babesia)
1301478649884 1342707643596 int avascula hemolysis:<b /><b />includes wha
t types no mocytic, no moch omic anemia:<b /><b />pa oxysmal noctu nal hemoglo
binu ia<b />autoimmune (<u>cold</u> agglutinins IgM)<b />mac oangiopathic (eg
. ao tic stenosis, p osthetic valve)<b />mic oangiopathic (DIC, TTP/HUS)
1301478662757 1342707643596 ext avascula hemolysis:<b /><b />includes wha
t types no mocytic, no moch omic anemia:<b /><b /><b>he edita y sphe ocytosis<
b />py uvate kinase deficiency<b />sickle cell anemia</b><b />HbC defect<b /
>autoimmune (<u>wa m</u> agglutins IgG)
1301478703319 1342707643596 anemia of ch onic disease (ACD):<b /><b />type
of anemia<b />pathogenesis<b />lab findings Often no mocytic (MCV 80100), c
an become mic ocytic and hypoch omic in longstanding dz<b /><b /><img s c="pa
stehdmq5c.jpg" /><b /><b />Note: hepcidin wo ks by binding fe opo tin, inhibi
ting elease of i on into ci culation<b /><b />*hepcidin is an acute phase ea
ctant inc eased in inflammato y states
1301478722215 1342707643596 aplastic anemia:<b /><b />type of anemia<b />
causes<b />t eatment nonhemolytic, no mocytic anemia:<b /><b />caused by<b
/>1) adiation and d ugs (benzene, chlo amphenicol, alkylating agents, antimeta
bolites)<b />2) vi uses (pa vo B19, EBV, HCV, HIV)<b />3) Fanconi's anemia (DN
A epai defect)<b />4) Idiopathic; may follow acute hepatitis<b /><b />withd
awal of offending agent<b />immunosupp essive egiments (antithymocyte globuli
n, cyclospo in)<b />allogeneic bone ma ow t ansplantation<b />RBC and platele
t t ansfusion<b />GCSF o GMCSF
1301478734913 1342707643596 anemia of kidney disease:<b /><b />type<b />p
athogenesis
nonhemolytic, no mocytic anemia:<b /><b /><img s c="pastesznxy
q.jpg" />
1301479275905 1342707643596 G6PD deficiency:<b /><b />type of anemia<b />
genetics<b />pathogenesis<b />
int insic hemolytic no mocytic anemia:<b
/><b /><img s c="paste6wbhp_.jpg" />
1301479293191 1342707643596 py uvate kinase deficiency:<b /><b />type<b /
>genetics<b />pathogenesis<b />
int insic hemolytic no mocytic anemia<b
><b >autosomal ecessive<b ><b >inability to maintain activity of Na/K ATPase le
ads to RBC swelling/ igidity and lysis
1301479526150 1342707643596 HbC defect:<b /><b />type of anemia<b />mutat
ion
int insic hemolytic no mocytic anemia<b /><b />glutamic acid to lysine
mutation at position 6 of beta chain<b /><b /><img s c="pastelqox7i.jpg" /><b
/><b />HbC also appea s to confe mala ia esistance
1301479546422 1342707643596 pa oxysmal noctu nal hemoglobinu ia:<b /><b />
type of anemia<b >pathogenesis<b />labs<b />complication
int insic hemoly
tic no mocytic anemia (int avascula hemolysis)<b /><b >↑ complementmediated RBC
lysis due to impai ed synthesis of GPI ancho / decayaccele ating facto in RB
C memb anes<b ><b />↑ u ine hemoside in<b /><b />complication: th ombosis
1301479749291 1342707643596 mic oangiopathic anemia:<b /><b />type of anem
ia<b />pathogenesis
ext insic hemolytic no mocytic anemia:<b /><b /><img s
c="pasteywfysn.jpg" />
1301479882218 1342707643596 infections:<b /><b />type of anemia it causes<
b />pathogenesis
ext insic hemolytic no mocytic anemia:<b /><b /><img s
c="pastelewokm.jpg" />
1301500255293 1342707643552 Supe antigens Bind di ectly to MHCII and Tcel
l ecepto outside peptide binding g oove; neve inte nalized by APC<b /><b />

Nonspecifically activate la ge numbe s of polyclonal Tcells to stimulate eleas
e of IFNgamma and IL2 &gt; shock
1301500301351 1342707643746 TSST1 Staph au eus<b /><b />Supe Ag that cau
ses toxic shock synd ome (feve , ash, shock). y
1301500325297 1342707643746 Exfoliatin
Staph au eus<b /><b />Causes s
taphylococcal scalded skin synd ome
y
1301500370143 1342707643746 Ente otoxins
Staph au eus (and othe s)<b /><
b />Cause food poisoning<b /><b /> y
1301500423383 1342707643746 Sca let feve e yth ogenic toxin / Exotoxin A
St ep pyogenes<b /><b />Supe Ag that causes toxic shocklike synd ome y
1301500506082 1342707643552 ADP ibosylating AB exotoxins, and bugs that ma
ke them B (binding) component binds to host cell su face ecepto , enabling endo
cytosis.<b /><b />A (active) component then attaches an ADP ibosyl to a host
cell p otein (ADP ibosylation), alte ing function.<b /><b />Bugs:<b />EF2 in
activato s<b />Adenylate cyclase ove activato s (inc ease cAMP; excludes anth a
x, which mimicks adenylate cyclase)
1301500707402 1342707643746 Co ynebacte ium diphthe iae<b /><b />Toxin?<b
/>Mechanism?<b />Manifestation?
Dipthe ia toxin (an ADP ibosylating AB
exotoxin)<b /><b />Inactivates elongation facto (EF2)<b /><b />Causes pha
yngitis and &quot;pseudomemb ane&quot; in th oat
y
1301500801880 1342707643746 Vib io Chole ae<b /><b />Toxin?<b />Mechanism
?<b />Manifestation? Chole a toxin (an ADP ibosylating AB exotoxin)<b /><b
/>Ove activates adenylate cyclase (↑cAMP) by pe manently activating Gs (tu ns th
e &quot;on&quot; on);<b />leads to Cl sec etion in gut (CFTR) and H2O efflux<b
/><b />Causes voluminous &quot; icewate &quot; sec eto y dia hea y
1301500959750 1342707643746 Ente otoxigenic <i>E. coli</i> (ETEC) heatlabil
e toxin (LT)<b /><b />Toxin?<b />Mechanism?<b />Manifestation?
Heatlab
ile toxin (LT) (an ADP ibosylating AB toxin)<b /><b />Ove activates adenylat
e cyclase (↑CAMP); leads to Cl sec etion in gut and H2O efflux<b /><b />Causes
wate y dia hea<b /><b />&quot;<b>Labile</b> like the<b> A</b>i , Stable like
the G ound&quot; (<b>A</b>denylate cyclase)
1301501053579 1342707643746 Bo detella pe tussis<b /><b />Toxin?<b />Mech
anism?<b />Manifestation?
Pe tussis toxin (an ADP ibosylating AB toxin)<
b /><b />Ove activates adenylate cyclase (↑cAMP) by disabling Gi (&quot;tu ns th
e 'off' off&quot;); impai s phagocytosis and pe mits su vival of mic obe<b /><b
/>Whooping cough: child coughs on expi ation and &quot;whoops&quot; on inspi a
tion (toxin may not actually be the cause of cough)
1301501092267 1342707643746 Clost idium pe f ingens<b /><b />Toxin?<b />M
echanism?<b />Manifestation? Alpha toxin<b /><b />Phospholipase that deg ad
es tissues &amp; cell memb anes<b /><b />Deg adation of phospholipids &gt; m
yonec osis (&quot;gas gang ene&quot;) and hemolysis (&quot;double zone&quot; of
hemolysis on blood aga )<b /><b /><img s c="pastezb69pf.jpg" />
y
1301501168591 1342707643746 Clost idium tetani<b /><b />Toxin?<b />Mechan
ism?<b />Manifestation?
Tetanospasmin<b /><b />Cleaves SNARE p otein
equi ed fo NT elease<b /><b />Causes muscle igidity and &quot;lockjaw&quot;
; toxin p events elease of <b>inhibito y</b> (GABA and glycine) NTs
y
1301501245352 1342707643746 Clost idium botulinum<b /><b />Toxin?<b />Mec
hanism?<b />Manifestation?
Botulinum toxin (aka Botox)<b /><b />Cleaves S
NARE p otein equi ed fo NT elease<b /><b />Causes flaccid pa alysis, floppy
baby; toxin p events the elease of <b>excitato y</b> (ACh) signals at musculos
keletal junction &gt; flaccid descending pa alysis (especially c anial ne ves)
y
1301501298491 1342707643746 Bacillus anth acis<b /><b />Toxin?<b />Mechan
ism?<b />Manifestation?
Edema facto <b /><b />Mimics the adenylate cyc
lase enzyme (↑cAMP)<b /><b />Likely esponsible fo the cha acte istic edematous
bo de s of black escha in cutaneous anth ax<b /><b /><img s c="pastepnvdd .j
pg" />
1301501350824 1342707643746 Shigella spp.<b /><b />Toxin?<b />Mechanism?<
b />Manifestation?
Shiga toxin (ST)<b /><b />Inactivates 60S ibosome by
cleaving RNA<b /><b />GI mucosal damage &gt; dysente y;<b />ST also enhanc

es cytokine elease, causing <b>HUS</b> y
1301501397058 1342707643746 St ep pyogenes<b /><b />Toxin?<b />Mechanism?
<b />Manifestation?
St eptolysin O<b /><b />Deg ades cell memb ane<b /><b
/>Lyses RBCs; cont ibutes to betahemolysis;<b />Host antibodies against toxi
n (ASO) used to diagnose heumatic feve
y
1301501612940 1342707643552 cAMPinducing bacte ial toxins (list) Vib io c
hole ae<b />B. pe tussis<b />ETEC (labile toxin)<b />Bacillus anth acis*<b /
><b />*Chole a, pe tussis, and E. coli toxins act via ADP ibosylation to pe ma
nently activate endogenous adenylate cyclase (inc easing cAMP),<b />While anth
ax edema facto is itself an adenylate cyclase
1301501767925 1342707643552 Pseudomonas ae uginosa<b /><b />Toxin?<b />Me
chanism?<b />Manifestation?
Exotoxin A<b /><b />Inactivates elongation fac
to (EF2)<b /><b >Host cell death
1301501828948 1342707643552 Ente ohemo hagic <i>E. coli</i> (EHEC), includi
ng O157:H7 st ain<b /><b />Toxin?<b />Mechanism?<b />Manifestation? Shigali
ke toxin (SLT)<b /><b />Inactivates 60S ibosome by cleaving RNA<b /><b />S
LT enhances cytokine elease, causing HUS;<b />Unlike <i>Shigella</i>, EHEC <b>
does not </b>invade host cells
1301501852314 1342707643552 Ye sinia ente ocolitica<b /><b />Toxin?<b />M
echanism?<b />Manifestation? Heatstable toxin (ST)<b /><b />Ove activates
guanylate cyclase (↑cGMP); leads to dec eased eabso ption of NaCl and H2O in gut<
b /><b />Causes bloody dia hea (invades and dest oys cells &gt; dysente y)
1301501887850 1342707643552 Exotoxin g oups<b /><b />1a) Inhibit p otein s
ynthesis (inactivate EF2)?<b />1b) Inhibit p otein synthesis (inactivate 60S
ibosome)?<b />2) Inc ease fluid sec etion?<b />3) Inhibit phagocytic ability?<
b />4) Inhibit elease of NT?<b />5) Lyse cell memb anes?
1a) Co ynebacte
ium dipthe iae, Pseudomonas ae uginosa<b /><b />1b) Shigella spp, EHEC (inc. O
157:H7)<b /><b />2) ETEC LT, ETEC ST, Ye sinia ente ocolitica, Bacillus anth a
cis, Vib io chole ae<b /><b />3) Bo detella pe tussis<b /><b />4) Clost idiu
m tetani, botulinum<b /><b />5) Clost idium pe f ingens, St ep pyogenes<b />
1301521082969 1342707643552 Endotoxin
A Lipopolysaccha ide found in th
e cell wall of G() bacte ia<b /><b />&quot;<b>N</b>dotoxin is an integ al pa
t of the g am<b>N</b>egative cell wall&quot;<b /><b />*Endotoxin is heat sta
ble
1301521196565 1342707643552 Endotoxin acting on Mac ophages Activates Macs t
o p oduce:<b />IL1 causes feve <b />TNF causes feve , hemo hagic tissue nec
osis<b />NO causes hypotension (shock)<b /><img s c="144a  endotoxins.JPG" />
1301521245349 1342707643552 Endotoxin and complement
Activates the co
mplement (alte native pathway):<b >C3a causes hypotension, edema<b >C5a causes P
MN chemotaxis<b ><img s c="144a  endotoxins.JPG" />
1301521293626 1342707643552 Endotoxin and clotting Activates Hageman facto
(facto XII)<b />This activates coagulation cascade,<b />causing DIC<b /><im
g s c="144a  endotoxins.JPG" />
1301521369648 1342707643552 Bacte ial g owth cu ve<b />
Lag phase: metab
olic activity w/o division<b /><b />Exponential/log phase: apid cell division
. Beta lactam d ugs act he e as peptidoglycan is made.<b /><b />Stationa y pha
se: nut ient depletion slows g owth. Spo e fo mation in some bacte ia.<b /><b
/>Death phase: p olonged nut ient depletion and buildup of waste p oducts leads
to death.<b /><b /><img s c="144b  bacte ial g owth cu ve.JPG" />
1301521406723 1342707643552 T ansfo mation<b /><b />What is it?<b />Who d
oes it? Ability to take up DNA di ectly f om envi onment by competent p oka yoti
c and euka yotic cells (also known as &quot;competence&quot;). A featu e of many
bacte ia, esp <b>S</b>. pneumoniae, <b>H</b>. influenza, <b>N</b>eisse ia (<b>S
HiN</b>).<b /><b />Any DNA can be used
1301521483024 1342707643552 F+ x F Conjugation
F+ plasmid contains gene
s fo conjugation p ocess. <b />Bacte ia w/o this a e te med F.<b />Plasmid i
s eplicated and t ansfe ed th ough sex pilus f om the F+ cell.<b /><b>Plasmid
DNA only, no t ansfe of ch omosomal genes.</b>
1301521540728 1342707643552 Hf x F Conjugation
F+ plasmid can become in
co po ated into bacte ial ch omosomal DNA, now te med Hf cell.<b >Replication o

f incopo ated plasmid DNA may include some flanking ch omosomal DNA.<b >T ansfe
of plasmid and ch omosomal genes.
1301521616714 1342707643552 Gene alized t ansduction<b /> Lytic phage ( ep
licate and dest oy bacte ia p onto) infects bacte ium, leading to cleavage of ba
cte ial DNA and synthesis of vi al p oteins. <b /><b />Pa ts of bacte ial ch o
mosomal DNA may become packaged in vi al capsid.<b /><b />Phage infects anothe
bacte ium, t ansfe ing these genes.<b /><b />A &quot;packaging&quot; event.
1301521672432 1342707643552 Specialized t ansduction
Lysogenic phage
(does not immediately kill cell: integ ates DNA and chills) infects bacte ium; v
i al DNA inco po ated into bacte ial ch omosome.<b />When phage DNA is excised,
flanking bacte ial genes may be excised w/ it.<b />DNA is packaged into phage
vi al capsid and can infect anothe bacte ium.<b /><b />An &quot;excision&quot
; event.
1301521769290 1342707643552 T ansposition<b />(t ansposons)<b /><b />Impo
tance in mic obiology? Segment of DNA that can &quot;jump&quot; (excision and
einco po ation) f om one location to anothe , can t ansfe genes f om plasmid to
cho omosome and vice ve sa. <b /><b />When excision occu s, may include some
flanking ch omosomal DNA, which can be inco po ated into a plasmid and t ansfe
ed to anothe bacte ium.
1301521866052 1342707643552 5 bacte ial toxins encoded in a lysogenic phage<
b /><b />(lysogenic phage inco po ates DNA as &quot;p ophage&quot; into host g
enome) &quot;ABCDE&quot;<b /><b />Shig<b>A</b>like toxin<b /><b>B</b>otulin
um toxin (ce tain st ains)<b /><b>C</b>hole a toxin<b /><b>D</b>iphthe ia toxi
n<b /><b>E</b> yth ogenic toxin of St eptococcus pyogenes
1301521992033 1342707643552 G am (+)<b />|<b />Rods<b />|<b />? Clost id
ium (anae obe)<b />Co ynebacte ium<b />Liste ia<b />Bacillus (ae obe)
1301522059156 1342707643552 G am (+)<b />|<b />Cocci<b />|<b />Catalase
(+), in cluste s<b />|<b />Coagulase (+)<b />|<b />?
Staphylococcus a
u eus
1301522159311 1342707643552 G am (+)<b />|<b />Cocci<b />|<b />Catalase
(+), in cluste s<b />|<b />Coagulase ()<b />|<b />Next test?<b />|<b />?
Novobiocin sensitive: Staphylococcus epide midis (&quot;sensitive skin&quot;)<b
/><b />Nobobiocin esistant: Staphylococcus sap ophyticus
1301522288043 1342707643552 G am (+)<b >|<b >Cocci<b >|<b >Catalase (), in
chains<b >|<b >Pa tial hemolysis (g een  alpha hemolysis)<b >|<b >Next test(s)?
<b >|<b >?
(+) Quellung (has capsule), Optochin sensitive, Bile soluble (do
esn't g ow in bile):<b >St eptococcus pneumoniae<b ><b >() Quellung (no capsule
), Optochin esistant, not bile soluble:<b >St eptococcus vi idans
1301522367716 1342707643552 G am (+)<b />|<b />Cocci<b />|<b />Catalase
(), in chains<b />|<b />Complete hemolysis (clea , betahemolysis)<b />|<b
/>Next test?<b />|<b />?
Bacit acin sensitive: G oup A St ep (GAS) aka St
eptoccus pyogenes<b /><b />Bacit acin esistant: G oup B st ep aka St eptococ
cus agalactiae
1301522427972 1342707643552 G am (+)<b />|<b />Cocci<b />|<b />Catalase
(), in chains<b />|<b />No hemolysis (gamma hemolysis)<b />|<b />Next test?
<b />|<b />? G ows in bile and 6.5% NaCl = Ente ococcus (E. faecalis, faecium
)<b /><b />G ows in bile but not 6.5% NaCl = Nonente ococcus (S. bovis)
1301522588638 1342707643552 Identifying Staphylococci w/ Novobiocin<b />(on
ce you know it's a G(+)/catalase(+) coccus in cluste s) <b>NO</b>vobiocin  <b
/><b>S</b>ap ophyticus is<b> R</b>esistant;<b /><b>E</b>pide midis is <b>S</b>e
nsitive<b /><b />&quot;On the office's<b> staph</b> et eat, the e was <b>NO S
</b>t<b>RES</b>&quot;
1301522761929 1342707643552 Identifying alpha and beta hemolytic St eptococc
i
<b>O</b>ptochin:<b /><b>V</b>i idans is <b>R</b>esistant (&quot;vi ile&
quot;)<b /><b>P</b>neumoniae is <b>S</b>ensitive<b />(&quot;<b>OVRPS</b>&quot;
= ove pass) <b /><b /><b>B</b>acit acin:<b />g oup <b>B</b> st ep a e <b>R</
b>esistant<b />g oup <b>A</b> st ep a e <b>S</b>ensitive<b />(&quot;<b>BBRAS<
/b>&quot;)
1301522962947 1342707643552 alphahemolytic bacte ia
Fo m a g een in
g a ound colonies on blood aga . Include:<b /><b />1.) St eptococcus pneumonia

e (catalase () and optochin sensitive)<b />2.) Vi idans st eptococci (catalase
(), optochin esistant)
1301523067843 1342707643552 Betahemolytic bacte ia Fo m a clea a ea of hem
olysis on blood aga . Include:<b /><b />1.) Staphylococcus au eus (catalase an
d coagulase positive)<b />2.) St eptococcus pyogenes  GAS (catalase negative a
nd bacit acin sensitive)<b />3.) St eptococcus agalactiae  GBS (catalase negat
ive and bacit acin esistant)<b />4.) <b>Liste ia monocytogenes</b> (tumbling m
otility, meningitis in newbo ns, unpasteu ized milk / soft cheese)
1301523122981 1342707643552 Catalase<b /><b />Function?<b />O ganisms tha
t make it?<b />Dz w/ susceptibility? Catalase deg ades H2O2 befo e myelope ox
idase can conve t it to mic obiocidal p oducts in PMNs.<b /><b /><b>S</b>taph
au eus, <b>P</b>seudomonas,<b> E.</b> coli, <b>C</b>andida, <b>S</b>e atia<b /
><b /><b>Cat SPECS</b><b /><b /><img s c="pastennyzxf.jpg" /><b /><b />Vuln
e able to these o ganisms in ch onic g anulomatous disease (NADPH oxidase defici
ency)
1301523252984 1342707643552 Catalase/Coagulase in G(+) cocci
Staphylo
cocci make catalase, whe eas St eptococci do not<b /><b />S. au eus makes coag
ulase, whe eas S. epide midis and S. sap ophyticus do not.<b /><b />(&quot;Sta
ph make catalase b/c they have mo e &quot;staff&quot;. <b />Bad staph (au eus,
b/c epide midis is skin flo a) make coagulase and toxins.&quot;)<b /><b />
1301523371737 1342707643552 P otein A <b />(vi ulence facto )
Vi ulenc
e facto of Staphylococcus au eus<b /><b />Binds FcIgG, inhibiting complement
fixation and phagocytosis (binds Fc to evades Fab: flips antibody backwa ds, sn
eaky bug)
1301523423880 1342707643552 TSST<b />(@ molecula level) In Staph au eus<
b /><b />A supe Ag that binds MHCII and the TCR,<b /> esulting in polyclonal
Tcell activation
1301523736060 1342707643552 Dzs caused by Staphylococcus au eus
<img s c
="147a  S au eus.JPG" /><img s c="Staph au eus (1).JPG" /><b />1.) Inflammato
y Dz  skin infxns, o gan abcesses, pneumonia<b /><b />2.) Toxinmediated dz 
Toxic shock synd ome (TSST1), scalded skin synd ome (exfoliative toxin), apid
onset food poisoning (p efo med ente otoxins)<b /><b />3.) MRSA (methicillin
 esistant S. au eus) infxn: impo tant cause of se ious nosocomial and community
acqui ed infxns. Resistant to betalactams due to alte ed penicillinbinding p
oteins.<b /><b />4.) Misc.  acute bacte ial endoca ditis, osteomyelitis
1301523774468 1342707643552 Staphylococcus epide midis<b /><b />Why does i
t infect p osthetic devices and cathete s?<b />Positive blood cultu es?
Infects p osthetic devices and cathete s (makes biofilms).<b />May contaminate
blood cultu es (also may be eal infxn).
1301523924373 1342707643552 St eptococcus pneumoniae<b />(&quot;the pneumoc
occus&quot;)<b /><b />Cha acte istics (mo phology, vi ulence facto s)?
Lancetshaped, g am (+) diplococcus.<b /><b />Encapsulated.<b />Has IgA p ote
ase.<b /><b /><img s c="pastewj_ia9.jpg" /><b />
1301524143501 1342707643552 Vi idans g oup St eptococci<b /><b />Hemolysis
?<b />Found whe e?<b />Cause what?<b />Lab ID?
Alphahemolytic.<b /><b
/>No mal flo a of the o opha ynx. <b /><b />Cause dental ca ies (S. mutans)
and subacute bacte ial endoca ditis (<span style="colo :#ff0000;">S. sanguis &
gt; blood</span>).<b /><b />Resistant to optochin, diffe entiating them f om S
. pneumoniae, <b />which is alphahemolytic but optochin sensitive.
1301524321464 1342707643552 Diseases caused by St eptococcus pyogenes (GAS)
1.) Pyogenic  pha yngitis, cellulitis, impetigo, nec otizing fasciitis<b />2.)
Toxigenic  Sca let feve , toxic shocklike synd ome<b />3.) Immunologic  he
umatic feve , acute glome uloneph itis<b /><b /><b>PH</b>a yngitis gives you
heumatic &quot;<b>PH</b>eve &quot; and glome ulone<b>PH</b> itis<b /><b />Rheu
matic feve <b>JONES </b>c ite ia (Joints  polya th itis, &lt;3, Nodules SQ, E
ythema ma ginatum, Sydenham's cho ea)<b /><b /><img s c="pastedxdge6.jpg" /><b
/>Impetigo
1301524364139 1342707643552 Ab's and St eptococcus pyogenes (GAS) Ab's to
M p otein enhance host defenses againt GAS but can give ise to heumatic feve .
<b /><b />ASO tite detects ecent GAS infxn.

1301524426429 1342707643552 St eptococcus agalactiae (GBS)<b /><b />Lab ID
?<b />What dz's does it cause?<b />Othe ?
Bacit acin esistant<b />Betah
emolytic (CAMPtest positive when plated a ound staph au eus colonies)<b /><b
/>Causes:<b />Pneumonia, meningitis, sepsis (mainly in babies  colonizes vagin
a)<b /><b />Sc een p egnant women at 3537 wks;<b />Positive cultu e &gt; i
nt apa tum penicillin p ophylaxis<b /><b />&quot;<b>B</b> is fo <b>B</b>abies
!&quot;
1301524588625 1342707643552 Ente ococci<b /><b />Spp?<b />D ug info?<b /
>Cause what?<b />G owth conditions?<b />Hemolysis?
(include Ente ococcus fa
ecalis and E. faecium)<b /><b />Penicillin G esistant.<b /><b />Cause UTI a
nd subacute endoca ditis.<b /><b />Ente ococci a e ha die than nonente ococca
l g oup D, thus can g ow in 6.5% NaCl.<b /><b />Va iable hemolysis.
1301524651003 1342707643552 Lancefield g oup D<b /><b />Includes?<b />G o
uping based on?<b />Hemolysis? Includes ente ococci and nonente ococcal g oup D
st eptococci.<b /><b />Lancefield g ouping is based on diffe ences in the C c
a bohyd ate on the bacte ial cell wall.<b /><b />Va iable hemolysis.
1301524671149 1342707643552 VRE
Vancomycin esistant Ente ococci:<b >an
impo tant cause of nosocomial infxn.
1301524719974 1342707643552 St eptococcus bovis
One of the g oup D nonen
te ococcal st eptococci.<b /><b />Gut colonize <b />Can cause bacte emia and
subacute endoca ditis in colon cance patients
1301524875806 1342707643552 Diphthe ia:<b />Caused by...?<b />Sx?<b />Dx?
<b />Cultu e equi ments?<b />othe (mnemonic)?
Caused by Co ynebacte iu
m diphthe iae via an exotoxin encoded by betap ophage.<b />Potent exotoxin inh
ibits p otein synthesis via ADP ibosylation of EF2.<b /><b />Sx include: pse
udomemb anous pha yngitis (g ayishwhite memb ane) w/ lymphadenopathy.<b /><b
/>Lab Dx based on G(+) ods w/ metach omatic (blue and ed) polyphosphate g anul
es and Elek test fo toxin.<b /><img s c="pasteimxwjt.jpg" /><b /><b />Co yne
bacte ium diphthe iae g ows on tellu ite aga .<b /><b />Toxoid vaccine p event
s dipthe ia.<b /><b />&quot;<b>ABCDEFG</b>&quot;<b /><b>A</b>DP ibosylation<
b /><b>B</b>etap ophage<b /><b>C</b>o ynebacte ium<b /><b>D</b>iphthe iae<b
/><b>E</b>longation <b>F</b>acto 2<b /><b>G</b> anules
1301527395481 1342707643552 Bacte ial spo es<b /><b />Who makes, and when?
<b />Raison d'et e?<b />Composition?<b />Metabolism?<b />Killing? Ce tain
G(+) ods fo m spo es when nut ients a e limited (@ the end of stationa y phase)
<b /><b />Spo es a e highly esistant to dest uction by heat and chemicals.<b
/><b />Have dipiclonic acid in thei co e.<b /><b />Have no metabolic activi
ty.<b /><b />Must autoclave to kill spo es (121 degC fo 15 min)
1301527477367 1342707643552 Impo tant spo efo ming bacte ia
G (+) sp
o es found in soil:<b />Bacillus anth acis<b />Clost idium pe f ingens<b />Cl
ost idium tetani<b /><b />Othe spo e fo me s:<b />Bacillus ce us<b />Clost
idium botulinum<b />Coxiella bu netti<b /><b />(B.c, C.b, C.b)
1301527524947 1342707643552 Clost idia (classification)
G(+) spo efo mi
ng ods<b />Obligate anae obes
1301527593338 1342707643552 Clost idium tetani<b /><b />Mechanism?<b />Cl
inical?<b >P evention? P oduces the exotoxin that causes tetanus (tetanospasmin
)<b /><b />TETanus is TETanic pa alysis (blocks glycine and GABA elease [inhi
bito y NTs]) <b />f om <b>Renshaw cells</b> (inhibito y inte neu ons) in the sp
inal co d<b /><b />Causes spastic pa alysis, t ismus (lockjaw) and isus sa do
nicus (sustained facial spasm that looks like a g in)<b /><b >P evention of neo
natal tetanus is best achieved by <b>mate nal </b>vaccination in p egnancy o be
fo e (IgG will c oss placenta and p otect baby)<b ><b /><img s c="pastewv dv3.j
pg" />
1301527691263 1342707643552 Clost idium botulinum<b /><b />Mechanism?<b /
>T ansmission? p oduces p efo med, heatlabile toxin that inhibits ACh elease
at the NMJ, causing botulism (flaccid pa alysis).<b /><b />In adults, dz is ca
used by ingestion of p efo med toxin.<b /><b />In babies, ingestion of bacte i
al spo es in honey causes dz (floppy baby synd ome).<b /><b />&quot;<b>BOT</b>
ulinum is f om bad <b>BOT</b>tles of food and honey.&quot;
1301527738720 1342707643552 Clost idium pe f ingens P oduces <u>alphatoxin

(lecithinase)</u> that can cause myonec osis (gas gang ene) and hemolysis<b /><
b />&quot;<b>PERF</b> ingens <b>PERF</b>o ates a gang enous leg&quot;
1301527814900 1342707643552 Clost idium dificile<b /><b />Mechanism?<b />
Due to?<b />Diagnosis?<b />T eatment? P oduces 2 toxins:<b />Toxin A (ente ot
oxin) binds to b ush bo de of gut.<b />Toxin B (cytotoxin) <b>dest oys cytoske
leton</b> of ente ocytes, causing pseudomemb anous colitis.<b /><b />Often 2'
to ABX use, especially <b>clindamycin</b> o <b>ampicillin</b>.<b /><b />Diagn
osed by detection of eithe /both toxins in stool.<b /><b />Tx: met onidazole o
<b>o al</b> vancomycin<b /><b />&quot;<b>DI</b>fficile causes <b>DI</b>a he
a&quot;<b />
1301527925836 1342707643552 Anth ax<b /><b />Bug?<b />Classification?<b
/>Cultu e?<b />Unique? Caused by Bacillus anth acis:<b />G am (+), ae obic, sp
o efo ming od that p oduces anth ax toxin.<b />Se pintine &quot;medusa head&q
uot; colonies<b />Only bacte ium w/ a polypeptide (p otein) capsule (contains <
b>Dglutamate</b>)<b /><b /><img s c="paste8hcajz.jpg" /><b />Se pentine colo
nies
1301527992221 1342707643552 Anth ax <b />infxn via contact Contact &gt; b
lack escha (painless ulce );<b />Can p og ess to bacte emia and death<b /><b
/>Black skin lesions  black escha (nec osis) su ounded by edematous ing. Ca
used by lethal facto and edema facto .<b /><b /><img s c="pasteml4tqk.jpg" />
1301528028251 1342707643552 Anth ax<b />via inhalation of spo es Inhalati
on of spo es &gt; flulike Sx that apidly p og ess to feve , pulmona y hemo h
age, <b>mediastinitis</b>, and shock.
1301528046845 1342707643552 Woolso te 's dz Anth ax caused by inhalation of
spo es f om contaminated wool (goat hai is #1)
1301528118715 1342707643552 Liste ia monocytogenes<b > oute of t ansmission
Acqui ed by ingestion of unpasteu ized milk/cheese and deli meats, o by vaginal
t ansmission du ing bi th.
1301528152571 1342707643552 Liste ia monocytogenes<b />motility
Fo m &qu
ot;actin ockets&quot; by which they move f om cell to cell.<b /><b />Cha acte
istic tumbling motility.
1301528269502 1342707643552 Liste ia monocytogenes<b />Diseases
<b>P egn
ant women</b><b />amnionitis<b />septicemia<b />spontaneous abo tion<b />
<b /><b>Neonates</b><b /><u>g anulomatosis</u> infantiseptica<b />neonatal
meningitis<b /><b /><b>Immunocomp omised</b><b />meningitis<b /><b /><b>He
althy</b><b />mild gast oente itis
1301528360415 1342707643552 Actinomyces and Noca dia<b /><b />Classificati
on?<b />Tx?
Both a e G(+) ods fo ming long b anching filaments, <b /> esem
bling fungi<b /><b />SNAP:<b /><b>S</b>ulfa fo <b>N</b>oca dia,<b /><b>A</b
>ctinomyces use <b>P</b>CN
1301528427905 1342707643552 Actinomyces is aelii<b /><b />Classification?<
b />Manifestation?<b />Othe ? G(+) anae obe<b /><b />Causes o al/facial absc
esses that may d ain th u sinus t acts in skin. <b />Fo ms yellow &quot;sulfu
g anules&quot; in sinus t acts.<b /><b />No mal o al flo a.
1301528471808 1342707643552 Noca dia aste oides<b /><b />Classification? F
ound whe e? Causes what?
G(+) and also weakly acidfast obligate ae obe f
ound in soil.<b /><b />Causes pulmona y infxn in immunocomp omised pts.
1301561987235 1342707643596 lab values in anemia:<b /><b />i on deficiency
<b /><b />se um i on<b />t ansfe in/TIBC<b />fe itin<b />%t ansfe in sat
u ation <img s c="pastequaex8.jpg" />
1301561999108 1342707643596 lab values in anemia:<b /><b />ch onic disease
<b /><b />se um i on<b />t ansfe in/TIBC<b />fe itin<b />%t ansfe in sat
u ation <img s c="pasteljqk55.jpg" /><b /><b /><img s c="pastegzvlzm.jpg" />
1301562011816 1342707643596 lab values in anemia:<b /><b />hemoch omatosis
<b /><b />se um i on<b />t ansfe in/TIBC<b />fe itin<b />%t ansfe in sat
u ation <img s c="pastesigw_4.jpg" />
1301562025521 1342707643596 lab values in anemia:<b /><b />p egnancy/OCP u
se<b /><b />se um i on<b />t ansfe in/TIBC<b />fe itin<b />%t ansfe in s
atu ation
<img s c="pastexheivz.jpg" />
1301562095115 1342707643596 i on p oteins:<b /><b />fe itin<b />t ansfe

in
T ansfe in t anspo ts i on in blood<b />Fe itin p ima y i on sto ag
e p otein of body<b /><b /><b /><img s c="pastenhk2ya.jpg" />
1301562431512 1342707643596 po phy ias and lead poisoning:<b /><b />what i
s defective?
<img s c="pasteg95km3.jpg" />
1301562707955 1342707643596 heme synthesis, po phy ias, and lead poisoning:<
b /><b />lead poisoning<b /><b /><img s c="pastemqyycm.jpg" />
<img s c
="pasteio89ae.jpg" /><b /><b /><img s c="pasteo5dwdq.jpg" />
1301562726017 1342707643596 heme synthesis, po phy ias, and lead poisoning:<
b /><b />acute inte mittent po phy ia<b /><b /><img s c="pastemqyycm.jpg" />
<img s c="pasteszsmoz.jpg" /><b /><b /><img s c="pasteo5dwdq.jpg" />
1301562753176 1342707643596 heme synthesis, po phy ias, and lead poisoning:<
b /><b />po phy ia cutanea ta da<b /><b /><img s c="pastemqyycm.jpg" />
<img s c="pasteqgmgdo.jpg" /><b /><b /><img s c="pasteo5dwdq.jpg" />
1301563374316 1342707643596 what a e the diffe ent fo ms of Hb?<b /><b />H
b A2
<img s c="paste g z1i.jpg" />
1301563391286 1342707643596 what a e the diffe ent fo ms of Hb?<b ><b >Hb A1
c
<img s c="pastemvjwem.jpg" />
1301563406948 1342707643596 what a e the diffe ent fo ms of Hb?<b ><b >Hb F
<img s c="paste gqlow.jpg" />
1301563421114 1342707643596 what a e the diffe ent fo ms of Hb?<b ><b >Hb Go
we
<img s c="paste mthpb.jpg" />
1301563439309 1342707643596 what a e the diffe ent fo ms of Hb?<b /><b />H
b S
<img s c="pastez0imbn.jpg" />
1301563448866 1342707643596 what a e the diffe ent fo ms of Hb?<b /><b />H
b C
<img s c="pastemv4q6o.jpg" />
1301563462764 1342707643596 what a e the diffe ent fo ms of Hb?<b ><b >Hb Ba
t
<img s c="paste7gd lb.jpg" />
1301563472711 1342707643596 what a e the diffe ent fo ms of Hb?<b ><b >Hb H
<img s c="pastew1oyyw.jpg" />
1301563703451 1342707643596 coomb's test:<b /><b />match  (+) di ect o i
ndi ect test in each of the following:<b /><b />hemolytic disease of newbo n<b
/>sc eening fo mate nal Ab to a fetus blood<b />d uginduced autoimmune hemo
lytic anemia<b />hemolytic t ansfusion eactions<b />Ab p esent to fo eign blo
od (used to test blood p io to t ansfusion)
di ect<b />indi ect<b />di ect
<b />di ect<b />indi ect
1301563838056 1342707643596 cold agglutinins:<b /><b />type of anemia<b /
>what type of Ig<b />occu s in what infections<b />pathogenesis
<b>acute
</b> hemolytic no mocytic anemia<b />IgM<b />seen in <b>CLL, </b><span style="
fontweight:600; fontstyle:italic;">Mycoplasma pneumonai </span><b>o mononucle
osis (EBV)</b>; often unknown etiology<b /><b /><img s c="pastetu5jb0.jpg" />
1301563861253 1342707643596 wa m agglutinins:<b /><b />type of anemia<b /
>type of Ig<b />seen in what diseases <b>ch onic</b> hemolytic no mocytic anem
ia<b />IgG<b />ch onic anemia seen in <b>SLE, CLL, o ce tain d ugs (eg. alpha
methyldopa)</b>
1301563963104 1342707643596 platelet diso de s:<b /><b />effects on bleedi
ng time<b />s/sx?<b /> isky platelet count? inc ease bleeding time (BT)  du
e to defects in platelet plug fo mation<b /><b />mic ohemo hage: <b>mucous me
mb ane bleeding, epistaxis, petechiae, pu pu a</b><b /><b />*note isk of ble
eding usually not seve e until count d ops below ~20,000
1301564049279 1342707643596 be na dsoulie disease<b /><b />platelet coun
t, bleeding time, PT, PTT<b />mechanism and comments <img s c="pastehzwyae.jp
g" /><b />(platelet diso de )<b /><b />defect in platelet plug fo mation<b /
><b />↓ GpIb → defect in platelettocollagen adhesion via vWF
1301564072242 1342707643596 glanzmann's th ombasthenia<b /><b />platelet c
ount, bleeding time, PT, PTT<b />mechanism and comments<b />labs
<img s c
="paste oput7.jpg" /><b />(platelet diso de )<b /><b />defect in platelet plu
g fo mation<b />↓ GpIIb/IIIa → defect in platelettoplatelet agg egation via fib i
nogen<b /><b />labs: blood smea shows no platelet clumping
1301564090458 1342707643596 idiopathic th ombocytopenic pu pu a (ITP)<b /><
b />platelet count, bleeding time, PT, PTT<b />mechanism and comments<b />lab

s
<img s c="pastehzwyae.jpg" /><b />(platelet diso de )<b /><b />↓ platel
et su vival<b />defect is antiGpIIb/IIIa antibodies leading to pe iphe al plat
elet dest uction (|| autoimmune hemolytic anemia)<b /><b />labs: ↑ megaka yocyte
s
1301564108680 1342707643596 th ombotic th ombocytopenic pu pu a (TTP)<b /><
b />platelet count, bleeding time, PT, PTT<b />mechanism and comments<b />pat
hogenesis<b />labs
<img s c="pastehzwyae.jpg" /><b />(platelet diso de )<b
/><b />↓ platelet su vival<b />deficiency of <b>ADAMTS 13 (vWF metallop otease
) </b>leads to ↓ deg adation of vWF multime s<b /><b />la ge vWF multime s lead
to platelet agg egation and th ombosis<b /><b />labs: <b>schistocytes</b>, ↑ LDH
;<b />PT and PTT a e no mal
1301564173233 1342707643596 What facto s a e tested by PT and PTT? PT test
s function of facto s <span style="fontweight:600; textdeco ation: unde line;"
>VII</span>, X, V, II, I<b> (ext insic pathway)</b><b /><b />PTT tests functi
on of facto s XII, XI, IX, VIII, X, V, II, I <b>(int insic pathway)</b><b />(PT
T tests all except VII and XIII)
1301564224221 1342707643596 hemophilia A o B<b /><b />platelet count, ble
eding time, PT, PTT
<img s c="pastefwaik8.jpg" /><b />(int insic pathway co
agulation diso de )<b /><b />no effect on bleeding time
1301564239726 1342707643596 vitamin K deficiency<b /><b /><img s c="paste8
glz85.jpg" /><img s c="paste63txtb.jpg" />platelet count, bleeding time, PT, PTT
<img s c="pastezpnvbw.jpg" /><b />(coagulation diso de )
1301564413106 1342707643596 von willeb and's disease<b /><b />platelet cou
nt, bleeding time, PT, PTT<b />goljan explanation
<img s c="pastec6pbc5.jp
g" /><b >(mixed platelet and coagulation diso de )<b /><b /><img s c="pastewdh
ms.jpg" />
1301564497448 1342707643596 disseminated int avascula coagulation (DIC)<b
/><b />platelet count, bleeding time, PT, PTT<b >othe labs<b />goljan explana
tion
<img s c="pasteb8qmtt.jpg" /><b >low fib inogen, low facto V and VIII l
evels, elevated Ddime s<b ><b />(mixed platelet and coagulation diso de )<b /
><b /><img s c="pasteydgwgq.jpg" />
1301565044859 1342707643596
eedste nbe g cells:<b /><b />seen in what di
sease<b />appe aance<b />ma ke s and o igin<b />va iants
Distinctive tumo
giant cell seen in Hodgkin's disease (necessa y but not sufficient fo diagnos
is);<b />binucleate o bilobed with the 2 halves as mi o images (&quot;owl's
eyes&quot;).<b /><b />RS cells a e CD30+ and CD15+; Bcell o igin.<b /><b />
Va iants include lacuna cells in nodula scle osis va iant<b /><b /><b /><im
g s c="pastegqtaob.jpg" />
1301565055574 1342707643596 <img s c="pasteadh2xq.jpg" />
eedste nbe g c
ells
1301565162187 1342707643596 hodgkin's lymphoma:<b /><b />nodula scle osin
g<b /><b /><img s c="pastecads6m.jpg" />
<img s c="pastehfzqc5.jpg" /><b
/><img s c="paste i_tti.jpg" /><b /><b /><img s c="pastepj5b9w.png" />
1301565175503 1342707643596 hodgkin's lymphoma:<b /><b />mixed cellula ity
<b /><b /><img s c="pastecads6m.jpg" />
<img s c="pastepnqybs.jpg" /><b
/><b /><img s c="paste i_tti.jpg" />
1301565200589 1342707643596 hodgkin's lymphoma:<b /><b />lymphocyte p edom
inant<b /><b /><img s c="pastecads6m.jpg" /> <img s c="pastesqmjct.jpg" /><b
><b /><img s c="paste i_tti.jpg" />
1301565219376 1342707643596 hodgkin's lymphoma:<b /><b />lymphocyte deplet
ed<b /><b /><img s c="pastecads6m.jpg" />
<img s c="pastel2a17e.jpg" />
1301607112121 1342707643552 P ima y TB<b /><b />P ocess?<b />Pathology?<b
/>Outcomes? Mycobacte ium infects nonimmune host (usu. child).<b />1' TB ca
uses hila nodes and Ghon focus (usu. in lowe lobes) &gt; togethe = Ghon Comp
lex<b /><b />Seve al outcomes:<b />Heals by fib osis<b />P og essive lung dz
(a/w HIV, malnut ition)<b />Seve e bacte emia<b />P ealle gic lymphatic o he
matogenous dissemination<b /><b /><img s c="150b  TB p ima y infxn.JPG" />
1301607156977 1342707643552 P ima y TB<b />(Heals by fib osis)
Immunity
and hype sensitivity<b />|<b />Tube culin (+)
1301607334288 1342707643552 P ima y TB<b />|<b />P og essive Lung dz

(Seen in HIV, malnut ition)<b />|<b />Death ( a e)
1301607373083 1342707643552 P ima y TB<b />(seve e bacte emia)
|<b />M
ilia y TB <b />|<b />Death
1301607447657 1342707643552 P ima y TB<b />P ealle gic lymphatic o hematog
enous dissemination
|<b />Do mant tube cle bacilli in seve al o gans<b />|
<b />Reactivation in adult life<b />|<b />Ext apulmona y TB o Reactivation o
f TB in lungs
1301607492574 1342707643552 Ext apulmona y TB locations?
CNS (pa enchymal
tube culoma o meningitis)<b />Ve teb al body (Pott's dz)<b />Lymphadenitis<b
/>Renal<b />GI
1301607581430 1342707643552 Seconda y TB
Due to einfxn of pa tially imm
une hype sensitized host (usu. adult) <b />o eactivation of do mant TB in the
lungs<b /><b />Causes Fib ocaseous cavita y lesion (usu. in uppe lobes)<b /
><img s c="150c  TB seconda y infxn.JPG" />
1301607626801 1342707643552 PPD test and TB PPD (+) w/ cu ent infxn, past e
xposu e, o BCG vaccinated<b ><b >PPD () if no infxn o ane gic (ste oids, maln
ut ition, immunocomp omise, sa coidosis)
1301607679581 1342707643552 Ghon complex
TB g anulomas (Ghon focus) w/ lo
ba and pe ihila lymph node involvement.<b />Reflects p ima y infxn o exposu
e.
1301607920738 1342707643552 Mycobacte ium tube culosis:<b />Causes what (&a
mp; s/sx)?<b />D ugs and M. tube culosis?<b />What does it look like mic o/g o
ss?
Causes TB<b />(Sx: feve , night sweats, weight loss, and hemoptysis)<b
/><b />Often esistant to multiple d ugs<b /><img s c="TB1.JPG" /><img s c="T
B2.JPG" /><img s c="TB3.JPG" />
1301607934875 1342707643552 Mycobacte ium kansasii pulmona y TBlike Sx
1301607966862 1342707643552 Mycobacte ium aviumint acellula e<b /><b />Ca
uses what?<b />D ugs?<b />P ophylaxis?<b >Cultu e?
Causes disseminated dz i
n AIDS<b /><b />Often esistant to multiple d ugs<b />(p ophylaxis w/ <b>a</b
>zith o<b>myc</b>in @ CD4 &lt;50)<b ><b >G ows best at 41 deg ees
1301626746167 1342707643552 Lep osy (Hansen's dz)<b /><b />Pathogen and it
s featu es?
Caused by Mycobacte ium lep ae, an acidfast bacillus that likes
cool tempe atu es<b />(thus infects skin and supe ficial ne ves), and cannot b
e g own in vit o.<b /><b />See common Sx below:<b /><img s c="151a  Lep osy.
JPG" />
1301626767761 1342707643552 Rese voi fo <i>Mycobacte ium lep ae</i> in the
USA
A madillos<b /><b /><img s c="pasteobelbq.jpg" />
1301626828061 1342707643552 Tx fo Lep osy, and toxicity
Longte m o al d
apsone<b />Toxicity is hemolysis (think G6PD def) and methemoglobinemia<b /><b
/>Alte native Tx's:<b />Rifampin<b />Combo of clofazimine and dapsone
1301627018428 1342707643552 2 Fo ms of Hansen's dz Lep omatous:<b /><b />
<img s c="Lep omatous Lep osy.JPG" /><b /><b />and Tube culoid<b /><b />Lep
omatous is wo se (failed cellmediated immunity; Th2 esponse);<b />tube culoid
is selflimited w/ a few skin plaques (la gely Th1 esponse)<b /><b />&quot;L
Ep omatous is LEthal&quot;
1301627099491 1342707643552 G() Cocci<b />|<b />Next test?<b />|<b />?
Maltose fe mente : Neisse ia meningitidis<b /><b />Maltose nonfe mente : Neis
se ia gono hoeae
1301627159160 1342707643552 G() &quot;Coccoid&quot; ods Haemophilus infl
uenzae<b />Pasteu ella  (animal bites)<b />B ucella  (b ucellosis)<b />Bo d
etella pe tusis
1301627222978 1342707643552 G() Rods<b />|<b />Lactose fe mente s<b />|<
b />? <u>Fast fe mente s</u>:<b />Klebsiella<b />E. coli<b />Ente obacte <b
/><b /><b /><u>Slow fe mente s</u>:<b />Cit obacte <b />Se atia<b />(oth
e s)
1301627286082 1342707643552 G() Rods<b />|<b />Lactose nonfe mente s<b
/>|<b />Next test?<b />|<b />?
<u>Oxidase (+)</u>:<b />Pseudomonas<b
/><b /><u>Oxidase ()</u>:<b />Shigella<b />Salmonella<b />P oteus<b /><b
/>
1301627410398 1342707643552 Lactosefe menting ente ic bacte ia<b /><b />C

ultu e?<b />Examples?<b />Enzymes?
G ow pink colonies on MacConkey's aga .<
b /><b />E. coli, Klebsiella, Ente obacte (fast fe mente s)<b />Cit obacte ,
Se atia (slow fe mente s)<b /><b />E. coli p oduces betagalactosidase, whic
h b eaks lactose into glucose + galactose.
1301627502408 1342707643552 PCN and G am() bugs
G() bugs a e esistant
to penicillin G but may be susceptible to PCN de ivatives such as ampicillin.<b
/><b />The G() oute memb ane inhibits ent y of PCNG and Vancomycin
1301627612575 1342707643552 Neisse ia (common to meningiditis and gono hea)
Both a e:<b />G am() cocci<b />Fe ment glucose and p oduce IgA p oteases.<b
/><img s c="Neisse ia gono hoeae.JPG" />
1301627697212 1342707643552 Neisse ia gono heae<b /><b />Diffe ences vs.
meningitidis?<b />Causes what?<b />T eatment? Unlike n. meningitidis<b />No
polysaccha ide capsule<b />No maltose fe mentation (&quot;Gonococci fe ment Gl
ucose&quot;)<b />No vaccine<b />Sexually t ansmitted<b /><b />Causes gono
hea, PID, septic a th itis, neonatal conjunctivitis<b /><b />T eat w/ ceft ia
xone
1301627790426 1342707643552 Neisse ia meningitidis<b />(Meningococci)<b />
<b />Capsule?<b />Fe ments?<b />Vaccine?<b />T ansmission?<b />Manifestatio
n?<b />T eatment?
Polysaccha ide capsule<b />Maltose fe mentation (&quot;
MeninGococci fe ments Maltose and Glucose&quot;)<b />Vaccine available (none fo
type B)<b />T ansmitted by espi ato y and o al sec etions<b /><b />Causes
meningococcemia and meningitis, Wate houseF ide ichsen synd ome<b />(hemo hag
e into the ad enal glands causing failu e)<b /><b />T eat w/ ceft iaxone o pe
nicillin G (IV)
1301627925683 1342707643552 Haemophilus influenzae <b />Causes...?<b />P o
duces what?<b />Mode of t ansmission? Ha<b>EMOP</b>hilus causes: <b>E</b>piglo
ttitis (&quot;che y ed&quot; in kids), <b>M</b>eningitis, <b>O</b>titis media,
and <b>P</b>neumonia. <b />(Most invasive dz caused by capsula type B)<b /><
b />P oduces IgA P otease<b /><b />Ae osol t ansmission
1301628169292 1342707643552 Tx fo Haemophilus influenzae meningitis
Ceft iaxone.<b /><b />Rifampin p ophylaxis in close contacts.
1301628266402 1342707643552 Cultu ing H. influenzae Chocalate aga w/ facto
s V (NAD) and X (hematin)<b /><b />&quot;When a child has 'flu'*, mom goes to
the five (<b>V</b>) and dime (<b>X</b>) sto e to buy some <b>chocolate</b>&quot;
<b />[* emembe that H. influenzae <u>does not</u> cause flu]
1301628337821 1342707643552 Haemophilus influenzae vaccine<b ><b >St uctu e?
<b >Give when? Contains type B capsula polysaccha ide conjugated to diphthe ia
toxoid o othe p otein to imp ove immune system ecognition of polysaccha ide
and p omote class switching.<b ><b >Given btw 2 and 18 months of age.
1301628385810 1342707643552 Legionella pneumophila<b /><b />Classification
?<b />Staining?<b />Cultu e? G am () od<b />G am stains poo ly &gt; silv
e stain<b />G ow on cha coal yeast ext act cultu e w/ i on and cysteine.<b />
<b />&quot;Think of a F ench <b>legionnai e</b> (soldie ) with his <b>silve </b
> helmet, sitting a ound a campfi e (<b>cha coal</b>) w/ his<b> i on</b> dagge
 he is no sissy (<b>cysteine</b>)&quot;<b />
1301628435418 1342707643552 T ansmission of Legionella pneumophilia Ae osol
t ansmission f om envi onmental wate souce habitat.<b />no pe sontope son t
ansmission.
1301628630428 1342707643552 Dz's caused by Legionella pneumophila<b />Tx?
Legionnai es' dz (seve e pneumonia)<b />Pontiac feve (mild flulike synd ome)<
b /><b />Tx: e yth omycin (atypical pneumonia)
1301652127666 1342707643596 multiple myeloma:<b /><b />consequences<b />
<img s c="pasteojiu5p.jpg" /><img s c="pasteepoo42.jpg" /><b />
1301652183114 1342707643596 multiple myeloma:<b /><b />compa e with walden
st om's mac oglobulinemia
Both have M spike.<b /><b />Waldenst öm’s macroglo
bulinemia → M spike = IgM (→ hyperviscosity symptoms);<br /><b>no lytic bone lesions
</b>. If asymptomatic, calle
monoclonal gammopathy.
1301652286667 1342707643596 asymptomatic monoclonal plasma cell expansion
monoclonal gammopathy of un
etermine
significance (MGUS)<br /><br />(no symptom
s of multiple myleoma)

1301652484979 1342707643596 <img src="pastept2m2t.jpg" /> Multiple myeloma
- classic & uot;punche
out& uot; lytic bone lesions
1301652726579 1342707643596 leukemias:<br /><br />
efine<br />conse uences
<img src="paste
lvk
.jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="paste93ek1x.jpg" />
1301652737436 1342707643596 <img src="pastecn3_wh.jpg" /> <img src="paste1
xm ru.jpg" />
1301652747201 1342707643596 <img src="pastegokk6h.jpg" /> <img src="pasteo
ntpov.jpg" />
1301652757547 1342707643596 <img src="pasteejfjlc.jpg" /> <img src="pastei
h ew1.jpg" />
1301652763988 1342707643596 <img src="pastehj4jbp.jpg" /> <img src="pastey
6otif.jpg" />
1301653228159 1342707643596 <img src="pastepema2c.jpg" /> <img src="pastek
fhox4.jpg" />
1301653247656 1342707643596 leukemia:<br /><br />age of onset of:<br />ALL<b
r />AML<br />CML<br />CLL
<img src="paste_etnne.jpg" />
1301653300964 1342707643596 leukemoi
reaction:<br /><br />
efine <img src
="pasteolea8k.jpg" /><br /><br />In a myelogenous leukemia (eg. CML), leukocyte
alkaline phosphatase score will be low (immature cells)
1301653383412 1342707643596 auer bo
ies (ro
s):<br /><br />relate
to what

isease commonly seen in AML (esp. think M3)
1301653495933 1342707643596 Tx: CML imatinib (inhibits tyrosine kinase) (ant
i-bcr-abl antibo
y)
1301653546401 1342707643596 chromosomal translocations:<br /><br /><img src=
"pasteiwt
ms.jpg" />
<img src="pasteou9mv2.jpg" />
1301653560263 1342707643596 chromosomal translocations:<br><br><img src="pas
tencoc1r.jpg" />
<img src="pasteou9mv2.jpg" />
1301653577680 1342707643596 chromosomal translocations:<br><br><img src="pas
teraz19b.jpg" />
<img src="pastempvt9p.jpg" />
1301653590735 1342707643596 chromosomal translocations:<br><br><img src="pas
teoerisv.jpg" />
<img src="pastempvt9p.jpg" />
1301653617445 1342707643596 chromosomal translocations:<br /><br /><img src=
"paste6w9hk9.jpg" />
<img src="pasteno6bzg.jpg" />
1301653631484 1342707643596 chromosomal translocations:<br><br><img src="pas
techtxs4.jpg" />
<img src="pasteno6bzg.jpg" />
1301653647973 1342707643596 chromosomal translocations:<br><br><img src="pas
tewxue2t.jpg" />
<img src="pastemacgib.jpg" />
1301653671485 1342707643596 chromosomal translocations:<br /><br /><img src=
"pastesbbecu.jpg" />
<img src="pastemacgib.jpg" />
1301653690386 1342707643596 chromosomal translocations:<br /><br /><img src=
"pasteovj8rg.jpg" />
<img src="pasteg4hnn .jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="paste
kbrhwf.jpg" />
1301653756370 1342707643596 chromosomal translocations:<br /><br /><img src=
"pastezwzbzv.jpg" />
<img src="pasteg4hnn .jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="paste
oxi0t.jpg" />
1301653782379 1342707643596 chromosomal translocations:<br /><br /><img src=
"pastelhj _.jpg" />
<img src="pastecpy1gj.jpg" />
1301653797266 1342707643596 chromosomal translocations:<br><br><img src="pas
terg8_a_.jpg" />
<img src="pastecpy1gj.jpg" />
1301653958020 1342707643596 acute leukemia:<br><br>
efine<br>associate
with
<img src="pastee8lzi5.jpg" />
1301654129707 1342707643596 types of AML:<br /><br />M0-M7 <img src="paster
unmfc.jpg" />
1301654208373 1342707643596 chronic leukemia:<br /><br />
efine<br />associa
te
with
<img src="pastezsr2ck.jpg" />
1301654355037 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br><br>MC leukemia in chil
ren ALL
1301654364654 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br><br>MC leukemia in a
ults in US
CLL
1301654385470 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st

atement?<br /><br />MC a
ult non-Ho
gkins lymphoma in US

iffuse large Bcell lymphoma
1301654400945 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br><br>ree
-sternberg cells
ho
gkins lymphoma
1301654416449 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br><br>AML associate
with
own syn
rome
M7 AML
1301654439864 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br><br>leukemia with more mature cells an
less than 5% blasts chronic
leukemia
1301654476714 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br /><br />particularly associate
with EBV
burketts an
ho
gkins
lymphomas
1301654519166 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br /><br />associate
with long term celiac
isease
mo
erately incre
ase
risk of T-cell lymphoma
1301654532876 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br><br>greater than 20% blasts in marrow
acute leukemia
1301654552652 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br><br>myelo
ysplastic syn
romes have a ten
ency to progress to ____
AML
1301654572170 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br /><br />myeloproliferative
isor
ers may progress to ____ AML
1301654638599 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br><br>viscous bloo
, HA, plethora, splenomegaly, an
low erythropoieti
n
polycythemia vera
1301654675988 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br /><br />lymphoma e uivalent of CLL small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL)
<br><br>same except that CLL has increase
peripheral bloo
lymphocytosis
1301654697482 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br /><br />numerous <b>basophils</b>, splenomegaly, an
negative for le
ukocyte alkaline phosphatase (LAP)
CML<br /><br />*vs leukemoi
reaction, w
hich has increase
LAP
1301654738731 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br><br>always positive for the phila
elphia chromosome (t9:22) CML
1301654792974 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br><br>always associate
with the BCR-ABL genes
CML
1301654816996 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br /><br />associate
with H. pylori MALT lymphoma
1301654840801 1342707643596 What hematology
isease matches the following st
atement?<br><br>soli
sheets of lymphoblasts in marrow ALL
1301655374097 1342707643596 chronic myeloproliferative
isor
ers: polycythem
ia vera<br><br /><img src="pasteh4xyay.jpg" /><br><br>other features? <img src
="pastencnizx.jpg" /><br><br />Abnormal clone of hematopoietic stem cells that a
re more sensitive to growth factors
1301655452670 1342707643596 chronic myeloproliferative
isor
ers: essential
thrombocytosis<br /><br /><img src="pasteh4xyay.jpg" /><br><br>other features?
<img src="pastezch964.jpg" /><br /><br />*similar to polycythemia vera, but spec
ific for megakaryocytes
1301655505635 1342707643596 chronic myeloproliferative
isor
ers: myelofibro
sis<br /><br /><img src="pasteh4xyay.jpg" /><br /><br />other features? <img src
="pastemslvel.jpg" /><br /><br />Fibrotic obliteration of bone marrow, <b>tear
r
op</b> cell<br>Leukoerythroblastosis<br /><br />& uot;Bone marrow is crying beca
use its fibrose
.& uot;
1301655551186 1342707643596 chronic myeloproliferative
isor
ers: CML<br /><
br /><img src="pasteh4xyay.jpg" /><br><br>other features?
<img src="pastel
nwfxy.jpg" /><br><br><i>bcr-abl </i>transformation lea
s to increase
cell
ivis
ion an
inhibition of apoptosis
1301655632820 1342707643596 heparin:<br /><br />MOA <img src="paste5t_owx.jp
g" />
1301655647110 1342707643596 heparin:<br /><br />clinical use<br />follow PT

or PTT<br />pregnancy safe?
<img src="pasteeu77 8.jpg" />
1301655681893 1342707643596 heparin:<br /><br />toxicity
blee
ing<br />
r
ug-
rug interactions<br /><b>thrombocytopenia </b>(heparin-in
uce
thrombocytope
nia, HIT)<b><br />osteoporosis</b>
1301655767765 1342707643596 heparin:<br /><br />benefit of enoxaparin<br />m
onitor activity of what<br />what is the
ownsi
e
<img src="pasteoltsou.jp
g" />
1301655797351 1342707643596 heparin:<br /><br />heparin-in
uce
thrombocytop
enia (HIT)<br /><br />pathogenesis<br />results in
<img src="paste
g3vu .jp
g" /><br><br>*Abs to heparin an
platelet factor IV
1301655997563 1342707643596 warfarin (couma
in):<br /><br />MOA<br />metabol
ize
by<br />follow PT or PTT <img src="paste2jylms.jpg" />
1301656008373 1342707643596 warfarin (couma
in):<br /><br />clinical use<br
/>pregnancy safe?<br />follow what labs <img src="paste15gbx0.jpg" />
1301656015597 1342707643596 warfarin (couma
in):<br /><br />toxicity
blee
ing<br />
rug-
rug interactions<br /><b>teratogenic</b><br /><b>skin/tissue
necrosis </b>(
ue to microvasculature hypercoagulability b/c of protein C
eple
tion)<b><br /></b>
1301656351582 1342707643596 thrombolytics:<br /><br />types<br />MOA
Streptokinase, urokinase, tPA (alteplase), APSAC (anistreplase)<br /><br>Directl
y or in
irectly ai
conversion of plasminogen to plasmin, which cleaves thrombin
<br />an
fibrin clots<br /><br /><img src="pastecj40wt.jpg" />
1301656367166 1342707643596 thrombolytics:<br /><br />clinical use early MI
, early ischemic stroke
1301656480325 1342707643596 thrombolytics:<br /><br />toxicity<br />contrain
Blee
ing, can cause reperfusion arrhythmia<br /><br />Contrain
i

ications
cate
in patients with active blee
ing, history of intracranial blee
ing, recent
surgery, known blee
ing
iatheses, or severe hypertension.<br />
1301656495862 1342707643596 thrombolytics:<br><br><img src="pastetzhpke.jpg"
/>
<img src="pastecj40wt.jpg" />
1301656742848 1342707643596 aspirin (ASA):<br /><br />MOA<br />effects on PT
, PTT, BT
<img src="paste5h8vs4.jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="paste730cys.j
pg" />
1301656764160 1342707643596 aspirin (ASA):<br /><br />clinical use 4 As<br
/><br />antipyretic<br />analgesic<br />anti-inflammatory<br />antiplatelet
ru
g
1301656806289 1342707643596 Rx toxicities:<br /><br /><b>gastric ulceration<
br />blee
ing</b><br />hyperventilation<br />reyes syn
rome (hepatic encephalop
athy)<br />tinnitus (CN VIII) aspirin (ASA)
1301656835708 1342707643596 clopi
ogrel, ticlopi
ine:<br /><br />MOA
<img src="pastecrn21r.jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="pastelrrffu.jpg" />
1301656852956 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br />acute coronary syn
rom
e<br />coronary stenting<br />
ecrease inci
ence or recurrence of thrombotic str
oke
clopi
ogrel<br />ticlopi
ine
1301656871562 1342707643596 patient on ticlopi
ine shoul
be monitore
for?
WBC count because SE of ticlopi
ine is neutropenia
1301656919406 1342707643596 abciximab:<br /><br />MOA
<img src="paste

4i l7.jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="pasteln gnb.jpg" />
1301656937617 1342707643596 abciximab, tirofiban, eptifibati
e:<br /><br />c
linical use
acute coronary syn
romes (eg. angina)<br /><br /><b>percutaneous
transluminal coronary angioplasty</b><br /><img src="pastefpyj6o.jpg" />
1301656948968 1342707643596 abciximab<br /><br />toxicity blee
ing<br />th
rombocytopenia
1301657021651 1342707643596 von willebran
s factor:<br /><br />linke
by wh
at bon
s<br />synthesize
by what cells<br />fxns -
eficiency effects <img src
="pasteywjh8z.jpg" />
1301658753128 1342707643596 methotrexate:<br /><br />type<br />MOA antimeta
bolites (S-phase specific)<br /><br /><img src="pastepgt8im.jpg" /><img src="pas
teeo48vw.jpg" /><br />(~trimethoprim)<br /><br /><img src="pasteuggk3r.jpg" />
1301658947214 1342707643596 methotrexate:<br /><br />clinical use cancers:

<span style="color:#0000ff;"> leukemia, lymphoma</span>, <span style="color:#ff0
000;">choriocarcinoma, sarcoma</span><br />non-neoplastic: <span style="color:#5
5ff00;">abortion (if baby
oesnt abort, think neural tube
efect), ectopic preg
nancy</span>, <span style="color:#ffaa00;">rheumatoi
arthritis, psoriasis, wege
ners granulomatosis</span>
1301659002351 1342707643596 methotrexate:<br /><br />toxicity
myelosup
pression [reversible with leucovorin (folinic aci
)]<br />macrovesicular fatty c
hange in liver<br />mucositis<br />teratogenic<br />hypersensitivity pneumonitis
(& uot;methotrexate lung& uot;)
1301659080177 1342707643596 5-fluorouracil (5-FU):<br /><br />type<br />MOA
antimetabolites (S-phase specific)<br /><br /><img src="paste3wylwm.jpg" /><img
src="paste_sbgw0.jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="pasteuggk3r.jpg" />
1301659149734 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br />colon cancer<br />soli

tumors<br />basal cell carcinoma (topical)<br />actinic keratosis (topical)<br
/>
5-fluorouracil (5-FU)
1301659164264 1342707643596 Rx toxicities:<br><br />5-fluorouracil (5-FU)
myelosuppression (NOT reversible with leucovorin)<br />photosensitivity
1301659276151 1342707643596 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP):<br /><br />type<br />MO
A<br />activate
by
antimetabolites (S-phase specific)<br /><br /><img src="
pastepyu og.jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="pasteuggk3r.jpg" />
1301659290226 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br />leukemia (not CLL)<br
/>lymphoma (not Ho
gkins)
6-mercaptopurine (6-MP)
1301659310559 1342707643596 Rx toxicities:<br /><br />6-mercaptopurine (6-MP
)
bone marrow <br />GI (ab
ominal pain)<br />liver (jaun
ice)<br />
1301680829442 1342707643596 cytarabine (ara-C):<br /><br />type/phase<br />M
OA
antimetabolites (S-phase specific)<br /><br /><img src="paste7lgaj9.jpg"
/>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />~anti-virals that inhibit DNA
synthesis (foscarnet, acyclovir)<br /><br /><img src="paste wscpk.jpg" />
1301680875280 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br />AML<br />ALL<br /><b>h
igh-gra
e non-ho
gkins lymphoma</b>
cytarabine (ara-C)
1301680949573 1342707643596 Rx toxicities:<br /><br />leukopenia<br />thromb
ocytopenia<br />megaloblastic anemia
cytarabine (ara-C)
1301681015099 1342707643596 6-thioguanine (6-TG):<br /><br />type<br />MOA<b
r />
antimetabolites (S-phase specific)<br /><br /><img src="pastefert
c.jpg"
/><br />(same as 6-MP)<br /><br /><img src="pasteuggk3r.jpg" /><br /><br />
1301681049153 1342707643596 6-thioguanine (6-TG):<br /><br />clinical use
ALL
1301681057862 1342707643596 6-thioguanine (6-TG):<br /><br />toxicity
bone marrow
epression<br />liver<br /><br />can be given with allopurinol (in c
ontrast to 6-MP)
1301681231560 1342707643596
actinomycin (actinomycin D):<br /><br />type<br
/>MOA antitumor antibiotics<br /><br />intercalates in DNA<br /><br /><img src
="paste
oob
a.jpg" />
1301681243424 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br />
actinomycin (actinomy
cin D) wilms tumor<br />ewings sarcoma<br />rhab
omyosarcoma<br /><br /><br /
>use
for chil
hoo
tumors (& uot;chil
ren ACT out& uot;)
1301681256289 1342707643596
actinomycin (actinomycin D):<br /><br />toxicit
y
myelosuppression
1301681332987 1342707643596
oxorubicin (a
riamycin),
aunorubicin:<br /><br
/>type<br />MOA
antitumor antibiotics<br /><br /><img src="paste1evf2r.j
pg" /><br /><br /><img src="pasteg
gb3v.jpg" />
1301681345372 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br />ho
gkins lymphomas<br
/>myelomas<br />sarcomas<br />soli
tumors (breast, ovary, lung)

oxorubi
cin (a
riamycin)<br />
aunorubicin
1301681357285 1342707643596 Rx toxicities:<br /><br />
oxorubicin (a
riamyci
n)<br />
aunorubicin
myelosuppression<br /><b>car
iotoxicity</b><br /><b>alop
ecia</b><br /><br />toxic to tissues with extravasation
1301681431378 1342707643596 bleomycin:<br /><br />type/phase<br />MOA
antitumor antibiotics<br /><br /><img src="pasteictyzg.jpg" /><br />(~
oxorubici
n)<br /><br /><img src="pasteuggk3r.jpg" />

1301681443075 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br />ho
gkins lymphoma<b><
br /></b>testicular cancer
bleomycin
1301681457925 1342707643596 Rx toxicities:<br /><br />minimal myelosuppressi
on<br /><b>pulmonary fibrosis</b><br /><b>skin changes</b>
bleomycin
1301681512075 1342707643596 etoposi
e (VP-16), teniposi
e:<br /><br />type/p
hase<br />MOA antitumor antibiotics<br /><br /><img src="pastei6vfwu.jpg" /><b
r /><br /><img src="pasteuggk3r.jpg" />
1301681569330 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br /><b>small cell carcinom
a of lung an
prostate<br /></b>testicular carcinoma
eto<u>posi
e</u> (VP-16)
<br />teni<u>posi
e</u>
1301681583371 1342707643596 Rx toxicities:<br /><br />myelosuppression<br />
<b>GI irritation</b><br /><b>alopecia</b>
etoposi
e (VP-16)<br />teniposi

e
1301681662359 1342707643596 cyclophosphami
e, ifosfami
e:<br><br>type<br>MOA
alkylating agents<br><br><img src="pasteb1gylm.jpg" /><br><br><img src="pastei
1
xl7.jpg" />
1301681700433 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br />non-ho
gkins lymphoma
<br /><b>breast an
ovarian carcinomas</b><br />immunosuppressant<br />polyarthr
itis no
osa<br />wegeners granulomatosis
cyclophos<u>phami
e</u><br />ifo
s<u>fami
e</u>
1301681872581 1342707643596 Rx toxicities:<br /><br />myelosuppression<br />
<b>hemorrhagic cystitis (can be prevente
with mesna)</b><br />increase risk for
bla

er cancer cyclophos<u>phami
e</u><br />ifos<u>fami
e</u>
1301682049905 1342707643596 nitrosoureas:<br /><br />type<br />types<br />MO
A
alkylating agent<br /><br />(car<u>mustine</u>, lo<u>mustine</u>, se<u>m
ustine</u>, streptozocin)<br />& uot;putting <b>nitro</b> into <u>mustan</u>g& u
ot;<br /><br /><img src="pastejlcg6y.jpg" /><br />& uot;think of brain& uot;<br
/><br /><img src="pastei
1xl7.jpg" />
1301682066675 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br />brain tumors (inclu
in
g glioblastoma multiforme)
nitrosoureas<br /><br />& uot;think of brain& uo
t;
1301682081480 1342707643596 nitrosoureas:<br /><br />toxicity
CNS toxi
city (
izziness, ataxia)<br /><br />& uot;think of brain& uot;
1301682148999 1342707643596 busulfan:<br /><br />type<br />MOA
alkylati
ng agent<br /><br /><img src="pasteefaj
x.jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="pastei
1x
l7.jpg" />
1301682168928 1342707643596 busulfan:<br /><br />clinical use
CML<br /
><br />also use
to ablate patients bone marrow before bone marrow transplantat
ion<br />
1301682341672 1342707643596 Rx toxicities:<br /><b><br />pulmonary fibrosis<
/b> (also seen in amio
arone)<br /><b>hyperpigmentation</b>
busulfan
1301682402608 1342707643596 vincristine, vinblastine:<br /><br /><span style
="color:#55ff00;">type</span><br />MOA<br />what cell cycle phase
oes it work i
n
<span style="color:#55ff00;">microtubule inhibitor</span><br /><br />M-p
hase<br /><br />alkaloi
s that bin
to tubulin an
<b>block polymerization of mi
crotubule</b> so that mitotic spin
le cannot form<br />*cant buil
up - contras
t with paclitaxel, other taxols<br /><br />& uot;microtubules are the VINes of y
our cells& uot;<br /><br /><img src="paste8i hkf.jpg" /><br /><br />
1301682458636 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br><br>ho
gkins lymphoma<br />wi
lms tumor<br />choriocarcinoma<br />kaposis sarcoma vincristine<br />vinblas
tine
1301682484118 1342707643596 vincristine, vinblastine:<br /><br />toxicity
<u>vincristine</u><br />neurotoxicity (areflexia, peripheral neuritis)<br />para
lytic ileus<br /><br /><u>vinblastine</u><br /><u>b</u>one marrow suppression
1301682574803 1342707643596 paclitaxel, other taxols:<br /><br />type<br />M
OA
microtubule inhibitors<br /><br /><img src="pasteezoogs.jpg" /><br />(ca
nt break
own - contrast with vincristine/vinblastine)<br /><br /><img src="pas
teys4kwg.jpg" />
1301682585609 1342707643596 paclitaxel, other taxols:<br /><br />clinical us
e
ovarian an
breast carcinomas

1301682595455 1342707643596 paclitaxel, other taxols:<br /><br />toxicity
myelosuppression an
hypersensitivity
1301682634074 1342707643596 cisplatin, carboplatin:<br /><br />type<br />MOA
alkylating agent<br /><br /><img src="pasteblx cs.jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="p
astevar2lh.jpg" />
1301682653502 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br />testicular, bla

er, o
vary, lung carcinomas cisplatin<br />carboplatin
1301682669353 1342707643596 Rx toxicities:<br /><br />nephrotoxicity<br />ac
oustic nerve
amage (ototoxic) cis<u>platin</u><br />carbo<u>platin</u>
1301682696620 1342707643596 hy
roxyurea:<br /><br />MOA
<img src="pasteh
bmcs1.jpg" /><br><br>*increases HbF in sickle cell
isease
1301682708353 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br />Melanoma<br />CML<br /
><b>sickle cell
isease (increase HbF)</b>
hy
roxyurea
1301682717729 1342707643596 hy
roxyurea:<br /><br />toxicity
Bone mar
row suppression<br />GI upset
1301682741144 1342707643596 pre
nisone:<br /><br />MOA
May trigger apop
tosis. <br />May even work on non
ivi
ing cells.
1301682764311 1342707643596 if use steroi
s for more than 3 months, what can
be a

e
to prevent osteoporosis
prophylactic bisphosphonate
1301682781784 1342707643596 pre
nisone:<br /><br />clinical use
CLL<br /
>Ho
gkins lymphomas (part of the MOPP regimen) <br />immunosuppressant use
in
autoimmune
iseases
1301682842719 1342707643596 Rx toxicities:<br><br>Cushing-like symptoms<br /
>immunosuppression<br />cataracts<br />acne<br />osteoporosis<br />hypertension<
br />peptic ulcers<br />hyperglycemia<br />psychosis<br />insomnia
pre
niso
ne
1301682864706 1342707643596 tamoxifen, raloxifene:<br /><br />MOA SERMs receptor <u>antagonists in breast</u><b> </b>an
<u>agonists in bone</u>.<br><br
/>Block the bin
ing of estrogen to estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer cel
ls<br><br>*note: only tamoxifen is an <u>agonist in en
ometrium</u>
1301682978899 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br />Breast cancer (only if
estrogen receptor positive)<br />prevent breast cancer in high-risk patients<br
/>prevent osteoporosis tamoxifen<br />raloxifene
1301682993432 1342707643596 tamoxifen, raloxifene:<br /><br />toxicity
<img src="pastevinuls.jpg" />
1301683036034 1342707643596 trastuzumab (herceptin)<br><br>MOA
Monoclon
al antibo
y against HER-2 (erb-B2 )<br />Helps kill breast cancer cells that ove
rexpress HER-2, possibly through antibo
y-
epen
ent cytotoxicity.
1301683048123 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br />Metastatic breast canc
er
trastuzumab (herceptin)
1301683066848 1342707643596 trastuzumab (herceptin):<br /><br />toxicity
Car
iotoxicity (~
oxorubicin,
aunorubicin)
1301683085511 1342707643596 imatinib (Gleecec):<br /><br />MOA
Phila
el
phia chromosome bcr-abl tyrosine kinase inhibitor
1301683160491 1342707643596 Rx use
to Tx:<br /><br /><b>CML</b><br />GI str
omal tumors
imatinib (Gleecec)
1301683169442 1342707643596 imatinib (Gleecec):<br /><br />toxicity flui
re
tention
1301683196712 1342707643596
rugs that interfere with microtubules taxols<b
r />vincristine, vinblastine<br />ben
azoles<br />griseofulvin<br />cholchicine
1301683458280 1342707643596 Tx: ITP steroi
s<br>IV Ig<br>splenectomy<br />
1301683465066 1342707643596 Tx: TTP plasmaphoresis
1301683494423 1342707643596 Test for von willebran
s
isease
ristocet
in test<br />-&gt; platelets aggregate in presence of ristocetin<br />-&gt; acti
vates GpIB-IX receptors on platelets an
makes them available for vWF bin
ing (w
hen vWF is
ecrease
, there is poor platelet aggregation)
1301683601899 1342707643596 Key
istinctions btwn TTP an
HUS
Consi
er
TTP an
HUS to be on the same spectrum.<br><br>TTP usually in a
ults, with <b>n
euro </b>sx<br>HUS usually in chil
ren, with <b>renal</b> sx (an
prece
ing bloo

y
iarrheal infxn)

1301713145933 1342707643552 Pseu
omonas aeruginosa<br />Diseases? Associat
e
w/ woun
an
burn infxn<br /><br />& uot;<b>PSEUDDO</b>& uot;<br /><b>P</b>ne
umonia (esp. in CF)<br /><b>S</b>epsis (black lesions on skin)<br /><b>E</b>xter
al otitis (swimmers ear; think
iabetics)<br /><b>U</b>TI<br /><b>D</b>rug use<
br /><b>D</b>iabetic <b>O</b>steomyelitis<br />(+ hot tub folliculitis)<br /><br
/>*Think Pseu
omonas in burn victims
1301713288218 1342707643552 Pseu
omonas aeruginosa<br><br />Classification/i

enification?<br>Source?
AERobic (AERuginosa)<br />G(-) ro
<br />Non-lact
ose fermenting<br />Oxi
ase (+)<br /><br />Pro
uces <b>pyocyanin</b> (blue-green
pigment)<br /><br />Has a grapelike o
or<br /><br />Comes from water source
1301713350997 1342707643552 Pseu
omonas aeruginosa toxins En
otoxin (fever
, shock)<br /><br />Exotoxin A (inactivates EF-2)
1301713384448 1342707643552 Pseu
omonas aeruginosa<br />Stan
ar
tx?
Aminoglycosi
e + exten
e
-spectrum PCN (e.g., piperacillin, ticarcillin)
1301713430672 1342707643552 Members of Enterobacteriacea
Diverse family i
nclu
ing:<br />E. coli<br />Salmonella<br />Shigella<br />Klebsiella<br />Entero
bacter<br />Serratia<br />Proteus
1301713566371 1342707643552 Commonalities among Enterobacteriaceae, an
spec
ific antigens All species have somatic (O) Ag (which is the polysacchari
e of
en
otoxin).<br><br>The capsular (K) Ag is relate
to the virulence of the bug.<b
r><br>The flagellar (H) Ag is foun
in motile species.<br><br>All ferment glucos
e an
are oxi
ase (-)<br><br>"<b>COFFEe</b>"<br><b>C</b>apsular (K)<br><b>O</b>
Ag (en
-O-toxin)<br><b>F</b>lagellar Ag (H)<br><b>F</b>erment glucose<br><b>E</b
>nterobacteriaceae
1301713640922 1342707643552 Klebsiella causes...?<br />Relate
to what?
Lobar pneumonia in alcoholics an

iabetics when aspirate
<br />(re
currant jel
ly sputum)<br /><br />Mucoi
colonies (polysacchari
e capsule)<br /><br />Also a
cause of nosocomial UTIs<br /><br />relates to the & uot;<b>4 As</b>& uot;:<br
/><b>A</b>spiration pneumonia<br /><b>A</b>bscess in lungs an
liver<br /><b>A<
/b>lcoholics<br />
i-<b>A</b>-betics
1301713732486 1342707643552 Salmonella typhi<br /><br />Causes what?<br />S/
sx?<br />Other? Causes typhoi
fever; foun
only in humans.<br /><br />Rose spot
s on ab
omen, fever, HA,
iarrhea.<br /><br />Can remain in gallbla

er chronica
lly (carrier state: Typhoi
Mary).
1301714024695 1342707643552 Salmonella vs. Shigella<br /><br />Both?<br />Sa
lmonella only?<br />Shigella only?
Both:<br />Lactose non-fermenters<br />I
nva
e the intestinal mucosa an
can cause bloo
y
iarrhea<br /><br /><i>Salmonel
la</i>:<br />Has flagella, an
can sprea
hematogenously (& uot;Salmon swim& uot
;),<br />Has animal reservoir,<br />Pro
uces H2S,<br />ABX may prolong symptoms.
<br /><br /><i>Shigella</i>:<br />Is more virulent (10 organisms infective vs. S
almonella: 100,000)<br />Dont have flagella, but can propel themselves while in
si
e cells by actin polymerization<br />ABX shorten illness<br />Sprea
by 4 Fs
: Foo
, Fingers, Feces, an
Flies.
1301714061132 1342707643552 Salmonellosis: treatment? host inflammatory resp
onse? Sx may be prolonge
w/ ABX treatments<br /><br />There is typically a mo
nocytic response<br />
1301714113144 1342707643552 Yersinia enterocolitica:<br />Transmission?<br /
>Outbreaks?<br />Sx similar to...?
Usually transmitte
from pet feces (e.g.
, puppies),<br />contaminate
milk, or pork.<br />(& uot;Puppy poop, poor pastur
ization, porky pig& uot;)<br /><br />Outbreaks of <b>
iarrhea</b> are common in

ay-care centers.<br /><br />Causes <b>mesenteric a
enitis</b> that can mimic Cr
ohns or appen
icitis.
1301714148889 1342707643552 Helicobacter pylori<br />Causes...?<br />Is a ri
sk factor for...?
Causes:<br />Gastritis an
up to 90% of
uo
enal ulcers<
br /><br />Risk factor for:<br />peptic ulcer, gastric a
enocarcinoma, an
lymph
oma
1301714254468 1342707643552 Helicobacter pylori<br />Classification/i
entifi
cation G(-) Ro
.<br />Urease (+) --&gt; creates alkaline environment. Urease br
eath test.<br /><img src="154a - H pylori.JPG" />
1301714355600 1342707643552 Helicobacter pylori <br />Tx? Triple-therapy:<

br /><br />1) PPI<br />2) clarithromycin<br />3) amoxicillin or metrani
azole
1301714465561 1342707643552 Spirochetes<br /><br />Description?<br />Organis
ms?<br />Visualization? Spiral-shape
w/ axial filaments.<br /><img src="154b Spirochetes.JPG" /><br />Inclu
e:<br />Borellia (big size)<br />Leptospira<br />
Treponema<br />(& uot;BLT. B is Big& uot;)<br /><br />Only Borrelia can be vizua
lize
w/ aniline
yes (Wrights or Giemsa).<br />Treponema is vizualize
w/
ark
-fiel
microscopy.
1301714617086 1342707643552 Leptospira interrogans:<br />What
oes it look l
ike? Where is it foun
?<br />What
oes it cause?
Question mark-shape
bac
teria foun
in water contaminate
w/ animal (eg. rat) urine.<br /><img src="154c
- Leptospira.JPG" /><br />Causes: <br />1) <b>Leptospirosis</b> - (flu-like Sx,
fever, jaun
ice, photophobia w/ conjunctivitis. Most prevalent among <b>surfers
</b> an
in in <b>tropics</b>)<br /><br />2) <b>Weils
z</b> (ictohemorrhagic l
eptospirosis) - <b>severe form w/ jaun
ice an
azotemia</b> from liver an
ki
ne
y
ysfxn; fever, hemorrhage, an
anemia<br /><br /><img src="pasteml3fzg.jpg" />
<br />Weils
z
1301714765190 1342707643552 Yaws<br /><br />Bug?<br />Sx?<br />Location?<br
/>Test? Treponema pertenue<br />(& uot;Ima <b>perten yawl </b>aint hangin ro
un
with them <b>limb-
eforme
</b>folks from the <b>tropics</b>.& uot;<br /><br
/>Causes yaws; Infxn of skin, bone, an
joints --&gt; healing w/ keloi
s --&gt;
severe <b>limb
eformities</b><br /><br />Dz of the <b>tropics</b>. <br /><br /
>Not an STD, but VDRL positive.
1301714804085 1342707643552 Syphilis<br />Cause?<br />Test?<br />Tx?
Cause
by spirochete Treponema palli
um<br /><br />Rapi
Plasma Reagin (RPR).<br
/><br />Tx w/ PCN G<br />(if allergic an
in pregnancy,
esensitize then still
treat w/ PCN)
1301714824590 1342707643552 Primary syphilis
Presents w/ painless cha
ncre (localize

z)<br /><br />Many treponemes present in chancre.<br /><img src
="Primary syphilis.JPG" />
1301714943918 1342707643552 Secon
ary syphilis
Disseminate

z w/ const
itutional Sxs, macupapular rash (palms an
soles), con
ylomata lata.<br /><br /
>Many treponemes are present in con
ylomata lata.<br /><br />& uot;<b>S</b>econ

ary <b>Sy</b>philis = <b>Sy</b>stemic& uot;
1301715325292 1342707643552 Tertiary syphilis<br /><br />Manifestations?<br
/>Clinical presentation?<br />Test?
Gummas (chronic granulomas),<br />Aortit
is / aneurysm above
iaphragm (vasa vasorum
estruction),<br />Neurosyphilis (ta
bes
orsalis),<br />Argyll Robertson pupil (accomo
ate but
o not react to light
)<br /><br />Broa
-base
axilla (impaire
proprioception), positive Romberg (los
e balance w/ eyes close
)<br />Charcot joints, stroke w/o HTN<br /><br />Screen
with VDRL<br />Confirm with FTA-ABS
1301716003433 1342707643552 Congenital syphilis phenotype CN VIII
eafness
<br /><br /><br />Saber shins (outwar
curve like a saber)<br /><img src="Saber
shin.JPG" /><img src="Saber.jpg" /><br /><br />Sa

le nose<br /><img src="pasteo
wvzle.jpg" /><br /><br /><br />Hutchinsons teeth (smaller an
more wi
ely space

), mulberry molars<br /><img src="Hutchinsons teeth.JPG" />
1301716054025 1342707643552 Argyll Robertson Pupil Constricts w/ accomo
ati
on but is not reactive to light.<br /><br />Associate
w/ tertiary syphilus.<br
/><br />& uot;Prostitutes Pupil& uot; - accomo
ates but
oes not react.
1301716265570 1342707643552 VDRL vs. FTA-ABS
FTA-ABS is specific for
treponemes, turns (+) earlies in
z, an
remains (+) longest.<br /><br />VDRL an

FTA-ABS: (+) result means active infxn<br />Just (+) VDRL: Probably a false po
sitive<br />Just (+) FTA: Successfully treate
<br /><br />& uot;<b>FTA-ABS</b> =
<b>F</b>in
<b>T</b>he <b>A</b>b <b>ABS</b>olutely& uot;:<br />1.) Most specifi
c<br />2.) Earliest (+)<br />3.) Remains (+) longest
1301723834981 1342707643552 VDRL False Positives
VDRL
etects nonspecifc
Ab that reacts w/ beef car
iolipin.<br /><br />Use
for Dx of syphilis, but many
biologic false positivies.<br /><br />Sources of false positives --&gt; & uot;V
DRL& uot;<br /><b>V</b>iruses (mono, hepatitis)<br /><b>D</b>rugs<br /><b>R</b>h
eumatic fever<br /><b>L</b>upus an
<b>L</b>eprosy<br />
1301723963597 1342707643552 List of zoonotic bacteria
& uot;<b>B</b>ig

<b>B</b>a
<b>B</b>ugs <b>F</b>rom <b>Y</b>our <b>P</b>et name
<b>Ella</b>& uo
t;<br /><b>B</b>artonella henselae<br /><b>B</b>orrelia burg
orferi<br /><b>B</b
>rucella spp.<br /><b>F</b>rancisella tularensis<br /><b>Y</b>ersinia pestis<br
/><b>P</b>asteur<b>ella</b> multoci
a
1301724004327 1342707643552 Bartonella henselae<br />Disease?<br />Transmiss
ion?
Causes: cat scratch fever, bacillary angiomatosis in HIV<br /><br />Tran
smission: cat scratch
1301724060300 1342707643552 Borrelia burg
orferi<br />Disease?<br />Transmis
sion? Causes: Lyme
isease<br /><br />Transmission: Tick bite; <i>Ixo
es</i> t
icks that live on
eer an
mice
1301724124696 1342707643552 Brucella spp.<br />Disease?<br />Transmission?
Causes: Brucellosis / un
ulant fever<br /><br />Transmission: Dairy pro
ucts, co
ntact w/ animals<br /><br />& uot;<b>Unpasteurize
</b>
airy or contact with <b>
Ungulates</b> gives you <b>Un
ulant</b> fever.& uot;
1301724169293 1342707643552 Francisella tularensis<br />Disease?<br />Transm
ission? Causes: Tularemia<br /><br />Transmission: Tick bite; rabbits,
eer fly
1301724215770 1342707643552 Yersinia pestis<br />Causes what?<br />Transmiss
ion?<br />Lab ID?
Causes: Plague<br /><br />Transmission: Flea bite; ro
en
ts (esp. prairie
ogs)<br /><br />Coagulase (+); & uot;safety pin& uot; appearan
ce on gram stain.
1301724269184 1342707643552 Pasteurella multoci
a<br />Disease?<br />Transmi
ssion? Causes: Cellulitis, osteomyelitis<br /><br />Transmission: Animal bite;
cats,
ogs
1301724497462 1342707643552 Gar
nerella vaginalis<br /><br />Bugs appearanc
e?<br />Causes what?<br />Cause
by?<br />Tx? Pleomorphic, gram-variable ro
.<
br /><br />Causes vaginosis (off-white/gray vaginal
ischarge w/ <b>fishy</b> sm
ell; nonpainful)<br /><i>Mobiluncus</i> (an anaerobe) is also involve
.<br /><br
/>Vaginosis is associate
w/ sexual activity, but is not an STD.<br />Bacterial
vaginosis is characterize
by overgrowth of certain bacteria in vagina.<br />Cl
ue cells seen (epithelial s uames covere
w/ bacteria).<br /><br />Tx: metroni
a
zole
1301724596910 1342707643552 Clue cells
Seen in bacterial vaginosis<br /
><br />Vaginal epithelial cells covere
w/ bacteria<br /><img src="Bacterial vag
inosis Clue cell.JPG" />
1301724723511 1342707643552 Rickettsiae<br />Metabolism?<br />Disease?<br />
Tx?
Obligate intracellular organisms<br />Nee
CoA an
NAD+<br /><br />All e
xcept Coxiella are transmitte
by an arthropo
vector an
cause HA, fever, an
r
ash.<br />Coxiella is an atypical rickettsia b/c it is transmitte
by aerosol an

causes pneumonia.<br /><br />Tx for most rickettsial infxns: TCN (
oxycycline)
1301724751012 1342707643552 Classic tria
for rickettsial infxns
HA, feve
r, rash (vasculitis)
1301724818544 1342707643552 Rickettsia rickettsii<br />Disease?<br />Transmi
ssion?<br />Tx? Causes Rocky Mountain spotte
fever<br /><br />Transmission via

ermacentor tick<br /><br />Tx: TCN (
oxycycline)
1301724844659 1342707643552 Ricketsia typhus<br />
z?<br />transmission?<br
/>Tx? Causes en
emic typhus<br /><br />Transmission via fleas on rats<br /><br
/>Tx: TCN (
oxycycline)
1301724884874 1342707643552 Rickettsia prowazekii<br />Dz?<br />Transmission
?<br />Tx?
Causes epi
emic typhus<br /><br />Transmission via human bo
y lo
use<br /><br />Tx: TCN (
oxycycline)<br /><br /><img src="pasteou9a_
.jpg" /><br
/><img src="pastermyar
.jpg" />
1301724989695 1342707643552 Ehrlichia<br />Dz?<br>Path?<br />Transmission?<b
r />Tx? Causes Ehrlichiosis (malaise, immune
ysregulation)<br /><br>Granulocyte
s with berry cluster organisms<br><br />Transmission via tick<br /><br />Tx: TCN
(
oxycycline)
1301725217828 1342707643552 Coxiella burnetti<br />Dz?<br />Transmission?<br
/>Tx? Causes Q fever<br />& uot;Q fever is Queer b/c it has <b>no rash, no vec
tor, an
has negative Weil-felix</b>,<br />its causative organism can survive ou
tsi
e for a long time, <br />an

oes not have Rickettsia as its genus name.& uo
t;<br /><br />Transmission via inhale
aerosols (spores form tick feces an
catt

le placenta)<br /><br />Tx: TCN (
oxycycline)
1301725289526 1342707643552 Rickettsial rash vs. Typhus rash
Ricketts
ial rash starts on han
s an
feet;<br>Typhus rash starts centrally an
sprea
s o
ut:<br><br>& uot;<b>R</b>ickettisa on the w<b>R</b>ists,<br><b>T</b>yphus on the
<b>T</b>runk.& uot;
1301725418352 1342707643552 Rocky Mountain Spotte
Fever:<br />Cause
by...?
<br />Sx?<br />Geographic region?
Cause
by Rickettsia rickettsii<br /><br
/>Tria
: <b>rash on palms an
soles</b> (migrating to wrists, ankles, then trun
k), <b>HA</b>, <b>fever</b>.<br /><br />En
emic to East Coast (in spite of its n
ame).<br /><br /><img src="pastek3n1yt.jpg" />
1301725492079 1342707643552 Palm an
sole rash
Seen in:<br /><b>C</b>ox
sackievirus <b>A</b> infxn (han
, foot, an
mouth
z)<br /><b>R</b>ocky Mountain
spotte
fever<br /><b>S</b>yphilis<br />(& uot;You
rive <b>CARS</b> using your
palms an
soles& uot;)<br />
1301725540519 1342707643552 Weil-Felix Reaction
Pts with rickettsial inf
xn have antibo
ies against <i>Rickettsia</i>. When pt serum is mixe
w/ <i>Prote
us</i> O antigen, antirickettsial antibo
ies cross-react an
agglutinate. Latex
agglutination assay commonly use
to
x rickettsial
z.<br /><br />Weil-Felix is
negative in <i>Coxiella </i>infxn (Q fever)<br />usually positive for typhus an

Rocky Mountain spotte
fever.
1301725664103 1342707643552 Chlamy
iae:<br /><br />Metabolism?<br />Types of
infxns (generally)?<br />Uni ue?<br />Replication?
Cannot make their own AT
P --&gt; obligate intracellular organisms<br /><br />Cause mucosal infxns<br /><
br />Chlamy
ial cell wall is unusual in that it lacks muramic aci
<br /><br />Ce
ll cycle w/ 2 forms: elementary bo
y an
initial/reticulate bo
y
1301725712663 1342707643552 Lab Dx, Tx for Chlamy
iae infxns
Dx: cyto
plasmic inclusions seen on Giemsa or fluorescent Ab-staine
smear<br /><br />Tx:
azithromycin (favore
b/c one-time treatment) or
oxycycline
1301725754814 1342707643552 Chlamy
iae: Elementary bo
y
Small,
ense.<br
/><br /><b>E</b>lementery is <b>E</b>nfectious an
<b> E</b>nters cells via <b>E
</b>n
ocytosis.<br /><img src="157a - Chlamy
ia life cycle.JPG" />
1301725815761 1342707643552 Chlamy
iae: Initial or Reticulate bo
y <b>R</b>
eticulate bo
y <b>R</b>eplicates in cell by fission<br />Reticulate form is seen
on cell cultures<br /><img src="157a - Chlamy
ia life cycle.JPG" />
1301725862515 1342707643552 Chlamy
ia trachomatis<br />Causes...?<br />Tx?
Causes:<br />reactive arthritis<br />conjunctivitis<br />nongonococcal urethriti
s<br />pelic inflammatory
z (PID)<br /><br />As with all Chlamy
iae, Tx w/ azit
hromycin or
oxycycline
1301725901362 1342707643552 Chlamy
ia pneumoniae<br />Disease?<br />Transmis
sion?<br />Tx? Causes atypical pneumonia<br /><br />Transmitte
by aerosol<br /
><br />As w/ all Chlamy
iae, Tx w/ azithromycin or
oxycycline
1301725918835 1342707643552 Chlamy
ia psittaci<br />Disease?<br />Transmissi
on?<br />Tx?
Causes atypical pneumonia<br /><br />Transmission by aerosol<br
/>*notable for avian reservoir<br /><br />As w/ all Chlamy
iae, Tx w/ azithromyc
in or
oxycycline
1301726144816 1342707643552 Chlamy
ia trachomatis serotypes A, B, an
C
Chronic infxn, cause blin
ness
ue to follicular conjunctivitis in Africa<br /><
br />(& uot;ABC = Africa / Blin
ness / Chronic Infxn& uot;)
1301726231555 1342707643552 Chlamy
ia trachomatis types D-K Urethritis/PID<b
r />Ectopic pregnancy<br />Neonatal pneumonia (<b>staccato cough</b>)<br />Neona
tal conjunctivitis<br /><br />*Neonatal
z can be ac uire

uring passage thru i
nfecte
birth canal
1301726299463 1342707643552 Chlamy
ia trachomatis serotypes L1, L2, an
L3
Lymphogranuloma venerum<br /><br />& uot;<b>L</b>1-3 = <b>L</b>ymphogranuloma ve
nerum& uot;
1301726431298 1342707643552 Mycoplasma pneumoniae<br />Causes...?<br />Epi
e
miology of
z? Classic cause of atypical & uot;walking pneumonia& uot;<br />(in
si
ious onset, HA, nonpro
uctive cough,
iffuse interstitial infiltrate)<br /><b
r />Mycoplasmal pneumonia is more common in pts &lt; 30 years of age.<br />Fre u
ent outbreaks in military recruits an
prisons.<br /><br />

1301726549439 1342707643552 Mycoplasma pneumoniae<br />Info on bacterium? Cu
lture? <img src="157b - Mycoplasma pneumoniae.JPG" /><br />No cell wall. <br />
Not seen on gram stain.<br />Only bacterial membrane containing cholesterol.<br
/><br />Grown on Eatons agar.
1301726646000 1342707643552 Mycoplasmal pneumonia<br />Dx an
labs?<br />Tx?
X-ray looks worse than pt<br />(& uot;walking& uot; pneumonia w/
iffuse interst
itial infiltrate)<br /><br />High titer col
agglutinins (IgM)- can agglutinate
or lyse RBCs<br /><br />Tx: TCN or erythromycin (bugs are naturally PCN-resistan
t b/c they have no cell wall)
1301726730009 1342707643552 Fungal spores Most fungal spores are asexual.<
br /><br />Both cocci
ioi
omycosis an
histoplasmosis are transmitte
by inhalat
ion of asexual spores.<br /><br />Coni
ia (Greek-& uot;
ust& uot;) = asexual fun
gal spores (e.g., blastoconi
ia, athroconi
ia)
1301726812923 1342707643552 Histoplasmosis<br /><br />Form?<br />En
emic loc
ation?<br />Causes what?<br />Other features/notes?
Dimorphic fungi that can
cause systemic mycosis,<br />en
emic to Mississippi an
Ohio river valleys.<br
/><br />Causes pneumonia.<br /><br />In bir
or bat
roppings (think spelunkers)
.<br /><br />Intracellular (tiny yeast insi
e macrophages [below]): <b>H</b>isto
<b>H</b>i
es<br /><img src="158a - Histoplasmosis.JPG" /><br /><img src="pastet
bl_vw.jpg" />
1301726966493 1342707643552 Blastomycosis<br /><br />Form?<br />En
emic loca
tion?<br />Causes what?<br />Other features/notes?
Dimorphic fungi that can
cause systemic mycosis,<br />en
emic to states east of Mississippi River an
Ce
ntral America<br /><br />Causes inflammatory lung
z an
can
isseminate to skin
an
bone. Forms granulomatous no
ules.<br /><br />& uot;<b>B</b>ig (size of RBC
), <b>B</b>roa
-<b>B</b>ase
<b>B</b>u

ing& uot;<br /><br />Culture on Sabourau

s agar.<br /><img src="158b - Blastomycosis.JPG" /><br /><img src="pasterr
hmt
.png" />
1301727089329 1342707643552 Cocci
ioi
omycosis<br /><br />Form?<br />En
emic
location?<br />Causes what?<br />Other features/notes? Dimorphic fungi that can
cause systemic mycosis, <b>spherule</b> (not yeast) in tissue;<br />en
emic to
Southwestern USA, California.<br /><br />Causes pneumonia an
meningitis; can
i
sseminate to bone an
skin.<br /><br />Case rate increases after earth uakes (sp
ores aerosolize an
become spherules -big, ~60um- in lung).<br /><br />Foun
in
San Jua uin Valley or
esert (
esert bumps) & uot;valley fever& uot;<br /><img s
rc="158c - Cocci
ioi
omycosis.JPG" /><img src="Cocci
ioi
omycosis.JPG" />
1301727308610 1342707643552 Paracocci
ioi
omycosis<br /><br />Form?<br />En

emic location?<br />Causes what?<br />Other features/notes?
Dimorphic fungi
that can cause systemic mycosis,<br />en
emic to rural Latin America<br /><br />
Rarest, most severe of histo, blasto, cocci
io, paracocci
io group of
imorphic
fungi<br /><br />& uot;Captains wheel& uot; appearance (bu

ing yeast below):<b
r /><img src="158
- Paracocci
ioi
omycosis.JPG" /><br /><img src="pastet_xr4l.j
pg" />
1301727439784 1342707643552 Dimorphic fungi<br><br />List?<br />Growth tempe
rature?<br />Dz?<br />Tx?<br />Other? Histoplasmosis, Blastomycosis, Cocci
ioi

omycosis, an
Paracocci
ioi
omycosis<br /><br />Mol
in soil (@ lower temps) an

yeast in tissue (@ higher/bo
y temp: 37C), <i>except cocci
ioi
omycosis, which
is a spherule in tissue.</i><b><br />& uot;Mol
in the col
, yeast in the hea</
b>(s)<b>t& uot;</b><br /><br />All can cause pneumonia an
can
isseminate.<br /
><br />Tx: fluconazole or ketoconazole for local infxn,<br />amphotericin B for
systemic infxn. <br /><br />Systemic mycoses can mimic TB (granuloma formation)
1301727464096 1342707643552 Geography of systemic mycoses/
imorphic fungi
<img src="158e - Fungi geography.JPG" />
1301727609683 1342707643552 Tinea versicolor<br />Cause
by?<br />Manifestat
ions an
mechanism?<br />Where
oes it happen?<br />Tx?<br />Other?
Cause
b
y Malassezia furfur.<br /><img src="159a - Tinea versicolor.JPG" /><br /><b>Degr
a
ation of lipi
s</b> pro
uces aci
s that
amage melanocytes an
cause hypo- an

/or hyper-pigmente
patches.<br /><br />Occurs in hot, humi
weather.<br /><br /
>Tx: topical miconazole, selenium sulfi
e (Selsun). & uot;Sel mi some spaghetti
an
meatballs!& uot;<br /><br />& uot;Spaghetti an
meatballs& uot; appearance o

n KOH prep.<br /><br /><img src="pastemach a.jpg" />
1301727787741 1342707643552 Tinea pe
is, cruris, corporis, capitis<br /><br
/>Presentation?<br />Spp?<br />Form/
iagnosis?<br />Transmission?
Pruritic
lesions w/ central clearing resembling a ring (& uot;ringworm& uot;)<br /><br /
>Cause
by
ermatophytes (<i>Microsporum</i>, <i>Trichophyton</i>, an
<i>Epi
er
mophyton</i>).<br /><br />See mol
hyphae on KOH prep, not
imorphic.<br /><br /
>Pets are a reservoir for <i>Microsporum</i> an
can be treate
w/ topical azole
s.
1301770857884 1342707643375 Quick an

irty way to pre
ict PCO2 from changes
in HCO3- for metabolic alkalosis/aci
osis
PCO2 increases by 0.7mmHg for ev
ery 1 mE /L of HCO3- in metabolic alkalosis<br />PCO2
ecreases by 0.7-0.9mmHg f
or every 1 mE /L of HCO3- in metabolic aci
osis<br />(Respiratory is
ifferent)
1301853120155 1342707643552 Can
i
a albicans<br>(<i>alba</i> = white)<br><br
>Disease?<br>Morphology?
Systemic or superficial fungal infxn.<br><br>Yea
st w/ pseu
ohyphae in culture at 20C; germ tube formation at 37C (
iagnostic).<b
r><br><img src="paste3c05r .jpg" /><br>Dimorphic yeast. Pseu
ohyphae an
bu

ing
yeasts at 20
eg C.<br><br><img src="paste1e8t

.jpg" /><br>Germ tubes at 37
eg
C
1301853135100 1342707643552 Can
i
a albicans<br>Causes what (+ risk factors)
?
Causes:<br><br>1) Oral an
esophageal thrush in immunocompromise
(neona
tes, steroi
s,
iabetes, AIDS)<br>2) Vulvovaginitis (
iabetes, use of ABX)<br>3)
Diaper rash<br>4) En
ocar
itis in IV
rug users<br>5) Disseminate
can
i
iasis
(to any organ)<br>6) Chronic mucocutaneous can
i
iasis<br>
1301853155430 1342707643552 Can
i
a albicans <br />Tx?
Topical azole fo
r vaginal<br><br>Fluconazole or caspofungin for oral/esophageal<br><br>Amphoteri
cin B, fluconazole, or caspofungin for systemic
1301853388208 1342707643552 Aspergillus fumigatus<br /><br />Causes what?
Causes:<br /><br />1) Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis<br />2) Lung cavit
y aspergilloma (& uot;fungus ball& uot;) esp. <b>after TB</b><br />3) Aflotoxins
in some spp, associate
w/ hepatocellular carcinoma<br />4) Invasive aspergillo
sis, esp. in immunocompromise
in
vls an
those w/ <b>chronic granulomatous
z</
b>
1301853432558 1342707643552 Aspergillus fumigatus<br /><br />Organism?<br />
Form? <b>Mol
</b> w/ septate hyphae that branch at acute (&lt;45
egree) angle
s<br />Not
imorphic.<br /><br /><b>& uot;A& uot; </b>for <b>A</b>cute <b>A</b>n
gles in <b>A</b>spergillus<br /><img src="159c - Aspergillus.JPG" />
1301853474422 1342707643552 Cryptococcus neoformans<br /><br />Causes what?
In whom?
Cryptococcal meningitis<br />Cryptococcosis (skin, pneumonia...)
<br /><br /><b>Think AIDS patients!</b>
1301853608250 1342707643552 Cryptococcus neoformans<br /><br />Organism, for
m?<br />Mo
e of infection?
Heavily encapsulate
<b>yeast</b>.<br /><b>Not

imorphic.</b><br />Foun
in soil, <b>pigeon</b>
roppings.<br /><br />Ac uire
t
hrough inhalation with hematogenous
issemination.<br /><br /><img src="pastev
9
9_s.jpg" /><br />5-10um yeasts w/ wi
e & uot;halos& uot;-capsule- an
une ual bu


ing (light In
ia ink stain)
1301853632895 1342707643552 Cryptococcus neoformans<br />Culture?<br />I
ent
ification?
Culture w/ Sabourau
s agar.<br /><br />Stains w/ In
ia ink.<br
/>Latex agglutination test
etects polysacchari
e capsular Ag, more specific.<br
/>& uot;Soap bubble& uot; lesions in brain.<br /><img src="Cryptococcus neoform
ans.JPG" />
1301853769163 1342707643552 Mucor an
Rhizopus species<br /><br />Disease?<b
r />Form?
Cause mucormycosis.<br /><br />Mol
w/ irregular nonseptate hyph
ae branching at wi
e angles (~90
eg)<br /><img src="159e - Mucor.JPG" /><br /><
img src="pastefm5 wb.jpg" /><br />
1301853859824 1342707643552 Mucormycosis<br /><br />Spp?<br />Epi
emiology?<
br />Pathogenesis?<br />Presentation? (cause
by Mucor an
Rhizopus spp.)<br /
><br />Dz most likely in ketoaci
otic
iabetic an
leukemic pts.<br /><br />Fung
i proliferate in the walls of bloo
vessels when there is excess ketone an
gluc
ose, cause
istal necrosis.<br />Penetrates cribifrorm plate an
enters brain. <
br /><br />Rhinocerebral, frontal lobe abcesses. Hea
ache, facial pain, black ne

crotic eschar on face; may have CN involvement.
1301854041472 1342707643552 Pneumocystis jiroveci (formerly carinii)<br />Or
ganism?<br />Causes what?<br />Mo
e of transmission?<br />In whom?
Yeast (o
riginally classifie
as protozoan).<br />Causes
iffuse interstitial pneumonia b
ut most infxns asymptomatic.<br />Inhale
.<br />Immunosuppression (eg. AIDS) pre

isposes to
z.<br /><br />
1301854180939 1342707643552 Pneumocystis jiroveci (formerly carinii)<br />Ra

iology?<br>Diagnosis? Diffuse, bilateral CXR appearance.<br /><br />Dx by lung
biopsy or lavage:<br />i
entifie
by methenamine silver stain of lung tissue or

irect fluorescence antibo
y test of lavage.<br /><br /><br /><img src="Pneumoc
ystis jiroveci.JPG" />
1301854231092 1342707643552 Pneumocystis jiroveci (formerly carinii)<br>Tx?<
br>Prophylaxis? TMP-SMX, pentami
ine,
apsone.<br><br>Start prophylaxis when CD4

rops &lt; 200 cells/mL in HIV pts.
1301854372019 1342707643552 Sporothrix schenkii<br />Causes what? Sporotri
chosis.<br /><br />When traumatically intro
uce
into the skin, typically by a t
horn (<b>& uot;rose gar
eners
z& uot;</b>), causes local pustule or ulcer w/ n
o
ules along
raining lymphatics (ascen
ing lymphangitis).<br /><br />Little sys
temic illness.<br /><br /><img src="pastepa_3o_.jpg" />
1301854427115 1342707643552 Sporothrix schenkii<br />Organism?
<b>Dimor
phic cigar-shape
bu

ing yeast</b> that lives on vegetation.<br /><br />Cigar-s
hape
bu

ing yeast visible in pus.<br /><img src="160b - Sporothrix schenki.JPG
" /><br /><img src="paste9nj5xv.jpg" />
1301854446585 1342707643552 Sporothrix schenkii<br />Tx?
<span style="fon
t-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">It</span>raconazole or <span style="f
ont-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">pot</span>assium io
i
e (& uot;A <b
>rose? </b>Put <span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">it</sp
an> in a <span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">pot</span>&
uot;)
1301878259054 1342707643814 Giar
ia lamblia Giar
iasis: bloating, flatulence
, foul-smelling fatty
iarrhea (often seen in campers/hikers)<br /><br />Transmi
tte
via cysts in water<br /><br />Dx: trophozoites or cysts in stool<br /><br /
>Tx: Metroni
azole<br /><img src="161a - Giar
ia lamblia.JPG" /><img src="Giar
i
a lamblia.JPG" /><br /><img src="pastexet0m4.jpg" />
1301878427051 1342707643814 Trichomonas vaginalis Causes vaginitis: foul-s
melling, yellow-greenish frothy
ischarge;<br />itching an
burning<br /><br />T
ransmission: sexual (no cysts, cant exist outsi
e human)<br /><br />Dx: Motile
trophozoites on wet mount<br /><br />Tx: Metroni
azole <i>for patient an
partne
r</i><br /><img src="162e - Trichomonas vaginalis.JPG" /><img src="Trachomonas v
aginalis.JPG" /><br /><img src="pasteeapzxa.jpg" />
1301878520633 1342707643814 Trypanosoma cruzi
Causes Chagas
z (
ilat
e
car
iomyopathy, megacolon, megaesophagus- secon
ary achalasia);<br />pre
omin
antly in South America<br /><br />Transmitte
by Re
uvii
bug (& uot;kissing bug
& uot;); painless bite<br /><br />Dx by bloo
smear<br /><br />Tx w/ Nifurtimox<
br /><img src="162a - Trypanosoma cruzi.JPG" /><br /><img src="pastecrowob.jpg"
/>
1301878657703 1342707643814 Trypanosoma:<br />T. gambiense<br />T. rho
esien
se
(Gambia, Rho
esia)<br /><br />Cause African sleeping sickness: <br />enl
arge
LNs, recurring fever (
ue to <b>antigenic variation</b>), somnolence, coma
<br /><br />Transmitte
by Tsetse fly (painful bite)<br /><br />Dx via bloo
sme
ar<br /><br />Tx w/ <b>SUR</b>amin for bloo
-borne
z,<br />or <b>MELA</b>rsopro
l for CNS penetration<br />(& uot;it<b> SUR</b>e is nice to sleep; <b>MELA</b>to
nin from the <b>CNS</b> helps w/ sleep& uot;)<br /><br /><img src="pastewuueyb.j
pg" />
1301878727636 1342707643814 Leishmania
onovani
Causes visceral leishman
iasis (kala-azar):<br />spiking fevers, <b>hepatosplenomegaly</b>, <b>pancytopen
ia</b>. 2n
lea
ing parasitic cause of mortality (1st is malaria).<br /><br />Tr
ansmitte
by san
fly<br /><br />Dx via macrophages containing & uot;ama<b>stig</
b>otes& uot;<br /><br />Tx w/ so
ium <b>stibog</b>luconate<br /><img src="pasten
uglcw.jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="pasteo
gft
.jpg" /><br />Amastigotes:
ark sp

ots in macrophage<br /><br /><img src="pastec5 gnr.jpg" />
1301878931764 1342707643814 Plasmo
ium:<br />P. vivax<br />P. ovale<br />P.
malariae<br />P. falciparum
Cause malaria: cyclic fever, HA, anemia, splenom
egaly.<br /><br />Severe (cerebral) malaria w/ P. falciparum.<br />P. vivax an

P. ovale have
ormant forms in liver (hypnozoites) --&gt; relapsing malaria<br /
><br />Transmitte
by mos uito (Anopheles)<br /><br />Dx via bloo
smear<br /><b
r /><img src="paste_ukroj.jpg" /><br />a) Trophozoite ring form<br /><br /><img
src="pastezmlfpj.jpg" /><br />b) RBC schizont with merozoites<br /><br />Begin t
x with <b>chloro uine</b>, which blocks plasmo
ium heme polymerase; if resistant
use meflo uine<br /><br /><b>Pr</b>ima uine to <b>pr</b>event relapse from
orm
ant hypnozoites in liver (P. vivax, P. ovale)
1301878998684 1342707643814 Babesia Cause babesiosis: fever an
hemolytic an
emia; pre
ominantly in northeastern USA (eg. Marthas Vineyar
). <b>Asplenia</b>
increases risk of severe
z. Dz resembles malaria.<br /><br />Transmitte
by Ix
o
es tick - may coinfect w/ <i>Borrelia burg
orferi</i>)<br /><br />Dx: bloo
sm
ear, no RBC pigment, appears as a & uot;Maltese cross& uot;<br /><br />Tx: Quini
ne (can cause tinnitus), clin
amycin (Gin &amp; <b>Tonic</b> with <b>Lincoln</b>
on Marthas Vineyar
)<br /><br /><img src="162
- Babesia.JPG" /><br /><br /><im
g src="paste0svkix.jpg" />
1301879094343 1342707643814 Cryptospori
ium Causes severe
iarrhea in AIDS<b
r />Mil

z (watery
iarrhea) in non-immunocompromise
<br /><br />Transmitte
by
cysts in water<br /><br />Dx: cysts on aci
-fast stain<br /><br />Tx: Preventio
n by filtering city water supplies; no treatment :-(<br /><br /><img src="pastek
yoajg.jpg" />
1301879164064 1342707643814 Toxoplasma gon
ii<br /> Causes brain abscess in
HIV,<br />birth
efects (ring-enhancing brain lesions on CT/MRI).<br /><b>Congen
ital toxo = & uot;classic tria
& uot; of chorioretinitis (uveitis), hy
rocephalu
s, &amp; intracellular calcifications.</b><br /><br />Transmitte
by cysts in me
at (often pork) or cat feces;<br />crosses placenta (pregnant women shoul
avoi

cats!)<br /><br />Dx: Serology, biopsy<br /><br />Tx: Sulfa
iazine + pyrimetham
ine<br /><br /><img src="161
- Toxoplasma gon
ii.JPG" /><br /><br /><img src="p
aste0rn1h5.jpg" /><br />Toxoplasm looks like <b>toxic plantains</b>
1301879259475 1342707643814 Entamoeba histolytica Causes amebiasis: bloo
y

iarrhea (
ysentery), liver abscess, RUQ pain. Histo shows flask-shape
ulcer i
f submucosal abcess of colon ruptures.<br /><br />Transmission: cysts in water<b
r /><br />Dx: Serology an
/or trophozoites (<b>w/ ingeste
RBCs in cytoplasm</b>
) or multinucleate cysts in stool<br /><br />Tx: Metroni
azole an
io
o uinol<br
/><br />& uot;<b>I
on uink all </b>of us woul
have gotten <b>amoebic
ysenter
y</b> if we took the <b>metro</b> instea
of the Oregon Trail& uot;<br /><br /><
img src="161b - Entamoeba histolytica.JPG" />
1301879394205 1342707643814 Naegleria fowleri
Causes rapi
ly fatal men
ingoencephalitis<br /><br />Transmission: swimming in freshwater lakes (<b>Nalge
ne </b>bottles with <b>freshwater </b>an
<b>Naegleria</b>); enter via cribrifor
m plate<br /><br />Dx: Amoebas in spinal flui
<br /><br />Tx: Amphotericin has b
een effective for a few survivors<br /><br /><img src="161e - Naegleria fowleri.
JPG" /><br /><br /><img src="pastec4 af0.jpg" /><br />(in brain!!)
1301880946683 1342707643389 Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm)
Transmis
sion via foo
contaminate
w/ eggs; <br />intestinal infection;<br />causes anal
pruritis (the Scotch tape test)<br /><br />Tx: -ben
azoles or pyrantel pamoate
1301880986210 1342707643389 Ascaris lumbricoi
es (giant roun
worm) Fecal-or
al. Eggs are visible in feces; intestinal infxn. Most common parasitic worm in h
umans; ~1/6 of worl
infecte
.<br /><br />Tx: -ben
azoles or pyrantel pamoate
1301881032892 1342707643389 Trichinella spiralis
In un
ercooke
meat, usu
ally pork (also bear, cougar jerkey, etc!);<br />Inflammation of muscle (larvae
encyst in muscle);<br />periorbital e
ema.<br /><br />Tx: -ben
azoles
1301881058791 1342707643552 Helminths
Multicellular organisms.<br /><b
r />Life cycle often involves stages in other organisms.<br /><br />Inclu
es nem
ato
es (roun
worms), cesto
es (tapeworms), an
tremato
es (flukes/flatworms)
1301881107338 1342707643389 Strongyloi
es stercoralis
Larvae in soil p
enetrate the skin (feet);<br />intestinal infxn;<br />causes vomiting,
iarrhea,

an
anemia.<br /><br />Autoinfection, reactivation on immune suppression, HTLV1.<br /><br />Tx: Ivermectin, -ben
azoles
1301881185699 1342707643389 Ancylostoma
uo
enale, <br />Necator americanus<
br />(hookworms)
Larvae penetrate skin of feet;<br />intestinal infxn can
cause anemia (sucks bloo
from intestinal walls)<br /><br />Loefflers<br /><br
/>Tx: -ben
azole or pyrantel pamoate
1301881212708 1342707643389 Dracunculus me
inensis (Guinea worm)<br />In
r
inking water;<br />skin inflammation an
ulceration<br /><br />Tx: Niri
azole, p
rolonge
extraction (win
ing aroun
matchstick...)<br /><br /><img src="paste
2e
so
.jpg" />
1301881300320 1342707643389 Onchocerca volvulus
Transmitte
by female bl
ackflies;<br />causes hyperpigmente
skin an
river <b>blin
ness</b><br />(<b>bl
ack</b>flies, <b>black</b> skin no
ules, & uot;<b>black</b> sight& uot;);<br />C
an have allergic reaction to microfilaria.<br />& uot;Hanging groin& uot; from l
oss of skin elasticity.<br /><br />Tx: Ivermectin <br />(& uot;<b>IVER</b>mectin
for r<b>IVER</b> blin
ness& uot;)
1301881337935 1342707643389 Loa loa<br /><br />Ac uire
from?<br />Symptoms?
<br />Treatment?
Transmitte
by
eer fly, horse fly, an
mango fly;<br />
migrates through subcutaneous tissue;<br />causes Calabar swelling in skin;<br /
>can see worm crawling in conjunctiva<br /><br />Tx: Diethylcarbamazine
1301881397323 1342707643389 Wucheria bancrofti
Female mos uito;<br />Ca
uses blockage of lymphatic vessels (elephantiasis)<br />Takes 9 mos to 1 yr afte
r bite to get elephantiasis symptoms<br /><br />Tx: Diethylcarbamazine
1301881445948 1342707643389 Toxocara canis Foo
contaminate
w/ eggs (from

og or cat feces);<br />Causes granulomas (if in retina --&gt; blin
ness!) an
v
isceral larva migrans;<br />Can cause VLM or OLM<br /><br />Associate
w/ ki
s,
pica<br /><br />Tx:
iethylcarbamazine
1301881593872 1342707643435 Taenia solium Ingestion of larvae encyste
in
un
ercooke
pork lea
s to intestinal tapeworms.<br /><br />Ingestion of eggs cau
ses cysticercosis an
neurocysticercosis, lesions in brain (& uot;swiss cheese&
uot; appearance)<br /><br />Tx: Prazi uantel (for intestinal worms an
cysticerc
osis); -ben
azoles (for neurocysticercosis)<br /><br /><img src="paste3yub w.jpg
" /><br />Neurocysticercosis w/ many cysticerci
1301881632448 1342707643435 Diphyllobothyrium latum Ingestion of larvae in r
aw freshwater fish (& uot;fish tapeworm& uot;).<br />Causes vitamin B12 & uot;<b
>
iphy</b>ciency& uot;, resulting in anemia.<br /><br />Tx: Prazi uantel.
1301881789356 1342707643435 Echinococcus granulosus Eggs in
og feces (from

og that ate offal) when ingeste
can cause cysts in liver;<br />Causes anaphyla
xis if organisms antigens are release
from cyst (surgeons inject ethanol befor
e removal to kill
aughter cysts; PAIR).<br /><br />Tx: -ben
azoles<br />
1301881885509 1342707643404 Schistosoma
Snails are host;<br />Cercariae
penetrate skin of (swimming) humans, causes granulomas, fibrosis, an
inflammati
on of the spleen an
liver (=&gt; portal HTN)<br />Chronic infxn w/ S. haematobi
um can lea
to s uamous cell carcinoma of the bla

er.<br /><br />Tx: Prazi uant
el.<br /><br /><img src="pasteh_l4s .jpg" />
1301881926118 1342707643404 Clonorchis sinensis<br /><br />Ac uire
from?<br
/>Causes what?<br />Treatment? Un
ercooke
fish;<br />Causes inflammation of th
e biliary tract --&gt; <b>pigmente
gallstones</b>.<br />Also associate
w/ <b>c
holangiocarcinoma</b>.<br /><br />Tx: Prazi uantel.
1301881966928 1342707643404 Paragonimus westermani Un
ercooke
crab meat (e
ating live crayfish when
runk...);<br />causes inflammation an
secon
ary bacte
rial infxn of the lung.<br /><br />Tx: Prazi uantel.
1301882047450 1342707643552 Nemato
e routes of infxn --&gt; Ingestion
<b>E</b>nterobius <br /><b>A</b>scaris <br /><b>T</b>richinella<br />(& uot;You
ll get sick if you <b>EAT</b> these!& uot;)
1301882113814 1342707643552 Nemato
e routes of infxn --&gt; Cutaneous
<b>S</b>tongyloi
es<br /><b>A</b>ncyclostoma<br /><b>N</b>ecator<br /><br />(& u
ot;These get into your feet from<b> SAN</b>
& uot;)
1301882177065 1342707643686 Brain cysts, seizures Taneia solium
1301882188231 1342707643686 Liver cysts
Echinococcus granulosus

1301882200027 1342707643686 B12
eficiency Diphyllobothrium latum
1301882216670 1342707643686 Biliary tract
z
Clonorchis sinensis
1301882231962 1342707643686 Hemoptysis
Paragonimus westermani
1301882244553 1342707643686 Portal HTN
Schistosoma mansoni
1301882262024 1342707643686 Hematuria, bla

er cancer
Schistosoma haem
atobium
1301882274079 1342707643686 Microcytic anemia
Ancyclostoma, Necator
1301882283082 1342707643686 Perianal pruritis
Enterobius
1301882345688 1342707643671 Typhoi
fever cause
by bacterium Salmonella t
yphi.
1301882382108 1342707643671 Typhus (three kin
s)
Cause
by bacteria Ricke
ttsia prowazekii (epi
emic),<br />Rickettsia typhi (en
emic)<br>Rickettsia/Orien
tia tsutsugamushi (scrub typhus)
1301882396260 1342707643671 Chlamy
ia trachomatis Bacteria, STD
1301882422190 1342707643671 Treponema
Spirochete;<br />causes syphilis
(T. palli
um) or yaws (T. pertenue)
1301882436554 1342707643671 Trichomonas vaginalis Protozoan, STD.
1301882463407 1342707643671 Trypanosoma
Protozoan, causes Chagas
z (T.
cruzi) or African sleeping sickness.
1301882476081 1342707643671 Toxoplasma
Protozoan, a TORCH infxn.
1301882488942 1342707643671 Trichinella spiralis<br />
Nemato
e in un
e
rcooke
meat.
1301948938544 1342707643552 Nake
Icosahe
ral virus (
rawing)<br /><br />Com
ponents?
<img src="165a - Nake
icosahe
ral virus.JPG" />
1301948946691 1342707643552 Envelope
icosahe
ral virus (
rawing)<br /><br /
>Components?
<img src="165b - Envelope
icosahe
ral virus.JPG" />
1301948981618 1342707643552 Envelope
helical virus (
rawing)<br /><br />Com
ponents?
<img src="165c - Envelope
helical virus.JPG" />
1301949015364 1342707643552 Recombination Exchange of genes btw 2 Chromoso
mes by crossing over w/in regions of significant base se uence homolgy.
1301949053297 1342707643552 Reassortment
When viruses w/ segmente
genome
s (e.g., influenza virus) exchange segments.<br><br>High-fre uency recombination
. <br><br>Cause of worl
wi
e influenza pan
emics.
1301949096108 1342707643552 Complementation When 1 of 2 viruses that infect
the cell has a mutation that results in a nonfunctional protein.<br /><br />The
nonmutate
virus & uot;complements& uot; the mutate
one by making functional pr
otein that serves both viruses.
1301949176402 1342707643552 Phenotypic mixing
Occurs w/ simultaneous i
nfxn of a cell w/ 2 viruses.<br><br>Genome of virus A can be partially or comple
tely coate
(forming pseu
ovirion) w/ surface protein of virus B. <br><br>Type B
protein coat
etermines the infectivity of the phenotypically mixe
virus. Howe
ver, the progeny from this infxn have a type A coat that is enco
e
by its type
A genetic material.
1301949287877 1342707643552 Viral vaccines<br /><br />Types an
a
vantages/

isa
vantages?<br />Boosters?<br />In
ications/contrain
ications?
Live att
enuate
vaccines in
uce mainly <b>cell-me
iate
</b> immunity, but retains capaci
ty for transient growth within inoculate
host (rarely may revert to virulent fo
rm).<br /><b>Kille
vaccines in
uce only humoral immunity</b>, but are stable an

safer.<br /><br />No boosters are nee
e
for live-attenuate
vaccines (in
uce
strong, often lifelong immunity).<br /><br />Its
angerous to give live vaccine
s to immunocompromise
pts or their close contacts.
1301949327285 1342707643552 Important live attenuate
vaccines
Measles,
mumps, rubella, Sabin polio (oral), VZV, yellow fever, smallpox<br /><br />MMR
= Measles, mumps, rubella<br /><br />& uot;<b>Live</b>! See <b>small yellow chic
kens </b>get vaccinate
with <b>Sabins </b>an
<b>MMR</b>!& uot;
1301949386292 1342707643552 Important kille
vaccines
<b>R</b>abies, <
b>I</b>nfluenza, Salk <b>P</b>olio, an
H<b>A</b>V vaccines<br /><br />& uot;Sal
<b>K </b>=<b> K</b>ille
& uot;<br /><br />& uot;kille
= <b>RIP A</b>lways& uot;
1301949423470 1342707643552 Important recombinant viral vaccines, an
their
specific antigens
HBV (Ag = recombinant HBsAg)<br /><br />HPV (types 6, 11

, 16, an
18: gar
asil)
1301949502512 1342707643552 DNA viral genomes<br><br>Number of stran
s?<br>D
NA structure? All DNA viruses except the parvoviri
ae are
sDNA.<br /><br />Al
l are linear except papill-<b>O</b>ma, poly-<b>O</b>ma, an
h<b>OO</b>pa
navirus
es (circular).<br /><br />& uot;All are
sDNA like our cells, except <i>part-ofa-virus</i> (parvovirus) is ssDNA& uot;<br /><br />(<i>parvus </i>= small)
1301949574396 1342707643552 RNA viral genomes: single or
ouble stran
e
?
All RNA viruses except Reoviri
ae are ssRNA<br /><br />& uot;All are ssRNA (like
our mRNA) except & uot;<b>re</b>peat<b>o</b>virus& uot; (<b>reo</b>virus) is
s
RNA& uot;
1301949658462 1342707643552 Nake
viral genome infectivity an
exceptions
Infectious: purifie
nucleic aci
s of <b>most
sDNA (except poxviruses an
HBV)<
/b> an
<b>(+)stran
RNA </b>(~mRNA) viruses.<br /><br />Non-infectious: nake
n
ucleic aci
s of <b>(-)stran
ssRNA </b>an
<b>
sRNA (reo/rotavirus)</b> viruses
are not infectious (they re uire enzymes containe
in the complete virion).
1301949691707 1342707643552 Virus ploi
y
All viruses are haploi
(w/ 1 co
py of DNA or RNA) except <b>retroviruses</b>, which have 2 i
entical ssRNA molec
ules (~
iploi
)
1301949732315 1342707643552 Viral replication: location
DNA viruses all
replicate in the nucleus (except poxvirus, replicates in the cytoplasmic box!)<b
r /><br />RNA viruses replicate in the cytoplasm (except influenza virus an
ret
roviruses)
1301949797444 1342707643552 Non-envelope
viruses (list)
Nake
(nonenvelo
pe
) viruses inclu
e:<br /><br />Calcivirus/Hepevirus<br />Picornavirus<br />Reo
virus<br />Parvovirus<br />A
enovirus<br />Papilloma<br />Polyoma<br /><br />& u
ot;Nake
CPR an
PAPP smear& uot;<br /><b>R</b>NA = CP<b>R</b>; DNA = PAPP
1301949843354 1342707643552 Envelope
viruses<br /><br />Where
oes the enve
lope come from? Generally, envelope
viruses ac uire their envelopes from plasma
membrane when they exit from the cell. <br /><br />Exceptions are <b>herpesviru
ses</b>, which ac uire envelopes from the <b>nuclear membrane</b>.
1301949918598 1342707643552 DNA envelope
viruses (list)
Herpesviruses (H
SV types 1 an
2, VZV, CMV, EBV, HHV-6,8)<br />Hepa
na (HBV)<br />Poxvirus (smal
lpox, vaccinia, molluscum contagiosum)<br /><br /><img src="pastejvcf8o.jpg" /><
br /><br />(& uot;<b>HHAPPPPy</b>& uot;<b> </b>viruses minus & uot;<b>nake
PAPP
</b>& uot; = HHP)
1301949939232 1342707643552 Nake
DNA viruses (list)
Parvovirus, A
en
ovirus, Polyoma, Papillomaviruses<br /><br />(Nake
PAPP)
1301949972382 1342707643552 RNA envelope
viruses All (that we learne
) ex
cept for Nake
<b>CPR </b>(<b>Calici/hepe</b>,<b> Picorna</b>,<b> Reo</b>)
1301950046376 1342707643552 DNA viruses (list)
HHAPPPPy viruses!<br /><
br />Hepa
na <br />Herpes<br />A
eno<br />Pox<br />Parvo<br />Papilloma<br />Pol
yoma
1301950161818 1342707643552 All DNA viruses: 4 features, an
exceptions
1.) Are
ouble stran
e
<br />(EXCEPT parvo: ssDNA)<br /><br />2.) All are linear
<br />(EXCEPT papilloma an
polyoma - circular, supercoile
an
hepa
na - circul
ar, incomplete)<br /><br />3.) Are icosahe
ral <br />(EXCEPT pox: complex & uot;
pox in a box& uot;)<br /><br />4.) Replicate in the nucleus<br />(EXCEPT pox - c
arries own DNA-
ep RNA pol)
1301950413360 1342707643494 Herpesvirus
Envelope
(from nuclear membrane
).<br />
sDNA, linear.<br /><br /><b>HSV-1</b>: oral (an
some genital) lesions,
keratoconjunctivitis, spontaneous temporal lobe encephalitis<br /><b>HSV-2</b>:
genital (an
some oral) lesions<br /><b>VZV (HHV-3)</b>: chickenpox, zoster, sh
ingles<br /><b>EBV (HHV-4)</b>: mononucleosis, Burkitts lymphoma, Ho
gkins lym
phoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma<br /><b>CMV (HHV-5)</b>: infxn in immunosuppress
e
pts (AIDS retinitis), especially transplant recipients; congenital
efects (<
b>sight</b>omegalovirus)<br /><b>HHV-6</b>: roseola (exanthem subitum)<br /><b>H
HV-7</b>: clinically insignificant<br /><b>HHV-8</b>: Kaposis sarcoma-associate

virus (KSHV)
1301950471651 1342707643494 Hepa
navirus
Envelope
.<br />Partial circular

sDNA.<br /><br />HBV:<br />Acute or chronic hepatitis.<br />Vaccine available:

contains recombinant HBV surface antigen.<br /><br />Not a retrovirus, but has
reverse transcriptase.<br />(replication:
sDNA --&gt; template (+)RNA --&gt; pr
ogeny
sDNA)
1301950515470 1342707643494 A
enovirus
Nake
.<br />Linear
sDNA<br /><b
r />Febrile pharyngitis - sore throat; acute hemorrhagic cystitis<br />Pneumonia
<br />Conjunctivitis- & uot;pink eye& uot; (watery)<br />
1301950600352 1342707643494 Parvovirus
Nake
.<br />Linear (-)ssDNA (sma
llest DNA virus).<br /><br />B19 virus: aplastic crises in sickle cell
z;<br />
& uot;slappe
cheeks& uot; rash - erythema infectiosum (fifth
z);<br />hemolysi
s in fetus lea
s to hy
rops fetalis an

eath;<br />pure RBC aplasia an
rheumat
oi
arthritis-like sx in a
ults.<br /><br />Think <b>B</b>loo
<b>19</b>- aplasti
c crises in sickle cell, re
rash, hemolysis in fetus, RBC aplasia in a
ults
1301950632082 1342707643494 Papillomavirus Nake
<br />Circular
sDNA<br /><
br />HPV: warts (1, 2, 6, 11), CIN (16, 18), cervical cancer; vaccine available.
1301950672989 1342707643494 Polyomavirus
Nake
.<br />Circular,
sDNA.<br
/><br />JC: progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) in HIV<br />BK viru
s: transplant patients, commonly targets ki
ney<br /><br />(<b>JC</b>: <b>J</b>u
nky <b>C</b>erebrum; <b>BK</b>: <b>B</b>a
<b>K</b>i
ney)
1301950723216 1342707643494 Poxvirus
Envelope
.<br />Linear
sDNA (la
rgest DNA virus).<br /><br />1) Smallpox, although era
icate
, coul
be use
in
germ warfare.<br />2) Vaccinia: cowpox (& uot;milkmai
s blisters& uot;)<br />3)
Molluscum contagiosum (flesh-colore

ome lesions w/ central
imple).<br /><br
/>Guarnieri bo
ies
1302045310445 1342707643762 HSV-1 Dz:<br />1) Gingivostomatitis <br />2) K
eratoconjunctivitis<br />3) Temporal lobe encephalitis (most common cause of spo
ra
ic encephalitis in the USA)<br />4) Herpes labialis<br /><br />Transmission:<
br />Respiratory secretions<br />Saliva<br /><br />*Latent in trigeminal ganglio
n
y
1302045521891 1342707643762 HSV-2 Dz:<br />Herpes genitalis [below]<br />N
eonatal herpes<br /><br />Transmission:<br />Sexual contact<br />Perinatal<br />
<br />*Latent in sacral ganglia<br /><img src="546a - herpes.JPG" /><br />
y
1302045710173 1342707643762 VZV (Varicella-Zoster Virus)
Dz:<br />Varicel
la-zoster (chicken pox, shingles--below)<br />Encephalitis<br />Pneumonia<br /><
br />Transmission:<br />Respiratory secretions<br /><br />*VZV remains
ormant i
n the trigeminal an

orsal root ganglia.<br /><img src="546a - VZV.JPG" />
y
1302045762671 1342707643762 EBV
Dz:<br />Infectious mononucleosis<br />B
urkitts lymphoma<br />Nasopharyngeal carcinoma<br /><br />Transmission:<br />Re
spiratory secretions, saliva<br /><br />*Latent in B cells
y
1302045878527 1342707643762 CMV
Dz:<br />Congenital infxn<br />Mononucle
osis (negative Monospot)<br />Pneumonia<br />Retinitis<br />Esophagitis<br /><br
/>Transmission:<br />Congenital<br />Transfusion / transplant<br />Sexual conta
ct<br />Saliva<br />Urine<br /><br />*Latent in mononuclear cells<br /><br /><im
g src="545a - CMV Owls eye.JPG" /><br />Infecte
cells have characteristic & uot
;owls eye& uot; appearance. Intranuclear an
cytoplasmic inclusions. y
1302045902066 1342707643762 HHV-8 Dz:<br />Kaposis sarcoma (in HIV pts)<b
r />Bo
y cavity B-cell lymphoma<br /><br />Transmission:<br />Sexual contact<br
/><br />Latent in B-cells
y
1302046668257 1342707643552 EBV<br /><br />Class?<br />Infects what?<br />Di
seases? A herpesvirus.<br />Infects B cells.<br /><br />Can cause mononucleosis.
Also associate
w/
evelopment of Ho
gkins an
en
emic Burkitts lymphomas, as
well as nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
1302046742089 1342707643552 Mononucleosis
ue to EBV<br />Sx/fin
ings?
Fever, hepatosplenomegaly, pharyngitis, an
lympha
enopathy (especially posterio
r cervical LNs).<br /><br />Atypical lympohcytes on peripheral bloo
smear are <
b>not </b>infecte
B cells,<br />but rather reactive cytotoxic T-cells (& uot;Do
wney cells& uot;)<br /><br />Positive Monospot test.<br /><br /><img src="pasten
jgckw.jpg" /><br />Note & uot;hugging& uot; of RBCs by atypical lymphocytes (& u
ot;Downey cells& uot;)<br><br>*Rash may occur follow empiric ampicillin tx

1302046774350 1342707643552 When
oes EBV inci
ence peak? Peak inci
ence 1
5-20 yrs.<br />Most common
uring peak kissing years (& uot;kissing
z& uot;)<br
/>
1302046801442 1342707643552 Positive Monospot test- mechanism?
Heteroph
il Abs
etecte
by agglutination of sheep or horse RBCs<br /><br />(positive in
EBV infxn)
1302046838262 1342707643552 Tzanck test
A smear of an opene
skin vesicl
e to
etect multinucleate
giant cells.<br />Use
to assay for HSV-1, HSV-2, an

VZV.<br /><br />& uot;Tzanck heavens I
ont have herpes!& uot;
1302046857987 1342707643552 Cow
ry A inclusions
Intranuclear inclusions
shown in cells infecte
w/ HSV-1, HSV-2, VZV (woul
show up on Tzanck smear)
1302047381261 1342707643596 What will electrophoresis show in beta-
elta tha
lassemia?
HbF<br><br>only alpha an
gamma left, which forms HbF
1302048388974 1342707643596 automobile shop worker with ab
ominal colic an


iarrhea
lea
poisoning b/c exposure to batteries<br /><br />In plants, t
here is exposure to incineration of batteries, an
pts are expose
to lea
in au
to factories
1302048438709 1342707643596 alcohol an
use of an ol
ra
iator. lea
s to wha
t
isease?
lea
poisoning
1302140254375 1342707643596 pt has a nonfunctional spleen. what is the most
likely infection?<br /><br /><br />
strep pneumoniae sepsis (MCC
eath in ch
il
ren with sickle cell
isease)
1302252959684 1342707643797 Senile purpura <img src="paste1tkja
.png" />
1302369179564 1342707643476 Reoviruses
No Envelope.<br /><br /><span st
yle="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">
sRNA</span>, linear, 10-12 s
egments<br /><br />Icosahe
ral (
ouble) capsi
<br /><br />Reovirus: Colora
o tic
k fever<br />Rotavirus: #1 cause of fatal
iarrhea in chil
ren
1302369298210 1342707643476 Picornaviruses No envelope<br /><br />ss(+)RNA,
linear<br /><br />Icosahe
ral capsi
.<br /><br />Poliovirus: polio-Salk/Sabin v
accines -- IPV/OPV<br />Echovirus: aseptic meningitis<br />Rhinovirus: common co
l
<br />Coxsackievirus: aseptic meningitis, herpangina (oral blisters) --febrile
pharyngitis, han
, foot, an
mouth
z, myocar
itis<br />HAV: acute viral hepati
tis
1302369319004 1342707643476 Hepevirus
No envelope.<br /><br />ss(+)RNA
, linear<br /><br />Icosahe
ral capsi
.<br /><br />HEV<br /><br /><img src="past
ehg95nm.jpg" />
1302369348958 1342707643476 Calciviruses
No envelope.<br /><br />ss(+)RNA
, linear.<br /><br />Icosahe
ral capsi
.<br /><br />Norwalk virus -- viral gastr
oenteritis (think outbreaks, eg. cruise ship).
1302369425633 1342707643476 Flaviviruses
Envelope
.<br /><br />ss(+)RNA,
linear.<br /><br />Icosahe
ral capsi
.<br /><br />HCV<br />Yellow fever*<br />De
ngue*<br />St. Louis encephalitis*<br />West Nile Virus*<br /><br />(*=arbovirus
)
1302369504151 1342707643476 Togaviruses
Envelope
.<br /><br />ss(+)RNA,
linear.<br /><br />Icosahe
ral capsi
.<br /><br />Rubella (German measles)<br />
Eastern e uine encephalitis*<br />Western e uine encephalitis* <br /><br />(*=ar
bovirus)<br />
1302369631088 1342707643476 Retroviruses
Envelope
.<br /><br />ss(+)RNA,
linear.<br /><br />Icosahe
ral (HTLV); complex/conical (HIV) capsi
s<br /><br />
Have <b>reverse transcriptase</b><br />HIV/AIDS<br />HTLV - T-cell leukemia
1302369671363 1342707643476 Coronaviruses Envelope
.<br /><br />ss(+)RNA,
linear.<br /><br />Helical capsi
.<br /><br />Coronavirus -- & uot;common col
&
uot; an
SARS<br /><br /><img src="paste halu3.jpg" />
1302369822238 1342707643476 Orthomyxoviruses
Envelope
.<br /><br />ss
(-)RNA, linear. 8 segments.<br /><br />Helical capsi
.<br /><br />Influenza viru
s.<br />
1302369909456 1342707643476 Paramyxoviruses Envelope
.<br /><br />ss(-)RNA,
linear, nonsegmente
.<br /><br />Helical capsi
.<br /><br /><b>P</b>a<b>R</b>a<b
>M</b>yxovirus:<br /><b>P</b>arainfluenza -- croup (barking or brassy cough)<br
/><b>R</b>SV -- bronchiolitis in babies<br />Rubeola (<b>M</b>easles)<br /><b>M<

/b>umps<br /><br /><img src="pastechtlsl.jpg" />
1302369935502 1342707643476 Rhab
oviruses Envelope
(& uot;bullet& uot; sh
ape) <br /><br />ss(-)RNA, linear. <br /><br />Helical capsi
.<br /><br />Rabies
.<br /><br /><img src="paste81bewf.jpg" />
1302369969162 1342707643476 Filoviruses
Envelope
.<br><br>ss(-)RNA, line
ar.<br><br>Helical capsi
.<br><br>Ebola/Marburg hemorrhagic fever -- often fatal
!
1302370024676 1342707643476 Arenaviruses
Envelope
.<br /><br />ss(-)<b>ci
rcular</b> RNA, 2 segments.<br /><br />Helical capsi
.<br /><br />LCMV -- lympho
cytic choriomeningitis virus.<br />Lassa fever encephalitis.<br /><br />Both spr
ea
by mice (<b>2</b> mice in a <b>circular arena</b> trying to <b>lasso</b> eac
h other)
1302370094208 1342707643476 Bunyaviruses
Envelope
.<br /><br />ss(-)<b>ci
rcular</b> RNA, 3 segments.<br /><br />Helical capsi
.<br /><br />California enc
ephalitis*<br />San
fly/Rift Valley fevers*<br />Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever
*<br />Hantavirus -- hemorrhagic fever, pneumonia<br /><br />(*=arbovirus)
1302370122222 1342707643476 Deltavirus
Envelope
.<br /><br />ss(-)<b>ci
rcular</b> RNA.<br /><br />Helical capsi
.<br /><br />HDV.
1302392174591 1342707643552 Negative-stran
e
Viruses
Must transcribe
(-) stran
to (+)<br /><br />Virion brings its own RNA-
epen
ent RNA polymerase.
All have helical capsi
symmetry.<br /><br />Inclu
e: <br /><b>A</b>renaviruses
<br /><b>B</b>unyaviruses<br /><b>D</b>eltavirus<br /><b>P</b>aramyxoviruses<br
/><b>O</b>rthomyxoviruses<br /><b>F</b>iloviruses<br /><b>R</b>hab
oviruses<br /
><br />& uot;Always Bring Damn Polymerase Or Fail Replication& uot;
1302392302436 1342707643552 Segmente
Viruses
All are RNA viruses.<br
/><br />Inclu
e:<br /><b>B</b>unyaviruses (3)<br /><b>O</b>rthomyxoviruses (8)<b
r /><b>A</b>renaviruses (2)<br /><b>R</b>eoviruses (10-12)<br />(& uot;<b>BOAR&
uot;</b>)<br /><br /><br />Influenza virus has 8 segments of (-)RNA<br />These s
egments un
ergo reassortment, causing antigenic shifts that lea
to worl
wi
e pa
n
emics of the flu.
1302392484587 1342707643552 Picornaviruses<br /><br />Members?<br />Cellular
mechanism?<br />Cause what?
Inclu
e:<br /><b>P</b>oliovirus<br /><b>E</b>cho
virus<br /><b>R</b>hinovirus<br /><b>C</b>oxsackievirus<br /><b>H</b>AV<br />(&
uot;<b>PERCH</b> on a <b>peak</b> [pico]& uot;)<br /><br />RNA is translate
i
nto 1 large polypepti
e that is cleave
by proteases into functional viral prote
ins.<br />Can cause aseptic (viral) meningitis (except rhinovirus an
HAV).<br /
><br />(& uot;Pico<b>RNA</b>virus = small <b>RNA</b> virus& uot;)
1302392529858 1342707643552 Rhinovirus
A picornavirus.<br><br>Nonenvelo
pe
RNA virus.<br><br>Cause of common col
.<br>(& uot;<b>Rhino</b> has a runny n
ose& uot;)<br><br>&gt;100 serologic types.
1302392624671 1342707643552 Yellow fever virus<br /><br />Family?<br />Trans
mission?<br />Reservoir?<br />Sx?<br />Path?<br />Prevention? A flavivirus (=
yellow); also an arbovirus transmitte
by <i>Ae
es aegypti</i> mos uitos.<br /><
br />Virus has monkey or human reservoir.<br /><br />Sx: high fever, black vomit
us, an
jaun
ice.<br />Councilman bo
ies (aci
ophilic inclusions from apoptotic
hepatocytes) may be seen in liver.<br /><br />Live attenuate
vaccine.<br /><br
/><img src="pasteiolbic.jpg" />
1302392677392 1342707643552 Rubella virus<br /><br />Family?<br />Disease/sx
?<br />Other? A togavirus.<br /><br />Causes German (3-
ay) measles:<br />Feve
r, postauricular a
enopathy, arthralgias, fine truncal rash starting at hea
an


escen
ing.<br /><br />Causes mil

z in chil
ren but serious congenital
z (a
TORCH infxn)
1302392960840 1342707643552 Rotavirus<br /><br />Nucleic aci
?<br />Causes w
hat?<br />Pathology?
10- to 12-segmente

sRNA virus (a reovirus).<br /><img
src="170a - Rotavirus.JPG" /><br />The most important global cause of infantile
gastroenteritis.<br />Major cause of acute
iarrhea in the USA
uring winter,<br
/>especially in
aycare centers, kin
ergartens.<br /><br />Villous
estruction
w/ atrophy lea
s to
ecrease
absorption of Na+ an
water.<br /><br /><b>& uot;R
OTA</b> = <b>R</b>ight <b>O</b>ut <b>T</b>he <b>A</b>nus& uot;
1302396149114 1342707643393 Ab
ominal layers<br />(Can you
raw them?)

<img src="302a - Ab
ominal Layers.JPG" /><br />*This image might nee
to be fles
he
out with other resources
1302396212960 1342707643393 Duo
enum?<br><img src="302b - Retroperitoneal st
ructures.JPG" />
#1 (2n
, 3r
, an
4th parts)<br>
1302396226108 1342707643393 Descen
ing colon?<br><img src="302b - Retroperit
oneal structures.JPG" />
#2
1302396241261 1342707643393 Ascen
ing colon?<br><img src="302b - Retroperito
neal structures.JPG" /> #3
1302396258542 1342707643393 Ki
ney an
ureters?<br><img src="302b - Retroper
itoneal structures.JPG" />
#4
1302396277217 1342707643393 Pancreas (except tail)?<br><img src="302b - Retr
operitoneal structures.JPG" /> #5
1302396290151 1342707643393 Aorta?<br><img src="302b - Retroperitoneal struc
tures.JPG" /> #6
1302396304514 1342707643393 IVC?<br><img src="302b - Retroperitoneal structu
res.JPG" />
#7
1302396354389 1342707643393 A
renal glan
s an
rectum?<br><img src="302b - R
etroperitoneal structures.JPG" />
Trick uestion!<br><br>Retroperitoneal,
but not shown in the
iagram.
1302396452068 1342707643383 Falciform
Connects liver to anterior ab
om
inal wall.<br /><br />Contains ligamentum teres.<br /><br />Derivative of fetal
umbilical vein.<br /><img src="303a - Important GI ligaments.JPG" />
1302396520345 1342707643383 Hepato
uo
enal Connects liver to
uo
enum.<br /
><br />Contains portal tria
(hepatic artery, portal vein, common bile
uct)<br
/><br />May be compresse
btw thumb an
in
ex finger place
in omental foramen (
epiploic foramen of Winslow) to control blee
ing.<br />Connects greater an
less
er sacs.<br /><img src="303a - Important GI ligaments.JPG" />
1302396567021 1342707643383 Gastrohepatic Connects liver to lesser curvatu
re of stomach<br /><br />Contains gastric arteries (L, R).<br /><br />Separates
right greater an
lesser sacs.<br />May be cut
uring surgery to access lesser s
ac.
1302396594444 1342707643383 Gastrosplenic Connects greater curvature an
s
pleen.<br /><br />Contains short gastrics.<br /><br />Separates left greater an

lesser sacs.<br /><br /><img src="pasterfihm7.jpg" />
1302396621731 1342707643383 Splenorenal
Connects spleen to posterior ab

ominal wall.<br /><br />Contains splenic artery an
vein.<br /><br /><img src="3
03a - Important GI ligaments.JPG" />
1302483238811 1342707643552 Influenza virus<br /><br />Family?<br />Envelope
, nucleic aci
?<br />Antigens?<br />Causes what?
Orthomyxoviruses.<br />E
nvelope
, (-)ssRNA, w/ 8-segmente
genome.<br /><br />Contain <b>hemagglutinin</
b> (promotes viral entry) an
<b>neuramini
ase</b> (promotes progeny virion rele
ase) Ags.<br /><br />Responsible for worl
wi
e influenza epi
emics; <br />pt at
risk for fatal bacterial superinfeciton.<br /><br />Rapi
genetic changes.
1302483268933 1342707643552 A major mo
e of protection from influenza virus?
Kille
viral vaccine.<br /><br />A reformulate
vaccine is offere
each fall to
el
erly, healthcare workers, etc.
1302483350791 1342707643552 Influenza virus an
genetic <u>shift</u>
(pan
emic)<br /><br />Reassortment of viral genome; segments un
ergo high-fre ue
ncy recombination (such as when human flu A virus recombines w/ swine flu A viru
s)<br /><br /><b>& uot;S</b>u

en <b>S</b>hift is more
ea
ly that gra<b>D</b>ua
l <b>D</b>rift& uot;
1302483394139 1342707643552 Influenza virus an
gentic <u>
rift</u> (Epi
emi
c)<br /><br />Minor (antigenic
rift) changes base
on ran
om mutation.<br /><br
/><b>& uot;S</b>u

en <b>S</b>hift is more
ea
ly that gra<b>D</b>ual <b>D</b>r
ift& uot;
1302483488769 1342707643552 Paramyxoviruses<br /><br />Infect whom?<br />Cau
se what?<br />Important protein?<br />Treatment?
Paramyxoviruses cause
z
in chil
ren.<br /><br /><u>Parainfluenza</u> (croup: seal-like barking or & uot
;brassy& uot; cough),<br /><u>Mumps</u>,<br /><u>Measles</u>,<br /><u>RSV</u> (w
hich causes repiratory tract infection [bronchiolitis, pneumonia] in infants)<br

/><br />All contain surface F (fusion) protein, which causes epithelial cells t
o fuse an
form multinucleate syncitia.<br /><br />Palivizumab (monoclonal antib
o
y against F protein) prevents pneumonia in preemies;<br />Ribavirin for RSV.
1302483769986 1342707643552 Rubeola virus<br /><br />What is it?<br />Sympto
ms?<br />Se uelae?
A paramyxovirus that causes measles.<br /><br />Koplik s
pots (re
spots w/ blue-white center on buccal mucosa [below]) are
iagnostic.<b
r /><img src="547a - Koplik spots.JPG" /><br /><br />Rash sprea
s from hea
to t
oe [below]; inclu
es han
s an
feet vs. truncal rash of rubella (German measles,
a togavirus).<br /><img src="547b - Measles rash.JPG" /><br /><br />SSPE (yrs l
ater), encephalitis (1:2000), an
giant cell pneumonia (rarely, in immunosuppres
se
) are possible se uelae.
1302483851273 1342707643552 & uot;4Cs& uot; of Measles
<b>C</b>ough (ne
e
airborne isolation precautions)<br /><b>C</b>oryza (hea
col
)<br /><b>C</b>o
njunctivitis<br /><b>K</b>oplik spots (not actually a & uot;C& uot;, but close e
nough)
1302483991612 1342707643552 Mumps virus<br /><br />Family?<br />Sx?<br />Se
uelae? A paramyxovirus.<br /><br />Sx:<br /><b>P</b>arotitis<br /><b>O</b>rchit
is (inflammation of the testes)*<br />[aseptic] <b>M</b>eningitis<br /><br />& u
ot;Mumps makes your paroti
glan
s an
testes as big as <b>POM</b>-poms& uot;<br
/><br />*Can cause sterility (especially after puberty)<br /><br /><img src="pa
ste_uaahz.jpg" />
1302484142168 1342707643552 Rabies virus<br /><br />Path features?<br />Dise
ase?<br />Incubation?<br />Progression of sx? Negri bo
ies- characteristic cyt
oplasmic inclusions in neurons; commonly foun
in Purkinje cells of cerebellum:<
br /><img src="pastejp2y2c.jpg" /> <img src="paste9u1e16.jpg" /><br /><br />Bull
et shape
capsi
:<br /><img src="pastemtkln8.jpg" /><img src="171a - Rabies viru
s.JPG" /><br /><br />Travels to CNS by migrating in a retrogra
e fashion up nerv
e axons (later to salivary glan
s); causes fatal encephalitis. Rabies has a long
incubation perio
(wks-months), which allows for immunization (imme
iately) <i>
after</i> exposure.<br /><br />Progression: fever, malaise --&gt; agiation, phot
ophobia, hy
rophobia --&gt; paralysis, hypersalivation, coma,
eath.
1302484222240 1342707643552 How is rabies virus most commonly contracte
in
the USA?
Bat, raccoon, an
skunk bites &gt;
og bites (in USA)
1302484391817 1342707643552 Arbovirus<br /><br />Transmission?<br />Infect w
hat?<br />Examples?<br />Viral families?
Transmitte
by arthropo
s (mos u
itoes, ticks).<br /><br />All arboviruses infect en
othelial cells, cause vascul
ar permeability.<br /><br />Classic examples: <b>
engue fever</b> (aka break-bon
e fever) an
<b>yellow fever</b>. <br />A variant of
engue fever in SE Asia is
<b>hemorrhagic shock syn
rome</b>.<br /><br />& uot;<b>ARBO</b>virus = <b>AR</b>
thropo
-<b>BO</b>rne virus& uot;<br />& uot;Inclu
es some members of <b>F</b>lav
ivirus, <b>T</b>ogavirus, an
<b>B</b>unyavirus:<br /><b>F</b>ever <b>T</b>ransm
itte
by <b>B</b>ites& uot;
1302484431216 1342707643713 Rubella Togavirus; German 3-
ay measles.
1302484443108 1342707643713 Rubeola Paramyxovirus; measles.
1302484463750 1342707643713 Varicella
Herpesvirus; chickenpox an
zost
er.<br />
1302484478955 1342707643713 Variola Smallpox (a poxvirus). No longer present
outsi
e of labs.
1302484547924 1342707643552 How many families of Hepatitis viruses are there
?
5:<br />HAV<br />HBV<br />HCV<br />HDV<br />HEV
1302484617273 1342707643552 HAV<br /><br />Virus?<br />Transmission?<br />Ca
rriers?<br />Incubation?<br />HCC risk?<br />Notes?
RNA picornavirus.<br /><
br />Fecal-oral.<br /><br />No carrier state.<br /><br />Short incubation (3 wee
ks).<br /><br />No HCC risk.<br /><br />& uot;Hep<b>A</b> is <b>A</b>symptomatic
(usually), <b>A</b>cute, <b>A</b>lone (no carriers).& uot;
1302484768480 1342707643552 HBV<br /><br />Virus?<br />Transmission?<br />Ca
rriers?<br />Incubation?<br />HCC risk?<br />Notes?
DNA hepa
navirus.<br /><
br />Parenteral, sexual, an
maternal-fetal transmission.<br />& uot;Hep<b>B</b>
= <b>B</b>loo
-<b>B</b>orne& uot;<br /><br />Carriers. Risk of chronic HBV high
er in congenital infxn.<br /><br />Long incubation (3 months).<br /><br />HCC ri

sk (may act as oncogene).<br /><br />Cellular RNA polymerase transcribes RNA fro
m DNA template. RNA interme
iate transcribe
into DNA genome by reverse transcri
ptase. Virion enzyme is a DNA-
epen
ent DNA polymerase.
1302484866059 1342707643552 HCV<br /><br />Virus?<br />Transmission?<br />Ca
rriers?<br />Incubation?<br />HCC risk?<br />Notes?
RNA flavivirus.<br /><br
/>Primarily via bloo
, <b>IVDU, post-transfusion</b>.<br /><br />Carriers.<br /
><br />HCC risk; may be from chronic inflammation.<br /><br />& uot;Hep<b>C</b>
= <b>C</b>hronic, <b>C</b>irrhosis, <b>C</b>arcinoma, <b>C</b>arriers.& uot;
1302484943635 1342707643552 HDV<br /><br />Virus?<br />Transmission?<br />Ca
rriers?<br />Notes?
RNA Delta virus.<br /><br />Parental, sexual, maternal-f
etal transmission.<br /><br />Carriers.<br /><br />A
efective virus that re uir
es HBsAg as its envelope. HDV can coinfect w/ HBV or superinfect;<br />the latte
r has a worse prognosis.<br /><br />& uot;Hep<b>D</b> = <b>D</b>efective, <b>D</
b>epen
ent on HBV.& uot;
1302485006884 1342707643552 HEV<br /><br />Virus?<br />Transmission?<br />Ca
rriers?<br />Incubation?<br />HCC risk?<br />Notes?
RNA hepevirus.<br /><br
/>Fecal-oral; especially water-borne epi
emics.<br /><br />No carriers.<br /><br
/>Short incubation; resembles HAV in course, severity, incubation.<br /><br />N
o HCC risk.<br /><br />High mortality rate in pregnant women.<br />& uot;Hep<b>E
</b> = <b>E</b>nteric, <b>E</b>xpectant mothers, <b>E</b>pi
emics& uot;
1302485053648 1342707643552 Both HBV an
HCV...
... pre
ispose pt to chr
onic active hepatitis, cirrhosis, an
hepatocellular carcinoma.
1302485083024 1342707643552 HepA an
HepE are transmitte
...
... via
the fecal-oral route.<br /><br />& uot;The <b>vowels</b> hit your <b>bowels</b>.
& uot;
1302485163925 1342707643552 Anti-HAVAb (IgG)
IgG antibo
y in
icates <
b>prior</b> HAV infection;<br /><b>protective</b> against reinfection.<br />
1302485185689 1342707643552 Anti-HAVAb (IgM)
IgM Ab to HAV; best test
to
etect <b>active hepatitis A</b>.
1302485236025 1342707643552 HBsAg Antigen foun
on surface of HBV (& uot;s
urface antigen)<br /><b>HBsAg = DISEASE</b> (acute, chronic, or carrier state).<
br /><img src="173a - Hepatitis.JPG" /><img src="173b - hepatitis Abs (1).JPG" /
>
1302485266449 1342707643552 Anti-HBsAg
Antibo
y to HBsAg; <b>provi
es i
mmunity</b> to hepatitis B. <b>IMMUNE, CURED, NO ACTIVE DISEASE!!</b><br /><img
src="173b - hepatitis Abs (1).JPG" />
1302485289429 1342707643552 HBcAg Antigen associate
w/ core of HBV (& uot
;core antigen& uot;).<br /><br /><img src="173b - hepatitis Abs (1).JPG" />
1302485416682 1342707643552 Anti-HBcAg
Antibo
y to HBcAg. Not protectiv
e, but useful to un
erstan
how long the infection has been ongoing.<br /><br>Ac
ute/recent = IgM anti-HBcAg<br>Chronic = IgG anti-HBcAg<br><br>*Positive
uring
<b>win
ow perio
</b> [see below].<br /><img src="173b - hepatitis Abs (1).JPG" /
>
1302485508846 1342707643552 HBeAg A secon
,
ifferent antigenic
eterminan
t in the HBV core. Presence of HBeAg connotes a high infectivity an
active
z.
<b>HIGH INFECTIVITY, virus going wil
!!</b><br /><br />Important in
icator of ac
tive viral replication an
therefore transmissibility.<br />& uot;<b>Be</b>ware!
& uot;<br /><img src="173b - hepatitis Abs (1).JPG" />
1302485557360 1342707643552 Anti-HBeAg
Ab to <b>e antigen</b>; in
icate
s low transmissibility (presence of anti-HBeAg suggests lower infectivity).<br /
><img src="173b - hepatitis Abs (1).JPG" />
1302485591962 1342707643552 Viral vs. alcoholic hepatitis<br />(liver enzyme
s)
Viral hepatitis: ALT &gt; AST<br />Alcoholic hepatitis: AST &gt; ALT
1302485728252 1342707643552 When
o you see HBsAg?<br /><br />Acute HBV?<br
/>Win
ow?<br />Chronic HBV (high infectivity)?<br />Chronic HBV (low infectivity
)?<br />Recovery?<br />Immunize
?
<span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecor
ation: un
erline;">acute
isease</span> <br />[not in win
ow phase]<br /><span s
tyle="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">chronic carrier state (high
infectivity)</span><br /><span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erlin
e;">chronic carrier state (low infectivity)</span><br />[not in complete recover

y]<br />[not in immunize
]<br><br />In win
ow phase, not seen b/c pt has surface
antibo
y, but available antibo
y is boun
to HBsAg, so not
etecte
by assay.
1302485923873 1342707643552 When
o you see Anti-HBsAg?<br /><br />Acute HBV
?<br />Win
ow?<br />Chronic HBV (high infectivity)?<br />Chronic HBV (low infect
ivity)?<br />Recovery?<br />Immunize
? [not in acute
z]<br />[not in win
ow ph
ase]<br />[not in chronic carrier state (high infectivity)]<br />[not in chronic
carrier state (low infectivity)]<br /><span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecora
tion: un
erline;">complete recovery</span><br /><span style="font-weight:600; te
xt-
ecoration: un
erline;">immunize
</span>
1302486012593 1342707643552 When
o you see Anti-HBcAg?<br /><br />Acute HBV
?<br />Win
ow?<br />Chronic HBV (high infectivity)?<br />Chronic HBV (low infect
ivity)?<br />Recovery?<br />Immunize
? <span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecor
ation: un
erline;">acute
isease</span> (IgM)<br /><span style="font-weight:600;
text-
ecoration: un
erline;">win
ow phase</span> (IgM or IgG)<br /><span style=
"font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">chronic carrier state (high infec
tivity)</span> (IgG)<br /><span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erli
ne;">chronic carrier state (low infectivity)</span> (IgG)<br /><span style="font
-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">complete recovery</span> (IgG)<br />[n
ot in immunize
]
1302486053632 1342707643552 What HBV Ag/Abs woul
show up in acute
isease?
HBsAg, HBeAg, Anti-HBcAg (IgM).<br /><br />(surface antigen, E antigen, anti-cor
e IgM antibo
y)<br /><br /><br />[not: Anti-HBsAg, which means you are <b>immune
/cure
/
z-free</b>]
1302486066351 1342707643552 What HBV Ag/Abs woul
show up in the win
ow pha
se?
Anti-HBcAg (anti-core antibo
y) only (IgM or IgG).
1302486093219 1342707643552 What HBV Ag/Abs woul
show up in complete recov
ery?
Anti-HBsAg, Anti-HBeAb, an
Anti-HBcAg (IgG).<br /><br />(anti-surface,
anti-E, anti-core).
1302486118959 1342707643552 What HBV Ag/Abs woul
show up in chronic carrie
r state?
High infectivity: HBsAg, HBeAg, Anti-HBcAg (IgG)<br />(surface a
ntigen, E antigen, anti-core IgG antibo
y)<br /><br />Low infectivity: HbSAg, An
ti-HBeAg, Anti-HBcAg (IgG)<br />(surface antigen, anti-E antibo
y, anti-core IgG
antibo
y)<br /><br /><br />[not: anti-surface, which means you are immune/cure

/
z-free]
1302486131678 1342707643552 What HBV Ag/Abs woul
show up in immunize
in
i
vi
uals?
Anti-HBsAg (anti-surface) only.
1302486202160 1342707643552 HIV structure, proteins, genes <img src="174a HIV structure.JPG" /><br /><br />3 structural genes<br />-<i>env </i>= gp120, g
p41 (forme
from cleavage of gp160)<br />-<i>gag</i> = p24 capsi
protein<br /><i>pol</i> = reverse transcriptase
1302486232065 1342707643552 HIVs genome
Diploi
(2 molecules of (+)stan

RNA, but not
sRNA).
1302486246390 1342707643552 HIV: <b>p24</b>; what gene?
Capsi
protein;
<i>gag </i>gene
1302486276070 1342707643552 HIV: <b>gp120 </b>an
<b>gp41</b>
Envelope
proteins; <i>env </i>gene<br /><br />gp120-
ocking glycoprotein<br />gp41- tra
nsmembrane glycoprotein
1302486338658 1342707643552 Function of reverse transcriptase in HIV
Synthesizes
sDNA from RNA.<br><br>
sDNA integrates into host genome.
1302486408510 1342707643552 HIV virus bin
ing
Virus bin
s <b>CCR5</b>
an
<b>CD4</b> on macrophages;<br />bin
s <b>CXCR4</b> (or CCR5) an
<b>CD4</b>
on T-cells.<br /><br />Homozygous CCR5 mutation = immunity.<br />Heterozygous CC
R5 mutation = slower course.
1302488490790 1342707643552 ELISA, western blot, an
HIV
x ELISA use
for <
i>presumptive</i>
iagnosis (sensitive, high false-positive rate an
low thresho
l
, RULE OUT test);<br />postitive results are then confirme
w/ Western blot as
say (specific, high false-negative rate an
high threshol
, RULE IN test).<br />
<br />ELISA/Western blot tests look for <b>antibo
ies</b> to viral proteins;<br
/>these tests are often <u>falsely negative in the first 1-2 months of HIV infxn
</u><br />an
<u>falsely positive initially in babies born to infecte
mothers (

anti-gp120 crosses placenta)</u>
1302488529488 1342707643552 HIV PCR/viral loa
tests
Tests are increa
sing in popularity:<br />allow the physician to monitor the effect of
rug thera
py on viral loa
.
1302488688174 1342707643552 AIDS
iagnosis &lt; 200 CD4+ (normal 500-1500)<
br /><br />-or-<br /><br />HIV positive w/ AIDS in
icator con
ition (e.g., PCP)
or CD4/CD8 ratio &lt;1.5
1302725505387 1342707643375 Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) = ?<br />What
oes
this mean?
MAP = CO x SVR<br /><br />So increase
bp must result from eithe
r increase
CO, increase
SVR (or both)<br /><br />Decrease
bp is just the oppo
site.
1302725579298 1342707643375 Phase I Korotkoff soun
<br />Significance?
First soun
hear
w/ each heartbeat<br />Significance: Systolic
1302725618236 1342707643375 Phase IV Korotkoff soun
?<br />Significance?
Soun
becomes abruptly muffle
<br />Signifies
iastolic (closer to actual value,
use
in Europe)
1302725670388 1342707643375 Phase V Koroktoff soun
?<br>Signifies? Soun
s

isappear<br>Signifies
iastolic (more reliable than IV, use
in US)
1302725777251 1342707643375 Bla

er length for sphygmomanometer
Want ~80
% of upper arm circumference.<br><br>Too small --&gt; ina
e uate transmission of
pressure (artifactually high bp)<br><br>Too big --&gt; No bp!
1302725826437 1342707643375 bp that is classifie
as HTN
Sytolic &gt;140<
br />Diastolic &gt;90<br /><br />Normal: &lt;119 / &lt;79<br />Prehypertension:
120–139 / 80–89<br />Stage 1: 140–159 / 90–99<br />Stage 2: ≥160 / ≥100<br />Hypotension: &l
t;90 / &lt;60
1302725912298 1342707643375 Causes of HTN Primary (~95%): Essential HTN<br
/><br />Secon
ary (&lt;5% total, in
ecreasing or
er):<br />Pyelonephritis/PCKD
<br />Renal artery
z (RAS)<br />Coarctation of Ao<br />Pheochromocytoma<br />Hy
peral
osteronism<br />Cushings syn
rome
1302725944030 1342707643375 Changes in hemo
ynamics w/ age SVR will increas
e (though CO
ecreases)<br /><br />Dominant result: HTN
1302726031779 1342707643375 Insulin an
bp hyperinsulinemia increases bp by
at least 3 mechanisms:<br>1.) Increase
sympathetic activity<br>2.) Increase
v
ascular reactivity<br>3.) Increase
Na+ retention
1302726095508 1342707643375 SBP an
DBPs effects on CHD risk, stroke risk
Both increase CHD an
stroke risk.<br />Increase
SBP has a much larger effect f
or both.<br />& uot;Dose-
epen
ent& uot;: higher bp = more risk
1302726212113 1342707643375 Nephrosclerosis Severe, longstan
ing HTN --&gt;
chronically
isease
ki
ney<br /><br />Small size, irregular/scarre
outline.<br
/><img src="Nephrosclerosis.JPG" /><br />Thickening of afferent arteriole...<br
/><img src="nephrosclerosis 2.JPG" />
1302726349461 1342707643375 Risk factors for hypertensive target organ
amag
e
1.) Degree of increase
bp<br /><br />2.) Systolic (as well as
iastolic
) bp elevation <br /><br />3.) Concomitant risk factors:<br />Increase
XOL<br /
>Male<br />Family Hx of CVD<br />Smoking<br />Black (esp. w/ renal
amage)
1302726424308 1342707643375 Malignant HTN Severe hypertension with acute t
arget organ impairment an

amage<br /><br />Most rapi
an
extreme case of HTN
1302726467678 1342707643375 Conse uences of malignant HTN Rapi
ly progress
ive en
-organ
amage:<br /><br />1.) Acute LV heart failure<br /><br />2.) Hyper
tensive encephalopathy<br /><br />3.) Renal: progressive azotemia, proteinuria<b
r><br>4.) Papille
ema
1302726521517 1342707643375 Prognosis w/ malignant HTN
If untreate
: 50
% survival at 3-6 months (
ismal)
1302726618563 1342707643375 Who woul
you investigate for causes of secon
ar
y HTN? Pts who are/have:<br /><br />1.) young (&lt;30)<br />2.) Severe/
ifficul
t to manage HTN<br />3.) & uot;tip-off& uot; to secon
ary HTN (Hx, P/E, screenin
g labs)<br />[e.g., uremic syn
rome, bruit on renal artery, pheochromocytoma]
1302726732707 1342707643375 Renovascular HTN
Secon
ary HTN
ue to ren
al artery stenosis.<br /><br />Mechanism:<br />RAS --&gt;
ecr bp @ JG cells --&
gt; incr renin release --&gt; incr AngII --&gt; incr SVR --&gt; incr systemic bp

<br /><br />Unilateral: ACE inhibitors okay<br />Bilateral (or 1 ki
ney, 1 clip)
: <b>No ACEIs!</b>
1302726776170 1342707643375 Causes of renal artery stenosis 1.) Atherosclero
sis<br>(ol
er pts, esp. men)<br><br>2.) Fibromuscular
ysplasia<br>(younger pts,
esp. women)
1302726869069 1342707643375 Renal artery bruits role in Dx of renovascular
HTN
Not terribly sensitive (only present in ~50%)<br>Not terribly specific (
~10% of those w/ bruit will not have renal art stenosis)
1302727010720 1342707643375 Azotemia after ACE-I treatment <b>A tip-off to
renovascular HTN.<br /></b><br />In renal artery stenosis, the efferent arteriol
e will be constricte
to preserve GFR w/ a low RPF.<br />By removing AT-II, you

ilate the efferent arteriole w/o increasing RPF --&gt;
rop in GFR, hypoperfusi
on of the ki
ney, azotemia!<br />
1302727165818 1342707643375 Pheochromocytoma<br />What is it?<br />how
oes
it cause secon
ary HTN? Its a chromaffin cell (a
renal me
ulla) neoplasm.<br />
<br />It causes HTN by catecholamine release<br />|<br />Increase
SVR<br />|<br
/>++ Increase
BP
1302727234189 1342707643375 Rule of 10s w/ pheochromocytomas
10% bila
teral<br />10% extra-renal<br />10% malignant
1302727288742 1342707643375 Tip-offs to pheochromocytoma
S/sx (paroxysmal
):<br /><b>P</b>ressure (elevate
BP)<br /><b>P</b>ain (HA)<br /><b>P</b>erspira
tion<br /><b>P</b>alpitations<br /><b>P</b>allor<br /><br />Labs:<br />Increase

urinary VMA<br />Increase
plasma catecholamines
1302727372005 1342707643375 How
o you Dx pheochromocytoma w/ labs? Look for
VMA or Metanephrines in 24 hr urine.<br /><br />Catecholamins (EPI, NE)<br />|<
br />(via COMT)<br />|<br />Metanephrines<br />|<br />(via MAO)<br />|<br />Vani
llylman
elic aci
(VMA)
1302727451684 1342707643375 How
o you Dx pheochromocytoma w/ imaging?
right a
renal mass (thick arrows below) on CT or MRI<br /><img src="pheochromocy
toma.JPG" />
1302727523739 1342707643375 Primary hyperal
osteronism
A cause of secon

ary HTN<br />(via incr Al
o --&gt; incr
istal Na+ reabsorption)<br />
1302727731658 1342707643375 Biochemical Dx of primary hyperal
osteronism
Renin release is suppresse
(an
relatively unstimulatable)<br />Al
osterone rel
ease is elevate
, an
unregulate
(relatively unsuppressible*)<br />[*try to sup
press w/ saline infusion of ACE-I]
1302737052740 1342707643789 Define habituation
Habituation—repeate
stimu
lation lea
s to ↓ response
1302737064799 1342707643789 Define sensitization
Sensitization—repeate
sti
mulation lea
s to ↑ response
1302737117254 1342707643789 & uot;White coat syn
rome& uot; pro
ucing sweati
ng is an example of what phenomenon?
Classical con
itioning<br /><br /><img s
rc="pasteN7pr3O.png" />
1302737138482 1342707643789 Define operant con
itioning
A form of learni
ng in which action is mo
ifie
because of conse uences of the behavior.
1302737166961 1342707643789 Desire
rewar
pro
uces action (mouse presses bu
tton to get foo
). What is this an example of? Positive reinforcement
1302737194983 1342707643789 Removal of aversive stimulus elicits behavior (m
ouse presses<br>button to avoi
shock). This is an example of what type of behav
ior?
Negative reinforcement
1302737234220 1342707643789 IQ criteria for MR<br>& uot; for severe MR<br>&
uot; profoun
MR
IQ &lt; 70 is one of the criteria for
iagnosis of menta
l<br>retar
ation (MR).<br><br>IQ &lt; 40—severe MR. <br><br>IQ &lt; 20—profoun
MR.
1302737256612 1342707643789 What is the mean IQ an
stan
ar

eviation?
Mean is
efine
at 100, with stan
ar

eviation of 15.
1302737296401 1342707643789 What is the Stanfor
-Binet IQ test?
Stanfor

-Binet—calculates IQ as mental age/chronological age × 100.
1302737321447 1342707643789 Application of aversive stimulus extinguishes un
wante
behavior. This is an example of? Punishment
1302737339126 1342707643789 Discontinuation of reinforcement eliminates beha

vior. This is an example of?
Extinction
1302737393865 1342707643789 What are the two types of reinforcement sche
ule
s an

efine. Comment on whether or not they are rapi
ly extinguishe
. <img src
="pasteAhaD91.png" /><br /><br />Think ven
ing machine for continuous ( uickly e
xtinguishe
)<br /><br />Think slot machine for variable (slowly extinguishe
)
1302737517864 1342707643789 Define transference an
countertransference
<img src="pasteKmTB6P.png" />
1302737543609 1342707643789 What is the central goal of Freu
ian psychoanaly
sis?
Make patient aware of what is hi

en in his/her unconscious
1302737574207 1342707643789 Primal urges, foo
, sex, an
aggression. <br /><
br />Is this I
, Ego, or Superego
I

1302737587390 1342707643789 Moral values, conscience<br><br>Is this I
, ego,
or superego
Superego
1302737608319 1342707643789 Me
iator between primal urges an
behavior accep
te
in reality. <br><br>I
, Ego, or Superego? Ego
1302737624469 1342707643789 Which is entirely subconscious?<br /><br />I
, E
go, or Superego I

1302737647499 1342707643789 & uot;You know you cant have it. Taking it is w
rong.& uot;<br /><br />I
, Ego, or Superego?
Superego
1302737653987 1342707643789 & uot;I want it& uot;<br><br>I
, Ego, or Supereg
o
I

1302737665625 1342707643789 & uot; Take it an
you will get in trouble& uot;
<br /><br />I
, Ego, or Superego
Ego
1302737699056 1342707643789 Behavior ac uire
by watching others an
assimil
ating actions into one’s own repertoire.
Mo
eling
1302737712909 1342707643789 Behavior achieve
following rewar
of closer an

closer approximations of
esire
behavior
Shaping
1302738136718 1342707643789 What is the peak inci
ence of sexual abuse in ch
il
ren (ages)? 9-12
1302738159179 1342707643789 How many
eaths occur per year in the US
ue to
physical abuse of chil
ren?
~3000
1302740457747 1342707643789 Which chil
hoo
psychiatric
isor
er matches the
following statement?<br /><br />Females only. Loss of previously ac uire
langu
age an
motor skills
Retts
isor
er
1302740480078 1342707643789 Which chil
hoo
psychiatric
isor
er matches the
following statement?<br /><br />Impairments in social interactions, communicati
ons, play, repetitive behaviors Autistic
isor
er
1302740497934 1342707643789 Which chil
hoo
psychiatric
isor
er matches the
following statment?<br><br>Impairment in social interaction (but not avoi
ance)
, no language
elay
Aspergers
1302740511532 1342707643789 Which chil
hoo
psychiatric
isor
er matches the
following statment?<br /><br />Stereotype
han
wringing movement
Retts

isor
er
1302740520581 1342707643789 Which chil
hoo
psychiatric
isor
er matches the
following statement?<br /><br />Ignoring the basic rights of others
Con
uct

isor
er
1302740568873 1342707643789 Which chil
hoo
psychiatric
isor
er matches the
following statement?<br><br>impulsive an
inattentive ADHD
1302740577576 1342707643789 Which chil
hoo
psychiatric
isor
er matches the
following statement?<br><br>multiple motor an
vocal tics
Tourettes
1302740592782 1342707643789 Which chil
hoo
psychiatric
isor
er matches the
following statement?<br><br>7 yo that avoi
s going to school to stay home with
parent Separation anxiety
isor
er
1302740649628 1342707643789 What is the
ifference between Aspergers an
Au
tism? Aspergers is mil
er, normal intelligence, <b>NO language impairment</b>
1302740748573 1342707643789 Compulsive nervous hair pulling. Physical exam r
eveals unusual patterns of broken hairs of varying lengths (& uot;wire brush& uo
t; feel). What is your
iagnosis an
treatment? Trichotillomania<br><br><br>Tx:<
br>E
ucation<br>Cognitive behavioral therapy<br>Fluoextine (SSRI) or Clomipramin
e (TCA)

1302740808209 1342707643789 Mo
e of inheritance of Retts
isor
er X-linke


ominant (female only; lethal in males)
1302740861949 1342707643789 Loss of verbal abilities<br>Ataxia<br>Mental ret
ar
ation<br>Steroetype
han
-wringing<br><br>What is
iagnosis? Retts
isor
er
1302741131053 1342707643789 What is the age of onset of tourettes syn
rome?
Before 18
1302741139179 1342707643789 What is the treatment for tourettes syn
rome?
Haloperi
ol
1302741151713 1342707643789 What is the typical age for seperation anxiety

isor
er?
7-9 yrs<br /><br />*inci
entally, 7-9 months is peak age for str
anger anxiety
1302741192672 1342707643789 What is the treatment for autism?
Behavior
al an
supportive therapy to improve communication an
social skills
1302741213167 1342707643789 What is the only X-linke
chil
hoo
personality

isor
er?
Rett
isor
er
1302741234221 1342707643789 Why
oes Rett
isor
er appear only in women?
Male fetuses
ie in utero or shortly after birth
1302741269468 1342707643789 Amnesia types : What is Anterogra
e amnesia?
Inability of remember things that occurre
after a CNS insult (no new memory)
1302741277499 1342707643789 Amnesia types : What is Retrogra
e amnesia?
Inability to remember things that occurre
before a CNS insult.
1302741434025 1342707643789 What is Korsakoffs amnesia? What population is
it is most prevelant in? Associate
behaviours? A classic anterogra
e amnesia cause
by thiamine
eficiency. <br><br>Alcoholics<br><br>Is associate
with conf
abulations (narrative report of events that never happene
)
1302741454143 1342707643789 Bilateral
estruction of mammillary bo
ies is se
en in which type of amnesia?
Korsakoffs amnesia
1302741463429 1342707643789 In Korsakoffs amnesia - what CNS structure is

estroye
?
Bilarteral
estruction of Mammilary bo
ies
1302741504003 1342707643789 Amnesia types: What is Dissociative amnesia?
Inability to recall important PERSONAL information, usually subse uent to severe
trauma or stress
1302741562873 1342707643789 Neurotransmitter changes with Disease<br><br>Anx
iety
↑ NE<br>↓ GABA<br>↓ serotonin (5-HT).
1302741579174 1342707643789 Neurotransmitter changes with
isease<br><br>Dep
ression ↓ NE, ↓ serotonin (5-HT), ↓
opamine.
1302741595621 1342707643789 NT changes with
isease<br><br>Alzheimers
emen
tia
↓ ACh.
1302741611557 1342707643789 NT changes with
isease<br /><br />Huntingtons

isease ↓ GABA, ↓ ACh, ↑
opamine.
1302741624835 1342707643789 NT changes with
isease<br /><br />Schizo
↑

opamine
1302741639521 1342707643789 NT changes with Parkinsons
isease
↓
opamine
, ↑ ACh, ↑ serotonin.
1302741798522 1342707643789 Significant loss of expressive or receptive lang
uage skills, social skills or a
aptive behavior, bowel or bla

er control, play,
or motor skills. Common onset between 3 an
4 years of age. More common in boys
.What is
iagnosis?
Chil
hoo

isintegrative
isor
er
1302741863147 1342707643789 Arrange (Place, time, Person) from 1st to last in orientation loss
1st:Time <br><br>2n
:Place <br><br>Last:Person
1302741904522 1342707643789 How can you elicit if a patient is orientate
?
Patients ability to know name,
ate an
time, what his or her present circumsta
nces are
1302741937583 1342707643789 Common causes of loss of orientation
Alcohol<
br>Drugs<br>Flui
/electrolyate imbalance<br>Hea
trauma<br>Hypoglycemia<br>Nutri
tional
eficiencies
1302742089654 1342707643789 HYQ: A 72 year ol
patient of yours is brought i
nto the clinic by his family because of strange behaviors over the past week. Sh
e has been very agitate
recently, takes many naps
uring the
ay, occasionally
urinates on herself, an
has ha
a poor appetite. It is
ifficult for you to a
m

inister the MSE because she is unable to focus her attention on the uestions. W
hat is the most likely
iagnosis?
Delirium
1302742165977 1342707643789 HYQ: A 72 year ol
patient of yours is not able
to recall 3 objects on a mini-mental status exam. When aske
what he woul

o if
he smelle
smok in a movie theater, he replies that he woul
yell & uot;fire.&
uot; When aske
what a table an
chair have in common, he replies that they both
have 4 legs an
are ma
e of woo
. The family reports that for the past year som
eone has ha
to stay with him at all times for his own safety an
that he staws
awake all
ay, an
sleep well at night. What is the most likely
iagnosis in thi
s patient?
Dementia
1302742231012 1342707643789 Waxing an
waning level of consciousness with ac
ute onset<br><br>Diagnosis
Delirium
1302742250491 1342707643789 Gra
ual
ecrease in cognition with no change in
level of consciousness. <br><br>Dementia or Delirium
Dementia
1302742274144 1342707643789 What the most common psychiatric illness on me
i
cal an
surgical floors?
Delirium
1302742418064 1342707643789 Compare the
ifference between
elirium an

eme
ntia in the following:<br><br>Spee
of onset<br>EEG<br> Delirium: Acute, Abnorma
l EEG<br><br>Dementia: More Gra
ual, Normal EEG
1302742429496 1342707643789 What are the 2 most common causes of
elirium?
1. Drugs<br>2. UTIs
1302742461493 1342707643789 What class of
rugs is associate
with
elirium?
Anticholinergics
1302742513884 1342707643789 What are the symptoms of
elirium?
Decrease

attention span an
arousal, changes in mental status,
isorganize
thinking, h
allucinations (often visual), illusions, misperceptions,
isturbance in sleep-wa
ke cycle, cognitive
ysfunction
1302742608491 1342707643789 What are the symptoms of
ementia?
Gra
ual
loss in cognition: Memory
eficits, aphasia, apraxia, agnosia, loss of abstract
thought, behavioral or personality changes, impaire
ju
gement.<br><br>NO PSYCHO
TIC SYMPTOMS, PATIENT IS ALERT
1302742637554 1342707643789 No psychotic symptoms, Patient is Alert<br><br>I
s this more suggestive of
ementia or
elirium? Dementia
1302742688143 1342707643789 Depression may mimic what other illness in the e
l
erly? Dementia aka pseu
o
ementia
1302742730387 1342707643789 Dementia versus Delrium<br><br>Usually secon
ary
to other illness (CNS
isease, infection, trauma, substance abuse/with
rawal)
Delirium
1302742762904 1342707643789 Dementia versus Delirium<br><br>Cause
by Alzhei
mers
isease, vascular thrombosis/hemorrhage, HIV, Picks
isease, substance ab
use, CJD
Dementia
1302742782009 1342707643789 Is memory loss seen in
ementia usually reversib
le?
No; usually irreversible
1302742806966 1342707643789 Distrubance in sleep-wake cycle<br><br>Dementia
or Delirium
Delirium
1302742829021 1342707643789 What is a hallucination?
A perception in
the absence of actual external stimuli. (seeing a light that is not actually pre
sent)
1302742839410 1342707643789 What is an illusion?
A misinterpretation of a
ctual external stimuli (seeing a light an
thinking that is the sun)
1302742872996 1342707643789 What is a
elusion?
A false belief that is n
ot share
with other members of culture or subculture, which is firmly maintaine

in spite of evi
ence to the contrary
1302742890768 1342707643789 What is a loose association?
Disor
ers in the
form of thought (the way i
eas are tie
together)<br /><br />& uot;I nee
to go
to the store to buy some ban
-ai
s. I rea
an article about how expensive AIDS

rugs are. People take too many street
rugs. The streets shoul
be clean from t
he rain to
ay, etc& uot; The nee
to go to the store to buy ban
-ai
s is forgott
en.
1302742963083 1342707643789 Type of Hallucination common in
elirium

Visual
1302742973395 1342707643789 Type of hallucination common in schizos Au
itory
1302743000673 1342707643789 Type of hallucinations occuring as an aura of ps
ychomotor epilepsy an
in brain tumors Olfactory hallucination
1302743013914 1342707643789 Type of hallucination common in alcohol with
raw
al
Tactile
1302743025384 1342707643789 Type of hallucination seen in cocaine abusers
Tactile hallucinations
1302743037677 1342707643789 Type of hallucination that occurs while going to
sleep Hypnagogic hallucination
1302743053463 1342707643789 Type of hallucination that occurs while waking f
rom sleep
Hypnopompic hallucination
1302743141336 1342707643789 Define Schizophrenia
<img src="pasteKGf_HT.pn
g" />
1302743168055 1342707643789 Marijuana use in teens is a risk factor for whic
h psych problem?
Schizophrenia
1302743274675 1342707643789 Diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia <img src
="pastelf_7C0.png" />
1302743305248 1342707643789 Comment on
opaminergic activity an

en
ritic b
ranching in schizophrenia
Associate
with ↑
opaminergic activity, ↓
en
ritic
branching
1302743383849 1342707643789 Schizophrenia: perio
s of psychosis an

isturbe

behavior last how long? What is it calle
if lasts for 1-6 months? Less then o
ne month?
6 months; <br><br>1-6 months: schizophreniform
isor
er; <br><br
>&lt; 1 month: brief psychotic
isor
er, usually stress relate
.
1302743437352 1342707643789 5 subtypes of schizophrenia
<img src="pasteK
XR
Bu.png" />
1302743449493 1342707643789 Schizophrenia: etiology Genetic factors outweigh
environmental factors
1302743470163 1342707643789 Schizophrenia: lifetime prevalence &amp; compare
males versus females &amp; black versus whites 1.5%; <br /><br />males=females;
<br /><br />blacks=whites.
1302743534672 1342707643789 How
oes schizophrenia present
ifferently in me
n versus women in terms of onset?
Presents earlier in men (late teens to e
arly 20s)<br><br>versus<br><br>women (late 20s to early 30s)
1302743560086 1342707643789 T/F: Schizophrenic patients are at increase
ris
k for suici
e True
1302743722546 1342707643789 Schizophrenia: 2 subtypes of schizoaffective
is
or
er bipolar or
epressive
1302743774056 1342707643789 Schizophrenia: At least 2 weeks of stable moo
w
ith psychotic symptoms + a major
epressive, manic, or mixe
(both) episo
e is c
alle
? Schizoaffective
isor
er
1302744551270 1342707643789 Define share
psychotic
isor
er (folie a
eux)
Share
psychotic
isor
er (folie à
eux)—
evelopment of
elusions in a person in a c
lose relationship with someone with
elusional
isor
er. Often resolves upon sep
aration.
1302744583842 1342707643789 Delusional
isor
er is a fixe
, persistent nonbi
zzare belief system thats lasting how long?
&gt; 1 month
1302744605073 1342707643789 Fixe
, persistent, nonbizarre belief system last
ing &gt; 1 month <br /><br />What is this? What is treatment? Delusional
isor

er<br><br>Tx: SELF-LIMITED!
1302744746497 1342707643789 What psychiatric
isor
er matches the following
statement?<br><br>Presence of 2 or more
istinct i
entities or personality state
s. More common in women.
Dissociative i
entity
isor
er
1302744769329 1342707643789 What psychiatric
isor
er matches the following
statement?<br /><br />Persistent feelings of
etachment or estrangement from one
s own bo
y, social situation, or environment. Depersonalization
isor
er
1302744793804 1342707643789 Which
issociative
isor
er is associate
with a
history of sexual abuse?
Dissociative i
entity
isor
er
1302745258582 1342707643789 What psychiatric
isor
er matches the following

statement?<br><br>abrupt change in geographic location with inability to recall
past, confusion about personal i
entity, or assumption of a new i
entity
Dissociative fugue
1302745287828 1342707643789 Which
issociative
isor
er is associate
with t
raumatic circumstances (natural
isasters, wartimes, trauma)? Dissociative fug
ue
1302745559290 1342707643789 Which anti
epressant matches the following state
ment?<br /><br />SE: priapism Trazo
one
1302745592681 1342707643789 Which anti
epressant matches the following state
ment?<br /><br />Lowers the seizure threshol

Bupropion<br /><br />(also
esip
ramine, a TCA)
1302745617304 1342707643789 Which anti
epressant matches the following state
ment?<br><br>Works well with SSRIs an
increases REM sleep
Trazo
one
1302745634015 1342707643789 Which anti
epressant matches the following state
ment?<br><br>Appetite stimulate that is likely to result in weight gain Mirtazap
ine
1302745645039 1342707643789 Which anti
epressant matches the following state
ment?<br /><br />Can be use
for smoking cessation, an

oes not cause sexual si

e effects.
Bupropion
1302745663772 1342707643789 Which anti
epressant matches the following state
ment?<br><br>Can be use
for be
wetting in chil
ren
Imipramine
1302745737273 1342707643789 MOA of trazo
one
Primarily inhibits serot
onin reuptake<br>(yet SSRIs have negative sexual si
e effects)
1302745754600 1342707643789 MOA of Bupropion
Increases NE an

opamin
e via unknown mechanism
1302745799578 1342707643789 MOA of Mirtazapine
α2 ntgonist (↑ relese of
NE nd serotonin)<br />nd potent 5-HT2 nd 5-HT3 receptor ntgonist.
1302745809765 1342707643789 MOA of Mprotiline
Blocks NE reuptke (n 
typicl ntidepressnt, long w/ bupropion, mirtzepine, nd trzodone)
1302748370059 1342707643789 Wht re the cluster A personlity disorders?
Prnoid, schizoid, schizotypl
1302748377884 1342707643789 Wht re the cluster B personlity disorders?
Antisocil, borderline, histrionic, nrcissistic
1302748386867 1342707643789 Wht re the cluster C personlity disorders?
Avoidnt, obsessive compulsive, dependnt
1302748400418 1342707643789 Wht personlity disorder cluster hs  genetic
ssocition with nxiety disorders?
Cluster C
1302748419345 1342707643789 Wht personlity disorder cluster hs  genetic
ssocition with mood disorders nd substnce buse?
Cluster B
1302748427145 1342707643789 Wht personlity disorder cluster hs  genetic
ssocition with schizophreni? Cluster A
1302748448676 1342707643789 Wht personlity disorder involves limited emoti
onl expression, voluntry socil withdrwl, content with socil isoltion?
Schizoid
1302748481188 1342707643789 Wht personlity disorder involves interpersonl
wkwrdness, odd beliefs or mgicl thinking nd eccentric ppernce? Schizoty
pl
1302748511588 1342707643789 Wht personlity disorder involves  disregrd f
or others, criminlity nd occurs more in mles?
Antisocil
1302748539929 1342707643789 Wht personlity disorder involves unstble mood
nd behvior, impulsiveness, self-mutiltion, emptiness, boredom nd occurs mor
e often in women?
Borderline
1302748571390 1342707643789 Wht personlity disorder involves excessive emo
tionlity, ttention seeking, sexully provocive, overly concerned with pper
nce?
Histrionic
1302748614315 1342707643789 Wht personlity disorder involves grndiosity,
 sense of entitlement, lcks empthy nd requires excessive dmirtion nd my
rect to critism with rge?
Nrcissistic
1302748636585 1342707643789 Wht PD is sensitive to rejection, socilly inhi
bited, timid, nd hs feelings of indequcy? Avoidnt

1302748653270 1342707643789 How is voidnt different from schizoid?
Avoidnt personlities DESIRES reltionships with others
1302748664833 1342707643789 Wht PD is preoccupied with order, perfectionism
, nd control? Obsessive-compulsive
1302748673322 1342707643789 Wht PD is submissive nd clinging, excessively
needs to be tken cre of, nd hs low self confidence? Dependnt
1302748699599 1342707643789 Odd or eccentric; cnnot develop meningful soci
l reltionships. No psychosis<br><br>This describes which cluster PD Cluster
A
1302748719614 1342707643789 Drmtic, emotionl, errctic<br><br>This is  d
escription of which cluster PD? Cluster B
1302748729167 1342707643789 Anxious or ferful<br><br>This describes which c
luster PD?
Cluster C
1302748758755 1342707643789 Wht personlity disorder is chrcterized by pe
rvsive distrust nd suspiciousness?
Prnoid
1302748811959 1342707643789 HYQ: A 40 yer old womn tells you during one of
her office visits tht she is in love with you. You refer her to someone else,
nd she ttempts suicide. Wht type of personlity disorder does this ptient h
ve?
Borderline
1302748871266 1342707643789 HYQ: A 30 yer old womn tells you during one of
her office visits tht you re the best doctor tht she's ever hd but tht you
r nurse is very disrespectful. On  subsequent visit she thretens to chnge doc
tors becuse you do not feel  prticulr lb test is necessry. Additionlly, y
ou notice severl symmetricl cuts on her left forerm which she ttributes to c
t scrtches. Wht type of personlity disorder does this person hve? Borderli
ne
1302748911400 1342707643789 HYQ: A 55 yer old womn comes to your office we
ring ll blck including  blck miniskirt nd blck fether bo. She lso is w
ering n excessive mount of lipstick, nd you notice her hving converstions
with mny of the other ptients in the witing room. Wht type of personlity di
sorder do you suspect in this ptient? Histrionic
1302748933127 1342707643789 HYQ: A person demnds only the best nd most fm
ous doctor in town. Wht is the personlity disorder tht this person hs?
Nrcissistic
1302749010938 1342707643789 Projection is  mjor defense mechnism of which
personlity disorder? Prnoid
1302749025610 1342707643789 Splitting is  mjor defense mechnism of which
personlity disorder&gt;?
Borderline
1302749196112 1342707643789 Does  personlity disorder cuse impirment of
socil nd occuptionl functioning?
Yes
1302749209550 1342707643789 Are ptients with personlity disorders wre of
their problem? No
1302749254322 1342707643789 How is obsessive-compulsive personlity disorder
different from OCD?
Behvior consistent with one’s own beliefs an
attitu
es (
vs. OCD)
1302765566583 1342707643583 con
ucting zone nose, pharynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
1302765583514 1342707643583 cartilage is present where in respiratory tree?
trachea an
bronchi
1302765596890 1342707643583 where is anatomic
ea
space
con
ucting zone
(nose to the terminal bronchioles)
1302765611560 1342707643583 where
oes gas exchange occur respiratory zone
<br>(resp bronchioles, alveolar
ucts, alveoli)
1302765643367 1342707643583 pseu
ostratifie
ciliate
columnar cells exten

to;<br /><br />cuboi
al ciliary exten
to
terminal bronchioles<br /><br />
respiratory bronchioles
1302765653975 1342707643583 goblet cells exten
to the
bronchi
1302765679588 1342707643583 what in
icates fetal lung maturity
lecithin
to sphingomyelin ratio of &gt; 2 in amniotic flui

1302765706619 1342707643583 clara cells- histology an
function
non cili

ate
, columnar, contain secretory granules<br /><br />secrete part of surfactant
<br />
egra
e toxins<br />act as reserve cells
1302765743577 1342707643583 97% of alveolar surfaces are line
by which cell
? Shape?
Type I pneumocyte: s uamous
1302765777885 1342707643583 Which cells proliferate
uring lung
amage?
Type II pneumocytes
1302765796268 1342707643583 Which cells secrete pulmonary surfactant (
ipalm
itoyl phosphati
ylcholine)?
Type II pneumocytes (store
in lamellar bo
ies,
release
by Ca++
epen
ent mechanism)
1302765820932 1342707643583 Shape of Type II pneumocytes
Cuboi
al an
clu
stere

1302765836291 1342707643583 Where is the site of highest airway resistance?
Me
ium-size
bronchi
1302765885199 1342707643583 What comprises each bronchopulmonary segment?
center:<br>tertiary bronchus<br>2 arteries (bron an
pulmonary)<br><br>bor
ers:<
br>veins an
lymphatics
1302765905085 1342707643583 what runs in the center of bronchopulmonary segm
ent
arteries an
airways<br>(bronch an
pulm artery, bronchus)
1302765910005 1342707643583 what runs along bor
ers of bronchopulmonary segm
ent
veins an
lymphatics
1302765915282 1342707643583 pulmonary arteries carry

eoxygenate
blo
o
from right si
e of heart
1302765921546 1342707643583 what maintains pulmonary arterial pressure at re
latively constant levels throughout car
iac cycle
elastic walls
1302765927652 1342707643583 right lung has how many lobes 3
1302765932706 1342707643583 left lung has how many lobes
2 (an
then the
lingula)
1302765952724 1342707643583 si
e of inhale
foreign bo
ies an
why right<br
/>right main stem bronchus is wi
er an
more vertical
1302765983280 1342707643583 aspirate a peanut while upright<br /><br />Where

oes it en
up?
lower part of right inferior lobe
1302765990014 1342707643583 aspirate a peanut while supine superior part of
right inferior lobe
1302766015206 1342707643583 relation of pulmonary artery to bronchus at each
lung hilus
RALS<br /><br />(posterior--&gt;anterior view)<br /><br />left s
uperior&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&
nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nb
sp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;right anterior<br /><img src="paste
ggp9sh.jpg" />
1302766037494 1342707643583 horizontal fissure
separates superior an
m
i

le lobes of right lung
1302766062617 1342707643583 obli ue fissure sep mi

le an
inferior lobes of
right lung<br><br>or sep superior an
inferior of the left lung
1302766100093 1342707643583 what perforates
iaphragm at T8 IVC
1302766111111 1342707643583 what perforates
iaphragm at T10
Esophagu
s<br />vagus (2 trunks)
1302766130812 1342707643583 what perforates
iaphragm at T12
aorta (r
e
)<br>thoracic
uct (white)<br>azygous vein (blue)
1302766139949 1342707643583
iaphragm innervation C3,4,5
1302766144716 1342707643583 pain from
iaphragm is referre
to shoul
er
1302766162301 1342707643583 muscles of inspiration, normal breathing

iaphragm
1302766168131 1342707643583 muscles of expiration, normal breathing passive
1302766179547 1342707643583 muscles of inspiration, exercise
external
intercostals<br>scalenes<br>sternomastoi
s
1302766189201 1342707643583 muscles of expiration, exercise rectus ab
ominas
<br />internal an
ext obli ues<br />transversus ab
ominis<br />internal interco
stals
1302766198161 1342707643583
ipalmitoyl phosphati
ylcholine (lecithin)
surfactant

1302766214640 1342707643583 what
oes surfactant
o
ec alveolar surface ten
sion<br>inc compliance<br>
ec work of inspiration
1302766736997 1342707643583 what is
eficient in neonatal RDS
surfacta
nt
1302766788176 1342707643583 collapsing pressure
2(tension)/ra
ius<br><br
>surfactant
ecreases T as r
ecreases
1302766813031 1342707643583 lung pro
ucts (5)
1. surfactant<br>2. PGs<
br>3. histamine<br>4. angiotensin converting enzyme<br>5. kallikrein
1302766824838 1342707643583 kallikrein function
Activates bra
ykinin (a
vaso
ilator)
1302766856059 1342707643583 ACE function
angio 1 to angio 2<br>inactivate
s bra
ykinin
1302766869292 1342707643583 ACE inhibitors cause cough: mech
inhibit
ACE, so<br>cant inactivate bra
ykinin, so<br>increase
bra
ykinin means cough a
n
angioe
ema
1302766878727 1342707643583 histamine
oes what to lungs
Bronchoconstrict
s
1302766887250 1342707643583 lung has ten
ency to what on expiration as ra
iu
s
ecreases
collapse
1302766892849 1342707643583 what prevents lung collapse on expiration as ra

ius
ecreases surfactant (2T/r)
1302766910568 1342707643583 resi
ual volume (RV)
air in lung after maxima
l expiration<br>cant be measure
on spirometry
1302766922103 1342707643583 expiratory reserve volume (ERV) air that can sti
ll be breathe
out after normal expiration
1302766932647 1342707643583 ti
al volume (TV)
air that moves into lung
with each uiet inspiration (500 ml)
1302766953869 1342707643583 inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
air in e
xcess of ti
al volume that moves into lung on maximum inspiration
1302766971021 1342707643583 vital capacity everything but RV:<br><br>TV + I
RV + ERV
1302766988442 1342707643583 functional resi
ual capacity
RV + ERV = 0 ene
rgy state
1302767022479 1342707643583 0 energy state (breathing)
functional resi

ual capacity
1302767034640 1342707643583 inspiratory capacity
IRV + TV
1302767039415 1342707643583 Total lung capacity
IRV + TV + ERV + RV
1302767101468 1342707643583 physiological
ea
space e uation
<img src
="pasteBZve7h.png" />
1302767130833 1342707643583 Define physiological
ea
space anatomical
ea

space in airways + functional
ea
space in alveoli
1302767137793 1342707643583 largest contributor of functional
ea
space in
healthy lung
apex
1302767165598 1342707643583 anatomical
ea
space of con
ucting airways + fu
nctional
ea
space in alveoli physiological
ea
space
1302767176335 1342707643583 ten
ency for lungs an
chest wall
lungs to
collapse in<br />chest to expan
out<br /><br /><img src="pastee8yhf_.jpg" />
1302767186521 1342707643583 at FRC, what is the lung/chest wall relationship
lung inwar
pull is balance
by chest wall outwar
pull<br /><br />system pressu
re is atmospheric<br /><br /><img src="pastee8yhf_.jpg" />
1302767229107 1342707643583 at FRC, intrapleural pressure is
negative
(prevents pneumothorax)
1302767238114 1342707643583 At FRC, what is the airway an
alveolar pressure
?
0
1302767262568 1342707643583 Define compliance
Change in lung volume fo
r a given change in pressure
1302767285375 1342707643583 3 con
itions where lung compliance is
ecrease

Pulmonary fibrosis<br />Insufficient surfactant<br />Pulmonary e
ema
1302768029492 1342707643583 inc Cl-<br />right or left shift
R (favor
s taut form over relaxe
)

1302768034534 1342707643583 inc H+<br>right or left shift R
1302768047317 1342707643583 inc CO2<br>right or left shift R
1302768057118 1342707643583 inc 2,3 BPG<br>right or left shift
R
1302768071940 1342707643583 inc temp<br>right or left shift R
1302768077506 1342707643583 right shift means what inc O2 unloa
ing to tiss
ues<br /><br />favors taut form of Hb
1302768087905 1342707643583 fetal Hem shifts curve left- why?
lower af
finity for 2,3 BPG<br>so higher O2 affinity
1302768101247 1342707643583 What are subunits of fetal hemoglobin? 2 alpha<
br>2 gamma
1302768118186 1342707643583 relaxe
form of hemoglobin-<br />right or left
L<br />high affinity for O2
1302768125001 1342707643583 taut form of hemoglobin-<br>right or left
R<br>low affinity for O2
1302768152716 1342707643583 What accounts for sigmoi
-shape
hemoglobin-oxyg
en
issociation curve?<br><br>Shape of myoglobin-oxygen
issociation curve?
Positive cooperativity<br />Negative allostery<br><br>Myoglobin-oxygen
issociat
ion curve is hyperbolic (only one O2 boun
; no cooperativity)
1302768187306 1342707643583 methemoglobin<br /><br />what is it?<br />what

oes it bin
?
oxi
ize
form of hemoglobin (Fe 3+)<br />
oes not bin
O2 as rea

ily<br />inc affinity for CN1302768196724 1342707643583 methemoglobin<br /><br />tissue oxygenation?<br
/>O2 sat, O2 content? tissue hypoxia<br />from
ec O2 sat an

ec O2 content
1302768217098 1342707643583 carboxyhemoglobin
form of hemoglobin boun

to CO in place of O2
1302768253974 1342707643583 Carboxyhemoglobin<br /><br />Is this a left or r
ight shift in the oxygen hemoglobin
issociation curve? Decrease
O2 bin
ing cap
acity with a left shift in oxygen-Hb
issociation curve
1302768275916 1342707643583 This molecule has a 200X greater affinity than O
2 for hemoglobin
CO
1302768339458 1342707643583 Treatment for CN- poisoning, an
how it works
nitrites to oxi
ize hemoglobin to methemoglobin, which bin
s CN-<br /><br />then
use thiosulfate to bin
the CN-, forms thiocyanate, renally excrete
<br /><br /
>*also hy
roxycobalamin
1302768348162 1342707643583 tx methemoglobinemia
methylene blue<br>an
vi
t C
1302768359785 1342707643583 right shift changes affinity how

ecrease
s hem affinity for O2
1302768367313 1342707643583 inc pH<br />right or left shift left (
ec H+)
1302768375496 1342707643583 altitu
e<br>right or left shift R
1302768383695 1342707643583 exercise<br>right or left shift
<br>R
1302768389559 1342707643583 inc metabolic nee
s<br>right or left shift
R
1302768397902 1342707643583 inc P50 (partial pressure to achieve 50% Hb satu
ration)<br /><br />right or left shift R
1302768406031 1342707643583 pulmonary circulation-<br>resistance is high or
low<br>compliance is high or low
low resistance<br>high compliance
1302768433508 1342707643583 In the lung, a
ecrease in PAO2 causes vasoconst
riction or vaso
ilation? Why? Hypoxic vasoconstriction that shifts bloo
away
from poorly ventilate
areas of lungs to well ventilate
areas
1302768489172 1342707643583 List 3 perfusion limite
gases O2 (normal healt
h)<br>CO2<br>N2O
1302768570584 1342707643583 What is a conse uence of pulmonary hypertension?
Cor pulmonale an
subse uent right ventricular failure (JVD, e
ema, hepatomegaly
)
1302768581926 1342707643583 What are the signs of right ventricular failure?
JVD<br>E
ema<br>Hepatomegaly
1302768592434 1342707643583 O2<br>perfusion or
iffusion limite

perfusio
n
1302768598546 1342707643583 CO2<br>perfusion or
iffusion limite

perfusio

n
1302768603896 1342707643583 N2O<br>perfusion or
iffusion limite

perfusio
n
1302768696847 1342707643583 What
oes perfusion limite
mean? Gas exchage ca
n only increase if?
Gas e uilibrates early along the length of the capillary
. Gas exchange can be ↑ only if bloo
flow ↑.
1302768713384 1342707643583 List 2
iffusion limite
gases O2 in emphysema
or fibrosis<br />CO
1302768736797 1342707643583 What
oes
iffusion limite
mean?
Gas
oes
not e uilibrate by the time bloo
reaches the en
of the capillary
1302768801353 1342707643583 <img src="paste4em6lu.jpg" /><br />Is this perfu
sion limite
or
iffusion limite
?
Perfusion limite
(eg. CO2, N2O)
1302768833560 1342707643583 <img src="pasteei2hg9.jpg" /><br />Is this perfu
sion limite
or
iffusion limite
?
Diffusion limite
(eg. CO)
1302768870030 1342707643583
iffusion e uation
Vgas = A/T x Dk(P1-P2)<b
r /><br />A= area<br />T= thickness<br />Dk(P1-P2) ~
iff in partial pressures
1302768878854 1342707643583 Diffusion e uation<br>emphysema- what variable c
hanges? A (area)
ecreases<br><br>Vgas = A/T x Dk(P1-P2)
1302768892989 1342707643583 Diffusion e uation<br />what variable changes wi
th pulmonary fibrosis? T (thickness) increases<br /><br />Vgas = A/T x Dk(P1-P2
)
1302768924059 1342707643583 normal pulmonary artery pressure is
10-14 mm
Hg
1302768940810 1342707643583 pulmonary htn pressure greater than or e ual to
25 mmHg or<br>greater than 35 mmHg w/exercise
1302768956697 1342707643583 pulmonary HTN lea
s to what pathologic fin
ings?
Atherosclerosis, me
ial hypertrophy, an
intimal fibrosis of pulmonary arteries
1302769003433 1342707643583 Primary pulmonary hypertension is
ue to?
inactivating mutation in BMPR2 gene which normally inhibits vascular smooth musc
le proliferation; poor prognosis
1302769252492 1342707643583 Causes of 2n
ary pulmonary HTN, an
pathogenesis
of each
COPD (
estroys lung parenchyma)<br />mitral stenosis (inc resist
-&gt;inc press)<br />recurrent thromboemboli (
ec cross-sectional area of pulm v
ascular be
)<br />autoimmune eg. systemic sclerosis (inflammation-&gt;intimal fi
brosis-&gt;me
ial hypertrophy)<br />left-to-right shunt (inc shear stress-&gt;en

othelial injury)<br>sleep apnea or high altitu
e (hypoxic vasoconstriction)
1302769348699 1342707643583 What will you see on CXR for pulmonary HTN?
Tapering of pulmonary arteries
1302769389116 1342707643583 Course of pulmonary HTN severe resp
istress -&g
t;<br />cyanosis an
RVH -&gt;<br />
eath from
ecompensate
cor pulmonale
1302798408251 1342707643393 Layers of gut wall (from lumen outwar
) 1.) Muco
sa<br />2.) Submucosa<br />3.) Muscularis externa<br />4.) Serosa/a
ventitia<br
/><img src="304a - Digestive tract anatomy.JPG" />
1302798450657 1342707643393 GI mucosa<br /><br />What are its components an

their fxns?
1st layer of gut wall.<br /><br />Epithelium (absorption),<br />
lamina propria (support),<br />muscularis mucosae (motility).<br /><img src="304
a - Digestive tract anatomy.JPG" />
y
1302798498319 1342707643393 Submucosa
2n
layer of gut.<br><br>Inclu
e
s <b>S</b>ubmucosal nerve plexus (Meissners)<br><img src="304a - Digestive trac
t anatomy.JPG" />
y
1302798536007 1342707643393 Muscularis externa
3r
layer of gut.<br><br
>Inclu
es <b>M</b>yenteric nerve plexus (Auerbachs)<br><img src="304a - Digesti
ve tract anatomy.JPG" />
y
1302798549608 1342707643393 Serosa/A
ventitia
4th layer of gut<br><img
src="304a - Digestive tract anatomy.JPG" />
y
1302798590870 1342707643393 Fre uencies of basal electric rhythms (slow wave
s)
Stomach: 3 waves/min<br>Duo
enum: 12 waves/min<br>Ileum: 8-9 waves/min
1302798685849 1342707643393 Myenteric (Auerbachs) nerve plexus
Coor
ina
tes <b>M</b>otility along the entire gut wall.<br /><br />Contains cell bo
ies o
f some parasympathetic terminal effector neurons.<br /><br />Locate
btw inner (

circular) an
outer (longitu
inal) layers of smooth muscle in GI tract wall <br
/>(& uot;<b>AU</b>erbachs is on the <b>AU</b>tsi
e& uot;)<br /><img src="304a Digestive tract anatomy.JPG" />
y
1302798758376 1342707643393 Submucosal (Meissners) nerve plexus
Regulate
s local <b>S</b>ecretions, bloo
flow, absorption.<br><br>Contains cell bo
ies o
f some parasympathetic terminal effector neurons.<br><br>Locate
btw mucosa an

inner layer of smooth muscle in the GI tract wall.<br><img src="304a - Digestive
tract anatomy.JPG" /> y
1302798790556 1342707643393 Esophageal anatomy:<br />What type of muscle is
it?
Upper 1/3r
: striate
muscle<br /><br />Mi

le 1/3r
: Striate
<b>an
</
b>smooth muscle<br /><br />Lower 1/3r
: smooth muscle.
1302798905180 1342707643393 Embryonic Foregut<br />Artery?<br />PS innervati
on?<br />Vertebral level?<br />Structures supplie
?
Celiac artery.<br />Vagu
s innervation.<br />Vertebral level T12/L1<br />Supply stomach to proximal
uo
e
num, liver, gallbla

er, an
pancreas.<br /><img src="305b - GI bloo
supply.JPG
" /><br />
1302798994775 1342707643393 Embryonic Mi
gut:<br />Artery?<br />PS innervati
on?<br />Vertebral level?<br />Structures supplie
?
Superior mesenteric arte
ry (SMA).<br />Vagus innervates.<br />Vertebral level <b>L1</b>.<br />Supplies

istal
uo
enum to proximal 2/3r
s of transverse colon.<br /><img src="305b - GI
bloo
supply.JPG" />
1302799075677 1342707643393 Embryonic hin
gut:<br />Artery?<br />PS innervat
ion?<br />Vertebral level?<br />Structures supplie
?
Artery: IMA.<br />Pelvic
innervation.<br />Vertebral level: <b>L3</b>.<br />Supplies:
istal 1/3r
of tr
ansverse colon to upper portion of rectum;<br />splenic flexure is a watershe
r
egion.<br /><img src="305b - GI bloo
supply.JPG" />
1302799139529 1342707643393 Branches of the celiac trunk:<br />can you
raw
these? Common hepatic, splenic, left gastric.<br />These comprise the main bloo

supply of the stomach.<br /><img src="306a - Celiac trunk.JPG" />
1302799212602 1342707643393 Anastomoses of the stomach
Short gastrics:<
br />have poor anastomoses if the splenic artery is blocke
.<br /><br />Strong a
nastomoses btw:<br />L an
R gastroepiploics.<br />L an
R gastrics.<br /><img s
rc="306a - Celiac trunk.JPG" />
1302799393497 1342707643393 Collateral circulation (if ab
ominal Ao is block
e
):<br />4 collateral circulations
1.) Internal thoracic/mammary (subclavia
n) &lt;-&gt; superior epigastric (internal thoracic) &lt;-&gt; inferior epigastr
ic (<b>external</b> iliac)<br /><br />2.) Superior pancreatico
uo
enal (celiac t
runk) &lt;-&gt; inferior pancreatico
uo
enal (SMA)<br /><br />3.) Mi

le colic (
SMA) &lt;-&gt; Left colic (IMA)<br /><br />4.) Superior rectal (IMA) &lt;-&gt; M
i

le rectal (<b>internal</b> iliac)
1302799474379 1342707643393 Portosystemic anastomoses:<br />Can you
raw thi
s vasculature w/ the anastomoses?
<img src="307a - Portosystemic anastamos
es.JPG" />
1302799528874 1342707643393 Anastamoses: Esophageal<br />Clinical sign?<br /
>Portal &lt;-&gt; Systemic?
Clinical sign = esophageal varices.<br /><br />L
eft gastric &lt;-&gt; esophageal.<br /><img src="307a - Portosystemic anastamose
s.JPG" />
1302799593990 1342707643393 Anastomoses: Umbilicus<br>Clinical sign?<br>Port
al &lt;-&gt; systemic? Clinical sign: Caput me
usae.<br>Paraumbilical &lt;-&gt;
superficial an
inferior epigastric<br><img src="307a - Portosystemic anastamos
es.JPG" />
1302799643158 1342707643393 Anastamoses: rectum<br>Clinical sign?<br>Portal
&lt;-&gt; systemic?
Clinical sign: internal hemorrhoi
s<br>Superior rectal &
lt;-&gt; mi

le an
inferior rectal<br><img src="307a - Portosystemic anastamose
s.JPG" />
1302799694489 1342707643393 What are commonly seen w/ portal HTN?<br>(mnemon
ic)
Varices of the & uot;gut, butt, an
caput& uot;<br>(esophageal varices,
internal hemorrhoi
s, caput me
usae)
1302799738307 1342707643393 Portocaval shunt
Inserting a portocaval s
hunt btw the splenic an
left renal veins (4 in
iagram) relieves portal HTN by

shunting bloo
to the systemic circulation.<br /><img src="307a - Portosystemic
anastamoses.JPG" />
1302799765331 1342707643393 Pectinate line Forme
where hin
gut meets the e
cto
erm<br /><img src="307b - Pectinate line.JPG" />
y
1302799834653 1342707643393 Above the pectinate line
Internal hemorrh
oi
s, a
enocarcinoma.<br>Arterial supply from superior rectal artery (branch of
IMA).<br>Venous
rainage is to superior rectal vein --&gt; inferior mesenteric v
ein --&gt; portal system.<br><br><img src="307b - Pectinate line.JPG" />
1302799856114 1342707643393 Internal hemorrhoi
s
Receive visceral innerva
tion an
are therefore NOT painful.
y
1302800261719 1342707643393 Below pectinate line<br /><br />Hemorrhoi
s? Can
cer?<br />Arterial supply?<br />Venous
rainage?
External hemorrhoi
s, s
uamous cell carcinoma.<br />Arterial supply from inferior rectal artery (branch
of internal pu
en
al artery).<br />Venous
rainage to inferior rectal vein --&gt
; internal pu
en
al vein --&gt; internal iliac vein --&gt; IVC<br /><img src="30
7b - Pectinate line.JPG" />
1302800315542 1342707643393 External hemorrhoi
s<br /><br />Innervation (an

branch of)?
Below pectinate line.<br />Receive somatic innervation, an
are
therefore painful.<br />Innervate
by inferior rectal nerve (branch of pu
en
al
nerve). y
1302803551389 1342707643393 Polarity of hepatocytes Apical surface of hepato
cytes face canaliculi, <br />Basolateral surface faces sinusoi
s.<br /><img src=
"308a - Liver anatomy.JPG" />
1302803600745 1342707643393 Zone I of liver Periportal zone.<br>Affecte
1st
by viral hepatitis<br><img src="308a - Liver anatomy.JPG" />
1302803612885 1342707643393 Zone II of liver
Interme
iate zone.<br />
<img src="308a - Liver anatomy.JPG" />
1302803680687 1342707643393 Zone III of liver
Pericentral vein (centri
lobular) zone:<br />Affecte
1st by ischemia<br />Contains P-450 system<br />Mos
t sensitive to toxic injury<br />Alcoholic hepatitis<br /><img src="308a - Liver
anatomy.JPG" />
1302803709538 1342707643393 Liver anatomy <img src="308a - Liver anatomy.J
PG" />
1303406387707 1342707643552 4 stages of HIV infxn<br />
1.) <b>F</b>lu-l
ike (acute)<br />2.) <b>F</b>eeling fine (latent)<br />3.) <b>F</b>alling count<
br />4.) <b>F</b>inal crisis<br /><br />During latent phase, virus replicates in
LNs<br /><img src="175a - Timecourse of HIV.JPG" />
1303406552942 1342707643552 Levels as HIV infxn progresses:<br />CD4+ lympho
cytes?<br />Anti-p24 Abs?<br />Anti-gp120 Abs?<br />Virus, p24 Ag?
CD4+ T-c
ells have an early
ip, stabilize, an
fall
uring stages 3-4 (years after infxn
)<br /><br />Anti-p24 an
Anti-gp120 Abs rise starting ~1 mo. post-infxn, stabil
ize @ 3 mos (at en
of acute infxn).<br /><br />Virus, p24 Ag: spike early (w/ s
tart of acute Sxs),
rop to low level until stages 3-4 (years later), when they
take off<br /><br /><img src="175a - Timecourse of HIV.JPG" />
1303406688957 1342707643768 Oval yeast cells within macrophages
<i>Histo
plasma capsulatum</i><br /><br />Systemic (low-gra
e fever, cough, hepatosplenom
egaly, tongue ulcer)<br /><br />CD4 &lt;100<br /><br />*causes only pulmonary sx
in immunocompetent
1303406694340 1342707643768 Pseu
ohyphae
<i>Can
i
a albicans</i><br /><br
/>Dermatologic (fluffy white cottage-cheese lesions)<br /><br />CD4 &lt;400 (or
al)<br />CD4 &lt;100 (esophageal)
1303406714304 1342707643768 Superficial vascular proliferation; biopsy revea
ls neutrophilic inflammation
<i>Bartonella henselae </i>(bacillary angiomatos
is)<br /><br />Dermatologic
1303406732634 1342707643768 Aci
-fast cysts seen in stool <i>Cryptospori
i
um </i>spp.<br><br>Gastrointestinal (chronic, watery
iarrhea)<br><br>CD4 &lt;20
0
1303406775951 1342707643768 Demyelination Reactivation of JC virus (causes
PML)<br /><br />Neurologic (encephalopathy)<br /><br />CD4 &lt;200
1303406793347 1342707643768 Many ring-enhancing lesions on cranial CT

<i>Toxoplasma gon
ii</i><br><br>Neurologic (abcesses)<br><br>CD4 &lt;100
1303406807785 1342707643768 In
ia ink stain reveals yeast with narrow-base

bu

ing an
large capsule
<i>Cryptococcus neoformans</i><br /><br />Neurol
ogic (meningitis or encephalitis)<br /><br />CD4 &lt;50
1303406940093 1342707643414 &lt; 400
Oral thrush<br />Tinea pe
is (at
hletes foot)<br />Reactivation VZV<br />Reactivation TB<br />Other bacterial in
fxns (e.g., H. influenzae, S. pneumoniae, Salmonella)<br />
1303406973328 1342707643414 &lt; 200
Pneumocystis jiroveci PCP<br />C
ryptospori
iosis, isospora<br>Disseminate
cocci
io
omycosis<br />JC virus react
ivation (PML)<br />Reactivation HSV
1303406991058 1342707643414 &lt; 100
Can
i
al esophagitis<br />Toxopl
amosis<br />Histoplasmosis
1303407012995 1342707643414 &lt; 50 CMV retinitis<br />M. avium-intracellula
re<br />Cryptococcal meningitis
1303407067915 1342707643552 Neoplasms associate
w/ HIV
Kaposis sarcoma
(HHV-8)<br />Cervical/anal s uamous cell carcinoma (HPV)<br />Primary CNS lymph
oma<br />non-Ho
gkins lymphoma
1303407238390 1342707643552 HIV encephalitis
Occurs late in the cours
e of HIV infxn.<br>Virus gains CNS access via infecte
Macrophages.<br>Microglia
l no
ules w/ multinucleate
giant cells.
1303407421048 1342707643552 <u>Prions</u><br />Cause
by?<br />What
zs
o
they cause?
Conversion of normal cellular protein (PrPc) to <b>beta-pleate
<
/b> <b>sheets</b> (PrPsc), which is transmissible an
facilitates conversion of
more PrPc to PrPsc. Pathologic conformation accumulates b/c it is resistant to p
roteinase
igestion.<br /><br />Accumulation results in <b>spongiform encephalop
athy</b> an

ementia, ataxia,
eath.<br /><br /><u>Spora
ic</u> (Creutzfel
t-Ja
kob
z)<br /><u>Inherite
</u> (Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syn
rome)<br /><u>
Ac uire
</u> (kuru, BSE)
1303407478934 1342707643527 Skin
Staphylococcus epi
ermis
1303407490108 1342707643527 Nose
S. epi
ermis; colonize
by S. aureus
1303407502046 1342707643527 Oropharynx
Viri
ans group streptococci
1303407516892 1342707643527 Dental pla ue Streptococcus mutans
1303407527081 1342707643527 Colon Bacteroi
es fragilis &gt; E. coli
1303407544868 1342707643527 Vagina Lactobacillus, colonize
by E. coli an

GBS
1303407584464 1342707643552 Neonates an
normal flora
Neonates
eliver
e
by cesarean section have no flora, but are rapi
ly colonize
after birth.
1303407691887 1342707643700 Vibrio parahemolyticus an
V. vulnificus
Contaminate
seafoo
<br><br>(V. vulnificus can also cause woun
infxn from conta
ct w/ contaminate
water or shellfish)
1303407741945 1342707643700 Bacillus cereus reheate
rice.<br /><br />(& uot
;Foo
poisoning from reheate
rice? <b>Be Serious!</b> [B. cereus]& uot;)
1303407758928 1342707643700 S. aureus
Meats, mayonnaise, custar
<br>(
pre-forme
toxin)
1303407769996 1342707643700 Clostri
ium perfringens reheate
meat
ishes
1303407791210 1342707643700 Clostri
ium botulinum Improperly canne
foo
s
(bulging cans)
1303407802999 1342707643700 E. coli O157:H7 Un
ercooke
meat
1303407812807 1342707643700 Salmonella
poultry, meat, an
eggs.
1303407840931 1342707643552 What are two bacteria that cause a foo
poisonin
g that starts uickly an
en
s uickly? S. aureus an
B. cereus
1303408115744 1342707643737 Campylobacter<br /><br />Ac uire
from? Bloo
y

iarrhea.<br /><br />Comma- or S-shape
organisms;<br />growth at 42C;<br />Oxi
a
se (+)<br /><br />Ac uire
from
omestic animals or contaminate
foo
s y
1303408150814 1342707643737 Salmonella
bloo
y
iarrhea.<br /><br />Lact
ose (-);<br />Flagellar motility
y
1303408179744 1342707643737 Shigella
Bloo
y
iarrhea<br /><br />Lacto
se (-)<br />Very low ID50<br />Pro
uces Shiga toxin
y
1303408211443 1342707643737 Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC)
Bloo
y

iarrhea<br /><br />O157:H7<br />Can cause HUS<br />Makes Shiga-like toxin

y
1303408234287 1342707643737 Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) Bloo
y
iarrhea.
<br /><br />Inva
es colonic mucosa.
y
1303408264283 1342707643737 Yersinia enterocolitica Bloo
y
iarrhea<br /><br
/>Day-care outbreaks<br />Pseu
oappen
icitis y
1303408283937 1342707643737 C.
ifficile
Can cause both watery an
bloo
y

iarrhea.<br /><br />Pseu
omembranous colitis. y
1303408298914 1342707643737 Entamoeba histolytica Bloo
y
iarrhea.<br><br>
Protozoan.
y
1303408325026 1342707643737 Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) Watery
iarrhea.
<br /><br />Travelers
iarrhea<br />Pro
uces ST an
LT toxins y
1303408347714 1342707643737 Vibrio cholerae Watery
iarrhea.<br /><br />Comm
a-shape
, oxi
ase(+) organisms<br />Rice-water
iarrhea.
y
1303408360596 1342707643737 C. perfringens Watery
iarrhea.<br /><br />Also
causes gas gangrene. y
1303408380490 1342707643737 Giar
ia, Cryptospori
ium (in immunocompromise
)
Watery
iarrhea<br /><br />Protozoa
y
1303408416381 1342707643737 Viruses (an
specific ones)
Watery
iarrhea.
<br /><br />Rotavirus (reovirus,
sRNA), Norwalk virus (norovirus, a calicivirus
), a
enovirus (nake
DNA virus)
1303408486413 1342707643552 Common causes of pneumonia in neonates (&lt; 4wk
s)
Group B streptococci<br>E. coli
1303408571358 1342707643552 Common causes of pneumonia in chil
ren (4wks - 1
8yrs) Viruses (<b>R</b>SV, paramyxoviri
ae)<br /><b>M</b>ycoplasma<br /><b>C</
b>hlamy
ia pneumoniae (young chil
ren, staccato cough)<br /><b>S</b>treptococcus
pneumoniae<br /><br />(& uot;<b>R</b>unts <b>M</b>ay <b>C</b>ough <b>S</b>putum
& uot;)
1303408605921 1342707643552 Common causes of pneumonia in a
ults (18-40yrs)
Mycoplasma<br>Chlamy
ia pneumoniae<br>Streptococcus pneumoniae
1303408639374 1342707643552 Common causes of pneumonia in A
ults (40-65yrs)
Streptococcus pneumoniae <br />H. influenzae<br />Anaerobes<br />Viruses<br />My
coplasma
1303408670693 1342707643552 Common causes of pneumonia in the el
erly (&gt;6
5)
Streptococcus pneumoniae<br />Influenza virus<br />Anaerobes<br />H. inf
luenzae<br />Gram (-) ro
s
1303408701659 1342707643552 Common causes of nosocomial (hospital-ac uire
)
pneumonia
Staphylococcus<br>Enteric Gram (-) ro
s
1303408742997 1342707643552 Common causes of pneumonia in the immunocompromi
se

Staphylococcus<br>Enteric Gram (-) ro
s<br>Fungi<br>Viruses<br>Pneumocys
tis jiroveci (w/ HIV)
1303408755936 1342707643552 Common cause of pneumonia w/ aspiration Anaerobe
s
1303408780428 1342707643552 Common causes of pneumonia in alcoholics/IV
rug
users Streptococcus pneumoniae<br />Klebsiella<br />Staphylococcus
1303408792103 1342707643552 Common causes of pneumonia in CF
Pseu
omo
nas
1303408808957 1342707643552 Common causes of post-viral pneumonia Streptoc
occus pneumoniae<br>Staphylococcus<br />H. influenzae<br><br>*el
erly are partic
ularly prone to secon
ary bacterial pneumonia after virus (eg. flu)
1303408830968 1342707643552 Common causes of atypical pneumonia
Mycoplas
ma<br />Legionella<br />Chlamy
ia
1303409027579 1342707643552 Common causes of meningitis in newborn (0-6 mont
hs)
Group B streptococci<br />E. coli<br />Listeria
1303409070929 1342707643552 Common causes of meningitis in chil
ren (6mos 6yrs) Streptococcus pneumoniae<br>Neisseria meningiti
is<br>Haemophilus influe
nzae type B<br>Enteroviruses
1303409098996 1342707643552 Common causes of meningitis (6-60yrs) S. pneum
oniae<br />N. meningi
itis (#1 in teens)<br />Enteroviruses<br />HSV
1303409127711 1342707643552 Common causes of meningitis in 60+ year-ol
s
Streptococcus pneumoniae<br>Gram (-) ro
s<br>Listeria

1303409158319 1342707643552 Viral causes of meningitis
Enteroviruses (p
icorna, esp. coxsackievirus)<br />HSV-2 (HSV-1 = encephalitis)<br />HIV<br />Wes
t Nile virus<br />VZV
1303409190301 1342707643552 Common causes of meningitis in HIV
Cryptoco
ccus<br>CMV<br>Toxoplasmosis (brain abscess)<br>JC virus (PML)
1303409224428 1342707643552 Inci
ence of H. influenzae meningitis? Has
ecr
ease
greatly w/ intro
uction of H. influenzae vaccine in last 10-15 years.<br /
><br />Now usually seen in unimmunize
chil
ren.
1303409426089 1342707643469 Bacterial
Increase
pressure<br>Increase

PMNs<br>Increase
protein<br>Decrease
sugar
1303409448749 1342707643469 Fungal/TB
Increase
pressure<br />Increase

lymphocytes<br />Increase
protein<br />Decrease
sugar
1303409470790 1342707643469 Viral Normal/increase
pressure<br />Increase

lymphocytes<br />Normal/increase
protein<br />Normal sugar
1303409558505 1342707643552 Osteomyelitis in most ppl is
ue to...?<br />Who
gets most osteomyelitis, an
where?
Staph aureus in most ppl.<br /><br />Mos
t osteomyelitis occurs in chil
ren<br />(in metaphysis of long bones: rich bloo

supply, hematogenous sprea
)
1303409581552 1342707643552 Elevate
CRP an
ESR in osteomyelitis? Classic
fin
ings, but nonspecific
1303409609763 1342707643552 Osteomyelitis in sexually active pt
Neisseri
a gonorrhoeae (rare)<br>Septic arthritis more common
1303409630439 1342707643552 Osteomyelitis in
iabetics an

rug a

icts
Pseu
omonas aeruginosa
1303409642633 1342707643552 Osteomyelitis in Sickle cell
Salmonella
1303409659818 1342707643552 Osteomyelitis in prosthetic replacement S. aureu
s an
S. epi
ermis
1303409677131 1342707643552 Osteomyelitis in vertebra
Mycobacterium tu
berculosis (Potts
z)
1303409695355 1342707643552 Osteomyelitis with cat an

og bites/scratches
Pasteurella multoci
a
1303409801779 1342707643552 3 Most common causes of ambulatory UTI 1.) E. c
oli (50-80%)<br><br>2.) Staphylococcus saprophyticus (10-30%):<br>2n
most commo
n cause of UTI in young, sexually active, ambulatory women<br><br>3.) Klebsiella
(8-10%)
1303409832597 1342707643552 Common causes of UTI in a hospital setting
E. coli<br>Proteus<br>Klebsiella<br>Serratia<br>Pseu
omonas
1303409881946 1342707643552 Gen
er an
epi
emiology of UTIs<br /> 10:1 wom
en to men<br />(b/c of short urethra colonize
by fecal flora)
1303409923540 1342707643552 Pre
isposing factors to UTIs
Flow obstruction
<br />Ki
ney surgery<br />Catheterization<br />GU malformation<br />Diabetes<br
/>Pregnancy
1303409962083 1342707643552 Mechanisms of UTI infxn Mostly cause
by ascen
i
ng infxns.<br><br>In males: babies w/ congenital
efects,<br>el
erly w/ enlarge

prostates
1303409981490 1342707643552 Sx of UTI
Dysuria<br />Fre uency<br />Urge
ncy<br />Suprapubic pain
1303410043269 1342707643552 Sx of Pyelonephritis
Fever, chills<br />Flank
pain, CVA ten
erness (costovertebral angle)<br />Hematuria, WBC casts
1303441148315 1342707643359 Serratia maracescens
Some strains pro
uce a r
e
pigment;<br />often nosocomial an

rug-resistant.
1303441175420 1342707643359 Staphylococcus saprophyticus
2n
lea
ing caus
e of community-ac uire
UTI in sexually active women.
1303441202309 1342707643359 Escherichia coli
Lea
ing cause of UTI.<br
>Colonies show metallic sheen on EMB agar.
1303441216882 1342707643359 Enterobacter cloacae
Often nosocomial an

ru
g resistant.
1303441230463 1342707643359 Klebsiella pneumoniae 3r
lea
ing cause of UTI
. Large mucoi
capsule an
viscous colonies.
1303441262170 1342707643359 Proteus mirabilis
Motility causes & uot;sw

arming& uot; on agar.<br />Pro
uces urease; associate
w/ struvite stones.
1303441284666 1342707643359 Pseu
omonas aeruginosa Blue-green pigment an
f
ruity o
or.<br />Usually nosocomial an

rug-resistant.
1303441406854 1342707643552 List of UTI bugs
& uot;SEEKS PP& uot;<br
/><br /><b>S</b>taphylococcus saprophyticus<br /><b>E</b>scherichia coli<br /><b
>E</b>nterobacter cloacae<br /><b>K</b>lebsiella pneumoniae<br /><b>S</b>erratia
marcescens<br /><br /><b>P</b>roteus mirabilis<br /><b>P</b>seu
omonas aerugino
sa
1303441462039 1342707643552 Lab tests for UTI etiology
<u>Leukocyte est
erase</u>: <br />(+) = bacterial<br /><br /><u>Nitrite test</u>:<br />(+) = Gram
negative [(-) nitrate test suggests <i>Staphlococcus saphrophyticus</i>]<br /><
br /><u>Urease test</u>:<br />(+) = <i>Proteus</i>, <i>Klebsiella</i>
1303441578168 1342707643552 ToRCHeS infxns<br />What are they?<br />List?
These important infxns are transmitte
in utero or
uring vaginal birth:<br /><b
r /><b>To</b>xoplasma gon
ii<br /><b>R</b>ubella<br /><b>C</b>MV<br /><b>H</b>IV
<br /><b>He</b>rpes simplex 2<br /><b>S</b>yphilis
1303441691546 1342707643552 Other important congenital infxns that
o not fi
t into & uot;ToRCHeS& uot;
Group B streptococci (<i>S. agalactiae</i>)<br /
><i>E. coli</i><br /><i>Listeria</i><br /><br />All can cause neonatal meningiti
s<br /><br />Parvo B19 causes hy
rops fetalis
1303441808447 1342707643614 Toxoplasma gon
ii
Transmission: Cat feces
or ingestion of un
ercooke
meat (pork)<br /><br />Maternal: Usually asymtomatic
; lympha
enopathy (rarely)<br /><br />Neonatal: & uot;Classic tria
& uot; of cho
rioretinitis, hy
rocephalus, an
intracranial calcifications<br />May be asympto
matic at birth.<br />
1303441851400 1342707643614 Rubella Transmission: Respiratory
roplets<br />
<br />Maternal: Rash, lympha
enopathy, arthritis<br /><br />Neonatal: Classic tr
ia
of PDA (or pulmonary artery hypoplasia), cataracts, an

eafness<br />+/- &
uot;blueberry muffin& uot; rash<br />
1303441892895 1342707643614 CMV
Transmission: Sexual contact, organ tran
splants<br /><br />Maternal: Usually asymptomatic; mono-like illness<br /><br />
Neonatal: Hearing loss, seizures, petechial rash, & uot;blueberry muffin& uot; r
ash<br />90% are asymptomatic at birth.<br />
1303441911851 1342707643614 HIV
Transmission: Sexual contact<br /><br />
Maternal: Variable presentation
epen
ing on CD4+ count<br /><br />Neonatal: Rec
urrent infections, chronic
iarrhea<br />
1303441950477 1342707643614 HSV-2 Transmission: Skin or mucous membrane co
ntact<br /><br />Maternal: Usually asymptomatic; herpetic (vesicular) lesions<br
/><br />Neonatal: Temporal encephalitis, herpetic (vesicular) lesions
1303441988381 1342707643614 Syphilis
Transmission: Sexual<br /><br />
Maternal: Chancre (1),
isseminate
rash (2), or car
iac/neuro
z (3)<br /><b
r />Neonatal: Stillbirth, hy
rops fetalis<br />If chil
survives, presents w/ fa
cial abnormalities (notche
teeth, sa

le nose, short maxilla), saber shins, CN
VIII
eafness
1303442038549 1342707643552 Re
rashes of chil
hoo
(list) Rubella<br />Mea
sles<br />VZV<br />HHV-6 (roseola)<br />Parvovirus B19 (& uot;slappe
cheek& uot
; rash)<br />Scarlet fever (group A streptococcus)<br />Coxsackievirus type A
1303442814140 1342707643568 Gonorrhea
Neisseria gonorrhoeae<br /><br /
>Urethritis, cervicitis, PID, prostatitis, epi
i
ymitis,<br />arthritis, creamy
purulent
ischarge
1303442832039 1342707643568 Primary syphilis
Treponema palli
um<br />
<br />Painless chancre
1303442873988 1342707643568 Secon
ary syphilis
Treponema palli
um<br />
<br />Fever, lympha
enopathy, skin rashes, con
ylomata lata
1303442947137 1342707643568 Tertiary syphilis
Treponema palli
um<br />
<br />Gummas (a non-cancerous growth, a form of granuloma)<br />Tabes
orsalis<b
r />General paresis<br />Aortitis<br />Argyll Robertson pupil
1303442981501 1342707643568 Genital herpes HSV-2<br /><br />Painful penile,
vulvar, or cervical ulcers;<br />can cause systemic Sx such as: fever, HA, myal
gia

1303443019443 1342707643568 Chlamy
ia
Chlamy
ia trachomatis (D-K)<br><
br>Urethritis, cervicitis, conjunctivitis,<br>Reiters syn
rome, PID
1303443058703 1342707643568 Lymphogranuloma venereum
Chlamy
ia tracho
matis (L1-L3)<br /><br />Infection of lymphatics. Genital ulcers, lympha
enopath
y, rectal strictures.
1303443088596 1342707643568 Trichomoniasis Trichomonas vaginalis<br /><br /
>Vaginitis<br />Strawberry-colore
mucosa (strawberry cervix)<br />Corkscrew mot
ility on wet prep<br />Green/yellow
ischarge
1303443109998 1342707643568 AIDS
HIV<br /><br />Opportunistic infxns, Kap
osis sarcoma, lymphoma
1303443133198 1342707643568 Con
ylomata accumulata HPV 6 an
11<br /><br />
Genital warts, koilocytes
1303443146971 1342707643568 Hepatitis B
HBV<br /><br />Jaun
ice
1303443196739 1342707643568 Chancroi

Haemophilus <b>
ucreyi</b> <br /
>(& uot;its so painful, you <b>
o cry</b>& uot;)<br /><br />Painful genital ulc
er, inguinal a
enopathy.
1303443232539 1342707643568 Bacterial vaginosis
Garn
erella vaginalis<br
/><br />Noninflammatory, malo
orous
ischarge (fishy smell)<br />Positive whiff
test<br />Clue cells<br />Not exculsively an STD
1303444000711 1342707643552 Top bugs that cause Pelvic inflammatory
z
Chlamy
ia trachomatis (subacute, often un
iagnose
)<br />Neisseria gonorrhoeae (
acute)<br /><br /><br />Chlamy
ia trachomatis is the most common bacterial STD i
n the USA
1303444111599 1342707643552 Signs an
Sxs of Pelvic inflammatory
z
Cervical motion ten
erness (chan
elier sign)<br>Purulent cervical
ischarge.<br>
<br>May inclu
e:<br>Salpingitis, en
ometritis, hy
rosalpinx, an
tubo-ovarian ab
scess.
1303444157393 1342707643552 Fitz-Hugh-Curtis Syn
rome
Infxn of the liv
er capsule an
& uot;violin string& uot; a
hesions of parietal peritoneum to liv
er, a rare complication of PID
1303444179703 1342707643552 What is salpingitis a risk factor for? Ectopic
pregnancy<br />Infertility<br />Chronic pelvic pain<br />A
hesions
1303445112314 1342707643743 CMV, RSV
Newborn nursery<br /><br />
1303445127199 1342707643743 E. coli, Proteus mirabilis
Urinary catheter
ization
1303445142162 1342707643743 Pseu
omonas aeurginosa Respiratory therapy e ui
pment
1303445156404 1342707643743 HBV
Work in renal
ialysis unit
1303445169912 1342707643743 Can
i
a albicans
Hyperalimentation
1303445177728 1342707643743 Legionella
Water aerosols
1303445208668 1342707643552 The 2 most common causes of nosocomial infxns?
E. coli (UTI)<br><br>S. aureus (woun
infxn)
1303445250895 1342707643552 Presume Pseu
omonas aeruginosa as the cause of a
nosocomial infxn when...?
Presume Pseu
omonas <b>AIR</b>uginosa when <b>AI
R</b> or burns are involve
.
1303445278087 1342707643552 When
o you suspect Legionella as a cause of nos
ocomial infxn? Suspect Legionella when a water source is involve
.
1303520933180 1342707643425 Pus, empyema (collection of pus in pre-existing
anatomical cavity), abscess
S. aureus
1303520951641 1342707643425 Pe
iatric infxn haemophilus influenzae (inclu
in
g epiglottitis)
1303520971780 1342707643425 Pneumonia in CF, burn infxn
Pseu
omonas aeru
ginosa
1303520987992 1342707643425 Branching ro
s in oral infxn
Actinomyces isra
ellii
1303521003000 1342707643425 Traumatic open woun

Clostri
ium perfringens
1303521013451 1342707643425 Surgical woun
S. aureus
1303521027163 1342707643425 Dog or cat bite Pasteurella multoci
a
1303521058526 1342707643425 Currant jelly sputum
Klebsiella
1303521071656 1342707643425 Sepsis/meningitis in newborn
Group B strep

1303521467318 1342707643441 Block cell wall synthesis by inhibition of pepti

oglycan cross-linking<br /><br /><br /><img src="184b - sites of antimicrobials
without labels.JPG" /><br /> Penicillins (inc. ampicillin, ticarcillin, piper
acillin...)<br />imipenem, aztreonam, cephalosporins<br /><br />[#1 below]<br />
<img src="184a - Sites of antimicrobials with labels.JPG" />
1303521542102 1342707643441 Block pepti
oglycan synthesis<br /><br /><img sr
c="184b - sites of antimicrobials without labels.JPG" /><br /> Bacitracin, Vanc
omycin<br />[#2 below]<br /><br /><img src="184a - Sites of antimicrobials with
labels.JPG" />
1303521582044 1342707643441 Disrupt bacterial cell wall membranes<br><br><im
g src="184b - sites of antimicrobials without labels.JPG" /><br>
Polymyxi
ns<br>[#3 below]<br><br><img src="184a - Sites of antimicrobials with labels.JPG
" />
1303521621576 1342707643441 Block nucleoti
e synthesis<br><br><img src="184b
- sites of antimicrobials without labels.JPG" /><br> Sulfonami
es, Trimethopr
im<br>[#4 below]<br><br><img src="184a - Sites of antimicrobials with labels.JPG
" />
1303521663118 1342707643441 Block DNA topoisomerases<br /><br /><img src="18
4b - sites of antimicrobials without labels.JPG" />
Quinolones<br />[#5 belo
w]<br /><br /><img src="184a - Sites of antimicrobials with labels.JPG" />
1303521687371 1342707643441 Block mRNA synthesis
Rifampin<br>[#6 below]<b
r><br><img src="184a - Sites of antimicrobials with labels.JPG" />
1303521766677 1342707643441 Block protein synthesis at 50S ribosomal subunit
<br /><br /><img src="184b - sites of antimicrobials without labels.JPG" /><br /
>
Chloramphenicol, macroli
es, clin
amycin,<br />streptogramins ( uinipris
tin,
alfopristin),<br />linezoli
<br />[#7]<br /><br /><img src="184a - Sites o
f antimicrobials with labels.JPG" />
1303521814644 1342707643441 Block protein synthesis at the 30S ribosomal sub
unit<br><br><img src="184b - sites of antimicrobials without labels.JPG" /><br>
Aminoglycosi
es, tetracyclines<br>[#8 below]<br><br><img src="184a - Sites of an
timicrobials with labels.JPG" />
1303521980921 1342707643552 Bactero<b>static</b> antibiotics
<b>E</b>
rythromycin<br /><b>C</b>lin
amycin<br /><b>S</b>ulfamethoxazole<br /><b>T</b>ri
methoprim<br /><b>T</b>etracyclines<br /><b>C</b>hloramphenicol<br /><br />(& uo
t;Were <b>ECST</b>a<b>T</b>i<b>C</b> about bacterio<b>statics</b>& uot;)
1303522155961 1342707643552 Bacterio<b>ci
al</b> antibiotics
<b>V</b>
ancomycin<br><b>F</b>luoro uinolones<br><b>P</b>enicillin<br><b>A</b>minoglycosi

es<br><b>C</b>ephalosporins<br><b>M</b>etroni
azole<br><br>& uot;<b>V</b>ery <b
>F</b>inely <b>P</b>roficient <b>A</b>t <b>C</b>ell <b>M</b>ur
er& uot;
1303522456753 1342707643552 Forms of penicillin (a
ministration)
Penicill
in G (IV form),<br />Penicillin V (oral form).
1303522503073 1342707643552 Mechanism of penicillin 1.) Bin
penicillin-bin

ing proteins<br />2.) Block transpepti
ase cross-linking of cell wall (D-ala-D-a
la structural analog)<br />3.) Activate autolytic enzymes
1303522610711 1342707643552 Penicillinase-resistant penicillins (methicillin
, nafcillin,
icloxacillin)<br /><br />Mechanism?<br />Clinical use?<br />Toxici
ty?
Same as penicillin*.<br /><br />Narrow spectrum; staph aureus (& uot;use
<b>naf </b>for <b>staph</b>& uot;) <b>except MRSA</b> (resistant b/c of altere

PBPs);<br />penicillinase resistant b/c of bulkier R group. Goo
for skin an
s
oft tissue infxns where staph is suspecte
.<br /><br />Hypersensitivity rxns; me
thicillin -- interstital nephritis<br /><br /><br />* mechanism of PCN:<br />1.)
Bin
penicillin-bin
ing proteins<br />2.) Block transpepti
ase cross-linking of
cell wall<br />3.) Activate autolytic enzymes
1303522775080 1342707643552 Mechanism of aminopenicillins:<br />Ampicillin,
amoxicillin<br /><br />Spectrum?<br />Other?
Same as penicillin*.<br />Wi
er
spectrum; Penicillinase sensitive.<br />Also combine w/ clavulanic aci
(a penic
illinase inhibitor) to enhance spectrum.<br />Am<b>O</b>xicillin has greater <b>
O</b>ral bioavailability than ampicillin.<br /><br /><br />*Mechanism of PCN:<br
/>1.) Bin
penicillin-bin
ing proteins<br />2.) Block transpepti
ase cross-link
ing of cell wall<br />3.) Activate autolytic enzymes

1303522818594 1342707643552 Mechanism of antipseu
omonals:<br>Ticarcillin, c
arbenicillin, piperacillin
Same as penicillin*.<br>Exten
e
spectrum.<br><b
r><br>*Mechanism of penicillin:<br>1.) Bin
penicillin-bin
ing proteins<br>2.) B
lock transpepti
ase cross-linking of cell wall<br>3.) Activate autolytic enzymes
1303522866979 1342707643552 Clinical use of penicillin
Mostly use
for
<b>gram-positives </b>(<i>S. pneumoniae, S. pyogenes, Actinomyces</i>) an
<b>sy
philis.</b><br />Bacterici
al for Gram(+) cocci, Gram(+) ro
s, Gram(-) cocci, an

spirochetes.<br />Not penicillinase resistant.
1303522892813 1342707643552 Toxicity of penicillin Hypersensitivity rxns,<b
r />hemolytic anemia
1303523064488 1342707643552 Clinical use of aminopenicillins<br />(ampicilli
n, amoxicillin) Exten
e
spectrum penicillin*:<br />certain gram(+) bacteria an

gram(-) ro
s:<br /><b>H</b>aemophilus influenzae, <b>E</b>. coli, <b>L</b>ister
ia monocytogenes, <b>P</b>roteus mirabilis, <b>S</b>almonella, <b>S</b>higella,
enterococci<br />(& uot;Ampicillin/amoxicillin <b>HELPSS</b> kill enterococci& u
ot;)<br /><br />*Think of <b>amp</b>icillin/amoxicillin as <b>AMP</b>e
up penic
illin
1303523098499 1342707643552 Toxicity of aminopenicillins<br>(ampicillin, amo
xicillin)
Hypersensitivity rxtns;<br>Ampicillin rash;<br>Pseu
omembranous
colitis.
1303523222327 1342707643552 Clinical use of:<br>Ticarcillin, carbenicillin,
piperacillin
(antipseu
omonals -- <b>TCP</b>: & uot;<b>T</b>ake <b>C</b>are o
f <b>P</b>seu
omonas& uot;)<br><br>Use
for Pseu
omonas spp. an
&nbsp;&nbsp;gram
(-) ro
s;<br>susceptible to penicillinase;<br>Use w/ clavulinic aci
(Beta-lacta
mase inhibitor).
1303523245783 1342707643552 Toxicity of antipseu
omonals<br>(Ticarcillin, ca
rbenicillin, piperacillin)
Hypersensitivity rxtns.
1303523300460 1342707643552 Mechanism of cephalosporins
Beta-lactam
rug
s that inhibit cell wall synthesis, <br>but are less susceptible to penicillinas
es.<br><br>Bacterici
al.
1303523375026 1342707643552 Clinical use of 1st generation cephalosporins?<b
r><br>Drug names?
(Cefazolin, cephalexin)<br /><br />Gram(+) cocci, <br />
<b>P</b>roteus mirabilis, <b>E</b>. <b>c</b>oli, <b>K</b>lebsiella pneumoniae<br
/>(1st gen = <b>PEcK</b>)
1303523494388 1342707643552 Clinical use of 2n
generation cephalosporins?<b
r /><br />Drug names? (cefoxitin, cefaclor, cefuroxime)<br /><br />Gram(+) coc
ci,<br /><b>H</b>aemophilus influenzae, <b>E</b>nterobacter aerogenes, <b>N</b>e
isseria spp.<br /><b>P</b>roteus mirabilis, <b>E. c</b>oli, <b>K</b>lebsiella pn
eumoniae, <b>S</b>erratia marcescens<br />(& uot;2n
Gen = <b>HEN PEcKS</b>& uot
;)
1303523604508 1342707643552 Clinical use of 3r
generation cephalosporins?<b
r><br>Drug names?
(ceftriaxone, cefotaxime, ceftazi
ime)<br /><br />Seriou
s<b> gram(-) infxns</b> resistant to other beta-lactams;<br />meningitis (most p
enetrate the BBB).<br /><br />Examples:<br /><br /><b>Ceftriaxone for meningitis
an
gonorrhea</b><br /><b>Ceftazi
ime for Pseu
omonas</b>
1303523642572 1342707643552 Clinical use of 4th generation cephalosporins?<b
r /><br />Drug names? (Cefepime)<br /><br />Increase
activity against Pseu
om
onas an
gram(+) organisms.
1303523757466 1342707643552 Toxicity of cephalosporins
Hypersensitivity
rxtn.<br />Cross-hypersensitivity w/ penicillins occurs in 5-10% of pts.<br />I
ncrease
nephrotoxicity of aminoglycosi
es;<br />
isulfiram-like rxtn w/ ethanol
(in cephalosporins w/ methylthiotetrazole group, e.g., cefaman
ole)
1303523805731 1342707643552 Mechanism of aztreonam A monobactam resistant t
o beta-lactamases.<br>Inhibits cell wall synthesis (bin
s to PBP3).<br>Synergist
ic w/ aminoglycosi
es.<br>No cross-allergenicity w/ penicillins.
1303523895543 1342707643552 Clinical use of aztreonam
<span style="fon
t-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">Gram(-) ro
s only</span><br /><b>No a
ctivity against gram(+)s or anaerobes.</b><br /><br />For penicillin-allergic p
ts an
those w/ renal insufficiency who cannot tolerate aminoglycosi
es.
1303523939473 1342707643552 Toxicity of Aztreonam Usually nontoxic; occasi

onal GI upset.<br />No cross-sensitivity w/ penicillins or cephalosporins.
1303524075550 1342707643552 Mechanism of Imipenem/cilastatin, meropenem
Imipenem is a broa
-spectrum, beta-lactamase-resistant carbapenem.<br />Always a

minister imipenem w/ cilastatin (inhibitor of renal
ehy
ropepti
ase I) to
ecr
ease inactivation in renal tubules.<br />(meropenem can be use
alone)<br /><br
/>(With imipenem, & uot;the kill is <b>LASTIN</b> with ci<b>LASTATIN</b>& uot;)
1303524166553 1342707643552 Clinical use of imipenem/cilastatin, meropenem
Gram(+) cocci, gram(-) ro
s, an
anaerobes.<br />Wi
e specrum.<br />The signific
ant si
e effects limit use to life-threatening infxns,<br />or after other
rugs
have faile
.<br /><br />Meropenem, however, has a re
uce
risk of seizures an

is stable to
ihy
ropepti
ase I.
1303524180568 1342707643552 Toxicity of Imipenem/cilastatin, meropenem
GI
istress, skin rash, an
CNS toxicity (<b>seizures</b>) @ high plasma levels
1303524365652 1342707643552 Mechanism of vancomycin Inhibits cell wall mucop
epti
e formation by bin
ing D-ala D-ala portion of cell wall precursors.<br>Bact
erici
al.<br>Resistance occurs w/ AA change of D-ala D-ala to <i>D-ala </i><span
style="font-weight:600; font-style:italic;">D-lac</span>
1303524400950 1342707643552 Clinical use of vancomycin
<b>Gram(+) only.
</b>Use
for serious, gram(+) multi
rug-resistant organisms, <br />inclu
ing S.
aureus an
Clostri
ium
ifficile (oral
ose for pseu
omembranous colitis)
1303524483903 1342707643552 Toxicity of vancomycin <b>N</b>ephrotoxicity, <
b>O</b>totoxicity, <b>T</b>hromophlebitis, <br />
iffuse flushing - & uot;re
ma
n syn
rome& uot; (can largely prevent by pretreatment w/ antihistamines an
slow
infusion rate)<br /><br />Well toleratere
in general --
oes <b>NOT</b> have m
any problems.
1303527671377 1342707643552 Protein synthesis inhibitors: 30S inhibitors
<b>A</b> = <b>A</b>minoglycosi
es (streptomycin, gentamycin,<br />tobramycin, am
ikacin) [bacterioci
al]<br /><br /><b>T</b> = <b>T</b>etracyclines [bacteriostat
ic]<br /><br />(& uot;Buy <b>AT 30</b>, CCELL (sell) at 50& uot;)<br /><br />[*n
ote
ifferent specific sites of action of Aminoglycosi
es an
TCNs below]<br /><
img src="187a - Protein synthesis inhibitors.JPG" />
1303527835694 1342707643552 Protein Synthesis Inhibitors: 50S inhibitors
<b>C</b> = <b>C</b>hloramphenicol, <b>C</b>lin
amycin [bacteriostatic]<br /><b>E
</b> = <b>E</b>rythromycin [bacteriostatic]<br /><b>L </b>= <b>L</b>inezoli
[va
riable]<br /><br />(& uot;Buy AT 30, <b>CCEL</b> (sell) at <b>50</b>& uot;)<br /
><br />[note
ifferent specific sites of action below]<br /><img src="187a - Pro
tein synthesis inhibitors.JPG" />
1303527909807 1342707643552 Aminoglycosi
es (list) <b>G</b>entamycin<br><b>
N</b>eomycin<br><b>A</b>mikacin<br><b>T</b>obramycin<br><b>S</b>treptomycin<br><
br>(& uot;<b>Mean GNATS</b>& uot; [mean = a<span style="font-weight:600; text-
e
coration: un
erline;">min</span>oglycosi
es)
1303527980272 1342707643552 Mechanism of aminoglycosi
es<br />(gentamycin, n
eomycin, amikacin, tobramycin, streptomycin)
Bacterici
al; inhibit formation
of <b>initiation complex </b>an
cause <b>misrea
ing of mRNA</b>.<br />Re uire O
2 for uptake; therefore ineffective against anaerobes.<br /><br />(& uot;Mean GN
ATS canNOT kill anaerobes& uot;)<br />(& uot;A <b>initiates</b> <b>rea
ing</b> t
he alphabet& uot;)
1303528018147 1342707643552 Clinical use of aminogyclosi
es<br />(gentamycin
, neomycin, amikacin, tobramycin, streptomycin) Severe gram (-) ro
infxns.<br /
>Synergistic w/ beta-lactam ABX. <br />Neomycin for bowel surgery.
1303528118464 1342707643552 Toxicity of aminoglycosi
es<br>(gentamycin, neom
ycin, amikacin, tobramycin, streptomycin)
<b>N</b>ephrotoxicity (especiall
y when use
w/ cephalosporins)<br><b>O</b>totoxicity (especially when use
w/ lo
op
iuretics)<br><b>T</b>eratogen.<br><br>(& uot;Mean GNATS can<b>NOT</b> kill a
naerobes& uot;)
1303528173760 1342707643552 Tetracyclines (list)
Tetracylcine<br>Doxycycl
ine<br>Demeclocycline<br>Minocycline
1303528329280 1342707643552 Mechanism of tetracyclines?<br />Excretion?<br /
>Contrain
ications?<br />Other uses?<br /><br />(tetracycline,
oxycycline,
eme
clocyclline, minocycline)<br /><br /> Bacteriostatic; bin
to 30S an
<b>preve

nt attachment of aminoacyl-tRNA</b>.<br />Limite
CNS penetration.<br /><b>Doxyc
yline is fecally eliminate
an
can be use
in pts w/ renal failure</b>.<br /><b
r />Must NOT take w/ milk, antaci
s, <br />or iron-containing preparations b/c

ivalent cations inhibit absorption in gut.<br /><br /><b>D</b>emeclocycline is a
n ADH antagonist (acts as a <b>D</b>iuretic in SIADH)
1303528444106 1342707643552 Clinical use of tetracyclines<br />(tetracycline
,
oxycycline,
emeclocyclline, minocycline)
<b>V</b>ibrio cholerae<br /><b>A
</b>cne<u><br /></u><span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">*
*C</span><u>hlamy
ia</u><br /><b>U</b>reaplasma<br /><b>U</b>realyticum<u><br />
</u><span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">**M</span><u>ycop
lasma pneumoniae</u><br /><b>T</b>ularemia<br /><b>H</b>. pylori<u><br /></u><sp
an style="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">**B</span><u>orrelia bur
g
orferi (Lyme
z)<br /></u><span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
er
line;">**R</span><u>ickettsia</u><br /><br />(& uot;<b>VACUUM TH</b>e <b>B</b>e

<b>R</b>oom& uot;)
1303528476184 1342707643552 Toxicity of tetracyclines<br />(tetracycline,
o
xycycline,
emeclocyclline, minocycline)
GI
istress<br />Discoloration o
f teeth an
inhibition of bone growth in chil
ren<br />Photosensitivity<br /><br
/>Contrain
icate
in pregnancy.
1303528502108 1342707643552 Macroli
es (list)
Erythromycin, azithromyc
in, clarithromycin
1303528574010 1342707643552 Mechanism of macroli
es<br />(Erythromycin, azit
hromycin, clarithromycin)
Inhibit protein synthesis by blocking translocat
ion (& uot;macro<b>sli
es</b>& uot;);<br />bin
to the 23S rRNA of the 50S ribos
omal subunit.<br />Bacteriostatic.
1303528664864 1342707643552 Clinical use of macroli
es<br />(Erythromycin, a
zithromycin, clarithromycin)
<b>Atypical pneumonias </b>(Mycoplasma, Chlamy
i
a, Legionella)<br />URIs, pneumonias<br />STDs<br />Gram(+) cocci (<b>streptococ
cal infxns in pts allergic to penicillin</b>)<br />Neisseria
1303528707077 1342707643552 Toxicity of macroli
es<br />(Erythromycin, azith
romycin, clarithromycin)
Prolonge
QT (esp. erythromycin)<br />GI
iscomf
ort (most common cause of noncompliance)<br />Acute cholestatic hepatitis<br />E
osinophilia<br />Skin rashes<br /><br />Increases serum concentration of theophy
llines, oral anticoagulants.
1303528738628 1342707643552 Mechanism of chloramphenicol
Blocks pepti
e b
on
formation at 50S ribosomal subunit (inhibits pepti
yltransferase activity)<b
r />Bacteriostatic.<br />
1303528779226 1342707643552 Clinical use of chloramphenicol <b>Meningitis</b
> (Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria meningiti
is, Streptococcus pneumoniae)<br
/>Conservative use, owing to toxicities (more wi
ely use
in
eveloping countrie
s b/c of low cost)
1303528832677 1342707643552 Toxicity of chloramphenicol
Anemia (<i>
ose

epen
ent</i>)<br />Aplastic anemia (<i>
ose in
epen
ent</i>)<br />Gray baby syn

rome (in premature infants b/c they lack liver UDP-glucuronyl transferase)
1303528871564 1342707643552 Mechanism of clin
amycin
Blocks pepti
e b
on
formation at 50S ribosomal subunit.<br>Bacteriostatic.
1303528919695 1342707643552 Clinical use of clin
amycin
<b>Anaerobic inf
xns </b>(e.g., Bacteroi
es fragilis, Clostri
ium perfringens) in aspiration pneu
monia or lung abcesses<br /><br />(Treats anaerobes above the
iaphragm)
1303528958929 1342707643552 Toxicity of clin
amycin Pseu
omembranous colitis
(C.
ifficile overgrowth)<br />Fever<br />Diarrhea
1303529152928 1342707643552 Sulfonami
es (list)
Sulfamethoxazole (SMX)<b
r>Sulfisoxazole<br>Sulfa
iazine
1303529219013 1342707643552 Mechanism of sulfonami
es<br />(sulfamethoxazole
(SMX), sulfisoxazole, sulfa
iazine)
PABA antimetabolites inhibit
ihy
ropter
oate synthase [see below].<br />Bacteriostatic.<br /><img src="189a - Sulfonami

es.JPG" />
1303529258918 1342707643552 Clinical use of of sulfonami
es<br>(sulfamethoxa
zole (SMX), sulfisoxazole, sulfa
iazine)
Gram(+), gram(-), Nocar
ia, Chla
my
ia.<br>Triple sulfas or SMX for simple UTI.

1303529324536 1342707643552 Toxicity of sulfonami
es<br />(sulfamethoxazole
(SMX), sulfisoxazole, sulfa
iazine)
Hypersensitivity rxtns<br />Hemolysis if
G6PD
eficient<br />Nephrotoxicity (tubulointerstitial nephritis)<br />Photosen
sitivity<br />Kernicterus in infants<br />Displace other
rugs from albumin (e.g
., warfarin)
1303529363033 1342707643552 Mechanism of trimethoprim (TMP) Inhibits bacteri
al
ihy
rofolate re
uctase.<br />Bacteriostatic.<br><img src="189a - Sulfonami
e
s.JPG" />
1303529438570 1342707643552 Clinical use of trimethoprim (TMP)
Use
in
combination w/ sulfonami
es (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole [TMP-SMX]),<br />caus
ing se uential block of folate synthesis.<br /><br />Combination use
for UTIs,
Shigella, Salmonella, Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia.
1303529514266 1342707643552 Toxicity of trimethoprim (TMP) Megaloblastic an
emia<br />Leukopenia<br />Granulocytopenia<br />(may alleviate w/ supplemental f
olinic aci
: leucovorin rescue)<br /><br />(Trimethoprim = <b>TMP</b>: & uot;<b>
T</b>reats <b>M</b>arrow <b>P</b>oorly& uot;)
1303529614736 1342707643552 Sulfa
rug allergies -- what
o you nee
to avoi
Pts who
o not tolerate sulfa
rugs shoul
not be given sulfonami
es or

?
other sulf
rugs such as:<br />Sulfasalazine<br />Sulfonylureas<br />Thiazi
e
i
uretics<br />Acetazolami
e<br />Furosemi
e
1303529863939 1342707643552 Fluoro uinolones (list) Ciprofloxacin<br />Norfl
oxacin<br />Ofloxacin<br />Sparfloxacin<br />Moxifloxacin<br />Gatifloxacin<br /
>Enoxacin<br />[above are fluoro uinolones]<br /><br />Nali
ixic aci
[a uinolo
ne]
1303529896141 1342707643552 Mechanism of fluoro uinolones Inhibit DNA gyra
se (topoisomerase II).<br>Bacterici
al.<br>Must not be taken w/ antaci
s.
1303529932033 1342707643552 Clinical use of fluoro uinolones
Gram(-)
ro
s of urinary an
GI tracts (inclu
ing <i>Pseu
omonas</i>),<br /><i>Neisseria<
/i>, some gram(+) organisms
1303530019035 1342707643552 Toxicity of fluoro uinolones
GI upset, superi
nfections, skin rashes, HA,
izziness.<br /><br />Contrain
icate
in pregnant wo
men an
in chil
ren b/c animal stu
ies show
amage to cartilage.<br /><br />Ten

onitis an
ten
on rupture in a
ults; leg cramps an
myalgias in ki
s.<br /><br /
>(& uot;Flouro uino<b>LONES</b> hurt the attachments to your <b>BONES</b>& uot;)
1303530056397 1342707643552 Mechanism of metroni
azole
Forms free ra
ic
al toxic metabolites in the bacterial cell that
amage DNA.<br />Bacterici
al, a
ntiprotozoal.
1303530189769 1342707643552 Clinical use of metroni
azole Treats:<br /><b>
G</b>iar
ia<br /><b>E</b>ntamoeba<br /><b>T</b>richomonas<br /><b>G</b>ar
nerell
a vaginalis<br /><b>A</b>naerobes (Bacteroi
es, Clostri
ium
ifficile)<br />Use

w/ bismuth an
amoxicillin (or TCN) for & uot;triple therapy& uot; against H. <
b>P</b>ylori<br />(& uot;<b>GET GAP</b> on the <b>METRO</b>!& uot;)<br /><br />T
reats anaerobic infxns below the
iaphragm.
1303530211842 1342707643552 Toxicity of metroni
azole
Disulfiram-like
rxtn w/ alcohol<br>Hea
ache<br>Metallic taste
1303572213173 1342707643552 Polymyxins (list)
Polymyxin B<br>Polymyxin
E
1303572268550 1342707643552 Mechanism of polymyxins Bin
to cell membranes o
f bacteria an

isrupt their osmotic properties.<br />Polymyxins are cationic, b
asic proteins that act like
etergents.<br /><br />(& uot;<b>MYXins MIX up</b> m
embranes& uot;)
1303572284536 1342707643552 Clinical use of polymyxins
resistant gram() infxns
1303572308256 1342707643552 Toxicity of polymyxins Neurotoxicity, acute ren
al tubular necrosis
1303572416798 1342707643552 Antimycobacterial
rugs: for M. tuberculosis
Prophylaxis:<br />Isoniazi
<br /><br />Tx:<br /><b>R</b>ifampin<br /><b>I</b>son
iazi
<br /><b>P</b>yrazinami
e<br /><b>E</b>thambutol<br />(<b>RIPE</b> for trea
tment)
1303572476253 1342707643552 Antimycobacterial
rugs: for M. avium-intracellu

lare
Prophylaxis:<br />Azithromycin (CD4 &lt;50)<br /><br />Tx:<br />Azithrom
ycin<br />Rifampin<br />Ethambutol<br />Streptomycin
1303572497046 1342707643552 Antimycobacterial
rugs for M. leprae Tx:<br /
>Dapsone<br />Clofazimine<br />Rifampin<br />
1303572593503 1342707643552 Anti-TB
rugs <b>S</b>treptomycin, <b>P</b>yra
zinami
e, <b>I</b>soniazi
(<b>INH</b>), <b>R</b>ifampin, <b>E</b>thambutol <br
/>(& uot;<b>INH-SPIRE</b>& uot; [inspire])<br /><br />Cycloserine (2n
-line ther
apy)
1303572634339 1342707643552 Si
e effects of anti-TB
rugs Important SE of
ethambutol: optic neuropathy (re
-green color blin
ness)<br><br>For other
rugs:
hepatotoxicity.
1303572696383 1342707643552 Mechanism of isoniazi
(INH)?<br />Re uires what
to be active? Decreases synthesis of mycolic aci
s.<br />Bacterial catalase-pe
roxi
ase (KatG) nee
e
to convert INH to active metabolite.<br /><br />*note tha
t there are
ifferent INH half-lives in fast vs. slow acetylators.<br /><br /><i
mg src="pasterlpz7e.jpg" />
1303572749748 1342707643552 Clinical use of isoniazi
(INH) Mycobacterium tu
berculosis.<br>The only agent use
as solo prophylaxis against TB.
1303572814317 1342707643552 Toxicity of isoniazi
(INH)
Neurotoxicity, h
epatotoxicity.<br />Pyri
oxine (Vitamin B6) can prevent neurotoxicity.<br /><br
/>(& uot;<b>INH I</b>njures <b>N</b>eurons an
<b>H</b>epatocytes& uot;)<br /><b
r />*Structurally similar to pyri
oxine (B6); competes w/ B6 bin
ing sites causi
ng
efective NT synthesis (inc. GABA).<br />*Increases B6 excretion
1303572853241 1342707643552 Mechanism of rifampin Inhibits bacterial DNA-

epen
ent RNA polymerase
1303572919889 1342707643552 Clinical use of rifampin
Mycobacterium tu
berculosis.<br />Delays resistance to
apsone when use
for leprosy.<br /><br />
Use
for meningococcal prophylaxis an
chemoprophylaxis in contacts of chil
ren
w/ Haemophilus influenzae type B.<br />
1303572966359 1342707643552 Toxicity of rifampin
Minor hepatotoxicity an


rug interactions (in
uces P-450)<br>Orange bo
y flui
s (nonhazar
ous si
e effe
ct)
1303573011564 1342707643552 & uot;Rifampins 4 Rs& uot;
<b>R</b>NA polym
erase inhibitor<br /><b>R</b>evs up microsomal P-450<br /><b>R</b>e
/orange bo
y
flui
s<br /><b>R</b>api
resistance if use
alone
1303573157875 1342707643638 Penicillins/cephalosporins (inclu
ing MRSA)
Beta-lactamase cleavage of beta-lactam ring, <br />or altere
PBP in cases of MR
SA or penicillin-resistant S. pneumoniae.
1303573178397 1342707643638 Aminoglycosi
es Transferase enzymes that inactiv
ate the
rug via acetylation, phosphorylation, or a
enylation.
1303573206766 1342707643638 Vancomycin
Terminal D-ala of cell wall comp
onent replace
with D-lac,
ecrease
affinity.
1303573217801 1342707643638 Chloramphenicol Plasmi
-enco
e
acetyltransferas
e that inactivates
rug
1303573238299 1342707643638 Macroli
es
Methylation of 23s rRNA bin
ing
site
1303573302749 1342707643638 Tetracycline
Decrease
uptake or increase
tr
ansport out of cell by plasmi
-enco
e
pumps.
1303573333334 1342707643638 Sulfonami
es
Altere
enzyme (bacterial
ihy
r
opteroate synthase),<br />
ecrease
uptake, or increase
PABA synthesis.
1303573346067 1342707643638 Quinolones
<b>Chromosome-enco
e
</b> mutati
on in DNA gyrase
1303573409764 1342707643552 Antimicrobial prophylaxis of: meningococcal infx
n
Ciprofloxacin (
rug of choice), rifampin, minocycline
1303573424531 1342707643552 Antimicrobial prophylaxis of: gonorrhea Ceftriax
one
1303573437789 1342707643552 Antimicrobial prophylaxis of: syphilis Benzathi
ne penicillin G
1303573450788 1342707643552 Antimicrobial prophylaxis of: Hx of recurrent UT
Is
TMP-SMX

1303573480177 1342707643552 Antimicrobial prophylaxis of: Pneumocystis jirov
eci pneumonia, toxoplasmosis
TMP-SMX (
rug of choice)<br /><br /><br />Aeroso
lize
<b>pentami
ine</b> may be use
if pt is unable to tolerate TMP-SMX<br />bu
t this may not concurrently prevent toxoplasmosis
1303573491963 1342707643552 Antimicrobial prophylaxis of: en
ocar
itis w/ su
rgical or
ental proce
ures
Penicillins.
1303573521756 1342707643552 Tx of highly resistant bacteria<br /><br />MRSA<
br />VRE
MRSA: vancomycin<br />VRE: linezoli
an
streptogramins ( uinupr
istin/
alfopristin)
1303573750537 1342707643552 Mechanism of Amphotericin B
Bin
s ergosterol
(uni ue to fungi);<br />Forms membrane pores that allow leakage of electrolytes
.<br /><br />(& uot;Ampho<b>tear</b>acin tears holes in fungal membranes by fo
rming pores& uot;)<br /><br />[on left, below]<br /><br /><img src="192a - Antif
ungal therapy.JPG" />
1303573853409 1342707643552 Clinical use of Amphotericin B <b>Serious, syst
emic mycoses</b><br /><br />Cryptococcus, Blastomyces, Cocci
ioi
es,<br />Asperg
illus, Histoplasma, Can
i
a, Mucor (systemic mycoses).<br /><br />Intrathecally
for fungal meningitis
1303573937060 1342707643552 Toxicity of Amphotericin B, an
ways to re
uce
Fever/chills (& uot;shake an
bake& uot;), hypotension, nephrotoxicity, <br />ar
rhythmias, anemia, IV phlebitis (& uot;amphotericin = amphoterrible& uot;).<br /
><br />Hy
ration re
uces nephrotoxicity.<br />Liposomal amphotericin re
uces tox
icity.<br /><br />Supplemental <b>K+ an
Mg++</b> b/c of increase
renal tubule
permeability
1303573983861 1342707643552 Mechanism of Nystatin Bin
s to ergosterol,
is
rupting fungal membranes.<br /><b>Topical form</b> b/c too toxic for systemic us
e.<br /><br />[on left w/ amphotericin, below]<br /><img src="192a - Antifungal
therapy.JPG" />
1303574018223 1342707643552 Clinical use of nystatin
& uot;Swish an

swallow& uot; for oral can
i
iasis (thrush);<br>topical for
iaper rash or vagin
al can
i
iasis.
1303574056384 1342707643552 Azoles (list) Fluconazole<br />Ketoconazole<br
/>Clotrimazole<br />Miconazole<br />Itraconazole<br />Voriconazole<br /><br />(
& uot;conazole& uot; + clotrimazole)
1303574116254 1342707643552 Mechanism of azoles
Inhibit fungal sterol (e
rgosterol) synthesis by inhibiting the P-450 enzyme that converts lanosterol to
ergosterol<br />(14α-demethylse)<br /><br />[below, top/middle]<br /><br /><img s
rc="192 - Antifungl therpy.JPG" />
1303574205504 1342707643552 Clinicl use of zoles Systemic mycoses.<br /><
br /><b>Fluconzole</b> for <b>cyptococcl meningitis</b> in AIDS pts (b/c it <b
>cn cross the BBB</b>) <br /><b>nd cndidl infxns</b> of ll types (i.e., ye
st infxns).<br /><br />Ketoconzole for <i>Blstomyces</i>,<i> Coccidioides</i>,
<i> Histoplsm</i>,<i> Cndid lbicns</i>, hypercortisolism.<br /><br />Clotr
imzole nd miconzole for topicl fungl infxns.
1303574247043 1342707643552 Toxicity of zoles
Hormone synthesis inhibi
tion (gynecomsti- inhibits desmolse),<br />liver dysfunction (inhibits cytoch
rome P-450- 14α-demethylse trget is itself  P-450), <br />fever, chills
1303583753336 1342707643552 Flucytosine mechnism Inhibits DNA synthesis b
y conversion to 5-fluorourcil by <b>cytosine deminse</b><br /><br />[below, m
iddle]<br /><br /><img src="192 - Antifungl therpy.JPG" />
1303583783223 1342707643552 Clinicl use of flucytosine
Used in systemic
fungl infxns (e.g., Cndid, Cryptococcus)<br>in combintion w/ mphotericin B
1303583803638 1342707643552 Toxicity of flucytosine Nuse, vomiting, dirrh
e, bone mrrow suppression
1303583894527 1342707643552 Mechnism of Cspofungin
Inhibits cell w
ll synthesis by inhibiting synthesis of bet-D-glucn.<br /><br />[not included
in imge of nti-fungl mechnisms]
1303583951977 1342707643552 Clinicl use of cspofungin
<b>Invsive spe
rgillosis</b>, cndid
1303583962467 1342707643552 Toxicity of cspofungin GI upset, flushing.

1303584007291 1342707643552 Mechnism of terbinfine
Inhibits the fun
gl enzyme squlene epoxidse (prt of the fungl cell membrne synthesis pthw
y)<br /><br />[below, top/right]<br /><br />*Lmisil<br /><br /><img src="192 Antifungl therpy.JPG" />
1303584029856 1342707643552 Clinicl use of terbinfine?<br /><br />Toxicity
?
Used to Tx dermtophytoses (especilly onychomycosis- fungl infxn of fi
nger/toenils)<br /><br />Abnorml LFTs, visul disturbnces<br /><br /><br />*L
misil
1303584094051 1342707643552 Mechnism of griseofulvin
Interferes w/ mi
crotubule fxn; disrupts mitosis.<br />Deposits in kertin-contining tissues (e.
g., nils).<br /><br />[below, bottom/right]<br /><br /><img src="192 - Antifun
gl therpy.JPG" />
1303584127657 1342707643552 Clinicl use of griseofulvin
Orl Tx of super
ficil infxns;<br />inhibits growth of <b>dermtophytes</b> (tine, ringworm)
1303584165839 1342707643552 Toxicity of griseofulvin
Tertogenic, cr
cinogenic, confusion, HA,<br />induces P-450 (incresing wrfrin metbolism).
1303584308442 1342707643552 Mechnism of mntdine Blocks virl penetrtion
/un<b>coting</b> (M2 protein);<br>my buffer pH of endosome.<br>(&quot;<b>A mn
to dine</b> [mntdine] tkes of his <b>cot</b>.&quot;)<br><br>Also cuses th
e relese of dopmine from intct nerve terminls.<br><br>[below, top/right]<br>
<br><img src="193 - Antivirl sites of ction.JPG" />
1303584389825 1342707643552 Clinicl use of mntdine
Prophylxis nd
Tx for influenz A;<br /><b>Prkinson's Dz</b>.<br /><br />(<b>A</b>mntdine bl
ocks influenz <b>A</b>, nd cuses problems w/ the cerebell<b>A</b>&quot;)
1303584434052 1342707643552 Toxicity of mntdine Atxi, dizziness, slurr
ed speech.<br />(<b>A</b>mntdine blocks influenz <b>A</b> nd rubell<b>A</b>,
nd cuses problems w/ the cerebell<b>A</b>&quot;)<br /><br />Rimntidine is 
derivtive w/ fewer CNS side effects<br />(does not cross BBB)
1303584465302 1342707643552 Mechnism of resistnce to mntdine Mutted
M2 protein.<br>90% of ll influenz A strins re resistnt to mntdine, so no
t used.
1303584545377 1342707643552 Mechnism of: Znmivir, oseltmivir
Inhibit
influenz neurminidse, decresing the relese of progeny virus.<br /><br />[be
low, bottom/left: &quot;Neurminidse inhibitors&quot;]<br /><br /><img src="193
 - Antivirl sites of ction.JPG" />
1303584558469 1342707643552 Clinicl use of&nbsp;&nbsp;Znmivir, oseltmivi
r
Both influenz A nd B
1303584739844 1342707643552 Mechnism of ribvirin Inhibits synthesis of gu
nine nucleotides by competitively inhibiting <b>IMP dehydrogense</b>.<br /><br
/>[not included in figure, but cts t point of NA synthesis, bottom/right]<br
/><img src="193 - Antivirl sites of ction.JPG" />
1303584754726 1342707643552 Clinicl use of ribvirin
<b>RSV<br />Chro
nic heptitis C</b>
1303584768884 1342707643552 Toxicity of ribvirin Hemolytic nemi.<br>Sev
ere tertogen.
1303584850985 1342707643552 Mechnism of cyclovir Monophosphorylted by HS
V/VZV thymidine kinse.<br />Gunosine nlog.<br />Triphosphte formed by cellu
lr enzymes.<br />Preferentilly inhibits virl DNA polymerse by chin termint
ion.<br /><br />[fits w/ NA nlogs below, bottom/right]<br /><br /><img src="19
3 - Antivirl sites of ction.JPG" />
1303584928203 1342707643552 Clnicil use of cyclovir
<b>HSV, VZV, EBV
.</b><br />Used for HSV-induced mucocutneous nd genitl lesions s well s for
encephlitis.<br />Prophylxis in immunocompromised pts.<br />No effect on lte
nt HSV nd VZV.<br /><br />For herpes zoster, use  relted gent (<b>fmciclovi
r</b>).<br /><b>Vlcyclovir</b> (prodrug) hs better orl biovilbility
1303584941462 1342707643552 Toxicity of cyclovir Generlly well-tolerted
.
1303584957626 1342707643552 Mechnism of resistnce to cyclovir
Lck of
virl thymidine kinse
1303585063079 1342707643552 Mechnism of gnciclovir
5'-monophosphte

formed by  CMV virl kinse.<br />Gunosine nlog.<br />Triphosphte formed b
y cellulr kinses. <br />Preferentilly inhibits virl DNA polymerse.<br /><br
/>[fits in w/ NA nlogs below, bottom/right]<br /><br /><img src="193 - Antiv
irl sites of ction.JPG" />
1303585081524 1342707643552 Clinicl use of gnciclovir
<b>CMV</b>, espe
cilly in immunocompromised pts<br /><br /><b>Vlgnciclovir</b> (prodrug) hs b
etter orl biovilibility
1303585108572 1342707643552 Toxicity of gnciclovir Leukopeni, neutropeni,
thrombocytopeni, renl toxicity.<br>More toxic to host enzymes thn cyclovir.
1303585129677 1342707643552 Mechnism of resistnce to gnciclovir Mutted
CMV DNA polymerse or lck of virl kinse.
1303585261873 1342707643552 Mechnism of foscrnet Virl DNA polymerse inh
ibitor tht binds to the pyrophosphte-binding site of the enzyme.<br />Does not
require ctivtion by virl kinse.<br />(&quot;<b>FOS</b>crnet = pyro<b>FOS</
b>phte nlog&quot;)<br /><br />[would fit into DNA synthesis on bottom/right]<
br /><br /><img src="193 - Antivirl sites of ction.JPG" />
1303585324410 1342707643552 Clinicl use of foscrnet
<b>CMV retinitis
in immunocompromised pts when gnciclovir fils</b>;<br />cyclovir-resistnt H
SV.
1303585336050 1342707643552 Toxicity of foscrnet Nephrotoxicity.
1303585349340 1342707643552 Mechnism of resistnce to foscrnet
Mutted
DNA polymerse.
1303585481527 1342707643518 Protese inhibitors (list)
Lopi<b>nvir</b>
<br />Atz<b>nvir</b><br />Dru<b>nvir</b><br />Fosmpre<b>nvir</b><br />Sq
ui<b>nvir</b><br />Rito<b>nvir</b><br /><br />[ll protese inhibitors end in<
i> -nvir</i>]<br /><br />(&quot;<b>NAVIR</b> (never) <b>TEASE</b>  pro<b>TEASE
</b>&quot;)
1303585535413 1342707643518 Mechnism of protese inhibitors
Protese
(<i>pol </i>gene) cleves polypeptide products of HIV mRNA into functionl prt
s. Thus, protese inhibitors prevent mturtion of new viruses.<br><br>Ritonvir
cn &quot;boost&quot; other drug concentrtions by inhibiting cytochrome P-450.
1303585604813 1342707643518 Toxicity of protese inhibitors Hyperglycemi<br
/>GI intolernce (nuse, dirrhe)<br />Lipodystrophy<br>P-450 inhibition
1303585728996 1342707643518 Reverse trnscriptse inhibitors --&gt; nucleosi
des (list)
Tenofovir (TDF)<br />Emtricitbine (FTC)<br />Abcvir (ABC)<br
/>Lmi<b>vudine</b> (3TC)<br />Zido<b>vudine</b> (ZDV, formerly AZT)<br />Didno
sine (ddI)<br />St<b>vudine</b> (d4T)<br /><br />(&quot;Hve <b>you dined</b> (
<b>vudine</b>) with my <b>nucler</b> (<b>nucleosides</b>) fmily?&quot;)
1303585792214 1342707643518 Reverse trnscriptse inhibitors --&gt; non-nucl
eosides (list) <b>N</b>e<b>VIR</b>pine, <b>E</b>f<b>VIR</b>enz, <b>D</b>el<b
>VIR</b>idine<br /><br />(&quot;<b>N</b>ever <b>E</b>f' <b>D</b>eliver nucleosi
des.&quot;)
1303585855190 1342707643518 Mechnism of reverse trnscriptse inhibitors (N
RTIs nd NNRTIs)<br /><br />Competitive/noncompetitive?<br />Require ctivtion?
NRTIs competitively inhibit nucleotide binding to reverse trnscriptse,<br />te
rminte DNA chin (lck 3'-OH group);<br />must be phosphorylted by thymidine k
inse to be ctive.<br /><br />NNRTIs bind reverse trnscriptse t  different
site;<br />do not require phosphoryltion to be ctive or compete w/ nucleotides
<br /><br /><br />[below, bottom/right]<br /><img src="193 - Antivirl sites of
ction.JPG" />
1303585946131 1342707643518 Toxicity of reverse trnscriptse inhibitors
Bone mrrow suppression*<br />Peripherl neuropthy<b><br />Lctic cidosis (nuc
leosides)</b><br /><b>Rsh (non-nucleosides)</b><br />Megloblstic nemi (ZDV)
<br /><br />*G-CSF nd erythropoietin cn be used to reduce BM suppression.
1303586037670 1342707643518 Highly ctive ntiretrovirl therpy (HAART)?<br
/><br />Drug for generl prophylxis nd to reduce mternl-fetl trnsmission?
Initited when ptients present w/ AIDS-defining illness, low CD4 cell counts (&
lt; 350-500/mm3), or high virl lod.<br /><br />Regimen consists of 3 drugs (to
prevent resistnce):<br />2 NRTIs + 1 NNRTI, 1 protese inhibitor, or 1 integr
se inhibitor<br /><br />ZDV is used for generl prophylxis nd during pregnncy

to reduce risk of fetl trnsmission.
1303586059165 1342707643518 Fusion inhibitor (there's one -- wht is it?)
Enfuvirtide
1303586120422 1342707643518 Mechnism of fusion inhibitors (enfuvirtide)
Bind virl gp41 subunit;<br />inhibit conformtionl chnge required for fusion
w/ CD4 cells.<br />Therefore block entry nd susequent repliction.<br /><br />
1303586165496 1342707643518 Toxicity of fusion inhibitors (enfuvirtide)
Hypersensitivity rxtns<br>Rxtns t subcutneous injection site<br>Incresed risk
of bcteril pneumoni
1303586192057 1342707643518 Clinicl use of fusion inhibitors (enfuvirtide)
In pts w/ persistent virl repliction in spite of ntiretrovirl Tx.<br>Used in
combintion w/ other drugs.
1303586352888 1342707643552 Mechnism of interferons (s ntimicrobils)
Glycoproteins from virus-infected humn leukocytes tht block repliction of bot
h RNA nd DNA viruses.<br />Induce ribonuclese tht degrdes virl mRNA.
1303586405643 1342707643552 Clinicl use of interferons
IFN-lph: chron
ic heptitis B nd C, Kposi's srcom<br><br>IFN-bet: MS<br><br>IFN-gmm: NAD
PH oxidse deficiency
1303586413506 1342707643552 Toxicity of interferons Neutropeni
1303586822346 1342707643552 Antibiotics to void in pregnncy<br />(list -wht re they, nd why for ech one?) <b>C</b>lrithromycin -- embryotoxic<br
/><br /><b>S</b>ulfonmides -- kernicterus<br /><b>A</b>minoglycosides -- ototox
icity<br /><b>F</b>luoroquinolones -- crtilge dmge<br /><br /><b>M</b>etroni
dzole -- mutgenesis<br /><br /><b>T</b>etrcyclines -- discolored teeth, inhib
ition of bone growth<br /><br /><b>R</b>ibvirin (ntivirl) -- tertogenic<br /
><b>G</b>riseofulvin (ntifungl) -- tertogenic<br /><b>C</b>hlormphenicol -&quot;gry bby&quot; <br /><br />(&quot;<b>C</b>ountless <b>SAFE M</b>oms <b>T<
/b>ke <b>R</b>elly <b>G</b>ood <b>C</b>re.&quot;)
1303754915243 1342707643371 Venous gondl dringe Left ovry/testis --&gt;
left gondl vein --&gt; left renl vein --&gt; IVC*<br />vs.<br />Right ovry/
testis --&gt; right gondl vein --&gt; IVC<br /><br />Clinicl significnce: le
ft gondl vein enters renl vein t 90' ngle, cusing left venous pressure to
be higher<br />=&gt; vricocele is more common on the left<br /><br />(*just s
left drenl vein mkes n extr stop t the left renl vein before the IVC)
1303754933238 1342707643371 Lymphtic gondl dringe
Ovries/testes -&gt; pr-ortic lymph nodes
1303755109488 1342707643734 Suspensory ligment of the ovries
Connects
ovries to lterl pelvic wll<br /><br />Contins ovrin vessels<br /><br />U
reter t risk of injury during ligtion of ovrin vesels in oophorectomy<br /><
br />
1303755134717 1342707643734 Trnsverse cervicl (crdinl) ligment Connects
cervix to side wll of pelvis<br /><br />Contins uterine vessels<br /><br />Ur
eter t risk of injury during ligtion of uterine vesels in hysterectomy<br /><b
r />
1303755198877 1342707643734 Round ligment of the uterus
Connects uterine
fundus to lbi mjor<br /><br />&quot;<b>R</b>ound like the number of structu
res it crries:<b> 0</b>&quot;<br /><br />Derivtive of the gubernculum.<br />T
rvels through inguinl cnl.<br /><br /><img src="psteblx5w9.jpg" /><br /><br
/><img src="psteiwvkt0.jpg" />
1303755264895 1342707643734 Brod ligment Connects uterus, fllopin tubes
, nd ovries to pelvic side wll<br /><br />Contins ovries, fllopin tubes,
nd round ligments of uterus<br /><br />Composed of mesoslpinx, mesometrium, 
nd mesovrium<br /><br /><img src="pstehnf3px.jpg" />
1303755304045 1342707643734 Ligment of the ovry Connects ovry to lter
l uterus<br /><br /><img src="pstehnf3px.jpg" />
1303755345834 1342707643371 Femle repro ntomy:<br>Trnsverse section -- c
n you drw it?<br>Where is the pouch of Dougls?
<img src="476 - femle
ntomy 1.JPG" />
1303755418491 1342707643371 Femle repro ntomy:<br />The uterus nd surrou
nding structures -- cn you drw it?<br />Wht is the fundus?<br />Where is the

ovry reltive to the uterus nd the Fllopin tube?
<img src="476b - femle
ntomy 2.JPG" />
1303755555917 1342707643371 Pthwy of sperm during ejcultion
<b>SEVEN
UP</b><br><b>S</b>eminiferous tubules<br><b>E</b>pididymus<br><b>V</b>s defere
ns<br><b>E</b>jcultory duct<br>(<b>N</b>othing)<br><b>U</b>rethr<br><b>P</b>e
nis<br><br><img src="477 - mle ntomy.JPG" />
1303755614244 1342707643371 Mle reproductive ntomy:<br />Trnsverse secti
on -- cn you drw it?<br />Which contins the urethr, the corpus cvernosum, o
r the corpus spongiosum?
[A: corpus spongiosum]<br /><br /><img src="477
- mle ntomy.JPG" />
1303755774989 1342707643371 Autonomic innervtion nd the mle sexul respon
se:<br /><br />Erection<br />Mechnism<br />Drugs
<b>P</b>rsympthetic n
ervous system (<b>p</b>elvic nerve)<br />[The &quot;<b>P</b>&quot; in &quot;<b>P
</b>oint nd <b>S</b>hoot&quot;]<br /><br />1) NO → ↑ cGMP → C++ sequestrtion, smoot
h muscle relxtion → vsodiltion → proerectile<br />2) NE → ↑ [C++] → smooth muscle con
trction → vsoconstriction → ntierectile<br /><br />Sildenfil, vrdenfil inhibit
cGMP brekdown
1303755814482 1342707643371 Autonomic innervtion nd the mle sexul respon
se:<br>Emission <b>S</b>ympthetic nervous sytem (hypogstric nerve)<br>[the &qu
ot;<b>S</b>&quot; in &quot;<b>P</b>oint nd <b>S</b>hoot&quot;]
1303755835142 1342707643371 Autonomic innervtion nd the mle sexul respon
se:<br>Ejcultion
Viscerl nd somtic nerves (pudendl nerves)
1303756030258 1342707643371 Derivtion of sperm prts:<br /><br />When does
it hppen?<br />Where does the crosome come from?<br />The til?<br />Wht's sp
ecil bout the middle piece?<br />Wht does the sperm use for energy? Occurs d
uring finl phse of spermtogenesis (spermiogenesis):<br />spermtid --&gt; spe
rmtozo<br /><br />Acrosome is derived from the Golgi pprtus,<br />nd flge
llum (til) from one of the centrioles.<br /><br /><b>M</b>iddle piece hs <b>M<
/b>itochondri<br /><br /><b>F</b>eeds on <b>F</b>ructose<br /><br /><img src="4
77b - sperm.JPG" />
1303787089964 1342707643371 Androgens (list)
Testosterone<br />Dihydr
otestosterone (DHT)<br />Androstenedione
1303787111297 1342707643371 Source of ndrogens
DHT nd testosterone --&
gt; testes<br><br>Androstenedione --&gt; drenl
1303787125885 1342707643371 Potency of ndrogens
DHT &gt; testosterone &g
t; ndrostenedione
1303787174051 1342707643371 5lph-reductse:<br />Wht does it do?<br />Wh
t substnce inhibits it?
Enzyme tht converts testosterone --&gt; DHT<br
/><br />Is inhibited by finsteride.
y
1303787207383 1342707643371 Aromtse (in men)
Enzyme tht converts tes
tosterone nd ndrostenedione to estrogens in dipose tissue nd Sertoli cells
y
1303787313240 1342707643371 Functions of testosterone<br />(5 of them!)
1.) Differentition of epididymis, vs deferens, seminl vesicles [internl geni
tli except prostte]<br />2.) Growth<br />-growth spurt, muscles<br />-penis,
seminl vesicles<br />-sperm<br />-RBCs<br />3.) Closing of epiphysel growth pl
te (vi estrogen derived from testosterone)<br />4.) Deepening of voice<br />5.
) Libido
1303787342877 1342707643371 Functions of DHT<br />(erly nd lte) Erly- d
ifferentition of penis, scrotum, prostte<br />Lte- prostte growth, blding,
sebcious glnd ctivity (oily bld guy who cn't pee)
1303787435221 1342707643371 Sources of estrogen
Ovry (17bet-estrdiol)
<br />Plcent (estriol) <br />Peripherl (vi romtiztion)
1303787448261 1342707643371 Potency of estrogens
Estrdiol &gt; estrone &
gt; estriol
1303787480261 1342707643371 Estrogen levels in pregnncy
50x increse in
estrdiol nd estrone<br /><br />1000x increse in estriol (indictor of fetl w
ell-being)
1303787638368 1342707643371 Functions of estrogen<br />(6 of them!) 1.) Deve
lopment of brest nd genitli, femle ft distribution<br />2.) Growth of foll

icle, endometril prolifertion, ↑ myometril excitbility<br />3.) Upregultion o
f estrogen, LH, nd progesterone receptors<br />4.) Feedbck inhibition of FSH 
nd LH, then LH surge<br />5.) Stimultion of prolctin secretion (but blocks its
ction t the brest)<br />6.) Heptic synthesis of trnsport proteins, SHBG; ↑ H
DL ↓ LDL
1303787828933 1342707643371 Pulstile GnRH upregultes wht?
FSH nd
LH<br /><img src="480 - effect of pulstile GnRH.JPG" />
1303787916686 1342707643371 Wht does desmolse respond to in the ovry?<br
/>Wht cell is it in?<br />Wht does it do?
In response to <b>LH</b>, desmol
se (in <b>thec cells</b>) begins the rections <b>converting XOL --&gt; ndros
tenedione</b><br />(providing the substrte for romtse in the grnulos cell)
<br /><img src="480 - effect of pulstile GnRH.JPG" />
1303787964642 1342707643371 Wht does romtse in ovry respond to?<br />Wh
t cell is it in?<br />Wht does it do? In response to <b>FSH</b>, romtse (in
<b>grnulos cells</b>) <b>converts ndrostenedione --&gt; estrogen</b><br><img
src="pstencxplv.jpg" />
1303788000396 1342707643371 Sources of progesterone Corpus luteum, plcent,
drenl cortex, testes
1303788059785 1342707643371 Wht does elevtion of progesterone indicte?
Indictes ovultion.<br /><br />
1303788453565 1342707643371 Functions of progesterone<br />(6 of them!)
1.) Stimultion of endometril glndulr secretions nd spirl rtery developmen
t<br />2.) Mintennce of pregnncy (&quot;<b>PROGEST</b>erone is <b>PRO-GEST</b
>tion&quot;)<br />3.) Decr myometril excitbility, uterine smooth muscle relx
tion (preventing contrction)<br />4.) Production of thick cervicl mucus, whic
h inhibitis sperm entry into the uterus<br />5.) Increses body temperture (see
n fter ovultion)<br />6.) Inhibition of gondotropins (LH, FSH), dec estrogen
receptor expression<br />
1303788541581 1342707643371 When is folliculr growth the fstest in the men
strul cycle? During the 2nd week of the prolifertive phse<br><img src="481
- endometril cycle.JPG" />
1303788563433 1342707643371 Wht does estrogen do in the menstrul cycle?
Stimultes endometril prolifertion.
1303788622420 1342707643371 Wht does progesterone do in the menstrul cycle
?
Mintins endometrium to support implnttion<br>(decr progesterone led
s to decr fertility)
1303788722996 1342707643371 Phses of the menstrul cycle Prolifertive (f
olliculr) phse --(ovultion)--&gt; secretory (lutel) phse<br><img src="481
- endometril cycle.JPG" />
1303788769887 1342707643371 Timing of the menstrul cycle: which prt cn v
ry, nd which is constnt?
Folliculr phse cn vry in length.<br><br>Lute
l phse is usully  constnt 14 dys.<br><br>Ovultion dy + 14 dys = menstru
tion.
1303788853601 1342707643371 Order of events in terms of blood hormones nd m
enstrul cycle Estrogen surge<br />|<br />LH surge<br />|<br />Ovultion<br />|
<br />Progesterone (from corpus luteum)<br />|<br />Menstrution (vi poptosis
of endometril cells)<br /><br /><img src="481b - blood hormone levels.JPG" /><b
r />[*this would probbly be  good chrt to be ble to reproduce]
1303788892924 1342707643371 Wht cuses ovultion? ↑ estrogen, ↑ GnRH receptors
on nterior pituitry.<br /><br />Estrogen surge then stimultes LH relese, wh
ich cuses ovultion (rupture of follicle).
1303789032247 1342707643371 Associted w/ ovultion?
1) Incresed tem
perture (progesterone induced)<br />2) Mittelschmerz (blood from ruptured folli
cle cuses peritonel irrittion tht cn mimic ppendicitis)<br />3) Ferning* o
f cervicl mucos<br /><br /><img src="pstejwrvzv.jpg" /><br />[Ferning is &quo
t;the formtion of  fernlike pttern in  specimen of crystllized cervicl muc
us secreted t midcycle&quot;]
1303838981513 1342707643605 Spermtogoni
Germ cells; mintin germ pool 
nd produce primry spermtocytes<br /><br />Line seminiferous tubules<br /><br /
><img src="478 - sperm formtion.JPG" /><img src="478b - tubules.JPG" />

1303839126188 1342707643605 Sertoli Cells (non-germ cells) 1) Secrete <b>in
hibin</b> --&gt; inhibit FSH<br />2) Secrete <b>ndrogen-binding protein (ABP)</
b> --&gt; mintin levels of testosterone<br />3) Form <b>blood-testis brrier</
b> --&gt; isolte gmetes from utoimmune ttck<br />4) <b>Support nd nourish
</b>developing spermtozo; regulte spermtogenesis<br />5) Produce <b>nti-mul
lerin hormone</b><br />6) <b>Temp-sensitive</b> (decresed sperm production nd
decresed inhibin w/ ↑ temp)<br />-↑ temp in vricocele, cryptorchidism<br /><br />
<b>S</b>ertoli cells <b>S</b>upport <b>S</b>perm <b>S</b>ynthesis<br /><br /><im
g src="478 - sperm formtion.JPG" /><img src="478b - tubules.JPG" />
1303839153449 1342707643605 Leydig cells
Endocrine cells; secrete testost
erone (unffected by temperture)<br /><br />Interstitium<br /><br /><img src="4
78 - sperm formtion.JPG" /><img src="478b - tubules.JPG" />
1303839205332 1342707643371 Spermtogenesis:<br />When does it strt?<br />H
ow long does it tke?<br />Where does it occur? Spermtogenesis begins t pubert
y w/ spermtogoni.<br /><br />Full development tkes 2 months.<br /><br />Occur
s in seminiferous tubules.
1303839580318 1342707643371 Step 1 of spermtogenesis:<br>Wht is the ploidy
?<br>Where is this occuring?
Spermtogonium strts out 2N,<br>becomes  4N (d
iploid) primry spermtocyte<br><br>Psses thru tight jxn (&quot;blood-testis b
rrier&quot;)<br><img src="479b - spermiogenesis step 1.JPG" />
1303839642434 1342707643371 Step 2 of spermtogenesis:<br>Wht is the ploidy
?<br>Wht phse of repliction 1x4N diploid primry spermtocyte becomes:<br>2x
2N hploid secondry spermtocytes.<br><br>This is Meiosis I.<br><br><img src="4
79c - Spermiogenesis step 2.JPG" />
1303839928375 1342707643371 Step 3 of spermtogenesis:<br />Wht is the ploi
dy?<br />Wht phse of repliction is this?
2xHploid (2N) secondry spermt
ocytes become<br />4xHploid (1N) spermtids (which then develop into <i>spermt
ozo </i>in spermiogenesis)<br /><br />This is Meiosis II<br /><br /><img src="4
79d - spermiogenesis step 3.JPG" />
1303840132936 1342707643371 Regultion of spermtogenesis:<br />Hypothlmus
nd nterior pituitry?
Hypothlmus --(GnRH)--&gt; Anterior pituitry<b
r /><br />(Hypothlmus receives negtive feedbck from testosterone relesed in
to blood by Leydig cells)<br /><br /><img src="479e - regultion of spermtogene
sis ll.JPG" /><br />
1303840408048 1342707643371 Regultion of spermtogenesis:<br />Wht role do
es the nterior pituitry ply? In response to GnRH (from hypothlmus):<br />Cr
etes <b>L</b>H (cts on <b>L</b>eydig cells) nd F<b>S</b>H (cts on <b>S</b>er
toli cells) in the seminiferous tubule<br /><br />Receives negtive feedbck fro
m <spn style="font-weight:600; text-decortion: underline;">i</spn>nh<spn sty
le="font-weight:600; text-decortion: underline;">i</spn>b<spn style="font-wei
ght:600; text-decortion: underline;">i</spn>n creted by Sertol<spn style="fo
nt-weight:600; text-decortion: underline;">i</spn> cells<br /><br /><img src="
479e - regultion of spermtogenesis ll.JPG" /><br />
1303840992006 1342707643371 Regultion of spermtogenesis:<br />Role of LH 
nd FSH Relesed from nterior pituitry.<br /><br /><b>L</b>H: stimultes testo
sterone relese from <b>L</b>eydig cells (testosterone then upregultes Sertoli
cells' sperm production)<br />F<b>S</b>H: Stimultes <b>S</b>ertoli cells to pro
duce ABP nd inhibin.<br /><br /><img src="479e - regultion of spermtogenesis
ll.JPG" />
1303841193931 1342707643371 When does the primry oocyte begin meiosis I?<br
/>When does it complete meiosis I?<br />Wht hppens between? Begins meisosis
I during fetl life.<br />Completes meisosis I just prior to ovultion.<br />Mei
osis I is rrested in pr<b>O</b>phse for yers until <b>O</b>vultion (primry
oocytes)
1303841250462 1342707643371 Where is meiosis II rrested?<br />(in oogenesis
)
Meiosis II is rrested in <b>MET</b>phse until fertiliztion (seconry
oocytes)<br />(&quot;An egg <b>MET</b>  sperm&quot;)<br /><br />If fertilizti
on does not occur, the secondry oocyte degenertes.
1303852447034 1342707643689 CNS/PNS origins: Neuroectoderm<br />(gives rise
to wht?)
CNS neurons<br />Ependyml cells (inner lining of ventricles, m

ke CSF)<br />Oligodendrocytes<br />Astrocytes
1303852466407 1342707643689 CNS/PNS origins: Neurl Crest<br />(gives rise t
o wht prts of the nervous system?)
Schwnn cells<br />PNS neurons
1303852494534 1342707643689 CNS/PNS origins: Mesoderm<br>(gives rise to wht
?)
<b>M</b>icrogli, like <b>M</b>crophges, originte from <b>M</b>esoder
m
1303852528335 1342707643689 Neurons Comprise nervous system.<br>Permnent ce
lls -- do not divide in dulthood.<br>Lrge cells w/ prominent nucleoli.<br>
1303852549754 1342707643689 Nissl substnce RER found in cell body nd dendr
ites, but <b>not</b> xon of neurons.
1303855959469 1342707643689 Astrocyte functions
Physicl support, repir
, K+ metbolism, removl of excess NT.<br />Mintennce of BBB.<br />Rective gl
iosis in response to injury.<br /><img src="392 Astrocyte.JPG" />
1303855969767 1342707643689 Astrocyte mrker?
GFAP
1303856009749 1342707643689 Microgli
CNS phgocytes.<br />Mesoderml
origin.<br />Not redily discernible in Nissl stins.<br />Hve smll, irregulr
nuclei nd reltively little cytoplsm.<br /><img src="392b Microgli.JPG" />
1303856048733 1342707643689 Wht hppens to microgli in the presence of tis
sue dmge?
Microgli --(tissue dmge)--&gt; lrge meboid phgocytic cells
. Scvenger cells of the CNS.<br><br>Will hve lipids in cytoplsm following ph
gocytosis of injured neurons (eg. post-infrct)
1303856069449 1342707643689 Wht hppens to HIV-infected microgli? HIV-infe
cted microgli fuse to form multinucleted gint cells in the CNS
1303856136342 1342707643689 Oligodendrogli Ech oligodendrocyte myelintes
multiple CNS xons (up to 30 ech).<br />In Nissl stins, they pper s smll n
uclei with drk chromtin nd little cytoplsm.<br /><img src="392c oligodendrog
li.JPG" />
1303856149694 1342707643689 Wht is the predominnt type of glil cell in wh
ite mtter?<br> Oligodendrocytes.
1303856228463 1342707643689 Wht cells re destroyed in multiple sclerosis?
Oligodendrocytes.
1303856379580 1342707643689 Schwnn cells Ech Schwnn cell myelintes onl
y 1 PNS xon.<br />Also promote xonl regenertion.<br />Derived from neurl cr
est.
1303856399954 1342707643689 Wht re the cells tht re destroyed in Guilli
n-Brré syndrome?
Schwnn cells (inflmmtory infiltrte seen in endoneurium)
1303856438426 1342707643689 An coustic neurom is  type of...?<br>Where is
it locted?
Acoustic neurom is  type of Schwnnom.<br><br>It is typiclly
locted in internl coustic metus (CN VIII)
1303856594602 1342707643758 Free nerve endings
C, A-delt fibers. [Aδ fib
rs con
uct imm
iat, sharp pain. C fibrs con
uct
ull, burning pain.]<br /><b
r />In all skin, pi
rmis, som viscra.<br /><br />Snss pain an
tmpratur
(spinothalamic tract).<br /><br /><img src="393a fr nrv n
ings.JPG" />
1303856628416 1342707643758 Missnr's corpuscls Larg, mylinat
fibrs
.<br /><br />In glabrous (hairlss) skin.<br /><br />Position sns, snss <b>

ynamic</b> fin touch (.g., manipulation), <b>a
apt quickly</b>.<br /><br /><im
g src="393b Missnrs Corpuscls.JPG" />
1303856653285 1342707643758 Pacinian corpuscls
Larg, mylinat
fibrs
.<br /><br />In
p skin layrs, ligamnts, an
joints.<br /><br />Sns vibrat
ion, prssur.<br /><br /><img src="393c Pascinian corpuscl.JPG" />
1303856695944 1342707643758 Mrkl's
isks Larg, mylinat
fibrs.<br /><
br />In hair follicls.<br /><br />Sns <b>static</b> touch (.g., shaps, 
g
s, txturs), <b>a
apt slowly</b>.<br /><br /><img src="393
Mrkls
isk.JPG" /
>
1303856745604 1342707643689 Priphral nrv layrs: En
onurium
Invsts
a singl nrv fibr. Inflammatory infiltrat in Guillain-Barr.<br />(En
o = i
nnr)<br /><br /><img src="393 Priphral nrv layrs.JPG" />
1303856810362 1342707643689 Priphral nrv layrs: Prinurium
(<b>P</b
>rinurium is th <b>P</b>rmability barrir)<br><br>Surroun
s a fascicl of n
rv fibrs.<br>(Pri = aroun
)<br><br>Must b rjoin
in microsurgry for limb

rattachmnt.<br><br><br><img src="393 Priphral nrv layrs.JPG" />
1303856843529 1342707643689 Priphral nrv layrs: Epinurium
Dns co
nnctiv tissu that surroun
s ntir nrv<br>(fasicls an
bloo
vssls)<br><
br>(Epi = outr)<br><br><img src="393 Priphral nrv layrs.JPG" />
1303856932834 1342707643397 NE
Incras
in anxity,
cras
in
pr
ssion.<br><br>Ma
 in th locus crulus.
1303856955567 1342707643397 Dopamin
Incras
in schizophrnia,
cr
as
in Parkinson's an

prssion.<br /><br />Ma
 in th vntral tgmntum (V
TA) an
substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc)
1303856972789 1342707643397 5-HT
Dcras
in anxity,
prssion.<br><br
>Ma
 in th raph nuclus
1303856992199 1342707643397 ACh
Dcras
in Alzhimr's, Huntington's;
incras
in REM slp, Parkinson's (rlativ).<br /><br />Ma
 in th basal nuc
lus of Mynrt.
1303858209841 1342707643371 Th scon
ary oocyt will
gnrat unlss what
occurs?
Frtilization.
1303858305927 1342707643371 Stp on of oognsis:<br>What ar th clls cal
l
an
what is thir ploi
y? A
iploi
Oogonium (2N) rplicats its DNA to b
com a
iploi
primary oocyt (4N)<br><img src="482b - oognsis stp 1.JPG" />
1303858422866 1342707643371 Stp two of oognsis (Miosis I):<br>What ar t
h clls, an
what is thir ploi
y?<br>Whr in th cll cycl is this stag arr
st
? 1 primary oocyt (
iploi
, 4N)
ivi
s into 1 scon
ary oocyt (haploi
,
2N) an
a <b>polar bo
y</b>, <br>which can
gnrat or giv ris to 2 polar b
o
is.<br><br>Miosis I is arrst
in Prophas I until ovulation<br><br><img sr
c="482c - oognsis stp 2.JPG" />
1303858513459 1342707643371 Stp 3 in oognsis (Misosis II):<br>What ar t
h clls an
what is thir ploi
y?<br>Whr is this arrst
? 1 scon
ary oocy
t (haploi
, 2N)
ivi
s into an ovum (haploi
, N) an
a polar bo
y.<br>(Th 1st
polary bo
y may also
ivi
 into 2 mor polar bo
is at this point).<br><br>Mi
sosis II is arrst
in mtaphas II until frtilization.<br><br><img src="482

- oognsis stp 3 (1).JPG" />
1303858610649 1342707643371 Frtilization most commonly occurs whr?<br />W
hn
os it occur?
Most commonly occurs in th uppr n
of fallopian tub
(ampulla).<br /><br />Occurs within 1
ay aftr ovulation.
1303858674356 1342707643371 Whn
os implantation occur?<br>
Implanta
tion within th wall of th utrus occurs 6
ays aftr frtilization.<br>
1303858744340 1342707643371 What
o you masur in a hom prgnancy tst, an
Trophoblasts scrt Bta-hCG, which is
tctab

how soon can you s it?
l in bloo
1 wk aftr concption an
on hom tst in urin 2 wks aftr conc
ption.<br><img src="482 - prgnancy.JPG" />
1303858868062 1342707643371 What in
ucs an
maintains lactation aftr labor
?
Th
rop in progstron in
ucs lactation.<br /><br />Suckling is rqui
r
to maintain milk pro
uction, <br />sinc incr nrv stimulation incr oxytoci
n an
prolactin.
1303858907830 1342707643371 What is prolactin's function postpartum?
In
ucs an
maintains lactation an

crass rpro
uctiv function (supprsss
GnRH).
1303858933050 1342707643371 What is oxytocin's rol postpartum?
Appars
to hlp with milk lt
own an
may b involv
with utrin contractions (fxn not
yt ntirly known).
1303858954111 1342707643371 Sourc of hCG? Syncytiotrophoblast of th plac
nta.
1303859052643 1342707643371 3 functions of hCG
1.) Maintains corpus lut
um (an
thus progstron) for th 1st trimstr by acting lik LH (othrwis n
o lutal cll stimulation, an
abortion rsults). In th 2n
an
3r
trimstr,
th placnta synthsizs its own striol an
progstron an
th corpus lutum

gnrats.<br /><br />2.) Us
to
tct prgnancy b/c it appars arly in th
urin.<br /><br />3.) Elvat
hCG in pathologic stats (.g., hy
ati
iform mol
s, choriocarcinoma, gstational trophoblastic tumors).<br><br><img src="pastcn
cvrp.jpg" />

1303859100553 1342707643371 What is mnopaus?<br />What is th avg ag of o
nst?<br>Prc

by? Dcras
strogn pro
uction
u to ag-link

clin
in numbr of ovarian follicls.<br /><br />Avg ag of onst is 51 yrs (arlir i
n smokrs).<br><br>Usually prc

by 4-5 yars of abnormal cycls.
1303859157724 1342707643371 Hormonal changs sn in mnopaus
Dcras

strogn<br /><br />Incras
: <br />(++) FSH<br />(+) LH (no surg)<br />(+)
GnRH<br />(+) An
rogns (causs hirsutism)
1303859199454 1342707643371 Sx of mnopaus?
Mnopaus causs <b>HHAV
OC</b>:<br /><b>H</b>ot flashs, <b>H</b>irsutism<br /><b>A</b>trophy of th <b>
V</b>agina<br /><b>O</b>stoporosis<br /><b>C</b>oronary artry
z
1303859209959 1342707643371 Early mnopaus Can in
icat prmatur ovarian f
ailur (primary ovarian insufficincy).
1303859274446 1342707643371 Klinfltr's syn
rom: gntics? prvalnc?
Mal w/ XXY gnotyp.<br>1:850
1303859340389 1342707643371 Turnr's syn
rom: gntics? prvalnc?
Fmal w/ XO gnotyp<br />1:3000<br>Most common caus of 1' amnorrha<br /><br
/>&quot;Hugs an
kisss (<b>XO</b>) from Tina <b>Turnr</b> (a <b>fmal</b>)&q
uot;
1303859364845 1342707643371 Doubl Y mals (XYY): prvalnc?
1:1000
1303859465825 1342707643371 Klinfltr's syn
rom: symptoms an
signs
Tsticular atrophy<br />Eunichoi
bo
y shap<br />Tall, long xtrmitis<br />Gy
ncomastia<br />Fmal hair
istribution.<br /><br /><
iv>Prsnc of inactivat

X chromosom (Barr bo
y).<br /><br />Common caus of hypogona
ism sn in inf
rtility workup. May prsnt with
vlopmntal
lay.</
iv>
1303859514048 1342707643371 Turnr's syn
rom: symptoms an
signs Short st
atur (&lt;5 ft w/o GH)<br />Ovarian
ysgnsis (strak ovary), ↓ strogn la
s
to ↑ LH, FSH<br />Shil
chst<br />Lymphatic
fcts --&gt; wbbing of nck, lym
ph
ma<b><br />Pr
uctal coarctation of th aorta, bicuspi
aortic valv, hors
sho ki
ny,
ysgrminoma</b><br />No Barr bo
y.<br><br /><img src="483b - Klin
fltr.JPG" />
1303859558691 1342707643371 Doubl Y mal (XYY): symptoms an
signs Phnotyp
ically normal.<br />Vry tall<br />Svr acn<br /><br />Antisocial bhavior (s
n in 1-2% of XYY mals);<br>Small % with autism spctrum
isor
rs<br /><br />
Normal frtility.
1303859618693 1342707643371 Hormon function in Klinfltr's syn
rom
Dysgnsis of sminifrous tubuls --&gt; ↓ inhibin --&gt; ↑ FSH<br><br />Abnormal L
y
ig cll fxn --&gt; ↓ tstostron --&gt; ↑ LH --&gt; ↑ strogn<br><br>(↑ FSH, ↑ LH, ↑ s
trogn, ↓ tstostron)
1303859639674 1342707643371 Hormon function in Turnr's syn
rom
Dcras

strogn la
s to incras
LH an
FSH
1303859757986 1342707643371 What is psu
o-hrmaphro
itism? A
isagrmnt b
tw th phnotypic (xtrnal gnitalia) an
gona
al (tsts vs. ovaris) sx.
1303859827064 1342707643371 Fmal psu
o-hrmaphra
itism (XX)
<b>Ovari
s prsnt</b>, but xtrnal gnitalia ar viriliz
or ambiguous.<br /><br />Du
 to xcssiv an
inappropriat xposur to an
rognic stroi
s
uring arly g
station <br />(.g., congnital a
rnal hyprplasia or xognous a
ministration
of an
rogns
uring prgnancy).
1303859875646 1342707643371 Mal psu
o-hrmaphri
itism (XY)
Tsts p
rsnt, but xtrnal gnitalia ar fmal or ambiguous.<br /><br />Most common f
orm is an
rogn insnsitivity syn
rom (tsticular fminization).
1303859915142 1342707643371 Tru hrmaphro
it (46,XX&nbsp;&nbsp;or 47,XXY)
Both ovary an
tsticular tissu prsnt; ambiguous gnitalia.<br><br>Vry rar.
1303860041966 1342707643371 An
rogn insnsitivity syn
rom (46,XY) Dfct i
n an
rogn rcptor rsulting in normal-apparing fmal;<br />fmal xtrnal g
nitalia with ru
imntary vagina;<br />utrus an
utrin tubs gnrally absnt
;<br />
vlops tsts (oftn foun
in labia majora; surgically rmov
to prv
nt malignancy).
1303860059472 1342707643371 Hormon lvls in An
rogn insnsitivity syn
rom
 (46,XY)?
Tstostron, strogn, an
LH ar all high.
1303860114604 1342707643371 5alpha-r
uctas
ficincy
Autosomal rcss

iv, limit
to mals. Unabl to convrt tstostron to DHT. <br /><br>Ambiguou
s gnitalia until pubrty, whn incr tstostron causs masculinization/incr gr
owth of xtrnal gnitalia.<br />&quot;Pnis at 12&quot;<br /><br />Intrnal gn
italia ar normal.
1303860136412 1342707643371 Hormon lvls in 5alpha-r
uctas
ficincy?
Tstostron/strogn lvls ar normal;<br />LH is normal or incras
.
1303860633578 1342707643371 Hy
ati
iform mol<br><br>What is it?<br>Prcurso
r to?<br>Prsntation? Cystic swlling of chorionic villi an
prolifration of
chorionic pithlium (trophoblast).<br />Most common prcursor of choriocarcinom
a.<br /><br>Prsnts with abnormal vaginal bl
ing; can la
to utrin ruptur
<br>Incras
bta-hCG.
1303860663072 1342707643371 Tratmnt of hy
ati
iform mol? Dilatation an
c
urttag, + mthotrxat.<br><br>Monitor Bta-hCG.
1303860815082 1342707643371 Apparanc of hy
ati
iform mol?
&quot;Ho
ny-comb
utrus,&quot; &quot;clustr of graps&quot; apparanc,<br>abnormally
nlarg
utrus.<br><br><img src="562a - hy
ati
iform mol.JPG" />
1303860999632 1342707643371 Hy
ati
iform mol: complt mol vs. partial mol
<br /><br />Karyotyp?<br />hCG?<br />Utrin siz?<br />Convrt to choriocarci
noma?<br />Ftal parts?<br />Sprm, gg?<br />Risk of malignant trophoblastic
z
?
<img src="pastbjmwh.jpg" />
1303861077587 1342707643371 Common causs of rcurrnt miscarriags:<br>1st
wks?<br>1st trimstr?<br>2n
trimstr?
1st wks: low progstron lv
ls (no rspons to bta-hCG)<br><br>1st trimstr: chromosomal abnormalitis (.
g., robrtsonian translocation)<br><br>2n
trimstr: bicornuat utrus
1303864045276 1342707643689 What 3 structurs form th bloo
-brain barrir (
BBB)? 1.) Tight junctions btw nonfnstrat
capillary n
othlial clls<br>2.
) Basmnt mmbran<br>3.) Astrocyt procsss<br><img src="394a BBB.JPG" />
1303864073082 1342707643689 Bsi
s th BBB, what ar 2 similar barrirs?
1.) Bloo
-tstis barrir<br />2.) Matrnal-ftal bloo
barrir of placnta
1303864123236 1342707643689 What happns at th BBB w/ infarction? Infarcti
on
stroys n
othlial cll tight junctions,<br>la
ing to vasognic 
ma
1303864148395 1342707643689 Glucos an
amino aci
s at th BBB
Cross sl
owly by carrir-m
iat
transport mchanism.
1303864166168 1342707643689 Nonpolar/lipi
-solubl substancs at th BBB
Cross rapi
ly via
iffusion.
1303864264749 1342707643689 Spcializ
brain rgions w/ fnstrat
capilla
ris an
no BBB Allow molculs in th bloo
to affct brain function<br />(.g.
, ara postrma of m
ulla - vomiting cntr aftr chmo, OVLT - osmotic snsing
)<br />or nuroscrtory pro
ucts to ntr circulation<br />(.g., nurohypophys
is - ADH rlas)<br /><br />*OVLT = organum vasculosum of th lamina trminalis
1303864386068 1342707643689 Hypothalamus functions Th hypothalamus wars <
b>TAN HATS</b>:<br><b>T</b>hirst an
watr balanc<br><b>A</b>
nohypophysis con
trol<br><b>N</b>urohypophysis rlass hormons from hypothalamus<br><b>H</b>un
gr<br><b>A</b>utonomic rgulation<br><b>T</b>mpratur rgulation<br><b>S</b>
xual urgs
1303864410245 1342707643689 OVLT (snss chang in osmolarity)<br />Ara pos
trma of m
ulla (CTZ, rspon
s to mtics)<br /><br />Carry info whr?
To th hypothalamus
1303864436293 1342707643689 Supraoptic nuclus of th hypothalamus Ara tha
t maks ADH.
y
1303864452972 1342707643689 Paravntricular nuclus of th hypothalamus
Ara that maks oxytocin.
y
1303864554632 1342707643689 Latral nuclus of th hypothalamus
Controls
hungr:
struction la
s to anorxia.<br />(&quot;If you zap th <b>latral</b
> nuclus, you shrink <b>latrally</b>&quot;)<br /><br />Inhibit
by lptin.
1303864617496 1342707643689 Vntrom
ial ara of th hypothalamus Controls
satity:
struction la
s to hyprphagia.<br>(&quot;If you zap your <b>vntrom

ial</b> nuclus, you grow <b>vntrally </b>an
<b>m
ially</b>.&quot;)<br><br>
Stimulat
by lptin.
1303864696602 1342707643689 Antrior hypothalamus Cooling (Antrior = cool

ing, or A/C).<br><br><b>A</b>ntrior is p<b>A</b>rasympathtic.<br><br>
1303864774917 1342707643689 Postrior hypothalamus Hating (postrior = gt
fir
up / hating).<br><br>Sympathtic.<br><br>If you zap your <b>P</b>ostrio
r hypothalamus, you bcom a <b>P</b>oikilothrm (col
-bloo

, lik a snak)
1303864792583 1342707643689 Sptal nuclus of th hypothalamus
ara rs
ponsibl for sxual urgs
y
1303864852379 1342707643689 Suprachiasmatic nuclus of th hypothalamus
Circa
ian rhythm.<br>(&quot;You n
to <b>slp</b> to b<b> charismatic</b> [c
hiasmatic]&quot;).
1303864937031 1342707643689 Postrior pituitary (nurohypophysis) Rcivs
hypothalamic axonal projctions from supraoptic (ADH) an
paravntricular (oxyt
ocin) nucli.<br /><br />Oxytocin: <i>oxys</i> = quick; <i>tocos</i> = birth.
1303864958416 1342707643689 Antrior pituitary aka...?
<b>A</b>ntrior
pituitary = <b>A</b>
nohypophysis
1303869292965 1342707643689 Thalamus
Major rlay for all ascn
ing s
nsory information xcpt olfaction; ultimatly rachs th cortx.<br /><br /><i
mg src="395a Thalamus.JPG" />
1303869314627 1342707643689 Bloo
supply to th thalamus
postrior commun
icating, postrior crbral, an
antrior choroi
al artris.
1303869464299 1342707643689 Latral gniculat nuclus (LGN) of thalamus<br
/><br />Input?<br />Info?<br />Dstination?<br /><br /><img src="395b Thalamus w
ithout labls.JPG" /> Input: CN II<br /><br />Info: vision (contralatral hmi
fil
, info from both ys)<br /><br />Dstination: calcarin sulcus (1' visual
cortx) y
1303869529206 1342707643689 M
ial gniculat nuclus (MGN) of th thalamus<
br /><br />Input?<br />Info?<br />Dstination?<br /><br /><img src="395b Thalamu
s without labls.JPG" />
Input: suprior oliv an
infrior colliculus of
tctum<br /><br />Info: haring<br /><br />Dstination: au
itory cortx (Hschl
's gyrus in tmporal lob)
y
1303870024398 1342707643689 Vntral postrior nuclus, latral part (VPL) -of thalamus<br /><br />Input?<br />Info?<br />Dstination?<br /><br /><img src=
"395b Thalamus without labls.JPG" /> Input: spinothalamic an

orsal columns/
m
ial lmniscus<br /><br />Info: pain &amp; tmpratur; prssur, touch, vibra
tion, propriocption<br /><br />Dstination: primary somatosnsory cortx
y
1303870163633 1342707643689 Vntral postrior nuclus, m
ial part (VPM) -of th thalamus<br /><br />Input?<br />Info?<br />Dstination?<br /><br /><img s
rc="395b Thalamus without labls.JPG" />
Input: trigminal an
gustatory
pathway<br /><br />Info: Fac snsation an
tast<br /><br />Dstination: primar
y somatosnsory cortx y
1303870207315 1342707643689 Motor an
snsory locations in th thalamus
Motor is antrior to snsation in th thalamus, just lik th cortx.<br><img sr
c="395a Thalamus.JPG" />
1303870336609 1342707643689 Limbic systm:<br />Inclu
s what?<br />Rsponsi
bl for what? Inclu
s cingulat gyrus, hippocampus, fornix, an
mammillary bo

is.<br /><br />Rsponsibl for <b>F</b>
ing, <b>F</b>ling, <b>F</b>ighting
, <b>F</b>ling, an
sx (....)<br />(Th famous<b> 5 F's</b>)<br /><br /><img
src="past7plxty.jpg" />
1303870413404 1342707643689 Input to th crbllum Rcivs contralatral c
ortical input via mi

l crbllar p
uncl <br>an
ipsilatral propriocptiv
information via infrior crbllar p
uncl.<br><br>Input nrvs = climbing an

mossy fibrs.
1303870479609 1342707643689 Output from th crbllum
Provi
s stimula
tory f
back to <b>contralatral</b> cortx to mo
ulat movmnt.<br /><br />Ou
tput nrvs = <b>Purkinj clls</b> output to <b>
p nucli </b>of crbllum;
which in turn output to cortx via <b>suprior crbllar p
uncl</b>.
1303870549504 1342707643689 Dp nucli of th crbllum M
ial to latra
l:<br /><b>F</b>astigial, <b>G</b>lobos, <b>E</b>mboliform, <b>D</b>ntat<br /
><br />(&quot;<b>F</b>at <b>G</b>uys <b>E</b>at <b>D</b>onuts&quot;)<br /><br />
Fastig<b>ial </b>is m
<b>ial</b>

1303870577692 1342707643689 Latral crbllum
ara of th crbllum r
y
sponsibl for voluntary movmnt of xtrmitis
1303870593481 1342707643689 M
ial crbllum
Ara of crbllum rspo
nsibl for balanc, truncal coor
ination<br><br>Injury --&gt; propnsity to fall
towar
s injur
(ipsilatral) si

y
1303870751422 1342707643689 Basal ganglia (ovrall function)
Importan
t in voluntary movmnts an
making postural a
justmnts.<br /><br />Rcivs co
rtical input, provi
s ngativ f
back to cortx to mo
ulat movmnt (loop st
arting an
n
ing at cortx). y
1303870990004 1342707643689 Excitatory pathway of th basal ganglia NTs incl
u
 GABA, substanc P.<br /><br />SNc's
opamin bin
s to D1 rcptors in th x
citatory pathway (incr motion). Thrfor, loss of
opamin in Parkinson's inhib
its th xcitatory pathway (
cr motion).<br /><br /><br /><br /><img src="past
qmvzn.jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="396a Excitatory an
inhibitory pathways.JPG"
/><br />Gry = stimulatory || Black = inhibitory
1303871142435 1342707643689 Inhibitory pathway of th basal ganglia NTs incl
u
 GABA, nkphalin.<br /><br />SNc's
opamin bin
s to D2 rcptors in th inh
ibitory pathway, inhibiting th inhibitory/in
irct pathway an
incrasing motio
n. Thrfor, loss of
opamin in Parkinson's
z xcits (i..,
isinhibits) th
inhibitory/in
irct pathway (
cr motion).<br /><br /><img src="pastqmvzn.jpg
" /><br /><img src="396a Excitatory an
inhibitory pathways.JPG" /><br />Gry =
stimulatory || Black = inhibitory
1303871336297 1342707643689 Parkinson's
isas<br />What is it?<br />Rarly
link
to...?<br />Sx mnmonic?
Dgnrativ
isor
r of CNS associat

w/ Lwy bo
is (compos
of alpha-synuclin) an

pigmntation of th substanti
a nigra pars compacta (loss of
opaminrgic nurons).<br /><br />Rar cass hav
bn link
to xposur to MPTP, a contaminant in illicit strt
rugs.<br /><b
r />(&quot;<b>TRAP</b> = <b>T</b>rmor (at rst), cogwhl <b>R</b>igi
ity, <b>A
</b>kinsia, &amp; <b>P</b>ostural instability. You ar <b>TRAP</b>p
insi
 yo
ur bo
y.&quot;) y
1303871413201 1342707643689 Hmiballismus<br /><br />What is it?<br />What c
auss it (xampl)?<br />Pathway?
Su

n, wil
flailing of 1 arm +/- lg.<
br /><br />Charactristic of contralatral subthalamic nuclus lsion (g. lacun
ar strok in pt w/ hx of HTN).<br />Loss of inhibition of thalamus through globu
s palli
us.<br /><br />(&quot;Hmiballismus = Half ballistic -- lik throwing a
basball&quot;)
1303871564427 1342707643689 Huntington's
z<br /><br />Gntics?<br />Pathop
hysiology?<br />S/sx? Autosomal-
ominant trinucloti
 rpat
/o.<br />Chromo
som 4.<br /><br />Atrophy of cau
at nuclus (loss of GABArgic nurons via NMD
A-R bin
ing an
glutamat toxicity)<br />la
s to nlarg
latral vntricls on
CT.<br /><img src="397a HD-Atrophy of cau
at nuclus.JPG" /><br /><br />Chora
,
prssion, progrssiv
mntia. <br />Sx manifst in affct
in
vls btw ag
s 20-50.<br /><br />(Expansion of <b>CAG</b> rpats: &quot;<b>C</b>au
at loss
<b>A</b>Ch an
<b>G</b>ABA&quot;)
y
1303871629922 1342707643689 Chora Su

n, jrky, purposlss movmnts.<br
/><br />Charactristic of basal ganglia lsion (.g., Huntington's
isas)<br
/><br /><br /><br />(<i>Chora</i> =
ancing (Grk). Think choral
ancing or ch
orography)
1303871674140 1342707643689 Athtosis
Slow, writhing movmnts, spci
ally of fingrs.<br /><br />Charactristic of basal ganglia lsion (.g., Huntin
gton's
z)<br /><br /><br />(<i>Athtos</i> = not fix
(Grk). Think snaklik
.)
1303871890215 1342707643689 Essntial/postural trmor<br /><br />What is it?
<br />Clinical parl?<br />Tx? Action trmor (worsns whn hol
ing postur), au
tosomal
ominant =&gt; positiv family history.<br />Essntial trmor pts oftn
slf-m
icat w/ alcohol, which
crass th trmor.<br />Tx: bta-blockrs.
1303871910386 1342707643689 Rsting trmor Most noticabl
istally.<br />S
n in Parkinson's (&quot;pill-rolling&quot; trmor)
1303871932185 1342707643689 Intntion trmor
Slow, zigzag motion whn
pointing tw
a targt;<br>associat
w/ crbllar
ysfunction.

1303872032102 1342707643689 Crbral cortx: whr ar th Sylvian fissur v
s. Cntral sulcus?
A: Sylvian fissur is abov tmporal lob; cntral sulcu
s
ivi
s frontal an
parital lobs.<br><img src="398a Crbral cortx fxns.JPG
" />
1303872111394 1342707643689 Crbral cortx:<br />What is th arcuat fascic
ulus? Connction btwn Associativ au
itory cortx (Wrnick's ara;
ominan
t hmisphr) <br />an
Motor spch ara (Broca's ara;
ominant hmisphr)<br
/><img src="398a Crbral cortx fxns.JPG" />
1303872192421 1342707643689 Crbral cortx:<br>Whr is th primary au
itor
y cortx (Hschl's gyrus)?<br>Th primary motor ara?<br>Th primary snsory ar
a?<br>Th prmotor ara (part of xtrapyrami
al circuit)?
<img src="398a C
rbral cortx fxns.JPG" />
1303872293591 1342707643689 Frontal lob functions &quot;Excutiv function
s&quot;<br>Planning, inhibition, concntration, orintation, languag, abstracti
on, ju
gmnt, motor rgulation, moo
.<br>Lack of social ju
gmnt is most notabl
in frontal lob lsion.<br><br>(&quot;<b>D</b>amag = <b>D</b>isinhibition&quot
; - .g., Phinas Gag)
1303872653545 1342707643689 Homonculus:<br>What is it?<br>What is it us
fo
r?<br>What rachs into th Sylvian fissur? Th longitu
inal fissur? Topograp
hical rprsntation of snsory an
motor aras in th crbral cortx.<br><br>U
s
to localiz lsion (.g., in bloo
supply) la
ing to spcific
fcts.<br><
br>For xampl, lowr xtrmity
ficit in snsation or movmnt in
icats invol
vmnt of antrior crbral artry.<br><br><img src="399a Motor homonculus.JPG"
/>
1303872889265 1342707643450 Broca's ara (infrior frontal gyrus)<br /><br /
><br /><br />(hint: <b>BRO</b>ca's is <b>BRO</b>kn spch.)
Motor (nonflunt
/xprssiv) aphasia w/ goo
comprhnsion.
1303872935407 1342707643450 Wrnick's ara (suprior tmporal gyrus)<br /><
br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />(hint: <b>W</b>rnick's is <b>W</b>or
y but
maks no sns.)
Snsory (flunt/rcptiv) aphasia w/ poor comprhnsion
, nologisms.
1303872976968 1342707643450 Arcuat fasciculus<br />(conncts Wrnick's to
Broca's ara) Con
uction aphasia; <br />goo
comprhnsion, flunt spch, but
poor rpitition.<br /><br />Can't rpat phras g. &quot;No ifs, an
s, or buts
.&quot;
1303873008710 1342707643450 Amyg
ala (bilatral)
Kluvr-Bucy syn
rom (hy
prorality, hyprsxuality,
isinhibit
bhavior)<br /><br />Associat
with HS
V-1
1303873037649 1342707643450 Frontal lob
Prsonality changs an

ficits
in concntration, orintation, an
ju
gmnt;<br />may hav rmrgnc of primi
tiv rflxs.
1303875636365 1342707643450 Right parital lob
Spatial nglct syn
rom
(agnosia of th contralatral si
 of th worl
)
1303875656811 1342707643450 Rticular activating systm (mi
brain) R
uc

lvls of arousal an
wakfulnss (.g., coma)
1303875685434 1342707643450 Mammillary bo
is (bilatral) Wrnick-Korsako
ff syn
rom<br /><br />Wrnick = confusion, opthalmoplgia, ataxia<br />Korsako
ff = mmory loss, confabulation, prsonality changs
1303875700857 1342707643450 Basal ganglia May rsult in trmor at rst, ch
ora, or athtosis
1303875850764 1342707643450 Crbllar hmisphr<br /><br /><br /><br /><br
/><br /><br /><br />(hint: crbllar hmisphrs ar <b>latrally</b> locat
,
so thy affct th<b> latral</b> limbs)
Intntion trmor, limb ataxia;<b
r />Damag to th crbllum rsults in ipsilatral
ficits;<br />Fall towar
s
i
 of lsion
1303875880193 1342707643450 Crbllar vrmis<br><br><br><br><br><br>(hint:
vrmis is <b>cntrally </b>locat
, so it affcts th <b>cntral</b> bo
y)
Truncal ataxia,
ysarthria.
1303875893563 1342707643450 Subthalamic nuclus
Contralatral hmiballis
mus

1303875907703 1342707643450 Hippocampus
Antrogra
 amnsia -- inability
to mak nw mmoris
1303875927085 1342707643450 Param
ian pontin rticular formation (PPRF)
Eys look away from si
 of lsion (los ipsilatral 6th)
1303875937575 1342707643450 Frontal y fil
s
Eys look towar
lsion.
1303876016512 1342707643689 Aphasia (
finition) vs. Dysarthria (
finition)
Aphasia is a highr-or
r inability to spak.<br>vs. <br>Dysarthria is a motor i
nability to spak.
1303876094678 1342707643689 Broca's aphasia<br /><br />Whr is Broca's ara
?
Nonflunt aphasia w/ intact comprhnsion.<br />Broca's ara -- infrior
frontal gyrus.<br /><br />(&quot;<b>Bro</b>ca's <b>Bro</b>kn <b>Boca</b>&quot;
[boca = mouth in Spanish])
1303876141322 1342707643689 Wrnick's aphasia
Flunt aphasia with impa
ir
comprhnsion.<br />Wrnick's ara -- suprior tmporal gyrus.<br /><br />
(&quot;<b>W</b>rnick's is <b>W</b>or
y but maks no sns.&quot; or &quot;<b>W
</b>rnick's = <b>W</b>hat?&quot;)
1303876168929 1342707643689 Global aphasia Nonflunt aphasia w/ impair
co
mprhnsion.<br>Both Broca's an
Wrnick's aras affct
.
1303876221468 1342707643689 Con
uction aphasia
Poor rpitition but flu
nt spch, intact comprhnsion.<br>Arcuat fasciculus -- conncts Broca's an
W
rnick's aras.
1303876313744 1342707643689 Antrior crbral artry: what aras of cortx

os it supply? Supplis antrom
ial surfac of brain [
arkst gry]<br /><img
src="400a Crbral artris.JPG" />
1303876360209 1342707643689 Mi

l crbral artry: what aras of cortx
o
s it supply?
Supplis latral surfac of brain [Whit aras blow]<br /><img
src="400a Crbral artris.JPG" />
1303876389619 1342707643689 Postrior crbral artry: what aras of cortx

os it supply? Supplis postrior an
infrior surfacs [m
ium gry aras blo
w]<br /><img src="400a Crbral artris.JPG" />
1303876541921 1342707643689 Antrior crbral artry:<br />Whr is it?<br /
><img src="401b Circl of Willis without labls.JPG" /><br />What
os it supply
?
[Right antrior crbral artry is labl
blow -- top/lft]<br /><img
src="401a Circl of Willis with labls.JPG" /><br />Supplis m
ial surfac of t
h brain<br />Lg-foot ara of motor an
snsory cortics.
1303876964002 1342707643689 Mi

l crbral artry:<br />Whr is it?<br /><
img src="401b Circl of Willis without labls.JPG" /><br />What
os it supply?
[Labl
blow at top/lft, just bnath right antrior crbral art.]<br /><img
src="401a Circl of Willis with labls.JPG" /><br />Trunk-arm-fac ara of moto
r an
snsory cortics<br />Broca's an
Wrnick's spch aras (on
ominant hm
isphr), optic ra
iations.<br /><br />[Optic ra
iations ar tracts from LGN of
thalamus to primary visual cortx. Charactristic lsion = quan
rantopia.]
1303877112318 1342707643689 What
ficit occurs w/ problms in th mi

l c
rbral artry? Contralatral fac an
arm paralysis an
snsory loss<br />Aphas
ia (
ominant hmisphr)<br />Lft-si

nglct (non-
ominant hmisphr)
1303877171146 1342707643689 Postrior crbral artry:<br />Whr is it?<br
/><img src="401b Circl of Willis without labls.JPG" /><br />What
os it suppl
y?
[labl
blow along mi

l/right]<br /><img src="401a Circl of Willis
with labls.JPG" /><br /><br />Supplis th occipital, visual cortx.
1303877207926 1342707643689 What
ficit is associat
with problms in th
postrior crbral artry?
Contralatral homonymous hmianopia with macular
sparing.
1303877320415 1342707643689 Antrior communicating artry:<br />Whr is it?
<br /><img src="401b Circl of Willis without labls.JPG" /><br />What is associ
at
with this artry? [labl
blow along top/right]<br /><img src="401a Circ
l of Willis with labls.JPG" /><br /><br />Most common sit of circl of Willis
saccular (brry) anurysm;<br />lsions may caus visual fil

fcts.
1303877383462 1342707643689 Postrior communicating artry:<br />Whr is it
?<br /><img src="401b Circl of Willis without labls.JPG" /><br />What is assoc
iat
with this artry? [labl
blow along mi

l/lft]<br /><img src="401a Ci

rcl of Willis with labls.JPG" /><br /><br />Common ara of saccular (brry) an
urysm;<br />Causs CN III palsy - y gos &quot;
own an
out.&quot;
1303877535434 1342707643689 Latral striat:<br />Whr ar thy?<br /><img
src="401b Circl of Willis without labls.JPG" /><br />What
o thy supply?
[labl
blow along mi

l/right]<br /><img src="401a Circl of Willis with lab
ls.JPG" /><br /><br />Divisions of th mi

l crbral artry<br />Supply th i
ntrnal capsul, lnticular nucli, &amp; striatum<br /><br />(lnticular = GP &
amp; putamn, striatum = cau
at &amp; putamn)<br />
1303877559142 1342707643689 What
ficit is associat
with th latral stri
at artry?<br /><br />Strok tiology? Contralatral hmiparsis or hmiplgia
(infarct of intrnal capsul causs <b>pur motor </b>hmiparsis)<br /><br />Co
mmon location of lacunar infarcts (&quot;artris of strok&quot;)
u to unmana
g
HTN
1303877657992 1342707643689 Watrsh
zons of crbral circulation, an

am
ag?
Btwn antrior crbral/mi

l crbral, postrior crbral/mi

l cr
bral artris.<br /><br />Damag
in svr hypotnsion --&gt; uppr lg &amp;
uppr arm (proximal) waknss/numbnss,
fcts in highr-or
r visual procssin
g.<br /><br /><img src="pastvnj8ya.jpg" />
1303877732538 1342707643689 Postrior Infrior Crbllar Artry (PICA):<br
/>Whr is it?<br /><img src="401b Circl of Willis without labls.JPG" /><br />
What
ficits ar associat
with an infarct hr?
[labl
blow at bottom/
right]<br /><img src="401a Circl of Willis with labls.JPG" /><br /><br />Infar
cts caus Wallnbrg's syn
rom (aka latral m
ullary syn
rom)<br />(vomiting,
vrtigo, nystagmus;
ysphagia, hoarsnss, ipsilatral Hornr's, ataxia,
ysmtr
ia)
1303877782938 1342707643689 Basilar artry:<br />Whr is it?<br /><img src=
"401b Circl of Willis without labls.JPG" /><br />What woul
an infarct hr ca
us?
[labl
blow along mi

l/lft]<br /><img src="401a Circl of Willis w
ith labls.JPG" /><br />Infarct causs lock
-in syn
rom.
1303877862390 1342707643689 Antrior vs. postrior circulation<br /><br />St
roks caus what?<br />Driv
from?<br />Givs off?
<u>Antrior circulation<
/u>:<br />-Strok causs gnral snsory an
motor
ysfunction, aphasia<br />-D
riv
from intrnal caroti
<br />-Givs off ACA, latral striat, MCA (from MCA
forwar
)<br /><br /><u>Postrior circulation</u>:<br />-Strok causs CN
ficit
s (vrtigo, visual
ficits), coma, crbllar
ficits<br />-Driv
from subcl
avian (via vrtbrals)<br />-Givs off AICA, ASA, basilar, PICA, PCA (from PCA b
ackwar
s)
1303878092467 1342707643689 Antrior spinal artry:<br />Whr is it?<br /><
img src="401b Circl of Willis without labls.JPG" /><br />What
fcts ar asso
ciat
? [at bottom of pictur, blow]<br /><img src="401a Circl of Willis with
labls.JPG" /><br />M
ial m
ullary syn
rom:<br /><br />latral corticospinal
tract (<b>contralatral hmiparsis</b> of lowr xtrmitis)<br />m
ial lmnis
cus (
cr <b>contralatral propriocption</b>)<br />ipsilatral hypoglossal<b> <
/b>nrv paralysis (<b>tongu
viats ipsilatrally</b>)
1303878225333 1342707643689 Antrior Infrior Crbllar Artry (AICA)<br />
Whr is it locat
?<br /><img src="401b Circl of Willis without labls.JPG" />
<br />What
ficits ar associat
?
[labl
blow in lowr right]<br /><img
src="401a Circl of Willis with labls.JPG" /><br />Latral pontin syn
rom: h
it 7, 8, spinal trigminal nuclus, mi

l an
infrior crbllar p
uncls<br
/><br />=&gt; <b>ipsilatral facial paralysis, ipsilatral facial pain an
tmp<
/b>, ipsilatral loss of haring &amp; vstibular function (nystagmus), ipsilat
ral ataxia
1303878316339 1342707643689 Brry anurysms:<br>Whr
o thy occur?<br>What
is th most common complication?<br> <img src="554a Brry anurysms.JPG" /><b
r>Occur at th bifurcations in th circl of Willis.<br />Most common sit is bi
furcation of th antrior communicating artry.<br /><br />Ruptur (most common
complication) la
s to hmorrhagic strok/subarachnoi
hmorrhag.<br /><br />
1303878357843 1342707643689 Brry anurysms:<br>associat
with?<br>othr ri
sk factors?
Associat
with:<br>A
ult polycystic ki
ny
z<br>Ehlrs-Danlos
syn
rom<br>Marfan's syn
om<br><br>Risk factors:<br>A
vanc
ag<br>HTN<br>Smok

ing<br>Rac (highr risk in blacks)
1303878548306 1342707643689 Charcot-Bouchar
microanurysms:<br>Associat
w
ith?<br>What
o thy affct?<br>
Associat
with chronic HTN<br>Affcts s
mall vssls (.g., in basal ganglia, thalamus)
1303921406429 1342707643689 Epi
ural hmatoma
<img src="402a pi
ural
hmatoma.JPG" /><br />Ruptur of mi

l mningal artry (branch of maxillary ar
try),<br />oftn scon
ary to fractur of tmporal bon. <br />Luci
intrval.<
br />Rapi
xpansion --&gt; transtntorial hrniation, CN III palsy.<br /><br />
CT shows &quot;biconvx
isk&quot; not crossing sutur lins.<br />Can cross fal
x, tntorium.<br /><br /><img src="554b Epi
ural hmatoma.JPG" />
1303921587543 1342707643689 Sub
ural hmatoma
<img src="402b sub
ural
hmatoma.JPG" /><br />Ruptur of bri
ging vins.<br />Vnous bl
ing (lss prs
sur) with
lay
onst of Sx's.<br />Sn in l
rly in
ivi
uals, alcoholics,
blunt trauma, shakn baby.<br /><br />Crscnt-shap
hmorrhag that crosss su
tur lins.<br />Cannot cross falx, tntorium.<br />Gyri ar prsrv
b/c prss
ur is
istribut
qually.<br />Mi
lin shift.<br /><br /><img src="554c Sub
ur
al hmorrhag.JPG" /><br />
1303921602679 1342707643689 Factors pr
isposing to a sub
ural hmatoma
Brain atrophy<br>Shaking<br>Whiplash
1303921686435 1342707643689 Subarachnoi
hmorrhag?<br /><br />Subsqunt r
isk?
<img src="402c Subarachnoi
hmorrhag.JPG" /><br />Ruptur of anurysm
(usually brry anurysm) or an AVM.<br />Pts complain of &quot;worst ha
ach of
my lif.&quot;<br />Bloo
y or yllow (xanthochromic) spinal tap.<br /><br />2-3

ays aftrwar
, thr is a risk of vasospasm
u to bloo
brak
own (not visibl
 on CT) an
rbl
(visibl on CT);<br />Tx w/ Ca2+ channl blockr nimo
ipin
.
1303921849100 1342707643689 Parnchymal hmorrhag:<br />Caus
by...?<br />
Typically occurs whr? Caus
by <b>HTN</b>, amyloi
angiopathy [s blow], va
sculitis, an
tumor.<br />Typically occurs in basal ganglia an
intrnal capsul
.<br /><br /><img src="556a Amyloi
osis.JPG" />
1303921901361 1342707643689 Hmorrhagic strok
Intracrbral bl
ing,
oftn
u to HTN, anticoagulation, cancr (abnormal vssls bl
), anurysm rup
tur.<br /><br />May b scon
ary to ischmic strok following rprfusion (incr
vssl fragility).
1303921955300 1342707643689 Ischmic strok<br /><br />Etiology an
causs?<
br />Variant?<br />Tratmnt? Emboli block larg vssls; <br />tiologis inc
lu
: atrial fibrillation, caroti

issction, ASD, n
ocar
itis.<br /><br />Lac
unar stroks block small vssls, ar scon
ary to HTN.<br /><br />Tx: tPA w/in
4.5 hours (as long as pt prsnts w/in 3 hrs of onst).
1303921986440 1342707643689 Transint Ischmic Attack (TIA) Brif, rvrsibl
 piso
 of nurologic
ysfunction
u to focal ischmia.<br />Typically, Sx's
last &lt;24 hours.
1303922056892 1342707643689 Strok imaging Bright on
iffusion-wight
MRI
in 3-30 minuts an
rmains bright for 10
ays [blow/lft]<br />Dark on noncon
trast CT in ~24 hours [blow/right]<br /><br /><img src="403a Right MCA strok M
RI.JPG" /><img src="403b Right MCA strok CT.JPG" /><br /><b><br />Bright aras
on noncontrast CT in
icat hmorrhag an
contrain
icat tPA</b>
1303922129679 1342707643689 Dural vnous sinuss:<br>Whr
o thy run?<br>W
hat is th squnc?
Vnous sinuss run in th
ura matr whr its mningal
an
priostal layrs sparat.<br><br>Crbral vins --&gt; vnous sinuss --&
gt; intrnal jugular vin<br><img src="403c Dural vnous sinuss with labls.JPG
" />
1303922288426 1342707643689 Whr is th suprior sagittal sinus?<br>Th co
nflunc of th sinuss?<br>Th Occipital sinus?<br>Th Transvrs an
sigmoi
s
inuss? <br><img src="403
Dural vnous sinuss without labls.JPG" /> Th sup
rior sagittal sinus (main location of CSF rturn via arachnoi
granulations) is
along th suprior/m
ian bor
r of th brain.<br><br>Th conflunc of th sinu
ss is postrior, bringing togthr th occipital sinus (infriorly), sagittal s
inus (supriorly), transvrs sinuss (latrally), an
straight sinus (vntrally
)<br><br><img src="403c Dural vnous sinuss with labls.JPG" />

1303922397799 1342707643689 Whr is th infrior sagittal sinus?<br>Th Gr
at crbral vin (of Galn)?<br>Th Straight sinus?<br><img src="403
Dural vno
us sinuss without labls.JPG" />
Th infrior sagittal sinus runs
p to
th suprior sagittal sinus in th m
ian lin.<br>Th grat crbral vin runs
infrior to that, an
th two sinuss mt at th straight sinus, which f
s i
nto th conflunc of th sinuss postriorly.<br><img src="403c Dural vnous si
nuss with labls.JPG" />
1303922464988 1342707643689 What is on vin that f
s into th
ural vnou
s sinuss?
Th Suprior ophthalmic vin f
s into th cavrnous sinus,<br>
which rachs th sup. sagittal sinus an
th transvrs sinus by way of th Sph
noparital sinus.<br><img src="403c Dural vnous sinuss with labls.JPG" />
1303924096649 1342707643689 Whr is CSF ma
?<br />Whr is rabsorb
?
CSF is ma
 by mo
ifi
pn
ymal clls in choroi
plxus lining th vntricls;
<br />it is rabsorb
by vnous sinus arachnoi
granulations.
1303924208049 1342707643689 What conncts th latral to th 3r
vntricl?
Th foramn of Monro.<br /><img src="404a Vntricular systm.JPG" />
1303924328762 1342707643689 What conncts th 3r
an
4th vntricls?
Th crbral aqu
uct<br><img src="404a Vntricular systm.JPG" />
1303924797689 1342707643689 What conncts th 4th vntricl an
th subarach
noi
spac?
Foramina of <b>L</b>ushka = <b>L</b>atral<br />Foramn of <b>M<
/b>agn
i = <b>M</b>
ian<br /><br /><img src="404a Vntricular systm.JPG" />
1303925044610 1342707643689 Communicating hy
rocphalus
Dcras
CSF ab
sorption by arachnoi
villi =&gt; incras
ICP, papill
ma, hrniation.<br /><
br />May b
u to post-mningitis arachnoi
scarring.
1303925105323 1342707643689 Normal prssur hy
rocphalus Dos <b>not</b>
rsult in incras
subarachnoi
spac volum. Expansion of vntricls
istorts
th fibrs of th <b>corona ra
iata </b>an
la
s to th clinical tria
of
mn
tia, ataxia, an
urinary incontinnc (&quot;<b>Wt</b>, <b>wobbly</b>, an
<b>w
acky</b>&quot;).<br /><br />Rvrsibl caus of
mntia in th l
rly.<br /><b
r /><img src="pastr
gfso.jpg" />
1303925149175 1342707643689 Obstructiv (non-communicating) hy
rocphalus
Caus
by structual blockag of CSF circulation w/in th vntricular systm<br>(
.g., stnosis of th aqu
uct of Sylvius)
1303925217159 1342707643689 Hy
rocphalus x vacuo<br /><br />What is it?<br
/>Whn
os it occur? Apparanc of incras
CSF
u to brain atrophy.<br />I
ntracranial prssur normal; tria
not sn.<br /><br />Sn in Alzhimr's
z,
a
vanc
HIV, Pick's
isas (frontotmporal
mntia).
1303925903668 1342707643689 Total # of spinal nrvs?<br>Pr sction?
Thr ar 31 spinal nrvs.<br>(&quot;31 lik th 31 flavors at Baskin-Robbins&q
uot;)<br><br>8 Crvical<br>12 Thoracic<br>5 Lumbar<br>5 Sacral<br>1 Coccygal
1303925953454 1342707643689 Numbring of crvical spinal nrvs
Nrvs C
1-C7 xit via intrvrtbral foramina <u>abov</u> th corrspon
ing vrtbra.<b
r>All othr nrvs xit <u>blow</u>.
1303925991223 1342707643689 Whr
os vrtbral
isk hrniation usually occ
ur?
Vrtbral
isk hrniation (nuclus pulposus hrnaits through annulus fi
brosus) <br>usually occurs btw L5 an
S1.
1303926119548 1342707643689 How far
os th spinal cor
xtn
in a
ults?<b
r>Th subarachnoi
spac?<br>Whr
o you prform a lumbar punctur?
In a
ult
s, th spinal cor
xtn
s to th lowr bor
r of L1-L2;<br>subarachnoi
spac
xtn
s to lowr bor
r of S2.<br><br>Lumbar punctur is usually prform
in L3
-L4 or L4-L5 intrspacs,<br>at th lvl of th cau
a quina.<br>(&quot;To kp
th cor
<b>aliv</b>, kp th spinal n
l btw <b>L3 an
L5</b>&quot;)
1303927774186 1342707643689 Whr
o you gt CSF from in a lumbar punctur?
CSF is obtain
from lumbar subarachnoi
spac btw L4 an
L5 (at th lvl of il
iac crsts)<br><img src="405a Lumbar punctur.JPG" />
1303927862298 1342707643689 Structurs pirc
in a lumbar punctur (in or

r)
1.) Skin/suprficial fascia<br>2.) Ligamnts (supraspinous, intrspinous
, ligamntum flavum)<br>3.) Epi
ural spac<br>4.) Dura matr<br>5.) Sub
ural spa
c<br>6.) Arachnoi
<br>7.) Subarachnoi
spac - CSF<br><br>(<b>Pia</b> is not <b
>pi</b>rc
)<br><img src="405a Lumbar punctur.JPG" />

1303927933119 1342707643689 What
o th
orsal columns of th spinal cor
r
lay?
Prssur, vibration, touch, propriocption.<br><img src="405b Spinal cor

an
associat
tracts.JPG" />
1303928034426 1342707643689 How ar th
orsal columns of th spinal cor
or
ganiz
?
M
ially: <b>fasciculus gracilis</b> (lowr bo
y, xtrmitis)<b
r /><br />Latrally: <b>fasciculus cunatus</b> (uppr bo
y, xtrmitis)<br /><
br />(&quot;Dorsal column is organiz
as you ar, with han
s at si
s. Arms out
si
, lgs insi
.&quot;)<br />(&quot;Your ft ar on th <b>grass</b>&quot; [l
owr bo
y = <b>gracilis</b>].)<br /><br /><img src="405b Spinal cor
an
associa
t
tracts.JPG" />
1303928172168 1342707643689 What
o th latral corticospinal tract an
spin
othalamic tract rlay?<br>Whr ar thy locat
?<br>How ar thy organiz
?<br>
<b>Latral corticospinal tract</b> rlays voluntary motor information,<br>is loc
at
in th latral spinal cor
.<br><br><b>Spinothalamic tract</b> rlays pain a
n
tmpratur,<br>is locat
antro-latrally.<br><br>(&quot;<b>L</b>gs ar <b
>L</b>atral in <b>L</b>atral corticospinal, spinothalamic tracts&quot;)<br><br
><img src="405b Spinal cor
an
associat
tracts.JPG" />
1303928207775 1342707643689 What artris follow th spinal cor
? 2 Postr
ior spinal artris, 1 antrior spinal artry<br><img src="405b Spinal cor
an

associat
tracts.JPG" />
1303928255027 1342707643689 Whr ar th intrm
iat horn sympathtics fou
n
?
Th latral gray mattr of th <u>thoracic</u> [only] spinal cor
<br><im
g src="405b Spinal cor
an
associat
tracts.JPG" />
1303931877683 1342707643689 Ascn
ing spinal tracts an
synapsing Thy syn
aps <b>thn</b>
cussat.
1303932032601 1342707643501 Dorsal column -- m
ial lmniscal pathway
Ascn
ing prssur, vibration, touch, an
propriocptiv snsation
1303932049771 1342707643501 Spinothalamic tract
Ascn
ing pain an
tmp
ratur snsation
1303932066288 1342707643501 Latral corticospinal tract
Dscn
ing volun
tary movmnt of contralatral limbs
1303932177389 1342707643593 Dorsal column -- m
ial lmniscal pathway
Snsory nrv n
ing --&gt; cll bo
y in
orsal root ganglion --&gt; ntrs spin
al cor
, ascn
s ipsilatrally in
orsal column
1303932205876 1342707643593 Spinothalamic tract
Snsory nrv n
ing (A
lta an
C fibrs) (cll bo
y in
orsal root ganglion) --&gt; ntrs spinal cor


1303932269260 1342707643593 Latral corticospinal tract
<b>Uppr motor n
uron:</b> cll bo
y in primary motor cortx <br>|<br>Dscn
s ipsilatrally (th
ru intrnal capsul) until
cussating at cau
al m
ulla (pyrami
al
cussation)
<br>|<br>Dscn
s contralatrally
1303932363289 1342707643794 Dorsal column -- m
ial lmniscal pathway
<b>Ipsilatral</b> nuclus cunatus or gracilis (in th m
ulla)
1303932375502 1342707643794 Spinothalamic tract
Ipsilatral
orsal gray
mattr (spinal cor
)<br /><br />[a

itional info: substantia glatinosa, nuclus
proprius]
1303932392333 1342707643794 Latral corticospinal tract
Cll bo
y of mot
or nuron (in th antrior horn of th spinal cor
)<br><br>(contralatral to cor
tx, ipsilatral to muscl)
1303932459014 1342707643460 Dorsal column -- m
ial lmniscal pathway
Cll bo
y in <b>ipsilatral</b> nuclus cunatus or gracilis (in th m
ulla)<br
/>|<br />Dcussats in m
ulla (intrnal arctuat fibrs)<br />|<br />Ascn
s i
n <b>contralatral </b>m
ial lmniscus
1303932481956 1342707643460 Spinothalamic tract
Cll bo
y in <b>ipsilat
ral</b>
orsal gray mattr (spinal cor
)<br />|<br /><b>Dcussats</b> at antri
or whit commissur<br />|<br />Ascn
s <b>contralatrally </b>in antrolatral
spinal cor

1303932500688 1342707643460 Latral corticospinal tract
<b>Lowr motor n
uron</b>: lavs spinal cor
(contralatral to cortx, ipsilatral to muscl)
1303932560945 1342707643749 Dorsal column -- m
ial lmniscal pathway<br>OR<

br>Spinothalamic tract VPL of thalamus
1303932571516 1342707643749 Latral corticospinal tract
Nuromuscular ju
nction
1303932634723 1342707643765 Dorsal colum -- m
ial lmniscal pathway<br />OR
<br />Spinothalamic tract
Cll bo
y in VPL of thalamus<br />|<br />Snsory
cortx y
1303932648216 1342707643765 Latral corticospinal tract
N/A (no 3r
-or

r nuron)
1303932712112 1342707643689 Lowr vs. Uppr motor nuron lsion
<b>Lowr
</b>MN lsion = vrything <b>lowr
</b> (lss muscl mass,
cr muscl ton,

cr rflxs,
owngoing tos on plantar rflx)<br /><br /><b>Uppr</b> MN = v
rythinig <b>up</b> (ton, DTRs, tos- Babinski)
1303932791876 1342707643689 UMN vs. LMN lsion:<br />Waknss
Both
1303932808713 1342707643689 UMN vs. LMN lsion:<br />Atrophy
LMN
1303932833362 1342707643689 UMN vs. LMN lsion:<br />Fasciculations<br />(mu
scl twitching) LMN
1303932850682 1342707643689 UMN vs. LMN lsion:<br>Rflxs Incras
in UMN
<br>Dcras
in LMN
1303932861661 1342707643689 UMN vs. LMN lsion:<br>Ton
Incras
in UMN
,<br>
cras
in LMN
1303932900037 1342707643689 UMN vs. LMN lsion:<br>Babinski sign<br />(upgoi
ng tos -- normal in infants) (+) in UMN,<br />(-) in LMN
1303932919582 1342707643689 UMN vs. LMN lsion:<br />Spastic paralysis
UMN
1303936175942 1342707643457 Wr
nig-Hoffmann
isas
Lowr motor nur
on lsion only,<br />
u to
struction of antrior horns;<br />flacci
paralysi
s (also sn in poliomylitis)<br /><br /><img src="407a Polio an
WH
z.JPG" />
1303936244759 1342707643457 Multipl sclrosis
Mostly whit mattr of c
rvical rgion;<br />ran
om an
asymmtric lsions,<br />
u to
mylination;<b
r />scanning spch, intntion trmor, nystagmus<br /><br /><img src="407b MS.JP
G" />
1303936275668 1342707643457 ALS
Combin
uppr an
lowr motor nuron

ficits with no snsory
ficit;<br />both uppr an
lowr motor nuron signs.<br
/><br /><img src="407c ALS.JPG" />
1303936361558 1342707643457 Complt occlusion of th antrior spinal artry
; watrsh
ara?
Spars
orsal columns an
tract of Lissaur;<br />uppr
thoracic ASA trritory is a watrsh
ara,<br />as artry of A
amkiwicz suppli
s ASA blow ~T8<br /><br /><img src="407
Complt occlusion of ASA.JPG" />
1303936410838 1342707643457 Tabs
orsalis (trtiary syphilis)
Dgnra
tion of
orsal roots an

orsal columns;<br />impair
propriocption, locomotor
ataxia<br><br /><img src="407 Tabs Dorsalis.JPG" />
1303936456875 1342707643457 Syringomylia Crossing fibrs of spinothalamic
tract (antrior whit comissur)
amag
;<br />bilatral loss of pain an
tmp
ratur snsation (usually C8-T1);<br />sn with Chiari malformation<br /><br />
<img src="407f Syringomylia.JPG" />
1303936539790 1342707643457 Vitamin B12 nuropathy, vitamin E
ficincy, an

Fri
rich's ataxia
Dmylination of
orsal columns, latral corticospinal t
racts, an
spinocrbllar tracts;<br />ataxic gait, hyprrflxia, impair
pos
ition an
vibration sns.<br /><br /><img src="407g B12
f an
Fri
richs atax
ia.JPG" />
1303936612999 1342707643689 Poliomylitis:<br>Caus?<br>Transmission?<br>Rp
lication?<br>Pathognsis?
Caus
by poliovirus, which is transmitt
by f
cal/oral rout.<br><br>Rplciats in th oropharynx an
small intstin bfor s
pra
ing through th bloo
stram to th CNS, whr it la
s to
struction of c
lls in th antrior horn of th spinal cor
, la
ing in turn to LMN
struction.
1303936653616 1342707643689 Poliomylitis:<br />Sx? Flu-lik sx (malais, HA
, fvr, nausa, ab
ominal pain, sor throat)<br /><br />Signs of LMN lsions -muscl waknss an
atrophy, fasciculations, fibrillation, an
hyporflxia.
1303936704208 1342707643689 Poliomylitis: <br /><br />Lab fin
ings?
CSF w/ lymphocytic plocytosis (lvat
cll count) w/ slight lvation of prot

in <br />(w/ no chang in CSF glucos).<br /><br />Virus rcovr
from stool o
r throat.
1303936775603 1342707643689 Wr
nig-Hoffman
z (aka infantil spinal muscula
r atrophy)
Autosomal-rcssiv inhritanc;<br />prsnts at birth as a &qu
ot;floppy baby,&quot; <b>tongu fasciculations</b>;<br />m
ian ag of
ath 7 m
onths.<br />Associat
w/
gnration of antrior horns.<br />LMN involvmnt o
nly.
1303936837638 1342707643689 Amyotrophic latral sclrosis<br />(commonly kno
wn as Lou Ghrig's
z)<br /><br />Signs/symptoms?<br />Gntic?<br />Prsntatio
n?<br />Tratmnt/mch? Associat
w/ <b>both</b> LMN an
UMN signs;<br />no sn
sory, cognitiv, or oculomotor
ficits.<br />Can b caus
by
fct in suprox
i

ismutas 1 (SOD1).<br /><br />Commonly prsnts as fasiculations an
vntu
al atrophy;<br />progrssiv an
fatal.<br /><br /><b>Riluzol</b> tratmnt mo

stly lngthns survival by
crasing prsynaptic glutamat rlas.
1303936916306 1342707643689 Tabs
orsalis Dgnration of
orsal columns a
n

orsal roots
u to trtiary syphilis, rsulting in impair
propriocption a
n
locomotor ataxia.<br /><br /><img src="408a Tabs
orsalis.JPG" />
1303937067882 1342707643689 Associat
with Tabs
orsalis Charcot's joints
<br />Shooting (lightning) pain<br />Argyll Robrtson pupils (aka &quot;prostitu
t's pupils&quot; - accomo
at, but
o not ract)<br />Absnc of DTRs<br />Posi
tiv Rombrg, snsory ataxia at night<br /><img src="546a Tabs
orsalis.JPG" />
1303937206354 1342707643689 Fri
rich's ataxia:<br />Inhritanc?<br />Cllu
lar?<br />Sx?<br />Onst?
Autosomal-rcssiv trinucloti
 rpat
isor

r (GAA; frataxin gn).<br /><br />La
s to impairmnt in mitochon
rial function
ing.<br /><br />Staggring gait, frqunt falling, nystagmus,
ysarthria, ps ca
vus, hammr tos, <b>hyprtrophic car
iomyopathy</b> (caus of
ath).<br /><br
/>Prsnts in chil
hoo
w/ kyphoscoliosis.
1303937251572 1342707643689 Brown-Séquar
Syn
rom:<br />What is it?
Hmisct
ion of th spinal cor
<br /><br /><img src="408b B-S syn
rom lsion.JPG" />
1303937414269 1342707643689 Brown-Séquar
Syn
rom:<br>Fin
ings?
1.) Ipsi
latral UMN signs (corticospinal tract) blow lsion<br>2.) Ipsilatral loss of
tactil, vibration, propriocption sns (
orsal column) blow lsion<br>3.) Con
tralatral pain an
tmpratur loss (spinothalamic tract) blow lsion<br>4.) I
psilatral loss of all snsation at lvl of lsion<br>5.) LMN signs (.g., flac
ci
paralysis) at lvl of lsion<br><br>If lsion occurs abov T1, prsnts w/
Hornr's syn
rom<br><img src="408c B-S syn
rom bo
y map.JPG" />
1303937531101 1342707643689 Hornr's syn
rom<br /><br />Fin
ings?<br />A/w?
Sympathctomy of fac:<br />1.) <b>P</b>tosis (slight
rooping of yli
)<br />2
.) <b>A</b>nhi
rosis (absnc of swating) an
flushing (rubor) of affct
si

of fac<br />3.) <b>M</b>iosis (pupil constriction)<br />(&quot;<b>PAM</b> is <
b>horny</b> [Hornr's])<br /><br />Associat
w/ lsion of spinal cor
<b>abov
T1 </b><br />(.g., Pancoast's tumor, Brown-Séquar
syn
rom [cor
hmisction], l
at-stag syringomylia)
1303937652996 1342707643689 3 Nuron pathway involv
in Hornr's syn
rom
<img src="409a Hornrs syn
rom.JPG" /><br />Th 3-nuron oculosympathtic pathw
ay projcts from th hypothalamus to th intrm
iolatral column of th spinal
cor
,<br />thn to th suprior crvical (sympathtic) ganglion,<br />an
finall
y to th pupil, th smooth muscl of th yli
s (sup tarsal musc), an
th swa
t glan
s of th forha
an
fac.<br /><br />Intrruption of any of ths pathw
ays rsults in Hornr's syn
rom.
1303937689028 1342707643689 Clinically important lan
marks for a pu
n
al n
rv block (to rliv pain of labor)
Ischial spin<br /><br /><img src="past
shopjj.jpg" /><img src="past8u
sfm.jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="pastihiiuz.jpg
" />
1303937711018 1342707643689 Clinically important lan
marks for Appn
ix
2/3 of th way from th umbilicus to th antrior suprior iliac spin (McBurny
's point)
1303937723032 1342707643689 Clinically important lan
marks for lumbar punctu
r
Iliac crst.
1303937795277 1342707643716 C2
Postrior half of a skull &quot;cap&quot

;<br /><img src="409b Lan
mark
rmatoms.JPG" />
1303937814113 1342707643716 C3
High turtlnck shirt<br><img src="409b
Lan
mark
rmatoms.JPG" />
1303937834592 1342707643716 C4
Low-collar shirt<br><img src="409b Lan
m
ark
rmatoms.JPG" />
1303937858148 1342707643716 T4
At th nippl.<br>(<b>T4</b> at th <b>t
at por</b>)<br><img src="409b Lan
mark
rmatoms.JPG" />
1303937872832 1342707643716 T7
Xiphoi
procss<br><img src="409b Lan
ma
rk
rmatoms.JPG" />
1303937908962 1342707643716 T10
At th umbilicus (important for arly ap
pn
icitis pain rfrral)<br />(T<b>10</b> at th blly but<b>TEN</b>)<br /><img
src="409b Lan
mark
rmatoms.JPG" />
1303937924373 1342707643716 L1
At th inguinal ligamnt<br>(&quot;L1 is
<b>IL</b> [<b>I</b>nguinal <b>L</b>igamnt])<br /><img src="409b Lan
mark
rma
toms.JPG" />
1303937980531 1342707643716 L4
Inclu
s kncaps<br><img src="409b Lan

mark
rmatoms.JPG" />
1303938019514 1342707643716 S2, S3, S4
Erction an
snsation of pnil
an
anal zons<br>(&quot;S2, 3, 4, kp th pnis off th floor&quot;)<br><img
src="409b Lan
mark
rmatoms.JPG" />
1303938118307 1342707643689 Muscl spin
ls vs. Golgi tn
on organs Muscl s
pin
ls monitor muscl lngth (hlp you pick up a havy suitcas whn you
i
n't
know how havy it was).<br /><br />Golgi <b>T</b>n
on organs monitor muscl <b
>T</b>nsion (mak you
rop a havy suitcas you'v bn hol
ing too long).
1303938191012 1342707643689 Muscl spin
l: pathway?
In paralll with
muscl fibrs.<br /><br />Muscl strtch --&gt; intrafusal strtch --&gt; stimu
lats Ia affrnt --&gt; stimulats alpha motor nuron --&gt; rflx muscl (xt
rafusal) contraction<br /><br /><img src="410a Spin
l muscl control.JPG" />
1303938245052 1342707643689 Spin
l muscl control: th Gamma loop CNS stim
ulats gamma motor nuron --&gt; contracts intrafusal fibr --&gt; incras
sn
sitivity of rflx arc (fling tightly woun
up, g. watching scary movi)<br /
><br />CNS &quot;tuning&quot; of rflx arc<br /><br /><img src="410a Spin
l mu
scl control.JPG" />
1303938394335 1342707643689 Clinical rflxs an
thir rspctiv nrv roo
ts:<br />Achills?<br />Patlla?<br />Bicps?<br />Tricps?
Achills = S1 n
rv root<br />Patlla = L4 nrv root<br />Bicps = C5 nrv root<br />Tricps =
C7 nrv root<br /><img src="410b Clinical rflxs.JPG" /><br />* Not that th
y count up in or
r:<br />S1,2<br />L3,4<br />C5,6<br />C7,8
1303938417511 1342707643689 Babinski sign Dorsiflxion of th big to an

fanning of othr tos;<br>sign of UMN lsion, but normal rflx in 1st yar of l
if.
1303939332047 1342707643789 What ar th critria for th
iagnosis of mania
?
DIG FAST: 3 or mor of th following for at last 1 wk<br /><br /><b>D
istractibility</b><br /><b>Irrsponsibility</b>: sks plasur without rgar
t
o consquncs (h
onistic)<br /><b>Gran
iosity</b>: inflat
slf-stm<br /><
b>Flight</b> of i
a: racing thoughts<br />pyshomotor <b>Agitation</b>/incras
in goal-
irct
<b>Activity</b><br />
cras n
for <b>SLEEP</b><br /><b>Tal
kativnss</b> or prssur
spch
1303939407579 1342707643789 This is lik a manic piso
 xcpt moo

isturb
anc is not svr nough to caus mark
impairmnt in social an
/or occupation
al functioning or to ncssitat hospitalization.
Hypomanic piso

1303939427666 1342707643789 T/F<br><br>Hypomanic piso
s ar associat
wit
h psychotic faturs
Fals<br><br>No psychotic faturs
1303939607189 1342707643789 Manic piso
: Tru or fals: <br><br>A hypomani
c piso

os not caus mark
impairmnt in social or occupational function or
ncssitat hospitalization? Tru
1303939622251 1342707643789 How many manic piso
s
os it tak to
fin b
ipolar
isor
r?
1
1303939635811 1342707643789 How many hypomanic piso
s
os it tak to
fi
n bipolar
isor
r?
1

1303939655753 1342707643789 What typ of bipolar
isor
r involvs hypomanic
Hypomanic: Typ II<br><br>Manic: Typ I
piso
s? Manic piso
s?
1303939696246 1342707643789 What is th mil
r form of bipolar
isor
r? How
long
os it last for? Cyclothymic
isor
r<br><br>At last 2 yars
1303939731846 1342707643789 Dysthmia an
hypomania; mil
r form of bipolar

isor
r lasting at last 2 yars. Diagnosis
Cycylothymic
isor
r
1303939977756 1342707643789 What is th tratmnt for bipolar
isor
r?
Moo
stabilizrs (.g., lithium, valproic aci
, carbamazpin)<br><br>Atypical a
ntipsychotics.
1303940015640 1342707643789 What is th problm with us of anti
prssants
for bipolar
isor
r? Us of anti
prssants can la
to ↑ mania
1303940058404 1342707643789 Dos patint's moo
an
functioning usually rtu
rn to normal btwn piso
s of mania in bipolar
isor
r? Commnt on thir sui
ci
 risk as wll.
Ys it rturns to normal<br><br>High suici
 risk
1303940095081 1342707643789 Critria for Major Dprssiv Disor
r <img src
="pastuZJsOJ.png" />
1303940145926 1342707643789 What is th liftim prvalanc of major
prss
iv
isor
r: % in mals an
% in fmals?
5-12% in mals<br><br>10-25% in
fmals
1303940173275 1342707643789 Dfin Major
prssiv
isor
r, rcurrnt
Rquirs 2 or mor major
prssiv piso
s with a symptom-fr intrval of 2 m
onths
1303940182980 1342707643789 Dfin Dysthmia Mil
r form of
prssion lastin
g at last 2 yars
1303940227351 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
r matchs th following stat
mnt?<br><br>a/w with wintr sason; improvs in rspons to full-spctrum light
xposur
Sasonal affctiv
isor
r
1303940347863 1342707643789 What is th most common subtyp of
prssion an

what ar th 4 charactristics a/w it?
Atypical
prssion<br /><br />Hyprsomnia<br />- Ovrating<br />- Moo
ractivity (can improv with positiv
vnts)<br />- La
n paralysis (arms/lgs fl too havy to mov)
1303940364606 1342707643789 What is tratmnt for atypical
prssion?
MAO inhibitors<br><br>SSRIs
1303940377261 1342707643789 This form of
prssion is a/w wight gain an
s
nsitivity to rjction Atypical
prssion
1303953618864 1342707643689 Primitiv rflxs<br><br>Also, Gallant rflx?
Normally
isappar within 1st yar of lif.<br />May rmrg following frontal
lob lsion.<br /><br />Inclu
:<br />Moro rflx, rooting rflx, suckling rfl
x,<br />Palmar an
plantar rflxs, Babinski rflx<br><br>Gallant rflx is a
nothr primitiv rflx<br>-stroking along on si
 of spin whil nwborn is fa
c
own causs latral flxion towar
s stimulat
si

1303953629065 1342707643689 Moro rflx
Extnsion of limbs whn start
,
thn
raw togthr<br /><br />&quot;Hang on for lif&quot; rflx<br><br>Disapp
ars by 3-6 months
1303953646935 1342707643689 Rooting rflx Movmnt of ha
towar
on si

if chk or mouth is strok
(nippl sking)
1303953660581 1342707643689 Sucking rflx Sucking rspons whn roof of mo
uth is touch

1303953685029 1342707643689 Palmar an
palantar rflxs
Curling of fing
rs/tos if palms of han
s/ft ar strok

1303953761332 1342707643689 Cranial nrvs that li m
ially at th brainst
m
III, VI, XII<br><br>Rmmbr: <b>3</b> (x2) =<b> 6</b> (x2) = <b>12</b>
1303953836343 1342707643689 Brain stm: coul
you labl ths structurs?<br
><img src="411b Brain stm without labls.JPG" />
<img src="411a Brain st
m with labls.JPG" />
1303953873172 1342707643689 Which cranial nrv ariss
orsally an
mrgs
vntrally?
CN IV<br />[s blow, CN IV is along right in th mi

l]<br />
<img src="411a Brain stm with labls.JPG" />
1303954482392 1342707643371 Prclampsia, clampsia (
finitions) <u>Prc
lampsia</u> is th tria
of HTN, protinuria, an

ma;<br><u>clampsia</u> is

th a

ition of sizurs to th tria
.
1303954555260 1342707643371 Epi
miology of prclampsia/clampsia<br><br>
Affcts 7% of womn from 20 wk's gstation to 6 wks postpartum (bfor 20 wk
s suggst molar prgnancy).<br><br>Incras
inci
nc in pts w/ prxisting HTN
, DM, chronic rnal
z, an
autoimmun
/o's.
1303954679863 1342707643371 Etiology of prclampsia/clampsia?<br /><br />A
ssociat
with? Involvs placntal ischmia
u to impair
vaso
ilation of spir
al artris, la
ing to incras
vascular ton<br /><br />Can b associat
w/
HELLP syn
rom (<b>H</b>molysis, <b>E</b>lvat
<b>L</b>FTs, <b>L</b>ow <b>P</
b>latlts)

u to c
1303954704200 1342707643371 Mortality in prclampsia/clampsia
rbral hmorrhag an
ARDS
1303954768809 1342707643371 Clinical faturs of prclampsia/clampsia<br>S
x?<br>Labs?
HA, blurr
vision, ab
ominal pain, 
ma of fac an
xtrmiti
s, altr
mntation, hyprrflxia;<br><br>Labs may inclu
 thromocytopnia, hy
pruricmia.
1303954826880 1342707643371 Tx of prclampsia/clampsia
Dlivry of ftu
s as soon as viabl.<br />Othrwis b
rst, salt rstriction, an
monitoring a
n
Tx of HTN.<br /><br />Tx: IV magnsium sulfat an

iazpam to prvnt an
Tx
sizurs of clampsia.
1303954895225 1342707643371 Abruptio placnta
Prmatur
tachmnt of
placnta from implantation sit.<br>Ftal
ath.<br><br>May b associat
w/ DIC
.<br><br>Incras
risk w/ smoking, HTN, cocain us.<br><br>*Painful bl
ing i
n 3r
trimstr.
1303954929362 1342707643371 Placnta accrta
Dfctiv
ci
ual layr
allows placnta to attach to myomtrium.<br>Prior C-sction or inflammation pr

isposs.<br><br>*Massiv bl
ing aftr
livry.
1303954965908 1342707643371 Placnta prvia Attachmnt of placnta to lowr
utrin sgmnt.<br>May occlu
 intrnal os.<br><br>Prior C-sction pr
isposs.
<br><br>*Painlss bl
ing in any trimstr.
1303955021602 1342707643371 Ectopic prgnancy
Most oftn in fallopian
tubs, <br>pr
ispos
by salpingitis (PID).<br><br>Suspct with lvat
hCG an

su

n lowr ab
ominal pain;<br>confirm with ultrasoun
.<br><br>Oftn clinical
ly mistakn for appn
icitis.<br><br>*Pain w/o bl
ing.
1303955077191 1342707643371 Polyhy
ramnios<br><br>Volum?<br>Caus
by?
&gt;1.5-2L of amniotic flui
;<br /><br />Caus
by
cras
swallowing of amnio
tic flui
<br />(sophagal/
uo
nal atrsia, anncphaly)<br /><br />or incras

urin output<br />(high car
iac output as in anmia, twin-twin transfusion)
1303955143886 1342707643371 Oligohy
ramnios<br /><br />Volum?<br />A/w?<br
/>Givs ris to?
&lt;0.5 L of amniotic flui
;<br />associat
w/ bilatra
l rnal agnsis or postrior urthral valvs (in mals)<br />an
rsultant inab
ility to xcrt urin.<br /><br />Can giv ris to Pottr's syn
rom.
1303955295772 1342707643371 Crvical
ysplasia an
carcinoma in situ:<br />W
hat is it?<br />How is it classifi
?<br />Associat
with?<br />Othr? Disor
r

pithlial growth;<br />bgins at basal layr of squamo-columnar junction an

xtn
s outwar
.<br /><br />Classifi
as CIN 1, CIN 2, or CIN 3 (carcinoma in
situ),
pn
ing on xtnt of
ysplasia.<br /><br />Associat
with HPV 16, 18.<
br /><img src="486a - Koilocyts.JPG" /><br />Vaccin availabl.<br /><br />May
progrss slowly to invasiv carcinoma.
1303955385903 1342707643371 Crvical invasiv carcinoma<br /><br />Typ of c
ancr<br />Dtction?<br />Mass ffct?<br />Risk factors?
Oftn squamous c
ll carcinoma.<br /><br />Pap smar can catch crvical
ysplasia (koilocyts) b
for it progrsss to invasiv carcinoma.<br /><br />Latral invasion can block
urtrs, causing rnal failur.<br /><br />Risk factors ar <b>HPV infxn </b>(so
sxual activity), immun supprssion, cigartt smoking.
1303977902947 1342707643789 Match th following statmnt with th typ of p
ostpartum moo

isturbanc<br /><br />Charactriz
by
prss
affct, tarful
nss, an
fatigu<br />Usually rsolvs within 10
ays Matrnal (postpartum) bl
us
1303977928510 1342707643789 Match th following statmnt with th typ of p

ostpartum moo

isturbanc<br /><br />Charactriz
by
prss
affct, anxity
, an
poor concntration<br />Lasts 2 wks to &gt;1 yar
Postpartum
pr
ssion
1303977951558 1342707643789 Match th following statmnt with th typ of p
ostpartum moo

isturbanc<br><br>Charactriz
by
lusions, confusion, unusual
bhavior, an
possibl homici
al/suici
al i
ations or attmpts
Postpart
um psychosis
1303977976406 1342707643789 What is tratmnt for postpartum blus? Supporti
v car an
follow-up to assss for possibl postpartum
prssion
1303977985660 1342707643789 What is tratmnt for postpartum
prssion?
Anti
prssants<br>Psychothrapy
1303978001787 1342707643789 What is tratmnt for postpartum psychosis?
Antipsychotics<br>Anti
prssants<br>Possibl inpatint hospitalization
1303978066480 1342707643789 Tratmnt option for major
prssiv
isor
r r
fractory to othr tratmnt.<br><br>Pro
ucs a painlss sizur in an ansthti
z
patint.
ECT: Elctroconvulsiv thrapy
1303978095621 1342707643789 What ar th major a
vrs affcts a/w with ECT?
Disorintation<br><br>Tmporary ANTEROGRADE/RETROGRADE AMNESIA usually fully rs
olving in 6 months
1303978168834 1342707643789 List th risk factors for suici
 compltion
SAD PERSONS<br><br>Sx (mal)<br>Ag (tnag or l
rly)<br>Dprssion<br><br>P
rvious attmpt<br>Ethanol or
rug us<br>loss of Rational thinking<br>Sicknss
(m
ical illnss, 3 or mor prscription m
s)<br>No spous (
ivorc
, wi
ow
,
or singl, spcially if chil
lss)<br>Social support lacking
1303978196150 1342707643789 Which gn
r attmpt mor suici
s? Which succ

mor oftn? Womn try mor oftn; mn succ
mor oftn.
1303978304920 1342707643789 Diagnostic critria for panic
isor
r Prsnc
of rcurrnt prio
s of intns far an

iscomfort paking in 10 MINUTES with
at LEAST 4 of th following:<br><br>PANICS<br><br>Palplitations, Parathsias<br>
Ab
ominal
istrss<br>Nausa<br>Intns far of
ying or losing control, lIghth
a

nss<br>Chst pain, Chills, Choking,
isConnct
nss<br>Swating, Shaking,
Shortnss of brath
1303978315134 1342707643789 T/F<br /><br>Panic
isor
r has a strong gntic
componnt
Tru
1303978328613 1342707643789 Tratmnt for Panic
isor
r
Cognitiv bhavi
oral thrapy (CBT)<br />SSRI<br />TCAs<br />Bnzos
1303978388306 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
r matchs th following stat
mnt?<br><br>Far that is xcssiv or unrasonabl an
intrfrs with normal f
unction. Cu
by prsnc or anticipation of a spcific objct or situation.
Spcific phobia
1303978404944 1342707643789 How
o you trat spcific phobias?
Systmic

snsitization (going thru procss gra
ually, in controll
stting)
1303978442201 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
r matchs th following stat
mnt?<br><br>Exaggrat
far of mbarrassmnt in social situations (public spa
king, using public rstrooms) Social phobia
1303978447397 1342707643789 What is tratmnt for social phobia?
SSRIs
1303978542746 1342707643789 HYQ: A 28 yar ol
woman has symptoms of mil


prssion for 6 yars? What's th
iagnosis?
Dysthmia
1303978594428 1342707643789 HYQ: Two months aftr th loss of hr spous, a
42 yar ol
fmal is having troubl ating, concntrating an
slping. Sh sl
ps only 2-3 hours ach night. What woul
you
o for this patint?
A

rss
insomnia (bnzos, nonbnzo hypnotics, trazo
on)
1303978646688 1342707643789 Dfin OCD
Rcurring, intrusiv thoughts, f
lings, or snsations (obsssions) that caus svr compulsiv
istrss; rli
v
in part by th prformanc of rptitiv actions (compulsions)
1303978738946 1342707643789 Which of th two is go syntonic (bhavior consi
stnt with on's blifs an
attitu
s)? Which is go
ystonic (bhavior inconst
int with on's blifs an
attitu
s)?<br><br>OCD<br>Obsssiv compulsiv prso
nality (clustr C)
OCD: Ego
ystonic<br><br>Obsssiv compulsiv prsonalit
y (clustr C): Ego Syntonic

1303978758480 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
r is a/w Tourtt's
isor
r?
OCD
1303978767959 1342707643789 Tratmnt of OCD
SSRIs<br />Clomipramin
1303978845610 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
r matchs th following stat
mnt?<br><br>Prsistnt rxprincing of a prvious traumatic vnt (war, rap,
robbry, srious acci
nt, fir)
Post-traumatic strss
isor
r
1303978878600 1342707643789 How long
os PTSD last? What is tratmnt?
&gt; 1 month, bginning anytim aftr vnt<br /><br />Tx: Psychothrapy, SSRIs
1303978921245 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
r matchs th following stat
mnt?<br><br>Patint consciously faks or claims to hav a
isor
r in or
r to
attain a spcific 2° gain (.g., avoi
ing work, obtaining
rugs). Avoi
s tratmnt
by m
ical prsonnl; complaints cas aftr gain
Malingring
1303978944562 1342707643789 With malingring,
o complaints cas aftr gain
?
Ys
1304011607660 1342707643689 Dorsal brainstm structurs: Pinal glan

Mlatonin scrtion, circa
ian rhythms.<br><img src="411c Dorsal brainstm.JPG"
/>
1304011643840 1342707643689 Dorsal brainstm structurs: suprior colliculi
Conjugat vrtical gaz cntr.<br><br>(&quot;you hav your ys <b>abov</b> yo
ur ars, an
th suprior colliculus (visual) is <b>abov</b> th infrior colli
culus (au
itory).&quot;)<br /><img src="411c Dorsal brainstm.JPG" />
1304011663996 1342707643689 Dorsal brainstm structurs: infrior colliculi
Au
itory<br /><br /><img src="411c Dorsal brainstm.JPG" />
1304011699876 1342707643689 Parinau
syn
rom
Paralysis of conjugat v
rticl gaz
u to lsion in suprior colliculi (.g., pinaloma)
1304012026133 1342707643677 Olfactory (CN I)
Smll (only CN w/o thala
mic rlay to cortx)<br /><b>S</b>nsory; &quot;<b>S</b>om&quot;
1304012047930 1342707643677 Optic (CN II) Sight.<br><br><b>S</b>nsory; &q
uot;<b>S</b>ay&quot;
1304012089046 1342707643677 Oculomotor (CN III)
Ey movmnt (SR, IR, MR
, IO)<br />pupillary constriction (E-W nuclus, muscarinic-R)<br />accommo
ation
<br />yli
opning (lvator palpbra)<br /><br /><b>M</b>otor; &quot;<b>M</b>
arry&quot;
1304012116161 1342707643677 Trochlar (CN IV)
Ey movmnt (SO)<br><br
><b>M</b>otor; &quot;<b>M</b>ony&quot;
1304012156452 1342707643677 Trigminal (CN V)
Mastication, facial sns
ation.<br><br />Ariss at lvl of mi

l crbllar p
uncl.<br /><br /><br />
<b>B</b>oth, &quot;<b>B</b>ut&quot;
1304012187622 1342707643677 Ab
ucns (CN VI)
Ey movmnt (LR)<br><br
><b>M</b>otor; &quot;<b>M</b>y&quot;
1304012248611 1342707643677 Facial (CN VII) Facial movmnt, tast from ant
rior 2/3r
s of tongu,<br />lacrimation, salivation (subman
ibular an
sublingua
l glan
s),<br />yli
closing (orbicularis oculi)<br />stap
ius muscl in ar<
br /><br /><b>B</b>oth; &quot;<b>B</b>rothr&quot;
1304012278455 1342707643677 Vstibulocochlar (CN VIII)
Haring, balanc
.<br><br><b>S</b>nsory; &quot;<b>S</b>ays&quot;
1304012348497 1342707643677 Glossopharyngal (CN IX)
Tast from post
rior 1/3r
of tongu,<br />swallowing, salivation (paroti
glan
),<br />monitori
ng caroti
bo
y an
sinus chmo- an
barorcptors,<br />an
stylo<b>pharyng</b
>us (lvats pharynx, larynx)<br /><br /><b>B</b>oth; &quot;<b>B</b>ig&quot;
1304012416454 1342707643677 Vagus (CN X)
Tast from piglottic rgion, sw
allowing, palat lvation,<br>talking, coughing, thoracoab
ominal viscra, <br>
monitoring aortic arch chmo- an
barorcptors.<br><br><b>B</b>oth; &quot;<b>B<
/b>rains&quot;
1304012443879 1342707643677 Accssory (CN XI)
Ha
turning, shoul
r s
hrugging<br><br><b>M</b>otor; &quot;<b>M</b>attr&quot;
1304012467775 1342707643677 Hypoglossal (CN XII)
Tongu movmnt<br><br><
b>M</b>otor; &quot;<b>M</b>or&quot;
1304015796525 1342707643689 Cranial nrv nucli:<br />Whr ar thy locat

, gnrally? Locat
in tgmntum portion of brainstm<br />(btw
orsal an
v

ntral portions).<br /><br />Latral nucli = snsory (alar plat)<br />--Sulcus
limitans--<br /><b>M</b>
ial nucli = <b>M</b>otor (basal plat)
1304015812185 1342707643689 Cranial nrv nucli locat
in th mi
brain
Nucli of CN III an
IV
1304015838469 1342707643689 Cranial nrv nucli locat
in th pons
Nucli of CN V, VI, VII, an
VIII
1304015912566 1342707643689 Cranial nrv nucli locat
in th m
ulla
Nucli of CN IX, X, XI, an
XII
1304016035086 1342707643620 Cornal <span styl="font-wight:600; txt-
cor
ation: un
rlin;">OR</span> Lacrimation (us th sam nrvs) Affrnt = V-1<b
r />Effrnt = VII
1304016061194 1342707643620 Jaw jrk
Affrnt = V-3 (snsory)<br>Eff
rnt = V-3 (motor)
1304016073179 1342707643620 Pupillary
Affrnt = II<br>Effrnt = III
1304016086658 1342707643620 Gag
Affrnt = IX<br>Effrnt = IX an
X
1304016167986 1342707643689 Vagal nucli: Nuclus Solitarious
Viscral
<b>S</b>nsory information<br />(.g., tast, barorcptors, gut
istnsion)<br
/><br />CN VII, IX, X<br /><br />(&quot;<b>S</b>olitarius = vi<b>S</b>cral <b>
S</b>nsory&quot;)
1304016220676 1342707643689 Vagal nucli: Nuclus ambiguous <b>M</b>otor inn
rvation of pharynx, larynx, an
uppr sophagus<br />(.g., swallowing, palat
lvation)<br /><br />CN's IX, X, XI<br /><br />(&quot;a<b>M</b>biguous = <b>M</
b>otor&quot;)<br><br>Lsion-
ysphagia, hoarsnss [as sn in Wallnbrg (latr
al m
ullary) syn
rom
u to PICA lsion]
1304016320671 1342707643689 Vagal nucli: Dorsal motor nuclus
Sn
s au
tonomic (parasympathtic) fibrs to hart, lungs, an
uppr GI.
1304016435503 1342707643689 Cranial nrv an
vssl pathways: <br>What xit
s via th cribiform plat?
CN I
1304016603427 1342707643689 Cranial nrv an
vssl pathways: <br />What x
its via th mi

l cranial fossa? Spcific foramna?
CN II-VI, thru th sphn
oi
bon:<br /><br /><br />1.) <u>Optic canal</u>: CN II, ophthalmic artry, cn
tral rtinal vin<br />2.) <span styl="font-wight:600; txt-
coration: un
rl
in;">S</span><u>uprior orbital fissur</u>: CN III, IV, V-1, VI, ophthalmic v
in, sympathtic fibrs<br />3.) <u>Foramn </u><span styl="font-wight:600; tx
t-
coration: un
rlin;">R</span><u>otun
um</u>: CN V-2<br />4.) <u>Foramn </u
><span styl="font-wight:600; txt-
coration: un
rlin;">O</span><u>val</u>:
CN V-3<br />5.) <u>Foramn spinosum</u>: mi

l mningal artry<br /><br />(&q
uot;Divisions of CN-V xit owing to <b>S</b>tan
ing <b>R</b>oom <b>O</b>nly&quot
;)
1304016679770 1342707643689 Cranial nrv an
vssl pathways: <br />What x
its via th Postrior cranial fossa?<br /><br />Bons?<br />Spcific foramna?
CN VII-XII, thru th tmporal an
occipital bon:<br /><br />1.) <u>Intrnal au

itory matus</u>: CN VII, VIII<br />2.) <u>Jugular foramn</u>: CN IX, X, XI, ju
gular vin<br />3.) <u>Hypoglossal canal</u>: CN XII<br />4.) <u>Foramn magnum<
/u>: Spinal roots of CN XI, brain stm, vrtbral artris
1304018925541 1342707643689 What/whr is th cavrnous sinus?<br>What is th
 rout of bloo
thru it?
A collction of vnous sinuss on ithr si
 of
th pituitary.<br><br>Bloo
from y an
suprficial cortx<br>|<br>Cavrnous s
inus<br>|<br>Intrnal jugular vin<br><br><img src="414a Cavrnous sinus.JPG" />
1304019002129 1342707643689 What nrvs pass through th cavrnous sinus?
CN III, IV, V-1, V-2, VI, an
postganglionic sympathtic fibrs n rout to th
orbit all pass thru th cavrnous sinus.<br /><br />Only CN VI is &quot;fr-flo
ating&quot;.<br /><br />Cavrnous portion of intrnal caroti
artry is also hr
.<br /><br />
1304019088989 1342707643689 What is cavrnous sinus syn
rom?
Nrvs t
hat control xtraocular muscls (plus V-1 an
V-2) pass thru th cavrnous sinus
.<br><br>Thrfor, cavrnous sinus syn
rom (.g.,
u to mass ffct):<br>opht
halmoplgia, ophthalmic an
maxillary snsory loss.<br><img src="414a Cavrnous
sinus.JPG" />
1304019133931 1342707643689 CN XII lsion (LMN)<br />What is th
fct?

Tongu
viats <b>towar
</b> th si
 of th lsion b/c muscls wakn
ipsila
trally<br />(&quot;lick your woun
s&quot;)
1304019152414 1342707643689 CN V motor lsion<br />What is th
fct?
Jaw
viats <b>towar
</b> th si
 of lsion (unoppos
forc from opposit pt
rygoi
muscl)
1304019170226 1342707643689 CN X lsion<br />what is th
fct?
Uvula

viats <b>away</b> from si
 of lsion (wak si
 collapss so uvula points away
)<br /><br /><img src="past4myyu.jpg" />
1304019195348 1342707643689 CN XI lsion<br>what is th
fct?
Waknss
turning ha
to contralatral si
 of lsion.<br>Shoul
r
roop on si
 of lsi
on.
1304022225266 1342707643689 Facial lsions: UMN lsion
Lsion of motor
cortx or connction btw cortx an
facial nuclus.<br>Contralatral paralysis o
f lowr fac only,<br>sinc uppr fac rcivs bilatral UMN innrvation.<br><br
><img src="415a Facial lsions.JPG" />
1304022248914 1342707643689 Facial lsions: LMN lsion
Ipsilatral para
lysis of uppr an
lowr fac.<br><img src="415a Facial lsions.JPG" />
1304022319597 1342707643689 Facial lsions: Bll's palsy
Complt
struc
tion of th facial nuclus itslf or its branchial ffrnt fibrs (facial nrv
propr)<br><br>Priphral ipsilatral facial paralysis w/ inability to clos y
 on involv
si
.<br><br>Can occur i
iopathically; gra
ual rcovry in most ca
ss.<br><br><img src="415a Facial lsions.JPG" /><br>
1304022411810 1342707643689 In what
z's/
isor
rs is Bll's palsy sn as a
complication? <b>A</b>IDS<br /><b>L</b>ym
z<br /><b>H</b>rps simplx<br />
<b>S</b>arcoi
osis<br /><b>T</b>umors<br /><b>D</b>iabts<br /><br />(&quot;<b>
AL</b>xan
r gra<b>H</b>am <b>Bll</b> with <b>STD</b>&quot;)
1304022517288 1342707643689 KLM soun
s <br>(kuh, la, mi)
Say it alou
.<br
><br>&quot;Kuh-kuh-kuh&quot; tsts palat lvation (CN X - vagus)<br>&quot;La-l
a-la&quot; tsts tongu (CN XII - hypoglossal)<br>&quot;Mi-mi-mi&quot; tsts lip
s (CN VII - facial)<br><br>(&quot;It woul
b a <b>K</b>a<b>L</b>a<b>M</b>ity to
los CN X, XII, an
VII&quot;)
1304022654643 1342707643689 Muscls of mastication 3 Muscls clos jaw:<br>
<b>M</b>asstr, t<b>M</b>poralis, an
<b>M</b>
ial ptrygoi
<br>(&quot;<b>M</
b>'s <b>M</b>unch&quot;)<br><br>1 Muscl opns jaw:<br>Latral ptrygoi
<br>(&qu
ot;Latral Lowrs&quot; -- [latral ptrygoi
])<br><br><i>All abov ar innrvat

by th trigminal nrv (V-3)</i>
1304022723764 1342707643689 Muscls with <i>glossus</i>
All muscls with
th root <i>glossus</i> in thir nams<br />(<b>xcpt palato</b>glossus,<b> </
b>innrvat
by vagus nrv)<br />ar innrvat
by th hypo<i>glossal</i> nrv
.<br /><br /><i>Palat</i>: vagus nrv
1304022800007 1342707643689 Muscls with <i>palat</i>
All muscls with
th root <i>palat</i> in thir nams<br>(<b>xcpt tnsor vli palatini</b>, in
nrvat
by man
ibular branch of CN V)<br>ar innrvat
by vagus nrv.<br><br>
<i>Palat</i>: vagus nrv (xcpt <b>TENS</b>or, who was too <b>TENSE</b>)
1304029609456 1342707643689 Innr ar as a &quot;sris of tubs&quot;
A sris of tubs in th tmporal bon (bony labrynth) fill
with<b> prilymph<
/b> (Na+ rich, similar to ECF) that inclu
s cochla, vstibul, an
smicircula
r canals.<br /><br />W/in th bony labyrinth is a 2n
sris of tubs (mmbranou
s labyrinth) fill
w/ <b>n
olymph</b> (K+ rich, similar to ICF) that inclu
s
cochlar
uct (w/in th cochla), utricl an
saccul (w/in th vstibul), an

smicircular canals.<br /><br />*<i>pri</i> = think outsi
 of th cll (Na+),
vs. <i>En
o</i> = think insi
 th cll (K+)<br /><img src="416a Innr ar.JPG"
/>
1304029638294 1342707643689 Whr is th n
olymph (of th innr ar) ma
?
Ma
 by th stria vascularis.
1304029672483 1342707643689 What
o th utricl an
saccul contain?<br />Wh
at
o thy
tct?
Contain macula -
tct linar acclration.<br /><br /
>Saccul snss vrtical acclration (&quot;sac hangs vrtically&quot;)
1304029701567 1342707643689 What
o th smicircular canals contain? <br>Wha
t
o thy
tct?
Contain <b>A</b>mpulla,<br>
tct <b>A</b>ngular accl

ration.
1304029765196 1342707643689 Hair clls (of th innr ar):<br>Whr ar thy
?<br>What
o thy
o? Locat
w/in th organ of Corti.<br><br>Ar th snsory
lmnts in both vstibular apparatus (spatial orintation) an
cochla (haring
).
1304029825617 1342707643689 How can you rmmbr whr frquncis ar sns

along th cochlar mmbran? Th cochlar mmbran = scuba flippr: <br>narro
w/stiff at th bas (high frquncy), <br>an
wi
/flxibl at th apx (low fr
quncy).<br><img src="416b cochlar mmbran.JPG" />
1304029852142 1342707643689 Con
uctiv haring loss (fin
ings on Rinn an
W
br tsts?)
Wbr lou
r on affct
si
;<br />Bon con
uction &gt; air con

uction on Rinn (abnormal).<br /><br /><img src="pastlhaltn.jpg" />
1304029873604 1342707643689 Snsorinural haring loss- fin
ings on Rinn an

Wbr tsts Wbr loun
r on normal si
;<br />Air con
uction &gt; Bon con

uction on Rinn (normal).<br /><br /><img src="pastlhaltn.jpg" />
1304029889136 1342707643689 Haring loss in th l
rly- what gos first?
High frquncy &gt; low frquncy
1304029973160 1342707643689 Coul
you labl this pictur?<br /><img src="417
b Ey an
rtina without labls.JPG" /> Answrs<br /><img src="417a Ey an
rti
na without labls.JPG" /><br /><img src="pasth_mjx.jpg" />
1304030137110 1342707643689 What ar th muscls that mak up th iris?<br /
>What rcptors
o thy hav, an
what ar thir ffcts?
Dilator/ra
ial m
uscl (alpha1 --&gt; my<span styl="font-wight:600; txt-
coration: un
rlin;
">
</span>riasis [pupillary <span styl="font-wight:600; txt-
coration: un
r
lin;">
</span>ilation])<br /><br />Sphinctr/circular/constrictor muscl (M3 -&gt; miosis [pupillary constriction])<br /><br /><img src="417c Aquous humor pa
thway.JPG" />
1304030186603 1342707643689 Whr ar th ciliary muscls? <br />What rcpt
ors
o thy hav, an
what ffct?
Shown blow/right.<br />M3 --&gt; accomo

ation<br /><br />(contract, causing rlaxation of suspnsory ligamnts an
roun

ing of th lns)<br /><br /><img src="417c Aquous humor pathway.JPG" />
1304030309204 1342707643689 Whr is aquous humor ma
?<br />Whr is it r
absorb
?<br />[giv th whol pathway] Aquous humor is ma
 by ciliary procss
pithlium (bta a
rnrgic stim)<br />|<br />Travls past lns to postrior Ch
ambr<br />|<br />Antrior chambr<br />|<br />Trabcular mshwork (absorbs aqu
ous humor)<br />|<br />Canal of Schlmm (collcts aquous humor from trabcular
mshwork)<br /><img src="417c Aquous humor pathway.JPG" />
1304030357572 1342707643689 Glaucoma (gnral pathognsis) Impair
flow of
aquous humor<br>|<br>Incras
intraocular prssur<br>|<br>Optic
isk atrophy
w/ cupping
1304030406194 1342707643689 Opn angl glaucoma<br /><br />Caus
by?<br />A
ssociat
with?<br />Prsntation?
Obstruct
outflow (.g., canal of Schl
mm);<br />associat
w/ myopia, a
vanc
ag, African-Amrican rac.<br />Mor c
ommon, &quot;silnt,&quot; painlss.
1304030448577 1342707643689 Clos
/narrow angl glaucoma
Obstruction of f
low btw corna an
iris --&gt; prssur buil
s up bhin
iris.<br />Vry painful
, impair
vision, rock-har
y, frontal ha
ach. Emrgncy.<br /><br />Do NOT
giv pinphrin.<br><br><img src="pastyqmr5a.jpg" />
1304030482238 1342707643689 Cataract? Risk factors? Painlss, bilatral opac
ification of lns, la
ing to
cras in vision.<br /><br />Risk factors: ag,
smoking, EtOH, sunlight, DM (sorbitol), trauma, infxn, galactosmia, galactokina
s
ficincy.
1304030512945 1342707643689 Papill
ma
Incras
intracranial prssur
--&gt; lvat
optic
isk with blurr
margins, biggr blin
spot.
1304030616953 1342707643689 Innrvation of th xtraocular muscls? CN VI in
nrvats th <b>L</b>atral <b>R</b>ctus<br />CN IV innrvats th <b>S</b>upr
ior <b>O</b>bliqu<br />CN III innrvats th <b>R</b>st<br /><br />Thus, th &
quot;chmical formula&quot;: <b>LR6 SO4 R3</b><br /><img src="418c Extraocular 
y muscls an
nrvs.JPG" />
1304030637872 1342707643689 What ar th 3 actions of th suprior obliqu?

It ab
ucts, intorts, an

prsss.
1304030675308 1342707643689 CN III
amag
Ey looks
own an
out;<br>ptosi
s, pupillary
ilation, loss of accomo
ation.
1304030686776 1342707643689 CN IV
amag
Ey
rifts upwar
s causing vrti
cal
iploplia w/
fctiv
ownwar
gaz<br />(troubl
scn
ing stairs or ra

ing nwspapr)
1304030694464 1342707643689 CN VI
amag
Affct
y looks m
ially
1304030886751 1342707643689 Tsting xtraocular muscls
To tst fxn of 
ach muscl, hav th pt look in th following
irctions:<br /><br /><img src="p
ast1hp9jb.jpg" /><br /><br />[*not that th obliqu muscls ar tst
by look
ing m
ially an
opposit to what you woul
xpct from &quot;suprior&quot; an

&quot;infrior&quot;]<br /><br />&quot;<b>IOU</b>: to tst <b>I</b>nfrior <b>O
</b>bliqu, hav pt look <b>U</b>p.&quot;
1304030938918 1342707643689 Strabismus vs. Amblyopia
<u>Strabismus</u
> is misalignmnt of ys. Multipl tiologis.<br><br><u>Amblyopia</u> is a r

uction of vision from
isus in critical prio
. May b scon
ary to strabismus,

privation, unqual rfractiv rrors.
1304031011132 1342707643689 What controls pupillary constriction (miosis)? P
athway? <b>P</b>upillary sphinctr muscl (circular muscl), <b>P</b>arasympath
tic innrvation.<br /><br />CN III from E
ingr-Wstphal nuclus<br />|<br />Cil
iary ganglion<br />|<br />Sphinctr pupilla of iris
1304031087930 1342707643689 What controls pupillary <b>D</b>ilation (my<b>D<
/b>riasis)? Pathway?
Ra<b>D</b>ial muscl (aka pupillary <b>D</b>ilator muscl
), sympathtic (alpha1).<br /><br />Innrvation -- T1 prganglionic sympathtic
--&gt; suprior crvical ganglion --&gt; postganglionic sympathtic --&gt; long
ciliary nrv.
1304031170768 1342707643689 Pupillary light rflx Light in ithr rtina s
n
s a signal via CN II to prtctal nucli (
ash
lins, blow) in mi
brain th
at activat bilatral E
ingr-Wstphal nucli;<br />pupils constrict bilatrally
(consnsual rflx).<br /><br />Rsult: illumination of 1 y rsults in bilat
ral pupillary constriction.<br /><img src="419b Pupillary light rflx.JPG" /><b
r><img src="pastlwygwk.jpg" />
1304031219179 1342707643689 Marcus Gunn pupil
Affrnt pupillary
fc
t (.g.,
u to optic nrv
amag or rtinal
tachmnt).<br>Dcras
bilatra
l pupillary constriction whn light is shon in affct
y.<br><img src="419b
Pupillary light rflx.JPG" />
1304031432353 1342707643689 CN III in cross-sction<br /><br />What function
s ar affct
by what
isas procsss?
Cntr carris output to ocular
muscls,<br />affct
primarily by <b>vascular</b>
isas (.g., DM: glucos -&gt; sorbitol)<br /><br />Outsi
 carris parasympathtic output,<br />affct

1st by <b>comprssion</b> (.g., PCA brry anurysm, uncal hrniation);<br />us
 pupillary light rflx in assssmnt, &quot;blown pupil&quot; <br /><br /><img
src="420a CNIII in cross-sction.JPG" />
1304031475313 1342707643689 Rtinal
tachmnt<br /><br />What is it?<br />C
aus
by?
Sparation of nurosnsory layr of rtina from pigmnt pithli
um<br />|<br />Dgnration of photorcptors<br />|<br />Vision loss<br /><br /
>May b scon
ary to trauma,
iabts.
1304031533097 1342707643689 Ag-rlat
macular
gnration (ARMD)<br /><br
/>What is it?<br />Typs?
Dgnration of macula (cntral ara of rtina).
<br />Causs loss of cntral vision (scotomas).<br /><br />&quot;Dry&quot;/atrop
hic ARMD is slow,
u to fat
posits, causs gra
ual
cras in vision<br />&q
uot;Wt&quot; ARMD is rapi
,
u to novascularization.
1304031633258 1342707643579 Right anopia
#1, blow<br /><img src="420b Vi
sual fil

fcts.JPG" />
1304031661717 1342707643579 Bitmporal hmianopia #2, blow<br><img src="4
20b Visual fil

fcts.JPG" />
1304031683737 1342707643579 Lft homonymous hmianopia
#3, blow<br /><
img src="420b Visual fil

fcts.JPG" />
1304031712342 1342707643579 Lft uppr qua
rantic anopia
#4, blow<br />(
right tmporal lsion; Myr's loop)<br /><img src="420b Visual fil

fcts.JP

G" />
1304031735372 1342707643579 Lft lowr qua
rantic anopia
#5, blow<br>(ri
ght parital lsion;
orsal optic ra
iation)<br /><img src="420b Visual fil


fcts.JPG" />
1304031753572 1342707643579 Lft hmianopia w/ macular sparing
#6, blo
w<br><img src="420b Visual fil

fcts.JPG" />
1304031777220 1342707643579 Cntral scotoma #7, blow<br />(macular
gnra
tion)<br /><img src="420b Visual fil

fcts.JPG" />
1304033068952 1342707643689 Intrnuclar ophthalmoplgia (MLF syn
rom)
Lsion in th m
ial longitu
inal fasciculus (MLF) --&gt; m
ial rctus palsy on
attmpt
latral gaz.<br />Nystagmus in ab
ucting y.<br /><b>Convrgnc no
rmal</b>.<br />Syn
rom is sn in many pts w/ multipl sclrosis (&quot;<b>M</b
>LF = <b>M</b>S&quot;)<br /><br /><img src="421a Intrnuclar opthalmoplgia.JPG
" /><br />Whn looking lft, th lft nuclus of CN VI firs, which contracts th
 latral rctus an
stimulats th contralatral (right) nuclus of CN III via
th right MLF to contract th right m
ial rctus.<br /><img src="421b Looking L
with R MLF
amag.JPG" />
1304033091193 1342707643689 Dmntia (
fin
)
Dcras
cognitiv abil
ity, mmory, or fxn, with intact consciousnss.
1304033191948 1342707643689 Alzhimr's
z:<br />Epi
miology?<br />Groups a
t incras
risk?
Most common caus of
mntia in th l
rly.<br /><br /
>Down syn
rom pts ar at incras
risk of
vloping AD. <br />
1304033367448 1342707643689 Alzhimr's
z:<br />gntics? Familial forms (
10%)<br /><br /><b>Early onst: </b>APP (21), prsnilin-1 (14), prsnilin-2 (1
)<br /><b>Lat onst: </b>ApoE4 (19; autosomal
ominant)<br><br>ApoE2 (19) is pr
otctiv
1304033461491 1342707643689 Alzhimr's
z:<br />pathognsis/pathology?
Wi
spra
, acclrat
cortical atrophy with
cras
ACh.<br /><img src="553a
Alzhimrs Dz.JPG" /><br />Associat
w/<br /><br /><b>Snil plaqus</b> (xtr
acllular, bta-amyloi
cor)<br />-may caus amyloi
angiopathy --&gt; intracra
nial hmorrhag<br />-ABta-amyloi
synthsiz
by claving amyloi
prcursor pr
otin<br /><br /><b>Nurofibrillary tangls</b> (intracllular, abnormally phosp
horylat
tau protin = insolubl cytoskltal lmnts)<br />-tangls corrlat
w/
gr of
mntia
1304033515698 1342707643689 Pick's
z (frontotmporal
mntia)<br /><br />D
isas?<br />Path fin
ings?
Dmntia, aphasia, parkinsonian aspcts; chang
in prsonality (Dr. Zorro)<br /><br />Associat
w/ Pick bo
is (intracllular,
aggrgat
<b>tau protin</b>), frontotmporal atrophy.<br />Spars parital lob
 an
postrior 2/3r
s of suprior tmporal gyrus.
1304033537899 1342707643689 Lwy bo
y
mntia
1) fluctuating cognition
with grat variations in attntion an
alrtnss from
ay to
ay an
hour to ho
ur<br />2) rcurrnt visual hallucinations (obsrv
in 75% of popl with DLB)<
br />3) motor faturs of Parkinson's<br /><br />Caus
by alpha-synuclin
fc
t.
1304033575664 1342707643689 Crutzfl
t-Jakob
z (CJD)
Rapi
ly progrss
iv (wks-mos)
mntia w/ myoclonus, spongiform cortx;<br />associat
w/ prion
s.
1304033625080 1342707643689 &quot;Othr&quot; causs of
mntia
Multi-in
farct (2n
most common caus of
mntia in th l
rly)<br />Syphilis<br />HIV<
br />Vitamin B12
ficincy<br />Wilson's
z
1304033791540 1342707643689 Multipl sclrosis:<br />What is it (gnrally)?
Autoimmun inflammation an

mylination of CNS (brain an
spinal cor
).
1304033856623 1342707643689 Multipl sclrosis:<br>How
o pts prsnt?<br>Wh
at is th cours of th
z?
Pts can prsnt with:<br>optic nuritis (su

n
loss of vision)<br>MLF syn
rom (intrnuclar ophthalmoplgia)<br>Hmiparsis<br
>Hmisnsory Sx's<br>Bowl/bla

r incontinnc.<br><br>Rlapsing an
rmitting
cours.
1304033880679 1342707643689 Multipl sclrosis:<br>Who is affct
? Most oft
n affcts womn in thir 20s an
30s;<br>mor common in whits.
1304034026569 1342707643689 Lab/ra
iographic fin
ings in multipl sclrosis

Elvat
protin (IgG) in CSF. Oligoclonal ban
s ar
iagnostic.<br />Privntri
cular plaqus (aras of oligo
n
rocyt loss an
ractiv gliosis) w/ prsrvati
on of axons.<br /><img src="555b MS.JPG" /><br /><img src="past7ykr6c.jpg" /><b
r />Privntricular plaqus
1304034082548 1342707643689 Charcot's tria
of MS Charcot's trai
of MS is
a <b>SIN</b>:<br><b>S</b>canning spch<br><b>I</b>ntntion trmor (+<b>I</b>nc
ontinnc, <b>I</b>ntrnuclar ophthalmoplgia)<br><b>N</b>ystagmus
1304034111750 1342707643689 Tx for multipl sclrosis
Bta-intrfron,
immunosupprssants, natalizumab (anti-intgrin; intrfrs w/ lymphocyt migrat
ion).<br /><br />Symptomatic Tx for nurognic bla

r, spasticity (baclofn- GA
BA rcptor agonist), an
pain (opio
s).
1304034281980 1342707643689 Guillan-Barr syn
rom <br>(acut inflammatory

mylinating polyra
iculopathy)<br><br>What is it/what ar th main Sx? Inflamma
tion an

mylination of priphral nrvs an
motor fibrs of vntral roots (s
nsory ffct lss svr than motor), causing symmtric ascn
ing muscl wakn
ss bginning in
istal lowr xtrmitis.<br><br>Facial paralysis in 50% of cas
s.<br><br>Autonomic fxn may b svrly affct
(.g., car
iac irrgularitis,
HTN, or hypotnsion).<br>
1304034309375 1342707643689 Guillan-Barr syn
rom <br>(acut inflammatory

mylinating polyra
iculopathy)<br><br>What is th prognosis? Almost all pts s
urviv;<br>th majority rcovr compltly aftr wks to months.
1304034348039 1342707643689 Guillan-Barr syn
rom <br />(acut inflammatory

mylinating polyra
iculopathy):<br /><br />Lab fin
ings?
Elvat
CSF pro
tin w/ normal cll count (albuminocytologic
issociation).<br /><br />Elvat

protin --&gt; papill
ma.
1304034400239 1342707643689 Guillan-Barr syn
rom <br />(acut inflammatory

mylinating polyra
iculopathy):<br /><br />is associat
with...?
Associat

with <b>infxns</b> --&gt; autoimmun attack of priphral mylin
u to molc
ular mimicry<br />(.g., <i>Campylobactr jjuni </i>or hrpsvirus infxn), inoc
ulations, an
strss, but <b>no
finitiv link</b> to pathogns.
1304034430232 1342707643689 Guillan-Barr syn
rom <br>(acut inflammatory

mylinating polyra
iculopathy):<br><br>Managmnt/Tx? Rspiratory support is c
ritical until rcovry.<br><br>A

itional Tx: plasmaphrsis, IV immun globulin
s.
1304034496136 1342707643689 Progrssiv multifocal lukoncphalopathy (PML)
Dmylination of CNS
u to
struction of oligo
n
rocyts.<br>Associat
w/ JC
virus an
sn in 2-4% of AIDS pts (ractivation of latnt viral infxn).<br>Rap
i
ly progrssiv, usually fatal.
1304034545252 1342707643689 Acut
issminat
(postinfctious) ncphalomy
litis Multifocal privnular inflammation an

mylination aftr infxn (.g.,
chicknpox, masls)<br>or crtain vaccinations (.g., rabis, smallpox)
1304034583679 1342707643689 Mtachromatic luko
ystrophy
Autosomal-rcss
iv lysosomal storag
z,<br />most commonly
u to arylsulfatas A
ficincy.<
br /><br />Buil
up of sulfati
s la
s to impair
pro
uction of mylin shath.
1304034637642 1342707643689 Charcot-Mari Tooth
isas<br />(aka hr
itary
motor an
snsory nuropathy HMSN)
Group of progrssiv hr
itary nrv
/
o's<br /><br />Rlat
to
fctiv pro
uction of protins involv
in priphra
l nrvs or mylin shath.
1304037452431 1342707643651 HY: A physician is looking for risk factors for
pancratitis. H intrviw 100 hospitaliz
patints with pancratitis an
100 h
ospitaliz
patints without pancratitis. What typ of stu
y is this? Cas-con
trol stu
y
1304037470523 1342707643651 Which typ of stu
y looks for prior xposur or
risk factor?
Cas-control stu
y
1304037500699 1342707643651 Which typ of stu
y compars a group with a giv
n xposur or risk to a group without? Cohort stu
y
1304037509610 1342707643651 This is an obsrvational an
rtrospctiv stu
y
Cas-control stu
y
1304037517450 1342707643651 This is an obsrvation an
prospctiv stu
y
Cohort stu
y

1304037536135 1342707643651 What typ of stu
y compars a group of popl WI
TH DISEASE to a group WITHOUT DISEASE? Cas-Control stu
y
1304037555223 1342707643651 Which stu
y looks to s if xposur incrass t
h liklihoo
of
isas?
Cohort stu
y
1304037592653 1342707643651 What typ of stu
y collcts
ata from a group of
popl to assss frquny of
isas (an
rlat
risk factors) at a particular
point in tim?<br><br>Oftn us chi squar analysis. Cross-sctional stu
y
1304037628192 1342707643651 What is a twin concor
anc stu
y?
Compars
th frquncy with which both monozygotic twins or both
izygotic twins
vlop
a
isas
1304037672520 1342707643651 What is an a
option stu
y?
Compars sibling
s rais
by biologic vs. a
optiv parnts
1304037686053 1342707643651 Which stu
y masurs hritability an
influnc
of nvironmntal factors?
A
option stu
y
1304037694885 1342707643651 Which stu
y solly masurs hritability?
Twin concor
anc stu
y
1304037734330 1342707643651 Which stu
y masurs an o

s ratio (OR)?
Cas-control stu
y
1304037742508 1342707643651 Which stu
y masurs rlativ risk (RR)?
Cohort stu
y
1304037831891 1342707643651 What is th stu
y sampl an
purpos of phas I
clinical trials?
Stu
y sampl: Small # of patints, usually halthy volun
trs<br><br>Purpos<br>- Assss safty, toxicity, an
pharmacokintics
1304037863586 1342707643651 What is th stu
y sampl an
purpos of phas II
clinical trials?
Stu
y sampl: small # of patints with
isas of intr
st<br><br>Purpos<br>- Asssss tratmnt fficacy, optimal
osing, an
a
vrs
ffcts
1304037908751 1342707643651 What is th stu
y sampl an
purpos of phas II
I clinical trials?
Sampl: Larg # of patints ran
omly assign
ithr to
th tratmnt un
r invstigation or to th bst availabl tratmnt or placbo<
br><br>Purpos:<br>- Compars th nw tratmnt to currnt stan
ar
of car<br><
br>&quot;Dos it work bttr?&quot;
1304037939060 1342707643651 What is th stu
y sampl an
purpos of phas IV
clinical trials?
Sampl: Postmarkting survillanc trial of patints aft
r approval<br><br>Purpos:<br>- Dtcts rar or long-trm a
vrs ffcts
1304037995937 1342707643651 What pools
ata from svral stu
is to com to
an ovrall conclusion an
achivs a gratr statistical powr an
intgrats r
sults of similar stu
is?
Mta-analysis
1304038012046 1342707643651 What is th highst chlon of clinical vi
nc
?
Mta-analysis
1304038030086 1342707643651 What is th limitation of mta-analysis?
May b limit
by quality of in
ivi
ual stu
is or bias in stu
y slction
1304038067469 1342707643651 HYQ: A group of popl is follow
ovr twnty y
ars. Evry two yars it is
trmin
who
vlops cancr an
who
os not. Wha
t typ of stu
y is this?
Cohort stu
y<br><br>** Prospctiv!!
1304038138775 1342707643651 HYQ: A nw glucos tst arrivs an
you
ci
 t
o s how wll it works. Thr is a stan
ar
substanc provi

that has 90 mg/

L of glucos. Your rpat
masurmnts of th substanc rval th following v
alus: 54, 56, 55, 54, 53, 56, 54. What can you say about th prcision an
accu
racy of your nw glucos tst? Prcis but not accurat
1304038318452 1342707643651 Asssss tratmnt fficacy, optimal
osing, an

a
vrs ffcts. Which phas of clinical trials?
Phas II
1304038344753 1342707643651 What typ of stu
y masur
isas prvalnc?
Cross-sctional stu
y
1304038368064 1342707643651 During which phas of clinical trials
o you com
par th nw tratmnt to th currnt stan
ar
of car? Phas III
1304038413197 1342707643651 Draw out 2 x 2 tabl for valuating snsitivity
an
spcificity <img src="pastOmga2P.png" />
1304038447962 1342707643651 Equation to calculat snsitivity
TP / (TP
+ FN)<br><br>1 - Fals-ngativ rat

1304038471074 1342707643651 Dos snsitivity rul in or rul out
isas?
Ruls out!<br><br>SNOUT: SNsitivity ruls OUT
1304038576941 1342707643651 If snstivity approachs 1, what
os that man?
Low fals-ngativ rat
1304038596016 1342707643651 Proportion of all popl with
isas who tst p
ositiv, or th ability of a tst to
tct a
isas whn it is prsnt masur
s what? Snsitivity
1304038619239 1342707643651 Proportion of all popl without
isas who ts
t ngativ, or th ability of a tst to in
icat non-
isas whn
isas is not
prsnt masurs what? Spcificity
1304038641197 1342707643651 Equation to calculat spcificity
TN / (TN
+ FP)<br><br>1 - Fals-positiv rat
1304038657099 1342707643651 Dos spcificity rul in or rul out
isas?
Ruls in<br><br>SPIN: SPcificity ruls IN!
1304038703644 1342707643651 Which is us
for scrning in
isass with low
prvalnc: snsitivity or spcificity?
Snsitivity
1304038720793 1342707643651 Which is us
as a confirmatory tst aftr a pos
itiv scrning tst: snsitivity or spcificity?
Spcificity
1304038873021 1342707643651 HYQ: A crtain scrning tst has a 1% fals ng
ativ rat. What is th snsitivity of th tst?
99% (1 - .01 = .99)
1304038956832 1342707643651 How
o you calculat PPV?
TP / (TP + FP)
1304038969840 1342707643651 How
o you calculat NPV?
TN / (FN + TN)
1304039016844 1342707643651 <img src="pastEuCg
.png" /><br>
PPV
1304039028173 1342707643651 <img src="pastEESiTk.png" /> NPV
1304039210095 1342707643651 What is th snsitivity, spcificity, positiv a
n
ngativ pr
ictiv valu using antibo
is to X to
tct
isas X? MUST KNO
W HOW TO CALCULATE!! HIGH YIELD<br><img src="pastIAIt6G.png" />
Snsitiv
ity: 8/9<br><br>Spcificity: 7/8<br><br>PPV: 4/5<br><br>NPV: 14/15
1304039273571 1342707643651 Equation for prvalnc <img src="past7xTE5K.pn
g" />
1304039285682 1342707643651 Equation for inci
nc <img src="pastVSfFB.pn
g" />
1304039307994 1342707643651 Which is gratr for chronic
isas: prvalnc
or inci
nc? Prvalnc
1304039322577 1342707643651 Which is gratr for acut
isas: prvalnc o
r inci
nc?
Equal
1304039375750 1342707643651 Prvalnc ≅ inci
nc x ---<br><br>Fill in th bl
ank
Disas
uration<br><br>Prvalnc ≅ inci
nc ×
isas
uration
1304039456824 1342707643651 T/F<br><br>Whn calculating inci
nc, you must
not forgt to inclu
 popl currntly with th
isas as part of th populatio
n at RISK
Fals<br><br>Thy ar not consi
r
at risk<br><br><img src="pa
stFmuASj.png" />
1304039476158 1342707643651 Equation for o

s ratio <img src="pastpWX_K4.pn
g" />
1304039488372 1342707643651 Equation for rlativ risk
<img src="pastw
FiXM3.png" />
1304039501323 1342707643651 Equation for attributabl risk <img src="pastR
1P5pO.png" />
1304039517315 1342707643651 How
o you calculat th numbr n

to harm?
1/attributabl risk
1304039545466 1342707643651 How
o you calculat numbr n

to trat (# o
f patints n

to trat in or
r to sav/affct ONE LIFE)? 1/absolut risk
r
uction
1304039611197 1342707643651 How
o you calculat absolut risk r
uction?
<img src="pastNVCUl5.png" /> minus <img src="pastmzEIC6.png" />
1304039681295 1342707643651 Draw th 2 x 2 tabl us
to calculat o

s rati
o/rlativ risk/attributabl risk
<img src="pastAQ19qH.png" />
1304039735022 1342707643651 Draw 2 x 2 tabl for absolut risk r
uction
<img src="Scrn shot 2011-04-28 at 6.15.03 PM.png" />
1304039787019 1342707643651 What is th absolut risk r
uction an
numbr n



to trat in th following xampl: In a stu
y whr 100 patints rciv

m
ication Z to prvnt th
vlopmnt of
iabts an
200 patints
i
not rc
iv<br>th m
ication, 10 patints in th xprimntal group
vlop

iabts
an
40 patints in th control group
vlop

iabts?
Absolut risk r

uction: 10%<br><br># n

to trat: 10<br><br>
1304039812680 1342707643651 HYQ: Th prvalnc of variclla in population A
is 2 tims th prvalnc of variclla in population B. Th inci
nc is th sa
m in populations A an
B.&nbsp;&nbsp;What can b assum
about th
isas
ura
tion in population A vrsus population B?
Duration 2 tims longr in popul
ation A
1304039861532 1342707643651 What typ of rror is a/w r
uc
prcision in a
tst? Ran
om rror
1304039875285 1342707643651 What typ of rror is a/w a r
uc
accuracy in
a tst? Systmatic rror
1304039914555 1342707643651 Dfinition of accuracy Accuracy is th trunss
of tst masurmnts (vali
ity)
1304039936737 1342707643651 What is prcision?
<img src="pastGmErxJ.pn
g" />
1304039987531 1342707643651 O

s of having
isas in xposur
group
ivi


by o

s of having
isas in unxpos
group. What is this masuring? O

s rat
io
1304040003137 1342707643651 If prvalnc of a
isas is not too high, what

os o

s ratio approximat? Rlativ risk
1304040032008 1342707643651 Dfin rlativ risk
Rlativ probability of
gtting a
isas in th xpos
group compar
to th unxpos
group
1304040062895 1342707643651 Calculat
as prcnt with
isas in xpos
gr
oup
ivi

by prcnt with
isas in unxpos
group Rlativ risk
1304040117444 1342707643651 Dfin absolut risk r
uction R
uction in ris
k a/w a tratmnt as compar
to a placbo<br>
1304040145737 1342707643651 Th
iffrnc in risk btwn xpos
an
unxp
os
groups, or th proportion of
isas occurrncsm that ar attributabl to
th xposur (.g., smoking causs on-thir
of cass of pnumonia. What is th
trm for this? Attributabl risk
1304040198877 1342707643651 4 ways to r
uc bias <img src="pastcAA6zb.pn
g" />
1304040280969 1342707643651 What typ of bias fits th following statmnt?<
br /><br />In stu
ying th ffcts a
aily multivitamin has on longvity, th st
u
y group not only taks th
aily multivitamin, but also starts to consum mult
ipl othr vitamins on a
aily basis
Hawthorn ffct
1304040324213 1342707643651 What typ of bias fits th following statmnt?<
br /><br />An orthop
ic surgon prforming a stu
y on arthroscopic kn surgry
. A chiropractor prforming a stu
y on th positiv ffcts of crvical manipula
tion
Pygmalion ffct
1304040355934 1342707643651 What typ of bias fits th following statmnt?<
br><br>Whil tst PSA-xya
os not incras cancr survival compar
to tra
itio
nal PSA, arly
tction using PSA-xya
os not incras cancr survival compar

to tra
itional PSA
La
-tim bias
1304040383473 1342707643651 What typ of bias fits th following statmnt?<
br><br>Ar asbstos minrs mor likly to hav cancr bcaus thy min asbstos
or bcaus thy ar mor likly ti smok?
Confoun
ing bias
1304040460828 1342707643651 What typ of bias fits th following statmnts?
<br><br>1. Th positiv bnfit of a nw
rug
uring a stu
y simply may hav b
n
u to th fact that stu
y participants wr rquir
to attn
clinic monthly
an
thrfor rciv
bttr halth car.<br><br>2. A stu
y prform
in China
may not b gnralizabl to th US population<br><br>3. Asking parnts of autis
m patints what happn
in th 3
ays bfor thir chil

vlop
autism
1. Proc
ur bias<br><br>2. Sampling bias<br><br>3. Rcall bias
1304040512753 1342707643651 What typ of bias fits th following statmnt?<
br /><br />In a trial of a nw anticancr
rug, only th patints with n
-stag

isas ar slct
to rciv th nw
rug. What about th ons with arly-st

ag
isass? Slction bias
1304040555701 1342707643651 What typ of bias fits th following statmnt?<
br><br>Information gathr
at an inappropriat tim—.g., using a survy to stu
y
a fatal
isas (only thos patints still aliv will b abl to answr survy)
Lat-look bias
1304040583437 1342707643651 Typ of bias<br><br>Occurs with 2 closly associ
at
factors; th ffct of 1 factor
istorts or confuss th ffct of th oth
r
Confoun
ing bias
1304040604842 1342707643651 Typ of bias<br><br>occurs whn th group bing
stu
i
changs its bhavior owing to th knowl
g of bing stu
i

Hawthorn
 ffct
1304040684787 1342707643651 Compar man, m
ian an
mo
 in a normal, gauss
ian, bll-shap
curv Man = m
ian = mo

1304040767209 1342707643651 Compar man, m
ian, mo
 in a positiv skw. W
hr is th tail?
<img src="pastlBDiwr.png" /><br><br><img src="pastZqot
un.png" />
1304040794077 1342707643651 Compar man, m
ian, mo
 in a ngativ skw. W
hr is th tail?
<img src="past83SMg3.png" /><br><br><img src="pastgqon
U
.png" />
1304040816602 1342707643651 <img src="pastmzGIh.png" /><br>What typ of
i
stribtion is this?
Bimo
al
1304040835201 1342707643651 Which is last affct
by outlirs in th sampl
: man, m
ian or mo
?
Mo

1304040874951 1342707643651 Dfin Null (H0) hypothsis
<img src="pastt
DDqJE.png" />
1304040890321 1342707643651 Dfin Altrnativ (H1) hypothsis
<img src
="pastq2qCzj.png" />
1304040930381 1342707643651 Draw th 2x2 tabl for statistical hypothsis
<img src="pastEPpoDZ.png" />
1304040959372 1342707643651 Equation to calculat powr
<img src="pastA
C6Awh.png" />
1304040979847 1342707643651 If p &lt; 0.05, what
os that man?
<img src
="past9IcTNB.png" />
1304093190490 1342707643651 What rror typ fits th following statmnt?<br
/><br />Stating that thr is an ffct or
iffrnc whn non xists (to mist
aknly accpt th xprimntal hypothsis an
&nbsp;&nbsp;rjct th null hypoth
sis). Typ I rror (α)
1304093208262 1342707643651 Wht does p vlue tell you?
Probbility of m
king  type I error
1304093233358 1342707643651 Which type of error is k &quot;Flse-positive
error?&quot;
Type I error (α)
1304093250202 1342707643651 Which type of error is k &quot;Flse-negtive
error?&quot;
Type II error (β)
1304093308302 1342707643651 Which type of error fits the following statement
?<r><r>Stating that there is not an effect or difference when one exists (to f
ail to reject the null hypothesis when in fact H0 is false).
Type II error (β)
1304093340596 1342707643651 What is β refers to the proaility of doing what?
Proaility of making a type II error
1304093382052 1342707643651 Which type of error fits the following statement
?<r /><r />ou did not &quot;see&quot; a difference that does exist: for examp
le, setting a guilty man free Type II error (B)
1304093414422 1342707643651 Which type of error fits the following statement
?<r><r>ou &quot;saw&quot; a difference that did no exist: for example, convic
ting an innocent man. Type I error (a)
1304093494818 1342707643651 How do you calculate the following?<r><r>Proa
ility of rejecting null hypothesis when it is in fact false, or the likelihood
of finding a difference if one in fact exists. Power (1 – β)
1304093531704 1342707643651 T/F<r><r>If you increase sample size, you decr
ease power.
False<r><r>If you increase sample size, you increase power
1304093544407 1342707643651 How do you calculate power?
1 – β

1304093582612 1342707643651 Power depends on 3 factors. List them 1. Total
# of end points experienced y population<r>2. Difference in compliance etwee
n treatment groups (differences in the mean values etween groups)<r>3. Size of
expected effect <r>
1304093617115 1342707643651 How do you calculate SEM (standard error of the
mean)? <img src="paste6hj7RW.png" /><r><r>(standard deviation / root of sampl
e size)
1304093640599 1342707643651 As sample size increases, does SEM increase or d
ecrease?
Decreases
1304093689678 1342707643651 When calculating a 99% confidence interval, what
is the Z-score? What aout a 95% interval? What aout a 90% interval? 99%: Z s
core of 2.58<r /><r />95%: Z score of 1.96<r /><r />90%: Z score of 1.645
1304093759751 1342707643651 <img src="pastehXcLai.png" /><r><r>Match confi
dence interval % with each standard deviation <img src="pasteiPmBfx.png" />
1304093810797 1342707643651 What defines the following statement?<r /><r /
>Range of values in which a specified proaility of the means of repeated sampl
es would e expected to fall. Confidence interval
1304093841714 1342707643651 How do you calculate Confidence interval (CI)?
Mean +/- Z (SEM)<r><r>aka<r><r><img src="paste1ZWo9A.png" />
1304093863728 1342707643651 If p = 0.05, which confidence interval are you g
oing to use?
95% Confidence interval
1304093908094 1342707643651 If the 95% confidence interval etween 2 varial
es includes 0, what can you say aout the null hypothesis?
Null hypothesis
is not rejected ecause there is no significant difference
1304093937733 1342707643651 If the 95% CI for odds ratio or relative risk in
cludes 1, can you reject the null hypothesis? No, null hypothesis is NOT rejec
ted
1304093956850 1342707643651 If the CI etween 2 groups overlaps, do these gr
oup differ significantly?
No
1304093968195 1342707643651 What checks the difference etween the means of
2 groups?
t-test
1304093977792 1342707643651 What checks difference etween the means of 3 or
more groups? ANOVA
1304094011783 1342707643651 What test checks difference etween 2 or more pe
rcentages or proportions of categorical outcomes (not mean values)?<r><r />Oft
en used for cross-sectional studies.
<img src="pasteUlVqcA.png" /> (chi-squar
e) test
1304099650015 1342707643689 Seizure Characterized y synchronized, high-freq
uency neuronal firing.<r><r>Variety of forms.
1304099795829 1342707643689 Partial seizures<r /><r />Involves what?<r />
Originates where?<r />Other? 1 area of rain. <r />Most commonly originates
in the mesial temporal loe.<r /><>Often preceded y seizure aura;</> can sec
ondarily generalize.<r />
1304099832801 1342707643689 2 types of partial seizures
1.) Simple parti
al (consciousness intact):<r>motor, sensory, autonomic, psychic<r><r>2.) Comp
lex partial (impaired consciousness)
1304099844015 1342707643689 Generalized seizures
Diffuse.
1304099926820 1342707643689 5 Types of generalized seizures 1.) Asence (pet
it mal) - lank stare<r />2.) Myoclonic - quick, repetitive jerks<r />3.) Toni
c-clonic (grand mal) - alternating stiffening and movement<r />4.) Tonic - stif
fening<r />5.) Atonic - &quot;drop&quot; seizures (falls to floor); commonly mi
staken for fainting<r />
1304099944599 1342707643689 Epilepsy
A d/o of recurrent seizures<r>(
ferile seizures are not epilsepsy)
1304099977933 1342707643689 Causes of seizures y age:<r>Children? Genetic<
r>Infxn (ferile)<r>Trauma<r>Congenital<r>Metaolic
1304099989514 1342707643689 Causes of seizures y age:<r>Adults? Tumors<
r>Trauma<r>Stroke<r>Infxn
1304100012180 1342707643689 Causes of seizures y age:<r>Elderly? Stroke<
r>Tumor<r>Trauma<r>Metaolic<r>Infxn

1304100053117 1342707643689 Headache (definition) Pain due to irritation o
f structures such as dura, cranial nerves, or extracranial structures, not rain
parenchyma itself.
1304100122995 1342707643689 Migraine headache?<r /><r />Tx?
4-72 hou
rs of unilateral pulsating pain w/ nausea, photophoia, or phonophoia.<r />+/&quot;aura&quot; of neurologic Sx efore HA, including visual sensory, speech d
isturances.<r />Due to irritation of CN V and release of sustance P, CGRP, va
soactive peptides.<r /><r />Tx: propranolol, NSAIDs, sumatriptan for acute mig
ranes
1304100143690 1342707643689 Tension headache
&gt; 30 minutes of ilat
eral steady pain.<r>Not aggravated y light or noise; no aura.
1304100192067 1342707643689 Cluster headache? Tx? <>Repetitive rief </>
headaches characterized y <>unilateral</> periorital pain associated w/ <>i
psilateral lacrimation, rhinorrhea, Horner's</> syndrome.<r />Much more common
in <>males</>.<r /><r />Tx: inhaled oxygen, sumatriptan
1304100236152 1342707643689 &quot;Other&quot; causes of headache
Suarach
noid hemorrhage (&quot;worst headache of my life&quot;)<r>Meningitis<r>Hydroce
phalus<r>Neoplasia<r>Arteritis
1304100261768 1342707643689 Vertigo (definition)
Illusion of movement, no
t to e confused w/ dizziness or lightheadedness.
1304100313282 1342707643689 Peripheral vertigo
More common type.<r><r
>Inner ear etiology (e.g., semicircular canal deris, vestiular nerve infxn, Me
niere's dz).<r><r>Positional testing --&gt; delayed horizontal nystagmus.
1304100351297 1342707643689 Central vertigo Brain stem or cereellar lesion
(e.g., vestiular nuclei, posterior fossa tumor).<r><r>Positional testing --&g
t; immediate nystagmus in any direction; may change directions.
1304100514906 1342707643689 Neurocutaneous disorders:<r />Sturge-Weer synd
rome
Congenital d/o w/ port-wine stains (nevus flammeus), typically V1 distri
ution, ipsilateral leptomeningeal angioma, pheochromocytoma.<r />Can cause gla
ucoma, seizures, hemiparesis, and mental retardation.<r />Occurs sporadically.<
r /><r /><img src="pastefeoejv.jpg" />
1304100599220 1342707643689 Neurocutaneous disorders:<r />Tuerous sclerosi
s
Hamartomas in CNS, skin, organs; cardiac rhadomyoma, renal angiomyolipo
ma, suependymal giant cell astrocytoma, MR, seizures, hypopigmented &quot;ash l
eaf spots,&quot; seaceous adenoma, shagreen patch.<r /><r />Autosomal dominan
t.
1304100600201 1342707643689 Neurocutaneous disorders:<r />Neurofiromatosis
type I (von Recklinghausen's disease) Café-au-lait spots<r />Lisch nodules (pig
mented iris hamartomas)<r />Neurofiromas in skin<r />Optic gliomas<r />Pheoc
hromocytomas.<r /><r />Autosomal dominant, 100% penetrant ut varialy express
ive<r />NF-1 gene on chromosome 17q
1304100715095 1342707643689 Neurocutaneous disorders:<r />von Hippel-Lindau
dz
Cavernous hemangiomas in skin, mucosa, organs;<r />RCC (ilateral)<r /
>Hemangiolastoma in retina, rain stem, cereellum<r />Pheochromocytomas.<r /
><r />Autosomal dominant.<r />VHL tumor suppressor on chromosome 3p
1304105232988 1342707643689 Primary rain tumors<r /><r />Clinical present
ation?<r />Found where?<r />Metastases?
Clinical presentation due to mas
s effects (e.g., seizures, dementia, focal lesions).<r /><r />The majority of
adult primary tumors are supratentorial, while the majority of childhood primary
tumors are infratentorial.<r /><r />Primary tumors rarely undergo metastasis.
<r />Note: half of adult rain tumors are metastases (well circumscried; usual
ly present at the gray-white junction).
1304105641644 1342707643466 Gliolastoma multiforme (grade IV astrocytoma)<
r /><img src="425a Supratentorial tumors.JPG" />
Most common primary rai
n tumor.<r />Prognosis grave; &lt; 1yr life expectancy.<r /><r />Found in cer
eral hemispheres. <r />Can cross corpus callosum (&quot;utterfly glioma&quot;
[elow])<r />Stain astrocytes for GFAP.<r /><img src="555c Gliolastoma.JPG"
/><r /><r />&quot;Pseudopalisading&quot; pleomorphic tumor cells -- order cen
tral areas of necrosis and hemorrhage [aove/right]<r />
y
1304105716692 1342707643466 Meningioma<r /><img src="425a Supratentorial tu

mors.JPG" />
2nd most common primary rain tumor.<r />Most often occurs in c
onvexities of hemispheres and parasagittal region.<r />Arises from arachnoid ce
lls external to rain.<r />Resectale. Uniformly enhancing lesion.<r /><r />S
pindle cells concentrically arranged in a whorled pattern<r />(arachnoid cells
--&gt; spider with spindly legs and whorled we);<r /><>psammoma odies</> (l
aminated calcifications).
y
1304105792717 1342707643466 Schwannoma<r /><img src="425 Infratentorial tu
mors.JPG" />
3rd most common primary rain tumor.<r />Schwann cell origin; o
ften localized to CN VIII --&gt; acoustic schwannoma.<r />Resectale.<r />Usua
lly found at cereellopontine angle; S-100 positive.<r /><r />Bilateral schwan
noma found in neurofiromatosis type II.
1304105917647 1342707643466 Oligodendrglioma<r /><img src="425a Supratentor
ial tumors.JPG" />
Relatively rare, slow growing. <r />Most often in front
al loes.<r />Chicken-wire capillary pattern.<r /><img src="555d oligodendrogl
ioma.JPG" />'<r /><r />Oligodendrocytes = &quot;fried egg&quot; cells -- round
nuclei w/ clear cytoplasm.<r />Often calcified (like egg shells) in oligodendr
oglioma.
1304105976584 1342707643466 Pituitary adenoma<r><img src="425a Supratentori
al tumors.JPG" />
Most commonly prolactinoma.<r>Bitemporal hemianopia (du
e to pressure on optic chiasm) <r>and hyper- or hypopituitarism are sequelae.<
r><r>Rathke's pouch.
1304106064678 1342707643680 Pilocytic (low-grade) astocytoma<r /><img src="
425 Infratentorial tumors.JPG" />
In children, most often found in posteri
or fossa.<r />May e supratentorial.<r />Usually well circumscried. Benign; g
ood prognosis.<r /><r />GFAP positive.<r /><>Rosenthal fiers</> -- eosinop
hilic, corkscrew fiers<r />Gross: cystic + solid.<r /><r /><img src="pastelq
7k6_.jpg" />
1304106128731 1342707643680 Medullolastoma<r /><img src="425 Infratentori
al tumors.JPG" />
Highly malignant <>cereellar</> tumor.<r />A form of
primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET).<><r />Can compress 4th ventricle, cau
sing hydrocephalus.</><r /><r />Rosettes or perivascular pseudorosette patter
n cells.<r />Radiosensitive.<r />Solid (gross), small lue cells (histo).<r /
><r /><img src="pastee3agh0.jpg" />
1304106187579 1342707643680 Ependymoma<r /><img src="425 Infratentorial tu
mors.JPG" />
Ependymal cell tumors most commonly found in 4th ventricle.<r /
>Can cause hydrocephalus.<r />Poor prognosis.<r /><r />Characteristic perivas
cular pseudorosettes.<r />Rod-shaped lepharoplasts (ciliary asal odies) foun
d near nucleus.<r /><r /><img src="pastey5s_5.jpg" />
1304106240602 1342707643680 Hemangiolastoma<r /><img src="425 Infratentor
ial tumors.JPG" />
Most often <>cereellar</>;<r />associated w/ <>von
Hippel-Lindau </>syndrome when found w/ retinal angiomas.<r />Can produce <>E
PO</> --&gt; secondary polycythemia.<r /><r />Foamy cells and high vascularit
y are characteristic.
1304106295483 1342707643680 Craniopharyngioma<r /><img src="425 Infratento
rial tumors.JPG" />
Benign childood tumor, confused w/ pituitary adenoma (ca
n also cause itemporal hemianopia).<r />Most common childhood supratentorial t
umor.<r /><r />Derived from remnants of Rathke's pouch.<r />Calcification is
common (tooth enamel-like).<r />May contain oily liquid.
1304106410850 1342707643811 Cingulate (sufalcine) herniation under falx cer
eri
Can compress anterior cereral artery.<r><r>#1 elow:<r /><img src="4
26a Herniation syndromes.JPG" />
1304106478970 1342707643811 Downward transtentorial (central) herniation
#2 elow<r /><img src="426a Herniation syndromes.JPG" />
1304106511748 1342707643811 Uncal herniation <r><r><r><r>(hint: Uncus =
medial temporal loe) #3 elow:<r><img src="426a Herniation syndromes.JPG" />
1304106536200 1342707643811 Cereellar tonsillar herniation into the foramen
magnum #4 elow:<r /><img src="426a Herniation syndromes.JPG" />
1304106624794 1342707643689 Hernation syndromes: what is the iggest danger?
Coma and death result when these hernations compress the rain stem.
1304106690976 1342707643689 Clinical signs of uncal herniation:<r>Ipsilater

al dilated pupil/pstosis
Stretching of CN III (innervates levator palper
ae)
1304106709013 1342707643689 Clinical signs of uncal herniation:<r />Contral
ateral homonymous hemianopia w/ macular sparing Compression of ipsilateral poste
rior cereral artery
1304106729383 1342707643689 Clinical signs of uncal herniation:<r>Ipsilater
al paresis
Compression of contralateral crus cereri (Kernohan's notch)
1304106748915 1342707643689 Clinical signs of uncal herniation:<r>Duret hem
orrhages -- paramedian artery rupture Caudal displacement of rain stem.
1304107196038 1342707643706 Epinephrine (for glaucoma)
alpha-agonist (g
laucoma)<r /><r />Decreases aqueous humor synthesis due to vasoconstriction.<
r /><r />SE: mydriasis, stinging; do not use in closed-angle glaucoma.
1304107221912 1342707643706 Brimonide
alpha-agonist (glaucoma).<r /><
r />Decreased aqueous humor synthesis.<r /><r />SE: no pupillary or vision ch
anges.<r /><r />*alpha2 agonist
1304107265487 1342707643706 Timolol, etaxolol, carteolol (glaucoma)
eta-lockers.<r /><r />Decrease aqueous humor secretion <r /><r />SE: no pu
pillary or vision changes.
1304107330459 1342707643706 Acetazolamide (glaucoma)
Diuretic.<r /><
r />Decrease aqueous humor secretion due to decreased HCO3- <r />(via inhiiti
on of caronic anhydrase)<r /><r />SE: no pupillary or vision changes.
1304107397101 1342707643706 Pilocarpine &amp; carachol (direct), physostigm
ine &amp; echothiophate (indirect)
Cholinomimetics<r /><r />Increase outf
low of aqueous humor y contracting ciliary muscle and opening traecular meshwo
rk into canal of Schlemm.<r /><r />Use pilocarpine in emergencies.<r /><r />
SE: Miosis, cyclospasm.
1304107429772 1342707643706 Latanoprost
Prostaglandin (PGF-2alpha).<r /
><r />Increases outflow of aqueous humor.<r /><r />SE: darkens color of iris
(rowning).
1304107492190 1342707643689 Opioid analgesics (list)
Morphine<r /><
>Fentanyl</><r />Codeine<r />Heroin<r />Methadone<r />Meperidine<r />Dextr
omethorphan<r /><>Diphenoxylate </>(used to tx diarrhea)
1304107740557 1342707643689 Mechanism of opioid analgesics<r /><r />Act wh
ere?<r />Do what, and how?
Act as agonists at opioid receptors (mu = morphi
ne, delta = enkephalin, kappa = dynorphin; <>m=m, d=k, k=d</>)<r /><r />Decr
ease synaptic transmission-- <>open K+ channels, close Ca2+ channels</> --&gt;
hyperpolarize<r />=&gt;prevent excitatory NT release (ACh, NE, 5-HT, glutamate
, sustance P)
1304107796044 1342707643689 Clinical use of opioid analgesics?<r /><r />Sp
ecific drugs for cough, diarrhea, maintence program for addicts?
Pain<r
/>cough suppression (dextromethorphan)<r />diarrhea (loperamide and diphenoxyla
te)<r /><>acute pulmonary edema</> (anxiolytic, decreases preload &amp; vasod
ilates)<r />maintenance programs for addicts (methadone)
1304108010182 1342707643689 Toxicity of opioid analgesics?<r />Tolerance?<
r />Treatment? Addiction<r /><>Respiratory depression</><r /><>Constipatio
n</><r />Miosis (<>pinpoint pupils</>)<r />Additive <>CNS depression</> w
ith other drugs.<r /><r />Tolerance does not develop to miosis and constipatio
n.<r /><r />Toxicity treated w/ naloxone or naltrexone (opioid receptor antago
nist).
1304110653543 1342707643689 Mechanism of utorphanol
Partial agonist
at opioid mu receptors,<r />agonist at kappa receptors.
1304110671171 1342707643689 Clinical use of utorphanol
Pain; causes les
s respiratory depression than full agonists.
1304110690682 1342707643689 Toxicity of utorphanol Causes withdrawal if on
full agonist.
1304110745102 1342707643689 Mechanism of tramadol Very weak opioid agonist
; also inhiits reuptake of serotonin and NE<r />(works on multiple neurotransm
itters -- &quot;<>tram it all</>&quot; in).
1304110754443 1342707643689 Clinical use of tramadol
Chronic pain.
1304110772196 1342707643689 Toxicity of tramadol
Similar to opioids.<r /

>Decreases seizure threshold.
1304111026660 1342707643662 Phenytoin
Used in partial seizures (simple
and complex).<r />1st line drug for Tonic-clonic seizures.<r />1st line drug
for prophylaxis of status seizures.<r /><r />Mechanism: increased Na+ channel
inactivation.<r /><r />Fosphenytoin for parenteral use.<r /><r /><img src="p
astefdaxeg.jpg" />
1304111083759 1342707643662 Caramezepine 1st line drug for partial seizur
es (oth simple and complex).<r />1st line drug for tonic-clonic seizures.<r /
><r />Mechanism: increases Na+ channel inactivation.<r /><r />*Also 1st line
drug for trigeminal neuralgia.<r /><r /><img src="pastefdaxeg.jpg" />
1304111133198 1342707643662 Lamotrigine
Used for partial seizures (simpl
e and complex).<r />May e used for tonic-clonic seizures.<r /><r />Mechanism
: locks VG-Na+ channels.<r /><r /><img src="pastefdaxeg.jpg" />
1304111171079 1342707643662 Gaapentin
Used for partial seizures (simpl
e and complex).<r />May e used for tonic-clonic seizures.<r /><r />Mechanism
: designed as GABA analog ut primarily inhiits HVA Ca++ channels (high-voltage
-activated).<r /><r />*Also used for peripheral neuropathy, ipolar disorder.<
r /><r /><img src="pastefdaxeg.jpg" />
1304111198987 1342707643662 Topiramate
Used for partial seizures (simpl
e and complex).<r /><r />May e used for tonic-clonic seizures.<r /><r />Mec
hanism: locks Na+ channels, increases GABA action<r /><r /><img src="pastefda
xeg.jpg" />
1304111224788 1342707643662 Phenoarital Used for partial seizures (simpl
e and complex).<r />May e used for tonic-clonic seizures.<r /><r />Mechanism
: increases GABA-A action (duration of Cl- channel opening).<r /><r />*1st lin
e in pregnant women, children.<r /><r /><img src="pastefdaxeg.jpg" />
1304111281382 1342707643662 Valproic acid Used for partial seizures (simpl
e and complex).<r />1st line drug for tonic-clonic seizures.<r />May also e u
sed in asence seizures.<r /><r />Mechanism: increases Na+ channel inactivatio
n, increases GABA concentration.<r /><r />*Also used for myoclonic seizures.<
r /><r /><img src="pastefdaxeg.jpg" />
1304111307854 1342707643662 Ethosuximide
1st line drug for asence seizur
es.<r /><r />Mechanism: locks thalamic T-type Ca2+ channels.<r /><r /><img
src="pastefdaxeg.jpg" />
1304111367667 1342707643662 Benzodiazepines (diazepam or lorazepam) 1st line
for acute status seizures.<r /><r />Mechanism: increase GABA-A action.<r /><
r />*Also used for seizures of eclampsia <r />(1st line to prevent seizures of
eclampsia is MgSO4)<r /><r /><img src="pastefdaxeg.jpg" />
1304111417360 1342707643524 Toxicity of Benzodiazepines
Sedation<r>Tole
rance<r>Dependence
1304111455109 1342707643524 Toxicity of Caramazepine
Diplopia<r />At
axia<r />Blood dyscrasias (agranulocytosis, aplastic anemia)<r />Liver toxicit
y<r />Teratogenesis<r />Induction of cytochrome P-450<r />SIADH<r />StevensJohnson syndrome
1304111518602 1342707643524 Toxicity of ethosuximide
GI distress<r /
>Fatigue<r />Headache<r />Urticaria<r />Stevens-Johnson syndrome<r /><r />(
&quot;<>EFGH HIJ</> = <>E</>thosuximide, <>F</>atigue, <>G</>I, <>H</>
eadache, <>HI</>ves, <>J</>ohnson-Stevens&quot;)
1304111552778 1342707643524 Stevens-Johnson syndrome- what is it?<r />What
anti-seizure drugs are associated?
Prodrome of malaise and fever followed 
y rapid onset of erythematous/purpuric macules (oral, ocular, genital).<r /><r
/>Skin lesions progress to separation of epidermis and dermis, epidermal necros
is and sloughing.<r /><r />Caramazepine, Ethosuxamide, Lamotrigine
1304111559719 1342707643651 How do you calculate coefficient of determinatio
n?
<img src="paste0OijMk.png" />
1304111586955 1342707643524 Toxicity of phenoarital
Sedation<r>Tole
rance<r>Dependence<r>Induction of cytochrome P-450
1304111605493 1342707643651 What is the range of values for correlation coef
ficient (r)?
r is always etween −1 and +1
1304111632741 1342707643651 If
(co elation coefficient) is close to 1, wh

at does that mean?
St onge the co elation between the two va iables
1304111634090 1342707643524 Toxicity of phenytoin Nystagmus<b />Diplopia<
b />Ataxia<b />Sedation<b />Gingival hype plasia<b />Hi sutism<b />Megalobl
astic anemia (inhibits folate abso ption)<b />Te atogenesis (fetal hyd antoin s
ynd ome)<b />SLElike synd ome<b />Induction of cytoch ome P450
1304111680184 1342707643524 Toxicity of valp oic acid
GI dist ess<b /
> a e but fatal hepatotoxicity (<b>measu e LFTs</b>)<b /><b>Neu al tube defects
</b> in fetus (spina bifida)<b />T emo <b />Weight gain.<b /><b />Cont aindi
cated in p egnancy.
1304111690792 1342707643524 Toxicity of lamot igine StevensJohnson synd ome
1304111694519 1342707643651 The following is an example of which level of di
sease p evention (p ima y, seconda y, te tia y)?<b ><b >Reduce disability f om d
isease (e.g. chemothe apy)
Te tia y
1304111703207 1342707643524 Toxicity of Gabapentin Sedation<b >Ataxia
1304111706781 1342707643651 The following is an example of which level of di
sease p evention (p ima y, seconda y, te tia y)?<b ><b >Ea ly Detection of disea
se (Pap smea ) Seconda y
1304111718819 1342707643524 Toxicity of Topi amate Sedation<b />Mental dul
ling<b />Kidney stones<b />Weight loss
1304111719501 1342707643651 The following is an example of which level of di
sease p evention (p ima y, seconda y, te tia y)?<b ><b >P event disease occu en
ce (e.g. HPV vaccination)
P ima y
1304111755858 1342707643651 List the epo table diseases
<img s c="pastev
_Ghzs.png" />
1304111785175 1342707643651 What is top 3 leading causes of death in age 65+
?
1. Hea t disease<b >2. Cance <b >3. St oke
1304111806499 1342707643689 Mechanism of phenytoin Usedependent blockade o
f Na+ channels; inc eases ef acto y pe iod;<b />inhibition of glutamate eleas
e f om excitato y p esynaptic neu on.
1304111807855 1342707643651 What is top 3 leading cause of death in ages 15
24?
1. Inju ies<b >2. Homicide<b >3. Suicide
1304111826372 1342707643689 Clinical use of phenytoin
Tonicclonic sei
zu es.<b /><b />Also a class IB antia hythmic.
1304111826735 1342707643651 What is top 3 leading causes of death in ages 1
14?
1. Inju ies<b >2. Cance <b >3. Congenital anomalies
1304111841068 1342707643651 What is 3 leading causes of death in ages 2564?
1. Cance <b >2. Hea t Disease<b >3. Inju ies
1304111891387 1342707643651 Who is eligible fo Medica e? Medica e is avai
lable to patients &gt; 65 yea s of age, &lt; 65 with ce tain disabilities, and t
hose with ESRD
1304111947184 1342707643651 Explain Pa t A, Pa t B, Pa t C, and Pa t D of Me
dica e Pa t A: inpatient ca e in hospitals, skilled nu sing, hospice, and home
health ca e<b /><b />Pa t B: outpatient ca e, docto s' se vices, PT/OT<b /><b
/>Pa t C: combination of A &amp; B<b /><b />Pa t D: standalone p esc iption
d ug cove age
1304111979087 1342707643651 Who is eligible fo Medicaid? People with ve y
low income <b ><b >* medicaiD: D fo destitute
1304112048838 1342707643689 Toxicity of phenytoin Nystagmus, ataxia, diplo
pia, sedation, SLElike synd ome, induction of cytoch ome P450.<b ><b >Ch onic
use p oduces gingival hype plasia in child en, pe iphe al neu opathy, hi sutism,
megaloblastic anemia (dec eased folate abso ption).<b ><b >Te atogenic (fetal h
ydantoin synd ome).
1304112197798 1342707643689 Mechanism of ba bitu ates (phenoba bital, pentob
a bital, thiopental, secoba bital)
Facilitate GABAA action by inc easing <
b>du ation</b> of Cl channel opening, thus dec easing neu on fi ing.<b /><b /
>(&quot;Ba bi<b>DURAT</b>e [inc eased <b>DURAT</b>ion]&quot;)<b />
1304112222542 1342707643689 Clinical use of ba bitu ates (phenoba bital, pen
toba bital, thiopental, secoba bital) Sedative fo anxiety, seizu es, insomnia
, induction of anesthesia (thiopental)
1304112296794 1342707643689 Toxicity of of ba bitu ates (phenoba bital, pent

oba bital, thiopental, secoba bital)<b /><b />T eatment of ove dose? Dependen
ce<b />additive CNS dep ession effects w/ EtOH<b /> espi ato y o CV dep essio
n (can lead to death)<b />d ug inte actions (<b>CYP P450 induction</b>).<b />
<b />Tx ove dose w/ Sx managment (assist espi ation, inc ease BP)
1304112413717 1342707643689 Mechanism of benzodiazepines (diazepam, lo azepa
m, t iazolam, temazepam, oxazepam, midazolam, <b>chlo diazepoxide</b>, alp azola
m)?<b />Effect on sleep?<b />Metabolism?
Facilitate GABAA action by inc
easing <b>f equency</b> of Cl channel opening.<b />Dec eases REM and phase 3 s
leep.<b />Most have long halflives and active metabolites.<b /><b />(&quot;<
b>FRE</b>enzodiazepines [inc eased <b>FRE</b>quency]&quot;)
1304112454229 1342707643689 Sho t acting benzodiazepines: list and featu es
<b>TOM</b> thumb (sho t)<b /><b>T</b> iazolam<b /><b>O</b>xazepam<b /><b>M</b
>idazolam.<b /><b />Highest addictive potential.<b /><b /><img s c="pastewbh
nvk.jpg" />
1304112500501 1342707643689 Clinical use of benzodiazepines (diazepam, lo az
epam, t iazolam, temazepam, oxazepam, midazolam, chlo diazepoxide, alp azolam)
<b>Anxiety</b>, spasticity, <b>status epilepticus</b> (lo azepam and diazepam)<b
/>Detoxification (especially EtOH withd awal  <b>DTs</b>)<b />Night te o s
&amp; sleep walking (<b>dec eases stage 3</b> <b>sleep</b>)<b />Gene al anesthe
tic (amnesia &amp; muscle elaxation), hypnotic (insomnia)
1304112549983 1342707643689 Toxicity of benzodiazepines (diazepam, lo azepam
, t iazolam, temazepam, oxazepam, midazolam, chlo diazepoxide, alp azolam)
Dependence, additive CNS dep ession effects w/ EtOH.<b >Less isk of espi ato y
dep ession and coma than w/ ba bitu ates.<b ><b >Tx ove dose w/ flumazenil (com
petitive antagonist at GABA ecepto )
1304112627536 1342707643689 Gene al p inciples of anesthetics: <b >CNS d ugs
must be...?
CNS d ugs must be lipid soluble (c oss the BBB) o be actively t
anspo ted.
1304112787859 1342707643689 Gene al p inciples of anesthetics: <b />Solubil
ity and d ug effect?<b />Examples?
D ugs with low solubility in blood = ap
id induction and ecove y times.<b /><b />D ugs with high solubility in lipids
= high potency = 1 / MAC<b />(whe e MAC = Minimum Alveola Concent ation at wh
ich 50% of the population is anesthetized. Dec eases w/ age).<b /><b />e.g., N
2O has low blood and lipid solubility, and thus fast induction and low potency.<
b />Halothane, in cont ast, has high lipid and blood solubility, and thus high
potency and slow induction.
1304113507968 1342707643689 Inhaled anesthetics (list)
Halothane<b >Enf
lu ane<b >Isoflu ane<b >Sevoflu ane<b >Methoxyflu ane<b >Nit ous oxide
1304113519527 1342707643689 Mechanism of inhaled anesthetics
Unknown!
1304113554144 1342707643689 Effects of inhaled anesthetics<b /><b />CV?<b
/>Resp?<b />GI?<b />Blood flow?
Myoca dial dep ession<b />Respi ato y d
ep ession<b />Nausea/emesis<b /><b />Inc eased ce eb al blood flow (dec eased
ce eb al metabolic demand)
1304113602157 1342707643689 Toxicity of inhaled anesthetics<b /><b />Halot
hane?<b />Methoxyflu ane?<b />Enflu ane?<b />Nit ous oxide?<b /><b />Othe
possible toxicity?
Hepatoxicity (halothane)<b />Neph otoxicity (methoxyflu
ane)<b />P oconvulsant (enflu ane)<b />Expansion of t apped gas (nit ous oxid
e)<b /><b />Malignant hype the mia ( a e, occu s esp w/ succinylcholine)
1304113687997 1342707643689 IV anesthetics (list) <b>B</b>a bitu ates<b /
><b>B</b>enzodiazepines<b />A ylcyclohexylamines (<b>K</b>etamine)<b /><b>Opia
tes</b><b /><b>P opofol</b><b /><b />(&quot;<b>BB K</b>ing on <b>OPIATES</b>
<b>PROPO</b>ses <b>FOOL</b>ishly&quot;)
1304113778973 1342707643689 Ba bitu ates (as IV anesthetics)<b /><b />D ug
s?<b />Used fo ?<b />Effect te minated by?<b />Ce eb al blood flow? Thiopent
al  high potency, high lipid solubility, apid ent y into b ain.<b />Used fo
induction of anesthesia and sho t su gical p ocedu es.<b />Effect te minated b
y edist ibution f om b ain into tissue, fat.<b />Dec eased ce eb al blood flow
.
1304113834109 1342707643689 Benzodiazepines (as IV anesthetics)
Midazola
m most common d ug used fo endoscopy;<b />used adjunctively w/ gaseous anesthe

tics and na cotics.<b />May cause seve e postope ative espi ato y dep ession,
dec BP (Tx ove dose w/ flumazenil), and amnesia.
1304113887597 1342707643689 A ylcyclohexamines (Ketamine)  as IV anestheti
cs<b /><b />Gene al?<b />Mech?<b />A/e?
PCP analogs that act as dissocia
tive anesthetics.<b />Block NMDA ecepto s.<b />Ca diovascula stimulants.<b
/>Cause diso ientation, hallucination, and bad d eams.<b />Inc ease ce eb al bl
ood flow.<b /><b />*what is anothe NMDA antagonist, and what is its use?*
1304113913969 1342707643689 Opiates (as IV anesthetics)
Mo phine, fentan
yl used w/ othe CNS dep essants du ing gene al anesthesia.
1304113954853 1342707643689 P opofol (as an IV anesthetic)<b /><b />Used f
o ?<b />A/E?<b />Mech?
Used fo apid anesthesia induction and sho t p
ocedu es.<b />Less postope ative nausea than thiopental.<b />Potentiates GABA
A.
1304114032466 1342707643689 Local anesthetics (list)
<u>Este s</u><b
/>P ocaine, cocaine, tet acaine<b /><b /><u>Amides</u><b />l<b>I</b>doca<b>I
</b>ne, mep<b>I</b>vaca<b>I</b>ne, bup<b>I</b>vaca<b>I</b>ne<b />(&quot;am<b>I<
/b>des have 2 <b>I</b>'s in thei names)
1304114091490 1342707643689 Mechanism of local anesthetics Block Na+ channe
ls by binding to specific ecepto s on inne po tion of channel.<b />(p efe ent
ially bind to activated Na+ channels, so most effective in apidly fi ing neu on
s)<b /><b />Te tia y amine local anesthetics penet ate memb ane in uncha ged f
o m, then bind to ion channels in cha ged fo m.
1304114290055 1342707643689 3 p inciples of local anesthetics
1.) In i
nfected (acidic) tissue, alkaline anesthetics a e cha ged and cannot penet ate m
emb ane effectively. <b />Mo e anesthetic is needed in these cases.<b /><b />
2.) O de of ne ve blockade:<b />Smalldiamete fibe s &gt; la ge diamete .<b
/>Myelinated fibe s &gt; unmyelinated fibe s.<b />Ove all, size facto p edomin
ates ove myelination such that:<b />small myelinated fibe s &gt; small unmyeli
nated fibe s &gt; la ge myelinated fibe s &gt; la ge unmyelinated fibe s.<b />O
de of loss: pain (lose fi st) &gt; tempe atu e &gt; touch &gt; p essu e (lost
last).<b /><b />3.) Except fo cocaine, given w/ vasoconst icto s (usually epi
neph ine) to enhance local action:<b />dec eased bleeding, inc eased anesthesia
by dec easing systemic concent ation.
1304114314855 1342707643689 Clinical use of local anesthetics
Mino su
gical p ocedu es, spinal anesthesia.<b ><b >If alle gic to este s, give amides.
1304114345782 1342707643689 Toxicity of local anesthetics<b /><b />Gene al
?<b />Specific d ugs? CNS excitation, HTN, hypotension<b /><b />Seve e ca di
ovascula toxicity (bupivacaine)<b />A hytmias (cocaine)
1304114453092 1342707643689 Neu omuscula blocking d ugs (gene ally)
Used fo muscle pa alysis in su ge y o mechanical ventilation.<b />Selective f
o moto (vs. autonomic) nicotinic ecepto .<b />Depola izing o nondepola izi
ng classes.
1304114533775 1342707643689 Depola izing neu omuscula blocking d ugs?<b >El
ect olyte complications?<b >Reve sal? Succinylcholine (complications include h
ype calcemia and hype kalemia)<b ><b >Reve sal of blockade:<b >Phase I (p olonge
d depola ization)  no antidote. Block potentiated by cholineste ase inhibito s
.<b >Phase II ( epola ized but blocked)  antidote consists of cholineste ase i
nhibito s (e.g., neostigmine)
1304114597469 1342707643689 Nondepola izing neu omuscula blocking d ugs<b >
<b >List?<b >Mechanism?<b >Reve sal?
Tubocu a ine, at acu ium, mivacu ium, pa
ncu onium, vecu onium, ocu onium.<b ><b >Competitive: compete w/ ACh fo ecept
o s.<b ><b >Reve sal of blockade: neostigmine, ed ophonium, and othe cholineste
ase inhibito s.
1304114650381 1342707643689 Uses of dant olene
Used in Tx of malignant
hype the mia, which is caused by the concomitant use of inhalation anesthetics (
except N2O) and succinylcholine.<b /><b />Also used to Tx neu oleptic malignan
t synd ome (a toxicity of antipsychotic d ugs)
1304114672099 1342707643689 Mechanism of dant olene Muscle elaxant; p event
s the elease of Ca2+ f om the sa coplasmic eticulum of skeletal muscle.
1304114765230 1342707643689 What is Pa kinson's dz due to (that is add essed

by antiPD d ugs)?<b />What agents a e used? Pa kinsonism is due to loss of d
opamine gic neu ons and excess choline gic activity.<b /><b />&quot;<b>BALSA&q
uot;</b><b /><b>B</b> omoc iptine<b /><b>A</b>mantadine<b /><b>L</b>evodopa (
with ca bidopa)<b /><b>S</b>elegiline (and COMT inhibito s)<b /><b>A</b>ntimus
ca inics
1304114951046 1342707643444 Agonize dopamine ecepto s
B omoc iptine (e
got)<b />P amipexole (none got)<b />Ropini ole (none got)<b /><b />*none
gots a e p efe ed
1304114989978 1342707643444 Inc ease dopamine (not di ect agonists) Amantadi
ne (may inc ease dopamine elease);<b />also used as an antivi al against influ
enza A and ubella;<b />toxicity = ataxia.<b /><b />Ldopa/ca bidopa (conve t
ed to dopamine in the CNS)
1304115027671 1342707643444 P event dopamine b eakdown
Selegiline (sele
ctive MAO type B inhibito );<b />Entacapone, Tolcapone (COMT inhibito s)
1304115099119 1342707643444 Cu b excess choline gic activity
<b>Benz<
/b>t opine (<b>A</b>ntimusca inic; imp oves t emo and igidity but has little e
ffect on b adykinesia).<b ><b >(&quot;Tx you t emo befo e you d ive you Me ce
des<b>BENZ</b>&quot;)
1304115111284 1342707643689 Fo Tx of essential family t emo s?
Use beta
blocke .
1304115171627 1342707643689 Mechanism of Ldopa (levodopa)/ca bidopa
Inc ease level of dopamine in b ain.<b /><b />Unlinke dopamine, Ldopa can c o
ss BBB and is conve ted by <b>dop deca boxylase</b> in the CNS to dopamine.<b /
><b />*note B6 should not be given to patients on levodopa since it will inc e
ase pe iphe al conve sion to dopamine (which can't ente CNS)
1304115183264 1342707643689 Clinical use of Ldopa (levodopa)/ca bidopa
Pa kinsonism
1304115251716 1342707643689 Toxicity of Ldopa (levodopa)/ca bidopa A hythm
ias f om pe iphe al conve sion to dopamine.<b /><b />Longte m use can lead to
dyskinesia following administ ation, akinesia btw doses (*unp edictable, dosei
ndependent phenomenon)<b /><b />Ca bidopa, a pe iphe al deca boxylase inhibito
, is given w/ Ldopa in o de to inc ease the bioavailability of Ldopa in the
b ain and to limit pe iphe al SE's.
1304115370379 1342707643689 Mechanism of selegiline Selectively inhibits MAO
B, the eby inc easing the availability of dopamine.
1304115385851 1342707643689 Clinical use of selegiline
Adjunctive agent
to Ldopa in Tx of Pa kinson's dz.
1304115398160 1342707643689 Toxicity of selegiline May enhance adve se effe
cts of Ldopa.
1304115486469 1342707643689 Mechanism of Sumat iptan?<b />Causes what?<b /
>Half life?
5HT[1B/1D]* agonist.<b />Causes vasoconst iction,<b />inhibit
ion of t igeminal activation and vasoactive peptide elease.<b />Halflife is &
lt; 2 hou s.<b /><b /><b /><b /><b /><b />[*the &quot;1B/1D&quot; in b ack
ets is subsc ipt]
1304115501664 1342707643689 Clinical use of sumat iptan
Acute mig aine,
cluste HA attacks.
1304115529417 1342707643689 Toxicity of Sumat iptan Co ona y vasospasm (cont
aindicated in pts w/ CAD o P inzmetal's angina)<b />Mild tingling.<b ><b >*su
lfa d ug
1304115571301 1342707643689 Alzheime 's d ugs: Memantine<b />mechanism?
NMDA ecepto antagonist;<b />helps p event excitotoxicity (mediated by Ca2+)<b
/><b />*what is anothe NMDA antagonist, and what is its use?*
1304115584566 1342707643689 Alzheime 's d ugs: Memantine<b >Toxicity?
Dizziness, confusion, hallucinations.
1304115611382 1342707643689 Alzheime 's d ugs: Donepezil, galantamine<b />m
echanism?
Acetylcholineste ase inhibito s (also ivastigmine, put he e so
as not to give it away!)
1304115621525 1342707643689 Alzheime 's d ugs: Donepezil, galantamine, ivas
tigmine<b />Toxicity? Nausea, dizziness, insomnia.
1304132992285 1342707643371 Endomet iosis<b />
Nonneoplastic endomet i

al glands/stoma in abno mal locations outside ute us.<b /><b />Cha acte ized b
y <b>cyclic bleeding</b> (menst ual type) f om ectopic endomet ial tissue esult
ing in bloodfilled &quot;<b>chocolate cysts</b>&quot;. <b /><b />In ova y o
on pe itoneum.<b /><b />Manifests clinically as seve e menst ual elated pain.
<b /><b />Often esults in infe tility.<b /><b />Can be due to et og ade me
nst ual flow.<b /><b />*associated with<b> nodula ity of ute osac al ligaments
</b> and<b> fixed et ove sion</b> of the ute us
1304133247948 1342707643371 Adenomyosis<b /><b />What is it?<b />T eatmen
t?
Endomet ium within the myomet ium<b />(basically endomet iosis in the m
yomet ium)<b /><b />Tx: hyste ectomy.
1304133365116 1342707643371 Endomet ial hype plasia Abno mal endomet ial gla
nd p olife ation usually caused by excess est ogen stimulation.<b ><b >Inc eased
isk fo endomet ial ca cinoma.<b ><b >Clinically manifests as postmenopausal v
aginal bleeding.<b >
1304133406176 1342707643371 Risk facto s fo endomet ial hype plasia
Anovulato y cycles<b >Ho mone eplacement the apy<b >Polycystic ova ian synd ome
<b >G anulosa cell tumo
1304133504026 1342707643371 Endomet ial ca cinoma Most common gynecologic
malignancy.<b />Peak occu ence at 5565 yea s of age.<b /><b />Clinically p/
w vaginal bleeding.<b /><b />Typically p eceded by endomet ial hype plasia.<b
/><b >The mo e myomet ial invasion = the wo se the p ognosis.
1304133665231 1342707643371 Risk facto s fo endomet ial ca cinoma P olonge
d use of est ogen w/o p ogestins<b >Obesity<b >Diabetes<b >HTN<b >Nullipa ity<b
>Late menopause
1304133926915 1342707643371 Leiomyoma (fib oid)
<img s c="487a  Leiomyo
ma.JPG" /><b /><b>Most common of all tumo s</b> in females.<b />Often p/w mult
iple tumo s w/ welldema cated bo de s.<b />Benign smooth muscle tumo ; maligna
nt t ansfo mation is a e.<b />Est ogen sensitive  tumo size inc w/ p egnan
cy and dec w/ menopause.<b />Peak occu ence at 2040 yea s of age.<b />May b
e asymptomatic o may cause ute ine bleeding.<b />Seve e bleeding may lead to i
on deficiency anemia. <b />Does not p og ess to leiomyosa coma.<b /><b>Who le
d patte n of smooth muscle bundles</b>.
1304134005102 1342707643371 Leiomyosa coma Bulky, i egula ly shaped tumo
w/ a eas of nec osis and hemo hage, typically a ising de novo (not f om leiomyo
ma).<b >Inc eased incidence in blacks.<b >Highly agg essive tumo w/ tendency to
ecu .<b >May p ot ude f om ce vix and bleed.
1304134086046 1342707643371 Gynecological tumo epidemiology (ova ian, endom
et ial, ce vical)<b /><b />Incidence?<b />P ognosis? Incidence:<b />endomet
ial &gt; ova ian &gt; ce vical<b /><b />P ognosis:<b />ova ian (wo st) &gt; c
e vical &gt; endomet ial (&quot;best&quot;)
1304134134532 1342707643371 P ematu e ova ian failu e
P ematu e at esi
a of ova ian follicles in women of ep oductive age.<b /><b />Pts p/w signs of
menopause afte pube ty but befo e age 40.<b /><b />Dec eased est ogen, eleva
ted LH and FSH.
1304134304421 1342707643371 Polycystic ova ian synd ome<b /><b />Mechanism
?<b />Manifestations?<b />Associated with?
Elevated LH p oduction leads to
anovulation, <b />hype and ogenism due to de anged ste oid synthesis.<b /><b
/>Enla ged, bilate al cystic ova ies manifest clinically w/ ameno hea, infe til
ity, obesity, and hi suitism.<b /><b />Associated w/ insulin esistance, inc e
ased isk of endomet ial cance .
1304134328396 1342707643371 Tx fo polycystic ova ian synd ome
Weight l
oss, lowdose OCPs o med oxyp ogeste one (dec LH and and ogenesis)<b /><b />S
pi onolactone/ketaconazole fo hi sutism and acne<b /><b />Clomiphene fo wome
n who want to get p egnant
1304134356705 1342707643371 Ho mone levels in polycystic ova ian synd ome
Elevated LH, Dec eased FSH, Elevated testoste one.
1304134443691 1342707643371 Follicula cyst Distention of un uptu ed g aafia
n follicle.<b />May be associated w/ hype est inism and endomet ial hype plasia
.<b ><b >Most common ova ian mass in young women.
1304134469466 1342707643371 Co pus luteum cyst
Hemo hage into pe siste

nt co pus luteum.<b />Commonly eg esses spontaneously.
1304134500845 1342707643371 Thecalutein cyst
Often bilate al/multiple
.<b />due to gonadot opin stimulation.<b />Associated w/ cho ioca cinoma and m
oles.
1304134548809 1342707643371 &quot;Chocolate cyst&quot;
Bloodcontaining
cyst f om ova ian endomet iosis.<b >Va ies w/ menst ual cycle.
1304134662713 1342707643479 Dysge minoma
Malignant, equivalent to male se
minoma but a e (1% of ge m cell tumo s in females vs. 30% in males).<b />Shee
ts of unifo m cells.<b /><b />Associated with <b>Tu ne synd ome</b>.<b /><b
/>Tumo ma ke : hCG, LDH.
1304134750350 1342707643479 Cho ioca cinoma Ra e but malignant; can develop
du ing p egnancy in mothe o baby.<b >La ge, hype ch omatic syncytiot ophoblast
cells. <b >Inc eased f equency of thecalutein cysts.<b ><b >Tumo ma ke : hCG.
1304134791113 1342707643479 Yolksac (endomet ial sinus tumo )
Agg essi
ve malignancy in ova ies (testes in boys) and sac ococcygeal a ea of young child
en.<b ><b >Tumo ma ke : AFP
1304134842884 1342707643479 Te atoma
90% of ova ian ge m cell tumo s.
<b />Contains cells f om 2 o 3 ge m laye s.<b /><img s c="489a  Te atoma.JPG
" /><img s c="489b  Te atoma.JPG" />
1304134909676 1342707643371 3 Types of te atomas
Matu e te atoma (&quot;d
e moid cyst&quot;)  most f equent benign ova ian tumo <b /><b />Immatu e te
atoma  agg essively malignant.<b /><b />St uma ova ii  contains functional
thy oid tissue. <b />Can p esent as hype thy oidism.
1304135094447 1342707643633 Se ous cystadenoma
20% of ova ian tumo s.<b
>F equently bilate al, lined w/ fallopian tubelike epithelium.<b >Benign.<b ><
b >
1304135182951 1342707643633 Se ous cystadenoca cinoma
45% of ova ian t
umo s, malignant and f equently bilate al. Psammoma bodies seen on histology.
1304135201062 1342707643633 Mucinous cystadenoma
Multilocula cyst lined
by mucussec eting epithelium.<b >Benign.
1304135249139 1342707643633 Mucinous cystadenoca cinoma
Malignant.<b >Ps
eudomyxoma pe itonei  int ape itoneal accumulation of mucinous mate ial f om o
va ian o appendiceal tumo .<b />
1304135272451 1342707643633 <b>B</b> enne tumo
<b>B</b>enign and unilat
e al.<b />Looks like <b>B</b>ladde .<b />Solid tumo that is pale yellowtan i
n colo and appea s encapsulated.<b />&quot;Coffee bean&quot; nuclei on H&amp;E
.
1304135309251 1342707643633 Fib omas
Bundles of spindleshaped fib ob
lasts.<b />Meigs' synd ome  t iad of ova ian fib oma, ascites, and hyd otho a
x.<b />Pulling sensation in g oin.
1304135351820 1342707643633 G anulosa cell tumo
Sec etes est ogen &gt;
p ecocious pube ty (kids).<b >Can cause endomet ial hype plasia o ca cinoma in
adults.<b >CallExne bodies  small follicles filled w/ eosinophilic sec etio
ns.
1304135378189 1342707643633 K ukenbe g tumo
GI malignancy that metas
tasizes to ova ies, causing a mucinsec eting signet cell adenoca cinoma.
1304135474792 1342707643371 The 3 types of vaginal ca cinoma
1.) Squa
mous cell ca cinoma  seconda y to ce vical SCC<b ><b >2.) Clea cell adenoca c
inoma  affects women who had exposu e to DES in ute o<b ><b >3.) Sa coma bot y
oides ( habdomyosa coma va iant)  affects gi ls &lt; 4 yea s of age; <b >spind
leshaped tumo cells that a e desmin positive.
1304135612758 1342707643565 Fib oadenoma
<b>Small</b>, mobile, fi m mass
w/ sha p edges.<b ><b >Most common tumo in those &lt; 25 yea s of age.<b ><b >I
nc eased size and tende ness with inc eased est ogen (e.g., p egnancy, menst uat
ion).<b >Not a p ecu so to b east cance .
1304135662797 1342707643565 Int aductal papilloma Small tumo that g ows i
n lactife ous ducts.<b >Typically beneath a eola.<b ><b >Se ous o bloody nipple
discha ge.<b >Slight (1.52x) inc ease in isk fo ca cinoma.
1304135703527 1342707643565 Phyllodes tumo <b>La ge</b> bulky mass of conne
ctive tissue and cysts (in <b>st oma</b>).<b />&quot;Leaflike&quot; p ojection

s.<b /><b />Most common in 6th decade.<b /><b />Some may become malignant.
1304135799233 1342707643371 Gene al ova ian cance ma ke
Elevated CA125
1304135821092 1342707643371 Genetic isk facto s fo ova ian cance BRCA1,
(2)<b />HNPCC<b /><b />Significant genetic p edisposition makes <b>family his
to y</b> the most impo tant isk facto .
1304135907871 1342707643371 Malignant b east tumo s<b /><b />Occu s when?<
b />F om what cells?<b />Ove exp ess?<b />Most impt p ognostic facto ?
Common postmenopause.<b />A ise f om mamma y duct epithelium o lobula glands.
<b /><b />Ove exp ession of est ogen/p ogeste one ecepto s o <i>e b</i>B2 (
HER2, an EGF ecepto ) is common;<b />affects the apy and p ognosis.<b /><b
/>Axilla y LN involvement is the single most impo tant p ognostic facto .<b /><
img s c="491a  mammog am.JPG" />
1304136006221 1342707643540 Ductal ca cinoma in situ (DCIS)<b /><b />(cha
acte istics, a ises f om?)
Fills ductal lumen. A ises f om ductal hype plas
ia.<b /><b />Ea ly malignancy w/o basement memb ane penet ation.
1304136041999 1342707643540 Invasive ductal Fi m, fib ous, &quot; ock ha d&q
uot; mass with sha p ma gins and small, glandula ductlike cells.<b />Classic
&quot;stellate&quot; mo phology.<b /><b />Wo st and most invasive. <b />Most
common (76% b east cance ).
1304136064179 1342707643540 Invasive lobula
O de ly ow of cells.<b
><b >Often multiple. Bilate al.
1304136081747 1342707643540 Medulla y
Fleshy, cellula , lymphatic infi
lt ate.<b ><b >Good p ognosis.
1304136093857 1342707643540 Comedoca cinoma Ductal, caseous nec osis. Subtyp
e of DCIS.
1304136128502 1342707643540 Inflammato y
De mal lymphatic invasion by b e
ast ca cinoma.<b />Peau d'o ange (b east skin esembles o ange peel).<b />Neop
lastic cells block lymphatic d ainage.<b /><b />50% su vival at 5 yea s.
1304136163374 1342707643540 Paget's dz
Eczematous patches on nipple.<b
>Paget cells = la ge cells in epide mis w/ clea halo.<b ><b >Suggests unde lyin
g ca cinoma.<b >Also seen on vulva.
1304136291043 1342707643371 Common b east conditions: fib ocystic dz<b >
Most common cause of &quot;b east lumps&quot; f om age 25 to menopause.<b >P/w p
emenst ual b east pain and multiple lesions, often bilate al. <b >Fluctuation i
n size of mass.<b >Usually does not indicate inc eased isk of ca cinoma.<b >4 H
istologic types.
1304136387013 1342707643371 The 4 histologic types of fib ocystic dz of b ea
st
1.) Fib osis  hype plasia of b east st oma<b /><b />2.) Cystic  fl
uid filled, blue dome<b /><b />3.) Scle osing adenosis  Inc eased acini and
int alobula fib osis; a/w calcifications<b /><b />4.) Epithelial hype plasia
 inc ease in numbe of epithelial cell laye s in te minal duct lobule.<b />In
c eased isk of ca cinoma w/ atypical cells. <b />Occu s in women &gt; 30 yea s
of age.
1304136435704 1342707643371 Common b east conditions: acute mastitis
B east abscess; <b />du ing b east feeding, inc eased isk of bacte ial infxn t
h u c acks in the nipple; <b />S. au eus is the most common pathogen.
1304136460942 1342707643371 Common b east conditions: fat nec osis A benign
painless lump;<b />fo ms as a esult of inju y to b east tissue.<b /><b />Up
to 50% may not epo t t auma.
1304136562678 1342707643371 Common b east conditions: gynecomastia<b /><b
/>Results f om?<b />D ugs implicated? Results f om hype est ogenism (ci hosis
, testicula tumo , pube ty, old age),<b />Klinefelte 's synd ome, o d ugs (es
t ogen, ma ijuana, he oin, psychoactive d ugs, <b>S</b>pi onolactone, <b>D</b>ig
italis, <b>C</b>imetidine, <b>A</b>lcohol, <b>K</b>etoconazole)<b />(&quot;<b>S
</b>ome <b>D</b> ugs <b>C</b> eate <b>A</b>wesome <b>K</b>nocke s.&quot;)
1304136604620 1342707643371 P ostatitis
Dysu ia, f equency, u gency, low
back pain.<b ><b >Acute: bacte ial (e.g., E. coli)<b >Ch onic: bacte ial o aba
cte ial (most common).;
1304136820027 1342707643371 Benign P ostatic Hype plasia (BPH):<b />Who get
s it?<b />What is it?<b />What is it due to?<b />What is it cha acte ized by?

Common in men &gt; 50 y s of age.<b />Hype plasia (<b>not</b> hype t ophy) of t
he p ostate gland.<b />May be due to an age elated inc ease in est adiol w/ po
ssible sensitization of the p ostate to the g owthp omoting effects of DHT.<b
/><b />Cha acte ized by a nodula enla gement of the pe iu eth al (late al and
middle) lobes, which comp ess the u eth a into a ve tical slit.<b /><img s c="4
93a  P ostate.JPG" />
1304136908040 1342707643651 Match the following statement with the co e ethi
cal p inciple<b ><b >&quot;Do no ha m&quot;
Nonmaleficence
1304136922535 1342707643651 Match the following statement with the co e ethi
cal p inciple<b ><b ><b >Obligation to espect patients as individuals and to ho
no thei p efe ences in medical ca e Autonomy
1304136928899 1342707643371 Benign P ostatic Hype plasia (BPH):<b >How does
it p esent?<b >What does it lead to?<b >What a e the lab findings?
Often p/
w inc f equency of u ination, noctu ia, difficulty sta ting and stopping the st
eam of u ine, and dysu ia.<b ><b >May lead to distension and hype t ophy of the
bladde , hyd oneph osis, and UTIs.<b >Not conside ed a p emalignant lesion.<b >
<b ><b>Elevated f ee p ostatespecific Ag (PSA)</b>
1304136943829 1342707643371 Location of BPH vs. p ostate cance
<img s c
="493a  P ostate.JPG" />
1304136945708 1342707643651 Match the following statement with the co e ethi
cal p inciple<b ><b ><b >Physicians have a special ethical duty to act in the pa
tient's best inte est Beneficience
1304136976329 1342707643651 If the patient can make an info med decision, wh
o has the ight to decide ultimately: physician o patient?
Patient
1304136984367 1342707643651 Match the following statement with the co e ethi
cal p inciple<b /><b /><b />To t eat pe sons fai ly Justice
1304137035029 1342707643651 When making an info med consent what must the pa
tients unde stand?
1. Risks<b >2. Benefits<b >3. Alte natives<b >4. No Inte
vention
1304137072658 1342707643651 Info med consent legally equi es 3 things:
<img s c="pastenI_BVX.png" />
1304137110978 1342707643651 Define the apeutic p ivilege
Withholding info
mation when disclosu e would seve ely ha m the patient o unde mine info med de
cisionmaking capacity<b /><b />Examples<b /><b />a medically unstable pati
ent whose ecove y would be jeopa dized by an illtimed disclosu e of a medical
e o <b />an acutely dep essed patient who could become suicidal with bad news
1304137154412 1342707643651 List the 4 exceptions to info med consent
1. Patient lacks <b>decisionmaking capacity</b> o is legally incompetent <b /
><b />2. Implied consent in an eme gency<b /><b />3. The apeutic p ivilege<b
/><b />4. Waive —patient waives the ight of info med consent
1304137167642 1342707643651 Age at which you a e conside ed a mino &lt; 18
y.o
1304137181842 1342707643651 Is pa ental consent equi ed in eme gency situat
ions? NO
1304137218240 1342707643651 List situations in which mino s do not need pa e
ntal consent
1. Eme gency<b >2. Cont aception p esc iptions<b >3. T eatment i
nvolving STDs<b >4. Medical ca e du ing p egnancy<b >5. Management of d ug addic
tions
1304137250942 1342707643651 If a mino is ma ied, does he/she need pa ental
consent?
No (emancipated)
1304137265092 1342707643651 If mino is in the milita y, does he/she need pa
ental consent? No
1304137277429 1342707643651 If mino has child en, does he/she need pa ental
consent?
No
1304137294794 1342707643651 Can a patient's family equi e that a docto wit
hhold info mation f om the patient?
No
1304137322881 1342707643651 What constitutes decisionmaking capacity? (5)
<img s c="pasteT1v0eQ.png" />
1304137350271 1342707643651 Inst uctions given by a patient in anticipation
of the need fo a medical decision is known as...<b ><b >O de of next of kin?

Advance di ectives<b ><b >Next of kin fo ma ied patient:<b >1) spouse<b >2) ad
ult child en<b >3) pa ents<b >4) siblings
1304137492878 1342707643651 Identify the advance di ective a/w the following
condition<b ><b >Patient designates a su ogate to make medical decisions in th
e event that he/she loses decisionmaking capacity. Patient may also specify dec
isions in clinical situations. Du able powe of atto ney
1304137529812 1342707643651 Identify the advance di ective a/w the following
condition<b ><b ><b >Desc ibes t eatments the patient wishes to eceive o not
eceive if he/she beomes incapacitated and cannot communicate about t eatment de
cisions Living will (w itten advance di ective)
1304137552636 1342707643651 Identify the advance di ective a/w the following
condition<b /><b /><b />Incapacitated patient's p io o al statments commonl
y used as guide O al advance di ective
1304137643475 1342707643651 Civil suit unde negligence equi es 4 condition
s
<img s c="paste7mSmOL.png" /><b ><b >The 4 D's
1304137656738 1342707643651 What is the most common facto leading to litiga
tion? Poo communication between physician and patient
1304137706449 1342707643651 Unlike a c iminal suit, in which the bu den of p
oof is &quot;beyond a easonable doubt,&quot; the bu den of p oof in a malp act
ice suit is ....
&quot;mo e likely than not.&quot;
1304137750365 1342707643651 What is the law equi ing physician to di ectly
info m and p otect potential victim f om ha m; may involve b each of confidentia
lity? Ta asoff decision (&quot;Ta a is looking out fo you&quot;)
1304137776329 1342707643651 List 4 exceptions to confidentiality
<img s c
="pastet 4 Gp.png" />
1304137814800 1342707643651 If an automobile d ive is impai ed, can a physi
can b each confidentiality?
Yes
1304137830198 1342707643651 If patients a e suicidal/homicidal, can physicia
n b each confidentiality?
yes
1304137859716 1342707643651 If the e is suspected child and/o elde abuse,
can physician b each confidentiality? Yes
1304137948951 1342707643651 Patient is noncompliant<b ><b >What is you app
op iate esponse?
Attempt to identify the patient's eason fo noncomplian
ce; dete mine patient's willingness to change ha mful behavio o unde go a nece
ssa y p ocedu e<b ><b >DO NOT attempt to coe ce the patient into complying o e
fe the patient to anothe physician
1304137996637 1342707643651 Patient continues to smoke, believing that ciga
ettes a e good fo him.<b ><b >What is the app op iate ethical esponse?
Ask how the patient feels about his/he smoking. <b ><b >Offe advice on cessati
on if the patient seems willing to make an effo t to quit
1304138046432 1342707643651 Patient desi es an unnecessa y p ocedu e<b /><b
/>What is app op iate ethical esponse?
Attempt to unde stand why the pa
tient wants the p ocedu e and add ess the unde lying conce ns<b /><b />Do not
efuse to see the patient o efe him/he to anothe physician.<b /><b />Avoi
d pe fo ming unnecessa y p ocedu es
1304138075639 1342707643651 Patient has difficulty taking medications<b ><b
>What is app op iate ethical esponse? P ovide w itten inst uctions; attempt to
simplify t eatment egimens
1304138106132 1342707643651 Family membe s ask fo info mation about patient
's p og ess<b ><b >What is app op iate ethical esponse?
Avoid discussing
issues with elatives without the pe mission of the patient
1304138137475 1342707643651 A child wishes to know about about his illness<b
/><b />What is app op iate ethical esponse? Ask what the pa ents have told t
he child about his/he illness. Pa ents of a child decide what info mation can b
e elayed about the illness
1304138232555 1342707643651 A 17 yea old is p egnant and equests an abo ti
on<b /><b />What is app op iate ethical esponse?
<b>May states equi e pa
ental notification o consent fo mino s fo an abo tion.</b> Unless she is at
medical isk, <span style="fontweight:600; colo :#cb0409;">do not</span> advise
a patient to have an abo tion ega dless of he age o the condition of the fet

us
1304138307279 1342707643651 A 15 yea old gi l is p egnant and wants to keep
the child. He pa ents want you to tell he to give the child up fo abo tion<b
/><b />What is the app op iate ethical esponse?
The patient etains the
ight to make decisions ega ding he p egnancy, even if he pa ents disag ee<b
/><b />P ovide info mation to the teenage about the p actical issues of ca in
g fo a baby<b /><b />Discuss the options, if equested. Encou age discussion
between the teenage and he pa ents to each the best decision
1304138402352 1342707643651 A te minally ill patient equests physician assi
stance in ending his life<b ><b >What is app op iate ethical esponse? In the o
ve whelming majo ity of states, REFUSE INVOLVEMENT in any fo m of physicianassi
sted suicide<b ><b >Physicians MAY, howeve , p esc ibe medically app op iate ana
lgesics that coincidentally sho ten the patient's life
1304138452846 1342707643651 Patient is suicidal<b ><b >What is app op iate e
thical esponse?
Assess the se iousness of the th eat; if it is se ious,
suggest that the patient emain in the hospital volunta ily; patient can be hosp
italized involunta ily if he/she efuses
1304138540791 1342707643651 Patient states that he finds you att active<b /
><b />What is app op iate ethical esponse?
Ask di ect, closedended questio
ns and use a chape on if necessa y<b /><b />Romantic elationships with patien
ts a e NEVER app op iate even if it is MEGAN FOX<b /><b />NEVER say, &quot;the
e can be no elationship while you a e a patient.&quot; because it implies that
a elationship may be possible if the individual is no longe a patient
1304138581197 1342707643651 A middleaged ma ied woman who had a mastectomy
says she feels &quot;ugly&quot; when she und esses at night<b ><b >What is app
op iate ethical esponse?
Find out why the patient feels this way<b ><b >D
o not offe falsely eassu ing statements (You still look good)
1304138859152 1342707643651 Patient is ang y about the amount of time he spe
nt in the waiting oom<b /><b />What is the app op iate ethical esponse?
Acknowledge the patient's ange , but do not take a patient's ange pe sonally.<b
/><b />Apologize fo any inconvenience. Stay away f om effo ts to explain the
delay
1304138926229 1342707643651 Patient is upset with the way he was t eated by
anothe docto <b ><b >What is the app op iate ethical esponse? Suggest that the
patient speak di ectly to that physician ega ding his conce ns. If the p oblem
is with a membe of the office staff, tell the patient you will speak to that i
ndividual
1304138981779 1342707643651 A d ug company offe s a &quot; efe al fee&quot;
fo eve y patient a physician en olls in a study<b /><b />What is app op iate
ethical esponse?
Eligible patients who may benefit f om the study may be
en olled, but it is neve acceptable fo physician to eceive compensation f om
a d ug company. Patients must be told about the existence of a efe al fee.
1304139784484 1342707643651 APGAR sco e<b ><b >What does it stand fo ? How m
any points total? When do you sco e the newbo n with the APGAR sco e? Appea an
ce<b >Pulse<b >G imace<b >Activity<b >Respi ation<b ><b >10 point scale<b ><b >1
minute and 5 minute
1304139797219 1342707643651 Definition of low bi th weight &lt; 2500 g am
1304139811705 1342707643651 Causes of low bi th weight
P ematu ity<b >I
UGR
1304139845568 1342707643651 Complications of low bi th weight
1. Infec
tions (E. coli, Liste ia, GBS)<b >2. RDS<b >3. Nec otizing ente ocolitis<b >4. I
nt avent icula hemo hage<b >5. Pe sistent fetal ci culation
1304139893453 1342707643651 What is t eatment fo estless leg synd ome?
P amipexole (DOC)<b >Ropini ole<b ><b >** These a e Pa kinson d ugs
1304139923399 1342707643651 Patient complains of &quot;wo ms in thei leg&qu
ot; that compels them to have volunta y, spontaneous continuous leg movements. W
hat is dx?<b ><b >* Wo ms in leg = Unpleasant pa athesias
Restless leg syn
d ome
1304139978413 1342707643651 When do you place infant seats in back seat faci
ng backwa ds? &lt; 1 yea old AND &lt; 20 pounds

1304139995676 1342707643651 When do you place infant seat in back seat but n
ot have option of facing fo wa d?
14 y.o. AND &gt; 20 pounds
1304140009610 1342707643651 When can child use booste seat in the back?
4 yea s and 40 pounds
1304140045832 1342707643651 When can child en stop using a booste seat?
4'9 and 812 y.o.
1304140109092 1342707643651 St ange anxiety, sits alone, c awls<b /><b />
How old?
79 months
1304140148084 1342707643651 Stacks 9 blocks <b ><b >How old?
3036 mo
nths
1304140156922 1342707643651 Stacks 3 blocks<b /><b />How old?
1 yea
1304140178528 1342707643651 Stacks 6 blocks<b ><b >How old? 2 yea s
1304140193552 1342707643651 Toilet t aining<b /><b />How old?
3 yea s
(&quot;pee at 3&quot;)
1304140206749 1342707643651 Can d aw stick figu e and hops on 1 leg<b ><b >H
ow old? 4 yea s old
1304140223309 1342707643651 Coope ative play, imagina y f iends, buttons and
zips<b ><b >How old? 4 yea s old
1304140233989 1342707643651 Rooting eflex p esent<b ><b >How old? Bi th to
3 months
1304140244426 1342707643651 When does mo o eflex disappea ?<b /><b />(Mo
o eflex = limb abduction followed by adduction, c ying)
by 3 months
1304140280897 1342707643651 Rides t icycle, unde standable sentences, plays
boa d games<b /><b />How old? 3 yea s old ( ides 3cycle)
1304140292591 1342707643651 Copies simple shapes (line o ci cle d awing)<b
/><b />How old?
3 yea s
1304140311176 1342707643651 Copies squa e and ties shoes<b ><b >How old?
5 yea s old
1304140337813 1342707643651 Places block into cup and d inks f om cup<b ><b
>How old?
1 yea
1304140350140 1342707643651 2 wo d sentences and 200 wo ds<b ><b >How old?
2 yea s old
1304140365269 1342707643651 Holds head up and social smile<b /><b />How ol
d?
3 months
1304140400979 1342707643651 900 wo ds and complete sentences<b /><b />How
old?
3 yea s
1304140419295 1342707643651 Climbs stai s and app oachment (moves away f om
and then etu ns to mothe )<b /><b />How old?
1224 months
1304140435806 1342707643651 Object pe manence, t ansfe s toys f om hand to h
and<b /><b />How old? 79 months
1304140457646 1342707643651 G ooms self and b ushes teeth<b ><b >How old?
4 yea s old
1304140483869 1342707643651 Childhood<b /><b />Which tanne stage?
Stage 1
1304140512554 1342707643651 Pubic hai appea s (ad ena che); b easts enla ge
Stage 2
1304140527758 1342707643651 Pubic hai da kens and becomes cu ly; penis leng
th inc eases<b /><b />Which tanne stage?
Stage 3
1304140541743 1342707643651 Penis width inc eases, da ke sc otal skin, deve
lopment of glans, aised a eolae<b /><b />Which tanne stage? Stage 4
1304140564102 1342707643651 Adult; a eolae a e no longe aised<b /><b />W
hich tanne stage?
Stage 5
1304140633577 1342707643651 Sleep changes in the elde ly
↓ REM, slowwave s
leep; ↑ latency and awakenings
1304140670015 1342707643651 Changes in the elde ly<b ><b >Comment on sexual
changes both in men and women Men—slowe e ection/ejaculation, longe ef acto y
pe iod<b ><b >Women—vaginal sho tening, thinning, and d yness
1304140735586 1342707643651 Changes in the elde ly: Comment on the following
<b ><b >Incidence of psych diso de s<b >Suicide ates<b >Vision, hea ing, immune
esponse, bladde cont ol<b >Renal, pulmona y, GI function<b >Muscle mass, fat ↓

incidence of psychiat ic diso de s<b ><b >↑ suicide ate (males 65–74 yea s of age h
ave the highest suicide ate in the United States)<b ><b >↓ vision, hea ing, immun
e esponse, bladde cont ol<b ><b >↓ enal, pulmona y, GI function<b ><b >↓ muscle m
ass, ↑ fat
1304140758272 1342707643651 Does sexual inte est change in the elde ly? What
about intelligence?
Both do not dec ease
1304140773415 1342707643651 How long can g ief last?
Up to 2 months
1304140787605 1342707643651 Which of these is no mal du ing g ief: illusions
, delusions, hallucinations?
Illusions (eg. seeing someone walking on the st
eet and momenta ily thinking it is the deceased)
1304140819933 1342707643651 Signs of pathologic g ief
1. &gt; 2 months
<b >2. G ief that is delayed, inhibited, o denied<b >3. Dep essive symptoms<b >
4. Delusions and Hallucinations
1304140837986 1342707643651 What is g ief? No mal be eavement cha acte ized
by shock, denial, guilt, and somatic symptoms.
1304140864600 1342707643651 Kuble Ross g ief stages
<img s c="paste_
YY9SP.png" />
1304140899266 1342707643651 What is the physiologic esponse to st ess?
St ess induces p oduction of f ee fatty acids, 17OH co ticoste oids (immunosupp
ession), lipids, choleste ol, catecholamines; affects wate abso ption, muscula
tonicity, gast ocolic eflex, and mucosal ci culation.
1304140954315 1342707643651 Patient comes in with sexual dysfunction<b ><b >
What is you diffe ential?
Diffe ential diagnosis includes:<b ><b >1. D ugs
(e.g., antihype tensives, neu oleptics, SSRIs, ethanol) ** BBlocke s is well k
nown antihype tensive known fo sexual dysfunction!<b >2. Diseases (e.g., dep es
sion, diabetes, hype p olactinemia, low testoste one)<b >3. Psychological (e.g.,
pe fo mance anxiety)
1304140966561 1342707643651 BMI equation
<img s c="pasteB_w6LR.png" />
1304141020903 1342707643651 List the BMI catego ies &lt; 18.5 unde weight<b
/><b />18.5–24.9 no mal<b /><b />25.0–29.9 ove weight<b /><b />&gt; 30.0 obese
<b /><b />&gt; 40.0 mo bidly obese
1304141051652 1342707643651 Du ing which stage of sleep do you suffe f om s
leep te o diso de ? Slow wave sleep
1304141082522 1342707643651 Most common in child en; no memo y of a ousal; o
ccu s du ing slowwave sleep
Sleep te o diso de
1304141094761 1342707643651 What d ives ci cadian hythm? SCN of hypothala
mus
1304141129031 1342707643651 EEG wavefo m in awake (eyes open), ale t, active
mental concent ation Beta (highest f equency, lowest amplitude)
1304141135711 1342707643651 EEG in awake (eyes closed)
Alpha
1304141144287 1342707643651 EEG in Stage 1: Light sleep
Theta
1304141162932 1342707643651 EEG shows sleep spindles and K complexes. Which
stage of sleep is patient in? Stage 2
1304141171261 1342707643651 B uxism is du ing which stage of sleep? Stage 2
1304141181148 1342707643651 Delta waves occu in which stage
Stage 3
1304141201313 1342707643651 Sleepwalking; nightte o s; bedwetting occu s d
u ing which stage of sleep?
Stage 3
1304141218138 1342707643651 D eaming<b >Loss of moto tone<b >E ections<b ><
b >Which stage of sleep?
REM
1304141225881 1342707643651 EEG du ing REM Beta
1304141242319 1342707643651 EEG du ing Stage 3
Delta (lowest f equency,
highest amplitude)
1304141252357 1342707643651 EEG du ing stage 2 sleep
Sleep spindles a
nd Kk complexes
1304141271429 1342707643651 Mnemonic fo EEG wavefo ms du ing sleep BATS D i
nk Blood
1304141403572 1342707643651 What is the &quot;key&quot; to initiating sleep?
What is the p inciple NT involved in REM?
Se otone gic p edominance of ap
he nucleus key to initiating sleep<b ><b >ACh is the p incipal neu ot ansmitte
involved in REM sleep

1304141428460 1342707643651 What cont ols ext aocula movements du ing REM s
leep? PPRF (Pa amedian pontine eticula fo mation/conjugate gaze cente )
1304141440490 1342707643651 What d ugs a e used to sho ten stage 3 sleep?
Imip amine (fo bedwetting)<b /><b />Benzos (night te o s, sleepwalking)
1304141454593 1342707643651 Which d ug is useful fo night te o s and sleep
walking?
Benzos
1304141470553 1342707643651 Which d ug is used to t eat enu esis because it
dec eases stage 3 sleep?
Imip amine<b /><b />&quot;I'm in pee!&quot;
1304141482765 1342707643651 What is the effect of NE on REM sleep? Reduces
REM sleep
1304141514755 1342707643651 What is effect of alcohol, benzos, and ba bs on
REM and delta sleep?
Reduces REM and delta sleep
1304141561761 1342707643651 Elevated and va iable pulse<b >Penile/Clito al t
umescence<b ><b >Which sleep stage?
REM
1304141570800 1342707643651 How often does REM occu ?
Eve y 90 minutes
; du ation inc eases th oughout night
1304141579521 1342707643651 Does REM inc ease with age o dec ease with age?
Dec eases with AGe
1304141602928 1342707643651 Does du ation of REM inc ease th ough the night
o dec ease th ough the night? Inc eases
1304141687896 1342707643651 Sleep patte ns of dep essed patients<b /><b />
Comment on slow wave sleep, REM latency, REM ea ly in sleep cycle, total REM, ni
ghttime awakenings, ea ly mo ning awakening
1. ↓ slowwave sleep<b />2. ↓ REM l
atency<b />3. ↑ REM ea ly in sleep cycle<b />4. ↑ total REM sleep<b />5. Repeated
nighttime awakenings<b />6. Ea lymo ning awakenings (<b>impo tant sc eening q
uestion</b>)
1304141714263 1342707643651 What is an impo tant sc eening questions when as
king about sleep patte ns in dep essed patients?
Ea lymo ning awakening
1304141745629 1342707643651 What egulates SCN?
Envi onment (i.e light)
1304141789034 1342707643651 Da kness<b /><b />Explain pathway by which et
inal info mation induces the elease of melatonin
SCN → NE elease → pineal gl
and → melatonin<b /><b />(Slightly longe explanation: SCN constituitively inhib
its the pa avent icula nucleus of hypothalamus. Da kness inhibits the SCN, so p
a avent icula nucleus is f ee to t igge excitato y NEdependant pathway down t
o spinal co d, supe io ce vical ganglion, and up to the pineal to make melatoni
n.)<b /><b /><img s c="pastejgcaoi.jpg" />
1304141809865 1342707643651 What is the 1st line the apy fo na colepsy?
Modafinil (stimulant)
1304141834928 1342707643651 The patient’s nocturnal an
narcoleptic sleep epis
o
es start off with which sleep stage? REM sleep
1304141863492 1342707643651 What is cataplexy? a/w what
isor
er? Cataplex
y (loss of all muscle tone following a strong emotional stimulus)<br><br>a/w NAR
COLEPSY
1304141881363 1342707643651 Type of hallucinations with narcolepsy May incl
u
e hypnagogic (just before sleep) or hypnopompic (just before awakening) halluc
inations.
1304141905380 1342707643651 Disor
ere
regulation of sleep-wake cycles with
a primary characteristic of excessive
aytime sleepiness<br /><br />What is
iag
nosis? Narcolepsy
1304141914418 1342707643651 Is there a genetic component to narcolepsy?
Yes a strong one
1304141942073 1342707643651 Treatment options for Narcolepsy
Stimulan
ts (e.g., amphetamines, mo
afinil)<br />So
ium oxybate (GHB)<br />Sche
ule
naps
, etc
1304186786035 1342707643371 Prostatic a
enocarcinoma
Common in men &g
t; 50 yrs of age.<br>Arises most often from the posterior lobe (peripheral zone)
of prostate glan
an
is most fre uently
iagnose
by
itial rectal examination
(har
no
ule) an
prostate biopsy.<br><br><img src="493b - Prostatic a
enocarci
noma.JPG" />
1304186828819 1342707643371 Markers for prostatic a
enocarcinoma
Prostati

c aci
phosphatase (PAP) an
PSA<br>(incr total PSA, w/ <b>
ecr fraction of free
PSA</b>).
1304186871528 1342707643371 Mets w/ prostatic a
enocarcinoma?
Osteobla
stic metastases in bone may
evelop in late stages,<br>as in
icate
by lower bac
k pain an
an incr in serum alkaline phosphatase an
PSA.
1304186911181 1342707643371 Cryptorchi
ism<br /><br />What is it?<br />What
happens?<br />Risk of?<br />What is a risk factor?
Un
escen
e
testis (one
or both);<br />lack of spermatogenesis
ue to incr bo
y temperature;<br />associ
ate
w/ incr risk of germ cell tumors.<br /><br />Prematurity incr the risk of c
ryptorchi
ism.
1304186939608 1342707643371 Testicular germ cell tumors (what proportion of
testicular tumors?)
~95% of all testicular tumors.
1304187043107 1342707643491 Seminoma
Malignant; painless testicular e
nlargement; <br />most common testicular tumor, mostly affecting males age 15-35
.<br />Large cells in lobules w/ watery cytloplasm an
a & uot;frie
egg& uot; a
ppearance.<br />Ra
iosensitive.<br />Late metastasis, excellent prognosis.
1304187074766 1342707643491 Embryonal carcinoma
Malignant; painful;<br /
>worse prognosis than seminoma.<br /><br />Often glan
ular/papillary morphology.
<br />& uot;Pure& uot; embroyonal carcinoma is rare; most commonly mixe
w/ othe
r tumor types.<br /><br />May be associate
with increase
hCG an
normal AFP le
vels when pure (inc AFP when mixe
).
1304187106701 1342707643491 Yolk sac (en
o
ermal sinus) tumor.
Analogou
s to ovarian yolk sac tumor.<br />Schiller-Duval bo
ies, primitive glomeruli (el
evate
AFP).
1304187120021 1342707643491 Choriocarcinoma Malignant, increase
hCG.
1304187135982 1342707643491 Teratoma
Unlike in females, mature terato
ma in males is most often malignant.
1304187174096 1342707643371 Testicular non-germ cell tumurs:<br>as a proport
ion of testicular tumors?
~5% of testicular tumors.<br>Mostly benign.
1304187241742 1342707643482 Ley
ig cell
Benign, contains Reinke crystals
;<br />usually an
rogen pro
ucing, gynecomastia in men, precocious puberty in bo
ys. Gol
en brown color.
1304187255353 1342707643482 Sertoli cell
Benign, an
roblastoma from sex c
or
stroma.
1304187267336 1342707643482 Testicular lymphoma
Most common testicular c
ancer in ol
er men.
1304187315047 1342707643371 Tunica vaginalis lesions
Lesions in the s
erous covering of the testis -- present as testicular masses that <span style="f
ont-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">can be</span> transilluminate
(vs.
testicular tumors).
1304187394042 1342707643422 Varicocele
Dilate
vein in pampiniform plex
us; can cause infertility (heat);<br />& uot;bag of worms& uot;<br /><br />More
common on left
1304187412179 1342707643422 Hy
rocele
Increase
flui
secon
ary to inc
omplete fusion of processus vaginalis
1304187425581 1342707643422 Spermatocele
Dilate
epi
i
ymal
uct.
1304187527552 1342707643371 Carcinoma in situ (of the penis):<br>Bowens
z
Gray, solitary, crusty pla ue, usually on the shaft of the penis or on the scrot
um;<br>peak inci
ence in 5th
eca
e of life;<br>progresses to invasive SCC in &l
t; 10% of cases.
y
1304187557340 1342707643371 Carcinoma in situ (of the penis):<br>Erythroplas
ia of Queyrat Re
velvety pla ues, usually involving the glans; <br>otherwise
similar to Bowens
z. y
1304187591457 1342707643371 Carcinoma in situ (of the penis):<br />Bowenoi

papulosis
Multiple papular lesions; affects younger age group than other s
ubtypes;<br />usually
oes not become invasisve.<br /> y
1304187627445 1342707643371 S uamous cell carcinoma (of the penis)<br /><br
/>Seen in?<br />A/w?
Rare in circumcise
men;<br />uncommon in the USA an
Eu
rope, more common in Asia, Africa, an
South America.<br />Commonly associate
w
/ HPV.

1304187641050 1342707643371 Peyronies
z Bent penis
ue to ac uire
fibro
us tissue formation.
y
1304187665758 1342707643371 Control of female hormones<br />[can you
raw th
is out?]
<img src="495a - control of female hormones.JPG" />
1304187688988 1342707643371 Control of male hormones<br>[can you
raw this o
ut?]
<img src="495b - control of male hormones.JPG" />
1304190558623 1342707643371 Testosterone --(5alpha-re
uctase)--&gt;?
--&gt; DHT (more potent)
1304190645055 1342707643371 Finasteri
e (Propecia)<br /><br />Mechanism<br /
>Clinical use<br />Toxicity
A 5-alpha-re
uctase inhibitor (
ecr conversion o
f testosterone to DHT).<br />Useful in BPH.<br />Also promotes hairgrowth -- use

to Tx male-pattern bal
ness.<br /><br />(& uot;To prevent male-pattern hair lo
ss, give a
rug that will encourage female breast growth& uot;).
1304190667470 1342707643371 Flutami
e
A nonsteroi
al competitive inhib
itor of an
rogens at the testosterone receptor.<br>Use
in prostate carcinoma.
1304190677799 1342707643371 Ketoconazole mechanism of action (repro)
Inhibits steroi
synthesis (inhibits
esmolase)
1304190688579 1342707643371 Spironolactone (repro function) Inhibits steroi

bin
ing to receptors
1304190749045 1342707643371 What are ketoconazole an
spironolactone both us
e
for?<br>What are their SEs? Both are use
in the Tx polycystic ovarian syn
r
ome to prevent hirsuitism.<br><br>Both have SE of gynecomastia an
amenorrhea.
1304190796115 1342707643371 Mechanism of Leuproli
e GnRH analog w/ agonist p
roperties when use
in pulsatile fashion;<br>antagonist properties when use
in
continuous fashion.<br><br><b>Leu</b>proli
e can be use
in <b>lieu</b> of GnRH.
1304190824829 1342707643371 Clinical use of leuproli
e
Infertility (pul
satile), prostate cancer (continuous -- use w/ futami
e), uterine fibroi
s.
1304190843505 1342707643371 Toxicity of leuproli
e Antian
rogen, nausea, vo
miting.
1304190916588 1342707643371 Mechanism of Sli
enafil, var
enafil
Inhibit
cGMP phospho
iesterase, causing increase
cGMP, smooth muscle relaxation in the
corpus cavernosum, increase
bloo
flow, an
penile erection.<br><br>& uot;Sil
e
na<b>fil</b> an
var
ena<b>fil</b> <b>fill</b> the penis& uot;
1304190932279 1342707643371 Clinical use of sil
enafil, var
enafil Tx of er
ectile
ysfunction.
1304190964290 1342707643371 Toxicity of sil
enafil, var
enafil
HA, flus
hing,
yspepsia, impaire
blue-green color vision.<br>Risk of life-threatening h
ypotension in pts taking nitrates.
1304190995008 1342707643371 Mechanism of Mifepristone (RU-486)
Competit
ive inhibitor of progestins at progesterone receptors.
1304191029443 1342707643371 Clinical use of Mifepristone (RU-486) Terminat
ion of pregnancy.<br>A
ministere
w/ misoprostol (PGE-1).
1304191052401 1342707643371 Toxicity of Mifepristone (RU-486)
Heavy bl
ee
ing, GI effects (nausea, vomiting, anorexia), ab
ominal pain.
1304191090030 1342707643371 Oral contraception (synthetic progestins, estrog
en)
Oral contraceptives prevent estrogen surge,<br>LH surge
oes not occur -&gt; ovulation
oes not occur.
1304191131188 1342707643371 A
vantages of Oral contraception (synthetic prog
estins, estrogen)
Reliable (&lt;1% failure)<br>Decr risk of en
ometrial an

ovarian cancer<br>Decr inci
ence of ectopic pregnancy<br>Decr pelvic infxns<br
>Regulation of menses
1304191165021 1342707643371 Disa
vantages of Oral contraception (synthetic p
rogestins, estrogen)
Taken
aily<br>No protection from STDs<br>Increases trig
lyceri
es<br>Depression, wgt gain, nausea, HTN<br>Hypercoagulable state
1304191232303 1342707643371 Hormone replacement therapy (HRT)
Use
for
relief or prevention of menopausal Sxs (e.g., hot flashes, vaginal atrophy)<br
>an
osteoporosis (
ue to
iminishe
estrogen levels)<br><br>Unoppose
estrogen
replacement therapy (ERT) increases the risk of en
ometrial cancer,<br>so proges
terone is a

e
. Possible increase
CV risk.
1304191259182 1342707643371 Dinoprostone
PGE-2 analog causing cervical
i

lation an
uterine contraction, in
ucing labor.
1304191293642 1342707643371 Rito
rine mechanism an
clinical use
/ terbu
taline<br /><br />Beta2-agonists that relax the uterus; re
uce premature uterine
contractions.
1304191314388 1342707643371 Anastrozole / exemestane
Aromatase inhibi
tors use
in postmenopausal women w/ breast cancer.
1304191336210 1342707643371 Mechanism of testosterone (methyltestosterone)
Agonist at an
rogen receptors.
1304191368273 1342707643371 Clinical use of testosterone (methyltestosterone
)
Treat hypogona
ism an
promote
evelopment of secon
ary sex characterist
ics;<br>stimulation of anabolism to promote recovery after burn or injury;<br>tr
eat ER-positive breast cancer (exemestane)
1304191423842 1342707643371 Toxicity of testosterone (methyltestosterone)
Causes masculinization in females;<br />re
uces intratesticular testosterone in
males by inhibiting Ley
ig cells; lea
s to gona
al atrophy.<br /><br />Premature
closure of epiphyseal plates.<br /><br />Incr LDL, Decr HDL.
1304191450464 1342707643371 Mechanism of estrogens (ethinyl estra
iol, DES,
mestranol)
Bin
estrogen receptors.
1304191600979 1342707643371 Clinical use of estrogens?<br><br>Drug names?
(ethinyl estra
iol, DES, mestranol)<br><br>Hypogona
ism or ovarian failure, mens
trual abnormalities, HRT in postmenopausal women;<br />use in men w/ an
rogen-
e
pen
ent prostate cancer.
1304191668800 1342707643371 Toxicity of estrogens?<br /><br />Drug names?
(ethinyl estra
iol, DES, mestranol)<br /><br />Increase
risk of en
ometrial can
cer<br />Blee
ing in postmenopausal women<br />Clear cell a
enocarcinoma of vagi
na in females expose
to DES in utero<br />Increase
risk of thrombi.<br /><br /
>Contrain
ications: ER-positive breast cancer, history of DVTs.
1304191703801 1342707643371 Mechanism of progestins Bin
progesterone recept
ors, re
uce growth, an
increase vascularization of en
ometrium.
1304191727251 1342707643371 Clinical use of progestins
Use
in oral con
traceptives an
in the Tx of en
ometrial cancer an
abnormal uterine blee
ing.
1304191781258 1342707643371 Estrogen partial agonists (selective estrogen re
ceptor mo
ulators -- SERMs)<br />List? Clomiphene, Tamoxifen, Raloxifene
1304191901417 1342707643371 Mechanism of Clomiphene (A selective estrogen re
ceptor mo
ulator -- SERM)<br><br>Partial agonist at estrogen receptors in pituit
ary glan
.<br>Prevents normal fee
back inhibition an
increase
release of LH an

FSH from pituitary, which stimulates ovulation.<br>
1304191915837 1342707643371 Clinical use of Clomiphene
Use
to Tx infer
tility an
PCOS. <br>
1304191927268 1342707643371 Toxicity of Clomiphene May cause hot flashes, o
varian enlargement, multiple simultaneous pregnancies, an
visual
isturbances.
1304191966241 1342707643371 Tamoxifen
(A selective estrogen receptor m
o
ulator -- SERM)<br /><br />Antagonist on breast tissue;<br />use
to Tx an
pr
event recurrence of ER-(+) breast cancer.
1304192006545 1342707643371 Raloxifene
(A selective estrogen receptor m
o
ulator -- SERM)<br /><br />Agonist on bone;<br />re
uces resorption of bone;<b
r />use
to Tx osteoporosis.
1304196526076 1342707643504 A large cohort stu
y is con
ucte
to assess the
association between smoking an
s uamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus among m
i

le-age
Chinese men. During ten years of follow-up, smokers have ha
five tim
es the risk of esophageal carcionma compare
to non-smokers (RR = 5.0, 95% CI =
2.9 - 7.1). Accor
ing to the stu
y results, what percent of esophageal carcinoma
in smokers can be attribute
to smoking?
ARP = (RR-1) / RR aka Attributab
le risk percent<br /><br />(5.0 - 1) / 5.0 = 0.8 (80%)
1304196682492 1342707643504 A stu
y to assess spironolactons efficacy in pa
tients with heart failure is performe
. 450 patients receive either spironolacto
n or placebo for two years. Neither the patients nos physicians are aware of who
takes the
rug or placebo. The stu
y setup
escribe
above is most effective in
preventing what type of bias? Observer bias (main purpose of blin
ing is to pr
event patient/researcher expectancy)

1304196999589 1342707643504 A prospective stu
y evaluates the relationship b
etween regular antioxi
ant use (vitamin C an
vitamin E) an
the risk of stroke
in men age
35-60 years. Accor
ing to the stu
y results, the men who consume
an
tioxi
ates for &gt;/= 5 years have a stroke relative risk of 0.75, while the men
who consume
antioxi
ants for less than 5 years have a stroke RR of 0.95. The p
henomenon
escribe
above is an example of?
Latent perio

1304197232775 1342707643504 You are
esigning a stu
y to evaluate the effica
cy of a
rug, KM28, plus stan
ar
care versus stan
ar
care alone in
ecreasing
the inci
ence of recurrent breast cancer. The FDA will approve KM28 if KM28 plus
stan
ar
care
ecreases the rate of breast cancer recurrence by 40% compare
to
stan
ar
therapy alone. If the recurrence rate on stan
ar
thearpy is 8%, what
is the maximal inci
ence of
isease acceptable for women treate
with KM28 plus
stan
ar
therapy?
4.8<br /><br />RRR = [Risk(control) - Risk(treatment)] /
Risk(control)
1304197275503 1342707643504 E uation to calculate relative risk re
uction (R
RR)
Calculate
by
ivi
ing the absolute risk re
uction by the control event
rate<br><br>RRR = [Risk(control) - Risk(treatment)] / Risk(control)
1304197355765 1342707643504 A 60 year ol
male presents to your office for r
outine check-up. He has no present complaints. He smokes one pack of cigarettes
a
ay an
consume alcohol occasionally. His family history is significant for hy
pertension in his mother an
bla

er cancer in his father. His bloo
pressure is
160/90 mmHg, an
heart rate is 70/min. Laboratory testing is significant for bl
oo
glucose level of 155 mg/
L. Which intervention will most
ecrease mortality
risk in this patient? HIGH YIELD!
Smoking cessation
1304197394187 1342707643504 Loss of subjects to follow-up
uring a prospecti
ve stu
y creates potential for what type of bias?
Selection bias
1304197496892 1342707643504 Researchers are stu
ying the relationship betwee
n essential HTN an
a common mutation in the structure of a so
ium channel prote
in. A stu
y population is ran
omly selecte
. Bloo
samples are obtaine
for leuk
ocyte genotyping, an
arterial bloo
pressure is measure
using ambulatory BP mo
nitoring. The researchers conclu
e
that the mutation in the structure of so
ium
channel protein is associate
with HTN. What type of stu
y
esign was use
by t
he investigators?
Cross-sectional stu
y
1304197562352 1342707643504 Define effect mo
ification
Effect of a main
exposure on an outcome is mo
ife
by another variable
1304197614843 1342707643504 A new estrogen receptor agonist is being evaluat
e
for the treatment of postmenopausal symptoms. A prospective stu
y shows that
the
rug increases the risk of DVT in treate
women who smoke compare
to untrea
te
women who smoke. In nonsmokers, no increase
risk of DVT is evi
ent with use
of the
rug. What is this phenomenon calle
? Effect mo
ification
1304197689166 1342707643504 Clinicians are
eveloping a new ELISA for
iagno
sing RA. The test is stu
ie
in two populations with
ifferent prevalences of RA
. The
ifference in
isease prevlance will change what epi
emiological parameter
s among the following: Sensitivity, Specificity, PPV, NPV?
PPV an
NPV
1304202110578 1342707643510 Km in Michaelis-Menten vs. Lineweaver-Burk
Reflects the affinity of enzyme for its substrate<br />Decr Km = incr affinity.<
br /><img src="228a - Km.JPG" /><br /><br />In the following graph, the further
to the right the x-intercept, the greater the Km<br /><img src="228b - Km over V
max.JPG" />
1304202293267 1342707643510 Vmax
Directly proportional to the enzyme conc
entration<br />[note: the graph imme
iately below is inclu
e
to
emonstrate the
relationship of Vmax to Km, <br />but
oes not illustrate the above point (it a
ssumes a <i>constant</i> enzyme concentration)]<br /><img src="228a - Km.JPG" />
<br /><br />Incr y-intercept [below] =
ecr Vmax<br /><img src="228b - Km over V
max.JPG" />
1304202350055 1342707643510 Noncompetitive vs. competitive inhibitors:<br />
graphe
on 1/V vs. 1/[S] axes? & uot;Competitive inhibitors cross each other co
mpetitively,<br />while noncompetitive inhibitors
o not.& uot;<br /><img src="2
28c - types of inhibitors.JPG" />
1304202478959 1342707643510 Noncompetitive vs. competitive inhibitors:<br>Re

semble substrate?<br>Overcome by incr [S]?<br>Bin
active site?<br>Effect on V-m
ax?<br>Effect on Km?
Competitive inhibitors resemble substrate, are overcome
by high [S], an
bin
the active site of an enzyme.<br>(Noncompetitive inhibitor
s are exactly opposite:
o not resemble substrate, cannot be overcome,
o not bi
n
active site).<br><br>Competitive inhibitors incr Km, but
o not affect V-max.
<br><br>Non-competitive inhibitors
ecr V-max, but
o not affect Km.
1304202554092 1342707643510 Volume of
istribution (V
):<br />What is it?<br
/>How is it caculate
? Relates the amt of
rug in the bo
y to the plasma concen
tration.<br />V
of plasma protein-boun

rugs can be altere
by liver an
ki
ne
y
z.<br /><br />V
= (amt of
rug in bo
y) / (plasma
rug concentration)
1304202608131 1342707643510 Drugs w/ low vs. me
ium vs. high V
:<br />where

o they
istribute?
Low V
(4-8L):
istribute in bloo
<br /><br />Me
ium V
:

istribute in extracellular space or bo
y water<br /><br />High V
(&gt; bo
y w
gt):
istribute in all tissues.
1304202671046 1342707643510 Clearance (CL):<br>What is it?<br>How
o you cal
culate it?
Relates the rate of elimination to the plasma concentration<br><
br>CL = (rate of elimination of
rug) / (plasma
rug concentration) = V
x Ke (e
limination constant)
1304202730953 1342707643510 Half-life (t-1/2)
The time re uire
to cha
nge the amt of
rug in the bo
y by 1/2
uring elimination (or
uring a constant
infusion).<br />A
rug infuse
at a constant rate reaches about 94% of stea
y st
ate after 4xt1/2.<br />Property of 1st-or
er elimination.
1304202750824 1342707643510 Calculation of t1/2
t1/2 = (0.7 x V
) / CL
1304202788230 1342707643510 Concentration over 4 half-lives 1: 50%<br />2: 7
5%<br />3: 87.5%<br />4: 93.75%
1304202820119 1342707643510 Calculating loa
ing
ose
Loa
ing
ose = C
p x V
/ F<br />Where Cp = target plasma concentration<br />F = bioavailability
= 1 when given IV<br /><br />In pts w/ impaire
renal or hepatic fxn, the loa
in
g
ose <i>remains unchange
.</i>
1304202918807 1342707643510 Maintenance
ose
Cp x CL / F<br>Where Cp
= target plasma concentration<br>F = bioavailability = 1 when given IV<br><br>*i
n pts w/ impaire
renal or hepatic function, the maintenance
ose <i>is
ecrease

.</i>
1304203026186 1342707643510 Zero-or
er elimination Rate of elimination is c
onstant regar
less of C<br />(i.e., constant <b>amount</b> of
rug eliminate
pe
r unit time).<br /><br />Cp
ecreases linearly w/ time.<br /><br />Examples: <b>
P</b>henytoin, <b>E</b>thanol, <b>A</b>spirin (at high or toxic concentrations)<
br /><b>& uot;PEA& uot;</b> (a pea is roun
, shape
like the & uot;0& uot; in ze
ro-or
er)<br /><br /><img src="229a - Zero or
er elimination.JPG" />
1304203070503 1342707643510 First-or
er elimination Rate of elimination is p
roportional to
rug concentration<br />(i.e., constant <b>fraction</b> of
rug e
liminate
per unit time).<br /><br />Cp
ecreases exponentially w/ time.<br /><b
r />Can also be applie
to cytotoxics- eg. log kill hypothesis for chemo. <br />
<br /><img src="229b - First Or
er elimination.JPG" />
1304203104133 1342707643510 General rule regar
ing urine pH an

rug elimina
tion
Ionize
species get trappe
.
1304203163400 1342707643510 Weak aci
s<br><br>Examples?<br>Trappe
where?<br
>Treat over
ose w/?
E.g., phenobarbital, methotrexate, TCAs, aspirin.<br />T
rappe
in basic environments.<br />Tx over
ose w/ bicarbonate.<br /><br />RCOOH
[lipi
soluble] &lt;--&gt; RCOO- [trappe
] + H+
1304203205474 1342707643510 Weak bases
E.g., amphetamines.<br />Trappe

in aci
ic environments.<br />Tx over
ose w/ ammonium chlori
e.<br /><br />RNH3+
[trappe
] &lt;--&gt; RNH2 [soluble] + H+
1304203287050 1342707643510 Phase I metabolism
Phase I = cytochrome P-4
50.<br /><br />Re
uction, oxi
ation, hy
rolysis.<br /><br />Usually yiel
s sligh
ltly polar, water-soluble metabolites (often still active).<br /><br />Geriatric
pts lose phase I first.
1304203324174 1342707643510 Phase II metabolism
Phase II = conjugation<b
r><br>Acetylation, glucuroni
ation, sulfation.<br><br>Usually yiel
s very polar,
inactive metabolites (renally excrete
).

1304203348480 1342707643510 Efficacy vs. potency
Efficacy = maximal effec
t a
rug can pro
uce<br />Potency = amt of
rug nee
e
for a given effect
1304203425377 1342707643510 Effect of a competitive antagonist on potency/ef
ficacy <img src="230a - competitive antagonist.JPG" /><br />A competitive antag
onist shifts the curve to the right, <b>
ecreasing potency </b>an
increasing EC
50.
1304203464122 1342707643510 Effect of a non-competitive antagonist on potenc
y/efficacy
<img src="230b - irreversible antagonist.JPG" /><br>A non-compet
itive antagonist shifts the agonist curve
ownwar
, <b>
ecreasing efficacy</b>.
1304203541847 1342707643510 Full agonist vs. partial agonist
A partia
l agonist acts on the same receptor system as the full agonist but has a <b>lowe
r maximal efficacy</b> regar
less of
ose.<br>A partial agonist may be more pote
nt [as shown below], less potent, or e ually potent; <b>potency is an in
epen
en
t factor.</b><br><img src="230c - partial agonist (1).JPG" />
1304203614463 1342707643510 Therapeutic In
ex (TI) Measurement of
rug safe
ty.<br>(Safer
rugs have higher TI values).<br><br>LD50 / ED50 = (me
ian toxic

ose) / (me
ian effective
ose)<br><br>& uot;<b>TILE</b>& uot;:<br><b>TI</b> = <b
>L</b>D50 / <b>E</b>D50.
1304203737032 1342707643510 Parasympathetic nervous system<br />(pathway to
peripheral effect)
Me
ulla --&gt; ACh-N --&gt; ACh-M<br />Car
iac an
smoot
h muscle, glan
cells, nerve terminals<br /><img src="231a - CNS an
PNS.JPG" />
1304203821136 1342707643510 Sympathetic nervous system<br />(pathway to peri
pheral effect) ACh-N --&gt; sympathetic ganglia --&gt; ACh-M: sweat glan
s<br /
><br />ACh-N --&gt; sympathetic ganglia --&gt; NE-alpha, beta:<br />Car
iac an

smooth muscle, glan
cells, nerve terminals<br /><br />ACh-N --&gt; sympathetic
ganglia --&gt; D1:<br />Renal vascular smooth muscle<br /><img src="231a - CNS a
n
PNS.JPG" />
1304203864062 1342707643510 Spinal cor
an
a
renal me
ulla (pathway to peri
pheral effect) Spinal cor
--&gt; ACh-N --&gt; A
renal me
ulla --&gt; Epi, NE r
elease
<br /><img src="231a - CNS an
PNS.JPG" />
1304203889883 1342707643510 Somatic nervous system<br />(pathway to peripher
al effect)
Spinal cor
--&gt; ACh-N:<br />skeletal muscle<br /><img src="23
1a - CNS an
PNS.JPG" />
1304203930075 1342707643510 ACh receptors: gating? Nicotinic ACh receptors
are ligan
-gate
Na+/K+ receptors<br /><br />Muscarinic ACh receptors are G-prot
ein-couple
receptors that act thru 2n
messengers.
1304204233874 1342707643510 Mnemonic for remembering G-protein classes
alpha1 - <b> </b><br />alpha2 - <b>i</b><br />beta1 - <b>s</b><br />beta2 - <b>s
</b><br /><br />M1 - <b> </b><br />M2 - <b>i</b><br />M3 - <b> </b><br /><br />D
1 - <b>s</b><br />D2 - <b>i</b><br />H1 - <b> </b><br />H2 - <b>s</b><br />V1 <b> </b><br />V2 - <b>s</b><br /><br />& uot;<b>Qiss</b> (kiss) an
<b> i </b> (
kick) till youre <b>si </b> (sick) of <b>s s</b> (sex).& uot;
1304204259054 1342707643510 Sympathetic receptors alpha 1/2 receptors<br /
>beta 1/2 receptors<br />
1304204268168 1342707643510 Parasympathetic receptors
M1, M2, M3
1304204293967 1342707643510 Dopamine, Histamine, an
Vasopressin receptors
D1/2, H1/2, an
V1/2 receptors, respectively.
1304204417343 1342707643428 alpha1 G-protein: <br /><br />Increase
vascul
ar smooth muscle contraction,<br />increase
pupillary
ilator muscle contractio
n (my
riasis)
1304204443261 1342707643428 alpha2 G-protein: i<br /><br />Decr sympathetic
outflow,<br />
ecr insulin release
1304204478317 1342707643428 Beta1 G-protein: s<br><br>Incr HR, incr contra
ctility, incr renin release, incr lipolysis
1304204514214 1342707643428 Beta2 G-protein: s<br /><br />Vaso
ilation, br
oncho
ilation, incr HR, incr contractility, incr lipolysis, incr glucagon releas
e,
ecr uterine tone.
1304204531731 1342707643428 M1
G-protein: <br /><br />CNS, enteric ner
vous system
1304204549385 1342707643428 M2
G-protein: i<br><br>Decr HR an
contract

ility of atria
1304204604882 1342707643428 M3
G-protein: <br><br>Incr exocrine glan

secretions<br>Incr gut peristalsis<br>Incr bla

er contraction<br>Bronchoconstri
ction<br>Incr pupillary sphincter muscle contraction (miosis)<br>Ciliary muscle
contraction (accommo
ation)
1304204622009 1342707643428 D1
G-protein: s<br><br>Relaxes renal vascul
ar smooth muscle.
1304204642773 1342707643428 D2
G-protein: i<br /><br />Mo
ulates transm
itter release, especially in brain.
1304204679109 1342707643428 H1
G-protein: <br /><br />Incr nasal an
b
ronchial mucus pro
uction<br />Contraction of bronchioles<br />Pruritis, pain
1304204693641 1342707643428 H2
G-protein: s<br /><br />Incr gastric aci

secretion
1304204710385 1342707643428 V1
G-protein: <br /><br />Incr vascular sm
ooth muscle contraction
1304204733696 1342707643428 V2
G-protein: s<br><br>Incr H2O permeabilit
y an
reabsorption in the collecting tubules of the ki
ney.
1304205025252 1342707643510 Intracellular pathway for:<br /><b>H</b>1, <b>a<
/b>lpha1, <b>V</b>1,<b> M</b>1, <b>M</b>3<br />(& uot;HAVe 1 M an
M& uot;)
<img src="232a - phospholipase C (1).JPG" />
1304205049698 1342707643510 Intracellular pathway for:<br>Beta1, Beta2, D1,
H2, V2 <img src="232b - A
enylyl cyclase.JPG" />
1304205099281 1342707643510 Intracellular pathway for:<br /><b>M</b>2, <b>a<
/b>lpha2, <b>D</b>2<br />(& uot;<b>MAD</b> 2s& uot;)<br />
<img src="232c PKA thru Gi.JPG" />
1304280764737 1342707643510 Cholinergic
rugs (general schematic of nerve te
rminal/synapse):<br />Where
oes Botulinum act?<br />Where
oes Hemicholinium ac
t?<br />Where
oes Vesamicol act?<br />Where
oes Ca2+ act?
<img src="233aCholinergic junction.JPG" /><br />Botulinum inhibits exocytosis of ACh into the
synapse.<br />Hemicholinium inhibits transport of choline into the presynaptic t
erminal<br />Vesamicol inhibits transport of ACh into presynaptic vesicles w/in
the terminal<br />Ca2+ promotes vesicle fusion (excocytosis of ACh)
1304280982096 1342707643510 Nora
renergic
rugs (general schematic of nora
r
energic synapse):<br />Where
oes Guanethi
ine act?<br />Cocaine, TCA?<br />Rese
rpine?<br />Metyrosine?<br />Amphetamine?
<img src="233b - Nora
renergic r
eceptor.JPG" /><br />Metyrosine inhibits conversion of Tyr --&gt; DOPA (tyrosine
hy
roxylase)<br />Reserpine inhibits Dopamine transport into NE vessicles (inhi
bits vesicular transporter VMAT)<br />Amphetamine promotes NE excocytosis/releas
e, while Guanethi
ine inhibits it.<br />Cocaine an
TCAs both inhibit NE reupta
ke into the presynaptic cell.
1304281226981 1342707643510 What release-mo
ulating receptors exist on pre-s
ynaptic nora
renergic nerve terminals?<br>What acts on them?
<img src="233c Nora
renergic nerve terminal.JPG" /><br>M2 (ACh inhibits further NE release)<br
>Angiotensin II receptor [AII] (up-regulates NE release)<br>alpha2 (NE inhibits
further NE release thru negative fee
back)<br><br>
1304281427461 1342707643485 <b>B</b>ethanechol
Use: Postoperative an
n
eurogenic ileus an
urinary retention.<br><br>Action: Activates <b>B</b>owel an

<b>B</b>la

er smooth muscle;<br>resistant to AChE.<br><br>(& uot;<b>Beth Anne,
call</b> (<b>bethanecol</b>) me if you want to activate your <b>B</b>owels an

<b>B</b>la

er.& uot;)
1304281445672 1342707643485 Carbachol
Glaucoma: pupillary contraction,
an
release of intraocular pressure.
1304281533683 1342707643485 <b>Pil</b>ocarpine
Use: potent stimulator o
f sweat, tears, saliva.<br /><br />Action: contracts ciliary muscle of eye (open
angle), <br />pupillary shincter (narrow angle); <br />resistant to AChE.
1304281556365 1342707643485 Methacholine
Use: challenge test for asthma<b
r /><br />Action: stimulates muscarinic receptors in airway when inhale
.
1304281738928 1342707643786 <b>Neo</b>stigmine
Use: Postoperative an
n
eurogenic ileus an
urinary retention,<br />myasthenia gravis, <br />reversal of
NMJ blocka
e (postoperative).<br /><br />Action: Incr en
ogenous ACh;<br />No C

NS penetration (polar uaternary ammonium)<br /><br /><b>NEO</b> CNS = <b>NO</b>
CNS penetration (vs. physostigmine, use
in glaucoma)
1304281776408 1342707643786 Pyri
ostigmine Use: Myasthenia gravis (long act
ing); <br />
oes not penetrate the CNS<br /><br />Action: Incr en
ogenous ACh; i
ncr strength.
1304281808903 1342707643786 E
rophonium
Use: Dx of myasthenia gravis (ex
tremely short acting).<br><br>Action: Incr en
ogenous ACh.
1304281869070 1342707643786 <b>Phys</b>ostigmine
Use: gluacoma (crosses B
BB --&gt; CNS) an
atropine over
ose.<br /><br />Action: Incr en
ogenous ACh.<br
/><br />(& uot;<b>PHYS</b> is for <b>EYES</b>.& uot;)
1304281884561 1342707643786 Echothiophate Use: glaucoma.<br><br>Action: in
cr en
ogenous ACh.
1304282085655 1342707643510 Sx of cholinesterase poisoning <b>D</b>iarrhea<
br /><b>U</b>rination<br /><b>M</b>iosis<br /><b>B</b>ronchospasm<br /><b>B</b>r
a
ycar
ia<br /><b>E</b>xcitation of skeletal muscle an
CNS<br /><b>L</b>acrimat
ion<br /><b>S</b>weating<br /><b>S</b>alivation<br />(+ ab
ominal cramping)<br /
><br /><b>DUMBBELSS</b>
1304282106313 1342707643510 Worry about cholinesterase poisoning with...?
Parathion an
other organophosphates.<br />Irreversible inhibitors.
1304282143680 1342707643510 Anti
ote to cholinesterase poisoning
Atropine
(muscarinic antagonist) plus prali
oxime (chemical antagonist use
to regenerat
e active cholinesterase)
1304282253906 1342707643558 Atropine, homatropine, tropicami
e
Organ: e
ye<br /><br />Application: Pro
uce my
riasis an
cycloplegia
1304282288962 1342707643558 <b>Benz</b>tropine
Organ: CNS<br><br>Applic
ation: <b>PARK</b>insons
z -- <b>PARK</b> my <b>BENZ</b>
1304282303031 1342707643558 Scopolamine
Organ: CNS<br /><br />Applicatio
n: motion sickness
1304282321615 1342707643558 <b>Ipra</b>tropium
Organ: respiratory<br />
<br />Application: Asthma, COPD (<b>I pray</b> I can breathe soon!)
1304282390313 1342707643558 Oxybutynin, glycopyrrolate
Organ: genitouri
nary<br><br>Application: re
uce urgency in mil
cystitis an
re
uce bla

er spas
ms.
1304282416309 1342707643558 Methscopolamine, pirenzepine, propantheline
Organ: GI<br /><br />Application: peptic ulcer Tx
1304282538678 1342707643510 Atropine, action on...<br>Eye?<br>Airway?<br>Sto
mach?<br>Gut?<br>Bla

er?
(a muscarinic antagonist)<br><br>Dilates pupils,
cycloplegia.<br>Decr airway secretions.<br>Decr stomach aci
secretion.<br>Decr
motility of gut.<br>Decr urgency of cystitis in bla

er.<br><br>(Blocks <b>DUMB
BELSS</b>)
1304282616886 1342707643510 Toxicity of Atropine
Incr bo
y temperature; r
api
pulse;
ry mouth;
ry, flushe
skin; cycloplegia; constipation;
isorientat
ion<br>(& uot;Hot as a hare,
ry as a bone, re
as a beet, blin
as a bat, ma
a
s a hatter& uot;)<br><br>Can cause acute angle-closure glaucoma in el
erly, urin
ary retention in men w/ prostatic hyperplasia, an
hyperthermia in infants.
1304282686450 1342707643510 Hexamethonium:
rug class?
Nicotinic antago
nist<br /><br />(& uot;Put a <b>hex</b> on smokers (<b>nicotine</b>) to help the
m uit& uot;)
1304282731368 1342707643510 Clinical use of hexamethonium Ganglionic block
er.<br>Use
in experimental mo
els to prevent vagal reflex responses to changes
in bloo
pressure <br>(e.g., prevents reflex bra
ycar
ia cause
by NE)
1304282777547 1342707643510 Toxicity of hexamethonium
Severe orthostat
ic hypotension<br>Blurre
vision<br>Constipation<br>Sexual
ysfunction
1304282932837 1342707643534 Epinephrine
alpha 1/2, beta 1/2, <b>low</b>

oses selective for <b>B</b>1 (<b>Blow</b>)<br /><br />Use: anaphylaxis, glaucom
a (open angle), asthma, hypotension.
1304282963338 1342707643534 NE
alpha-1,2 &gt; Beta1<br><br>Use: hypoten
sion (but
ecr renal perfusion)
1304282995521 1342707643534 <b>Iso</b>proterenol
<b>B1</b> = <b>B2</b> (<
b>iso</b>late
to <b>B</b>)<br><br>Use: AV block (rare)

1304283040359 1342707643534 Dopamine
D1 = D2 &gt; Beta &gt; alpha, in
otropic an
chronotropic.<br /><br />Use: shock (incr renal perfusion), heart fa
ilure.
1304283077034 1342707643534 Dobutamine
Beta1 &gt; Beta2, inotropic an

chronotropic.<br /><br />Use: shock, heart failure, car
iac stress testing.
1304283109746 1342707643534 Phenylephrine alpha1 &gt; alpha2<br><br>Use: p
upillary
ilation, vasoconstriction, nasal
econgestion.
1304283137485 1342707643534 Albuterol, terbutaline Beta2 &gt; Beta1.<br /><
br />Uses: albuterol for acute asthma; terbutaline re
uces premature uterine con
tractions.
1304283163740 1342707643534 Rito
rine
Beta2.<br><br>Use: re
uces prema
ture uterine contractions.
1304283243562 1342707643658 Amphetamine
In
irect general agonist, releas
es store
catecholamines.<br><br>Use: narcolepsy, obesity, attention
eficit
is
or
er.
1304283290643 1342707643658 Ephe
rine
In
irect general agonist, releas
es store
catecholamines.<br><br>Use: nasal
econgestion, urinary incontinence,
hypotension.
1304283320692 1342707643658 Cocaine In
irect general agonist, uptake inhibit
or.<br><br>Use: causes vasoconstriction an
local anesthesia.
1304283398792 1342707643683 Cloni
ine, alpha-methyl
opa
Centrally acting
alpha2-agonist,<br>
ecreases central a
renergic outflow.<br><br>Uses: HTN, espe
cially w/ renal
z (no
ecr in bloo
flow to ki
ney).
1304283446823 1342707643510 Effect of NE on bp, HR tracings <img src="236a NE.JPG" />
1304283492513 1342707643510 Effect of epinephrine on bp, HR tracings
<img src="236b - EPI.JPG" /><br />[top is SBP, mean bp, an
DBP; bottom graph is
HR]
1304283515554 1342707643510 Effect of Isoproterenol on bp, HR tracings
<img src="236c - Isoproterenol.JPG" /><br />[top is SBP, mean bp, an
DBP; botto
m graph is HR]
1304285607348 1342707643510 Selective beta-2 agonists
<b>M</b>etaprote
renol<br /><b>A</b>lbuterol<br /><b>S</b>almeterol<br /><b>T</b>erbutaline<br />
<br /><b>& uot;</b>A <b>B</b>ig ship has <b>2 MAST</b>s<b>& uot;</b>
1304285779792 1342707643561 Nonselective:<br />Phenoxybenzamine (irreversibl
e)<br />Phentolamine (reversible)
Use: pheochromocytoma (use phenoxybenzam
ine before removing tumor, since high levels of release
catcholamines will not
be able to overcome blockage).<br /><br />Toxicity: orthostatic hypotension, ref
lex tachycar
ia.
1304285830685 1342707643561 alpha1-selective<br />(prazosin, terazosin,
oxa
zosin) Use: HTN, urinary retention in BPH<br /><br />Toxicity: 1st-
ose orthost
atic hypotension,
izziness, HA
1304285922217 1342707643561 alpha-2 selective (mirtazapine) Use:
epression<
br /><br />Toxicity: se
ation, incr serum XOL, incr appetite.
1304286017033 1342707643510 alpha-blocka
e an
Epinephrine (large
ose)
EPI response exhibits reversal of the mean bp change, from a net increase (the a
lpha response) <br /><img src="237a - EPI before alpha blocka
e.JPG" /><br />to
a net
ecrease (the Beta2 response)<br /><img src="237b - EPI after alpha blocka

e.JPG" />
1304286069427 1342707643510 alpha-blocka
e an
phenylephrine
Phenylep
hrine is suppresse
, but not reverse
b/c phenylephrine is a & uot;pure& uot; al
pha-agonist w/o beta action.<br><img src="237c - Phenylephrine before alpha bloc
ka
e.JPG" /><img src="237
- Phenylephrine after alpha blocka
e.JPG" />
1304286156572 1342707643510 Beta-blockers (list)
Acebutolol<br />Betaxolo
l<br />Esmolol<br />Atenolol<br />Metoprolol<br />Propanolol<br />Timolol<br />P
in
olol<br />Labetolol
1304286225639 1342707643546 Beta blockers for HTN Decr car
iac output,
ec
r renin secretion
1304286240747 1342707643546 Beta blockers for angina pectoris
Decr HR
an
contractility, resulting in
ecr O2 consumption

1304286250530 1342707643546 BBs in MI
Beta-blockers
ecr mortality
1304286275065 1342707643546 Specific beta blockers for supraventricular tach
ycar
ia? MOA? SVT; propanolol, esmolol<br /><br />Decr AV con
uction velocity&
nbsp;&nbsp;(class II antiarrhythmic)
1304286303905 1342707643546 Beta blockers for CHF Slows progression of chr
onic failure
1304286320527 1342707643546 Glaucoma (timolol)
Decr secretion of a ueou
s humor
1304286377604 1342707643510 Toxicity of beta-blockers
Impotence<br>Exa
cerbation of asthma<br>CV a
verse effects (bra
ycar
ia, AV block, CHF)<br>CNS a

verse effects (se
ation, sleep alterations)<br><br>Use with caution in
iabetics
1304286403595 1342707643510 Nonselective beta-blockers (B1 = B2)
Propanol
ol<br>Timolol<br>Na
olol<br>Pin
olol<br>Labetalol
1304286466969 1342707643510 B1-selective beta-blockers (B1 &gt; B2) <b>A</b>
cebutolol (partial agonist)<br><b>B</b>etaxolol<br><b>E</b>smolol (short acting)
<br><b>A</b>tenolol<br><b>M</b>etoprolol<br><br>(& uot;<b>A BEAM</b> of B1-block
ers& uot;)
1304286483984 1342707643510 Beta blockers with alpha blocking efffect
Carve
ilol<br />Labetalol
1304286510160 1342707643510 <b>P</b>artial beta-<b>A</b>gonists
<b>P</b>
in
olol<br /><b>A</b>cebutolol
1304286661985 1342707643530 Acetaminophen N-acteylcystein
1304286676710 1342707643530 Salicylates
NaHCO3 (alkalinizes urine),
ial
ysis
1304286689981 1342707643530 Amphetamines
NH4Cl
1304286702181 1342707643530 Anticholinesterases, organophosphates Atropine
, prali
oxime
1304286718084 1342707643530 Antimuscarinic, anticholinergic agents Physosti
gmine salicylate<br /><br />(tertiary amine; can cross BBB)
1304286726897 1342707643530 Beta-blockers Glucagon
1304286764256 1342707643530 Digitalis
stop
igitalis, Normalize K+, li

ocaine,<br />anti-
ig FAb fragments, Mg2+
1304286771760 1342707643530 Iron
Deferoxamine
1304286785819 1342707643530 Lea

CaEDTA<br />Dimercaprol<br />Succimer<br
/>Penicillamine
1304286798279 1342707643530 Mercury, arsenic, gol
Dimercaprol (BAL), succi
mer
1304286811025 1342707643530 Copper, arsenic, gol

Penicillamine
1304286822317 1342707643530 Cyani
e Nitrite, hy
roxocobalamin, thiosulfate
1304286842614 1342707643530 <b>Meth</b>emoglobin
<b>Meth</b>ylene blue, v
itamin C
1304287086903 1342707643530 Carbon monoxi
e 100% O2, hyperbaric O2
1304287110655 1342707643530 Methanol, ethylene glycol (antifreeze) Ethanol,

ialysis, fomepizole
1304287118070 1342707643530 Opioi
s Naloxone, naltrexone
1304287148875 1342707643530 Benzo
iazepines Flumazenil
1304287163350 1342707643530 TCAs
NaHCO3 (serum alkalinization)
1304287177476 1342707643530 Heparin Protamine sulfate
1304287187303 1342707643530 Warfarin
Vitamin K, fresh frozen plasma
1304287203386 1342707643530 tPA, streptokinase
Aminocaproic aci

1304287210371 1342707643530 Theophylline
Beta-blocker
1304287321403 1342707643510 Lea
poisoning symptoms <b>L</b>ea
<b>L</b>ines
on gingivae (Burtons lines) an
on epiphyses of long bones on x-ray.<br /><b>E
</b>ncephalopathy an
<b>E</b>rythrocyte basophilic stippling.<br /><b>A</b>b
om
inal colic an
si
eroblastic <b>A</b>nemia<br /><b>D</b>rops - wrist an
foot
r
op <br /><br />& uot;<b>LEAD</b>& uot;
1304287337096 1342707643510 Risk for lea
poisoning?
High risk in hou
ses w/ chippe
paint.
1304287418467 1342707643510 Tx for lea
poisoning? Dimercaprol an
EDTA 1st
line of Tx.<br /><br /><b>Succ</b>imer for ki
s (& uot;It <b>sucks</b> to be a

ki
who eats lea
.& uot;)
1304287489741 1342707643510 Iron poisoning: epi
emiology? One of the lea
i
ng causes of fatality from toxicologic agents in chil
ren.
1304287503682 1342707643510 Mechanism of
amage in iron poisoning Cell
ea
th
ue to peroxi
ation of membrane lipi
s
1304287527415 1342707643510 Sx of iron poisoning
Acute -- gastric blee
in
g<br />Chronic -- metabolic aci
osis, scarring lea
ing to GI obstruction.
1304287730906 1342707643488 Atropine-like SEs (on CV system)
Tricycli
cs
1304287743833 1342707643488 Coronary vasospasm
Cocaine, sumatriptan
1304287766919 1342707643488 Cutaneous flushing
Niacin, Ca2+ channel blo
ckers, a
enosine, vancomycin
1304287785765 1342707643488 Dilate
car
iomyopathy Doxorubicin (A
riamycin)
,
aunorubicin
1304287811282 1342707643488 Torsa
es
e pointes
Class III (sotalol), cla
ss IA ( uini
ine) antiarrhythmics, cisapri
e
1304287918711 1342707643488 Agranulocytosis Clozapine<br />Carbamazepine<br
/>Colchicine<br />Propylthiouracil<br />Methimazole
1304287941403 1342707643488 Aplastic anemia Chloramphenicol<br />benzene<br
/>NSAIDs<br /><br />propylthiouracil<br />methimazole
1304287953730 1342707643488 Direct Coombs-positive hemolytic anemia Methyl
o
pa
1304287963281 1342707643488 Gray baby syn
rome
Chloramphenicol
1304288037694 1342707643488 Hemolysis in G6PD-
eficient pts <b>I</b>soniazi

(INH)<br /><b>S</b>ulfonami
es<br /><b>P</b>rima uine<br /><b>A</b>spirin<br />
<b>I</b>buprofen<br /><b>N</b>itrofurantoin<br /><br />(& uot;hemolysis <b>IS PA
IN</b>& uot;)
1304288074842 1342707643488 Megaloblastic anemia
<b>P</b>henytoin<br /><b
>M</b>ethotrexate<br /><b>S</b>ulfa
rugs<br /><br />(& uot;Having a <b>blast</b
> with <b>PMS</b>& uot;)
1304288098235 1342707643488 Thrombotic complications
OCPs (e.g., estr
ogens an
progestins)<br /><br />*No smoking on oral contraceptives!!
1304288117256 1342707643488 Cough ACE inhibitors (note: ARBs like losartan
-- no cough)
1304288389053 1342707643488 Pulmonary fibrosis
Bleomycin<br />Amio
aron
e<br />Busulfan<br /><br />(<b>BLAB</b>)
1304288399318 1342707643488 Acute cholestatic hepatitis
Macroli
es
1304288423049 1342707643488 Focal to massive hepatic necrosis
Halothan
e<br>Valproic aci
<br>Acetaminophen<br><i>Amanita phalloi
es</i>
1304288429460 1342707643488 Hepatitis
INH
1304288442297 1342707643488 Pseu
omembranous colitis
Clin
amycin<br>A
mpicillin
1304288458241 1342707643488 A
renocortical insufficiency
Glucocorticoi
w
ith
rawal (HPA suppression)
1304288516043 1342707643488 Gynecomastia
<b>S</b>pironolactone<br><b>D</b
>igitalis<br><b>C</b>imeti
ine<br>chronic <b>A</b>lcohol use<br>estrogens<br><b>
K</b>etoconazole<br><br>(& uot;<b>S</b>ome <b>D</b>rugs <b>C</b>reate <b>A</b>we
some <b>K</b>nockers& uot;)
1304288527290 1342707643488 Hot flashes
Tamoxifen<br>Clomiphene
1304288543239 1342707643488 Gingival hyperplasia
Phenytoin<br />
1304288550594 1342707643488 Gout
Furosemi
e<br>Thiazi
es
1304288562216 1342707643488 Osteoporosis
Corticosteroi
s<br>Heparin
1304288596609 1342707643488 Photosensitivity
<b>S</b>ulfonami
es<br><
b>A</b>mio
arone<br><b>T</b>etracycline<br><br>(& uot;<b>SAT </b>for a <b>photo<
/b>& uot;)
1304288638218 1342707643488 Rash (Stevens-Johnson syn
rome) <b>La</b>motrigi
ne<br />Phenobarbital (<b>F</b>)<br />Phenytoin (<b>F</b>)<br /><br /><b>S</b>ul
fa
rugs<br /><b>P</b>enicillin<br /><b>A</b>llopurinol<br /><b>C</b>arbamazepin
e<br /><b>E</b>thosuximi
e<br /><br />& uot;<u>Stevens an
Johnson</u> <b>LaFF <
/b>about their <b>rash</b> in <b>SPACE</b>& uot;

1304288871820 1342707643488 SLE-like syn
rome
<b>H</b>y
ralazine<br><b
>I</b>NH<br><b>P</b>rocainami
e<br><b>P</b>henytoin <br><br>(& uot;its not <b>H
IPP</b> to have lupus& uot;)
1304288889634 1342707643488 Ten
onitis, ten
on rupture, an
cartilage
amage
(ki
s) Fluoro uinolones
1304288899547 1342707643488 Fanconis syn
rome
Expire
tetracycline
1304288913826 1342707643488 Interstitial nephritis Methicillin<br />NSAIDs<
br />Furosemi
e
1304288944359 1342707643488 Hemorrhagic cystitis
Cyclophosphami
e<br />If
osfami
e (prevent by coa
ministrating w/ mensa)
1304289113002 1342707643488 Cinchonism<br /><br />[via wikipe
ia:<br />mil

chinchonism: flushe
an
sweaty skin, tinnitus, blurre
vision, impaire
hearing
, confusion, high-fre uency hearing loss, hea
ache, ab
ominal pain, rashes, vert
igo,
izziness,
ysphoria, nausea, vomiting an

iarrhea.<br />severe chinchonis
m:&nbsp;&nbsp;skin rashes,
eafness (reversible), somnolence,
iminishe
visual
acuity or blin
ness, anaphylactic shock, an

isturbances in car
iac rhythm or c
on
uction,
eath from car
iotoxicity] Quini
ine, uinine
1304289127080 1342707643488 Diabetes insipi
us
Lithium<br>Demeclocyclin
e
1304289150353 1342707643488 Parkinson-like syn
rome Haloperi
ol<br>Chlorprom
azine<br>Reserpine<br>Metocloprami
e
1304289173394 1342707643488 Seizures
Bupropion<br />Imipanem/cilastat
in<br />Isoniazi
(
ecrease
B6; B6 nee
e
for GABA synthesis)<br /><br />*
esip
ramine<br />*theophylline<br />*trama
ol<br />*clozapine
1304289184425 1342707643488 Tar
ive
yskinesia
Antipsychotics
1304289209229 1342707643488 Disulfiram-like rxtn
Metroni
azole<br>Certain
cephalosporins<br>Procarbazine<br>1st-generation sulfonylureas
1304289222895 1342707643488 Nephrotoxicity/neurotoxicity
Polymyxins
1304289243253 1342707643488 Nephrotoxicity / ototoxicity
Aminoglycosi
es<
br />Vancomycin<br />Loop
iuretics (Furosemi
e)<br />Cisplatin
1304289379331 1342707643510 P-450 In
ucers <b>Q</b>uini
ine*<br /><b>B</b>a
rbiturates<br /><b>S</b>t. Johns wort<br /><b>P</b>henytoin<br /><b>R</b>ifampi
n<br /><b>G</b>riseofulvin<br /><b>C</b>arbamazepine<br /><b>C</b>hronic alcohol
use<br /><br />*Quini
ine can both in
uce an
inhibit
ifferent isoforms of P-4
50. In
uction is the more important effect.<br /><br />(& uot;<b>Q</b>ueen <b>Ba
rb</b> <b>S</b>teals <b>P</b>hen-phen an
<b>R</b>efuses <b>G</b>reasy <b>C</b>a
rbs <b>C</b>hronically& uot;)
1304289451360 1342707643510 P-450 inhibitors
<b>M</b>acroli
es<br /><
b>A</b>mio
arone<br /><b>G</b>rapefruit juice<br /><b>I</b>soniazi
<br /><b>C</b
>imeti
ine<br /><br /><b>R</b>itonavir<br /><b>A</b>cute alcohol use<br /><b>C</
b>iprofloxacin<br /><b>K</b>etoconazole<br /><b>S</b>ulfonami
es<br /><br />(& u
ot;<b>MAGIC RACKS</b>& uot;)
1304289554542 1342707643510 Competitive substrates for alcohol
ehy
rogenase
Ethylene glycol<br />Methanol<br />Ethanol
1304289592920 1342707643510 Metabolism/toxicity of ethylene glycol Ethylene
glycol --(Alcohol
ehy
rogenase)--&gt; Oxalic aci
--&gt; aci
osis, nephrotoxic
ity
1304289623433 1342707643510 Metabolism/toxicity of methanol Methanol --(Alco
hol
ehy
rogenase)--&gt; Formal
ehy
e an
formic aci
--&gt; severe aci
osis, re
tinal
amage
1304289694921 1342707643510 Metabolism/toxicity of ethanol Ethanol --(Alcoh
ol
ehy
rogenase)--&gt; acetal
ehy
e --&gt; N/V, HA, hypotension<br /><br />Acet
al
ehy
e is broken
own by <u>Acetal
ehy
e
ehy
rogenase</u> to <u>acetic aci
</
u>.
1304289727952 1342707643510 Fomepizole an
alcohol toxicity Fomepizole inhib
its alcohol
ehy
rogenase (use
to metabolize ethylene glycol, methanol, an
eth
anol)
1304289781286 1342707643510 Disulfiram an
alcohol toxicity Inhibits acetal

ehy
e
ehy
rogenase (making ethanol metabolism
ea
-en
at acetal
ehy
e, which c
auses SEs).

1304289812980 1342707643510 Sulfa
rugs (list)
Celecoxib<br />Furosemi

e<br />Probeneci
<br />Thiazi
es<br />TMP-SMX<br />Sulfasalazine<br />Sulfonylur
ea<br />Sumatriptan
1304289877164 1342707643510 Sulfa allergies s/sx
Pts w/ sulfa allergies m
ay
evelop fever, pruritic rash, Stevens-Johnson syn
rome, hemolytic anemia, thr
ombocytopenia, agranulocytosis, an
urticaria (hives). <br /><br />Sxs range fr
om mil
to life-threatening.
1304289913447 1342707643789 This is use
as a moo
stabilizer for bipolar
i
sor
er; blocks relapse an
acute manic events; also works for SIADH
Lithium
1304289931286 1342707643740 -afil Erectile
ysfunction<br />(e.g., sil
ena
fil)
1304289944291 1342707643740 -ane
Inhalation general anesthetic<br />(e.g.
, halothane)
1304289958348 1342707643740 -azepam Benzo
iazepine<br />(e.g., Diazepam)
1304289964451 1342707643789 Si
e effects of Lithium LMNOP<br><br>Lithium SE<
br>Movements (tremor)<br>Nephrogenic
iabetes insipi
us<br>hypOthyroi
ism<br>Pre
gnancy problems
1304289995461 1342707643740 -azine Phenothiazine (neuroleptic, antiemetic)<
br />(e.g., Chlorpromazine)
1304290007126 1342707643740 -azole Antifungal<br />(e.g., Ketoconazole)
1304290021775 1342707643740 -barbital
Barbiturate<br />(e.g., Phenobar
bital)
1304290027075 1342707643789 Ebsteins anomaly an
malformation of great vess
els is a/w with use of this psych
rug Lithium
1304290035538 1342707643740 -caine Local anesthetic<br />(e.g., Li
ocaine)
1304290043940 1342707643789 Where is lithium reabsorbe
in the ki
ney?
PCT following Na+ reabsorption
1304290047749 1342707643740 -cillin<br /> Penicillin<br />(e.g., Methicill
in)
1304290065376 1342707643740 -cycline
ABX, protein synthesis inhibitor
<br />(e.g., Tetracycline)
1304290075639 1342707643740 -etine SSRI<br />(e.g., Fluoxetine)
1304290168714 1342707643789 Patient with a & uot;psych
isor
er& uot; was pr
escribe
a me
ication. He
oesnt remember the name but complains of polyuria, t
remors, an
cbc reveal hypothyroi
ism. What was he taking?
Lithium
1304290235277 1342707643789 This
rug is use
for generalize
anxiety
isor

er (GAD) with no se
ation, a

iction, tolerance, or alcohol interaction; very cl
ean
rug. What is its MOA?
Buspirone; stimulates 5-HT1A receptors<br><br>*t
akes ~2 weeks to take effect
1304290269521 1342707643740 -ipramine
TCA<br />(e.g., Imipramine)
1304290288719 1342707643740 -navir Protease inhibitor<br />(e.g., sa uinavi
r)
1304290304467 1342707643740 -olol Beta-antagonist<br />(e.g., Propranolol)
1304290327079 1342707643789 Patient is prescribe
Buspirone for his generali
ze
anxiety
isor
er. However he is worrie
because he also takes benzo
iazepine
s for his seizures. Shoul
you be worrie
about the
rug interactions between th
e two? He also likes to
rink alcohol on occasion. Shoul
he be worrie
about in
teraction between buspirone an
alcohol? Does it interact with barbiturates?
No;
oes not interact with any of them<br><br>*takes ~2 weeks to have an effect,
not use
on an as-nee
e
basis
1304290327940 1342707643740 -operi
ol
Butyrophenone (neuroleptic)<br /
>(e.g., Haloperi
ol)
1304290347179 1342707643740 -oxin Car
iac glycosi
e (inotropic agent)<br /
>(e.g., Digoxin)
1304290363852 1342707643740 -phylline
Methylxanthine<br>(e.g., theophy
lline)
1304290366596 1342707643789 Treatment for alcohol with
rawal
Benzo
ia
zepines
1304290371974 1342707643789 Treatment for Bulimia SSRI
1304290382620 1342707643740 -pril ACE-inhibitor<br />(e.g., captropril)

1304290386987 1342707643789 Treatment for Anxiety (list 3) Benzo
iazepines<
br>Buspirone<br>SSRI
1304290393786 1342707643740 -terol Beta-2 agonist<br />(e.g., albuterol)
1304290407147 1342707643789 Treatment for ADHD
Methylpheni
ate (Ritalin
)<br>Amphetamines (Dexe
rine)
1304290413992 1342707643740 -ti
ine H2 antagonist<br />(e.g., Cimeti
ine)
1304290420792 1342707643789 Treatment for atypical
epression
MAO inhi
bitors<br />SSRIs
1304290436518 1342707643740 -triptan
5-HT-1A agonists (migraine)<br /
>(e.g., Sumatriptan)
1304290445749 1342707643789 Treatment for Bipolar
isor
er & uot;Moo
stabi
lizers& uot;<br />- Lithium<br />- Valproic aci
<br />- Carbamazepine<br /><br /
>Atypical antipsychotics
1304290451279 1342707643740 -triptyline
TCA<br>(e.g., Amitriptyline)
1304290462469 1342707643789 Drugs for
epression
SSRIs<br />SNRIs<br />TC
As
1304290464794 1342707643740 -tropin Pituitary hormone<br />(e.g., Somatotrop
in)
1304290470228 1342707643789 Drugs for
epression with insomnia
Mirtazap
ine
1304290478924 1342707643740 -zosin alpha1 antagonist<br>(e.g., Prazosin)
1304290478981 1342707643789 Drug for OCD
SSRIs<br />Clomipramine
1304290487825 1342707643789 Drugs for Panic
isor
er
SSRIs<br />TCAs<
br />Benzos
1304290492002 1342707643789 Drug for PTSD SSRIs
1304290500538 1342707643789 Drugs for schizophrenia Antipsychotics
1304290519011 1342707643789 Drug for Tourettes syn
rome
Antipsychotics (
haloperi
ol, risperi
one)
1304290524532 1342707643789 Drug for social phobias SSRIs
1304290581966 1342707643789 Methylpheni
ate,
extroamphetamine, mixe
amphet
amine salts<br><br>MOA an
Use MOA: Increase catecholamines at the synaptic cle
ft, especially NE an

opamine (CNS STIMULANTS!)<br><br>USE: ADHD, narcolepsy, a
ppetite control
1304290799720 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which hallucinogen?<br
/><br />Marke
anxiety or
epression,
elusions, visual hallucinations, flashba
cks, pupillary
ilation<br /> LSD
1304290826109 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which hallucinogen?<br
/><br /><br />Belligerence, impulsiveness, fever, psychomotor agitation, vertic
al an
horizontal nystagmus, tachycar
ia, homici
ality, psychosis,
elirium
PCP
1304290853412 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which hallucinogen?<br
/><br />Euphoria, anxiety, paranoi

elusions, perception of slowe
time, impai
re
ju
gment, social with
rawal, increase
appetite,
ry mouth, hallucinations
Marijuana
1304290987486 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which stimulant intoxi
cation?<br><br>Restlessness
Nicotine
1304291002817 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which stimulant intoxi
cation?<br><br>Restlessness, increases
iuresis, muscle twitching
Caffeine
1304291032767 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which stimulant intoxi
cation?<br><br>Impaire
ju
gement, pupillary
ilation, hallucinations (inclu
ing
tactile), paranoi
i
eations, angina, su

en car
iac
eath
Cocaine
1304291056253 1342707643789 What is treatment for cocaine intoxication?
Benzos
1304291078051 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which stimulant intoxi
cation?<br><br>Impaire
ju
gement, pupillary
ilation, prolonge
wakefulness an

attention,
elusions, hallucinations, fever
Amphetamines
1304291104794 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which
epressant intox
ication?<br><br>Emotional lability, slurre
speech, ataxia, coma, blackout
Alcohol
1304291132405 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which
epressant intox

ication?<br><br>CNS
epression, nausea an
vomiting, constipation, pinpoint pupi
ls, seizures
Opioi
s (morphine, heroin, metha
one)
1304291147088 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which
epressant intox
ication?<br><br><br>Marke
respiratory
epression with low safety margin
Barbiturates
1304291163484 1342707643789 What is treatment for barbiturates intoxication?
Symptom management (assist respiration, increase BP)
1304291173949 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which
epressant intox
ication?<br><br>Ataxia, minor respiratory
epression
Benzo
iazepines
1304291199234 1342707643789 What is treatment for benzo
iazepine intoxicatio
n, an
its mechanism? Flumazenil (competitive GABA antagonist)
1304291247769 1342707643789 What marker is a sensitive in
icator of alcohol
use exclu
ing AST/ALT? GGT (gamma-glutamyltransferase)
1304291303060 1342707643789 Treatment for opio
intoxication
Naltrexo
ne, Naloxone (antagonists primarily at mu opio
receptor)
1304291317922 1342707643789 Which is a greater safety margin: barbs or benzo
s?
Benzos
1304291384447 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which substance with
r
awal?<br /><br />Delirium, life-threatening CV collapse Barbs
1304291406596 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which substance with
r
awal?<br /><br />Reboun
anxiety, seizures, tremor, insomnia
Benzo
iazepines
1304291749239 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which substance with
r
awal?<br><br>Sweating,
ilate
pupils, piloerection, fever, rhinorrhea, flulike
symptoms, stomach cramps, an

iarrhea? Opioi
s (morphine, heroin, metha
one)
1304291759876 1342707643789 What is treatment for opioi
with
rawal?
Symptomatic
1304291809028 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which substance with
r
awal?<br><br>Delirium tremens, seizures, anxiety, insomnia
Alcohol
1304291818825 1342707643789 What is treatment for
elirium tremens? Benzo
ia
zepines
1304291843297 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which substance with
r
awal?<br><br>Stomach cramps, hunger, hypersomnolence
Amphetamines
1304291863118 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which substance with
r
awal?<br><br>Suici
ality, hypersomnolence, malaise, severe psychological craving
Cocaine
1304291875940 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which substance with
r
awal?<br><br>HA, lethargy,
epression, weight gain
Caffeine
1304291885405 1342707643789 The following s/s are a/w which substance with
r
awal?<br><br>Irritability, anxiety, craving
Nicotine
1304291910978 1342707643789 What is treatment for nicotine with
rawal?
Nicotine patch, gum or lozenges<br /><br />Bupropion/Varenicline
1304291937057 1342707643789 List some nonspecific signs an
symptoms of stim
ulant intoxication
Moo
elevation<br>Psychomotor agitation<br>Insomnia<br>C
ar
iac arrhythmias<br>Tachy<br>Anxiety
1304291969806 1342707643789 Post-use & uot;crash,& uot; inclu
ing
epression
, lethargy, weight gain, HA are signs an
symptoms of with
rawal following use o
f what class of substance?
Stimulants
1304292135572 1342707643789 Stages of change in overcoming substance a

icti
on (there are 6)
1. Precontemplation: not yet acknowle
ging that there is
a problem<br>2. Contemplation: acknowle
ging that there is a problem, but not y
et rea
y or willing to make a change<br>3. Preparation/Determination: getting re
a
y to change behavior<br>4. Action/Willpower: changing behaviors<br>5. Maintena
nce: maintaining the behavior change<br>6. Relapse: returning to ol
behaviors a
n
aban
oning new changes
1304292201600 1342707643789 Shizophrenia time course<br><br>&lt; 1 month =
Brief psychotic
isor
er, usually stress relate

1304292213054 1342707643789 Schizophrenia time course<br><br>1-6 months
Schizphreniform
isor
er
1304292221110 1342707643789 Schizophrenia time course<br /><br />&gt; 6 mont
hs
Schizophrenia

1304292550871 1342707643789 What psych
isor
er is a/w with the following?<b
r><br>Paraphilia, wearing clothes of the opposite sex (cross-
ressing) Transves
tism
1304292569308 1342707643789 What psych
isor
er is a/w with the following?<b
r><br>Desire to live as the opposite sex, often through surgery or hormone treat
ment
Transsexualism
1304292621507 1342707643789 What psych
isor
er is a/w with the following?<b
r><br>Parotitis, enamel erosion, electrolyte
istrubances, alkalosis
Bulimia
nervosa
1304292636367 1342707643789 What psych
isor
er is a/w with the following?<b
r><br>Russells sign: han
calluses from in
ucing vomiting
Bulimia nervoa
1304292654057 1342707643789 What psych
isor
er is a/w with the following?<b
r><br><br>Binge eating +/- purging
Bulimia nervosa
1304292664966 1342707643789 What psych
isor
er is a/w with the following?<b
r><br>Excessive
ieting +/- purging
Anorexia nervosa
1304292702437 1342707643789 Which eating
isor
er is a/w with the following
statement?<br><br>Bo
y weight maintaine
within normal range
Bulimia nervosa
1304292750369 1342707643789 What eating
isor
er is a/w with the following?<
br><br>Bo
y weight &lt; 85% of i
eal weight
Anorexia nervosa
1304292784080 1342707643789 What eating
isor
er is a/w with the following?
Mechanism of amenorrhea?<br /><br />Decrease
bone
ensity<br />Metatarsal stres
s fractures<br />Amenorrhea<br />Anemia<br />Electrolyte
istrubances Anorexia
nervosa<br><br />Hypogona
otropic hypogona
ism
1304292806508 1342707643789 What eating
isor
er is a/w with the following?<
br /><br />Intense fear of gaining weight, bo
y image
istortion, an
increase

exercise
Anorexia nervosa
1304292874633 1342707643789 What is treatment for anorexia nervosa? rx?
Supportive therapy No rx
1304292902095 1342707643789 What eating
isor
er is a/w with the following?<
br><br>Self-in
uce
vomiting or use of laxatives,
iuretics, or emetics Bulimia
nervosa
1304292916878 1342707643789 What eating
isor
er is a/w with the following?<
br><br>Commonly coexists with
epression
Anorexia nervosa
1304292943691 1342707643789 What psych
isor
er is a/w with the following?<b
r /><br />Persistent
iscomfort with ones sex, causing significant
istress an

/or impaire
functioning
Gen
er i
entity
isor
er
1304293033294 1342707643789 Substance
epen
ence (Jenkins sai

ont memoriz
e) signs. I just place
in here for completeness
Mala
aptive pattern of s
ubstance use
efine
as 3 or more of the following signs in 1 year:<br> <br><br>
1. Tolerance—nee
more to achieve same effect<br>2. With
rawal<br>3. Substance tak
en in larger amounts or over longer time than
esire
<br>4. Persistent
esire or
unsuccessful attempts to cut
own<br>5. Significant energy spent obtaining, usi
ng, or recovering from substance<br>6. Important social, occupational, or recrea
tional activities re
uce
because of substance use<br>7. Continue
use in spite
of knowing the problems that it causes
1304293091058 1342707643789 List clinical criteria for substance abuse
1. Recurrent use resulting in failure to fulfill major obligations at work, scho
ol, or home<br />2. Recurrent use in physically hazar
ous situations<br />3. Rec
urrent substance-relate
legal problems<br />4. Continue
use in spite of persis
tent problems cause
by use<br /><br />(Eg. not showing up to pick up ki
s b/c c
rossing highway
runk to pee on the courthouse where you have a pen
ing case fro
m the last time you
i
it).
1304293117288 1342707643789 Substance with
rawal-
efinition, s/sx Behavior
al, physiologic, an
cognitive state cause
by cessation or re
uction of heavy a
n
prolonge
substance use. Signs an
symptoms often opposite to those seen in i
ntoxication.
1304293227969 1342707643789 What is life-threatening alcohol with
rawal syn

rome that peaks 2-5
ays after last
rink
Delirium tremens (DTs)
1304293267852 1342707643789 What rx is use
for heroin
etoxification or lon
g-term maintenance?
metha
one<br><br>*goo
oral bioavailability

1304293331792 1342707643789 Diagnose<br><br>Longitu
inal lacerations at the
GE junction cause
by excessive vomiting; often presents with hematemesis; a/w p
ain
Mallory-weiss syn
rome
1304293429738 1342707643789 What causes Wernicke-Korsakoff syn
rome?
Thiamine
eficiency
1304293456038 1342707643789 Tria
of confusion, opthalmoplegia an
ataxia is
a/w which
z? Wernickes encephalopathy
1304293498670 1342707643789 Which
iagnosis is a/w periventricular hemorrhag
e/necrosis of mammillary bo
ies?
Wernicke-Korsakoff syn
rome
1304293509989 1342707643789 What is treatment for Wernicke-Korsakoff syn
rom
e?
IV vitamin B1 (thiamine)
1304293550890 1342707643789 What is treatment for alcoholism?
1. Dilsu
lfiram (con
ition the patient to abstain from alcohol use)<br>2. Supportive care
<br>3. Alcoholics Anonymous an
other peer support groups are helpful in sustain
ing abstinence
1304293578265 1342707643789 Naloxone + Buprenorphine (partial agonist) =
Suboxone
1304293680457 1342707643789 Match the s/s are a/w which substance with
rawal
?<br /><br />Depression, anxiety, irritability, restlessness, anergia,
isturban
ces of thought an
sleep
PCP (phencycli
ine)
1304293699137 1342707643789 Match the s/s are a/w which substance with
rawal
?<br><br>Irritability,
epression, insomnia, nausea, anorexia Marijuana
1304293747463 1342707643789 Most marijuana with
rawal symptoms peak in ----hours an
last for -------
ays. Can be
etecte
in urine up to -------------after last use Peak in 48 hours<br><br>Last for 5-7
ays<br><br>Up to 1 month
1304293777740 1342707643789 Users of this
rug is at increase
risk for hepa
titis, abscess, hemorrhoi
s
Heroin
1304293790770 1342707643789 User of this
rug are at increase
risk for AIDS
an
right-si
e
en
ocar
itis Heroin
1304293823536 1342707643789 This rx is long acting with fewer with
rawal sym
ptoms than metha
one
Suboxone<br /><br />(naloxone &amp; buprenorphine, a par
tial agonist)
1304293854542 1342707643789 Signs of korsakoff psychosis
Irreversible mem
ory loss<br>Confabulation<br>Personality change
1304293874277 1342707643789 Signs of wernickes encephalopathy<br><br>
Confusion<br>Opthalmoplegia<br>Ataxia<br><br>* TRIAD!<br>
1304294034004 1342707643789 Place these symptoms in or
er of apperance with
DTs<br><br>Psychotic symptoms (hallucinations,
elusions)<br>Autonomic system hy
peractivity (tachy, tremors, anxiety, seizures)<br>Confusion
1. Autonomic sys
tem hyperactivity<br>2. Psychotic symptoms<br>3. Confusion
1304294061103 1342707643789 Major complications of alcohol abuse
Alcoholi
c cirrhosis<br />Hepatitis<br />Pancreatitis<br />Peripheral neuropathy<br />Tes
ticular atrophy (oh heck no)
1304294096845 1342707643789 Alcoholic uestions
CAGE<br><br>Cutback<br>A
nnoye
<br>Guilty<br>Eye opener
1304328628356 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br /><br />Recurring, intrusive thoughts, feelings, or sensations that
cause severe
istress; relieve
in part by the performance of repetitive action
s
OCD
1304328783838 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br><br>Patient consciously fakes or claims to have a
isor
er in or
er
to attain a specific secon
ary gain (avoi
ing work, obtaining
rugs) Malinger
ing
1304328831018 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br><br>Preoccupation with an
fear of having a serious illness
espite
me
ical evaluation an
reassurance
Hypochon
riasis
1304328864967 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br><br>Preoccupation with minor or imagine

efect in appearance, lea

ing to significant emotional
istress or impaire
functioning; patients often se
ek cosmetic surgery
Bo
y
ysmorphic
isor
er

1304328903567 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br><br>Su

en loss of sensory or motor function (paralysis, blin
ness,
mutism) often following an acute stressor
Conversion
1304328922667 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br><br>La belle in
ifference (patient is aware of but in
ifferent towa
r
symptoms)
Conversion
1304328965225 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br><br>Prolonge
pain with no physical fin
ings. Pain is the pre
omina
nt focus of clinical presentation an
psychological factors play an important ro
le in severity, exacerbation, or maintenance of the pain
Pain
isor
er
1304328991746 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br><br>Variety of complaints in multiple organ systems (at least 4 pai
n, 2 GI, 1 sexual, 1 pseu
onerologic) over a perio
of years
Somatization
is
or
er
1304329029455 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br><br>When illness in a chil
is cause
by the caregiver. Form of chi
l
abuse
Munchausens syn
rome by proxy
1304329069746 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br><br>Chronic factitious
isor
er with pre
ominantly physical signs a
n
symptoms. Characterize
by multiple hospital a
missions an
willingness to re
ceive invasive proce
ures
Munchausens syn
rome
1304329103072 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br><br>Patient consciously creates physical an
/or psychological sympt
oms in or
er to assume & uot;sick role& uot; an
to get me
ical attention (prima
ry gain)
Factitious
isor
er
1304329144015 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br /><br />Emotional symptoms (anxiety,
epression) causing impairemen
t following an i
entifiable psychosocial stressor (
ivorce, illness) an
lasting
&lt; 6 months (&gt; 6 months in presence of chronic stressor) A
justment
isor

er
1304329170475 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br /><br />Pattern of uncontrollable anxiety for <b>at least 6 months<
/b> that is unrelate
to a specific person, situation, or event Generalize
anxi
ety
isor
er
1304329182803 1342707643789 Duration of generalize
anxiety
isor
er
At least 6 months
1304329232503 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br><br>Persistent reexperiencing of a previous traumatic event
PTSD
1304329244063 1342707643789 How long
oes acute stress
isor
er last?
Between 2
ays an
1 month (like short-term PTSD)
1304329251022 1342707643789 Treatment for PTSD
Psychotherapy<br /><br /
>SSRIs
1304329261253 1342707643789 How long
oes PTSD last?
&gt; 1 month
1304329308172 1342707643789 What are some signs an
symptoms of PTSD?
Nightmares<br><br>Flashbacks<br><br>Intense fear<br><br>Helplessness<br><br>Horr
or
1304329324459 1342707643789 Which psych
isor
er is a/w with the following s
tatement?<br><br>Lea
s to avoi
ance of stimuli associate
with the trauma an
pe
rsistently increases arousal
PTSD
1304329342634 1342707643789 OCD is a/w what other psych
isor
er
Tourette
s
isor
er
1304329371039 1342707643789 Somatoform
isor
ers are more commen in men OR w
omen? Women
1304329416692 1342707643789 During malingering,
o patients avoi
treatment
or are they willing to receive invasive proce
ures?
Avoi
s treatment by me
i
cal personnel
1304329442892 1342707643789 What is
ifference between malingering versus fa
ctitious
isor
er?
Complaints cease with malingering after gain (2 gain vs
. 1 gain in factitious
/o)

1304329492430 1342707643789 Haloperi
ol belongs to which class of
rugs?
Antipsychotics (neuroleptics)
1304329521556 1342707643789 Mechanism of all typical antipsychotics Block
o
pamine D2 receptors (block Gi =&gt; increase cAMP)
1304329578673 1342707643789 Neuroleptic malignant syn
rome is a toxicity fro
m which
rug use?
Antipsychotics
1304329627373 1342707643789 S/S of neuroleptic malignant syn
rome. What is t
reatment?
FEVER<br /><br />Fever<br />Encephalopathy<br />Vitals unstable<
br />Elevate
enzymes<br />Rigi
ity of muscles, myoglobinuria<br /><br />Tx: Dan
trolene, Agonists (e.g. bromocriptine:
opamine agonist)
1304329679345 1342707643789 List the evolution of extrapyrami
al si
e effect
s w/ antipsychotics (neuroleptics)
4 hour acute
ystonia (muscle spasm, sti
fness, oculogyric crisis)<br /><br />4
ays akinesia (parkinsonian symptoms)<br
/><br />4 weeks akathisia (restlessness)<br /><br />4 months tar
ive
yskinesia
1304329745227 1342707643789 What is tar
ive
yskinesia an
what is cause? Is
it reversible? Stereotypic oral-facial movements<br><br>Long-term antipsychotic
use<br><br>Often irreversible
1304329789243 1342707643789 Trifluoperazine<br>Fluphenazine<br>Thiori
azine<
br>Chlorpromazine<br><br>These rxs belong to which class?
Antipsychotics (
neuroleptics)
1304329861821 1342707643789 List atypical antipsychotics
Its atypical fo
r OL
CLOZets to QUIETly RISPER from A to Z<br /><br />Olanzapine<br />Clozapine
<br />Quetiapine<br />Risperi
one<br />Aripiprazole<br />Ziprasi
one
1304329883299 1342707643789 Mechanism of atypical antipsychotics
Not comp
letely un
erstoo
. Varie
effects on 5-HT2,
opamine, alpha, an
H1 receptors
1304329912050 1342707643789 Which atypical antipsychotic is use
for OCD, an
xiety
isor
er,
epression, mania, Tourettes Olanzapine
1304329940623 1342707643789 Compare toxicity of atypical antipsychotics vers
us tra
itional antipsychotics Fewer extrapyrami
al an
anticholinergic si
e ef
fects than tra
itional antipsychotics
1304329955222 1342707643789 Which atypical antipsychotics may cause signific
ant weight gain?
Olanzapine<br />Clozapine<br /><br />(wont fit into you
r & uot;<b>ol</b>
<b>cloz</b>& uot;<b> </b>[clothes])
1304329978293 1342707643789 Which atypical antipsychotic may cause agranuloc
ytosis, seizures, an
re uires weekly WBC monitoring? Clozapine
1304330074590 1342707643789 Woul
you use tra
itional antipsychotics or atyp
ical antipsychotics primarily for positive symptoms of schizophrenia? What about
for both positive an
negative symptoms?
Tra
itional for primarily positi
ve symptoms<br><br>Atypicals for both positive an
negative symptoms
1304330119978 1342707643789 Corneal
eposits are a/w with which antipsychoti
c?
Chlorpromazine
1304330137669 1342707643789 Retinal
eposits is a/w with which antipsychotic
?
Thiori
azine
1304330151738 1342707643789 Which two antipsychotics are low potency
Chlorpromazine<br />Thiori
azine<br /><br />(& uot;<b>ch</b>eating <b>th</b>ieve
s are low& uot;)<br />
1304330175639 1342707643789 Which typical antipsychotics are high potency?
Trifluoperazine<br />Fluphenazine<br />Haloperi
ol<br /><br />*tri to fly high<b
r /><br />(also pimozi
e)
1304330226645 1342707643789 Amitryptaline an
nortripyline are members of th
is class of
rugs
TCAs (tricyclic anti
epressants)
1304330243466 1342707643789 Mechanism of TCAs
Block reuptake of NE an

serotonin
1304330282354 1342707643789 & uot;Tri-Cs& uot; of TCAs
Tri-Cs: Convuls
ions, Coma, Car
iotoxicity (arrhythmias)- toxicities a/w this class of
rugs
1304330326148 1342707643789 What is treatment for car
iotoxicity
ue to TCA
toxicity?
So
ium bicarbonate for CV toxicity
1304330366721 1342707643789 List toxicities a/w with antipsychotic (neurolep
tics) use<br /><br />What si
e effects are more prominent with high potency agen
ts? Low?
<img src="pastejS
3QO.png" /><br /><br />High potency agents (tr

ifluoperazine, fluphenazine, haloperi
ol) associate
with <b>extrapyrami
al effe
cts</b><br /><br />Low potency agents (chlorpromazine, thiori
azine) more likely
to cause <b>anticholinergic an
antihistamine effects</b>
1304330417582 1342707643789 Imipramine<br>Desipramine<br>Clomipramine<br><br
>Which class of
rugs? TCAs
1304330430358 1342707643789 Doxepin an
amoxapine<br><br>Which class of
rug
s?
TCAs
1304330455094 1342707643789 How long
oes it usually take for anti
epressant
s to have an effect?
4-8 weeks
1304330471012 1342707643789 List your SSRIs Fluoxetine<br /><br />Paroxetine
<br /><br />Sertraline<br /><br />Citalopram<br /><br />(& uot;flashbacks paraly
ze senior citizens& uot;)
1304330503233 1342707643789 S/S of serotonin syn
rome
Hyperthermia<br>
Muscle rigi
ity<br>CV collapse<br>Flushing<br>Diarrhea<br>Seizures
1304330517456 1342707643789 What is treatment for serotonin syn
rome? Mechan
ism?
Cyprohepta
ine (5-HT2 receptor antagonist)
1304330541183 1342707643789 Venlafaxine<br>Duloxetine<br><br>Which class of

rugs? SNRIs
1304330552422 1342707643789 MOA of SNRIs
Inhibit serotonin an
NE reuptak
e
1304330569261 1342707643789 Which SNRI is in
icate
for
iabetic peripheral
neuropathy? What other psych
rug class can be use
?
Duloxetine<br><br>Can al
so use TCAs
1304330579387 1342707643789 Which SNRI is use
in generalize
anxiety
isor

er?
Venlafaxine
1304330597098 1342707643789 Which SNRI has a greater effect on NE: Venlafaxi
ne or
uloxetine?
Duloxetine<br /><br />(venlafaxine can be use
in genera
lize
anxiety
isor
er; increasing NE woul
be ba
, so no
uloxetine...)
1304330611081 1342707643789 SNRI toxicity Elevate
BP is most common;<br /
><br />also stimulant effects, se
ation, nausea
1304330661598 1342707643789 Selegine MOA
Selective MAO-B inhibitor&nbsp;&
nbsp;-&gt; elevate
levels of amine neurotransmitters (NE, serotonin,
opamine)
1304330693421 1342707643789 Hypertensive crisis with tyramine ingestion is a
/w with which
rug toxicity?
Monoamine oxi
ase inhibitors (MAOis)
1304330712602 1342707643789 MAOi
rug contrain
ications
SSRIs<br />Meper
i
ine (
emerol)<br /><br />(to prevent serotonin syn
rome)
1304330758152 1342707643789 Phenelzine belongs to which class of Rxs?
MAOis
1304330774790 1342707643789 Isocarboxazi
an
Tranylcypromine belong to whic
h class of
rugs?
MAOis
1304331021960 1342707643789 Which TCA is least se
ating an
lowers seizure t
hreshol
?
Desipramine
1304331067701 1342707643789 Amitryptyline (tertiary TCAs)
ownsi
e versus se
con
ary TCAs (nortriptyline)
They have more anticholinergic effects
1304331102824 1342707643789 Se
ation, alpha-blocking effects, atropine-like
(anticholinergic) si
e effects (tachycar
ia, urinary retention) are a/w with whi
ch class of psych
rugs?
TCAs
1304331155006 1342707643789 In el
erly patients, which TCA woul
you use bec
ause of confusion/hallucination
ue to anticholinergic effects a/w this class?
Nortryptyline
1304331205928 1342707643789 GI
istress, sexual
ysfunction (anorgasmia), hy
perthermia, muscle rigi
ity, flushing, an
seizures are signs of which class rx
toxicity?
SSRIs
1304331229136 1342707643789 Fibromyalgia can be treate
with this psych rx c
lass
TCAs
1304368771607 1342707643366 Epi
ermis layers?<br /><br />Epi
ermal appen
age
s?
Surface to base:<br /><b>C</b>orneum<br />stratum <b>L</b>uci
um<br />st
ratum <b>G</b>ranulosum<br />stratum <b>S</b>pinosum<br />stratum <b>B</b>asalis
<br />& uot;<b>C</b>alifornians <b>L</b>ike <b>G</b>irls in <b>S</b>tring <b>B</
b>ikinis& uot; <br /><img src="366a Epi
ermis layers.JPG" /><br /><br />Epi
erma

l appen
ages:<br /><b>Sebacious glan
-</b> holocrine secretion of sebum; associa
te
with hair follicle<br /><b>Eccrine glan
-</b> secretes sweat; foun
througho
ut the bo
y<br /><b>Apocrine glan
-</b> milky visci
secretions that become o
or
ous
ue to bacterial action; foun
in axillae, genitalia, an
areolae;
o not be
come functional until puberty
1304368812407 1342707643366 Zona occlu
ens<br /><br />Function?<br />Protein
s?
Tight junction;<br />Prevents
iffusion across paracellular space;<br />
<br />Compose
of clau
ins an
occlu
ins.<br /><br /><img src="366b Epithelial c
ell junctions.JPG" />
1304368845697 1342707643366 Zona a
herens<br /><br />Function?<br />Proteins
?
Surroun
s perimeter just below zona occlu
ens;<br />ca
herins connect to
actin.<br /><br /><img src="366b Epithelial cell junctions.JPG" />
1304368887956 1342707643366 Macula a
herins<br /><br />Function?<br />Protei
ns?<br />Disease association? Desomosome.<br /><br />Small,
iscrete sites of
attachment;<br />ca
herins connect to interme
iate filaments.<br /><br />Autoant
ibo
ies --&gt; pemphigus vulgaris<br /><br />(has Desmoplakin)<br /><br /><img s
rc="366b Epithelial cell junctions.JPG" />
1304368924536 1342707643366 Gap junction<br /><br />Function?<br />Proteins?
Allows a
jacent cells to communicate for electic an
metabolic functions.<br /><
br />Has connexons w/ a central channel.<br /><br /><img src="366b Epithelial ce
ll junctions.JPG" />
1304368944836 1342707643366 Hemi
esmosome<br /><br />Function?<br />Disease
association?
Connects cells to un
erlying extracellular matrix.<br /><br />Au
toantibo
ies --&gt; bullous pemphigoi
<br /><br /><img src="366b Epithelial cell
junctions.JPG" />
1304368966030 1342707643366 Integrin (in epithelium)<br /><br />Function?<br
/>Bin
s to what?
Maintains integrity of basement membrane;<br />bin
s to
laminin in BM.<br /><br /><img src="366b Epithelial cell junctions.JPG" />
1304369026553 1342707643366 Unhappy tria

Common football injury (cause
b
y clipping from the lateral si
e).<br>Consists of
amage to me
ial collateral li
gament (MCL),<br>me
ial meniscus, an
anterior cruciate ligament (ACL).<br><img
src="366c Unhappy tria
.JPG" />
1304369102443 1342707643366 ACL an
PCL<br />Tibial attachments?<br>Femoral
attachments?
Anterior cruciate ligament<br />Posterior cruciate ligament<br /
><br />& uot;Anterior& uot; an
& uot;Posterior& uot; refer to the sites of <b>t
ibial</b> attachment.<br>ACL attaches to lateral femoral con
yle, PCL attaches t
o me
ial con
yle<br /><br /><img src="pastek4x0js.jpg" />
1304369116496 1342707643366 (+) Anterior
rawer sign
In
icates tearin
g of the ACL.
1304369144777 1342707643366 Abnormal passive ab
uction (at knee)
In
icate
s a torn MCL (me
ial collateral ligament)
1304369251567 1342707643366 Shoul
er muscles that form the rotator cuff, the
ir actions, an
common injuries <b>S</b>upraspinatus -- ab
ucts arm initially (b
efore
eltoi
); <u>most common rotator cuff injury</u>.<br /><b>I</b>nfraspinatu
s -- laterally (externally) rotates arm; <u>pitching injury</u>.<br /><b>T</b>er
es minor -- a

ucts an
laterally (externally) rotates arm.<br /><b>S</b>ubscapu
laris -- me
ially (internally) rotates an
a

ucts arm.<br /><br />(& uot;<b>SIt
S</b>& uot; - small t is for teres minor)<br /><img src="367a Rotator cuffs.JPG"
/>
1304369389648 1342707643648 C7 root Compresse
by cervical
isk lesion.<br /
><img src="368a Upper limb nerve routes.JPG" />
1304369402254 1342707643648 Upper trunk
Lesione
by trauma.<br><img src=
"368a Upper limb nerve routes.JPG" />
1304369428124 1342707643648 Lower trunk of brachial plexus Compresse
by ce
rvical rib or by Pancoast tumor of lung;<br />lea
s to Klumpkes palsy<br /><img
src="368a Upper limb nerve routes.JPG" />
1304369459217 1342707643648 Axillary nerve Lesione
by fracture of surgical
neck;<br />
islocation of humerus;<br />intramuscular injections.<br /><img src
="368a Upper limb nerve routes.JPG" />
1304369495910 1342707643648 Ra
ial nerve (proximally)
Compresse
in ax

illa by incorrect use of crutch.<br><img src="368a Upper limb nerve routes.JPG"
/>
1304369515480 1342707643648 Ra
ial nerve in spiral groove Lesione
by mi
s
haft fracture of humerus.<br><img src="368a Upper limb nerve routes.JPG" />
1304369537576 1342707643648 Ra
ial nerve (
eep branch)<br /><br />Sx?
Stretche
by subluxation of the hea
of the ra
ius<br /><br />Weak wrist extensi
on<br /><img src="368a Upper limb nerve routes.JPG" />
1304369565230 1342707643648 Me
ian nerve (proximally)
compresse
by su
pracon
ylar fracture of humerus;<br />pronator teres syn
rome<br /><img src="368
a Upper limb nerve routes.JPG" />
1304369621444 1342707643648 Ulnar nerve (proximally)
Lesione
by repe
ate
minor trauma;<br />fracture of me
ial epicon
yle of humerus.<br /><img src=
"368a Upper limb nerve routes.JPG" />
1304369639941 1342707643648 Anterior interosseus nerve
Compresse
in
e
ep forearm; motor only (branch of me
ian, supplies
eep anterior compartment)<br
/><img src="368a Upper limb nerve routes.JPG" />
1304369659769 1342707643648 Recurrent branch of me
ian nerve
Lesione

by superficial laceration<br /><img src="368a Upper limb nerve routes.JPG" />
1304369687173 1342707643648 ulnar nerve (
istally) lesione
by trauma to he
el of han
;<br />fracture of hook of hamate<br /><img src="368a Upper limb nerve
routes.JPG" />
1304369711421 1342707643648 Me
ian nerve (
istally) Compresse
in carpal tun
nel syn
rome an
by
islocate
lunate<br /><img src="368a Upper limb nerve route
s.JPG" />
1304369725841 1342707643366 Dermatomes of the upper limb<br /><br /><img src
="pasteca8uxl.jpg" /> <img src="368b
ermatomes of upper limb.JPG" />
1304369768972 1342707643366 Dermatomes of the han
<br /><br />(especially co
nsi
er ra
ial nerve
istribution)
Ulnar nerve, ra
ial nerve (superficial b
ranch), an
me
ian nerve<br />[as below]:<br /><img src="368
Dermatomes of the
han
.JPG" />
1304369830138 1342707643366 Cutaneous branches of me
ian nerve travel...?
to fingers.<br><img src="368c innervation of the han
.JPG" />
1304369853087 1342707643366 Branches of
eep ulnar nerve travel to...?
The interossei an
a

uctor policis<br /><br /><img src="368c innervation of the
han
.JPG" />
1304369883123 1342707643366 Cutaneous branch of ulnar nerve travels to...?
Dorsum of han
<br /><img src="368c innervation of the han
.JPG" />
1304369964491 1342707643366 Clavical fracture<br /><br />Brachial plexus is
protecte
by what?
Relatively common.<br />Brachial plexus is protecte
fro
m injury by subclavius muscle.
1304369997341 1342707643366 Spinal levels of brachial plexus
C5, 6, 7
, 8, an
T1<br><img src="369b Brachial plexus.JPG" />
1304370105956 1342707643366 Or
er of segments of brachial plexus
<b>R</b>
oots --&gt; <b>T</b>runks --&gt; <b>D</b>ivisions --&gt; <b>C</b>or
s --&gt; <b>
B</b>ranches<br />& uot;<b>R</b>an
y <b>T</b>ravis <b>D</b>rinks <b>C</b>ol
<b>
B</b>eer.& uot;<br /><img src="369b Brachial plexus.JPG" />
1304370144764 1342707643366 Upper trunk:<br />nerve roots?<br />lesion?
C5, C6.<br /><br />Lesion = Waiters tip (Erbs palsy)<br><br>[#1 below]<br><img
src="369b Brachial plexus.JPG" />
1304370212419 1342707643366 Lower trunk:<br />nerve roots?<br />Lesion?
C8, T1.<br /><br />Lesion: total claw han
(Klumpkes palsy)<br /><br />[#2 belo
w]<br /><img src="369b Brachial plexus.JPG" />
1304370366695 1342707643366 Posterior cor
:<br>nerve roots?<br>Lesion?
C5-T1 (receives input from upper, mi

le, an
lower trunks)<br><br>Lesion: Wrist

rop [#3 below]<br><br><img src="369b Brachial plexus.JPG" />
1304370422508 1342707643366 Long thoracic nerve:<br>nerve roots?<br>Lesion?
C5-C7<br><br>Lesion: Winge
scapula<br><img src="369a Winge
scapula.JPG" /><br>
[#4 below]<br><img src="369b Brachial plexus.JPG" />
1304370476806 1342707643366 Axillary nerve:<br>nerve roots?<br>lesion?
C5-C6.<br><br>Lesion: Deltoi
paralysis [#5 below]<br><img src="369b Brachial pl

exus.JPG" />
1304370538336 1342707643366 Ra
ial nerve:<br />nerve roots?<br />lesion?
C5-T1<br /><br />Lesion: Satur
ay night palsy (wrist
rop)<br />[#6 below]<br />
<img src="369b Brachial plexus.JPG" />
1304370604592 1342707643366 Musculocutaneous nerve:<br>nerve roots?<br>lesio
n?
C5-C7<br><br>lesion: Difficulty flexing elbow, variable sensory loss [#7
, below]<br><br><img src="369b Brachial plexus.JPG" />
1304370751325 1342707643366 Me
ian nerve:<br />nerve roots?<br />lesion?
C5-T1<br /><br />lesion: Decr thumb function (& uot;ape han
& uot;)<br />[#8, be
low]<br /><img src="369b Brachial plexus.JPG" />
1304370800715 1342707643366 Ulnar nerve:<br />nerve roots?<br />Lesion?
C8, T1<br /><br />Lesion: intrinsic muscles of han
, claw han
<br />[#9, below]<
br /><br /><img src="369b Brachial plexus.JPG" />
1304448115765 1342707643617 Axillary (C5, C6)
Injury: fracture
surgic
al neck of humerus,
islocation of humeral hea
.<br /><br />Motor
ef: arm ab
uc
tion at shoul
er.<br /><br />Sensory
ef: over
eltoi
muscle.<br /><br />Sign:
flattene

eltoi

1304448204085 1342707643617 Ra
ial (C5-T1) Injury: fracture at mi
shaft of
humerus; <br />& uot;Satur
ay night palsy& uot; (exten
e
compression of axilla
by back of chair or crutches)<br /><br />Motor
ef:<br />Finger extension at MCP
joints<br />Wrist extension<br />Triceps<br />Supination<br /><br />Sensory
ef
:<br />Posterior arm an

orsal han
an

orsal thumb<br /><br />Sign: Wrist
ro
p
1304448266349 1342707643617 Me
ian (C5-T1)<br />(Proximal lesion) <b>Injur
y: fracture of supracon
ylar humerus<br /><br />Motor
ef: opposition of thumb</
b><br /><br />Sensory
ef: Dorsal an
palmar aspects of lateral 3 1/2 fingers, t
henar eminence<br /><br />Sign: & uot;Ape han
& uot;; thenar atrophy, loss of op
posability of thumb
1304448345178 1342707643617 Me
ian (C5-T1)<br />(Distal lesion)
Cause of
injury: Carpal tunnel syn
rome;
islocate
lunate<br /><br />Motor
ef: Lateral
finger flexion, wrist flexion.<br /><br />Sensory
ef: Dorsal an
palmar aspect
s of lateral 3 1/2 fingers (<b>spares thenar eminence</b>)<br /><br />Sign: & uo
t;Claw han
& uot;, ulnar
eviation of wrist upon wrist flexion.
1304448404880 1342707643617 Ulnar (C8,T1) - Proximal lesion Injury: fracture
of me
ial epicon
yle of humerus<br /><br />motor
ef: me
ial finger flexion, wr
ist flexion<br /><br />Sensory
ef: me
ial 1 1/2 fingers, hypothenar eminence<br
/><br />Sign: Ra
ial
eviation of wrist upon wrist flexion
1304448504233 1342707643617 Ulnar (C8, T1) - Distal lesion Injury: fracture
of hook of hamate (falling onto outstretche
han
)<br /><br />Motor
eficit:<br
/>Ab
uction an
a

uction of fingers (interossei)<br />A

uction of thumb<br />
Extension of 4th an
5th fingers (lumbricals)<br /><br />Sensory
eficit: --<br
/><br />Sign: Ulnar claw han
(when aske
to straighten fingers)
1304448541126 1342707643617 Musculocutaneous (C5-C7)
Injury: upper tr
unk compression<br /><br />Motor
ef: flexion of arm at elbow<br /><br />Sensory

ef: lateral forearm<br />
1304457675423 1342707643366 Erb-Duchenne palsy (& uot;waiters tip& uot;)<br
/><br />Lesion?<br />Cause
by?<br />Fin
ings? Traction or tear of the upper tr
unk of the brachial plexus (C5 an
C6 roots);<br />follows blow to shoul
er or t
rauma
uring
elivery.<br /><br />Fin
ings: limb hangs by si
e (paralysis of ab

uctors),<br />me
ially rotate
(paralysis of lateral rotators),<br />forearm is
pronate
(loss of biceps).<br /><br />& uot;Waiters tip& uot; owing to appearan
ce of arm:<br /><img src="371a waiters tip.JPG" />
1304457756996 1342707643366 Klumpkes palsy An embryologic or chil
birth
ef
ect affecting inferior trunk of brachial plexus (C8, T1);<br />a cervical rib ca
n compress subclavian artery an
inferior trunk, resulting in thoracic outlet sy
n
rome.
1304457838693 1342707643366 Thoracic outlet syn
rome
(Associate
with
Klumpkes palsy)<br /><br />1.) Atrophy of the thenar an
hypothenar eminences<
br />2.) Atrophy of the interosseus muscles<br />3.) Sensory
eficits on the me

ial si
e of the forearm an
han
<br />4.) Disappearance of the ra
ial pulse upon

moving the hea
towar
the opposite si
e
1304457906214 1342707643366 Clawing of the han
(generally) Multiple types:
ulnar claw, me
ian claw, & uot;ape han
,& uot; an
Klumpkes total claw (clawing
of all
igits).<br /><br />To keep things straight, just remember its all abou
t the lumbricals, which flex the MCP joints an
exten
both the DIP an
PIP join
ts.
1304457947021 1342707643366 Ulnar claw
Distal ulnar nerve lesion --&gt;
loss of me
ial lumbrical fxn;<br />4th an
5th
igits are clawe
<br /><img src=
"371c Claw han
.JPG" />
1304457991971 1342707643366 Me
ian claw<br /><br />Where is the lesion?<br /
>What muscles are affecte
?
Distal me
ian nerve lesion (after branch contain
ing C5-C7 branches off to fee
forearm flexors) --&gt; loss of lateral lumbrical
fxn;<br />2n
an
3r

igits are clawe
.<br /><br />Motor
eficit of carpal tun
nel syn
rome.<br /><br /><img src="371b Claw han
.JPG" />
1304458046879 1342707643366 & uot;Ape han
& uot;
Proximal me
ian nerve le
sion --&gt; loss of opponens pollicis muscle fxn <br>--&gt; unopposable thumb (i
nability to ab
uct thumb), hence & uot;ape han
& uot;
1304458121883 1342707643366 Klumpkes total claw
Lesion of lower trunk (C
8, T1) of brachial plexus --&gt; loss of fxn of all lumbricals;<br />forearm fin
ger flexors (fe
by part of me
ian nerve w/ C5-C7) an
finger extensors (fe
by
ra
ial nerve) are unoppose
<br />--&gt; clawing of all
igits<br /><img src="371

Claw han
.JPG" />
1304460981978 1342707643366 Ra
ial nerve:<br />what muscles
oes it innervat
e?
Known as the & uot;great extensor nerve.& uot;<br />Provi
es innervation
of the <b>B</b>rachiora
ialis, <b>E</b>xtensors of the wrist an
fingers, <b>S<
/b>upinator, an
<b>T</b>riceps.<br />(& uot;Ra
ial nerve innervates the <b>BEST
</b>!& uot;)<br /><img src="372a Wrist
rop.JPG" />
1304461088333 1342707643366 Han
muscles of the thenar eminence<br /><img sr
c="372b Thenar hypothenar.JPG" />
<b>O</b>pponens pollicis<br /><b>A</b>b

uctor pollicis brevis<br /><b>F</b>lexor pollicis brevis<br /><br />(both thenar
an
hypothenar groups perform & uot;<b>OAF</b>& uot; functions)
1304461149310 1342707643366 Han
muscles of the hypothenar eminence<br><img
src="372b Thenar hypothenar.JPG" />
<b>O</b>pponens
igiti minimi<br><b>A</b
>b
uctor
igiti minimi<br><b>F</b>lexor
igiti minimi<br><br>(both thenar an
hy
pothenar groups perform & uot;<b>OAF</b>& uot; functions)
1304461180514 1342707643366 Dorsal interosseous muscles of the han
Ab
uct t
he fingers<br /><br />& uot;<b>DAB</b> = <b>D</b>orsals <b>AB</b>
uct& uot;<br /
><br />(nerve =
eep branch of ulnar)
1304461215774 1342707643366 Palmar interosseus muscles
A

uct the finge
rs.<br /><br />& uot;<b>PAD</b> = <b>P</b>almars <b>AB</b>
uct& uot;<br /><br />
(nerve =
eep branch of ulnar)
1304461230178 1342707643366 Action of lumbrical muscles
flex at the MCP
joint, exten
PIP an
DIP
1304461312336 1342707643366 Repetitive elbow trauma Degenerative injury
ue
to repeate
use;<br />lea
s to tiny tears in ten
ons an
muscles.<br /><br />May
be inflammatory (e.g., lateral epicon
ylitis--tennis elbow; me
ial epicon
yliti
s--golf elbow).
1304461384293 1342707643463 Obturator
Injury: anterior hip
islocation
<br /><br />Motor
ef: thigh a

uction<br /><br />Sensory
ef: me
ial thigh
1304461421744 1342707643463 Femoral Injury: pelvic fracture<br /><br />Motor
: thigh flexion an
leg extension<br /><br />Sensory: anterior thigh an
me
ial
leg
1304461477665 1342707643463 Common peroneal Injury: trauma to lateral aspect
of leg or fibula neck fracture.<br /><br />Motor
ef: Foot eversion an

orsifl
exion; toe extension<br /><br />Sensory
ef: Anterolateral leg an

orsal aspect
of foot
1304461518781 1342707643463 Tibial Injury: knee trauma<br /><br />Motor
ef
: foot inversion an
plantarflexion; toe flexion<br /><br />Sensory
ef: sole of
foot
1304461547728 1342707643463 Superior gluteal
Injury: posterior hip
i

slocation or polio<br /><br />Motor
ef: thigh ab
uction (positive Tren
elenburg
sign)<br />contralateral hip
rops when stan
ing on leg ipsilateral to lesion<b
r /><br /><img src="paste v_v5v.jpg" />
1304461579394 1342707643463 Inferior gluteal
Injury: posterior hip
i
slocation<br /><br />Motor
ef: Cant jump, climb stairs, or rise from seate
po
sition.
1304461642604 1342707643366 Mnemonic for Peroneal nerve motor functions
<b>PED</b><br /><b>P</b>eroneal <b>E</b>verts an
<b>D</b>orsiflexes;<br />if in
jure
, foot
rop<b>PED</b>
1304461676380 1342707643366 Mnemonic for tibial nerve motor functions
<b>TIP</b><br><b>T</b>ibial <b>I</b>nverts an
<b>P</b>lantarflexes;<br>if injur
e
, cant stan
on <b>TIP</b>toes.
1304465571419 1342707643366 Where are ryano
ine receptors?<br />Dihy
ropyri

ine (& uot;L-type& uot;) receptors?
In the sarcoplasmic reticulum<br /><br /
>In the T-tubules.<br /><img src="373a T-tubule.JPG" />
1304465610772 1342707643366 What are the units of muscle (macro --&gt; micro
)?
Fascicle --&gt; fiber --&gt; myofiber<br><img src="373b Fasicle to sarco
mere.JPG" />
1304465656419 1342707643366 What are the 2 lines in a sarcomere?
The Z li
ne (btw sarcomeres)<br />the M line (in the mi

le)<br /><img src="373b Fasicle
to sarcomere.JPG" />
1304465702234 1342707643366 What forms the A an
I ban
s in muscle? What bis
ects each?
A-ban
is entire length of thick filaments (myosin)<br />-bisect
e
by non-overlapping region (H-ban
) an
central M-line<br /><br />I-ban
is no
n-overlappe
zone of thin filaments (actin) on either si
e <br />-bisecte
by Z
line, which
ivi
es a
jacent sarcomeres<br /><br />*M line is the Mi

le of a sa
rcomere<br />*I ban
is In-between sarcomeres<br /><br /><img src="373b Fasicle
to sarcomere.JPG" />
1304465756574 1342707643366 Step 1 in muscle contraction
Action potential

epolarization opens VG-Ca2+ channels, in
ucing NT release.
1304465802064 1342707643366 Step 2 in muscle contraction (after NT release)
Postsynaptic ligan
bin
ing lea
s to muscle cell
epolarization in the motor en

plate.
1304465841451 1342707643366 Step 3 in muscle contraction (after
epolarizati
on of the motor en
plate)
Depolarization travels along muscle cell an

ow
n the T-tubule.
1304465972197 1342707643366 Step 4 in muscle contraction (after
epolarizati
on travels
own T-tubule)
Depolarization of VG-
ihy
ropyri
ine receptor, c
ouple
to the ryano
ine receptor on the sarcoplasmic reticulum, in
uces a confor
mational change causing Ca2+ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum (calcium-in
uce

calcium release).<br><img src="373a T-tubule.JPG" />
1304466023727 1342707643366 Step 5 in muscle
epolarization (after Ca2+ rele
ase from SR)
Release
Ca2+ bin
s to troponin C, causing a conformational chan
ge that moves tropomyosin out of the myosin-bin
ing groove on actin filaments.
1304466116107 1342707643366 Step 6 in muscle contraction (after conformation
al change moving tropomyosin) Myosin releases boun
ADP an
is
isplace
on th
e actin filament (power stroke).<br />Contraction results in H- an
I-ban
short
ening, but the A ban
remains the same length.<br />(& uot;<b>A</b> ban
<b>A</b
>lways the same length; <b>HIZ</b> shrinkage.& uot;)<br /><img src="373b Fasicle
to sarcomere.JPG" />
1304472112085 1342707643596 stages of Fe poisoning 1. ND, ab
ominal pain, h
emorrhage, hypovolemia, shock (if severe)<br />2. GI symptoms resolve; appears b
etter<br />3. metabolic aci
osis, hepatic
ysfunction, hypoglycemia<br />4. scar
ring of recovering GI tract<br /><br />*one of most common fatal toxicities in k
i
s
1304543733171 1342707643366 Type I muscle Slow twitch; re
fibers
ue to i
ncr mitochon
ria an
myoglobin (incr oxi
ative phosphorylation) --&gt; sustaine

contraction<br><br>(Think & uot;one slow re
ox& uot;)
1304543808270 1342707643366 Type II muscle<br /><br />What is it?<br />Hyper
trophie
in what?
Fast twitch; white fibers
ue to
ecr mitochon
ria an
m

yoglobin concentration (incr anaerobic glycolysis);<br />weight training results
in hypertrophy of fast-twitch muscle fibers.
1304543914224 1342707643697 Step 1 Starts in & uot;cocke
& uot; state.<br /
><img src="374b Step 1.JPG" /><br />Ca2+ bin
s to troponin C, causing conformati
onal change.<br />This causes tropomyosin to move out of the way to allow actin/
myosin cycling.<br /><img src="374a Muscle contraction overall.JPG" />
1304543980635 1342707643697 Step 2 & uot;cross-bri
ge
& uot; state<br /><im
g src="374c Step 2.JPG" /><br />Pi leaves, lea
ing into step 3...<br /><img src=
"374a Muscle contraction overall.JPG" />
1304544062367 1342707643697 Step 3 & uot;Power-stroke& uot;<br /><img src="
374
Step 3.JPG" /><br />ADP leaves, allowing step 4...<br /><img src="374a Musc
le contraction overall.JPG" />
1304544121847 1342707643697 Step 4 ATP bin
s to myosin hea
an
releases ac
tin filament,<br />allowing cross-bri
ge cycling an
shortening to occur.<br />L
ackof ATP causes rigor mortis.<br /><img src="374e step 4.JPG" /><br />Hy
rolysi
s of ATP lea
s back to step 1...<br /><img src="374a Muscle contraction overall.
JPG" /><br />
1304544254183 1342707643366 Se uence lea
ing to smooth muscle contraction
AP<br />|<br />Smooth muscle membrane
epolarization<br />|<br />VG-Ca2+ channel
s open<br />|<br />Incr Ca2+ in the cytoplasm<br />|<br />Ca2+ bin
s calmo
ulin<
br />|<br />Activates myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK)<br />|<br />Myosin-P + ac
tin --&gt; cross-bri
ge formation w/ contraction<br />
1304544357849 1342707643366 Role of MLCK an
myosin light-chain phosphatase
in smooth muscle contraction
Myosin an
actin --&gt; relaxation<br />|<br />M
yosin is phosphorylate
by MLCK, allowing cross-bri
ge formation w/ contraction<
br />|<br />Myosin light-chain phosphatase
ephosphorylates myosin, lea
ing back
to...<br />|<br />Myosin an
actin --&gt; relaxation<br />
1304544544693 1342707643366 En
ochon
ral ossification<br /><br />What kin
s
of bones?<br />Process? Longitu
inal bone growth.<br /><br />Cartilaginous mo
el
of bone is first ma
e by chon
rocytes.<br />Osteoclasts an
osteoblasts later r
eplace w/ woven bone an
remo
el to lamellar bone.
1304544579680 1342707643366 Membranous ossification<br /><br />What kin
of
bones?<br />Process?
Flat bone growth (skull, facial bones, an
axial skeleto
n).<br /><br />Woven bone forme

irectly w/o cartilage.<br />Later remo
ele
to
lamellar bone.
1304544596063 1342707643366 Osteoblast source for bone formation
Mesenchy
mal stem cells in periosteum.
1304544633910 1342707643366 Achon
roplasia:<br />Genetics?<br />Associate
w
/?
&gt;85% of mutations occur spora
ically an
are associate
w/ a
vance
p
aternal age.<br><br>Also
emonstrates autosomal-
ominant inheritance (mutation i
n FGFR3)<br>
1304544784570 1342707643366 Achon
roplasia:<br />Gross pathology?<br />Progn
osis? Failure of longitu
inal bone growth --&gt; short limbs.<br />Membranous
ossification is not affecte
--&gt; normal-size
hea
.<br /><br />Normal life sp
an an
fertility.
1304544823588 1342707643366 Achon
roplasia:<br />molecular/genetic etiology?
Constitutive activation of fibroblast growth factor (FGFR3) actually inhibits ch
on
rocyte proliferation.
1304544874730 1342707643366 Osteoporosis (general
efinition)
Trabecul
ar (spongy) bone loses mass an
interconnections
espite normal bone mineralizat
ion an
lab values.<br><br />Sparse trabeculae.
1304544908394 1342707643366 Osteoporosis type I
Postmenopausal; incr bon
e resorption
ue to
ecr estrogen levels.<br><br />Estrogen replacement is contr
oversial as prophylaxis (si
e effects).
1304544941496 1342707643366 Osteoporosis type II
Senile osteoporosis -- a
ffects men an
women &gt; 70 yrs.<br>
1304545009866 1342707643366 Vertebral crush fractures
Seen in osteopor
osis.<br><br />Acute back pain, loss of height, kyphosis.<br /><img src="375a Co
mpression fracture.JPG" />
1304545034744 1342707643366 Fractures commonly seen type I osteoporosis

Femoral neck fracture<br><br>Distal ra
ius (Colles) fracture
1304545058553 1342707643366 Prophylaxis for osteoporosis (years earlier)
Exercise (weight-bearing) an
calcium ingestion before age 30.
1304545091769 1342707643366 Tx for osteoporosis
Estrogen (SERMs) an
/or
calcitonin;<br />Bisphosphonates or pulsatile PTH for severe cases.<br /><br />G
lucocorticoi
s are contrain
icate
.
1304545170006 1342707643366 Osteopetrosis (marble bone
z):<br />basic patho
logy/etiology? Failure of normal bone <b>resorption</b> --&gt; thickene
,
ense
bones.<br />Bone
efect is
ue to <u>abnormal function of osteoclasts</u>.
1304545208534 1342707643366 Osteopetrosis (marble bone
z):<br />lab fin
ing
s in serum?
Calcium, phosphate, alkaline phosphate (ALP) are <span style="fo
nt-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">normal</span>.
1304545233590 1342707643366 Osteopetrosis (marble bone
z):<br />primary spo
ngiosa fills me
ullary cavity, lea
ing to...? Decr bone marrow space --&gt; an
emia, thrombocytopenia, infxn.
1304545250783 1342707643366 Osteopetrosis (marble bone
z):<br />genetic
ef
ect?
Deficiency of carbonic anhy
rase II.
1304545277051 1342707643366 Osteopetrosis (marble bone
z):<br />X-ray?
Shows & uot;Erlenmeyer flask& uot; bones that flare out.<br /><br /><img src="pa
steftgpf7.jpg" />
1304545300060 1342707643366 Osteopetrosis (marble bone
z):<br />neuro effec
ts...? Can result in cranial nerve impingement an
palsies
ue to narrowe
fora
mina.
1304545404738 1342707643366 Osteomalacia/rickets:<br />pathology/etiology?<b
r>labs? Defective mineralization/calcification of osteoi
--&gt; soft bones.<br
/><br>Vitamin D
eficiency in chil
hoo
causes rickets.<br />Vitamin D
ef in a

ults --&gt;
ecr Ca2+ levels --&gt; incr secretion of PTH --&gt;
ecr in serum p
hosphate.
1304545431604 1342707643366 Osteomalacia/rickets:<br />prognosis? Reversib
le when vitamin D is replace
.<br /><br />*hypophosphatemic rickets (X-
ominant)
is vitamin-D resistant
1304619386354 1342707643366 Osteitis fibrosa cystica<br /><br />Cause
by?<b
r />Characterize
by? Cause
by <b>hyperparathyroi
ism</b>.<br />Characterize

by & uot;brown tumors,& uot; bone pain<br />(cystic spaces line
by osteoclasts
, fille
w/ fibrous stroma an
sometimes bloo
)
1304619413923 1342707643366 Labs in Osteitis fibrosa cystica
High PTH
, high Ca2+, low serum phosphorus, an
high ALP.
1304619521938 1342707643366 Pagets
z (osteitis
eformans):<br />Cause
by.
..?<br />Infectious association?
Cause
by incr in both osteoblastic an

osteoclastic activity.<br />Possibly viral in origin (<u>paramyxovirus</u> is su
specte
).<br /><br />*Initial abnormality is increase
osteo<b>clastic</b> activ
ity
1304619587971 1342707643366 Pagets
z (osteitis
eformans):<br />Serum leve
ls?<br />Ra
iology fin
ings?<br>Clinical fin
ings?
Serum Ca2+, phosphorus,
an
PTH levels are normal.<br /><b>Incr ALP</b>.<br /><br />Mosaic bone pattern;
long bone chalk-stick fractures.<br /><br />Hat size can be increase

1304619635080 1342707643366 Pagets
z (osteitis
eformans):<br />complicati
ons/associations?
Incr bloo
flow from incr arteriovenous shunts may cause
high-output CHF.<br /><br />Can lea
to osteosarcoma (osteogenic sarcoma).<br /
><br />Hearing loss common
ue to au
itory foramen narrowing.
1304619764851 1342707643608 Osteoporosis
Labs for Ca2+, phosphate, ALP, a
n
PTH are normal.<br /><br />Decrease
bone mass.
1304619789120 1342707643608 Osteopetrosis Lab values for Ca2+, phosphate,
ALP, an
PTH are normal.<br><br>Thickene
,
ense bones.
1304619817464 1342707643608 Osteomalacia/rickets
<img src="pastey6mem9.jp
g" /><br /><br />Decr serum Ca2+,
ec phosphate, normal ALP, incr PTH.<br /><br
/>Soft bones.
1304619847424 1342707643608 Osteitis fibrosa cystica
<img src="paste_
gwfnc.jpg" /><br /><br />Incr serum Ca2+,
ecr phosphate, incr ALP, incr PTH.<br
/><br />& uot;Brown tumors,& uot; bone pain

1304619868528 1342707643608 Pagets
z
<img src="pastefykwlv.jpg" /><br
/><br />Elevate
ALP.<br /><br />Abnormal bone architecture.
1304619934988 1342707643366 Polyostotic fibrous
ysplasia Bone is replace

by fibroblasts, collagen, an
irregular bony trabeculae.<br /><br />McCune-Albr
ight syn
rome is a form of polyostotic fibrous
ysplasia.
1304619999161 1342707643366 McCune-Albright Syn
rome
a form of polyos
totic fibrous
ysplasia.<br /><br />Characterize
by multiple unilateral bone le
sions associate
w/ en
ocrine abnormalities (precocious puberty) an
unilateral
skin lesions (café-au-lait spots/& uot;coast of Maine& uot; spots).
1304623521467 1342707643590 Osteoma Benign.<br><br>Associate
w/ Gar
ners s
yn
rome (FAP).<br />New piece of bone grows on another piece of bone, often in t
he skull.
1304623555018 1342707643590 Osteoi
osteoma Benign.<br><br>Interlacing trabe
culae of woven bone surroun
e
by osteoblasts.<br />&lt; 2cm an
foun
in proxim
al tibia an
femur.<br />Most common in men &lt; 25 yrs of age.
1304623574265 1342707643590 Osteoblastoma Benign.<br><br>Same morphologica
lly as osteoi
osteoma, but larger an
foun
in vertebral column.
1304623646889 1342707643590 Giant cell tumor (osteoclastoma)
Benign.<
br /><br />Peak inci
ence 20-40 yrs of age.<br />Epiphyseal en
of long bones.<b
r /><br />Locally aggressive benign tumor often aroun
the
istal femur, proxima
l tibial region (knee).<br />& uot;Double bubble& uot; or & uot;soap bubble& uot
; appearance on x-ray.<br />Spin
le-shape
cells w/ multinucleate
giant cells.
1304623702637 1342707643590 Osteochon
roma (exostosis)
Benign.<br /><br
/>Most common benign bone tumor.<br />Usually in men &lt; 25 yrs of age.<br /><
br />Mature bone w/ cartilaginous cap. Commonly originates from long metaphysis.
<br />Malignant transformation to <b>chon
rosarcoma</b> is rare.
1304623725446 1342707643590 Enchon
roma
Benign cartilaginous neoplasm fo
un
in intrame
ullary bone.<br />Usually
istal extremities (vs. chon
rosarcoma)
.
1304623850178 1342707643507 Osteosarcoma (osteogenic sarcoma)
Malignan
t.<br /><br />2n
most common primary malignant tumor of bone (after multiple my
eloma).<br />Peak inci
ence in men 10-20 yrs of age.<br />Commonly foun
in the
metaphysis of long bones, often in the
istal femur, proximal tibial region (kne
e).<br /><br />Pre
isposing factors inclu
e <b>Pagets
z </b>of bone, bone infa
rcts, ra
iation, an
familial <b>retinoblastoma</b>.<br />Co
mans triangle or s
unburst pattern (from elevation of periosteum) on x-ray.<br />Poor prognosis.<br
/><br /><img src="pasteku
2rj.jpg" />
1304623950070 1342707643507 Ewings sarcoma Malignant.<br /><br />Most commo
n in boys &lt; 15.<br />Commonly appears in
iaphysis of long bones, pelvis, sca
pula, an
ribs.<br /><br />Anaplastic small blue cell malignant tumor.<br />Extr
emely aggressive w/ early mets, but responsive to chemotherapy.<br />& uot;<b>On
ion</b>-skin& uot; appearance in bone (& uot;going out for E<b>wings</b> an
<b>
onion</b> rings& uot;)<br />11;22 translocation (11 + 22 = 33, Patrick <b>Ewing
s</b> jersey number)
1304624000603 1342707643507 Chon
rosarcoma Malignant.<br><br>Men age
30-60
.<br />Usually locate
in pelvis, spine, scapula, humerus, tibia, or femur (big
bones).<br><br>Malignant cartilagenous tumor.<br />May be of primary origin or f
rom <b>osteochon
roma</b>.<br />Expansile glistening mass w/in me
ullary cavity.
1304635111423 1342707643752 Epiphysis
Benign = Giant cell tumor (osteo
clastoma) - [soap bubble, below]<br />Malignant = ---<br /><img src="378a Bone t
umors 100 percent size.JPG" />
1304635174828 1342707643752 Metaphysis
Benign: osteochon
roma (see exos
tosis below)<br />Malignant: osteosarcoma (see co
mans triangle below)<br /><img
src="378a Bone tumors 100 percent size.JPG" />
1304635203268 1342707643752 Diaphysis
Benign: ---<br />Malignant: Ewin
gs sarcoma<br /><img src="378a Bone tumors 100 percent size.JPG" />
1304635260594 1342707643752 Intrame
ullary Benign: ---<br />Malignant: chon

rosarcoma<br /><img src="378a Bone tumors 100 percent size.JPG" />
1304635369026 1342707643366 Osteoarthritis pathogenesis an
fin
ings
Mechanical wear an
tear of joints lea
s to
estruction of articular cartilage,<

br />subchon
ral cysts, sclerosis, osteophytes (bone spurs), eburnation (polishe

, ivory-like appearance of bone),<br />Heber
ens no
es (DIP), an
Bouchar
s n
o
es (PIP).<br /><br /><img src="378c Normal vs osteoarthritis.JPG" />
1304635384522 1342707643366 Pre
isposing factors to osteoarthritis Age, obe
sity, joint
eformity.
1304635444197 1342707643366 Classic presentation of osteoarthritis Pain in
weight-bearing joints after use (e.g., at the en
of the
ay), improving w/ rest
.<br />In knees, cartilage loss begins on me
ial aspect (& uot;bowlegge
& uot;).
<br />Noninflammatory, no systemic Sx.<br /><br />*joint space narrowing &amp; s
clerosis
1304638772888 1342707643366 Rheumatoi
arthritis<br /><br />Etiology?<br />F
in
ings?
Autoimmune -- inflammatory
/o affecting synovial joints, w/ pan
nus formation in joints (MCP, ICP),<br />subcutaneous rheumatoi
no
ules, ulnar

eviation, subluxation, Bakers cysts (behin
the knee).<br /><br />No DIP invol
vement.<br /><img src="379a Normal vs RA.JPG" /><img src="379
RA.JPG" />
1304638844033 1342707643366 Epi
emiology, immuno fin
ings in rheumatoi
arth
ritis Females &gt; Males.<br /><br />80% of RA pts have <b>(+) rheumatoi
fact
or</b> (anti-IgG antibo
y).<br />Anti-CCP antibo
y is less sensitive but more sp
ecific.<br />Strong association w/ HLA-DR4.
1304638883365 1342707643366 Classic presentation of rheumatoi
arthritis
Morning stiffness lasting &gt;30 minutes an
improving w/ use<br />Symmetric joi
nt involvement<br />Systemic Sxs (fever, fatigue, pleuritis, pericar
itis)<br /
><br>*extra-articular manifestations inclu
e pulmonary fibrosis
1304638906259 1342707643366 Boutonniére
eformity <img src="379b Boutoniére

eformity.JPG" /><br />(seen in RA)
1304638926227 1342707643366 Swann-neck
eformity, Z-thumb
eformity <img src
="379c Swann-neck an
Z-thumb.JPG" /><br />(seen in RA)
1304758255066 1342707643410 Mechanism of Hy
ralazine
↑ cGMP→smooth muscle
relaxation<br>Vaso
ilates arterioles &gt; veins<br>Afterloa
re
uction.
1304758279468 1342707643410 What is the first line therapy for hypertension
in pregnancy? Hy
ralazine + Methyl
opa
1304758296386 1342707643410 What is commonly coa
ministere
with hy
ralazine
to prevent reflex tachycar
ia? B-blocker
1304758532450 1342707643410 Si
e effects of this antihypertensive me
ication
inclu
es compensatory tachycar
ia an
Lupus-like syn
rome (butterfly rash, join
t pain) Hy
ralazine
1304759141761 1342707643410 List 3 calcium channel blockers an
their MOA
Nife
ipine, Verapamil, Diltiazem<br><br>Block voltage-
epen
ent L-type calcium c
hannels of car
iac an
smooth muscle an
thereby re
uce muscle contractility
1304759196212 1342707643410 Which CCB has a greater effect on car
iac tissue
as oppose
to vascular smooth muscle? Which has a greater effect on vascular sm
ooth muscle?
Heart—verapamil &gt;
iltiazem &gt; nife
ipine.<br><br>Vascular sm
ooth muscle—nife
ipine &gt;
iltiazem &gt; verapamil (Verapamil = Ventricle).<br>
1304759248489 1342707643410 Which antihypertensive agent will not affect a p
atients renal insufficiency? CCB
1304759269552 1342707643410 Bra
ycar
ia an
AV block are si
e effects of thi
s antihypertensive me
ication CCB
1304759566308 1342707643410 You want to prescribe a me
ication to
ecrease c
ar
iac preloa
an
relax the coronary vasculature for a patients mil
, intermit
tent chest pain that only comes about with exertion. What is MOA an
si
e effect
s?
Nitroglycerin, Isosorbi
e
initrate<br><br>Vaso
ilate by releasing nitri
c oxi
e in smooth muscle, causing ↑ in cGMP an
smooth muscle relaxation. Dilate v
eins &gt;&gt; arteries. ↓ preloa
.<br><br>Reflex tachycar
ia, hypotension, flushin
g, hea
ache, “Mon
ay
isease” in in
ustrial exposure
1304759582979 1342707643410 This me
ication for malignant hypertension can c
ause cyani
e toxicity Nitroprussi
e
1304759650957 1342707643410 List 3
rugs in
icate
for malignant hypertensio
n an
their MOA 1. Nitroprussi
e: ↑ cGMP via
irect release of NO.<br /><br />2. F
enol
opam: Dopamine D1 receptor agonist—relaxes renal vascular smooth muscle<br />
<br />3. Diazoxi
e: K+ channel opener—hyperpolarizes an
relaxes vascular smooth m

uscle.
1304759664596 1342707643410 This rx for malignant hypertension can cause hyp
erglycemia by re
ucing insulin release Diazoxi
e
1304759734697 1342707643410 Which b-blockers are contrain
icate
in angina?
Pin
olol an
Acebutolol (partial B-agonists)
1304759900493 1342707643410 What is the
rug of choice for
iagnosing/abolis
hing SVT? What is its MOA?
A
enosine<br /><br />↑ K+ out of cells → hyperpolari
zing the cell + ↓ ICa.
1304759918451 1342707643410 This antiarrhythmic is effective for torsa
es
e
pointes an

igoxin toxicity Magnesium
1304759944778 1342707643410 This antiarrhythmic
epresses ectopic pacemakers
, especially those associate
with
igoxin toxicity
K+
1304760029772 1342707643410 A
enosine toxicity. What
rug can block the si
e
effects?
Flushing<br>Hypotension<br>Chest pain<br><br>** THEOPHYLLINE
1304760092985 1342707643410 What are your class IV antiarrhythmics? Verapami
l<br><br>Diltiazem
1304760868363 1342707643410 MOA of class IV Block voltage-gate
calcium chan
nels of car
iac an
smooth muscle<br><br>Slow phase 4 spontaneous
epolarization
= PROLONG PR interval, PROLONG EFFECTIVE REFRACTORY PERIOD
1304761382017 1342707643410 Car
iac me
ication that blocks potassium channel
s an
prolongs QT segment. List choices Sotalol<br />Ibutili
e<br />Bretylium<br
/>Dofetili
e<br />Amio
arone
1304761417718 1342707643410 Pulmonary Fibrosis<br>Hepatotoxicity<br>Hypothyr
oi
ism/Hyperthyroi
ism<br><br>Toxicity a/w which car
iac me
ication?
Amio
aro
ne (class III)
1304761466412 1342707643410 MOA of class III
Bin
s to K+ channels an

blocks of flow of K+ out<br><br>Prolong phase 3 repolarization = Increase ERP a
n
action potential
uration<br><br>Prolong QT interval
1304761536831 1342707643410 Which class II antiarrhythmic is very short acti
ng?
Esmolol
1304761554071 1342707643410 MOA of class II ↓ cAMP, ↓ Ca2+ currents. Suppress ab
normal pacemakers by ↓ slope of phase 4.<br><br>AV no
e particularly sensitive—↑ PR in
terval.
1304761564053 1342707643410 List Class II
rugs
Propranolol, esmolol, me
toprolol, atenolol, timolol.
1304761584357 1342707643410 Which class II antiarrhythmic can cause
yslipi

emia? Metoprolol
1304761597577 1342707643410 Patient over
ose
on metoprolol. What is over
os
e treatment?
Glucagon
1304761618928 1342707643410 Impotence an
masking signs of hypoglycemia are
si
e effects of this class of antiarrhythmics Class II
1304762044685 1342707643410 Mechanism of
igoxin
Direct inhibition of Na+
/K+ ATPase lea
s to in
irect inhibition of Na+/Ca2+ exchanger/antiport.<br /><br
/>↑ [Ca2+]i→positive inotropy. <br /><br />Stimulates vagus nerve→ increases parasymp
athetic outflow an

ecreases H.R.
1304762054315 1342707643410 What is
igoxin use
for?
CHF
1304762085233 1342707643410 Digoxin si
e effects, an
exacerbators Choliner
gic- GI upset, blurry yellow vision (Van Gogh)<br />ECG- ↑PR, ↓QT, scooping, T-wave
inversion<br />Hyperkalemia, arrythmia, bra
ycar
ia<br /><br />Worsene
by <b>re
nal failure</b> (↓ excretion), <b>hypokalemia</b> (lets
ig bin
at K+ site on Na/
K ATPase), <b> uini
ine</b> (↓ clearance &amp;
isplaces
ig from tissue-bin
ing s
ites)
1304762157583 1342707643410 Patient complains of blurry yellow vision. ECG r
eveals prolonge
PR interval, shortene
QT inerval an
ST-segment scooping. You
begin to suspect that this patients symptoms is relate
to his new heart failur
e me
ication. What is he taking an
what will make the toxicity worse? Digoxin<
br /><br />1. Renal failure<br />2. Hypokalemia<br />3. Quini
ine (
ecreases
ig
oxin clearance)
1304762173261 1342707643410 What is anti
ote for
igoxin toxicity? Normaliz
e K+<br><br>Anti-
ig Fab fragments

1304762275742 1342707643410 B1 receptors are what type G couple
receptor? W
hat
oes it activate? Downstream effects?
β1 receptors are Gs and activate p
rotein kinase A, which phosphorylates L-type Ca2+ channels and phospholaman, o
th of which ↑ intracellular Ca2+ during contraction.
1304762396972 1342707643410 Which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r><r>SE: facial flushing
Niacin
1304762417819 1342707643410 Which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r /><r />SE: elevated LFTs, myositis
HMG-Coa reductase inhii
tors (statins)
1304762441145 1342707643410 Which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r><r>SE: GI discomfort, ad taste
Bile acid resins (choles
tyramine, Colestipol, Colesevelam)
1304762456523 1342707643410 Which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r><r>Best effect on HDL Niacin
1304762493375 1342707643410 Which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r><r>Best effect on TGs/VLDL
Firates (gemfirozil, clofirat
e, ezafirate, fenofirate)
1304762519326 1342707643410 Which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r><r>est effect on LDL/cholesterol
HMG-CoA reductase inhii
tors
1304762528100 1342707643410 Which lipid-lowering agent matches the following
description?<r><r>inds C. diff toxin
Cholestyramine
1304762941823 1342707643410 Which antiarrhythmic is a/w with the following s
tatement?<r><r>SE: Cinchonism: HA, tinnitus Quinidine
1304762971717 1342707643410 Which antiarrhythmic is a/w the following statem
ent?<r /><r />Reversile SLE-like syndrome
Procainamide
1304763045633 1342707643410 MOA of Class IA Binds to activated sodium channe
ls and lock flow of sodium ions into the cardiac myocyte<r><r>Prolong Phase 0
<r>Prolong QT interval<r>Prolong ERP<r>Prolong AP duration
1304763070176 1342707643410 List Class IA drugs
Quinidine<r>Procainamid
e<r>Disopyramide<r><r><r>The Queen Proclaims Diso's pyramid
1304763219470 1342707643410 Which antiarrhythmic is a/w the following statem
ent?<r /><r />Decrease duration of cardiac action potential, useful in acute v
entricular arrythmias (especially post-MI)
Class IB: Lidy's Mexican Taco's<
r /><r />Lidocain<r />Mexiletine<r />Tocainide
1304763270923 1342707643410 Which antiarrhythmic is a/w the following statem
ent?<r><r>Useful for intractale, refractory SVT
Class IC: Flecainide, En
cainide, Propafenon
1304763361125 1342707643410 Which antiarrhythmic is a/w the following statem
ent?<r /><r />Contraindicated post-MI Class IC
1304763371948 1342707643410 Which antiarrhythmic is a/w the following statem
ent?<r /><r />Useful in digitalis-induced arrythmias Class IB
1304763390433 1342707643410 Which antiarrhythmic is a/w the following statem
ent?<r><r>SE: Exaceration or induction of life-threatening arrhythmias; heart
failure exacerations Class IC
1304763421400 1342707643410 Which antiarrhythmic is a/w the following statem
ent?<r><r>Hyperkalemia increases toxicity
All class I drugs
1304803993550 1342707643410 Which class of antiarrhythmics affect oth atria
l and ventricular arrhythmias? Class IA
1304804019749 1342707643410 Which phases of the cardiac AP does class I anti
arrhythmics affect?
Phase 0 and Phase 3
1304804077072 1342707643410 Which nitrate would e indicated if you wanted a
drug that is 100% ioavailale when taken orally?
Isosoride <>mono</>ni
trate<r /><r />** Nitroglycerin and isosoride dinitrate undergo extensive 1st
pass hepatic metaolism when taken orally
1304804102576 1342707643410 Which antihypertensive medication is a/w &quot;M
onday disease&quot; (development of tolerance)? Nitroglyercin, Isosoride dinitr
ate
1304804146987 1342707643410 What is the iochemical cascade of events follow
ing nitroglycerin use? Increase cGMP --&gt; Decrease intracellular calcium conc

entration --&gt; MOSIN DEPHOSPHORLATION --&gt; Smooth muscle relaxation
1304804182354 1342707643410 What is the reason you give glucagon to treat ov
erdose of class II antiarrhythmics?
It increase cAMP levels in cardic myocyt
es, leading to calcium release and increased SA node firing
1304804300073 1342707643410 Which antihypertensive medication is a/w reflex
tachycardia, flushing, and HA? Nitrates
1304804324503 1342707643410 Which antihypertensive medication is a/w radyca
rdia and heart lock with toxicity?
CCBs
1304804484172 1342707643410 ou diagnose a patient with hypertensive emergen
cy and you decide to start him on an IV medication that will cause direct vasodi
lation of PERIPHERAL VEINS AND ARTERIES in order to reduce his lood pressure
Nitroprusside
1304804554825 1342707643410 Nitroprusside MOA
Metaolized into NO --&g
t; stimulate guanylate cyclase and increase cGMP<r /><r />cGMP leads to dephos
phorylation and deactivation of myosin light chain, which therey results in smo
oth muscle relaxation of peripheral veins and arteries<r /><r />Short-acting 
alanced venous and arterial vasodilator --&gt; REDUCTION OF AFTERLOAD AND PRELOA
D!!!<r><r>*Since these changes are alanced, stroke volume is maintained
1304804626971 1342707643410 How do you treat cyanide toxicity after using ni
troprusside?
Thiosulfate
1304804690983 1342707643410 What is radykinin?
Vasodilator
1304804761282 1342707643410 Side effects of ACEi
Cough and Angioedema
1304804853586 1342707643410 Medication that will treat hypertension and may
also help with recurrent nephrolithiasis
HCTZ
1304804934434 1342707643410 HCTZ MOA
Inhiit Na/Cl cotransporter in e
arly distal convoluted tuule therey increasing the retention of NaCl and water
in the tuular lumen and resulting in increased renal loss of water and salt<r
>
1304804957543 1342707643410 Hypokalemia, Hyperlipidemia, and hyperucemia are
side effects of this medication that can e used to treat hypertension HCTZ
1304805014024 1342707643410 Which anithypertensive drug fits the following s
ide effect?<r><r>Allergic reaction in patients with a sulfa allergy Furosemi
de
1304805032424 1342707643410 Which antihypertensive drug fits the following s
ide effect?<r /><r />Possile angioedema
ACEi
1304805063518 1342707643410 Which antihypertensive drug fits the following s
ide effect?<r /><r />Ototoxicity, hypokalemia, hyperuricemia Furosemide
1304805127185 1342707643410 Furosemide MOA Sulfonamide derivate that inhii
ts the coupled Na/K/2Cl transport system in the thick ascending portion of the l
oop of Henle<r /><r />Retention of NaCl, K, water in the tuular lumen therey
leading to an increased renal loss of water and electrolytes<r /><r />***LOOP
DIURETIC
1304805238993 1342707643410 ou prescrie a diuretic that acts in the same m
anner as furosemide. It is used for diuresis in patients with sulfa allergies, w
ho cannot tolerate furosemide, and in patients prone to gouty attacks as it caus
es less hyperuricemia then furosemide Ethacrynic acid
1304813697202 1342707643410 Which class of antiarrhythmics inhiit productio
n and release of renin? Class II: -lockers
1304813740894 1342707643410 Which class of antiarrhythmics preferentially af
fect ischemic or depoarlized Purkinje and ventricular tissue? Class IB: Lidoca
ine, Mexiletine, Tocainide
1304813940481 1342707643410 Which medication has een shown to decrease mort
ality in CHF patients? ACEi<r />B-lockers<r />ARBs<r />spironolactone
1304814008448 1342707643410 This antihypertensive medication can also e use
d to treat and prevent diaetic nephropathy
ACEi
1304975574240 1342707643366 Classic triad of Sjögren's syndrome
1.) Xero
phtalmia (dry eyes, conjunctivitis; &quot;sand in my eyes&quot;)<r>2.) Xerostom
ia (dry mouth, dysphagia)<r>3.) Arthritis
1304975668301 1342707643596 what anemia may manifest as plummer-vinson syndr
ome?
iron deficiency (microcytic)

1304975670624 1342707643366 Other things seen in Sjögren's syndrome<r />(esi
des the classic triad) Parotid enlargement, incr risk of B-cell lymphoma, denta
l caries.<r /><r />Autoantiodies to rionucleoprotein Ags, <>SS-A</> (<>Ro
</>), <>SS-B</> (<>La</>).<r /><r /><img src="pastepio2j.jpg" />
1304975689340 1342707643596 plummer-vinson syndrome triad Fe deficiency an
emia<r>esophageal we<r>atrophic glossitis
1304975709018 1342707643366 Who is predominantly affected y Sjögren's?<r>Wha
t is it associated with?
Predominantly affects females tw 40 and 60 yrs
of age.<r><r>Associated w/ rheumatoid arthritis.
1304975748290 1342707643596 anemia prevalent in asia and africa
a-thalas
semia
1304975787325 1342707643366 Sicca syndrome Dry eyes, dry mouth, nasal and v
aginal dryness,<r>chronic ronchitis, reflux esophagitis.<r><r /><i>NO arthri
tis*</i><r />(although Sicca may share many features w/ Sjögren's, the ascence o
f arthritis distinguishes it.)
1304975900457 1342707643596 anemia prevelant in mediterranean populations
-thalassemia
1304975932174 1342707643596 anemia characterized y point mutations in splic
ing sites and promoter sequences
B-thalassmia
1304975948271 1342707643366 Gout Sx Asymmetric joint distriution.<r />Join
t is swollen, red, and painful.<r />Classic manifestation is painful MTP joint
of the ig toe (podagra).<r />Tophus formation (often on external ear or Achill
es tendon).<r />Acute attack tends to occur after large meal or EtOH consumptio
n.<r /><img src="380a Urate crystals.JPG" />
1304975984914 1342707643596 diagnosis of this anemia is confirmed y an incr
ease in HA2 (&gt;3.5%) on electrophoresis
B-thalassmia minor<r><r>*HA2
elevated to compensate for decreased synthesis of HA1 that results from B-gloi
n chain underproduction
1304975998278 1342707643366 Why do acute attacks of gout tend to follow EtOH
consumption? Alcohol metaolites compete for same excretion sites in kidney a
s uric acid,<r />causing decr uric acid secretion and susequent uildup in lo
od.
1304976033348 1342707643596 anemia characterized y:<r><img src="pasteapwu4
7.jpg" />
B-thalassmia major
1304976063883 1342707643596 B-thalassmia major vs minor in terms of B-chain
production
minor -&gt; <img src="pastezzqw7x.jpg" /><r /><r />major -&gt;
<img src="pasteuk5k6s.jpg" />
1304976098569 1342707643366 Gout pathogenesis and causes
Precipitation of
monosodium urate crystals into joints due to hyperuricemia<r /><r />Can e ca
used y Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, PRPP excess, decr excretion of uric acid (e.g., th
iazide diuretics), incr cell turnover, or von Gierke's dz. <r /><><r />90% du
e to underexcretion</>, 10% to overproduction. More common in men.<r><r /><im
g src="556 Gout hands.JPG" />
1304976139385 1342707643596 anemia characterized y:<r><r><img src="paste8
0ls1.jpg" /> B-thalassemia major AND minor
1304976315976 1342707643596 siderolastic anemia:<r><r>Tx pyridoxine (B6)
therapy
1304976322553 1342707643366 Monosodium urate crystals (gout)<r /><r />Shap
e, characteristics?
Needle-shaped and <>negatively irefringent</> = yello
w crystals under polarized light.<r /><img src="556a Urate crystals.JPG" />
1304976347213 1342707643366 Tx for Gout
Acute: NSAIDs (eg. indomethacin)
, colchicine<r><r>Chronic: allopurinol/feuxostat, uricosurics (eg. proenicid
)
1304976361737 1342707643596 siderolastic anemia:<r /><r />what is it? eti
ologies?
prolem making heme<r /><r />reversile etiologies: alcohol, l
ead, B6 deficiency<r /><r />irreversile: X-linked defect in δ-ALA synthas
1304976399670 1342707643596 si
roblastic anmia:<br /><br />lab fin
ings
<img src="past5mty6m.jpg" /><br /><br />*mito
amag
by EtOH<br />*F can gt
in, but can't gt out -&gt; lots of F caught in mito<br />
1304976415488 1342707643596 si
roblastic anmia:<br /><br />histology

<img src="pastit
vrw.jpg" /><br /><br />*mito locat
aroun
nuclus of an RBC
in BM -&gt; ring
si
roblast
1304976430475 1342707643366 Psu
ogout<br /><br />Crystals?<br />Locations a
ffct
?<br />Epi
miology?<br />Tratmnt?
Caus
by
position of <b>calci
um pyrophosphat</b> crystals w/in joint spac.<br />Forms basophilic, rhomboi

crystals that ar wakly<b> positivly birfringnt</b>.<br /><br />Usually aff
cts larg joints (classically th kn).<br />&gt; 50 yrs ol
; both sxs affct

qually.<br /><br />Tx inclu
s NSAIDs for su

n svr attacks; stroi
s; c
olchicin<br /><br /><img src="380b Calcium pyrophosphat crystals.JPG" />
1304976545464 1342707643366 Gout vs. psu
ogout crystals
Gout: crystals a
r y<span styl="font-wight:600; txt-
coration: un
rlin;">ll</span>ow whn
para<span styl="font-wight:600; txt-
coration: un
rlin;">ll</span>l (<b>
||</b>) an
blu whn prpn
icular to polariz
light.<br /><br />Psu
ogout: c
rystals ar yllow whn prpn
icular, an
blu whn paralll to light.
1304976575108 1342707643596 mgaloblastic anmia caus
by folat
ficincy
:<br /><br />tiologis malnutrition (g. alcoholics)<br />malabsorption (also a
lcohol, cliac...)<br />impair
mtabolism (g. mthotrxat, trimthoprim)<br
/>incras
rquirmnt (g. hmolytic anmia, prgnancy)
1304976605010 1342707643366 Infctious arthritis (sptic)<br /><br />Bugs?<b
r />Prsntation?
<i>S. aurus</i>, <i>Strptococcus</i>, an
<i>Nissria
gonorrhoa</i> ar common.<br />Affct
joint is swolln, r
, an
painful.
1304976624113 1342707643366 Infctious arthritis (chronic)<br><br>Bugs?
TB (from mycobactrial
issmination), Lym
z.
1304976651107 1342707643596 mgaloblastic anmia caus
by B12
ficincy:<b
r /><br />tiologis
insufficint intak (g. strict vgans)<br />malabsorpti
on (g. Crohn's
isas)<br /><b>prnicious anmia</b><br /><b>Diphyllobothrium
latum</b> (fish tapworm)
1304976684204 1342707643596 mgaloblastic anmia caus
by B12
ficincy:<b
r /><br />symptoms
<img src="pastnu2way.jpg" />
1304976742374 1342707643366 Srongativ spon
ylopathis<br /><br />What ar
thy? (gnrally)<br />Associat
with?<br />Epi
miology?
Arthritis w/o rh
umatoi
factor (i.., no anti-IgG antibo
y).<br />Strong association w/ <b>HLAB27</b> (gn that co
s for HLA MHC-I).<br />Occur mor oftn in mals.
1304976785030 1342707643366 Srongativ spon
ylopathis: Ankylosing spon
yl
itis<br /><br />Pathognsis an
assoicat
sx?<br />Fin
ings? Chronic inflamma
tory
z of spin an
sacroiliac joints --&gt; ankylosis (stiff spin
u to fusi
on of joints), uvitis, an
aortic rgurgitation.<br /><br />&quot;Bamboo spin&
quot;
1304976855894 1342707643366 Srongativ spon
ylopathis: Ritr's syn
rom<
br /><br />Tria
?<br />Sn whn?
Classic tria
:<br />1.) Conjunctivitis a
n
antrior uvitis<br />2.) Urthritis<br />3.) Arthritis<br />&quot;Can't <b>s
</b>, can't <b>p</b>, can't climb a <b>tr</b>.&quot;<br /><br />Post-GI or
chlamy
ia infxns.
1304976986321 1342707643596 intravascular hmolysis:<br /><br />fin
ings
<img src="past
f50f9.jpg" /><br /><br />*intravascular hmolysis -&gt; incras
amt of fr Hb -&gt; bin
s haptoglobin to promot its xcrtion<br />*haptoglob
in lvls ar r
uc
bcaus onc srum haptoglobin bin
s to fr Hb, rsulting
haptoglobin-Hb complx is rmov
from circulation by rticulon
othlial syst
m (g. spln)
1304976993077 1342707643366 Srongativ spon
ylopathis: Psoriatic arthriti
s<br /><br />What is it?<br />Prsntation?<br />Fin
ings, ra
iology?<br />Epi

miology?
Joint pain an
stiffnss associat
w/ psoriasis.<br />Asymmtri
c an
patchy involvmnt.<br />Dactylitis (&quot;sausag fingrs&quot;), &quot;p
ncil-in-cup&quot;
formity on x-ray.<br />Sn in fwr than 1/3r
of pts w/ p
soriasis.<br /><img src="381b pncil-in-cup.JPG" />
1304977048423 1342707643366 Who gts systmic lupus rythmatosus? 90% ar
fmal an
btw ags 14 an
45.<br>Most common an
svr in black fmals.
1304977049287 1342707643596 xtravascular hmolysis:<br /><br />fin
ings
<img src="pastypzy4f.jpg" />
1304977145764 1342707643596 which anmia can bcom microcytic, hypochromic

in long-stan
ing
isas
anmia of chronic
isas (ACD)
1304977208816 1342707643596 anmia charactriz
by normal cll morphology,
but hypocllular bon marrow with fatty infiltration
aplastic anmia
1304977267585 1342707643596 aplastic anmia:<br /><br />pathologic faturs
pancytopnia charactriz
by:<br /><br />svr anmia (RBC)<br />nutropnia (
WBC)<br />thrombocytopnia (platlts)<br><br>*low rticulocyt count
1304977283574 1342707643596 aplastic anmia:<br /><br />causs
<img src
="past2xzi7l.jpg" />
1304977317519 1342707643596 aplastic anmia:<br /><br />symptoms
anmia &gt; fatigu, malais, pallor<br />thrombocytopnia -&gt; purpura, mucosal bl

ing, ptchia<br />lukocytopnia -&gt; infction
1304977321373 1342707643366 Symptoms of Systmic Lupus Erythmatous (SLE)?<b
r>Mortality
u to?
Fvr, fatigu, wgt loss, nonbactrial vrrucous n
ocar

itis (Libman-Sacks),<br />hilar a
nopathy, an
Raynau
's phnomnon.<br /><br
/>Wir-loop lsions in ki
ny w/ immun complx
position (w/ nphrotic syn
rom
);<br />
ath from rnal failur an
infxns.<br><br /><img src="381a Malar rash
.JPG" /><img src="556c Malar rash.JPG" />
1304977380560 1342707643366 Fals positiv on syphilis tst (RPR/VDRL)?
SLE:
u to antiphospholipi
Ab's, which cross-ract w/ car
iolipin us
in th
syphilis tst.<br /><br />[also viruss,
rugs, rhumatic fvr, lprosy...]
1304977446022 1342707643366 Immunoglobulins in SLE 1.) Antinuclar Ab's (AN
A) - snsitiv, but not spcific for SLE<br />2.) Ab's to<b>
sDNA - vry spcif
ic, poor prognosis</b><br />3.) Anti-Smith Ab's (anti-Sm) - vry spcific, but n
ot prognostic.<br />4.) Antihiston Ab's -
rug-in
uc
lupus.
1304977448480 1342707643596 anmia charactriz
by:<br /><br /><img src="pa
stsg6ox.jpg" />
hr
itary sphrocytosis
1304977484641 1342707643596 anmia charactriz
by:<br><br><img src="pastb
mfxl3.jpg" /> hr
itary sphrocytosis
1304977526812 1342707643596 hr
itary sphrocytosis:<br /><br />fin
ings
splnomgaly<br />aplastic crisis (B19 infction)<br />howll-jolly bo
is prs
nt aftr splnctomy
1304977552934 1342707643596 hr
itary sphrocytosis:<br><br />Tx splnct
omy
1304977564694 1342707643366 Mnmonic for SLE
&quot;<b>I'M DAMN SHARP<
/b>&quot;<br /><br /><b>I</b>mmunoglobulins (anti-
sDNA, antia-SM, anti-phosphol
ipi
)<br /><b>M</b>alar rash<br /><br /><b>D</b>iscoi
rash<br /><b>A</b>ntinucl
ar Ab<br /><b>M</b>ucositis (oropharyngal ulcrs)<br /><b>N</b>urologic
/o's
<br /><br /><b>S</b>rositis (pluritis, pricar
itis)<br /><b>H</b>matologic

/o's<br /><b>A</b>rthitis<br /><b>R</b>nal
/o's<br /><b>P</b>hotosnsitivity
1304977566253 1342707643596 hr
itary sphrocytosis:<br /><br />lab tst
positiv osmotic fragility tst<br /><br />also, MCHC woul
b incras
, suggs
ting mb loss caus
by RBC
hy
ration
1304977596435 1342707643596 G6PD
ficincy:<br /><br />lab fin
ing bloo
sm
ar shows RBCs with Hinz bo
is an
bit clls<br><br>(bit clls ar from phag
ocytic rmoval of Hinz bo
is by splnic macrophags- &quot;bit into som Hin
z ktchup&quot;)
1304977632592 1342707643596 anmia charactriz
by hmolytic anmia followi
ng oxi
ativ strss (g. sulfa
rugs, infctions, fava bans) G6PD
ficincy
1304977700717 1342707643596 intrinsic anmia that prsnts as hmolytic anm
ia in nwborn pyruvat kinas
ficincy
1304977755143 1342707643596 sickl cll anmia:<br /><br />_% of african-am
ricans carry th HbS trait<br />_% hav th
isas
8%<br />0.2%
1304977776358 1342707643596 shap of sickl
clls crscnt-shap
RBCs
1304977809201 1342707643596 sickl cll anmia:<br /><br />what is s on xray
<img src="pasto1hhp_.jpg" />
1304977849366 1342707643596 sickl cll anmia:<br><br>why ar nwborns init
ially asymptomatic
<img src="pastsws3yo.jpg" />
1304977881087 1342707643596 sickl cll anmia:<br><br>what is th mutation
<img src="pastynjg1q.jpg" />
1304977898745 1342707643596 sickl cll anmia:<br /><br />pathognsis

<img src="pastbvhii.jpg" />
1304977983798 1342707643596 sickl cll anmia:<br /><br />htrozygots vs
homozygots
htro (35-40% HbS) -&gt; mor immun to malaria (plasmo
ium fal
ciparum)<br />homo (&gt;80% HbS) -&gt; sickl cll anmia
1304978040256 1342707643596 sickl cll
isas:<br /><br />Tx
<img src
="pastzrws9g.jpg" />
1304978322856 1342707643596 what is th function of
cay-acclrating facto
r (DAF) inhibits complmnt on RBC mb<br><br>(DAF n

to prvnt MAC from att
acking RBC)
1304978398973 1342707643596 anmia charactriz
by:<br><br /><img src="past
lx7o0m.jpg" /> paroxysmal nocturnal hmoglobinuria<br /><br />
1304978474194 1342707643596 chronic anmia sn in SLE, CLL, or with crtain

rugs (g. a-mthyl
opa)
warm agglutinin (IgG) autoimmun hmolytic anmi
a
1304978492484 1342707643596 acut anmia triggr
by col
col
agglutinin
(IgM) autoimmun hmolytic anmia
1304978507120 1342707643596 anmia sn with CLL, mycoplasma pnumonia inf
ctions, or infctious mononuclosis
col
agglutinin (IgM) autoimmun hmolyt
ic anmia
1304978642566 1342707643596 anmia sn in nwborns
u to Rh or othr bloo

antign incompatibility -&gt; mothr's Ab attack ftal RBCs
rythroblastosis
ftalis (autoimmun hmolytic anmia)
1304978669061 1342707643596 which typ of anmias ar usually coombs (+)?
autoimmun hmolytic anmia
1304978688205 1342707643596
irct vs in
irct coomb's tst <img src="past1
rpij5.jpg" />
1304978780372 1342707643596 anmia charactriz
by:<br><br><img src="pasth
9tmj.jpg" /> microangiopathic anmia
1304978839285 1342707643596 anmia sn in DIC, TTP/HUS, SLE, malignant HTN
microangiopathic anmia (an xtrinsic, intravascular hmolytic anmia)
1304979173575 1342707643596 <img src="pastpgafqf.jpg" /><br><br>what typ o
f anmia?
macroangiopathic anmia
1304979200860 1342707643596 lab valus in anmia:<br /><br />la
poisoning<
br /><br />srum iron<br />transfrrin/TIBC<br />frritin<br />%transfrrin satu
ration <img src="pastf5jyk6.jpg" /><br /><br />*la

naturs frrochlatas
-&gt; no Hb -&gt; microcytic anmia<br />*thus, whn F coms into mito, cannot
bin
to protoporphyrin to form hm
1304979499581 1342707643596 anmia charactriz
by ncphalopathy an
ryth
rocyt basophilic stippling
la
poisoning
1304979531381 1342707643596 anmia charactriz
by ab
ominal colic an
si

roblastic anmia
la
poisoning
1304979578216 1342707643596 anmia charactriz
by Burton's lins (lins on
gingiva) an
on piphyss of long bons on x-ray
la
poisoning
1304979589916 1342707643596 anmia charactriz
by wrist an
foot
rop
la
poisoning
1304979625911 1342707643596 la
poisoning:<br /><br />Tx
imrcaprol <br
/>EDTA<br /><br />Succimr for ki
s (&quot;sucks&quot; to b a ki
who ats la

)
1304979677925 1342707643596 la
poisoning:<br><br>symptoms in chil
rn
<img src="pastagbot.jpg" />
1304979689766 1342707643596 la
poisoning:<br /><br />symptoms in a
ult
<img src="pastnsav8.jpg" />
1304979717537 1342707643596 microcytic anmia charactriz
by GI an
ki
ny
la
poisoning

isas
1304979758928 1342707643596 acut intrmittnt porphyria:<br /><br />&quot;5
P's&quot;
<img src="pastpxyutp.jpg" />
1304979780614 1342707643596 acut intrmittnt porphyria:<br><br>Tx <img src
="pasthob3qz.jpg" />
1304979862442 1342707643596 anmia charactriz
by blistring cutanous pho
tosnsitivity porphyria cutana tar
a

1304979872988 1342707643596 most common porphyria porphyria cutana tar
a
1304981938223 1342707643366 Positiv antinuclar Ab's
Basically all rh
umatic
z...
on't just assum lupus.<br><br>SLE<br />Sjögrn's (an
sicca)<br />S
clro
rma<br />Polymyositis<br />Drmatomyositis<br />Rhumatoi
arthritis<br /
>Juvnil arthritis<br />Mix
connctiv tissu
z
1304981996436 1342707643366 Sarcoi
osis:<br />Path an
labs...?<br />Sn in
....? Charactriz
by immun-m
iat
, wi
spra
<b>noncasating granulomas<
/b> an
<b>lvat
srum ACE lvls.</b><br /><br />Common in black fmals.
1304982163256 1342707643366 Sarcoi
osis<br /><br />Signs/symptoms? Assoc w/
rstrictiv lung
z, bilatral <b>hilar lympha
nopathy</b>, rythma no
osum,
<b>Bll's palsy</b>, <br />pithlial <b>granulomas</b> containing microscopic <
b>Schaumann an
astroi
bo
is</b>, <br />an
<b>hyprcalcmia</b> (
u to lv
at
1-a-hy
roxylas vitamin D activation in pithlioi
macrophags).<br /><br
/><img src="566a Sarcoi
osis.JPG" />
1304982170518 1342707643366 Tx for sarcoi
osis?
Stroi
s
1304982218467 1342707643366 Mnmonic for sarcoi
osis?
<b>GRAIN</b><br>
<span styl=" font-wight:600;"></span><br><b>G</b>ammaglobulinmia<br><b>R</b>h
umatoi
arthitis<br><b>A</b>CE incras<br><b>I</b>ntrstitial fibrosis<br><b>N
</b>oncasating granulomas
1304982278213 1342707643366 Polymyalgia rhumatica<br /><br />S/sx?<br />Epi

miology?
Pain an
stiffnss in shoul
rs an
hips, oftn w/ fvr, malais
, an
wight loss.<br />Dos not caus muscular waknss.<br /><br />Occurs in
pts &gt; 50 yrs of ag; associat
w/ <b>tmporal (giant cll) artritis</b>.
1304982290211 1342707643366 Polymyalgia rhumatica: lab fin
ings? Incr ESR
, normal CK.
1304982299916 1342707643366 Polymyalgia rhumatica: Tx?
Pr
nison (rsp
on
s wll)
1304982365860 1342707643366 Polymyositis<br><br>Pathognsis?<br>Muscls aff
ct
? Progrssiv symmtric proximal muscl waknss caus
by CD8+ T-cll inj
ury to myofibrs.<br />Most oftn involvs shoul
rs.
1304982415779 1342707643366 Drmatomyositis<br><br>Symptoms?<br>Path?<br>Ass
ociat
with? Similar to polymyositis, but also involvs malar rash (similar t
o SLE),<br />hliotrop rash, &quot;shawl an
fac&quot; rash, <b>Gottrons papul
s</b>, &quot;mchanic's han
s&quot;<br><br>Muscl biopsy showing prifasicular
atrophy is
iagnostic.<br><br />Incr risk of malignancy.<br><br /><img src="382
Hliotrop rash.JPG" /><br /><br /><img src="pastxbug.jpg" /><br>Gottron's pa
puls
1304982449190 1342707643366 Lab fin
ings for polymyositis/
rmatomyositis
Incr CK, Incr al
olas, an
<b>positiv ANA, anti-Jo-1</b>
1304982472765 1342707643366 Tx for polyomyositis/
rmatomyositis
Stroi
s
1304982534700 1342707643366 NMJ
z's: Myasthnia gravis<br /><br />Pathogn
sis?<br />Bttr or wors w/ us?<br />A/w?<br />Tx?
Most common NMJ
/o.<br
/>Autoantibo
is to postsynaptic AChR caus ptosis,
iplopia, an
gnral wakn
ss.<br />Oftn involvs cranial motor nrvs.<br />Sx worsn w/ muscl us (&quo
t;havy yli
s&quot; at n
of
ay;
iagnos w/ nrv stimulation AP tst).<br
/><br />Associat
w/ thymoma.<br /><br />Rvrsal of Sx's occurs w/ AChE inhibi
tors (
rophonium
istinguishs un
r- an
ovr-
osing).<br />
1304982607164 1342707643366 NMJ
z's: Lambrt-Eaton syn
rom<br /><br />Path
ognsis?<br />Bttr or wors w/ us?<br />A/w?<br />Tx?
Autoantibo
is t
o prsynaptic Ca2+ channl rsults in
cr ACh rlas, la
ing to proximal musc
l waknss.<br />Sx <i>improv</i> with muscl us.<br /><br>Associat
w/ para
noplastic
z's (small cll lung cancr).<br><br>No rvrsal of Sx's w/ AChE inh
ibitors alon.
1304982643573 1342707643366 Mix
connctiv tissu
z<br /><br />S/sx?<br /
>Antibo
is?<br />Tratmnt?
Raynau
's phnomnon, arthralgias, myalgias, fat
igu, an
sophagal hypomotility.<br />Ab's to U1RNP. <br />Rspon
s to stroi

s.
1304982990271 1342707643366 Sclro
rma (progrssiv systmic sclrosis - PS
S)<br><br>What is it?<br>What organs ar involv
?<br>Epi
miology?<br>Typs?
Excssiv fibrosis an
collagn
position throughout th bo
y.<br />Commonly sc

lrosis of skin, manifsting as puffy an
taut skin w/ absnc of wrinkls [blo
w].<br />Also sclrosis of rnal, pulmonary, CV, an
GI systms. <br />75% fmal
.<br /><br />2 major typs: Diffus sclro
rma an
CREST syn
rom.<br /><img s
rc="Sclro
rma.JPG" />
1304983421733 1342707643366 Diffus sclro
rma<br /><br />Sx, progrssion?<
br />Antibo
y (an
what is its cllular targt)?
Wi
spra
skin involvm
nt, rapi
progrssion, arly viscral involvmnt.<br />Associat
w/ anti-Scl70 Ab (<b>anti-DNA topoisomras I</b> antibo
y).
1304983530149 1342707643366 CREST syn
rom<br><br>Mnmonic?<br>Diffrncs v
s.
iffus sclro
rma?<br>Antibo
y?
<b>CREST</b><br /><br /><b>C</b>alcinosi
s<br /><b>R</b>aynau
's phnomnon<br /><b>E</b>sophagal
ysmotility<br /><b>S<
/b>clro
actyly<br /><b>T</b>langictasia<br /><br />Limit
skin involvmnt,
oftn confin
to fingrs an
fac.<br />Mor bnign clinical cours [than
iffu
s sclro
rma].<br />Associat
w/ <b>antiCntromr antibo
y</b> (<b>C</b> for
<b>C</b>REST)
1304983556895 1342707643366 Soft tissu tumors: Lipoma
Soft, wll-ncap
sulat
fat tumor.<br>Bnign.<br>Simpl xcision is usually curativ.
1304983579373 1342707643366 Soft tissu tumors: Liposarcoma Malignant fat tu
mor that can b quit larg.<br>Will rcur unlss a
quatly xcis
.<br>
1304983607130 1342707643366 Soft tissu tumors: Rhab
omyosarcoma
Most com
mon soft tissu tumor of chil
hoo
.<br>Malignant.<br>Ariss from skltal muscl
, most oftn in ha
/nck.
1304983693208 1342707643674 Macul Flat
iscoloration &lt; 1cm<br />.g., T
ina vrsicolor.
1304983718583 1342707643674 Patch Macul &gt; 1cm<br>
1304983733113 1342707643674 Papul Elvat
skin lsion &lt; 1 cm<br>.g.,
Acn vulgaris
1304983746237 1342707643674 Plaqu Papul &gt; 1cm<br />.g., Psoriasis
1304983760199 1342707643674 Vsicl Small flui
-containing blistr<br />.g.
, Chicknpox
1304983772724 1342707643674 Whal Transint papul or plaqu<br />.g., hi
vs
1304983792035 1342707643674 Bulla Larg flui
-containing blistr<br>.g.,
Bullous pmphigoi

1304983819177 1342707643674 Kloi
Irrgular, rais
lsion rsulting from
scar tissu hyprtrophy<br>(follows trauma to skin, sp. in African-Amricans)
1304983828241 1342707643674 Pustul Blistr containing pus
1304983839916 1342707643674 Crust Dri
xu
at from a vsicl, bulla, or
pustul.<br />.g., Imptigo
1304983857929 1342707643674 Hyprkratosis Incr thicknss of stratum cornu
m<br />.g., Psoriasis
1304983881078 1342707643674 Parakratosis Hyprkratosis w/ rtntion of n
ucli in stratum cornum<br />.g., psoriasis
1304983895579 1342707643674 Acantholysis
Sparation of pi
rmal clls<br
>.g., Pmphigus vulgaris
1304983904360 1342707643674 Acanthosis
Epi
rmal hyprplasia (incras

thicknss of spinosum)
1304983912096 1342707643674 Drmatitis
Inflammation of th skin
1304984042004 1342707643543 Vrruca (common
/o) Warts.<br />Soft, tan-co
lor
, cauliflowr-lik lsions.<br />Epi
rmal hyprplasia, hyprkratosis, koi
locytosis.<br />Vrruca vulgaris on han
s; con
yloma acuminatum on gnitals (cau
s
by HPV).
1304984054151 1342707643543 Nvocllular nvus (common
/o) Common mol.<br>
Bnign.
1304984077034 1342707643543 Urticaria (common
/o) Hivs.<br />Intnsly pr
uritic whals that form aftr mast cll
granulation.
1304984095114 1342707643543 Ephlis (common
/o)
Frckl.<br />Normal num
br of mlanocyts, incr mlanin pigmnt.
1304984135724 1342707643543 Atopic
rmatitis (czma) -- (common
/o)
Pruritic ruption, commonly on skin flxurs (vs. xtnsor surfacs of psoriasis

)<br /><br />Oftn associat
w/ othr atopic
z's (asthma, allrgic rhinitis).
1304984162868 1342707643543 Allrgic contact
rmatitis (common
/o)
Typ IV hyprsnsitivity rxtn that follows xposur to allrgn.<br />Lsions oc
cur at sit of contact.<br />(.g. nickl, poison ivy)
1304984323646 1342707643543 Psoriasis (common
/o)<br /><br />Typ of lsion
?<br />Thicknss of
iffrnt layrs?<br />Signs?
Papuls an
plaqus w/ s
ilvry scaling, spcially on kns an
lbows.<br /><img src="559a psoriasis.JP
G" /><br />Acanthosis w/ parakrototic scaling (nucli still in stratum cornum)
.<br /><b>Incr stratum spinosum,
cr stratum granulosum.</b><br /><br /><b>Ausp
itz sign</b> (bl
ing spots whn scals ar scrap
off). <br />Can b associat

w/ nail pitting an
arthritis
1304984397958 1342707643543 Albinism (pigmntation
/o)
Normal mlanocyt
 numbr w/
cr mlanin pro
uction
u to
cr activity of tyrosinas.<br />Can
also b caus
by failur of nural crst cll migration
uring
vlopmnt.
1304984424791 1342707643543 Vitiligo (pigmntation
/o)
Irrgular aras
of complt
pigmntation.<br />Caus
by a
cr in mlanocyts.
1304984450297 1342707643543 Mlasma (pigmntation
/o)<br /><br />Associat

with? Hyprpigmntation associat
w/ prgnancy (&quot;mask of prgnancy&quot;
) or OCP us.
1304984489530 1342707643543 Imptigo (infctious
/o)
Vry suprficial
skin infxn.<br>Usually from S. aurus or S. pyogns.<br>Highly contagious.<br>
<b>Hony-color
crusting.</b>
1304984520015 1342707643543 Cllulitis (infctious
/o)<br /><br />What is i
t?<br />Organisms?
Acut, painful spra
ing infxn of
rmis an
subcutanou
s tissus.<br />Usually from S. pyogns or S. aurus.
1304984596317 1342707643543 Ncrotizing fascitis (infctious
/o) Dpr t
issu injury [vs. imptigo, cllulitis], usually from anarobic bactria an
S.
pyogns.<br>Rsults in crpitus from mthan an
CO2 pro
uction.<br>&quot;Flsh
-ating bactria.&quot;
1304984656953 1342707643543 Staphylococcal scal

skin syn
rom - SSSS (inf
ctious
/o)<br /><br />What
os th xotoxin
o, an
whr?<br />S/sx?<br />S
n in whom?
Exotoxin
stroys kratinocyt attachmnts in th <b>stratum gra
nulosum</b> only.<br />Charactriz
by fvr an
gnraliz
rythmatous rash
w/ sloughing of th uppr layrs of th pi
rmis.<br />Sn in nwborns an
chi
l
rn.
1304984686017 1342707643543 Hairy lukoplakia (infctious
/o)
Whit, p
ainlss plaqus on th tongu that cannot b scrap
off.<br>EBV m
iat
.<br>R
lativly spcific for HIV.
1304984711494 1342707643596 von willbran
's
isas:<br /><br />Tx DDAVP (

smoprssin), which rlass vWF an
VIII <b>stor
in n
othlium</b><br /><br
/>*can also b us
to Tx hmophilia A (but no ffct on B)
1304984896057 1342707643543 Pmphigus vulgaris (blistring
/o)<br /><br />W
hat is it?<br />Antibo
is?<br />Immunofluorscnc pattrn?<br />Drm trminolo
gy?<br />Sign? Potntially fatal autoimmun skin
/o w/ IgG Ab against <b>
smo
soms</b> (anti-pithlial cll Ab);<br />immunofluorscnc rvals antibo
is
aroun
clls of pi
rmis in a rticular or ntlik pattrn.<br /><br />Acanthol
ysis -- intrapi
rmal bulla causing flacci
blistr involving skin <b>an
oral
mucosa</b> (blow).<br />Positiv Nikolsky's sign (sparation of pi
rmis upon
manual stroking of skin).<br /><br /><img src="558a Pmphigus vulgaris.JPG" /><
br />
1304985096540 1342707643543 Bullous pmphigoi
(blistring
/o)<br /><br />A
ntibo
is?<br />Immunofluorscnc pattrn?<br />Whr is affct
?<br />Sign?
Autoimmun
/o w/ IgG AB against <b>hmi
smosoms</b> (pi
rmal basmnt mmbr
an; Ab's ar &quot;bullow&quot; th pi
rmis);<br />shows linar immunofluors
cnc.<br /><br />Eosinophils w/in tns blistrs. Similar to, but lss svr t
han pmphigus vulgaris--affcts skin but <b>spars oral mucosa.</b> <b>Ngativ
Nikolsky's sign.</b><br /><br /><img src="559b bullous pmphigoi
.JPG" />
1304985176052 1342707643543 Drmatitis hrptiformis (blistring
/o)<br /><
br />Antibo
y?<br />A/w?
Pruritic papuls an
vsicls.<br />Dposits of
<b>IgA</b> at th tips of
rmal papilla.<br /><br /><b>Associat
w/ cliac
z

.</b>
1304985228725 1342707643543 Erythma multiform (blistring
/o)<br /><br />
Associat
with?<br />Lsions? Associat
w/ infxns (.g., M. pnumonia, HSV),

rugs, cancrs, an
autoimmun
z.<br /><br />Prsnts with multipl typs of l
sions--maculs, papuls, vsicls, an
targt lsions (r
papuls w/ a pal c
ntral ara).<br /><br /><img src="pastsigcfu.jpg" />
1304985231436 1342707643596 rgulation of intstinal iron absorption occurs
mainly through ___
hpci
in, an acut phas ractant ma
 in th livr that
bin
s to frroportin an
vntually causs its
gra
ation (incras hpci
in &gt;
cras intstinal absorption of iron -&gt; incras rtntion of iron in
macrophags through its intraction with frroportin)<br /><br />*although ints
tin absorbs iron, hpci
in can
ownrgulat it<br>*basically stops iron flux
1304985259755 1342707643543 Stvns-Johnson syn
rom (blistring
/o)<br /><
br />Sx?<br />Etiology? Charactriz
by fvr, bulla formation an
ncrosis, sl
oughing of skin, an
a high mortality rat.<br />Usually associat
w/ a
vrs

rug rxtn.
1304985286257 1342707643543 Toxic pi
rmal ncrolysis (blistring
/o)
Charactristics similar to Stvns-Johnson syn
rom, but mor svr w/ gratr
pi
rmal involvmnt.
1304985340656 1342707643543 Lichn <b>p</b>lanus (misc.)
<b>P</b>ruritic,
<b>P</b>urpl, <b>P</b>olygonal <b>P</b>apuls.<br />Sawtooth infiltrat of lym
phocyts at
rmal-pi
rmal jxn.<br /><br />Associat
w/<b> hpatitis C.</b><b
r /><br /><img src="pastxvparz.jpg" />
1304985384715 1342707643543 Actinic kratosis (misc.)
<b>Prmalignant<
/b> lsions caus
by sun xposur.<br />Small, rough, rythmatous or brownish
papuls.<br />&quot;Cutanous horn.&quot; <br /><br />Risk of squamous cll carc
inoma is proportional to pithlial
ysplasia.<br /><br /><img src="pastuxvz5_.
jpg" />
1304985417622 1342707643543 Acanthosis nigricans (misc.)<br /><br />Layr(s)
involv
?<br />Associat
with?
Hyprplasia of <b>stratum spinosum</b>.<
br /><br />Associat
w/ <b>hyprinsulinmia</b> (.g., from Cushing's
z,
iab
ts) an
<b>viscral malignancy</b>.
1304985468927 1342707643543 Erythma no
osum<br /><br />Whr is affct
?<b
r />Associat
with?
Inflammatory lsions of subcutanous fat, usually on ant
rior shins.<br /><br />Associat
w/ cocci
ioi
omycosis, histoplasmosis, TB, l
prosy, strptococccal infxns, sarcoi
osis.<br />(not: all ar granulomatous
zs
xcpt strp)<br><br>*also crohn's
1304985504020 1342707643543 Pityriasis rosa (misc.)
&quot;Hral
pat
ch&quot; follow

ays latr by &quot;Christmas tr&quot;
istribution.<br /><b
r />Multipl papular ruptions; rmits spontanously.<br /><br />Goljan says:<br
/><br />Non pruritic rash, NON INFECTIOUS; oblong looking with r
on outsi
 a
n
pal in mi

l. You think this is T corporis, but its oblong (an
not circula
r). Do a KOH prp, fin
nothing; thn put topical stroi
s an

osn’t go away; 3

ays later comes back with rash in Christmas tree like
istribution; not an infe
ctious
z.
1304985647378 1342707643366 Skin cancers: s uamous cell carcinoma<br /><br /
>A/w?<br />Occurs where?<br />Behavior, appearance?<br />Variant?
Very com
mmon.<br />Associate
w/ excessive exposure to sunlight an
arsenic exposure.<br
/><br />Commonly appear on han
s an
face.<br />Locally invasive, but rarely me
tastasizes.<br />Ulcerative re
lesion.<br /><br />Associate
w/ chronic
rainin
g sinuses.<br /><br /><b>Keratoacanthoma </b>is a variant that grows rapi
ly (46 weeks) an
regresses spontaneously (4-8 weeks).<br /><br />
1304985677089 1342707643366 Histopathology of s uamous cell carcinoma
Keratin & uot;pearls& uot;<br /><img src="557a SCC.JPG" />
1304985713325 1342707643366 Precursor to s uamous cell carcinoma
Actinic
keratosis.
1304985761821 1342707643366 Skin cancer: basal cell carcinoma<br /><br />Occ
ur where?<br />Behavior, appearance?<br />Path? Most common in sun-expose
areas
of bo
y.<br />Locally invasive, but almost never metastasizes.<br />Rolle
e
ge
s w/ central ulceration.<br /><br />Basal cell tumors have <b>& uot;palisa
ing&

uot;</b> <b>nuclei</b>.<br /><br /><img src="pastegjspwa.jpg" /> <img src="558c
BCC histo.JPG" />
1304985838081 1342707643366 Gross pathology of basal cell carcinoma Rolle
e

ges with central ulceration, <b>pearly papules</b> commonly w/ telangectasias<b
r><br /><img src="558b BCC.JPG" />
1304985977109 1342707643366 Skin cancer: Melanoma<br /><br />General, behavi
or?<br />Marker?<br />Prognosis?<br />Characteristics? Common tumor w/ signific
ant risk of metastasis.<br /><b>S-100 tumor marker</b>.<br /><br />Associate
w/
sunlight exposure; fair-skinne
persons are at incr risk.<br /><b>Depth</b> of
tumor correlates w/ risk of metastasis.<br />Look for <b>A</b>ssymetry, <b>B</b>
or
er irregularity, <b>C</b>olor variation, <b>D</b>iameter &gt; 6mm, <b>E</b>vo
lving lesion<br /><br /><img src="558
malignant melanoma.JPG" />
1304986004209 1342707643366 Precursor to melanoma Dysplastic nevus (atypic
al mole) is a precursor to melanoma.
1304987026323 1342707643596 schilling test:<br /><br />what is it use
for <

ifferentiate between causes of VitB12
eficienc
br />how is it con
ucte

y (low intake, presence of Ab against IF/pernicious anemia, malabsorption)<br />
<br />given
ose of ra
iolabele
oral VitB12 an
intramuscular injection of unla
bele
VitB12 (2
oses to overloa
system an
force high output) -&gt; measure ur
inary excretion<br />*think of it this way: first
ose is to meet bo
y nee
s for
B12. secon

ose will be in excess an
will be excrete
.<br /><br />normal urin
ary excretion of ra
iolabele
VitB12 -&gt; poor intake<br />*absorption is not a
problem because the B12 given IM is appropriately processe
an
excrete
. thus,
problem must be poor intake.<br /><br />
iminishe
urinary excretion -&gt; impa
ire
intestinal absorption<br />*absorption IS problem because B12 cannot be pro
cesse
for excretion -&gt; low output<br /><br />Phase II: to
ifferentiate betw
een pernicious anemia an
malabsorption, give another
ose of ra
iolabele
VitB1
2 + IF<br />-normal excretion after
oing this means its pernicious anemia (eg.
atrophic gastritis)<br />-low excretion means malabsorption (IF is working fine
) (eg. pancreatic insufficiency, intestinal bacterial overgrowth, ileal
isease)
1304989482009 1342707643366 Lipoxegenase pathway yiel
s... <b>L</b>ipoxyege
nase pathway yiel
s <b>L</b>eukotrienes.
1304989509939 1342707643366 LT<b>B</b>4
A neutrophil chemotactic agent.<
br>& uot;Neutrophils arrive <b>B4 </b>others& uot;
1304989552699 1342707643366 Function of LTC4, D4, an
E4
Function in bron
choconstriction, vasoconstriction, contraction of smooth muscle, an
incr vascul
ar permeability.
1304989640850 1342707643366 <b>PGI2</b><br /><br />Functions?
(prostac
yclin)<br /><br />Inhibits platelet aggregation an
promotes vaso
ilation<br />&
uot;<b>P</b>latelet <b>G</b>athering <b>I</b>nhibitor& uot;
1304989664788 1342707643366 Arachi
onic aci
pro
uct overview
<img src
="387a Aracha
onic aci
overview.JPG" />
1304989686049 1342707643366 Step one in all arachi
onic aci
pathways
<img src="387b Step 1.JPG" />
1304989764614 1342707643366 Step 2 in arachi
onic aci
pathways (after cleav
age of arachi
onic aci
from membrane lipi
)
AA is
iverte
either to HPETEs
via Lipoxegase (left) or En
operoxi
es via COX-1/2 (right)<br /><img src="387c S
tep 2.JPG" /><br />LOX is inhibite
by Zileuton; COX is inhibite
by NSAIDs, ace
taminophen, COX-2 inhibitors, ASA
1304990061044 1342707643366 Arachi
onic aci
pathways: hy
roperoxi
es
HPETEs are converte
to leukotrienes:<br />LTB4 -- PMN chemotaxis<br />LTC4, LTD
4, LTE4 -- bronchoconstriction<br /><img src="387
Hy
roperoxi
es.JPG" />
1304990607762 1342707643596 MCC of inherite
hypercoagulability
factor V
lei
en
1304990644599 1342707643596 major clinical manifestations of this
isease in
clu
e DVT, cerebral vein thrombosis, recurrent pregnancy loss factor V lei
en
1304993596771 1342707643596 platelet
isor
er with the following mechanism:<
br /><br /><img src="pasteeyybc2.jpg" />
bernar
-soulier
isease
1304993686915 1342707643596 platelet
isor
er with the following mechanism:<
br><br><img src="pastesiy
xk.jpg" />
glanzmanns thrombasthenia

1304993704271 1342707643596 bloo
smear shows no platelet clumping. Dx?
glanzmanns thrombasthenia
1304993835841 1342707643596 platelet
isor
er with the following mechanism:<
br /><br /><img src="pastefub
hk.jpg" />
i
iopathic thrombocytopenic purp
ura (ITP)<br /><br />*platelet/Ab complex is consume
by splenic macrophages.
1304993850387 1342707643596 platelet
isor
er that shows an increase in mega
karyocytes
i
iopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP)
1304993903176 1342707643596 platelet
isor
er with the following mechanism:<
br><br><img src="pastepfsmos.jpg" />
thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP
)
1304993935583 1342707643596 platelet
isor
er with the following pathogenesi
s:<br /><br><img src="pastelzx8my.jpg" />
thrombotic thrombocytopenic purp
ura (TTP)
1304993950429 1342707643596 platelet
isor
er that shows an increase in LDH
an
the presence of schistocytes
thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP
)
1304993996825 1342707643596 thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP): <br /
><br />symptoms <u>penta
</u><br />microangiopathic hemolytic anemia<br />thromb
ocytopenia<br />renal symptoms<br />neurologic symptoms<br />fever
1304994140390 1342707643596
eficiency of factor VIII is foun
along with an
increase in PTT. what
isor
er is this?
hemophilia A
1304994147286 1342707643596
eficiency of factor IX is foun
along with an i
ncrease in PTT. what
isor
er is this? hemophilia B
1304994182635 1342707643596 symptoms of hemophilia macrohemorrhage<br>hemar
thoses (blee
ing into joints)<br>easy bruising
1304994213185 1342707643596 labs show:<br><br><img src="pastenwu2cl.jpg" /><
br><br>what is the
isor
er?
vitK
eficiency
1304994479293 1342707643596 factor that acts to carry/protect factor VIII.

efect causes an increase in IX. will lea
to a normal or increase
PTT. what is
it?
vWF
1304994530561 1342707643596
ecrease in factor lea
s to
efect in platelet-t
o-collagen a
hesion. what is it?
vWF
1304994548364 1342707643596 mil
, but most common inherite
blee
ing
isor
e
r (AD) vWF
1304994806215 1342707643596 causes of DIC Sepsis (gram-negative)<br />Trau
ma<br />Obstetric complications<br />acute Pancreatitis<br />Malignancy<br />Nep
hrotic syn
rome<br />Transfusion <br /><br />(STOP Making New Thrombi)
1304994818682 1342707643596 Wi
esprea
activation of clotting lea
s to a
ef
iciency in clotting factors, which creates a blee
ing state. What
isor
er is th
is?
DIC
1304994899193 1342707643596 DIC:<br><br>labs
schistocytes<br>increase
fibrin split pro
ucts (D-
imers)<br>
ecrease fibrinogen<br>
ecrease factors V a
n
VIII
1304996205274 1342707643596 associate
with aplastic crisis (parvovirus B19)
sickle cell
isease<br />here
itary spherocytosis<br><br>*both also exhibit howe
ll-jolly bo
ies
1304996308259 1342707643596 functional splenic
ysfunction occurs in early c
hil
hoo
. what
isease is this associate
with? why?
sickle cell
isease<br /
><br />Autosplenectomy -&gt; increase risk of infection with encapsulate
organi
sms (Howell-Jolly bo
ies)<br /><br />*encapsulate
organisms: SHiNK - strep pneu
monia, h. influenza, neisseria, klebsiella
1304996352064 1342707643596 Salmonella osteomyelitis. what
isease is this a
ssociate
with? why?
sickle cell
isease<br /><br /><img src="paste n_j0w.jpg
" />
1304996362160 1342707643596
isease associate
with painful crisis (vaso-occ
lusive) sickle cell
isease
1304996388412 1342707643596
isease associate
with <b>renal papillary necro
sis</b> (
ue to low O2 in papilla) an
<b>microhematuria</b> (me
ullary infarcts
)
sickle cell
isease
1304996402032 1342707643596
isease associate
with splenic se uestration cr

isis
sickle cell
isease
1304997909939 1342707643596 leukemia or lymphoma:<br /><br />lymphoi
neopla
sms with wi
esprea
involvement of bone marrow leukemia
1304997927624 1342707643596 leukemia or lymphoma:<br /><br />Tumor cells are
usually foun
in peripheral bloo

leukemia
1304997974877 1342707643596 leukemia or lymphoma:<br /><br />
iscrete tumor
masses arising from lymph no
es lymphoma
1304998080530 1342707643596 ho
gkins or non-ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>Pres
ence of Ree
-Sternberg cells
ho
gkins
1304998104127 1342707643596 ho
gkins or non-ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>Loca
lize
, single group of no
es; extrano
al rare; contiguous sprea
(stage is stron
gest pre
ictor of prognosis)
ho
gkins
1304998123790 1342707643596 ho
gkins or non-ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />
Constitutional (& uot;B& uot;) signs/symptoms - low-gra
e fever, night sweats, w
eight loss
ho
gkins
1304998137286 1342707643596 ho
gkins or non-ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />
Me
iastinal lympha
enopathy
ho
gkins
1304998149888 1342707643596 ho
gkins or non-ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>50%
of cases associate
with EBV
ho
gkins
1304998166745 1342707643596 ho
gkins or non-ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />
bimo
al
istribution -young an
ol

ho
gkins; more common in men except for
no
ular sclerosing type
1304998186120 1342707643596 ho
gkins or non-ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />
Goo
prognosis = increase lymphocytes +
ecrease RS
ho
gkins
1304998213392 1342707643596 ho
gkins or non-ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />
May be associate
with HIV an
immunosuppression
non-ho
gkins
1304998232512 1342707643596 ho
gkins or non-ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>Mult
iple, peripheral no
es; extrano
al involvement common; noncontiguous sprea

non-ho
gkins
1304998249272 1342707643596 ho
gkins or non-ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>Majo
rity involve B cells (except those of lymphoblastic T-cell origin)
non-ho
g
kins
1304998258990 1342707643596 ho
gkins or non-ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>Fewe
r constitutional signs/symptoms non-ho
gkins
1304998270455 1342707643596 ho
gkins or non-ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />
Peak inci
ence for certain subtypes at 20-40 years of age
non-ho
gkins
1304998449802 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />occurs in a
o
lescents an
young a
ults
Burkitts lymphoma
1304998485137 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br><img src="pasteia
iv17.jpg" /><br><br>
Burkitts lymphoma
1304998502566 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br><img src="pastel
3fuj.jpg" />
Burkitts lymphoma
1304998512889 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>associate
with E
BV
Burkitts lymphoma
1304998532111 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>Jaw lesion in en

emic form in Africa; pelvis or ab
omen in spora
ic form Burkitts lymphoma
1304998594827 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br>neoplasms of ma
ture B cells
burkitts<br>
iffuse large B-cell<br>mantle cell<br>follicular
1304998632071 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br>occurs in ol
er
a
ults, but 20% of chil
ren

iffuse large B-cell lymphoma
1304998657454 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>most common a
ult

iffuse large B-cell lymphoma
NHL
1304998672404 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />May be mature
T cell in origin (20%)
iffuse large B-cell lymphoma
1304998710505 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>occurs in ol
er m
ales
mantle cell lymphoma
1304998731286 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />t(11;14) an

conse uence
mantle cell lymphoma<br /><br>overexpression of cyclin D
1304998744289 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>CD5+ an
has poor
prognosis
mantle cell lymphoma

1304998783549 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />occurs in a
u
lts
follicular lymphoma (B)<br />A
ult T-cell lymphoma (T)<br />Mycosis fung
oi
es/Sezary syn
rome (T)
1304998811240 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>t(14;18) bcl-2 ex
pression
follicular lymphoma
1304998828512 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />
ifficult to
cure; in
olent course; waxing an
waning lympa
enopathy <br />follicular lymphom
a
1304998840451 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />bcl-2 inhibit
s apoptosis
follicular lymphoma
1304998886655 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>neoplasms of matu
re T cells
a
ult T-cell<br>mycosis fungoi
es/sezary syn
rome
1304998903578 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>cause
by HTLV-1
a
ult T-cell lymphoma
1304998933886 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />a
ults presen
t with cutaneous lesions
a
ult T-cell lymphoma<br />mycosis fungoi
es/sez
ary
1304998957633 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>prevalent in Japa
n, West Africa, Caribbean
a
ult T-cell lymphoma
1304998980823 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br /><br />A
ults presen
t with cutaneous patches/no
ules
mycosis fungoi
es/ sezary syn
rome
1304998991756 1342707643596 Non-Ho
gkins lymphoma:<br><br>in
olent CD4+
mycosis fungoi
es/ sezary syn
rome<br />
1304999112061 1342707643596 leukemias:<br><br>May present with bone marrow i
nvolvement in chil
hoo
or me
iastinal mass in a
olescent males.
ALL
1304999136294 1342707643596 leukemias:<br><br>bone marrow replace
by increa
se
lymphoblasts
ALL
1304999150840 1342707643596 leukemias:<br /><br />ALL cell markers<br />
T
T+ (marker of pre-T an
pre-B cells), CALLA+ (CD10)
1304999164398 1342707643596 leukemias:<br><br>most responsive to therapy
ALL
1304999177576 1342707643596 leukemias:<br /><br />may sprea
to CNS an
test
es
ALL
1304999193052 1342707643596 leukemias:<br><br>occurs in chil
ren
ALL
1304999216658 1342707643596 what signifies better prognosis of ALL t(12;21)
1304999321946 1342707643596 leukemias:<br /><br />Often asymptomatic; smu
ge
cells in peripheral bloo
smear
SLL/CLL<br><br />(smu
ge cells are fragi
le B-CLL cells that break when smear is ma
e; more = worse prognosis)
1304999339867 1342707643596 leukemias:<br /><br />associate
with warm antib
o
y autoimmune hemolytic anemia SLL/CLL
1304999400020 1342707643596 leukemias:<br /><br />occurs in ol
er a
ults (&g
t;60yo) SLL/CLL
1304999457925 1342707643596 leukemias:<br /><br />mature B-cell tumor in the
el
erly; cells have filamentous projections
hairy cell leukemia
1304999509554 1342707643596 leukemias:<br /><br />Stains TRAP (tartrate-resi
stant aci
phosphatase) positive
hairy cell leukemia
1304999541072 1342707643596 leukemias:<br><br>myeloi
type that occurs in a

ults<br />
AML
1304999559314 1342707643596 leukemias:<br /><br />increase circulating myelo
blasts on peripheral smear
AML
1304999583159 1342707643596 leukemias:<br /><br />respon
s to all-trans reti
noic aci
(vitamin A), in
ucing
ifferentiation of myeloblasts.<br /> AML M3<b
r><br>t(15:17)
1304999615989 1342707643596 leukemias:<br><br>Phila
elphia chromosome (t[9;2
2], bcr-abl)
CML
1304999638247 1342707643596 leukemias:<br /><br />PAS (-) AML
1304999647364 1342707643596 leukemias:<br><br>myeloi
stem cell proliferatio
n
CML
1304999667925 1342707643596 leukemias:<br><br>presents with increase
neutro
phils, metamyelocytes, basophils;
CML

1304999674644 1342707643596 leukemias:<br><br>associate
with splenomegaly
CML
1304999687180 1342707643596 leukemias:<br><br>may accelerate an
transform t
o AML or ALL (& uot;blast crisis& uot;) CML
1304999701153 1342707643596 leukemias:<br><br>Very low leukocyte alkaline ph
osphatase (vs. leukemoi
reaction)
CML
1304999795264 1342707643596 leukemias:<br /><br />hyperplasia of all 3 cell
lines (granulocytic, erythroi
, an
megakaryocytic) but granulocyte precusors pr
e
ominate
CML
1304999892860 1342707643596 treatment of AML M3 can lea
to release of auer
ro
s -&gt; DIC
1305000203004 1342707643596 Name the myeloproliferative
isor
ers<br /><br /
>What signaling protein is involve
?
Polycythemia vera, essential thrombocyto
sis, myelofibrosis, CML<br /><br />JAK2 is involve
in hematopoietic growth fact
or signaling;<br />mutations implicate
in the myeloproliferative
isor
ers (exc
u
ing CML)
1305049317414 1342707643596 Monoclonal plasma cell cancer that arises in the
marrow an
pro
uces large amounts of IgG (55%) or IgA(25%)<br />
Multiple
myeloma<br />
1305049363537 1342707643596 Most common 1° tumor arising within bone in the el

erly (&gt;40-50 years of age) Multiple myeloma<br />
1305049401404 1342707643596 Characterize
by monoclonal immunoglobulin spike
(M protein) on serum protein electrophoresis<br><br><img src="paste ogf1t.jpg"
/>
Multiple myeloma<br />
1305049415776 1342707643596 Ig light chains (kappa) in urine (Bence Jones pr
otein)<br />
Multiple myeloma<br />
1305049477581 1342707643596 In multiple myeloma, light chains precipitate wi
th ___ an
form eosinophilic casts<br />
Tamm horsfall protein
1305049519356 1342707643596 Bloo
smears shows RBCs stacke
like poker chips
(rouleaux formation) Multiple myeloma<br />
1305049530679 1342707643596 Associate
with primary amyloi
osis (AL) an
pun
che
-out lytic bone lesions on x-ray
Multiple myeloma<br /><br />*amyloi
for
ms
ue to accumulation of monoclonal Ig light chains<br /><br /><img src="pastet
b_sxo.png" />
1305050656692 1342707643596 Proliferative
isor
ers of
en
ritic (Langerhans
) cells from the monocytic lineage
Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH)
1305050685022 1342707643596 Defective cells express S-100 an
CD1a Langerha
ns cell histiocytosis (LCH)
1305050703381 1342707643596 Birbeck granules (& uot;tennis rackets& uot; on
EM) are characteristic Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH)
1305051326812 1342707643596 c-myc activation<br /> burkitts lymphoma
1305053130791 1342707643596 relation between heme an
ALA synthase activity
<img src="pasteu a1fc.jpg" />
1305069332617 1342707643596 for rapi
reversal of heparinization, use?
protamine sulfate (positively charge
molecule that acts by bin
ing negatively c
harge
heparin)
1305071211815 1342707643596 inhibits rRNA
egra
ation, which causes basophil
ic stippling from aggregation of ribosomes
lea
poisoning
1305071347122 1342707643596 heparin vs warfarin:<br><br>structure heparin
- large anionic, aci
ic polymer<br>warfarin - small lipi
-soluble molecule
1305071365720 1342707643596 heparin vs warfarin:<br><br>route of a
ministrat
ion
heparin - parental (IV, SC)<br>warfarin - oral
1305071376290 1342707643596 heparin vs warfarin:<br><br>site of action
heparin - bloo
<br>warfarin - liver
1305071402124 1342707643596 heparin vs warfarin:<br><br>onset of action
heparin - rapi
(secon
s)<br>warfarin - slow, limite
by half-lives of normal cl
otting factors
1305071427247 1342707643596 heparin vs warfarin:<br><br>mechanism of action
<img src="pastejz
r8r.jpg" />
1305071443612 1342707643596 heparin vs warfarin:<br><br>
uration of action

heparin - acute (hours)<br>warfarin - chronic (
ays)
1305071464251 1342707643596 heparin vs warfarin:<br><br>inhibits coagulation
in vitro?
heparin - yes<br>warfarin - no
1305071500335 1342707643596 heparin vs warfarin:<br><br>Tx of acute OD
heparin - protamine sulfate<br>warfarin - IV VitK (2-3
ays for effect) an
fres
h frozen plasma (imme
iate effect)
1305071523613 1342707643596 heparin vs warfarin:<br><br>monitoring heparin
- PTT (intrinsic pathway)<br>warfarin - PT/INR (extrinsic pathway)
1305071550613 1342707643596 heparin vs warfarin:<br><br>crosses placenta?
heparin - no<br>warfarin - yes (teratogenic)
1305071578106 1342707643596 why shoul
warfarin be starte
with heparin unti
l warfarin becomes therapeutic? warfarin inhibits protein C an
S in first few

ays -&gt; makes patient hypercoagulable
1305071754813 1342707643596 thrombolytics:<br /><br />effects on PT, PTT, pl
atelet count, blee
ing time
increase PT<br />increase PTT<br />no change in
PC<br />no change in BT
1305071991470 1342707643596 Tx for toxicity of thrombolytics
aminocap
roic aci
(inhibitor of fibrinolysis)
1305075548894 1342707643596 <img src="pastehmu_b3.jpg" /> myeloblast<br><b
r>arrow shows auer ro
, which stains with peroxi
ase
1305075610774 1342707643596 peroxi
ase-positive cytoplasmic inclusions in gr
anulocytes an
myeloblasts
auer bo
ies (ro
s)
1305079177257 1342707643596 <img src="paste7pmohu.jpg" /><br /><br />Dx?
multiple myeloma
1305080743544 1342707643596 X-linke
recessive
isor
er that affects mostly
males<br />more common in Africa, Me
iterranean
G6PD
1305081315095 1342707643596 <img src="pasten06ein.jpg" /> here
itary spher
ocytosis<br /><br />*note lack of central pallor<br />*stain a
eeper re
than n
ormal RBCs on Wright stain
1305084412886 1342707643596 erythroi
precusors in organs such as liver an

spleen is in
icative of ___, which is most commonly cause
by ___
extrame

ullary hematopoiesis<br />severe chronic hemolytic anemias
1305084780354 1342707643596 patient presents with hemolytic anemia, hypercoa
gulable state, an

ecrease
bloo
counts. what is the first Dx that comes to mi
n
?
paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria<br><br>*since it is a stem cell
iso
r
er, it is often associate
with pancytopenia
1305084849651 1342707643596 primary clinical manifestation of PNH
ark-col
ore
urine (increase
urine hemosi
erin)
1305085041440 1342707643596 flow cytometry of hematopoietic cells using mono
clonal antibo
ies shows a
eficiency of CD55 an
CD59. Dx?
PNH<br /><br />*
GPI is ncessary for the attachment of CD55 (DAF) an
CD59 (MIRL), which help ina
ctivate complement<br />*without CD59 an
CD55, complement stays activate
-&gt;
hemolysis of cell -&gt;
evelop thrombosis
1305086599847 1342707643596 schilling test results show:<br /><br />Phase I:
normal urinary excretion of ra
iolabele
VitB12<br /><br />Dx? poor VitB12 inta
ke
1305087146500 1342707643596 patient with hemolytic anemia has a history of r
epeate
bloo
transfusions. bloo
shows gol
en yellow brown pigment that may app
ear in either granular or crystalline form. what is it? hemosi
erin<br><br>*comp
ose
of an aggregation of ferritin micelles
1305087200312 1342707643596 <img src="pastexmg7ay.jpg" /> follicular lymph
oma
1305087733898 1342707643596 peripheral smear shows RBC with
ark inclusions
when staine
with crystal violet. what are they? what
iseases are suggeste
by
this? heinz bo
ies<br /><br />G6PD<br />a-thal
1305088653298 1342707643596 in
ustrial worker with ab
ominal pain. smear sho
ws;<br /><br /><img src="pastegzox
z.jpg" /><br /><br />Dx?
lea
poisoning<b
r /><br />*smear shows basophilic stippling
1305088807084 1342707643596 schilling test results show:<br /><br />Phase I:

iminishe
urinary excretion of ra
iolabele
VitB12<br /><br />Phase II: normal

excretion after
ose of ra
iolabele
VitB12 + IF<br /><br />Dx?
pernicio
us anemia (eg. atrophic gastritis)
1305088819606 1342707643596 schilling test results show:<br /><br />Phase I:

iminishe
urinary excretion of ra
iolabele
VitB12<br /><br />Phase II: low ex
cretion after
ose of ra
iolabele
VitB12 + IF<br /><br />Dx? malabsorption (e
g. pancreatic insufficiency, intestinal bacterial overgrowth, ileal
isease)
1305089538410 1342707643596 Rx use
to reverse myelosuppression cause
by me
thotrexate
leucovorin (folinic aci
)<br /><br />*THF
erivative that
oes n
ot re uire re
uction by
ihy
rofolate re
uctase before it can function as a cofa
ctor for thymi
lyate synthase -&gt; thus, bypasses
ihy
rofolate re
uctase step
that is inhibite
by MTX -&gt; can be use
to & uot;rescue& uot; cells<br />*5-F
U re uires presence of re
uce
folate in or
er to form complexes with thymi
ylat
e synthetase -&gt; thus, 5-FU has re
uce
cytotoxic effect in cells that are
ef
icient in THF<br />*a

ition of leucovorin (THF
erivative) -&gt; potentiate tox
icity of 5-FU
1305109178560 1342707643583 Pulmonary vascular resistance e uation <img src
="pastenZo85M.png" /><br /><img src="pasteLL3Hef.png" />
1305109212202 1342707643583 O2 content =
<img src="pastesc7PUK.png" />
1305109244786 1342707643583 Normal hemoglobin amount in bloo
<br> 15g/
L
1305109250665 1342707643583 1 gram of Hgb bin
s how much O2<br>
1.34 mL
O2<br>
1305109267632 1342707643583 cyanosis results when
eoxygenate
Hb is
&gt; 5 g/
L
1305109310037 1342707643583 When hemoglobin levels
rop, how
oes that affec
t O2 content, O2 saturation an
arterial PO2? O2 content of arterial bloo
↓ as
Hb falls, but O2 saturation an
arterial PO2
o not.
1305109335051 1342707643583 Arterial PO2
ec with chronic lung
isease becau
se
physiologic shunt
ecreases O2 extraction ratio
1305109355497 1342707643583 Oxygen
elivery to tissues =
C.O. x O2 conten
t of bloo
<br /><br />[O2 content = (O2 bin
ing capacity * %sat) +
issolve
]
1305109376456 1342707643583 Alveolar gas exchange e uation <img src="paste8
u6r75.png" /><br><img src="paste48vEuB.png" />
1305109421589 1342707643583 How
o you calculate respiratory uotient for th
e alveolar gas e uation?
<img src="paste48vEuB.png" />
1305109440041 1342707643583 A-a gra
ient =<br>What is normal?
<img src
="pasteijmXPH.png" />
1305109462771 1342707643583 What
o you want to calculate when you want to f
igure out the cause of hypoxemia (
ecrease
PaO2)?
A-a gra
ient
1305109500872 1342707643583 List causes of hypoxemia, arrange
by A-a gra
ie
nt (normal or increase
)
Hypoxemia an
normal A-a<br />-high altitu
e<br
/>-hypoventilation<br /><br />Hypoxemia an
increase
A-a<br />-V/Q mismatch<br
/>-
iffusion limitation<br />-R-L shunt<br /><br /><br /><img src="pasteYrX9yK.p
ng" />
1305109513071 1342707643583 What is normal PaO2 in a healthy in
ivi
ual?
&gt; 92
1305109573468 1342707643583 List causes of Hypoxia (
ecrease
O2
elivery to
tissue)<br /><img src="pasterx_vcf.png" />
<img src="pasteepU9Je.png" />
1305109590738 1342707643583 List causes of ischemia (loss of bloo
flow)
Impe
e
arterial flow<br>Re
uce
venous
rainage
1305109641286 1342707643583 Situations with increase
A-a gra
ient hypoxemi
a
ue to:<br /><br />Right to left shunt<br />V/Q mismatch<br />Diffusion limiti
ation (fibrosis)
1305109663075 1342707643583 Causes of Hypoxemia with normal A-a gra
ient
high altitu
e<br />hypoventilation<br />
1305109705651 1342707643583 V/Q normal values at apex versus base<br>What is
i
eal? I
eally V/Q = 1 for gas exchange<br>apex = 3 (waste
ventilation)<br>bas
e = 0.6 (waste
perfusion)
1305109716616 1342707643583 Where are V an
Q the greatest?<br /> Base of
the lung<br />
1305109770852 1342707643583 <img src="paste_Ll4QN.png" /><br />Compare PA, P

a, Pv in these zones. <br /><br />(PA = alveolar pressure, Pa = arterial pressur
e, Pv = venous pressure)
<img src="pasteWTxiwo.png" /><br /><br /><img sr
c="pasteeye863.jpg" />
1305109800988 1342707643583 What is V/Q ratio with exercise an
why?
<img src="pastebuB9WX.png" />
1305109826520 1342707643583 Why
oes TB flourish in the apex of the lungs?
<img src="pastehVwL3f.png" />
1305109862406 1342707643583 V/Q = 0<br /><br />Cause? Will 100% oxygen impro
ve PO2? <img src="pasterBaWo
.png" />
1305109892149 1342707643583 If V/Q = 0, PO2 an
PCO2 of pulmonary capillary
bloo
will approach their values in ---Mixe
venous bloo

1305109928756 1342707643583 If V/Q = infinity, what values will PO2 an
PCO2
of alveolar gases aproach?
Values in inspire
air
1305109965321 1342707643583 If V/Q → ∞, what is cause? Will 100% oxygen improve
PO2?
<img src="pasteIpCr3D.png" /><br>
1305109984127 1342707643583 What is example of V/Q approaching infinity?
Pulmonary embolism
1305110015101 1342707643583 What are the three forms in which carbon
ioxi
e
is transporte
from tissues to the lungs?
<img src="pasteLls
U7.png" />
1305110063209 1342707643583 Exercise/increase
car
iac output
oes what to a
pical capillaries<br />what is the result? What happens to V/Q? vaso
ilates them
<br />result is a V/Q ratio that approaches 1
1305110101934 1342707643583 How
oes CO2 become bicarb?
<img src="paste9
3NsVw.png" />
1305110130270 1342707643583 In lungs, oxygenation of Hb promotes
issocation
of WHAT from Hb?
Proton (H+)<br /><br />This shifts e uilibrium towar
s C
O2 formation; therefore CO2 is release
from RBCs (Hal
ane effect)
1305110181443 1342707643583 Oxygenation of Hb an

issociation of H+ shifts
e uilibrium in which
irection? This shifts e towar
s CO2 formation so CO2 is r
elease
from RBCs<br><br>(Hal
ane effect)
1305110207663 1342707643583 Bohr effect
In peripheral tissues, inc H+ fr
om tissue metabolism shifts curve to right, unloa
ing O2
1305110221255 1342707643583 high altitu
e
oes what to ventilation<br>
acute an
chronic increase in ventilation<br>
1305110246189 1342707643583 high altitu
e
oes what to erythropoietin<br> ↑
erythropoietin →↑hematocrit an
hemoglobin (chronic hypoxia)
1305110258868 1342707643583 high altitu
e
oes what to 2,3 BPG<br />
↑
2,3-BPG (bin
s to hemoglobin so that hemoglobin releases more O2)
1305110266276 1342707643583 high altitu
e
oes what to cells<br /> Increase

mitochon
ria
1305110297034 1342707643583 High altitu
e
oes what renally an
WHY?! IMPORT
ANT
↑ renal excretion of bicarbonate (e.g., can augment by use of acetazolami

e) to compensate for the respiratory alkalosis
1305110344246 1342707643583 With high altitu
e, you get respiratory aci
osis
or alkalosis? How
oes bo
y compensate? What can you give to treat the respirat
ory aspect?
↑ renal excretion of bicarbonate (e.g., can augment by use of acet
azolami
e) to compensate for the respiratory alkalosis
1305110359484 1342707643583 high altitu
e
oes what to pulmonary vessels<br>
Chronic hypoxic vasoconstriction-&gt; RVH<br>
1305110377238 1342707643583 Exercise
oes what to CO2 pro
uction<br>
Increase
1305110381076 1342707643583 exercise
oes what to O2 consumption<br>
Increase
1305110389757 1342707643583 exercise
oes what to ventilation rate VA<br>
inc ventilation rate to meet O2
eman
<br>
1305110398195 1342707643583 exercise
oes what to V/Q ratio<br>
it becom
es more uniform from apex to base<br>
1305110407770 1342707643583 exercise
oes what to pulmonary bloo
flow<br>
inc it
ue to inc car
iac output<br>

ec it with stre
1305110419802 1342707643583 exercise
oes what to pH<br>

nuous exerc,
ue to inc lactic aci
<br>
1305110427792 1342707643583 exercise
oes what to PaO2, PaCO2, venous CO2
no change in PaO2, PaCO2<br /><br />increase
venous CO2 content
1305110432425 1342707643583 exercise
oes what to PaCO2<br> Nothing
1305110443791 1342707643583 Exercise
oes what to venous CO2 content<br>
Increase
1305110484181 1342707643583 What must the bloo
flow per minute be in the pu
lmonary an
systemic circulation
uring rest an
exercise? Which one must be gre
ater or smaller?
Must be EQUAL!
1305110511108 1342707643583 List types of emboli
Fat<br>Air<br>Thrombus<b
r>Bacteria<br>Amniotic flui
<br>Tumor
1305110522497 1342707643583 Which type of emboli is a/w long bone fracture a
n
liposuction?<br /><br />Stain/apperance?<br /><br />Associate
s/sx? Fat embo
li<br /><br />Stain black with osmium tetroxi
e<br /><br />A/w thrombocytopenia
(platelets coat the thrombi) --&gt; petechiae, etc
1305110534340 1342707643583 What type of emboli can lea
to DIC, especially
postpartum?
Amniotic flui

1305110551890 1342707643583 Which type of emboli is a/w chest pain, tachypne
a,
yspnea?
Pulmonary embolus
1305110570462 1342707643583 Origin of pulmonary emboli
Approximately 95
% of pulmonary emboli arise from
eep leg veins
1305110578975 1342707643583 What is the imaging test of choice for PE?
Helical (spiral) CT
1305110625667 1342707643583 What is Virchows tria
? This tria
measures pre

isposition for what? <img src="pasteC
E0CV.png" /><br><br>** for DVTs!!
1305110635553 1342707643583 DVT can lea
to what complication?
PE
1305110658305 1342707643583 What is homans sign? Dorsiflexion of foot -ten
er calf muscle
1305110667915 1342707643583 What rx can be given to prevent DVTs? Heparin
1305110785769 1342707643583 PFTs for COPD<br /><br />FEV1<br />FVC<br />FEV1
/FVC ratio<br />V/Q<br />TLC<br />RV<br />FRC<br /><br />(also, which one is the

ec
ec FEV1<br />
ec FVC<br />
ec FEV1/FVC ratio (hallmark)<br
hallmark?)
/>V/Q mismatch<br />inc TLC<br />inc RV<br />inc FRC
1305110840350 1342707643583 Which COPD is a/w the following
escription?<br
/><br />Hypertrophy of mucus-secreting glan
s in the bronchioles
Chronic
Bronchitis
1305110856636 1342707643583 Which COPD is a/w the following
escription?<br
/><br />Rei
in
ex &gt; 50%
Chronic Bronchitis
1305110926960 1342707643583 Which COPD is a/w the following
escription?<br>
<br>Wheezing, crackles, cyanosis
ue to early-onset hypoxemia
ue to shunting, l
ate-onset
yspnea
Chronis Bronchitis
1305110964804 1342707643583 Which COPD is a/w the following
escription?<br
/><br />Pro
uctive cough for &gt; 3 months per year, &gt; 2 years;
x of small a
irways Chronic bronchitis
1305110979394 1342707643583 What is the Rei
in
ex? Glan

epth/ Total thick
ness of bronchial wall (exclu
ing cartilage)
1305111000898 1342707643583 Which COPD is a/w the following
escription?<br>
<br>Enlargement of air spaces an

ecrease
recoil resulting from
estruction of
alveolar walls Emphysema (pink puffer)
1305111017105 1342707643583 Which COPD is a/w the following
escription?<br>
<br>↑ elastase activity Emphysema
1305111042687 1342707643583 Which COPD is a/w the following
escription?<br
/><br />↑ lung compliance
ue to loss of elastic fibers; barrel-shape
chest
Emphysema
1305111064726 1342707643583 Why
o patients with emphysema exhale through pu
rse
lips?
Increases airway pressure to prevent airway collapse
uring exha
lation
1305111089269 1342707643583 Which COPD is a/w the following
escription?<br
/><br />Dyspnea,
ecrease
breath soun
s, tachycar
ia, late-onset hypoxema
ue t
o eventual loss of capillary be
s, early-onset
yspnea Emphysema

1305111111683 1342707643583 Which COPD is a/w the following
escription?<br
/><br />α1-ntitrypsin deficiency
Pncinr emphysem
1305111123938 1342707643583 Centricinr emphysem is cused by ... Smoking
1305111161063 1342707643583 Wht type of emphysem is /w bull nd cn rupt
ure leding to spontneous pneumothorx?
Prseptl emphysem
1305111205069 1342707643583 Which obstructive lung dz is /w the following d
escription?<br /><br />Cn be triggered by virl URIs, llergens, nd stress.<br
/>
Asthm
1305111229169 1342707643583 Which obstructive lung dz is /w the following d
escription?<br /><br />Bronchil hyperresponsiveness cusing reversible bronchoc
onstriction
Asthm
1305111243978 1342707643583 Which obstructive lung dz is /w the following d
escription?<br /><br />Smooth muscle hypertrophy nd Curshmnn's spirls (shed e
pithelium from mucous plugs)
Asthm
1305111254920 1342707643583 Which obstructive lung dz is /w the following d
escription?<br /><br />Chronic necrotizing infection of bronchi Bronchiectsis
1305111272840 1342707643583 Which obstructive lung dz is /w the following d
escription?<br /><br />Permenntly dilted irwys, purulent sputum, recurrent i
nfections, hemoptysis Bronchiectsis
1305111292975 1342707643583 Which obstructive lung dz is /w Krtgener's sy
ndrome? Bronchiectsis
1305111299919 1342707643583 Which obstructive lung dz is /w CF?
Bronchie
ctsis
1305111314045 1342707643583 Which obstructive lung dz cn develop spergillo
sis?
Bronchiectsis
1305111330333 1342707643583 Which obstructive lung dz is /w the following d
escription?<br /><br />Decresed I/E rtio
Asthm
1305111337500 1342707643583 Which obstructive lung dz is /w the following d
escription?<br /><br />Pulsus prdoxus Asthm
1305111358306 1342707643583 Which obstructive lung dz is /w the following d
escription?<br /><br />Mucus plugging, cough, wheezing, dyspne, tchypne
Asthm
1305111376265 1342707643583 Which obstructive lung dz is /w poor ciliry mo
tility? Bronchiectsis
1305111387161 1342707643583 Bronchiectsis ptients cn develop  certin in
fection Aspergillosis
1305111409207 1342707643583 Any child with  polyp in their nose. Wht must
you do for workup?
Swet test to rule out CF
1305111539685 1342707643583 Restrictive lung disese<br>PFTs (FVC, TLC, FEV1
/FVC) dec FVC<br>dec TLC<br>FEV1/FVC rtio &gt; 80%
1305111579595 1342707643583 restrictive lung disese:<br>Cuses of poor musc
ulr effort
Polio <br>Mystheni Grvis
1305111594272 1342707643583 restrictive lung disese:<br>cuses of poor stru
cturl pprtus<br>
scoliosis<br>morbid obesity
1305111660503 1342707643583 restrictive lung disese- <br />interstitil lun
g diseses<br />
ARDS nd neontl hyline memb (NRDS)<br />pneumoconiose
s (col miners, silicosis, sbestosis)<br />srcoidosis<br />idiopthic pulmonr
y fibrosis<br />goodpstures, wegeners<br />eosinophilic grnulom (histiocytosi
s X)<br />drugs (bleomycine, busulfn, miodrone)
1305111678718 1342707643583 Drugs cusing Interstitil lung disese bleomyci
n<br />busulfn<br />miodrone<br />
1305111734497 1342707643583 Which pulmonry dx is /w with the following des
cription?<br /><br />Bilterl hilr lymphdenopthy, noncseting grnuloms.<b
r /><br />Extr Credit: Wht unique compounds would expect to be elevted with t
his condition? Clssic demogrphic?
Srcoidosis<br /><br />ACE nd Clcium<b
r><br>Often in Africn-Americn femles
1305111785462 1342707643583 ARDS is cused by
trum<br />sepsis/shock
<br />gstric spirtion<br />uremi<br />cute pncretitis<br />mniotic fluid
embolism
1305111832779 1342707643583 Which pneumoconoioses is /w the following?<br /

><br />Cpln's syndrome (&mp; wht is it?)
Col miner's<br /><br />(Cpln'
s syndrome = rheumtoid rthritis involvement)
1305111854921 1342707643583 Which pneumoconioses is /w the following?<br><b
r>Affects upper lobes Col miner's<br>Silicosis
1305111866033 1342707643583 Which pneumoconioses is /w the following?<br><b
r>Eggshell clcifiction of hilr lymph nodes Silicosis
1305111872600 1342707643583 Which pneumoconioses is /w the following?<br><b
r>Affects lower lobes Asbestosis
1305111894414 1342707643583 Which pneumoconioses is /w the following?<br />
<br />Golden brown fusiform rods resembling dumbbells, locted inside mcrophge
s
Asbestosis (sbestos/ferruginous bodies)<br /><br /><img src="pstesr0wo
p.jpg" />
1305111910105 1342707643583 Which pneumoconioses is /w the following?<br />
<br />Shipbuilding, Roofing, Plumbing Asbestosis
1305111919493 1342707643583 Which pneumoconioses is /w the following?<br />
<br />Foundries, Sndblsting, Mines<br>Birefringent prticle Silicosis
1305111927883 1342707643583 Which pneumoconioses is /w the following?<br />
<br />Incresed susceptibility to TB
Silicosis<br /><br />(it is thought tht
silic my disrupt phgolysosomes nd impir mcrophges, incresing susceptibi
lity to TB)
1305111942820 1342707643583 Which pneumoconioses is /w the following?<br />
<br />Incresed incidence of bronchogenic crcinom nd mesotheliom
Asbestos
is
1305111974536 1342707643583 Wht specific cell responds to silic in silicos
is?
Mcrophges: relese fibrogenic fctors, leding to fibrosis
1305111994128 1342707643583 Where re sbestos bodies locted?
Mcroph
ges
1305112006759 1342707643583 Which pneumoconioses is /w the following?<br />
<br />Ivory white, clcificed pleurl plques Asbestosis
1305112020733 1342707643583 Which pneumoconioses is /w the following?<br><b
r><br>Cn result in cor pulmonle
Col miners
1305112052788 1342707643583 NRDS<br><br>Wht is the cuse? Surfctnt defic
iency leding to ↑ surfce tension, resulting in lveolr collpse
1305112087503 1342707643583 lecithin to sphingomyelin rtio in mniotic flui
d is wht in neontl resp distress
usully &lt; 1.5
1305112103560 1342707643583 Risk of wht with neontl resp distress<br />
Persistntly low O2 tension-&gt; inc risk of PDA<br /><br />*remember, ductus r
teriosus is kept open by low O2 tension nd prostglndins
1305112131236 1342707643583 Wht is surfctnt mde of?
Diplmitoyl phos
phtidylcholine
1305112164180 1342707643583 Risk fctors for NRDS, nd resons why premtur
ity<br />mternl dibetes (high insulin)<br />cesren (decrese relese of fet
l glucocorticoids)
1305112193498 1342707643583 NRDS tretment Mternl steroids before birth<b
r>Artificil surfctnt fter birth<br>Thyroxine
1305112226839 1342707643583 Wht cn result in retinopthy of premturity?
Therpeutic supplementl O2
1305112269845 1342707643583 Which cell mkes surfctnt? Most bundnt fter
???th week of gesttion
Surfctnt is mde by type II pneumocytes most 
bundntly fter 35th week of gesttion
1305112322018 1342707643583 Pthophysiology of ARDS Diffuse lveolr dmge →↑l
veolr cpillry permebility<br>(ARDS) →protein-rich lekge into lveoli.<br><br
>Results in formtion of intr-lveolr hyline membrne.
1305112355656 1342707643583 Which pulmonry dx is /w with the following des
cription?<br><br>Intr-lveolr hyline membrne
ARDS
1305112382549 1342707643583 Wht is the cuse of the initil dmge for ARDS
?
Initil dmge due to neutrophilic substnces toxic to lveolr wll,<br
/>ctivtion of cogultion cscde, nd oxygen-derived free rdicls
1305112467926 1342707643583 <img src="psteiNTneM.png" /> Obstructive
1305112478318 1342707643583 <img src="psteScSjOE.png" /> Restrictive<br>

1305112489102 1342707643583 <img src="pste8vO9tp.png" /> Obstructive
1305112498172 1342707643583 <img src="pstesA8RCU.png" /> Restrictive
1305112506525 1342707643583 <img src="psteL7kHeW.png" /> Norml
1305112535626 1342707643583 ↑ TLC, ↑ FRC, ↑ RV<br>Which lung disese?
Obstruct
ive
1305112587141 1342707643583 Which pulmonry dx is /w with the following des
cription?<br><br>Person stops brething for t lest 10 seconds repetedly durin
g sleep Sleep pne
1305112607726 1342707643583 Which sleep pne is /w the following descripti
on?<br><br>No respirtory effort
Centrl sleep pne
1305112618694 1342707643583 Which sleep pne is /w the following descripti
on?<br><br>Respirtory effort ginst irwy obstruction
Obstructive slee
p pne
1305112635478 1342707643583 Tretment for sleep pne
<img src="psteC
kLILq.png" />
1305112688448 1342707643583 Sequele of sleep pne Loud snoring<br />System
ic/PULMONARY HYPERTENSION<br />Arrhythmis, possibly sudden deth<br />Erythrocy
tosis (hypoxi --&gt; EPO relese)<br /><br />Individuls my become chroniclly
tired. Morning hedches re chrcteristic.
1305112741469 1342707643583 Which bnormlity is /w the following physicl
findings?<br><br>Trchel devition towrd side of lesion
Bronchil obstru
ction
1305112753292 1342707643583 Which bnormlity is /w the following physicl
findings?<br><br>Trchel devition wy from side of lesion
Tension pneumoth
orx
1305112770443 1342707643583 Which bnormlity is /w the following physicl
findings?<br><br>Dullness nd decresed fremitus
Pleurl effusion
1305112778915 1342707643583 Which bnormlity is /w the following physicl
findings?<br><br>Dullness nd incresed fremitus
Pneumoni (lobr)
1305112788970 1342707643583 Which bnormlity is /w the following physicl
findings?<br /><br />Hyperresonnt nd bsent fremitus Tension pneumothorx
1305112805185 1342707643583 Which bnormlity is /w the following physicl
findings?<br><br>Decresed resonnce nd decresed fremitus
Bronchil obstru
ction
1305112821561 1342707643583 Which bnormlity is /w the following physicl
findings?<br><br>My hve bronchil breth sounds over lesion Pneumoni (lobr
)
1305112832437 1342707643583 Wht is the leding cuse of cncer deth?
Lung
1305112856141 1342707643583 Complictions of Lung Cncer
SPHERE<br><br><i
mg src="pste3v_RW.png" />
1305112879580 1342707643583 Which pulmonry dx is /w with the following des
cription?<br><br>Pneumonic &quot;coin&quot; lesion on x-ry film
Lung cn
cer
1305112900347 1342707643583 Wht is the most common lung cncer?
Metsts
es often from brest, colon, prostte, nd bldder cncer
1305112926816 1342707643583 Where cn lung cncer metstsize to? Adrenls
<br>Brin (epilepsy)<br>Bone (pthologic frcture)<br>Liver (Jundice, heptospl
enomegly)
1305112961767 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Kertin perls nd intercellulr bridges
Squmous cell c
rcinom
1305112990989 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Clr cells --&gt; Type II pneumocytes; multiple densities on
CXR
Adenocrcinom: Bronchil &mp; Bronchiolveolr
1305113011227 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Pleomoprhic gint cells with leukocyte frgments in cytoplsm
Lrge cell crcinom
1305113028627 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Kulchitsky cells (smll drk blue cells)
Smll cell (ot

cell) crcinom
1305113049969 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br /><br />Peripherl loctions
Adenocrcinoms<br />Lrge cell
crcinoms<br />
1305113067975 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br />Centrl loctions Squmous cell crcinom<br>Smll cell c
rcinom
1305113074358 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Pleurl loction
Mesotheliom
1305113091062 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Mlignncy of the pleur /w sbestosis
Mesotheliom
1305113098885 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Psmmom bodies
Mesotheliom
1305113109478 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Hemorrhgic pleurl effusions nd pleurl thickening Mesothel
iom
1305113124618 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Clerly linked to smoking
Squmous cell crcinom
1305113137082 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Cvittion Squmous cell crcinom
1305113150568 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Prthyroid-like ctivity (PTHrP)
Squmous cell crcinom
1305113173089 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Most common lung cncer in nonsmokers nd femls
Bronchi
l denocrcinom
1305113199423 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Cn result in hypertrophic osteorthropthy Bronchiolveolr
denocrcinom
1305113217612 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Undifferentied --&gt; Very ggressive
Smll cell crci
nom
1305113231629 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>/w ectopic production of ACTH or ADH
Smll cell crci
nom
1305113250681 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>My led to Lmbert-Eton syndrome (utontibodies ginst c
lcium chnnels) Smll cell crcinom
1305113281098 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Not linked to smoking; grows long irwy
Bronchiolveolr
denocrcinom
1305113291839 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Cn present like pneumoni
Bronchiolveolr denocrcinom
1305113303536 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Hilr mss rising from bronchus
Squmous cell crcinom
1305113325877 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Secretes serotonin cusing flushing, dirrhe, wheezing, sli
vtion Crcinoid tumor
1305113349374 1342707643583 Which type of lung cncer is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Fibrous deposits in right hert vlves my led to tricuspid
insufficiency, pulmonry stenosis, nd right hert filure
Crcinoid tumor
1305113377152 1342707643583 Wht is Pncost's tumor? S/S? <img src="pste0
WQC8.png" />
1305113485355 1342707643583 Which type of pneumoni is most frequently cuse
d by Pneumococcus, but lso Klebsiell? Lobr pneumoni
1305113503603 1342707643583 Orgnisms tht cn cuse bronchopneumoni
S. ureus<br />H. flu<br />Klebsiell<br />S. pneumo
1305113550015 1342707643583 Which type of pulmonry pthology is /w with th
e following description?<br><br>Intr-lveolr exudte --&gt; Consolidtion; my
involve entire lung
Lobr pneumoni
1305113563814 1342707643583 Which type of pulmonry pthology is /w with th

e following description?<br><br>Acute inflmmtory infiltrtes from bronchioles
into djcent lveoli Bronchopneumoni
1305113579731 1342707643583 Which type of pulmonry pthology is /w with th
e following description?<br /><br />Ptchy distribution involving &gt;/= 1 lobw
Bronchopneumoni<br>Interstitil (typicl) pneumoni
1305113602612 1342707643583 Which type of pulmonry pthology is /w with th
e following description?<br /><br />Diffuse ptchy inflmmtion loclized to int
erstitil res t lveolr wlls
Interstitil (typicl) pneumoni
1305113647263 1342707643583 Which is more indolent: bronchpneumoni or inter
stitil pneumoni?<br> Interstitil pneumoni
1305113663294 1342707643583 <img src="pstew8nre8.png" /><br>Dx?
Lobr pn
eumoni
1305113674527 1342707643583 <img src="pstee7IqVL.png" /><br>Dx?
Intersti
til pneumoni
1305113695206 1342707643583 Orgnisms tht cn cuse interstitil pneumoni
Viruses (RSV, denoviruses)<br>Mycoplsm<br>Legionell<br>Chlmydi
1305113722499 1342707643583 Which type of pneumoni /w the following orgni
sm?<br><br>RSV Interstitil pneumoni
1305113730338 1342707643583 Which type of pneumoni /w the following orgni
sm?<br><br>Legionell
Interstil pneumoni
1305113737370 1342707643583 Which type of pneumoni /w the following orgni
sm?<br><br>Mycoplsm
Interstitil pneumoni
1305113745202 1342707643583 Which type of pneumoni /w the following orgni
sm?<br /><br />S. pneumonie
Bronchopneumoni, lobr
1305113753904 1342707643583 Which type of pneumoni /w the following orgni
sm?<br><br>S. ureus
Bronchopneumoni
1305113760800 1342707643583 Which type of pneumoni /w the following orgni
sm?<br><br>Chlmydi
Interstitil pneumoni
1305113770176 1342707643583 Which type of pneumoni /w the following orgni
sm?<br><br>Adenoviruses Interstitil pneumoni
1305113778558 1342707643583 Which type of pneumoni /w the following orgni
sm?<br><br>Klebsiell
Lobr nd Bronchopneumoni
1305113783544 1342707643583 Which type of pneumoni /w the following orgni
sm?<br><br>H. flu
Bronchopneumoni
1305113831000 1342707643583 Which type of pulmonry pthology is /w with th
e following description?<br><br>Loclized collection of pus within prenchym
Lung bscess
1305113861337 1342707643583 Etiologies of lung bscess
Bronchil obstru
ction (cncer)<br><br>Aspirtion of orophryngel contents (especilly in ptien
ts predisposed to LOC like lcoholics or epileptics)
1305113878696 1342707643583 Orgnism responsible for lung bscesses Often du
e to S. ureus or nerobes (<i>Bcteroides</i>, <i>Fusobcterium</i>, <i>Peptos
treptococcus</i>)
1305113911909 1342707643583 Mtch the description with the type of pleurl e
ffusion<br /><br />↓ protein content
Trnsudte
1305113927165 1342707643583 Mtch the description with the type of pleurl e
ffusion<br><br>↑ protein content, cloudy.
Exudte
1305113952155 1342707643583 Mtch the description with the type of pleurl e
ffusion<br><br>Milky fluid; ↑ triglycerides.
Lymphtic
1305113964875 1342707643583 Mtch the description with the type of pleurl e
ffusion<br /><br /><br />Due to mlignncy, pneumoni, collgen vsculr disese
, trum
Exudte<br><br>(occurs in sttes of incresed vsculr permebil
ity)
1305113975690 1342707643583 Mtch the description with the type of pleurl e
ffusion<br /><br />Due to CHF, nephrotic syndrome, heptic cirrhosis
Trnsud
te
1305114009279 1342707643583 Diseses tht cn cuse trnsudtive pleurl eff
usions CHF<br>Nephrotic syndrome<br>Heptic cirrhosis<br>
1305114027429 1342707643583 Diseses tht cn cuse exudtive pleurl effusi
ons
Mlignncy<br />Pneumoni<br />Collgen vsculr disese<br />Trum<br>

<br>(occurs in sttes of incresed vsculr permebility)
1305114145566 1342707643583 H1 blockers MOA reversible inhibitors of H1 hist
mine receptors
1305114159899 1342707643583 1st gen H1 blockers<br> diphenhydrmine<br>dimen
hydrinte<br>chlorphenirmine
1305114173597 1342707643583 Chlorphenirmine clss 1st gen H1 blocker<br />
1305114186453 1342707643583 Dimenhydrinte clss
1st gen H1 blocker<br>
1305114210809 1342707643583 2nd gen H1 blockers<br> lortdine<br>fexofendi
ne<br>deslortdine<br>cetirizine
1305114217186 1342707643583 2nd gen H1 blocker use<br />
llergy<br />mot
ion sickness<br />sleep id
1305114225585 1342707643583 1st gen H1 blocker toxicity<br />
sedtion
<br />nti muscrinic<br />nti lph drenergic<br><br>*generlly void in elde
rly b/c of sedtion, nticholinergic effects, fll risk, etc.
1305114402678 1342707643583 Why re 2nd genertion H1 blockers less sedting
thn 1st genertion? Decresed entry into CNS
1305114423659 1342707643583 Which genertion H1 blocker cn be used for moti
on sickness?
1st genertion
1305114433986 1342707643583 Which genertion H1 blocker cn be used s  sle
ep id? 1st genertion
1305114502664 1342707643583 Nonspecific B-gonist used for sthm
Isoprote
ronol<br><br>B2: relxes bronchil smooth muscle<br>B1: tchycrdi
1305114530075 1342707643583 B2 gonists for sthm Albuterol<br>Slmeterol
1305114541996 1342707643583 Long cting B2 gonist for sthm prophylxis
Slmeterol
1305114555074 1342707643583 B2 gonist for cute sthm excerbtion
Albuterol
1305114582536 1342707643583 Muscrinic ntgonist used for sthm to prevent
bronchoconstriction
Iprtropium
1305114610055 1342707643583 Zfirlukst, Montelukst MOA
Block leukotrien
e (LTD4) receptors
1305114628158 1342707643583 These drugs re especilly good for spirin-indu
ced sthm
Zfirlukst, Montelukst
1305114763181 1342707643583 You give  child n inhled mediction tht will
produce bronchodiltion vi the stimultion of B2-receptors nd you instruct he
r to use the inhler prior to soccer prctice Albuterol
1305114793298 1342707643583 theophylline tox<br>
crdiotoxicity<br>neurot
oxicity
1305114830592 1342707643583 Theophylline MOA
Bronchodiltion by inhib
iting phosphodiesterse, thereby decresing cAMP hydrolysis (incresing cAMP)
1305114844934 1342707643583 Wht metbolizes theophylline? P450
1305114856389 1342707643583 Which sthm drug blocks ction of denosine?
Theophylline
1305115055164 1342707643583 5-lipoxygense pthwy inhibitor; blocks convers
ion of rchidonic cid to leukotrienes Zileuton
1305115069064 1342707643583 Prevents relese of meditors (histmine) from m
st cells
Cromolyn
1305115085016 1342707643583 Cromolyn indiction
ONLY for the prophylxis
of sthm; NOT effective during n cute sthmtic ttck
1305115143475 1342707643583 Which corticosteroids cn be used to tret sthm
? MOA? Beclomethsone<br />Prednisone<br /><br />MOA: Inhibit synthesis of virt
ully ll cytokines; inctivte NF-kB, the trnscription fctor tht induces the
production of TNF-, mong other inflmmtory gents<br /><br />*glucocorticoid
s lso inhibit relese of histmine from mst cells
1305115162139 1342707643583 Wht is the 1st-line therpy for chronic sthm?
Corticosteroids (beclmethsone, prednisone)
1305115182776 1342707643583 Expectornt tht removes excess sputum Guifene
sin
1305115191928 1342707643583 Does Guifenesin suppress cough reflex? No
1305115219278 1342707643583 Iprtropium MOA muscrinic ntgonist for sthm

<br>blocks musc receptors<br>prevents bronchoconstriction<br>lso used for COPD
1305115230052 1342707643583 cromolyn: Use nd MOA sthm prophylxis<br>pr
events relese of meditors from mst cells
1305115249860 1342707643583 zileuton MOA<br>
5 LPO inhibitor<br>block
s rchidonic cid conversion to leukotrienes<br>
1305115255549 1342707643583
<br>zfirlukst, montelukst<br>mechnis
m
block leukotrienes receptors<br>
1305115261433 1342707643583 expectornts
guifenesin<br>N-cetylcysteine<
br>
1305115269628 1342707643583 N-cetylcysteine mech<br>
mucolytic-&gt; l
oosen mucous plugs in CF<br>
1305115297016 1342707643583 N-cetylcysteine uses Mucolytic for CF<br>Anti
dote for cetminophen toxicity
1305115318023 1342707643583 crdic prob tht cn cuse increse A- grdien
t<br> R to L shunt<br>
1305115381755 1342707643583 Physiology of rpid, shllow brething s my oc
cur with left hert filure
J (Juxtcpillry) receptors stimulted in the 
lveolr wlls, close to cpillries<br><br>Engorgement of the pulmonry cpillr
ies stimultes them nd cuse the rpid, shllowing brething
1305115412745 1342707643583 Wht is Bosentn used for? MOA? <img src="pste1
MKHN.png" />
1305115432551 1342707643583 Competitively ntgonizes endothelin-1 receptors
nd is used to tret pulmonry hypertension
Bosentn
1305141497341 1342707643366 Aspirin: mechnism?
Irreversiblly inhibits c
yclooxygense by cetyltion,<br />which decr synthesis of both thromboxne nd
prostglndins.<br /><br />Increses bleeding time, no effect on PT, PTT. A type
of NSAID.
1305141557449 1342707643366 Aspirin: clinicl use? Low dose (&lt;300mg/dy)
: decr pltelet ggregtion.<br>Intermedite dose (300-2400 mg/dy): ntipyretic
nd nlgesic.<br>High dose (2400-4000 mg/dy): nti-inflmmtory.
1305141593447 1342707643366 Aspirin: toxicity?
Gstric ulcertion, hype
rventiltion, tinnitus (CN VIII).<br><br />Chronic use cn led to cute renl f
ilure, interstitil nephritis, nd upper GI bleeding.<br />Reye's syndrome in c
hildren w/ virl infxn.<br><br>*lso n uncoupling gent in mitochondri<br>**e
rly slicylte tox = resp lklosis; lte = nion gp metbolic cidosis
1305141635958 1342707643366 NSAIDs (list) Ibuprofen, nproxen, indomethci
n, ketorolc<br /><br />(*Acetminophen is notbly <i>bsent</i> from this list)
1305141668920 1342707643366 NSAIDs: mechnism?
Reversibly inhibit cyclo
oxygense (both COX-1 nd COX-2).<br>Block prostglndin synthesis.
1305141689392 1342707643366 NSAIDs: clinicl use? Antipyretic, nlgesic,
nti-inflmmtory.<br><br />Indomethcin is used to close  PDA.
1305141707780 1342707643366 NSAIDs: toxicity?
Renl dmge &mp; fluid
retention, plstic nemi, GI distress &mp; ulcers.
1305141801166 1342707643366 COX-2 inhibitors (celecoxib): mechnism?
Reversibly inhibit specificlly the cyclooxygense (COX) isoform 2, <br>which is
found in inflmmtory cells nd vsculr endothelium tht medites inflmmtion
nd pin;<br>spres COX-1, which helps mintin the gstric mucos.<br>Thus, sh
ould not hve the corrosive effects of other NSAIDs on GI lining.
1305141813336 1342707643366 COX-2 inhibitors (celecoxib): clinicl use?
Rheumtoid nd osteorthritis, pts w/ gstritis or ulcers.
1305141838727 1342707643366 COX-2 inhibitors (celecoxib): toxicity? Incr ris
k of thrombosis.<br>Sulf llergy.<br>Less toxicity to GI mucos (lower incidenc
e of ulcers, bleeding thn NSAIDs)
1305141961796 1342707643366 Acetminophen: mechnism?
Reversibly inhib
its cyclooxygense, mostly in CNS. Inctivted peripherlly.
1305142187095 1342707643366 Acetminophen: clinicl use?
Antipyretic, n
lgesic, but lcking nti-inflmmtory properties.<br><br />Used insted of spir
in to prevent Reye's syndrome in children w/ virl infxn.
1305142238950 1342707643366 Acetminophen: toxicity?
Overdose produce
s heptic necrosis;<br />Acetminophen metbolite depletes glutthione nd forms

toxic tissue dducts in liver.<br><br />N-cetylcysteine is ntidote -- regener
tes glutthione.
1305142312148 1342707643366 Bisphosphontes (list) Etidronte, pmidronte,
lendronte, risedronte, zoledronte (IV)<br /><br />&quot;...dronte&quot;
1305142340398 1342707643366 Bisphosphontes: mechnism?
Inhibit osteocl
stic ctivity;<br />reduce both formtion nd resorption of hydroxyptite.
1305142372505 1342707643366 Bisphosphontes: clinicl use? Mlignncy-ssoc
ited hyperclcemi<br />Pget's dz o bone<br />Postmenopusl osteoporosis
1305142392373 1342707643366 Bisphosphontes: toxicity?
Corrosive esoph
gitis* (except zoledronte- IV), nuse, dirrhe, osteonecrosis of the jw.<br
/><br />*not recommended in chlsi
1305142478468 1342707643366 Colchicine:<br />Use?<br />Mechnism?<br />SE's?
Used for chronic gout.<br><br />Binds nd stbilizes tubulin to inhibit microtub
ule polymeriztion, impiring leukocyte chemotxis nd degrnultion.<br><br />G
I side effects, especilly if given orlly (note: <b>indomethcin</b> is less to
xic, used in cute gout).<br />
1305142529785 1342707643366 Probenecid:<br />Use?<br />Mechnism? Used for
chronic gout.<br />Inhibits rebsorption of uric cid in PCT (lso inhibits sec
retion of penicillin).<br /><br /><img src="388 gout drugs.JPG" />
1305142664105 1342707643366 Allopurinol:<br />Min use?<br />Mechnism?<br /
>Other uses?<br />SE? Used for chronic gout.<br><br />Inhibits xnthine oxids
e, decr conversion of xnthine to uric cid.<br />Also used in lymphom nd leuk
emi to prevent tumor lysis-ssocited urte nephropthy.<br><br />Incr concentr
tions of zthioprine nd 6-MP (both normlly metbolized by xnthine oxidse)<
br><br /><img src="388 gout drugs.JPG" />
1305142798369 1342707643366 2 things not to do when treting gout Probenec
id nd llopurinol should not be used to Tx n cute episode of gout.<br /><br /
>Do not give slicyltes. All but the highest doses depress uric cid clernce.
<br />Even high doses (5-6 g/dy) hve only minor uricosuric ctivity.<br><br />
<img src="388 gout drugs.JPG" />
1305142839559 1342707643366 Etnercept: mechnism? Recombinnt form of hum
n TNF receptor tht binds TNF.<br /><br />Etern<b>CEPT</b> is  TNF decoy re<b>
CEPT</b>or.
1305142859275 1342707643366 Eterncept: clinicl use?
Rheumtoid rthr
itis, psorisis, nkylosing spondylitis.
1305142885525 1342707643366 Infliximb: mechnism? Anti-TNF ntibody.<br />
<br /><b>INFLIX</b>imb <b>INFLIX</b> pin on TNF.
1305142911235 1342707643366 Infliximb: clinicl use?
Crohn's dz, rheu
mtoid rthritis, nkylosing spondylitis.
1305142928196 1342707643366 TNF- inhibitors: toxicity?
All predispose t
o infxns (esp. rectivtion of ltent TB) b/c TNF blockde prevents ctivtion o
f mcrophges nd killing of microbes
1305168854906 1342707643596 Used s n lterntive to heprin for nticogul
ting ptients with HIT Lep<u>irudin</u><br />Bivl<u>irudin</u>
1305168867314 1342707643596 Rx:<br /><br />Hirudin derivtives; directly inh
ibit thrombin Lepirudin<br />Bivlirudin
1305172724428 1342707643596 Rx used in synergy with MTX
5-FU
1305172759025 1342707643596 Tx: OD 5-FU
thymidine
1305172868266 1342707643596 Rx metbolized by xnthine oxidse?<br />wht wi
ll increse toxicity of this Rx?
6-MP<br /><br />llopurinol<br />*6-thio
gunine (6-TG) cn be given with llopurinol
1305173304812 1342707643596 Rx tht cuse lopeci eto<u>poside</u><br />te
ni<u>poside</u><br><br />dox<u>orubicin</u><br />dun<u>orubicin</u>
1305173340320 1342707643596 Tx: testiculr crcinom
eto<u>poside</u>
(VP-16)<br />teni<u>poside</u><br /><br />bleomycin<br /><br />cispltin
1305173467094 1342707643596 prevent hemorrhgic cystitis (frequent urintion
, suprpubic pin, dysuri, hemturi) mesn<br /><br />*MOA: binds <b>crolein
</b> (toxic metbolite tht is formed by Rx)
1305173572455 1342707643596 Rx used to blte ptient's bone mrrow before b
one mrrow trnsplnttion
busulfn

1305173786488 1342707643596 Rx tht cuse pulmonry fibrosis
busulfn
<br />miodrone<br />bleomycin
1305173790517 1342707643596 Most commonly used glucocorticoid in cncer chem
otherpy
prednisone
1305173960423 1342707643596 Rx tht cuse crdiotoxicity
doxorubicin (dr
imycin)<br />dunorubicin<br>trstuzumb (herceptin)
1305174106820 1342707643417 List lyers of drenl cortex<br />List their pr
imry regultory control nd secretory products <img src="psteDF8HzG.png" />
1305174161494 1342707643417 Wht is the primry regultory control of dren
l medull? Wht is the secretory product of the drenl medull?
<b>Preg
nglionic</b> sympthetic fibers<br /><br />Secretory product: Ctecholmines (Ep
i, NE)
1305174198402 1342707643417 Wht is the most common tumor of the drenl med
ull in dults? Pheochromocytom
1305174238440 1342707643417 Difference in presenttion between neuroblstom
nd pheochromocytom? <img src="pstegxTIQY.png" />
1305174292125 1342707643417 Comment on drenl glnd dringe in left nd ri
ght
<img src="psteP9mN0z.png" />
1305174364053 1342707643417 Embryologicl origin of the posterior pituitry
(neurohypophysis)
Neuroectoderm
1305174394294 1342707643417 Where is vsopressin secreted? Posterior pituit
ry
1305174404021 1342707643417 Where is oxytocin secreted?
Posterior pituit
ry
1305174412258 1342707643417 Where re vsopressin nd oxytocin mde?
Hypothlmus
1305174491047 1342707643417 Wht is involved in shipping vsopressin from th
e hypothlmus to the posterior pituitry?
Neurophysins (crrier proteins)
1305174562874 1342707643417 Hormones secreted from Anterior Pituitry
<img src="psteYWzsiE.png" />
1305174577080 1342707643417 Embryologicl origin of nterior pituitry (den
ohypophysis)
Orl ectoderm (Rthke's pouch)
1305174587328 1342707643417 Where is melnotropin relesed from (MSH)?
Anterior pituitry<br /><br />??? Intermedite lobe, I think.
1305174604310 1342707643417 Which hormones re relesed from cidophils?
GH<br><br>Prolctin
1305174617933 1342707643417 Which hormones re relesed from bsophils?
B-FLAT<br><br>FSH<br>LH<br>ACTH<br>TSH
1305174663641 1342707643417 The α subunit is common to which hormones?
FSH<br>LH<br>TSH<br>hCG
1305174679617 1342707643417 Wht is the function of the β suunit of hormones?
Determines hormone specificity
1305174728135 1342707643417 ACTH is synthesized as part of a large precursor
called --- which also contains sequences for other hormonal peptides including
----, ---, ---- POMC<r><r>1. Lipotropins<r>2. MSH<r>3. B-endorphin
1305174982302 1342707643417 Where anatomically are most pancreatic islets lo
cated? Tail
1305174994220 1342707643417 Islets of Langerhans arise from --Pancreat
ic uds
1305175124148 1342707643417 Hormones a/w α, β, and δ n
ocrin clls<br />Commnt
on th location of ths clls grossly in th islts of langrhans
α = glucg
on (peripherl);<br /><br />β = insulin (central)<r /><r />δ = somatostatin (intr
sprs
)<br /><br /><img src="pastWUo_q.png" />
1305175241227 1342707643417 Protolytic clavag of proinsulin will yil
..
.
C-ppti
 an
Activ insulin<br><br><img src="past
z28OE.png" />
1305175266681 1342707643417 What typ of bon
s hol
activ insulin (alpha an

bta chain) togthr? Disulfi
 bon
s<br /><br /><img src="pastkf0yt.jpg" />
1305175357856 1342707643417 What is th ffct of hypokalmia on insulin rl
as? Inhibits it<br /><br />(hyprpolarizs mmbran potntial)
1305175369395 1342707643417 What is th ffct of somatostatin on insulin r

las? Inhibits it
1305175390290 1342707643417 What is th ffct of insulin on glucagon rlas
 by α cells of pncres?
Inhibits
1305175749993 1342707643417 Which tissues/orgn don't need insulin for gluco
se uptke?
<img src="pstecGOMkI.png" />
1305175760208 1342707643417 Tissues with GLUT-1
RBCs<br>Brin
1305175771225 1342707643417 Tissues with GLUT-2
B-islet cells<br />Liver
<br />Kidney<br />Smll intestine
1305175814293 1342707643417 Which GLUT receptors re insulin sensitive nd w
here re they locted (tissue)? GLUT-4<br><br>Adipose tissue<br>Skeletl muscle
1305175830931 1342707643417 Which GLUT receptor is bidirectionl? GLUT-2
1305176131519 1342707643417 Is serum C-peptide present with exogenous insuli
n intke?
Not present
1305176287541 1342707643417 Explin the biochemicl cscde tht leds to ex
ocytosis of insulin from B-cells of the pncres.
1. Glucose brought into
the B-islet cells vi GLUT-2 (fcilitted diffusion)<br />2. Glucose underos er
obic respirtion nd genertes ATP<br />3. ATP inside B-islet cells close K+ ch
nnel nd depolrizes the cell<br />4. Depolriztion of B-islet cells opens up C
lcium chnnel llowing Clcium to flow INTO the cell<br />5. Incresed intrcel
lulr clcium results in exocytosis of insulin<br /><img src="psteMxkZx.png" /
><br />
1305176327426 1342707643417 Wht type of specific trnsport does GLUT-2 util
ize? In other words is it ctive trnsport? fcilitted diffusion?
Fcilit
ted diffusion
1305176411038 1342707643417 Wht is the effect of insulin on N+ levels (kid
neys)? Increses N+ retention
1305176429802 1342707643417 Wht is the effect of insulin on the cellulr up
tke of K+?
Increse
1305176456522 1342707643417 List the nbolic effects of insulin
<img src
="psteVy9_G9.png" /><br /><br />Note: ↑ synthesis from ll mcronutrient groups (
crbs- glycogen, ft- TGs, protein- muscle)
1305176526187 1342707643417 Which orgns re insulin dependent?
Skeletl
muscle<br>Adipose tissue
1305176566363 1342707643417 Wht does brin use s fuel during strvtion?
Ketone bodies
1305176589263 1342707643417 Wht does RBCs depend on for fuel during strvt
ion versus norml?
Alwys depends on glucose (no mitochondri for erobic m
etbolism)
1305176645683 1342707643417 Wht is the effect of TRH on nterior pituitry?
<img src="pste6tPOX8.png" />
1305176692009 1342707643417 Effect of dopmine on nterior pituitry
<img src="psteQIfFwc.png" />
1305176703375 1342707643417 CRH effect on pituitry <img src="psteGSkrH8.pn
g" />
1305176716903 1342707643417 GHRH effect on pituitry
<img src="psteJ
mRcou.png" />
1305176730637 1342707643417 Effect of somtosttin on pituitry
<img src
="pstecnZ5z.png" />
1305176740694 1342707643417 GnRH effect on pituitry
<img src="psteX
OcSTM.png" />
1305176756741 1342707643417 Wht hormone inhibits relese of GnRH from the h
ypothlmus?
Prolctin
1305176774484 1342707643417 Which hormone inhibits GH relese frome the nte
rior pituitry? Somtosttin
1305176841783 1342707643417 Wht hormone increses prolctin secretion?
TRH<br /><br /><img src="pste1hemuq.jpg" />
1305176888941 1342707643417 Explin prolctin secretion regultion Prolcti
n secretion from nterior pituitry is TONICALLY inhibited by dopmine from hypo
thlmus.<br /><br />Prolctin in turn inhibits its own secretion by incresing
dopmine synthesis nd secretion from hypothlmus<br /><br /><img src="pste1he

muq.jpg" />
1305176971808 1342707643417 Wht dopmine gonist cn be used for tretment
of prolctinom?
Bromocriptine
1305177001717 1342707643417 Wht type drugs (clsses) stimulte prolctin se
cretion?
Dopmine ntgonists (most ntipsychotics)<br><br>Estrogens (OCP
s, pregnncy)
1305177043585 1342707643417 Wht is the function of prolctin?
1. Stimu
lte milk production in brest<br />2. Inhibits ovultion (f) nd spermtogenesi
s (m) by inhibiting GnRH synthesis nd relese<br /><br /><img src="pste1hemuq.
jpg" />
1305177065729 1342707643417 Which nucleus of the hypothlmus releses dopm
ine?
Arcute nucleus
1305177220085 1342707643417 Source of cortisol
Adrenl zon fscicult
1305177295969 1342707643417 Function of Cortisol
Cortisol is <b>BBIIG</b>
<br /><br />1) Mintins <b>BP</b> (upregultes lph1 receptors on rterioles)<
br />2) ↓ <b>Bone</b> formtion<br />3) <b>Immunosuppressive</b>/nti-inflmmtory
<br />-inhibits leukotrienes/prostglndins<br />-inhibits leukocyte dhesion =&
gt; neutrophili<br />-blocks histmine relese (mst cells)<br />-reduces eosin
ophils<br />-blocks IL-2 production<br />4) <b>↑ Insulin</b> resistnce (dibetoge
nic)<br />5) ↑ <b>Gluconeogenesis</b>, lipolysis, proteolysis<br><br>*cortisol inc
reses ctivity of PNMT (epinephrine --&gt; NE)
1305177338581 1342707643417 T/F<br /><br />Cortisol results in lipolysis
True
1305177347054 1342707643417 T/F<br><br>Cortisol results in proteolysis
True
1305177393497 1342707643417 Regultion of cortisol CRH (hypothlmus) stimu
ltes ACTH relese (pituitry), cusing cortisol production in drenl zon fsc
icult.<br><br>Excess cortisol decreses CRH, ACTH --&gt; decreses cortisol se
cretion.
1305177431662 1342707643417 Wht is the effect of chronic stress on cortisol
secretion?
Induces prolonged secretion
1305177442654 1342707643417 Wht is the effect of cortisol on bone formtion
?
Decreses it
1305177458420 1342707643417 Does cortisol promote glycolysis or gluconeogene
sis?
Gluconeogensis
1305177474261 1342707643417 How does cortisol mintin blood pressure?
Upregulte α1 receptors on rterioles
1305177536575 1342707643417 How is the mjority of cortisol trnsported in t
he blood?
Bound to corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG)
1305177844068 1342707643417 Source of PTH Chief cells of prthyroid
1305177896120 1342707643417 Effect of PTH on serum clcium, serum phosphte,
urine phosphte
<img src="pstemW7Djx.png" />
1305178006608 1342707643417 All steroids re derived from --- which is deriv
ed from --Pregnenolone which is derived from cholesterol
1305178063132 1342707643417 Wht enzyme converts cholesterol to pregnenolone
? Wht stimultes it? Wht inhibits it? Desmolse<br /><br />Stimulted by ACTH<
br />Inhibited by Ketoconzole<br /><br /><img src="psteTpXdTc.png" />
1305179375378 1342707643596 Rx used for cute coronry syndrome
clopidog
rel<br />ticlopidine<br /><br />bciximb<br />
1305179414100 1342707643596 Rx used to decrese incidence or recurrence of t
hrombotic stroke
<u>clopid</u>ogrel<br />ti<u>clopid</u>ine
1305188966550 1342707643417 Enzyme deficiencies in the drenl steroid pthw
y.<br /><br />Generl rule given by Goljn with regrds to &quot;1&quot; in the
1st digit in the enzyme nme versus &quot;1&quot; in the 2nd digit
1st Digi
t (17-hydroxylse, 11b-hydroxylse): Hypertenstion<br /><br />2nd Digit (21-hyd
roxylse, 11b-hydroxylse): Msculiniztion
1305189502094 1342707643417 Which drenogenitl syndrome is /w the followin
g findings?<br><br>Elevted DHT, Elevted 17-ketosteroids, Decresed minerlocor
ticoids, Incresed 17-hydroxyprogesterone
21-hydroxylse deficiency
1305189679501 1342707643417 Which drenogenitl syndrome is /w the followin

g findings?<br /><br />↓ sex hormones, ↓ cortisol, ↑ minerlocorticoids 17-hydro
xylse deficiency
1305189716266 1342707643417 Wht does 17-hydroxylse ctlyze?
Pregneno
lone to 17-hydroxypregnenolone<br /><br />Progesterone to 17-hydroxyprogesterone
<br /><br />(products re 17-hydroxypr...one)
1305189749303 1342707643417 Wht does 21-hydroxylse ctlyze?
Progster
one to 11-deoxycorticosterone<br /><br />17-hydroxyprogesterone to 11-deoxycorti
sol<br /><br />(products re 11-deoxycort...)
1305189774359 1342707643417 Wht does 11-b hydroxylse ctlyze?
11-deoxy
corticosterone to Corticosterone<br /><br />11-deoxycortisol to Cortisol<br /><b
r />(products re corti...)
1305189856280 1342707643417 Which drenogenitl syndrome is /w the followin
g findings?<br /><br />↓ cortisol, ↓ ldosterone nd corticosterone, ↑ sex hormones, ↑ 1
1-deoxycorticosterone 11ß-hydroxylse deficiency
1305189902693 1342707643417 Which drenogenitl syndrome is /w the followin
g findings?<br><br>Msculiniztion + Hypertension
11ß-hydroxylse deficiency
1305189916597 1342707643417 Which drenogenitl syndrome is /w the followin
g findings?<br><br>Msculiniztion + Hypotension
21-hydroxylse deficienc
y
1305189954375 1342707643417 Which drenogenitl syndrome is /w the followin
g findings?<br /><br />Hypertension + Hypoklemi
17-hydroxylse deficienc
y
1305190200343 1342707643417 Wht enzyme converts testosterone to estrdiol?
Aromtse
1305190212638 1342707643417 Wht enzyme converts testosterone to DHT?
5-reductse
1305190292849 1342707643417 17-hydroxylse deficiency + XY<br /><br />Comme
nt on externl nd internl sex orgns ↓ DHT =&gt; Pseudohermphrodite<br /><br /
>Externlly phenotypic femle<br />No internl reproductive structure due to MIF
1305190334376 1342707643417 17-hydroxylse deficiency + XX<br /><br />Comme
nt on externl nd internl sex orgns Externlly phenotypic femle<br />Norml
internl sex orgns<br /><br />At the expected time of puberty, neither the dr
enls nor the ovries cn produce sex steroids<br />=&gt; neither brest develop
ment nor pubic hir pper<br />=&gt; elevted gondotropins, norml kryotype<b
r />=&gt; imging confirms the presence of ovries nd n infntile uterus
1305190425402 1342707643417 Effect of PTH on bone ↑ bone resorption of clci
um nd phosphte
1305190460229 1342707643417 PTH effect on kidneys (3)
<img src="psteF
HLmzT.png" />
1305190535769 1342707643417 Effect of PTH on M-CSF nd RANK-L. Wht is effec
t on osteoclsts?
PTH increses production of M-CSF nd RANK-L (on osteobl
sts), stimulting development nd differentition of osteoclsts.
1305190557990 1342707643417 How does ↓ free serum C2+ ffect PTH secretion?
Increses
1305190573928 1342707643417 How does ↓ free serum Mg2+ ffect PTH secretion?
Increses
1305190605125 1342707643417 List common cuses of ↓ Mg2+
Dirrhe<br />Di
uretics<br />Aminoglycosides<br />Alcohol buse
1305190628539 1342707643417 How does lcohol buse ffect PTH secretion nd
why?
Increse PTH secretion by decresing free serum Mg2+
1305190651655 1342707643417 How do diuretics ffect PTH secretion nd why?
Increse PTH secretion by decresing free serum Mg2+
1305190664694 1342707643417 How does dirrhe ffect PTH secretion? Increse
PTH secretion by decresing free serum Mg2+
1305190686623 1342707643417 How does minoglycosides ffect PTH secretion n
d why? Increse PTH secretion by decresing free serum Mg2+
1305190725090 1342707643417 Wht is effect of PTH on urinry cAMP levels?
Increses urinry cAMP
1305190764754 1342707643417 Source of Vitmin D3
Sun exposure in skin
1305190772012 1342707643417 Source of Vitmin D2? Ingested from plnts

1305190817828 1342707643417 Wht is n inctive form of vitmin D? <img src
="pste6OWZtG.png" />
1305190846826 1342707643417 Wht is the effect of 1,25 (OH)2 vitmin D on c
lcium nd phosphte bsorption? Increses bsorption of both
1305190893879 1342707643417 How do phosphte levels ffect 1,25 (OH)2 vitmi
n D production <img src="psteJ4oOgm.png" />
1305190934894 1342707643417 Function of Vitmin D Increse bsorption of d
ietry clcium nd phosphte<br /><br />Increse bone resportion of Clcium nd
Phosphte
1305190975067 1342707643417 Wht is Vitmin D3 nd Vitmin D2 converted into
nd where?
<img src="pstesAAAAy.png" />
1305190988122 1342707643417 Source of clcitonin
Prfolliculr cells (C
cells) of thyroid.
1305191007770 1342707643417 Function of Clcitonin ↓ bone resorption of clci
um
1305191083445 1342707643417 Wht cuses clcitonin secretion?
↑ serum C
2+ cuses clcitonin secretion.
1305191181647 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br /><br />GH Receptor-ssocited tyrosine kinse (JAK/STAT p
thwy)
1305191197853 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br /><br />Prolctin
Receptor-ssocited tyrosine kinse (JAK
/STAT) pthwy
1305191212534 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br /><br />FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH cAMP
1305191218691 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br /><br />Clcitonin cAMP
1305191223290 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br><br>Glucgon cAMP
1305191234331 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone? Wht re downstrem effects?<br /><br />Insulin Intrinsic tyrosi
ne kinse (MAP kinse pthwy)<br /><br />Intrinsic tyrosine kinse cuses phosp
horyltion resulting in ctivtion of<b> </b><spn style="font-weight:600; textdecortion: underline;">protein phosptse-1</spn>.<br /><br />Protein phospht
se-1 <spn style="font-weight:600; text-decortion: underline;">dephosphorylte
s glycogen synthse</spn><b> </b>(ctivtes it; stimultes glycogen synthesis)
nd <spn style="font-weight:600; text-decortion: underline;">dephosphoryltes
fructose 1,6-bisphosphtse</spn> (inctivtes it; inhibits gluconeogenesis).
1305191250848 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br /><br />FGF Intrinsic tyrosine kinse (MAP kinse pthwy)
1305191265712 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br><br>IGF-1
Intrinsic tyrosine kinse (MAP Kinse pthwy)
1305191292686 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br /><br />PDGF Intrinsic tyrosine kinse (MAP kinse pthwy)
1305191305685 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br /><br />T3/T4
Nucler steroid receptor
1305191315677 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br><br>Vitmin D
Cytosolic steroid receptor
1305191335532 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br><br>Estrogen, Testosterone, Progesterone
Cytosolic steroi
d receptor
1305191345820 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br><br>Cortisol nd Aldosterone Cystolic steroid receptor
1305191359075 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br><br>GnRH
IP3
1305191364323 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br /><br />Oxytocin
IP3
1305191371680 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br><br>ADH (V1 receptor)
IP3
1305191375233 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end

ocrine hormone?<br><br>TRH
IP3
1305191382382 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br><br>ANP
cGMP
1305191386824 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br /><br />NO (EDRF)
cGMP
1305191394552 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br><br>ADH (V2 receptor)
cAMP
1305191403624 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br><br>hCG
cAMP
1305191415590 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br /><br />MSH cAMP
1305191421311 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br><br>PTH
cAMP
1305191426757 1342707643417 Which signling pthwy is /w the following end
ocrine hormone?<br /><br />GHRH cAMP
1305191520839 1342707643417 In men, how does incresed levels of sex hormone
-binding globulin (SHBG) ffect free testosterone? Wht is the clinicl finding
/w it? Lowers free testosterone --&gt; GYNECOMASTIA<br /><br />*note, estrogen
increses synthesis of SHBG
1305191559860 1342707643417 In women, how does decresed SHBG ffect free te
stosterone nd wht is the clinicl sequele? Rises free testosterone --&gt;
HIRSUTISM
1305193439971 1342707643417 Wht is the source of thyroid hormones? Follicle
s of thyroid<br><br>Most T3 formed in blood!
1305193579498 1342707643417 List function of T3
<img src="pstemq_K7d.pn
g" />
1305193606560 1342707643417 Mechnism by which thyroid hormones increse bs
l metbolic rte
Increse N/K ATPse ctivity = Oxygen consumption, RR,
body temperture
1305193640503 1342707643417 Functions of thyroid hormones <img src="pster
2YDK.png" /><br />5. ↑ glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis
1305193716871 1342707643417 Wht is the effect of thyroid hormones on glucos
e nd ft metbolism
↑ glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis
1305193746071 1342707643417 Is T3/T4 soluble in the blood? No<br><br>Binds
to THYROXINE-BINDING GLOBULIN (TBG)
1305193768454 1342707643417 Condition in with TBG is decresed
Heptic
filure
1305193782219 1342707643417 Condition in which TBG is incresed
Pregnnc
y or OCP use (estrogen increses TBG)
1305193796596 1342707643417 Wht is the mjor thyroid product?
T4
1305193812595 1342707643417 T/F<br /><br />Only free T3/T4 is ctive
True
1305193830128 1342707643417 Which thyroid hormones binds to receptors with g
reter ffinity?
T3
1305193862742 1342707643417 Which enzyme is responsible for oxidtion nd or
gnifiction of iodide s well s coupling MIT nd DIT? Thyroid peroxidse (TPO)
1305193910795 1342707643417 Regultion of thyroid hormone secretion <img src
="psteTk_gb5.png" /><br /><br />Also, somtosttin inhibits TSH
1305194045139 1342707643417 Wht hppens to free T4 in peripherl tissues?
Converted to free T3 (ctive) or reverse T3 (rT3, inctive)
1305194058562 1342707643417 Thyroid hormone: iodide ttched to which mino
cid
Tyrosine
1305194096399 1342707643417 Which thyroid hormone is the metboliclly ctiv
e one? Free T3
1305194113103 1342707643417 Which thyroid hormone is the prohormone?
Free T4
1305194138701 1342707643417 How is Free T4 rendered metboliclly ctive (en
zyme)? Converted to T3 in peripherl tissues by 5'-DEIODINASE
1305194372733 1342707643417 Wht is the orgnifiction step of thyroid hormo
ne synthesis? Iodine is incorported into tyrosine to form MIT nd DIT

1305194380179 1342707643417 Coupling of MIT nd DIT =
T3
1305194385276 1342707643417 Coupling of DIT nd DIT =
T4
1305194431945 1342707643417 Which drugs inhibit oxidtion nd orgnifiction
of iodide s well s coupling of MIT nd DIT? Propylthiourcil (PTU)<br /><br
/>Methimzole
1305194445408 1342707643417 Which drug inhibits peripherl conversion of T4
to T3? Propylthiourcil (inhibits 5'-deiodinse in ddition to thyroid peroxid
se)<br><br>*note- methimzole only inhibits TPO*
1305194654819 1342707643417 Which compounds inhibit uptke of iodide into th
e folliculr cell for oxidtion?
Anions (perchlorte, pertechnette)
1305195513890 1342707643417 Cuse of Cushing's syndrome?
↑ cortisol due to
 vriety of cuses.
1305195542400 1342707643417 Wht is the #1 cuse of cushing's syndrome?
Exogenous (itrogenic) steroids
1305195582772 1342707643417 List the endogenous cuses of Cushing's syndrome
(nd frequency)
1. Cushing's disese (70%)<br />2. Ectopic ACTH (15%)<br
/>3. Adrenl Cushing's syndrome (15%)
1305195594129 1342707643417 Comment on ACTH levels with exogenous steroid us
e
Suppressed ACTH
1305195640016 1342707643417 Cuse of Cushing's DISEASE; Comment on ACTH/Cort
isol levels<br /><br /> Pituitry denom<br /><br />Elevted ACTH &mp; Cortiso
l
1305195703076 1342707643417 Cuse of ectopic ACTH <img src="psteGSLtOC.pn
g" />
1305195718962 1342707643417 Cuse of Adrenl Cushing's Syndrome
<img src
="psteQ5sUNg.png" />
1305195851058 1342707643417 Cushing's Syndrome findings
Hypertension<br
/>Hyperglycemi<br />Weight gin &mp; redistribution: moon fcies, bufflo hump
, truncl obesity<br />Skin chnges: thinning, strie<br />Osteoporosis<br />Ame
norrhe<br />Immune suppression
1305196006079 1342707643417 High dose dexmethsone suppression test cn onl
y suppress cortisol in wht type of cushing's syndrome? ACTH-producing pituitry
tumor (Cushing's disese)
1305196047253 1342707643417 How do you differentite between ACTH-producing
pituitry tumor, Ectopic ACTH-producing tumor nd  cortisol-producing tumor?
Dexmethson suppression test<br /><br /><img src="psteTB76BU.png" />
1305196094219 1342707643417 Cushing syndrome is /w which one:?<br /><br />H
yperklemic, Hypoklemic<br />Respirtory lklosis, cidosis<br />Metbolic lk
losis, cidosis
Hypoklemic metbolic lklosis<br /><br />*like hyperl
dosteronism, thizides!
1305197169457 1342707643417 Cuse of Conn's syndrome (primry hyperldostero
nism)<br><br>Signs &mp; Symptoms<br>Bilterl or unilterl
<img src="psteO
77v0F.png" />
1305197261825 1342707643417 Why do ptients with primry hyperldosteronism
hve metbolic lklosis nd low renin? Aldosterone ↑ N/K exchnge =&gt; hypernt
remi, hypoklemi<br />At significntly decresed K+, N+/H+ exchnge becomes m
ore ctive =&gt; ↑ H+ excretion, further hyperntremi.<br /><br />The hydrogen io
ns tht re exchnged for sodium re generted by crbonic nhydrse in the PT c
using incresed production/resorption of bicrbonte. The incresed bicrbonte
nd the excreted hydrogen combine to generte  metbolic lklosis.<br /><br /
>With N+ resorption --&gt; Hyperntremi --&gt; Increse plsm volume nd ren
l blood flow --&gt; Inhibits renin ctivity<br /><br /><img src="pstegr9yks.jpg
" />
1305197293055 1342707643417 Tretment for Conn's syndrome Surgery to remov
e the tumor nd/or<br /><img src="psteyfF5x6.png" />
1305197395060 1342707643417 Lb findings of primry hyperldosteronism
Hyperntremi<br>Hypoklemi<br>Metbolic lklosis<br>Low renin
1305197432862 1342707643417 Wht is secondry hyperldosteronism? Kidney p
erception of low intrvsculr volume --&gt; Overctive RAAS
1305197464516 1342707643417 Comment on renin level with secondry hyperldos

teronism
High
1305197491689 1342707643417 Secondry hyperldosteronism cn be due to?
Renl rtery stenosis<br>Chronic renl filure<br>CHF<br>Cirrhosis<br>Nephrotic
syndrome
1305197544638 1342707643417 Wht is the most common cuse of Addison's dise
se?
Autoimmune
1305197568036 1342707643417 Define Addison's disese
Chronic drenl
insufficiency due to drenl trophy or destruction by disese<br /><br />(requi
res bilterl ~90% destruction to become evident)
1305197729098 1342707643417 Diseses tht cn cuse Addisons
Autoimmu
ne: most common<br /><br />Militry TB: most often in developing countries<br />
<br />Metstsis: most often from primry lung cncer
1305197751024 1342707643417 HYQ: A very tn child with  ple mother present
s to your clinic nd is found to be hypotensive. Wht is the most likely dignos
is?
Addisons
1305197796060 1342707643417 HYQ: An dult mle with elevted serum cortisol
levels nd signs of Cushing's syndrome undergoes  dexmethsone suppression tes
t. One mg of dexmethsone does not decrese cortisol levels, but 8 mg does. Wh
t is the dignosis?
Cushing's disese due to ACTH producing pituitry tumor
1305197831634 1342707643417 Which endocrine disorder is /w with the followi
ng description?<br /><br />Hypotension, Wekness, Hyperpigmenttion
Addisons
1305197857858 1342707643417 Which endocrine disorder is /w with the followi
ng description?<br><br>Metbolic lklosis, Hypertension, Hypoklemi, Low Renin
Conn's syndrome
1305197880208 1342707643417 Which endocrine disorder is /w with the followi
ng description?<br /><br />Hypertension, High plsm renin
Secondry hyper
ldosteronism
1305197915551 1342707643417 Which endocrine disorder is /w with the followi
ng description?<br /><br />Truncl obesity, Strie, Hyperglycemi
Cushing'
s syndrome
1305197970088 1342707643417 Why do you get hyperpigmenttion with Addisons?
Skin hyperpigmenttion due to MSH,  by-product of ↑ ACTH production from POMC
1305198069788 1342707643417 Lb findings on Addisons<br /><br />
Hyperkl
mic metbolic ACIDOSIS<br />Hypontremi<br />Increse plsm ACTH
1305198095512 1342707643417 Which endocrine disorder is /w with the followi
ng description?<br /><br />Hypontremi, Hyperklemi, Metbolic cidosis, Elev
ted ACTH
Addisons
1305198163605 1342707643417 How do you distinguish Addison's from secondry
drenl insufficiency? Distinguish from 2° drenl insufficiency (↓ pituitry ACTH
production),<br />which hs no skin hyperpigmenttion nd no hyperklemi<br /><
br />(only involves ACTH-dependent lyers of drenl cortex)
1305198229214 1342707643417 Newborn with mbiguous genitli. Wht is first
step? Determine genetic sex with chromosome nlysis
1305198336265 1342707643417 Which endocrine disorder is /w with the followi
ng description?<br /><br />A/w with septicemi from Neisseri meningitidis
Wterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome
1305198368013 1342707643417 Wht is Wterhouse Friderichsen syndrome?
Acute drenl insufficiency due to drenl hemorrhge
1305198505285 1342707643417 Cuse nd complictions of Wterhouse Friderichs
en syndrome
N. meningitidis septicemi (most commonly)<br /><br />Bilterl
drenl hemorrhge, DIC, endotoxic shock
1305198538178 1342707643417 Which endocrine disorder is /w with the followi
ng description?<br><br>DIC nd bilterl drenl hemorrhge
Wterhouse Fride
richsen syndrome
1305198568671 1342707643417 Wht is the most common tumor of the drenl med
ull in children?
Neuroblstom
1305198604150 1342707643417 Which endocrine disorder is /w with the followi
ng description?<br /><br />Neoplsm of postgngionlic sympthetic neurons. Cn o
ccur nywhere long the sympthetic chin.
Neuroblstom
1305198676226 1342707643417 If ptient is pregnnt nd you wnt to tret hyp

erthyroidism, wht drug cn you give? Propylthiourcil since methimzole is po
ssible tertogen
1305198710238 1342707643417 Skin rsh, grnulocytosis, plstic nemi re
side effects of this drug used to tret hyperthyroidism Propylthiourcil, Methim
zole<br><br>*propylthiourcil- lso heptotoxicity<br>*methimzole- possible te
rtogen
1305198727862 1342707643417 Wht is the most common pituitry denom?
Prolctinom
1305198750853 1342707643417 Wht rx cn you give to shrink prolctinoms?
Bromocriptine or Cbergoline (dopmine gonists)
1305198769314 1342707643417 Compliction of pituitry denom
Cn impi
nge on optic chism --&gt; Bitemporl heminopi
1305198843046 1342707643417 Which endocrine disorder is /w with the followi
ng description?<br /><br />Child with bdominl mss, hypertension, nd non-rhyt
hmic conjugte eye movements
Neuroblstom<br><br>*opsoclonus-myoclonus syndr
ome is  prneoplstic ssocited with neuroblstom
1305198896891 1342707643417 Which endocrine disorder is /w with the followi
ng description?<br /><br />Homer-Wright Pseudo Rosettes Neuroblstom<br /><br /
>(lso medulloblstom, retinoblstom)
1305198994275 1342707643417 Amplifiction of which gene is /w with rpid pr
ogression of Neuroblstom
N-myc oncogene
1305199012787 1342707643417 Which endocrine disorder is /w with the followi
ng description?<br><br>N-myc oncogene Neuroblstom
1305199071384 1342707643417 Which endocrine disorder is /w with the followi
ng description?<br /><br />Prneoplstic syndrome, Myclonic Jerk, Chotic eye m
ovements<br /><br />Wht is this /w in 20 to 50% of cses?
Opsoclonus-Myocl
onus<br /><br />/w NEURBLASTOMA
1305199152841 1342707643417 Which endocrine disorder is /w with the followi
ng description?<br /><br />HVA elevted in urine
Neuroblstom<br><br><im
g src="pstevguqnx.jpg" />
1305199172879 1342707643417 Lb findings for Neuroblstom Elevted HVA, 
brekdown product of dopmine, in urine<br><br><img src="pstevguqnx.jpg" />
1305229010778 1342707643596 Rx is ctivted by hypoxnthine-gunine phosphor
ibosyl trnsferse (HGPRT)
6-MP<br>6-TG
1305229802256 1342707643596 Tx: chemotherpy-induced vomiting nd dirrhe?<
br><br>mechnism?
ondnsetron<br />grnisetron<br />dolsetron<br /><br />
*MOA: 5-HT3 receptor ntgonist -&gt; block vgus-medited NV (5-HT3 locted on
periphery of vgus nerve); block HT in chemoreceptor trigger zone
1305229925213 1342707643596 Rx used to minimize grnulocytopeni fter myelo
suppressive chemotherpy
filgrstim <br /><br />*MOA: grnulocyte colon-s
timulting fctor (G-CSF) nlog used to stimulte prolifertion/differentition
of grnulocytes
1305229981599 1342707643596 Rx used to decrese cumultive nephrotoxicity s
socited witih pltinum-contining nd lkylting chemotherpeutic gents (eg. c
ispltin, crbopltin) mifostine<br /><br />*MOA: cytoprotective free-rdicl
scvenger gent
1305230047918 1342707643596 Tx: tumor lysis syndrome<br><br>chrcterized by
?<br>cused by? llopurinol<br><br>*chrcterized by electrolyte disturbnces n
d cute renl filure<br>*cused by use of chemotherpy for neoplsm with high c
ell turnover rte
1305232754573 1342707643703 Apoptosis (definition, requirement, meditors)
Progrmmed cell deth; ATP required.<br />Medited by cspses.
1305232824549 1342707643703 Apoptosis is chrcterized by...?
Cell shr
inkge, nucler shrinkge nd bsophili (pyknosis), <br />membrne blebbing, py
knotic nucler frgmenttion (kryorrhexis),<br />nucler fding (kryolysis), 
nd formtion of poptotic bodies,<br />which re then phgocytosed.<br /><br />N
o significnt inflmmtion.
1305232887730 1342707643703 When does poptosis occur?
Occurs during em
bryogenesis, hormone induction (menstrution),<br />immune cell-medited deth,
injurious stimuli (e.g., rdition, hypoxi),<br />trophy (e.g., endometril li

ning during menopuse)
1305232929992 1342707643703 Necrosis (definition) Enzymtic degrdtion of
 cell resulting from exogenous injury.
1305232964111 1342707643703 Necrosis is chrcterized by...?
Enzymti
c digestion nd protein denturtion, <br>with relese of intrcellulr componen
ts.<br><br>Inflmmtory.
1305233006638 1342707643596 Tx: hiry cell leukemi cldribine<br /><br />*p
urine nlog<br />*resistnt to degrdtion by denosine deminse<br />*good CN
S penetrtion
1305233017249 1342707643703 Necrosis morphologies Cogultive (hert, live
r, kidney)<br />Liquefctive (brin, bcesses, pleurl effusion)<br />Cseous (t
uberculosis, systemic fungi)<br />Ft (pncres- sponifiction)<br />Fibrinoid
(blood vessels)<br />Gngrenous- dry (ischemic cogultive) OR wet (with bcteri
); common in limbs, GI trct
1305233068490 1342707643703 Chrcteristics of reversible cell injury
Cellulr swelling<br>Nucler chromtin clumping<br>Decr ATP synthesis<br>Ribosom
l detchment<br>Glycogen depletion<br>Ftty chnge
1305233112419 1342707643703 Chrcteristics of irreversible cell injury
Plsm membrne dmge<br />Lysosoml rupture<br />C2+ influx --&gt; cspse c
tivtion<br />Nucler pyknosis, kryolysis, kryorrhexis<br />Mitochondril perm
ebility
1305233166829 1342707643703 5 Chrcteristic signs of inflmmtion Rubor (r
edness)<br>Dolor (pin)<br>Clor (het)<br>Tumor (swelling)<br>Functio les (lo
ss of fxn)
1305233201577 1342707643703 Mechnism of fluid exudtion in inflmmtion
Incr vsculr permebility, vsodiltion, endothelil injury.
1305233243724 1342707643703 Leukocyte ctivtion in inflmmtion
Emigrti
on (rolling, tight binding, dipedesis);<br>chemotxis (bcteril products, comp
lement, cytokines);<br>phgocytosis nd killing.
1305233263897 1342707643703 Substnces tht re chemotctic for neutrophils
IL-8<br>C5<br>Leukotriene B4<br>Kllikrein
1305233306216 1342707643703 Fibrosis in inflmmtion
Fibroblst emigr
tion nd prolifertion;<br>deposition of ECM.
1305233332797 1342707643703 Acute inflmmtion<br><br>Meditors?<br>Onset?
Neutrophil, eosinophil, nd Ab-medited.<br /><br />Rpid onset (seconds-minutes
), lsts minutes-dys.
1305233384669 1342707643703 Chronic inflmmtion<br><br>Meditors?<br>Chrc
terized by?
Mononucler cell medited:<br />Chrcterized by persistent dest
ruction nd repir. <br />Associted w/ blood vessel prolifertion, fibrosis.<br
/><br />Grnulom -- nodulr collections of epithelioid mcrophges nd gint c
ells.
1305233446758 1342707643703 Grnulomtous dz's
1) TB<br />2) Fungl inf
ections (eg. histoplsmosis)<br />3) <i>Treponem pllidum </i>(syphilis)<br />4
) <i>M. lepre </i>(leprosy)<br />5) <i>Brtonell hensele </i>(ct scrtch dis
ese)<br />6) Srcoidosis<br />7) Crohn's dz<br />8) Berylliosis (inhltion of
beryllium dust, eg. fluorescent light fctory)<br /><br />*Grnulom formtion i
s IL-2, interferon-gmm medited.<br />*TNF-lph from mcrophges induce nd m
intin grnulom formtion (nti-TNF drugs cn rectivte dz)
1305233521029 1342707643703 Sequele of inflmmtion- 4 ptterns
Grnult
ion tissue -- highly vsculrized, fibrotic.<br />Abscess -- fibrosis surroundin
g pus.<br />Fistul -- bnorml communiction.<br />Scrring -- collgen deposit
ion resulting in ltered structure nd fxn.
1305233592574 1342707643703 Chrcteristics of <u>trns</u>udte nd mechni
sm of formtion Hypocellulr<br />Protein-poor<br />Specific grvity &lt; 1.012<
br /><br />Due to:<br />Strling forces<br />(Incr hydrosttic pressure, decr on
cotic pressure, N+ retention)
1305233625346 1342707643703 Chrcteristics of <u>ex</u>udte nd mechnisms
Cellulr<br />Protein-rich<br />Specific grvity &gt; 1.020<br /><br />Due to:<b
r />Lymphtic obstruction<br />Inflmmtion
1305235049699 1342707643703 Leukocyte extrvstion Neutrophils exit from bl

ood vessels t sites of injury nd inflmmtion in 4 steps:<br />1.) Rolling<br
/>2.) Tight binding<br />3.) Dipedesis<br />4.) Migrtion<br><img src="218.JPG
" /><br />
1305235099730 1342707643703 Rolling<br />(step 1 in leukocyte extrvstion)
Medited by E-selectin nd P-selectin on vsculr endothelium<br />binding to si
lyl Lewis^x on the leukocyte.<br><img src="218.JPG" />
1305235199433 1342707643703 <b>Tight</b> binding <br />(step 2 of leukocyte
extrvstion) Medited by <b>ICAM</b>-1 on vsculr endothelium <br />binding
to LFA-1 (integrin) on the leukocyte<br /><br />(&quot;Hold on <b>tight</b> to y
our <b>CAM</b>er&quot;)<br><img src="218.JPG" />
1305235227562 1342707643703 Dipedesis <br />(step 3 in leukocyte extrvst
ion)
Leukocyte trvels btw endothelil cells nd exits blood vessel;<br />PEC
AM-1 is involved.<br><img src="218.JPG" />
1305235263563 1342707643703 Migrtion <br />(step 4 in leukocyte extrvsti
on)
Leukocyte trvels thru the interstitium to the site of injury or infxn g
uided by chemotctic signls (e.g., cytokines)<br><img src="218.JPG" />
1305235328667 1342707643703 Things tht initite Free rdicl injury
Rdition exposure<br />Metbolism of drugs (phse I)<br />Redox rxtn<br />Nitri
c oxide<br />Trnsition metls<br />Leukocyte oxidtive burst<br /><br />*Reperf
usion fter noxi induces free rdicl production (e.g., superoxide) nd is  m
jor cuse of injury fter thrombolytic therpy
1305235375229 1342707643703 Free rdicl injury induces cell injury thru...?
Membrne lipid peroxidtion<br>Protein modifiction<br>DNA Brekge
1305235432383 1342707643703 Free rdicl degrdtion occurs how?
Produced
thru enzymes (ctlse, superoxide dismutse, glutthione peroxidse),<br />spo
ntneous decy,<br />ntioxidnts (Vitmins A, C, E).<br /><br /><img src="pste
lcjbb5.jpg" />
1305235582351 1342707643703 Amyloid structure nd ppernce
Bet-ple
ted sheet demonstrble by pple-green birefringence of Congo red stin under po
lrized light;<br />ffected tissue hs wxy ppernce.
1305235704072 1342707643722 Primry A<b>L</b> protein<br><br>Derived from Ig
<b>L</b>ight chins (multiple myelom)<br>(A<b>L</b> = <b>L</b>ight chins)
1305235743190 1342707643722 Secondry
AA protein<br /><br />Derived fr
om serum myloid-ssocited (SAA) protein (chronic inflmmtory dz)<br />(A<b>A<
/b> = <b>A</b>cute-phse rectnt)
1305235773299 1342707643722 Senile crdic Protein = trnsthyretin<br />Der
ived from AF<br />(A<b>F</b> = old <b>F</b>ogies)<br /><br />*lso isolted tri
l myloidosis, seen in elderly, from tril ntriuretic peptide*
1305235801284 1342707643722 DM2
Amylin protein<br />Derived from AE<br /
>(A<b>E</b> = <b>E</b>ndocrine)
1305235831348 1342707643722 Medullry crcinom of thyroid A-CAL protein<br
/>Derived from clcitonin<br />(A-<b>CAL</b> = <b>CAL</b>citonin)
1305235849073 1342707643722 Alzheimer's dz Bet-myloid<br />Derived from 
myloid precursor protein (APP)<br><br>*only found in brin tissue<br>*my cuse
<b>senile plques</b> nd/or <b>myloid ngiopthy</b>
1305235865405 1342707643722 Dilysis-ssocited
Bet-2 microglobulin<br>
Derived from MHC clss I proteins.
1305235900571 1342707643703 Hypovolemic/crdiogenic shock Low-output filu
re.<br>Findings: cold, clmmy pt; low crdic output; Incr TPR.
1305235926502 1342707643703 Septic shock<br /><br />CO?<br />Mixed venous pr
essure?<br />Findings?<br />SVR?
High-output filure; high mixed venous p
ressure.<br />Findings: hot pt, dilted rterioles, decr TPR.
1305251083576 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br /><br />Elevted urinry VMA nd plsm ctecholmines
Pheochromocytom<br /><br /><img src="pstevguqnx.jpg" />
1305251129003 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br><br>Proxysml hypertension, HA, Drenching swet, Anxiety
Pheochromocytom
1305251161017 1342707643417 From which cells is pheochromocytom derived fro
m?
Chromffin cells (rise from neurl crest)

1305251211184 1342707643417 Diseses ssocited with pheochromocytom
Neurofibromtosis<br /><br />MEN 2A/2B<br /><br />(lso other neurocutneous dis
orders: Sturge-Weber, VHL)
1305252565418 1342707643417 Symptoms of pheochromocytom
<img src="pstep
k6Lv.png" />
1305252579735 1342707643417 Rule of 10s for pheochromocytom
<img src
="pste2gvTt1.png" />
1305252608246 1342707643417 Tretment for pheochromocytom <img src="psted
pc3nr.png" /><br /><br />Then surgicl resection<br /><br />B-blocker first is W
RONG ANSWER
1305252652651 1342707643417 Is pretibil myxedem  sign of hyperthyroidism
or hypothyroidism?
Hyperthyroidism (Grves' dz)
1305252702033 1342707643417 S/S of hyperthyroidism<br /><br />Temperture<br
/>Weight chnges<br />Activity<br />Bowel movement<br />Reflexes<br />CV<br />S
kin &mp; Hir <img src="psteSCXEQk.png" />
1305252720462 1342707643417 S/S of hypothyroidism<br /><br />Temperture<br
/>Weight chnges<br />Activity<br />Bowel movement<br />Reflexes<br>Myxedem<br
/>Skin &mp; Hir<br />CV<br>Other
<img src="pste3bqiMG.png" /><br />Brdy
crdi, dyspne on exertion<br /><br />*hypothyroid myopthy is  common cuse o
f elevted cretine kinse (CK)
1305252753804 1342707643417 Comment on TSH, totl T4, free T4, T3 uptke in
primry hyperthyroidism <img src="psteQfe_RO.png" />
1305252772417 1342707643417 Comment on TSH, totl T4, free T4, T3 uptke in
primry hypothyroidism <img src="pstenwgjhI.png" />
1305252813539 1342707643417 Wht is the most common cuse of hypothyroidism?
Hshimoto's thyroiditis
1305252895195 1342707643417 Which two hypothyroid conditions my be hyperthy
roid erly in course? Hshimoto's<br /><br />Subcute thyroidits (de Quervin'
s)
1305252926233 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br /><br />Hurthle cells (enlrged epithelil cells with eosino
philic grnules)
Hshimotos'<br /><br />(lso lymphocytic infiltrte with
germinl centers)
1305252944063 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br><br>Antimicrosoml ntibodies
Hshimoto's
1305252955753 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br><br>Antithyroglobulin ntibodies
Hshimotos
1305252962045 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br><br>HLA-DR5 Hshimotos
1305252985858 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br /><br />Moderttely enlrged, nontender thyroid
Hshimot
o's
1305253011274 1342707643417 Cuse of Cretinism
Severe fetl hypothyroid
ism
1305253027025 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br /><br />Pot-bellied, ple, puffy-fced child with protruding
umbilicus nd protruding tongue
Cretinism<br /><br /><img src="pstetnyb
t9.jpg" /><br /><br /><img src="psteyynyjr.jpg" />
1305253063720 1342707643417 Cuse of spordic cretinism
Defect in T4 for
mtion<br><br>Developmentl filure in thyroid formtion
1305253090766 1342707643417 Where would you find endemic cretinism? Wherever
endemic goiter is prevlent due to lck of dietry iodine
1305253112917 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br><br>Self-limited hypothyroidism often following  FLULIKE il
lness Subcute thyroiditis (de Quervin's)
1305253134139 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br /><br />Very tender Thyroid, Elevted ESR, Jw Pin Subcute
thyroiditis (de Quervin's)
1305253148952 1342707643417 Histology /w subcute thyroidits (de Quervin's
)
Grnulomtous inflmmtion

1305253170383 1342707643417 Cuses of Reidel's thyroiditis Thyroid replced
by fibrous tissue (hypothyroid)<br><br>Other cuses<br>-iodine deficiency<br>-t
hyroglossl duct cyst<br>-goitrogens<br>-Wolff-Chikoff effect
1305253184135 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br /><br />Fixed, hrd (rock-like) nd pinless goiter, hypothy
roidism Riedel's thyroiditis
1305253224404 1342707643417 Findings of Subcute thyroiditis
Elevted
ESR<br>Jw pin<br>Erly inflmmtion<br>Very TENDER thyroid
1305253253242 1342707643417 Cuse of Grves' disese
Autoimmune with
thyroid stimulting/TSH receptor ntibodies (type II hypersensitivity)
1305253264736 1342707643417 Wht type of hypersensitivity rection is Grves
?
Type II
1305253284271 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br /><br />Proptosis, Extroculr muscle swelling, Pretibil my
xedem, Diffuse goiter Grve's disese
1305253314782 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br><br>Often presents during stress such s childbirth Grves d
isese
1305253327660 1342707643417 Compliction of Grves' disese Cn cuse thyroi
d storm --&gt; stress-induced ctecholmine surge leding to deth (rrythmis)<
br /><br />My see incresed ALP due to incresed bone turnover
1305253349757 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w the following d
escription?<br /><br />Seen s  serious compliction of Grves' nd other hyper
thyroid disorders
Thyrotoxicosis / thyroid storm
1305253365257 1342707643417 Wht is thyrotoxicosis? Stress-induced ctechol
mine surge leding to deth by rrythmi
1305253373482 1342707643417 Cuse of deth in thyrotoxicosis
Arrhythm
is
1305253402713 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br /><br />Focl ptches of hyperfunctioning folliculr cells w
orking independently of TSH due to muttion in TSH receptor
Toxic multinodul
r goiter
1305253432847 1342707643417 Wht is the cuse of toxic multinodulr goiter?<
br /> Focl ptches of hyperfunctioning folliculr cells working independently
of TSH due to muttion of TSH receptor<br><br>Hot nodules re rrely mlignnt
1305253456635 1342707643417 Wht is Jod-Bsedow phenomenon? Thyrotoxicosis i
f  ptient with iodine deficiency goiter is mde iodine replete
1305253488249 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin
g description?<br /><br />Most common, excellent prognosis
Ppillry crcin
om
1305253501769 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin
g description?<br /><br />Ground glss nuclei (Orphne Annie) Ppillry crcin
om<br /><br /><img src="pstegvw36w.jpg" />
1305253512898 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin
g description?<br><br>Psmmom bodies Ppillry crcinom
1305253522103 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin
g description?<br><br>Incresed risk with childhood rdition Ppillry crcin
om
1305253537023 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin
g description?<br /><br />Nucler grooves
Ppillry crcinom<br /><br /><
img src="pstegvw36w.jpg" />
1305253557477 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin
g description?<br><br>Uniform follicles, good prognosis Folliculr crcinom
1305253567380 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin
g description?<br /><br />BRAF muttion, RET oncogene Ppillry crcinom
1305253580812 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin
g description?<br /><br />RAS muttion in 40% Folliculr crcinom
1305253592482 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin
g description?<br /><br />From prfolliculr C cells Medullry crcinom
1305253599810 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin

g description?<br /><br />Produces clcitonin Medullry crcinom
1305253621763 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin
g description?<br><br>/w MEN 2A nd 2B Medullry crciniom
1305253634871 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin
g description?<br><br>Sheets of cells in myloid strom Medullry crcinom
1305253648927 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin
g description?<br><br>Older ptients; poor prognosis
Undifferentited/npls
tic
1305253658590 1342707643417 Which type of thyroid cncer is /w the followin
g description?<br /><br />/w Hshimoto's thyroiditis Lymphom
1305258729608 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br /><br />Tpping of fcil nerve --&gt; Contrction of fcil
muscles
Hypoprthyroidism
1305258745110 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br><br>Occlusion of brchil rtery with BP cuff --&gt; Crpl
spsm Hypoprthyroidism (Trousseu's sign)
1305258799307 1342707643417 Cuses of hypoprthyroidism
<img src="psteW
KeU22.png" />
1305258826609 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br /><br />Hypoclcemi, shortened 4th/5th digits, Short sttur
e
Pseudohypoprthyroidism (Albright's hereditry osteodystrophy)<br /><br
/>*Autosoml dominnt kidney unresponsiveness to PTH
1305258843711 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br /><br />Autosoml dominnt kidney unresponsiveness to PTH
Pseudohypoprthyroidism (Albright's hereditry osteodystrophy)
1305258867469 1342707643417 Cuse of pseudohypoprthyroidism. S/S <img src
="pste8y9tiv.png" />
1305258937235 1342707643417 Wht is tertiry hyperprthyroidism nd its cu
se? Comment on PTH nd C2+ levels
Refrctory (utonomous) hyperprthyroid
ism resulting from CHRONIC RENAL DISEASE<br /><br />↑↑ PTH, ↑ clcium
1305258983758 1342707643417 Wht is most common cuse of primry hyperprth
yroidism?
Benign denom
1305260223845 1342707643417 Comment on clcium nd PTH levels for primry n
d secondry hyperprthyroidism <img src="psteUdlqUy.png" />
1305260268178 1342707643417 Wht is renl osteodystrophy? <img src="psteu
gQqK7.png" />
1305260289512 1342707643417 Wht is osteitis fibros cystic?
<img src
="pstefzUrJb.png" />
1305260333805 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w the following d
escription?<br><br>Stone, bones, nd grons
Primry hyperprthyroidism
1305260358970 1342707643417 Which type of hyperprthyroidism is /w hyperph
osphtemi?
Secondry hyperprthyroidism
1305260374377 1342707643417 Which type of hyperprthyroidism is ssocited
with hypophosphtemi? Primry hyperprthyroidism
1305260499177 1342707643417 Wht is cuse of secondry hyperprthyroidism?
Lbs? <img src="pstevMLdER.png" />
1305260508217 1342707643417 Cuse of cromegly
Excess GH in dults
1305260535517 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w with the follow
ing description?<br><br>Lrge tongue with deep furrows, Lrge hnds nd feet, De
ep voice, Corse fcil fetures
Acromegly
1305260560788 1342707643417 Wht is tretment for cromegly?
Pituitr
y denom resection followed by OCTREOTIDE dministrtion
1305260613420 1342707643417 Wht is gigntism?
<img src="psteY_j9vf.pn
g" />
1305260638688 1342707643417 Gigntism: Is it due to circumferentil bone gro
wth or liner bone growth?
Liner bone growth
1305260664705 1342707643417 Which endocrine pthology is /w the following d
escription?<br /><br>Elevted serum IGF-1; filure to suppress serum GH followin
g orl glucose tolernce test Acromegly
1305260936853 1342707643417 Acromegly findings
Lrge tongue with deep f

urrows<br />Deep voice<br />Lrge hnds nd feet<br />Corse fcil fetures<br
/>Impired glucose tolernce (insulin resistnce)
1305261132069 1342707643417 Wht is SIADH? Findings?
<img src="psteU
Qblie.png" />
1305261156605 1342707643417 Cuses of SIADH <img src="pstei6x95D.png" />
1305261200080 1342707643417 Tretment for SIADH
Demeclocycline<br><br>H2
O restriction
1305261236394 1342707643417 How does body responds to SIADH? Compliction?
Decresed ldosterone (hypontremi) to mintin ner-norml volume sttus.<br /
><br />Very low sodium levels cn led to seizures (correct slowly to void cent
rl pontine myelinolysis)
1305261275506 1342707643417 Findings in DI for urine specific grvity nd se
rum osmollity (numbers)
<img src="pstes50pw0.png" />
1305261299531 1342707643417 Wht is test used to dignose dibetes insipidus
?
Wter deprivtion test: urine osmollity doesn't increse.
1305261310793 1342707643417 Response to wht drug distinguishes between cent
rl nd nephrogenic DI?<br /><br />How much response is necessry?
Desmopre
ssin<br /><br />Greter thn 10% increse in urine osmollity w/ desmopressin =
centrl DI; greter thn 50% = complete centrl DI (uworld)
1305261358551 1342707643417 Cuses of nephrogenic DI
Hereditry<br><b
r>Secondry to:<br>- Hyperclcemi<br>- Lithium<br>- Demeclocycline (ADH ntgon
ist)
1305261370348 1342707643417 Cuse of centrl DI
Pituitry tumor<br>Trum
<br>Surgery<br>Histiocytosis X
1305261411730 1342707643417 Tretment for Dibetes Insipidus
Adequte
fluid intke<br /><br />Centrl DI: intrnsl desmopressin (ADH nlog)<br /><
br />Nephrogenic DI: HCTZ, Indomethcin, Amiloride
1305261655546 1342707643417 Drugs used for hypothyroidism s  thyroxine rep
lcement
Levothyroxine nd triiodothyronine
1305261673454 1342707643417 Toxicity of Levothyroxine
Tchy<br>Het in
tolernce<br>Tremors<br>Arrhythmis
1305261704167 1342707643417 Which drug is used for SIADH? Wht is its MOA?
Demeclocycline<br><br>ADH ntgonist (member of tetrcycline fmily)
1305261887250 1342707643417 Demeclocycline is  competitive ntgonist t wh
ich receptors for treting SIADH?
V2 receptors
1305261988242 1342707643417 Ptient is complining of photosesntivity (rsh)
. Ptient ws dignosed with SIADH prior. Wht is drug tht's cusing the SE?
Demeclocycline
1305262011639 1342707643417 Abnormlities of teeth nd bone re /w which dr
ug used to tret SIADH? Demeclocycline
1305262127751 1342707643417 Rx for centrl DI
ADH (desmopressin)
1305262141144 1342707643417 Rx for cromegly
Ocreotide (cromegly)
1305262154997 1342707643417 Wht is drug for GH deficiency? GH
1305262269822 1342707643417 Toxicity of glucocorticoids?
Itrogenic Cushi
ng’s syn
rome—buffalo hump, moon facies, truncal obesity, muscle wasting, thin skin,
easy bruisability, osteoporosis, a
renocortical atrophy, peptic ulcers,
iabete
s (if chronic).
1305262284125 1342707643417 What happens if you stop using glucocorticoi
s a
fter chronic use?
A
renal insufficiency
1305262309834 1342707643417 Mechanism of glucocorticoi
s? ↓ the pro
uction o
f leukotrienes an
prostaglan
ins by inhibiting phospholipase A2 an
expression
of COX-2.
1305262391755 1342707643417 Which en
ocrine pathology is a/w with the follow
ing
escription?<br><br>Stomach shows rugal thickening with aci
hypersecretion
Zollinger-Ellison syn
rome
1305262430259 1342707643417 Which en
ocrine pathology is a/w with the follow
ing
escription?<br /><br />a/w MEN type 1
Zollinger Ellison syn
rome
1305262443330 1342707643417 What is Zollinger-Ellison syn
rome?
Gastrinsecreting tumor of pancreas or
uo
enum
1305262456536 1342707643417 Which en
ocrine pathology is a/w with the follow

ing
escription?<br><br>Causes recurrent ulcers Zollinger-ellison syn
rome
1305262499326 1342707643417 Rule of 1/3s for carcinoi
syn
rome
<img src
="pastehE8eLy.png" />
1305262505358 1342707643417 Treatment for carcinoi
syn
rome
Octreoti

e
1305262520204 1342707643417 Carcinoi
syn
rome embryological origin Neuroen

ocrine cells of GI tract
1305262556593 1342707643417 Which en
ocrine pathology is a/w with the follow
ing
escription?<br><br>Recurrent
iarrhea, Cutaneous flushing, Asthmatic wheezi
ng, an
Right-si
e
valvular
isease
Carcinoi
syn
rome
1305262567059 1342707643417 Which en
ocrine pathology is a/w with the follow
ing
escription?<br><br>Most common tumor of appen
ix Carcinoi
syn
rome
1305262575945 1342707643417 Which en
ocrine pathology is a/w with the follow
ing
escription?<br /><br />Elevate
5-HIAA in urine
Carcinoi
syn
rome
1305262612160 1342707643417 Cause of carcinoi
syn
rome
<img src="pastea
lBXMN.png" />
1305262706303 1342707643417 DKA is a complication of which type of
iabetes?
Type I
1305262749813 1342707643417 Which en
ocrine pathology is a/w with the follow
ing
escription?<br /><br />Life-threatening mucormycosis
DKA
1305262755452 1342707643417 Which en
ocrine pathology is a/w with the follow
ing
escription?<br><br>Rhizopus infection
DKA<br>
1305262766747 1342707643417 Which en
ocrine pathology is a/w with the follow
ing
escription?<br /><br />Cerebral e
ema, car
iac arrhythmias, heart failure,
fruity breath DKA
1305262794009 1342707643417 Which en
ocrine pathology is a/w with the follow
ing
escription?<br><br>Kussmaul respirations (rapi
/
eep breathing) + Fruity br
eath o
or (acetone)
DKA
1305262870559 1342707643417 Biochemical cause of DKA
One of the most
important complications of type 1
iabetes. Usually
ue to ↑ insulin re uirements
from ↑ stress (e.g., infection). Excess fat break
own an
↑ ketogenesis from ↑ free fa
tty aci
s, which are then ma
e into ketone bo
ies (β-hydroxyutyrate &gt; acetoace
tate).
1305262922795 1342707643417 Las for DKA
Hyperglycemia<r />Elevated H+<
r />Decreased HCO3- (anion gap metaolic acidosis)<r />Elevated lood ketones<
r />Leukocytosis<r />Hyperkalemia ut depleted intracellular K+ due to transcel
lular shift from decreased insulin
1305262960189 1342707643417 Treatment for DKA
Fluids, insulin, and K+
(to replete intracellular stores); glucose if necessary to prevent hypoglycemia.
1305263054624 1342707643417 MEN 1 = <img src="pastesp1SLj.png" /><r><r>3 P
's
1305263074263 1342707643417 Which MEN commonly presents with kidney stones a
nd stomach ulcers?
MEN 1
1305263104420 1342707643417 MEN 2A =
<img src="pasteiwxhDI.png" />
1305263116243 1342707643417 MEN 2B <img src="pasteuCc7MZ.png" />
1305263254530 1342707643417 Which MEN types are a/w ret gene?
MEN 2A a
nd 2B
1305263264347 1342707643417 Mode of inheritance for MEN syndromes Autosoma
l-dominant
1305263300559 1342707643417 Which type of DM is a/w HLA-DR3 and HLA-DR4?
Type I Dm
1305263348164 1342707643417 Hyperosmolar coma is a/w which type of DM?
Type II
1305263361083 1342707643417 Which type of DM is a/w islet amyloid deposit?
Type II
1305263372826 1342707643417 Which type of DM is a/w islet leukocytic infiltr
ate?
Type I
1305263389114 1342707643417 Which type of DM is caused y viral or immune de
struction of B cells? Type I
1305263408951 1342707643417 Which type of DM is a/w the following descriptio

n?<r><r>Increased resistance to insulin
Type II
1305263421031 1342707643417 Which type of DM is a/w the following descriptio
n?<r><r>Association with oesity
Type II
1305263438374 1342707643417 Which type of DM is a/w the following descriptio
n?<r><r>Strong genetic predisposition, polygenic
Type II
1305263447047 1342707643417 Which type of DM is a/w the following descriptio
n?<r><r>Common ketoacidosis Type I
1305263477043 1342707643417 Cataracts in DM is due to?
Soritol accumul
ation --&gt; Osmotic damage
1305263491258 1342707643417 Which dx is a.w Kimmestein Wilson nodules?
DM
1305263673765 1342707643417 Which of the oral agents used in the control of
type II diaetes has the following characteristics?<r><r>Lactic acidosis is a
rare ut worrisome side effect Biguanides (METFORMIN)
1305263718754 1342707643417 Which of the oral agents used in the control of
type II diaetes has the following characteristics?<r /><r />Most common side
effect is hypoglycemia Insulin (Lispro, Aspart, Regular, NPH, Glargine, Detemir
)
1305263752810 1342707643417 Which of the oral agents used in the control of
type II diaetes has the following characteristics?<r /><r />MOA: closes K cha
nnel on B cells --&gt; depolarization --&gt; ca influx --&gt; insulin release
Sulfonylureas (glyuride, glipizide, etc)
1305263777816 1342707643417 Which of the oral agents used in the control of
type II diaetes has the following characteristics?<r><r>MOA: inhiits alpha-g
lucosidase at intestinal rush order Alpha-glucosidase inhiitors<r>- Acaro
se<r>- Miglitol
1305263801501 1342707643417 Which of the oral agents used in the control of
type II diaetes has the following characteristics?<r><r>MOA: agonist at PPARg
amma receptors Glitazones/Thiazolidinediones<r><r>- Pioglitazone<r>- Rosigli
tazone
1305263898479 1342707643417 ou tell a patient that he has type II diaetes
and you decide to egin him on medication that will lower his lood sugar y inh
iiting glucose production y the liver. What is rx?
Metformin
1305263924802 1342707643417 Metformin is contraindicated in which patients a
nd why? Renal insufficiency due to SE of lactic acidosis
1305264014022 1342707643417 The FDA recommends careful monitoring of liver f
unction tets when patient is on this NIDDM type II diaetic agent
Glitizon
es/thiazolidinediones (pioglitazone, rosiglitazone)
1305264083409 1342707643417 ou tell patient with type 2 diaetes that you c
ould start him on a medication that acts to decrease asorption of postprandial
carohydrates in the GI tract, ut you warn him that the GI side effects of this
medication are significant
alpha-glucosidase inhiitors (acarose, miglitol
)
1305264278323 1342707643417 Patient states he would like to avoid insulin if
possile for his Type II DM and instead asks you aout a drug that he saw a com
mercial for on television that treats diaetes y mimicking glucagon-like peptid
e-1. What is the SE of this drug?
GLP-1 analog: Exenatide<r /><r />SE: N
ausea, Vomiting, <>Pancreatitis</>
1305330568329 1342707643703 Neoplastic progression: normal state, efore any
thing goes wrong
Normal cells w/ asal --&gt; apical differentiation<r><
img src="220a.JPG" />
1305330617920 1342707643703 Neoplastic progression: step 1<r>Hyperplasia/dy
splasia Cells have increased in # (<>hyperplasia</>)<r>Anormal proliferation
of cells w/ loss of size, shape, and orientation (<>dysplasia</>)<r><img src
="220.JPG" />
1305330686195 1342707643703 Neoplastic progression: step 2<r />In situ carc
inoma Neoplastic cells have not invaded asement memrane.<r />High nuclear/c
ytoplasmic ratio and clumped chromatin<r />Neoplastic cells encompass entire th
ickness<r />Tumor cells are monoclonal<r /><img src="220c.JPG" />
1305330735963 1342707643703 Neoplastic progression: step 3<r />Invasive car

cinoma Cells have invaded asement memrane using <>collagenases</> and <>hy
drolases, MMPs</><r />Can metastasize if they reach a lood or lymphatic vesse
l<r /><img src="220d.JPG" />
1305330824041 1342707643703 Neoplastic progression: step 4<r />Metastasis<
r /><r />(Also, what is up/downregulated?)
Metastasis = Spread to distant o
rgan<r /><r />Must survive immune attack.<r /><r />&quot;Seed and soil&quot;
theory of metastasis:<r />Seed = tumor emolus<r />Soil = target organ -- liv
er, lungs, one, rain...<r />Angiogenesis allows for tumor survival<r />Decr
cadherin, incr laminin, integrin receptors<r /><r /><img src="220e.JPG" />
1305330849013 1342707643703 Hyperplasia
Incr in # of cells.<r><r>Rever
sile.<r>
1305330885568 1342707643703 Metaplasia
1 adult cell type is replaced y
another.<r>Often 2' to irritation and/or environmental exposure <r>(e.g., squ
amous metaplasia in trachea and ronchi of smokers)<r><r>Reversile.
1305330915422 1342707643703 Dysplasia
Anormal growth w/ loss of cellu
lar orientation, shape, and size in comparison to normal tissue maturation;<r /
>commonly preneoplastic.<r /><r />Reversile.
1305330957737 1342707643703 Anaplasia? Reversile? Anormal cells lacking d
ifferentiation;<r />like primitive cells of the same tissue, often equated w/ u
ndifferentiated malignant neoplasms.<r />Little or no resemlance to tissue of
origin.<r /><r />Irreversile.
1305330977938 1342707643703 Neoplasia
A clonal proliferation of cells
that is uncontrolled and excessive.<r /><r />Irreversile.
1305330992377 1342707643703 Desmoplasia
Firous tissue formation in resp
onse to a neoplasm.<r><r>Irreversile.
1305331049236 1342707643703 Tumor <u>grade</u>
Degree of cellular diffe
rentiation ased on histologic appearance of tumor.<r>Usually graded I-IV ased
on degree of differentiation and numer of mitoses per high-power field;<r>cha
racter of tumor itself.
1305331095715 1342707643703 Tumor <u>stage</u>
Degree of localization/s
pread ased on site and size of 1' lesion, spread to regional LNs, <r>presence
of metastases; spread of tumor in a specific pt.<r><r><>S</>tage = <>S</>p
read
1305331128038 1342707643703 TNM staging system
<>T</> = size of <>T<
/>umor<r><>N</> = <>N</>ode involvement<r><>M</> = <>M</>etastases
1305331161531 1342707643703 Which usually has more prognostic value, tumor s
tage or grade? Usually stage &gt; grade
1305331295767 1342707643709 Epithelium
Benign:<r>Adenoma, papilloma<r
><r>Malignant:<r>Adenocarcinoma, papillary carcinoma
1305331327487 1342707643709 Blood cells
Benign: --<r><r>Malignant: Leu
kemia, lymphoma
1305331343571 1342707643709 Blood vessels Benign: hemangioma<r><r>Malign
ant: Angiosarcoma
1305331360295 1342707643709 Smooth muscle Benign: Leiomyoma<r><r>Maligna
nt: Leiomyosarcoma
1305331379356 1342707643709 Skeletal muscle Benign: Rhadomyoma<r><r>Malig
nant: Rhadomyosarcoma
1305331391558 1342707643709 Bone
Benign: Osteoma<r><r>Malignant: osteos
arcoma
1305331404301 1342707643709 Fat
Benign: lipoma<r><r>Malignant: liposar
coma
1305331430571 1342707643709 &gt; 1 cell type
Benign: mature teratoma
(women)<r><r>Malignant: immature teratoma and mature teratoma (men)<r>
1305331476693 1342707643703 Carcinoma vs. sarcoma Carcinoma = epithelial o
rigin<r />Sarcoma = mesenchymal origin (lood vessels, muscle, one, fat, etc.)
<r /><r />Both imply malignancy
1305331497696 1342707643703 Benign Usually well-differentiated, slow growin
g, well-demarcated, no metastasis.
1305331517575 1342707643703 Malignant
May e poorly differentiated, er
ratic growth, locally invasive/diffuse, may metastasize.

1305331609493 1342707643447 Down syndrome ALL (we <>ALL</> fall <>Down<
/>)<r>AML
1305331632395 1342707643447 Xeroderma pigmentosum, alinism Melanoma, asal
cell carcinoma, and esp. squamous cell carcinomas of the skin
1305331656582 1342707643447 Chronic atrophic gastritis, pernicious anemia, p
ostsurgical gastric remnants
Gastric adenocarcinoma
1305331683666 1342707643447 Tuerous sclerosis (facial angiofiroma, seizure
s, mental retardation) Astrocytoma, angiomyolipoma, and cardiac rhadomyoma
1305331693527 1342707643447 Actinic keratosis (rough, raised patch of skin f
rom long-term sun exposure)
Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin
1305331709442 1342707643447 Barrett's esophagus (chronic GI reflux) Esophage
al adenocarcinoma
1305331740170 1342707643447 Plummer-Vinson syndrome<r>(atrophic gastritis,
esophageal wes, anemia; all due to iron deficiency)
Squamous cell carcinoma
of esophagus
1305331752575 1342707643447 Cirrhosis (alcoholic, hepatitis B or C, ...)
Hepatocellular carcinoma
1305331764696 1342707643447 Ulcerative colitis
Colonic adenocarcinoma
1305331784162 1342707643447 Paget's dz of one
Secondary osteosarcoma a
nd firosarcoma
1305331793268 1342707643447 Immunodeficiency states Malignant lymphomas
1305331814231 1342707643447 AIDS
Aggressive malignant lymphomas (non-Hodg
kin's) and Kaposi's sarcoma
1305331838404 1342707643447 Autoimmune dz's (e.g., Hashimoto's thyroiditis,
myasthenia gravis)
Lymphomas
1305331864894 1342707643447 Acanthosis nigricans<r>(hyperpigmentation and e
pidermal thickening)
Visceral malignancy (stomach, lung, reast, uterus)
1305332103152 1342707643447 Dysplastic nevus
Malignant melanoma
1305332110511 1342707643447 Radiation exposure
Sarcoma, papillary thyro
id cancer
1305332139492 1342707643703 Oncogenes
Gain of fxn --&gt; cancer.<r />
Need damage to only 1 allele.
1305332205256 1342707643805 al (tyrosine kinase) CML
1305332211676 1342707643805 c-myc (transcription factor)
Burkitt's lympho
ma
1305332227850 1342707643805 cl-2 (anti-apoptotic molecule) <>Follicular ly
mphomas</>, undifferentiated lymphomas
1305332241292 1342707643805 HER2/neu, aka er-B2 (tyrosine kinase) Breast,
ovarian, and gastric carcinomas
1305332247064 1342707643805 ras (GTPase)
Colon carcinoma
1305332254902 1342707643805 L-myc (transcription factor)
Lung tumor
1305332265357 1342707643805 N-myc (transcription factor)
Neurolastoma
1305332277881 1342707643805 ret (tyrosine kinase) Multiple endocrine neopl
asia (MEN) types IIA and IIB
1305332287748 1342707643805 c-kit (<>c</>yto<>ki</>ne receptor) Gastroin
testinal stromal tumor (GIST)
1305339045834 1342707643417 Which enzyme converts NE to epinephrine?
PNMT<r /><r />Phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase
1305339108028 1342707643417 A group of investigators studies the mechanism o
f catecholamine synthesis regulation. In animal experiments, hypophysectomy indu
ced a decrease in epinephrine secretion y the adrenals. Decreased activity of w
hich enzyme is most likely responsile for the effect oserved? PNMT (phenyletha
nolamine-N-methyltransferase)
1305339277358 1342707643417 What is the most common cause of death in patien
ts with diaetes?
MI
1305339770941 1342707643417 Which islet cell tumor is a/w with the following
description?<r /><r />Necrolytic migratory erythema Glucagonoma
1305339814218 1342707643417 Which islet cell tumor is a/w the following desc
ription?<r /><r />Secretory Diarrhea, Achlorhydria, Metaolic acidosis, Hypoka
lemia VIPoma aka pancreatic cholera

1305339838195 1342707643417 Which islet cell tumor is a/w the following desc
ription?<r><r>Cholelithiasis and Steatorrhea Somatostatinoma
1305339875080 1342707643417 Which islet cell tumor is a/w the following desc
ription?<r /><r />Fasting hypoglycemia causing mental status anormalities; El
evated serum insulin and C-peptide
Insulinoma
1305340082490 1342707643417 What exacerates insulin resistance?
Oesity
due to increased adipose --&gt; Downregulates insulin receptor synthesis
1305340339688 1342707643417 A 44 year old man comes to the office ecause of
increased fatigaility, troule sleeping, and heart palpitations. He has had th
ese symptoms for the past 3 months. He has lost 10 pounds over this time, despit
e eating well. He also complains of some difficulty moving his eyes. He is under
a lot of pressure at his jo ut cannot think of any other precipitating factor
s for his insomnia. He has no other medical prolems. He does not use toacco. H
is mother has a thyroid prolem. What is the most likely diagnosis and what othe
r clinical finding is most indicative of this condition?
Graves disease<
r><r>- PRETIBIAL MXEDMA (skin infiltration of lower legs)
1305340664889 1342707643417 What type of insulin is the preferred initial tr
eatment of DKA? Regular Insulin (peaks at 2-4 hrs)
1305340842741 1342707643417 A 50 yeard old male presents to the ER with a su
dden severe HA, doule vision, and itemporal hemianopsia. He says that he's had
decreased liido and mild headaches for a few months. As you are presenting to
your pattending, he develops CV collapse and dies, despite aggressive resuscitat
ion. Autopy will most likely reveal what as the cause of this presentation?
Pituitary apoplexy aka Hemorrhage into pituitary adenoma
1305341039969 1342707643417 All congenital adrenal enzyme deficiencies are c
haracterized y an enlargement (hyperplasia) of the adrenal glands due to an inc
rease in stimatulation from which hormone? What is the treatment?
ACTH<r>
<r>Tx: Corticosteroids to suppress ACTH
1305341158193 1342707643417 What happens if pregnant diaetic mother is give
n insulin throughout pregnancy. What is the sequelae on the neonate and why?
Transient hypoglycemia<r /><r />Neonates exposed to high maternal glucose leve
ls and results in compensatory insulin hypersecretion (islet hyperplasia). After
irth, the neonate continues to secrete insulin and cause hypoglycemia.<r /><
r />* Note fetal macrosomia
1305341285663 1342707643417 Pioglitazone, rosiglitazone SE Weight gain and
edema, hepatotoxicity, heart failure
1305407510014 1342707643703 Tumor suppressor genes Loss of fxn --&gt; cance
r;<r />oth alleles must e lost for expression of dz.
1305407534926 1342707643571 R (locks G1--&gt;S transition)
Chr. 13q
<r />Assoc.: Retinolastoma, osteosarcoma
1305407553921 1342707643571 BRCA1 (DNA repair protein)
Chr. 17q (same a
s NF1)<r />Assoc.: Breast and ovarian cancer
1305407601801 1342707643571 BRCA2 (DNA repair protein)
Chr. 13q<r />As
soc: reast cancer
1305407633188 1342707643571 p53 (locks G1--&gt;S transition)
Chr. 17p
<r />Assoc: most human cancers (crap!), Li-Fraumeni syndrome
1305407651748 1342707643571 p16
Chr. 9p<r />Assoc: Melanoma<r />(&quot
;Mela<>N</>oma is <>N</>ine&quot;)
1305407702116 1342707643571 APC
Chr. 5q<r />Assoc: Colorectal cancer (a
ssoc w/ FAP)
1305407713496 1342707643571 WT1
Chr. 11p<r>Assoc: Wilms' tumor
1305407733573 1342707643571 NF1
Chr. 17q (same as BRCA1)<r />Assoc: Neu
rofiromatosis type 1
1305407758050 1342707643571 NF2
Chr. 22q<r>Assoc: Neurofiromatosis 2<
r>(&quot;Type 2 = 22&quot;)
1305407796489 1342707643571 DPC
Chr. 18q<r>Assoc: Pancreatic cancer<r>
<r><r><r><r>[<>DPC</> = <>D</>eleted in <>P</>ancreatic <>C</>ancer&
quot;]
1305407829348 1342707643571 DCC
Chr. 18q<r>Assoc: Colon cancer<r><r><
r><r><r><r>[<>DCC</> = <>D</>eleted in <>C</>olon <>C</>ancer]

1305407921827 1342707643703 How should tumor markers e used clinically?
Tumor markers should not e used as the primary tool for cancer Dx.<r>They may
e used to confirm Dx, to monitor for tumor recurrence, and to monitor response
to therapy.
1305407955401 1342707643611 PSA
Prostate-Specific Ag. <r>Used to screen
for prostate carcinoma.<r>Can also e elevated in BPH and prostatitis.
1305407966324 1342707643611 Prostatic acid phospatase
Prostate carcino
ma.
1305408003477 1342707643611 CEA
Carcinoemryonic Ag.<r>Very nonspecific
, ut produced y ~70% of colorectal and pancreatic cancers;<r>also produced y
gastric and reast carcinomas.
1305408040662 1342707643611 alpha-fetoprotein
Normally made y fetus.<
r>Hepatocellular carcinomas.<r>Nonseminomatous germ cell tumors of the testis
(e.g., yolk sac tumor)
1305408085912 1342707643611 Beta-hCG
<>&quot;HCG&quot;</><r><>H</
>ydatidiform moles<r><>C</>horiocarcinomas<r><>G</>estational tropholast
ic tumors
1305408100830 1342707643611 CA-125 Ovarian, malignant epithelial tumors
1305408112021 1342707643611 S-100 Melanoma, neural tumors, astrocytoma<r
/><r />*also Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH), schwannoma
1305408129140 1342707643611 Alkaline phosphatase
Metastases to one, ost
ructive iliary dz, Paget's dz of one.
1305408142840 1342707643611 Bomesin
Neurolastoma, lung, and gastric
cancer.
1305408192511 1342707643611 TRAP
Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase.<r
/><>Hairy</> cell leukemia -- a B-cell neoplasm.<r />&quot;<>TRAP</> the <
>hairy</> animal.&quot;
1305408204460 1342707643611 CA-19-9 Pancreatic adenocarcinoma
1305408972429 1342707643783 HTLV-1 Adult T-cell leukemia<r /><r />*mechan
ism: capture of cellular oncogenes
1305408983094 1342707643783 HBV, HCV
Hepatocellular carcinoma
1305409018711 1342707643783 EBV
Burkitt's lymphoma (&quot;starry sky&quo
t; histo)<r />nasopharyngeal carcinoma<r /><r />*also primary CNS lymphoma<r
/>*mechanism: translocation of c-myc oncogene
1305409042309 1342707643783 HPV
Cervical carcinoma (types 16, 18)<r />P
enile/anal carcinoma<r /><r />*mechanism: type 16- E6 gene product--&gt;inacti
vates p53<r />type 18- E7 gene product--&gt;inactivates R
1305409078705 1342707643783 HHV-8 [aka Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesv
irus]<r><r>Kaposi's sarcoma<r>Body cavity fluid B-cell lymphoma
1305409143381 1342707643731 Aflatoxins (produced y Aspergillus)
Liver (h
epatocellular carcinoma)
1305409151494 1342707643731 Vinyl chloride Liver (angiosarcoma)
1305409165068 1342707643731 Caron tetrachloride (CCl4)
Potent liver tox
in (centriloular necrosis, fatty change)
1305409179117 1342707643731 Nitrosamines (e.g., in smoked foods)
Esophagu
s, stomach
1305409230172 1342707643731 Cigarette smoke Larynx (squamous cell carcinoma)
<r />Lung (squamous cell and small cell carcinomas)<r />Kidney (renal cell car
cinoma)<r />Bladder (transitional cell carcinoma)<r /><r />*pancreatic cancer
: a/w smoking, ut not alcohol
1305409245039 1342707643731 Asestos
Lung (mesothelioma and ronchoge
nic carcinoma)
1305409259174 1342707643731 Arsenic Skin (squamous cell carcinoma)<r />Live
r (angiosarcoma)
1305409277092 1342707643731 Naphthalene (aniline) dyes
Bladder (transit
ional cell carcinoma)
1305409285661 1342707643731 Alkylating agents
Blood (leukemia)
1305409562992 1342707643521 Small cell lung carcinoma
Causes:<r>ACTH
or ACTH-like peptide<r><r>Effect:<r>Cushing's syndrome
1305409593526 1342707643521 Small cell lung carcinoma <i>and </i>intracrania

l neoplasms
Causes:<r>ADH<r><r>Effect:<r>SIADH
1305409633360 1342707643521 Squamous cell lung carcinoma, <r />renal cell c
arcinoma,<r />and reast carcinoma
Causes:<r />PTH-related peptide, TGF-e
ta, TNF, IL-1<r /><r />Effect:<r />Hypercalcemia
1305409674100 1342707643521 Renal cell carcinoma, hemangiolastoma, (&amp; h
epatocellular carcinoma)
Causes:<r />Erythropoietin<r /><r />Effect:<
r />Polycythemia
1305409718733 1342707643521 Thymoma, small cell lung carcinoma
Causes:<
r />A's against presynaptic Ca2+ channels at NMJ<r /><r />Effect:<r />Lame
rt-Eaton syndrome (muscle weakness)
1305409746021 1342707643521 Leukemias and lymphomas Causes:<r>Hyperuricemia
due to excess nucleic acid (e.g., cytotoxic therapy)<r><r>Effect:<r>Gout, ur
ate nephropathy
1305409836320 1342707643703 Psammoma odies Laminated, concentric, calcific
spherules seen in:<r>1.) Papillary adenocarcinoma of thyroid<r>2.) Serous papi
llary cystadenocarcinoma of ovary<r>3.) Meningioma<r>4.) Malignant mesotheliom
a<r><r><>PS</>a<>MM</>oma:<r><>P</>apillary (thyroid)<r><>S</>erous
(ovary)<r><>M</>eningioma<r><>M</>esothelioma
1305409902453 1342707643703 Metastasis to rain- location, frequency
Typically multiple well-circumscried tumors at grey-white order.<r /><r />Ov
erall, approximately 50% of rain tumors are from metastases.
1305409962767 1342707643703 Primary tumors that metastasize to rain
Order:<r /><r />Lung&gt;reast&gt;kidney&gt;skin (melanoma)<r /><r /><r /><
>L</>ung<r /><>B</>reast<r /><>S</>kin (melanoma)<r /><>K</>idney (re
nal cell carcinoma)<r /><>G</>I<r /><r /><>L</>ots of <>B</>ad <>S</>
tuff <>K</>ills <>G</>lia.
1305409999853 1342707643703 Metastasis to liver
The liver and lung are t
he most common sites of metastasis after regional LN's.<r /><r />Colon &gt; st
omach &gt; pancreas<r /><r />Metastasis &gt;&gt; primary liver tumors.
1305410062462 1342707643703 Primary tumors that metastasize to liver
<>C</>olon &gt; <>S</>tomach &gt; <>P</>ancreas &gt; <>B</>reast &gt; <
>L</>ung<r><r><>&quot;C</>ancer <>S</>ometimes <>P</>enetrates <>B</>
enign <>L</>iver.&quot;
1305410125505 1342707643703 Metastasis to one
Metastatic one tumors a
re far more common than primary one tumors.<r /><r /><>L</>ung = <>L</>yt
ic (↑ TRAP, urinary hydroxyproline)<r />Prostate = lastic (↑ alkaline phosphatase)
<r /><>B</>reast = <>B</>oth lytic and lastic.
1305410241137 1342707643703 Primary tumors that metasize to one
Prostate
, reast &gt; lung &gt; thyroid, testes<r /><r />Metastases from reast and pr
ostate are most common.
1305410311180 1342707643703 Cancer epidemiology:<r>Lung cancer?<r>As a cau
se of death overall?
Lung cancer deaths have plateaued in males, ut continue
to incr in females.<r><r>Cancer is the 2nd leading cause of death in the USA
(heart dz is 1st).
1305410364813 1342707643703 Male cancer epidemiology (incidence, mortality)
Incidence:<r>Prostate (32%)<r>Lung (16%)<r>Colon and rectum (12%)<r><r>Mort
ality:<r>Lung (33%)<r>Prostate (13%)
1305410405542 1342707643703 Female cancer epidemiology (incidence, mortality
)
Incidence:<r>Breast (32%)<r>Lung (13%)<r>Colon and rectum (13%)<r><
r>Mortality:<r>Lung (23%)<r>Breast (18%)
1305430683218 1342707643552 Streptococcus pneumoniae<r />(&quot;the pneumoc
occus&quot;)<r /><r />Most common cause of...?
Most common cause of:<r
/><>M</>eningitis<r /><>O</>titis media (in children)<r /><>P</>neumoni
a<r /><>S</>inusitis<r />(&quot;S. pneumoniae <>MOPS</> are <>M</>ost <
>OP</>tochin <>S</>ensitive&quot;)
1305430707710 1342707643552 Streptococcus pneumoniae<r />(&quot;the pneumoc
occus&quot;)<r /><r />Cough productive of what?<r />Sepsis in whom? Associat
ed w/ &quot;rusty&quot; sputum, sepsis in sickle cell anemia and splenectomy.
y
1305679993504 1342707643514 Lymph node: what is it? What is its asic struct

ure?
A secondary lymphoid organ that has many afferents, 1 or more efferents.
<r />Encapsulated, w/ traeculae.<r /><img src="198a LN.JPG" />
1305680025867 1342707643514 Fxn of lymph nodes?
Nonspecific filtration 
y macrophages<r />Storage and activation of B and T cells<r />A production
1305680070965 1342707643514 LN follicle<r /><r />Function?<r />Location?<
Site of B-cell localization and proliferation.<r />In outer cor
r />Histo?
tex.<r />1' follicles are dense and dormant.<r />2' follicles have pale germin
al centers and are active.<r /><img src="198a LN.JPG" />
1305680213500 1342707643514 LN medulla
Consists of medullary cords (clo
sely packed lymphocytes and plasma cells) and medullary sinuses.<r />Medullary
sinuses communicate w/ efferent lymphatics and contain reticular cells and macro
phages.<r /><img src="198a LN.JPG" />
1305680314341 1342707643514 LN paracortex Houses T cells.<r />Region of c
ortex tw follicles and medulla.<r />Contains high endothelial venules, thru wh
ich T and B cells enter from lood.<r />In an extreme cellular immune response
(i.e., viral), paracortex ecomes greatly enlarged.<r />Not well-developed in p
ts w/ DiGeorge syndrome (deficient T cell system).<r /><img src="198a LN.JPG" /
>
1305680362229 1342707643627 Upper lim, lateral reast
Axillary
1305680366508 1342707643627 Stomach Celiac
1305680376576 1342707643627 Duodenum, jejunum
Superior mesenteric
1305680387584 1342707643627 Sigmoid colon Colic --&gt; inferior mesenteric
1305680407522 1342707643627 Rectum (lower part <>aove</> pectinate line)
Internal iliac<r /><r />(<>internal</> hemorrhoids are aove pectinate line,
to help rememer)
1305680418107 1342707643627 Anal canal elow pectinate line Superficial ingu
inal
1305680432314 1342707643627 Testes Superficial and deep plexuses --&gt; par
a-aortic
1305680438753 1342707643627 Scrotum Superficial inguinal
1305680449484 1342707643627 Thigh (superficial)
Superficial inguinal
1305680457736 1342707643627 Lateral side of dorsum of foot Popliteal<r><r
>(drains along path of short saphenous vein, lateral foot to posterior leg ascen
ding to popliteal fossa)<r><r>*note: medial foot drains along long saphenous v
ein, which runs medial and to inguinal LNs
1305680495825 1342707643514 Right lymphatic duct
Drains right arm and rig
ht half of head.
1305680522389 1342707643514 Thoracic duct drains what?
Drains &quot;eve
rything else&quot;<r />(i.e., everything other than the right arm and right sid
e of the head, which are drained y the right lymphatic duct)
1305680659464 1342707643514 Sinusoids of spleen
Long, vascular channels
in red pulp w/ fenestrated &quot;arrel hoop&quot; asement memrane.<r />Macro
phages found neary.<r><r><img src="pastedq5hlx.jpg" /><r /><img src="199a Sp
leen.JPG" />
1305680704921 1342707643514 Where are T-cells found in the spleen? Found in
the periarterial lymphatic sheath (PALS) [within in the white pulp of spleen].<
r /><img src="199a Spleen.JPG" />
1305680728776 1342707643514 Where are B-cells found in the spleen? Found in
the follicles w/in the white pulp of spleen.<r /><img src="199a Spleen.JPG" />
1305680748673 1342707643514 What do macrophages in the spleen do? Prolem wi
th asplenia?
Remove encapsulated acteria.<r /><r />Asplenic individuals ar
e more susceptile to these ugs. Give <i>S. pneumo</i>, <i>H. influenza</i>, an
d <i>N. meningitis </i>vaccines post-splenectomy.
1305680803547 1342707643514 Splenic dysfunction: vulneraility?
Decr IgM
--> decr complement activation --> decr C3 opsonization <r>--> incr suscepti
ility to encapsulated organisms<r><r>"<>SHiNS</>"<r>(<>S.</> pneumoniae,
<>H. i</>nfluenzae, <>N. </>meningitidis, <>S</>almonella)
1305680821707 1342707643514 Post-splenectomy lood Howell-Jolly odies<r /
>Target cells<r />Thromocytosis (excess platelets)<r /><r /><img src="pasteg
mdor.jpg" /><r />Target cells (excess memrane:hemogloin)<r /><r /><img src

="pasteu4pk7.jpg" /><r />Howell-Jolly odies (nuclear remnants)
1305680934369 1342707643514 Thymus histo and function
Encapsulated.<r
/>Cortex is dense w/ immature T-cells<r />Medulla is pale with mature T cells
and epithelial reticular cells and contains Hassall's corpuscles.<r /><r />Sit
e of T-cell differentiation and maturation. Positive (MHC restriction) and negat
ive selection (nonreactive to self).<r><r><img src="pasteqhthui.jpg" />&nsp;&
nsp;&nsp;<img src="pasteoznzec.jpg" />
1305680945078 1342707643514 Emryological origin of thymus and lymphocytes
From endoderm epithelium of 3rd ranchial pouches.<r />Lymphocytes of mesenchym
al origin.
1305680979083 1342707643514 Developmental location of T-cells vs. B-cells
<>T</>-cells = <>T</>hymus<r /><>B</>-cells = <>B</>one marrow
1305681085102 1342707643587 Receptor genetics?
Innate:<r />Receptors t
hat recognize pathogens are germline encoded.<r /><r />Adaptive: <r />Recepto
rs that recognize pathogens undergo V(D)J recomination during lymphocyte develo
pment.
1305681158120 1342707643587 Kinetics/specificity of response?
Innate:<
r />Response to pathogens is fast and nonspecific. No memory.<r /><r />Adapti
ve:<r />Response is slow on first exposure, ut memory is faster and more rous
t.
1305681189727 1342707643587 Cellular and humoral components?
Innate:<
r />Neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, complement
<r /><r />Adaptive:<r />T-cells, B-cells, and circulating A
1305681291910 1342707643514 Step 1 in differentiation of T-cells
T-cell p
re-cursor (TCR neg, CD4-/CD8-) travels from one marrow to Thymus (cortex).<r /
>Cell is now CD4+/CD8+ with TCR on surface.<r />In cortex, they undergo positiv
e selection.<r /><img src="200 Step 1 in T-cell diff.JPG" />
1305681414198 1342707643514 Step 2 in differentiation of T-cells
T-cell t
ravels from cortex to medulla of thymus, <r />is now either CD4+/CD8- or CD4-/C
D8+.<r />In medulla cells undergo negative selection.<r /><img src="200c Step
2 in T-celll diff.JPG" />
1305681491650 1342707643514 Step 3 in differentiation of T-cells
Cells tr
avel from thymus to LN's as Cytotoxic T-cells (CD8+) or T-helper cells (CD4+).<
r /><img src="200d Step 3 in T-cell diff.JPG" />
1305681586799 1342707643514 Step 4 in differentiation of T-cells
T-helper
cells further differentiate into Th1 or Th2 cells.<r /><r />IL-12 drives twd
Th1 (make IL-2, IFN-gamma, and activate Macs and CD8+ T-cells, inhiited y IL-1
0)<r /><r />IL-4 drives twd Th2 (make IL-4, IL-5, IL-10 and help B-cells make
A (IgE &gt; IgG); inhiited y IFN-gamma)<r /><img src="200e Step 4 in T-cell
diff.JPG" />
1305681638165 1342707643514 What does MHC stand for? What genes encode it?
MHC = major histocompataility complex, <r />encoded y <>H</>uman <>L</>eu
kocyte <>A</>g (HLA) genes
1305681719054 1342707643514 MHC I HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C<r />(MHC-1 has 1-le
tter HLA types)<r /><r />Expressed on almost all <>nucleated</> cells (not R
BCs)<r />Ag is loaded in RER of mostly intracellular peptides.<r />Mediates vi
ral immunity.<r />Pairs w/ Beta2-microgloulin (aids in transport to cell surfa
ce).<r />Binds TCR and CD8.<r /><img src="200g MHCI.JPG" />
1305681784767 1342707643514 MHC-II<r /><r />HLA loci?<r />Expressed on?<
r />Loading?<r />Binds?
HLA-DR, HLA-DP, HLA-DQ<r />(HLA-2 has 2-letter
HLA genes)<r /><r />Expressed only on Ag-presenting cells (APCs).<r />Ag is l
oaded <span style="font-weight:600; font-style:italic;">following release of inv
ariant chain in an acidified endosome</span>.<r />Binds TCR and CD4.<r /><img
src="200f MHCII.JPG" /><r><img src="pastemga5z9.jpg" />
1305682143883 1342707643549 Antiody?
B-cells: <r />Make A<r /><r
/>T-cells:<r />CD4+ T-cells help B-cells make A (Th2) and produce gamma-interf
eron (Th1), which activates macrophages.
1305682178312 1342707643549 Response to acteria/viruses? B-cells:<r>IgG
As opsonize acteria, neutralize viruses.<r><r>T-cells:<r>CD8+ T-cells kill
virus-infected cells directly.

1305682260502 1342707643549 Role in hypersensitivity?
B-cells:<r />Al
lergy (type I hypersensitivity): IgE<r />Cytotoxic (type II) and immune-complex
(type III) hypersensitivity: IgG<r /><r />T-cells:<r />Delayed cell-mediated
hypersensitivity (type IV)
1305682294484 1342707643549 Role in graft/organ rejection? B-cells:<r />Hy
peracute organ rejection (antiody mediated)<r /><r />T-cells:<r />Acute and
chronic organ rejection
1306123882729 1342707643514 Natural killer cells<r /><r />Products?<r />O
rigin?<r />Stimulated y?<r />Kill when?
Use perforin and granzymes to in
duce apoptosis of virally infected cells and tumor cells.<r />Only lymphocyte t
hat is a memer of the innate immune system.<r />Activity enhanced y IL-12, IF
N-B, and IFN-a.<r />Induced to kill when exposed to a nonspecific activation si
gnal on target cell and/or to an asence of class I MHC on target cell surface.
1306124043720 1342707643514 T-cell glycoproteins: CD4 and CD8?
Helper T
-cells have CD4, which inds to MHC-II on APCs.<r />Cytotoxic T-cells have CD8,
which inds to MHC-I on virus-infected cells.<r /><r />Mnemonic: Product of C
D and MHC = 8 (CD4 x MHC-2 = 8; CD8 x MHC-1 = 8)<r /><img src="201 T-cell glyco
proteins.JPG" />
1306124066086 1342707643514 CD3 complex
Cluster of polypeptides associat
ed w/ a T-cell receptor.<r>Important in signal transduction.
1306124085149 1342707643514 Antigen presenting cells
Macrophages (Geo
rge)<r />B-cells (Newman)<r />Dendritic cells (Kramer)<r /><img src="201 T-ce
ll glycoproteins.JPG" />
1306124129640 1342707643514 Macrophage-lymphocyte interaction
Activate
d lymphocyte (release IFN-g) and macrophages (release IL-1, TNF-a) stimulate one
another.<r /><img src="201 T-cell glycoproteins.JPG" />
1306124201699 1342707643514 Superantigens of <i>Strep pyogenes</i> and <i>St
aph aureus</i><r><r>Mechanism?<r>Results?
Cross-link the Beta-region of th
e T-cell receptor to the <>MHC-II </>on APCs.<r><r>Results in the uncoordina
ted release of IFN-g from Th1 cells and susequent release of IL-1, IL-6, and TN
F-a from macrophages.
1306124275928 1342707643514 Endotoxin/LPS (gram neg acteria): effect as tox
in
Directly stimulate macrophages y inding to endotoxin receptor CD14 (an
d TLR-4); <r />Th cells are not involved (vs. superantigens of S. pyogenes/S. a
ureus, which do use Th1 cells)
1306124401888 1342707643514 What is required for T-cell activation / B-cell
class-switching?
2 specific signals (&quot;signal 1&quot; and &quot;signa
l 2&quot;)
1306124475899 1342707643514 Steps of T-helper cell activation
1.) Fore
ign ody is phagocytosed y APC<r />2.) Foreign Ag is presented on MHC-II and r
ecognized y TCR on Th cell (signal 1)<r />3.) &quot;Costimulatory signal&quot;
is given y interaction of B7 on APC and CD28 on Th cell (signal 2)<r />4.) Th
cell activated to produce cytokines<r /><img src="202a T- and B-cell activatio
n.JPG" />
1306124543148 1342707643514 Steps of cytotoxic T cell activation
1.) Endo
genously synthesized (viral or self) proteins are presented on MHC-I and recogni
zed y TCR on Tc cell (signal 1)<r />2.) IL-2 from Th cell activates Tc cell to
kill virus-infected cell (signal 2)<r /><img src="202a T- and B-cell activatio
n.JPG" />
1306124611558 1342707643514 Signals required for B-cell activation and class
-switching
1) Helper T-cell activation<r />2) Receptor-mediated endocytosi
s (foreign antigen --&gt; MHCII --&gt; recognized y Th2)<r />3) CD40 receptor
activation y inding CD40-ligand on Th2 cell (signal 1)<r />4) IL-4, IL-5, IL6 from activated Th2 cell (signal 2)
1306124756939 1342707643514 A structure and fxn: <r />Which part (specific
ally) recognizes Ags?<r />Which component (specifically) fixes complement?<r /
>What fractions do the heavy/light chains contriute to?
Variale part of
L and H chains recognizes Ag's.<r />Fc portion of IgM and IgG fixes complement
.<r />Heavy chain contriutes to Fc and Fa (antigen-inding fragment) fraction
s.<r />Light chain contriutes only to Fa fraction.<r /><img src="203a A Str

xr.JPG" />
1306124790661 1342707643514 Fa component of A determines what?
Ag-indi
ng fragment.<r />Determines <span style="font-weight:600; text-decoration: unde
rline;">idio</span>type.<r /><img src="203a A Strxr.JPG" />
1306124879661 1342707643514 Fc component of A
<>C</>onstant, <r /><
>C</>aroxy-terminal, <r /><>C</>omplement-inding (IgG + IgM only; at CH2)
, <r /><>C</>arohydrate side chains, <r />Determines <span style="font-weig
ht:600; text-decoration: underline;">iso</span>type<r /><img src="203a A Strxr
.JPG" />
1306124893307 1342707643514 Opsonization
<img src="203 Opsonisation.JPG"
/>
1306124903621 1342707643514 Neutralization <img src="203c Neutralization.JP
G" />
1306124916710 1342707643514 Complement activation <img src="203d Complemen
t activation.JPG" />
1306125011408 1342707643514 A diversity is generated y... (4 mechanisms)?
1.) Random &quot;recomination&quot; of VJ (light-chain) and V(D)J (heavy-chain)
genes.<r /><r />2.) Random comination of heavy chains w/ light chains<r /><
r />3.) Somatic hypermutation (following Ag stimulation)<r /><r />4.) Additio
n of nucleotides to DNA during &quot;recomination&quot; [see #1] y <>terminal
deoxynucleotidyl transferase</>
1306125113038 1342707643514 Immunogloulin isotypes<r /><r />Genetic mecha
nism of isotype (class) switching?
Mature B-lymphocytes express IgM and IgD
on their surfaces.<r /><r />They may differentiate y isotype switching (gene
rearrangement; <r />mediated y cytokines and CD40 ligand) into plasma cells t
hat secrete IgA, IgE, or IgG.
1306125148287 1342707643514 IgG
Main A in secondary response.<r />Most
aundant.<r />Fixes complement, crosses the placenta, opsonizes acteria, neut
ralizes acterial toxins and viruses.
1306125195384 1342707643514 IgA<r /><r />Function?<r />Form?<r />Found w
here?<r />Other?
Prevents attachment of acteria and viruses to mucous me
mranes, <r />does not fix complement.<r /><r />Monomer (circulating) or dime
r (secretory).<r /><r />Crosses epithelial cells y transcytosis. Found in sec
retions and reast milk (colostrum).<r /><r />Picks up <>secretory component<
/> from epithelial cells efore secretion.
1306125228928 1342707643514 IgM
Produced in the primary response to an A
g.<r />Fixes complement ut does not cross the placenta.<r />Ag receptor on th
e surface of B-cells.<r />Monomer on B-cell or pentamer.
1306125243737 1342707643514 IgD
Unclear function.<r />Found on the surf
ace of many B-cells and in serum.
1306125291801 1342707643514 IgE<r /><r />Binds?<r />Mediates what?<r />A
ctivates what?<r />Serum concentration?
Binds Fc receptors on mast cells
and asophils (pre-attached)<r /><r />Cross-links when exposed to allergen, m
ediating immediate (type I) hypersensitivity<r />thru release of inflammatory m
ediators such as histamine.<r /><r />Mediates immunity to worms y activating
eosinophils.<r /><r />Lowest concentration in serum.
1306125343052 1342707643514 Ig epitopes: allotype (polymorphism)
Ig epito
pe that differs among memers of same species.<r>Can e on light chain or heavy
chain.<r><r><>ALL</>otypes represent different <>ALL</>eles.
1306125383128 1342707643514 Ig epitopes: Isotype
Ig epitope common to a s
ingle class of Ig (IgG, IgA, etc; 5 classes, <>determined y heavy chain</>).<
r /><r />Isotype = <i>iso</i> (same).<r />Common to same class.
1306125431403 1342707643514 Ig epitopes: Idiotype Ig epitope determined y
Ag-inding sites.<r /><r />Idiotype = <i>idio</i> (unique).<r />Hypervarial
e region is unique.
1306125501269 1342707643514 Thymus-independent antigens
Ag's lacking a p
eptide component; cannot e presented y MHC to T-cells <r />(e.g., LPS from ce
ll envelope of G(-) acteria and polysaccharide capsular Ag)<r /><r />Stimulat
e release of IgM A's only and <i>do not result in immunologic memory</i>.
1306125589187 1342707643514 Thymus-dependent antigens
Ag's containing

a protein component<r />(e.g., conjugated H. influenzae vaccine)<r /><r />Cla
ss switching and immunologic memory occur as a direct result of direct contact o
f B-cells w/ Th cells (CD40-CD40 ligand interaction) and release of IL-4, IL-5,
and IL-6.
1306281015079 1342707643498 IL-1
Secreted y Macrophages.<r /><r />Caus
es acute inflammation.<r />Induces chemokine production to recruit leukocytes;
activates endothelium to express adhesion molecules.<r />An endogenous pyrogen.
1306281036038 1342707643498 IL-2
Secreted y Th1 cells.<r /><r />Stimul
ates marrow growth of T-cells; activates cytotoxic T cells to kill (=&gt; CD8 ce
lls need Th1 CD4's to e effective).
1306281072669 1342707643498 IL-3
Secreted y activated T-cells (Th and Tc
).<r /><r />Supports the growth and differentiation of one marrow stem cells.
<r />Has a function similar to GM-CSF.
1306281115490 1342707643498 IL-4
Secreted y Th2 cells.<r /><r />Think
antiodies and allergy<r />-Makes more Th2 cells (promotes differentiation vs.
Th1)<r />-Promotes growth of B-cells<r />-Enhances class switching to <>IgE a
nd IgG</>
1306281199080 1342707643498 IL-5
Secreted y Th2 cells.<r><r>Promotes d
ifferentiation of B-cells.<r>Enhances class switching to <>IgA</>.<r>Stimula
tes growth and differentiation of <>eosinophils</>.<r>
1306281233007 1342707643498 IL-6
Secreted y Th cells and macrophages.<r
/><r />Endogenous pyrogen. Stimulates production of acute-phase proteins.
1306281250742 1342707643498 IL-8
Secreted y macrophages.<r /><r />Majo
r chemotactic factor for neutrophils.
1306281271989 1342707643498 IL-10 Secreted y regulatory T-cells, Th2 cell
s.<r /><r />Inhiits Th1 development, inhiits actions of activated T-cells.
1306281288494 1342707643498 IL-12 Secreted y macrophages and B-cells (APC
s).<r /><r />Induces differentiation of T cells into<> Th1 (which make IFN-g;
needed y APCs to kill).</><r />Also activates NK cells.
1306281313188 1342707643498 gamma-interferon
Secreted y Th1 cells.<
r /><r /><>Stimulates macrophages</>.<r />Inhiits Th2 differentiation. Anti
viral, anti-tumor.
1306281334222 1342707643498 TNF-a Secreted y macrophages.<r /><r />Medi
ates septic shock.<r />Activates endothelium, causes leukocyte recruitment, vas
cular leak.
1306281413975 1342707643514 Mnemonic for IL-1 thru IL-5
&quot;<>Hot T-B
</>one st<>EA</>k&quot;<r /><r />IL1: fever (<>hot</>)<r />IL2: stimulat
es <>T</>-cells<r />IL3: stimulates <>B</>one marrow<r />IL4: stimulates I
g<>E</> production<r />IL5: stimulates Ig<>A</> production
1306281455260 1342707643514 Mnemonic for IL-8
&quot;Clean up on <>ais
le 8</>&quot;<r />Neutrophils are recruited to <>IL</>-8 to clear infxns.
1306281522688 1342707643624 Helper T-cells CD4, TCR, CD3, CD28, CD40L
1306281532545 1342707643624 Cytotoxic T-cells
CD8, TCR, CD3
1306281555009 1342707643624 B-cells IgM, B7, CD19, CD20, CD21 (receptor for
EBV), CD40, MHC-II
1306281573461 1342707643624 Macrophages
MHC-II, B7, CD40, CD14.<r />Rec
eptors for Fc and C3 (promote phagocytosis).
1306281592633 1342707643624 NK cells
Receptors for MHC-I, CD16 (Fc re
ceptor for IgG), CD56.
1306281602042 1342707643624 All cells except mature RBCs
MHC-I
1306281730156 1342707643514 What is the complement system? A system of prot
eins that interact to play a role in humoral immunity and inflammation. MAC defe
nds against gram-negatives.
1306281941353 1342707643514 Memrane attack complex<r /><r />Defends again
st?<r />Activated y? MAC of complement defends against Gram(-) acteria.<r /
>Activated y Ig<>G</> and Ig<>M</> in the <>classic</> pathway<r />Activ
ated y molecules on the surface microes (especially <>endotoxin</>) in the <
>alternative</> pathway.<r /><r />(&quot;<>GM</> makes <>classic </>cars
&quot;)<r /><r /><img src="206a Complement pathways overview.JPG" />
1306281991345 1342707643514 What are the two primary opsonins in acterial d

efense? What else does one do? C3 and IgG.<r /><>C3 aids in clearance of im
mune complexes.</>
1306282016587 1342707643514 Decay-accelerating factor (DAF) and C1 esterase
inhiitor
Help prevent complement activation on self-cells.
1306282084619 1342707643694 C1, C2, C3, C4 Viral neutralization
1306282102351 1342707643694 C3<></>
Opsonization.<r />(<></>inds
<></>acteria)<r /><r />Also clears immune complexes.
1306282120339 1342707643694 C3<>a</>, C5<>a</> <>A</>naphylaxis
1306282128155 1342707643694 C5a
Neutrophil chemotaxis
1306282143237 1342707643694 C5-9 Cytolysis y memrane attack complex (MA
C)
1306282168086 1342707643514 Deficiency of C1 esterase inhiitor
Leads to
hereditary angioedema. ACE inhiitors are contraindicated with this condition.
1306282202288 1342707643514 Deficiency of complement C3
Leads to severe,
recurrent pyogenic sinus and respiratory tract infxns;<r />Incr susceptiility
to type III hypersensitivity rxns (failure of immune complex clearance y C3).
1306282220027 1342707643514 Deficiency of C5-C8
Leads to <i>Neisseria</i
> acteremia.
1306282252522 1342707643514 Deficiency of DAF (GPI-anchored enzyme) Leads to
complement-mediated lysis of RBCs and paroxysmal nocturnal hemogloinuria (PNH)
1306282272058 1342707643514 Alternative complement pathway <img src="206 A
lternative complement path.JPG" />
1306282291595 1342707643514 Classic and lectin complement pathways <img src
="pastessyxxh.jpg" />
1306282303990 1342707643514 Common complement pathway
<img src="206d C
ommon complement path.JPG" />
1306282442778 1342707643514 What are interferons? MOA?
Interferons (alp
ha, eta, gamma) are proteins that place uninfected cells in an antiviral state.
<r />Interferons<> induce the production of a rionuclease that inhiits viral
protein y degrading viral mRNA</> (ut not host mRNA).
1306282502856 1342707643514 Interferon mechanism
<>Interfere</>s with v
iruses:<r />1.) alpha- and eta-interferons inhiit viral protein synthesis.<r
/>2.) gamma-interferons incr MHC-I and -II expression and Ag-presenting in all
cells.<r />3.) Activates NK cells to kill virus-infected cells (alpha, eta).<
r /><r />Like summary execution squad<r /><r />1) Freeze (viral protein synth
esis)<r />2) Search/seize (present antigens - &quot;empty your pockets&quot;)<
r />3) Shoot if guilty
1306282557315 1342707643514 Active immunity<r /><r />Means of acquisition<
r />Onset<r />Duration<r />Examples Induced after exposure to foreign Ags. <
r />Slow onset.<r />Long-lasting protection (memory).<r />Natural infection,
vaccines, toxoid.
1306282597952 1342707643514 Passive immunity<r /><r />Means of acquisition
<r />Onset<r />Duration<r />Examples Based on receiving preformed A's from a
nother host.<r />Rapid onset.<r />Short lifespan of A's (half life = 3 wks).<
r />Example: IgA in reast milk, antitoxin, humanized monoclonal antiody.
1306282678544 1342707643514 What are some important instances where you woul
d administer preformed A's?
After exposure to <>T</>etanus toxin, <>B</>
otulinum toxin, <>H</>BV, or <>R</>aies virus,<r />pts are given preformed
A's (passive immunity).<r /><r />&quot;<>T</>o <>B</>e <>H</>ealed <>
R</>apidly.&quot;
1306282719870 1342707643514 Classic examples of acterial Ag variation (3 ex
amples) Salmonella (2 flagellar variants)<r />Borrelia recurrentis (relapsing f
ever)<r />Neisseria gonorrhoeae (pilus protein)
1306282739581 1342707643514 Classic example of viral Ag variation Influenz
a (major = shift, minor = drift)
1306282756734 1342707643514 Classic example of parasitic Ag variation
Trypanosomes (programmed rearrangement)
1306282807150 1342707643514 Some mechanisms for Ag variation include oth __
_ and ____.
Some mechanisms for Ag variation include DNA rearrangement and R
NA segment reassortment (e.g., influenza major shift)

1306787805498 1342707643514 Anergy (B and T cell) Self-reactive T-cells e
come nonreactive w/o costimulatory molecule.<r />B-cells also ecome anergic, 
ut tolerance is less complete than in T-cells.
1306787877020 1342707643514 Granulomatous dz's (there are 8)
1.) Tue
rculosis<r />2.) Fungal infxns (e.g., histoplasmosis)<r />3.) Syphilis<r />4.
) Leprosy<r />5.) Cat scratch fever (Bartonella)<r />6.) Sarcoidosis<r />7.)
Crohn's dz<r />8.) Berylliosis (inhalation of eryllium dust, eg. fluorescent l
ight factory)<r /><r /><img src="207a Granulomatous dz.JPG" />
1306787947080 1342707643514 What are the cellular components of a granuloma?
Epithlioid macrophages and giant cells&nsp;&nsp;[shown elow]<r />(along w/ f
irolasts and lymphocytes)<r /><img src="207a Granulomatous dz.JPG" />
1306788132549 1342707643514 Type I hypersensitivity <>Anaphylactic and atop
ic</><r />Free Ag cross-links IgE on presensitized mast cells and asophils,<
r />triggering release of vasoactive amines that act at <>postcapillary venules
</> (i.e., histamine).<r /><r />Reaction develops rapidly after Ag exposure d
ue to preformed A.<r /><img src="208a Type I HS.JPG" /><r />&quot;<>F</>irs
t and <>F</>ast (anaphylaxis)&quot;
1306788154748 1342707643514 Types I, II, and III hypersensitivities All are
A-mediated
1306788171785 1342707643514 Test for Type-I hypersensitivity
Scratch
test<r />Radioimmunosorent assay.
1306788267831 1342707643514 Type II hypersensitivity
<>A-mediated</
><r />IgM, IgG ind to fixed Ag on &quot;enemy&quot; cell, leading to lysis (
y complement) or phagocytosis.<r /><img src="208 Type II HS.JPG" /><r />&quot
;Cy-<>2</>-toxic&quot;<r />A and complement lead to memrane attack complex
(MAC)
1306788315210 1342707643514 3 Mechanisms of type II hypersensitivity
1.) Opsonize cells or activate complement.<r>2.) A's recruit neutrophils and m
acrophages that incite tissue damage.<r>3.) Bind to normal cellular receptors a
nd interfere w/ functioning.
1306788330783 1342707643514 Test for type II hypersensitivity
Direct a
nd indirect Cooms.
1306788444625 1342707643514 Type III hypersensitivity<r /><r />(include me
diators)
<>Immune complex</><r />Ag-A (IgG) complexes activate comple
ment, which attracts neutrophils;<r />neutrophils release lysosomal enzymes.<r
/><img src="208c Type III HS.JPG" /><r />Includes: serum sickness, Arthus reac
tion.<r /><r />&quot;Imagine an immune complex as <>3</> things stuck togeth
er: Ag-A-complement.&quot;
1306788548417 1342707643514 Serum sickness An immune complex dz (type III H
S) in which As to the foreign proteins are produced (takes 5 days).<r />Immune
complexes form and are deposited in memranes, where they fix complement (leads
to tissue damage).<r />More common than than Arthus rxtn.<r /><r />*Most ser
um sickness is now caused y drugs (not serum).<r />Fever, urticaria, arthralgi
as, proteinuria, lymphadenopathy<> 5-10d after Ag exposure</>.
1306788620853 1342707643514 Arthus rxtn
A local suacute A-mediated hyp
ersensitivity (type III HS) rxtn.<r />Intradermal injection of Ag induces A's,
which form Ag-A complexes in the skin.<r /><r />Characterized y edema, necr
osis, and activation of complement.<r /><r />Ag-A complexes cause the Arthus
rxtn.
1306788636335 1342707643514 Test for Type-III Hypersensitivity
Immunofl
uorescent staining (eg. granular patterns seen in glomerulonephritis)
1306788688762 1342707643514 Type IV hypersensitivity<r /><r />(include med
iators, examples, and test)
<>Delayed (T-cell mediated) type</><r />Sensi
tized T-lymphocytes encounter Ag and then release lymphokines (leads to macropha
ge activation).<r /><img src="208d Type IV HS.JPG" /><r /><>4th</> and last
-- delayed.<r />Cell mediated; therefore, it is not transferale y serum.<r /
><r /><>4 T's</> <r /><>T </>lymphocytes<r /><>T</>ransplant rejections
<r /><>T</>B skin tests<r /><>T</>ouching (contact dermatitis)<r /><r />
Test: patch test (eg. PPD)
1306788879356 1342707643514 Mnemonic for keeping the 4 types of hypersensiti

vity
<>ACID</><r /><>A</>naphylacitc and <>A</>topic (type I)<r /><>
C</>ytotoxic (A-mediated) (type II)<r /><>I</>mmune complex (type III)<r /
><>D</>elayed (cell mediated) (type IV)
1306789163015 1342707643641 Anaphylaxis (e.g., ee sting, some food/drug all
ergies) 1
1306789172035 1342707643641 Allergic rhinitis (e.g., hay fever)
1
1306789176453 1342707643641 Hemolytic anemia
2
1306789181023 1342707643641 Pernicious anemia
2
1306789193038 1342707643641 Idiopathic thromocytopenic purpura
2
1306789197891 1342707643641 Erythrolastic fetalis (hemolytic dz of the new
orn)
2
1306789219591 1342707643641 Rheumatic fever 2
1306789224972 1342707643641 Goodpasture's syndrome 2
1306789230114 1342707643641 Bullous pemphigoid
2
1306789238218 1342707643641 Pemphigus vulgaris
2
1306789245593 1342707643641 Graves' dz
2
1306789250730 1342707643641 Myasthenia gravis
2
1306789253873 1342707643641 SLE
3
1306789261808 1342707643641 Rheumatoid arthritis
3
1306789270644 1342707643641 Polyarteritis nodosa
3
1306789281329 1342707643641 Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis
3
1306789285781 1342707643641 Serum sickness 3
1306789306138 1342707643641 Arthus rxtn (e.g., swelling and inflammation fol
lowing tetanus vaccine) 3
1306789320100 1342707643641 Hypersensitivity pneumonitis (e.g., farmer's lun
g)
3
1306789329048 1342707643641 Type 1 DM
4
1306789334976 1342707643641 Multiple sclerosis
4
1306789349299 1342707643641 Guillain-Barré syndrome 4
1306789362151 1342707643641 Hashimoto's thyroiditis 4
1306789370169 1342707643641 Graft-vs-host dz
4
1306789378256 1342707643641 PPD (test for M. tuerculosis) 4
1306789392042 1342707643641 Contact dermatitis (e.g., poison ivy, nickel all
ergy) 4
1306789444017 1342707643514 What step is locked in SCID (ADA deficiency)?
Development of lymphoid stem cells --&gt; Pro-B or Pro-T cells<r /><img src="20
9a lymphocyte dev locks.JPG" />
1306789473334 1342707643514 What step is locked in Bruton's agamagloulinem
ia?
Pre-B cell --&gt; Immature B-cell<r /><img src="209a lymphocyte dev lo
cks.JPG" />
1306789496051 1342707643514 What step is locked in CVID? Immature B-cell
--&gt; Mature Ig-producing B-cell (=&gt; decreased plasma cells)<r /><img src="
209a lymphocyte dev locks.JPG" />
1306789542239 1342707643514 What step is locked in Hyper-IgM syndrome?
Immature B-cell --&gt; IgG-producing B-cell<r /><img src="209a lymphocyte dev 
locks.JPG" />
1306789567840 1342707643514 What step is locked in selective IgA deficiency
?
Immature B-cell --&gt; IgA producing B-cell<r /><img src="209a lymphocy
te dev locks.JPG" />
1306789601752 1342707643514 What step is locked in SCID (defective IL-2 rec
eptor)? Development of immature (pre-thymic) T-cells from marrow pro-T-cells<r
/><img src="209a lymphocyte dev locks.JPG" />
1306789631520 1342707643514 What step is locked in DiGeorge syndrome?
Immature T-cell --&gt; CD8+ or CD4+ T-cell (thymic T cell maturation)<r /><img
src="209a lymphocyte dev locks.JPG" />
1306789658271 1342707643514 What step is locked in SCID (MHC-II deficiency)
?
Immature T-cell --&gt; CD4+ T-cell<r /><img src="209a lymphocyte dev l
ocks.JPG" />
1306896835842 1342707643514 Bruton's agammagloulinemia<r /><r />Category<
<>B</>-cell disorder<r /><r
r />Defect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las?

/>X-linked recessive defect in a tyrosine kinase gene (BTK)<r />Occurs in <>B<
/>oys (aka X-linked agammagloulinemia).<r /><r />Associated w/ <>B</>acter
ial infxns (esp. encapsulated) after 6 mos of age, when levels of maternal IgG A
 decline.<r /><r />Normal #'s of pro-B cells in marrow, decr # of B-cells (ma
turation is locked).<r />Associated w/ low levels of all classes of Ig's.<r /
>Normal T cells.<r /><r /><img src="pastextlvd.jpg" />
1306896942458 1342707643514 Thymic aplasia (DiGeorge syndrome)<r /><r />Ca
tegory?<r />Defect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las?
T-cell disorder<r /><r
/>22q11 deletion; failure to develop 3rd and 4th pharyngeal pouches.<r /><r /
>Tetany (hypocalcemia),<r />recurrent viral/fungal infxns (T-cell deficiency),<
r />congenital heart and great vessel defects.<r /><r />Thymus and parathyroi
ds fail to develop --&gt; decreased T cells, low PTH, low calcium<r />Asent th
ymic shadow on CXR.<r><r><img src="pastextlvd.jpg" />
1306897135354 1342707643514 Severe Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID)<r /><r
/>Category?<r />Defect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las?<r />Treatment? Comined
B- and T-cell disorder<r /><r />Defect in early stem-cell differentiation. Ma
y have multiple causes:<r />1) Defective IL-2 receptors (most common form, X-li
nked)<r />2) Failure to express MHC-II on APCs<r />3) Adenosine deaminase defi
ciency<r /><r />P/w recurrent viral, acterial, fungal, and protozoal infxns i
n infancy due to comined B and T cell deficit.<r /><r />Asence of thymic sha
dow, no germinal centers on LN iopsy. Asence of B cells on peripheral smears.<
r />Dec IL-2 receptor = dec T-cell activation<r />Increased adenine = toxic to
B and T cells (dec dNTPs, dec DNA synthesis)<r /><r />Treat with one marrow
transplant (no rejection of allografts- hurray!)<r /><r /><img src="pastextlv
d.jpg" />
1306897225005 1342707643514 IL-12 receptor deficiency<r /><r />Category?<
r />Defect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las?
T-cell disorder<r /><r />Decre
ase in Th1 response<r /><r />P/w disseminated <>mycoacterial (including NTM)
infxn</> due to decr Th1 response. Defective pathway is involved in macrophage
activation and control of intracellular pathogens.<r /><r />Decreased IFN-gam
ma<r /><r />Example: person gets sick from BCG vaccine<r /><r /><img src="pa
stextlvd.jpg" />
1306897270374 1342707643514 Hyper-IgM syndrome<r /><r />Category?<r />Def
ect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las?
B-cell disorder<r /><r />Defect in CD4
0L (ligand) on CD4 T-helper cells = inaility to class switch.<r /><r />Presen
ts early in life w/ severe pyogenic infxns.<r /><r />High levels of IgM; very
low levels of IgG, IgA, and IgE.<r /><r /><img src="pastextlvd.jpg" />
1306897430896 1342707643514 Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome<r /><r />Category?<r
/>Defect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las?
Comined B- and T-cell disorder<
r /><r /><>X-linked recessive</> defect with progressive deletion of B and T
cells. Can't mount <>IgM</> response.<r /><r />P/w triad (<>TIE</>): <>T
</>hromocytopenic purpura, <>I</>nfections, <>E</>czema. First sign often
ruises, leeding, loody diarrhea.<r /><r /><>E</>lev<>A</>ted<> IgE and
IgA, low IgM</><r><span style=" font-weight:600;"></span><r><img src="paste
xtlvd.jpg" />
1306897626141 1342707643514 Hyper-IgE (Jo's) syndrome<r /><r />Category?<
T-cell disorder<r /><r />Th ce
r />Defect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las?
lls fail to produce IFN-gamma (which is thieir <>Jo</>) --&gt; inaility of n
eutrophils to respond to chemotactic stimuli<r /><r />&quot;<>FATED</>&quot;
<r />P/w coarse <>F</>acies, cold (noninflamed) staphylococcal <>A</>scess
es, retained primary <>T</>eeth, incr Ig<>E</>, and <>D</>ermatologic pro
lems (eczema)<r /><r />Increased IgE<r><r><img src="pastextlvd.jpg" />
1306897745517 1342707643514 Phagocytic cell deficiencies
Leukocyte adhesi
on deficiency syndrome (type 1)<r />Chédiak-Higashi Syndrome<r />Chronic granulo
matous dz<r><r><img src="pastextlvd.jpg" />
1306897868310 1342707643514 Leukocyte adhesion deficiency syndrome (type 1)<
r /><r />Category?<r />Defect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las? Phagocyte dysfun
ction<r /><r />Defect in LFA-1 integrin (CD18) proteins on phagocytes --&gt; p
rolems extravasating.<r /><r />Presents w/ <>delayed separation of umilicus
</>, recurrent acterial infxns, asent pus formation.<r /><r />Neutrophilia.

<r><r><img src="pastextlvd.jpg" />
1306898211386 1342707643514 Chédiak-Higashi Syndrome<r /><r />Category?<r /
>Defect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las? Phagocyte dysfunction<r /><r />Autosom
al recessive;<r />Defect in lysosomal regulator trafficking gene (<>LST</>).
<r /><>Microtuular</> dysfunction in phagosome-lysosome fusion.<r /><r />
P/w recurrent pyogenic <>infxns</> (staph, strep), <>partial alinism</>, an
d <>peripheral neuropathy</>.<r /><r />Large inclusions in phagocytes.<r />
<r /><img src="pastepv_um.jpg" /><r><r><img src="pastextlvd.jpg" />
1306898320130 1342707643514 Chronic granulomatous dz<r /><r />Category?<r
/>Defect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las?
Phagocyte dysfunction<r /><r /
>Lack of <>NADPH oxidase</> activity leads to decreased ROS (eg. superoxide) a
nd asent respiratory urst in neutrophils.<r /><r />P/w susceptiility to<>
catalase-positive organisms (</><span style="font-weight:600; font-style:italic
;">S. aureus, E. coli, Aspergillus</span><>)</>.<r /><r />Dx confirmed w/ <
>negative nitrolue tetrazolium</> dye reduction test.<r /><r /><img src="pas
textlvd.jpg" />
1306898415885 1342707643514 Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis<r /><r />Cat
egory?<r />Defect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las?
T-cell disorder<r /><r
/>Defect is T-cell dysfxn specifically against Candida alicans.<r /><r />P/w
skin and mucous memrane Candida infxns.<r /><r />No relevant las.<r><r><i
mg src="pastextlvd.jpg" />
1306898621358 1342707643514 Selective Ig Deficiency<r /><r />Category?<r
/>Defect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las? B-cell disorder<r /><r />Defect in iso
type switching leads to deficiency in specific Ig class.<r /><r />P/w sinus an
d lung infections, diarrhea and milk allergies, <>A</>naphylaxis on exposure t
o lood products w/ Ig<>A</>.<r /><r />Selective IgA deficiency is most comm
on. Failure to mature into plasma cells; decreased secretory IgA.<r><r><img sr
c="pastextlvd.jpg" />
1306898836122 1342707643514 Ataxia-Telangiectasia<r /><r />Category?<r />
Defect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las? Comined B- and T-cell disorder<r /><r
/>Defect in the <span style="font-weight:600; font-style:italic;">ATM</span><i>
</i>gene, which codes for DNA repair enzymes (defect in nonhomologous end joini
ng).<r /><r />P/w triad: cereellar defects (ataxia), spider angiomas (telange
ctasia), IgA deficiency.<r /><r />Low IgA<r /><r /><img src="pastextlvd.jpg
" />
1306898901657 1342707643514 Common variale immunodeficiency (CVID)<r /><r
/>Category?<r />Defect?<r />Presentation?<r />Las? B-cell disorder<r /><r
/>Defect in B-cell maturation (variale causes).<r /><r />Can e acquired in
20s-30s; risk of <>autoimmune disease</>, <>lymphoma</>, sinopulmonary infec
tions.<r /><r /><>Normal numer of B cells; low plasma cells and Igs</><r><
span style=" font-weight:600;"></span><r><img src="pastextlvd.jpg" />
1306899021284 1342707643537 Antinuclear A's (ANA) SLE
1306899032122 1342707643537 Anti-dsDNA, anti-Smith Specific for SLE
1306899040967 1342707643537 Antihistone
Drug-induced lupus.
1306899074320 1342707643537 Anti-IgG (rheumatoid factor)
Rheumatoid arthr
itis
1306899092657 1342707643537 Anticentromere Scleroderma (CREST)
1306899104161 1342707643537 Anti-Scl-70
Scleroderma (diffuse)
1306899271924 1342707643537 Antimitochondrial
Primary iliary cirrhosi
s
1306899287253 1342707643537 Antigliadin, antiendomysial
Celiac dz
1306899297758 1342707643537 Anti-asement memrane Goodpasture's syndrome
1306899310785 1342707643537 Anti-desmoglein Pemphigus vulgaris
1306899321973 1342707643537 Antimicrosomal, antithyrogloulin
Hashimot
o's thyroiditis (nevertheless, considered a type IV hypersensitivity rxn)
1306899337414 1342707643537 Anti-Jo-1
Polymyositis, dermatomyositis
1306899349940 1342707643537 Anti-SS-A (anti-Ro)
Sjögren's syndrome
1306899369794 1342707643537 Anti-SS-B (anti-La)
Sjögren's syndrome
1306899392499 1342707643537 Anti-U1-RNP (rionucleoprotein) Mixed connective
tissue dz

1306899403796 1342707643537 Anti-smooth muscle
Autoimmune hepatitis.
1306899416867 1342707643537 Antiglutamate decaroxylase
Type 1 DM (never
theless, considered a type IV hypersensitivity rxn)
1306899426006 1342707643537 c-ANCA Wegener's granulomatosis
1306899442310 1342707643537 p-ANCA Other (i.e., not Wegener's) vasculitides
1306899515542 1342707643719 HLA-A3 Hemochromatosis
1306899549576 1342707643719 HLA-B27 &quot;<>PAIR</>&quot;<r /><>P</>sor
iasis<r /><>A</>nkylosing spondylitis<r /><>I</>nflammatory owel dz<r />
<>R</>eiter's syndrome (reactive arthritis)- commonly associated w/ chlamydia
1306899558355 1342707643719 HLA-B8 Graves' dz
1306899571438 1342707643719 HLA-DR2 MS, hay fever, SLE, Goodpasture's
1306899583025 1342707643719 HLA-DR3 Diaetes mellitus type 1
1306899597702 1342707643719 HLA-DR4 Rheumatoid arthritis<r />DM-1
1306899616396 1342707643719 HLA-DR5 Pernicious anemia --&gt; B12 deficiency<
r />Hashimoto's thyroiditis
1306899628265 1342707643719 HLA-DR7 Steroid-responsive nephrotic syndrome
1306899639456 1342707643514 Autograft
Graft from self
1306899652519 1342707643514 Syngeneic graft Graft from identical twin or clo
ne.
1306899666985 1342707643514 Allograft
Graft from nonidentical individu
al of same species.
1306899677510 1342707643514 Xenograft
Graft from different species.
1306961356293 1342707643514 Hyperacute rejection<r /><r />Onset after tran
splantation?<r />Mediators?<r />Pathology?
Within minutes.<r /><r />A-me
diated due to the presence of preformed antidonor A's in the transplant recipie
nt. Complement, C5a, neutrophils.<r /><r />Occludes graft vessels, causing isc
hemia &amp; firinoid necrosis.
1306961395111 1342707643514 Acute rejection<r /><r />Onset after transplan
tation?<r />Pathogenesis?<r />Features?
Weeks later.<r /><r />Cell-med
iated due to CTLs reacting against foreign MHCs. Reversile with immunosuppressa
nts such as cyclosporine and OKT3 (anti-CD3 antiody).<r /><r />Vasculitis of
graft tissues with dense interstitial lymphocytic infiltrate.
1306961451559 1342707643514 Chronic rejection<r /><r />Onset after transpl
antation?<r />Pathogenesis?<r />Features?
Months to years.<r /><r />Clas
s I-MHC[non-self] is perceived y CTLs as class I-MHC[self] presenting a non-sel
f Ag.<r /><r />Irreversile. T-cell- and A-mediated vascular damage (olitera
tive vascular firosis); firosis of graft tissues and lood vessels. Scant infl
ammatory cells.<r><r>Eg. ronchiolitis oliterans in lung transplant
1306961505282 1342707643514 Graft-versus-host dz<r /><r />Onset after tran
splantation?<r />Pathogenesis?<r />Major Sx?<r />Occurs with what transplants
?
Varies.<r /><r />Grafted immunocompetent T-cells proliferate in the ir
radiated immunocompromised host and reject cells w/ &quot;foreign&quot; proteins
,<r />resulting in severe organ dysfunction.<r /><r />Major Sx: maculopapular
rash, jaundice, hepatosplenomegaly, and diarrhea.<r /><r />Usually occurs wit
h one marrow and liver transplant (rich in lymphocytes). Potentially eneficial
in one marrow transplant.
1306961812603 1342707643514 Cyclosporine: mechanism Binds to cyclophilins.<
r />Complex locks the differentiation and activation of T-cells y inhiiting c
alcineurin, thus preventing the production of IL-2 and its receptor.
y
1306961840854 1342707643514 Cyclosporine: clinical use
Suppresses organ
rejection after transplantation; selected autoimmune disorders y
1306961866563 1342707643514 Cyclosporine: toxicity Predisposes pts to viral
infxns and lymphoma;<r />nephrotoxic (preventale w/ mannitol diuresis);<r />
gout
y
1306961902971 1342707643514 Tacrolimus (FK506): Mechanism Similar to cyclo
sporine; inds to FK-inding protein, inhiiting secretion of IL-2 and other cyt
okines. y
1306961921879 1342707643514 Tacrolimus (FK506): clinical use
Potent i
mmunosuppressive used in organ transplant recipients
y
1306961946903 1342707643514 Tacrolimus (FK506): Toxicity
Nephrotoxicity,<

r />Peripheral neuropathy<r />HTN<r />Hyperglycemia<r />Pleural effusion
y
1306961989446 1342707643514 Azathioprine: Mechanism Antimetaolite precursor
of 6-mercaptopurine that interferes w/ the metaolism and synthesis of nucleic
acids.<r />Toxic to proliferating lymphocytes. y
1306962013095 1342707643514 Azathioprine: clinical use
Kidney transplan
tation, autoimmune d/o's (including glomerulonephritis and hemolytic anemia)
y
1306962046296 1342707643514 Azathioprine: toxicity Bone marrow suppression.
<r />Active metaolite mercaptopurine is metaolized y xanthine oxidase; thus,
toxic effects may e incr y allopurinol.
y
1306962093917 1342707643514 Muromona-CD3 (OKT3): Mechanism Monoclonal A th
at inds to CD3 (epsilon chain) on the surface of T-cells.<r />Blocks cellular
interaction w/ CD3 protein responsile for T-cell signal transduction.<r /><r
/><img src="pastepz8itp.jpg" /> y
1306962107676 1342707643514 Muromona-CD3 (OKT3): Clinical use
Immunosu
ppression after kidney transplantation. y
1306962120692 1342707643514 Muromona-CD3 (OKT3): toxicity Cytokine release
syndrome, hypersensitivity reaction. y
1306962148819 1342707643514 Sirolimus (rapamycin): mechanism
Inhiits
mTOR.<r />Inhiits T-cell proliferation in response to IL-2. y
1306962172912 1342707643514 Sirolimus (rapamycin): Clinical use
Immunosu
ppression after kidney transplantation in comination w/ cyclosporine and cortic
osteroids. Also used with drug-eluting stents. y
1306962184383 1342707643514 Sirolimus (rapamycin): toxicity Hyperlipidemia,
thromocytopenia, leukopenia
y
1306962204353 1342707643514 Mycophenolate mofetil and riavirin: mechanism
Inhiits de novo guanine synthesis and locks lymphocyte production.<r /><r />
(inhiits IMP dehydrogenase)
y
1306962288873 1342707643472 Aldesleukin (interleukin-2) clinical use
Renal cell carcinoma<r />Metastatic melanoma
1306962303041 1342707643472 Erythropoietin (epoetin)
Anemias (especia
lly in renal failure)
1306962320683 1342707643472 Filgrastim (granulocyte colony-stimulating facto
r)
Recovery of one marrow
1306962340182 1342707643472 Sargramostin
Recovery of one marrow (granulo
cyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor)
1306962358938 1342707643472 alpha-interferon clinical use Hepatitis B and
C<r />Kaposi's sarcoma<r />Leukemias<r />Malignant melanoma
1306962368042 1342707643472 Beta-interferon clinical use
Multiple scleros
is
1306962379310 1342707643472 gamma-interferon (use) Chronic granulomatous dz
1306962393444 1342707643472 Oprelvekin (interleukin-11) clinical use
Thromocytopenia (thromopoietic growth factor)
1306962402130 1342707643472 Thromopoietin Thromocytopenia
1307661613303 1342707643393 Sinusoids of the liver Irregular &quot;capillar
ies&quot; w/ fenestrated endothelium (pores 100-200 nm in diameter).<r>No asem
ent memrane.<r>Allow macromolecules of plasma full access to asal surface of
hepatocytes thru perisinusoidal space (space of Disse).<r><r><img src="308a Liver anatomy.JPG" />
1307661669346 1342707643393 Biliary structures (can you&nsp;&nsp;draw this
out?) <img src="308 - iliary structures.JPG" />
1307661696237 1342707643393 Venous lood flow from liver
Central veins -&gt; hepatic veins --&gt; IVC and systemic circulation<r><img src="308a - Liver
anatomy.JPG" />
1307661777505 1342707643393 Organization of the femoral region
Lateral
to medial:<r /><>N</>erve-<>A</>rtery-<>V</>ein-<>E</>mpty space-<>L</
>ymphatics<r />(&quot;you go from lateral to medial to find your <>NAVEL</>&
quot;)<r><r /><img src="pastedf3xqg.jpg" />
1307661797658 1342707643393 Femoral triangle
Contains femoral vein, a

rtery, and nerve.<r /><img src="pastedf3xqg.jpg" />
1307661840074 1342707643393 Femoral sheath Fascial tue 3-4cm elow inguina
l ligament.<r />Contains femoral vein, artery, and canal (deep inguinal LN), u
t <>not</> femoral nerve.<r /><r /><img src="pastedf3xqg.jpg" />
1307661959616 1342707643393 Inguinal canal: what are the tissue layers in th
is area?
(extenal --&gt; internal)<r>External olique -- Internal oliqu
e -- Transversus adominis -- Transversalis fascia -- Parietal peritoneum<r><im
g src="309 - Inguinal canal.JPG" />
1307661994343 1342707643393 Inguinal canal: where does an indirect hernia pr
otrude? The internal (deep) inguinal ring.<r><img src="309 - Inguinal canal.JP
G" />
1307662028515 1342707643393 Inguinal canal: where does a direct hernia protr
ude?<r>
The adominal wall!<r><img src="309 - Inguinal canal.JPG" />
1307662085137 1342707643393 What enters the external (superficial) inguinal
ring? What are the layers?
The spermatic cord:<r>Internal spermatic fascia
, cremasteric fascia, external spermatic fascia<r><img src="309 - Inguinal can
al.JPG" />
1307662160456 1342707643393 The rectus adominis and pyramidalis muscles are
Superficial to the Transversalis fascia.<r>Deep to the
tw what layers?
Transversus adominis/Internal olique (after they fuse)<r><img src="309 - Ing
uinal canal.JPG" />
1307662214618 1342707643393 What layers are the inferior epigastric vessels,
medial umilical ligmanet, and median umilical ligament tw? Superficial to t
he parietal peritoneum.<r>Deep to the transversalis fascia.<r><img src="309 Inguinal canal.JPG" />
1307662560193 1342707643393 Hernia (definition)
A protrusion of peritone
um thru an opening, usually a site of weakness.
1307662673242 1342707643393 Diaphragmatic hernia<r /><r />In infants, caus
ed y what?<r />Most common type?
Adominal structures enter thorax; may o
ccur in infants as a result of defective development of pleuroperitoneal memran
e.<r />Most commonly a <>hiatal hernia</>, in which stomach herniates upward
thru the esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm.
1307662724332 1342707643393 Sliding hiatal hernia vs. paraesophageal hernia
Sliding (most common): GE jxn is displaced; &quot;hourglass stomach&quot;<r><r
>Paraesophageal hernia: GE jxn is normal. Cardia moves into thorax.
1307662825173 1342707643393 Indirect inguinal hernia
Goes thru the <
>IN</>ternal (deep) inguinal ring,<r />external (superficial) ring, and <>IN<
/>to scrotum.<r />Enters internal inguinal ring lateral to inferior epigastric
artery.<r />Occurs in <>IN</>fants owing to failure of processus vaginalis t
o close.<r />Much more common in males.<r /><img src="310a - Hernias.JPG" />
1307662875440 1342707643393 An indirect hernia follows... ... follows the
path of descent of the testes.<r />Thus, covered y all 3 layers of spermatic f
ascia.<r /><img src="310a - Hernias.JPG" />
1307662947976 1342707643393 Direct inguinal hernia Protrudes thru the ingui
nal (Hesselach's) triangle.<r />Bulges directly thru adominal wall medial to
inferior epigastric artery.<r />Goes thru the external (superficial) inguinal r
ing only.<r />Covered y external spermatic fascia.<r />Usually in older men.<
r /><img src="310a - Hernias.JPG" />
1307663002659 1342707643393 Mnemonic for hernias and epigastric arteries
&quot;<>MD</>s don't <>LI</>e&quot;<r><r><>M</>edial to inferior epigast
ric artery = <>D</>irect hernia<r><>L</>ateral to inferior epigastric arter
y = <>I</>ndirect hernia
1307663064526 1342707643393 Femoral hernia Protrudes elow inguinal ligamen
t thru femoral canal elow and lateral puic tuercle.<r />More common in women
.<r /><r />Femoral canal: inguinal ligament (sup), pectineal ligament (post),
lacunar ligament (med), femoral vein (lat)<r /><r />*Leading cause of owel in
carceration*<r /><r /><img src="pastevm2n2a.jpg" />
1307663111403 1342707643393 Borders of Hesselach's triangle
Inferior
epigastric artery<r />Lateral order of rectus adominis<r />Inguinal ligamen
t<r /><img src="310a - Hernias.JPG" />

1307663182679 1342707643393 Peyer's patches Unencapsulated lymphoid tissue f
ound in lamina propria and sumucosa of small intestine.<r />Contain specialize
d M cells that take up Ag.
1307663273492 1342707643393 B cells in germinal centers of Peyer's patches d
ifferentiate into...
IgA-secreting plasma cells, which ultimately reside in l
amina propria.<r>IgA receives protective secretory component and is then transp
orted across epithelium to gut to deal w/ intraluminal Ag.<r><r>Think of <>Ig
A</>, the <>I</>ntra-<>G</>ut <>A</>ntiody.<r>And always say &quot;secr
etory IgA&quot;.
1307663359820 1342707643393 Source of salivary secretions Parotid glands (
most serous)<r />Sumandiular glands<r />Sulingual glands (most mucinous)
1307663390712 1342707643393 Location of salivary glands
<>S</>erous on
the <>S</>ides (parotids)<r><>M</>ucinous in the <>M</>iddle (sulingual
)
1307663467448 1342707643393 5 functions of salivary secretions
1.) alph
a-amylase (ptyalin) egins starch digestion; inactivated y low pH on reaching s
tomach.<r>2.) Bicaronate neutralizes oral acterial acids, maintains dental he
alth.<r>3.) Mucins (glycoproteins) luricate food.<r>4.) Antiacterial secreto
ry products<r>5.) Growth factors that promote epithelial renewal.
1307663534556 1342707643393 Stimulation of salivary secretion
Salivary
secretion can e stimulated y oth sympathetic (T1-T3 superior cervical gangli
on)<r>and parasympathetic (facial, glossopharyngeal nerve) activity.<r>
1307663575803 1342707643393 Flow rate and tonicity of salivary secretions
Low flow rate --&gt; hypotonic (more time to reasor Na+ and Cl-)<r /><r />Hi
gh flow rate --&gt; closer to isotonic (less time to reasor Na+ and Cl-)
1307663686112 1342707643393 CN VII (facial nerve) and the salivary glands
CN VII runs thru the parotid gland.<r>Can e damaged during surgery.
1307663740774 1342707643393 Brunner's glands
Secrete alkaline mucus t
o neutralize acid contents entering the duodenum from the stomach.<r>Located in
<>duodenal sumucosa</> (the only GI sumucosal glands).<r><r>*Hypertrophy
of Brunner's glands is seen in peptic ulcer dz*
1307663849498 1342707643453 Gastrin G cells (antrum of stomach)
1307663862792 1342707643453 Cholecystokinin I cells (duodenum, jejunum)
1307663869022 1342707643453 Secretin
S cells (duodenum)
1307663884174 1342707643453 Somatostatin
D cells (pancreatic islets, GI m
ucosa)
1307663903658 1342707643453 Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)
K cells (duodenum, jejunum)
1307663931620 1342707643453 Vasoactive intestinal peptide Parasympathetic
ganglia in sphincters, gallladder, and small intestine.
1307663937967 1342707643453 Motilin Small intestine
1307663954355 1342707643453 Intrinsic factor and Gastric acid
Parietal
cells (stomach)<r /><r />*mostly in the ody of stomach
1307663981563 1342707643453 Pepsin Chief cells (stomach)
1307663999642 1342707643453 HCO3- Mucosal cells (stomach, duodenum, saliva
ry glands, pancreas)<r />Brunner's glands (duodenum)
1307664076436 1342707643431 Gastrin Incr gastric H+ secretion<r>Incr growth
of gastric mucosa<r>Incr gastric motility
1307664095365 1342707643431 Cholecystokinin Incr pancreatic secretion<r />I
ncr gallladder contraction<r />Decr gastric emptying<r />Relaxes sphincter of
Oddi
1307664123461 1342707643431 Secretin
Incr pancreatic HCO3- secretion<
r />Decr gastric acid secretion<r />Incr ile secretion
1307664182513 1342707643431 Somatostatin
Decr gastric acid and pepsinogen
secretion<r>Decr pancreatic and small intestine fluid secretion<r>Decr galll
adder contraction<r>Decr insulin and glucagon release<r>
1307664213892 1342707643431 Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP) /
Gastric inhiitory peptide
Exocrine:<r />decr gastric H+ secretion<r /><
r />Endocrine: <r />Incr insulin release
1307664247610 1342707643431 Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) Incr int

estinal water and electrolyte secretion<r />Incr relaxation of intestinal smoot
h muscle and sphincters
1307664266683 1342707643431 Nitric oxide
Incr smooth muscle relaxation, i
ncluding lower esophageal sphincter
1307664277073 1342707643431 Motilin Produces migrating motor complexes (MMCs
)
1307664304267 1342707643431 Intrinsic factor
Vitamin B12-inding prot
ein <r>(required for B12 uptake in terminal ileum)
1307664310771 1342707643431 Gastric acid
decr stomach pH
1307664316362 1342707643431 Pepsin Protein digestion
1307664345043 1342707643431 HCO3- Neutralizes acid<r>Prevents autodigesti
on
1307664471583 1342707643802 Gastrin Incr y stomach distention, AA's, peptid
es, vagal stimulation.<r><r>Decr y stomach pH &lt; 1.5
1307664482373 1342707643802 Cholecystokinin Incr y FAs, AAs.
1307664495190 1342707643802 Secretin
Incr y acid, FAs in lumen of du
odenum.
1307664508565 1342707643802 Somatostatin
Incr y acid<r />Decr y vagal
stimulation
1307664533897 1342707643802 Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)
Incr y FAs, AAs, oral glucose
1307664559744 1342707643802 Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)
Incr y
distention and vagal stimulation<r>Decr y adrenergic input
1307664568375 1342707643802 Motilin Incr in fasting state
1307664595289 1342707643802 Gastric acid (+ and -) Incr y histamine, ACh,
gastrin<r><r>Decr y somatostatin, GIP, prostaglandin, secretin
1307664607254 1342707643802 Pepsin Incr y vagal stimulation, local acid
1307664613433 1342707643802 HCO3- Incr y pancreatic and iliary secretion
with secretin
1307664670877 1342707643630 Gastrin ++ Incr in Zollinger-Ellison syndrome.<
r><r>Phenylalanine and tryptophan are potent stimulators.
1307664689713 1342707643630 Cholecystokinin CCK acts on neural muscarinic pa
thways to cause pancreatic secretion.<r /><r />In cholelithiasis, pain worsens
after fatty food ingestion due to incr CCK.
1307664709726 1342707643630 Secretin
Incr HCO3- neutralizes gastric a
cid in duodenum, allowing pancreatic enzymes to fxn.
1307664742240 1342707643630 Somatostatin
Inhiitory hormone.<r />Antigro
wth hormone effects (inhiits digestion and asorption of sustances needed for
growth).<r />Used to Tx VIPoma and carcinoid tumors.
1307664780959 1342707643630 Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)
An oral glucose load is used more rapidly than the equivalent given y IV.
1307664810658 1342707643630 Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) VIPoma:
non-alpha, non-Beta islet cell pancreatic tumor that secretes VIP.<r>Copious di
arrhea.
1307664832114 1342707643630 Nitric oxide
Loss of NO secretion is implicat
ed in incr lower esophageal tone of achalasia.
1307664859472 1342707643630 Intrinsic factor
Autoimmune destruction o
f parietal cells --&gt; chronic gastritis and pernicious anemia.
1307664885057 1342707643630 Gastric acid
<>Gastrinoma</>: gastrin-secre
ting tumor that causes continuous high levels of acid secretions and ulcers.
1307664902280 1342707643630 Pepsin Inactive pepsinogen --&gt; pepsin y H+
1307664917989 1342707643630 HCO3- HCO3- is trapped in mucus that covers th
e gastric epithelium.
1307665006295 1342707643393 Locations of GI secretory cells:<r>Body of stom
ach?
Parietal cells and Chief cells<r><img src="312a - GI secretory cells.JP
G" />
1307665042409 1342707643393 Locations of GI secretory cells:<r>Antrum of st
omach? G cells and Mucous cells<r><img src="312a - GI secretory cells.JPG" />
1307665073446 1342707643393 Locations of secretory cells:<r />Duodenum, pan
creas? Duodenum: I cells, S cells, K cells<r />Pancreas: D cells<r /><img src

="312a - GI secretory cells.JPG" />
1307665197341 1342707643393 Where does the vagus nerve act on the secretory
cells of the stomach? It acts via ACh (and thus can e locked y atropine) re
leased from a postsynaptic neuron to parietal cells in the ody to increase HCl
secretion.<r /><r />Vagus also acts via GRP released from a postsynaptic neuro
n to G cells to increase gastrin release.<r><r><img src="312a - GI secretory c
ells.JPG" />
1307665252907 1342707643393 Atropine's effect on secretory cells in the stom
ach?
Atropine locks vagal stimulation of parietal cells.<r />Vagal stimulat
ion of G cells is unaffected, as a different transmitter (GRP) is used, not ACh<
r /><img src="312a - GI secretory cells.JPG" />
1307672211165 1342707643393 What acts on parietal cells via Gq receptor?
ACh (via vagus) on M3 receptor<r>Gastrin (via Vagus --&gt; G cells) on CCK-B re
ceptor<r><img src="313a - Parietal cell.JPG" />
1307672262563 1342707643393 What acts on parietal cells y increasing cAMP?
Histamine (via ECL cells) on H2 receptors, Gs<r />[this is inhiited y Cimetid
ine]<r /><img src="313a - Parietal cell.JPG" />
1307672306556 1342707643393 What acts on parietal cells via Gi receptors?
Prostaglandins/misoprostol<r />Somatostatin<r /><r />decrease [cAMP]<r /><im
g src="313a - Parietal cell.JPG" />
1307672342692 1342707643393 What inhiits parietal cells' H+/K+ ATPase (whic
h secretes protons)
Omeprazole (proton pump inhiitor)<r><img src="313a - P
arietal cell.JPG" />
1307672367866 1342707643393 Pancreatic enzymes: alpha-amylase<r /><r />Fun
ction? Zymogen? Starch digestion, secreted in active form
1307672394073 1342707643393 Pancreatic enzymes for fat digestion
Lipase<
r>Phospholipase A<r>Colipase
1307672444774 1342707643393 Pancreatic proteases
Trypsin, chymotrypsin, e
lastase, caroxypeptidase<r><r>Secreted as proenzymes called &quot;zymogens&qu
ot;
1307672504383 1342707643393 Trypsinogen
Pancreatic enzyme converted to a
ctive enzyme y <>enterokinase</>/<>enteropeptidase</>, <r>an enzyme secret
ed from duodenal mucosa.<r><r>Trypsin activates other proenzymes and more tryp
sinogen (positive feedack loop).
1307672558224 1342707643393 Salivary amylase
Starts digestion.<r />H
ydrolyzes alpha-1,4 linkages to yield dissaccharides (maltose, maltotriose, and
alpha-limit dextrans) y
1307672597903 1342707643393 Pancreatic amylase
Highest concentration in
duodenal lumen, hydrolyzes starch to oligosaccharides and disaccharides.
y
1307672628045 1342707643393 Oligosaccharide hydrolases
At rush order
of intestine, the rate-limiting step in carohydrate digestion, produce monosacc
harides from oligo- and disaccharides. y
1307672694992 1342707643393 Carohydrate asorption<r><r>Glucose, galactos
e, fructose?
Only monosaccharides (glucose, galactose, fructose) are asored
y enterocytes.<r />Glucose and galactose are taken up y SGLT1 (Na+ dependent
).<r />Fructose is taken up y facilitated diffusion y GLUT-5.<r />All are tr
ansported to lood y GLUT-2.
1307672712767 1342707643393 Where is iron asored? Asored as Fe2+ (<>fer
rous</> iron) in duodenum.<r /><r />*this is why vitamin C is impt for iron a
sorption: keeps it from eing oxidized to Fe+3
1307672721828 1342707643393 Where is folate asored?
in jejunum.
1307672734905 1342707643393 Where is B12 asored? Asored in ileum along
w/ ile acids.
1307672773672 1342707643393 Bile composition
Composed of ile salts (
ile acids conjugated to glycine or taurine, making them water solule),<r />ph
ospholipids, XOL, iliruin, water, and ions.
1307672786196 1342707643393 What is the only significcant mechanism for XOL
excretion?
Bile.
1307672859425 1342707643393 Biliruin
Product of heme metaolism.<r>B

ilirin is removed from lood y liver, conjugated w/ glucuronate, and excreted
in ile.<r>Jaundice (yellow skin/sclerae) results from elevated iliruin level
s.
1307672886874 1342707643393 Direct iliruin
iliruin that is conjug
ated w/ glucuronic acid; water solule y
1307672903013 1342707643393 Indirect iliruin
iliruin that is unconj
ugated; water insolule.
y
1307672950250 1342707643393 What steps in heme reakdown occur in Macrophage
s?
RBC's --&gt; Heme --&gt; Unconjugated iliruin<r><img src="315a - ili
ruin pathway.JPG" />
1307672995380 1342707643393 What steps in heme reakdown occur in the loods
tream? Unconjugated iliruin comines w/ alumin to form unconjugated ilirui
n-alumin complex (&quot;indirect iliruin&quot;)<r><img src="315a - iliruin
pathway.JPG" /><r>
1307673086200 1342707643393 What steps of heme reakdown occur in the liver?
Unconjugated iliruin (&quot;indirect&quot;) is comined with uridine via <>Gl
ucuronyl transferase</> to ecome conjugated (&quot;direct&quot;) iliruin<r
/><img src="315a - iliruin pathway.JPG" />
1307673119132 1342707643393 How does conjugated iliruin ecome uroilinoge
n?
By the action of gut acteria (after eing secreted in ile).<r /><img
src="315a - iliruin pathway.JPG" />
1307673199165 1342707643393 What happens to Uroilinogen? 80% is excreted
in feces as stercoilin, which gives characteristic color of stool.<r /><r />2
0% is reasored, of which:<r />90% enters enterohepatic circulation, returning
to liver<r />10% goes to kidney, and is excreted in urine as uroilin, which g
ives characteristic color of urine.
1307673287632 1342707643393 Salivary gland tumors Generally enign and occ
ur in parotid gland.<r>Types include <>pleomorphic adenoma </>(most common tu
mor; painless, movale mass; enign w/ high rate of recurrence),<r><>Warthrin'
s tumor</> (enign; heterotopic salivary gland tissue trapped in a LN, surround
ed y lymphatic tissue),<r>and <>mucoepidermoid carcinoma </>(most common mal
ignant tumor)
1307673413222 1342707643393 Achalasia
Failure of relaxation of lower e
sophageal sphincter (LES) due to loss of <>myenteric (Auerach's) plexus</>.<
r />High LES opening pressure and uncoordinated peristalsis lead to progressive
dysphagia.<r />Barium swallow shows dilated esophagus w/ an area of distal sten
osis (&quot;Bird's eak&quot;).<r /><img src="316a - achalasia1.JPG" /><img src
="316 - achalasia2.JPG" />
1307673479842 1342707643393 What is achalasia a/w (as a risk)?
a/w an i
ncreased risk of esophageal carcinoma.
1307673494921 1342707643393 Secondary achalasia may result from... Chagas'
dz.
1307673534705 1342707643393 Scleroderma (CREST syndrome) and the esophagus
a/w esophageal dysmotility involving low pressure proximal to LES
1307673559161 1342707643393 Gastroesophageal reflux dz (GERD) presentation
Commonly presents as hearturn and regurgitation upon lying down. May also prese
nt w/ nocturnal cough and dyspnea.
y
1307673719226 1342707643393 Esophageal varices
<>Painless</> leeding
of sumucosal veins in lower 1/3rd of esophagus<r>
y
1307673756100 1342707643393 Mallory-Weiss Syndrome Mucosal lacerations at t
he GE jxn due to severe vomiting.<r />Lead to hematemesis.<r />Usually found i
n alcoholics and ulemics.
y
1307673834960 1342707643393 <>B</>oer<>h</>aave Syndrome
Transmur
al esophageal rupture due to violent retching.<r><r>&quot;<>B</>een-<>h</>
eaving syndrome.&quot; y
1307673847338 1342707643393 Esophageal strictures a/w lye ingestion and ac
id reflux
y
1307673868689 1342707643393 Esophagitis<r /><r />A/w?<r />Description of
lesions?
a/w reflux, infxn (HSV-1- punched-out ulcers; CMV- linear ulcers
; Candida- white pseudomemrane), or chemical ingestion y

1307673934880 1342707643393 Plummer-Vinson Syndrome Triad of:<r>1.) dysphag
ia (due to esophageal wes)<r>2.) Glossitis <r>3.) iron deficiency anemia
y
1307674069351 1342707643393 Barrett's esophagus
Glandular metaplasia -replacement of nonkeratinized (stratified) squamous epithelium w/ intestinal (co
llumnar) epithelium in the distal esophagus.<r />Due to chronic acid reflux (GE
RD).<r /><img src="317a - Barretts esophagus.JPG" /><r />&quot;<>BARR</>ett'
s = <>B</>ecomes <>A</>denocarcinoma, <>R</>esults from <>R</>eflux&quot
;
1307674208465 1342707643393 Risk factors for esophageal cancer
<u>Squam
ous</u><r />Alcohol<r />Achalasia<r />Cigarettes<r />Esophageal we (e.g., P
lummer-Vinson)<r /><><r /></><u>Adenocarcinoma</u><r />Barrett's esophagus<
r />Esophagitis<r />Diverticuli (e.g., Zenker's diverticulum)
1307674290984 1342707643393 Esophageal cancer epidemiology: US vs. worldwide
?
Worldwide, squamous cell is more common.<r /><r />In the US, adenocarc
inoma is more common.
1307674318234 1342707643393 Cancers y portion of esophagus Squamous cell -upper and middle 1/3rd.<r><r>Adenocarcinoma -- lower 1/3rd
1307674393401 1342707643393 Malasorption syndromes (generally)
Can caus
e diarrhea, steatorrhea, wgt loss, weakness
1307674467271 1342707643393 Celiac sprue
Auto-As to gluten (gliadin) in
wheat and other grains.<r />Proximal small owel primarily (esp. jejunum).
y
1307674488792 1342707643393 Tropical sprue Proaly infectious; responds to
ABX.<r>Similar to celiac sprue, ut can affect entire small owel.
y
1307674650176 1342707643393 Whipple's dz<r /><r />Bug, histo, associated s
x, epidemiology Infxn w/ <i>Trophymera whippelii</i> (gram positive);<r />PAS-p
ositive macrophages in intestinal lamina propria, mesenteric nodes.<r />Arthral
gias, cardiac and neurologic Sx are common.<r />Most often occurs in older men.
y
1307674718055 1342707643393 Disaccharidase deficiency
Most common is l
actase deficiency --&gt; milk intolerance.<r>Normal-appearing villi.<r>Osmotic
diarrhea.<r>Since lactase is located at tips of intestinal villi, self-limited
lactase deficiency can occur following injury (e.g., viral diarrhea). y
1307674753852 1342707643393 Pancreatic insufficiency (malasorption syndrome
)<r /><r />Causes and effects Due to CF, ostructing cancer, and chronic pancr
eatitis.<r />Causes malasorption of fat and fat-solule vitamines (A, D, E, K)
y
1307674906235 1342707643393 Celiac sprue:<r />what is it?<r />what is it a
/w?
Autoimmune-mediated intolerance of gliadin (wheat) leading to steatorrhe
a.<r />A/w ppl of northern European descent.<><r />A/w dermatitis herpetiform
is, osteoporosis.</><r /><>Moderately incr risk of malignancy (mostly T-cell
lymphoma)</>
1307675139534 1342707643393 Celiac sprue: findings? <>Antigliadin, antiendo
mysial A's</><r />Blunting of villi [elow]<r />Lymphocytes in the lamina pr
opria<r />Decreased mucosal asorption that primarily affects distal duodenum a
nd proximal jejunum.<r /><img src="551a Celiac sprue.JPG" /><r />
1307675159220 1342707643393 What do you use to screen for celiac sprue?
Serum levels of tissue transglutaminase.
1307675950317 1342707643393 Acute gastritis (erosive)
Disruption of mu
cosal arrier --&gt; inflammation.<r /><r />Can e caused y stress, NSAIDs (d
ecr PGE2 --&gt; decreased gastric mucosa protection), alcohol, uremia, <r />ur
ns (<>Curling's </>ulcer -- decr plasma volume --&gt; sloughing of gastric muc
osa), <r />and rain injury (<>Cush</>ing's ulcer -- incr vagal stimulation -&gt; incr ACh --&gt; incr H+ production)<r /><r />&quot;Burned y the <>Curl
ing </>iron.&quot; <r />&quot;Always <>Cush</>ion your rain.&quot;
1307676034766 1342707643393 Chronic gastritis (nonerosive) <r>Type A (fundu
s/ody) <>A</>utoimmune d/o characterized y <>A</>utoantiodies to parietal
cells, <r />pernicious <>A</>nemia, and <>A</>chlorhydria.<r /><r />
1307676088473 1342707643393 Chronic gastritis (nonerosive)<r />Type B (antr

um)<r /><r />Increases risk of what? Caused y H. pylori infxn.<r />Incr ris
k of MALT lymphoma.<r />
1307676145135 1342707643393 Mnemonic for type A and B chronic gastritis
<>AB pairing:</><r><span style=" font-weight:600;"></span><r>pernicious <>A
</>nemia affects the gastric <>B</>ody<r><r>H. pylori <>B</>acteria affec
ts <>A</>ntrum
1307676191560 1342707643393 Ménétrier's dz Gastric hypertrophy w/ protein l
oss, parietal cell atrophy, and increased mucous cells.<r />Precancerous.<r />
Rugae of stomach are so hypertrophied that they look like rain gyri.
1307676230447 1342707643393 Risk factors for gastric cancer <>H. pylori</>
(highest risk)<r />Toacco<r />Pernicious anemia<r />Alcohol<r />Smoked foo
ds (nitrates)<r>Type A lood<r />
1307676344250 1342707643393 Gastric adenocarcinoma<r /><r />Spread?<r />R
isk factors?<r />Pathological features?<r />Gross?
Early aggressive local s
pread and node/liver mets.<r />A/w dietary nitrosamines (smoked foods), achlorh
ydria, chronic gastritis, type A lood.<r />Signet ring cells, acanthosis nigri
cans are common features.<r />Termed <u>linitis plastica</u> when diffusely inf
iltrative (thickened, rigid appearance, &quot;leather ottle&quot;).<r /><img s
rc="318a - Signet ring cell.JPG" />
1307676360522 1342707643393 Virchow's node Involvement of left supraclavicu
lar node y mets from stomach.<r>
1307676387402 1342707643393 Kruckenerg's tumor
Bilateral mets (of gastr
ic adenocarcinoma) to ovaries.<r>Aundant mucus, signet ring cells.
1307676516491 1342707643393 <>G</>astric ulcer
Pain can e <>G</>reat
er with meals -- weight loss.<r />Often occurs in older pts.<r />H. pylori inf
xn in 70%; positive urease reath teast; chronic NSAID use also implicated.<r /
>Due to decr mucosal protection against gastric acid.
1307676590467 1342707643393 Duodenal ulcer<r><r>Sx?<r>Risk factors?<r>Pa
th association? Pain <>D</>ecreases w/ meals -- weight gain.<r />Almost 100%
have H. pylori infxn.<r /><r />Due to <>incr gastric acid secretion</> (e.g.
, Z-E syndrome) <i>or</i> decr mucosal protection.<r />Hypertrophy of Brunners
glands.<r /><r />*whereas gastric ulcer is usu only due to decr mucosal protec
tion*<r />
1307676615235 1342707643393 Appearance of duodenal ulcers Tend to have cle
an, &quot;punched-out&quot; margins unlike the raised/irregular margins of carci
noma.<r>
1307676645583 1342707643393 Potential complications of duodenal ulcers?<r /
><r />What artery is at risk of leeds?
Hemorrhage- gastric, duodenal (p
osterior &gt; anterior)<r />Perforation- duodenal (anterior &gt; posterior)<r
/><r />Gastroduodenal artery is posterior to duodenal ul; can e eroded y po
sterior duodenal ulcers
1307676742198 1342707643780 Possile etiology?
Crohn's: disordered resp
onse to intestinal acteria<r /><r />Ulcerative colitis: autoimmune
1307676807682 1342707643780 Location?
Crohn's:<r>Any portion of GI tr
act, usually the terminal ileum and colon.<r><>Skip</> lesions, <>re</>ctal
sparing.<r><r>Ulcerative colitis:<r><i>colitis = </i>colon inflammation. Con
tinuous colonic lesions, always w/ rectal involvement.
1307676928258 1342707643780 Gross morphology and imaging? Crohn's:<r />Tr
ansmural inflammation.<r /><>Colestone</> mucosa, creeping <>fat</>, owe
l wall thickening (&quot;string sign&quot; on arium swallow x-ray), linear ulce
rs, fissures, fistulas.<r /><img src="320a - Crohns dz.JPG" /><r /><r />Ulcer
ative colitis:<r />Mucosal and sumucoasal inflammation only.<r />Friale muco
sal pseudopolyps w/ freely hanging mesentery.<r />&quot;Lead pipe&quot; appeara
nce on imaging.<r /><img src="320 - ulcerative colitis.JPG" />
1307676975450 1342707643780 Microscopic morphology? Crohn's:<r />Noncaseati
ng <>gran</>ulomas and lymphoid aggregates (Th1 mediated).<r /><r />Ulcerati
ve colitis:<r />Crypt ascesses and ulcers, leeding, no granulomas (Th2 mediat
ed).
1307677052470 1342707643780 Complications? Crohn's:<r />Strictures, fistul
as, perianal dz, malasorption, nutritional depletion, colorectal cancer.<r /><

r />Ulcerative colitis:<r />Malnutrition, sclerosing cholangitis, toxic megaco
lon, <>colorectal cancer</> (worse with right sideded or pancolitis).
1307677101076 1342707643780 Intestinal manifestation
Crohn's dz:<r /
>Diarrhea that may or may not e loody.<r /><r />Ulcerative colitis:<r />Blo
ody diarrhea.
1307677175058 1342707643780 Extraintestinal manifestations? <u>Crohn's dz</u
>:<r />Migratory polyarthritis<r />Erythema nodosum<r />Immunologic d/o's<r
/>Kidney stones<r /><r /><u>Ulcerative colitis</u>:<r />Pyoderma gangrenosum<
r /><img src="paste0ieygj.jpg" /><r />Primary sclerosing cholangitis<r />Anky
losing spondylitis<r />Uveitis
1307677210724 1342707643780 Tx?
Crohn's:<r />Corticosteroids, inflixima
.<r /><r />Ulcerative colitis:<r />Sulfasalazine, 6-mercaptopurine, inflixim
a, colectomy.
1307677288451 1342707643780 Mnemonic for Crohn's, to keep them straight
For <>Crohn's</>, think of a <>fat granny </>(creeping fat, granulomas) and
an old <>crone skipping </>(skip lesions) down a <>colestone</> road away
from the <>wreck</> (rectal sparing).
1307677337687 1342707643393 Appendicitis: y age? All age groups; most com
mon indication for emergent adominal surgery in children.
1307677394605 1342707643393 Appendicitis: Sx/Signs? Initial diffuse periumi
lical pain --&gt; localized pain at McBurney's point (1/3rd the distance from il
iac crest to umilicus).<r><r>Nausea, fever; may perforate --&gt; peritonitis.
1307677418973 1342707643393 Appendicitis: differential?
Diverticulitis (
elderly), ectopic pregnancy (use B-hCG to rule out)
1307677532263 1342707643393 Diverticulum
Blind pouch popping out of the a
limentary tract that communicates w/ the lumen of the gut.<r>Most diverticula (
esophagus, stomach, duodenum, colon) are acquired and are termed &quot;false&quo
t;in that they lack or have an attenuated musclaris externa.<r>Most often in si
gmoid colon.<r><img src="321a - diverticulum.JPG" />
1307677548023 1342707643393 &quot;True&quot; diverticulum All 3 gut wall l
ayers outpouch
1307677587724 1342707643393 &quot;False&quot; diverticulum or &quot;pseudodi
verticulum&quot;
Only mucosa and sumucosa outpouch.<r>Occur especially
where vasa recta perforate muscularis externa.
1307677660985 1342707643393 Diverticulosis Many diverticula.<r>Common (in
~50% of people &gt; 60 yrs).<r>Caused y incr intraluminal pressure and focal w
eakness in colonic wall.<r>A/w low fier diets.<r>Most often in sigmoid colon.
1307677687872 1342707643393 Diverticulosis: Sx/signs?
Often asymptomat
ic or a/w vague discomfort and/or painless rectal leeding.
1307677778643 1342707643393 Diverticul<u>itis</u> Inflammation of divertic
ula classically causing LLQ pain, fever, leukocytosis.<r>May perforate --&gt; p
eritonitis, ascess formation, or owel stenosis.<r>Give ABX.<r><img src="551
diverticulitis.JPG" />
1307677820100 1342707643393 Diverticulitis may cause...
Bright red recta
l leeding.<r><r>May also cause colovesical fistula (fistula w/ ladder) --&gt
; pneumaturia
1307677847162 1342707643393 Diverticulitis is sometimes called ___? Why?
Sometimes called &quot;left-sided appendicitis&quot; due to clinical presentatio
n.
1307677890431 1342707643393 Zenker's diverticulum False diverticulum.<r>H
erniation of mucosal tissue at jxn of pharynx and esophagus.<r>Presenting Sx: h
alitosis (due to trapped food particles), dysphagia, ostruction.
1307677961454 1342707643393 Meckel's diverticulum<r /><r />What is it?<r
/>What does it contain?<r />Epidemiology?
Persistence of the vitelline duc
t or yolk stalk.<r />May contain ectopic acid-secreting gastric mucosa and/or p
ancreatic tissue.<r /><>Most common congenital anomaly of the GI tract (~2%).<
/><r /><img src="321 - Meckels diverticulum.JPG" />
1307677989583 1342707643393 Meckel's diverticulum can cause...
leeding
, intussusception, volvulus, or ostruction near the terminal ileum.
1307678030388 1342707643393 Omphalomesenteric cyst (=/= Meckel's diverticulu

m)
Cystic dilatation of vitelline duct.<r><r>(= vitteline duct cyst = ent
erocyst; similar etiology to Meckel)
1307678079206 1342707643393 The six 2's of Meckel's diverticulum<r /><r />
Dx?
2 inches long<r />2 feet from ileocecal valve<r />2% of the population
<r />Commonly presents in first 2 years of life (only 2% are symptomatic)<r />
2 types of epithelia (gastric/pancreatic)<r />2X as common in males<r /><r />
Dx: pertechnetate study for ectopic uptake
1307729420624 1342707643393 Intussusception<r /><r />What is it?<r />What
can it cause?<r />Due to?<r />Seen in?<r />Buzz word?
&quot;Telescopin
g&quot; of 1 owel segment into distal segment; can compromise lood supply. <r
/>Often due to intraluminal mass.<r />Usually in children (usu idiopathic; may
e viral [adenovirus])<r />Adominal emergency in early childhood.<r /><r />
Currant jelly stool<r /><img src="322a - intussusception.JPG" /><img src="552a
Intussusception.JPG" />
1307729469391 1342707643393 Volvulus
Twisting of portion of owel aro
und mesentery;<r />can lead to ostruction and infarction.<r />May occur at ce
cum and sigmoid colon, where there is redundant mesentery.<r />Usually in elder
ly.<r /><img src="322 - Volvulus.JPG" />
1307729582680 1342707643393 Hirschsprung's dz: what is it and what is due to
?
Congenital megacolon characterized y lack of ganglion cells/enteric ner
vous plexuses (Auerach's and Meissner's plexuses)<r />in segment on intestinal
iopsy.<r /><r />Due to <>failure of neural crest cell migration </>(which
progresses caudally, so rectum is always involved).<r /><img src="322c - Hirsch
sprungs dz.JPG" /><r />Risk increased in Down syndrome.<r />*Think of a giant
spring that has <>sprung</> in the colon.
1307729645731 1342707643393 Hirschprung's dz: how does it present? Presents
as chronic constipation early in life.<r />Dilated portion of the colon proxim
al to the aganglionic segment, resulting in &quot;transitional zone.&quot;<r />
<>Always </>involves rectum.<r />Usually failure to pass meconium.<r /><img
src="322c - Hirschsprungs dz.JPG" />
1307729656325 1342707643393 Increased risk for Hirschprung's
Down syn
drome
1307729710866 1342707643393 Duodenal atresia<r /><r />Manifestations<r />
Radiography<r />Cause<r />Associations
Causes early ilious vomiting w/
proximal stomach distension (&quot;doule ule&quot;)<r />due to failure of
recanalization of small owel.<r /><r />A/w Down syndrome.
1307729738481 1342707643393 Meconium ileus In CF, meconium pllug ostructs
intestine, preventing stool passage at irth.<r />
1307729785637 1342707643393 Necrotizing enterocolitis
Necrosis of inte
stinal mucosa and possile perforation.<r>Colon is usually involved, ut can in
volve entire GI tract.<r>In neonates, more common in preemies (decr immunity).
1307729814943 1342707643393 Ischemic colitis
Reduction in intestinal
lood causes ischemia (pain out of proportion with physical findings).<r />Pain
after eading --&gt; weight loss. Commonly occurs at splenic flexure.<r />Typic
ally affects elderly.
1307729837677 1342707643393 GI adhesions- cause what?<r />Path?
Acute o
wel ostruction, commonly from a recent surgery.<r />Can have well-demarcated n
ecrotic zones.
1307729872232 1342707643393 Angiodysplasia Tortuous dilation of vessels --&
gt; leeding.<r>Most often found in cecum and ascending colon.<r>More common i
n older pts.<r>Confirmed y angiography.
1307730017715 1342707643393 Colonic polyps 90% are enign hyperplastic hama
rtomas, not neoplasms.<r />Often rectosigmoid.<r />Grow into intestinal lumen
(sawtooth appearance).<r />The more villous the polyp, the more likely it is to
e malignant.<r /><r />Malignant risk is associated with increased size, vill
ous histology, epithelial dysplasia.<r /><r />(&quot;<>VILLOUS</> = <>VILL<
/>ain<>OUS</>&quot;)<r /><img src="551c colon polyps.JPG" /><r /><r />*vil
lous may e descried as velvety or cauliflower-like
1307730190634 1342707643393 Colorectal cancer epidemiology and molecular pat
hogenesis of tumors
3rd most common cancer.<r /><r /><img src="paste8_sar3

.jpg" /><r />
1307730234813 1342707643393 Colorectal cancer: presentation/location
Rectosigmioid &gt; ascending &gt; descending.<r><r>Ascending- exophytic mass,
iron deficiency, weight loss<r>Descending- infiltrating mass, partial ostructi
on, colicky pain, hematochezia<r><r />(<>Left side ostructs, right side lee
ds</>)<r /><img src="567a CRC.JPG" />
1307730286328 1342707643393 Colorectal cancer risk factors Chronic IBD (esp
ecially ulcerative colitis, incr age)<r>Strep ovis acteremia<r>Toacco use<
r>Colorectal villous adenomas<r>Juvenile polyposis syndrome<r>Peutz-Jeghers<r
>Diets high in animal fats and calories<r />Past medical or family Hx (FAP, HNP
CC...)<r /><r />Screen pts &gt; 50 yrs of age w/ stool occult lood test and c
olonoscopy
1307730307289 1342707643393 Colorectal cancer diagnosis<r><r>
Iron def
iciency anemia in males (esp &gt; 50yrs) and postmenopausal females raises suspi
cion.<r><r>Screen patients &gt; 50 with stool occult lood test and colonoscop
y.<r><r>&quot;Apple core&quot; lesion on arium x-ray<r /><img src="323a - Ap
ple core lesion.JPG" />
1307730318378 1342707643393 Tumor marker for colorectal cancer?
CEA
1307730368420 1342707643393 Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP)
Autosoma
l-dominant mutation of APC gene on chromosome 5q.<r />Two-hit hypothesis. 100%
progress to CRC.<r />Thousands of polyps; pancolonic; always involving rectum.
1307730391263 1342707643393 Gardner's syndrome
FAP w/ osseous and soft
tissue tumors, retinal hyperplasia
1307730430137 1342707643393 Turcot's syndrome
FAP + malignant CNS tumo
r (glioma and medullolastoma)<r /><>TUR</>cot = <>TUR</>an (rain)
1307730457573 1342707643393 HNPCC or Lynch syndrome<r /><r />Mutations?<r
/>Consequences?<r />Involvement?
Mutations of DNA mismatch repair genes.<
r />~80% progress to CRC.<r />Proximal colon always involved.
1307730507440 1342707643393 Peutz-Jeghers syndrome Single polyps are not ma
lignant.<r /><r />Autosomal dominant syndrome featuring multiple non-malignant
hamartomas throughout the GI tract, along w/ hyperpigmented mouth, lips, hands,
genitalia.<r /><r />A/w incr risk of CRC and other visceral malignancies.
1307730634262 1342707643393 Carcinoid tumor: what is it? where is it found?
EM?
Tumor of neuroendocrine cells.<r />Comprise 50% of small owel tumors.<
r />Most common sites are appendix, ileum, rectum. Most commonly malignant in t
he small intestine.<r /><r />&quot;Dense core odies&quot; seen on EM.<r /><
r /><img src="pastei9qrw.jpg" />
1307730663250 1342707643393 Classic Sx of carcinoid tumor --&gt; carcinoid s
yndrome.
Wheezing, right-sided heart murmurs, diarrhea, flushing.
1307730750891 1342707643393 Carcinoid tumor and Carcinoid syndrome CT often
produces 5-HT, which can lead to carcinoid syndrome.<r /><r />If tumor is con
fined to GI system, no carcinoid syndrome is oserved, since liver metaolizes 5
-HT.<r /><r />If tumor or metastases (usu to liver) exist outside GI system, c
arcinoid syndrome is oserved.<r /><r />Thus, tumor location determines whethe
r or not the syndrome appears.
1307730956840 1342707643393 Effects of portal HTN <img src="pastevgwojm.jp
g" />
1307730973269 1342707643393 Effects of liver cell failure in cirrhosis
<img src="pastefnfs7w.jpg" />
1307730991849 1342707643393 Cirrhosis histopathology
Diffuse firosis
of liver, destroys normal architecture.<r />Nodular regeneration.<r /><img sr
c="551d cirrhosis.JPG" />
1307731030146 1342707643393 Micronodular cirrhosis Nodules &lt; 3mm, unifor
m size.<r>Due to metaolic insult (e.g., alcohol, hemochromatosis, Wilson's dz)
1307731080087 1342707643393 Macronodular cirrhosis Nodules &gt; 3mm, varied
size.<r />Usu. due to significant liver injury leading to hepatic necrosis (e.
g., postinfectious or drug-induced hepatitis).<r /><>Macro</> (increased) ris
k of hepatocellular carcinoma.
1307731221892 1342707643393 Portacaval shunt
May partially relieve po
rtal HTN.<r /><r />1) esophageal varicies<r />2) caput medusae<r />3) hemorr

hoids
1307731382361 1342707643774 Aminotransferases (AST and ALT) Viral hepatitis
(ALT &gt; AST)<r />Alcoholic hepatitis (AST &gt; ALT)
1307731440194 1342707643774 GGT (gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase)
Various
liver diseases; incr w/ heavy alcohol consumption.
y
1307731481295 1342707643774 Alkaline phosphatase
Ostructive liver dz (he
patocellular carcinoma)<r />Bone dz (Paget's, mets)<r />Bile duct dz y
1307731488167 1342707643774 Amylase Acute pancreatitis, mumps
y
1307731495340 1342707643774 Lipase Acute pancreatitis [only]
y
1307731505981 1342707643774 Ceruloplasmin Decr in Wilson's dz
y
1307731585753 1342707643393 Reye's syndrome<r /><r />What is it?<r />Path
/la findings?<r />Associated with?
Rare, often fatal childhood hepatoenceph
alopathy.<r /><r />Findings: fatty liver (microvesicular fatty change), hypogl
ycemia, coma.<r /><r />A/w viral infxn (esp VZV and influenza B) that has een
treated w/ salicylates.<r /><>Aspirin not recommended for children</> (use a
cetaminophen, with caution).
1307731823864 1342707643393 Alcoholic liver dz: Hepatic steatosis Short-te
rm change w/ moderate alcohol intake.<r />Macrovesicular fatty change that may
e reversile w/ alcohol cessation.<r /><img src="550a fatty liver.JPG" />
1307731886704 1342707643393 Alcoholic hepatitis<r /><r />Time frame?<r />
Path/la feature?
Requires sustained, long-term consumption.<r />Swollen
and necrotic hepatocytes w/ neutrophilic infiltration.<r /><>Mallory odies</
> (intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusions) are present.<r /><r />&quot;ou'r
e to<>AST</>ed w/ alcoholic hepatitis&quot; --&gt; <>AST</> &gt; ALT (ratio
usually &gt; 1.5)
1307731956701 1342707643393 Alcoholic cirrhosis
Final and irreversile f
orm of alcoholic liver damage.<r />Micronodular, irregularly shrunken liver w/
&quot;honail&quot; appearance.<r />Sclerosis around central vein (zone III).<
r />Has manifestations of chronic liver dz (e.g., jaundice, hypoaluminemia).<r
/><img src="551d cirrhosis.JPG" />
1307732018739 1342707643393 Hepatocellular carcinoma/hepatoma<r /><r />Epi
demiology?<r />Spread? Most common primary malignant tumor of the liver in adul
ts.<r /><r />Commonly spread y hematogenous dissemination.
1307732076842 1342707643393 Incr incidence of Hepatocellular carcinoma/hepat
oma with...?
HepB and HepC<r>Wilson's dz<r>Hemochromatosis<r>alpha1-antitr
ypsin deficiency<r>Alcoholic cirrhosis<r>Carcinogens (e.g., aflatoxin in peanu
ts)
1307732096556 1342707643393 Findings with Hepatocellular carcinoma/hepatoma
Tender hepatomegaly<r />Ascites<r />Polycythemia<r />Hypoglycemia
1307732108644 1342707643393 Marker for Hepatocellular carcinoma/hepatoma
Increased alpha-fetoprotein
1307732118411 1342707643393 Hepatocellular carcinoma/hepatoma may lead to...
?
Budd-Chiari syndrome
1307732274898 1342707643393 Nutmeg liver
due to ackup of lood into live
r.<r />Commonly caused y right-sided heart failure and Budd-Chiari syndrome.<
r />The liver appears mottled like a nutmeg.<r />If the condition persists, cen
triloular congestion and necrosis can result in cardiac cirrhosis.<r />
1307732335972 1342707643393 Budd-Chiari syndrome
Occlusion of IVC or hepa
tic veins w/ centriloular congestion and necrosis, leading to congestive liver
dz (hepatomegaly, ascites, adominal pain, and eventual liver failure.<r /><r
/>May develop varices and have visile adominal and ack veins.<r /><r />Ase
nce of JVD.<r /><r />A/w polycythemia vera, pregnancy, and hepatocellular carc
inoma.
1307732382348 1342707643393 alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency Decr elastic tis
sue in lungs --&gt; panacinar emphysema.<r />PAS-positive gloules in liver ec
ause misfolded gene product (protein) accumulates in hepatocellular ER.<r />Cod
ominant trait.
1307732533035 1342707643393 Biliruin processing in liver Normally, liver
cells convert unconjugated (indirect) iliruin into conjugated (direct) iliru
in.<r />Direct iliruin is water solule and can e excreted into urine and y

the liver into ile to e converted y gut acteria to uroilinogen (some of wh
ich is reasored).<r />Some uroilinogen is also formed directly from heme met
aolism.
1307732611273 1342707643728 Hepatocellular Conjugated/unconjugated hyperil
iruinemia<r><r>Incr urine iliruin<r><r>Normal/decr urine uroilinogen
1307732631722 1342707643728 Ostructive
Conjugated hyperiliruinemia.<
r><r>Incr urine iliruin.<r><r>Decr urine uroilinogen.
1307732661392 1342707643728 Hemolytic
Unconjugated hyperiliruinemia<
r><r>Asent urine iliruin (acholuria)<r><r>Incr urine uroilinogen.
1307732784732 1342707643393 Gilert's syndrome
Mildly decr UDP-glucuron
yl transferase or decr iliruin uptake.<r>Asymptomatic.<r>Elevated unconjugat
ed iliruin w/o overt hemolysis.<r>A/w stress.<r>No clinical consequences.<r
><img src="327a - Hyperiliruinemia.JPG" />
y
1307732856047 1342707643393 Crigler-Najjar syndrome, Type I (& treatment)
Asent UDP-glucuronyl transferase.<r>Presents early in life; pts die w/in a few
years.<r>Findings: jaundice, kernicterus (iliruin deposition in rain), incr
unconjugated iliruin.<r>Tx: plasmapheresis and phototherapy.<r><img src="32
7a - Hyperiliruinemia.JPG" /> y
1307732884218 1342707643393 Type II Crigler-Najjar syndrome (& treatment)
Less severe form.<r>Responds to phenoarital, which incr liver enzyme synthesi
s.
y
1307732920521 1342707643393 Duin-Johnson syndrome Conjugated hyperilirui
nemia due to defective liver excretion.<r />Grossly lack liver.<r />Benign.<
r /><img src="327a - Hyperiliruinemia.JPG" /> y
1307732937024 1342707643393 Rotor's syndrome
Similar to Duin-Johnson
syndrome ut even milder.<r />Does not cause lack liver.
y
1307733066536 1342707643393 Compare Gilert's vs. Crigler-Najjar vs. Duin J
ohnson<r />(in terms of iochemistry) 1.) Gilert's = prolem w/ iliruin <u>
uptake</u> --&gt; unconjugated iliruinemia.<r /><r />2.) Crigler-Najjar = pr
olem w/ iliruin <u>conjugation</u> --&gt; unconjugated iliruinemia<r /><r
/>3.) Duin-Johnson = prolem w/ <u>exretion of conjugated iliruin</u> --&gt;
<u>conjugated</u> iliruinemia<r /><r /><img src="327a - Hyperiliruinemia.
JPG" /><r />
1307733141482 1342707643393 Wilson's dz (hepatolenticular degeneration)<r /
><r />Defect, sites involved, treatment, heredity
Inadequate hepatic coppe
r excretion and failure of copper to enter circulation as ceruloplasmin.<r />Le
ads to copper accumulation, especially in liver, rain, cornea, kidneys, and joi
nts.<r /><r />Tx: penicillamine.<r /><r />Autosomal-recessive.
1307733321286 1342707643393 Wilson's dz (hepatolenticular degeneration) is c
haracterized y....?
&quot;<>ABCD</>&quot;<r /><r /><>A</>sterixis<r /
><>B</>asal ganglia degeneration (parkinsonian Sx)<r /><>C</>eruloplasmin (
decreased), <>C</>irrhosis, <>C</>orneal deposits (Kayser-Fleischer rings),<
r /><>C</>opper accumulation, <>C</>arcinoma (hepatocellular), <>C</>hore
iform movements<r /><>D</>ementia<r /><r />Hemolytic anemia<r /><img src="
556a K-F rings.JPG" />
1307741115514 1342707643393 Hemochromatosis vs. hemosiderosis
Hemo<u>s
iderosis</u> is the deposition of hemosiderin (iron);<r>hemo<u>chromatosis</u>
is the dz caused y this iron deposition<r>
1307741260099 1342707643393 Hemochromatosis<r /><r />S/sx?<r />Etiology?
Classic triad of micronodular <>cirrhosis</>, <>diaetes</> mellitus, and sk
in <>pigmentation</> --&gt; <>&quot;ronze&quot; diaetes</><r />Results in
<>CHF</> and incr risk of hepatocellular carcinoma.<r /><r />Dz may e prim
ary (autosomal recessive, HFE gene on chromosome 6)<r />or secondary (due to ch
ronic transfusion Tx -- e.g., B-thal major).<r /><r /><r />
1307741305032 1342707643393 La findings in hemochromatosis Incr ferritin<r
>Incr iron<r>Decr TIBC --&gt; incr transferrin saturation<r><r>Total ody iro
n may reach 50g, enough to set off metal detectors at airports.
1307741335882 1342707643393 Tx for hereditary hemochromatosis?
Repeated
phleotomy, deferoxamine.
1307741348164 1342707643393 HLA a/w hemochromatosis?
a/w HLA-A3

1307741552260 1342707643393 Primary sclerosing cholangitis<r /><r />Locati
on?<r />Imaging/histopath?<r />A/w?<r />Can lead to? Both intra- and extra-he
patic.<r />Inflammation and firosis of ile ducts --&gt; alternating strxrs an
d dilation w/ &quot;eading&quot; on ERCP.<r />concentric &quot;onion skin&quot
; ile duct firosis.<r><r />A/w ulcerative colitis, hypergammagloulinemia (I
gM).<r />Can lead to secondary iliary cirrhosis.<r /><r /><img src="pasted1h
my.jpg" />
1307741636601 1342707643393 Primary iliary cirrhosis<r /><r />Etiology?<
r />S/sx?<r />Las?<r />Associated w/?
Intrahepatic, autoimmune d/o --&
gt; lymphocytic infiltrate + granulomas<r /><r />Can't secrete ile =&gt; seve
re ostructive jaundice, steatorrhea, <span style="font-weight:600; text-decorat
ion: underline;">pruritis</span> (ile salts; often presenting complaint)<r /><
r /><>Incr serum mitochondrial A's, including IgM</>.<r /><r />A/w other a
utoimmune conditions (eg. CREST syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, celiac dz)
y
1307741707198 1342707643393 Secondary iliary cirrhosis<r /><r />Etiology?
<r />Presentation?<r />Complications?<r />Las?
Due to <>extrahepatic</
> iliary ostruction (gallstone, iliary stricture, chronic pancreatitis, carc
inoma of pancreatic head) --&gt; incr pressure in intrahepatic ducts --&gt; inju
ry/firosis, ile stasis.<r /><r />Presents w/ pruritis, jaundice, dark urine
&amp; light stools, hepatosplenomegaly.<r /><r />Often complicated y ascendin
g cholangitis (acterial infxn).<r /><r />Incr ALP, incr conjugated iliruin,
incr cholesterol.<r /><r /><r /><i><r />[essentially just chronic ostructi
ve iliary dz, straightforward las &amp; path]</i>
y
1307741793438 1342707643393 Gallstones (cholelithiasis): asics
Form whe
n soluilizing ile acids and lecithin are overwhelmed y incr XOL and/or iliru
in.<r /><r />2 types: XOL stones and pigment stones
1307741824572 1342707643393 Risk factors for gallstones (cholelithiasis)
<>4 F's</>:<r /><>F</>emale<r /><>F</>at<r /><>F</>ertile<r /><>F</
>orty
1307741843171 1342707643393 Charcot's triad of cholangitis 1.) Jaundice<r>
2.) Fever<r>3.) RUQ pain
1307741877025 1342707643393 Murphy's sign Inspiratory arrest on deep palpa
tion.<r>(+) sign w/ gallstones.
1307741956481 1342707643393 Cholesterol gallstones<r /><r />Visile on X-r
ay?<r />Common in?<r />Associated with?<r /> Radiolucent w/ 10-20% opaque due
to calcifications.<r /><r />80% of stones.<r /><r />A/w four F's (oesity,
estrogens, multiparity, advanced age) as well as<r />Crohn's dz, CF, clofirate
, rapid wgt loss, and Native American origin.<r /><r />*also ile acid resins;
same mechanism as Crohn's --&gt; dec enterhepatic ile acid circulation
y
1307742006631 1342707643393 Pigmented gallstones<r /><r />Radiology?<r />
Composition?<r />Risk factors? Radiopaque (made of calcium iliruinate)<r /><
r /><u>Risk factors</u>:<r />Chronic hemolysis<r />Cirrhosis (failure of ili
ruin conjugation)<r />Old age<r />Biliary infxn- notaly liver fluke Clonorch
is<r /><r />Black- hemolysis<r />Brown- infxn
y
1307742181631 1342707643393 Gallstones (cholelithiasis) can cause...?<r />W
hen might cholecystitis present w/o pain?
Can cause ascending cholangitis,
acute pancreatitis, ile stasis, cholecystitis.<r /><r />Can also --&gt; ili
ary colic -- gallstones interfere w/ ile flow, causing ile duct contraction. M
ay present w/o pain (e.g., in diaetics).<r /><r />Can cause fistula tw gall
ladder and small intestine. If gallstone ostructs ileocecal valve, air can e s
een in iliary tree on imaging.<r /><img src="329a - Gallstons.JPG" />
1307742236284 1342707643393 Dx/Tx of gallstones (cholelithiasis)? Dx w/ ra
dionuclide iliary scan, ultrasound.<r />Tx w/ cholecystectomy.<r /><img src="
329a - Gallstons.JPG" /><r />
1307742282157 1342707643393 Cholecystitis<r /><r />Etiology?<r />Las?
Inflammation of gallladder.<r /><r />Usually from gallstones; rarely ischemia
or infectious (CMV).<r /><r />Incr ALP if ile duct ecomes involved (e.g., a
scending cholangitis).

1307742327511 1342707643393 What is acute pancreatitis (mechanism)? Autodige
stion of pancreas y pancreatic enzymes.<r><img src="329 - Pancreatitis.JPG" /
>
1307742394370 1342707643393 Causes of acute pancreatitis? <>G</>allstone
s<r /><>E</>thanol<r /><>T</>rauma<r /><r /><>S</>teroids<r /><>M</
>umps<r /><>A</>utoimmune dz<r /><>S</>corpion sting<r /><>H</>ypercalc
emia/<>H</>yperlipidemia<r /><>E</>RCP<r /><>D</>rugs (e.g., sulfa drugs
)<r /><r />&quot;<>GET SMASHED</>&quot;
1307742419905 1342707643393 Epigastric adominal pain radiating to ack, ano
rexia, nausea<r /><r />Dz?
Acute pancreatitis
1307742445369 1342707643393 Las in acute pancreatitis
Elevated amylase
, lipase (higher specificity)<r><img src="329 - Pancreatitis.JPG" />
1307742505814 1342707643393 Acute pancreatitis can lead to...?
DIC<r /
>ARDS (pancreatic enzymes act on lung tissue)<r />Diffuse fat necrosis<r />Hyp
ocalcemia (Ca2+ collects in pancreatic Ca2+ soap deposits)<r />Pseudocyst forma
tion<r />Hemorrhage<r />Infxn<r />Multiorgan failure
1307742534958 1342707643393 Chronic pancreatitis can lead to...?
Pancreat
ic insufficiency:<r />steatorrhea, fat-solule vitamin deficiency, diaetes mel
litus, increased risk of pancreatic adenocarcinoma.
1307742550813 1342707643393 Chronic calcifying pancreatitis is strongly a/w.
..?
Alcoholism (&amp; smoking).
1307742561496 1342707643393 <img src="329 - Pancreatitis.JPG" /> Acute pa
ncreatitis.
1307742648024 1342707643393 Pancreatic adenocarcinoma:<r>Prognosis?<r>Wher
e does it occur?
Prognosis averages 6 months or less; very aggressive; us
ually already metastasized at presentation;<r>tumors more common in pancreatic
head (--&gt; ostructive jaundice).
1307742707120 1342707643393 Pancreatic adenocarcinoma:<r />At-risk groups?<
r />Markers?<r />A/w? Incr risk in Jewish and African-American males.<r /><r
/>CEA and CA-19-9 tumor markers.<r /><r />A/w cigarettes <u>ut not ethanol</
u>.
1307742788783 1342707643393 Pancreatic adenocarcinoma: often p/w....?
1.) Adominal pain radiating to ack<r>2.) Weight loss (due to malasorption an
d anorexia)<r>3.) Migratory thromophleitis -- redness and tenderness on palpa
tion of extremities (Trousseau's syndrome)<r>4.) Ostructive jaunice w/ palpal
e gallladder (Courvoisier's sign)<r><img src="330a - Pancreatic adenocarcinoma
.JPG" />
1307742859765 1342707643393 <img src="330a - Pancreatic adenocarcinoma-a.jpg
" />
Pancreatic adenocarcinoma<r>(note the large, heterogeneously enhancing
mass visile at the neck of pancreas)
1307742993041 1342707643393 H2 lockers: list, mechanism
Cimeti<>dine</
>, raniti<>dine</>, famoti<>dine</>, nizati<>dine</>.<r><r>Mech: reversi
le lock of histamine H2 receptors --&gt; decr H+ secretion y parietal cells.<
r><r>&quot;Take H2 lockers efore you <>DINE</> at a <>tale for 2</> (H2
)&quot;<r><img src="331a - GI therapy.JPG" />
1307743030387 1342707643393 H2 lockers: clinical use?
(Cimetidine, ran
itidine, famotidine, nizatidine)<r><r>Use: peptic ulcer, gastritis, mild esoph
ageal reflux.
1307743187401 1342707643393 H2 lockers: toxicity? (Cimetidine, ranitidine,
famotidine, nizatidine)<r /><r /><>Cimetidine</> is a potent inhiitor of P
-450; <r />it also has <u>antiandrogenic</u> effects (prolactin release, gyneco
mastia, impotence, decr liido in males);<r />can cross BBB (confusion, dizzine
ss, HA) and placenta.<r /><r />Both <span style="font-weight:600; text-decorat
ion: underline;">c</span><>imetidine </>and <span style="font-weight:600; text
-decoration: underline;">r</span><>anitidine</> decr renal excretion of <span
style="font-weight:600; text-decoration: underline;">cr</span>eatinine.<r /><r
/>Other H2 lockers (famotidine, nizatidine) are relatively free of these effec
ts.
1307743221813 1342707643393 Proton pump inhiitors (list, mechanism)
Omeprazole, lansoprazole.<r><r>Mech: irreversily inhiit H+/K+-ATPase in stom

ach parietal cells.<r><img src="331a - GI therapy.JPG" />
1307743254513 1342707643393 Clinical use of proton pump inhiitors (omepraz
ole, lansoprazole)<r><r>Peptic ulcer, gastritis, esophageal reflux, ZollingerEllison syndrome.
1307743329394 1342707643393 Bismuth, sucralfate: mechanism? Bind to ulcer a
se, providing physical protection, and allow HCO3- seretion to reestalish pH gr
adient in the mucous layer.
1307743347486 1342707643393 Bismuth, sucralfate: clinical use?
Incr ulc
er healing<r>Traveler's diarrhea
1307743403337 1342707643393 Triple therapy for H. pylori ulcers
<>M</>
etronidazole<r><>A</>moxicillin (or <>T</>CN)<r><>B</>ismuth<r>+ can al
so use a <>P</>PI<r><r>&quot;<>P</>lease <>MA</>ke <>T</>ummy <>B</>
etter&quot;
1307743433831 1342707643393 Misoprostol: mechanism A PGE1 analog.<r>Incr p
roduction and secretion of gastric mucous arrier, decr acid production.
1307743461264 1342707643393 Misoprostol: clinical use?
Prevention of NS
AID-induced peptic ulcers;<r>maintenance of a patent ductus arteriosis.<r><r>
Also used to induce laor.
1307743481931 1342707643393 Misoprostol: toxicity? Diarrhea.<r />Contraind
icated in women of childearing potential (aortifacient).<r /><r />(Makes eve
rything come out)
1307743523413 1342707643393 Muscarinic antagonists (for GI): list, mechanism
Pirenzeppine, propantheline.<r /><r />Mech: lock M1 receptors on ECL cells (d
ecr histamine secretion) and M3 receptors on parietal cells (decr H+ secretion)
1307743545516 1342707643393 Muscarinic antagonists (GI): clinical use?
(pirenzepine, propantheline)<r /><r />Peptic ulcer (rarely used)
1307743569100 1342707643393 GI muscarinic antagonists: agents and toxicity
(pirenzepine, propantheline)<r /><r />Tachycardia, dry mouth, difficulty focus
ing eyes.
1307743627179 1342707643393 Antacid use can affect...?
Alter gastric an
d urinary pH, delay gastric emptying =&gt; can affect asorption, ioavailailit
y, or urinary excretion of other drugs
1307743709628 1342707643393 Aluminum hydroxide (antacid): overuse? Constipa
tion and hypophosphatemia;<r>proximal muscle weakness, osteodystrophy, seizures
<r><r>&quot;Alu<>minimum</> amount of feces&quot;
1307743752402 1342707643393 Magnesium hydroxide (antacid): overuse? Diarrhea
, hyporeflexia, hypotension, cardiac arrest.<r><r>&quot;<>Mg</> = <>M</>us
t <>g</>o to the athroom&quot;
1307743806804 1342707643393 Calcium caronate (antacid): overuse? Hypercal
cemia, reound acid increase.
1307743830811 1342707643393 Adverse affects of antacids as a group All can
cause hypokalemia.<r><r>Can chelate and decr effectiveness of other drugs (e.g
., TCN)
1307743870564 1342707643393 Inflixima: mechanism? A monoclonal A to TNF,
<r />proinflammatory cytokine<r /><r />&quot;<>INFLIX</>ima <>INFLIX</>
pain on TNF&quot;
1307743887453 1342707643393 Inflixima: clinical use?
Crohn's dz<r />
Rheumatoid arthritis
1307743913441 1342707643393 Inflixima: toxicity? Infection (including rea
ctivation of latent TB)<r />Fever<r />Hypotension
1307743943211 1342707643393 Sulfasalazine: mechanism?
A comination of
sulfapyridine (antiacterial) and 5-aminosalicylic acid (anti-inflammatory).<r
/>Activated y colonic acteria.
1307743959912 1342707643393 Sulfasalazine: clinical use?
Ulcerative colit
is<r>Crohn's dz
1307743977995 1342707643393 Sulfasalazine: toxicity?
Malaise<r>Nause
a<r>Sulfonamide toxicity<r>Reversile oligospermia ("spermastopazine")
1307744023284 1342707643393 Ondansetron: mechanism? 5-HT3 antagonist.<r />P
owerful central-acting antiemetic.
1307744070603 1342707643393 Ondansetron: clinical use?
Control vomiting

postoperatively and in pts undergoing cancer chemotherapy.<r /><r />&quot;you
will not vomit w/ <>ONDANS</>etron, so you can go <>ON DANC</>ing&quot;
1307744100612 1342707643393 Metoclopramide: mechanism and effects? D2 recep
tor antagonist.<r />Incr resting tone, contractility, LES tone, motility.<r />
Does not influence colon transport time.
1307744117349 1342707643393 Metoclopramide: clinical use? Diaetic and pos
t-surgical gastroparesis.
1307744153139 1342707643393 Metoclopramide: toxicity?
Incr parkinsonia
n effects.<r />Restlessness, drowsiness, fatigue, depression, nausea, diarrhea.
<r />Contraindicated in pts w/ small owel ostruction or Parkinson's.
1326124777269 1342707643771 Rate-determining enzyme: Glycolysis
Phosphof
ructokinase-1 (PFK-1)<r /><r /><img src="pastes6zpsu.jpg" />
1326124794347 1342707643771 Rate-determining enzyme: Gluconeogenesis
Fructose-1,6-isphosphatase
1326124826928 1342707643771 Rate-determining enzyme: TCA cycle
Isocitra
te dehydrogenase
1326124845300 1342707643771 Rate-determining enzyme: Glycogen synthesis
Glycogen synthase
1326124861616 1342707643771 Rate-determining enzyme: Glycogenolysis Glycogen
phosphorylase
1326124898064 1342707643771 Rate-determining enzyme: De novo pyrimidine synt
hesis Caramoyl phosphate synthetase II<r /><r /><img src="pasteoqvlj9.jpg"
/>
1326124916544 1342707643771 Rate-determining enzyme: De novo purine synthesi
s
Glutamine-PRPP amidotransferase<r /><r /><img src="pasteoqvlj9.jpg" />
1326124928163 1342707643771 Rate-determining enzyme: Urea cycle<r><r>Activ
ated y?
Caramoyl phosphate synthetase I<r><r>N-acetyl glutamate<r />
<r />(CPS I for when you need to go #1)<r />
1326124943165 1342707643771 Rate-determining enzyme: Fatty acid synthesis
Acetyl-CoA caroxylase (ACC)
1326124962283 1342707643771 Rate-determining enzyme: Fatty acid oxidation
Carnitine acyltransferase I
1326124978529 1342707643771 Rate-determining enzyme: Ketogenesis
HMG-CoA
<>synthase</>
1326124989889 1342707643771 Rate-determining enzyme: Cholesterol synthesis
HMG-CoA reductase
1326385164112 1342707643574 Histone octamer suunits consist primarily of wh
at amino acid residues? Lysine, arginine (positively charged)
1326385217511 1342707643574 Histone that is not in nucleosome core H1 (ties
&quot;eads&quot; together)
1326385456194 1342707643574 Base + 5C sugar Nucleoside
1326385492168 1342707643574 Base + 5C sugar + phosphate
Nucleotide
1326385515833 1342707643574 Bond linking nucleotides
3'-5' phosphodie
ster ond
1326385630743 1342707643574 Bases with 2 rings
Purines (A, G)
1326385642942 1342707643574 Bases with 1 ring
Pyrimidines (C, U, T)
1326385882781 1342707643574 Purine &quot;recipe&quot; and precursor 1) Start
with sugar &amp; phosphate (PRPP)<r>2) Add ase<r><r>Precursor = IMP (inosin
e monophosphate)<r><r><img src="pasteoqvlj9.jpg" />
1326385895120 1342707643574 Pyrimidine &quot;recipe&quot; 1) Make temporar
y ase (orotate)<r />2) Add sugar &amp; phosphate (phosphoriosyl pyrophosphate
= PRPP)<r />3) Modify ase<r /><r /><img src="pasteoqvlj9.jpg" />
1326385957661 1342707643574 Converts rionucleotides to deoxyrionucleotides
Rionucleotide reductase<r /><r /><img src="pasteoqvlj9.jpg" />
1326386159216 1342707643574 Two metaolic pathways involving caramoyl phosp
hate
1) De novo pyrimidine synthesis<r>2) Urea cycle
1326386291784 1342707643574 Most common urea cycle disorder?<r />Inheritanc
e?<r />Excess sustrate?<r />Symptoms?
Ornithine transcaramoylase defi
ciency<r /><r />X-linked recessive<r /><r />Excess caramoyl phosphate is co
nverted to orotic acid (part of pyrimidine synthesis pathway)<r /><r />Orotic

acid in lood and urine, decreased BUN, sx of hyperammonemia
1326386410123 1342707643574 Inhiits rionucleotide reductase
Hydroxyu
rea (also increases fetal hemogloin- used in SCA)<r><r><img src="pasteoqvlj9.
jpg" />
1326386430216 1342707643574 Effect of 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP)
Blocks d
e novo purine synthesis<r><r><img src="pasteoqvlj9.jpg" />
1326386469247 1342707643574 Effect of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) Inhiits thymidi
late synthase (decreases dTMP)<r><r><img src="pasteoqvlj9.jpg" />
1326386490963 1342707643574 Inhiits dihydrofolate reductase (decreases dTMP
)
Methotrexate (MTX)<r /><r /><img src="pasteoqvlj9.jpg" />
1326386515626 1342707643574 Inhiits <>acterial</> dihydrofolate reducats
e (decreases dTMP)
Trimethoprim<r><r><img src="pasteoqvlj9.jpg" />
1326386702031 1342707643574 Deficiency in orotic aciduria and inheritance pa
ttern Iniility to convert orotic acid to UMP (de novo pyrimidine synthesis pa
thway)<r /><r />Due to defect in either <>orotic acid phosphoriosyltransfera
se</> or <>orotidine 5′-phosphate decaroxylase</><r /><r />Autosomal recessi
ve<r /><r /><img src="pasteoqvlj9.jpg" />
1326386807476 1342707643574 Megalolastic anemia that doesn't improve with B
12 or folic acid
Orotic aciduria<r />(inaility to convert orotic acid t
o UMP in de novo pyrimidine synthesis pathway)<r /><r />No hyperammonemia<r /
><r /><img src="pasteoqvlj9.jpg" />
1326386963368 1342707643574 Elevated orotic acid in urine 1) Orotic acidur
ia (<>no hyperammonemia</>)<r /><r />2) Ornithine transcaramoylase deficien
cy (<>hyperammonemia</>)
1326386986612 1342707643574 Treatment of orotic aciduria
Oral uridine
1326390491611 1342707643574 Degenerate/redundant (genetic code)
More tha
n 1 codon may code for the same amino acid
1326390717942 1342707643574 Unwinds DNA template at replication fork
Helicase
1326390751716 1342707643574 Prevents re-annealing of unwound DNA strands
Single strand inding proteins
1326391189632 1342707643574 -shaped region along DNA template where leading
and lagging strands are synthesized
Replication fork
1326582710194 1342707643574 Inhiits guanine synthesis
Mycophenolate mo
fetil
1326583077035 1342707643574 Defect in DNA mismatch repair causes what diseas
e?
Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC)
1326583151080 1342707643574 Type of doule strand DNA repair: rings togethe
r 2 ends of DNA fragments, no requirement for homology Nonhomologous end joinin
g
1326583267409 1342707643574 Direction of DNA and RNA synthesis
5 '--&gt
; 3'
1326583530273 1342707643574 DNA site where negative regulators (repressors)
ind; may e located anywhere Silencer
1326583758429 1342707643574 Prokaryotic RNA polymerase
One RNA polymera
se (multiple suunits) makes all 3 kinds of RNA
1326583790370 1342707643574 α-mnitin
Found in deth cp mushrooms<br
/><br />Inhibits RNA polymerse II; cuses liver filure if ingested
1326584298385 1342707643574 Polydenyltion signl AAUAAA
1326584335590 1342707643574 Heterogenous nucler RNA (hnRNA)
Initil
trnscript (cpped nd tiled trnscript is mRNA)
1326584416050 1342707643574 Antibodies to spliceosoml snRNPs
Seen in
lupus
1326584541266 1342707643574 Disese involving bnorml splicing
Bet th
lssemi
1326584796950 1342707643574 Enzyme tht &quot;chrges&quot; tRNA?<br>Energy
source?<br>Error prevention?
Aminocyl-tRNA synthetse (1 per AA, uses ATP)<b
r /><br />Mischrged tRNA reds correct codon but inserts wrong mino cid;<br /
>to prevent this, minocyl tRNA synthetse scrutinizes AA before nd fter bind
ing it to tRNA

1326584979858 1342707643574 Bind 30s subunit nd prevent ttchment of mino
Tetrcyclines
cyl-tRNA
1326585086047 1342707643574 -tRNA bond
Mde by minocyl-tRNA synthets
e; hs energy for formtion of peptide bond
1326585568467 1342707643574 Steps in protein synthesis
Initition, elon
gtion, termintion
1326585595779 1342707643574 Inhibit formtion of initition complex &mp; c
use misreding of mRNA Aminoglycosides
1326585624487 1342707643574 Blocks peptide bond formtion t 50s ribosoml s
ubunit; bcteriosttic Chlormphenicol (inhibits 50s peptidyltrnsferse)<br><b
r>Clindmycin
1326585643131 1342707643574 Bind 50S nd block trnsloction
Mcrolid
es
1326585807735 1342707643574 Energy sources for protein synthesis
<b>ATP <
/b>→ tRNA <b>Activtion </b>(chrging)<br><b>GTP</b> → tRNA <b>Gripping </b>(initit
ion) nd <b>Going</b> (trnsloction)
1326586372030 1342707643574 Tumor suppressors tht inhibit G1 to S progressi
on nd chromosome loction<br /><br />Activted by DNA dmge; muttions result
in unrestrined growth Rb (chromosome 13)<br />p53 (chromosome 17)
1326587978328 1342707643574 Enzyme tht crosslinks tropocollgen to mke col
lgen fibrils Lysyl oxidse
1326588522176 1342707643574 Consider in suspected child buse
Osteogen
esis imperfect (blue scler etc)
1326588614389 1342707643574 Abnorml type IV collgen, commonly X-linked rec
essive, nephritis, defness, oculr disturbnces
Alport's syndrome
1326588846529 1342707643574 Procedure used in pternity testing
PCR for
microstellite repets
1326588910353 1342707643574 Used to profile gene expression levels or to det
ect single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
Microrrys
1326589174177 1342707643574 In ELISA, ptient's blood is probed with
Either<br /><br />1) Antigen (to see if immune system recognizes it)<br />2) Ant
ibody (to see if n ntigen is present)
1326589486286 1342707643574 Genetics where both norml nd mutted mtDNA re
present, resulting in vrible expression in mitochondril inherited disese
Heteroplsmy
1326589601656 1342707643574 Hrdy-Weinberg equtions
p^2 + 2pq + q^2
= 1<br>p + q = 1<br><br>*Note: frequency of X-linked recessive disese in mles
= q, in femles = q^2
1326589675930 1342707643574 Chromosome involved in Prder-Willi nd Angelmn
's
15
1326589744741 1342707643574 X-linked dominnt disorder with phosphte wstin
g t proximl tubule
Hypophosphtemic rickets
1326589824615 1342707643574 <b>Mitochondril</b> disese with cute loss of
centrl vision, myoclonic epilepsy, nd mitochondril encephlopthy?<br /><br /
>Pth finding? Leber's hereditry optic neuropthy<br /><br />&quot;Rgged red
fibers&quot;
1326590266521 1342707643574 Multiple endocrine neoplsis inheritnce?<br><b
r>Gene ssocited with MEN 2A nd 2B? AD<br><spn style=" font-style:itlic;">
</spn><br><i>ret </i>gene
1326590336210 1342707643574 AD disorder of blood vessels with telngiectsi
, recurrent epistxis, skin discolortions, nd rteriovenous mlformtions
Hereditry hemorrhgic telngiectsi (Osler-Weber-Rendu syndrome)
1326662005977 1342707643574 Disese with incresed concentrtion of Cl- ions
in swet, mle infertility (bilterl bsence of vs deferens), ft-soluble vit
min deficiencies (A, D, E, K) Cystic fibrosis
1326662061258 1342707643574 CFTR secretes Cl- where, nd resorbs Cl- where?
Gted by?
Secretes Cl- in lungs nd GI trct<br /><br />Resorbs Cl- from s
wet<br><br>ATP-gted
1326662184295 1342707643574 Disese with crdic myopthy nd pseudohypertro
phy of clf muscles
Duchenne's musculr dystrophy

1326662237055 1342707643574 Longest known humn gene, nd function of its pr
otein Dystrophin- high rte of spontneous muttion leding to DMD, BMD<br /><
br />Helps nchor muscle fibers, primrily in skeletl nd crdic muscle<br /><
br /><img src="pstemz3lo2.jpg" />
1326662644629 1342707643574 Prognosis of second most common live-birth triso
my
Deth usully within first yer (Edwrd's syndrome, trisomy 18)
1326662868034 1342707643574 Nondisjunction in meiosis 1
AABB<br /><br />
AABB&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;__<br /><br />AB&nbsp;&nbsp;AB&nbsp;&nbsp;__&nbsp;&n
bsp;&nbsp;__<br /><br /><img src="pstesijrpv.jpg" />
1326662953807 1342707643574 Nondisjunction in meiosis 2
<img src="psteu
shm0q.jpg" />
1326663071451 1342707643574 Robertsonin trnsloction commonly involves wh
t chromosome pirs
13, 14, 15, 21, nd 22<br><br>All re <u>ccrocentric</u
> (centromeres ner the end; k very short p rm)
1326663140249 1342707643574 Robertsonin trnsloction- wht is it? Occurs w
hen the long rms of 2 crocentric chromosomes (chromosomes with centromeres ne
r their ends) fuse t the centromere nd the 2 short rms re lost<br /><br />B
lnced- norml phenotype<br />Unblnced- miscrrige, stillbirth, chromosoml i
mblnce<br /><br /><img src="pstet8gr9k.jpg" />
1326663208866 1342707643574 Chromosoml inversion involving centromere
Pericentric<br /><br />Proceeds thru meiosis
1326663232279 1342707643574 Chromosoml inversion not involving centromere
Prcentric<br><br>Does not procede thru meiosis
1326663343120 1342707643574 Willims syndrome muttion?<br><br>Electrolyte 
bnormlity in Willims? Congenitl microdeletion of long rm of chromosome 7 (in
cluding elstin gene)<br><br>Hyperclcemi (↑ sensitivity to vit D)
1326663417971 1342707643574 Disese with &quot;elfin&quot; fcies, hyperclc
emi (↑ sensitivity to vit D), CV problems, mentl retrdtion but good verbl ski
lls, extreme friendliness w/ strngers Willims syndrome<br /><br /><img src="p
steumlmd2.jpg" />
1326663515570 1342707643574 22q11 deletion presenttion
Cleft plte, Ab
norml fcies, Thymic plsi, Crdic defects, Hypoclcemi (secondry to prt
hyroid plsi)<br><br>CATCH 22
1326664102803 1342707643574 Vitmin A (Retinol) deficiency cuses wht?
Night blindness, dry skin
1326664199493 1342707643574 Wht re consequences of vitmin A excess?<br />
<br /> Arthrlgis, skin chnges, sore throt, lopeci, nd tertogenic effect
s (cleft plte, crdic bnormlities)<br />-pregnncy test must be done before
isotretinoin is prescribed for severe cne<br><br>*Vitmin A excess from Uworld
- <b>intrcrnil HTN, skin chnges, heptosplenomegly</b>
1326664497515 1342707643574 Thimine pyrophosphte (TPP; B1) is cofctor for
1) Pyruvte dehydrogense (glycolysis)<br />2) α-ketoglutrte dehydrogense (TCA
cycle)<br />3) Trnsketolse (HMP shunt)<br />4) Brnched-chin AA dehydrogense
1326664644488 1342707643574 Presenttion of B1 deficiency 1) Wernicke-Kors
koff (confusion, opthlmoplegi, txi, memory loss &mp; confbultion, perso
nlity chnges)<br /><br />2) Dry beriberi (polyneuritis &mp; symmetricl musc
le wsting)<br />2b) Wet beriberi (high-output hert filure - dilted crdiomyo
pthy - &mp; edem)<br /><br /><b>Note: deficiency leds to ATP depletion (</b>
<spn style="font-weight:600; text-decortion: underline;">glucose infusion cn
mke worse</spn><b>)</b><br /><b>=&gt; highly erobic tissues (brin, hert) r
e ffected first</b>
1326665096517 1342707643574 Cofctor for trnsmintion (eg. ALT, AST) nd d
ecrboxyltion rections, glycogen phosphorylse
Pyridoxl phosphte (fro
m vitmin B6)
1326665205385 1342707643574 B6 (pyridoxine) deficiency cn be induced by wh
t drugs?
Isonizid, orl contrceptives
1326665227043 1342707643574 B3 (nicin) derived from? Synthesis requires? Ph
rmcologicl use nd toxicity? Derived from tryptophn; synthesis requires B6 (
pyridoxine)<br><br>Used to tret hyperlipidemi, my cuse fcil flushing.
1326665326907 1342707643574 Enzymes requiring B12 s cofctor
1) Homoc

ysteine methyltrnsferse (methionine synthse)<br />2) Methomlonyl-CoA mutse<
br /><br />(Methionine nd Succinyl-CoA production)
1326665435113 1342707643574 Cuses of B12 deficiency? How to determine?
Mlbsorption (sprue, enteritis, <i>Diphyllobothrium ltum</i>)<br>Lck of intri
nsic fctor (pernicious nemi, gstric surgery)<br>Absence of terminl ileum (e
g. Crohn's dz)<br /><br />Use Schilling test to determine etiology of B12 defici
ency
1326665492655 1342707643574 Drugs tht cuse folic cid deficiency Phenytoi
n<br />Sulfonmides<br />Methotrexte
1326665558322 1342707643574 Required for conversion of NE to epinephrine
SAM
1326669317192 1342707643574 Excess vitmin D is seen in wht disese
Srcoidosis (↑ ctivtion of vitmin D by epithelioid mcrophges)<br /><br />Cus
es hyperclcemi, hyperclciuri, stupor
1330131908072 1342707643393 Indirect inguinl herni in infnts is due to wh
t?
Filure of processus vginlis to close
1330835965984 1342707643375 Deficiency of neutrl mino cid (tryptophn) tr
Hrtnup’s
isease; results in pell
nsporter in PT nd intestinl epithelium
agra
1330836702629 1342707643375 Where
oes PTH work in the nephron?
Proximal
tubule: inhibits Na+/phosphate cotransport → phosphate excretion<br><br>Distal tu
bule: stimulates basolateral Ca2+/Na+ exchange → Ca2+ reabsorption
1331084807210 1342707643651 A physician or
ers an invasive test for the wron
g patient<br><br />What is the appropriate ethical response?
No matter how se
rious or trivial a me
ical error, a physician is ethically obligate
to inform a
patient that a mistake has been ma
e
1331084854889 1342707643651 A patient re uests a treatment not covere
by hi
s insurer<br><br />What is the appropriate ethical response?
Never limit or

eny care because of the expense in time or money. Discuss all treatment options
with patients, even if some are not covere
by their insurance companies.
1331251894053 1342707643472 Type IV hypersensitivity reactions re uire what
kin
of antigens?
PROTEINS!!! (antigen must be presente
on MHC molecule t
o in
uce T-cell response)
1331398312778 1342707643651 NE on sleep
Decreases REM
1331408883304 1342707643375 Post-renal ARF Due to outflow obstruction (ston
es, BPH, neoplasia, congenital anomalies).<br><br><b>ONLY WITH BILATERAL OBSTRUC
TION!</b>
1331411373212 1342707643375 Simple cysts
Benign, common (occur in more th
an 40% of el
erly).<br /><br />Inci
ental fin
ing of thin, non-enhancing flui
c
ysts.
1331413025652 1342707643375 Potassium shifts<br /><br />Shifts K+ out of cel
ls
Causes <b>hyper</b>kalemia<br /><br />1) Low insulin (
ec Na/K pump)<br
/>2) Beta blockers (
ec Na/K pump)<br />3) Aci
osis, severe exercise (increase

H+/K+ exchange: & uot;<b>hyper on aci
</b>& uot;)<br />4) Hyperosmolarity<br />5
) Digitalis (blocks Na/K pump)<br />6) Cell lysis (eg. crush injury)
1331413357711 1342707643375 Potassium shifts<br><br>Shifts K+ into cells
Causes <b>hypo</b>kalemia<br><br>1) Insulin<br>2) Beta stimulation<br>3) Alkalos
is (
ecrease
H+/K+ exchange)<br>4) Hypo-osmolarity
1331505024132 1342707643552 Plasmo
ium: vivax/ovale vs. falciparum vs. malar
iae
<i>P. vivax / ovale</i><br />-48hr cycle (tertian: fever on 1st an
3r


ay)<br />-
ormant form in liver (hypnozoites); relapsing<br>-ovale not foun
in
western hemisphere<br /><br /><i>P. falciparum</i><br />-irregular fever patter
ns<br />-parasitize
RBCs occlu
e capillaries in brain (cerebral malaria), ki
ne
ys, lungs<br /><br /><i>P. malarie</i><br />-72hr cycle ( uartan: fever on 1st a
n
4th
ays)
1331567068022 1342707643472 Positive selection
Thymic cortex. T cells e
xpressing TCRs capable of bin
ing self MHC molecules survive.
1331567098361 1342707643472 Negative selection
Corticome
ullary junctio
n of thymus. T cells expressing TCRs with high affinity for self antigens un
erg
o apoptosis.

1331689529251 1342707643552 A
ult botulism clinical presentation
-Early s
ymptoms:
iplopia an

ry mouth<br />-Cranial nerve palsies<br />-Descen
ing sym
metrical weakness<br />(Unlike Guillain-Barré—classically ascen
ing)<br /><br />Atta
ck may manifest as epi
emic of stroke syn
romes, inclu
ing apparent aphasia <br
/>-affecting all ages
1331739730624 1342707643552 Positive-stran
e
RNA viruses Retrovirus, toga
virus, flavivirus, coronavirus, hepevirus, calicivirus, picornovirus.<br /><br /
><img src="pastej3_fj_.jpg" />
1331790630400 1342707643472 Receptor for Epstein-Barr virus: mneumonic
You can
rink <b>B</b>eer at the <b>Barr</b> when youre 21: <b>B cells, EBV, CD
-21</b>
1331851489694 1342707643375 Oliguria- associate
with nephrotic or nephritic
syn
rome?
Nephritic
1331879316219 1342707643762 HHV-6 Dz:<br />Roseola: high fevers for severa
l
ays that can cause seizures, followe
by a
iffuse macular rash.<br /><br />T
ransmission:<br />Not
etermine
.
1331909808923 1342707643393 Tx of carcinoi
tumor, VIPoma Somatostatin (oc
treoti
e)
1332381053027 1342707643746 Enterotoxigenic <i>E. coli</i> (ETEC) heat-stabl
e toxin (ST)<br /><br />Toxin?<br />Mechanism?<br />Manifestation?
Heat-sta
ble toxin (ST)<br /><br />Overactivates guanylate cyclase (↑cGMP); lea
s to
ecrea
se
reabsorption of NaCl an
H2O in gut<br /><br />Causes watery
iarrhea<br /><
br />& uot;Labile like the<b> </b>Air, <b>Stable</b> like the <b>G</b>roun
& uot
; (<b>G</b>uanylate cyclase)
y
1332390645482 1342707643472 Terminal
eoxynucleoti
yl transferase<br /><br /
>What is it?<br />Where is it expresse
?<br />What
oes it
o? A specialize
DN
A polymerase expresse
in immature (pre-B, pre-T) lymphocytes.<br /><br />T
T a


s nucleoti
es to the V,D, an
J exons
uring antibo
y gene recombination, enabl
ing the phenomenon of junctional
iversity
1332537385154 1342707643375 Renal stones<br /><br />pH that makes each preci
pitate? Uric aci
- low pH<br />Cystine- low pH<br />Calcium oxalate- neutral or
low pH<br />Calcium phosphate- high pH<br />Ammonium magnesium phosphate- high p
H<br />
1332612917497 1342707643689 Effect of loss of
opamine on the basal ganglia
<b>Excitatory pathway––</b> SNcs
opamine bin
s to D1 receptors (↑ motion). Therefore
, loss of
opamine in Parkinsons re
uces excitement of the excitatory pathway (
lea
s to ↓ motion).<br /><br /><b>Inhibitory pathway––</b> SNcs
opamine bin
s to D2
receptors, inhibiting the inhibitory pathway (↑ motion). Therefore, loss of
opami
ne re
uces inhibition of the inhibitory pathway (lea
s to ↓ motion).
1332706836626 1342707643689 Specific to PICA lesions
Nucleus ambiguus
effects<br><br>& uot;Dont <b>pick (PICA) </b>a <b>horse (hoarseness)</b> that
<b>cant eat (
ysphagia)</b>& uot;
1332706882373 1342707643689 Specific to AICA lesions
Facial nucleus e
ffects<br><br>& uot;<b>Facial
roop </b>means <b>AICA</b>s poope
& uot;
1332742492869 1342707643375 Diuretics to use if patient has low renal functi
on
Loop
iuretics --&gt; work
own to ClCr of ~10ml/min<br><br>Thiazi
es an

K+ sparing --&gt; work
own to ClCr of ~40ml/min
1332788029382 1342707643689 Ischemic brain
isease<br><br>Timeline?<br>Areas
affecte
?<br>Associate
pathological changes? Irreversible
amage after 5 mins
<br><br>Most vulnerable areas: hippocampus, neocortex, cerebellum, watershe
reg
ions<br><br>12-48 hrs: re
neurons<br>24-72 hrs: necrosis, neutrophils<br>3-5
a
ys: macrophages<br>1-2 weeks: reactive gliosis (astrocytes) &amp; vascular proli
feration<br>&gt;2 weeks: glial scar
1332789672422 1342707643689 Optic information pathway<br /><br />Optic nerve
?<br />Optic tract?<br />Optic ra
iations?
<img src="pastewgo9lu.jpg" />
1332910701066 1342707643552 Borrelia recurrentis<br />Disease?<br />Transmis
sion? Causes: Recurrent fever (recurrent b/c of variable surface Ags)<br /><br
/>Transmission: Louse
1333051943497 1342707643583 Tumors associate
w/ SVC syn
rome
Small ce
ll &gt; epi
ermoi
&gt; a
eno &gt; large cell

1333086352943 1342707643552 Viral morphology<br><br /><img src="paste5falpm.
jpg" /> <img src="pastel0tueo.jpg" />
1333246495325 1342707643689 D
x of brain lesions:<br><br>Ring-enhancing?<br>
Uniformly enhancing?<br>Heterogenously enhancing?
Ring-enhancing: metastas
es, abcesses, toxo, primary CNS lymphoma (associate
w/ AIDS, EBV)<br><br>Unifor
mly enhancing: metastatic lymphoma (often B-cell non-Ho
gkins), meningioma, meta
stasis (usually ring-enhancing)<br><br>Heterogeneously enhancing: glioblastoma m
ultiforme
1333297354794 1342707643662 Tiagabine
Use
for partial seizures (simpl
e or complex)<br /><br />Mechanism: inhibits GABA reuptake
1333297467675 1342707643662 Vigabatrin
Use
for partial seizures (simpl
e or complex)<br /><br />Mechanism: <b>irreversibly inhibits GABA transaminase</
b> --&gt; increases GABA<br /><br /><img src="pastegunamh.jpg" />
1333297525260 1342707643662 Levetiracetam Use
for partial (simple or comp
lex) an
generalize
seizures (tonic-clonic only)<br /><br />Mechanism: unknownmay mo
ulate GABA an
glutamate release<br /><br /><img src="pastegunamh.jpg" /
>
1333384771909 1342707643689 Anesthetics: how
oes the lung affect action?
Increase
alveolar ventilation = increase
gas tension
1333384834523 1342707643689 Anesthetics: how
oes bloo
solubility affect ac
tion? How is it measure
?
High bloo
solubility = high bloo
/gas partition
coefficient = more gas re uire
to saturate bloo
= slower onset of action
1333385063604 1342707643689 Anesthetics: how
oes tissue (eg. brain) solubil
ity affect action? How is it measure
? High AV concentration gra
ient = high br
ain solubility = lots re uire
to saturate tissue = slower onset of action
1333399142006 1342707643689 Nonbenzo hypnotics: mechanism? Act via the BZ1
receptor subtype an
are reverse
by flumazenil
1333399160366 1342707643689 Nonbenzo hypnotics: list?
Zolpi
em, zalepl
on, eszoplicone
1333399180136 1342707643689 Nonbenzo hypnotics: clinical use?
Insomnia
1333399247856 1342707643689 Nonbenzo hypnotics: toxicity? metabolism?
Ataxia, hea
aches, confusion. Short
uration b/c of rapi
metabolism by liver en
zymes.<br /><br />Unlike ol
er se
ative-hypnotics, cause only mo
est
ay-after p
sychomotor
epression an
few amnestic effects.<br />Lower
epen
ance risk than
benzo
iazepines.
1333490517334 1342707643552 RNA viral taxonomy
<img src="pasteaiuz_h.jp
g" />
1333491602621 1342707643552 DNA viral taxonomy
<img src="pastervnpp8.jp
g" />
1333756103728 1342707643552 When
o you see HBeAg?<br /><br />Acute HBV?<br
/>Win
ow?<br />Chronic HBV (high infectivity)?<br />Chronic HBV (low infectivity
)?<br />Recovery?<br />Immunize
?
<span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecor
ation: un
erline;">acute
isease</span> <br />[not in win
ow phase]<br /><span s
tyle="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">chronic carrier state (high
infectivity)</span><br />[not in chronic carrier state (low infectivity)]<br />[
not in complete recovery]<br />[not in immunize
]
1333756234958 1342707643552 When
o you see Anti-HBeAg?<br /><br />Acute HBV
?<br />Win
ow?<br />Chronic HBV (high infectivity)?<br />Chronic HBV (low infect
ivity)?<br />Recovery?<br />Immunize
? [not in acute
z]<br />[not in win
ow ph
ase]<br />[not in chronic carrier state (high infectivity)]<span style="font-wei
ght:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;"><br />chronic carrier state (low infectivi
ty)</span><br /><span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">compl
ete recovery</span><br />[not in immunize
]
1333767039778 1342707643725 Seizure
rugs: the big chart
<img src="pastej
pkmvy.jpg" />
1333825727740 1342707643789 Which atypical antipsychotic may prolong the QT
interval?
Ziprasi
one
1333830313629 1342707643725 Primary immuno
eficiencies: the big chart
<img src="pastegxucnn.jpg" />
1333918483607 1342707643596 Initial workup of anemia
1) MCV<br />2) R

eticulocyte count (correcte
)<br /><br />If anemic an
correcte
reticulocyte co
unt is &gt;3%, marrow is respon
ing appropriately (takes a few
ays, so wont be
evi
ent on acute blee
for example).
1333918795309 1342707643596 Correcte
reticulocyte count e uation Correcte

retic count = (Hct / 45) * reticulocyte %<br /><br />*with <b>polychromasia </
b>(from even younger RBCs, which take ~2
ays to mature),
ivi
e answer by 2.
1333919086428 1342707643596 Packe
RBC transfusion an
Hb increase 1 unit o
f packe
RBCs shoul
increase Hb by 1g/
L an
Hct by 3%.
1333919437845 1342707643596 Low MCV with high RDW? Iron
eficiency anemia!<
br><br>(if it were a thalassemia, for example, they woul
be uniformly small an

RDW woul
not be high)
1333919655847 1342707643596 RDW reference range
11-15%
1333919828127 1342707643596 Target cells suggest what
iseases?
alcoholi
sm, hemoglobinopathies (ie thalassemias, SCD, HbC)
1333919955318 1342707643596 RBCs in peripheral smear of microcytic anemiashow can you tell?
Will be hypochromatic (greater central pallor)
1333920514297 1342707643596 Physical signs of anemia
Spoon nails (koi
lonychia)<br>Cheilosis (cracke
lip corners)<br>Pale conjunctiva<br>Pale palmar
creases<br>Pica
1333920587466 1342707643596 Serum ferritin represents what? How much iron yo
u have =&gt; correlates with amount of iron store
in bone marrow
1333920875588 1342707643596 Relation between iron stores in marrow an
serum
transferrin (ma
e by liver)
Iron
eficient =&gt; liver makes more transferri
n (therefore TIBC increases)<br /><br />High iron stores in marrow =&gt;
ownreg
ulates transferrin<br /><br />*TIBC an
transferrin are the same thing
1333921052136 1342707643596 Normal serum iron an
transferrin (an
% sat)
100, 300, 33%
1333921787265 1342707643596 Why
o you get microcytic RBCs when there is a p
roblem with making Hb? All microcytic anemias have a problem making Hb. <br /><
br />The Hb concentration
etermines the number of cell
ivisions. If Hb synthes
is is
ecrease
, takes more
ivisions to achieve normal Hb concentration within
the cell =&gt; smaller cells.
1333922072944 1342707643596 Hemoglobin = heme + globin<br /><br />Heme = ?<b
r />Globin = ? Heme = iron + protoporphyrin<br /><br />Globin = alpha, beta,
e
lta, gamma chains<br /><br />HbA = alpha2, beta2<br />HbA2 = alpha2,
elta2<br /
>HbF = alpha2, gamma2
1333922242359 1342707643596 Anemia of chronic
isease<br><br>Concept?
Iron is an important limiting nutrient for bugs (esp bacteria). In chronic infec
tion, we try to keep iron low to starve the bugs. In chronic non-infectious infl
ammation, bo
y assumes there is infection an
lowers iron.
1333922285425 1342707643596 Where is iron store
normally? Macrophages in t
he bone marrow
1333922472559 1342707643596 Distinguish between iron
eficiency anemia an
a
nemia of chronic
z
Iron
eficiency: High transferrin/TIBC, low ferritin<br
/><br />ACDz: High ferritin levels (correlates with high iron & uot;locke
away&
uot; in bone marrow macrophages)
1333943703544 1342707643725 Megestrol acetate
Appetite stimulant
1333988758795 1342707643596 Heme synthesis pathway Begins in the mitochon
r
ia. First rxn is succinyl coA (from TCA cycle), which is put together with glyci
ne by ALA synthase.<br /><br />Rate-limiting enzyme in heme synthesis = ALA synt
hase<br />Cofactor = pyri
oxine.<br /><br />Further steps in cytoplasm, then ret
urns to mito as protoporphyrin. Combine
in mito with Fe by a chelatase- so it i
s calle
ferrochelatase.<br /><br />Ferrochelatase combines Fe with protoporphyr
in an
forms heme.
1333988855726 1342707643596 Fee
back on heme synthesis
Works on the rat
e-limiting enzyme (
elta-ALA synthase).<br><br>Inhibite
by heme (final pro
uct)
an
glucose.
1333991637238 1342707643596 Reversible si
eroblastic anemias, an
mechanisms
<span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">Alcohol</span>; mitoc
hon
rial poison. Iron is
elivere
to RBC precursor an
goes into mitochon
ria,

but cant be use
b/c mitochon
ria are screwe
up. Iron cant get out an
buil
s
up in mitochon
ria.<br /><b><br /></b><span style="font-weight:600; text-
ecora
tion: un
erline;">Pyri
oxine (B6)
ef</span> (eg. from INH). Pyri
oxine is cofac
tor for δ-ALA synthase, so no B6 = no heme. Iron
oesn’t know that, so goes to the m
ito, waiting for porphyrin, lea
ing to ringe
si
eroblast.<br /><b><br /></b><sp
an style="font-weight:600; text-
ecoration: un
erline;">Lea
poisoning</span>. L
ea

enatures ferrochelatase (lesser effect on δ-ALA
ehy
ratase). So when iron co
mes into mitochon
ria, it cant hook up with protoporphyrin =&gt;
ecrease
heme
.
1333991685049 1342707643596 Irreversible si
eroblastic anemia
X-linke


efect in δ-ALA synthase gene
1333991777429 1342707643596 Labs/histo in si
eroblastic anemias
↑ iron, no
rmal TIBC/transferrin, ↑ ferritin<br /><br />Since mitochon
ria are perinuclear in
RBC precursor an
iron accumulates, get ringe
si
eroblasts (the marker for si

eroblastic anemia). Nee
to
o <b>marrow with prussian blue</b> stain to see thi
s.<br /><br /><img src="pastet_tnan.jpg" /><br />
1333992744554 1342707643596 Normal Hb electrophoresis: percents of
ifferent
Hb?
HbA (alpha2-beta2) ~ 97%<br />HbA2 (alpha2-
elta2) ~ 1-3%<br />HbF (alph
a2-gamma2) &lt; 1%
1333993589611 1342707643596 α-thlssemi: everything you need to know on one
crd
Defect in lph globin gene(s) --&gt; dec lph globin synthesis<br /><b
r />1) Seen in Asin nd Africn popultions.<br /><br />2) Alph thlssemi mi
nor will not show up on hemoglobin electrophoresis b/c this test expresses Hb ty
pes s %, nd ll (HbA, HbA2, HbF) require lph chin (so ll will be eqully d
ecresed).<br /><br />3) There re 4 genes tht encode lph globin.<br /><br />
Lose 1 --&gt; totlly symptomtic<br />Lose 2 --&gt; mild microcytic nemi (l
ph thlssemi minor)<br />Lose 3 --&gt; trouble; 4 bet chins now get togethe
r nd form <b>HbH</b> (this will show up on Hb electrophoresis)<br />Lose 4 --&g
t; hydrops fetlis nd deth; <b>Hb Brts</b> (4 gmm chins)
1333994485829 1342707643596 β-thalassemia: everything you need to know one car
d
Defect in splicing, promotor sequences --&gt; decreased eta gloin synt
hesis <r /><r />1) Seen in Greek, Italian, African populations (not Asians)<r
/><r />2) HA is decreased (alpha2-eta2), ut HA2 and HF can increase. This
shows up on H electrophoresis.<r /><r />3) β-thalassemia minor is heterozygous
, reduced eta chain. Mild, usually asymptomatic. Confirmed y &gt;3.5% HA2 on
H electrophoresis.<r /><r />4) β-thalassemia major is homozygous. <>Asent</>
eta chain =&gt; severe anemia requiring repeated transfusions. Death often fro
m iron overload (2' hemochromatosis), transfusion infxns. Greatly reduced life e
xpectancy.
1333994761702 1342707643596 β-thalassemia major (Cooley's anemia) phenotype
<img src="pastee9cu1c.jpg" /><r />&quot;Hair-on-end&quot;/&quot;Crew-cut&quot;
from marrow expansion<r /><r /><img src="paste5tjzrg.jpg" /><r />&quot;Chipmu
nk facies&quot;
1333995027777 1342707643596 When can someone with sickle cell trait or etathalassemia minor e symptomatic?
Comined HS and eta-thalassemia hetero
zygote. Mild-to-moderate sickle cell disease, depending on amount of eta gloin
that is produced.
1333995328659 1342707643596 Important/common causes of iron deficiency in:<
r /><r />Premature infants?<r />Infant?<r />Women under 50?<r />Men under 50
?<r />Over 50?<r /> Premature infants- low iron stores; all must e given su
pplemental Fe<r /><r />Infant- leeding Meckel's diverticulum<r /><r />Women
under 50- menorrhagia<r /><r />Men under 50- peptic ulcer dz (usu duodenal)<
r /><r />Over 50- colon cancer (right leeds, left ostructs)
1333995550221 1342707643596 Main la test to distinguish iron deficiency fro
m anemia of chronic disease?
Serum ferritin<r><r>(low in iron deficieny, hi
gh in ACDz)
1333995987802 1342707643596 Lead poisoning<r /><r />Does what to heme synt
hesis?<r />Peripheral smear?<r />X-ray?
Inhiits<> ferrochelatase</> a
nd ALA dehydratase, inhiiting heme synthesis.<r /><r />Inhiits rionuclease,
which degrades rRNA --&gt; coarse asophilic stippling from persistent riosome

s.<r /><r />Depositis in epiphyses --&gt; growth failure.<r /><r /><r /><im
g src="pastedxr7wp.jpg" /><r />Coarse asophilic stippling<r /><r /><img src=
"pastefrzhct.jpg" /><r />Lead in epiphyses
1333996846310 1342707643596 Lead exposure scenarios Old house with chipped p
aint (esp. for kids)<r><r>Auto shop (atteries), factory (esp. munitions)<r><
r>Moonshine (make alcohol in old car radiators)<r><r>Pottery (lead-ased pain
t)
1334004975547 1342707643768 Cotton-wool spots on fundoscopic exam CMV (may
also occur with esophagitis)<r /><r />Neurologic (retinitis)<r /><r />CD4 &
lt;50
1334005051070 1342707643768 Dementia; must differentiate from other causes
Directly associated with HIV<r /><r />Neurologic (dementia)
1334005217072 1342707643768 Superficial vascular proliferation; iopsy revea
ls lymphocytic inflammation
HHV-8 (Kaposi's sarcoma)<r /><r />Oncologic (s
uperficial neoplastic proliferation of vasculature)<r /><r />*do not confuse w
ith <i>B. henslae</i>*
1334005441943 1342707643768 Often on lateral tongue EBV (hairy leukoplakia)<
r /><r />Dermatologic (not preneoplastic)
1334005511668 1342707643768 Often on oropharynx (Waldeyer's ring) Non-Hodg
kin's lymphoma (large cell type); may e associated with EBV<r /><r />Oncologi
c
1334005575724 1342707643768 Squamous cell carcinoma; often in anus (MSM) or
cervix (females)
HPV<r><r>Oncologic
1334005644042 1342707643768 Focal or multiple ring-enhancing lesions
Primary CNS lymphoma; associated with EBV<r /><r />Oncologic
1334005803886 1342707643768 Lung iopsy reveals cells with intranuclear (owl
's eye) inclusions
CMV<r><r>Respiratory (interstitial pneumonia)
1334005838100 1342707643768 Pleuritic pain, hemoptysis, infiltrates on imagi
ng
<i>Aspergillus fumigatus</i><r><r>Respiratory (invasive aspergillosis)
1334005886181 1342707643768 Pneumonia
<i>Pneumocystis jiroveci </i>(PC
P)<r><r>Respiratory (pneumonia)<r><r>CD4 &lt;200
1334005915521 1342707643768 TB-like disease <i>Mycoacterium avium-intracell
ulare</i><r><span style=" font-style:italic;"></span><r>Respiratory<r><r>CD4
&lt;50
1334072161364 1342707643596 If you are B12 or folate-deficient, what will e
elevated and why does it matter?
Homocysteine; CV risk factor (damages en
dothelium).<r /><r />(most common cause of elevated serum homocysteine is fola
te deficiency)<r /><r /><img src="paste07p39o.jpg" />
1334077117391 1342707643596 What changes in B12 ut not folate deficiency?
Neuro symptoms (demyelination of CST &amp; dorsal columns; dementia)<r />*notecan correct anemia of B12 deficiency with high-dose folate, ut neuro symptoms
persist<r /><r />Elevated methylmalonic acid<r /><img src="pasterc_oc1.jpg" /
>
1334077650374 1342707643596 Nutrients related to anemia- where are they aso
red? Iron- as Fe2+ in duodenum<r /><r />Folate- jejunum<r /><r />B12/intr
insic factor- terminal ileum
1334077985136 1342707643596 Causes of B12 deficiency
Pernicious anemi
a (most common)<r />Pure veganism<r />Chronic pancreatitis- can't cleave off R
factor<r />D. latum<r />Bacterial overgrowth, eg. from stasis (acteria will
consume B12)<r />Terminal ileal disease (eg. crohns)
1334078577079 1342707643596 <img src="pastezty0uc.jpg" /><r /><r />What is
this? The slide exhiits a hypersegmented neutrophil (pathognomonic of B12 or
folate deficiency) and a mature lymphocyte. The RBCs are macroovalocytes (egg sh
aped). The most likely origin is folate deficiency owing to only a 3-4 month sup
ply of folate in the liver.<r /><r />Alcohol also locks the asortion of fol
ate in the jejunum.
1334084914867 1342707643596 Blood count in B12/folate deficiency
Pancytop
enia; severe macrocytic anemia, neutropenia, thromocytopenia<r><r>(everything
in the marrow is too ig and cannot get out into the circulation; macrophages k
ill them all)

1334086915803 1342707643596 Ddx of normocytic anemia with corrected retic &l
t; 2% Nonhemolytic<r /><r /><>1) Early iron deficiency</> (eg. acute leed
) – no increase in retics /c not enough time (need 5-7 days for BM to react)<r /
><>2) Early anemia of chronic dz</> – normocytic efore microcytic<r /><>3) Ap
lastic anemia</> – caused y radiation, drugs, virus (pancytopenia = HCV, pure RB
C aplasia = parvovirus)<r /><>4) Renal dz </>– decreased EPO
1334087407130 1342707643596 Ddx of normocytic anemia with corrected retic &g
t; 3% Hemolytic<r /><r /><>Extravascular</> (macrophages in cords of Bilro
th)<r />1) RBC picked up IgG or C3 (macs have receptors)<r />2) RBC in ad sh
ape, can't exit cords (spherocytes, sickle cells)<r /><r /><>Intravascular</
><r />1) Mechanical destruction (aortic stenosis from icuspid valve, prostheti
c valve)<r />2) IgM-mediated complement activation (eg. PNH)
1334087621881 1342707643596 End products and manifestations of hemolysis<r
/><r />Extravascular?<r />Intravascular?
<u>Extravascular</u><r />-macro
phages remove RBCs<r />-unconj iliruin is the end product<r />-jaundice is t
he clinical manifestation<r />-no UCB in urine (lipid solule, ound to alumin
)<r /><r /><u>Intravascular</u><r />-hemogloin in urine, decreased haptoglo
in<r />-usually no jaundice
1334087754211 1342707643596 Haptogloin's jo
To ind hemogloin loose
in lood. Exists to retrieve valuale hemogloin from intravascular hemolytic e
vents. Complexes with H, and is phagocytosed y reticular endothelial system.<
r><r>Therefore, in intravascular hemolysis, free haptogloin levels decrease.
1334089508380 1342707643596 Intrinsic causes of hemolysis MAD<r /><r />M
emrane defect (spherocytosis, PNH)<r />Anormal H (sickle cell, HC defect)<
r />Deficiency of enzyme (G6PD def, pyruvate kinase def)
1334089965556 1342707643596 Hereditary spherocytosis clinical manifestations
Splenomegaly<r>Pigment gallstones (from high UCB)<r>Jaundice (UCB)
1334092543692 1342707643552 Empiric treatment of meningitis Ceftriaxone and
vancomycin; add ampicillin if <i>Listeria</i> is suspected
1334097282212 1342707643417 Fetal adrenal gland
Consists of an outer adu
lt zone and an inner active fetal zone.<r><r>Adult zone is dormant during earl
y fetal life ut egins to secrete cortisol late in gestation.<r>(Cortisol secr
etion is controled y ACTH and CRH from fetal pituitary and placenta).<r><r>Re
sponsile for fetal lung maturation and surfactant production.
1334099947170 1342707643417 Growth hormone regulation
Released in <>p
ulses</> in response to GHRH<r><r>GH increases during exercise and sleep<r>G
H inhiited y glucose and somatostatin
1334099998657 1342707643417 What is the function of growth hormone? Stimulat
es linear growth and muscle mass through somatomedin secretion<r /><r />Increa
ses insulin resistance (diaetogenic)
1334102916874 1342707643417 Receptor-associated tyrosine kinase (JAK/STAT pa
thway)<r /><r />What endocrine hormones use this signaling pathway? Prolacti
n<r />GH<r />Cytokines (eg. IL-2, IL-6, IL-8...)
1334102958856 1342707643417 Intrinsic tyrosine kinase (MAP kinase pathway)<
r /><r />What endocrine hormones use this signaling pathway? Insulin<r>IGF-1
<r>FGF<r>PDGF<r><r>(think growth factors)
1334103033984 1342707643417 Steroid receptor<r /><r />What endocrine hormo
nes use this signaling pathway? Cytosolic<r />-estrogen, testosterone, progeste
rone, cortisol, aldosterone<r />-vitamin D<r /><r />Nuclear<r />-T3/T4
1334103193520 1342707643417 IP3<r /><r />What endocrine hormones use this
signaling pathway?
GnRH<r />Oxytocin<r />ADH (V1)<r />TRH<r /><r />His
tamine (H1)<r />Angiotensin II<r />Gastrin<r /><r />(GOAT HAG)
1334103224348 1342707643417 cGMP<r><r />What endocrine hormones use this s
ignaling pathway?
NO (EDRF)<r>ANP<r><r>(vasodilators)
1334103429756 1342707643417 cAMP<r /><r />What endocrine hormones use this
signaling pathway?
FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, MSH (anterior pituitary)<r /><r />
GHRH, CRH, ADH (V2) (hypothalamic/posterior pituitary)<r /><r />PTH, calcitoni
n (parathyroids, thyroid)<r /><r />hCG, Glucagon (random)
1334159658255 1342707643417 What is a physiological state with increased SHB
G? A pathological one? Pregnancy<r /><r />Alcoholic liver disease

1334174160398 1342707643371 What is a sister chromatid? A homologous chromos
ome?
Sister chromatids are <>two identical copies</> of a chromatid connect
ed y a centromere.<r /><r />Compare sister chromatids to homologous chromosom
es, which are the two <>different copies of the same chromosome</> that diploi
d organisms inherit (one from each parent)<r /><r />Sister chromatids contain
the same genes and same alleles, and homologous chromosomes contain the same gen
es ut two copies of alleles, each of which might or might not e the same as ea
ch other.<r /><r /><img src="pastee69y6n.jpg" />
1334175207507 1342707643371 Best test to confirm menopause?<r /><r />Sourc
e of estrogens after menopause? ↑↑ FSH<r /><r />Estrone from peripheral aromatizat
ion of androgens.
1334176277621 1342707643371 <img src="pasteyecxic.jpg" /><r /><r />Diagnos
is?<r /><r />1)<r />2)<r />3)<r />4)
1) Defective androgen receptor<
r />2) Testosterone-secreting tumor or <>exogenous steroids</><r />3) Primary
hypogonadism<r />4) Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism
1334180311068 1342707643371 Kallmann syndrome<r /><r />What is it?<r />Si
gns/symptoms?<r />Heredity?<r />Hormones?
Defective development of GnRH ce
lls and olfactory placode;<r /><r />↓ synthesis of GnRH in the hyphothalamus<r
/>Anosmia<r />Lack of secondary sexual characteristics<r /><r />Autosomal dom
inant<r /><r />↓ GnRH, FSH, LH, testosterone, sperm count
1334199969501 1342707643425 Health care provider
HBV (from needle stick)
1334200010096 1342707643425 Positive PAS stain
Tropheryma whippelii (Wh
ipple's disease)
1334200030591 1342707643425 Fungal infection in diaetic
<i>Mucor </i>or
<i>Rhizopus </i>spp.
1334200048052 1342707643425 Asplenic patient
Encapsulated, esp SHiN o
rganisms
1334200062882 1342707643425 Chronic granulomatous dz
Catalase-positiv
e microes
1334200084018 1342707643425 Neutropenic patients
<i>Candida alicans </i>
(systemic)<r /><i>Aspergillus</i><r><span style=" font-style:italic;"></span><
r>*note: T-cell deficiencies predispose to superficial candidiasis, ut <>neut
rophils</> prevent hematogenous spread<r>=&gt; superficial candida, think T-ce
ll defect<r>=&gt; disseminated candida, think neutrophil defect
1334200099789 1342707643425 Bilateral Bell's palsy <i>Borrelia urgdorferi
</i>(Lyme dz)
1334353677234 1342707643725 Free edge of lesser omentum contains what?
Common ile duct, hepatic artery, portal vein
1334536730828 1342707643716 S1
Lateral side of foot
1334616696741 1342707643375 What is Berkson's ias? A type of selection ias
in which hospitalized patients serve as the control group
1334617684976 1342707643583 Effect of alveolar hypocapnia Bronchoconstrict
ion
1334619114286 1342707643583 Risk factors for ostructive sleep apnea
1) Oesity<r>2) Tonsillar hypertrophy<r>3) Hypothyroidism
1334619344888 1342707643583 Oesity hypoventillation syndrome<r><r>What is
it?<r />Las?<r>Sequelae?
Aka. Pickwickian syndrome<r><r>Restrictive-pat
tern disease due to oesity impairing chest wall expansion<r><r>Chronically lo
w PaO2, elevated PaCO2<r><r>As with ostructive sleep apnea, may have erythroc
ytosis, pulmonary HTN, right ventricular failure
1334620272525 1342707643583 Sta wound to neck, right-sided just aove the c
lavicle and lateral to the manurium. What is likely injured?<r><r>Sta wound
to left 5th intercostal space, midclavicular line. What is likely injured?
Pleura<r><r>Left lung (if deep enough, might get LV)
1334620348335 1342707643583 Signs of tension pneumothorax Tachycardia w/ h
ypotension<r>Tachypnea w/ hypoxia<r>Asence of reath sounds<r>Hyperresonance
to percussion
1334620645372 1342707643797 Mechanism of S4 heart sound
Atrial contracti
on against a ventricle that has reached limit of compliance (stiff ventricle)
1334621188823 1342707643375 Supplies posterior lim and genu of the internal

capsule, optic tract, LGN, uncus, hippocampus, and amygdala
Anterior choroid
al artery (last ranch of internal carotid efore it trifurcates)
1334627989749 1342707643375 What is required for inding of glutamate to NMD
A receptors?
Glycine inding<r><r>Glycine is a co-agonist for glutamate and
is required for the inding of glutamate to NMDA receptors
1334639233742 1342707643797 How much volume loss can e compensated w/o drop
in lood pressure or cardiac output?<r><r>What happens to cardiac contraction
velocity on administration of volume in hypovolemic shock?
Approx 10% of ci
rculating volume<r><r>Contraction velocity decreases /c sympathetic tone will
e (partly) relieved
1334690981122 1342707643596 Increased serum protoporphyrin levels will e se
en when?
Iron deficiency anemia, lead poisoning, erythropoietic protoporp
hyria
1334691442270 1342707643375 Toxic megacolon<r><r>A/w?<r>S/sx?<r>Dx?
Can e complication of <>ulcerative colitis</><r><r>Adominal pain, distenti
on, fever, diarrhea, shock<r><r>Diagnose w/ plain X-ray (invasive procedures r
isk perforation)
1334691972242 1342707643375 What is matching?<r /><r />Advantages and disa
dvantages of matching in case-control studies? Alignment of independent varial
es not eing tested etween cases and controls (eg. age, sex)<r /><r />Advanta
ge- decreases confounding<r />Disadvantage- risk of selection ias
1334814319826 1342707643552 Ethamutol<r /><r />Mechanism?<r />Clinical u
se?<r />Toxicity?
Decreases carohydrate polymerization of mycoacterium c
ell wall y locking arainosyltransferase<r /><r />Mycoacterium TB<r /><r
/>Optic neuropathy (red-green color lindness)
1334844285052 1342707643552 Chloroquine<r /><r />Mechanism?<r />Clinical
use?<r />Toxicity?
Blocks <i>Plasmodium</i> heme polymerase<r /><r /><i>P
lasmodium </i>spp, also mefloquine for treatment or prophylaxis;<r />Quinine fo
r resistant species in comination with pyrimethamine/sulfonamide.<r /><r />Re
tinopathy, hemolysis in G6PD deficiency<r />*don't use in psoriasis
1334845257820 1342707643552 Cidofovir<r><r>Mechanism?<r>Clinical use?<r>
Toxicity?
Preferentially inhiits viral DNA polymerase. Does <>not</> re
quire phosphorylation y viral kinase.<r><r>CMV retinitis in immunocompromised
; acyclovir-resistant HSV. Long half-life.<r><r>Nephrotoxicity (co-administer
with <>proenecid</>)
1334942364239 1342707643375 Coronal rain section: lael<r /><r /><img src
="paste60np44.jpg" /> <img src="pastegm1xiz.jpg" />
1334950374388 1342707643375 Simple vs. facilitated diffusion (graph)
<img src="paste_61w8j.jpg" />
1334956908883 1342707643574 DNA methylation in replication?<r><r>Hypermeth
ylation?
Template strand cytosine and adenine are methylated in DNA repli
cation (allows mismatch repair enzymes to distinguish twn old and new strands)<
r><r>Hypermethylation inactivates DNA transcription
1334956972722 1342707643574 Relaxes DNA coiling, allowing transcription to o
ccur
Histone acetylation (<>A</>cetylation makes DNA <>A</>ctive)
1334959054850 1342707643574 Purine salvage pathway <img src="pasteyoqj64.jp
g" /><r /><r /><img src="pastev1vgr3.jpg" />
1334966310486 1342707643366 Blood supply to femoral head comes from what art
ery?
Medial femoral circumflex artery
1334983761017 1342707643574 Enzyme that adds DNA to 3' ends of chromosomes t
o avoid loss of genetic material with every duplication; has reverse transcripta
se activity?<r><r />What cells express this? Telomerase<r><r>Expressed in s
tem cells, cancers
1334983869920 1342707643574 DNA repair mechanism important in repair of spon
taneous or toxic deamination
Base excision repair
1334984075546 1342707643574 Which end of incoming nucleotide ears triphosph
ate group (energy source for phosphodiester ond)?
5' end (target of 3' hyd
roxyl attack)
1334984480617 1342707643574 Do RNA polymerases have proofreading function?
No

1334984803116 1342707643574 Steps in splicing of pre-mRNA 1) Primary trans
cript comines w/ snRNPs and other proteins to form spliceosome<r>2) Lariat-sha
ped (looped) intermediate is generated<r>3) Lariat is released to remove intron
and join 2 exons
1334984898477 1342707643574 <i>Lac </i>operon<r /><r />How does it work?<
r />Features? When active, <i>E. coli </i>can metaolize lactose.<r /><r />L
actose inhiits the repressor, glucose inhiits the activator.<r /><r />The la
c operon is <>polycistronic</> (one mRNA codes for several proteins- typical o
f prokaryotic ut not eukaryotic mRNA).
1334985446656 1342707643574 Initiation factors (eIFs)<r /><r />Activated 
y?<r />Function?
Activated y GTP hydrolysis<r /><r />Help assemle 40S
riosomal suunit w/ initiator tRNA;<r />Released when mRNA and riosomal suu
nit assemle with complex
1334986680601 1342707643574 Regulate cell cycle
Cyclins, CDKs, tumor sup
pressors
1334987037053 1342707643574 Peroxisome
Memrane-enclosed organelle invo
lved in cataolism of very long fatty acids and amino acids
1334987637630 1342707643574 Cytoskeletal element matching <r><r>1) microvi
lli<r>2) glial firillary acid proteins (GFAP)<r>3) adherens junctions<r>4) c
entrioles<r>5) desmin 1) actin/myosin<r>2) intermediate filaments<r>3) actin
/myosin<r>4) microtuules<r>5) intermediate filaments
1334988351943 1342707643574 Collagen synthesis- overview
Preprocollagen (
translation)<r />|<r />Hydroxylated preprocollagen (hydroxylation of proline,
lysine)<r />|<r />Procollagen (glycosylation)<r />|<r />-----------<>exocyt
osis</>------------<r />|<r />Tropocollagen (proteolytic processing)<r />|<
r />Collagen firils (cross-linking)
1334988661534 1342707643574 Tissues with elastin
Lungs, large arteries, e
lastic ligaments<r />vocal cords, ligamenta flava
1335073204051 1342707643574 Southwestern lot
Identifies DNA-inding p
roteins (eg. transcrption factors) using laeled oligonucleotide proes
1335073402157 1342707643574 Fluorescence in situ hyridization (FISH)
Fluorescent DNA or RNA proe inds to specific gene site of interest on chromoso
mes<r /><r />Used for specific localization of genes and direct visualization
of anomalies (eg. microdeletions) at molecular level (when deletion is too small
to e visualized y karyotype)
1335073487179 1342707643574 Steps of cloning
1) Isolate mRNA of inter
est<r>2) Reverse transcriptase to produce cDNA<r>3) Insert cDNA fragments into
acterial plasmids containing antiiotic resistance genes<r>4) Surviving acte
ria on antiiotic medium produce cDNA lirary
1335073785294 1342707643574 Cre-lox system<r><r>What is it?<r>When is it
used? Can inducily manipulate genes at specific developmental points using an
antiiotic controlled promotor<r><r>Eg. to study a gene whose deletion causes
emryonic death
1335112277570 1342707643574 Most common vitamin deficiency in US? When is it
seen? What kinds of vitamins are more likely to cause toxicity?
Folate d
eficiency is most common; seen in alcoholism and pregnancy.<r><r>Toxicity more
common for fat solule vitamins (water solule vitamins wash out easily from o
dy, except B12 and folate stored in liver)
1335157763543 1342707643574 What must e done efore prescriing isotretinoi
n for severe acne?
Pregnancy test (vitamin A is teratogenic)
1335157923911 1342707643574 Major functions of vitamin A?<r />Where is it f
ound? 1) Constituent of visual pigments<r />2) Essential for normal different
iation of epithelial cells and prevents squamous metaplasia<r />3) Used to trea
t measles and AML (sutype M3)<r /><r />Found in liver, leafy vegetales
1335730277681 1342707643574 Vitamin C excess
Increased risk of iron t
oxicity in predisposed individuals (eg. multiple transfusions, hemochromatosis)<
r><r>Maye calcium oxalate kidney stones
1335730348446 1342707643574 S/sx of scurvy Swollen gums, ruising, hemartho
rosis, anemia, poor healing, impaired immunity<r /><r />(collagen synthesis de
fect)

1335731735625 1342707643574 Kinase vs phosphorylase vs phosphatase Kinase u
ses ATP to add Pi<r>Phosphorylase adds Pi w/o ATP<r>Phosphatase removes Pi
1335736103438 1342707643574 Effect of high NAD+ / NADH ratio on pyruvate deh
ydrogenase complex
Activates PDC (eg. exercise), feeding acetyl-CoA into TC
A<r><r><img src="pasteyl9fqd.jpg" />
1335740241291 1342707643574 Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphory
lation- what happens?<r />
NADH electrons from glycolysis enter mitochondri
on via malate-aspartate or glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle (NADH and FADH2 from TCA
are already in mito)<r /><r />Passage of electrons along inner memrane relea
ses energy as they go to lower energy states; this energy is coupled to pumping
of H+ into intermemranous space<r /><r />H+ gradient drives ATP synthase<r /
><r /><img src="pastepjmsr.jpg" /><r /><r />Note: fewer ATP generated y FAD
H2 electrons than NADH (2 vs. 3) /c they are at a lower energy state
1335742758588 1342707643574 Which fatty acids can e sustrate for gluconeog
enesis: odd or even chain?
Only odd chain, since they yield 1 propionyl-CoA
which can enter TCA as succinyl-CoA, get converted to oxaloacetate and feed glu
coneogenesis<r><r>Even chain fatty acids cannot produce new glucose since they
yield only acetyl-CoA
1335743483828 1342707643574 Enzymes involved in respiratory urst and free r
adical degradation
<img src="pastepswt9e.jpg" />
1335755756915 1342707643574 Analogies etween disorders of fructose and gala
ctose metaolism
<>F</>ructose is to <>A</>ldolase <>B</> as <>G</
>alactose is to <>U</>ridyl<>T</>ransferase (&quot;FAB GUT&quot;)<r />-the
se are the more serious disorders<r>-oth lead to phosphate depletion y accumu
lation of sugar-1-phosphate<r /><r />Likewise, essential fructosuria (fructoki
nase defect) is analogous to galactokinase deficiency<r /><r /><img src="paste
1fnar.jpg" /><r /><img src="pasteqdzha.jpg" />
1335755981306 1342707643574 Tissues at risk for soritol accumulation and os
motic damage
Schwann cells, lens, retina, kidneys<r /><r />(note: all may 
e damaged in diaetes)<r />(note: soritol is osmotically active ecause it can
not freely cross the memrane)
1335756331073 1342707643574 Enzymes involved in conversion of glucose to osm
otically active alcohol and then to fructose (in certain tissues)?<r><r />What
tissues can't convert to fructose?
Aldose reductase, soritol dehydrogenase
<r /><r /><img src="pasteoapmtw.jpg" />
1335756910290 1342707643574 Amino acids needed during periods of growth
Arginine, histidine
1335757754674 1342707643574 Histidine derivatives Histamine<r><r><img sr
c="pastexxazss.jpg" />
1335760306983 1342707643574 Catecholamine synthesis<r /><r />Cofactors?<r
/>Breakdown products? <>Phenylalanine</><r />|<r /><i>Tetrahydroiopterin
(THB)</i><r />|<r /><>Tyrosine</><r />|<r /><i>Tetrahydroiopterin (THB)</
i><r />|<r /><>DOPA</><r />|<r /><i>vitamin B6</i><r />|<r /><>Dopamine
</><u>[→ HVA]</u><r />|<r /><i>vitamin C</i><r />|<r /><>NE </><u>[→ VMA]</u
><r />|<r /><i>SAM</i><r />|<r /><>Epinephrine </><u>[→ metanephrine]</u><r
/><r />*note- B6 should not e given to patients on levodopa since it will inc
rease peripheral conversion to dopamine (which can't enter CNS)
1335796002275 1342707643375 What interviewing techinque is eing used?<r />
<r />1) &quot;And then what happened?&quot;<r />2) &quot;I can imagine how thi
s illness has changed your perspective on life.&quot;<r />3) &quot;So, you're t
elling me that you were fine until 3 days ago and then the pain started?&quot;<
r />4) &quot;ou're telling me this was disturing, ut you don't sound upset y
it.&quot;<r />5) &quot;es, he really hurt you. A lot of aused children have
the same reactions.&quot;
1) Facilitation<r />2) Empathy<r />3) Reflecti
on<r />4) Confrontation<r />5) Support
1335808923534 1342707643574 Disease with defect in nonhomologous end joining
Ataxia telangiectasia
1335823792004 1342707643574 Defect in phenylketonuria<r>What is found in ur
ine (specifically!)?
Autosomal recessive decrease in <>phenylalanine hydroxy
lase </>or tetrahydroiopterin cofactor (malignant phenylketonuria)<r /><r />

Elevated phenylalanine leads to phenylketones (phenylacetate, phenyllactate, phe
nylpyruvate) in urine
1335823973125 1342707643574 Phenylketonuria treatment
<>↓ phenylalanine
</> (contained in aspartame, e.g., NutraSweet) and ↑ tyrosine in diet (tyrosine 
ecomes an essential AA in PKU)
1335824067384 1342707643574 When do you screen for phenylketonuria? 2-3 days
after irth<r /><r />(patient would e normal at irth due to maternal enzyme
in fetal life)<r /><r />Relatively common dz; incidence ~1:10,000
1335824196395 1342707643574 Maternal phenylketonuria
Damage to fetus
due to lack of proper dietary control y affected mother<r /><r />Findings in
infant: microcephaly, MR, growth retardation, cardiac defects
1335830663771 1342707643574 Inheritance of hypophosphatemic rickets X-linked
<>dominant</>
1335883902704 1342707643375 What is physiological &quot;chloride shift&quot;
?
RBCs carry CO2 from tissue to lungs.<r /><r />This CO2 is hydrated y
caronic anhydrase to form caronic acid, which dissociates to icaronate and H
+. Some icar difuses out of RBCs into plasma, and to maintain electric neutral
ity chloride diffuses into the RBC (chloride/icar antiport).<r /><r />This i
s why venous RBCs have higher chloride content than arterial.
1335883960378 1342707643375 Histopathology of acute viral hepatitis &quot;Ba
llooning degeneration&quot; (swelling) and apoptotic hepatocytes (Councilman od
ies)
1335886272204 1342707643375 Social, fine motor, gross motor, and language ta
rgets<r /><r />Age 1, 2, 3, 4 <u>1 year old</u><r /><r />Imitation, pointing
<r />Pincer grasp<r />Walking<r />&quot;Mama, Dada&quot;<r /><r /><u>2 year
s old</u><r /><r />S: Imitation of household tasks<r />FM: Page turning<r />
GM: Jumping, standing on one foot<r />L: 2 word phrases<r /><r /><u>3 years o
ld</u><r /><r />Parallel play<r />Copies simple shapes<r />Rides tricycle, c
lims stairs<r />Simple sentences<r /><r /><u>4 years old</u><r /><r />Coop
erative play, toilet use<r />Dresses self with help<r />Running<r />Complex s
entences, pronouns, plural<r /><r />
1335889351404 1342707643375 Butt injections- where is safe, where is dangero
us, and why?
Always target superolateral quadrant<r />(avoids nerves)<r /><
r />Superomedial and inferomedial quadrants are dangerous<r />(superomedial ha
s gluteal nerves, inferomedial has sciatic nerve)<r />
1335889566181 1342707643375 Cilostazol<r /><r />Clinical use<r />Mechanis
m
Intermittent vasogenic claudication (peripheral artery disease)<r /><r
/>Inhiits platelet phosphodiesterase. Inhiits platelet aggregation and is a d
irect arterial vasodilator.
1335908298664 1342707643574 Autosomal recessive disease with defective neutr
al amino acid transporter on renal and intestinal epithelium?<r><r>Findings?
Hartnup disease<r><r>Tryptophan excretion in urine and decreased asorption fr
om the gut; leads to <>pellagra</>
1335908853681 1342707643574 Disease with ↑ dicaroxylic acids, ↓ glucose and ket
ones
Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCAD)
1335909406599 1342707643574 In what conditions can the TCA cycle e &quot;st
alled,&quot; and how? What effect does this have on metaolism? 1) Prolonged sta
rvation or DKA<r>-oxaloacetate is depleted for gluconeogenesis<r><r>2) Alcoho
lism<r>-excess NADH shunts oxaloacetate to malate<r><r>Glucose and FFAs are s
hunted to production of ketone odies
1335909748979 1342707643574 Metaolic fuel for 100-meter sprint
Stored A
TP, creatine phosphate, anaeroic glycolysis
1335909844502 1342707643574 Metaolic fuel for 1000-meter run
Anaeroi
c glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation<r /><r />(plus &quot;early&quot; suppl
ies: stored ATP, creatine phosphate)
1335909903941 1342707643574 Metaolic fuel for marathon
Aeroic metaoli
sm (glycogen) and fatty acid oxidation
1335910019222 1342707643574 Metaolic fuel in fasting state (etween meals)
Hepatic glycogenolysis (major); hepatic gluconeogenesis, adipose release of FFAs
(minor)

1335910149571 1342707643574 Metaolic fuel in starvation (1-3 days) Blood gl
ucose level maintained y:<r><r>1) Hepatic glycogenolysis<r>2) Adipose releas
e of FFAs<r>3) Muscle and liver, which switch from using glucose to FFAs<r>4)
Hepatic gluconeogenesis from peripheral tissue lactate and alanine, and from adi
pose glycerol and proprionyl-CoA from odd-chain FAs
1335910161682 1342707643574 Can RBCs use ketones? No (no mitochondria)
1335910174204 1342707643574 When are glycogen reserves depleted in starvatio
n state?
After 1 day
1335910269038 1342707643574 Metaolic fuel in starvation (&gt;3 days)
Adipose stores (ketone odies ecome main source of energy for rain and heart)<
r /><r />After these are depleted, vital protein degradation accelerates, lead
ing to organ failure and death
1335910813121 1342707643574 Apolipoproteins found on HDL
A-I, C-II, E
1335911295456 1342707643574 Hereditary deficiencies in apoB-100 and apoB-48
leads to what? Aetalipoproteinemia due to inaility to synthesize lipoproteins
1335911380654 1342707643574 Failure to thrive, steatorrhea, acanthocytosis,
ataxia, and night lindness are caused y what disease?<r /><r />Inheritance?
Aetalipoproteinemia (hereditary deficiencies in apoB-100 and apoB-48)<r /><r
/>Autosomal recessive; sx appear in first few months of life<r /><r />*note: a
canthocytosis = vitamin E deficiency, night lindness = vitamin A deficiency
1335911400492 1342707643574 Intestinal iopsy shows fat accumulation in ente
rocytes Aetalipoproteinemia
1335917166472 1342707643574 NAD(P)H or FADH2 will e made y what enzymes? U
sed up y?
DEHDROGENASES!<r><r>REDUCTASES!!
1335921814902 1342707643574 Glycogen regulation y insulin and glucagon/epin
ephrine <img src="pastexweuck.jpg" />
1335922855456 1342707643574 Glycogen phosphorylase degrades glycogen to what
?<r>Deranching enzyme?
Glucose-1-phosphate (phosphoglucomutase to G-6-P
, glycolysis)<r><r>Glucose
1335925426579 1342707643574 What inhiits carnitine acyltransferase I? Why?
Malonyl-CoA<r><r>Malonyl CoA is in fatty acid synthesis: prevents futile cycli
ng with β-oxidation
1335973201874 1342707643375 What is a common mechanism y which catecholamin
es, glucocorticoids, glucagon, and TNF-a reduce insulin sensitivity?
Activati
on of serine kinases, which aerrantly phosphorylate serine and threonine residu
es on the insulin receptor (inhiiting its normal tyrosine phopshorylation y in
sulin)
1335974811569 1342707643375 Drugs that can e used to treat hirsutism
Spironolactone<r>Flutamide<r>Finasteride
1335975036258 1342707643375 Most common neurological complication of herpes
zoster Post-herpetic neuralgia<r><r>(Increased risk of post-herpetic neuralgi
a with increasing age)
1336004278139 1342707643375 Fetal memrane arrangements in each scenario<r
/><r /><img src="paste0tqw1h.jpg" /> <img src="pastedudano.jpg" />
1336060463140 1342707643375 Type of interaction responsile for protein's se
condary structure
Primarily hydrogen onds
1336144598437 1342707643375 Drugs with high hepatic clearance tend to have w
hat characteristics?
High lipophilicity<r /><r />High Vd
1336149440553 1342707643375 What mediates lung acess formation? What do you
see on imaging?
Primarily caused y lysosomal enzyme release from neutro
phils and macrophages, creating a semiliquid exudate that may partially drain in
to adjacent airways (creating an air-fluid level)
1336283672398 1342707643375 Tetrahydroiopterin (THB) is involved in synthes
is of what products?<r /><r />What are the enzymes? Tyrosine (phenylalanine
hydroxylase)<r />Dopa (tyrosine hydroxylase)<r />Serotonin (tryptophan hydroxy
lase)<r />Nitric oxide (NO synthase)
1336418355435 1342707643375 Actin/myosin cross-ridge cycle<r><r>What caus
es inding of myosin head to actin?<r>What causes power stroke?<r>What causes
release?
1) Ca++ inding troponin C exposes myosin-inding site on actin;
myosin head inds<r><r>2) Power stroke coupled to release of ADP and Pi<r><

r>3) ATP inding to myosin head releases actin filament (no ATP --&gt; rigor mor
tis)
1336423190277 1342707643375 Verrucous, wart-like, sterile vegitations on <>
oth sides</> of cardiac valve Liman-Sacks endocarditis (seen in lupus)
1336434083329 1342707643375 Adalimuma: mechanism, clinical use
Anti-TNF
antiody<r /><r />Rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, ankylosing spondylitis
1336436254059 1342707643375 Blood transfusion reactions: allergic reaction<
r /><r />Pathogenesis?<r />Clinical presentation?
Type I hypersensitivity
rxn against plasma proteins in transfused lood.<r /><r />Urticaria, pruritis,
wheezing, fever.<r />Treat w/ antihistamines.
1336436304075 1342707643375 Blood transfusion reactions: anaphylactic reacti
on<r /><r />Pathogenesis?<r />Clinical presentation? Severe reaction. IgA-def
icient individuals mus receive lood products that lack IgA.<r><r>Dyspnea, ro
nchospasm, hypotension, respiratory arrest, shock.
1336436372434 1342707643375 Blood transfusion reactions: ferile nonhemolyti
c transfusion reaction (FNHTR)<r /><r />Pathogenesis?<r />Clinical presentati
on?
Type II hypersensitivity reaction. Host antiodies against donor HLA ant
igens and leukocytes.<r><r>Fever, headaches, chills, flushing.
1336436552475 1342707643375 Blood transfusion reactions: acute hemolytic tra
nsfusion reaction (HTR)<r /><r />Pathogenesis?<r />Clinical presentation?
Type II hypersensitivity reaction. Intravascular hemolysis (ABO lood group inco
mpatiility) or extravascular hemolysis (host antiody rxn against foreign antig
en on donor RBCs).<r><r>Fever, hypotension, tachypnea, tachycardia, flank pain
, hemogloinemia (intravascular hemolysis), jaundice (extravascular hemolysis).
1336497377309 1342707643375 Poor prognostic indicators in hepatic disease
Hypoaluminemia, prolonged PT &amp; PTT<r><r>(reflect greatly decreased synthe
tic capacity, since normally there is plenty of synthetic reserve)
1336503355129 1342707643375 Intrinsic disruption; occurs during the emryoni
c period (weeks 3-8)
Malformation (eg. holoprosencephaly)
1336503391151 1342707643375 Failure to develop normally secondary to extrins
ic forces; after emryonic period
Deformation (eg. clued feet, Potter fa
cies)
1336503411015 1342707643375 Secondary reakdown of a previously normal tissu
e/structure
Disruption (eg. amniotic and syndrome)
1336503426278 1342707643375 Numerous anormalities resulting from a single p
rimary defect Sequence (eg. Potter syndrome)
1336503435060 1342707643375 Asent organ due to asent primodial tissue
Agenesis (eg. renal agenesis from defect in ureteric ud)
1336503449352 1342707643375 Incomplete organ development; primordial tissue
present Hypoplasia
1336503463315 1342707643375 Asent organ despite present primordial tissue
Aplasia
1336511250447 1342707643438 Muronoma-OKT3 CD3<r /><r />Prevents acute tr
ansplant rejection
1336511274198 1342707643438 Daclizuma
IL-2 receptor<r /><r />Prevent
s acute rejection of renal transplant
1336511296830 1342707643438 Digoxin immune Fa
Digoxin<r /><r />Antid
ote for digoxin intoxication
1336511354260 1342707643438 Inflixima
TNF-a<r /><r />Crohn's disease
, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis
1336511433612 1342707643438 Adalimuma
TNF-a<r /><r />Crohn's disease
, rhematoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis
1336511470573 1342707643438 Acixima
Glycoprotein II/IIIa<r /><r /
>Prevent cardiac ischemia in unstale angina and in patients treated with percut
aneous coronary intervention
1336511513809 1342707643438 Traztuzuma
<i>er</i>-B2<r /><r />HER-2 o
verexpressing reast cancer
1336511548307 1342707643438 Rituxima
CD20<r /><r />B-cell non-Hodgk
in's lymphoma<r><r>*and active rheumatoid arthritis (Uworld)
1336511573751 1342707643438 Omalizuma
IgE<r /><r />Additional line o

f treatment for severe asthma
1336533660554 1342707643366 Gonococcal arthritis<r /><r />Transmission?<r
/>Presentation?
Gonococcal arthritis is an <>STD</> that presents as <
>monoarticular, migratory </>arthritis w/ an <>asymmetrical</> pattern.<r /
><r />[<>S</>ynovitis, <>T</>enosynovitis (eg. hand), <>D</>ermatitis]
1336592557587 1342707643366 Effect of prostaglandins and eta 2 stimulation
on uterine tone Prostacycline (PGI2) and eta 2 stimulation decreases uterine to
ne<r><r>Prostaglandins (PGE2, PGF2a) increase uterine tone
1336611078226 1342707643366 Nesiritide<r /><r />mechanism<r />clinical us
e<r />toxicity Mechanism: Recominant B-type natriuretic peptide; causes ↑cGMP an
d vasodilation<r /><r />Use: Acute decompensated heart failure<r /><r />Tox:
Hypotension
1336682400118 1342707643366 Muscles of the tongue are derived from? Occipita
l myotomes
1336703962855 1342707643366 hypertrophic cardiomyopathy<r /><r />clinical
findings<r />type of dysfunction and hypertrophy<r />tx
normal-sized hea
rt, S4, apical impulses, systolic murmor<r /><r />diastolic dysfunction, conce
ntric hypertrophy (sarcomeres added in parallel)<r /><r />treat with B-locker
or non-dihydropyridine calcium channel locker (eg. verapamil)
1336761815570 1342707643366 Female repro histology- epithelium<r><r>Ovary<
Ovary =
r>Fallopian tue<r>Uterus<r>Endocervix<r>Ectocervix<r>Vagina
simple cuoidal<r>Fallopian tue = ciliated simple columnar<r>Uterus = simple
columnar, pseudostratified, tuular glands<r>Endocervix = simple columnar<r>Ec
tocervix = stratified squamous<r>Vagina = stratified squamous
1336795147330 1342707643366 What penicillin drugs are susceptile to penicil
linases?<r /><r />Other?
Antipseudomonals (ticarcillin, carenicillin, pi
peracillin)<r />Extended-spectrum (amoxicillin, ampicillin)<r /><r />Am<>O</
>xicillin has greater <>O</>ral ioavailaility than ampicillin.
1336856418597 1342707643366 Where do scurvy, osteogenesis imperfecta, and Eh
lers-Danlos impair collagen synthesis? Scurvy- hydroxylation of proline and lys
ine req's vitamin C<r /><r />Osteogenesis imperfecta- impaired formation of tr
iple helix procollagen<r /><r />Ehlers-Danlos- can impair cross-linking of tro
pocollagen
1336884681902 1342707643366 Protease inhiitor that can &quot;oost&quot; ot
her drug concentrations Ritonavir (inhiits cytochrome P-450)
1336935496525 1342707643366 Neuraminidase inhiitors
Zanamivir, oselt
amivir
1336965427236 1342707643366 Draw the immunodeficiencies chart
<img src
="pastejrng.jpg" />
1337008013121 1342707643366 First sign of puerty in males, females Testicul
ar enlargment, reast enlargement
1337009128945 1342707643366 Timeline of myocardial ischemia:<r /><r />When
does contraction stop? When is damage irreversile?
After ~60 seconds, contr
actile function ceases<r /><r />After ~30 minutes, damage is irreversile
1337011076793 1342707643366 Post-strep glomerulonephritis vs. rheumatic feve
r<r /><r />Prevention?<r />Follow what illness?
Rheumatic fever can e p
revented y prompt treatment of strep pharyngitis (follows pharyngitis)<r /><r
/>Glomerulonephritis may occur regardless of treatment (follows either pharyngi
tis or skin infection y group A strep)
1337011746565 1342707643366 Elevated AFP in triple test: ddx?
*Dating
error (underestimation of gestational age)<r />Neural tue defects<r />Anterio
r adominal wall defects (omphalocele, gastroschisis)<r />Multiple gestation
1337024938504 1342707643366 Innervation of the external ear canal <>Poste
rior- auricular ranch of vagus</><r><r>Remainder, including external portion
of tympanic memrane- auriculotemporal ranch of <>V3</><r><r>(internal sur
face of tympanic memrane- tympanic ranch of glossopharyngal CN IX)
1337025487826 1342707643366 Anovulatory cycles:<r /><r />Common when?<r /
>Clinical clue? Common in first 5-7 years of menstruation and last 10 years efo
re menopause<r /><r />Manifests with irregular menstrual cycles
1337100300768 1342707643366 Most common cause of fetal hydronephrosis

Inadequate recanalization of the uretopelvic junction<r /><r />(this is the la
st part of the ureter to ecome patent)
1337181311886 1342707643366 Avascular necrosis of the femoral head is associ
ated with what conditions?
Sickle cell disease<r />Steroid therapy<r />SL
E<r />Alcoholism
1337195500173 1342707643366 Utilization of glucose in RBCs 90% anaeroic gl
ycolysis to lactate<r><r>10% HMP shunt
1337199088882 1342707643366 What is lactoferrin, and what does it do?
A protein contained in neutrophils; <r>inds iron and inhiits growth of phagoc
ytosed acteria and some fungi
1337201621637 1342707643366 Antiiotic for owel surgery
Neomycin
1337280591882 1342707643366 Jejunal/ileal/colonic atresia at irth may e du
e to what pathology?
Vascular accidents in utero, leading to &quot;apple peel
&quot; spiral of owel and atresia
1337281168961 1342707643366 What lood vessel has the lowest oxygen saturati
on in the ody? Coronary sinus<r><r>(myocardial oxygen extraction is always ne
ar maximal)
1337283644036 1342707643366 Why is sputum greenish in acterial infxns?
Associated with release of myeloperoxidase from neutrophil azurophilic granules
(MPO is a heme-containing pigmented molecule)
1337305543571 1342707643366 Inhaled anesthetic principles<r /><r />↑ 1/MAC =
?<r />↑ lood/gas partition = ?<r />↑ a/v gradient = ?
↑ 1/MAC = ↑ lipid soluility
= <>high potency</><r />↑ lood/gas partition = ↑ lood soluility =<> slow ons
et</><r />↑ a/v gradient = ↑ rain soluility = <>slow onset</>
1337387860992 1342707643366 What drug used for hyperthyrodism is associated
with hepatotoxicity? Teratogenesis?
Propothiouracil (hepatotoxicity); methim
azole (possile teratogen)
1337459673455 1342707643366 Amylin mimetics<r /><r />Mechanism<r />Clinic
al use<r />Toxicity
(Pramlintide)<r /><r />Decreases glucagon<r /><r />T
ype II DM<r /><r />Hypoglycemia, nausea, diarrhea
1337459776168 1342707643366 Effect of PPAR-gamma activation Genes activated
y PPAR-gamma (transcription regulator) regulate fatty acid storage and glucose
metaolism<r><r>Activation of PPAR-gamma <>increases insulin sensitivity, inc
reases levels of adiponectin</>
1337459947888 1342707643366 What are the 1st generation sulfonylureas? Side
effects?<r /><r />What are the 2nd generation sulfonylureas? Side effects?
<>1st gen:</> tolutamide, chlorpropamide<r /><>SE: </>disulfiram-like effe
cts<r /><r /><>2nd gen: </>glyuride, glimepiride, glipizide<r /><>SE:</>
hypoglycemia<r /><r>*note: all are sulfa drugs
1337475367590 1342707643366 <img src="pasteizedve.jpg" /><r>What does each
line represent? <img src="pastetxt1ax.jpg" />
1337479826947 1342707643366 How do HPV 16 and 18 cause CIN? HPV 16- E6 gene
product inhiits <i>p53 </i>tumor suppressor gene<r><r>HPV 18- E7 gene product
inhiits <i>RB </i>tumor suppressor gene
1337564811093 1342707643366 Beta2 agonists<r /><r />effect on metaolism?<
increases lipolysis, increases glucagon release<r /><r
r />CV effects?
/>increases HR, contractility
1337620273440 1342707643366 Anti-CCP antiodies
Less sensitive than rheu
matoid factor, ut more specific for rheumatoid arthritis
1337621715620 1342707643366 Draw out the adrenal steroid synthesis pathway
<img src="paste51aink.jpg" />
1337632780268 1342707643366 Distinguish etween ischemia, hypoxia, and hypox
emia
Ischemia: loss of lood flow<r><r>Hypoxia: inadequate oxygen delivery
to tissues<r><r>Hypoxemia: decreased arterial partial pressure of oxygen
1337650617516 1342707643366 Intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis (figure)
<img src="pastem2kh4z.jpg" />
1337652804368 1342707643366 -plasias<r><r>Which are reversile? Irreversi
le?
<img src="pasteaq61xj.jpg" />
1337719654033 1342707643366 Motilin- notes? Motilin receptor agonists are us
ed to stimulate intestinal peristalsis

1337721216677 1342707643366 D-xylose asorption test
Distinguishes GI
mucosal damage from other causes of malasorption
1337725416667 1342707643366 Aetaliproproteinemia Dec synthesis of apoB -&gt; inaility to generate chylomicrons --&gt; inc secretion of cholesterol, VLD
L into loodstream --&gt; fat accumulation in enterocytes.<r><r>Presents in ea
rly childhood with malasorption and neuroloic manifestations.
1337726589896 1342707643366 Sister Mary Joseph's nodule
Sucutaneous per
iumilical metastasis (from gastric cancer)
1337733936455 1342707643366 Causes of appendicitis in kids, adults Kids- ly
mphoid hyperplasia after viral infxn<r><r>Adults- ostruction, fecalith
1337735647897 1342707643366 Hyperplastic polyp
Most common non-neoplast
ic polyp in colon (&gt;50% found in rectosigmoid colon)
1337735711194 1342707643366 Juvenile polyps?<r><r>Juvenile polyposis syndr
ome?
Mostly sporadic lesions in children &lt; 5 years of age. 80% in rectum.
If single, no malignant potential.<r><r>Juvenile polyposis syndrome- multiple
juvenile polyps in GI tract, inc risk of adenocarcinoma.
1337738007911 1342707643366 Cavernous hemangioma (liver)
Common enign li
ver tumor; typically occurs at age 30-50 yrs.<r><r>Biopsy contraindicated /c
of risk of hemorrhage.
1337740150073 1342707643366 Biliary tract disease chart-<r /><r />secondar
y iliary cirrhosis, primary iliary cirrhosis, primary sclerosing cholangitis
<img src="pastefaikjd.jpg" />
1337742598032 1342707643366 Osmotic laxatives<r><r>Drugs<r>Mechanism<r>C
linical use<r>Toxicity MgOH, magnesium citrate, polyethylene glycol, lactulose<
r><r>Provide osmotic load to draw water out. Lactulose also treats hepatic enc
ephalopathy since gut flora degrade it into metaolites (lactic acid and acetic
acid) that promote nitrogen excretion as NH4+.<r><r>Constipation<r><r>Diarrh
ea, dehydration; may e aused y ulemics
1337804367883 1342707643366 Aortic aneurysms<r><r>Adominal aneurysm: risk
/demographic?<r>Thoracic aneruysm: risk/demographic? Adominal aortic aneurys
m- a/w atherosclerosis; occurs more frequently in male smokers &gt; 50 yrs old<
r><r>Thoracic aortic aneurysm- a/w hypertension, cystic medial necrosis (Marfan
's)
1337908519510 1342707643366 Hypersensitivity pneumonitis<r /><r />Type of
rxn?<r />Sx?<r />Seen in?
Mixed type III/IV hypersensitivity in reaction t
o environmental antigen<r /><r />Dyspnea, cough, chest tightness, headache<r
/><r />Often seen in farmers and those exposed to irds
1337908752350 1342707643366 Match the description with the type of pleural e
ffusion<r /><r />Must e drained in light of risk of infection
Exudate
1337908817587 1342707643366 Pneumothorax<r><r>Symptoms<r>Signs Unilater
al chest pain and dyspnea<r><r>Unilateral chest expansion, decreased tactile f
remitus, hyperresonance, diminished reath sounds
1337908893300 1342707643366 Spontaneous pneumothorax<r><r>What is it?<r>O
ccurs in?<r>Due to?<r>Tracheal deviation?
Accumulation of air in the pleur
al space<r><r>Occurs most freqently in tall, thin, young males<r><r>Due to r
upture of apical les<r><r>Trachea deviates towards affected lung
1337908953689 1342707643366 Tension pneumothorax<r><r>Occurs in?<r>Due to
?<r>Tracheal deviation?
Usually occurs in setting of trauma or lung infx
n<r><r>Air is capale of entering pleural space ut not exiting<r><r>Trachea
deviates away from affected lung
1338041976466 1342707643366 Lipid-lowering agents: chart
<img src="pastej
iuswn.jpg" />
1382036642275 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic atrophic gastritis}} seen in perni
cious anaemia has the aility to ecome&nsp;{{c2::gastric adenocarcinoma}}.
1382039334837 1358629116480 Actinic keratosis of the skin has the aility to
ecome&nsp;{{c2::squamous cell carcinoma}} of the skin.
1382039380132 1358629116480 Oral {{c1::leukoplakia}} has the aility to eco
me oral {{c2::squamous cell carcinoma}}.
<r /><div><i>Oral cancers typic
ally have poor prognoses.</i></div>
1382039423005 1358629116480 What does Barrett's Esophagus have the chance to

ecome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenocarcinoma of the esophagus}}</div>
1382039627313 1358629116480 What cancer can a <i>Helicoacter pylori</i>&ns
p;infection cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenocarcinoma of the stomach}}</d
iv>
1382039665924 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Ulcerative}} colitis has the possi
ility to develop into&nsp;{{c2::adenocarcinoma}} of the colon.
1382039704745 1358629116480 Tuular/Villous adenoma of the colon has the ai
lity to ecome&nsp;{{c2::adenocarcinoma}} of the colon.
1382039730374 1358629116480 What cancer can liver cirrhosis develop into?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular carcinoma}}</div>
1382040179249 1358629116480 What cancer can hyperplasia of the endometrium d
evelop into?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenocarcinoma of the endometrium}}</div
>
1382040210084 1358629116480 Dysplastic nevus of the skin can develop into&n
sp;{{c2::melanoma}}.
1382040227395 1358629116480 What gene is involved in inherited Retinolastom
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RB}}</div>
1382040815811 1358629116480 What gene is involved in inherited Li-Fraumeni S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53}}</div>
1382040832493 1358629116480 What gene is involved in inherited Familial Aden
omatous Polyposis/Colon Cancer?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::APC (Adenomatous Polypo
sis Coli tumour suppressor)}}</div>
<r><i>"What do you need to fap? A PC."<
/i>
1382040863663 1358629116480 What gene is involved in inherited Neurofiromat
osis 1 and 2?<div><r />{{c1::NF1 and NF2}}</div>
1382040880606 1358629116480 What gene is involved in inherited Breast and Ov
arian Tumours?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::BRCA1 (and BRCA2) }}</div>
1382040898608 1358629116480 What gene is involved in inherited Multiple Endo
crine Neoplasia 1 and 2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN1/RET}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>"Chicks are always looking for the right (RET) men"</i></div>
1382040925330 1358629116480 What gene is involved in <>inherited</> Melano
ma?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::p16INK4A}}</div>
1382040948754 1358629116480 What gene(s) are involved with Hereditary non-po
lyposis colon cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6}}</div>
1382041920523 1358629116480 Over-expression of&nsp;{{c1::PDGF-B}} can cause
&nsp;{{c2::Astrocytoma}}
1382051662383 1358629116480 What change regarding PDGF-B causes Astrocytoma?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Over-expression}}</div>
1382051681208 1358629116480 Amplification of&nsp;{{c1::ERBB2 (Her2/Neu)}} c
auses&nsp;{{c2::reast}} cancer.
1382051808001 1358629116480 What change regarding ERBB2 (HER2/NEU) causes Br
east cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amplification}}</div>
1382051823805 1358629116480 A point mutation in&nsp;{{c1::RET}} can cause&n
sp;{{c2::Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN2A, MEN2B)}}.
1382051875203 1358629116480 What change regarding RET causes Multiple Endocr
ine Neoplasia (MEN2A, MEN2B)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Point mutation}}</div>
1382051903994 1358629116480 A point mutation in&nsp;{{c1::KIT}} can cause&n
sp;{{c2::GI Stromal}} tumour.
1382051929982 1358629116480 What change regarding KIT causes GI Stromal Tumo
ur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Point mutation}}</div>
1382051941606 1358629116480 A point mutation in&nsp;{{c1::ras}} can cause m
any carcinomas, melanomas and lymphoma. Typically&nsp;{{c2::pancreatic}} and&n
sp;{{c2::colon}} cancer.
1382052005698 1358629116480 What change in ras can cause cancer?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Point mutation}}</div>
1382052030001 1358629116480 A translocation of&nsp;{{c1::ABL}} can cause&n
sp;{{c2::Chronic Myeloid Leukemia}}.
1382052062745 1358629116480 What is the translocation of ABL that causes Chr
onic Myeloid Leukemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(9;22) to e with BCR}}</div>
1382052095196 1358629116480 A translocation of&nsp;{{c1::C-Myc}} can cause&

nsp;{{c2::Burkitt's Lymphoma}}.
1382057767666 1358629116480 What translocation involving C-Myc will cause Bu
rkitt's Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(8;14) to an Ig heavy chain locus}
}</div>
1382057811421 1358629116480 Amplification of&nsp;{{c1::N-Myc}} can cause&n
sp;{{c2::Neurolastoma}}
1382057842281 1358629116480 What change associated with N-Myc causes Neurol
astoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amplification}}</div>
1382057868385 1358629116480 Translocation of&nsp;{{c1::Cyclin D1}} can caus
e&nsp;{{c2::Mantle Cell Lymphoma}}.
1382057900938 1358629116480 What translocation associated with Cyclin D can
cause Mantle Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /><div>{{c1::t(11;14) to Ig heavy chain}}</d
iv></div>
1382057989416 1358629116480 A point mutation and amplification in&nsp;{{c1:
:CDK4}} can cause&nsp;{{c2::melanoma}}.
1382058030493 1358629116480 What tumour marker is seen in all cancers derive
d from Neural Crest Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S-100}}</div>
1382058072589 1358629116480 What translocation involving PML and Retinoic Ac
id Receptor (RARA) causes Acute pro-Myelocytic Leukemia (APML; AML)?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::t(15;17)}}</div>
1382059076330 1358629116480 What translocation involving Bcl2 can cause Foll
icular Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(14;18) to Ig heavy chain}}</div>
1382059366684 1358629116480 What translocation involving FLI1 and EWSR1 caus
es Ewing Sarcoma?<div><r>{{c1::t(11;22)}}</div>
11 + 22 = 33 = Patrick E
wing's jersey numer
1382059540927 1358629116480 What is an 'onion-skin' pattern of periosteal o
ne indicative of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ewing Sarcoma}}.</div>
1382059569349 1358629116480 What is the normal function of BRCA1/BRCA2?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Regulation of DNA repair}}</div>
1382059702820 1358629116480 Aside from Retinolastoma, what other cancer is
commonly associated with R?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteogenic Sarcoma (Oste
osarcoma)}}</div>
1382060064019 1358629116480 What is the normal function of NF-1 (Neurofirom
in-1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::It is a GAP that regulates signal transduction
y inactivating ras}}</div>
1382060386627 1358629116480 What tumour suppressor gene does the E6 protein
from Human Papillomavirus (HPV) ind to and inhiit?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
p53}}</div>
1382060716767 1358629116480 What tumour suppresor does the E7 protein from H
uman Papillomavirus (HPV) ind to and inhiit?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R}}</
div>
1382060751535 1358629116480 Which of the BRCA genes is involved with Male Br
east Cancer?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::BRCA2}}</div>
1382060884993 1358629116480 What cancers are associated with cigarette smoke
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous or small cell carcinoma and urothelial car
cinoma}}</div>
1382063772375 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with Naphthylamine?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urothelial carcinoma of the ladder}}</div>
1382063836301 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with Aflatoxin B1 from
<i>Aspergillus flavus</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular carcinoma}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Commonly seen in contaminated rice, corn, grains and peanu
ts</i></div>
1382063880924 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with Nitrosamines?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric carcinoma}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Typically
seen in smoked foods</i></div>
1382063978962 1358629116480 What cancer(s) are associated with Asestos?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesothelioma and Lung Carcinoma}}</div> <r /><div><i>Ty
pically seen in pipe fitters and ship uilders</i></div>
1382064087132 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with vinyl chloride?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angio-sarcoma of the liver}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Ty

pically due to exposure to plastics.</i></div>
1382064119711 1358629116480 What cancer(s) are associated with Arsenic?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin, lung or angiosarcoma
of the liver}}</div>
1382064171652 1358629116480 What cancer(s) are associated with Chromium and
Nickel?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung carcinoma}}</div>
1382064187084 1358629116480 What cancer(s) are associated with chronic alcoh
ol consumption?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the oropha
rynx/esophagus and hepatocellular carcinoma}}</div>
1382064234054 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with Diethyl-Stileste
rol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clear cell carcinoma of the vagina}}</div>
1382064287946 1358629116480 What cancer(s) are associated with HBV and HCV?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular carcinoma}}</div>
1382064696163 1358629116480 What cancer(s) are associated with EBV?<div><r>
</div><div>{{c1::Burkitt's, Hodgkin's and &nsp;CNS B-Cell lymphoma in AIDS; Nas
opharyngeal carcinoma}}</div>
1382064781888 1358629116480 {{c1::Burkitt's}} lymphoma is a high grade lymph
oid tumour that is descried y a "starry-sky appearance."<div>
<img src="paste-162349
79231.jpg" /></div>
1382064909888 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with HHV8?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Kaposi's Sarcoma in AIDS patients}}</div>
1382064965166 1358629116480 What cancer(s) is associated with HTLV-1?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma}}</div>
1382065060799 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with <i>Schistosoma he
matoium</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the ladder}
}</div>
1383272351480 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Osteoma}} is a enign tumour of o
ne.
1383272799143 1358629116480 Where do Osteomas commonly arise?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::On the surface of facial ones}}</div>
1383272822554 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Osteoid Osteoma}} is a <>enign</
> tumour of Osteolasts surrounded y a rim of reactive one.
1383273071799 1358629116480 Where do Osteoid Osteomas commonly arise?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Diaphysis/cortex of long ones}}</div>
1383273089192 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteolastoma}} is a enign, <>larger</>
&nsp;tumour of osteolasts that involves pain that&nsp;<>does not respond </
>to aspirin.
1383273199801 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteoid Osteoma}} is a enign tumour of os
teolasts that <>responds </>to aspirin.
1383273221166 1358629116480 Where in the ody do Osteolastomas commonly ari
se?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Verterae}}</div>
1383273251247 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Osteochondroma}} is a tumour of o
ne with an overlying cartilage cap.
<r /><div><i>It is the most common eni
gn tumour</i></div>
1383273279224 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteochondroma}} is a enign one tumour t
hat arises from a lateral projection of the growth plate; at the metaphysis.
1383273316745 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteosarcoma}} is a malignant tumour of os
teolasts.
1383273742056 1358629116480 Where does Osteosarcoma arise?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Metaphysis of long one; typically distal femur or proximal tiia}}</d
iv>
1383273770224 1358629116480 What one tumour is Codman's Triangle associated
with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteosarcoma}}</div> <r /><div><i>It is the
lifting off of the periosteum.</i></div>
1383273816768 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Giant Cell Tumour}} is a tumour of
multinucleated giant cells and stromal cells
1383274306890 1358629116480 Where do Giant Cell Tumours arise?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Epiphysis of long ones}}</div> <r /><div><i>Are the only tumou
rs to do so</i></div>
1383274332256 1358629116480 What one tumour is associated with a 'Soap u

le' appearance?<div><r />{{c1::Giant Cell Tumour}}</div>
1383274349691 1358629116480 What one tumour is associated with an 'Onion Sk
in' appearance?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ewing's Sarcoma}}</div>
1383274369557 1358629116480 What translocation is involved with Ewing's Sarc
oma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(11;22)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>11 + 22 =
33 = Patrick Ewing's jersey numer</i></div>
1383274395810 1358629116480 {{c1::Ewing's Sarcoma}} is a one tumour defined
as a malignant proliferation of poorly-differentiated cells derived from neuroe
ctoderm.
1383274429193 1358629116480 Where does Ewing's Sarcoma arise?<div><r />{{c1
::Diaphysis of long ones}}</div>
1383274441298 1358629116480 {{c1::Chondroma}} is a enign tumour of cartilag
e.
1383274662856 1358629116480 {{c1::Chondrosarcoma}} is a malignant tumour of
cartilage that arises in the medulla of the pelvis or central skeleton.
1383274689514 1358629116480 Metastatic&nsp;{{c1::prostate}} cancer will pro
duce osteo<>lastic</>&nsp;lesion.
1383274738214 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Lipoma}} is a enign tumour of adip
ose tissue.
1383274781224 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Liposarcoma}} is a malignant tumour
of fat tissue.
1383274789570 1358629116480 What type of cells are proliferating in a Liposa
rcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lipolasts}}</div>
1383274808462 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Rhadomyoma}} is a enign tumour of
skeletal muscle.
1383274825259 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Rhadomyosarcoma}} is a malignant t
umour of skeletal muscle.
1383274866318 1358629116480 What cells are proliferating in Rhadomyosarcoma
?<div><r />{{c1::Rhadomyolasts}}</div>
1383274966032 1358629116480 What immunohistochemical marker is used to Dx Rh
adomyosarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmin}}</div>
1394067343388 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::vulva}} is the area of the female
genital tract that involves the skin and mucosa <>external to the hymen</>.
1394067655070 1358629116480 {{c1::Bartholin Cyst}} is a cystic dilation of t
he Bartholin gland.
1394067979293 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Bartholin Gland}} is a mucinous g
land located on each side of the vaginal canal and produces mucous-like fluid th
at luricates and coats the vaginal orifice and lower vestiule.
1394068031319 1358629116480 {{c1::Bartholin Cyst}} is a vulvar pathology tha
t arises due to inflammation or ostruction of the Bartholin gland in women of r
eproductive age.
1394068074714 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Bartholin Cyst}} is a vulvar pathol
ogy that presents as a unilateral, painful cystic lesion of the Bartholin Gland
at the lower vestiule adjacent to the vaginal canal.
1394068109536 1358629116480 {{c1::Condyloma}} is a warty neoplasm of vulvar
skin.
1394068322402 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Condyloma?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV6; HPV11}}</div>
1394068343387 1358629116480 {{c1::Condyloma Acuminatum}} is a type of Condyl
oma that is caused y HPV, typically types 6 and 11.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-3934190043515.jpg" /></div>
1394068367510 1358629116480 {{c1::Condyloma Latum}} is a type of Condyloma c
aused y Syphilis.
1394068386223 1358629116480 {{c1::Koilocytes}} are a histological feature of
HPV infected cells and are a hallmark of HPV infection.<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-93793495810464.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Very apparent in C
ondyloma Acuminatum.</i></div>
1394068608346 1358629116480 What is the carcinoma risk associated with HPV6
and HPV11?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
1394068658990 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Sclerosis (et Atrophicus)}} is a vu

lvar pathology defined as the thinning of the epidermis and firosis/sclerosis o
f the dermis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2555505541443.jpg" /></div>
1394068695908 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Sclerosis}} is a vulvar pathology t
hat presents as leukoplakia with <>parchment-like</>&nsp;vulvar skin.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-2551210574147.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Re
memer, leukoplakia just means white patches.</i></div>
1394068740402 1358629116480 Which demographic is commonly affected y Lichen
Sclerosis?<div><r />{{c1::Postmenopausal women}}</div>
1394068766315 1358629116480 What is the squamous cell carcinoma risk associa
ted with Lichen Sclerosis?<div><r />{{c1::Slight increase}}</div>
1394068797286 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Simplex Chronicus}} is a enign vul
var pathology that is also referred to as Vulvar Squamous Cell Hyperplasia.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-2426656522564.jpg" /></div>
1394068832061 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Simplex Chronicus}} is a vulvar pat
hology characterized y enign hyperplasia of the vulvar squamous epithelium.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2426656522564.jpg" /></div>
1394068864891 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Simplex Chronicus}} is a vulvar pat
hology that presents as leukoplakia with <>thick, leathery</>&nsp;vulvar skin
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2430951489860.jpg" /></div>
1394068888852 1358629116480 What is the cancer risk associated with Lichen S
implex Chronicus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div>
1394068945521 1358629116480 What is the cause of HPV-related vulvar carcinom
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV16 and HPV18}}</div>
1394069037895 1358629116480 {{c1::Vulvar Intraepithelial Neoplasia (VIN)}} i
s a dysplastic precursor lesion to vulvar carcinoma that is characterized y koi
locytic change, disordered cellular maturation, nuclear atypia and increased mit
otic activity.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4445291151703.jpg" /></div>
1394069456522 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Non-HPV related
Vulvar Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Long-standing Lichen Sclerosis}}</
div>
1394069518333 1358629116480 Which type of Vulvar Carcinoma is typically seen
in elderly women?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-HPV related}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Average age is ~70 y/o</i></div>
1394069562561 1358629116480 Which type of Vulvar Carcinoma is typically seen
in women of reproductive age?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV-related}}</div>
1394069590022 1358629116480 {{c1::Extramammary Paget Disease}} is a vulvar p
athology that involves malignant epithelial cells in the epidermis and vulvar ca
rcinoma in situ <>without</>&nsp;underlying carcinoma.<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-5291399708911.jpg" /></div>
1394069848655 1358629116480 Paget cells must e distinguished from Melanoma.
What is the immunostain profile in Paget Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PAS+
, Keratin+, S100-}}</div>
1394070124075 1358629116480 Paget cells must e distinguished from Melanoma.
What is the immunostain profile in Melanoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PAS-, K
eratin-, S100+}}</div>
1394070175708 1358629116480 Which immunostain is positive in Melanoma and di
fferentiates it from Paget Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S100}}</div>
1394070201363 1358629116480 {{c1::S100}} is an immunostain that is found in
cells derived from the Neural Crest and is hence used to differentiate Melanoma
from Paget Cells.
1394070352682 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Pelvic Inflamma
tory Disease (PID)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria gonnorheae</i>}}</di
v>
1394070404472 1358629116480 {{c1::Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)}} is a p
elvic pathology that results from infections that arise in the vulva/vagina and
ascend to involve other genital structures in the pelvis.<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-6970731921578.jpg" /><img src="paste-7894149890436.jpg" /></div>
1394132971976 1358629116480 What kind of epithelium lines the vaginal mucosa
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-Keratinizing Squamous Epithelium}}</div>
1394133015995 1358629116480 {{c1::Adenosis}} is a vaginal pathology defined

as a focal persistence of columnar epithelium in the upper vagina.
1394133048424 1358629116480 Which emryonic structure does the lower 2/3 of
the vagina develop from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urogenital Sinus}}</div>
1394133083113 1358629116480 Which emryonic structure does the upper 1/3 of
the vagina develop from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mullerian duct AKA Parameson
ephric duct}}</div>
1394133103639 1358629116480 Which drug is associated with an increased incid
ence of vaginal Adenosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diethylstilestrol (DES) in
utero}}</div>
1394133468892 1358629116480 {{c1::Clear Cell Adenocarcinoma}} is a vaginal c
ancer that is a rare ut feared complication of Diethylstilestrol (DES) exposur
e in utero.
1394133514572 1358629116480 {{c1::Emryonal Rhadomyosarcoma}} is a rare mal
ignant vaginal cancer that involves <>mesenchymal immature skeletal muscle</>.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6124623364370.jpg" /></div>
1394133563935 1358629116480 {{c1::Emryonal Rhadomyosarcoma}} is a vaginal
cancer that is also known as Sarcoma Botyroides.
1394133594531 1358629116480 {{c1::Emryonal Rhadomyosarcoma}} is a vaginal
cancer that presents as leeding and a <>grape-like mass</>&nsp;protruding fr
om the vagina in <>young girls</> (or penis if in a male).<div><r /></div><di
v><img src="paste-6064493822303.jpg" /></div>
1394133644569 1358629116480 What is the characteristic cell seen in Emryona
l Rhadomyosarcoma (Sarcoma Botyroides)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-60
00069312789.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rhadomyolast}}</div></div
>
1394133690378 1358629116480 {{c1::Rhadomyolast}} is the characteristic cel
l of Emryonal Rhadomyosarcoma and involves <>cytoplasmic cross-striations</>
&nsp;and positive immunohistochemical stains for <>desmin</>&nsp;and <>myog
enin</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6004364280085.jpg" /></div>
1394133749781 1358629116480 Which immunohistochemical stains are positive in
the Rhadomyolasts in Emryonal Rhadomyosarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D
esmin and Myogenin}}</div>
1394133781493 1358629116480 {{c1::Vaginal Carcinoma}} is a vaginal cancer th
at arises from the squamous epithelium lining the vaginal mucosa.
1394134223150 1358629116480 What is the precursor lesion to Vaginal Carcinom
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vaginal Intraepithelial Neoplasia (VAIN)}}</div>
1394134243723 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes does cancer from the <>lower
1/3</>&nsp;of the vagina spread to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inguinal Nodes}
}</div>
1394134279977 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes does cancer from the <>upper
2/3</>&nsp;of the vagina spread to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Iliac Nodes}}</
div>
1394134318361 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Vaginal Carcino
ma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High-risk HPV sutypes}}</div>
1394134335240 1358629116480 Which age group of women is commonly affected y
Lichen Simplex Chronicus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Any age; usually young wom
en}}</div>
1394135224181 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Sclerosis (et Atrophicus)}} is a vu
lvar pathology that involves thinning of the vulvar epidermis and an hour glass
appearance with involvement of the peri-anal area.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-2598455214444.jpg" /></div>
1394135324598 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Planus}} is an inflammatory cutaneo
us lesion that involves raised purplish plaques and patches.<div><r /></div><di
v><img src="paste-27835683045601.jpg" /></div>
1394135866439 1358629116480 What immune cell is involved in the listering s
kin lesions Pemphigoid and Herpes Gestationis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Eosino
phils}}</div>
1394136081902 1358629116480 What immune cell is involved in the listering s
kin lesion Dermatitis Herpetiformis seen alongside Celiac Disease?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Neutrophils}}</div>

1394136113265 1358629116480 What immune cells are involved with the listeri
ng skin lesion Erythema Multiforme and Lichen Planus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Lymphocyte}}</div>
1394136141655 1358629116480 What is the cause of Granuloma Inguinale?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Klesiella granulomatis</i>}}</div>
1394136324321 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Klesiella granulomatis</i>}} is a act
eria that causes Granuloma Inguinale which involves ulcerating nodules on the vu
lva with characteristic <>donovan odies</>.
1394136371344 1358629116480 What is the cause of Lymphogranuloma Venereum?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis </i>serogroups L1-L3}}</div>
1394136395058 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis s</i>erotypes L1
- L3}} is a acteria that causes Lymphogranuloma Venereum which involves ulcerat
ing vulval papules and enlarged inguinal lymph nodes.
1394136430114 1358629116480 What is the cause of Chancroid?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::<i>Haemophilus ducreyi</i>}}</div>
1394136454196 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Haemophilus ducreyi</i>}} is a acteria
that causes Chancroid which involves ulcerating vulval <>tender</> papules an
d nodules with <>tender </>enlargement of inguinal lymph nodes.&nsp;
1394136556857 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Treponema pallidum</i>}} is a acteria
that causes Syphilis which initially involves small, <>painless</>&nsp;indura
ted vulval/vaginal papules.
<r /><div><i>Later stage involves multiple, moi
st, warty, vulvovaginal and perineal lesions (condylomata lata).</i></div>
1394136700036 1358629116480 {{c1::Keratinizing Squamous Cell Carcinoma}} is
a type of vulvar carcinoma that is Non-HPV related and involves infiltrating nes
ts/tongues of malignant squamous epithelium with prominent keratin pearls.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-4849018077552.jpg" /></div>
1394137582438 1358629116480 {{c1::Basaloid Squamous Cell Carcinoma}} is a ty
pe of vulvar carcinoma that is HPV related that &nsp;involve nests and cords of
small, tightly packed cells resemling immature asal cells.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-4973572129136.jpg" /></div>
1394137664256 1358629116480 {{c1::Gartner Duct Cyst}} is a relatively common
cystic vaginal lesion on the lateral wall of the vagina that results from remna
nts of the Wolffian Duct.
1394139554508 1358629116480 {{c1::Honail}} Cells are a histological feature
of Clear Cell Adenocarcinoma of the Vagina.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-5729486373116.jpg" /></div>
1394139642186 1358629116480 Which age group of women are commonly affected 
y Emryonal Rhadomyosarcoma (Sarcoma Botryoides)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&l
t; 6 y/o}}</div>
1394139680516 1358629116480 {{c1::Vaginal Candidiasis}} is a type of vaginit
is that involves a cottage cheese like discharge and perivulvar pruritis.
1394140074692 1358629116480 {{c1::Bacteral Vaginosis}} is a type of vaginiti
s that involves watery discharge with a fishy odour.
1394140099865 1358629116480 {{c1::Vaginal Trichomonas}} is a type of vaginit
is that involves foamy greenish discharge and vaginal discomfort.
1394140126120 1358629116480 {{c1::Atrophic Vaginitis}} is a type of vaginiti
s that involves a dry vagina.
1394140139173 1358629116480 What is the second most common cause of Pelvic I
nflammatory Disease (PID)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</
i>}}</div>
1394140418230 1358629116480 {{c1::Fitz-Hugh-Curtis Syndrome}} is a complicat
ion of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) that involves perihepatitis and periton
eal firous adhesions due to the ascending infection and firosis.<div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-7795365642478.jpg" /></div>
1394140689124 1358629116480 {{c1::Pyosalpinx}} is a complication of Pelvic I
nflammatory Disease (PID) that occurs due to the infection and firosis spreadin
g to the fallopian tues and the formation of an intrasalpingeal ascess/pus.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7490422964504.jpg" /></div>
1394237966447 1358629116480 What type of epithelium lines the exocervix?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-keratinizing squamous epithelium}}</div>

1394238302553 1358629116480 What type of epithelium lines the endocervix?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple columnar epithelium}}</div>
1394238331622 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::transformation zone}} is the junc
tion etween the endo- and exocervix.
1394238351603 1358629116480 Which area of the cervix is especially targeted
y HPV?<div><r />{{c1::Transformation zone}}</div>
1394238400609 1358629116480 What is the cancer risk associated with HPV16?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::High}}</div>
1394239208489 1358629116480 What is the cancer risk associated with HPV18?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::High}}</div>
1394239213546 1358629116480 What is the cancer risk associated with HPV31?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::High}}</div>
1394239217626 1358629116480 What is the cancer risk associated with HPV33?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::High}}</div>
1394239228891 1358629116480 What is the cancer risk associated with HPV6?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
1394239234121 1358629116480 What is the cancer risk associated with HPV11?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
1394239238481 1358629116480 Which protein from high-risk HPV strains inds t
o p53?<div><r />{{c1::E6}}</div>
1394239276637 1358629116480 {{c1::E6}} is a protein from high-risk HPV that
inds to {{c2::p53}}. <r /><div><i>"6 efore 7, P efore R"</i></div>
1394239309479 1358629116480 {{c1::E7}} is a protein from high-risk HPV that
<r /><div><i>"6 efore 7, P efore R"</i></div>
inds to&nsp;{{c2::R}}.
1394239337348 1358629116480 Which protein from high-risk HPV inds to R?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::E7}}</div>
1394239349572 1358629116480 {{c1::Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia (CIN)}}
is a dysplastic pre-cancerous lesion of the cervix that commonly manifests foll
owing the loss of the tumour suppressors p53 and R following HPV infection.
1394239418125 1358629116480 {{c1::Cervival Intraepithelial Neoplasia (CIN)}}
is a dysplastic pre-cancerous lesion characterized y koilocytic change, disord
ered cellular maturation, nuclear atypia and increased mitotic activity <u>withi
n the cervical epithelium</u>.
1394239798129 1358629116480 Which grade of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasi
a (CIN) involves 1/3 of the thickness of the epithelium?<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-4320737100023.jpg" /><img src="paste-4410931413233.jpg" /><img src
="paste-4432406249581.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I}}</div></div>
1394239839883 1358629116480 Which grade of&nsp;Cervical Intraepithelial Neo
plasia (CIN) involves 2/3 of the thickness of the epithelium?<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-4496830759162.jpg" /><img src="paste-4475355922669.jpg" /><im
g src="paste-4518305595503.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::II}}</div></
div>
1394239860497 1358629116480 Which grade of&nsp;Cervical Intraepithelial Neo
plasia (CIN) involves slightly less that the entire thickness of the epithelium?
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4574140170489.jpg" /><img src="paste-45526
65333999.jpg" /><img src="paste-4595615006833.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::III}}</div></div>
1394239887736 1358629116480 {{c1::Cervical Carcinoma <i>in situ</i>}} is a t
ype of&nsp;Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia (CIN) that involves the entire th
ickness of the epithelium.
1394239928616 1358629116480 Which grades of&nsp;Cervical Intraepithelial Ne
oplasia (CIN) are reversile?<div><r />{{c1::I, II and III}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The chance of reversal decreases with increased grade.</i></div>
1394239958498 1358629116480 What is the most common types of high-risk HPV?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV16; HPV18}}</div>
1394240219632 1358629116480 What are the most common types of low-risk HPV?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV6; HPV11}}</div>
1394240234843 1358629116480 {{c1::Cervical Carcinoma}} is an invasive squamo
us cell carcinoma of the cervix that presents with vaginal leeding, postcoital
leeding and cervical discharge.

1394240306915 1358629116480 What demographic of women are more commonly affe
cted y Cervical Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle ages (40-50)}}</di
v>
1394240326453 1358629116480 What is the key risk factor for Cervical Carcino
ma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High-risk HPV}}</div>
1394240357505 1358629116480 What is the most common <>modifiale</>&nsp;r
isk factor for Cervical Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smoking}}</div>
1394240399533 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Cervical Carcino
ma?<div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma (80%)}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Adenocarcinoma is 15% of cases; oth are related to HPV</i
></div>
1394240440688 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydronephrosis with Post-Renal failure}} i
s a common cause of death in advanced cases of Cervical Carcinoma due to the tum
our invading through the anterior uterine wall into the ladder.
1394240497605 1358629116480 How long does CIN typically take to ecome Cervi
cal Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::10-20 years}}</div>
1394240523986 1358629116480 What is the gold standard procedure for screenin
g for Cervical Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3693671874779.jpg
" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pap Smear}}</div></div> <div><r /></div
><img src="paste-3715146711394.jpg" />
1394240885054 1358629116480 What is the grade of dysplasia for cells with hy
perchromatic (dark) nuclei and a high nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::High grade dysplasia}}</div>
1394240943148 1358629116480 {{c1::Colposcopy}} is defined as visualization o
f the cervix with a magnifying glass. <r /><div><img src="paste-3749506449712
.jpg" /></div>
1394240978725 1358629116480 Which sutypes of HPV are covered y the current
quadrivalent vaccine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV6, 11, 16, 18}}</div>
1394241419152 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of infectious Cerv
icitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>}}</div>
1394241584251 1358629116480 {{c1::Cervicitis}} is a reproductive pathology d
efined as inflammation of the cervix.
1394241637476 1358629116480 {{c1::Endocervical Polyps}} are a enign cervica
l pathology that presents in the endocervical canal as a mass and involves vagin
al leeding or "spotting".<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3216930505096.jp
g" /><img src="paste-11789685227763.jpg" /></div>
1394241705535 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of CIN and Cervica
l Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High-risk HPV}}</div>
1394242185928 1358629116480 What is the cancer risk associated with HPV42-44
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
1394242887061 1358629116480 What urogenital disorder is associated with lowrisk HPV sutypes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Condylomas/warts}}</div>
1394242914870 1358629116480 {{c1::Koilocytes}} are a histological feature of
HPV infected cells and involve a nucleus with a 'raisin-like' shape.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-5265629905230.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-93797
790777760.jpg" /></div>
1394243578784 1358629116480 {{c1::Exophytic Cervical Carcinoma}} is a morpho
logical type of cervical carcinoma that presents as a fungating mass with nodule
s.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5987184410893.jpg" /></div>
1394244224708 1358629116480 {{c1::Infiltrative Cervical Carcinoma}} is a mor
phological type of cervical carcinoma that presents as a arrel-shaped cervix.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5604932321514.jpg" /></div>
1394244275238 1358629116480 {{c1::Small Cell Carcinoma of the Cervix}} is a
Cervical cancer that involves the proliferation of neuroendocrine cells.
1394244499915 1358629116480 {{c1::Adenosquamous Carcinoma}} is a cervical ca
ncer that involves a mixture of malignant glandular and squamous epithelium.
1394244526202 1358629116480 Which hormone drives the growth of the endometri
um in the proliferative phase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrogen}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10166187589890.jpg" /></div>
1394244850826 1358629116480 Which hormone drives the preparation of the endo

metrium for implantation in the Secretory Phase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prog
esterone}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10204842295571.jpg" /></div>
1394244873241 1358629116480 Loss of the hormone&nsp;{{c1::Progesterone}} tr
iggers the shedding of the endometrium in the Menstrual Phase.
1394244897737 1358629116480 What is the cause of Asherman Syndrome?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Loss of the asalis layer of the endometrium due to overaggre
ssive dilation/curettage}}</div>
1394244935163 1358629116480 {{c1::Asherman's Syndrome}} is a uterine disorde
r that involves secondary amenorrhea due to loss of the asalis layer of the end
ometrium and scarring. <r /><div><i>The asalis layer of the endometrium is th
e stem cell layer and regenerates the endomertrium as a whole.</i></div>
1394244976516 1358629116480 Which layer of the endometrium is the stem cell/
regenerative layer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basalis}}</div>
1394244990104 1358629116480 {{c1::Anovulatory Cycle}} is a uterine disorder
that involves a lack of ovulation due to a lack of Progesterone-driven secretory
phase that follows an Estrogen-driven proliferative phase.
1394245067689 1358629116480 {{c1::Anovulatory Cycle}} is a uterine disorder
that presents with irregular leeding due to lack of a Progesterone-driven secre
tory phase.
<r /><div><i>Glands shed and cause leeding; this is especially
seen during menarche and menopause.</i></div>
1394245127242 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Endometritis}} is defined as acute i
nfection of the endometrium, typically due to <>retained products of conception
</> that act as a nidus for infection. <r /><div><i>Typically seen following d
elivery, miscarriage, aortion or a foreign ody such as an IUD.</i></div><div><
i>Bacterial flora from the vagina or GI tract are the most common invaders.</i><
/div>
1394245175491 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Endometritis}} is defined as chron
ic inflammation of the endometrium and involves oth <>lymphocytes and plasma c
ells</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-94034013978916.jpg" /></div>
1394245209606 1358629116480 {{c1::Plasma Cells}} are an immune cell that is
<>necessary for the diagnosis of Chronic Endometritis as lymphocytes are normal
ly found in the endometrium</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1139025326
9252.jpg" /><img src="paste-94038308946212.jpg" /></div>
1394245840054 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometrial Polyps}} are a hyperplastic pr
otrusion of endometrium that commonly presents as anormal leeding, especially
in menopause.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11793980195059.jpg" /></div>
1394245866214 1358629116480 {{c1::Tamoxifen}} is an anti-estrogenic drug tha
t can cause endometrial polyps as it has weak pro-estrogenic effects on the endo
metrium.
1394245911690 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometriosis}} is a uterine disorder invo
lving the <>presence of endometrial glands and stroma outside of the uterine en
dometrium</> that presents with painful menstruation and pelvic pain.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-94618129531297.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>He
re there is an endometrial gland in the adominal musculature.</i></div><div><i>
Presents with <>cyclic pelvic pain, leeding, dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, dysche
zia</>&nsp;and potentially <>infertility</>.</i></div>
1394246027424 1358629116480 What is the most likely cause of Endometriosis?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Retrograde Menstruation}}</div>
<img src="paste11553462026711.jpg" />
1394246043726 1358629116480 What is the most common site of involvement in E
ndometriosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ovary}}</div> <r /><div><i>Pelvis and
peritoneum round up the top 3.</i></div>
1394246072478 1358629116480 {{c1::Chocolate Cyst}} is a cystic formation at
the ovaries in endometriosis due to the growing and shedding of the ectopic endo
metrium.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11579231830283.jpg" /></div>
1394246183121 1358629116480 Endometriosis located at the&nsp;{{c1::Pouch of
Douglas}} will present as pain with defecation.
1394246276436 1358629116480 Endometriosis at the&nsp;{{c1::ladder wall}} w
ill present with pain during urination.
1394246307055 1358629116480 Endometriosis at the&nsp;{{c1::owel serosa}} w

ill present with adominal pain and adhesions.
1394246322301 1358629116480 Endometriosis at the&nsp;{{c1::Fallopian tue}}
will present with an increased risk of ectopic tual pregnancy due to the scarr
ing that occurs.
1394246357395 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometriosis}} is a uterine disorder that
involves ectopic implantations of endometrium that appear as <>yellow-rown</
>&nsp;<>'gun-powder'</>&nsp;nodules.
1394246397264 1358629116480 {{c1::Adenomyosis}} is defined as <u>endometrios
is that involves the uterine myometrium</u> due to <>hyperplasia of the asalis
layer of the endometrium</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-114847425497
56.jpg" /><img src="paste-11725260718426.jpg" /><img src="paste-11751030522085.j
pg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Involves <>dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia</>&nsp;and
a <>uniformly enlarged, soft, gloular uterus</>.</i></div><div><i>Tx: hyster
ectomy.</i></div>
1394246412808 1358629116480 What is the cause of Endometrial Hyperplasia?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unopposed Estrogen}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. Estro
gen is not followed y Progesterone</i></div><div><i>Risk factors include <>ano
vulatory cycles, hormone replacement therapy, PCOS, granulosa cell tumour</>.</
i></div>
1394246617672 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometrial Hyperplasia}} is a uterine dis
order that involves hyperplasia of the endometrial glands relative to the stroma
.
1394246635041 1358629116480 What is the most important predictor for progres
sion of Endometrial Hyperplasia to carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Presenc
e of Cellular Atypia}}</div>
1394246696450 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometrial Carcinoma}} is a uterine cance
r that involves malignant proliferation of endometrial glands.
1394246735659 1358629116480 What is the most common <>invasive</>&nsp;tum
our of the female genital tract?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endometrial Carcinom
a}}</div>
1394246764849 1358629116480 What is the most common pathway leading to Endom
etrial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperplasia}}</div>
1394246788725 1358629116480 What is the 2nd most common pathway leading to&n
sp;Endometrial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sporadic}}</div>
1394246797681 1358629116480 What is the major risk factor for&nsp;Endometri
al Carcinoma via the Hyperplasia pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Exposure to
Estrogen}}</div>
1394246840286 1358629116480 What is the average age of presentation of&nsp;
Endometrial Carcinoma via Hyperplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::60}}</div>
1394246856483 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometrial Carcinoma via Hyperplasia}} is
a type of&nsp;Endometrial Carcinoma that involves an endometrioid histology (n
ormal endometrium-like).
1394246898384 1358629116480 {{c1::Sporadic Endometrial Carcinoma}} is a type
of&nsp;Endometrial Carcinoma that arises in atrophic endometrium without evide
nce of a precursor lesion or sign.
1394246940609 1358629116480 What is the average age of onset of Sporadic&ns
p;Endometrial Carcinoma?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::70}}</div>
1394246950082 1358629116480 {{c1::Sporadic Endometrial Carcinoma}} is a type
of&nsp;Endometrial Carcinoma that is usually serous and characterized y papil
lary structures with psammoma odies.
1394246986005 1358629116480 What gene mutation is commonly seen in Sporadic&
nsp;Endometrial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53}}</div>
1394246997622 1358629116480 What is the most common tumour in females?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Leiomyoma (Uterine Firoids)}}</div>
1394247019320 1358629116480 {{c1::Leiomyoma (Uterine Firoids)}} are enign
neoplastic proliferations of smooth muscle arising from the myometrium.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-95932389523735.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Of
ten presents with multiple discrete tumours.</i></div>
1394247183569 1358629116480 {{c1::Leiomyoma}} is a uterine neoplasm that inv
olves <>multiple, well defined, white, whorled</> masses that may distort the

uterus and pelvic structures.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1307388044938
7.jpg" /><img src="paste-13099650253169.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>However it
is typically asymptomatic.</i></div>
1394247250299 1358629116480 Which demographic of women is a commonly affecte
d with Leiomyoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Premenopausal and <u>lack</u>&nsp
;women}}</div>
1394247272868 1358629116480 {{c1::Leiomyosarcoma}} is a malignant proliferat
ion of smooth muscle arising <><u>de novo</u></> from the myometrium of the ut
erus. <r /><div><><i>Leiomyosarcoma does not arise from leiomyoma.</i></></
div>
1394247294932 1358629116480 {{c1::Leiomyosarcoma}} is a uterine neoplasm tha
t presents as a <>single</>&nsp;lesion with areas of necrosis and hemorrhage.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13129715024234.jpg" /></div>
1394247327294 1358629116480 What demographic of women are commonly affected
with Leiomyosarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopausal}}</div>
1394247385056 1358629116480 What is the risk of Leiomyoma progressing into L
eiomyosarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None; Leiomyosarcoma manifests <i>de n
ovo</i>&nsp;and not from Leiomyoma}}</div>
1394247563952 1358629116480 {{c1::Arias-Stella Phenomenon}} is a uterine dis
order that involves the in-folding and vacuolation of the glandular epithelium d
uring pregnancy.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10591389352074.jpg" /></di
v>
1394247618232 1358629116480 {{c1::Metrorrhagia}} is uterine leeding that oc
curs at <>inappropriate </>time with spotting and irregular intervals.
1394247712521 1358629116480 {{c1::Menorrhagia}} is defined as uterine leedi
ng at <>appropriate</>&nsp;times ut in excessive amounts (at regular interva
ls).
1394247757750 1358629116480 What demographic of women are commonly affected
y Metrorrhagia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Peri-menopausal}}</div>
1394247797642 1358629116480 What demographic of women are commonly affected
y Meno-metrorrhagia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reproductive Age}}</div>
1394247819968 1358629116480 What demographic of women is commonly affected 
y Menorrhagia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adolescent}}</div>
1394247834166 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Dysfunctional U
terine Bleeding (DUB)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anovulatory Cycle}}</div>
1394247882590 1358629116480 What are the 2 most common causes of Uterine Ble
eding in Pre-puescent females?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sexual ause and prec
ocious puerty}}</div>
1394247957996 1358629116480 What is the second most common cause of Uterine
Bleeding in adolescent females?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coagulation Disorders
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>First is anovulatory cycle</i></div>
1394248208873 1358629116480 What gene is involved with Simple Endometrial Hy
perplasia?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11948599017635.jpg" /><img src="
paste-11961483919512.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PTEN}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>There is minimal gland crowding and small cysts.</i></div>
1394248257156 1358629116480 Which gene is involved with Complex Endometrial
Hyperplasia?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11995843657893.jpg" /><img src
="paste-12008728559769.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::hMLH1}}</div></d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Crowded ack-to-ack glands; &gt; 50% of the tissue is gla
ndular</i></div>
1394248304683 1358629116480 What gene is involved in Complex <>Atypical</>
&nsp;Hyperplasia of the Endometrium?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12034
498363556.jpg" /><img src="paste-12047383265423.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::K-RAS}}</div> <r /><div><i>Involves nuclear pleomorphism and mitoses.
</i></div>
1394248349298 1358629116480 What gene is involved in the progression of Comp
lex Atypical Hyperplasia to Grade 1 uterine Endometrioid Carcinoma?<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-12137577578639.jpg" /><img src="paste-12193412153500.jp
g" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-catenin and PIK3CA}}</div>
1394248425259 1358629116480 Which grade of Endometrial Carcinoma is poorly d

ifferientiated?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12227771891813.jpg" /><r /
><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div></div>
1394248462251 1358629116480 Which grade of Endometrial Carcinoma is moderate
ly differentiated?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12262131630182.jpg" /><
r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div></div>
1394248479965 1358629116480 Which grade of Endometrial Carcinoma is well-dif
ferentiated into glands?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12296491368534.jpg
" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div></div>
1394248501082 1358629116480 Which type of Endometrial Carcinoma is sporadic?
<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Type II, Non-endometrioid}}</div>
1394248540696 1358629116480 What is the major risk factor for sporadic, nonendometrioid Endometrial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrogen Deficien
cy}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Prognosis is poor.</i></div>
1394248578047 1358629116480 {{c1::Serous Carcinoma}} is a type of Non-Endome
trioid Endometrial Carcinoma that develops from endometrial surface epithelium.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12451110191189.jpg" /></div>
1394248642811 1358629116480 {{c1::Clear Cell Carcinoma}} is a type of&nsp;N
on-Endometrioid Endometrial Carcinoma that resemles gestational endometrium.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12494059864149.jpg" /></div>
1394248665331 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant mixed Mullerian Tumour (MMMT)}}
is a type of Non-Endometrioid Endometrial Carcinoma that involves oth glandular
and stromal compartments that are malignant.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-12519829667925.jpg" /></div>
1394319101550 1358629116480 The {{c1::follicle}} is the functional unit of t
he ovary.
1394319147337 1358629116480 Which cells of the follicle respond to LH and ma
ke androgens?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Theca}}</div>
1394319181192 1358629116480 Which cells of the follicle respond to FSH and c
onvert androgens to estradiol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granulosa}}</div>
1394319207142 1358629116480 {{c1::LH}} is a pituitary hormone that acts on&n
sp;{{c2::Theca}} cells of the follicle to induce androgen production.
1394319237418 1358629116480 {{c1::FSH}} is a pituitary hormone that acts on&
nsp;{{c2::Granulosa}} cells of the follicle to convert androgen to estradiol.
1394319272192 1358629116480 Which hormone is predominantly secreted y the C
orpus Luteum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Progesterone}}</div>
1394319304927 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemorrhagic Corpus Luteal Cyst}} is an ova
rian disorder that results from hemorrhaging into a corpus luteum, especially du
ring early pregnancy.
1394319636355 1358629116480 {{c1::Follicular Cysts}} is a cystic ovarian pat
hology that results from degeneration of follicles. They have no clinical signif
icance.
1394319896976 1358629116480 {{c1::Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD)}} is an
ovarian pathology that involves multiple follicular cysts due to hormonal imala
nce.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14839112008044.jpg" /></div><div><img
src="paste-97495757619614.jpg" /></div>
1394319997633 1358629116480 What is the hormone imalance seen in Polycystic
Ovarian Disesae (PCOD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased LH; decreased FSH}
}</div>
1394320032230 1358629116480 What is the LH:FSH ratio in&nsp;Polycystic Ovar
ian Disesae (PCOD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 2}}</div>
1394320050270 1358629116480 Increased levels of&nsp;{{c1::LH}} in&nsp;Poly
cystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD) results in excess androgen production from theca c
ells, therey causing hirsutism.
1394320081685 1358629116480 {{c1::Hirsutism}} is defined as excess hair in f
emales in a male distriution.
1394320099430 1358629116480 The excess amount of androgens in&nsp;Polycysti
c Ovarian Disease (PCOD) is converted into&nsp;{{c1::estrone}} at adipose tissu
e.
1394320152292 1358629116480 {{c1::Estrone}} is a hormone made in&nsp;Polycy
stic Ovarian Disease (PCOD) through adipose-mediated conversion of androgens.

1394320179214 1358629116480 Estrone action in&nsp;Polycystic Ovarian Diseas
e (PCOD) involves feedack to the pituitary and susequent decrease in&nsp;{{c1
::FSH}} levels.
1394320212610 1358629116480 Reduced levels of the hormone&nsp;{{c1::FSH}} i
n&nsp;Polycystic Ovarian Disesae (PCOD) results in cystic degeneration of folli
cles in the ovary.
1394320867229 1358629116480 What cancer risk is associated with high levels
of circulating Estrone?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Increased risk of Endometrial C
arcinoma}}</div>
1394320910889 1358629116480 What is the classic triad of presentation in Pol
ycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infertility, oligomen
orrhea and hirsutism}}</div>
<r /><div><i>And commonly seen in <>oese wome
n</>.</i></div>
1394321035552 1358629116480 {{c1::T2DM}} is a potential complication of Poly
cystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD) due to the insulin resistance that develops.
1394321071725 1358629116480 What is the most common <>type</>&nsp;of ovar
ian tumour?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface Epithelium}}</div>
1394326019256 1358629116480 Which type of ovarian tumour is derived from Coe
lomic Epithelium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface Epithelial}}</div>
1394326065796 1358629116480 {{c1::Coelomic Epithelium}} is an emryological
epithelial structure that produces the epithelial lining of the fallopian tue,
endometrium and endocervix.
1394326165214 1358629116480 What are the 2 common sutypes of Surface Epithe
lial Ovarian tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Serous and Mucinous}}</div>
1394326197760 1358629116480 {{c1::Serous tumours}} are a sutype of Surface
Epithelial Ovarian tumours that are full of watery-fluid.
1394326236512 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucinous tumours}} are a sutype of&nsp;S
urface Epithelial Ovarian tumours that are full of mucous-like fluid. <r /><d
iv><i>Lined with mucus-secreting epithelium.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-10
0089917866322.jpg" /></i></div>
1394326250794 1358629116480 {{c1::Ovarian Cystadenoma}} is a type of&nsp;Su
rface Epithelial Ovarian tumour that is<> enign</> and is composed of a <>si
ngle cyst</> with a<> simple, flat lining</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-15753940041909.jpg" />serous</div><div><img src="paste-16651588206833.jpg"
/>mucinous</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15625091023000.jpg" /></div>
1394326339299 1358629116480 What demographic of women are commonly affected
y Ovarian Cystadenoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pre-menopausal; 30-40 y/o}}</
div>
1394326366684 1358629116480 {{c1::Ovarian Cystadenocarcinoma}} is a malignan
t&nsp;Surface Epithelial Ovarian tumour that involves <>complex cysts</>&nsp
;with a <>thick, shaggy </>lining.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-157797
09845735.jpg" />serous</div><div><img src="paste-16690242912544.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-15719580303546.jpg" /></div>
1394326430648 1358629116480 What demographic of women are commonly affected
y Ovarian Cystadenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopausal; 60-70
y/o}}</div>
1394326468667 1358629116480 {{c1::Borderline Ovarian tumour}} is a type of&n
sp;Surface Epithelial Ovarian tumour that have features in etween enign and m
alignant tumours, ut still have metastatic potential. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-15676630630586.jpg" /></div>
1394326514494 1358629116480 Which gene mutation is associated with an increa
sed risk for <>serous carcinoma</>&nsp;of the ovary and fallopian tue?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>BRCA1</i>}}</div>
1394326541946 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometrioid Ovarian tumour}} is a type of
malignant Surface Epithelial Ovarian tumour that is composed of endometrial-lik
e glands.
<r /><div><i>May arise from endometriosis; 15% associated with
independent endometrial carcinoma</i></div>
1394327131105 1358629116480 {{c1::Brenner tumour}} is a&nsp;Surface Epithel
ial Ovarian tumour that is composed of <>ladder-like/urothelial-like epitheliu
m with cofee-ean nuclei</> and are usually enign.<div><r /></div><div><img s

rc="paste-17330193039637.jpg" /></div>
1394327197119 1358629116480 What serum tumour maker is useful to monitor tre
atment response or recurrence of ovarian cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CA-1
25}}</div>
1394327232407 1358629116480 What is the 2nd most common type of Ovarian tumo
ur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Germ Cell}}</div>
1394327245611 1358629116480 What demographic of women are commonly affected
y Germ Cell Ovarian tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reproductive}}</div>
1394327278238 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystic Teratoma}} and&nsp;{{c2::Emryonal
Carcinoma}} are Germ Cell Ovarian tumours that are comprised of fetal tissue.
1394327358514 1358629116480 {{c1::Dygerminoma}} is a&nsp;Germ Cell Ovarian
tumour that mimics oocytes.
1394327387970 1358629116480 {{c1::Endodermal Sinus Tumour}} is a&nsp;Germ C
ell Ovarian tumour that mimics yolk sac tissue.
1394327402134 1358629116480 {{c1::Choriocarcinoma}} is a&nsp;Germ Cell Ovar
ian tumour that mimics placental tissue.
1394327416246 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystic Teratoma}} is a&nsp;Germ Cell Ovar
ian tumour that is composed of cystic fetal tissue from 2 or 3 different emryol
ogic layers.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18360985190795.jpg" /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-100313256165708.jpg" /></div>
1394327743565 1358629116480 What is the most common Germ Cell Ovarian tumour
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cystic Teratoma}}</div>
1394327790445 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystic Teratoma}} is a type of&nsp;Germ C
ell Ovarian tumour that is usually enign, however the <>presence of immature t
issue or somatic malignancy will indicate the malignant potential</>.
1394327845026 1358629116480 What kind of immature tissue is normally seen in
malignant Cystic Teratomas?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18296560681339
.jpg" /><img src="paste-18322330484979.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Neural}}</div></div>
1394327866253 1358629116480 What somatic malignancy is commonly seen in mali
gnant Cystic Teratomas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of th
e skin}}</div>
1394327900576 1358629116480 {{c1::Struma ovarii}} is a Cystic Teratoma that
is composed primarily of thyroid tissue.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18
391049961715.jpg" /><img src="paste-100347615904078.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i><>Thyrotoxicosis</> may occur.</i></div>
1394327958053 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysgerminoma}} is a&nsp;Germ Cell Ovarian
tumour that is composed of <>large cells with clear cytoplasm and central nucl
ei resemling oocytes or fried-eggs</>. There is also a delicate stroma with ly
mphocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17961553232141.jpg" /></div><div
><img src="paste-100661148516685.jpg" /></div>
1394328368672 1358629116480 What is the most common <>malignant</>&nsp;Ge
rm Cell Ovarian tumour?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dysgerminoma}}</div>
1394328382735 1358629116480 Which Germ Cell Ovarian Tumour is associated wit
h elevated LDH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dysgerminoma}}&nsp;</div>
1394328405722 1358629116480 What is the prognosis for Dysgerminoma?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Good; good response to radiotherapy}}</div>
1394328422799 1358629116480 {{c1::Endodermal Sinus Tumour}} is a malignant G
erm Cell Ovarian tumour that mimics the yolk sac.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-18034567676189.jpg" /></div>
1394328451968 1358629116480 What is the most common&nsp;Germ Cell Ovarian t
umour in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endodermal Sinus Tumour}}</div>
1394328464572 1358629116480 What serum marker is elevated in Endodermal Sinu
s Tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AFP}}</div>
1394328481838 1358629116480 {{c1::Schiller-Duval odies}} are histological f
eatures of Endodermal Sinus (olk Sac) Tumours that resemle glomeruli.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-18064632447231.jpg" /><img src="paste-1009489113255
19.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-8959301779716.jpg" /></div>
1394328530408 1358629116480 {{c1::Choriocarcinoma}} is a malignant Germ Cell
Ovarian tumour that is composed of cytotropholast and syncytiotropholasts.<di

v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-100725573026126.jpg" /></div>
1394328571319 1358629116480 {{c1::Choriocarcinoma}} is a malignant&nsp;Germ
Cell Ovarian tumour that mimics placental tissue, ut <>does not involve have
villi</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-100721278058830.jpg" /></div>
1394328596803 1358629116480 {{c1::Choriocarcinoma}} is a&nsp;Germ Cell Ovar
ian tumour that is small and hemorrhagic and hence spreads hematogenously and ea
rly.
1394328660602 1358629116480 What serum marker is characteristically elevated
in Choriocarcimoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::eta-hCG; produced y Syncytiotr
opholasts}}</div>
1394328699644 1358629116480 {{c1::Emryonal Carcinoma}} is a malignant Germ
Cell Ovarian tumour that is composed of large, primitive emryonal cells. It is
aggressive with early metastasis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-866294903
6245.jpg" /></div>
1394328741715 1358629116480 {{c1::Sex Cord Stromal Tumours}} are a type of O
varian Tumour that resemle the sex-cord stromal tissue of the ovary (theca and
granulosa cells).
1394329873494 1358629116480 {{c1::Granulosa-Theca Cell Tumour}} is a type of
Sex Cord-Stromal Ovarian tumour that involves a neoplastic proliferation of gra
nulosa and theca cells.
1394329914752 1358629116480 What hormone is produced y Granulosa-Theca Cell
Tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrogen}}</div>
1394329939327 1358629116480 A Granulosa-Theca Cell tumour that presents&nsp
;{{c1::prior to puerty}} will present as precocious puerty.
1394329973492 1358629116480 A Granulosa-Theca Cell Tumour that presents duri
ng&nsp;{{c1::reproductive age}} will present with menorrhagia and metrorrhagia.
1394330000568 1358629116480 A Granulosa-Theca Cell tumour that presents&nsp
;{{c1::postmenopause}} will present with endometrial hyperplasia and postmenopau
sal uterine leeding.
1394330034717 1358629116480 What demographic of women is commonly affected 
y Granulosa-Theca Cell tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopausal}}</div
>
1394330066142 1358629116480 {{c1::Sertoli-Leydig cell tumour}} is a type of&
nsp;Sex Cord-Stromal Ovarian tumour composed of Sertoli cells that form tuules
and Leydig cells etween them with <>Reinke</>&nsp;crystals.<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-18953690677488.jpg" /></div>
1394330123439 1358629116480 {{c1::Reinke crystals}} are a histological featu
re of Leydig cells of Sertoli-Leydig Cell Tumours that appear as intracellular c
rystals.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9058086027599.jpg" /></div>
1394330174052 1358629116480 {{c1::Ovarian Firoma}} is a enign&nsp;Sex Cor
d-Stromal Ovarian tumour of firolasts.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18
923625906437.jpg" /></div>
1394330196169 1358629116480 {{c1::Meigs Syndrome}} is a tumour syndrome that
involves <>ovarian firoma, pleural effusions and ascites</>.
1394330218316 1358629116480 {{c1::Krukenerg tumour}} is a type of metastati
c mucinous ovarian tumor that involves <>oth</>&nsp;ovaries.<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-19108309500291.jpg" /></div>
1394330252158 1358629116480 What cancer most commonly causes Krukenerg tumo
urs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metastatic Diffuse Gastric Carcinoma}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Krukenerg tumours likely have signet-ring cells.</i></div>
<div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-19155554140545.jpg" /></i></div>
1394330284182 1358629116480 {{c1::Pseudomyxoma Peritonei}} is a metastatic o
varian tumour that presents as massive amounts of mucous in the peritoneum typic
ally due to Appendiceal Mucinous Cystadenocarcinoma.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-16728897618285.jpg" /></div>
1394330341649 1358629116480 Which gene is closely associated with <>Mucinou
s</> Cystadenocarcinoma of the Ovary?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::K-Ras}}</div>
1394332017566 1358629116480 {{c1::Serous Cystadenocarcinoma}} is a type of m
alignant Surface Epithelial Ovarian tumour that involves malignant epithelial ce
lls arranged in a papillae or solid sheet formation with <>psamomma odies</>.

<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15934328668408.jpg" /><img src="paste-1594
7213570211.jpg" /></div>
1394332073100 1358629116480 What gene is commonly implicated in Endometrioid
Ovarian Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PTEN}}</div>
<r /><div><i>p5
3 in the poorly differentiated tumours</i></div>
1394332477626 1358629116480 What gene is associated with Clear Cell Carcinom
a of the Ovary?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17274358464776.jpg" /><r /
><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>HNF1</i>}}</div></div>
1394332585588 1358629116480 What gene is commonly upregulated in Dysgerminom
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>c-KIT</i>}}</div>
1394332960259 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysgerminoma}} is a&nsp;Germ Cell Ovarian
tumour that is unilateral, solid and has a osselated surface.<div><r></div><d
iv><img src="paste-17879948853470.jpg" /></div>
1394333032196 1358629116480 What marker is produced y Granulosa Cell Tumour
s that we can use diagnostically?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiin}}</div>
1394333879442 1358629116480 {{c1::Granulosa Cell Tumours}} is a type of Stro
mal Cell Ovarian tumour that involves sheets or cords or small polygonal cells w
ith follicular structures called&nsp;<>Call-Exner odies</>&nsp;and <>coffe
e ean nuclei</>.<div><><r /></></div><div><><img src="paste-18644453032202
.jpg" /></></div><div><><img src="paste-18657337934057.jpg" /></></div>
1394387633986 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypospadias}} is a congenital disorder of
the penis that involves opening of the urethra on the inferior surface of the pe
nis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6210522710177.jpg" /></div>
1394388395006 1358629116480 What is cause of Hypospadias?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Failure of the urethral folds to close}}</div>
1394388410609 1358629116480 {{c1::Epispadias}} is a congenital penis disorde
r that involves opening of the urethra on the superior surface of the penis.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6257767350434.jpg" /></div>
1394388434982 1358629116480 What is the cause of Epispadias?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Anormal positioning of the genital tuercle}}</div>
1394388455675 1358629116480 What causes Condylomata Acuminatum?<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-6532645257480.jpg" /><img src="paste-6562710028496.jpg"
/><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV6; HPV11}}</div></div>
1394388479848 1358629116480 What is the cause of Lymphogranuloma Venereum?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;serotypes L1-L3}}</d
iv>
1394388519835 1358629116480 {{c1::Rectal Strictures}} are a possile complic
ation of Lymphogranuloma Venereum if the perianal area is involved and undergoes
firosis.
1394388562593 1358629116480 What is the most common risk factor for Squamous
Cell Carcinoma of the Penis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7413113553274
.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High-risk HPV (66% of cases)}}</div></
div>
1394388597280 1358629116480 Besides high-risk HPV, what is the second most m
ajor risk factor for Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Penis?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Lack of circumcision and poorly maintained foreskin}}</div>
1394388883189 1358629116480 {{c1::Bowen's Disease}} is a precursor carcinoma
<i>in situ</i>&nsp;lesion of the penile shaft or scrotum that presents as leuk
oplakia, it may progress to Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Penis.
1394388951738 1358629116480 {{c1::Erythroplasia of Queyrat}} is a precursor
carcinoma <i>in situ</i>&nsp;lesion found on the <>glans</> of the penis and
presents as <>erythroplakia</>. It may progress to&nsp;Squamous Cell Carcinom
a of the Penis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7224134992134.jpg" /></div>
1394389027207 1358629116480 {{c1::Bowenoid Papulosis}} is a precursor carcin
oma <i>in situ</i>&nsp;lesion that presents as <>multiple reddish papules</>&
nsp;on the penis and is seen more commonly in younger patients (40 y/o).
<r /><div><><i>Will not progress to invasive carcinoma.</i></></div>
1394389100397 1358629116480 {{c1::Cryptorchidism}} is a testicular disorder
defined as a failure of the testicles to descend into the scrotal sac. <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-8040178778299.jpg" /></div>

1394389141450 1358629116480 What is the most common congenital male reproduc
tive anormality?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cryptorchidism}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Seen in 1% of male infants.</i></div>
1394389168922 1358629116480 Which cancer has an increase risk of manifesting
with Cryptorchidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Seminoma}}</div>
1394389209574 1358629116480 {{c1::Orchitis}} is defined as inflammation of t
he testicles.
1394389221377 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;(D-K)}}
and&nsp;{{c2::<i>Neisseria gonorrheae</i>}} are the 2 most common acterial cau
ses of orchitis in <>young adults</>.&nsp;
1394389639918 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}} and&nsp;{{c2::<
i>Pseudomonas sp.</i>}} are the 2 most common acterial causes of orchitis in <
>older adults</>.
<r /><div><i>These UTI ugs commonly spread to the repr
oductive tract in older men.</i></div>
1394389682409 1358629116480 {{c1::Mumps virus}} is a common <>viral</> cau
se of orchitis in teenage males.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7958
574399711.jpg" /></div>
1394389709312 1358629116480 {{c1::Autoimmune Orchitis}} is a type of orchiti
s that involves granulomas at the seminiferous tuules. <r /><div><i>TB orchiti
s can also involve granulomas, so an AFB stain may e used to differentiate the
2.</i></div>
1394389767100 1358629116480 {{c1::Testicular Torsion}} is a testicular patho
logy that involves twisting of the spermatic cord and susequent congestion and
hemorrhagic infarct due to thin-walled veins ecoming ostructed.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-7984344203596.jpg" /></div>
1394389867697 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Testicular Tors
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital failure of the testes to attach to th
e inner lining of the scrotum}}</div>
1394389905276 1358629116480 {{c1::Varicocele}} is a testicular pathology tha
t involves dilation of the spermatic vein due to impaired drainage. It presents
with a <>"ag of worms"</>&nsp;appearance.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-7911329759481.jpg" /><img src="paste-7932804595875.jpg" /></div><div><img src
="paste-104049877713314.jpg" /></div>
1394389950293 1358629116480 What side of the ody is commonly affected y Va
ricocele?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left; due to Left Testicular Vein draining
into the Left Renal Vein}}</div>
<r /><div><i>There is increased resista
nce to lood flow from the left gonadal vein drainage into the left renal vein.<
/i></div>
1394389987933 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydrocele}} is a testicular pathology that
involves fluid collection within the tunica vaginalis and can <>transilluminat
e</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7464653160614.jpg" /></div>
1394390026103 1358629116480 What is the cause of Hydrocele in infants?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Incomplete closure of the processus vaginalis; therefore a
llowing for communication with the peritoneal cavity}}</div>
1394390065559 1358629116480 What is the cause of Hydrocele in adults?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Blockage of lymphatic drainage}}</div>
1394390081587 1358629116480 Testicular tumours are not iopsied due to risk
of seeding the&nsp;{{c1::scrotum}}.
1394392202469 1358629116480 What is the most common type of testicular tumou
r?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Germ cell tumour}}</div>
1394392216454 1358629116480 {{c1::Kleinfelter's Syndrome}} is a sex chromoso
me disorder that presents with an increased risk for Germ Cell Testicular tumour
s.
1394392250003 1358629116480 {{c1::Seminoma}} is a type of&nsp;Germ Cell Tes
ticular tumour that are highly responsive to radiotherapy, metastasize late and
have excellent prognosis.
1394392284941 1358629116480 {{c1::Nonseminoma}} is a type of&nsp;Germ Cell
Testicular tumour that shows variale responses to treatment and metastasizes<>
early.</><div><><r /></></div><div><><img src="paste-8637179232575.jpg" />
</></div>

1394392315416 1358629116480 {{c1::Seminoma}} is a malignant Germ Cell Testic
ular tumour that is comprised of large cells with clear cytoplasm and central nu
clei.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8598524526829.jpg" /></div>
1394392375671 1358629116480 {{c1::Seminoma}} is a type of&nsp;Germ Cell Tes
ticular tumour that forms a homogenous mass with no hemorrhaging or necrosis.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8568459755822.jpg" /></div>
1394392396581 1358629116480 What is the most common testicular tumour?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Seminoma}}</div> <i><div></div></i><i><r />Resemles Dys
germinoma of the ovaries</i>
1394392414883 1358629116480 What is the prognosis for Seminoma?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Good}}</div>
1394392430258 1358629116480 {{c1::Emryonal Carcinoma}} is a malignant&nsp;
Germ Cell Testicular tumour comprised of immature, primitive cells that may prod
uce glands.
1394392455552 1358629116480 {{c1::Emryonal Carcinoma}} is a malignant&nsp;
Germ Cell Testicular tumour that forms a <>hemorrhagic mass with necrosis</> a
nd hence metastasizes early via the lood.
1394392500373 1358629116480 {{c1::olk Sac (Endodermal Sinus) tumour}} is a
malignant&nsp;Germ Cell Testicular tumour that resemles the yolk sac.
1394392569243 1358629116480 What is the most common testicular tumour in chi
ldren?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::olk Sac (Endodermal Sinus) tumours}}</div>
1394392838361 1358629116480 {{c1::Schiller-Duval odies}} are histological f
eatures of yolk sac tumours that look like glomeruli.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-8963596747012.jpg" /></div>
1394392871998 1358629116480 What serum marker is classically elevated in yol
k sac tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AFP}}</div>
1394392887390 1358629116480 {{c1::Choriocarcinoma}} is a malignant&nsp;Germ
Cell Testicular tumour that involves syncytiotropholasts and cytotropholasts.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-100721278058830.jpg" /></div>
1394392933830 1358629116480 {{c1::Choriocarcinoma}} is a malignant&nsp;Germ
Cell Testicular tumour that characteristically presents with elevated eta-hCG
and hence <>hyperthyroidism</>&nsp;or <>gynecomastia</>&nsp;may e seen.
1394392972531 1358629116480 What serum marker is classically elevated in Cho
riocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::eta-hCG}}</div>
1394392989979 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperthyroidism}} is a common complication
of Choriocarcinoma as the alpha-suunit of hCG is similar to that of TSH.
1394393015203 1358629116480 {{c1::Gynecomastia}} is a common complication of
Choriocarcinoma as the alpha-suunit of hCG is similar to that of FSH and LH.
1394393037029 1358629116480 In whic sex is a teratoma malignant?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-9028021256356.jpg" />
</div>
1394394266996 1358629116480 {{c1::Germ Cell tumours}} are a type of testicul
ar tumour that are commonly mixed. The prognosis is ased on the worst complaint
.
1394394301545 1358629116480 {{c1::Leydig Cell tumours}} are a Sex Cord-Strom
al Tumour seen in males that usually produces androgens, therey causing precoci
ous puerty in children or gynecomastia in adults.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-9062380994895.jpg" /></div>
1394394542087 1358629116480 {{c1::Reinke crystals}} are a characteristic his
tological feature of Leydig Cell Tumours.
1394394557978 1358629116480 {{c1::Sertoli Cell tumours}} are a type of&nsp;
Sex Cord-Stromal Tumour that are comprised of tuules and is usually clinically
silent.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9118215569659.jpg" /></div>
1394394589426 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of a testicular ma
ss in males &gt; 60 y/o?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphoma; usually diffuse la
rge-B cell}}</div>
1394394664135 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Prostatitis}} is defined as acute in
flammation of the prostate, typically due to acterial infection.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-9307194130635.jpg" /></div>
1394394808008 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>}} and&nsp;{{

c2::<i>Neisseria gonorrheae</i>}} are the 2 most common causes of acute prostati
tis in young adults.
1394394831823 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}} and&nsp;{{c2::<
i>Pseudomonas sp.</i>}} are the 2 most common causes of acute prostatitis in old
er adults.
1394394854973 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Prostatitis}} is a type of prostatit
is that will involve WBCs in prostatic secretions and a positive acterial cultu
re.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9311489097931.jpg" /></div>
1394394896026 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Prostatitis}} is a type of prostat
itis that will involve WBCs in the prostatic secretion and <>negative</>&nsp;
acterial cultures.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9345848836312.jpg" /></
div>
1394394923599 1358629116480 Which hormone is related to Benign Prostatic Hyp
erplasia (BPH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)}}</div>
1394395127421 1358629116480 {{c1::Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)}} is an androgen
that acts on the androgen receptors of stromal and epithelial cells of the pros
tate, resulting in hyperplastic nodules.
1394395158683 1358629116480 Which zone of the prostate is affected in BPH?<d
iv><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Central periurethral (transition) zone}}</div></d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Hence, urinary prolems are frequent and common.</i></div>
<div><i><img src="paste-103379862815128.jpg" /><img src="paste-10445360464262.jp
g" /></i></div>
1394395204958 1358629116480 What makes Prostate-specific Antigen (PSA)?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Prostatic glands}}</div>
1394395238512 1358629116480 What is the most common cancer in men?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Prostate Adenocarcinoma}}</div>
1394395355386 1358629116480 What zone of the prostate is commonly affected 
y Prostate Adenocarcinoma?<div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Peripheral, posterior
zone}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, urinary symptoms will only present
after the tumour has developed.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-103375567847832
.jpg" /></i></div>
1394395401131 1358629116480 Which level of PSA is worrying and a possile si
gn of Prostate Adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 10 ng/mL}}</div>
1394395427823 1358629116480 What type of PSA is made y prostate cancer?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bound-PSA}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, decreased %
of free PSA is worrying</i></div>
1394395457820 1358629116480 What are the 2 most common sites of spread for p
rostate cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lumar spine &amp; pelvis}}</div>
1394395654386 1358629116480 {{c1::Reiter Syndrome}} is a self-limiting infec
tious syndrome that involves <>urethritis, conjunctivitis </>and <>arthritis<
/>.
<r><i>Everyone at AUC has Reiters Syndrome</i>
1394396756282 1358629116480 What HLA sutype is associated with Reiter's Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
1394396768534 1358629116480 {{c1::Phimosis}} is a congenital disorder of the
penis that involves the foreskin eing too tight, therey increasing the risk f
or recurrent infections and carcinoma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5699
421601958.jpg" /></div>
1394396916291 1358629116480 {{c1::Paraphimosis}} is a congenital disorder of
the penis where the foreskin is trapped ehind the glans of the penis.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-5733781340327.jpg" /></div>
1394396948976 1358629116480 {{c1::Balanoposthitis}} is defined as inflammati
on of the glans and prepuce of the penis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6
713033883942.jpg" /></div>
1394397054600 1358629116480 {{c1::Peyronie's Disease}} is a penile disorder
that involves focal asymmetical firosis of the penis, therey resulting in ano
rmal penile curvature and pain during erection.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-6850472837346.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>"Nike dick"</i></div>
1394397203370 1358629116480 {{c1::Spermatocele}} is a testicular disorder th
at is defined as a cystic dilation of the epididymis. The drained fluid is milky
with spermatozoa.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7632156885268.jpg" /><im

g src="paste-7645041787039.jpg" /></div>
1394397847580 1358629116480 {{c1::Orchiopexy}} is a surgical procedure that
involves the placement of the testis into the scrotum.
1394397981699 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes are typically the first site o
f metastasis in Testicular Cancer?<div><r />{{c1::Retroperitoneal para-aortic l
ymph nodes}}</div>
1394398025421 1358629116480 Which genes are associated with Seminoma?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>c-KIT</i>&nsp;and <i>OCT4</i>}}</div>
1394398087621 1358629116480 Which cell marker is positive in Emryonal Cell
Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD30}}</div>
1394398497876 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome}} is the most
common type of prostatitis and involves lower ack pain, dysuria, puic discomf
ort, painful ejaculation and no pathogens grown.
1394398568281 1358629116480 {{c1::Granulomatous Prostatitis}} is a type of p
rostatitis that involves inflammatory infiltrations of plasma cells, lymphocytes
and macrophages with granulomas.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-988701471
5748.jpg" /></div>
1394399051593 1358629116480 {{c1::Prostate Adenocarcinoma}} is a cancer of t
he prostate that shows small invasive glands with prominent nuclei.<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-10707353469329.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-103560
251441568.jpg" /></div>
1394399184103 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Gleason grading/pattern scale}} i
s a scale used to grade prostate cancer ased off of <>architecture</>&nsp;al
one, not cellular atypia.
1394399212336 1358629116480 {{c1::Serum AlkPhos}} is a serum marker that wil
l e elevated if prostate cancer shows osteolastic metastases.
1394419096491 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::testes}} are homologous to the&n
sp;{{c2::ovaries}}
1394419736396 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::penis}} is homologous to the&nsp
;{{c2::clitoris}} in women.
1394419769514 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::spongy urethra}} is homologous to
the&nsp;{{c2::laia minora}} in women.
1394419787965 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::scrotum}} is homologous to the&n
sp;{{c2::laia majora}} in women.
1394419799750 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::prostate gland}} is homologous to
the&nsp;{{c2::paraurethral glands/female prostate (G spot)}} in women.
1394419822656 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Bulourethral glands}} are homolo
gous to the&nsp;{{c2::greater vestiular glands}} in women.
1394419841938 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::guernaculum}} is homologous to t
he&nsp;{{c2::round ligament}} in women.
1394419859737 1358629116480 {{c1::Sertoli Cells}} are homologous to&nsp;{{c
2::granulosa cells}} in women.
1394419874792 1358629116480 {{c1::Leydig cells}} are homologous to&nsp;{{c2
::thecal cells}} in women.
1394419889599 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::uterosacral}} and&nsp;{{c2::card
inal}} ligaments provide <>vertical</>&nsp;support for the uterus.
1394419925056 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::puocervical}} and&nsp;{{c2::rec
tovaginal}} fascia provide <>horizontal</>&nsp;support for the internal femal
e genitalia.
1394419955676 1358629116480 {{c1::Uterine prolapse}} is a gynegological diso
rder that occurs when the internal female genitalia loses <>apical</>&nsp;sup
port.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16582868730113.jpg" /></div>
1394420078906 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystocele (Anterior Wall Vaginal Prolapse)
}} is a gynecological disorder that occurs when the internal female genitalia lo
ses <>puocervical horizonal</>&nsp;support.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-17025250361660.jpg" /></div>
<div><i><r /></i></div>
1394420243222 1358629116480 {{c1::Rectocele}} is a gynecological disorder th
at occurs when the internal female genitalia loses <>horizontal rectovaginal</
>&nsp;support.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17038135263545.jpg" /></div
>

1394420335832 1358629116480 Which emryological structure develops into the
epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesone
phric (Wolffian) ducts}}</div>
1394420404553 1358629116480 Which emryological structures develop into the
fallopian tues, uterus and upper 1/3 of the vagina?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Paramesonephric (Mullerian) ducts}}</div>
1394420434703 1358629116480 Mullerian fusion defects will only present with
pain if there is an ostruction to&nsp;{{c1::menstrual lood flow}}. <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-17806934409484.jpg" /></div>
1394420491939 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::septate uterus}} is a pathological
form of the uterus that involves a large septum down the center of the uterus an
d a <>unified uterine fundus</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17300128
268402.jpg" /></div>
1394420640136 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Bicornuate uterus}} is a pathologic
al form of the uterus that involves a large septum, <>separate uterine fundi</
>&nsp;and commonly&nsp;<>one cervix</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-17351667875957.jpg" /></div>
1394420713153 1358629116480 {{c1::Uterine Didelphus}} is a pathological form
of the uterus that involves 2 entirely separate uteruses. Two separate vaginal
canals may or may not e present.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-173946175
48897.jpg" /><img src="paste-17407502450960.jpg" /><img src="paste-1742038735278
2.jpg" /></div>
1394420859926 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary Amenorrhea}} is a type of amenor
rhea that involves cessation of menses for the length of time of 3 normal menstr
ual cycles or for a six month duration.
1394421232654 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Amenorrhea}} is a type of amenorrh
ea that is defined as a lack of period y age 14 in the asence of development o
f secondary sexual characteristics.
1394421304419 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Amenorrhea}} is a type of amenorrh
ea that is defined as a lack of period y age 16 regardless of the presence or a
sence of normal growth or secondary sexual characteristics.
1394561161293 1358629116480 What hormone does the Hypothalamus release that
influences the genitals?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GnRH}}</div>
1394561812328 1358629116480 {{c1::FSH}} and&nsp;{{c2::LH}} are hormones rel
eased from the anterior pituitary that stimulate the ovaries to release estrogen
and progesterone.
1394561855551 1358629116480 {{c1::Kallmann's Syndrome}} is a genetic disorde
r that results in <>hypogonadotropic hypogonadism</> due to an asence of GnRH
. There is also anosmia/hyposmia.
<r /><div><i>Can hense cause Primary Am
enorrhea, infantile sexual development, low gonadotropins and anosmia.</i></div>
1394561968822 1358629116480 {{c1::Kallmann's Syndrome}} is a genetic disorde
r that involves a <>failure of migration of oth olfactory axons and GnRH neuro
ns from the olfactory placode to the hypothalamus</>. <r /><div><i>Hence ther
e is <>hypogonadism, primary amenorrhea, low sperm count, infertility and anosm
ia/hyposmia</>&nsp;due to decreased synthesis of GnRH and the olfactory ul.<
/i></div>
1394562034511 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Kalmann's Syndrome?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrogen/Progesterone replacement}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The gonads are <>normal</>, there is simply a lack of GnRH</i></div>
1394562076037 1358629116480 {{c1::Exercise Induced Hypothalamic Amenorrhea}}
is a gynecological disorder that involves suppression of the hypothalamus due t
o a critical amount of ody fat (~22%) and physical/mental stress.
1394562190464 1358629116480 What are the FSH and LH levels in&nsp;Exercise
Induced Hypothalamic Amenorrhea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Prolactin is normal as the pituitary is normal, there is simply hypothalam
ic suppression and hence low GnRH.</i></div>
1394562224083 1358629116480 {{c1::Endorphins}} are endogenous opiates that c
an suppress GnRH secretion at the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus and hence
contriute to&nsp;Exercise Induced Hypothalamic Amenorrhea.
1394562250155 1358629116480 {{c1::CRH}} is a hypothalamic hormone that is el

evated in athletes and can oth directly and indirectly inhiit GnRH release, th
erey contriuting to&nsp;Exercise Induced Hypothalamic Amenorrhea.
1394562777629 1358629116480 What is the estrogen level in patient with&nsp;
Hypothalamic Suppression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Markedly low}}</div>
1394562887105 1358629116480 Patient with a deficiency of the sex hormone {{c
1::Estrogen}} are at increased risk of osteoporosis and one fracture if left un
treated.
1394562925333 1358629116480 What is Prolactin's effects on GnRH levels?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1394562960735 1358629116480 What are the level of Gonadotropins (FSH &amp; L
H) in a patient with a Prolactinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence there is also downstream Estrogen deficiency and susequent
risk of osteoporosis, CVD and vaginal atrophy.</i></div>
1394563004408 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Ovarian Failure/Insufficiency}} is
defined as ovarian failure occuring efore age 40.
1394563115719 1358629116480 {{c1::Autoimmune Adrenal Insufficiency}} is a po
tentially fatal disorder that may e seen in young women that fall victim to spo
ntaneous primary ovarian insufficiency.
1394563159896 1358629116480 {{c1::Adrenal Isufficiency}} is a hormonal syndr
ome commonly associated with Premature Ovarian Failure and involves orthostatic
hypotension, hyperpigmentation, salt craving and decreased puic hair.
1394563435130 1358629116480 What gene is involved in Fragile X Syndrome?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::FMR1}}</div>
1394563477221 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Fragile X Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked}}</div>
1394563494328 1358629116480 How many CGG repeats are associated with patient
s <>affected</>&nsp;y Fragile X Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 20
0}}</div>
1394563577248 1358629116480 What nucleotide repeat is associated with Fragil
e X Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CGG}}</div>
1394563592897 1358629116480 {{c1::Imperforate Hymen}} is a gynecological dis
order that involves distal ostruction of the genital outflow tract that commonl
y presents at puerty as a ulging hymen, cyclic pelvic pain and amenorrhea.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2117418877347.jpg" /></div>
1394563702485 1358629116480 {{c1::Mullerian Agenesis}} is a congenital gynec
ological disorder that presents with primary amenorrhea and an asent/hypoplasti
c vagina due to no development of the Mullerian system. <div><r /></div><i>aka
Mayer-Rokitanksy-Kuster-Hauser Syndrome</i><r /><div><i>Ovarian function and gr
owth/development of the patient are <>oth normal</>.</i></div>
1394563896557 1358629116480 What is the karyotype of a patient with Complete
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::46X}}</div>
1394563931504 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Androgen Inse
nsitivity Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-Linked}}</div>
1394563954597 1358629116480 {{c1::Mullerian Inhiiting Factor}} is a hormone
produced y the Sertoli Cells of the testes in emryological development that p
revents the formation of the uterus, fallopian tues and upper 1/3 of the vagina
.
1394563991159 1358629116480 {{c1::Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome}} is a gen
etic disorder that causes pseudohermaphroditism due to X-linked mutations in gen
es that reduce the function of the intracellular androgen receptor.
1394564092917 1358629116480 In Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome, {{c1::Estrog
en}} is produced y the peripheral conversion of Testosterone and is adequate fo
r the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
1394564203622 1358629116480 When must gonadectomy e performed in a patient
with Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Post-puertal}}
</div>
1394564261006 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Primary Amenorr
hea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gonadal Dysgenesis}}</div>
1394564283996 1358629116480 What is the 2nd most common cause of Primary Ame
norrhea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mullerian Agenesis}}</div>

1394564296310 1358629116480 What is the 3rd most common cause of Primary Ame
norrhea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome}}</div>
1394564310377 1358629116480 What amount of puic/sexual hair is seen in pati
ents with Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asent or
sparse}}</div>
1394564358941 1358629116480 How frequent are other anomalies in Androgen Ins
ensitivity Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rare}}</div>
1394564377097 1358629116480 How frequent are other anomalies in Mullerian Ag
enesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Frequent}}</div>
1394564387443 1358629116480 What is the karyotype for a patient with Mulleri
an Agenesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::46XX}}</div>
1394564404493 1358629116480 Which enzyme converts Testosterone to DHT?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::5-alpha Reductase}}</div>
1394564447067 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of 5-alpha Reduc
tase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1394564563961 1358629116480 What gene is involved in 5-Alpha Reductase defic
iency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::SRD5A2}}</div>
1394564602824 1358629116480 {{c1::5-alpha Reductase deficiency}} &nsp;is a
genetic disorder that presents with an <>amiguous, small hypospadiac phallu</
>s and <>lind vaginal pouch</> due to an inaility to convert Testosterone in
to DHT.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3577707757711.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Until puerty.</i></div><div><i>Internal genitalia are normal (rem
emer, that only requires testosterone)</i></div>
1394564682112 1358629116480 What is the Testosterone:DHT ratio in 5-Alpha Re
ductase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1394564716346 1358629116480 {{c1::Leiomyoma}} is a enign uterine tumour tha
t originates from the smooth muscle of the uterus.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-3723736646062.jpg" /></div>
<img src="paste-3736621547952.jpg" />
1394565062459 1358629116480 Which type of uterine firoid has the greatest a
ssociation with infertility and recurrent loss of pregnancy?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Sumucosal}}</div>
1394565097655 1358629116480 Which uterine firoid has the lowest moridity a
nd postoperative risk as it can e removed hysteropically?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Sumucosal}}</div>
1394565137522 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysmenorrhea}} can e a complication of ut
erine firoids due to an increase in prostaglandin production.
1394565171995 1358629116480 {{c1::Fitz-Hugh-Curtis Syndrome}} is a gynecolog
ical syndrome that involves perihepatitis secondary to Pelvic Inflammatory Disea
se.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4307852198006.jpg" /></div>
1394565335874 1358629116480 Which acteria is the most common cause of FitzHugh-Curtis Syndrome secondary to PID?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t
rachomatis</i>}}</div>
1394565384526 1358629116480 oung women with lower pelvic pain are either pr
egnant, anormally pregnant or have&nsp;{{c1::Pelvic Inflammatory Disease}} unt
il proven otherwise.
1394565541028 1358629116480 {{c1::Fluoroquinolones}} are a type of antiioti
c that are no longer recommended for the treatment of Gonorrhea due to increased
resistance rates.
1394565604828 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometrioma}} is a complication of Stage
IV endometriosis that presents with a "ground glass" appearance on ultrasound.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4449586118828.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Pr
esents with <>pelvic pain, dysmenorrhea</>&nsp;and <>dyspareunia</>.</i></d
iv>
1394748944828 1358629116480 {{c1::Ectopic Pregnancy}} is a gestational patho
logy that involves implantation of a fertilized ovum at a site other than the ut
erine wall.
1394749561864 1358629116480 What is the most common site of Ectopic Pregnanc
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fallopian Tue}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-6919192314038.jpg" /><img src="paste-91985314578713.jpg" /></div>
1394749577209 1358629116480 What is the key risk factor for Ectopic Pregnanc

y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scarring; typically secondary to PID or Endometrio
sis}}</div>
1394752670983 1358629116480 {{c1::Hematosalpinx}} is a reproductive disorder
that involves leeding into the fallopian tue and is a major complication of e
ctopic pregnancy.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6949257085128.jpg" /></di
v>
1394752719784 1358629116480 Before which week of gestation is an aortion sp
ontaneous?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::20th week}}</div>
1394752756919 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of spontaneous ao
rtion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosomal anormalities}}</div>
1394753340063 1358629116480 What is the most common chromosomal anormality?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 16}}</div>
1394753355113 1358629116480 {{c1::Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome}} is a
hypercoagulale state commonly seen in SLE that commonly causes spontaneous aor
tion.
1394753396967 1358629116480 In which period in gestation will teratogen expo
sure result in spontaneous aortion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::First 2 weeks}}<
/div>
1394753454419 1358629116480 In which period in gestation will teratogen expo
sure lead to a risk of organ malformation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks 3-8
(1st trimester)}}</div>
1394753482497 1358629116480 In which period in gestation will teratogen expo
sure result in an increased risk of organ hypoplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Months 3-9 (2nd and 3rd trimesters)}}</div>
1394753535325 1358629116480 {{c1::Placenta Previa}} is a gestational patholo
gy that involves implantation of the placenta in the lower uterine segment, typi
cally overlying the cervical os.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7597797147
028.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-91950954840632.jpg" /></div>
1394753912110 1358629116480 In which trimester will Placenta Previa present
as leeding?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1394753930804 1358629116480 {{c1::Placental Aruption (Aruptio Placentae)}}
is a gestational pathology that involves separation of the placenta from the de
cidua prior to delivery of the fetus. <r /><div><i>The maternal surface of th
e placenta is very loody and has clots.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-910275
36871968.jpg" /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-7499012899015.jpg" /></i></div
>
1394753981414 1358629116480 In which trimester will Placental Aruption pres
ent as leeding?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1394754002647 1358629116480 {{c1::Placenta Accreta}} is a gestational pathol
ogy that involves improper implantation of the placenta into the myometrium with
little or no intervening decidua.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-75591424
41353.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. the placenta is stuck</i></div><div><
i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-91362544321025.jpg" /></i></div>
1394754050660 1358629116480 {{c1::Placenta Accreta}} is a gestational pathol
ogy that will present with a difficulty in delivering the placenta.
<r /><d
iv><r /></div>
1394754068982 1358629116480 Which teratogen is the most common cause of ment
al retardation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol}}</div>
1394754733396 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of Alcohol?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mental retardation, facial anormalities and microcephal
y}}</div>
1394754779667 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Cocaine
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Growth retardation, placental aruption}}</div>
1394754793992 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Thalido
mide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lim defects}}</div>
1394754803737 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Cigaret
te Smoke?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Growth retardation}}</div>
1394754815172 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Isoreti
noin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spontaneous aortion, hearing/visual impairment
}}</div>

1394754831293 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Tetracy
cline?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Discolored Teeth}}</div>
1394754858237 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Warfari
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal leeding}}</div>
1394754864382 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Phenyto
in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Digit hypoplasia, cleft lip/palate}}</div>
1394754880804 1358629116480 {{c1::Preeclampsia}} is a gestational disorder t
hat involves pregnancy-induced HTN, proteinuria and edema.
<r /><div><i>&g
t; 140/90 mmHg</i></div><div><i>&gt; 300 mg/day proteinuria</i></div>
1394755054631 1358629116480 In which trimester does Preeclampsia typically a
rise?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1394755066740 1358629116480 {{c1::Severe Preeclampsia}} is a gestational pat
hology that is essentially preeclampsia with <>systemic disorders</>&nsp;such
as headache and visual anormalities.
1394755111124 1358629116480 {{c1::Eclampsia}} is a gestational pathology tha
t is essentially preeclampsia with <>seizures</>.
<r /><div><i>Maternal d
eath is typically due to <>stroke</>&nsp;and resultant <>intracranial hemorr
hage</>&nsp;or <>ARDS</>.</i></div>
1394755195305 1358629116480 {{c1::Preeclampsia}} is a gestational pathology
that results from an anormality of the maternal-fetal vascular interface in the
placenta.
<r /><div><i>Specifically involves anormal placental spiral ar
teries, therey resulting in maternal endothelial dysfunction, vasoconstriction
or hyperreflexia.</i></div>
1394755286169 1358629116480 In Preeclampsia, the fetal tropholast cells hav
e failed to convert the maternal high-resistance&nsp;{{c1::Spiral}} arteries in
to high-capacitance uteroplacental vessels.
1394755349929 1358629116480 Normal hypoxia in pregnancy triggers the release
of anti-angiogenic factors {{c1::sFlt-1}} and&nsp;{{c2::Endoglin}}, which ther
ey reduce placental vascular development and cause Preeclampsia.
1394755408828 1358629116480 Angiogenic hormones&nsp;{{c1::VEGF}} and&nsp;{
{c2::TGF-eta}} are inhiited y the anti-angiogenics sFLt-1 and Endoglin in Pre
eclampsia.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, TGF-eta = Transforming Growth Factor e
ta</i></div>
1394755791276 1358629116480 {{c1::HELLP Syndrome}} is a gestational patholog
y that involves Preeclampsia with Thromotic Microangiopathy involving the liver
.
<r /><div><i><>H</>emolysis,</i></div><div><i><>E</>levated <>L</
>iver enzymes,</i></div><div><i><>L</>ow <>P</>latelets</i></div>
1394756382326 1358629116480 {{c1::Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)}} is a
gestational pathology that involves death of a healthy infant without ovious c
ause.
1394756413031 1358629116480 How old is an infant?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:1 month to 1 year}}</div>
1394756421849 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydatidiform Mole}} is a gestational patho
logy that involves anormal conception characterized y swollen and edematous vi
lli with proliferation of tropholasts. <r /><div><i>i.e. Hydatidiform moles ar
e simply anormal chorionic villi with tropholastic proliferation</i></div>
1394756499108 1358629116480 How many chromosomes are found in a Partial Mole
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::69 chromosomes}}</div>
1394756526751 1358629116480 How many chromosomes are found in a Complete Mol
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::46}}</div>
1394756538436 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves fetal t
issue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Partial Mole}}</div> <r /><div><><i>Nucleat
ed RBCs are typically the common feature looked for.</i></></div>
1394756560645 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves <>only
some</>&nsp;villi eing hydropic?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Partial}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The rest are normal.</i></div>
1394756583215 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves <>most
villi</>&nsp;eing hydropic (swollen)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complete mo
le}}</div>
1394756599994 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves <>foca

l</>&nsp;tropholastic proliferation around hydropic villi?<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-6047313953010.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Partia
l}}</div></div>
1394756633551 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves <>diff
use</>&nsp;and <>circumferential</>&nsp;tropholastic proliferation around
hydropic villi?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5948529705227.jpg" /><r />
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complete}}</div></div>
1394756925786 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves <>mini
mal</>&nsp;risk for Choriocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Partial}}</div
>
1394756948142 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves 2-3% ri
sk for Choriocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complete}}</div>
1394756958718 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves a <>ma
rkedly</>&nsp;increased level of -hCG?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complete}}<
/div>
1394756977542 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydatidiform Mole}} is a gestational patho
logy that involves much larger uterine expansion and much higher -hCG levels th
an expected for a normal pregnancy.
1394757251835 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole is formed y a <
>normal</> ovum fertilized y 2 sperm (or 1 sperm with duplicate chromosomes)?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Partial}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-60086
59247335.jpg" /></div>
1394757378388 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole is formed y an
<>empty</>&nsp;<>ovum</>&nsp;fertilized y 2 sperm (or 1 sperm with duplic
ate chromosomes)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complete}}</div> <div><r /></div
><img src="paste-5789615915406.jpg" />
1394757469954 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydatidiform Mole}} is a gestational patho
logy that involves passage of a <>grape-like mass</> through the vaginal canal
, typically in the 2nd trimester.
<r /><div><img src="paste-8967032720616
6.jpg" /></div>
1394757524334 1358629116480 {{c1::Complete Hydatidiform Mole}} is a gestatio
nal pathology that typically involves a 'snowstorm' appearance on ultrasound/ima
ging.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5901285065088.jpg" /><img src="paste89713276879127.jpg" /></div>
1394757567511 1358629116480 Which type of Choriocarcinoma responds well to c
hemotherapy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6846177870215.jpg" /><r /><di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gestational (i.e. from spontaneous aortion, normal pre
gnancy or hydatidiform mole)}}</div></div>
1394757629826 1358629116480 Which type of Choriocarcinoma <>does not</>&n
sp;respond well to chemotherapy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Germ Cell Choriocarc
inoma}}</div>
1394757654013 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Decidua Basalis}} is the maternal
portion of the placenta that is modified endometrium.
1394758485224 1358629116480 What is the major structural difference etween
fetal and adult RBCs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal RBCs have nuclei}}</div>
1394758530894 1358629116480 What is the level of proteinuria in Preeclampsia
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::≥ 300 mg/day}}</div>
1394758605024 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform mole <>does not</>&
nsp;have expression of p57?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complete; p57 is materna
lly transcried and paternally imprinted}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer,
<>complete moles involve an </><u style="font-weight: old; ">empty ovum</u>&n
sp;while <>partial moles involve a </><u style="font-weight: old; ">normal o
vum</u>.</i></div>
1394759037396 1358629116480 {{c1::p57}} is a protein implicated in Complete
Hydatidiform Moles as it is maternally transcried and paternally imprinted.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, hydatidiform moles are Dad's fault.</i></div>
1394759259644 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Invasive Hydatidiform Mole}} is a
type of hydatidiform mole that invades into the myometrium.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-6506875453770.jpg" /></div>
1394759434036 1358629116480 {{c1::Chorioamnionitis}} is a gestational disord

er that is defined as infection of the placenta.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-7219840024848.jpg" /></div>
1394933932813 1358629116480 How old is a neonate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:1-4 weeks}}</div>
1394934587713 1358629116480 A {{c1::malformation}} is a <>type</>&nsp;of
congenital anomaly that involves primary errors of morphogenesis of organs and a
re usually multifactorial.
1394934729852 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::disruption}} is a <>type</>&nsp;
of congenital anomaly that is due to secondary destruction <i>in utero</i>&nsp;
after normal development.
1394934757155 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::deformation}} is a <>type</>&nsp
;of congenital anomaly that is due to secondary changes as a result of generaliz
ed compression.
1394934790931 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::sequence}} is a <>type</>&nsp;of
congenital anomaly that is due to a cascade of anormalities triggered y one i
nitiating aerration. <r /><div><i>e.g. Potter's sequence</i></div>
1394934829460 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::syndrome}} is a <>type</>&nsp;of
congenital anomaly that involves a constellation of anomalies with a related et
iologic pathology.
1394934872027 1358629116480 {{c1::Agenesis}} is a type of congenital malform
ation that involves the complete asence of an organ and its promordium.
1394935137559 1358629116480 {{c1::Aplasia}} is a congenital malformation whe
re an organ's primordium exhiits an asence of development, ut is still presen
t.
1394935178906 1358629116480 {{c1::Atresia}} is a congenital malformation tha
t involves a structure with either a narrow or asent lumen.
1394935207499 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysraphia}} is a congenital malformation t
hat involves the failure of apposed structures to fuse. <r /><div><i>e.g. spina
ifida, rachischisis, epispadias, hypospadias</i></div>
1394935261107 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysplasia}} is a congenital malformation t
hat involves anormal organization of normal cells into tissues. There is no ass
ociated neoplasia.
1394935309693 1358629116480 What is the most common Congenital Disruption?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amniotic Bands}}</div>
1394935349413 1358629116480 {{c1::Amniotic Bands}} are a Congenital Disrupti
on that involves firous ands that form after partial ruptures of the amniotic
sac and cause damage after normal development has occurred.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-7164005449947.jpg" /></div>
1394935860560 1358629116480 Which weeks of gestation are associated with an
<u>extreme susceptiility</u>&nsp;to teratogens due to the organogenesis that o
ccurs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Week 3-8}}</div>
1394936402986 1358629116480 {{c1::Acetaldehyde}} is a metaolite of ethanol
that can freely cross the placenta and act as a toxin.
1394936506516 1358629116480 What congenital <>cardiac</>&nsp;defects are
associated with Alcohol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial and Ventricular Septa
l Defects}}</div>
1394936537010 1358629116480 {{c1::Fetal Alcohol Syndrome}} is a congenital s
yndrome caused y alcohol use during pregnancy and presents with characteristic
facial anomalies, especially a smooth philtrum and thin upper lip.<div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-8495445311652.jpg" /><img src="paste-8516920148116.jpg"
/></div>
1394936629456 1358629116480 {{c1::Fetal Macrosomia}} is a congenital disorde
r that results from Diaetic Emryopathy and involves a ay with increased fat,
muscle mass and organomegaly.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-859422955948
7.jpg" /></div>
1394936683666 1358629116480 What irth weight is associated with Fetal Macro
somia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::≥ 4 kg}}</div>
1394937077053 1358629116480 {{c1::Caudal Regression}} is a rare feature of D
iaetic Emryopathy and involves agenesis of the lumar spine and sacrum with ac
companying leg hypoplasia.

1394937153643 1358629116480 Which CNS symptom is unique to Fetal Toxoplasmos
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydrocephalus}}</div>
1394937305461 1358629116480 Which 2 congenital defects are a key feature of
Congenital Ruella Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cataracts &amp; Cardiac
Defects}}</div>
1394937353516 1358629116480 Which CNS symptom is a key feature of Congenital
CMV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intracranial (Periventricular) Calcifications}}
</div>
1394937440817 1358629116480 Which maternal serum marker is associated with N
eural Tue Defects?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AFP}}</div>
1394937486155 1358629116480 {{c1::Rachischisis}} is a neural tue defect tha
t involves failure of the spinal cord to close.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-9298604196264.jpg" /></div>
1394937759384 1358629116480 {{c1::Retinoic Acid}} is a teratogen that down-r
egulates TGF-eta signalling and influences the expression of HOX genes.
<r><div><i>TGF-eta = Transforming Growth Factor Beta</i></div>
1395007349228 1358629116480 What gestational age is associated with Preterm
aies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 37 weeks}}</div>
1395007694856 1358629116480 What gestational age is associated with Post-ter
m aies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 42 weeks}}</div>
1395007724398 1358629116480 What irth weight is considered to e low?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 2.5 kg}}</div>
1395007937703 1358629116480 What irth weight is considered to e very low?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 1.5 kg}}</div>
1395007948702 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Preterm Deliver
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Preterm Premature Rupture of Placental Memranes (
PPROM)}}</div>
1395008570875 1358629116480 {{c1::Preterm Premature Rupture of Placental Mem
ranes (PPROM)}} is a cause of preterm delivery that is due to inflammation of p
lacental memranes (chorioamnionitis) and an increase in matrix metalloproteinas
es (MMPs).
1395008627000 1358629116480 {{c1::Smoking}} is a risk factor for Preterm Pre
mature Rupture of Placental Memranes (PPROM) as it causes anoxemia that then pr
epares the uterus for delivery.
1395008697120 1358629116480 {{c1::Funisitis}} is defined as inflammation of
the umilical cord.
1395008719603 1358629116480 Which placental toll-like receptors are upregula
ted and activated in Intrauterine Infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TLR-4}}
</div>
1395008768520 1358629116480 Activation and upregulation of TLR4 in Intrauter
ine Infections leads to deregulation of&nsp;{{c1::prostaglandin}} expression an
d hence uterine smooth muscle contraction is favoured.
1395008811748 1358629116480 During which week of gestation does lung surfact
ant production egin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::32 weeks}}</div>
1395009448525 1358629116480 What type of cell makes lung surfactant?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type II pneumocytes}}</div>
1395009465852 1358629116480 Which 2 phospholipids are aundant in Surfactant
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphatidylcholine (Lechitin) and Sphingomyelin}}<
/div>
1395009492078 1358629116480 What ratio of Lecithin:Sphingomyelin is indicati
ve of <>mature</>&nsp;lungs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 2}}</div>
1395009520632 1358629116480 {{c1::Respiratory Distress Syndrome}} is a conge
nital disorder associated with prematurity that is also referred to as Hyaline M
emrane Disease.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2658584756418.jpg" /></div
>
1395009602457 1358629116480 {{c1::Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome}} i
s a disease associated with premature irth that involves <>hyaline memranes</
>&nsp;at the lungs due to endothelial damage and firin deposition.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-2654289789122.jpg" /><img src="paste-3096671420595.jp
g" /></div>

1395012529157 1358629116480 {{c1::Respiratory Distress Syndrome}} is a disor
der associated with prematurity that presents with a <>"ground-glass" appearanc
e of the lungs&nsp;</>on x-ray.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-350039834
6482.jpg" /></div>
1395012958270 1358629116480 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of drug that
can e administered antenatally to drive the synthesis of surfactant. <r /><d
iv><i>DOC's are Dexamethasone and Betamethasone.</i></div>
1395013008153 1358629116480 {{c1::Maternal Diaetes}} is a risk factor for N
eonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome as fetal insulin levels suppress the synth
esis of lung surfactant.
1395013085617 1358629116480 {{c1::Nectrotizing Enterocolitis}} is a possile
complication of Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome where the GI tract rapid
ly ecomes hypoxemic due to impaired respiratory function.
1395013371691 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia}} is a complica
tion of treatment in Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome due to the high-oxyg
en tension of administered oxygen causing free radical injury and arresting alve
olar septation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4131758538960.jpg" /></div>
1395013673814 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia}} is a complica
tion of treatment in Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome that involves inters
titial alveolar firosis and large haphazard alveoli due to decreased septation.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4127463571664.jpg" /></div>
1395013714338 1358629116480 {{c1::Retinopathy of Prematurity}} is a complica
tion of treatment in Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome due to the high-oxyg
en tension of administrated oxygen causing excessive proliferation of retinal ca
pillaries/connective tissue and free radical damage.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-4286377361593.jpg" /></div>
1395013791211 1358629116480 {{c1::Retinopathy of Prematurity}} is a complica
tion of treatment in Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome that involves prolif
eration of retinal capillaries, retinal detachment, leukocoria and lindness.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4282082394297.jpg" /></div>
1395013826813 1358629116480 Necrotizing Enterocolitis affects the&nsp;{{c1:
:terminal ileum}},&nsp;{{c2::cecum}}, and&nsp;{{c3::right colon}}.
1395013874257 1358629116480 {{c1::Necrotizing Enterocolitis}} is a disease o
f premature irth that involves mucosal/transmural coagulative necrosis of the G
I mucosa and sumucosal gas ule due to systemic hypoxemia.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-4505420693727.jpg" /><img src="paste-4518305595573.jpg" /></d
iv>
1395013945005 1358629116480 {{c1::Necrotizing Enterocolitis}} is a disease o
f premature irth that yields <>pneumatosis intestinalis</> on an adominal xr
ay.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4604204941708.jpg" /></div>
1395013999944 1358629116480 What disorder of premature irth is associated w
ith Pneumatosis Intestinalis on an adominal xray?<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-4599909974412.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Necrotizing Enter
ocolitis}}</div>
1395014034259 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Fetal Growth Res
triction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Maternal}}</div>
1395014447183 1358629116480 Which type of Fetal Growth Restriction (FGR) inv
olves a <u>symmetrical growth restriction</u>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal
(aka Proportionate FGR)}}&nsp;</div>
1395014520352 1358629116480 {{c1::Maternal}} Fetal Growth Restriction is a t
ype of FGR that occurs due to decreased placental lood flow and is asymmetric.
1395014706515 1358629116480 {{c1::Placental}} Fetal Growth Restriction is a
type of FGR that is due to limited availaility of nutrients and oxygen in the t
hird trimester and is asymmetric.
1395014738718 1358629116480 {{c1::Fetal}} Fetal Growth Restriction is a type
of FGR that is due to an intrinsic reduction of growth potential despite good n
utrition and is symmetric.
1395015002703 1358629116480 Which organ is typically spared in <>asymmetric
al</>&nsp;Fetal Growth Restriction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brain}}</div>
1395015034342 1358629116480 {{c1::Neonatal Asphyxia}} is a complication of F

etal Growth Restriction that involves neonatal hypoxemia, hypercapnia and an inc
reased risk of coma and death.
1395015243933 1358629116480 What APGAR score is normal?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::7-10}}</div>
1395015339907 1358629116480 How long after irth is an APGAR score recorded?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1 min and 5 min}}</div>
1395015364281 1358629116480 What APGAR score is indicative of prematurity an
d/or neonatal asphyxia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::≤ 6}}</div>
1395015390927 1358629116480 What does the first&nsp;<>A</>&nsp;in APGAR
score indicate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Appearance (skin colour)}}</div>
1395015540170 1358629116480 What does the <>P</>&nsp;in APGAR score indic
ate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulse (HR)}}</div>
1395015550184 1358629116480 What does the <>G</>&nsp;in APGAR score indic
ate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Grimace (Reflex Response to catheter insertion i
nto the nostril)}}</div>
1395015573345 1358629116480 What does the second <>A</>&nsp;in APGAR indi
cate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscle <>A</>ctivity}}</div>
1395015592610 1358629116480 What does the <>R</>&nsp;in APGAR score indic
ate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Respiration (effort, depth, frequency)}}</div>
1395015624083 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydrops Fetalis}} is a fetal disorder that
involves aormal accumulation of fluid <i>in utero</i>&nsp;within <>2 or more
</>&nsp;fetal compartments or tissues.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-67
08738916531.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. a comination of ascites, ple
ural effusion, pericardial effusion, skin edema, generalized edema</i></div>
1395015960096 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Fetal Hydrops?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-immune (80%)}}</div>
1395015974700 1358629116480 {{c1::Alpha-Thalassemia}} is a genetic disorder
that can result in lethal Hydrops Fetalis due to tetramers of hemogloin gamma c
hains (H Barts) damaging fetal RBCs.
1395016209556 1358629116480 What is a common <>viral</>&nsp;cause of Hydr
ops Fetalis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parvovirus B19}}</div>
1395016255068 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemolytic Disease of the Neworn}} is an <
>immunological</>&nsp;cause of Hydrops Fetalis that develops due to severe, s
udden anaemia that causes heart failure.
<r /><div><i>Likely also causes
<>Erythrolastosis Fetalis</>.</i></div>
1395016404873 1358629116480 {{c1::Sudden and Unexpected Infant Death (SUID)}
} is a a cause of infantile death that is identified only following investigatio
n post-mortem.
1395016515227 1358629116480 {{c1::Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)}} is a
cause of infantile death that <>cannot e identified</>.
<r /><div><i>A
diagnosis of exclusion.</i></div>
1395016566535 1358629116480 What is the leading hypothesis for the etiology
of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lack of the "
arousal response"}}</div>
<img src="paste-7297149436236.jpg" /><div><r />
</div><div><i>Causes a prolonged period of apnea, hypoxia and sudden death.</i><
/div>
1395016757709 1358629116480 {{c1::Suserosal Petechiae}} are a gross anatomi
cal finding in infants that die of SIDS, commonly seen at the lungs, thymus and
heart.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7348689043774.jpg" /></div>
1395016867693 1358629116480 What is the cause of Cystic Firosis?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive mutation in the <>CFTR</>&nsp;gene on ch
romosome 7q}}</div>
<r /><div><i>CFTR = Cystic Firosis Transmemrane Condu
ctance Regulator</i></div>
1395016966576 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Cystic Firos
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1395016980089 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystic Firosis}} is an autosomal recessiv
e disorder that yields salty, hypertonic sweat with high Cl content due to decre
ased Cl-conductance secondary to a CFTR defect. <r /><div><img src="paste-79027
39824879.jpg" /></div>
1395017096781 1358629116480 Which respiratory pathogen is commonly associate

d with Cystic Firosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>
}}</div>
1395017223744 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemangioma}} is a enign childhood tumour
located at the skin and involves the proliferation of lood vessels (cavernous o
r capillary).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7962869367011.jpg" /></div>
1395017334987 1358629116480 {{c1::Lymphangioma}} is a enign childhood tumou
r that is characterized y cystic, cavernous spaces typically at the neck, axill
a and mediastinum.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8005819039991.jpg" /></d
iv>
1395017384319 1358629116480 What is the most common teratoma of childhood?<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8040178778365.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Congenital Sacrococcygeal Teratoma}}</div></div>
1395017409277 1358629116480 {{c1::Congenital Sacrococcygeal Teratoma}} is a
common enign tumour of childhood that consists of multiple emryological tissue
layers and is found at the sacral/coccygeal area.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-8035883811069.jpg" /></div>
1395017610855 1358629116480 Which kind of rosettes are seen in neurolastoma
?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8340826489149.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Homer-Wright Pseudorosettes}}</div></div>
1395017808432 1358629116480 What is found in the center of Homer-Wright Pseu
dorosettes in Neurolastoma?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8336531521853.
jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuropils}}</div>
<r /><div><i>He
nce it is associated with neurological tumours</i></div>
1395017832917 1358629116480 What type of rosettes are seen in retinolastoma
?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8443905704253.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Flexner-Wintersteiner Rosettes}}</div></div>
1395017934126 1358629116480 {{c1::Flexner-Wintersteiner Rosettes}} are a typ
e of <>true</>&nsp;rosettes seen in Retinolastoma.
1395018024613 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::true}} rosette is a rosette that ha
s a lumen that is part of the tumour cells.
1395018054794 1358629116480 {{c1::Ependymoma/Perivascular Pseudorosettes}} a
re a type of rosettes commonly seen in Ependymoma and Medullolastoma and has a
lood vessel in its central lumen.
1395018111532 1358629116480 What gene amplification is associated with <>po
or</>&nsp;prognosis neurolastoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>N-Myc</i>}}</
div>
1395018143026 1358629116480 What serum tumour marker is associated with <>p
oor</>&nsp;prognosis Neurolastoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuron Specific
Enolase (NSE)}}</div>
1395018173135 1358629116480 What is the most common pediatric renal malignan
t tumour?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wilms' Tumour (Nephrolastoma)}}</div>
1395018203857 1358629116480 Which Wilms tumour syndrome is associated with a
&nsp;<>deletion</>&nsp;of the&nsp;<i>WT1</i>&nsp;tumour suppressor gene??<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::WAGR Syndrome}}</div>
1395018505484 1358629116480 {{c1::Denys-Drash Syndrome}} is a tumour syndrom
e that involves Wilms tumour, progressive renal failure and male pseudohermaphro
ditism..
1395018517875 1358629116480 {{c1::WAGR Syndrome}} is a form of tumour syndro
me that involves Wilms tumour, Aniridia, Genital anormalitis and mental/motor R
etardation.
1395018524553 1358629116480 {{c1::Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome}} is a tumour
syndrome that involves Wilms tumour, neonatal hypoglycemia, muscular hemitrophy
and organomegaly (esp. the tongue)..
1395018530057 1358629116480 Which Wilms tumour syndrome is associated with&n
sp;<>mutations in&nsp;</><i><>WT2</>,&nsp;</i>especially IGF-2?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Beckwith-Wiedemann}}</div>
1395018537652 1358629116480 Which Wilms tumour syndrome is associated with&n
sp;<>mutations</>&nsp;of&nsp;<i>WT1</i>?? <div><r></div><div>{{c1::Denys-D
rash Syndrome}}</div>
1395018547776 1358629116480 {{c1::Wilms Tumour}} is a malignant renal tumour

that has a triphasic nature involving&nsp;<>E</>pithelial elements that surr
ound nodules of&nsp;<>B</>lastema amongst a Myxoid&nsp;<>S</>troma..<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-9698036154822.jpg" /></div>
1405353482821 1395802358422 What is the karyotype in Klinefelter Syndrome?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::XX}}</div> <r /><div><i>Male.</i></div>
1405353998854 1395802358422 {{c1::Kleinfelter Syndrome}} is a sex chromosome
disorder that presents with <>testicular atrophy, eunuchoid ody shape, tall a
nd long extremities, gynecomastia</>&nsp;and <>female hair distriution</>.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-86122684219826.jpg" /></div>
1405354087414 1395802358422 How do <>Inhiin</>&nsp;levels change in Klin
efelter Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <div><i><r /></
i></div><i>Due to dysgenesis of the seminiferous tuules.<r /></i><div><i>Hence
there is increased FSH.</i></div>
1405354127154 1395802358422 How do <>testosterone</>&nsp;levels change in
Klinefelter Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to dysfunction of Leydig cells.</i></div><div><i>This also causes an i
ncrease in LH and susequent increases in estrogen.</i></div>
1405354160194 1395802358422 How do Estrogen levels change in Klinefelter Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to Ley
dig cell dysfunction and a decrease in testosterone levels which ring aout an
increase in LH and susequent estrogen increase.</i></div>
1405354235596 1395802358422 What is the karyotype in Turner Syndrome?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::XO}}</div> <r /><div><i>Female.</i></div><div><i>"<>Hugs
and kisses (xo)</>&nsp;from Tina <>Turner</>."</i></div>
1405354250314 1395802358422 {{c1::Turner Syndrome}} is a sex chromosomal dis
order that presents with <>ovarian dysgenesis (streak ovary), shield chest, ic
uspid aortic valve and horsehoe kidney</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-86440511799705.jpg" /></div>
1405354326585 1395802358422 Which sex chromosomal disorder is associated wit
h a <>icuspid aortic valve</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome (XO
)}}</div>
1405354347197 1395802358422 Which sex chromosomal disorder is associated wit
h <>preductal coarctation of the aorta</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner S
yndrome (XO)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>femoral &lt; rachial pul
se</>&nsp;and <>notched ris</>.</i></div>
1405354386183 1395802358422 Which sex chromosomal disorder is associated wit
h <>lymphatic defects</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome (XO)}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Examples include <>weed neck, cystic hygroma, lymphedem
a in the feet/hands</></i></div>
1405354423601 1395802358422 Which sex chromosomal disorder is associated wit
h <>horseshoe kidney</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome (XO)}}</di
v>
1405354435162 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is the most common ca
use of primary amenorrhea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome (XO)}}</di
v>
1405354447351 1395802358422 How do LH and FSH levels change in Turner Syndro
me (XO)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to a d
ecrease in Estrogen.</i></div>
1405354758328 1395802358422 {{c1::Doule  Male}} is a sex chromosomal disor
der that presents as a phenotypically normal, yet very tall male with <>severe
acne</>&nsp;and the possiility of <>antisocial ehaviour</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>X.</i></div><div><i>Some are diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders.</
i></div>
1405354836448 1395802358422 What is the karyotype in True Hermaphroditism?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::46,XX or 47,XX}}</div>
1405354874160 1395802358422 {{c1::True Hermaphroditism}} is a sex chromosoma
l disorder that presents with <>oth ovarian and testicular tissue</>&nsp;wit
h <>amiguous genitalia</>. <r /><div><i>Very rare.</i></div>
1405354906786 1395802358422 {{c1::Defective Androgen Receptor}} is a disorde
r of sex hormones that presents with <>increased testosterone</>&nsp;and <>i

ncreased LH</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome</i></
div>
1405354966390 1395802358422 {{c1::Testosterone secreting tumour}} or&nsp;{{
c2::exogenous steroid use}} are 2 sex hormone disorders that presents with <>in
creased testosterone</>&nsp;and <>decreased LH</>.
1405354997743 1395802358422 {{c1::Primary Hypogonadism}} is a sex hormone di
sorder that presents with <>decreased testosterone</>&nsp;and <>increased LH
</>.
1405355018719 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism}} is a sex h
ormone disorder that presents with <>decreased testosterone</>&nsp;and <>dec
reased LH</>.
1405355046408 1395802358422 What is the karyotype in Female Pseudohermaphrod
itism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::XX}}</div>
1405355251739 1395802358422 What is the karyotype in Male Pseudohermaphrodit
ism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X}}</div>
1405355267136 1395802358422 {{c1::Female Pseudohermaphroditism}} is a type o
f pseudohermaphroditism that involves the <>presence of ovaries</>&nsp;ut <
>virilized or amiguous external genitalia</>. <r /><div><i>Typically due to <
>excessive and inappropriate exposure to androgenic steroids during early gesta
tion</>.</i></div><div><i>e.g. congenital adrenal hyperplasia; exogenous androg
en use during pregnancy</i></div>
1405355373630 1395802358422 {{c1::Male Pseudohermaphroditism}} is a type of
pseudohermaphroditism that involves the <>presence of testes</>&nsp;ut <>fe
male or amiguous external genitalia</>.
<r /><div><i>Typically due to <
>androgen insensitivity syndrome</></i></div>
1405355440285 1395802358422 {{c1::Aromatase Deficiency}} is a reproductive d
isorder characterized y the inaility to synthesize enstrogen from androgens.
<r /><div><i>Presents with masculinzation of females with amiguous genitalia.<
/i></div>
1405355567195 1395802358422 How do serum testosterone and androstenedione le
vels change in Aromatase Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Androgens cannot e converted to estrogens.</i></div>
1405355591662 1395802358422 {{c1::Aromatase Deficiency}} is a congenital enz
ymatic reproductive disorder that can present with <>maternal virilization</>&
nsp;as excess fetal androgens can cross the placenta.
1405355629152 1395802358422 What is the karyotype of a <>Complete</>&nsp;
Hydatidiform Mole?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::46,XX; 46,X}}</div>
1405356364960 1395802358422 What is the karyotype of a <>Partial</>&nsp;H
ydatidiform Mole?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::69,XXX; 69,XX; 69,X}}</div>
1405356417071 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Hydatidiform Moles?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Methotrexate; Dilation &amp; curettage}}</div>
1405356444523 1395802358422 {{c1::Gestational Hypertension}} is a hypertensi
ve disorder of pregnancy that presents with a BP <>&gt; 140/90 mmHg</>&nsp;af
ter the 20th week of gestation. <r /><div><i>There is <>no pre-existing hypert
ension, end organ damage or proteinuria</>.</i></div>
1405356574724 1395802358422 Which drug is used to treat/prevent the seizures
seen in Eclampsia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV Magnesium Sulfate}}</div>
1405356753674 1395802358422 {{c1::Placenta Accreta}} is a placental complica
tion in pregnancy that is descried as <>attachment of the placenta to the myom
etrium without penetration</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-91358249353729.jpg" /
></div>
1405357984356 1395802358422 {{c1::Placenta Increta}} is a placental disorder
of pregnancy that is descried as <>penetration of the placenta <u>into</u>&n
sp;the myometrium.</> <r /><div><img src="paste-91358249353729.jpg" /></div>
1405358012402 1395802358422 {{c1::Placenta percreta}} is a placental disorde
r of pregnancy that is descried as <>penetration of the placenta <u>through</u
>&nsp;the myometrium and into the uterine serosa</>. <r /><div><i>Can result
in placental attachment to the rectum or ladder.</i></div><div><i><img src="pa
ste-91358249353729.jpg" /></i></div>
1405358074679 1395802358422 {{c1::Polyhydramnios}} is an amniotic fluid ano

rmality that is associated with fetal disorders that result in the inaility to
swallow.
<r /><div><i>e.g. anencephaly, esophageal atresia, duodenal atr
esia</i></div>
1405358284534 1395802358422 What volume of amniotic fluid is associated with
Polyhydramnios?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 1.5-2 L}}</div>
1405358310792 1395802358422 Which volume of amniotic fluid is diagnostic of
Oligohydramnios?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 0.5 L}}</div>
1405358352626 1395802358422 Which disorder of amniotic fluid is associated w
ith Potter sequence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligohydramnios}}</div>
1405358376173 1395802358422 {{c1::Oligohydramnios}} is an amniotic fluid dis
order that is associated with fetal disorders that yield an inaility to excrete
urine. <r /><div><i>e.g. ilateral renal agenesis, posterior urethral valves i
n males</i></div><div><i>Also associated with placental insufficiency.</i></div>
<div><i>Also associated with Potter sequence.</i></div>
1405375421095 1395802358422 Which strains of HPV are associated with cervica
l dysplasia or carcinoma <i>in situ</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV16; HPV18
}}</div>
1405375723585 1395802358422 What is the #1 risk factor for cervical dysplasi
a or cervical carcinoma <i>in situ</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Multiple sexu
al partners}}</div>
1405375774786 1395802358422 What is the treatment for infective endometritis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gentamicin + Clindamycin  Ampicillin}}</div>
1405376176347 1395802358422 {{c1::Endometriosis}} is an endometrial disorder
involving ectopic endometrial glands that presents with a <>normal-sized</>&n
sp;uterus.
1405377329007 1395802358422 {{c1::Adenomyosis}} is an endometrial disorder i
nvolving ectopic endometrial tissue that presents with a uniformly <>enlarged,
soft, </>gloular uterus.
1405377368062 1395802358422 {{c1::Premature Ovarian Failure}} is a gynecolog
ical disorder descried as <>premature atresia of ovarian follicles in women of
reproductive age</>. <r /><div><i>Patients present with signs of menopause a
fter puerty ut efore age 40.</i></div>
1405378666393 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycystic Ovarian Disease}} is a gynecolo
gical disorder that is also referred to as Stein-Leventhal Syndrome.
1405378815703 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD)}} is an
ovarian disorder that presents with <>amenorrhea/oligomenorrhea, hirsutism, acn
e</>&nsp;and <>infertility</>&nsp;due to an imalance etween LH and FSH.
<r /><div><i>LH:FSH ratio is &gt; 2:1.</i></div>
1405379610298 1395802358422 How does the risk of endometrial carcinoma chang
e in Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Due to an increase in estrogen levels from the aromatizati
on of testosterone and asence of progesterone.</i></div>
1405379679371 1395802358422 {{c1::OCPs}} are a type of hormonal supplementat
ion that treat the <>hirsutism</>&nsp;and <>acne</>&nsp;in Polycystic Ovar
ian Disease (PCOD) y inducing an <>increase in steroid hormone-inding glouli
n (SHBG)</>&nsp;and a <>decrease in LH</>. <r /><div><i>Therey causing a
decrease in free testosterone.</i></div>
1405379763039 1395802358422 {{c1::Clomiphene}} is a drug used to treat the <
>infertility</>&nsp;in Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD) y <>locking the n
egative feedack of circulating estrogen</>, therey <>increasing FSH and LH l
evels</>.
1405379813894 1395802358422 {{c1::Metformin}} is a drug used to treat the <
>infertility</>&nsp;in Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD) y <>increasing insu
lin sensitivity</>, which then reduces insulin and testosterone levels, therey
allowing for an <>LH surge</>.
1405379877294 1395802358422 What drug can e used to antagonize endometrial
proliferation in Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD), therey protecting the endom
etrium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cycling progesterones}}</div>
1405379919721 1395802358422 {{c1::Corpus Luteum cyst}} is an ovarian cyst th
at forms due to <>hemorrhage into a persistent corpus luteum</>.
<r /><d

iv><i>Commonly regresses spontaneously.</i></div>
1405381429652 1395802358422 {{c1::Theca-lutein cyst}} is an ovarian cyst tha
t is due to <>gonadotropin stimulation</>&nsp;and is associated with <>chori
ocarcinoma</>&nsp;and <>moles</>. <r /><div><i>Often ilaterl and multipl
e.</i></div>
1405381469202 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemorrhagic cyst}} is an ovarian cyst that
is due to <>lood vessel rupture in the cyst wall</>&nsp;and one that grows
with increased lood retention.
1405381508568 1395802358422 {{c1::Dermoid Cyst}} is an ovarian cyst that is
descried as a <>mature teratoma</>&nsp;(i.e. cystic growths with various tis
sue types such as fat, hair, teeth, one and cartilage).
1405381548888 1395802358422 {{c1::Endometrioid Cyst}} is an ovarian cyst tha
t form due to endometriosis.
<r /><div><i>Called a <>chocolate cyst</>&ns
p;when it is filled with dark, reddish-rown lood.</i></div>
1405381586178 1395802358422 Which quadrant of the reast is the most common
location of malignant reast tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upper outer qua
drant}}</div>
1405382816469 1395802358422 {{c1::Paget Cells}} are a histological feature o
f Paget Disease of the Breast that are descried as <>large cells in the epider
mis with a clear halo</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-102125732364518.
jpg" /></div>
1405382976189 1395802358422 Which type of malignant reast cancer is associa
ted with a <>Peau d'orange</>&nsp;appearance?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infl
ammatory Carcinoma of the reast}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. reast skin r
esemles an orange peel as neoplastic cells lock dermal lymphatics</i></div>
1405383151681 1395802358422 {{c1::Gynecomastia}} is a disorder of the reast
that occurs in males due to <>hyperestrogenism</>, <>Kleinfelter syndrome</
>&nsp;or <>drug use</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-102808632164768.
jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-102821517066449.jpg" /></div>
1405383316619 1395802358422 Which type of cryptorchidism is associated with
<>decreased</>&nsp;testosterone levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral}
}</div>
1405383654189 1395802358422 Which type of cryptorchidism is associated with
<>normal</>&nsp;testosterone levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unilateral}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>This is ecause Leydig cells are not influenced y tempera
ture.</i></div>
1405383679788 1395802358422 How does the level of Inhiin change in cryptorc
hidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>FSH and LH
increase.</i></div>
1385328762409 1358629116480 {{c1::Caries}} is a dental pathology due to oral
acteria that ferment sugars and produce acidic products that dissolve enamel.
1385329071201 1358629116480 Fluoride in drinking water forms {{c1::Fluoroapa
tite}} in enamel that increases resistance to acterial acids.
1385329123185 1358629116480 {{c1::Gingivitis}} is defined as inflammation of
squamous mucosa around teeth which can result in edema and leeding. It is due
to improper oral hygiene.
1385329163649 1358629116480 {{c1::Periodontitis}} is defined as inflammation
of deeper supportive structures of the teeth. <r /><div><i>Can cause tooth lo
ss and systemic disease due to exposure of lood vessels and easier access into
circulation</i></div>
1385329230705 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::tori}} is a common, enign nodular
<r /><div><i>33% of the US population h
ony overgrowth of the jaw ones.
as it</i></div>
1385329269275 1358629116480 {{c1::Torus Palatinus}} is defined as a tori fro
m the hard palate.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5373004087575.jpg" /></d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Most common location</i></div>
1385329289307 1358629116480 {{c1::Torus Mandiularis}} is a tori that origin
ates from the mandile. 90% of cases are ilateral.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-5003636900086.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Bilaterality will point aw
ay from mandiular cancer</i></div>

1385329361557 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::firoma}} is a reactive firous pap
ule from chronic irritation. Typically associated with jagged teeth, ill-fitting
dentures, etc.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5570572583155.jpg" /></div>
1385329992314 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::pyogenic granuloma}} is an ulcerati
on that can e due to exuerant granulation tissue or a enign capillary hemangi
oma.<div><r /><div><img src="paste-5750961209578.jpg" /></div></div> <r /><d
iv><i><>Common in pregnant women.</></i></div>
1385330147827 1358629116480 A {{c1::pyogenic granuloma}} is an oral ulcerati
on that is commonly made of granulation tissue. It is common in pregnant women.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5793910882600.jpg" /></div>
1385330195849 1358629116480 A {{c1::peripheral giant cell granuloma}} is a r
eactive gingival proliferation of giant cells and firous stroma.&nsp;<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-5922759901573.jpg" /></div>
1385330252126 1358629116480 A {{c1::mucocele}} is an accumulation of mucin,
therey producing a mass. Typically due to traumatic injury to minor salivary gl
ands.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5957119639808.jpg" /></div>
1385330305838 1358629116480 A {{c1::Canker sore (Apthous ulcer)}} is a commo
n superficial oral ulcer that is very painful ut not dangerous. Can e associat
ed with Celiac disease and inflammatory owel disease.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-6077378724069.jpg" /></div>
1385330392139 1358629116480 {{c1::Glossitis}} is inflammation of the tongue
that is often due to nutritional deficiencies or trauma.<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-6231997546765.jpg" /></div>
1385330557116 1358629116480 A histological finding of multiple nuclei with f
ine chromatin is often indicative of&nsp;{{c1::HSV infection}} <r /><div><i>ak
a Tzanck smear</i></div>
1385330628862 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Herpetic Gingivostomatitis}} is the
arupt onset of vesicles throughout the mouth following an HSV infection.
<r /><div><i>Dx is through Tzanck test</i></div>
1385330688086 1358629116480 {{c1::Oral Candidiasis (Oral Thrush)}} is define
d as an overgrowth and clinical infection that can occur with immunodeficiency o
r altered oral flora.
1385330763128 1358629116480 A superficial, curdy, white memrane of inflamma
tory deris and fungi that is <>readily scraped off</>&nsp;is commonly indica
tive of&nsp;{{c1::Oral Candidiasis (Oral Thrush)}}.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-6936372183445.jpg" /></div>
1385330843955 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Candida alicans</i>}} is a yeast that
commonly causes Oral Thrush. It has oth hyphae and pseudophyphae.<div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-6949257085266.jpg" /></div>
1385330883018 1358629116480 {{c1::Hairy Leukoplakia}} is a non-premalignant
condition of the mouth caused y EBV in immunocompromised patients characterized
y white, fluffy, hairy patches on the <>lateral</>&nsp;order of the tongue
. It <>cannot e scraped off</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-69836168
23521.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
1385330950171 1358629116480 What is the most common oral cancer?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma}}</div>
1385330985834 1358629116480 What genetic defect occurs during the Hyperkerat
osis stage of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inactvati
on of p16 (via loss of 3p and 9p21)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>p16 --&gt; p53 --&
gt; Cyclin D overexpression</i></div>
1385332011254 1358629116480 What genetic defect occurs during the Dysplastic
phase of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mutation of p
53 (via loss of 17p)}}</div>
1385332043998 1358629116480 What genetic defect occurs during the full lown
carcinoma stage of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ove
rexpression of Cyclin D}}</div> <r /><div><i>p16 --&gt; p53 --&gt; Cyclin D</i>
</div><div><i>(Hyperkeratosis) --&gt; (Dysplastic) --&gt; (Carcinoma)</i></div>
1385332101447 1358629116480 {{c1::Leukoplakia}} is a precancerous condition
to squamous cell carcinoma of the mouth that is characterized y white patches t
hat don't scrape off.

1385332244020 1358629116480 {{c1::Erythroplakia}} is a precancerous conditio
n to squamous cell carcinoma that is red and often ulcerated or eroded.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-7632156885280.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>90
% show dysplasia or cancer</i></div>
1385332298146 1358629116480 High grade squamous&nsp;{{c1::dysplasia}} is a
hallmark of precancerous conditions to squamous cell carcinoma.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-7666516623590.jpg" /></div>
1385332337717 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::dentigerous cyst}} is a cyst that o
riginates around an unerupted tooth. It is removed y excision.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-7855495184595.jpg" /></div>
1385332493629 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::odontogenic keratocyst (OKC)}} is
a locally aggressive cyst that has a high recurrence rate in its common parakera
totic variant form.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7932804595961.jpg" /></
div>
1385332559495 1358629116480 {{c1::Gorlin's Syndrome}} is a nevoid asal cell
carcinoma syndrome that results from multiple odontogenic keratocysts and cutan
eous asal cell carcinomas.
1385332600218 1358629116480 {{c1::Amelolastoma}} is a low grade, malignant,
locally invasive tumour that arises from odontogenic epithelium.
1385332635661 1358629116480 What antiody is involved with Allergic Rhinitis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
1385332668722 1358629116480 {{c1::Allergic Rhinitis}} is inflammation of the
nasal mucosa that involves a swollen mucosa with lymphocytes and <>eosinophils
</>.
1385332711032 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic}} rhinitis can lead to superimpose
d acterial infections that extend into the sinuses.
1385332745034 1358629116480 What is the cause of Nasal Inflammatory Polyps?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c2::Recurring, chronic rhinitis}}</div>
1385332765014 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::nasal inflammatory polyp}} is an ed
ematous mass of mucosa and inflamed stroma that can ulcerate and grow to 4 cm in
size in the nose.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8448200671561.jpg" /></d
iv>
1385332807527 1358629116480 What are the 2 major complications of Group A St
reptococcal pharyngitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Rheumatic Fever and Ac
ute Glomerulonephritis}}</div>
1385332858003 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of pharyngitis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Group A Streptococcal infection; <i>Streptococcus pyoge
nes</i>}}</div>
1385332888316 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Angiofiroma}} is a enign tumour
of the nasopharynx that is characterized y large vessels in a firous, erectile
like stroma that <>leeds easily</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-858
5639625112.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>We cannot iopsy it as it leeds v
ery easily</i></div>
1385332944043 1358629116480 {{c1::Angiofiroma}} is a enign nasopharyngeal
tumour that is almost exclusive to adolescent males. It is Androgen receptor pos
itive.
1385333011965 1358629116480 {{c1::Olfactory Neurolastoma (Esthesioneurolas
toma)}} is a malignant neurolastic tumour of the olfactory nerve that involves
small lue tumour cells with <>long cytoplasmic processes</>&nsp;yielding a <
>firillary ackground</>.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-9040906158484.jp
g" /></div>
1385333096457 1358629116480 {{c1::Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma}} is a nasopharyn
geal cancer that is most frequently seen in <>African children</>. It is commo
nly associated with EBV infection.
1385333139412 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic}} Sinusitis is commonly caused y
secondary acterial infections.
1385333365851 1358629116480 Sinusitis can invade into the cranial vault, the
rey causing&nsp;{{c1::meningitis}}.
1385333416588 1358629116480 {{c1::Kartagener's Syndrome}} is a rare cause of
sinusitis due to defective ciliary action. It is also characterized y ronchie

ctasis and situs inversus.
1385334012956 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucormycosis}} is an unusual form of sinus
itis characterised y invasive and destructive fungi.<div><r></div><div><img sr
c="paste-9521942495479.jpg" /></div>
1385334070939 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::sinonasal papilloma}} is a enign t
umour of the squamous mucosa of the sinuses that is thought to e due to HPV inf
ection.
1385334107198 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::exophytic}} form of Sinonasal Pap
illoma is the most common form.
1385334119447 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Inverted}} form of Sinonasal Papi
lloma is very aggressive and can e invasive with a higher recurrence rate.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-9599251906823.jpg" /></div>
1385334177706 1358629116480 {{c1::Cholesteatoma}} is a keratinous cyst that
forms due to repeated outs of otitis media.
<r /><div><i>It can rupture and
cause a local inflammatory reaction</i></div>
1385334305530 1358629116480 {{c1::Otosclerosis}} is defined as <>anormal</
>&nsp;one deposition at the middle ear which causes carying degrees of hearin
g loss and immoilizes the stapes.
1385334380576 1358629116480 {{c1::Branchial Cleft Cysts}} are defined as en
ign remnants of the pharyngeal clefts typically found at the lateral neck along
the sternocleidomastoid.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10179072491775.jpg
" /></div>
1385334458256 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Thryglossal Duct}} cyst is defined
as a remnant of thyroid migration typically found along the anterior midline of
the neck or at the ase of the tongue.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1044
5360464155.jpg" /><img src="paste-10823317586284.jpg" /></div>
1385334955722 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::paraganglioma}} is a slow growing t
umours that arises from paraganglia. It involves neuroendocrine cells and may e
malignant.
1385334998401 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::paraganglioma}} is aka a Carotid Bo
dy Tumour if it arises from the carotid ody paraganglia.
1385335041322 1358629116480 {{c1::Zellallen}} are nests of chief cells with
eosinophilic pale cytoplasm typically found in <>paragangliomas</>.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-10870562226541.jpg" /></div>
1385335092009 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Laryngoepiglott
itis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11282879086973.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>}}</div></div>
1385335124147 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Croup?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Parainfluenza Virus (HPIV)}}</div>
1385335160263 1358629116480 Laryngeal&nsp;{{c2::nodules and polyps}} are e
nign reactive lesions of squamous epithelium and overlying edematous stroma with
firin that are common in <>people who yell, sing or smoke</>&nsp;very often
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11613591568675.jpg" /></div>
1385335260100 1358629116480 A {{c1::Laryngeal papilloma}} are enign <>papi
llary</>&nsp;squamous proliferations commonly found on the true vocal cords. I
t is associated with HPV6 and HPV11.
1385335604751 1358629116480 {{c1::Koilocytes}} are perinuclear halos that ar
e characteristic of HPV infections.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1176821
0391221.jpg" /></div>
1385335633007 1358629116480 {{c1::Cigarette smoking}} and&nsp;{{c2::alcohol
}} are the 2 iggest risk factors for laryngeal carcinoma, 95% of which are squa
mous cell carcinomas.
1385335687837 1358629116480 Which tissue do most laryngeal carcinomas arise
from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium of the true vocal cords}}</div>
1385335725888 1358629116480 Laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma often includes
'pearl-like' condensations of&nsp;{{c1::keratin}}<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-11940009083255.jpg" /></div>
1385335792075 1358629116480 Intercellular ridges are a common indication of
&nsp;{{c1::squamous cell}} carcinoma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1201
7318494561.jpg" /></div>

1385335821253 1358629116480 {{c1::Xerostomia}} is defined as 'dry mouth' due
to decreased saliva production.
1385336077800 1358629116480 {{c1::Candidiasis}} and&nsp;{{c2::dental caries
}} are the 2 major complications of Xerostomia due to the last of actericidal s
alivary action.
1385336158507 1358629116480 {{c1::Sjogren's Syndrome}} is an autoimmune diso
rder characterized y the destruction of salivary and lacrimal gland tissue, the
rey causing xerostomia and keratoconjuncitivis sicca (dry eyes).
1385336215843 1358629116480 {{c1::Mikulicz Disease}} is the term used to des
crie the inflammatory reaction seen in salivary glands in Sjogren's Syndrome.
1385336244760 1358629116480 What is the most common salivary gland lesion?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mucocele}}</div>
1385336262361 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::mucocele}} is a salivary gland lesi
on that occurs when a salivary duct is locked or ruptured, therey letting sali
va leak into the surrounding interstitium.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste12932146528582.jpg" /></div>
1385336309155 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::ranula}} is a large mucocele at the
floor of the mouth.
1385336328208 1358629116480 {{c1::Sialadentitis}} is defined as inflammation
of the salivary gland. It has many causes,
1385336355442 1358629116480 The majority (80%) of salivary gland tumours are
found at the&nsp;{{c1::parotid}} gland.
1385336384985 1358629116480 The more malignant salivary gland tumours are lo
cated at&nsp;{{c1::smaller, minor}} salivary glands.
1385336426384 1358629116480 What is the most common salivary gland tumour?<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5510443041140.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Pleomorphic Adenoma}}</div>
1385336448381 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::pleomorphic adenoma}} is a enign s
alivary gland tumour that is derived from myoepithelial cells and involves a <>
mixed cell</>&nsp;population of <>chondromyxoid stroma and epithelium</>.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5506148073844.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>ak
a Mixed Tumour.</i></div><div><i>Presents as a <>painless, moile mass</>.</i>
</div><div><i>Will recur if it is incompletely excised or ruptured intraoperativ
ely.</i></div>
1385336500196 1358629116480 {{c1::Carcinoma ex pleomorphic adenoma}} is a ma
lignant tumour that arises from a pre-existing pleomorphic adenoma.
1385336561848 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Warthin tumour}} is a enign saliva
ry gland tumour that is almost exclusively found in the parotid gland. It arises
from <>salivary gland inclusions within intraparotid lymph nodes and germinal
centers</>.
1385336626926 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Warthin Tumour}} is a salivary glan
d tumour that is characterized y a doule-layered, pink granular epithelium and
a central lymphoid infiltrate.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13275743912
279.jpg" /></div>
1385336669451 1358629116480 What is the most common <>primary</>&nsp;sali
vary gland cancer?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5630702125380.jpg" /></d
iv><div><r />{{c1::Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma}}</div>
1385336694112 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::mucoepidermoid carcinoma}} is a pri
mary salivary gland tumour that is often cystic and composed of <>squamous cell
s, mucin producing glandular cells and intermediate cells</>.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-13417477832931.jpg" /></div>
1385336743468 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::adenoid cystic carcinoma}} is a <
>malignant</>&nsp;salivary gland tumour characterized y a <>tuular, solid a
nd criiform pattern</>&nsp;of cells with a reduplicated asal lamina.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-13460427505999.jpg" /></div>
1385336809588 1358629116480 {{c1::Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma}} is a <>maligna
nt</>&nsp;salivary gland tumour that often exhiits <>perineural invasion</>
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13494787244353.jpg" /></div>
1385336847961 1358629116480 An {{c1::Acinic Cell Carcinoma}} is a salivary g
land tumour that shows acinar cell differentiation with zymogen granules. It is

generally slow growing.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13572096655575.jpg"
/><img src="paste-13941463843152.jpg" /></div>
1385667735042 1358629116480 Which middle ear one is common involved in Otos
clerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stapes}}</div>
1385670893422 1358629116480 {{c1::Nasal polyps}} are glistening polypoid mas
ses filled with mucous and edematous fluid in the nasal cavities. They are commo
nly seen following chronic rhinitis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-348321
8477362.jpg" /><img src="paste-3504693313948.jpg" /></div>
1385670971738 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Canker Sore}} is also commonly refe
rred to as an&nsp;{{c2::Aphthous Ulcer}}.
1385671055773 1358629116480 {{c1::Cholesteatoma}} is a mass that forms in th
e middle ear due to recurrent outs of infectious otitis media.
1385671100010 1358629116480 What is the most common malignancy of the saliva
ry glands?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5634997092676.jpg" /></div><div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Mucoepidermoid carcinoma}}</div>
1385671141216 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::paraganglioma}} is a tumour that co
mmonly arises near the carotid ifurcation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-5368709120426.jpg" /></div>
1385671229805 1358629116480 After smoking, what is the second most common ca
use of squamous cell carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Human Papilloma Virus
}}</div>
1385671268920 1358629116480 An {{c1::Adenoid cystic carcinoma}} is a salivar
y gland tumour that commonly exhiits perineural invasion.<div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-3783866188052.jpg" /><img src="paste-3805341024562.jpg" /></div>
1385671324515 1358629116480 Aphthous ulcers can e recurrent when they are a
ssociated with GI diseases such as&nsp;{{c1::Celiac Disease}} and&nsp;{{c2::In
flammatory Bowel Disease}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4290672328931.j
pg" /></div>
1385671431575 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucormycosis}} is an invasive and destruct
ive form of infectious sinusitis that involves road, septate hyphae that end a
t 90 degree angles.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4428111282530.jpg" /></
div>
1385671698693 1358629116480 What is the dental pathology shown elow?<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-4505420693810.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Dentigerous Cyst}}</div>
1385671799077 1358629116480 {{c1::Odontogenic Keratocyst (OKC)}} is an oral
mass that has a high recurrence rate and is associated with asal cell carcinoma
cancer syndrome known as&nsp;{{c2::Gorlin's Syndrome}}<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-4634269712679.jpg" /></div>
1385671899156 1358629116480 What is the Dx?<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-4677219385758.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amelolastoma}}</div
>
1385671954672 1358629116480 Nasal&nsp;{{c1::Angiofiroma}} is a nasal tumou
r that involves vascular channels and a firous stroma.<div><r /></div><div><im
g src="paste-4711579124138.jpg" /></div>
1385671993063 1358629116480 {{c1::Olfactoryneurolastoma}} is a tumour found
at the <>roof of the nose</> that has a<> firillary ackground</>.<div><im
g src="paste-4788888535459.jpg" /></div>
1385672040128 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::inverted}} form of Sinonasal Papi
llomas is the more dangerous form with the possiility of ecoming malignant.<di
v><r></div><div><img src="paste-5192615461155.jpg" /></div>
1405644203846 1395802358422 Which salivary gland is most commonly affected 
y cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parotid gland}}</div>
1385243342281 1358629116480 {{c1::Loar}} pneumonia is characterized y the
consolidation of an entire loe of the lung on a chest x-ray.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-833223655538.jpg" /></div>
1385243500362 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchopneumonia}} is a type of pneumonia
that is characterized y scattered patchy consolidations centered around ronchi
oles on a chest x-ray.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-901943132270.jpg" />
</div>

1385243543250 1358629116480 {{c1::Interstitial}} pneumonia is characterized
y diffuse interstital infiltrates on a chest x-ray.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-979252543597.jpg" /></div>
1385243586046 1358629116480 {{c1::Fironectin}} is an adhesin that promotes
phagocytic function y attaching to oth acteria and PMNs at the alveoli.
1385253999499 1358629116480 {{c1::Surfactant}} is an alveolar sustance that
inds to pathogens, therey acting as opsonins that enhance phagocytosis.
1385254035202 1358629116480 <i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>&nsp;is a gram-{
{c1::positive}},&nsp;{{c2::alpha}}-hemolytic coccus.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-1589137899871.jpg" /></div>
1385254415351 1358629116480 What colour do alpha-hemolytic acteria turn lo
od?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dark green}}</div>
1385254458040 1358629116480 <i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>&nsp;is Optochin
&nsp;{{c1::sensitive}}.
1385254497890 1358629116480 Which virulence factor from <i>Streptococcus pne
umoniae</i>&nsp;allows it to inhiit phagocytosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C
apsular polysaccharides}}</div>
1385255481294 1358629116480 Which virulence factor from&nsp;<i>Streptococcu
s pneumoniae </i>allows it to attach to epithelial cells of the nasopharynx?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface Adhesin A}}</div>
1385255554379 1358629116480 Which virulence factor from&nsp;<i>Streptococcu
s pneumoniae&nsp;</i>allows it to avoid phagocytosis and complement mediated ly
sis y inding to and inhiiting Complement Factor H?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Surface Protein C}}</div>
1385255596825 1358629116480 Which virulence factor from&nsp;<i>Streptococcu
s pneumoniae&nsp;</i>acts as a cytotoxic agent and activates complement?<div><
r></div><div>{{c1::Pneumolysin}}</div>
1385255630278 1358629116480 <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nsp;is a gram-{{c
1::negative}} rod&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2156073582736.jpg"
/></div>
1385256711069 1358629116480 Only&nsp;{{c1::encapsulated}} strains of <i>Hae
mophilus influenza</i>&nsp;cause pneumonia. Strains without capsules are normal
URT flora.
1385256747616 1358629116480 <i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>&nsp;is a fastidio
us organism that grows on&nsp;{{c1::chocolate}} agar, as it contains essential
nutrients (V and X factor).
1385256810123 1358629116480 What is X Factor (sometimes added to culture aga
rs)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Protoporphyrin}}</div>
1385256848468 1358629116480 What is V Factor (sometimes added to culture aga
rs)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NAD}}</div>
1385256862587 1358629116480 <i>Moraxella catarrhalis</i>&nsp;is a gram-{{c1
::negative}} diplococci.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2310692405572.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>Gram-negative = pink</i></div>
1385257240362 1358629116480 Which pneumococcal vaccine is recommended for pa
tients <>65 y/o or older?</><div><><r /></></div><div><>{{c1::</>Pnemococ
cal polysaccharide vaccine; <u>once</u><>}}</></div>
1385257671648 1358629116480 Which pneumococcal vaccine is recommended for <
>children 2-15 months old</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pneumococcal conjugate
vaccine}}</div>
1385264453056 1358629116480 {{c1::Pneumonia; Pneumonitis}} is defined as inf
ection of the lung parenchyma.
1385264493850 1358629116480 {{c1::Typical}} Pneumonia will yield purulent, y
ellow-green (pus) or rusty (loody) sputum.
1385264544162 1358629116480 {{c1::Atypical}} Pneumonia will not yield any sp
utum and involves a dry cough.
1385264557328 1358629116480 How do reath and lung percussion sounds change
in Pneumonia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased; dull}}</div>
1385264582270 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of pneumonia?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}}</div>
1385264620876 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Klesiella pneumoniae</i>}} is an enter

ic flora that causes <>loar pneumonia</>&nsp;in patients with an increased r
isk of aspiration, such as the elderly, diaetics or alcholics.
1385264711895 1358629116480 Pneumonia caused y&nsp;{{c1::<i>Klesiella pne
umoniae</i>}} will yield a thick, mucoid capsular aspirate that yields a gelatin
ous, <>red-current jelly sputum</>.
1385264753748 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of secondary pneum
onia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}}</div>
1385264957521 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of community acqui
red pneumonia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}}</div
>
1385264975393 1358629116480 What is the 2nd most common cause of secondary p
neumonia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div>
1385264994876 1358629116480 What is empyema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pus
filling the pleural space}}</div>
1385265011311 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>}} is a acte
ria that commonly causes <u>secondary</u> ronchopneumonia and ronchopneumonia
in <u>COPD</u> patients.
1385265088848 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of ronchopneumoni
a in Cystic Firosis patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aerugin
osa</i>}}</div>
1385265119987 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Moraxella catarrhalis</i>}} is a acter
ia that commonly causes <u>community acquired</u>&nsp;ronchopneumonia and ron
chopneumonia in <u>COPD</u>&nsp;patients.
1385265173384 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Legionella pneumophila</i>}} is a acte
ria that causes <u>community acquired</u>&nsp;ronchopneumonia, ronchopneumoni
a in <u>COPD</u>&nsp;patients and ronchopneumonia in <u style="font-weight: o
ld; ">immunocompromised</u>&nsp;patients.
1385265227519 1358629116480 How is <i>Legionella pneumophila</i>&nsp;transm
itted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Via water sources}}</div>
1385265310636 1358629116480 Which stain is needed to est visualize <i>Legio
nella pneumophila</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Silver stain}}</div>
1385265328854 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of <>atypical </
>pneumonia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i>; typically i
n younger adults}}</div>
1385265378246 1358629116480 {{c1::Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia}} is a compli
cation of <i>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i>&nsp;pneumonia which involves IgM antiod
ies against the&nsp;{{c2::I-antigen}} found on RBCs.
1385265432898 1358629116480 What is the second most common cause of <>atypi
cal</>&nsp;pneumonia in young adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia
pneumoniae</i>}}</div>
1385265457044 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Q fever?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Coxiella urnetti</i>}}</div>
1385265561567 1358629116480 {{c1::Q Fever}} is a type of pneumonia caused y
<i>Coxiella urnetti</i>&nsp;characterized y atypical pneumonia with very hig
h fever.
1385265585669 1358629116480 {{c1::Q Fever}} is a type of atypical pneumonia
typically seen in farmers and veterinarians.
1385265606777 1358629116480 Q Fever is transmitted through spores made y th
e acteria&nsp;{{c1::<i>Coxiella urnetti</i>}}.
1385265637668 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of <>atypical</>
&nsp;pneumonia in <>infants</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Respiratory Syncyt
ial Virus (RSV)}}</div>
1385265752516 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of <>atypical</>
&nsp;pneumonia in <>post-transplant immunosuppressed</>&nsp;patients?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytomegalovirus (CMV)}}</div>
1385265782877 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of <>atypical</>
&nsp;pneumonia in the elderly/immunocompromised?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inf
luenza Virus}}</div>
1385265815974 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::right lower loe}} lung ascess is
a classical finding in&nsp;{{c2::aspiration}} pneumonia.

1385265852183 1358629116480 What kind of pneumonia does <i>Streptococcus pne
umoniae</i>&nsp;cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Loar pneumonia}}</div>
1385265883812 1358629116480 What kind of pneumonia does <i>Klesiella pneumo
niae</i>&nsp;cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Loar pneumonia}}</div>
1385266148622 1358629116480 What kind of pneumonia does <i>Staphylococcus au
reus</i>&nsp;cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchopneumonia}}</div>
1385266167566 1358629116480 What kind of pneumonia does <i>Haemophilus influ
enzae</i>&nsp;cause?<div><r />{{c1::Bronchopneumonia}}</div>
1385266186402 1358629116480 What kind of pneumonia does <i>Pseudomonas aerug
inosa</i>&nsp;cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchopneumonia}}</div>
1385266201875 1358629116480 What kind of pneumonia does <i>Moraxella catarrh
alis</i>&nsp;cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchopneumonia}}</div>
1385266217290 1358629116480 What kind of pneumonia does <i>Legionella pneumo
niae</i>&nsp;cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchopneumonia}}</div>
1385266231607 1358629116480 What kind of pneumonia does <i>Mycoplasma pneumo
niae</i>&nsp;cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atypical pneumonia}}</div>
1385266255071 1358629116480 What kind of pneumonia does <i>Chlamydia pneumon
iae</i>&nsp;cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atypical pneumoniae}}</div>
1385266273026 1358629116480 What kind of pneumonia does <i>Coxiella urnetti
</i>&nsp;cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atypical pneumoniae}}</div>
1385266284549 1358629116480 What kind of pneumonia does Respiratory Syncytia
l Virus (RSV) cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atypical pneumonia; in infants}}
</div>
1385266311628 1358629116480 What kind of pneumonia does Cytomegalovirus caus
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atypical pneumonia}}</div>
1385266321525 1358629116480 What kind of pneumonia does Influenza Virus caus
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atypical pneumonia}}</div>
1385424282903 1358629116480 {{c1::Interstitial/atypical}} pneumonia involves
<>clear alveoli</>&nsp;and <>thickened, inflamed</>&nsp;<>septae.</><di
v><><r /></></div><div><><img src="paste-476741370096.jpg" /></></div>
<r /><div><i>This is why atypical pneumonia does not yield sputum.</i></div>
1385424358702 1358629116480 {{c1::Loar/roncho-/typical}} pneumonia involve
s <>inflamed alveolar spaces with an exudate of PMNs</>&nsp;and <>normal sep
tae</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-519691043148.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>This is why typical pneumonia yields purulent or rusty/loody sput
um.</i></div>
1385424419062 1358629116480 How is <i>Mycoplasma pnuemoniae</i>&nsp;transmi
tted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Respiratory droplets via&nsp;cough}}</div>
1385425443961 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Legionella pneumophila</i>}} is a acte
ria that causes atypical/roncho- pneumonia that requires &nsp;a&nsp;{{c2::cha
rcoal yeast extract}} agar to e cultured.
<r /><div><i>Takes 3-5 days</i>
</div>
1385425559088 1358629116480 What stain is needed to visualize <i>Legionella
pneumophila</i>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1146756268514.jpg" /></div
><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gimenez stain}}</div>
1385425721846 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Legionella pneumophila</i>}} is a gramnegative acteria that causes atypical/roncho- pneumonia that is <>not contagi
ous</>. It is transmitted from water sources.
1385425822287 1358629116480 What causes Legionnaire's Disease?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Legionella pneumophila</i>}}</div>
1385426916105 1358629116480 What is the <>second</>&nsp;most common cause
of pneumonia in young adults/teenagers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydop
hila pneumoniae</i>}}</div>
1385426955599 1358629116480 <i>Chlamydophila pneumoniae</i>&nsp;is a small,
gram-{{c1::negative}} oligate intracellular acterium that requires ATP from h
ost cells for energy.
1385427022622 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::elementary}} ody form of <i>Chla
mydia pneumoniae</i>&nsp;is the form that is transmitted in aerosol droplets an
d is contagious.
1385427100052 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::reticulate}} ody form of <i>Chla

mydia pneumoniae</i>&nsp;is metaolically active and pathogenic form that is os
motically fragile and cannot survive extracellularly. <r /><div><i>This form
yields the symptoms.</i></div>
1385427163175 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Psittacosis?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia psittaci</i>}}</div>
1385427548481 1358629116480 Psittacosis is contracted from the fecal aerosol
of infected irds, especially&nsp;{{c1::parrots}}.
<r /><div><i>There is r
are person-to-person transmission</i></div>
1385427613833 1358629116480 What is the incuation period of Psittacosis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::5-15 days}}</div>
1385427629326 1358629116480 {{c1::Psittacosis}} is an atypical pneumonia tha
t manifests 5-15 days following infection with <i>Chlamydia psittaci</i>.
<r /><div><i>It is an occupational hazard for irdkeepers, reeders, veterinari
ans, etc</i></div>
1385427707214 1358629116480 Which acteria has a strong suggested linkage to
Atherosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydophila sp.</i>}}</div>
1385489517410 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces israeli</i>}} is a gram-{{c
2::positive}} ranching acillus that can cause opportunistic pneumonia due to <
>poor oral hygiene or aspiration</>.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-554050
781472.jpg" /></div>
1385489825455 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Nocardia asteroides</i>}} is a gram-{{c
2::positive}}, acid fast, ranching acillus that can cause a slowly progressing
pneumonia in immunocompromised patients.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7
94568950031.jpg" /></div>
1385490324617 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Aspergillus fumigatus</i>}} is an oppor
tunistic, septate, filamentous fungus that causes Invasive Aspergillosis.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-854698492242.jpg" /></div>
1385490943939 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Crytpcoccus neoformans</i>}} is an enca
psulated, monomorphic yeast fungus that causes Pulmonary Cryptococcosis.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-1000727380215.jpg" /></div>
1385583405979 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV<su
>1</su>)}} is the volume of air expelled in 1 second following a full inspirati
on.
1385583496156 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)}} is
the total volume of air that can e forcefully inhaled/exhaled in a single reat
h.
1385583530843 1358629116480 {{c1::Extrinsic}} asthma is typically caused y
allergens or environmental antigens.
1385583594083 1358629116480 {{c1::Intrinsic}} asthma is typically caused y
drugs or respiratory tract infections.
1385583617629 1358629116480 Which particles causes Coal Workers' Pneumoconio
sis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caron Dust}}</div>
1385588912724 1358629116480 Which particle causes Silicosis?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Silica}}</div>
1385588921449 1358629116480 Which particle causes Berylliosis?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Beryllium}}</div>
1385588932413 1358629116480 Which particle causes Asestosis?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Asestos}}</div>
1385588941885 1358629116480 Which population is commonly affected y Coal Wo
rkers' Pneumoconiosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coal miners}}</div>
1385588967210 1358629116480 Which 2 populations are commonly affected y Sil
icosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sandlasters and silica miners}}</div>
1385588982413 1358629116480 Which 2 populations are commonly affected y Ber
ylliosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beryllium miners and Aerospace workers}}</d
iv>
1385589015351 1358629116480 Which 3 populations are commonly affected y As
estosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Construction workers, plumers and shipyard
workers}}</div>
1385589264219 1358629116480 {{c1::Coal Workers' Pneumoconiosis}} is a pneumo
coniosis that may lead to diffuse firosis (<>lack lung</>) if there is massi

ve exposure.
1385589320640 1358629116480 {{c1::Coal Workers' Pneumoconiosis}} is a pneumo
coniosis associated with rheumatoid arthritis (Caplan Syndrome).
1385589357861 1358629116480 {{c1::Anthracosis}} is a enign respiratory path
ology that occurs following <>mild</>&nsp;exposure to caron. It involves car
<r /><div><i>Se
on laden macrophages at the alveoli and hilar lymph nodes.
en following regular pollution exposure</i></div>
1385589514069 1358629116480 {{c1::Silicosis}} is a pneumoconiosis involving
firotic nodules at the <>upper loes</>&nsp;of the lung.
1385589554364 1358629116480 {{c1::Silicosis}} is a pneumoconiosis that prese
nts with an increased risk of TB as&nsp;{{c1::silica}} impairs phagolysosome fo
rmation in macrophages.
1385589596633 1358629116480 {{c1::Berylliosis}} is a <>pneumoconiosis</> t
hat presents with <>non-caseating granulomas</> in the lung, hilar lymph nodes
and systemic organs. This is very similar to sarcoidosis.
<r /><div><i>In
volves increased risk of lung cancer.</i></div>
1385589651619 1358629116480 {{c1::Asestosis}} is a pneumoconiosis that pres
ents with pulmonary and pleural firosis and an increased risk for <>lung carci
noma</>&nsp;and <>mesothelioma</>.
1385589700365 1358629116480 {{c1::Mesothelioma}} is a cancer of the pleura t
hat results in <>hemorrhagic pleural effusions</>&nsp;and <>pleural thickeni
ng</>.
1385589775046 1358629116480 {{c1::Asestosis}} is a pneumoconiosis that invo
lves <>long, golden rown</>&nsp;lesions with associated <>asestos odies</
>&nsp;(iron nodules).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9676561318002.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>This confirms exposure to asestos.</i></div>
1385592087568 1358629116480 A honeycom lung is seen in the late stages of&n
sp;{{c1::idiopathic pulmonary firosis}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste10075993276731.jpg" /></div>
1385592123917 1358629116480 {{c1::Sarcoidosis}} is a restrictive pulmonary d
isease that involves <>non-caseating</>&nsp;granulomas.<div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-10127532884353.jpg" /></div>
1385592716730 1358629116480 {{c1::Goodpasture's Syndrome}} is a type 2 hyper
sensitivity disorder caused y circulating&nsp;{{c2::anti-GBM}} antiodies that
cause necrotizing hemorrhagic interstitial pneumonitis.
1385600527561 1358629116480 {{c1::Congenital Pulmonary Cysts}} are congenita
l respiratory anomalies caused y detached fragments of the primitive foregut th
at are ronchogenic.
1385600603043 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchopulmonary Sequestration}} is a cong
enital pulmonary anomaly characterized y lung loes or segments that lack conne
ction to the airways. They can e extraloar or intraloar.
<r /><div><i>Th
ey have lood supply, ut not from the pulmonary arteries.</i></div><div><i>Can
e mistaken as cancer.</i></div>
1385600686794 1358629116480 {{c1::Extraloar}} ronchopulmonary sequestratio
ns present as mediastinal masses.
1385600703293 1358629116480 {{c1::Intraloar}} ronchopulmonary sequestratio
ns present as masses within the lung parenchyma.
1385600734569 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchopulmonary Sequestration}} is a cong
enital pulmonary pathology that otains its lood supply from the aorta instead
of pulmonary circulation.
1385600839129 1358629116480 {{c1::Congenital Cystic Adenomatoid Malformation
(CCAM)}} is a congenital pulmonary pathology that is descried as a hamartoma t
hat gets its lood supply from pulmonary circulation.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-11553462026616.jpg" /></div>
1385600949006 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Atelectasia}} is a pulmonary patho
logy descried as either an incomplete expansion of the lungs or a collapse of p
reviously inflated lungs.
1385601053368 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::resorption}} atelectasia is caused
y complete ostruction of the airways y secretions, firosis or neoplasms.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11605001634120.jpg" /></div>

1385601103132 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::compression}} atelectasia is caused
y fluid or air in the pleural cavity (pneumothorax or pleural effusion for exa
mple).<div><img src="paste-11682311045448.jpg" /></div>
1385601159166 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::patchy}} atelectasia is seen in neo
natal or acute/adult resporatory distress syndrome.
1385601222052 1358629116480 Hyaline memranes at the alveoli are a common fi
nding in&nsp;{{c1::Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)}}.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-12081743004009.jpg" /></div>
1385601380145 1358629116480 {{c1::Ostructive}} pulmonary disorders involve
airway ostructions that make it difficult to expire and deflate the lung.
1385603041370 1358629116480 How does FVC change in COPD?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1385603056650 1358629116480 How does FEV<su>1</su>&nsp;change in COPD?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sharp decrease}}</div>
1385603071336 1358629116480 How does the FEV<su>1</su>:FVC ratio change in
COPD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1385603089700 1358629116480 How does TLC change in COPD?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1385603100822 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic ronchitis}} is defined as a condi
tion that yields chronic productive cough lasting at least 3 months over a minim
um of years.
1385603155794 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic ronchitis}} is a COPD that involv
es an increase in the thickness of <>mucous glands</>&nsp;relative to the ro
nchial wall such that the Reid index is greater than&nsp;{{c2::50%}}.
1385603215596 1358629116480 What is the Reid index in Chronic Bronchitis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 50%}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Normally it is &lt
; 40%</i></div>
1385603231272 1358629116480 {{c1::Emphysema}} is a COPD that involves destru
ction of alveolar air sacs due to an imalance etween protease and antiprotease
action.
1385603270178 1358629116480 What type of emphysema is seen in smokers?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Centriacinar emphysema}}</div>
1385603312108 1358629116480 The centriacinar emphysema seen in smokers is mo
st severe in the&nsp;{{c1::upper}} loes of the lung. <r /><div><i>Rememer,
smoke rises.</i></div>
1385603345513 1358629116480 Which genotype is at significant risk for develo
ping panacinar emphysema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PiZZ homozygotes}}</div>
1385603383001 1358629116480 What kind of emphysema is seen in A1AT deficient
patients?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Panacinar emphysema}}</div>
1385603410943 1358629116480 The panacinar emphysema seen in A1AT deficiency
is most severe in the&nsp;{{c1::lower}} loes of the lungs.
1385603448485 1358629116480 {{c1::Liver cirrhosis}} is commonly seen alongsi
de emphysema in A1AT deficient patients due to the accumulation of misfolded A1A
T in the ER of hepatocytes.
1385603486533 1358629116480 {{c1::Aspirin Intolerant Asthma}} is a form of n
on-atopic asthma caused y Aspirin.
1385603528942 1358629116480 What is the primary role of IL-4?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Mediates class switching to IgE}}</div>
1385603603898 1358629116480 What is the primary function of IL-5?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Attraction of eosinophils}}</div>
1385603618947 1358629116480 What is the primary function of IL-10?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Stimulation of T<su>H</su>2 cells and inhiition of T<su>H<
/su>1 cells}}</div>
1385603647545 1358629116480 {{c1::Curschmann spirals}} are spiral-shaped muc
ous plugs seen in Asthma.
1385603788958 1358629116480 {{c1::Charcot-Leyden Crystals}} are crystallizat
ions of major asic protein derived from eosinophils seen in Asthma.
1385603818435 1358629116480 {{c1::Status Asthmaticus}} is a severe, unrelent
ing state of asthma where medication and therapies are ineffective.
1385603840822 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchiectasis}} is a COPD defined as the

permanent dilation of ronchioles and ronchi. It causes loss of airway tone and
causes air pockets and trapped air to form.
1385603882221 1358629116480 {{c1::Restrictive}} pulmonary disorders involve
a difficulty in the inspiratory expansion of the lungs.
1385603943123 1358629116480 How does TLC change in Restrictive lung diseases
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1385603960635 1358629116480 How does FEV<su>1</su>&nsp;change in restrict
ive lung diseases?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1385603975841 1358629116480 How does FVC change in restrictive lung disease?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sharp decrease}}</div>
1385603995511 1358629116480 How does the FEV<su>1</su>:FVC ratio change in
restrictive lung disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increases &gt; 80%}}</div>
1385604016027 1358629116480 Which cytokine from injured pneumocytes is invol
ved in Idiopathic Pulmonary Firosis and induces the firosis?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::TGF-eta}}</div>
1385604064666 1358629116480 {{c1::Sarcoidosis}} is a systemic disease involv
e non-caseating granulomas in multiple organs. It causes restrictive lung diseas
e y forming granulomas at the lungs and hilar lymph nodes.
1385604131251 1358629116480 {{c1::Schaumann odies}} are calcified concretio
ns seen in the granulomas found in Sarcoidosis.
1385604174791 1358629116480 {{c1::Asteroid odies}} are the stellate inclusi
ons within giant cells of the granulomas in Sarcoidosis.
1385604195571 1358629116480 What does pulmonary lood pressure have to e in
order for a Dx of Pulmonary HTN to e given?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 25
mmHg (or &gt; 1/4 of systemic BP)}}</div>
1385604245215 1358629116480 Which gene mutation is commonly involved in fami
lial forms of Primary Pulmonary HTN?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivating mut
ations of BMPR2}}</div>
1385604302626 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
}} is a pulmonary pathology due to diffuse damage to the alveolar-capillary inte
rface. <r /><div><i>aka Diffuse Alveolar Damage</i></div>
1385604360145 1358629116480 {{c1::Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome}} i
s a form of respiratory distress due to inadequate surfactant levels.
1385604418296 1358629116480 Which type of pneumocyte makes surfactant?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1385604429476 1358629116480 What is the major phospholipid found in surfacta
nt?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphatidylcholine (Lecithin)}}</div>
1385604446685 1358629116480 Adequate levels of surfactant are reached during
the&nsp;{{c1::34th}} week of gestation.
1385604473359 1358629116480 What Lechitin:Sphingomyelin (L:S) ratio is indic
ative of mature lungs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 2}}</div>
1385604490599 1358629116480 How does insulin affect the production of Surfac
tant?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div>
1385665375628 1358629116480 {{c1::Small Cell Carcinoma of the lung}} is a lu
ng cancer that is aka 'Oat Cell' Carcinoma.
1385665480989 1358629116480 {{c1::Small Cell Carcinoma}} is a lung cancer wi
th <>poorly differentiated</>&nsp;small cells that arise from neuroendocrine&
nsp;{{c2::<>Kulchitsky</>}} cells.<div><r /></div><div> <img src="paste-7172595
38548.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Therefore it is highly aggressive.</i></di
v><div><i>Inoperale.</i></div><div><i>Must e treated with chemotherapy.</i></d
iv>
1385665922853 1358629116480 {{c1::Lamert-Eaton Syndrome}} is a paraneoplast
ic syndrome commonly associated with Small Cell Carcinoma that is characterized
y muscle weakness.
1385665999338 1358629116480 {{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma}} is a non-small c
ell lung carcinoma that is characterized y <>keratin pearls</>&nsp;or <>int
ercellular ridges</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-876173328494.jpg" /
><img src="paste-974957576302.jpg" /><img src="paste-10630044058022.jpg" /></div
>
1385666092731 1358629116480 What is the most common lung tumour in male smok

ers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma}}</div>
1385666112471 1358629116480 {{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma}} of the lung is o
ften associated with hypercalcemia due to its aility to produce&nsp;{{c2::PTHr
P}}
1385666197765 1358629116480 {{c1::Adenocarcinoma}} of the lung is a non-smal
l cell carcinoma of the lung involving <>glands</>&nsp;or <>mucin</>.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-1241245548652.jpg" /></div>
1385666315151 1358629116480 {{c1::Large Cell Carcinoma}} is a non-small cell
carcinoma of the lung that involves <>poorly-differentiated, pleiomorphic larg
e cells</>.
<div><i><r /></i></div>
1385666429870 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchioloalveolar carcinoma}} is a non-sm
all cell carcinoma of the lung that involves <>columnar cells</>&nsp;that gro
w along pre-existing ronchioles and alveoli.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-1451698946160.jpg" /><img src="paste-2602750181653.jpg" /></div>
1385666502601 1358629116480 Bronchioloalveolar carcinoma of the lung arises
from&nsp;{{c1::Clara}} cells.
1385666545207 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchioloalveolar carcinoma}} is a non-sm
all cell carcinoma of the lung that may present with pneumonia-like consolidatio
n on imaging.
1385666578788 1358629116480 A {{c1::Carcinoid tumour}} is a non-small cell c
arcinoma of the lung that involved <>well differentiated neuroendocrine cells</
>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1614907703405.jpg" /><img src="paste-26
75764625587.jpg" /></div>
1385666640213 1358629116480 Which immunohistochemical marker is expressed in
Carcinoid tumours?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1666447310956.jpg" /></
div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chromogranin A}}</div>
1385666694866 1358629116480 Carcinoid tumours can e oth peripheral or cent
ral. If they are {{c1::central}}, they classically form a polyp-like mass in the
ronchus.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1786706395246.jpg" /></div>
1385666747806 1358629116480 What are the 2 most common sources of metastatic
cancer to the lung?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast and colon carcinoma}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, metastatic cancers to the lung is more common th
an primary lung tumours.</i></div>
1385666798403 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::mesothelioma}} is a cancer of the m
esothelium that often encases the lung and often compresses or invades it.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-1954210119790.jpg" /><img src="paste-29420525983
00.jpg" /></div>
1385667128750 1358629116480 What is the most common etiology of mesothelioma
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asestos}}</div>
1385667141949 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthosis Nigricans}} is a paraneoplastic
syndrome characterized y dermopathy and lack, dark discoloration of the skin.
1385667183021 1358629116480 Which type of lung cancer is most commonly assoc
iated with <>hypercalcemia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous Cell Carcin
oma}}</div>
1385667207406 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchioloalveolar carcinoma}} and&nsp;{{
c2::Carcinoid tumour}} are 2 lung cancers that are not associated with smoking.
1385667367556 1358629116480 How does metastatic cancer to the lung commonly
present upon imaging?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Multiple 'cannon-all' like nodul
es}}</div>
1385667475633 1358629116480 Which tumour marker is very specific to Melanoma
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HMB-45}}</div>
1385667534805 1358629116480 Which lung cancer is associated with Neuron-Spec
ific Enolase (NSE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small Cell Carcinoma of the Lung}
}</div>
1385667565683 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of lung cancer?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cigarette smoke}}</div>
1385667604808 1358629116480 {{c1::Radon}} is a risk factor for lung cancer t
hat is formed y the radioactive decay of uranium.
1385667624524 1358629116480 {{c1::Superior Vena Cava Syndrome}} is a paraneo
plastic syndrome associated with lung cancer. It is characterized y distension

of head and neck veins caused y SVC ostruction.
1385667705190 1358629116480 What tumour is associated with Horner's Syndrome
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pancoast tumour; at the apex of the lung}}</div>
1385688030788 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Mycoacterium sp.</i>}} and&nsp;{{c2::
<i>Nocardia sp.</i>}} are the only 2 clinically relevant acid-fast acteria.
1385688112571 1358629116480 Which colour do acid-fast organisms stain?<div><
r></div><div>{{c1::Red}}</div>
1385688174916 1358629116480 Which memrane lipid is unique to acid-fast act
eria?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Mycolic acid}}</div>
1385688352461 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Mycoacterium tuerculosis</i>}} is an
acid-fast, oligate aneroe acteria that causes tuerculosis.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-1413044240777.jpg" /></div>
1385693279160 1358629116480 The granulomas involved in&nsp;{{c1::Tuerculos
is}} have a characteristic horseshoe orientation of the nuclei in its giant cell
s.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1481763717493.jpg" /></div>
1385693743700 1358629116480 <i>Mycoacterium tuerculosis</i>&nsp;are only
ale to e visualized with an&nsp;{{c1::acid-fast}} stain.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-1602022801833.jpg" /></div>
1385693785098 1358629116480 {{c1::Miliary TB}} is a form of tuerculosis tha
t involves tiny seed-shaped tuercules/granulomas that are disseminated all over
the ody, typically at the lungs.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17652315
59172.jpg" /></div>
1385693858940 1358629116480 An area of induration with a diameter greater th
an&nsp;{{c1::10 mm}} is indicative of MTB infection. <r /><div><i>&gt; 5 mm
in immunocompromised/AIDS patients</i></div>
1385694528297 1358629116480 How is <i>Mycoacterium tuerculosis</i>&nsp;tr
ansmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aerosolized respiratory droplets}}</div>
1385694602616 1358629116480 Primary TB will present at the&nsp;{{c1::lower}
} loes of the lung and hilar lymph nodes.
1385694635390 1358629116480 Secondary TB will present at the&nsp;{{c1::uppe
r}} loes of the lung due to poor lymphatic drainage and high oxygen tension.
<r /><div><i>O2 tension is high due to decreased pulmonary circulation (think V
/Q mismatch)</i></div>
1385694680358 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Ghon focus}} is a feature of MTB in
fection caused y firosis and calcification of granulomas.
<img src="paste2972117369027.jpg" />
1385694757716 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Ghon complex}} is a Ghon focus acco
mpanied y perihilar lymph node calcified nodules/granulomas. <img src="paste2972117369027.jpg" />
1385694891017 1358629116480 {{c1::Scrofula}} is a cervical lymphadenopathy t
hat commonly occurs with TB. It is the most common extrapulmonary TB manifestati
on.
1385694947368 1358629116480 {{c1::Pott's Disease}} is a complication of TB i
nfection. It is a form of osteomyelitis that affects the lumar verterae.
1397844610500 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhinosinusitis}} is an upper respiratory i
nfection that is characterized y the ostruction of sinus drainage into the nas
al cavity, therey causing inflammation and pain over the affected area.
<r /><div><img src="paste-10814727651634.jpg" /></div><div><i>Deviated nasal se
ptum (red arrow) is unrelated</i></div>
1397845075053 1395802358422 Which sinus is typically affected in Rhinosinusi
tis in <>adults</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Maxillary Sinus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-10810432684338.jpg" /></div><div><i>Deviated nasal se
ptum (red arrow) is unrelated.</i></div>
1397845125166 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Acute Rhinosinu
sitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Viral URT infection}}</div>
1397845170045 1395802358422 What is the most common <>gram-positive</>&ns
p;acteria that is superimposed onto acute Viral Rhinosinusitis?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}}</div>
1397845249749 1395802358422 What is the most common&nsp;<>gram-negative</
>&nsp;acteria that is superimposed onto acute Viral Rhinosinusitis?<div><r />

</div><div>{{c1::<i>Haemophilus influenzae; Moraxella catarrhalis</i>}}</div>
1397845284336 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>}} and&nsp;{
{c2::<i>Moraxella catarrhalis</i>}} are the 2 most common&nsp;<>gram-negative<
/>&nsp;acteria that are superimposed onto acute viral rhinosinusitis.
1397845344271 1395802358422 What is the most common defect in <>coagulation
cascade proteins</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor V Leiden}}</div>
1397852009917 1395802358422 Where do most pulmonary emoli arise from?<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-13773960118576.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Deep veins of the leg (i.e. DVT)}}</div></div>
1397852046865 1395802358422 {{c1::Homan Sign}} is a clinical feature of deep
venous thromosis that involves dorsiflexion of the foot and calf pain.
1397852087060 1395802358422 What hematological disorder is Homan Sign associ
ated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DVT}}</div>
1397852113263 1395802358422 Which anticoagulant is preferentially used to <
>prevent</>&nsp;and <>acutely manage</>&nsp;deep venous thromosis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Heparin}}</div>
1397852150660 1395802358422 Which anticoagulant is preferentially used for <
>long term prevention</>&nsp;of DVT recurrence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wa
rfarin}}</div>
1397852183720 1395802358422 What acid-ase imalance is associated with Pulm
onary Emoli?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13778255085872.jpg" /><r /><
div><r />{{c1::Respiratory Alkalosis}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>PE = V/Q m
ismatch = hypoxemia = respiratory alkalosis</i></div>
1397852580171 1395802358422 What type of emolus is associated with <>long
one fracture</>&nsp;and <>liposuction</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fat em
olus}}</div>
1397852620750 1395802358422 {{c1::Fat Emolus}} is a type of emolus that is
associated with long one fractures and liposuction.
1397852669145 1395802358422 Which type of emoli is associated with a classi
c triad of <>hypoxemia</>, <>neurological anormalities</>&nsp;and <>petec
hial rash</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fat emolus}}</div>
1397852698964 1395802358422 {{c1::Fat Emolus}} is a type of emolus that is
associated with a classic triad of <>hypoxemia</>, <>neurologic anormalitie
s</>&nsp;and <>petechial rash</>.
1397852723101 1395802358422 {{c1::Amniotic Fluid Emoli}} are a type of emo
lus that can lead to DIC, especially post-partum.
1397852751769 1395802358422 Which type of emolus can lead to DIC, especiall
y <>post-partum</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amniotic Fluid emoli}}</div>
1397852775224 1395802358422 Which type of emoli are commonly seen in ascend
ing divers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gas emoli}}</div>
1397852791573 1395802358422 {{c1::Gas Emoli}} are a type of emolus that in
volve <>nitrogen ules that precipitate in ascending divers</>.
1397852811589 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Gas Emoli?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Hyperaric Oxygen}}</div>
1397852823312 1395802358422 What is the <>imaging test</>&nsp;of choice f
or a PE?<div><r />{{c1::CT pulmonary angiography (look for filling defects)}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13314398617809.jpg" /></div>
1397852945258 1395802358422 {{c1::Lines of Zahn}} are a microscopic feature
of thromi descried as <u>interdigitating areas of pink (platelets; firin) and
red (RBCs)</u>&nsp;<>found only in thromi formed efore death</>.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-13975823581486.jpg" /></div>
1397853027108 1395802358422 What microscopic feature of thromi can e used
to distinguish a pre- and postmortem thromus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lines
of Zahn; only seen in premortem thromi}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-13971
528614190.jpg" /></div>
1397853647654 1395802358422 {{c1::FEV<su>1</su>}} is a pulmonary function
test volume that descries the <>volume of air that can forcily e lown out i
n 1 second</>.
1397862635276 1395802358422 How does Residual Volume (RV) change in COPD?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>

1397862715443 1395802358422 How does Functional Vital Capacity (FVC) change
in COPD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397862729410 1395802358422 How does FEV<su>1</su>&nsp;change in COPD?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Marked</>&nsp;decrease}}</div>
1397862761590 1395802358422 How does the FEV<su>1</su>/FVC ratio change in
COPD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>FEV<su>1<
/su>&nsp;decreases much more than FVC.</i></div>
1397862886024 1395802358422 Which group of pulmonary disorders involves a <
>decrease in FEV<su>1</su>/FVC ratio</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::COPD}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>COPD = greatly decreased FEV<su>1</su>; decreased FVC</i
></div>
1397862920591 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cor Pulmonale</i>}} is a cardiac disord
er that can manifest in COPD due to chronic, hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction.
1397863025795 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Bronchitis}} is a type of COPD tha
t is characterized y <>hyperplasia of mucous-secreting glands</>&nsp;at the
ronchi.
1397863583021 1395802358422 Which type of COPD is associated with <>hyperpl
asia of mucous-secreting glands in the ronchi</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B
ronchitis}}</div>
1397863605153 1395802358422 What Reid index is diagnostic of Bronchitis?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 50%}}</div>
1397863619145 1395802358422 {{c1::Reid Index}} is a histological measure of
the thickness of the mucous-secreting gland layer of a ronchi in relation to th
e total thickness of the ronchial wall.
<r /><div><i>It is &gt; 50% in
Bronchitis</i></div>
1397863691025 1395802358422 What type of COPD is also referred to as <>"Blu
e Bloater"</>&nsp;disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Bronchitis}}</di
v>
1397863716668 1395802358422 Which COPD is associated with a productive cough
for<> &gt; 3 months/year</>&nsp;for <>&gt; 2 years</>?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Chronic Bronchitis}}</div>
1397863770927 1395802358422 Which COPD is associated with cyanosis due to ea
rly-onset hypoxemia resultant of shunting?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Br
onchitis}}</div>
1397863883293 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Bronchitis}} is a COPD that is ass
ociated with cyanosis due to early-onset hypoxemia that results from shunting.
1397864290614 1395802358422 {{c1::Emphysema}} is a COPD that involves the en
largement of air spaces, <>decreased lung recoil</>, <>increased lung complia
nce</>&nsp;and <>decreased diffusion capacity</>&nsp;(DLCO) <>due to the d
estruction of alveolar walls</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-279774169
66451.jpg" /></div>
1397864396079 1395802358422 Which type of COPD results from a <>destruction
of alveolar walls</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27973121999155.jpg"
/></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Emphysema}}</div>
1397864413231 1395802358422 How does lung recoil change in Emphysema?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397864427438 1395802358422 How does lung compliance change in Emphysema?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increases}}</div>
1397864436943 1395802358422 How does lung diffusion capacity (DLCO) change i
n emphysema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397864454539 1395802358422 Which COPD is also referred to as <>"Pink Puffe
r"</>&nsp;Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Emphysema}}</div>
1397864481126 1395802358422 Which type of Emphysema is associated with smoki
ng?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28479928140083.jpg" /><r /><div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Centriacinar}}</div></div>
<div><i><r /></i></div>
1397864497059 1395802358422 Which type of Emphysema is associated with&nsp;α1
-ntitrypsin (A1AT)&nbsp;deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pncinr}}</div
>
1397864548121 1395802358422 Wht is the cuse of <b>Centricinr</b>&nbsp;Em
physem?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-28479928140083.jpg" /></div><div><

br /></div><div>{{c1::Smoking}}</div>
1397864561025 1395802358422 Wht is the cuse of <b>Pncinr</b>&nbsp;Emphy
sem?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::α1-ntitrypsin (A1AT)&nbsp;deficiency}}</div>
1397864574126 1395802358422 Which COPD involves enlrged lveoli tht re se
prted by thin sept (on microscopy)?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-2837
6848924980.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Emphysem}}</div>
1397864614117 1395802358422 Which type of Emphysem is ssocited with <b>mu
ltiple ir-spce cvities lined by hevy blck crbon deposits</b>?<div><br /></
div><div><img src="pste-28484223107379.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Centricinr Emphysem}}</div>
1397864748040 1395802358422 Which COPD involves n <b>increse in Elstse 
ctivity</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Emphysem}}</div>
1397864793912 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with  <b>brrel-shped
chest</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Emphysem}}</div>
1397864804079 1395802358422 {{c1::Emphysem}} is  COPD tht involves <b>inc
resed elstse ctivity</b>, thereby involving  <b>loss of elstic fibers</b>&
nbsp;nd n <b>incresed lung complince </b>(nd <b>decresed lung recoil</b>).
<br /><div><br /></div>
1397864853652 1395802358422 An increse in the ctivity of which enzyme is 
ssocited with Emphysem?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elstse ction}}</div>
1397864873631 1395802358422 {{c1::Emphysem}} is  COPD tht involves exhl
tion through pursed lips.
<br /><div><i>Pursing the lips increses irwy
pressure t the mouth/phrynx. As  result, irwy pressure in the thorx incre
ses nd irwy collpse is prevented. This is lso where "pink puffer" comes fro
m.</i></div>
1397864944957 1395802358422 Which COPD involves exhltion through pursed li
ps?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Emphysem}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Pursing th
e lips increses irwy pressure t the mouth/phrynx. As  result, irwy press
ure in the thorx increses nd irwy collpse is prevented. This is lso where
"pink puffer" comes from.</i></div>
1397864958803 1395802358422 {{c1::Asthm}} is  COPD tht involves bronchil
hyperresponsiveness tht yields reversible bronchoconstriction.
1397865085313 1395802358422 {{c1::Curschmnn Spirls}} re  feture of Asth
m tht re described s <b>shed epithelium tht forms mucous plugs</b>.
1397865133534 1395802358422 Wht COPD is ssocited with Curschmnn Spirls?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asthm}}</div>
1397865144483 1395802358422 {{c1::Chrcot-Leyden Crystls}} re  feture of
Asthm tht re formed from the <b>brekdown of eosinophils in sputum </b>nd <
b>crystlliztion of mjor bsic protein</b>.
1397865173437 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with Chrcot-Leyden Cry
stls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asthm}}</div>
1397865185087 1395802358422 Wht test is used to dignose Asthm?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Methcholine Chllenge}}</div>
1397865207735 1395802358422 Which COPD cn be tested for vi the Methcholin
e Chllenge?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asthm}}</div>
1397865219216 1395802358422 Which COPD cn be triggered by virl URT infecti
ons, llergens nd/or stress?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asthm}}</div>
1397865240812 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with Pulsus Prdoxus?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asthm}}</div>
1397865265944 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with  <b>decresed Ins
pirtory:Expirtory (I/E) rtio</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asthm}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The obstruction in sthm primrily ffects expirtory flow, hence
expirtion will be longer.</i></div>
1397865519965 1395802358422 At which re of the lung is Centricinr Emphys
em most severe?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
is hs to do with V/Q mismtch, which is t its highest t the pex. Centricin
r Emphysem is cused by smoking remember?</i></div>
1397865565503 1395802358422 At which re of the lung is Pncinr Emphysem
most severe?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower lobes}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
is hs to do with V/Q mismtch, which is t its lowest t the bse of the lung.

More perfusion = more inflmmtion = more brekdown of lveoli.</i></div>
1397872745055 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchiectsis}} is  COPD tht involves c
hronic necrotizing inflmmtion/infection tht <b>permnently diltes irwys</b
>.
<br /><div><i>This lso sets the stge for <b>purulent, pungent sputum,
recurrent infections nd hemoptysis</b>.</i></div>
1397873434612 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with poor ciliry motil
ity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchiectsis}}</div>
1397873456187 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with <b>Krtgener Synd
rome (Primry Ciliry Dyskinesi)</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchiectsis
}}</div>
1397873664440 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with <b>cystic fibrosis
</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchiectsis}}</div>
1397873690460 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with <b>llergic bronch
opulmonry spergillosis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchiectsis}}</div>
1397873713767 1395802358422 How does Forced Vitl Cpcity (FVC) chnge in R
estrictive Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Mrkedly&nbsp;</b>Decres
ed}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Lung expnsion is restricted, hence there is going
to be less FVC.</i></div>
1397874585794 1395802358422 How does Totl Lung Cpcity (TLC) chnge in Res
trictive Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Lung expnsion is decresed, hence lung cpcity decreses.</i></div>
1397874627435 1395802358422 How does FEV₁&nbsp;chnge in Restrict
ive Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1397874643709 1395802358422 How does the FEV₁/FVC rtio chnge in
restrictive lung disese?<div><br />{{c1::<b>Increses</b>&nbsp;to &gt; 80%}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>FVC decreses much more shrply thn FEV₁</i></
div>
1397874690660 1395802358422 Wht is the norml FEV₁/FVC rtio?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::80%}}</div>
1397874704493 1395802358422 Which group of pulmonry disorders is ssocited
with n <b>incresed FEV₁/FVC rtio (&gt; 80%)</b>?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Restrictive Lung Diseses}}</div>
1397874858623 1395802358422 How does the A- grdient chnge in <b>Mechnic
l</b>&nbsp;Restrictive Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml A- grdi
ent}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This mkes sense s the lung interstitium is not 
ffected.</i></div>
1397874921658 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with <b>Polio</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mechnicl (due to poor muscul
r effort)}}</div>
1397875432209 1395802358422 {{c1::Mechnicl RLD}} is  type of Restrictive
Lung Disese tht occurs <b>extrpulmonry</b>&nbsp;nd involves  <b>norml A-
grdient</b>.
1397875473680 1395802358422 {{c1::Interstitil RLD}} is  type of Restrictiv
e Lung Disese tht involves <b>decresed diffusing cpcity</b>&nbsp;nd n <b>
incresed A- grdient</b>.
1397875607664 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with <b>Mystheni Grvis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mechnicl (due to
poor musculr effort)}}</div>
1397875638332 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with <b>Scoliosis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mechnicl (due to poor st
ructurl pprtus)}}</div>
1397875663981 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with <b>Morbid Obesity</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mechnicl (due to po
or structurl pprtus)}}</div>
1397875682871 1395802358422 How does <b>pulmonry diffusing cpcity</b>&nbs
p;chnge in <b>Interstitil</b> Restrictive Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Decresed}}</div> <br /><div><i>The interstitium is disesed, hence diffus
ion is going to be ffected.</i></div>
1397875795355 1395802358422 How does the A- grdient chnge in <b>Interstit
il</b>&nbsp;Restrictive Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed A-

grdient}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Interstitium is disesed, hence diffusion
is ffected nd hence the A- grdient s well.</i></div>
1397875837344 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with <b>Acute Respirtoy Distress Syndrome (ARDS)</b>?<div><br />{{c1::Inter
stitil}}</div>
1397875860042 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with <b>Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome</b>&nbsp;(Hyline membrne di
sese)?<div><br />{{c1::Interstitil}}</div>
1397875883053 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with <b>Pneumoconioses</b>&nbsp;(Anthrcosis, Silicosis, Asbestosis)?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Interstitil}}</div>
1397875914390 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with <b>Srcoidosis</b>?<div><br />{{c1::Interstitil}}</div>
1397875927764 1395802358422 Which cuse of <b>Interstitil</b>&nbsp;Restrict
ive Lung Disese involves <b>noncseting grnuloms</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Srcoidosis}}</div>
1397876275852 1395802358422 How does the level of Angiotensin Converting Enz
yme (ACE) chnge in Srcoidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
1397876300942 1395802358422 How do C levels chnge in Srcoidosis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Hyperclcemi}}</div>
1397876430462 1395802358422 {{c1::Srcoidosis}} is  cuse of <b>Interstiti
l </b>Restrictive Lung Disese tht involves <b>bilterl hilr lymphdenopthy<
/b>, <b>hyperclcemi</b>&nbsp;nd <b>elevted ACE</b>. <br /><div><i>And <b>non
cseting grnuloms</b>, but tht would hve been  ded givewy.</i></div>
1397876511234 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with&nbsp;Idiopthic Pulmonry Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Intersti
til}}</div>
1397876524826 1395802358422 {{c1::Idiopthic Pulmonry Fibrosis}} is  cuse
of <b>Interstitil</b>&nbsp;Restrictive Lung Disese tht rises due to repete
d cycles of lung injury nd wound heling with collgen deposition.
1397876568676 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with&nbsp;Goodpsture Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Interstitil}}</d
iv>
1397876982880 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with&nbsp;Wegener Grnulomtosis with Polyngiitis?<div><br />{{c1::Intersti
til}}</div>
1397877011039 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with&nbsp;Lngerhns Cell Histiocytosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Intersti
til}}</div>
1397877023833 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with&nbsp;Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Interstit
il}}</div>
1397877035230 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with&nbsp;<b>drug toxicity</b>&nbsp;(Bleomycin, Busulfn, Amiodrone, Methot
rexte)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Interstitil}}</div>
1397877060194 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis}} is  cuse
of <b>Interstitil</b>&nbsp;Restrictive Lung Disese tht involves  <b>mixed ty
pe III/IV hypersensitivity rection to environmentl ntigens</b>.
1397877117650 1395802358422 Which cuse of <b>Interstitil</b>&nbsp;Restrict
ive Lung Disese is often seen in frmers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypersensi
tivity Pneumonitis}}</div>
1397877157552 1395802358422 Which cuse of&nbsp;<b>Interstitil</b>&nbsp;Res
trictive Lung Disese is often seen in bird hndlers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis}}</div>
1397877166031 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cor pulmonle</i>}} is  crdic disord
er tht hs n incresed risk of occuring in Pneumoconioses.
1397878276614 1395802358422 {{c1::Cpln Syndrome}} is  possible complicti
on of Pneumoconioses nd involves <b>rheumtoid rthritis nd pneumoconioses wit
h intrpulmonry nodules</b>.
1397878328089 1395802358422 Which Pneumoconiosis is ssocited with <b>shipb

uilding, roofing nd plumbing</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asbestosis}}</div>
1397878367508 1395802358422 Which Pneumoconiosis is ssocited with <b>"ivor
y white"</b>, <b>clcified pleurl plques</b>?<div><br /><div><img src="pste-6
674379178284.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asbestosis}}</div></div>
<br /><div><i>Pthognomonic; not precncerous</i></div>
1397878436141 1395802358422 {{c1::Asbestosis}} is  Pneumoconiosis tht is 
ssocited with <b>"ivory white", clcified pleurl plques</b>.<div><br /></div>
<div><img src="pste-6674379178284.jpg" /></div>
1397878463919 1395802358422 Which Pneumoconiosis is ssocited with n incre
sed incidence of <b>bronchogenic crcinom</b>&nbsp;nd <b>mesotheliom</b>?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asbestosis}}</div>
1397878494573 1395802358422 {{c1::Asbestosis}} is  Pneumoconiosis tht is 
ssocited with incresed incidence of <b>bronchogenic crcinom</b>&nbsp;nd <b>
mesotheliom</b>.
1397878517657 1395802358422 Which lobes of the lung re ffected by Asbestos
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-77996
60609660.jpg" /></div>
1397878533026 1395802358422 {{c1::Asbestosis}} is  Pneumoconiosis tht invo
lves <b>ferruginous bodies</b>&nbsp;tht re <b>golden-brown fusiform rods</b>&n
bsp;tht resemble <b>dumbbells</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-7378753
814740.jpg" /></div>
1397878627324 1395802358422 Which lobes of the lung re ffected by Col Wor
kers' Pneumoconiosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Upper}}</div>
1397878681741 1395802358422 Which lobes of the lung re ffected by Silicosi
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Upper}}</div>
1397878692966 1395802358422 Which Pneumoconiosis is lso referred to s "Bl
ck Lung Disese"?<div><br />{{c1::Col Worker's Pneumoconiosis}}</div>
1397878731652 1395802358422 Which Pneumoconiosis is ssocited with prolonge
d col dust exposure?<div><br />{{c1::Col Workers Pneumoconiosis}}</div>
1397878764424 1395802358422 {{c1::Col Workers' Pneumoconiosis}} is  Pneumo
coniosis tht involves <b>crbon-lden mcrophges</b>&nbsp;tht then cuse infl
mmtion nd fibrosis. <br /><div><i>When lveolr mcrophges tke in these fo
reign substnces, they re <b>ctivted nd fibrosis occurs</b>.</i></div>
1397879258994 1395802358422 {{c1::Anthrcosis}} is  type of Pneumoconiosis
tht is described s n symptomtic condition found in mny urbn dwellers expo
sed to sooty ir.
1397879301092 1395802358422 Which type of Pneumoconiosis is ssocited with
<b>foundries, sndblsting nd mines</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Silicosis}}
</div>
1397879321601 1395802358422 {{c1::Silicosis}} is  type of Pneumoconiosis th
t involves mcrophges tht respond to Silic nd relese fibrogenic fctors, l
eding to fibrosis.
1397879355070 1395802358422 Which Pneumoconiosis is ssocited with n <b>in
cresed risk for Tuberculosis</b>?<div><br />{{c1::Silicosis}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Silic is thought to disrupt phgolysosomes nd impir mcrophge ction,
thereby incresing susceptibility to TB.</i></div>
1397879402059 1395802358422 Which pneumoconiosis is ssocited with n incre
sed risk fo Bronchogenic Crcinom only?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Silicosis}}
</div>
1397879432227 1395802358422 Which pneumoconiosis is ssocited with <b>"eggs
hell"</b>&nbsp;clcifictions of the hilr lymph nodes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Silicosis}}</div>
1397922678499 1395802358422 {{c1::Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome}} i
s  cuse of restrictive lung disese in neontes tht rises from  <b>surfct
nt deficiency</b>.
<br /><div><i>No surfctct = incresed lveolr surfce
tension = lveolr collpse</i></div>
1397923107407 1395802358422 Which cuse of restrictive lung disese <b>in ne
ontes</b>&nbsp;is ssocited with <b>surfctnt deficiency</b>?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome}}</div>
1397923144254 1395802358422 Which Lecithin:Sphingomyelin rtio is predictive

of Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L:S &lt;
1.5}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, L:S &gt; 2 indictes fetl lung mturity
.</i></div>
1397923184790 1395802358422 Which congenitl hert defect is ssocited with
Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ptent Ductu
s Arteriosus (due to the persistently low O2 tension)}}</div> <br /><div><i>PD
A cn be treted with Indomethcin.</i></div>
1397923905209 1395802358422 {{c1::Retinopthy of Premturity}} is  neurolog
icl compliction of O2 therpy in neontl respirtory distress syndrome tht r
esults from ROS formtion nd dmge t the retin.
1397923948514 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchopulmonry Dysplsi}} is  pulmonr
y compliction of O2 therpy in Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome.
1397923972509 1395802358422 {{c1::Mternl Dibetes}} is  risk fctor for N
eontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome due to <b>insulin inhibiting Lechitin prod
uction</b>.
1397924019012 1395802358422 {{c1::C-section Delivery}} is  risk fctor for
Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome tht involves  <b>decresed relese of f
etl glucocorticoids</b>.
1397924114563 1395802358422 Wht drug cn be dministered <b>to the mother</
b>&nbsp;to tret/prevent Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Steroids}}</div>
1397924159174 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Respirtory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
}} is  cuse of restrictive lung disese tht involves <b>diffuse lveolr dm
ge</b>&nbsp;nd resultnt <b>protein-rich lekge into lveoli</b>&nbsp;nd <b>p
ulmonry edem.</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><img src="pste-1118838980638
5.jpg" /></b></div>
<br /><div><i>The protein lekge nd edem re due to 
n <b>increse in lveolr cpillry permebility</b>&nbsp;(the edem is noncrdi
ogenic)</i></div>
1397924692651 1395802358422 Which cuse of restrictive lung disese is most
commonly ssocited with the formtion of <b>intr-lveolr hyline membrnes</b
>&nbsp;nd ccumultion of&nbsp;<b>lveolr fluid</b>?<div><br /></div><div><img
src="pste-11184094839089.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Respir
tory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)}}</div> <br /><div><i>Diffuse lveolr dmge =
incresed lveolr cpillry permebility = protein-rich lekge into lveoli n
d noncrdiogenic pulmonry edem.</i></div>
1397924789533 1395802358422 How does Pulmonry Wedge Pressure chnge in Acut
e Respirtory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml PCWP}}
</div>
1397924807766 1395802358422 Which cuse of restrictive lung disese yields <
b>ner-complete opcifiction of the lungs</b>&nbsp;with n&nbsp;<b>obscured cr
diomedistinl silhouette</b>&nbsp;on chest x-ry?<div><br /></div><div><img src
="pste-11639361372464.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Respirtor
y Distress Syndrome (ARDS)}}</div>
1397924946793 1395802358422 How do lung volumes chnge in COPD?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::<b>Increse</b>}}</div>
1397925340031 1395802358422 How do lung volumes chnge in <b>Restrictive</b>
&nbsp;Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1397925354405 1395802358422 How does the FEV₁/FVC rtio chnge in
COPD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese (&lt; 80%)}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>COP<u style="font-weight: bold; ">D</u>&nbsp;= <u style="font-weight: bold;
">D</u>ecrese</i><br /><div><img src="pste-12515534701098.jpg" /></div>
1397925401475 1395802358422 How does the FEV₁/FVC rtio chnge in
<b>Restrictive</b>&nbsp;Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse (≥ 80%)
}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-12511239733802.jpg" /></div>
1397925430853 1395802358422 What is the normal FEV<su>1</su>/FVC ratio??<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::80%}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1251123973380
2.jpg" /></div>
1397925464547 1395802358422 What is the normal pulmonary artery pressure?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::10-14 mmHg}}</div>
1397926304331 1395802358422 What lood pressure is diagnostic of <>Pulmonar

y</>&nsp;Hypertension?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::≥ 25 mmHg at rest}}</div>
1397926322306 1395802358422 What is the etiology of <>Primary</>&nsp;Pulm
onary HTN?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivating mutation in the&nsp;<i>BMPR2
</i>&nsp;gene}}</div>
1397926391506 1395802358422 What gene is mutated in <>Primary</>&nsp;Pulm
onary HTN?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivating mutation in&nsp;<i>BMPR2</i>
}}</div>
1397926421249 1395802358422 What is the normal function of the <i>BMPR2</i>&
nsp;gene?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of vascular smooth muscle proli
feration}}</div>
1397926444113 1395802358422 What is the prognosis of <>Primary</>&nsp;Pul
monary Hypertension?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poor}}</div>
1397926454178 1395802358422 {{c1::Primary Pulmonary HTN}} is a type of pulmo
nary HTN that results from <>inactivating mutations in the <i>BMPR2</i>&nsp;ge
ne.</>
1397926761271 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonary HTN is associated with <
>inactivating mutations of the <i>BMPR2</i>&nsp;gene</>?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Primary Pulmonary HTN}}</div>
1397926787467 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonary HTN is associated with C
OPD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Secondary}}</div>
1397926818146 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonary HTN is associated with M
itral Stenosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Secondary}}</div>
1397926823362 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonary HTN is associated with R
ecurrent Thromoemoli?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Secondary}}</div>
1397926835298 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonary HTN is associated with A
utoimmune Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Secondary}}</div>
1397926849916 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonary HTN is associated with a
Left-to-Right cardiac shunt?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Secondary}}</div>
1397926863912 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonary HTN is associated with S
leep Apnea or high altitude?<div><r />{{c1::Secondary}}</div> <r /><div><i>Du
e to <>hypoxic vasoconstriction</></i></div>
1397926882140 1395802358422 {{c1::COPD}} is a cause of <>Secondary</>&nsp
;Pulmonary HTN that involves the <>destruction of lung parenchyma</>.
1397927057683 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral Stenosis}}&nsp;is a valvular patho
logy that causes&nsp;<>Secondary</>&nsp;Pulmonary HTN through an increase in
pulmonary vascular resistance and susequent pulmonary HTN.
1397927122139 1395802358422 {{c1::Recurrent Thromoemoli}} are a hemotologi
cal cause of&nsp;<>Secondary</>&nsp;Pulmonary HTN that yields a <>decreased
cross-sectional area of the pulmonary vascular ed.</>
1397927179276 1395802358422 {{c1::Autoimmune Disease}}&nsp;is a cause of&n
sp;<>Secondary</>&nsp;Pulmonary HTN that involves <>intimal firosis</>&ns
p;and eventual <>medial hypertrophy</>. (low yield, not in FA/Pathoma)
<r /><div><i>Medial hypertrophy = hypertrophy of the media layer of pulmonary v
asculature</i></div>
1397927304027 1395802358422 {{c1::Left-to-Right shunts}} are a type of cardi
ac shunts&nsp;that can cause&nsp;<>Secondary</>&nsp;Pulmonary HTN through a
n increase in <>shear stress</>&nsp;and susequent <>endothelial injury</>.
1397927404208 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of death from Pulm
onary HTN?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decompensated <i>cor pulmonale</i>&nsp;(R
V hypertrophy due to pulmonary HTN)}}</div>
1397928129185 1395802358422 {{c1::Sleep Apnea}} is a respiratory disorder th
at involves <>repeated cessation of reathing &gt; 10 sec during sleep</>.
<r /><div><i>This leads to a disruption of sleep and susequent daytime somnole
nce.</i></div>
1397928667529 1395802358422 {{c1::Nocturnal Hypoxia}} is a feature of Sleep
Apnea that may cause systemic/pulmonary HTN, arrhythmias and sudden death.
1397928939367 1395802358422 {{c1::Central Sleep Apnea}} is a type of sleep a
pnea that involves <>no respiratory effort</>.
<r /><div><i>However it
does often involve <>Cheyne-Stokes respiration</>.</i></div><div><i>Is often
diaphragmatic and seen in the elderly.</i></div>

1397929007595 1395802358422 {{c1::Ostructive Sleep Apnea}} is a type of sle
ep apnea that involves <>respiratory effort against airway ostruction</>.
<r /><div><i>Associated with oesity and loud snoring.</i></div><div><i>Typical
ly cannot e confirmed y the patient, so e sure to ask the family, friends, SO
, roommates, etc.</i></div>
1397929035132 1395802358422 How do EPO levels change in Sleep Apnea?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The hypoxia causes EPO rel
ease and susequent erythropoiesis.</i></div>
1397929062252 1395802358422 {{c1::Oesity Hypoventilation Syndrome}} is a ty
pe of apnea associated with oesity (BMI ≥ 30). <r /><div><i>Oesity leads to h
ypoventilation and a susequent <>decreased P</><su style="font-weight: old;
">a</su><>O</><su style="font-weight: old; ">2</su>&nsp;and <>increased
P<su>a</su>CO<su>2</su>&nsp;during waking hours</></i></div>
1397929445641 1395802358422 How do reath sounds change in Pleural Effusion?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-16969
415786892.jpg" /></div>
1397929489420 1395802358422 How do reath sounds change in Atelectasis (Bron
chial Ostruction)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-16965120819596.jpg" /></div>
1397929514941 1395802358422 How do reath sounds change in Spontaneous Pneum
othorax?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-16965120819596.jpg" /></div>
1397929529567 1395802358422 How do reath sounds change in Tension Pneumotho
rax?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-16965120819596.jpg" /></div>
1397929540480 1395802358422 What type of reath sounds are seen with <>lung
consolidation</>&nsp;(loar pneumonia, pulmonary edema)?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Bronchial reath sounds with late inspiratory crackles}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-16965120819596.jpg" /></div>
1397929591368 1395802358422 What lung percussion sounds are heard in Pleural
Effusion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dull}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-16965120819596.jpg" /></div>
1397929629083 1395802358422 What lung percussion sounds are heard in Atelect
asis (Bronchial Ostruction)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dull}}</div>
1397929641976 1395802358422 What lung percussion sounds are heard in Spontan
eous Pneumothorax?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperresonant}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-16965120819596.jpg" /></div>
1397929656309 1395802358422 What lung percussion sounds are heard in Tension
Pneumothorax?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperresonant}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-16965120819596.jpg" /></div>
1397929675290 1395802358422 What lung percussion sounds are heard in consoli
dation (loar pneumonia, pulmonary edema)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dull}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-16965120819596.jpg" /></div>
1397929704102 1395802358422 How does vocal fremitus change in Pleural Effusi
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397929719992 1395802358422 How does vocal fremitus change in Atelectasis (B
ronchial Ostruction)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397929736353 1395802358422 How does vocal fremitus change in Spontaneous Pn
eumothorax?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397929746891 1395802358422 How does vocal fremitus change in Tension Pneumo
thorax?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397929757920 1395802358422 How does vocal fremitus change with lung consoli
dation (loar pneumonia, pulmonary edema)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}
</div>
1397929780419 1395802358422 Which way does the trachea deviate in Atelectasi
s (Bronchial Ostruction)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Towards</>&nsp;the si
de of the lesion}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-16965120819596.jpg" /
></div>
1397929812361 1395802358422 Which way does the trachea deviate in <>Tension
</>Pneumothorax?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Away</>&nsp;from the side of

the lesion}}</div>
1397929839419 1395802358422 Which type of pneumothorax is associated with tr
acheal deviation <>away from the side of the lesion</>?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Tension Pneumothorax}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1696512081959
6.jpg" /></div>
1397929992061 1395802358422 What type of cancer is the leading cause of canc
er death?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung cancer}}</div>
1397930269947 1395802358422 What is the most common source of metastatic lun
g cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast, Colon, Prostate, Bladder}}</div>
<r /><div><i>B, C, P, B</i></div>
1404865383813 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhinosinusitis}} is a disorder of the uppe
r respiratory tract that occurs due to <>ostruction of sinus drainage into the
nasal cavity</>&nsp;and hence presents with inflammation and pain over the af
fected area.
1404866383956 1395802358422 Which sinus is most affected in Rhinosinusitis i
n adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Maxillary}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-7503307866532.jpg" /></div>
1404866419732 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of acute Rhinosinu
sitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Viral URI}}</div>
1404866435418 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>}},&nsp;{{
c2::<i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>}} and&nsp;{{c3::<i>Moraxella catarrhalis</i>}
} are the 3 most common causes of superimposed acteria infection on top of vira
l rhinosinusitis.
1404866504133 1395802358422 {{c1::Homan sign}} is a clinical feature of pulm
onary emolism that involves extreme <>calf pain</>&nsp;upon <>dorsiflexion
of the foot</>.
1404867090221 1395802358422 What is the drug of choice for the <>prevention
</>&nsp;and <>acute management</>&nsp;of DVT?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::He
parin}}</div>
1404867108820 1395802358422 What is the drug of choice for the <>long-term
prevention</>&nsp;of DVT recurrence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Warfarin}}</di
v>
1404867124504 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis}} is a pulmon
ary disorder due to a mixed type III/IV hypersensitivity reaction to environment
al antigens that presents with dyspnea, cough, chest tightness and headache.
<r /><div><i>Often seen in farmers and those exposed to irds.</i></div>
1404868772509 1395802358422 Which demographic is often affected y Hypersens
itivity pneumonitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Farmers; people exposed to irds
}}</div>
1404868791661 1395802358422 What is the leading cause of cancer death?<div><
<r /><div><img src="paste-88734
r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung cancer}}</div>
02433822.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-8899172237394.jpg" /></div>
1404868855818 1395802358422 What is the primary source of most cancer metast
asis to the lungs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast; colon; prostate; ladder}}
</div>
1404868913009 1395802358422 What are the most common sites of cancer metasta
sis <>from</>&nsp;the lungs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adrenals; rain; one
(as pathologic fratures); liver (jaundice; hepatosplenomegaly)}}</div>
1404868998402 1395802358422 In which general location in the lung is Adenoca
rcinoma of the Lung found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Periphery}}</div>
1404869666047 1395802358422 In which general location in the lung is Squamou
s Cell Carcinoma of the Lung found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Central}}</div>
1404869676579 1395802358422 In which general location in the lung is Small C
ell (Oat Cell) Carcinoma of the Lung found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Central}}
</div>
1404869689262 1395802358422 In which general location in the lung is Large C
ell Carcinoma of the Lung found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Periphery}}</div>
1404869700381 1395802358422 What is the most common primary lung cancer?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenocarcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404869864093 1395802358422 What is the most common primary lung cancer in n

on-smokers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenocarcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404869876091 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>k-ras</i>}},&nsp;{{c2::<i>EGFR</i>}} a
nd&nsp;{{c3::<i>ALK</i>}} are 3 genes that commonly receive activating mutation
s in Adenocarcinoma of the lung.
1404869944942 1395802358422 Which lung cancer is associated with hypertrophi
c osteoarthropathy (cluing)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenocarcinoma of the
lung}}</div>
1404869987943 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchioloalveolar adenocarcinoma}} is a s
utype of adenocarcinoma of the lung that often shows <>hazy infiltrates simili
ar to pneumonia on CXR</>.
<r /><div><i>Type of Adenocarcinoma in situ.</i
></div><div><i>Prognosis is excellent.</i></div>
1404870057163 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchioloalveolar adenocarcinoma}} is a s
utype of adenocarcinoma of the lung that <>grows along alveolar septa</>&nsp
;hence yielding an apparent <>thickening of alveolar walls</>.
1404870229895 1395802358422 Which hormone produced y Squamous Cell Carcinom
a of the lung causes <>hypercalcemia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PTHrP}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Parathyroid hormone related protein (PTHrP).</i></div>
1404870343957 1395802358422 {{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Lung}} is a
lung cancer that presents as a <>hilar mass arising from the ronchus</>&nsp
;and presents with <>cavitation</>.
1404870374282 1395802358422 Which gene amplification is common in Small Cell
Carcinoma of the Lung?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>myc</i>}}</div>
1404870600746 1395802358422 {{c1::Lamert-Eaton Syndrome}} is a paraneoplast
ic syndrome that presents due to <>auto-antiodies against presynaptic Ca^2
+&nsp;channels</>.
1404870683592 1395802358422 Which lung cancer is associated with ADH secreti
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small Cell Carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404870713304 1395802358422 Which lung cancer is associated with ACTH secret
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small Cell Carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404870725864 1395802358422 Which lung cancer is associated with releasing&n
sp;<>auto-antiodies against presynaptic Ca²⁺&nsp;channels</>?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small Cell Carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404870753592 1395802358422 {{c1::Kulchitsky cells}} are a pathological <>n
euroendocrine&nsp;</>cell featured in Small Cell Carcinoma of the lung that ha
ve a&nsp;<>small, dark lue</>&nsp;colour.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-11768210391461.jpg" /></div>
1404870828558 1395802358422 What is the prognosis of Large Cell Carcinoma of
the Lung?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poor}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Less respo
nsive to chemotherapy. Removed surgically.</i></div><div><i>(compared to small c
ell cancer which is inoperale and has to e treated chemically)</i></div>
1404870869383 1395802358422 What is the prognosis of Bronchial Carcinoid Tum
our?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Excellent}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Metastasis
is rare.</i></div>
1404870964586 1395802358422 {{c1::Carcinoid syndrome}} is a possile paraneo
plastic syndrome associated with Bronchial Carcinoid Tumours that presents with
<>flushing, wheezing</>&nsp;and <>diarrhea</>&nsp;due to 5-HT secretion.
1404871322628 1395802358422 {{c1::Mesotheliome}} is a cancer of the pleura t
hat often presents with <>psammoma odies</>&nsp;on histology.
1404871414325 1395802358422 {{c1::Pancoast Tumour}} is a carcinoma that occu
rs in the apex of the lung and can cause <>Horner Syndrome</>&nsp;y affectin
g the cervical sympathetic plexus.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13168369
729958.jpg" /></div>
1404871665466 1395802358422 {{c1::Horner Syndrome}} is a paraneoplastic synd
rome associated with pancoast tumour that presents with <>ipsilateral ptosis, m
iosis</>&nsp;and <>anhidrosis</>. <r /><div><i>"Horny P.A.M."</i></div>
1404871717597 1395802358422 {{c1::Superior Vena Cava (SVC) Syndrome}} is a p
ossile mass effect complication of lung cancers that involves <>impaired lood
drainage from the head, neck</>&nsp;and <>upper extremities</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>Impairment of head drainage = facial plethora.</i></div><div><i>Impairment
of neck drainage = jugular venous distention.</i></div><div><i>Impairment of up

per extremity drainage = edema.</i></div><div><i>Commonly caused y <>malignanc
y and thromosis from indwelling catheters</>.</i></div>
1404871833168 1395802358422 {{c1::SVC Syndrome}} is a complication caused y
ostruction of the SVC that can raise intracranial pressure if severe enough, t
herey leading to headaches, dizziness and an <>increased risk of aneurysm/rupt
ure of intracranial arteries</>.
1404871951498 1395802358422 What is the most common <>cardiac</>&nsp;caus
e of death in Sleep Apnea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nocturnal arrhythmias }}</
div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. atrial firillation/flutter</i></div>
1404872267922 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y sleep apn
ea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
<r /><div><i>&gt;2:1 (M:F)</i><
/div>
1404872305927 1395802358422 What is the most frequent cause of Loar Pneumon
ia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Steptococcus pneumoniae</i>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Legionella and Klesiella are common as well.</i></div>
1404872383801 1395802358422 {{c1::Loar Pneumonia}} is a type of pneumonia t
hat presents with <>intra-alveolar exudate</>&nsp;and hence <>consolidation<
/>&nsp;on CXR.<div><r /><div><img src="paste-14701673054632.jpg" /><img src="
paste-15225659064736.jpg" /></div></div>
1404872761823 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchopneumonia}} is a type of pneumonia
that presnts with <>acute inflammatory infiltrates from ronchioles into adjace
nt alveoli</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15324443312552.jpg" /></div
>
<r /><div><i>Note the neutrophils in the alveolar spaces (i.e. acute in
flammation).</i></div>
1404872907247 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchopneumonia}} is a type of pneumonia
that yields a patchy distriution involving<su>&nsp;</su>≥ 1 loe.
1404872943826 1395802358422 {{c1::Interstitial (Atypical) Pneumonia}} is a t
ype of pneumonia that presents with <>diffuse patchy inflammation localized to
interstitial areas at alveolar walls</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1
5491947037092.jpg" /></div>
1404873300682 1395802358422 {{c1::Lung ascess}} is a lung pathology descri
ed as a localized collection of pus within the lung parenchyma typically caused
y <>ronchial ostruction</>&nsp;or <>aspiration of oropharyngeal contents<
/>.
<r /><div><i>Typically due to Staphylococcus aureus or aneroes such as
Bacteroides, Fusoacterium and Peptostreptococcus.</i></div>
1404873608965 1395802358422 {{c1::Lung ascess}} is a lung pathology that in
volves a localized collection of pus within the lung parenchyma and yields visi
le air-fluid levels on CXR.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16234976379162.
jpg" /></div>
1404873639753 1395802358422 {{c1::Pleural effusion}} is a respiratory pathol
ogy that is descried as excess accumulation of fluid etween the two pleural la
yers that therey causes restricted lung expansin during inspiration.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-16518444220837.jpg" /></div>
1404873961345 1395802358422 {{c1::Transudative Pleural Effusion}} is a type
of pleural effusion that has <>decreased protein content</>&nsp;and is often
due to CHF, nephrotic syndrome or hepatic cirrhosis.
1404874005125 1395802358422 {{c1::Exudative Pleural Effusion}} is a type of
pleural effusion that holds <>increased protein content</>&nsp;and is often d
ue to malignancy, pneumonia, collagen vascular disease and trauma.
<r /><d
iv><i>Must e drained due to the risk of infection.</i></div>
1404874079561 1395802358422 {{c1::Chylothorax}} is a type of pleural effusio
n that involves lymph accumuation and is due to thoracic duct injury from trauma
or malignancy. <r /><div><i>Has a milky appearance.</i></div>
1404874244950 1395802358422 {{c1::Pneumothorax}} is a respiratory pathology
descried as accumulation of air in the pleural space.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-17192754086308.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>u
nilateral chest pain, unilateral chest expansion, dyspnea, decreased tactile fre
mitus, hyperresonance, </>and&nsp;<>dimished reath sounds</>&nsp;all on th
e <u style="font-weight: old; ">affected side</u>.</i></div>
1404874343429 1395802358422 {{c1::Spontaneous Pneumothorax}} is a type of pn

eumothorax that presents with air accumulation in the pleural space and occurs m
ost frequently in <>tall, thin, young males</>&nsp;due to <>rupture of apica
l les</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17188459119012.jpg" /></div>
1404874388700 1395802358422 {{c1::Tension Pneumothorax}} is a type of pneumo
thorax that usually occurs in the setting of trauma or lung infection. <r /><d
iv><i>Air is capale of entering the pleural space ut not exiting.</i></div><di
v><i><img src="paste-17540646437284.jpg" /></i></div>
1404874620305 1395802358422 {{c1::Tension Pneumothorax}} is a type of pneumo
thorax that presents with <>trachial deviation <u>away</u>&nsp;from the affect
ed lung.</><div><><r /></></div><div><><img src="paste-17536351469988.jpg"
/></></div>
1383788065388 1358629116480 Which type of arteries are involved with lood p
ressure control?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arterioles}}</div>
1383789000770 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::intima}} is the internal layer of
lood vessels containing a single layer of endothelium, suendothelial CT and a
n internal elastic lamina.
1383789049951 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::media}} is the middle layer of l
ood vessels that contains smooth muscle, elastic fiers and an external elastic
lamina.
1383789072311 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::adventitia}} is the outer layer o
f lood vessels that contains connective tissue with nerve fiers and vasa vasor
um.
1383789101134 1358629116480 How much does a normal female heart weigh?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::250 g}}</div>
1383789120855 1358629116480 How much does a normal male heart weigh?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::300 g}}</div>
1383789131367 1358629116480 How thick is a normal Left Ventricle wall?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::1.3 to 1.5 cm}}</div>
1383789149223 1358629116480 How thick is a normal Right Ventricle wall?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::0.3 to 0.5 cm}}</div>
1383789161702 1358629116480 What is the normal cardiothoracic ratio on a che
st x-ray?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1:2}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Cardiac di
ameter:chest width</i></div>
1383789191501 1358629116480 What <>vascular</> pathology shown elow is se
en in Primary Benign HTN?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2461016261007.jpg
" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis}}</div>
1383789776763 1358629116480 What are "Boxcar" nuclei on a iopsy of cardiac
tissue indicative of?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3186865733874.jpg" />
</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Ventricular Hypertrophy}}</div>
1383790801746 1358629116480 How thick must the Left Ventricle wall e in ord
er for a Dx of LV Hypertrophy to e made?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 1.5 cm
}}</div>
1383790840402 1358629116480 What is the most common renal pathology (shown 
elow) that results from enign HTN?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3655017
169046.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Benign nephrosclerosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The resultant proteinuria will lead to renal failure.</i></div>
1383790910882 1358629116480 What is Hyperplastic Arteriolosclerosis commonly
indicative of?<div><img src="paste-4389456576689.jpg" /></div><div><r />{{c1::
Malignant HTN; Hypertensive Emergency}}</div> <r /><div><i>Onion-skin appeara
nce</i></div>
1383791528287 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperplastic Arteriolosclerosis}} is a vas
cular pathology seen following Malignant HTN/Hypertensive Emergency. It is chara
cterized y an <>onion-skin</>&nsp;appearance.
1383791560337 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant Nephrosclerosis}} is a renal pat
hology seen in Malignant HTN/Hypertensive Emergency. It is characterized y a <
>'flea-itten' </>kidney.
1383791712602 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertensive Encephalopathy}} is a cerera
l pathology seen in Malignant HTN/Hypertensive Emergency characterized y an inc
rease in intracranial pressure.
1383791820332 1358629116480 {{c1::Systolic}} lood pressure is a function of

&nsp;{{c2::SV and CO}}.
1383791925113 1358629116480 {{c1::Diastolic}} lood pressure is a function o
f&nsp;{{c2::TPR}}
1383791933329 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary}} HTN is defined as HTN with unkno
wn etiology.
<r /><div><i>Accounts for 95% of cases</i></div>
1383791950901 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary}} HTN is defined as HTN with ide
ntifiale etiology.
<r /><div><i>Accounts for 5% of cases.</i></div>
1383791979570 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Renal Artery St
enosis in elderly males?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atherosclerosis}}</div>
1383792011862 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Renal Artery St
enosis in younger females?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firomuscular dysplasia}}<
/div>
1383792029443 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Secondary Syste
mic HTN?<div><r />{{c1::Renal Artery Stenosis}}</div>
1383792041671 1358629116480 {{c1::Firomuscular Dysplasia}} is a development
al defect of the BV wall characterized y an irregular thickening of large and m
edium arteries, especially the renal artery.
<r /><div><i>Classically causes
Renal Artery Stenosis in younger females.</i></div>
1383792102776 1358629116480 What tissue secretes Renin?<div><r />{{c1::Juxt
aglomerular Apparatus (JGA) at the kidney}}</div>
1383792129475 1358629116480 {{c1::Renin}} converts Angiotensinogen to Angiot
ensin I.
1383792145644 1358629116480 {{c1::Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE)}} at t
he lungs converts Angiotensin I into Angiotensin II (ATII).
1383792295593 1358629116480 What is Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis commonly indi
cative of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primary Benign HTN; Essential HTN}}</div>
1383792318337 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Hypertensive Emergency}} is a malig
nant form of HTN characterized y a severe elevation in BP (&gt; 200/120 mmHg) <
>and</>&nsp;acute end target-organ damage.
1383792666087 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Hypertensive Urgency}} is a form of
malignant HTN characterized y a severe elevation in BP <>without</>&nsp;acu
te end target-organ damage.
1383879050321 1358629116480 Atherosclerotic plaque has a core made mostly of
lipids that contain characteristic&nsp;{{c1::cholesterol}} crystals.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-777389080839.jpg" /></div>
1383879137593 1358629116480 {{c1::Atherosclerosis}} is a vascular pathology
characterized y the thickening of the intima of medium to large-sized arteries.
1383879892955 1358629116480 {{c1::Arteriolosclerosis}} is a vascular patholo
gy involving the thickening of smaller arteries.
1383879910476 1358629116480 {{c1::Monckeerg Medial Calcific Sclerosis}} is
a <>enign</> vascular pathology involving calcification of the media of muscu
lar, medium-sized arteries.
1383879964847 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::shoulder}} of atherosclerotic pla
que is the attaching point of the firous capsule to the vessel wall. It is also
the weakest part of the plaque.
1383880068412 1358629116480 What are foam cells?<div><r />{{c1::Macrophages
that have taken up and oxidized lipids}}</div> <r /><div><i>Lipids are taken u
p via Scavenger Receptors</i></div>
1383880131882 1358629116480 Atherosclerosis can cause stenosis of medium-siz
ed vessels. What pathology occurs if this happens at the lower extremities?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Peipheral Vascular Disease}}</div>
1383880190094 1358629116480 Atherosclerosis can cause stenosis of medium-siz
ed vessels. What pathology occurs if this happens at Coronary Arteries?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Angina}}</div>
1383880211899 1358629116480 Atherosclerosis can cause stenosis of medium-siz
ed vessels. What pathology occurs if this happens at the Mesenteric Arteries?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ischemic Bowel Disease (IBD)}}</div>
1383880234794 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyaline}} Arteriolosclerosis is vascular t
hickening due to proteins leaking into the vessel wall.
1383880279292 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperplastic }} Arteriolosclerosis is vasc

ular thickening due to hyperplasia of smooth muscle in the BV wall.
1383880305560 1358629116480 What are the 2 major causes of Hyaline Arteriolo
sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Long-Standing Benign Primary HTN &amp; Dia
etes}}</div>
1383880335343 1358629116480 How does Long-Standing Benign Primary HTN cause
Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The increase in BP forces
proteins into the BV wall}}</div>
1383880364018 1358629116480 How does Diaetes cause Hyaline Arterioloscleros
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-enzymatic glycosylation weakens the asement
memrane of BV's, making them leaky}}</div>
1383880412493 1358629116480 What is the major cause of Hyperplastic Arteriol
osclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Malignant HTN}}</div>
1383935224928 1358629116480 Despite what the name suggests, Mycotic Aneurysm
s are actually more commonly due to&nsp;{{c1::acteria}} instead of fungi.
1383935489545 1358629116480 What type of aneurysm is shown elow?<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-1322849927533.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Adominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA)}}</div>
1383935546064 1358629116480 Aortic Dissection commonly presents as a sharp,
tearing chest pain that radiates to the&nsp;{{c1::ack}}.
1383936046481 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Thoracic Aneury
sm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atherosclerosis}}</div> <i>Thoracic aneurysm is
also classically associated with tertiary syphilis (</i><i>Syphilitic/Luetic Ane
urysm) ut it's not the most common cause.</i>
1383936146757 1358629116480 {{c1::Thoracic}} Aneurysm due to tertiary syphil
is yields a characteristic 'tree-ark' appearance of the aorta.
1383936177680 1358629116480 Where does an Adominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA) ty
pically occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Below the renal arteries ut aove the
aortic ifurcation}}</div>
1383936232181 1358629116480 What receptor on macrophages inds to oxidized L
DL to ring it into the macrophage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scavenger Recepto
r (SR-A)}}</div>
1384035265189 1358629116480 {{c1::Localized}} suendocardial MI is due to a
coronary artery ostruction with susequent thromolysis.
<r><div><i>Can
progress to a transmural MI.</i></div>
1384035370282 1358629116480 {{c1::Circular}} suendocardial MI is seen in se
vere systemic hypotension involving collapse and shock.
1384035404197 1358629116480 What type of Myocardial Infarction is shown elo
w?<div><img src="paste-1039382085870.jpg" /></div><div><r />{{c1::Suendocardia
l MI}}</div>
1384035452139 1358629116480 What type of Myocardial Infarction is shown elo
w?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1065151889648.jpg" /></div><div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Transmural MI}}</div>
1384035478333 1358629116480 How long does it take for Coagulative Necrosis t
o appear following a MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4 hours}}</div>
1384037429398 1358629116480 What <>microscopic</>&nsp;changes are seen at
cardiac tissue 1-3 days after a MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neutrophil infil
tration}}</div>
1384037502719 1358629116480 What <>microscopic</>&nsp;changes are seen at
cardiac tissue 4-7 days after a MI?<div><r />{{c1::Macrophage infiltration}}</
div>
1384037526764 1358629116480 What <>microscopic </>changes are seen at card
iac tissue <>1-3 weeks</> following a MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granulati
on tissue}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, granulation tissue has 3 things:
firolasts, collagen and new lood vessels</i></div>
1384037607278 1358629116480 What <>microscopic</>&nsp;changes are seen at
cardiac tissue 3 weeks - 2 months following a MI?<div><r />{{c1::Firosis; sca
r}}</div>
1384037761060 1358629116480 What <>gross</>&nsp;changes are seen at cardi
ac tissue 1-3 days following a MI?<div><r />{{c1::ellow pallour indicative of
necrosis}}</div>

1384037824355 1358629116480 What <>gross </>changes will you see at cardia
c tissue 4-7 days following a MI?<div><r />{{c1::ellow pallour with <i>hyperem
ic orders</i> indicative of necrosis}}</div>
1384037867333 1358629116480 What <>gross</>&nsp;changes are seen at cardi
ac tissue 1-3 weeks after a MI?<div><r />{{c1::Reddish margins; indicating gran
ulation tissue has now entered the infarct}}</div>
1384038325580 1358629116480 What <>gross</>&nsp;changes are seen at cardi
ac tissue 3 weeks - 2 months following a MI?<div><r />{{c1::Grey-white scar}}</
div>
1384038350866 1358629116480 {{c1::Stale}} angina is defined as chest pain t
hat arises with exertion or emotional stress.
1384039770715 1358629116480 How much stenosis must e present in order for s
ymptoms of angina to manifest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 70%}}</div>
1384039806486 1358629116480 Angina is defined as chest pain that lasts for&n
sp;{{c1::&lt; 20}} minutes.
1384039841726 1358629116480 Where does angina radiate to?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Left arm and/or jaw}}</div>
1384039855084 1358629116480 What EKG findings will e seen in suendocardial
ischemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST-segment depression}}</div>
1384039880234 1358629116480 What EKG findings will e seen in transmural isc
hemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST-segment elevation}}</div>
1384039896550 1358629116480 {{c1::Unstale}} angina is defined as chest pain
that arises <>during rest</>.
1384039920802 1358629116480 {{c1::Prinzmetal}} Angina is defined as episodic
chest pain unrelated to exertion.
1384039947727 1358629116480 What is the cause of Prinzmetal Angina?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Coronary Artery Vasospasm}}</div>
1384039963529 1358629116480 What EKG findings will e seen in Prinzmetal Ang
ina?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST-segment elevation due to transmural ischemia}
}</div>
1384039993680 1358629116480 What EKG findings will e seen in oth stale or
unstale angina?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST-segment depression due to suend
ocardial ischemia}}</div>
1384040014073 1358629116480 Myocardial Infarction will present with severe,
crushing chest pain that lasts for&nsp;{{c1::&gt; 20}} minutes.
1384040054618 1358629116480 Occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::Left Anterior Descen
ding (LAD)}} artery will result in infarction of the anterio cardiac wall and th
e anterior 2/3 of the septum. <r /><div><i>As well as some of the apex.</i></
div>
1384040277815 1358629116480 Occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::Posterior Descending
Artery (PDA)}} artery will result in infarction of the posterior cardiac wall,
posterior 1/3 of the septum and papillary muscles of the LV.
The PDA arises f
rom the RCA in ~80% of people and LCA in 15% of people.
1384040321828 1358629116480 Occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::Left Circumflex (LCX
)}} artery will result in infarction of the lateral wall of the LV.
1384040345826 1358629116480 When do Troponin I levels rise post MI?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::2-4 hrs}}</div>
1384040398271 1358629116480 When do Troponin I levels peak post MI?<div><r>
</div><div>{{c1::24 hrs}}</div>
1384040413555 1358629116480 When do Troponin I levels normalize post MI?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::7-10 days}}</div>
1384040428704 1358629116480 When do CK-MB levels rise post MI?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::4-6 hrs}}</div>
1384040442101 1358629116480 When do CK-MB levels peak post MI?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::24 hrs}}</div>
1384040453191 1358629116480 When do CK-MB levels normalize post MI?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::72 hours}}</div>
1384040466858 1358629116480 What cardiac enzyme is the gold standard for det
ection and Dx of MI?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Troponin I; it is the most sensiti
ve and specific marker}}</div>

1384040493789 1358629116480 What cardiac enzyme is useful for detecting rein
farction after an initial MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CK-MB}}</div>
1384040516859 1358629116480 {{c1::Arrhythmia}} is a major complication of MI
that can arise 4-24 hrs after MI.
<r /><div><i>It is commonly V-fi</i></
div>
1384040597516 1358629116480 {{c1::Firinous Pericarditis}} is a complication
of MI that typically arises 1-3 days after.
1384040641378 1358629116480 {{c1::Myocardial Rupture}} is a complication of
MI that typically arises 4-7 days after.
1384040660018 1358629116480 What can result following myocardial rupture of
the ventricular free wall?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cardiac Tamponade}}</div>
1384040688757 1358629116480 Which valvular disorder can result following myo
cardial rupture of the papillary muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral Valve
insufficiency; typically after RCA occlusion}}</div>
1384040717674 1358629116480 {{c1::Dressler Syndrome}} is an autoimmune peric
arditis seen 6-8 weeks after MI.
1384040764197 1358629116480 {{c1::Dressler Syndrome}} is an autoimmune peric
arditis due to pericardial antigen exposure and susequent A formation followin
g a MI.
1384040788265 1358629116480 Sudden Cardiac Death typically occurs without sy
mptoms or within&nsp;{{c1::1}} hour(s) of symptoms.
1384040830971 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of death in Sudden
Cardiac Death?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular Tachyarrhythmia}}</div>
1384474781322 1358629116480 Calcific aortic stenosis involves calcified nodu
les at the {{c1::annulus}} of the aortic valve.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-876173328599.jpg" /></div>
1384474851404 1358629116480 What valvular pathology is shown elow?<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-901943132382.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Calcific Stenosis of a Bicuspid Aortic Valve}}</div>
1384474888281 1358629116480 A valvular {{c1::prolapse}} involves the hooding
/folding/alloning of valve leaflets into the chamer ehind it.<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-1494648619365.jpg" /></div>
1384475484891 1358629116480 What is shown elow on a histological sample of
Mitral Valve Prolapse?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1602022801714.jpg" /
></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myxomatous Degeneration}}</div>
1384475533328 1358629116480 What cells shown elow are found in the <>Ascho
ff Bodies</> of myocarditis seen in <>Acute Rheumatic Fever</>?<div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-1919850381518.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A
nitschhow cells}}</div>
1384476106254 1358629116480 {{c1::Anitschkow cells}} are seen in Aschoff od
ies of myocarditis in Acute Rheumatic Fever. They have characteristic&nsp;{{c2:
:caterpillar}} nuclei.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1915555414222.jpg" /
></div>
1384476149806 1358629116480 The septic vegetations depicted elow are typica
lly seen in&nsp;{{c1::infectious endocarditis}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-2478196130014.jpg" /></div>
1384477184787 1358629116480 {{c1::Splinter hemorrhaging}} is a complication
seen in infectious endocarditis due to septic emoli. It is characterized y spl
inter shaped hemorrhaging at naileds.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2675
764625568.jpg" /></div>
1384477424242 1358629116480 {{c1::Janeway lesions}} are <>non-painful</>&n
sp;lesions on the palms and soles of the feet that manifest in infectious endoc
arditis due to septic emoli.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3027951943875
.jpg" /></div>
1384477470787 1358629116480 {{c1::Osler lesions}} are <>painful</>&nsp;le
sions that manifest at the fingers and toes (or hands and feet) in infectious en
docarditis due to septic emoli.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3100966388
099.jpg" /></div>
1384477514434 1358629116480 {{c1::Nonacterial/Aseptic Thromotic Endocardit
is}} is characterized y <>sterile</> vegetations on the mitral valve, typical

ly due to a hypercoagulale state or mucous secreting adenocarcinoma.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-3534758084826.jpg" /></div>
1384478316130 1358629116480 {{c1::Lieman-Sacks Endocarditis}} is a form of
endocarditis seen in SLE. It is characterized y s<>terile</>&nsp;vegetations
on <>oth</>&nsp;sides of the mitral valve.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-3685081940185.jpg" /></div>
1384478358561 1358629116480 Which viruses are the most common cause of myoca
rditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coxsackie A and B}}</div>
1384478574206 1358629116480 Which is the most common <>parasitic</>&nsp;c
ause of myocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Trypanosoma cruzi</i>; Chagas
Disease}}</div>
1384478715476 1358629116480 {{c1::Viral}} myocarditis typically has a flay
myocardium characterized y pale foci of ischemia and fatty change.<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-5265629905246.jpg" /></div>
1384478794587 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypersensitivity}} myocarditis involves a
mixture of eosinophils and interstitial infiltrate.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-5802500817134.jpg" /></div>
1384478827174 1358629116480 {{c1::Giant cell}} myocarditis involves giant ma
crophage cells and extensive necrosis of cardiomyocytes.<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-5312874545394.jpg" /></div>
1384478871775 1358629116480 Cardiac tamponade typically manifests when there
is&nsp;{{c1::&gt; 150 mL}} (volume) of fluid that has accumulated in the peri
cardium.
1384479101834 1358629116480 {{c1::Firinous}} pericarditis is typically seen
following an MI and involves a loud friction ru.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-6902012445026.jpg" /></div>
1384479167426 1358629116480 {{c1::Purulent/suppurative}} pericarditis is cau
sed y acteria from local and/or distant sources.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-6850472837476.jpg" /></div>
1384479222294 1358629116480 {{c1::Adhesive}} pericarditis is an asymptomatic
form of pericarditis characterized y firous stands that cross the pericardial
cavity.
1384479263686 1358629116480 {{c1::Constrictive}} pericarditis is characteriz
ed y a concentric firous/firocalcific scar in the pericardium.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-7516192768345.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Can cause
heart failure y limiting diastolic filling and reducing preload.</i></div>
1384479336430 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::cardiomyopathy}} is a myocardial di
sorder resulting in heart failure.
1384479364687 1358629116480 {{c1::Dilated Cardiomyopathy}} is a cardiomyopat
hy characterized y dilation of <>all 4</>&nsp;chamers of the heart.<div><r
></div><div><img src="paste-7632156885211.jpg" /></div>
1384479420869 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}} is cardiomyo
pathy defined as massive hypertrophy of the LV, rendering it into a anana-like
shape.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-7962869367002.jpg" /></div>
1384480044634 1358629116480 {{c1::Restricive}} Cardiomyopathy is defined as
a decreased compliance of the ventricular endomyocardium that restricts filling
during diastole.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8083128451289.jpg" /></div
>
1384480102560 1358629116480 What histological finding shown elow is seen in
a cardiac tissue iopsy in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-8379481194865.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myofiril h
ypertrophy and disarray}}</div>
1384480257086 1358629116480 What is an Amyloid?<div><r />{{c1::An anormall
y folded protein}}</div>
1384480361276 1358629116480 What tissue stain is commonly used to reveal amy
loids?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9801115369717.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Congo red}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Amyloids will e 
right pink/red on weak pink ackground</i></div>
1384480405949 1358629116480 What colour do Amyloids show on polarized micros
copy of Congo-Red stained tissue slides?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Apple-green

Birefringence}}</div> <img src="paste-9749575762174.jpg" />
1384558728166 1358629116480 What is the most common <>overall</>&nsp;caus
e of infectious endocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Viridans <i>Streptococc
i</i>}}</div>
1384558864000 1358629116480 Viridans <i>Streptococci</i>&nsp;cause&nsp;{{c
1::suacute}} endocarditis as they are low virulence pathogens.
1384558899969 1358629116480 <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;is a high viru
lence organism that causes&nsp;{{c1::acute}} endocarditis.
1384559046508 1358629116480 Which species of acteria is involved with suac
ute endocarditis in patients with underlying colorectal carcinoma?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus ovis</i>}}</div>
1384559086048 1358629116480 How are serum ferritin levels changed in Anaemia
of Chronic Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated}}</div>
1384559253994 1358629116480 {{c1::Lieman-Sacks}} endocarditis is due to ste
rile vegetations that arise on <>oth</>&nsp;sides of the mitral valve.
1384559288544 1358629116480 What form of Endocarditis is associated with Sys
temic Lupus Erythematosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Liman-Sacks endocarditis}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Sterile vegetations on oth sides of the mitral valve</i><
/div>
1384559324125 1358629116480 {{c1::Nonacterial/Aseptic Thromotic}} Endocard
itis is due to sterile vegetations that arise in a hypercoagulale state or with
an underlying mucous secreting adenocarcinoma.
1384559363431 1358629116480 Which virus can cause secondary dilated cardiomy
opathy via myocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coxsackie A or B}}</div>
1384559439478 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Dilated Cardiomyopathy
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Heart transplant}}</div>
1384559488695 1358629116480 What is the genetic etiology of <>Hypertrophic<
/>&nsp;Cardiomyopathy?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Gene mutations in sarcomere pr
oteins}}</div>
1384559521884 1358629116480 {{c1::Loeffler Syndrome}} is defined as endomyoc
ardial firosis with <>eosinophilic infiltrate and eosinophilia</>. It can cau
se <>restrictive cardiomyopathy</>.
1384559702466 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Arrhythmogenic Right Ven
tricular Cardiomyopathy (ARVC)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal dominant mu
tations in desmosome proteins}}</div>
1384559740495 1358629116480 {{c2::Acute Rheumatic Fever}} is an autoimmune c
omplication of pharyngitis caused y Group&nsp;{{c1::A}} <i>Streptococcus</i>
1384566138651 1358629116480 Bacterial&nsp;{{c1::M proteins}} cause the path
ology seen in Acute Rheumatic Fever through <>molecular mimicry.</>
1384566168273 1358629116480 Elevation of which 2 antiody titers are indicat
ive of Group A <i>Streptococcus</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A
ntistreptolysin O (ASO); Anti-DNAse}}</div>
1384566238641 1358629116480 {{c1::Migratory Polyarthritis}} is a complicatio
n of Acute Rheumatic Fever characterized y swelling and pain at large joints th
at resolves and then migrates to other large joints.
1384566284258 1358629116480 What type of valvular pathology is seen with <>
acute</>&nsp;rheumatic fever?<div><r />{{c1::Regurgitation; typically of the
mitral valve or mitral + aortic}}</div>
1384566355360 1358629116480 Which valve is most commonly involved in Acute R
heumatic Fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div>
1384566378195 1358629116480 {{c1::Aschoff Bodies}} are foci of chronic infla
mmation seen in the myocarditis of Acute Rheumatic Fever.
1384566414596 1358629116480 {{c1::Anitschkow Cells}} are reactive histiocyte
s with wavy, slender, caterpillar-like nuclei seen in Aschoff Bodies of Acute Rh
eumatic Fever.
1384566450964 1358629116480 {{c1::Erythema marginatum}} is an annular, non-p
ruritic rash with erythematous orders seen in Acute Rheumatic Fever. It is typi
cally found at the trunk and lims.
1384566515913 1358629116480 {{c1::Sydenham chorea}} is a neurological disord
er that appears in Acute Rheumatic Fever. It is characterized y rapid, involunt

ary movements of the face, hands and feet.
1384566548726 1358629116480 What type of valvular pathology is seen in Chron
ic Rheumatic Heart Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stenosis; almost always o
f the mitral valve}}</div>
<r /><div><i>If the aortic valve is involved, t
he <>commissures are fused</></i></div>
1384566601155 1358629116480 What kind of murmur is heard in Aortic Stenosis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Systolic ejection click with crescendo-decrescendo m
urmur}}</div>
1384567463850 1358629116480 What happens to coronary lood flow in Aortic St
enosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div>
1384567520187 1358629116480 What happens to ejection time in Aortic Stenosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prolonged}}</div>
1384567532405 1358629116480 What happens to Left Ventricular pressure in aor
tic stenosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increases}}</div>
1384567548339 1358629116480 What happens to aortic pressure in Aortic Stenos
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div>
1384567560228 1358629116480 Where is the murmur in Aortic Stenosis est hear
d?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic valve area; 2nd right intercostal space}}</
div>
1384567604067 1358629116480 What happens to Aortic Systolic Pressure in Aort
ic Regurgitation?<div><r />{{c1::Increases}}</div>
1384567665540 1358629116480 What happens to Aortic Diastolic Pressure in Aor
tic Regurgitation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
e lower the diastolic pressure, the more severe the regurgitation</i></div>
1384567732442 1358629116480 What kind of murmur is heard in Aortic Regurgita
tion?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Early, lowing, decrescendo diastolic murmur just
after S2}}</div>
1384567767761 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Austin Flint}} murmur is due to pr
emature closure of the mitral valve caused y aortic regurgitant jet causing an
apical diastolic rumle.
1384567821873 1358629116480 What is the Quincke pulse?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Pulsating nail ed}}</div>
1384567846248 1358629116480 What murmur is heard in Mitral Valve Prolapse?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mid-systolic click followed y a late systolic regurgi
tation murmur}}</div>
1384567925696 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Mitral Stenosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rheumatic Fever; Rheumatic Heart Disease}}</div>
1384567981817 1358629116480 What kind of murmur is heard in Mitral Stenosis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Opening snap followed y a diastolic rumle}}</div>
1384568255551 1358629116480 What type of murmur is heard in Mitral Regurgita
tion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pansystolic 'lowing' murmur}}</div>
1384621789516 1358629116480 What is the Cardiac Output in a normal adult?<di
v><r />{{c1::~5 L/min}}</div>
1384622020459 1358629116480 What is the equation for Ejection Fraction?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::EF = SV / EDV}}</div>
1384622050083 1358629116480 Cardiac {{c1::preload}} is the stretch that myoc
ardial fiers feel <>efore </>contraction. It is commonly estimated y EDV.
1384622098731 1358629116480 Cardiac&nsp;{{c1::afterload}} is the resistance
that the ventricles must overcome to empty its contents. It is estimated y art
erial pressure.
1384622123843 1358629116480 Cardiac&nsp;{{c1::contractility/inotropy}} refe
rs to the heart's aility to change the force of contraction independent of the
preload or afterload.
1384622160285 1358629116480 What happens to ventricular wall thickness in ve
ntricular <>dilation</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::It gets thinner}}</div>
1384640532076 1358629116480 What cardiomyocyte histological change is shown
elow in cardiac hypertrophy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2658584756469
.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hiernating myocardium}}</div>
1384640604295 1358629116480 What morphological change in alveolar macrophage
s is seen in chronic left sided heart failure?<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa

ste-3105261355256.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemosiderin-laden mac
rophages aka 'heart-failure' cells}}</div>
1384642645011 1358629116480 What cardiac pathology is commonly associated wi
th edema of the peripheral lims, esp the shins and ankles?<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-3551937954077.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Si
ded Heart Failure}}</div>
1384643012294 1358629116480 What cardiac pathology is commonly associated wi
th ascites?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3663607103768.jpg" /></div><div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Sided heart failure}}</div>
1384643040464 1358629116480 What cardiac pathology is a nutmeg liver associa
ted with?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3689376907635.jpg" /></div><div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Sided Heart Failure}}</div>
1384643069507 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Right Sided Hea
rt Failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Sided Heart Failure}}</div>
1384643597164 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Cor Pulmonale</i>}} is defined as right
-sided heart failure due to chronic lung disease.
1384643641700 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Cor Pulmonale</i>}} is right-sided hear
t failure that manifests due to the hypoxia caused y chronic lung disease. The
hypoxia greatly constricts pulmonary capillaries, leading to RV failure.
1384643685180 1358629116480 How does the A-wave of the JVP change with jugul
ar venous distension?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increases}}</div>
1384643805178 1358629116480 {{c1::Systolic}} heart failure is defined as hea
rt failure with &lt; 50% of normal Ejection Fraction and increased EDV.
1384643846269 1358629116480 {{c1::Diastolic}} heart failure is defined as he
art failure with &gt; 50% of normal Ejection Fraction with unchanged, normal EDV
.
1384643870134 1358629116480 {{c1::Systolic}} heart failure results from the
ventricles eing unale to eject lood.
1384643890027 1358629116480 {{c1::Diastolic}} heart failure results from the
ventricles eing unale to fill with lood.
1384643901583 1358629116480 {{c1::Systolic}} heart failure presents as forwa
rd heart failure.
1384643919198 1358629116480 {{c1::Diastolic}} heart failure presents as ack
wards heart failure due to the increase in atrial pressure and atrial hypertroph
y.
1384643940755 1358629116480 {{c1::Concentric}} cardiac hypertrophy is seen i
n pressure overload.
1384643987964 1358629116480 {{c1::Eccentric}} cardiac hypertrophy is seen fo
llowing volume overload.
1384644002682 1358629116480 How does the thickness of the ventricle wall cha
nge in Concentric Hypertrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thickened}}</div>
1384644045734 1358629116480 How does the volume of the ventricles change in
Concentric Hypertrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unchanged}}</div>
1384644066404 1358629116480 How does the thickness of the ventricular wall c
hange during Eccentric Hypertrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unchanged}}</div>
1384644122694 1358629116480 How does the volume of the ventricles change in
Eccentric Hypertrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increases}}</div>
1384644146508 1358629116480 Which hormone secreted y the ventricles can e
used as a screening test for heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brain Nat
riuretic Peptide}}</div>
1384645114379 1358629116480 Class {{c1::1}} NHA heart failure involves no l
imitations of physical activity.
1384645223336 1358629116480 Class&nsp;{{c1::2}} NHA heart failure involves
slight limitations to physical activity, with fatigue and SOB during ordinary a
ctivity.
1384645263122 1358629116480 Class&nsp;{{c1::3}} NHA heart failure involves
marked limitation. Ordinary activity produces fatigue, SOB and palpitations.
1384645292024 1358629116480 Class {{c1::4}} NHA heart faliure involves symp
toms of heart failure at rest.
1384645307007 1358629116480 Stage&nsp;{{c1::A}} heart failure denotes an <

>at risk individual</>&nsp;that does not actually have prolems with heart fun
ction.
1384645337376 1358629116480 What Framingham Criteria need to e fulfilled fo
r a diagnosis of congestive heart failure to e made?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:2 major or (1 major + 1 minor)}}</div>
1384645583276 1358629116480 What type of heart failure does an S3 heart soun
d on <>inspiration</>&nsp;most likely indicate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ri
ght sided heart failure}}</div>
1384645636970 1358629116480 What does an S3 heart sound on <>expiration</>
&nsp;point towards?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left sided heart failure}}</div>
1384645653157 1358629116480 Which cause of Congestive Heart Failure must alw
ays e actively excluded?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pericardial effusion}}</div
>
1384892564376 1358629116480 The muscular portion of the interventricular sep
tum is derived form&nsp;{{c1::myocardium}}
1384893456394 1358629116480 The memranous portion of the interventricular s
eptum is derived from&nsp;{{c1::endocardial cushions}} and the {{c2::aortico-pu
lmonary septum}}.
1384893503009 1358629116480 80% of ventricular septal defects (VSDs) are def
ects of the&nsp;{{c1::memranous}} portion of the interventricular septum.
1384893552525 1358629116480 The reversal of a L to R shunt due to increased
pulmonary resistance into a R to L shunt gives rise to {{c1::Eisenmenger's}} Syn
drome.
1384908206829 1358629116480 R to L shunting of lood can cause Polycythemia
as the hypoxemia triggers the release of&nsp;{{c1::Erythropoietin (EPO)}}.
1384908248878 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::R to L}} shunt will result in <>ea
rly</>&nsp;cyanosis.
1384908454524 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect}} is a de
fect in the interventricular septum.
1384908506943 1358629116480 What is the most common Congenital Heart Defect?
<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)}}</div>
1384908525085 1358629116480 Ventricular Septal Defects are commonly associat
ed with&nsp;{{c1::Fetal Alcohol}} Syndrome.
1384908546005 1358629116480 What kind of shunt is involved in a Ventricular
Septal Defect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R; from LV to RV; then R to L due
to Eisenmenger's}}</div>
1384908614094 1358629116480 What murmur is heard in a Ventricular Septal Def
ect?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Pansystolic murmur along the left parasternal line
}}</div>
1384908655136 1358629116480 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::Atrial Septal Defect (ASD)}} is
defined as a defect in the septum that divides the atria.
1384908693592 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Atrial Septal De
fect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ostium Secundum}}</div>
1384908713460 1358629116480 What type of Atrial Septal Defect is associated
with Down's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ostium Primum}}</div>
1384908744797 1358629116480 What type of shunt is involved in an Atrial Sept
al Defect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R}}</div>
1384908759568 1358629116480 What congenital heart defect is associated with
a fixed splitting of S2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial Septal Defect}}</div>
1384908794094 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::paradoxical emolus}} is a complica
tion of atrial septal defects where a DVT can cross over from R to L via the sep
tal defect.
<r /><div><i>There is hence possiility of stroke or rain asc
ess if the emolus is septic.</i></div>
1384909041939 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)}} is
defined as the failure of the ductus arteriosus to close.
1384909067746 1358629116480 What congenital infection is a Patent Ductus Art
eriosus associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital Ruella}}</div>
1384909087810 1358629116480 What type of shunt is involved in a Patent Ductu
s Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R}}</div>
1384909178424 1358629116480 {{c1::Prostaglandin E}} is a prostaglandin that

maintains the patency of the Ductus Arteriosus.
1384909237760 1358629116480 What type of murmur is heard in a Patent Ductus
Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Continuous, 'machine-like', holosystolic
murmur}}</div>
1384909297526 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Patent Ductus Arterios
us?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indomethacin; decreases production of PGE}}</div>
1384909359981 1358629116480 Which ventricle is hypertrophied in Tetralogy of
Fallot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RV}}</div> <r /><div><i>The tetrad include
s:</i></div><div><i>1. Hypoplastic RV Outflow Tract</i></div><div><i>2. RVH</i><
/div><div><i>3. VSD</i></div><div><i>4. Overriding Aortic Arch</i></div>
1384909387575 1358629116480 What type of shunt is found in the Tetralogy of
Fallot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L; causing early cyanosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Severity is due to pulmonic valve stenosis.</i></div>
1384909472557 1358629116480 Children with Tetralogy of Fallot will often&ns
p;{{c1::squat}} in response to a cyanotic episode as it increases arterial resis
tance and decreases R to L shunting.
1384909758961 1358629116480 In Tetralogy of Fallot, there is no&nsp;{{c1::p
ulmonic}} component to the S2 heart sound.
1384909781275 1358629116480 What congenital heart disease will yield a&nsp;
<>'oot-shaped' heart</>&nsp;on a chest x-ray?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tet
ralogy of Fallot}}</div>
1384909827260 1358629116480 What congenital heart defect is associated with
Maternal Diaetes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transposition of the Great Vessels
}}</div>
1384909917012 1358629116480 Which ventricle is atrophied in Transposition of
the Great Vessels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LV}}</div>
1384909944269 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Transposition of the G
reat Vessels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Creation of a shunt; PGE}}</div>
1384909974228 1358629116480 In Transposition of the Greast Vessels,&nsp;{{c
1::PGE}} is administered to maintain patency of the Ductus Arteriosus which then
acts as a shunt.
1384910001344 1358629116480 {{c1::Truncus Arteriosis}} is a congenital heart
defect characterized y a single, large outflow vessel from oth ventricles tha
t allows for oxy/deoxy lood to mix.
1384910040952 1358629116480 What congenital heart defect is associated along
side Tricuspid Atresia?<div><r />{{c1::Atrial Septal Defect}}</div>
1384910085112 1358629116480 What shunt is found in Tricuspid Atresia?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L due to the ASD}}</div>
1384910105773 1358629116480 What ventricle is hypoplastic in Tricuspid Atres
ia?<div><r />{{c1::RV}}</div>
1384910123527 1358629116480 {{c1::Coarctation of the Aorta}} is a congenital
heart defect defined as a narrowing of the aorta.
1384910738631 1358629116480 Infantile Coarctation of the Aorta is associated
with&nsp;{{c1::Patent Ductus Arteriosus}} and&nsp;{{c2::Turner's Syndrome}}
1384910766314 1358629116480 Where is the coarctation located in Infantile Co
arctation of the Aorta?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distal to the aortic arch ut
proximal to the PDA}}</div>
1384910794845 1358629116480 Where is the coarctation found in Adult Coarctat
ion of the Aorta?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distal to the Aortic Arch}}</div>
1384910814521 1358629116480 There will e cyanosis at the&nsp;{{c1::lower}}
extremities in Infantile Coarctation of the Aorta.
1384910837160 1358629116480 There is a&nsp;{{c1::R to L}} shunting of lood
through the PDA in Infantile Coarctation of the Aorta. <r /><div><i>Due to low
lood pressure distal to the coarctation.</i></div>
1384910881659 1358629116480 Adult Coarctation of the Aorta is associated wit
h a&nsp;{{c1::icuspid aortic}} valve.
1384910904030 1358629116480 There will e <>hyper</>tension at the&nsp;{{
c1::upper}} extremities in Adult Coarctation of the Aorta.
1384910929664 1358629116480 There will e <>hypo</>tension and weak pulses
at the&nsp;{{c1::lower}} extremities in Adult Coarctation of the Aorta.

1384910952579 1358629116480 {{c1::Adult Coarctation of the Aorta}} is a cong
enital heart defect that is associated with 'notching' of the ris on an x-ray d
ue to collateral circulation.
1384910995552 1358629116480 {{c1::Adult Coarctation of the Aorta}} can e di
agnosed through rachial and femoral pulse delay.
1384911061865 1358629116480 Which form of ANCA is found near the nucleus tha
t yields fluourescent nuclei.?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-945322301870
6.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div><div>{{c1::p-ANCA}}</div></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>aka Perinuclear ANCA; MPO-ANCA</i></div>
1384916799628 1358629116480 What form of ANCA is located in the cytoplasm an
d yields fluorescent cytoplasm?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-97538707294
25.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::c-ANCA}}</div>
<r /><div><i>ak
a cytoplasmic ANCA; PR3-ANCA</i></div>
1384916845302 1358629116480 ANCA associated vasculitis involves the degranul
ation of&nsp;{{c1::neutrophils}} that is triggered y ANCAs inding to either M
yeloperoxidase near the nucleus or PR-3 on the surface.
1384916907848 1358629116480 What does ANCA stand for?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Anti-Neutrophilic Cytoplasmic Antiodies}}</div>
1384916921829 1358629116480 What is haemoptysis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Coughing of lood}}</div>
1384916999530 1358629116480 {{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}} is a type of necr
otizing granulomatous Vasculitis that involves firinoid necrosis and <>eosinop
hilia</>.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-10617159156088.jpg" /></div>
1384917282600 1358629116480 {{c1::Wegener's Granulomatosis}} is a form of ne
crotizing, granulomatous Vasculitis that involves ulceration at the upper respir
atory tract or palate.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10904921964806.jpg"
/></div>
1384917407899 1358629116480 {{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}} is a type of va
sculitis that involves the deposition of IgA immune complexes at the glomerular
mesangium.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11012296147268.jpg" /></div>
1384917483279 1358629116480 Which type of vasculitis involves Renal Artery a
neurysms?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11355893531035.jpg" /></div><div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}}</div>
1384917654964 1358629116480 Which type of vasculitis involves aneurysm of th
e Coronary Artery?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11656541241523.jpg" /></
div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kawasaki's Disease}}</div>
1384917727063 1358629116480 Which type of Vasculitis is associated with a 'S
trawerry Tongue'?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11798275162470.jpg" /></
div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kawasaki's Disease}}</div>
1384917774215 1358629116480 What type of vasculitis is associated with Rayna
ud's Phenomenon at the digits due to smoking?<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-12240656793823.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Buerger's Disease}}</
div>
1384917908205 1358629116480 {{c1::Buerger's Disease}} is a type of vasculiti
s that involes thromus and <>microascesses</>&nsp;at the digits of the hand
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12923556593882.jpg" /></div>
1384917948794 1358629116480 What type of vasculitis is involves the Temporal
Artery, causing it to dilate and ecome inflamed?<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-13060995547404.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Temporal Giant C
ell Arteritis}}</div>
1384918147976 1358629116480 What type of vasculitis involves granulomas with
very large Giant Cells?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13344463388972.jpg
" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis}}</div>
1384918181057 1358629116480 Primary {{c1::Raynaud's Phenomenon}} is a vascul
ar disorder characterized y paroxysmal pallor or cyanosis of the digits of the
hands and feet due to cold-induced vasospasm of small arteries/arterioles.<div><
<r /><div><i>Co
r /></div><div><img src="paste-14495514624248.jpg" /></div>
lour change progresses from white --&gt; lue --&gt; red</i></div>
1384918395633 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary}} Raynaud's Phenomenon is triggere
d y the cold.

1384918421612 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary}} Raynaud's Phenomenon is second
ary to another disease and involves more severe complications such as necrosis a
nd ulceration.
1384918446121 1358629116480 {{c1::Thromophleitis}} is defined as <>primar
y inflammation</>&nsp;of veins with susequent thromosis.
1384918495367 1358629116480 {{c1::Phleothromosis}} is defined as <>primar
y thromosis</>&nsp;with possile susequent inflammation.
<r /><div><i>Mo
st common example is DVT</i></div>
1384918537066 1358629116480 {{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis}} is a granu
lomatous vasculitis that classically involves the ranches of the carotid artery
.
1384918966519 1358629116480 What age group is most commonly affected y Temp
oral Giant Cell Arteritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 50 y/o}}</div>
1384918990636 1358629116480 Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis involves headaches
due to involvement of the&nsp;{{c1::temporal}} artery.
1384919028582 1358629116480 Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis involves visual di
sturances due to involvement of the&nsp;{{c1::ophthalmic}} artery.
1384919047702 1358629116480 {{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis}} is a type
of vasculitis that involves <>segmental lesions</>, therey requiring iopsy o
f a long segment of the lood vessel.
1384919115237 1358629116480 {{c1::Takayasu's Arteritis}} is a type of vascul
itis that is also called "Pulseless Disease".
1384919163705 1358629116480 {{c1::Takayasu's Arteritis}} is a granulomatous
vasculitis that involves the aortic arch at its ranch points.
1384919413217 1358629116480 What age group is most commonly affected y&nsp
;Takayasu's Arteritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 50 y/o}}</div>
1384919425180 1358629116480 {{c1::Takayasu's Arteritis}} is a type of vascul
itis that involves a weak or asent pulse at the upper extremities.
1384919462173 1358629116480 {{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}} is a medium-vessel
necrotizing vasculitis that affects multiple organs ut <>spares the lungs</>.
1384919519722 1358629116480 {{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}} is a necrotizing va
sculitis that involves a <>string-of-pearls</>&nsp;appearance on imaging.
1384919551452 1358629116480 Polyarteritis Nodosa involves adominal pain and
melena due to involvement of the&nsp;{{c1::mesenteric}} artery.
1384919592337 1358629116480 Which antigen is associated with&nsp;Polyarteri
tis Nodosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg)}}</di
v>
1384919621751 1358629116480 {{c1::Kawasaki's Disease}} is a type of vasculit
is that involves the coronary artery.
1384919687281 1358629116480 What age group is commonly affected y&nsp;Kawa
saki's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asian children &lt; 4 y/o}}</div>
1384919703455 1358629116480 What is the Tx for&nsp;Kawasaki's Disease?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Aspirin}}</div> <r /><div><i>Inhiits the production of
Thromoxane A2, therey inhiiting thromosis.</i></div>
1384919731621 1358629116480 {{c1::Buerger's Disease}} is a necrotizing vascu
litis that involves the digits.
1384919761703 1358629116480 What is the etiology of&nsp;Buerger's Disease?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smoking}}</div>
1384919771044 1358629116480 {{c1::Buerger's Disease}} is a type of vasculiti
s that presents with ulceration, gangrene and autoamputation of the digits.
1384919793251 1358629116480 {{c1::Wegener's Granulomatosis}} is a necrotizin
g, granulomatous vasculitis that classically involves the upper respiratory trac
t, lungs and kidneys.
1384919889290 1358629116480 {{c1::Wegener's Granulomatosis}} is a small-vess
el vasculitis that commonly involves ulceration of the nasopharynx or palate.
1384919919188 1358629116480 What ANCA sutype is involved with&nsp;Wegener'
s Granulomatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cytoplasmic-ANCA (PR3-ANCA)}}</div>
1384919969033 1358629116480 {{c1::Microscopic Polyangiitis}} is a necrotizin
g vasculitis that classically involves the lungs and kidneys only.
<r /><d
iv><i>Presents similar to Wegener's Granulomatosis ut lacks nasopharyngeal invo

lvement and granulomas.</i></div>
1384920052653 1358629116480 What ANCA sutype is associated with&nsp;Micros
copic Polyangiitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::perinuclear-ANCA (MPO-ANCA)}}</di
v>
1384920085966 1358629116480 {{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}} is a necrotizing,
granulomatous vasculitis/inflammation involving <>eosinophils</>&nsp;at many
organs, especially the <>lungs and heart</>.
1384920137998 1358629116480 {{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}} is a type of vasc
ulitis that presents with asthma, peripheral eosinophilia, and vascular/extravas
cular granulomas.
1384920195535 1358629116480 What ANCA sutype is associated with&nsp;ChurgStrauss Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::perinuclear-ANCA (MPO-ANCA)}}</div>
1384920229317 1358629116480 {{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}} is a type of va
sculitis that results from {{c2::IgA}} immune complex deposition at the lood ve
ssel wall.
1384920273679 1358629116480 {{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}} is a type of va
sculitis associated with IgA immune complex deposition and presents with <>palp
ale purpura</>.
<i>Palpale pupura implies leukocytoclastic vasculitis,
a histopathologic term commonly used to denote a small-vessel vasculitis (all th
e small vessel vasculitides can present with palpale pupura).</i>
1384920301974 1358629116480 Henoch-Schonlein Purpura presents with hematuria
due to&nsp;{{c1::IgA}} nephropathy.
1384972933399 1358629116480 Which morphology of Hemangioma is shown elow?<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2765958938823.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Capillary Hemangioma}}</div>
1384976023646 1358629116480 Upon iopsy, the&nsp;{{c1::capillary}} form of
Hemangioma will show closely packed thin-walled capillaries.<div><r /></div><di
v><img src="paste-2843268350247.jpg" /></div>
1384976072454 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::pyogenic granuloma}} is a type of h
emangioma that is inflamed and commonly presents at the gums in pregnant women.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2920577761424.jpg" /></div>
1384976170024 1358629116480 Which morphology of Hemangioma is shown elow?<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3023656976571.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Cavernous Hemangioma}}</div>
1384976305754 1358629116480 {{c1::Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL)}} Syndrome is a pr
ecancerous, autosomal dominant disorder involving cavernous hemangiomas at the c
ereellum and retina (hemangiolastoma).
1384976375575 1358629116480 What malignant cancer is commonly associated wit
h Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal Cell Carcin
oma (increased risk)}}</div>
1384976426349 1358629116480 Which gene is affected in Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL
) Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VHL Tumour Suppressor; via the 'two-hit'
mechanism}}</div>
1384976467753 1358629116480 {{c1::Lymphangioma}} is a lymphatic analog of He
mangioma seen in children.
1384976639048 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Glomus Tumour (Glomangioma)}} is a
enign tumour of the glomus ody located at arteriovenous anastamoses. <r><div
><i>The glomus ody is involved with thermoregulation.</i></div>
1384976711250 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Glomus tumour}} is a enign vascula
r tumour commonly found at the distal digits under the fingernails.<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-4148938408245.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Very painf
ul</i></div>
1384976846675 1358629116480 What is a Vascular Ectasia?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::A <>localized </>dilation of <><u>pre-existing lood vessels</u></>}}
</div> <r /><div><i>Is not a neoplasm</i></div>
1384976905111 1358629116480 {{c1::Telangiectasia}} is a dilation of single,
small lood vessels at the skin or mucosa.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste4565550235950.jpg" /></div>
1384976939522 1358629116480 {{c1::Spider Telangiectasia}} &nsp;is a form of
vascular ectasia defined as a radial array of dilated sucutaneous arteries/art

erioles around a central core.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-459132003968
8.jpg" /></div>
1384977008159 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Spider Telangiectasia?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperestrinism in pregnancy or liver cirrhosis}}</div>
1384993100060 1358629116480 {{c1::Nevus Flammeus}} is a congenital deformity
in capillaries that presents as a irthmark.
1384993153595 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::salmon patch}} form of Nevus Flam
mus is also known as 'stork ite' and 'angel kiss'.
1384993191612 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Salmon patch}} form of Nevus Flam
mus is pink and flat. It is the form that regresses.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-5819680686483.jpg" /></div>
1384993238282 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Port Wine Stain}} form of Nevus F
lammeus does not regress. It is rough, thickens with the skin surface and is a g
olden-rown to ruy colour.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6283537154400.j
pg" /></div>
1384993298369 1358629116480 {{c1::Sturge-Weer}} Syndrome involves the PortWine form of Nevus Flammeus in the trigeminal nerve distriution.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-5905580032411.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>It also in
volves Leptomeningeal angiomas.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-45569603010654.
jpg" /></i></div>
1384993417743 1358629116480 {{c1::Bacillary Angiomatosis}} is a vascular pro
liferation that is associated with&nsp;<i>Bartonella</i>&nsp;infections.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-6416681140454.jpg" /></div>
1384993913664 1358629116480 What stain can e used to identify <i>Bartonella
</i>&nsp;<i>spp</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wartin-Starry (silver) stain}}<
/div>
1384993949053 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemangiopericytoma}} is a neoplastic proli
feration originating from pericytes. It is enign 2/3 and metastatis 1/3 of the
time.
1384994023474 1358629116480 {{c1::Kaposi's Sarcoma}} is a malignant vascular
tumour that consists of cords of pleomorphic <>spindle-shaped</>&nsp;cells t
hat resemle firolasts ut do not produce collagen.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-6536940224761.jpg" /></div>
1384994150655 1358629116480 Which endothelial surface marker is expressed in
Hemangiosarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD31+}}</div>
1384994531953 1358629116480 {{c1::Lymphangiosarcoma}} is a malignant vascula
r tumour that develops following chronic lymphedema.
<r /><div><i>The lymphe
dema can e a result of radical mastectomy that involves removal of lymph nodes.
</i></div>
1384994609654 1358629116480 A Cardiac&nsp;{{c1::Myxoma}} is a enign cardia
c tumour that involves stellate or spindle-shaped cells emedded in a myxoid str
oma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6854767804754.jpg" /></div>
1384994696844 1358629116480 Cardiac&nsp;{{c1::Rhadomyoma}} is a enign car
diac tumour that involves <>spider cells</> on iopsy.<div><img src="paste-700
0796692767.jpg" /></div>
1384995065570 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemangioma}} is a enign tumour comprised
of lood vessels.
1384995817880 1358629116480 {{c1::Capillary Hemangioma}} is the form of hema
ngioma that involves closely packed thin-walled capillaries filled with lood an
d lined with endothelium.
1384995870547 1358629116480 {{c1::Cavernous Hemangioma}} is the form of Hema
ngioma that involves large cavernous channels lined with endothelium and filled
with RBCs.
1384995906155 1358629116480 {{c1::Angiosarcoma}} is a malignant proliferatio
n of endothelial cells. It is very invasive.
1384996186234 1358629116480 What vascular tumour is associated with Thorotra
st exposure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angiosarcoma of the Liver}}</div>
1384996214526 1358629116480 What vascular tumour is associated with Polyviny
l Chloride (PVC)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angiosarcoma of the liver}}</div>
1384996230998 1358629116480 What vascular tumour is associated with Arsenic

exposure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angiosarcoma of the liver}}</div>
1384996248720 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Kaposi's Sarcoma?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::HHV8}}</div>
1384996263123 1358629116480 {{c1::Kaposi's Sarcoma}} is a vascular tumour th
at presents as purple patches, plaques and nodules on the skin.
1384996290089 1358629116480 A cardiac&nsp;{{c1::myxoma}} is a enign mesenc
hymal tumour of the heart that has a gelatinous appearance and aundant ground s
ustance.
1384996320823 1358629116480 A cardiac&nsp;{{c1::myxoma}} is a cardiac tumou
r that presents as a pedunculated mass in the <>left atrium</>, therey causin
g syncope through ostruction of the mitral valve.
1384996363374 1358629116480 Which cardiac chamer is involved with a cardiac
myxoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atrium}}</div>
1384996516967 1358629116480 A cardiac&nsp;{{c1::myxoma}} is a cardiac tumou
r that is associated with adults.
1384996537939 1358629116480 A cardiac&nsp;{{c1::rhadomyoma}} is a enign h
amartoma of cardiac muscle.
1384996556389 1358629116480 A cardiac&nsp;{{c1::rhadomyoma}} is a cardiac
tumour that is more common in children.
1384996576937 1358629116480 Which heart chamer is associated with cardiac r
hadomyoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricles}}</div>
1384996592313 1358629116480 Cancer metastasis typically involves the&nsp;{{
c1::pericardium}}, therey resulting in pericardial effusion.
1397524597276 1395802358422 Which <>direction</>&nsp;of lood shunt is as
sociated with early cyanosis ("lue aies")?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right t
o left shunts}}</div> <r /><div><i>These type of shunts are either diagnosed
prenatally or evident immediately after irth. They require urgent surgical corr
ection or maintenance of a PDA (via Prostaglandin E<su>1</su>/E<su>2</su>).<
/i></div><div><i>The 5 most common R to L congenital heart disease shunts:</i></
div><div><i><img src="paste-1438814044336.jpg" /></i></div>
1397526124398 1395802358422 {{c1::Persistent Truncus Arteriosus}} is a conge
nital heart disease that involves failure of the truncus arteriosus to divide in
to the pulmonary trunk and aorta.
<r /><div><i>Most patients have an acco
mpanying VSD.</i></div>
1397526172248 1395802358422 Which congenital heart disease is associated wit
h a Persistent Truncus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular Septal
Defect (VSD)}}</div>
1397526208430 1395802358422 What kind of shunt is involved in a Persistent T
runcus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L}}</div>
1397573243388 1395802358422 {{c1::Transposition of Great Vessels}} is a cong
enital heart disease that involves the Aorta leaving the RV and Pulmonary Trunk
leading the LV.<div><r /></div><div><i><img src="paste-858993459521.jpg" /></i>
</div> <r /><div><i>Hence the systemic and pulmonary circuits are entirely sep
arate as the SVC/IVC still enter the RA, and Pulmonary Vein still enters the LA.
</i></div><div><i>Not compatile with life unless a shunt is present that allows
for mixing of lood (PDA, VSD, PFO).</i></div><div><i>Surgery is needed to corr
ect this.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div>
1397573693378 1395802358422 {{c1::Transposition of the Great Vessels}} is a
congenital heart disease that results from a failure of the aorticopulmonary sep
tum to spiral as it descends. <r /><div><i><img src="paste-858993459521.jpg"
/></i></div>
1397573829441 1395802358422 {{c1::Prostaglandin E<su>1</su>/E<su>2</su>}
} is a prostaglandin that can e given to patients with Transposition of Great V
essels in order to maintain a Patent Ductus Arteriosus until a surgical shunt/co
rrection can e estalished.
1397573887233 1395802358422 {{c1::Tricuspid Atresia}} is a congenital heart
disease that involves the asence of a tricuspid valve and a hypoplastic RV as a
result.
<r /><div><i><>Both</>&nsp;an ASD and VSD are required for v
iaility.</i></div>
1397574119875 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetralogy of Fallot}} is a congenital hear

t disease that is caused y <>anterosuperior displacement of the infundiular s
eptum</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3886945403158.jpg" /></div>
1397574158615 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of early childhood
cyanosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tetralogy of Fallot}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The pulmonary stenosis forces lood from R to L through the VSD, therey c
ausing stenosis.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div>
1397574181111 1395802358422 Which congenital heart disease is associated wit
h <>"oot-shaped"</>&nsp;heart on chest x-ray?<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-4058744095294.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tetralogy of Fallo
t}}</div></div>
1397574333592 1395802358422 What is the tetrad of cardiac defects seen in Te
tralogy of Fallot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary infundiular stenosis; R
VH; Overriding Aorta; VSD}}</div>
<div><r /></div><img src="paste-3891240
370454.jpg" /><r /><div><i><>PROV</>e:</i></div><div><i><>P</>ulmonary infu
ndiular stenosis</i></div><div><i><>R</>VH</i></div><div><i><>O</>verriding
Aorta</i></div><div><i><>V</>SD</i></div>
1397574616548 1395802358422 How does squatting affect the cyanosis seen in T
etralogy of Fallot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Improves the cyanosis; squatting
= increased Systemic Vascular Resistance (SVR) = decreased R to L shunt}}</div>
1397574959184 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Tetralogy of Fallot?<d
iv><r></div><div>{{c1::Surgical correction}}</div>
1397574976029 1395802358422 {{c1::Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return (T
APVR)}} is a congenital heart disease that involves pulmonary veins that drain i
nto right heart circulation.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, the pulmonary vein usual
ly drains into the LA.</i></div>
1397575048157 1395802358422 Which congenital heart defects are associated wi
th Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return (TAPVR)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A
SD and sometimes PDA; oth would allow for R to L shunting which would maintain
CO}}</div>
1397575101265 1395802358422 Which congenital heart disease involves pulmonar
y veins that drain into the right heart circulation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return (TAPVR)}}</div>
1397575131063 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen in Tetralogy of Fallo
t?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-52097
95330224.jpg" /></div>
1397575187239 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen in Total Anomalous Pu
lmonary Venous Return (TAPVR) through its associated ASD or PDA?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::R to L}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5205500362928.jpg" />
</div>
1397575244513 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen in Transposition of G
reat Vessels, if there is one present?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5205500362928.jpg" /></div>
1397575273990 1395802358422 Which type of shunt is seen in a Persistent Trun
cus Arteriosus through the associated VSD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5205500362928.jpg" /></div>
1397575297586 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen in Tricuspid Atresia
through the associated ASD and VSD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5205500362928.jpg" /></div>
1397575328743 1395802358422 What type of cardiac shunt causes <>early cyano
sis </>("lue aies")?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L}}</div>
1397575606308 1395802358422 What type of cardiac shunt causes <>late cyanos
is </>("lue kids")?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R}}</div>
1397575643277 1395802358422 What is the most common L to R congenital heart
shunt?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VSD}}</div>
1397575663378 1395802358422 What is the most common congenital cardiac defec
t?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Asymptomatic at irth. Many stay asymptomatic throughout life.</i></div><d
iv><i>Larger defects can cause LV overload and eventual heart failure.</i></div>
1397575813243 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen in Ventricular Septal
Defects (VSD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R}}</div>

1397575837110 1395802358422 {{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)}} is a con
genital heart disease that involves a defect in the interventricular septum.
1397575884569 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Septal Defect (ASD)}} is a congenit
al heart disease that involves a defect in the interatrial septum.
1397575954577 1395802358422 Which congenital heart disease is associated wit
h a <>loud S1</> heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial Septal Defect}
}</div>
1397575978939 1395802358422 Which congenital heart disease is associated wit
h a <>wide, fixed split S2</>&nsp;heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atr
ial Septal Defect}}</div>
1397576134725 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Septal Defect}} is a congenital hea
rt disease that usually occurs in septum secundum.
<r /><div><i>Septum pri
mum defects usually occur with other anomalies.</i></div>
1397576194842 1395802358422 What is the structural difference etween an Atr
ial Septal Defect and a Patent Foramen Ovale?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The sep
tal defect in ASD is due to <>missing tissue</>; PFO simply has <>unfused</>
&nsp;septa}}</div>
1397576259646 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen through a Ductus Arte
riosus <>in a fetus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L (normal)}}</div>
1397577513048 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen in a <>Patent</>&n
sp;Ductus Arteriosus in <>neonatal</>&nsp;life?<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-8207682502881.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R; due to th
e decrease in lung resistance}}</div></div>
1397577553690 1395802358422 Which cardiac ventricle is commonly hypertrophie
d in a Patent Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8203387535
585.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Ventricle (LVH may also e se
en)}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, this is a L to R shunt.</i></div
>
1397577611015 1395802358422 Which congenital heart defect is associated with
a <>continuous, "machine-like"</>&nsp;murmur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pat
ent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8203387535585
.jpg" /></div>
1397577736950 1395802358422 What type of murmur is associated with Patent Du
ctus Arteriosus (PDA)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8203387535585.jpg" /
></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Continuous, "machine-like" murmur}}</div>
1397577763704 1395802358422 Which Prostaglandin can e used to maintain pate
ncy of a Patent Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prostaglandin E<su
>1</su>/E<su>2</su>}}</div> <r /><div><i>Lol, this is like the 5th card cov
ering this fact, FA really likes mentioning this.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></d
iv><div><i>It is important though. Rememer, PGE can e life-saving in a ay th
at has Transposition of the Great Vessels as a shunt is needed to sustain life.<
/i></div>
1397577823126 1395802358422 How does <>low O<su>2</su>&nsp;tension</>&n
sp;influence a Patent Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Maintains p
atency}}</div> <r /><div><i>High O<su>2</su>&nsp;tension does the opposite
and closes the Ductus Arteriosus and is in fact one of the driving factors that
achieves closure.</i></div>
1397577938833 1395802358422 Which NSAID is used to facilitate closure of a P
atent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-820338753558
5.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indomethacin}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
memer, NSAIDs decrease Prostaglandin synthesis (PGE keeps the PDA open)</i></di
v>
1397578011030 1395802358422 {{c1::Eisenmenger Syndrome}} is a congenital car
diac syndrome that results from <>uncorrected L to R cardiac shunts</>.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-9285719294212.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Th
e concept here is that the uncorrected L to R shunt eventually causes an increas
e in pulmonary lood flow that drives a pathological remodeling of pulmonary vas
culature. Eventually, pulmonary hypertension sets in and RVH occurs to compensat
e. As a result of all this, the shunt changes direction to R to L, therey causi
ng late cyanosis, cluing and polycythemia.</i></div>

1397578278361 1395802358422 What type of congenital cardiac shunt gives rise
to Eisenmenger Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9281424326916.jpg
" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R}}</div></div>
<div><r /></div
><i>Did the picture trick you, rah?</i><r /><div><i>Rememer, Eisenmenger Phen
omonen involves the <>shift of a L to R shunt to a R to L shunt</> as a result
of increased pulmonary lood flow --&gt; remodelling of pulmonary vasculature -&gt; pulmonary HTN --&gt; RVH. This then causes late cyanosis, cluing and pol
ycythemia.</i></div>
1397578690313 1395802358422 Which cardiac valve defect is associated with Co
arctation of the Aorta?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bicuspid Aortic Valve}}</div>
1397578740540 1395802358422 Which type of Coarctation of the Aorta involves
aortic narrowing <>proximal to the insertion of the Ductus Ateriosus</>&nsp;(
i.e. Preductal)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12244951761112.jpg" /><r
/><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infantile type}}</div></div>
1397579085727 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with th
e <>Infantile type</>&nsp;of Coarctation of the Aorta?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Turner Syndrome (XO)}}</div>
1397579137696 1395802358422 Which type of Coarctation of the Aorta involves
aortic narrowing <>distal to the ligamentum arteriosum</>&nsp;(i.e. Postducta
l)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12240656793816.jpg" /><r /><div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Adult type}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Ligamentum arterio
sum = remnant of the DA</i></div>
1397579185437 1395802358422 Which type of Coarctation of the Aorta is associ
ated with <>notching of the ris</>, <>HTN in the upper extremities</>&nsp;
and a <>radiofemoral pulse delay</>&nsp;(delayed pulse in the lower extremiti
es)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adult type}}</div>
1397579259287 1395802358422 {{c1::Adult type Coarctation of the Aorta}} is a
type of Coarctation of the aorta that involves <>notching of the ris</>&nsp
;due to the collateral circulation that occurs.
1397579292148 1395802358422 {{c1::Adult type Coarctation of the Aorta}} is a
type of Coarctation of the Aorta that involves <>HTN in the upper extremities<
/>&nsp;due to the coarctation eing <>distal</>&nsp;to the ligamentum arter
iosum.
1397579355109 1395802358422 {{c1::Adult type Coarctation of the Aorta}} is a
type of Coarctation of the Aorta that involves a <>weak, delayed pulse in the
lower extremities</>&nsp;(a radiofemoral delay) due to the coarctation eing <
>distal</>&nsp;to the ligamentum arteriosum.
1397579597332 1395802358422 {{c1::Truncus Ateriosus}} and&nsp;{{c2::Tetralo
gy of Fallot}} are congenital heart diseases that are associated with 22q11 synd
romes.
1397584559560 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with At
rial Septal Defects (ASD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1397584587383 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with Ve
ntricular Septal Defects (VSD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Down syndrome}}</div>
1397584600165 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with AV
septal defects (endocardial cushion defect)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Down Sy
ndrome}}</div>
1397584616034 1395802358422 Which congenital infection is associated with ca
rdiac septal defects?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital Ruella}}</div>
1397584638126 1395802358422 Which congenital infection is associated with Pa
tent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital Ruella}}</d
iv>
1397584655750 1395802358422 Which congenital infection is associated with Pu
lmonary Artery Stenosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital Ruella}}</div>
1397584666477 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with a
Bicuspid Aortic Valve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome}}</div>
1397584803725 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with <
>Preductal</>&nsp;(Infantile)&nsp;Coarctation of the Aorta?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome}}</div>
1397584835768 1395802358422 Which connective tissue disorder is associated w

ith Mitral Valve Prolapse?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marfan Syndrome}}</div>
1397584860633 1395802358422 Which connective tissue disorder is associated w
ith Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marfan Syndrome}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20542828577074.jpg" /></div>
1397584881408 1395802358422 Which connective tissue disorder is associated w
ith Aortic Dissection?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20542828577074.jpg"
/><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marfan Syndrome}}</div></div>
1397584890058 1395802358422 Which connective tissue disorder is associated w
ith Aortic Regurgitation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marfan Syndrome}}</div>
1397584899058 1395802358422 Which gestational disorder is associated with Tr
ansposition of the Great Vessels?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Maternal Diaetes}}</
div>
1397584923010 1395802358422 What systolic lood pressure is diagnostic of Hy
pertension?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::≥ 140 mmHg}}</div>
1397585844525 1395802358422 What diastolic lood pressure is diagnostic of H
ypertension?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::≥ 90 mmHg}}</div>
1397585863645 1395802358422 What lood pressure is diagnostic of Hypertensio
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::≥ 140/90 mmHg}}</div>
1397585888562 1395802358422 Which race is more commonly affected y Hyperten
sion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blacks &gt; whites &gt; asians}}</div>
1397586933195 1395802358422 {{c1::Primary (Essential) Hypertension}} is a cl
ass of Hypertension that is the most common (90%) and is related to an increase
in CO or TPR.
1397587015464 1395802358422 {{c1::Firomuscular Dysplasia}} is a cause of <
>Hypertension in young patients</> that often involves a <>"string of eads" <
/>appearance of the renal artery.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13932873
908524.jpg" /></div>
1397587230775 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondary Hypertension}} is a type of Hype
rtension that is less common (10%) and is often secondary to renal disease.
<r /><div><i>Renal Artery Stenosis is the most common cause.</i></div>
1397587271806 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertensive Emergency}} is a hypertensive
disorer that involves severe hypertension of <>≥ 180/120 mmHg</>&nsp;with evid
ence of acute, ongoing target organ damage.
<r /><div><i>Papilledema and Me
ntal Status Changes are the most common.</i></div>
1397587345416 1395802358422 {{c1::Renal Failure}} is a complication of Hyper
tension that typically involves <>renal arterial hyalinosis</>&nsp;on a PAS s
tain.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14886356648239.jpg" /></div>
1397587412475 1395802358422 {{c1::Xanthomas}} are a feature of hyperlipidemi
a and are descried as plaques or nodules composed of lipid-laden histiocytes in
the skin.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15105399980336.jpg" /></div>
1397589155500 1395802358422 {{c1::Xanthelasma}} are Xanthomas that are found
at the eyelids.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15169824489766.jpg" /></di
v>
1397589176414 1395802358422 {{c1::Tendinous Xanthoma}} is a type of xanthoma
that involves lipid deposition at tendons, especially the Achilles tendon.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-15238543966524.jpg" /></div>
1397589214040 1395802358422 {{c1::Corneal Arcus}} is a sign of hyperlipidemi
a that involves lipid deposition at the cornea and is common in the elderly.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15380277887274.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Ap
pears early in life with hypercholesterolemia.</i></div><div><i>aka Conreal Arcu
s Senilis</i></div>
1397589324381 1395802358422 Which type of Arteriosclerosis involves calcific
ation of the media of the arteries?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Monckeerg (Media
l Calcific Sclerosis)}}</div>
1397589415981 1395802358422 {{c1::Monckeerg (Medial Calcific Sclerosis)}} i
s an <u>uncommon</u>&nsp;type of Arteriosclerosis that involves calcification o
f the media of arteries, especially the radial or ulnar arteries.
1397589597123 1395802358422 Which arteries are commonly affected with Moncke
erg Medial Calcific Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Radial and Ulnar Arte
ries}}</div>

1397589637331 1395802358422 Which type of Arteriosclerosis yields a <>"pipe
stem"</>&nsp;appearance on x-ray?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1650555
9318843.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Monckeerg (Medial Calcific Scl
erosis)}}</div>
1397589693315 1395802358422 {{c1::Monckeerg (Medial Calcific Sclerosis)}} i
s a <>enign</>&nsp;form of Arteriosclerosis that involves <>"pipestem"</>&
nsp;arteries on x-ray.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16505559318843.jpg"
/></div>
1397589782561 1395802358422 What is the most common type of Arteriosclerosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arterio<u style="font-weight: old; ">lo</u>scleros
is}}</div>
1397589800320 1395802358422 Which type of Arteriosclerosis is usually enign
and does not ostruct lood flow as the intima is not involved?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Monckeerg (Medial Calcific Sclerosis)}}</div>
1397589835212 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis}} is a type of
Arteriolosclerosis that involves the <>thickening of small arteries</>&nsp;in
essential HTN or diaetes mellitus.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-172915
38334014.jpg" /></div>
1397589949841 1395802358422 Which type of Arteriolosclerosis is seen in esse
ntial hypertension or diaetes mellitus?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17
287243366718.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyaline arteriolosclerosis
}}</div>
1397589979798 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperplastic Arteriolosclerosis}} is a typ
e of Arteriolosclerosis that involves an <>"onion skinning"</>&nsp;appearance
and is seen in severe HTN.<div><r /><div><img src="paste-17437567222068.jpg" /
></div></div>
1397590054732 1395802358422 Which type of Arteriolosclerosis is seen in <>s
evere</>&nsp;hypertension?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17433272254772
.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperplastic Arteriolosclerosis}}</div
>
1397590080324 1395802358422 Which type of Arteriolosclerosis involves an <>
"onion skinning</>" appearance?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1743327225
4772.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperplastic Arteriolosclerosis}}<
/div>
1397590121128 1395802358422 Which lood vessel layer is thickened in Arterio
losclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Media}}</div>
1397590602964 1395802358422 Which lood vessel layer is thickened in Atheros
clerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intima}}</div>
1397590613307 1395802358422 Which <>type</>&nsp;of arteries are affected
y Atherosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elastic; Large/Medium Muscular}}<
/div>
1397591098899 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Atheroscl
erosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Men}}</div>
1397591120404 1395802358422 Which demographic of women is more commonly affe
cted y Atherosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopausal}}</div>
1397591134386 1395802358422 {{c1::Foam Cells}} are a form of Macrophage comm
only seen in atherosclerosis that have taken up and accumlated LDL molecules.
1397591722039 1395802358422 {{c1::PDGF}} and&nsp;{{c2::FGF}} are 2 growth f
actors involved with the smooth muscle cell migration that occurs in the pathoge
nesis of atherosclerosis.
1397591757336 1395802358422 What makes up the crystals commonly seen in Athe
rosclerotic plaque?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19271518257455.jpg" /><
/div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cholesterol}}</div>
1397591820352 1395802358422 What is the most common location for atheroscler
osis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Adominal aorta</>&nsp;&gt; coronary arter
y &gt; popliteal artery &gt; carotid artery}}</div>
1397591870539 1395802358422 Which receptor does oxidized LDL ind to when it
is taken up into Macrophages in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::SR-A (Scavenger Receptor A)}}</div>
1397591998402 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic Aneurysm}} is a vascular disorder d

efined as a localized pathological dilation of the aorta.
<r /><div><i>Pa
in is a sign of leaking, dissection or imminent rupture.</i></div>
1397592212619 1395802358422 What type of Aortic Aneurysm is associated with
atherosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adominal Aortic Aneurysm}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-19872813678900.jpg" /></div>
1397592263166 1395802358422 {{c1::Adominal Aortic Aneurysm}} is a type of a
ortic aneurysm that is associated with atherosclerosis.<div><r /></div><div><im
g src="paste-19868518711604.jpg" /></div>
1397592287626 1395802358422 {{c1::Adominal Aortic Aneurysm}} is a type of a
ortic aneurysm that occur more frequently in <u>hypertensive male smokers &gt; 5
0 y/o</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19868518711604.jpg" /></div>
1397592323471 1395802358422 What type of Aortic Aneurysm is associated with
Cystic Medial Degeneration due to HTN?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thoracic Aorti
c Aneurysm}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20542828577074.jpg" /></div>
1397592988363 1395802358422 What type of aortic aneurysm is associated with
Marfan's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20542828577074.jpg" /></div>
1397593009394 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Thoracic Aortic
Aneurysm in <>older patients</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2054282
8577074.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cystic Medial Degeneration due
to HTN}}</div></div>
1397593050225 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Thoracic Aortic
Aneurysm in <>younger patients</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20542
828577074.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marfan Syndrome}}</div></div>
1397593069585 1395802358422 What type of aortic aneurysm is associated with
3^o&nsp;Syphilis (oliterative endarteritis of the vasa vasorum)?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm (Luetic Aneurysm)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20542828577074.jpg" /></div>
1397593121030 1395802358422 {{c1::Luetic Aneurysm}} is a type of Thoracic Ao
rtic Aneurysm that occurs due to 3^o&nsp;syphilis and the associated
oliterative endarteritis of the vasa vasorum. <r /><div><img src="paste-20547
123544370.jpg" /></div>
1397593317004 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic Dissection}} is a vascular disorder
of the aorta that involves a longitudinal intraluminal tear that forms a false
lumen.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21367462297903.jpg" /></div>
1397593512090 1395802358422 Which systemic vascular disorder is associated w
ith Aortic Dissection?<div><r /><img src="paste-21363167330607.jpg" /></div><di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertension}}</div>
1397593539573 1395802358422 Which cardiac valve disorder is associated with
Aortic Dissection?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21363167330607.jpg" /><d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bicuspid Aortic Valve}}</div></div>
1397593623806 1395802358422 Which inherited connective tissue disorder is mo
st commonly associated with Aortic Dissection?<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-21363167330607.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marfan Syndrome}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Despite my 6'6" frame, 6'11" wing span, flat feet and long
legs. I indeed do <>not</>&nsp;have Marfan Syndrome.</i></div>
1397593701692 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic Dissection}} is an acute vascular d
isorder of the aorta that presents with sudden&nsp;<>tearing chest pain that r
adiates to the ack</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21363167330607.jpg
" /></div>
<r /><div><i>There may or may not e unequal BP in the upper li
ms.</i></div><div><i>Chest x-ray will show mediastinal widening.</i></div>
1397593812686 1395802358422 {{c1::Angina}} is a cardiac pathology that is de
scried as chest pain due to ischemic myocardium secondary to coronary artery na
rrowing or spasm.
1397594199459 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Stale Angina?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atherosclerosis}}</div>
1397594407480 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift in Stale Angina?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST segment depression}}</div>
1397594469497 1395802358422 What is the cause of Variant (Prinzmetal) Angina
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coronary Artery Spasm}}</div>

1397594589444 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift in Variant (Prinzm
etal) Angina?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transient ST elevation}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Due to <>transmural</>&nsp;ischemia</i></div>
1397594610451 1395802358422 {{c1::Unstale/Crescendo Angina}} is a type of a
ngina that occurs at rest.
1397594676720 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Unstale/Cresce
ndo Angina?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thromosis that causes <>incomplete</>&
nsp;coronary artery occlusion}}</div> <r /><div><i>Complete occlusion would c
ause an MI.</i></div>
1397594716154 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift in Unstale/Cresce
ndo Angina?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST segment depression}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to suendocardial ischemia</i></div>
1397594762777 1395802358422 Which type of angina involves ST segment <>elev
ation</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Variant (Prinzmetal) Angina}}</div>
1397594783797 1395802358422 {{c1::Coronary Steal Syndrome}} is a cardiac pat
hology that involves decreased flow and ischemia in post-stenotic regions of cor
onary vasculature.
<r /><div><i>This is ecause <>lood vessels are maxim
ally dilated distal to coronary stenosis at aseline</>. Hence when vasodilator
s are administrated, <>these post-stenotic vessels do not dilate</>&nsp;and i
nstead, <u>lood is shunted into already well-perfused areas as those vessels ar
e ale to dilate</u>.</i></div>
1397596552317 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift in <>transmural</
> Myocardial Infarction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST elevation}}</div>
1397596739200 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift in <>suendocardi
al</>&nsp;Myocardial Infarction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST depression}}</d
iv>
1397596758495 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Myocardial Infa
rction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute thromosis due to coronary artery ather
osclerosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Typically involves complete coronary arter
y occlusion and myocyte necrosis.</i></div>
1397596828438 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Sudden Cardiac
Death?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lethal arrhythmia (esp. ventricular firillati
on)}}</div>
1397597031574 1395802358422 {{c1::Sudden Cardiac Death}} is a cause of death
that arises within 1 hour of cardiac symptoms.
1397597069665 1395802358422 What percentage of the coronary artery lumen mus
t e stenotic in order for ischemic heart symptoms to e present?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::&gt; 70%}}</div>
1397597219614 1395802358422 {{c1::Long QT Syndrome}} is a hereditary ion cha
nnelopathy that is associated with Sudden Cardiac Death.
1397597247691 1395802358422 Which hereditary ion channelopathy is associated
with Sudden Cardiac Death?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Long QT Syndrome}}</div>
1397597268417 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Ischemic Heart Disease}} is an isc
hemic heart disease that involves the progressive onset of Congestive Heart Fail
ure <u>over many years</u>&nsp;due to chronic ischemic myocardial damage.
1397597332013 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is most commonly occluded
in Myocardial Infarction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>LAD</>&nsp;&gt; RCA &g
t; LCX}}</div>
1397597601648 1395802358422 What gross morphological changes are seen at the
heart&nsp;0-4 hrs post MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div>
1397597789453 1395802358422 What gross morphological changes are seen at the
heart 4-12 hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dark mottling; infarcted tis
sue}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-25421911425360.jpg" /></div>
1397597837417 1395802358422 What gross morphological changes are seen at the
heart&nsp;12-24 hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dark mottling; infarct
ed tissue}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-25507810771225.jpg" /></div>
1397597866498 1395802358422 What gross morphological changes are seen at the
heart 1-3 days post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperemia}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-25619479920901.jpg" /></div>
1397597930197 1395802358422 What gross morphological changes are seen at the

heart&nsp;3-14 days post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperemic order; cent
ral yellow-rown pallor and softening}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-26104
811225342.jpg" /></div>
1397597983886 1395802358422 What gross morphological changes are seen at the
heart 2 weeks to several months post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gray-white
scar; recanalized artery}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2626372501529
4.jpg" /></div>
1397598012995 1395802358422 What microscopic changes are seen at the heart 0
-4 hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div>
1397598038398 1395802358422 What microscopic changes are seen at the heart 4
-12 hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Early coagulative necrosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Involves the realse of necrostic cell contents into lood, edema,
hemorrhaging and wavy fiers.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-27599459844281.jp
g" /></i></div>
1397598120488 1395802358422 What microscopic changes are seen at the heart 1
2-24 hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coagulative necrosis; early neutrop
hil migration}}</div>
1397598155271 1395802358422 {{c1::Contraction Bands}} are a microscopic chan
ge that can manifest 12-24 hrs post-MI due to reperfusion injury and free radica
l damage.
1397598190274 1395802358422 What microscopic changes are seen at the heart 1
-3 days post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Extensive coagulative necrosis; acut
e inflammation with <>neutrophils</>}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-27672
474288309.jpg" /></div>
1397598712694 1395802358422 What microscopic changes are seen at the heart 3
-14 days post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Macrophages</>; granulation tis
sue at margins}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-27517855465654.jpg" /></div>
1397598748511 1395802358422 What microscopic changes are seen at the heart 2
weeks to several months post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firosis; scar form
ation}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-28144920690872.jpg" /></div>
1397598886824 1395802358422 What cardiac complications are commonly seen <>
0-24</> hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arrhythmia; Heart Failure; Card
iogenic Shock; Death}}</div>
1397598961503 1395802358422 What is the <>most common</>&nsp;cardiac comp
lication seen 0-24 hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arrhythmia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The cardiac conduction tissue is not only damaged quickly followin
g an MI, ut it is very vulnerale during this first 24 hour period.</i></div>
1397599101692 1395802358422 What cardiac complications are commonly seen 1-3
days post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firinous Pericarditis}}</div>
1397599134778 1395802358422 {{c1::Firinous Pericarditis}} is a cardiac comp
lication seen 1-3 days post-MI and involves chest pain with a <>friction ru</
>.
1397599164874 1395802358422 {{c1::Cardiac Tamponade}} is a cardiac complicat
ion seen 3-14 days post-MI and occurs due to <>rupture of the ventricular free
wall</>.
1397599214946 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral Regurgitation/Insufficiency}} is a
cardiac complication seen 3-14 days post-MI that occurs due to <>papillary musc
le rupture</>.
1397599251275 1395802358422 {{c1::Interventricular Septal Rupture}} is a car
diac complication that is seen 3-14 days post-MI and occurs due to macrophage-me
diated structural degradation and results in a L to R shunt.
<r /><div><i>A
VSD is formed, ut that would have given away the answer too easily.</i></div>
1397599331468 1395802358422 {{c1::Left Ventricular Pseudoaneurysm}} is a car
diac complication that is seen 3-14 days post-MI and involves a <>mural thromu
s</>&nsp;that plugs a hole in the myocardium, acting as a time om. <r /><d
iv><i>Peak risk is ~1 week post MI</i></div>
1397599441618 1395802358422 {{c1::Dressler Syndrome}} is a cardiac complicat
ion seen 2 weeks to several months post-MI and is descried as an autoimmune per
icarditis due to myocardial antigen exposure and susequent antiody formation.
<r /><div><i>Makes sense how this occurs a few weeks later, as the exposure and

antiody formation take some time.</i></div>
1397599533420 1395802358422 {{c1::True Ventricular Aneurysm}}&nsp;is a card
iac complication seen 2 weeks to several months post-MI and involves outward ul
ging of the ventricles during contraction.
1397599557956 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will an a
rrhythmia occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::0-24 hrs}}</div>
1397600089021 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will Fir
inous Pericarditis occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1-3 days}}</div>
1397600102832 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will Card
iac Tamponade (via ventricular free wall rupture) occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::3-14 days}}</div>
1397600122427 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will Mitr
al Regurgitation present?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-14 days}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Only if there is papillary muscle rupture, which is typically seen with an
RCA infarct.</i></div>
1397600152184 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will Inte
rventricular Septal Rupture (with VSD) occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-14 da
ys}}</div>
1397600167485 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will Dres
sler Syndrome manifest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2 weeks to several months}}</
div>
1397600185069 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will True
Ventricular Aneurysm present?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2 weeks to several mon
ths}}</div>
1397600206462 1395802358422 What is the gold standard for diagnosing Myocard
ial Infarction <>in the first 6 hours</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ECG}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30799210479849.jpg" /></div>
1397605888530 1395802358422 Which cardiac enzyme is more specific for diagno
sing Myocardial Infarction than other protein markers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Troponin I}}</div>
1397605934001 1395802358422 What are the 2 cardiac enzymes measured to diagn
ose a Myocardial Infarction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Troponin I; CK-MB}}</div
>
1397605964472 1395802358422 {{c1::Troponin I}} is a cardiac enzyme that <>r
ises 4 hours</>&nsp;after Myocardial Infarction and <>remains elevated for 710 days</>.
1397606013226 1395802358422 {{c1::CK-MB}} is a cardiac enzyme that is elevat
ed in Myocardial Infarction as it is predominantly found in myocardium, <u>ut c
an also e released from skeletal muscle</u>.
1397606066321 1395802358422 Which cardiac enzyme is a useful marker to diagn
ose <>reinfarction following acute MI</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CK-MB}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>This is ecause CK-MB levels return to normal 48 hours pos
t-MI</i></div>
1397606087103 1395802358422 Which cardiac enzyme <>returns to normal levels
48 hours</>&nsp;post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CK-MB}}</div>
1397606105842 1395802358422 Which cardiac enzyme <>rises 4 hours</>&nsp;p
ost-MI and <>remains elevated for 7-10 days</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tro
ponin I}}</div>
1397606475287 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift on an ECG in a STE
MI or Acute Transmural Cardiac Infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST elevation}
}</div>
1397606515510 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift on an ECG in a Su
endocardial Infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST depression}}</div>
1397606530154 1395802358422 {{c1::Pathological Q waves}} are a pathological
ECG wave that manifests following an <>evolving</>&nsp;or <>old transmural i
nfarct</>.
<div><r /></div><div><i>Q waves are key! They help differentiat
e an MI from angina. They will e a Q wave that is &gt; 1/3 of the amplitude of
the associated R-wave:</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-33135672689239.jpg" /></
i></div>
1397606570252 1395802358422 {{c1::Suendocardial Infarct}} is a type of card

iac infarct that involves ischemic necrosis of <>&lt; 50% of the ventricle wall
</>.
1397606677607 1395802358422 Which type of cardiac infarct involves <>ST ele
vation</>&nsp;and <>pathological Q waves</>&nsp;on an ECG?<div><div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Transmural infarct}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Pathologic
al Q wave:</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-33135672689239.jpg" /></i></div>
1397606720126 1395802358422 Which type of cardiac infarct involves <>ST dep
ression</>&nsp;on an ECG?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suendocardial infarct}}<
/div>
1397606735499 1395802358422 Which type of cardiac infarct affects the entire
wall?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transmural infarct}}</div>
1397606750873 1395802358422 Which type of cardiac infarct affects <>&lt; 50
% of the ventricle wall</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suendocardial infarct}}
</div> <r /><div><i>The suendocardium is especially vulnerale to infarct.</i
></div>
1397606998118 1395802358422 Where is the location of the Myocardial Infarct
if there are pathological Q-waves in ECG leads V1-V4 (Anterior Precordial Leads)
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior wall infarct (of the LAD)}}</div>
1397607072903 1395802358422 Where is the location of the Myocardial Infarct
if there are pathological Q-waves in ECG leads V1-V2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Anteroseptal (LAD)}}</div>
1397607108602 1395802358422 Where is the location of the Myocardial Infarct
if there are pathological Q-waves in ECG leads V4-V6 (Left Leads)?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Anterolateral Wall (LAD or LCX)}}</div>
1397607314674 1395802358422 Where is the location of the Myocardial Infarct
if there are pathological Q-waves in ECG leads I and aVL (Left Leads)?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Wall (LCX)}}</div>
1397607340029 1395802358422 Where is the location of the Myocardial Infarct
if there are pathological Q-waves in ECG leads II, III and aVF (Inferior Leads)?
<div><r />{{c1::Inferior Wall (RCA)}}</div>
1397607373237 1395802358422 Where is the location of the Myocardial Infarct
if there are <><u>reciprocal</u></> pathological Q-waves in ECG leads V1-V4 &n
sp;(Anterior Precordial Leads)?<div><r />{{c1::Posterior wall infarct (RCA)}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>The Q waves will e <u style="font-weight: old; ">recipro
cal</u>&nsp;if the posterior side of the heart is infarcted.</i></div>
1397607439942 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is commonly occluded in an
Anterior Wall infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LAD}}&nsp;</div>
1397607471480 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is commonly occluded in&n
sp;an Anteroseptal Infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LAD}}</div>
1397607479129 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is commonly occluded in an
Anterolateral Infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LCX}}</div>
1397607498134 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is commonly occluded in&n
sp;a Lateral Wall infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LCX}}</div>
1397607505650 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is commonly occluded in&n
sp;an Inferior Wall infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RCA}}</div>
1397607521341 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is commonly occluded in&n
sp;a Posterior Wall infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RCA}}</div>
1397607531503 1395802358422 Which ECG leads will show pathological Q-waves i
n an anterior wall (LAD) infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V1-V4 (Anterior pre
cordial leads)}}</div>
1397607615019 1395802358422 Which ECG leads will show pathological Q-waves i
n an Anteroseptal (LAD) infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V1-V2}}</div>
1397607637153 1395802358422 Which ECG leads will show pathological Q-waves i
n an Anterolateral (LCX) infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V4-V6 (left leads)}
}</div>
1397607651608 1395802358422 Which ECG leads will show pathological Q-waves i
n a Lateral Wall (LCX) infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I, aVL; (left leads)}
}</div>
1397607696246 1395802358422 Which ECG leads will show pathological Q-waves i
n an inferior wall (RCA) infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::II, III, aVF; (infe

rior leads)}}</div>
1397607734483 1395802358422 Which ECG leads will show <><u>reciprocal</u></
>&nsp;pathological Q-waves in a posterior wall (RCA) infarct?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::V1-V4 (anterior precordial leads)}}</div>
1397607962559 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction is there
the <>greatest risk</>&nsp;for Ventricular Pseudoaneurysm formation?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Approximately 1 week}}</div>
1397608021491 1395802358422 What is the most common cardiomyopathy?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Dilated cardiomyopathy (90% of cases)}}</div>
1397609670289 1395802358422 Which drug(s) of ause can cause Dilate Cardiomy
opathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic alcohol and cocaine use}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-37361920508111.jpg" /></div>
1397609699931 1395802358422 Which vitamin deficiency can cause Dilated Cardi
omyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Wet</>&nsp;Berieri&nsp;(Vitamin B1
[Thiamine])}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>Wet </>erieri = <>edema</>&nsp;=
heart prolems</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-37357625540815.jpg" /></i></div>
1397609871658 1395802358422 What viral myocarditis can cause Dilated Cardiom
yopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coxsackie B virus myocarditis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-37357625540815.jpg" /></div>
1397610151670 1395802358422 What antineoplastic drug can cause Dilated Cardi
omyopathy as an adverse effect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Doxoruicin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-37357625540815.jpg" /></div>
1397610182755 1395802358422 What protozoan infection is commonly associated
with Dilated Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chagas Disease (caused 
y <i>Trypanosoma cruzi</i>)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3735762554081
5.jpg" /></div>
1397610302334 1395802358422 Which cardiomyopathy is associated with an <>S3
</>&nsp;heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dilated cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1397610514995 1395802358422 Which cardiomyopathy is associated with a <>al
loon appearance</>&nsp;of the heart on chest x-ray?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Dilated cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1397610545999 1395802358422 What <>type</>&nsp;of cardiac hypertrophy is
seen in Dilated Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Eccentric hypertrophy
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Eccentric hypertrophy = increased volume = no chan
ge in vesicle thickness</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>I rememer that
y thinking aout this one really eccentric kid I knew in undergrad when i live
d on residence. Dude was mad skinny (<>no change in ventricle thickness</>) u
t was crazy smart (<>had a ig head i.e. volume</>). Stupid, ut I will never
forget this now. Concentric is just the opposite.</i></div>
1397611624300 1395802358422 {{c1::Eccentric Hypertrophy}} is a <>type</>&n
sp;of cardiac hypertrophy that involves the addition of sarcomeres in <>series
</>.
1397611796966 1395802358422 How does ventricular volume change in <>Eccentr
ic</>&nsp;Hypertrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397611815720 1395802358422 How does ventricular thickness change in <>Ecce
ntric </>Hypertrophy?<div><r />{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397611834088 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Hypertrophic Ca
rdiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant mutations in β-myosin
heavy chains (60-70% of cases)}}</div>
1397612011940 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of <>familial <
/>Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}<
/div>
1397612034081 1395802358422 Which gene is mutated in <>familial</>&nsp;Hy
pertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::β-myosin heavy chain}}</div>
1397612153820 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}} is
an <>autosomal dominant</>&nsp;cardiomyopathy that involves mutations in the&
nsp;<>β-myosin heavy-chain gene</>.
1397612198636 1395802358422 What neurological disorder is associated with Hy
pertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r />{{c1::Friedreich Ataxia}}</div>
1397612286302 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}} is a cardiom

yopathy that is often the cause of sudden cardiac death in young athletes due to
ventricular arrhythmia.
1397612330175 1395802358422 Which cardiomyopathy is associated with an <>S4
</>&nsp;heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Same concept as in HTN, LVH, etc</i></div>
1397612346525 1395802358422 Which cardiomyopathy is associated with a systol
ic murmur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Same exact idea as in LVH</i></div>
1397612392728 1395802358422 What pathological heart sound is associated with
Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to decreased ventricular compliance (as a result of ventricular hypert
rophy)</i></div>
1397612483921 1395802358422 What pathological heart sound is associated with
Dilated Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S3}}</div> <r /><div><i>Du
e to dilated ventricles and increased ventricular filling</i></div>
1397612536188 1395802358422 What <>type</>&nsp;of heart murmur is heard i
n Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Systolic Murmur}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>Due to the ventricular hypertrophy that can ostruct the o
utflow tract</i></div>
1397612564773 1395802358422 {{c1::Verapamil}} and {{c2::Diltiazem}} are nondihydropyridine calcium channel locker that can e used to treat Hypertrophic C
ardiomyopathy. <r /><div><i>The dihydropyridine Ca channel lockers are Nifedi
pine and Nicardipine.</i></div>
1397612941514 1395802358422 Which <>phase</>&nsp;of the cardiac cycle ec
omes dysfunctional in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Di
astole}}</div>
1397612987272 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}} is a <u>majo
r</u> type of cardiomyopathy that involves <>diastolic</>&nsp;dysfunction.
<r /><div><i>Restrictive/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy causes diastolic dysfuncti
on as well.</i></div>
1397613008096 1395802358422 Which <>phase</>&nsp;of the cardiac cycle ec
omes dysfunctional in Dilated Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Systole
}}</div>
1397613028131 1395802358422 {{c1::Dilated Cardiomyopathy}} is a type of card
iomyopathy that involves <>systolic</>&nsp;dysfunction.
1397613045883 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}} is a type of
cardiomyopathy that involves marked ventricular hypertrophy, typically with sep
tal predominance.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-40737764802852.jpg" /></d
iv>
1397613119871 1395802358422 Which type of cardiomyopathy involves marked ven
tricular wall hypertrophy, typically with septal predominance?<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-40733469835556.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hype
rtrophic Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1397613145978 1395802358422 Which type of cardiomyopathy involves <>myofir
illar disarray</>&nsp;and <>firosis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertro
phic Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1397613252106 1395802358422 {{c1::Ostructive Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}}
is a type of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy that involves a <>hypertrophied interv
entricular septum</>&nsp;that is too close to the anterior mitral leaflet, the
rey causing outflow ostruction and possile syncope. <r /><div><i>Essentiall
y, there is functional aortic stenosis, this is also contriutes to the systolic
murmur heard.</i></div>
1397613343684 1395802358422 Which type of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy involv
es a <>hypertrophied interventricular septum</>&nsp;that is too close to the
anterior mitral leaflet and hence causes outflow ostruction?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Ostructive Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1397613386770 1395802358422 {{c1::Endocardial Firoelastosis}} is a cause of
Restrictive/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy that involves <>thick firoelastic tis
sue in the endocardium of young children</>.
1397613492829 1395802358422 {{c1::Restrictive/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy}}

is a type of cardiomyopathy that can e caused y Sarcoidosis, Amyloidosis, Post
radiation Firosis, Loffler Syndrome, Hemochromatosis and Endocardial Firoelast
osis.
1397613577743 1395802358422 {{c1::Loffler Syndrome}} is a cause of Restricti
ve/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy and is descried as endomyocardial firosis with
a <>prominent eosinophilic infiltrate</>.
1397613616165 1395802358422 What type of cardiomyopathy is associated with H
emochromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dilated Cardiomyopathy; Restrictive/I
nfiltrative Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Both can occur at the same
time in Hemochromatosis patients</i></div>
1397613726276 1395802358422 What <>phase</>&nsp;of the cardiac cycle is d
ysfunctional in Restrictive/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Diastole}}</div>
1397613753293 1395802358422 {{c1::Restrictive/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy}}
is a cardiomyopathy that can have <>low-voltage ECG</>&nsp;despite having a t
hick myocardium.
<r /><div><i>This is especially so with cardiomyopathy
caused y amyloidosis.</i></div>
1397613798195 1395802358422 Which cardiomyopathy is assocaited with <>low-v
oltage ECG</>&nsp;despite having a think myocardium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Restrictive/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Especially
when caused y amyloidosis.</i></div>
1397613834469 1395802358422 {{c1::Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)}} is a card
iac syndrome of cardiac pump dysfunction and involves dyspnea, orthopnea and fat
igue.
1397614540407 1395802358422 {{c1::Pitting Edema}} is a sign of congestive he
art failure that is commonly seen at the extremities.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-43061342109905.jpg" /></div>
1397614573761 1395802358422 How does Ejection Fraction (EF) change in Systol
ic Dysfunction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased (low EF)}}</div>
1397614648446 1395802358422 How does contractility change in Systolic Dysfun
ction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased (poor contractility)}}</div>
1397614682112 1395802358422 {{c1::Systolic Dysfunction}} is a type of conges
tive heart failure that is commonly secondary to ischemic heart disease or dilat
ed cardiomyopathy.
1397614758333 1395802358422 How does Ejection Fraction (EF) change in Diasto
lic dysfunction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change (normal EF)}}</div>
1397614779586 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change in Diastol
ic dysfunction?<div><r />{{c1::No change (normal contractility)}}&nsp;</div>
1397614813437 1395802358422 How does ventricular compliance change in Diasto
lic dysfunction?<div><r />{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1397614849424 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Right-sided Hea
rt Failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left-sided Heart Failure}}</div>
1397614890825 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>isolated</>
&nsp;right heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Cor pulmonale</i>}}</di
v>
1397615160981 1395802358422 {{c1::Cardiac Dilation}} is a cardiac pathology
that occurs as a result of greater ventricular EDV.
1397615262742 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmonary Edema}} is a complication of lef
t heart failure that involves the presence of <>hemosiderin-laden macrophages</
>&nsp;("heart failure" cells) in the lungs. <r /><div><img src="paste-45359
149613585.jpg" /></div>
1397615354697 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmonary Edema}} is a complication of lef
t heart failure that occurs due to an increase in pulmonary venous pressure and
resultant pulmonary venous distention and transudation of fluid.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-45354854646289.jpg" /></div>
1397615433134 1395802358422 {{c1::Orthopnea}} is a complication of left hear
t failure that involves a <>shortness of reath when supine</>.&nsp; <r /><d
iv><i>The increased venous return from redistriution of lood (due to the immed
iate gravity effect) exacerates pulmonary vascular congestion, causing shortnes
s of reath.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-45354854646289.jpg" /></i></div>

1397615583993 1395802358422 {{c1::Paroxysmal Nocturnal Dyspnea}} is a compli
cation of left heart failure that involves <>reathless awakening from sleep</
>.
<r /><div><i>The increased venous return from redistriution of lood a
nd reasorption of pulmonary edema causes nocturnal dyspnea.</i></div><div><i><i
mg src="paste-45354854646289.jpg" /></i></div>
1397615645167 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepatomegaly (Nutmeg Liver)}} is a complic
ation of right heart failure that results due to an increase in central venous p
ressure and resultant increases in hepatic portal resistance. <r /><div><i>Ra
rely leads to cardiac cirrhosis.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-45354854646289
.jpg" /></i></div>
1397615697967 1395802358422 {{c1::Peripheral Edema}} is a complication of ri
ght heart failure that results due to an increase in venous pressure that drives
fluid transudation.
<r /><div><img src="paste-45354854646289.jpg" /></div>
1397615740869 1395802358422 {{c1::Jugular Venous Distention}} is a complicat
ion of right heart failure that results due to an increase in venous pressure th
at then uilds up into the Jugular Vein.
1397615779350 1395802358422 What type of heart failure is associated with Pu
lmonary Edema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left heart failure}}</div>
1397615807071 1395802358422 What type of heart failure is associated with&n
sp;Orthopnea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left heart failure}}</div>
1397615883974 1395802358422 What type of heart failure is associated with&n
sp;Paroxysmal Nocturnal Dyspnea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left heart failure}}
</div>
1397615894756 1395802358422 What type of heart failure is associated with&n
sp;Hepatomegaly (Nutmeg Liver)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right heart failure}}
</div>
1397615904757 1395802358422 What type of heart failure is associated with&n
sp;Peripheral edema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right heart failure}}</div>
1397615913075 1395802358422 What type of heart failure is associated with&n
sp;Jugular Venous Distention?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right heart failure}}</
div>
1397658521684 1395802358422 What is the most common symptom of Bacterial End
ocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fever}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-4922032521498.jpg" /></div>
1397658576386 1395802358422 {{c1::Roth Spots}} are a feature of acterial en
docarditis and are descried as <>round white sports on the retina surrounded 
y hemorrhage</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-717259538694.jpg" /></div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4917737554202.jpg" /></div>
1397658707800 1395802358422 {{c1::Osler Nodes}} are a feature of Bacterial E
ndocarditis and are descried as <>painful, raised lesions</>&nsp;on the fing
er or toe pads. <r /><div><i>In the words of Dr. Sattar: "<>O</>uch, <>o</>
uch, <>O</>sler."</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4917737554202.jpg" /></i></
div>
1397658761489 1395802358422 {{c1::Janeway lesions}} are a feature of Bacteri
al Endocarditis and are descried as <>small, <u>painless</u>, erythematous les
ions</>&nsp;on the palm or sole.
<r /><div><img src="paste-4917737554202
.jpg" /></div>
1397658831830 1395802358422 {{c1::Splinter Hemorrhages}} are a feature of Ba
cterial Endoarditis that appears at the nail eds due to emolization of septic
vegetations that make their way to the extremities.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-1584842932432.jpg" /></div>
1397659254506 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>Acute</>&n
sp;Bacterial Endocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus <
/i>(high virulence)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rapid onset</i></div>
1397659308677 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}} is the most
common cause of <>Acute</>&nsp;Bacterial Endocarditis and commonly causes la
rge vegetations on previously normal cardiac valves.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-1808181231828.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Rapid onset</i></div>
1397659376391 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>Suacute</>
&nsp;Bacterial Endocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Viridans Streptococci (

low virulence)}}</div>
1397659440157 1395802358422 {{c1::Viridans Streptococci}} are the most commo
n cause of <>Suacute</>&nsp;Bacterial Endocarditis and form <u>smaller veget
ations on congenitally anormal or diseased valves</u>.
1397659624275 1395802358422 {{c1::Viridans Streptococci}} are the most commo
n cause of <>Suacute</>&nsp;Bacterial Endocarditis, which commonly occurs as
a sequela of dental procedures.
1397659653598 1395802358422 Which acterial cause of endocarditis is associa
ted with the sequelae of dental procedures?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Viridans
Streptococci}}</div>
1397659680475 1395802358422 What are the 2 most common causes of <>CultureNegative</>&nsp;Bacterial Endocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Coxiella
urnetti</i>; <i>Bartonella spp</i>.}}</div>
1397659751909 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Coxiella urnetti</i>}} and&nsp;{{c2::
<i>Bartonella spp.</i>}} are the 2 most common causes of <>culture-negative</>
&nsp;acterial endocarditis.
1397659786049 1395802358422 {{c1::Nonacterial Thromotis Endocarditis (NBTE
)}} is a type of endocarditis that involves <>sterile vegetations</>&nsp;that
arise due to a hypercoagulale state or underlying adenocarcinoma.
1397661081360 1395802358422 {{c1::Lieman-Sacks Endocarditis}} is a type of
Nonacterial Thromotic Endocarditis (NBTE) that occurs in Systemic Lupus Erythe
matosus (SLE) and involves sterile vegetations on <>oth sides</>&nsp;of the
mitral valve.
1397661143356 1395802358422 Which acterial cause of endocarditis is associa
ted with underlying <>colon cancer</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptoco
ccus ovis</i>}}</div>
1397661177559 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus ovis</i>}} is a acteria
l cause of endocarditis that is associated with underlying colon cancer.
1397661203086 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus epidermidis</i>}} is a 
acterial cause of endocarditis that is associated with <>prosthetic heart valve
s</>.
1397661236401 1395802358422 Which acterial cause of endocarditis is associa
ted <>prosthetic heart valves</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus
epidermidis</i>}}</div>
1397661271578 1395802358422 Which heart valve is most frequently involved in
endocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral valve}}</div>
1397661291247 1395802358422 Which heart valve is associated with <>endocard
itis in IV drug ause</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tricuspid valve}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Don't <>tri</>&nsp;<>drugs</>."</i></div>
1397661319963 1395802358422 Which <>gram-positive</>&nsp;acteria is asso
ciated with endocarditis in <>IV drug ause</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div>
1397661472582 1395802358422 Which <>gram-negative</>&nsp;acteria is asso
ciated with endocarditis in <>IV drug ause</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
Pseudomonas sp.</i>}}</div>
1397661499925 1395802358422 Which <>fungal</> cause of endocarditis is ass
ociated with <>IV drug ause </>(esp. Heroin)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>C
andida spp.</i>}}</div>
1397661534817 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of endocarditis in
<>IV drug ause</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}
</div>
1397662074535 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatic Fever}} is a cardiac disorder th
at occurs as a consequence of pharyngeal infection with Group A&nsp;β-hemolytic s
treptococci.
1397662296716 1395802358422 What <>group</>&nsp;of acteria is associated
with Rheumatic Fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Group A β-hemolytic Streptococci
}}</div>
1397662319674 1395802358422 Which heart valve is more commonly affected in R
heumatic Heart Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Mitral</>&nsp;&gt; aorti
c &gt;&gt; tricuspid}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The high-pressure valves are affec

ted the most (i.e. left side valves).</i></div>
1397662587906 1395802358422 Which valvular disorder is seen in <>early/acut
e</>&nsp;Rheumatic Fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral <>regurgitation</
<r /><div><i>"<>ARCS</>":&nsp;<>A</>cute =&nsp;<>R</>eg
>}}</div>
urge;&nsp;<>C</>hronic =&nsp;<>S</>tenosis</i></div>
1397662697368 1395802358422 Which valvular disorder is seen in <>late/chron
ic</>&nsp;Rheumatic Heart Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral <>stenos
is</>}}</div> <r /><div><i>"<>ARCS</>": <>A</>cute = <>R</>egurge; <>C
</>hronic = <>S</>tenosis</i></div>
1397662717273 1395802358422 {{c1::Aschoff Bodies}} are a feature of the myoc
arditis seen in Rheumatic Fever and are descried as granulomas with giant cells
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6322191859923.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Red arrow is an Anitschkow Cell</i></div>
1397662806164 1395802358422 {{c1::Anitschkow Cells}} are a feature of the my
ocarditis seen in Rheumatic Fever and are descried as <>enlarged macrophages w
ith ovoid, wavy, rod-like nuclei</>&nsp;("caterpillar nuclei").<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-6317896892627.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Found in A
schoff Bodies (lue arrows).</i></div>
1397662881894 1395802358422 Which antiody titers are characteristically ele
vated in Rheumatic Fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated ASO}}</div>
<r /><div><i>These titers stand as evidence for prior Group A, eta-hemolytic S
trep infection.</i></div>
1397662947542 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity causes Rheumatic F
ever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The diseas
e is not due to the acterial infection itself, it is due to antiodies against
Strep M protein that cross-reacts with self antigens.</i></div>
1397663004757 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatic Fever}} is a cardiac disorder th
at is caused y molecular mimicry y acterial M protein which resemles self an
tigens. <r /><div><i>Antiodies against M protein cross-react with self antigen
s at the heart.</i></div>
1397663118127 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythema Marginatum}} is a feature of Rheu
matic fever that is descried as an annular, nonpruritic rash with erythematous
<r /><div><img src="paste-6820408066313.jpg" /></div>
orders.
1397663169755 1395802358422 How does ESR change in Rheumatic Fever?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Elevated ESR}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6816113099017
.jpg" /></div>
1397663185233 1395802358422 {{c1::Migratory Polyarthritis}} is a feature of
Rheumatic Fever that is descried as swelling, redness and pain at a large joint
that then migrates to another large joint.
<r /><div><img src="paste-68161
13099017.jpg" /></div>
1397663236453 1395802358422 {{c1::Sucutaneous Nodules}} are a cutaneous com
plication of Rheumatic Fever. <r /><div><img src="paste-6816113099017.jpg" />
</div>
1397663271467 1395802358422 {{c1::Sydenham Chorea (St. Vitus' Dance)}} is a
neurological movement disorder that is associated with Rheumatic Fever. <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-6816113099017.jpg" /></div>
1397663383488 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Pericarditis}} is an inflammatory di
sorder of the heart that commonly presents with sharp pain, is <u>aggravated y
inspiration</u>,&nsp;<u>relieved y sitting up and leaning forward</u>&nsp;and
commonly <>presents with a friction ru</>.
1397663689451 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift on an ECG in Acute
Pericarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Widespread ST-segment elevation}}</div
>
1397663710165 1395802358422 How does the PR interval shift on an ECG in Acut
e Pericarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PR depression}}</div>
1397663743878 1395802358422 {{c1::Firinous Pericarditis}} is a type of peri
carditis that presents with a <>loud friction ru</>. <r /><div><i>Causes inc
lude Dressler syndrome, uremia and radiation.</i></div>
1397663789737 1395802358422 {{c1::Serous Pericarditis}} is a type of Pericar
ditis that is seen with viral infections or noninfectious inflammatory diseases

(such as SLE, RA).
<r /><div><i>Viral pericarditis typically resolves spon
taneously</i></div>
1397663851714 1395802358422 {{c1::Suppurative/Purulent Pericarditis}} is a t
ype of pericarditis that is usually caused y acterial infections.
<r /><d
iv><i>Especially Pneumococcus and Streptococcus</i></div>
1397663892009 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Suppurative/Pur
ulent Pericarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae; Stre
ptococcus sp.</i>}}</div>
1397664292182 1395802358422 {{c1::Cardiac Tamponade}} is a cardiac disorder
that is descried as compression of the heart y fluid in the pericardium, there
y causing a decrease in CO.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-8654359101650.jp
g" /></div>
<r><div><i>The fluid is typically lood or pericardial effusion
.</i></div>
1397664359995 1395802358422 {{c1::Beck triad}} is a triad of symptoms seen i
n Cardiac Tamponade that involves <>hypotension, distended neck veins </>and <
>muffled heart sounds</>.
1397664462755 1395802358422 How does heart rate change in Cardiac Tamponade?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>SV decreases due t
o the compression, as a result HR rises as compensation.</i></div>
1397664491996 1395802358422 <div>Which type of pulse is seen in Cardiac Tamp
onade?</div><div><r /></div>{{c1::Pulsus Paradoxus}} <r /><div><i>Systolic p
ressure decreases ≥ 10 mmHg.</i></div>
1397664577999 1395802358422 {{c1::Cardiac Tamponade}} is a cardiac disorder
that involves <>low-voltage QRS complexes</>&nsp;and <>electrical alternans<
/>&nsp;on an ECG due to the swinging movement of the heart. <r /><div><i>Th
e heart "swings" in the large effusion that it sits in.</i></div>
1397664644203 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulsus Paradoxus}} is a pathological pulse
that involves a <>decrease in amplitude of systolic lood pressure y ≥ 10 mmHg
during inspiration</>. <r /><div><i>Seen in cardiac tamponade, arthma, ostruc
tive sleep apnea, pericarditis and croup.</i></div>
1397664835098 1395802358422 {{c1::Syphilitic Heart Disease}} is a cardiac di
sorder that arises due to tertiary syphilis that <>disrupts the vasa vasorum of
the aorta</>, therey causing atrophy of the vessel wall and dilation of the a
orta/aortic valve ring. <r /><div><i>Can hence result in aneursm of the ascendi
ng aorta or aortic arch or aortic insufficiency (regurge).</i></div>
1397664975535 1395802358422 {{c1::Syphilitic Heart Disease}} is a cardiac di
sorder that arises due to tertiary syphilis that may lead to a <>"tree ark" ap
pearance</>&nsp;of the aorta.
1397664989589 1395802358422 {{c1::Syphilitic Heart Disease}} is a cardiac di
sorder that arises due to tertiary syphilis that may involves <>calcification o
f the aortic root and ascending aortic arch</>.
1397665052194 1395802358422 What is the most common <>primary</>&nsp;card
iac tumour in <>adults</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10149007720753
.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myxoma}}</div>
1397673511604 1395802358422 Which cardiac chamer is most commonly affected
y Myxoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atria (90%); typically the LA}}</div>
1397673532196 1395802358422 {{c1::Myxoma}} is a <>primary</>&nsp;cardiac
tumour found in <>adults</>&nsp;that is descried as a <>"all valve"</>&n
sp;ostruction in the LA.
1397673563754 1395802358422 Which <>primary</>&nsp;cardiac tumour is asso
ciated with multiple syncopal episodes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myxoma}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>Common in adults</i></div>
1397673587116 1395802358422 {{c1::Myxoma}} is a primary cardiac tumour that
is most common in <>adults</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1014471275
3457.jpg" /></div>
1397673811116 1395802358422 What is the most common <>primary</>&nsp;card
iac tumour in <>children</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rhadomyoma}}</div>
1397673825443 1395802358422 Which primary cardiac tumour is associated with
Tuerous Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rhadomyoma}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Common in children</i></div>

1397673845676 1395802358422 Which heart chamer is commonly affected y Rha
domyoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricles}}</div>
1397673884764 1395802358422 What is the most common cardiac tumour?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Metastasis from melanoma, lymphoma}}</div>
1397673909685 1395802358422 What is Kussmaul Sign?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::An increase in JVP on inspiration (instead of a normal decrease in JVP)}}</div
>
<div><r /></div><div><div><i>Normally inspiration will increase RV fill
ing and hence decrease JVP, as venous return has increased.</i></div><div><i>Wit
h Kussmaul's Sign, there is an&nsp;<>increase in JVP due to impaired filling o
f the RV</>. This impairment of filling causes a acklog of pressure and result
ant JVD.</i></div><div><i>Impaired filling can e due to: constrictive pericardi
tis, restrictive cardiomyopathies or RA or RV tumour.</i></div></div>
1397673938801 1395802358422 {{c1::Kussmaul Sign}} is a cardiac disorder that
is descried as an <>increase in JVP on inspiration</>&nsp;instead of a norm
al decrease.
<r /><div><i>Normally inspiration will increase RV filling and
hence decrease JVP, as venous return has increased.</i></div><div><i>With Kussma
ul's Sign, there is an <>increase in JVP due to impaired filling of the RV</>.
This impairment of filling causes a acklog of pressure and resultant JVD.</i><
/div><div><i>Impaired filling can e due to: constrictive pericarditis, restrict
ive cardiomyopathies or RA or RV tumour.</i></div>
1397674148390 1395802358422 {{c1::Raynaud Phenomenon}} is a vascular disorde
r that is descried as a <u>decrease in lood flow to the skin due to arteriolar
vasospasm</u>, typically in response to cold temperature or emotional stress.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11892764442927.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Commonly seen at the fingers and toes.</i></div><div><i><>Raynaud Disease
</>&nsp;= primary = idiopathic, typically cold induced</i></div><div><i><>Ray
naud syndrome</>&nsp;= secondary to another disease process such as SLE, CREST
Syndrome or a mixed connective tissue disorder</i></div>
1397675627033 1395802358422 {{c1::Strawerry Hemangioma}} is a vascular tumo
ur descried as a enign capillary hemangioma of infancy that appears in the fir
st few weeks of life (1/200 irths).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-135291
46982701.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Strawerry = infants/children</i></div><di
v><i>Cherry = elderly</i></div>
1397675735048 1395802358422 {{c1::Strawerry Hemangioma}} is a enign capill
ary hemangioma of infancy that grows rapidly and regresses spontaneously at 5-8
y/o.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13524852015405.jpg" /></div> <r /><d
iv><div><i>Strawerry = infants/children</i></div><div><i>Cherry = elderly</i></
div></div>
1397675778894 1395802358422 {{c1::Cherry Hemangioma}} is a enign capillary
hemangioma that is common in the <>elderly</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-13769665151285.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><div><i>Strawerry = infants/
children</i></div><div><i>Cherry = elderly</i></div></div>
1397675815943 1395802358422 Which enign capillary hemangioma is common in t
he <>elderly</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13765370183989.jpg" /></
div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cherry Hemangioma}}</div>
<r /><div><div>
<i>Strawerry = infants/children</i></div><div><i>Cherry = elderly</i></div></di
v>
1397675912149 1395802358422 Which enign capillary hemangioma is common in <
>infants</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14443975016754.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Strawerry Hemangioma}}</div>
1397675943836 1395802358422 Which enign capillary hemangioma appears in the
first few weeks of life and regresses spontaneously at 5-8 y/o?<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-14439680049458.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::St
rawerry hemangioma}}</div>
1397675994872 1395802358422 Which enign capillary hemangioma <>does not re
gress</>&nsp;and exhiits a higher frequency with age?<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-14529874362676.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cherry Hem
angioma}}</div></div>
1397676026661 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyogenic Granuloma}} is a polypoid capilla
ry hemangioma that can ulcerate and leed.&nsp;

1397676064507 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyogenic Granuloma}} is a polypoid capilla
ry hemangioma that is associated with trauma and pregnancy.
1397676085123 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystic Hygroma}} is a vascular tumour defi
ned as a <>cavernous lymphangioma of the neck</>.
1397676114706 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with Cy
stic Hygroma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome (XO)}}</div>
1397676506774 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystic Hygroma}} is a cavernous lymphangio
ma of the neck that is associated with Turner Syndrome.
1397676539128 1395802358422 {{c1::Glomus Tumour}} is a vascular tumour descr
ied as a <>enign, painful, red-lue tumour</>&nsp;found under the fingernai
ls.
1397676580867 1395802358422 {{c1::Glomus Tumour}} is a vascular tumour that
arises from <>modified smooth muscle cells</>&nsp;of the Glomus ody.
1397676601462 1395802358422 {{c1::Bacillary Angiomatosis}} is a vascular tum
our descried as a <><u>enign capillary skin papule</u></>&nsp;commonly foun
d in AIDS patients.
1397676681042 1395802358422 What is the cause of Bacillary Angiomatosis?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bartonella henselae</i>}}</div>
1397676697255 1395802358422 {{c1::Bacillary Angiomatosis}} is a <>enign ca
pillary skin papule</>&nsp;that is commonly mistaken for Kaposi Sarcoma.
1397676718701 1395802358422 {{c1::Angiosarcoma}} is a rare <>malignant</>&
nsp;vascular tumour that typically occurs in the head, neck and reast areas du
e to <>radiation therapy</>&nsp;or <>arsenic exposure</>. <r /><div><i>Ty
pically seen in the elderly or in sun-exposed areas.</i></div><div><i>Very diffi
cult to treat as it is aggressive and diagnosis is typically delayed.</i></div>
1397676930284 1395802358422 Which metalloid element is associated with Angio
sarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arsenic}}</div>
1397677190196 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphangiosarcoma}} is a lymphatic vascula
r malignancy associated with persistent lymphedema such as post-radical mastecto
my.
1397677842567 1395802358422 {{c1::Kaposi Sarcoma}} is an endothelial maligna
ncy associated with HHV-8 and HIV.
1397677865795 1395802358422 What cells are proliferating in Kaposi Sarcoma?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endothelium}}</div>
1397677876286 1395802358422 What is the cause of Kaposi Sarcoma?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::HHV-8 (associated with HIV)}}</div>
1397677890976 1395802358422 {{c1::Kaposi Sarcoma}} is a malignant endothelia
l tumour that is commonly mistaken for Bacillary Angiomatosis.
1397677910711 1395802358422 What demographic is classically affected y Temp
oral Giant Cell Arteritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elderly females (&gt; 50 y
/o)}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>Temporal Arteritis &gt; 50 y/o</i></div><div>
<i>Takayasu Arteritis &lt; 50 y/o</i></div></div>
1397678563039 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Temporal (Giant Cell)
Arteritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Large-vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678618088 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Takayasu Arteritis?<d
iv><r></div><div>{{c1::Large-vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678637564 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Polyarteritis Nodosa?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medium-vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678649767 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Kawasaki Disease?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medium-vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678661341 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Buerger Disease (Thro
moangiitis Oliterans)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medium-vessel vasculitis}}</
div>
1397678695951 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Microscopic Polyangii
tis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678712389 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Wegener's Granulomato
sis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678728616 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Churg-Strauss Syndrom
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678746224 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Henoch-Schonlein Purp

ura?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678771764 1395802358422 {{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis}} is a large
-vessel vasculitis that typically involves <>unilateral headache</>&nsp;(due
to Temporal Artery involvement) and <>jaw claudication.</>
1397678826889 1395802358422 {{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis}} is a large
-vessel arteritis that may lead to <>irreversile lindness due to involvement
of the Ophthalmic Artery</>. <div><i><r /></i></div>
1397679154397 1395802358422 Which large-vessel vasculitis is associated with
Polymyalgia Rheumatica?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteriti
s}}</div>
1397679181996 1395802358422 {{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis}} is a large
-vessel arteritis that most commonly affected the ranches of the carotid artery
(ophthalmic, temporal).
1397679216536 1395802358422 {{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis}} is a large
-vessel vasculitis that involves focal granulomatous inflammation.<div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-18146236825844.jpg" /></div>
1397679248899 1395802358422 How does ESR change in&nsp;Temporal Giant Cell
Arteritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated ESR}}</div>
1397679261400 1395802358422 {{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis}} is a large
vessel vasculitis that must e treated with high-dose corticosteroids prior to
temporal artery iopsy in order to prevent vision loss.
1397679348365 1395802358422 What demographic is classically affected y Taka
yasu Arteritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asian women &lt; 40 y/o}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Temporal Arteritis &gt; 50 y/o</i></div><div><i>Takayasu Arteritis
&lt; 50 y/o</i></div>
1397679399066 1395802358422 Which large-vessel vasculitis is also referred t
o as "Pulseless Disease"?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Takayasu Arteritis}}</div>
1397679449904 1395802358422 {{c1::Takayasu Arteritis}} is a large-vessel vas
culitis that is also known as <>"Pulseless Disease"</>&nsp;as it involves <>
weak upper extremity pulses</>.
<r /><div><i>The weak pulses are due to
granulomatous thickening of the <>aortic arch ranches</>.</i></div>
1397679812368 1395802358422 {{c1::Takayasu Arteritis}} is a large-vessel art
eritis that involves granulomatous thickening and narrowing of the aortic arch a
nd its proximal ranches.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19958713024758.jp
g" /></div>
1397679929625 1395802358422 How does ESR change in Takayasu Arteritis?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated ESR}}</div>
1397679939287 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Takayasu Arteritis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Corticosteroids}}</div>
1397679951240 1395802358422 {{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}} is a medium-vessel
vasculitis that typically involves <>renal</>&nsp;and <>visceral</>&nsp;ve
ssels, <u style="font-weight: old; ">ut not pulmonary vessels</u>.
1397680267585 1395802358422 What demographic is classically affected y&nsp
;Polyarteritis Nodosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::oung adults}}</div>
1397680299938 1395802358422 Which <>Hepatitis antigen</>&nsp;is seroposit
ive in 30% of patients with&nsp;Polyarteritis Nodosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::HBsAg}}</div>
1397680352008 1395802358422 {{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}} is a medium-vessel
vasculitis that is associated with HBsAg seropositivity.
1397680371082 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertension}} is a complication of&nsp;P
olyarteritis Nodosa due to Renal Artery involvement.
1397680407145 1395802358422 {{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}} is a medium-vessel
vasculitis that involves hypertension, neurological dysfunction, cutaneous erupt
ion and renal damage.
1397680448970 1395802358422 {{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}} is a medium-vessel
vasculitis that is immune complex mediated.
1397680494660 1395802358422 {{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}} is a medium-vessel
vasculitis that involves transmural inflammation of the arterial wall with firi
noid necrosis.
1397680514474 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis is immune complex

mediated?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}}</div>
1397680534868 1395802358422 {{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}} is a medium-vessel
vasculitis that involves innumerale microaneurysms and vasospasm on arteriogram
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21122649161972.jpg" /></div>
1397680700362 1395802358422 {{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}} is a medium-vessel
vasculitis that is treated with corticosteroids and cyclophosphamide.
1397680732865 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis is treated with C
orticosteroids and Cyclophosphamide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Polyarteritis No
dosa}}</div>
1397680752704 1395802358422 What demographic is classically affected y Kawa
saki Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asian children &lt; 4 y/o}}</div>
1397680773535 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis involves a <>"St
rawerry Tongue"</>&nsp;due to changes in lips/oral mucosa?<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-21534966022386.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kawas
aki Disease}}</div>
1397680860815 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis involves <>handfoot erythema</>&nsp;(especially at the palms and soles)?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Kawasaki Disease}}</div>
1397680936728 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis may involve the d
evelopment of <>coronary artery aneurysms</>/rupture or <>thromosis with MI<
/>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21766894256371.jpg" /></div><div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Kawasaki Disease}}</div>
1397681019403 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis is treated with I
VIG and Aspirin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kawasaki Disease}}</div>
1397681071008 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Kawasaki Disease?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::IVIG; Aspirin (as a lood thinner to prevent thromosis/M
I)}}</div>
1397681092515 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis is associated wit
h <>heavy smokers</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Buerger Disease (Thromoangii
tis Oliterans)}}</div>
1397682851767 1395802358422 Which demographic is commonly affected y&nsp;B
uerger Disease (Thromoangiitis Oliterans)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males &l
t; 40 y/o}}</div>
1397682867528 1395802358422 {{c1::Buerger Disease (Thromoangiitis Oliteran
s)}} is a medium-vessel vasculitis that involves <>intermittent claudication</
>&nsp;at the digits. <r /><div><i>And can hence involves gangrene, autoamput
ation of digits and superficial nodular phleitis.</i></div>
1397683952294 1395802358422 Which vasculitis is commonly associated with Ray
naud Phenomenon?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Buerger Disease (Thromoangiitis Ol
iterans)}}</div>
1397683971819 1395802358422 Which vasculitis may lead to gangrene, autoamput
ation of digits and superficial nodular phleitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bu
erger Disease (Thromoangiitis Oliterans)}}</div>
1397684000857 1395802358422 {{c1::Buerger Disease (Thromoangiitis Oliteran
s)}} is a segmental thromosing vasculitis associated with heavy smokers.
1397684023334 1395802358422 What is the treatment for&nsp;Buerger Disease (
Thromoangiitis Oliterans)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smoking cessation}}</div
>
1397684031629 1395802358422 Which small-vessel vasculitis affects the upper
respiratory tract, lower respiratory tract <>and</>&nsp;kidneys?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Wegener Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis}}</div>
1397685057099 1395802358422 {{c1::Wegener Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis}}
is a necrotizing, granulomatous vasculitis involving the nasopharynx, lungs <>
and</>&nsp;kidneys.
1397685168766 1395802358422 Which small-vessel vasculitis involves a triad o
f <>focal necrotising vasculitis</>, <>necrotizing granulomas at the lung and
nasopharynx</>&nsp;and <>necrotizing glomerulonephritis</>?<div><r></div><
div>{{c1::Wegener Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis}}</div>
1397685229086 1395802358422 Which ANCA antiodies are associated with&nsp;W
egener Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23

437636534515.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PR3-ANCA (anti-proteinase
3 ANCA; c-ANCA)}}</div></div>
1397685333899 1395802358422 Which type of ANCA antiodies are cytoplasmic?<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23510650978550.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::c-ANCA (PR3-ANCA)}}</div></div>
1397685384033 1395802358422 What is the treatment for&nsp;Wegener Granuloma
tosis with Polyangiitis?<div><r />{{c1::Cyclophosphamide; Corticosteroids}}</di
v>
1397685409147 1395802358422 Which small-vessel vasculitis is associated with
<>large, nodular densities</>&nsp;on chest x-ray?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::W
egener Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis}}</div>
1397685436722 1395802358422 {{c1::Microscopic Polyangiitis}} is a small vess
el vasculitis that presents similarly to Wegener Granulomatosis, ut <>lacks na
sopharyngeal involvement and granulomas</>.
1397685782360 1395802358422 {{c1::Microscopic Polyangiitis}} is a small-vess
el necrotizing vasculitis that typically involves the <>lungs, kidneys</>&nsp
;and <>skin.</>
1397685839024 1395802358422 {{c1::Microscopic polyangiitis}} is a small vess
el&nsp;<>necrotizing</>&nsp;vasculitis that involves <>pauci-immune glomeru
lonephritis</>&nsp;and <>palpale purpura</>.
1397685892957 1395802358422 Which ANCA antiodies are involved in Microscopi
c Polyangiitis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-24502788423926.jpg" /><r /
><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MPO-ANCA (Anti-Myeloperoxidase; p-ANCA)}}</div></di
v>
1397685940078 1395802358422 Which type of ANCA antiodies are <>perinuclear
</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-24498493456630.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::MPO-ANCA (p-ANCA)}}</div></div>
1397685959395 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Microscopic Polyangiit
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclophosphamide; Corticosteroids}}</div>
1397685979327 1395802358422 Which small-vessel vasculitis is associated with
Asthma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}}</div>
1397686668806 1395802358422 {{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}} is a small-vessel
<>granulomatous, necrotizing</>&nsp;vasculitis that involves <>eosinophilia
</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-24790551232766.jpg" /></div>
1397686708135 1395802358422 {{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}} is a small-vessel
<>granulomatous, necrotizing</>&nsp;vasculitis, <u>with eosinophilia</u>, th
at involves <>sinusitis</>, <>palpale purpura</>&nsp;and <>pauci-immune g
lomerulonephritis</>.
1397686832597 1395802358422 Which small-vessel vasculitis is associated with
Peripheral Neuropathy (wrist/foot drop)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Churg-Strau
ss Syndrome}}</div>
1397686854767 1395802358422 What ANCA antiodies are associated with&nsp;Ch
urg-Strauss Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25129853649144.jpg" /
><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MPO-ANCA (anti-myeloperoxidase ANCA; p-ANCA)}
}</div></div>
1397686930763 1395802358422 Which small-vessel vasculitis is associated with
<>elevated IgE</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Churg-Strauss involves eosinophilia.</i></div>
1397687198031 1395802358422 What is the most common childhood systemic vascu
litis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}}</div>
1397687263723 1395802358422 Which type of vasculitis commonly manifests foll
owing an upper respiratory tract infection?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Henoch-Scho
nlein Purpura}}</div>
1397687300190 1395802358422 Which vasculitis is associated with <>IgA nephr
opathy</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}}</div>
1397687340575 1395802358422 Which vasculitis is often secondary to IgA immun
e complex deposition?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}}</div
>
1397687362548 1395802358422 {{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}} is a <>type II
I hypersensitivity&nsp;</>small-vessel vasculitis that involves a classic tria

d of <>palpale purpura</>, <>arthralgia</>&nsp;and <>GI pain/melena</>.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26323854557440.jpg" /></div>
1380309060829 1358629116480 Fine or ultra-fine particulate matter&nsp;{{c1:
:&lt; 10 um}} in diameter are the most harmful to health.
<r /><div><i>Ca
using eye/throat/lung irritation, asthma attacks and promotion of MIs</i></div>
1380312076365 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute}} CO poisoning is characterized y a
generalized cherry-red colour of the skin and mucous memranes.
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to a sudden increase in [CO]</i></div>
1380314855302 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic}} CO poisoning is characterized y
slowly developing hypoxia, especially CNS ischemia at the glous pallidus (asa
l ganglia).
<r /><div><i>Necrosis at the glous pallidus results in Parkins
onism.</i></div>
1380314938216 1358629116480 {{c1::Radon}} is a radioactive gas derived from
uranium that can cause lung cancer.
1380315284967 1358629116480 {{c1::Sick uilding}} syndrome is due to exposur
e to one or more indoor pollutants or poor ventilation.
1380315379584 1358629116480 The effect of lead poisoning in children on the
CNS is&nsp;{{c1::encephalopathy}} as children have significantly higher BBB per
meailities.
1380315955972 1358629116480 In adults,&nsp;{{c1::peripheral neuropathy}} is
the typical PNS symptom seen with lead poisoning.
1380315993441 1358629116480 "Lead lines" at the metaphyses of long ones on
an x-ray are characteristic of&nsp;{{c1::lead poisoning}}.
1380316277213 1358629116480 Lead inhiits&nsp;{{c1::ALA dehydratase}} and&n
sp;{{c2::Ferrochelatase}}, 2 enzymes involved in heme synthesis.
1380316426726 1358629116480 Lead poisoning decreases heme synthesis, hence t
here will e&nsp;{{c1::microcytic, hypochromic, siderolastic}} anaemia.
1380316464649 1358629116480 {{c1::Ferrochelatase}} is an enzyme involved in
heme synthesis that catalyzes the incorporation of iron into protoporphyrin, the
rey forming heme.
1380316639651 1358629116480 Basophilic stippling in erythrocytes is characte
ristic of&nsp;{{c1::lead}} poisoning.
1380316707332 1358629116480 During lead poisoning, there will e scattered&n
sp;{{c1::ringed siderolasts}} at the one marrow.&nsp;
1380316827663 1358629116480 {{c1::Siderolasts}} are red cell precursors wit
h iron-laden mitochondria. They are detected via Prussian lue staining.
1380316854707 1358629116480 In lead poisoning, adults typically develop peri
pheral demyelinating neuropathy. Symptoms include&nsp;{{c1::wrist-drop}} and&n
sp;{{c2::foot-drop}}. <r /><div><i>Foot drop is followed y paralysis of pero
neal muscles.</i></div>
1380316960522 1358629116480 In lead poisoning, adults can develop GI symptom
s including severe {{c1::adominal colic}}.
1380317486453 1358629116480 All heavy metals cause&nsp;{{c1::acute tuular
necrosis}} at the kidneys.
1380319052743 1358629116480 Chronic arsenic poisoning increases the risk of
developing&nsp;{{c1::angiosarcoma}} of the liver.
1380319869189 1358629116480 Chronic arsenic poisoning increases the risk of
developing&nsp;{{c1::squamous cell carcinoma}} and {{c2::hyperpigmentation/hype
rkeratosis}}&nsp;at the skin.
1380319929572 1358629116480 Chronic {{c2::arsenic}} poisoning causes white t
ransverse lines on the finger nails called&nsp;{{c1::Mees' lines}}.
1380319958336 1358629116480 Severe Cadmium poisoning is often characterized
y a skeletal anormality called&nsp;{{c1::Itai-Itai}} that involves osteoporos
is, osteomalacia and renal disease.
1380320213795 1358629116480 Cadmium poisoning can cause&nsp;{{c1::ostructi
ve}} lung disease due to the necrosis of alveolar macrophages.
1380320258322 1358629116480 Workers who have chronically increased exposure
to Cadmium often have increased risks of developing&nsp;{{c1::lung}} cancer.
1380320296921 1358629116480 Benzene poisoning is characterized y dose-depen
dent&nsp;{{c1::aplastic anaemia}} as its toxic metaolites disrupt the differen

tiation of hematopoietic cells.
1380320822950 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::amphiole}} form of asestos is t
he less prevalent and more pathogenic form.
1380332476507 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::serpentine}} form of asestos is
the more flexile, curled form with lower carcinogenic potential.
1380332506771 1358629116480 Vinyl chlorides can cause&nsp;{{c1::angiosarcom
a}} of the liver.
1380334538766 1358629116480 Radon, asestos and arsenic all increase the ris
k of&nsp;{{c1::Lung}} cancer.
1380334586388 1358629116480 Silica and asestos are typically associated wit
h&nsp;{{c1::pulmonary}} firosis.
1380334874968 1358629116480 Naphthylamines and ruer products can cause&ns
p;{{c1::ladder}} cancer.
1380335032607 1358629116480 Benzene can cause&nsp;{{c1::aplastic}} anaemia
and leukemia.
1380335047550 1358629116480 Polychlorinated iphenyls can cause&nsp;{{c1::f
olliculitis}} and&nsp;{{c2::acneiform dermatosis}}.
1380335105569 1358629116480 The 3 strongest carcinogens in toacco smoke are
&nsp;{{c1::polycyclic aromatic hydrocarons}},&nsp;{{c2::enzopyrenes}} and&n
sp;{{c3::nitrosamine}}.
1380336401301 1358629116480 {{c1::Nicotine}} is the addictive constituent of
toacco smoke. It stimulates and depresses autonomic ganglia.
1380336441146 1358629116480 The persistent DNA adducts formed y metaolizat
ion of carcinogens in toacco facilitate mutations in the oncogene&nsp;{{c1::KRas}} and the tumour suppressor&nsp;{{c2::p53}}.
1380336750445 1358629116480 Smoking is associated with lung cancer. Specific
ally&nsp;{{c1::small cell}} carcinoma and&nsp;{{c2::squamous cell}} carcinoma.
1380337560991 1358629116480 Smoking can cause&nsp;{{c1::squamous cell}} car
cinoma of the larynx.
1380337583162 1358629116480 {{c1::Mallory-Weiss}} syndrome is seen in acute
alcohol ause and is characterized y <>tearing</> of the distal esophagus due
to retching.
1380338932173 1358629116480 {{c1::Beorhave's syndrome}} is seen in acute alc
ohol ause and is characterized y <>rupture</>&nsp;of the distal esophagus d
ue to retching.
1380386699959 1358629116480 The endocarditis seen in IV drug users is often
due to infection of the heart valves y the acteria&nsp;{{c1::<i>Staphylococcu
s aureus</i>}}.
1380386758429 1358629116480 When exposed to 1-2 Sv of radiation, the main si
te of injury is at&nsp;{{c1::lymphocytes}} after 1 day-1 week, therey resultin
g in moderate granulocytopenia and lymphopenia.
1380390729651 1358629116480 When exposed to 2-10 Sv of radiation, the main s
ite of injury is at the&nsp;{{c1::one marrrow}} after <>2-6 weeks</>, there
y resulting in hemorrhaging, leukopenia, hair loss and vomiting.
1380390790237 1358629116480 When exposed to 10-20 Sv of radiation, the site
of injury is the&nsp;{{c1::small intestine}} <>5-14 days later</>, therey re
sulting in diarrhea, fever, electrolyte imalance and vomiting. <r /><div><i>Th
is is 100% lethal.</i></div>
1380390856464 1358629116480 When exposed to &gt;50 Sv of radiation, the main
site of injury is the&nsp;{{c1::rain}} <>1-4 hours later</>, therey result
ing in ataxia, coma, convulsions and vomiting. <r /><div><i>This is 100% letha
l.</i></div>
1381339287744 1358629116480 What does the term "3rd spacing" refer to?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Edema; someone who is edematous}}</div>
1381341067453 1358629116480 {{c1::Edema}} is an anormal increase and/or acc
umulation in intersitial fluid within tissues.
1381341649229 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydrothorax}} is the collection of edemato
us fluid in the thorax.
1381342252451 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydropericardium}} is the collection of ed
ematous fluid in the pericardium. It is typically seen in pericarditis.

1381342330584 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydroperitoneum}} or&nsp;{{c2::Ascites}}
are the collection of edematous fluid in the adomen.
1381342369134 1358629116480 {{c1::Anasarca}} is a severe and generalized ede
ma with widespread sucutaneous tissue swelling.
1381342544810 1358629116480 {{c1::Transudate}} is a clear, protein-poor edem
atous fluid typically seen with heart, renal or hepatic failure.
1381342721598 1358629116480 {{c1::Exudate}} is a yellow, turid, protein-ric
h edematous fluid typically seen with inflammation.
1381342750821 1358629116480 {{c1::Exudate}} is an edematous fluid with a pro
tein content &gt; 3 g/dL.
1381342813019 1358629116480 {{c1::Transudate}} is an edematous fluid with a
protein content &lt; 3 g/dL.
1381342847181 1358629116480 Jugular venous distention and dependent, pitting
edema are tell tale signs of&nsp;{{c1::Right-sided}} congestive heart failure.
1381343271905 1358629116480 Orthopnea is a tell tale sign of&nsp;{{c1::left
-sided}} congestive heart failure.
1381343310296 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of right-sided con
gestive heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left-sided congestive heart fa
ilure}}</div>
1381343343858 1358629116480 Which apolipoproteins are commonly elevated in n
ephrotic syndrome?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::ApoB, ApoC-II and ApoE}}</div>
<r><div><i>"BCE"</i></div><div><i><r></i></div><div><i>This is what causes the
hyperlipidemia.</i></div>
1381345897520 1358629116480 Sucutaneous tissue edema is a potential sign of
underlying&nsp;{{c1::cardiac}} or&nsp;{{c2::renal}} disease.
1381346120157 1358629116480 What is the most common clinical prolem suggest
ed y pulmonary edema?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Left ventricular failure}}</div>
1381346238118 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperemia}} is an active increase in lood
volume due to an increase in lood flow at tissue due to arteriolar dilation.
1381346650060 1358629116480 {{c1::Congestion}} is a passive increase in loca
l lood volume due to reduced outflow of lood from tissue.
1381346706062 1358629116480 What does a nutmeg liver indicate?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Chronic Hepatic Congestion}}.</div>
1381347636131 1358629116480 {{c1::Nonthromocytopenic Purpuras}} are leedin
g disorders that do not involve platelet defects. They are typically due to defe
cts in vessel walls.
1381351999252 1358629116480 How does a Nonthromocytopenic Purpura affect BT
, PT and PTT?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::They are all normal.}}</div>
1381352602413 1358629116480 How does Thromocytopenic Purpura affect Bleedin
g Time (BT)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::BT is prolonged/increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, <>BT measures platelet function, not clotting factor fu
nction.</></i></div>
1381366318127 1358629116480 What causes Idiopathic/Immune Thromocytopenic P
urpura (ITP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-GpII/IIIa antiodies; antiodies
against platelet antigens}}</div>
1381366402875 1358629116480 What are the one marrow iopsy findings in Idio
pathic Thromocytopenic Purpura (ITP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased mega
karyocytes at the one marrow}}</div>
1381366745650 1358629116480 What are the peripheral lood smear findings in
Idiopathic Thromocytopenic Purpura?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Presence of mega
thromocytes (large immature platelets)}}</div>
1381366802778 1358629116480 What causes Heparin Induced Thromocytopenia?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antiodies against platelet factor IV}}</div>
1381368808262 1358629116480 To which 2 receptors does HIV ind to infect meg
akaryocytes in HIV-Associated Thromocytopenia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4 a
nd CXCR4}}</div>
1381369811665 1358629116480 What causes Thromotic Thromocytopenia Purpura
(TTP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Deficiency of ADAMTS 13}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>ADAMTS 13 is aka von Willerand Factor Protease</i></div>
1381370904694 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome}} is a thromoti

c microangiopathy that is sometimes caused y the O157:H7 strain of <i>E. coli</
i>&nsp;due to a Shiga-like toxin that causes endothelial damage.
1381371550388 1358629116480 What is the cause of Hemophilia A?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Factor VIII deficiency}}</div>
1381373147084 1358629116480 What is the cause of Hemophilia B?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Factor IX deficiency}}</div>
1381373159763 1358629116480 What is the cause of von Willerand's Disease?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant vWF deficiency}}</div>
1381428030477 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Iron Deficiency
Anaemia (IDA) in men &lt; 50 y/o?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Peptic Ulcer Disea
se}}</div>
1381428104913 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Iron Deficiency
Anaemia in pre-menopausal women?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uterine firoids/ca
ncer}}</div>
1381428128716 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Iron Deficiency
Anaemia in post-menopausal women or in men &gt; 50 y/o?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Colon cancer}}</div>
1381428159222 1358629116480 {{c1::Waterhouse-Frederichsen}} Syndrome is char
acterized y {{c2::adrenal gland}} failure and necrosis due to hemorrhaging into
the adrenal glands and DIC.
1381429686994 1358629116480 {{c1::Thromosis}} is the pathological formation
of an intravascular lood clot.
1381439390638 1358629116480 What is the most common location of thromosis f
ormation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A DVT in the deep veins of the lower leg}}<
/div>
1381439425306 1358629116480 What are the Lines of Zahn?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Alternating layers of platelets/firin and RBCs in a Thromus}}</div>
1381439557785 1358629116480 What is the function of Antithromin III (ATIII)
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivation of thromin and clotting factors}}</di
v>
1381440180574 1358629116480 What enzyme deficiency can lead to elevated leve
ls of homocysteine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cystathionine eta synthase (CBS)
}}</div>
1381440676537 1358629116480 What nutritional deficiencies can lead to elevat
ed levels of homocysteine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vit B12 and Folate}}</div>
1381440710054 1358629116480 {{c1::Protein C}} and&nsp;{{c2::Protein S}} ina
ctivate Factor V and Factor VIII.
1381441272135 1358629116480 What is Factor V Leiden?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::A mutant form of Factor V that is resistant to degradation y Protein C or S
}}</div>
1381441614125 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Heparin?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Activation of Antithromin III}}</div>
1381441722746 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::emolus}} is an intravascular mass
that travels and occlude downstream vessels.
1381441890722 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::atherosclerotic}} emolus is due t
o atherosclerotic plaque that dislodges.
1381443365230 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::fat}} emolus is typically associat
ed with the fracture of long ones and associated soft tissue trauma.
1381443440738 1358629116480 {{c1::Caisson}} disease is the chronic form of d
ecompression sickness characterized y<> multifocal ischemic necrosis of one</
>.
1381443692132 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Pulmonary Emol
ism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thromoemolus from a DVT at the femoral/iliac/p
opliteal vein.}}</div>
1381444255096 1358629116480 PT, PTT and INR are only measured with the forma
tion of a&nsp;{{c1::secondary}} firin plug.
1381457583732 1358629116480 {{c1::Trousseau Syndrome}} or&nsp;{{c2::Migator
y Thromophleitis}} is an increased risk of thromoemolism in disseminated can
cers.
1381457929034 1358629116480 Amniotic fluid contains&nsp;{{c1::tissue throm

oplastin}}, a protein that is ale to trigger clotting if it enters maternal cir
culation.
1381968607433 1358629116480 What MCV is indicative of Microcytic Anaemia?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 80 um³}}</div>
1381969025839 1358629116480 What MCV is indicative of Macrocytic Anaemia?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 100 um³}}</div>
1381969044015 1358629116480 What is the normal MCV range?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::80 - 100 um³}}</div>
1381969056216 1358629116480 What enzyme transports iron across the cell mem
rane from enterocytes to the lood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ferroportin}}.</d
iv>
1381969532834 1358629116480 What protein inds to iron in the lood and tran
sports it to the liver and one marrow macrophages for storage?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Transferrin}}.</div>
1381969553115 1358629116480 What protein inds to iron intracellularly to ke
ep it stale and prevent the Fenton reaction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ferriti
n}}.</div>
1381969574550 1358629116480 On an iron panel, what does Serum Iron indicate?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Total Iron in the lood}}</div>
1381969611930 1358629116480 On an iron panel, what does the Total Iron Bindi
ng Capacity (TIBC) indicate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The numer of transferri
n mocs in the lood; <u>ound and unound</u>}}</div>
1381969657200 1358629116480 On an iron panel, what does % Saturation indicat
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The % of Transferrin mocs ound to iron}}</div>
1381969690675 1358629116480 What is the normal % Saturation on an iron panel
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::33%}}</div>
1381969702170 1358629116480 On an iron panel, what does Serum Ferritin give
insight to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The amount of iron stored in macrophages
and the liver}}</div>
1381969768136 1358629116480 What is the treatment for iron deficiency anaemi
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ferrous Sulfate}}</div>
1381970720713 1358629116480 Microcytic anaemia is typically due to a decreas
ed production of&nsp;{{c1::hemogloin}}.
1381970980342 1358629116480 What gloin chains are found in fetal H (HF)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::α2γ2}}</div>
1381974612681 1358629116480 Wha lobin chains are found in adul Hb (HbA)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::α2β2}}</div>
1381974632559 1358629116480 What gloin chains are found in adult H 2 (HA<
su>2</su>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::α2δ2}}</
iv>
1381974663671 1358629116480 What ar targt clls on a PBS <b>most commonly&
nbsp;</b>in
icativ of?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Bta-thalassmia major}}.</
i
v>
1381974688561 1358629116480 What is mgaloblastic anamia typically caus
b
y?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Folat or Vit B12
ficincy}}</
iv>
1381975173270 1358629116480 Whr is B12 absorb
into th bo
y?<
iv><br /><
/
iv><
iv>{{c1::Ilum}}</
iv>
1381975701077 1358629116480 Mgaloblastic anamia
u to&nbsp;{{c1::Vitamin
B12}}
ficincy will prsnt with nurological symptoms an
mthylmalonic aci
u
ria.
1381976035071 1358629116480 {{c1::Prnicious}} anamia is charactriz
by t
h autoimmun
struction of parital clls causing a Vit B12
ficincy
u to
th lack of Intrinsic Factor.
1381976173074 1358629116480 What
os a Corrct
RC &gt; 3% in
icat?<
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Goo
marrow rspons; <u>Priphral Dstruction anamia</u
>}}</
iv>
1381978424809 1358629116480 What
os a Corrct
RC &lt; 3% in
icat?<
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Poor marrow rspons; <u>Un
rpro
uction anamia</u>}}</
i
v>
1381978449981 1358629116480 {{c1::Howll-Jolly}} bo
is ar fragmnts of nuc
lar rmnants within RBCs typically sn following a splnctomy.

1381984682081 1358629116480 {{c1::Hr
itary Sphrocytosis}} is an xtravasc
ular hmolytic anamia
u to an inhrit

fct in RBC cytosklton-mmbran t
thring protins.
1382031427086 1358629116480 What ar Hinz bo
is a common sign of?<
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv>{{c1::G6PD Dficincy}}</
iv>
1382031463484 1358629116480 What 3 cytosklton protins ar
fctiv in H
r
itary Sphrocytosis?<
iv><br></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Ankryin, spctrin or ban
3}}</

iv>
1382033803835 1358629116480 Th&nbsp;{{c1::IgG}} form of Immun Hmolytic An
amia is th form activ at warmr tmpraturs (37^o&nbsp;C).
<br>"boil an gg (IgG)"
1382035196311 1358629116480 Th&nbsp;{{c1::IgM}} form of Immun Hmolytic An
amia is th form activ at coolr tmpraturs.
1382035216298 1358629116480 Th&nbsp;{{c1::IgM}} form of Immun Hmolytic An
amia is th form that involvs th fixation of complmnt.
1382035232710 1358629116480 How shoul
1 unit of pack
RBCs rais th Hb?<

iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::1 g/
L}}</
iv>
1382036627714 1358629116480 How shoul
1 unit of pack
RBCs rais Hct?<
iv>
<br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::3%}}</
iv>
1382140075074 1358629116480 {{c1::Acut}} lukmia is
fin
as an accumula
tion of &gt; 20% immatur blasts at th bon marrow.
1382140600356 1358629116480 What clls xhibit positiv nuclar staining for
T
T, a DNA polymras?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Lymphoblasts}}</
iv>
1382140867981 1358629116480 Which lymphoblast xprsss CD10, CD19 an
CD20?
<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::B-cll}}</
iv>
1382142733006 1358629116480 Bsi
s T
T, what 3 othr surfac rcptors
o B
-cll lymphoblasts xprss?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::CD10, CD19, CD20}}</
iv>
1382142769690 1358629116480 What typ of lymphoblast xprsss CD2 to CD8 r
cptors?<
iv><br />{{c1::T-clls}}</
iv>
1382142789241 1358629116480 Bsi
s T
T, what surfac rcptors
o T-cll Ly
mphoblasts xprss?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::CD2 to CD8}}</
iv>
<br /><

iv><i>An
<b>not</b>&nbsp;CD10.</i></
iv>
1382143544725 1358629116480 What typ of immatur bloo
clls xhibit positi
v cytoplasmic staining for Myloproxi
as (MPO)?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::My
loblasts}}</
iv>
1382144205344 1358629116480 What ar Aur ro
s?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::C
rystal aggrgats of MPO}}</
iv>
1382144235377 1358629116480 What chromosomal translocation is involv
with
Acut Promylocytic Lukmia (AML)?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::t(15;17) involvin
g RAR}}</
iv>
1382144503486 1358629116480 What is th tratmnt for Acut Promylocytic L
ukmia (APL)?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::All-Trans Rtinoic Aci
(ATRA)}}</
iv>
1382144526201 1358629116480 What 2 surfac rcptors/markrs
o Myloblasts
xprss?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::CD13, CD33}}</
iv>
1382145591580 1358629116480 {{c1::Acut Promylocytic}} Lukmia involvs an
incras
risk or high inci
nc of DIC.
1382146319197 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic}} lukmia is
fin
as a noplas
tic prolifration of matur circulating lymphocyts.
1382156647362 1358629116480 What clls ar prolifrating in Chronic Lymphocy
tic Lukmia (CLL)?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Naiv B clls}}</
iv>
1382156672981 1358629116480 What surfac rcptors/markrs ar xprss
by
naiv B clls in Chronic Lymphocytic Lukmia (CLL)?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::
CD5 an
CD20}}</
iv>
1382156703843 1358629116480 What clls ar prolifrating in Hairy Cll Luk
mia?<
iv><br />{{c1::<b>Matur</b>&nbsp;B clls}}</
iv>
1382156732402 1358629116480 What histochmical stain srvs as a positiv Dx
for Hairy Cll Lukmia?<
iv><br></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Tartrat-rsistant Aci
Phosp
hatas (TRAP)}}</
iv> <br><i>TRAP th hairy bast</i>
1382156771156 1358629116480 What is th tratmnt for Hairy Cll Lukmia?<

iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::2-CDA (Cla
ribin)}}</
iv>

1382156794109 1358629116480 What cll is prolifrating in A
ult T-Cll Luk
mia/Lymphoma (ATLL)?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Matur CD4+ T clls}}</
iv>
1382156820301 1358629116480 What virus is commonly associat
with A
ult T-C
ll Lukmia/Lymphoma (ATLL)?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::HTLV-1}}</
iv>
1382156839999 1358629116480 What clls ar commonly prolifrating in Chronic
Myloi
Lukmia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Granulocyts; typically Basophils}
}</
iv>
1382157065077 1358629116480 What chromosomal translocation causs Chronic My
loi
Lukmia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::t(9;22); Phila
lphia chromosom}}</

iv>
1382157098306 1358629116480 What is th tratmnt for Chronic Myloi
Lukm
ia?<
iv><br />{{c1::Imatinib}}</
iv>
1382157130157 1358629116480 What clls ar commonly prolifrating in Polycyt
hmia Vra (PV)?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::RBCs}}</
iv>
1382157161274 1358629116480 What gn mutation is involv
in Polycythmia V
ra?<
iv><br></
iv><
iv>{{c1::JAK2 Kinas mutation}}</
iv>
1382157184325 1358629116480 What clls ar commonly prolifrating in Essnti
al Thrombocythmia (ET)?<
iv><br></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Platlts}}</
iv>
1382157217520 1358629116480 What gn mutation is involv
with Essntial Th
rombocythmia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::JAK2 Kinas mutation}}</
iv>
1382157235675 1358629116480 All Myloprolifrativ Disor
rs hav incras

risk of hypruricmia an
gout xcpt for&nbsp;{{c1::Essntial Thrombocythmia}}
.
1382157273138 1358629116480 What clls ar commonly prolifrating in Mylofi
brosis?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Mgakaryocyts}}</
iv>
1382158220200 1358629116480 What gn mutation in involv
in Mylofibrosis?
<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::JAK2 Kinas mutation}}</
iv>
1382158895217 1358629116480 What is a low Lukocyt Alkalin Phosphatas (LA
P) scor associat
with?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Chronic Myloi
Lukmia}}<
/
iv>
1382159131601 1358629116480 What is a high Lukocyt Alkalin Phosphatas sc
or associat
with?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Lukmoi
ractions}}</
iv>
1382159151080 1358629116480 What is th tratmnt for Polycythmia Vra?<
iv
><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Phlbotomy}}</
iv>
1382219428043 1358629116480 What platlt rcptors bin
to vWF?<
iv><br /><
/
iv><
iv>{{c1::GpIb}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>An
GpIa/IIa to an xtnt</i></
iv
>
1382219462308 1358629116480 What is foun
in Wibl-Pala
 bo
is in n
oth
lium?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::vWF an
P-slctin}}</
iv>
1382219492535 1358629116480 In Brnar
-Soulir syn
rom, thr is a gntic

ficincy of&nbsp;{{c1::GpIb}}, causing
fctiv platlt <b>a
hsion</b>.
1382219744552 1358629116480 In Glanzmann's Thrombasthnia, thr is a gnti
c
ficincy of&nbsp;{{c1::GpIIb/IIIa}}, thrby causing
fctiv platlt <b>a
ggrgation</b>.
1382219797629 1358629116480 What coagulation pathway(s)
os th Prothrombin
Tim (PT) masur?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Extrinsic an
common pathways}}</

iv>
1382220623938 1358629116480 What coagulation pathway(s)
os th Partial Thr
omboplastic Tim (PTT) masur?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Intrinsic an
common
pathways}}</
iv>
1382220655113 1358629116480 What is Christmas Disas?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>
{{c1::Factor IX
ficincy}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>aka Hmophilia B</i></
iv>
1382387672797 1358629116480 What tissu rlass vWF?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{
{c1::En
othlium; from Wibl-Pala
 bo
is}}</
iv>
1382388481747 1358629116480 Col
Hmolytic Anamia involving&nbsp;{{c2::IgM}
} is th form that fixs complmnt.
1382388526704 1358629116480 What
os an lvation in D-Dimr commonly in
ic
at?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::DIC}}</
iv>
1382388553624 1358629116480 An lvation in&nbsp;{{c1::D-Dimr}} is a vry c
ommon in
ication of DIC.

1382388573627 1358629116480 What molcul gts brokn
own to rlas D-Dim
r?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Fibrin (cross-link
)}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>No
t Fibrinogn</i></
iv>
1382468021684 1358629116480 What is th only subtyp of Ho
gkin's Lymphoma t
hat is non-classical?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Lymphocyt-pr
ominant HL}}</
i
v>
1382496126915 1358629116480 What is painful lympha
nopathy commonly associa
t
with?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Acut infction}}</
iv>
1382496271544 1358629116480 What typ of lymphocyt is involv
in Follicula
r or Cortical Hyprplasia of a lymph no
?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::B clls}}<
/
iv>
1382496701969 1358629116480 What typ of lymphocyt is involv
in Paracort
x Hyprplasia of a lymph no
?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::T clls}}</
iv>
1382496721124 1358629116480 What ar th malignant clls involv
in Ho
gkin
's Lymphoma?<
iv> <img src="past-9216999817318.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv
>{{c1::R
-Strnbrg (RS) clls}}</
iv>
1382496969140 1358629116480 {{c1::Non-Ho
gkin's}} Lymphoma involvs
iffus
spra
an
is oftn xtrano
al.
1382497030801 1358629116480 {{c1::Ho
gkin's}} Lymphoma involvs contiguous s
pra
an
is rarly xtrano
al.
1382497048957 1358629116480 What translocation is involv
in Follicular Lym
phoma?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::t(14;18)}}</
iv>
1382497090810 1358629116480 What gn is translocat
in t(14;18) in Follicu
lar Lymphoma?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::<i>Bcl2</i>; to th immunoglobulin hav
y chain gn}}</
iv>
1382497133995 1358629116480 {{c1::Mantl Cll}} Lymphoma is a noplastic pro
lifration of B clls in th mantl zon of th lymph no
 just a
jacnt to th
follicl.
1382497408865 1358629116480 What surfac markr ar xprss
by B clls in
Lymphoma?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::CD20+}}</
iv>
1382497430236 1358629116480 What translocation is involv
in Mantl Cll Ly
mphoma?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::t(11;14)}}</
iv>
1382497451498 1358629116480 What gn is translocat
in th t(11;14) in Man
tl Cll Lymphoma?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Cyclin D1}}</
iv>
1382497484815 1358629116480 Ovrxprssion of&nbsp;{{c2::Cyclin D1}} in Mant
l Cll Lymphoma promots G₁&nbsp;to S transitioning in th cll cycl
.
1382497550160 1358629116480 {{c1::Marginal Zon}} Lymphoma involvs noplast
ic prolifration of th marginal zon of th lymph no
.
1382497849573 1358629116480 What gn is involv
in t(8;14) in Burkitt's Ly
mphoma?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::<i>C-Myc</i>}}</
iv>
1382498306374 1358629116480 What translocation is involv
in Burkitt's Lymp
homa?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::t(8;14)}}</
iv>
1382498319343 1358629116480 What form of Burkitt's Lymphoma involvs th jaw
?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::African}}</
iv>
1382498349056 1358629116480 What form of Burkitt's Lymphoma involvs th ab

omn?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Spora
ic, Amrican}}</
iv>
1382498363878 1358629116480 {{c1::Diffus Larg B Cll}} Lymphoma is a nopl
astic prolifration whr B clls grow
iffusly in shts.
1382498414178 1358629116480 What cll markrs ar prsnt in Classical Ho
gk
in's Lymphoma?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::CD15 an
CD30}}</
iv>
1382498456753 1358629116480 What surfac markrs ar prsnt in Non-Classica
l Ho
gkin's Lymphoma?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::CD20}}</
iv> <br /><
iv><i>Al
so, this form is CD15 an
CD30 ngativ</i></
iv>
1382498492529 1358629116480 What typ of R
-Strnbrg Clls ar foun
in N
o
ular Sclrosis Ho
gkin's Lymphoma?<
iv><br>{{c1::Lacunar RS Clls}}</
iv>
1382498742055 1358629116480 What is th most common typ of Ho
gkin's Lympho
ma?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::No
ular Sclrosis}}</
iv>
1382498794504 1358629116480 Which form of Ho
gkin's Lymphoma has th bst pr
ognosis?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Lymphocyt-rich HL}}</
iv>

1382498829426 1358629116480 What cytokin
o RS Clls scrt in <b>Mix
C
llularity Ho
gkin's Lymphoma</b>?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::IL-5}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>Causing osinophilia</i></
iv>
1382498871896 1358629116480 What is th most aggrssiv typ of Ho
gkin's Ly
mphoma?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Lymphocyt-
plt
HL}}</
iv>
<br /><

iv><i>Also th worst Px</i></
iv>
1382498931740 1358629116480 Stag&nbsp;{{c2::III}} lymphoma is th first sta
g whr thr is lymph no
 involvmnt on both si
s of th
iaphragm.
1382498991207 1358629116480 What typ of clls ar prolifrating in Multipl
Myloma?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Plasma clls}}</
iv>
1382499558993 1358629116480 What cytokin is lvat
in Multipl Myloma?<

iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::IL-6; which stimulats plasma cll growth}}</
iv>
1382499714299 1358629116480 Noplastic clls in Multipl Myloma scrt&nbs
p;{{c1::RANKL}} which activats RANK Rcptors on ostoclasts, thrby activatin
g thm. <br /><
iv><i>Causing <b>hyprcalcmia, bon pain an
punch
out lytic
bon lsions</b></i></
iv>
1382499776181 1358629116480 An M-Spik on an SPEP is commonly in
icativ of&
nbsp;{{c1::Multipl Myloma}}
1382499899696 1358629116480 Which 2 monoclonal antibo
is ar commonly invol
v
in th M Spik in Multipl Myloma?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::IgG an
IgA}}
</
iv>
1382499928832 1358629116480 {{c1::Roulaux}} formation of RBCs in Multipl M
yloma involvs th stacking of RBCs lik pokr chips
u to a
cras in th c
hargs btwn thm.
1382500085651 1358629116480 {{c1::Bnc Jons}} Protinuria in Multipl Myl
oma is
u to fr amyloi
light chains in circulation that n
up in th urin.
<br /><
iv><i>Ths light chains can also caus rnal failur; i.. Myloma Ki
n
y</i></
iv>
1382500148494 1358629116480 {{c1::Monoclonal Gammopathy of Un
trmin
Sign
ificanc (MGUS)}} is a Plasma Cll Dyscrasia charactriz
by an M-Spik, but a
lack of othr symptoms or
isas.
1382500469911 1358629116480 {{c1::Wal
nstrom Macroglobulinma}} is a Plasma
Cll Dyscrasia charactriz
by monoclonal IgM pro
uction.
1382500733575 1358629116480 Th srum hyprviscosity sn in Wal
nstrom Mac
roglobulinmia caus
by lvat
lvls of {{c1::IgM}}.
<br /><
iv><i>R
mmbr, <b>IgM circulats in pntamric form</b>.</i></
iv>
1382500823352 1358629116480 What ar Birbck Granuls in
icativ of?<
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Langrhans Cll Histiocytosis}}</
iv>
1382500930694 1358629116480 Which 2 immunohistochmical markrs ar in
icati
v of Langrhans Cll Histiocytosis?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::CD1a an
S100}}<
/
iv>
1382501004499 1358629116480 {{c1::Eosinophilic Granuloma}} is a bnign form
of Langrhans Cll Histiocytosis.
1382501038185 1358629116480 {{c1::Lttrr-Siw}} Disas is a form of Lang
rhans Cll Histiocytosis that ffcts infants &lt; 3 y/o.
1382501079192 1358629116480 {{c1::Han
-Schullr-Christian}} Disas is a for
m of Langrhans Cll Histiocytosis that affcts chil
rn &gt; 3 y/o.
1382574927603 1358629116480 <
iv>Which pathologis ar associat
with basop
hilic stippling of RBCs?</
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><img src="past-919123001421.jpg"
/><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Thalassmia, Anamia of Chronic Disas an
La

Poisoning}}</
iv>
1382575024062 1358629116480 Which pathology is associat
with Bit Clls?<

iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-987842478189.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv>{{c1::G6PD Dficincy}}</
iv>
1382575065352 1358629116480 Which pathology is associat
with Elliptocyts?
<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-1099511627901.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
i
v><
iv>{{c1::Hr
itary Elliptocytosis}}</
iv>
1382575102103 1358629116480 Which pathology is associat
with Macro-Ovalocy
ts?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-1206885810305.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br />
</
iv><
iv>{{c1::Mgaloblastic anamia or bon marrow failur}}</
iv>

1382575140972 1358629116480 What pathology is associat
with Ring
Si
rob
lasts?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-1451698946169.jpg" /><br /><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Si
roblastic anamia}}</
iv></
iv> <br /><
iv><i>Caus
by
an xcss of Iron in mitochon
ria.</i></
iv>
1382575200853 1358629116480 What pathologis ar associat
with Schistocyt
s (Hlmt Clls)?<
iv><br></
iv><
iv><img src="past-1511828488302.jpg" /></
iv>
<
iv><br></
iv><
iv>{{c1::DIC; TTP/HUS; Traumatic Hmolysis}}</
iv>
1382575259033 1358629116480 What pathology is associat
with Sickl Clls?<

iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-1657857376334.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv
><
iv>{{c1::Sickl Cll Anamia}}</
iv>
1382575284613 1358629116480 What pathology is associat
with Sphrocyts?<

iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-1683627180151.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv>
<
iv>{{c1::Hr
itary Sphrocytosis or Autoimmun Hmolysis}}</
iv>
1382575317169 1358629116480 What pathologis ar associat
with Tar
rop C
lls?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-1902670512244.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br />
</
iv><
iv>{{c1::Bon Marrow Infiltration}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>.g. Mylo
fibrosis</i></
iv>
1382575374703 1358629116480 What pathologis ar associat
with Targt Cll
s?<
iv><br></
iv><
iv><img src="past-2027224563827.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br></
iv>
<
iv>{{c1::HbC Disas; Asplnia; Livr Failur; Thalassmia}}</
iv>
<br><i>H
ALT</i>
1382575433648 1358629116480 What pathologis ar associat
with Hinz Bo
i
s?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-2233382994045.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv>{{c1::G6PD Dficincy; somtims in alpha-Thalassmia}}</
iv>
1382575481024 1358629116480 What pathologis ar associat
with Howll-Joll
y Bo
is?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-2366526980211.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Functional Hyposplnia; Asplnia; Naphthaln ingstion}}<
/
iv>
1382587135379 1358629116480 What pathology is associat
with Hyprsgmnt

Nutrophils?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-4737348927679.jpg" /></
iv><

iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Mgaloblastic anamia}}</
iv>
1382622175147 1358629116480 What ar smu
g clls commonly
iagnostic of?<
i
v><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-1005022347419.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><

iv>{{c1::Chronic Lymphocytic Lukmia or Small Lymphocytic Lukmia}}</
iv><
iv
><br /></
iv>
1386633522376 1358629116480 Which platlt
isor
r is associat
with lva
t
srum LDH?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Thrombotic Thrombocytopnic Purpura (T
TP)}}</
iv>
1386633564455 1358629116480 Which clotting factors
os von Willbran
's Fac
tor (vWF) carry?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Factor VIII}}</
iv>
1396891210725 1395802358422 Which malabsorptiv
isor
r is associat
with
Acanthocyts (Spur Clls)?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-8967891714120.jp
g" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Abtalipoprotinmia}}</
iv>
1396891266888 1395802358422 Which anamia is associat
with basophillic sti
ppling?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-9045201125449.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Anamia of Chronic Disas an
Thalassmias}}</
iv>
1396891366866 1395802358422 Which typ of havy mtal poisoning is associat

with basophilic stippling?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-9040906158153.
jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::La
Poisoning}}</
iv>
1396891434452 1395802358422 Which
rug of abus is associat
with basophili
c stippling?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Alcohol Abus}}</
iv>
1396891455441 1395802358422 Which mtabolic
isor
r is associat
with Bit
Clls?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-9247064588360.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv>{{c1::G6PD Dficincy}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>Du to splnic mac
rophags rmoving Hinz bo
is via phagocytosis or
u to
amag to th RBC mmb
ran</i></
iv>
1396891515880 1395802358422 Which RBC
isor
r is associat
with Elliptocyt
s?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-9324373999690.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /><
/
iv><
iv>{{c1::Hr
itary Elliptocytosis}}</
iv>
1396891538694 1395802358422 Which anamia is associat
with Macro-ovalocyt

s?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-9358733738058.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
<br /><
iv><i>Also occurs in bon

iv><
iv>{{c1::Mgaloblastic Anamia}}</
iv>
 marrow failur</i></
iv>
1396891617633 1395802358422 Which anamia is associat
with Ring
Si
robl
asts?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-9844065042508.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Si
roblastic Anamia}}</
iv> <br /><
iv><i>Du to xcss iron
in th mitochon
ria of RBCs.</i></
iv>
1396891676614 1395802358422 Which platlt
isor
r is associat
with Schis
tocyts (Hlmt Clls)?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-9878424780871.jpg"
/></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::TTP; HUS; DIC}}</
iv>
1396891820018 1395802358422 Which anamia is associat
with Sickl Clls?<

iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-9964324126796.jpg" /><br /><
iv><br /></
iv>
<
iv>{{c1::Sickl Cll Anamia}}</
iv></
iv>
1396891856532 1395802358422 What RBC
isor
r is associat
with Sphrocyts
?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-9998683865164.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv>{{c1::Hr
itary sphrocytosis; Autoimmun hmolysis}}</
iv>
1396891894265 1395802358422 What ar Tar
rop Clls in
icativ of?<
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv><img src="past-10033043603529.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{
c1::Bon Marrow Infiltration}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>RBCs ar physically forc

out of th marrow an
assum a tar
rop shap as thy ar squz
out.</i></
i
v>
1396891954752 1395802358422 What
isor
rs ar Targt Clls associat
with?
<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-10230612099147.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></

iv><
iv>{{c1::<b>H</b>bC Disas; <b>A</b>splnia; <b>L</b>ivr Disas; <b>T</b
>halassmia}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>"<b>HALT</b>," sai
th huntr to its <b>t
argt</b>.</i></
iv>
1396892252709 1395802358422 What RBC
isor
rs ar associat
with Hinz Bo

is?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-10282151706702.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /
></
iv><
iv>{{c1::G6PD
ficincy; alpha-Thalassmia}}</
iv>
1396892338343 1395802358422 Which spcial stain is n

to visualiz Hinz
Bo
is?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-10277856739406.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Crystal Violt}}</
iv>
1396892434939 1395802358422 {{c1::Hinz Bo
is}} ar intracllular inclusion
s sn in RBCs that aris
u to oxi
ation of hmoglobin sulfhy
ryl groups an
t
h rsultant
naturation an
prcipitation of hmoglobin.<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>
<img src="past-10277856739406.jpg" /></
iv>
1396892520013 1395802358422 {{c1::Howll-Jolly Bo
is}} ar intracllular in
clusions sn in RBCs an
ar
scrib
as <b>basophilic nuclar rmnants</b> th
at hav not bn rmov
by splnic macrophags.
<br /><
iv><i>Hinz bo
i
s ar ma
 of <b>oxi
iz
hmoglobin</b>.</i></
iv>
1396892570290 1395802358422 What
o Howll-Jolly Bo
is in
icat?<
iv><br />
</
iv><
iv><img src="past-11132555231309.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c
1::Functional Hyposplnia or Asplnia}}</
iv>
1396892619745 1395802358422 How ar Howll-Jolly Bo
is normally rmov
fro
m RBCs?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-11128260264013.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><b
r /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Via phagocytosis by Splnic Macrophags}}</
iv>
1396892650839 1395802358422 What MCV is in
icativ of Microcytic Anamia?<
i
v><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::&lt; 80 fL}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>1 fmtolitr (fL)
= 10^-15&nbsp;L</i></
iv>
1396895739660 1395802358422 What MCV is in
icativ of Macrocytic Anamia?<
i
v><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::&gt; 100 fL}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>1 fmtolitr (fL)
= 10^-15&nbsp;L</i></
iv>
1396895742227 1395802358422 What is th normal MCV rang of RBCs?<
iv><br />
</
iv><
iv>{{c1::80-100 fL}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>1 fmtolitr (fL) = 10<sup
>-15</sup>&nbsp;L</i></
iv>
1396896040778 1395802358422 What class of anamia is <b>lat</b> Iron Dfici
ncy Anamia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Microcytic}}</
iv>
<
iv><br /></
iv
><i>ACD an
IDA typically bgin as normocytic anamia an
thn progrss to micro
cytic anamia.</i><br /><
iv><i><img src="past-12013023527510.jpg" /></i></
iv>
1396896052395 1395802358422 What class of anamia ar th Thalassmias?<
iv>

<br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Microcytic}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><img src="past-12008
728560214.jpg" /></
iv>
1396896082810 1395802358422 What class of anamia
os La
Poisoning caus?
<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Microcytic}}</
iv> <br /><
iv><img src="past-12008
728560214.jpg" /></
iv>
1396896109519 1395802358422 What class of anamia is Si
roblastic Anamia?<

iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Microcytic}}</
iv> <br /><
iv><img src="past-12008
728560214.jpg" /></
iv>
1396896133445 1395802358422 What class of anamia is <b>arly</b>&nbsp;Iron
Dficincy Anamia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Normocytic}}</
iv>
<
iv><br
/></
iv><i>ACD an
IDA typically bgin as normocytic anamia an
thn progrss
to microcytic anamia.</i><br /><
iv><img src="past-12803297509981.jpg" /></
iv
>
1396910149495 1395802358422 What class of anamia is <b>lat</b>&nbsp;Anami
a of Chronic Disas?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Microcytic}}</
iv>
<
iv><br
/></
iv><i>ACD an
IDA typically bgin as normocytic anamia an
thn progrss
to microcytic anamia.</i><br /><
iv><img src="past-12799002542685.jpg" /></
iv
>
1396910178297 1395802358422 What class of anamia is <b>arly</b>&nbsp;Anam
ia of Chronic Disas?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Normocytic}}</
iv>
<
iv><br
/></
iv><i>ACD an
IDA typically bgin as normocytic anamia an
thn progrss
to microcytic anamia.</i><br /><
iv><img src="past-12799002542685.jpg" /></
iv
>
1396910191363 1395802358422 What class of anamia ar <b>all</b>&nbsp;Hmoly
tic Anamias?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Normocytic}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><img
src="past-12799002542685.jpg" /></
iv>
1396910245111 1395802358422 How
o Rticulocyt lvls chang in Hmolytic A
namia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Incras
}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><img src="pas
t-12799002542685.jpg" /></
iv>
1396910281570 1395802358422 How
os Rticulocyt count chang in Nonhmolyt
ic Normocytic anamias?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Normal or Dcras
}}</
iv>
1396910324813 1395802358422 What class of anamias ar all Mgaloblastic ana
mias?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Macrocytic}}</
iv>
1396910872256 1395802358422 {{c1::Iron Dficincy Anamia}} is a microcytic
anamia that rsults from a loss,
ficincy or ina
quat supply of iron an
in
volvs <u>microcytosis</u>&nbsp;an
<u>hypochromia</u>.<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><im
g src="past-14108967567661.jpg" /></
iv>
1396911584796 1395802358422 {{c1::Plummr-Vinson Syn
rom}} is a possibl ma
nifstation of Iron Dficincy Anamia (IDA) that involvs a tria
of <b>IDA, s
ophagal wbs</b>, an
<b>atrophic glossitis</b>.&nbsp;
1396911663405 1395802358422 {{c1::Iron Dficincy Anamia}} is a microcytic
anamia that commonly prsnts with fatigu an
<u>conjunctival pallour</u>.<
iv
><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-14259291423020.jpg" /></
iv>
1396913150025 1395802358422 What is th tiology of alpha-Thalassmia?<
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::<b>Dltions</b>&nbsp;of th alpha-globin gn, thrby ca
using
cras
alpha-globin chain synthsis}}</
iv>
1396913263890 1395802358422 Which typ of alpha-globin gn
ltion (alphaThalassmia) is most prvalnt in Asian populations?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::
<i>cis</i>&nbsp;
ltions}}</
iv>
1396913318761 1395802358422 Which typ of alpha-globin gn
ltion (alphaThalassmia) is most prvalnt in&nbsp;African populations?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv
>{{c1::<i>trans</i>&nbsp;
ltions}}</
iv>
1396913328746 1395802358422 Which
mographic most commonly xhibits <i>cis
</i>
ltions in alpha-Thalassmia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Asian populations
}}</
iv>
1396913363564 1395802358422 Which
mographic commonly xhibits <i>trans</i>
&nbsp;
ltions in alpha-Thalassmia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::African populat
ions}}</
iv>
1396913407984 1395802358422 How many alll
ltions must b prsnt in or

r for thr to b clinically significant alpha-Thalassmia (with anamia)?<
iv>

<br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::3+}}</
iv>
1396913568568 1395802358422 {{c1::HbH Disas}} is a form of alpha-Thalassm
ia that prsnts whn thr is 3 alll
ltions.
1396913670136 1395802358422 {{c1::HbH Disas}} is a form of alpha-Thalassm
ia that involvs th formation of HbH (β<su>4</su>) due to&nsp;excess β-gloin le
vels and very little&nsp;alpha-gloin.&nsp;
1396913946002 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydrops Fetalis}} is a complication of alp
ha-Thalassemia when there is 4 allele deletions and is incompatile with life.
1396913987395 1395802358422 {{c1::H Barts}} is a form of hemogloin that ma
nifests in alpha-Thalassemia as a result of 4 allele deletions.
1396914035041 1395802358422 {{c1::H Barts (γ₄)}} is a form of hemo
lobin ha manifess in alpha-Thalassemia due o a complee lack of alpha-lobi
n expression and an excess of γ-lobin.
1396914128610 1395802358422 Wha is he eioloy of&nbsp;β-Thalassemia?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Point mutations in splice sites and promoter sequences for
the β-gloin gene, therey causing decreased β-gloin synthesis}}</div>
1396914547348 1395802358422 Which demographic has a high prevalence of&nsp;βThalassemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mediterranean populations}}</div>
1396914580106 1395802358422 What form of&nsp;β-Thalassemia is seen in someone
who is heterozygous for mutations in the&nsp;β-gloin gene splice sites and prom
oter sequences?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::β-Thalassemia minor}}</div>
1396914944146 1395802358422 What form of&nsp;β-Thalassemia is seen in someone
who is homozygous for mutations in the&nsp;β-gloin gene splice sites and promot
er sequences?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::β-Thalassemia Major}}</div>
1396914956018 1395802358422 {{c1::β-Thalassemia Minor}} is a form of&nsp;β-Thal
assemia that is usually aymptomatic despite involving an underproduction of&nsp
;β-gloin.
1396914997976 1395802358422 {{c1::β-Thalassemia Minor}} is a type of&nsp;β-Thal
assemia that can e confirmed y an increase&nsp;(&gt; 3.5%)&nsp;in HA2&nsp;
(α₂δ₂)&nbsp;on gl lctrophorsis.
1396915096045 1395802358422 What prcntag of HbA2 (α₂δ₂)
on gl lctrophorsis is
iagnostic of&nbsp;β-Thalassemia Minor?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::&gt; 3.5%}}</div>
1396915233444 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemochromatosis}} is a potential secondary
complication of&nsp;β-Thalassemia Major due to the frequent and required lood t
ransfusions.
1396915614457 1395802358422 {{c1::β-Thalassemia Major}} is a type of&nsp;β-Thal
assemia that involves one marrow expansion, therey resulting in characteristic
skeletal deformities such as a <>'crew cut'</>&nsp;on cranial x-ray and <>'
chipmunk-like facies'</>.<r /><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1669453787
9829.jpg" /></div>
1396915622030 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepatosplenomegaly}} is a possile complic
ation of&nsp;β-Thalassemia that results from extramedullary hematopoiesis.
1396915657419 1395802358422 Which type of&nsp;β-Thalassemia involves an incre
ased risk of Parvovirus B19-induced aplastic crisis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::βThalassemia Major}}</div>
1396915702883 1395802358422 How do the levels of fetal hemogloin (HF) chan
ge in an infant with&nsp;β-Thalassemia Major?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase
d}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, HF (a<su>2</su>γ₂) does no
involve&nbsp;β-gloin.</i></div>
1396915805782 1395802358422 {{c1::HF (a<su>2</su>γ₂; feal Hb)}}
is a ype of hemolobin ha is proecive in an infan wih&nbsp;β-Thalassemia M
ajor, hence the disease will only present after 6 months as its levels decrease.
1396915878517 1395802358422 How long after irth will an infant with&nsp;β-Th
alassemia Major present with symptoms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::6 months (as H
F levels decline)}}</div>
1396915915532 1395802358422 {{c1::β-Thalassemia Major}} is a type of&nsp;β-Thal
assemia that presents with <u>anisocytosis</u>, <u>poikilocytosis</u>, <u>target
cells</u>&nsp;(1; 2), <u>microcytosis</u>&nsp;(3), and <u>schistocytes</u>&n
sp;(4).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17205638988092.jpg" /></div>

1396923584670 1395802358422 Which 2 enzymes involved in heme synthesis are i
nhiited y Lead?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ferrochelatase; ALA Dehydratase}}</
div>
1396924529687 1395802358422 {{c1::Ferrochelatase}} and&nsp;{{c2::ALA Dehydr
atase}} are 2 enzymes involved in heme synthesis that are inhiited y lead.
1396924595823 1395802358422 How do protoporphyrin levels change in Lead pois
oning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1396927213794 1395802358422 {{c1::Basophilic Stippling}} is a feature of lea
d poisoning that results from the retention of aggregates of rRNA in RBCs due to
lead inhiiting rRNA degradation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18683107
73927.jpg" /></div>
1396927309507 1395802358422 What causes Basophilic Stippling of RBCs in Lead
poisoning?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1864015806631.jpg" /><r /><div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lead causes inhiition of rRNA degradation}}</div></div>
1396927347370 1395802358422 What type of microcytic anaemia has a high risk
of manifesting in patients that live in old houses with chipped paint?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Siderolastic Anaemia (via Lead poisoning)}}</div>
1396927540738 1395802358422 {{c1::Burton Lines}} are a feature of Lead poiso
ning and are descried as lead lines on gingivae.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-2259152798291.jpg" /></div>
1396927833491 1395802358422 <div>{{c1::Lead Lines}} are a feature of Lead po
isoning and are characterized as visile lines at the metaphyses of long ones o
n x-ray.</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2379411882191.jpg" /></div>
1396927931581 1395802358422 Which anaemia is seen following Lead poisoning?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Siderolastic Anaemia}}</div>
1396927947907 1395802358422 {{c1::Wrist/Foot Drop}} are a feature of lead po
isoning that arise due to weakening of the distal musculature of oth upper and
lower lims.
1396928173024 1395802358422 {{c1::Dimercaprol}} and&nsp;{{c2::EDTA}} are th
e 1st line treatments in Lead poisoning.
1396928199219 1395802358422 {{c1::Succimer}} is a chelating agent that is us
ed to treat Lead poisoning in kids.
<r /><div><i>It <>suc</>ks to e a ki
d who eats lead</i></div>
1396928228190 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Siderolastic Anaemia?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Any defect in heme synthesis}}</div>
1396928462524 1395802358422 What is the etiology of <>Hereditary</>&nsp;S
iderolastic Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked defect in δ-ALA Synthas
}}</
iv>
1396928537687 1395802358422 What is th gntic inhritanc of Hr
itary Si

roblastic Anamia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::X-link

fct in δ-ALA Synthas}
}</
iv>
1396928565901 1395802358422 What is th most common caus of Si
roblastic A
namia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Alcohol}}</
iv>
1396928585454 1395802358422 {{c1::Isoniazi
}} is an anti-TB antibiotic that
can caus Si
roblastic Anamia.
<br /><
iv><i>INH can caus Vitamin B6

ficincy.</i></
iv>
1396928651987 1395802358422 Which <b>vitamin</b>&nbsp;
ficincy is commonly
associat
with Si
roblastic Anamia?<
iv><br />{{c1::Vitamin B₆&nb
sp;
ficincy}}</
iv>
1396928709449 1395802358422 Bsi
s La
, which havy mtal/trac lmnt is
abl to caus Si
roblastic Anamia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Coppr}}</
iv>
1396928821491 1395802358422 {{c1::Ring
Si
roblasts}} ar a charactristic
fatur of Si
roblastic Anamia an
ar
scrib
as immatur RBCs with iron-l
a
n mitochon
ria.<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-3633542332617.jpg" /></

iv>
1396928905197 1395802358422 What is th primary gnral tratmnt for Si
ro
blastic Anamia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Pyri
oxin (Vitamin B₆)}}
</
iv>
1396928975740 1395802358422 Which vitamin srvs as a cofactor for&nbsp;δ-ALA
Synthas, an nzym involv
in hm synthsis?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Vitam

in B₆}}</
iv>
1396974399864 1395802358422 Which typ of macrocytic anamia ariss
u to i
mpair
DNA synthsis?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Mgaloblastic Anamia}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>Hnc, th maturation of th nuclus of prcursor clls in th bon
 marrow is
lay
rlativ to th maturation of th cytoplasm. Th abnormal c
ll
ivision that thn occurs rsults in pancytopnia.</i></
iv>
1396974723360 1395802358422 Which 2 vitamin
ficincis commonly caus Mga
loblastic Anamia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Folat an
Vitamin B₁₂&
nbsp;
ficincis}}</
iv>
1396974790238 1395802358422 Which
rug of abus can commonly caus Folat

ficincy?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Alcohol}}</
iv>
1396974837769 1395802358422 {{c1::Mgaloblastic Anamia}} is a typ of macro
cytic anamia that prsnts with <b>hyprsgmnt
nutrophils</b>&nbsp;an
<b>g
lossitis</b>.<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-850403524813.jpg" /></
iv>
1396974924108 1395802358422 How
o Homocystin lvls chang in Mgaloblast
ic Anamia caus
by Folat or Vitamin B12
ficincy?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1
::Incras
}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>This is
u to impair
convrsion of Homo
cystin to Mthionin, a procss that rquirs both Folat an
Vitamin B12.</i>
</
iv>
1396975199225 1395802358422 How
o Mthylmalonic Aci
lvls chang in Folat

ficincy?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Thy ar <b>normal</b>}}</
iv> <br /><

iv><i>Folat is not rquir
to convrt Mthylmalonic Aci
to Succinyl CoA. Vita
min B12 is. Hnc thr ar no nurological symptoms in Folat
ficincy.</i></

iv>
1396978114974 1395802358422 {{c1::Folat
ficincy}} is a vitamin
ficinc
y that can caus Mgaloblastic Anamia but <b>
os not</b>&nbsp;involv any nur
ological symptoms.
1396978153919 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitamin B12 Dficincy}} is a vitamin
fi
cincy that can caus Mgaloblastic Anamia <b>with </b>nurological symptoms.
1396978188307 1395802358422 Which inflammatory bowl
isas is most commonl
y associat
with Vitamin B12
ficincy?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Crohn's Dis
as}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>Du to
amag to th trminal ilum, whr Vit B12
is absorb
.</i></
iv>
1396981283853 1395802358422 What is th most common caus of Vitamin B12
f
icincy?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Prnicious Anamia}}</
iv> <br /><
iv><i>Au
toimmun
struction of gastric Parital Clls causing instrinsic factor
fici
ncy. Rmmbr, intrinsic factor bin
s to Vitamin B12 in th stomach an
is n


for absorption at th trminal ilum.</i></
iv>
1396981353074 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Diphyllobothrium latum</i>}} is a tapw
orm that commonly causs Vitamin B12
ficincy through consumption of Vitamin B
12 an

amag to th trminal ilum.
<br /><
iv><i>Rmmbr, Vitamin B12 is a
bsorb
at th trminal ilum.</i></
iv>
1396981420597 1395802358422 Which typ of
it is commonly known to caus Vi
tamin B12
ficincy?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Vgan}}</
iv> <br /><
iv><i>Ot
hrwis,
itary
ficincy of Vitamin B12 is rar.</i></
iv>
1396981950889 1395802358422 How
o Mthylmalonic Aci
lvls chang in Vitam
in B12
ficincy?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Incras
}}</
iv> <br /><
iv><i>Vi
tamin B12 is rquir
to convrt Mthylmalonic Aci
to Succinyl CoA.</i></
iv>
1396981978709 1395802358422 {{c1::Subacut Combin
Dgnration}} is a nur
ological complication of Vitamin B12
ficincy that rsults
u to incras
l
vls of Mthylmalonic Aci
which impairs spinal cor
mylinization.
1396982321391 1395802358422 Which mtabolic compoun
is lvat
in Vitamin
B12
ficincy an
is rsponsibl for th nurological symptoms sn?<
iv><br />
</
iv><
iv>{{c1::Mthylmalonic Aci
}}</
iv>
1396982390296 1395802358422 {{c1::Orotic Aci
uria}} is a gntic caus of M
galoblastic Anamia that involvs an autosomal rcssiv
fct in UMP Synthas,
an nzym involv
in
 novo pyrimi
in synthsis.
1396983368059 1395802358422 What is th gntic inhritanc of Orotic Aci
ur
ia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Autosomal Rcssiv}}</
iv>
1396983382912 1395802358422 Which nzym involv
in
 novo pyrimi
in synt

hsis is
fctiv in Orotic Aci
uria?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::UMP Synthas}}
</
iv>
1396983407817 1395802358422 {{c1::UMP Synthas}} is an nzym involv
in

novo pyrimi
in synthsis that convrts Orotic Aci
to UMP.
1396983445591 1395802358422 {{c1::Orotic Aci
uria}} is a caus of Mgaloblas
tic Anamia that cannot b cur
by Folat or Vitamin B12 supplmntation.
1396983653929 1395802358422 What is th
iffrnc btwn Orotic Aci
uria a
n
Ornithin Transcarbamylas Dficincy (both hav lvat
Orotic Aci
)?<
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Orotic Aci
uria <b>
os not</b> hav Hyprammonmia, OTD

os}}</
iv>
1396983715945 1395802358422 {{c1::Orotic Aci
uria}} is a caus of Mgaloblas
tic Anamia that prsnts with Orotic Aci
in th urin.
1396983921224 1395802358422 What is th tratmnt for Orotic Aci
uria?<
iv><
br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Uri
in Monophosphat (UMP), which bypasss UMP Synthas (
th
fctiv nzym)}}</
iv>
1396983990634 1395802358422 {{c1::Nonmgaloblastic Anamia}} is a typ of Ma
crocytic Anamia that <b>
os not</b>&nbsp;involv impairmnts in DNA synthsis.
<br /><
iv><i>Typically
u to livr
isas, alcoholism or crtain anti-noplas
tic
rugs.</i></
iv>
1396984225274 1395802358422 {{c1::5-Fluorouracil}} is a pyrimi
in analog us

as anti-cancr tratmnt that can caus Nonmgaloblastic Macrocytic Anamia.
1396984320833 1395802358422 {{c1::Zi
ovu
in (AZT)}} is a NRTI anti-rtrovir
al
rug that can caus Nonmgaloblastic Macrocytic Anamia.
1396984375701 1395802358422 {{c1::Hy
roxyura}} is an anticancr
rug us
i
n myoprolifrativ
isor
rs that can caus Nonmgaloblastic Macrocytic Anamia
.
1396984461529 1395802358422 Which
rug of abus can caus Nonmgaloblastic M
acrocytic Anamia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Alcohol}}</
iv>
1396984484043 1395802358422 {{c1::Intravascular Hmolysis}} is a typ of hm
olysis that occurs <b>within</b>&nbsp;bloo
vssls.
1396985584746 1395802358422 {{c1::Extravascular Hmolysis}} is a typ of hm
olysis that occurs in th Rticulon
othlial Systm (via Splnic Macrophags, L
ivr an
Lymph No
s).
1396985625896 1395802358422 How
o Haptoglobin lvls chang in Intravascula
r Hmolysis?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Dcras
}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>R
mmbr, w masur <b>fr</b>&nbsp;Haptoglobin, which woul

cras whn Hapto
globin bgins bin
ing to fr Hmoglobin rlas
from RBCs via hmolysis.</i></

iv>
1396985781982 1395802358422 How
o LDH lvls chang in both Intravascular a
n
Extravascular Hmolysis?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Incras}}</
iv>
1396986016836 1395802358422 Which typ of Hmolysis is associat
with incr
as
<b>Uncojugat
</b> Bilirubin an
subsqunt jaun
ic?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>
{{c1::Extravascular Hmolysis}}</
iv>
1396986078397 1395802358422 Which typ of hmolysis is associat
with Urobi
linogn in th urin?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Intravascular Hmolysis}}</
iv>
1396986112850 1395802358422 Which typ of hmolysis is associat
with Schis
tocyts?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Intravascular Hmolysis}}</
iv>
1396986194916 1395802358422 Which typ of hmolysis is associat
with Sphr
ocyts?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-6008659247266.jpg" /></
iv><
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Extravascular Hmolysis}}</
iv>
1396986334863 1395802358422 {{c1::Hpci
in}} is an acut phas ractant prot
in rlas
from th livr
uring chronic inflammation/
isas that bin
s to F
rroportin on intstinal mucosal clls an
macrophags.
1397004898205 1395802358422 {{c1::Hpci
in}} is an acut phas ractant prot
in rlas
from th livr in Anamia of Chronic Disas that bings to Frropor
tin on intstinal mucosal clls an
macrophags, thrby inhibiting iron transpo
rt.
1397004935142 1395802358422 {{c1::Hpci
in}} is an acut phas ractant prot
in from th livr involv
in Anamia of Chronic Disas that bin
s to Frropor
tin on Macrophags, thrby <b>
crasing</b>&nbsp;iron rlas from Macrophags

.
<br /><
iv><i>Rmmbr, it is Macrophags that transfr iron to rythroi

prcursors.</i></
iv>
1397005043090 1395802358422 {{c1::Anamia of Chronic Disas}} is a Nonhmol
ytic Normocytic Anamia
u to chronic inflammation/
isas that can bcom Micr
ocytic in its latr stags.
1397005592139 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplastic Anamia}} is a nonhmolytic, norm
ocytic anamia that is caus
by failur or
struction of myloi
stm clls in
th bon marrow.
1397005712093 1395802358422 {{c1::Chloramphnicol}} is an antibiotic that ca
n caus Aplastic Anamia.
<br /><
iv><i>Rar, but vry svr an
gnrall
y fatal.</i></
iv>
1397005799996 1395802358422 Which Hrps virus can caus Aplastic Anamia?<

iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::EBV}}</
iv>
1397005823015 1395802358422 Which Hpatitis virus can caus Aplastic Anamia
?<
iv><br />{{c1::HCV}}</
iv>
1397005834779 1395802358422 {{c1::Parvovirus B19}} is a viral caus of Aplas
tic Anamia that targts prognitor r
clls, thrby halting rythropoisis.
1397006285884 1395802358422 {{c1::Fanconi's Anamia}} is a gntic form of A
plastic Anamia that rsults from
fcts in DNA rpair mchanisms.
1397006311677 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplastic Anamia}} is a non-hmolytic norm
ocytic anamia that prsnts with <b>pancytopnia </b>(svr anamia, lukopni
a an
thrombocytopnia).
1397006515129 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplastic Anamia}} is a non-hmolytic norm
ocytic anamia that prsnts with a <b>hypocllular bon marrow with fatty infil
tration</b>&nbsp;(i.. a <u>
ry bon marrow tap</u>).<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img
src="past-7649336754390.jpg" /></
iv> <br /><
iv><i>Th clls on priphral bl
oo
smar show normal morphology.</i></
iv>
1397006614145 1395802358422 {{c1::Filgrastim (G-CSF)}} an
&nbsp;{{c2::Sargra
mostim (GCM-CSF)}} ar colony stimulating factors that ar us
to trat th pan
cytopnia sn in Aplastic Anamia by stimulating rcovry of th bon marrow.
1397007493588 1395802358422 What <b>typ</b>&nbsp;of
rugs ar usful in I
i
opathic or Autoimmun Aplastic Anamia?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Immunosupprs
sants}}</
iv>
1397007560952 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Ki
ny Disas}} is a caus of non
-hmolytic, normocytic anamia that rsults from a scon
ary
cras in Erythro
poitin.
1397007616867 1395802358422 How
o Erythropoitin lvls chang in Chronic K
i
ny Disas?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Dcras}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>H
nc thr is
cras
hmatopoisis.</i></
iv>
1397007669093 1395802358422 Which RBC cytosklton-mmbran tthring proti
ns ar <u>most commonly</u>&nbsp;
fctiv in Hr
itary Sphrocytosis?<
iv><br
/></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Ankyrin; Ban
3; Spctrin}}</
iv>
1397009192248 1395802358422 {{c1::Hr
itary Sphrocytosis}} is an intrinsic
hmolytic anamia that involvs <b>inhrit

fcts</b>&nbsp;in RBC cytosklt
on-mmbran tthring protins. <br /><
iv><i>Most commonly Ankyrin, Ban
3 an

Spctrin. Somtims Protin 4.2 as wll</i></
iv>
1397009259163 1395802358422 {{c1::Sphrocyts}} ar small, roun
, pathologic
al RBCs with <u>no cntral pallor</u> sn in Hr
itary Sphrocytosis
u to l
ss cll mmbran bing prsnt.<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-91697551771
29.jpg" /></
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>Th lack of cntral pallour is
u to th
sphrical shap of ths RBCs. Rmmbr, normally RBCs ar biconcav an
hnc y
il
an ara of cntral pallour.</i></
iv>
1397009399953 1395802358422 Whr
os th hmolysis occur in Hr
itary Sph
rocytosis?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Extravascular; typically at th Spln
u
 to prmatur rmoval by Splnic Macrophags}}</
iv> <br /><
iv><i>Hnc thr
 is going to b Splnomgaly</i></
iv>
1397009760974 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplastic Crisis}} is a svr complication
of Hr
itary Sphrocytosis an
can b triggr
by Parvovirus B19 infction.
1397009800179 1395802358422 Which anamia is
iagnos
by a <b>positiv osmo
tic fragility tst</b>&nbsp;of RBCs in hypotonic solution?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>

{{c1::Hr
itary Sphrocytosis}}</
iv>
1397009875932 1395802358422 Which intrinsic hmolytic anamia can b scrn

via an Eosin-5-Malimi
 Bin
ing Tst?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Hr
itary S
phrocytosis}}</
iv>
1397009946079 1395802358422 How
os MCHC chang in Hr
itary Sphrocytosis
?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Incras}}</
iv> <br /><
iv><i>MCHC = Man Corpus
cular Hmoglobin Concntration</i></
iv>
1397009970884 1395802358422 How
os RDW chang in Hr
itary Sphrocytosis?
<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Incras
}}</
iv> <br /><
iv><i>RDW = R
Cll Dis
tribution Wi
th</i></
iv>
1397010027836 1395802358422 What is th tratmnt for Hr
itary Sphrocytos
is?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Splnctomy}}</
iv>
<
iv><i><br /></i></
iv>
1397010075966 1395802358422 What is th most common nzymatic
isor
r of RB
Cs?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::G6PD Dficincy}}</
iv>
1397010094332 1395802358422 What is th gntic inhritanc of G6PD Dficin
cy?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::X-Link
rcssiv}}</
iv>
1397010107527 1395802358422 Which nzym is
fctiv in G6PD Dficincy?<
i
v><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Glucos-6-Phosphat Dhy
rognas (G6PD)}}</
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>Easy on :)</i></
iv>
1397010182120 1395802358422 {{c1::Glutathion}} is an important antioxi
ant
that is
ficint in th RBCs of a patint with G6PD Dficincy, thrby gratly
incrasing th suscptibility of RBCs to oxi
ant strss.
1397010288046 1395802358422 How
o Glutathion lvls in RBCs chang in a pa
tint with G6PD Dficincy?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Dcras
}}</
iv>
1397010314484 1395802358422 {{c1::G6PD Dficincy}} is an X-link
Rcssiv
nzym
fct that rsults in a
cras in Glutathion lvls in RBCs, thrby
facilitating oxi
ant strss an
subsqunt hmolysis.
1397010488690 1395802358422 Which foo
itm is commonly known to caus oxi
a
nt strss in G6PD Dficincy?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Fava Bans}}</
iv>
1397010543343 1395802358422 {{c1::Sulfa Drugs}} an
&nbsp;{{c2::Antimalarials
}} ar <b>typs</b>&nbsp;of
rugs that classically caus oxi
ant strss in G6PD
Dficincy.
1397010576242 1395802358422 {{c1::Hinz Bo
is}} ar intracllular inclusion
s foun
in th RBCs of a patint with G6PD Dficincy.<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img
src="past-11544872091815.jpg" /></
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>Ar a rsult of th
 oxi
ation of hmoglobin sulfhy
ryl groups, la
ing to Hb prcipitation an
pha
gocytic
amag.</i></
iv>
1397010718958 1395802358422 {{c1::Bit Clls}} ar a pathological form of RB
Cs that ar classically sn in G6PD
ficincy
u to th phagocytic
amag ont
o RBCs caus
by Hinz Bo
y formation.<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv><img src="past-1159
6411699361.jpg" /></
iv>
<br /><
iv><i>Hinz Bo
is ar rmov
by splni
c macrophags, thrby crating Bit Clls.</i></
iv>
1397010796248 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvat Kinas Dficincy}} is an autosom
al rcssiv nzym
fct that rsults in a significant
cras in [ATP] in RB
Cs, thrby la
ing to rigi
RBCs an
subsqunt hmolysis.
1397010854692 1395802358422 What is th gntic inhritanc of Pyruvat Kina
s Dficincy?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Autosomal Rcssiv}}</
iv>
1397010875601 1395802358422 What typ of hmolysis occurs in Pyruvat Kinas
Dficincy?<
iv><br /></
iv><
iv>{{c1::Extravascular}}</
iv>
1397011083128 1395802358422 {{c1::HbC Dfct}} is a caus of intrinsic hmol
ytic anamia that rsults from a <b>glutamic aci
-to-lysin mutation</b>&nbsp;at
rsi
u 6 of β-gloin. <r /><div><i>Note that patients with HSC (1 sickle cel
l mutation and 1 HC mutation) will have milder anaemia than patients with HSS
(sickle cell disease).</i></div>
1397011323357 1395802358422 Which mutation is seen in HC Defect?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Glutamic Acid to Lysine (at residue 6 of β-gloin)}}</div>
1397011437956 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis occurs in HC Defect Anae
mia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Extravascular}}</div>
1397011471619 1395802358422 {{c1::Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemogloinuria}} is a
n intrinsic hemolytic anaemia that is due to <>complement-mediated hemolysis</

>&nsp;as a result of a <>lack of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)</>.
1397011657084 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)}} is a
cell-memrane anchor for Decay-Accelerating Factor (CD55), a protein that protec
ts RBCs against complement mediated hemolysis.
1397011793302 1395802358422 Which cell-memrane anchor in RBCs is asent in
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemogloinuria, therey leading to complement mediated hemo
lysis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It inds to Decay Accelerating Factor (DAF; CD55)</i></div>
1397011875254 1395802358422 {{c1::Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemogloinuria}} is a
cause of intrinsic hemolytic anaemia that presents with <>Cooms-negative</>&
nsp;hemolytic anaemia, pancytopenia and venous thromosis.
1397011983423 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to <>screen</>&n
sp;for Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemogloinuria (PNH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Su
crose test}}</div>
1397012019717 1395802358422 {{c1::Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemogloinuria}} is a
cause of intrinsic hemolytic anaemia that involves&nsp;<>CD55/59-negative </
>RBCs on flow cytometry.
1397012075486 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Paroxysmal Nocturnal H
emogloinuria?<div><r />{{c1::Eculizuma}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Binds to C
omplement Protein 5 (C5), therey stopping the complement cascade and hemolysis.
</i></div>
1397012192097 1395802358422 {{c1::Eculizuma}} is a monoclonal antiody used
to treat Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemogloinuria y inding to and inhiiting Compl
ement Protein 5 (C5), therey stopping the complement cascade.
1397012231749 1395802358422 {{c1::Sickle Cell Anaemia}} is a cause of intrin
sic hemolytic anaemia that results from a <>HS point mutation</>&nsp;that ca
uses a <>glutamic acid-to-valine sustitution</>&nsp;in the&nsp;β-gloin chain
at position 6.
1397012946233 1395802358422 Which amino acid sustitution is seen in the&ns
p;β-gloin chain in Sickle Cell Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glutamic Acid
to Valine (at position 6)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Do not confuse this with G
lutamic Acid to Lysine that is seen in HC Defect.</i></div>
1397013003782 1395802358422 {{c1::Sickle Cell Anaemia}} is a cause of intrin
sic hemolytic anaemia that involves polymerization of deoxygenated HS that typi
cally results from hypoxia, dehydration or acidosis.
1397013079734 1395802358422 {{c1::Sickle Cell Anaemia}} is a cause of intrin
sic hemolytic anaemia that involves vaso-occlusive symptoms as a result of RBC s
ickling.
1397013114368 1395802358422 What causes RBC sickling in Sickle Cell Anaemia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Precipitation of deoxygenated HS}}</div>
1397013134887 1395802358422 Why are neworns that have Sickle Cell Anaemia i
nitially asymptomatic?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HF levels are high; HS level
s are low}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, HF is generally protective in β-g
loin defects as it involves&nsp;α₂γ₂.&nbsp;</i></div><div><i
>Undersandably, his does no apply o&nbsp;</i><i>α-thlssemi.</i></div>
1397013296521 1395802358422 Ptients with Sickle Cell Trit (heterozygotes)
re resistnt to which protozol infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mlri}}
</div>
1397013396358 1395802358422 {{c1::Sickle Cell Anemi}} is  cuse of intrin
sic hemolytic nemi tht involves crescent-shped RBCs known s Sickle Cells.<
div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-14328010899663.jpg" /></div>
1397013491314 1395802358422 {{c1::Sickle Cell Anemi}} is  type of intrins
ic hemolytic nemi tht involves  <b>"crew cut" </b>ppernce on crnil x-r
y due to the bone mrrow expnsion tht occurs s  result of incresed erythro
poiesis.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-14916421419283.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, this is lso seen with the Thlssemis.</i></div>
1397013545745 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplstic Crisis}} is  possible complicti
on of Sickle Cell Disese tht cn be triggered by Prvovirus B19.
1397016449860 1395802358422 {{c1::Autosplenectomy}} is  compliction of Sic
kle Cell Disese tht leds to n increse risk of infection with encpsulted o

rgnisms nd the formtion of Howell-Jolly Bodies in RBCs.
1397016496339 1395802358422 Which genus of bcteri commonly cuses osteomye
litis in Sickle Cell Disese ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Slmonell<
/i>}}</div>
1397016528254 1395802358422 {{c1::Dctylitis}} is  pinful vso-occlusive c
risis seen in Sickle Cell Disese tht involves pinful swelling of the hnds.
1397016571966 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Chest Syndrome}} is  pinful vso-o
cclusive crisis seen in Sickle Cell Disese tht involves severe chest pin nd
shortness of breth due to occlusion of pulmonry microcircultion.
1397016602359 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth in dults
with Sickle Cell Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Chest Syndrome}}</di
v>
1397016687040 1395802358422 {{c1::Renl Ppillry Necrosis}} is  complicti
on of Sickle Cell Disese tht results from low O₂&nbsp;t the renl
ppille.
<br /><div><i>Involves hemturi nd proteinuri</i></div>
1397016777062 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Sickle Cell Disese?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hydroxyure (increses HbF) nd bone mrrow trnsplnt
tion}}</div>
1397016815301 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydroxyure}} is n nti-neoplstic drug u
sed in myeloprolifertive disorders tht cn tret the pinful ttcks of Sickle
Cell Disese by incresing HbF expression.
<br /><div><i>Remember gin, br
h, HbF is&nbsp;α2γ2 and does no involve&nbsp;β-gloin.</i></div>
1397061521398 1395802358422 {{c1::Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia}} is a type o
f extrinsic hemolytic anaemia that occurs due to idiopathic autoimmune destructi
on of RBCs.
1397063663213 1395802358422 {{c1::Warm AIHA}} is a type of Autoimmune Hemoly
tic Anaemia (AIHA) that involves IgG antiodies.
1397063691286 1395802358422 Which type of&nsp;Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia
(AIHA) involves IgG antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Warm agglutinin}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Warm weather is <>G</>reat.</i></div>
1397063717138 1395802358422 Which type of chronic anaemia is commonly seen i
n Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Warm Autoimmune
Hemolytic Anaemia (AIHA)}}</div>
1397063763093 1395802358422 {{c1::alpha-Methyldopa}} is an alpha-adrenergic
agonist that is associated with causing Warm&nsp;Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia (
AIHA).
1397065137836 1395802358422 Which type of&nsp;Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia
(AIHA) involves IgM antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cold agglutinin}}</di
v>
1397065165244 1395802358422 {{c1::Cold Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia (AIHA)}}
is a type of&nsp;Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia (AIHA) that involves <>acute</
>&nsp;anaemia triggered y the cold.
1397065192908 1395802358422 Which type of&nsp;Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia
(AIHA) is <>chronic</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Warm agglutinin}}</div>
1397065203810 1395802358422 Which type of&nsp;Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia
(AIHA) is <>acute</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cold}}</div>
1397065218102 1395802358422 Which viral infection is associated with <>Cold
</>&nsp;Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia (AIHA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infect
ious Mononucleosis (EBV)}}</div>
1397065248133 1395802358422 Which acterial infection is associated with <>
Cold</>&nsp;Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia (AIHA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i
>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i>}}</div>
1397065276583 1395802358422 What is the Cooms Test result in&nsp;Autoimmun
e Hemolytic Anaemia (AIHA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Usually <>positive</>&n
sp;(Cooms+)}}</div>
1397065317668 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Direct Cooms Test}} is a type of
Cooms Test that involves the addition of <>anti-Ig antiodies (Cooms reagent
)</> to a patient's lood.
<r /><div><i>If the patient's RBCs agglutinate,
then that means that their RBCs are coated with Ig (and hence is a positive Coo
ms Test).</i></div>

1397065388097 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Indirect Cooms Test}} is a type
of Cooms Test that involves the addition of <>normal RBCs</>&nsp;to the pati
ent's serum <u>followed y the addition of anti-Ig antiodies (Cooms reagent)</
u>.
<r /><div><i>If the patient's serum has anti-RBC surface immunogloulin
, the added normal RBCs will agglutinate when Cooms reagent is added (yielding
a positive Cooms test).</i></div>
1397065544048 1395802358422 {{c1::<>Micro</>angiopathic Anaemia}} is a typ
e of extrinsic hemolytic anaemia that involves damage to RBCs as they pass throu
gh ostructed or narrowed <>vessel lumina</>. <r /><div><i>Prime examples are
DIC, TTP, HUS, SLE, and Malignant HTN.</i></div>
1397067018618 1395802358422 {{c1::<>Macro</>angiopathic Anaemia}} is a typ
e of extrinsic hemolytic anaemia that involves destruction of RBCs as they pass
through prosthetic heart valves or a stenotic aortic valve.
1397067077313 1395802358422 What type of anaemia is seen in infections that
target RBCs, such as Malaria and Baesiosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Extrinsi
c Hemolytic Anaemia (Normocytic)}}</div>
1397067109603 1395802358422 How do serum iron levels change in Iron Deficien
cy Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
<div><i><r /></
i></div>
1397067327763 1395802358422 How do TIBC (Transferrin) levels change in Iron
Deficiency Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, TIBC is always the opposite of Ferritin.</i></div>
1397067378375 1395802358422 How do Ferritin levels change in Iron Deficiency
Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1397067399786 1395802358422 What is the function of Transferrin in Iron ala
nce and storage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to and transports Iron <>in t
he lood</>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Transferrin is what we indirectly measure
with TIBC (Total Iron Binding Capacity).</i></div>
1397067444374 1395802358422 What does TIBC (Total Iron Binding Capacity) mea
sure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The total amount of Transferrin in the lood (i
ndirectly)}}</div>
1397067474658 1395802358422 What is the role of Ferritin in Iron storage and
transport?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::It is the primary iron storage protein of
the ody}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Basically, Ferritin = Iron storage levels
of the ody.</i></div>
1397067518690 1395802358422 How does % Transferrin Saturation change in Iron
Deficiency Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Greatly decreased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>% saturation = serum iron/TIBC x 100%</i></div>
1397067576844 1395802358422 How do serum iron levels change in Anaemia of Ch
ronic Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1397067735005 1395802358422 How does TIBC change in Anaemia of Chronic Disea
se?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer,
this is in response to a chronic disease/infection and pathogens use circulating
iron to thrive. Hence the ody attempts to not only limit circulating iron (i.e
. decrease Transferrin levels) ut to also increase intracellular iron stores (i
.e. increased Ferritin) to prevent pathogens from thriving.</i></div>
1397067851074 1395802358422 How do Ferritin levels change in Anaemia of Chro
nic Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Re
memer, this is in response to a chronic disease/infection and pathogens use cir
culating iron to thrive. Hence the ody attempts to not only limit circulating i
ron (i.e. decrease Transferrin levels) ut to also increase intracellular iron s
tores (i.e. increased Ferritin) to prevent pathogens from thriving.</i></div>
1397067888943 1395802358422 How does % Transferrin Saturation change in Anae
mia of Chronic Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, serum iron AND TIBC decrease in ACD, typically in proportion to
each other. As a result, % Saturation does not change.</i></div><div><i><r /></
i></div><div><i>Rememer, % saturation = serum iron/TIBC x 100%</i></div>
1397068004896 1395802358422 How do Serum Iron levels change in Hemochromatos
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1397069449766 1395802358422 How does TIBC change in Hemochromatosis?<div><r

/></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1397069469623 1395802358422 How do Ferritin levels change in Hemochromatosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1397069482462 1395802358422 How does % Transferrin Saturation change in Hemo
chromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Greatly increased}}</div>
1397069497536 1395802358422 How does TIBC (Transferrin) change in pregnancy
or with oral contraceptive use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pregnancy and OCPs induce Transferrin production due to the increa
sed need for iron transport in the lood.</i></div>
1397069543819 1395802358422 How does % Transferrin Saturation change in Preg
nancy or with oral contraceptive use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, there is an increase in Transferrin/TIBC, as a r
esult there will e less saturation.</i></div>
1397069586958 1395802358422 What asolute neutrophil count is diagnostic of
Neutropenia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 1500 cells/mm³}}</div>
1397075949830 1395802358422 What asolute lymphocyte count is diagnostic of
Lymphopenia <>in adults</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 1500 cells/mm³}}</div>
1397075991704 1395802358422 What asolute lymphocyte count is diagnostic of
Lymphopenia <>in children</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 3000 cells/mm<su
p>3</sup>}}</div>
1397076869252 1395802358422 {{c1::Corticosteroids}} are a type of steroid dr
ugs that cause <>neutrophilia</>&nsp;y decreasing activation of neutrophil a
dhesions molecules, therey impairing migration of neutrophils out of the vascul
ature and into tissue.
1397076922427 1395802358422 {{c1::Corticosteroids}} are a type of steroid dr
ug that can causes&nsp;<>eosinopenia</>&nsp;through sequestration of eosinop
hils in lymph nodes.
1397076968065 1395802358422 {{c1::Corticosteroids}} are a type of steroid dr
ug that causes <>lymphopenia</>&nsp;through triggering apoptosis of lymphocyt
es.
1397076990838 1395802358422 {{c1::Cushing's Syndrome}} is an adrenal cortex
hormone disorder that can cause Eosinopenia y triggering the sequestration of e
osinophils in lymph nodes.
1397077100052 1395802358422 {{c1::Porphyrias}} are a group of hereditary or
acquired disorders that result from defective heme synthesis and therey involve
accumulation of heme precursors.
1397077202752 1395802358422 Which 2 enzymes involved in Heme synthesis are i
nhiited y Lead?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ferrochelatase; ALA Dehydratase}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5540507812509.jpg" /></div>
1397077227495 1395802358422 {{c1::Ferrochelatase}} and&nsp;{{c2::ALA Dehydr
atase}} are 2 enzymes involved with Heme synthesis that are inhiited y Lead.
1397077498444 1395802358422 Which sustrate in the heme synthesis pathway ac
cumulates as a result of Ferrochelatase inhiition y Lead?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Protoporphyrin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5536212845213.jpg" />
</div>
1397077636526 1395802358422 Which sustrate in the heme synthesis pathway ac
cumulates as a result of ALA Dehydratase inhiition y Lead?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::delta-ALA (Aminolevulinic acid) (will e found in the lood)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5536212845213.jpg" /></div>
1397077640694 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of lead poisoning
in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Exposure to lead paint}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Will present with mental deterioration</i></div>
1397077682419 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Lead poisoning
in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Environmental exposure (such as atteries,
ammunition, radiator factory work)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Will present with
headache, memory loss and signs of demyelination.</i></div>
1397077734522 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Intermittant Porphyria}} is a porphy
ria that involves a defect in the enzyme Porphoilinogen Deaminase.
1397077780919 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in heme synthesis is defec

tive in Acute Intermittent Porphyria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Porphoilinogen
Deaminase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5536212845213.jpg" /></div>
1397077878343 1395802358422 Which sustrates involved in the heme synthesis
pathway accumulate in Acute Intermittent Porphyria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::M
ostly Porphoilinogen; also delta-ALA and coporphoilinogen in the urine}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5536212845213.jpg" /></div>
1397077956394 1395802358422 Which porphyria is associated with <>port-wine
coloured urine</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Intermittent Porphyria}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8619999363254.jpg" /></div>
1397077999357 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Acute Intermittent Por
phyria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose and Heme}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Bo
th Glc and Heme inhiit delta-ALA Synthase, the first enzyme involved in heme sy
nthesis.</i></div>
1397078060168 1395802358422 {{c1::Porphyria Cutanea Tarda}} is a porphyria t
hat involves a defect in the enzyme Uroporphyrinogen Decaroxylase.
1397078100122 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in heme synthesis is defec
tive in Porphyria Cutanea Tarda?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uroporphrinogen Deca
roxylase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-8800387990179.jpg" /></div>
1397078156173 1395802358422 Which sustrate involved in the heme synthesis p
athway accumulates in Porphyria Cutanea Tarda?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uropor
phyrin (yielding <>tea-coloured urine</>)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-8796093022883.jpg" /></div>
1397078202364 1395802358422 Which porphyria is associated with <>tea-colour
ed urine</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Porphyria Cutanea Tarda}}</div>
1397078221365 1395802358422 What is the most common porphyria?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Porphyria Cutanea Tarda}}</div>
1397078287082 1395802358422 {{c1::Porphyria Cutanea Tarda}} is a porphyria t
hat presents with <>listering cutaneous photosensitivity.</><div><><r /></
></div><div><><img src="paste-8989366550695.jpg" /></></div>
1397078288173 1395802358422 How do Glucose and Heme affect the activity of d
elta-ALA Synthase, the first enzyme in Heme synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Inhiition}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9032316224170.jpg" /></div>
1397078379596 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in heme levels
influence the activity of delta-ALA Synthase, the first enzyme involved in Heme
synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreases delta-ALA Synthase activity}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9028021256874.jpg" /></div>
1397078429327 1395802358422 Which coagulation test gauges the <>common</>&
nsp;and <>extrinsic</>&nsp;coagulation pathways?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
PT}}</div>
1397091308752 1395802358422 Which coagulation test gauges the function of th
e <>common</>&nsp;and <>intrinsic</>&nsp;pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::PTT}}</div>
1397091364392 1395802358422 Which coagulation pathways are gauged y PT?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Common and extrinsic}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Factors I,
II, V and X (common)</i></div><div><i>Factor VII (extrinsic)</i></div>
1397091443346 1395802358422 Which coagulation pathway is gauged y PTT?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Common and intrinsic}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Factors I,
II, V, and X (common)</i></div><div><i>Factors XII, XI, IX, VIII ("tenet") (int
rinsic)</i></div>
1397091530341 1395802358422 How does PT change in Hemophilia A or B?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::No change; factors VIII and IX are in the intrinsic pathway
(PTT)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Did I get you? Think things through, rah!</i></di
v>
1397091614159 1395802358422 How does PTT change in Hemophilia A or B?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased due to Factor VIII or IX deficiency}}</div>
1397091634184 1395802358422 Which coagulation pathway is defective in Hemoph
ilia A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intrinsic (due to Factor VIII deficiency)}}</
div>
1397091657782 1395802358422 Which coagulation pathway is defective in Hemoph
ilia B?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intrinsic (due to Factor IX deficiency)}}</di

v>
1397091678755 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is deficient in Hemophi
lia A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor VIII}}</div>
1397091694250 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is deficient in Hemophi
lia B?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor IX}}</div>
1397091714599 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemarthroses}} is a macrohemorrhage that o
ccurs in Hemophilia A or B and involves leeding into joints.
1397091738994 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Hemophilia A?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Recominant Factor VIII}}</div>
1397091762344 1395802358422 How does PT change in Vitamin K Deficiency?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1397092297405 1395802358422 How does PTT change in Vitamin K deficiency?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1397092325099 1395802358422 Which vitamin is involved with the synthesis of
coagulation Factors II, VII, IX, X, Protein C and Protein S?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Vitamin K}}</div>
1397092364076 1395802358422 Which coagulation factors require Vitamin K for
their synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factors II, VII, IX and X}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"2, 7, 9, 10"</i></div>
1397092398631 1395802358422 What does Bleeding Time (BT) gauge?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::<>Platelet</>&nsp;function (esp. platelet plug formation)}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i><><u>It does not gauge the function of coagulation factor
s!!!</u></></i></div>
1397092437344 1395802358422 Which <>type</>&nsp;of leeding disorder invo
lves <>macro</>hemorrhaging and easy ruising?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coag
ulation disorders}}</div>
1397092474568 1395802358422 Which <>type</>&nsp;of leeding disorder invo
lves <>micro</>hemorrhaging (e.g. petechiae, purpura, mucosal leeding)?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Platelet disorders}}</div>
1397092520852 1395802358422 {{c1::Bernard-Soulier Syndrome}} is a platelet d
isorder that involves a deficiency in GpI, therey causing a defect in platelet
adhesion via vWF.
1397092799124 1395802358422 How does platelet count change in Bernard-Soulie
r Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397092825789 1395802358422 How does Bleeding Time change in Bernard-Soulier
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397092843275 1395802358422 Which platelet receptor is deficient in BernardSoulier Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpI}}</div>
1397092894682 1395802358422 What does the GpI platelet receptor ind to in
platelet adhesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::von Willerand's Factor (vWF)}}</d
iv>
1397092931003 1395802358422 {{c1::Glanzmann Thromasthenia}} is a platelet d
isorder that involves a deficiency in GpII/IIIa, therey causing a defect in pl
atelet-to-platelet aggregation.
1397093827489 1395802358422 How does platelet count change in Glanzmann Thro
masthenia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397093843701 1395802358422 How does Bleeding Time (BT) change in Glanzmann
Thromasthenia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397093869769 1395802358422 Which platelet receptor is deficient in Glanzman
n Thromasthenia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpII/IIIa}}</div>
1397093891842 1395802358422 {{c1::Glanzmann Thromasthenia}} is a platelet d
isorder that <>will not </>show platelet clumping on a peripheral lood smear.
1397094752105 1395802358422 {{c1::Immune Thromocytopenia (ITP)}} is a plate
let disorder that involves <>GpII/IIIa autoantiodies</>, therey causing spl
enic macrophage consumption of the platelet-antiody complex. <r /><div><i>Th
ere is decreased platelet survival and hence <u>thromocytopenia</u></i></div>
1397094866363 1395802358422 How does platelet count change in Immune Thromo
cytopenia (ITP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pl
atelets get consumed y splenic macrophages due to antiody inding.</i></div>
1397094903174 1395802358422 How does Bleeding Time (BT) change in Immune Thr

omocytopenia (ITP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397094917715 1395802358422 Which antiodies against platelets are involved
in Immune Thromocytopenia (ITP)?<r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-GpII/II
Ia antiodies}}</div> <r /><div><i>Therey causing destruction/consumption of
the antiody-ound platelets y splenic macrophages.</i></div>
1397094987272 1395802358422 {{c1::Immune Thromocytopenia (ITP)}} is a plate
let disorder that can e triggered y a viral illness. <r /><div><i>i.e. "Acut
e ITP"</i></div>
1397095101035 1395802358422 {{c1::Immune Thromocytopenia (ITP)}} is a plate
let disorder that involves an <>increase in megakaryocytes</>&nsp;on a one m
arrow iopsy.
1397095560531 1395802358422 {{c1::Thromotic Thromocytopenic Purpura (TTP)}
} is a platelet disorder that is due to the inhiition or deficiency of ADAMTS 1
3 (vWF metalloprotease), therey resulting in decreased reakdown of vWF monomer
s.
<r /><div><i>The increase in vWF monomers leads to an <>increase in pl
atelet adhesion</>&nsp;and susequent thromosis</i></div>
1397095673249 1395802358422 How does Platelet Count change in Thromotic Thr
omocytopenic Purpura (TTP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, there is a lack of ADAMTS 13 and hence overactivation of
platelets. Increased platelet adhesion leads to thromosis and increased platel
et consumption, therefore thromocytopenia.</i></div>
1397095792698 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Thromotic Thromocytope
nic Purpura (TTP)?<div><r />{{c1::Inhiition or deficiency of ADAMTS 13 (vWF me
talloprotease)}}</div> <r /><div><i>The increase in vWF monomers leads to an&n
sp;<>increase in platelet adhesion</>&nsp;and susequent thromosis</i></div
>
1397095800454 1395802358422 {{c1::Thromotic Thromocytopenic Purpura (TTP)}
} is a platelet disorder that involves <>schistocytes</>&nsp;on peripheral l
ood smear and <>elevated LDH</>.
1397095842494 1395802358422 Which platelet disorder is associated with eleva
ted LDH?<div><r />{{c1::Thromotic Thromocytopenic Purpura (TTP)}}</div>
1397095861158 1395802358422 What type of anaemia is associated with Thromot
ic Thromocytopenic Purpura (TTP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microangiopathic H
emolytic Anaemia}}</div>
1397095903316 1395802358422 {{c1::Thromotic Thromocytopenic Purpura (TTP)}
} is a platelet disorder that presents with a pentad of <>neurological and rena
l symptoms</>, fever, thromocytopenia and microangiopathic hemolytic anaemia.
1397095984839 1395802358422 {{c1::von Willerand's Disease}} is a mixed plat
elet and coagulation disorder that involves a deficiency in von Willerand's Fac
tor (vWF).
1397096486724 1395802358422 How does platelet count change in von Willerand
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397096501228 1395802358422 How does Bleeding Time (BT) change in von Wille
rand Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Re
memer, vWF is needed in platelet <>adhesion</></i></div>
1397096525402 1395802358422 How does PT change in von Willerand Disease?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, vWF func
tions to carry/protect Factor VIII, which is in the intrinsic pathway (PTT).</i>
</div>
1397096564685 1395802358422 How does PTT change in von Willerand Disease?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase (or no change, depending on severity)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, vWF functions to carry/protect Factor VIII, which is in
the intrinsic pathway (PTT).</i></div>
1397096616677 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor does von Willerand Fac
tor (vWF) carry and protect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor VIII}}</div>
1397096844846 1395802358422 Which coagulation pathway is defective in von Wi
llerand Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intrinsic}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
memer, vWF carries and protects Factor VIII</i></div>
1397096876101 1395802358422 Which stage of platelet plug formation is defect
ive in von Willerand Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Platelet-to-vWF <>adh

esion</>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>And rememer, it's "D's efore G's" (i.e.
adhesion efore aggregation)</i></div>
1397096914733 1395802358422 What is the most common <>inherited</>&nsp;l
eeding disorder?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::von Willerand Disease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It is generally mild and may not even increase PTT.</i></div>
1397096944572 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of von Willeran
d Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1397096959468 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is often used to diagnose
von Willerand Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ristocetin Cofactor Assay}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>A decrease in agglutination is diagnostic of vWD.</i></div
>
1397097001486 1395802358422 What is the treatment for von Willerand Disease
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmopressin (DDAVP)}}</div>
1397097037157 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmopressin (DDAVP)}} is a synthetic horm
one used to treat von Willerand Disease as it triggers the release of vWF from
endothelial cells.
1397097076424 1395802358422 Which cells release vWF?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Endothelium (from their Wieel-Palade odies)}}</div>
1397097099485 1395802358422 {{c1::Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DI
C)}} is a mixed platelet and coagulation disorder that involves widespread activ
ation of clotting, leading to a systemic deficiency in clotting factors and plat
elets causing a <u>hypocoagulale state</u>.
1397097818545 1395802358422 How does platelet count change in DIC?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, platelets are e
ing widely used in DIC.</i></div>
1397097841666 1395802358422 How does Bleeding Time (BT) change in DIC?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397097853979 1395802358422 How does PT change in DIC?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397097859376 1395802358422 How does PTT change in DIC?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397097865548 1395802358422 Which coagulation disorder is associated with an
<>elevation of firin split products (D-Dimers)</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::DIC}}</div>
1397097892777 1395802358422 How do Firinogen levels change in DIC?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Clots are eing made syste
mically, hence Firinogen is going to e widely activated into Firin.</i></div>
1397097951135 1395802358422 How do the levels of Factor V and VIII change in
DIC?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1397097974712 1395802358422 Which <>mixed</>&nsp;platelet and coagulation
disorder is associated with schistocytes on a peripheral lood smear?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::DIC}}</div>
1397097999226 1395802358422 Which <>road&nsp;group</>&nsp;of acteria c
ommonly cause DIC via sepsis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gram-negatives}}</div>
1397098042497 1395802358422 Which <>mixed</>&nsp;platelet and coagulation
disorder is associated with Acute Pancreatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DIC}
}</div>
1397098290201 1395802358422 Which <>mixed</>&nsp;platelet and coagulation
disorder is associated with Nephrotic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DIC}
}</div> <r /><div><i>The protein loss in Nephrotic Syndrome involves loss of An
tithromin III, which normally inactivates coagulation factors. The acquired def
iciency of ATIII leads to widespread overactivation of clotting and hence DIC.</
i></div>
1397140935507 1395802358422 {{c1::Factor V Leiden}} is hereditary thromosis
syndrome that involves the production of a mutant coagulation Factor V that is
resistant to degradation y Protein C.
1397141585814 1395802358422 Which anti-coagulaility enzyme degrades Factor
V?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Protein C}}</div>
1397141614657 1395802358422 What is the most common <>inherited hypercoagul
aility in white people</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor V Leiden}}</div>

1397141635839 1395802358422 {{c1::Prothromin Gene Mutation}} is a hereditar
y thromosis syndrome that involves a mutation in the 3' UTR of Factor II, there
<r /><div><i>Re
y leading to increased Factor II production and thromosis.
memer, Prothromin = Factor II.</i></div>
1397141763247 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is Prothromin?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Factor II}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence, Thromin is Factor
IIa</i></div>
1397141804582 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is Firinogen?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Factor I}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Firin is Factor Ia
.</i></div>
1397141963631 1395802358422 {{c1::Antithromin Deficiency}} is an inherited
thromosis syndrome that involves a deficiency of Antithromin. <r /><div><i>It
can also e acquired via Renal Failure/Nephrotic Syndrome.</i></div>
1397142190706 1395802358422 Which coagulation factors are the primary target
s of Antithromin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factors II and X}}</div>
1397142209373 1395802358422 How does PT change in Antithromin Deficiency?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397142239778 1395802358422 How does PTT change in Antithromin deficiency?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<r /><div><i>However, <>Antith
romin Deficiency will diminish the increase in PTT following Heparin administra
tion</>. Rememer, Heparin functions through Antithromin III.</i></div>
1397142298360 1395802358422 {{c1::Protein C or S Deficiency}} is a hereditar
y thromosis syndrome that involves a decreased aility to inactivate Factors V
and VIII, therey increasing the risk of thromotic skin necrosis and hemorrhagi
ng following Warfarin administration.
1397142769805 1395802358422 Which hereditary thromosis syndrome is associat
ed with skin and sucutaneous tissue necrosis after Warfarin administration?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Protein C deficiency}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer,
in addition to Factors II, VII, IX and X, Warfarin inhiits the synthesis of Pro
tein C and S.</i></div><div><i>All of the aove ^^ require Vitamin K in their sy
nthesis.</i></div>
1397142945499 1395802358422 Which type of lood transfusion therapy is used
to treat Acute Blood Loss and Severe Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Packed
RBCs}}</div>
1397143143090 1395802358422 Which type of lood transfusion therapy is used
to treat Thromocytopenia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Platelets}}</div>
1397143250243 1395802358422 Which type of lood transfusion therapy is used
to treat DIC?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fresh Frozen Plasma}}</div>
1397143278586 1395802358422 Which type of lood transfusion therapy is used
to treat&nsp;Cirrhosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fresh Frozen Plasma}}</div>
1397143285485 1395802358422 Which type of lood transfusion therapy is used
to treat&nsp;Warfarin Overdose?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fresh Frozen Plasma}
}</div>
1397143298737 1395802358422 Which type of lood transfusion therapy is used
to treat&nsp;TTP/HUS?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fresh Frozen Plasma}}</div>
1397143315081 1395802358422 {{c1::Fresh Frozen Plasma}} is a lood transfusi
on therapy that increases <>coagulation factor levels</>.
1397143342737 1395802358422 Which type of lood transfusion therapy is used
to treat&nsp;coagulation factor deficiencies involving <>firinogen</>&nsp;a
nd <>Factor VIII</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cryoprecipitate}}</div>
1397143389619 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemochromatosis}} is a possile lood tran
sfusion risk that results due to iron overload following frequent and chronic l
ood transfusions.
1397143443047 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperkalemia}} is a possile serum electro
lyte complication of lood transfusions that results due to RBC lysis in old, st
agnant lood units.
1397143549816 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypocalcemia}} is a serum electrolyte comp
lication of lood transfusions that occurs due to the presence of <>Citrate</>
in lood units.
<r /><div><i>Citrate is a calcium chelator.</i></div>
1397143636810 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukemia}} is a WBC disorder that involves

lymphoid or myeloid neoplasms with widespread involvement of one marrow and tu
mour cells in peripheral lood circulation.
1397144762132 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphoma}} is a WBC disorder that involves
a discrete tumour mass that arises from lymph nodes.
1397144801568 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukemoid Reaction}} is an acute inflammat
ory response to infection that involves an increase in WBC count with an increas
e in oth neutrophils and and cells (i.e. left shift).
1397145439888 1395802358422 How do Leukocyte ALP levels change in Leukemoid
Reactions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Contrast t
his with CML where Leukocyte ALP <>decreases</>, despite there eing an increa
se in WBC count and a left shift.</i></div>
1397145490870 1395802358422 How do Leukocyte ALP levels change in CML?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>Contrast this with Leukemo
id Reactions where Leukocyte ALP <>increases</>.</i></div>
1397145566647 1395802358422 Which has a higher LAP score, Leukemoid Reaction
s or CML?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Leukemoid Reactions}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to the <>increase</>&nsp;in Leukocyte ALP. In CML, Leukocyte ALP le
vels decrease.</i></div>
1397145624681 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma involves a&nsp;<>locali
zed</>, <>single </>group of nodes?<r /><r /><div>{{c1::Hodgkin Lymphoma}}<
/div>
1397150674935 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma involves <>contiguous sp
read</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hodgkin Lymphoma}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
erefore the strongest predictor of prognosis is stage.</i></div>
1397150698504 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma generally has a etter pr
ognosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hodgkin Lymphoma}}</div>
1397150716467 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma <>rarely</>&nsp;has ex
tranodal involvement?<div><r />{{c1::Hodgkin Lymphoma}}</div>
1397150762120 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma involves <>multiple, per
ipheral</>&nsp;nodes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma}}</div>
1397150787731 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma <>commonly </>has extra
nodal involvement?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma}}</div>
1397150844443 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma involves <>noncontiguous
(diffuse)</>&nsp;spread?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma}}</d
iv>
1397151386304 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma is characterized y ReedSternerg Cells?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5510443041073.jpg" /></div
><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hodgkin Lymphoma}}</div>
1397151460219 1395802358422 {{c1::Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma}} is a type of lympho
ma that primarily involves B-cells, except for the few lympholastic types of Tcell origin.
1397151495504 1395802358422 {{c1::Hodgkin Lymphoma}} is a type of lymphoma t
hat has a imodal distriution of occurrence (young adulthood and &gt; 55 y/o).
1397151537311 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Hodgkin L
ymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males (except for Nodular Sclerosing Hodgkin
Lymphoma)}}</div>
1397151560774 1395802358422 {{c1::Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma}} is a type of lympho
ma that has a peak incidence for certain sutypes at 20-40 y/o.
1397151592225 1395802358422 Which virus is associated with 50% of cases of H
odgkin Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1397151615290 1395802358422 {{c1::Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma}} is a type of lympho
ma that may e associated with HIV and immunosuppression.
1397151645779 1395802358422 {{c1::Hodgkin Lymphoma}} is a type of lymphoma t
hat is associated with constitutional "B" symptoms such as <>low grade fever, n
ight sweats and weight loss</>.
<r /><div><i>Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma has f
ewer constitutional "B" symptoms.</i></div>
1397151710066 1395802358422 {{c1::Reed-Sternerg Cells}} are a distinctive t
umour giant cell seen in Hodgkin Lymphoma and involve inucleate or iloed nucl
ei with <>"owl eyes".</><div><><r /></></div><div><><img src="paste-590128
5065012.jpg" /></></div>
<r /><div><i>The 'owl eyes' are essentially mir

ror images of the 2 nuclei or 2 loes.</i></div>
1397152780950 1395802358422 Which cell surface markers (CD) are found on Ree
d-Sternerg Cells?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5896990097716.jpg" /></d
iv><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD15+ and CD30+}}</div> <r /><div><i><>2 </>o
wl eyes x <>15</>&nsp;= <>30</></i></div>
1397152832245 1395802358422 {{c1::Reed-Sternerg Cells}} are characteristic
tumour cells of Hodgki Lymphoma that are of B-cell origin and are necessary, ut
not sufficient, for the Dx of Hodgkin Lymphoma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-5896990097716.jpg" /></div>
1397152896583 1395802358422 What is the most common type of Hodgkin Lymphoma
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nodular Sclerosing}}</div> <r /><div><i>As it affe
cted men and women equally; all other Hodgkin Lymphomas affect males more often.
</i></div>
1397152962177 1395802358422 What is the prognosis of Hodgkin Lymphoma that h
as a strong stromal or lymphocytic reaction against Reed-Sternerg Cells?<div><
r />{{c1::Good}}</div>
1397153218250 1395802358422 What type of Hodgkin Lymphoma has the est progn
osis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphocyte-rich}}</div>
<r /><div><i>As
a general rule, <>the more lymphocytes there are, the etter the prognosis of
the Hodgkin Lymphoma.</></i></div>
1397153553512 1395802358422 What is the prognosis of Lymphocyte-depleted Hod
gkin Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poor}}</div> <r /><div><i>As a gener
al rule,&nsp;<>the more lymphocytes there are, the etter the prognosis of the
Hodgkin Lymphoma.</></i></div>
1397153577342 1395802358422 What is the prognosis of Lymphocyte-mixed Hodgki
n Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poor}}</div>
<r /><div><i>As a gener
al rule,&nsp;<>the more lymphocytes there are, the etter the prognosis of the
Hodgkin Lymphoma.</></i></div>
1397153612893 1395802358422 {{c1::Burkitt's Lymphoma}} is a type of Non-Hodg
kin Lymphoma that involves a <>"starry-sky"</>&nsp;appearance on iopsy with
sheets of lymphocytes and interspersed macrophages.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-7331509174433.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>No idea how that looks lik
e a starry sky ut whatever...</i></div>
1397154119780 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Burkitt
Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adolescents; oung Adults}}</div>
1397154140017 1395802358422 Which chromosome translocation is involved with
Burkitt Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(8;14) of <i>C-myc</i>&nsp;to the
Ig heavy chain}}</div>
1397154288294 1395802358422 {{c1::Burkitt Lymphoma}} is a Non-Hodgkin Lympho
ma that involves a t(8;14) translocation of <i>C-myc</i>&nsp;to the Ig heavy ch
ain.
1397154328132 1395802358422 Which gene in translocated with the Ig heavy-cha
in in Burkitt Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>C-myc</i>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>t(8;14)</i></div>
1397154376901 1395802358422 Which virus is associated with Burkitt Lymphoma?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1397154393696 1395802358422 Where is the endemic form of Burkitt Lymphoma th
at involves jaw lesions commonly found?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-754
1962571937.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Africa}}</div></div>
1397154440694 1395802358422 Where are lesions found in the endemic (African)
form of Burkitt Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Jaw}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-7537667604641.jpg" /></div>
1397154501153 1395802358422 Where are lesions found in the sporadic (America
n) form of Burkitt Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvis/Adomen}}</div>
1397154522567 1395802358422 What is the most common type of Non-Hodgkin Lymp
homa <>in adults</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma}
}</div>
1397154574745 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y Diffuse L
arge B-Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Older adults, however 20% of ca
ses are in children}}</div>

1397154625713 1395802358422 {{c1::Mantle Cell Lymphoma}} is a type of Non-Ho
dgkin Lymphoma that involves a t(11;14) translocation of <>Cyclin D1</>&nsp;a
nd the Ig Heavy Chain.
1397154658604 1395802358422 Which chromosome is the Ig Heavy Chain found on?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 14}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Know this.
The other numer in translocations (e.g. t(8;14)) is then the location of the o
ther gene.</i></div>
1397154723271 1395802358422 Which age group is most commonly affected y Man
tle Cell Lymphoma?<div><r />{{c1::Older males}}</div>
1397154773977 1395802358422 Which type of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma is CD5+?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Mantle Cell Lymphoma}}</div>
1397154798916 1395802358422 What chromosomal translocation is seen in Mantle
Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(11;14) of Cyclin D1 and the Ig heav
y chain}}</div>
1397154835297 1395802358422 Which gene is translocated with the Ig Heavy Cha
in in Mantle Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclin D1}}</div>
1397154849336 1395802358422 {{c1::Follicular Lymphoma}} is a Non-Hodgkin Lym
phoma that presents with a painless "waxing and waning" lymphadenopathy.
<r /><div><i>It generally has an indolent (painless) course.</i></div>
1397154946552 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Follicul
ar Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1397154976376 1395802358422 {{c1::Follicular Lymphoma}} is a type of Non-Hod
gkin Lymphoma that involves a t(14;18) translocation of <i><>Bcl-2</>&nsp;</i
>and the Ig heavy chain.
1397155021693 1395802358422 What gene is translocated with the Ig Heavy Chai
n in Follicular Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bcl-2</i>}}</div>
1397155047209 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Bcl-2</i>}}<i>&nsp;</i>is a gene that
inhiits apoptosis and is translocated [t(14;18)] in Follicular Lymphoma with th
e Ig Heavy Chain gene.
1397155088536 1395802358422 What is the function of <i>Bcl-2</i>?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of apoptosis}}</div>
1397155113564 1395802358422 What chromosomal translocation is seen in Follic
ular Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(14;18) of <i>Bcl-2</i>&nsp;and the
Ig Heavy Chain gene}}</div>
1397155143713 1395802358422 {{c1::Adult T-Cell Lymphoma}} and&nsp;{{c2::Myc
osis Fungoides (Sezary Syndrome)}} are the 2 types of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma that
involve neoplasia of T-cells.
1397155798079 1395802358422 What demographic is most commonly affected y Ad
ult T-Cell Lymphoma?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
<r><div><i>Lol,
did I get you? Read the question!!</i></div>
1397155839748 1395802358422 {{c1::Adult T-Cell Lymphoma}} is a type of Non-H
odgkin Lymphoma that is caused y HTLV-1.
1397155890412 1395802358422 What is the cause of Adult T-Cell Lymphoma?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::HTLV-1}}</div> <r /><div><i>Also associated with IV dr
ug ause</i></div>
1397155905897 1395802358422 {{c1::Adult T-Cell Lymphoma}} is a Non-Hodgkin L
ymphoma that presents with cutaneous lesions, <>lytic one lesions</>&nsp;and
<>hypercalcemia</>.
1397155949392 1395802358422 Which <>east asian</>&nsp;country is commonly
affected y Adult T-Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Japan}}</div>
1397155983113 1395802358422 Which area of Africa is commonly affected y Adu
lt T-Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::West Africa}}</div>
1397156102014 1395802358422 Which area of North America is commonly affected
y Adult T-Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cariean}}</div>
1397156117688 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y Mycosis F
ungoides/Sezary Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1397156201207 1395802358422 {{c1::Mycosis Fungoides/Sezary Syndrome}} is a n
on-hodgkin lymphoma that presents with cutaneous patches/plaques/tumours that ha
ve the potential to spread to lymph nodes and viscera.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-9904194584742.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Sezary Syndrome involves c

irculating malignant cells.</i></div><div><i>Both are indolent (painless)</i></d
iv>
1397156371279 1395802358422 {{c1::Mycosis Fungoides/Sezary Syndrome}} is a t
ype of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma that involves CD4+ T cells.
1397156449796 1395802358422 {{c1::Multiple Myeloma}} is a plasma cell cancer
that involves neoplastic monoclonal plasma cells with a <>'fried egg' appearan
ce</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11141145166130.jpg" /></div>
1397157379969 1395802358422 {{c1::Mutliple Myeloma}} is a monoclonal plasma
cell cancer that arises in the one marrow and involves mass production of large
amount of IgG (55%) or IgA (25%).
1397157437263 1395802358422 What is the most common primary tumour arising w
ithin one <>in the elderly</>&nsp;(&gt; 40-50 y/o)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Mutliple Myeloma}}</div>
1397157459058 1395802358422 What type of immunogloulin is most commonly pro
duced in large amounts in Multiple Myeloma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG (55%)
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>IgA is 25%</i></div>
1397157523137 1395802358422 {{c1::Multiple Myeloma}} is a plasma cell cancer
that involves an increased susceptiility to infection and <>primary amyloidos
is</>.
1397157643635 1395802358422 {{c1::Mutiple Myeloma}} is a plasma cell cancer
that involves <>punched-out lytic one lesions on x-ray</>.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-11755325489362.jpg" /></div>
1397157691233 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::M-Spike}} is a feature of Multipl
e Myeloma that arises due to the significant increase in immunogloulin producti
on and <u>can e measure on serum protein electrophoresis</u>. <r /><div><img
src="paste-11866994639023.jpg" /></div>
1397157766207 1395802358422 {{c1::Multiple Myeloma}} is a plasma cell disord
er that involves an M Spike on serum protein electrophoresis due to the signific
ant increase in immunogloulin production.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste11862699671727.jpg" /></div>
1397157856094 1395802358422 {{c1::Bence-Jones Proteinuria}} is a renal compl
ication of Multiple Myeloma that involves the presence of immunogloulin light c
hains in the urine.
1397157918639 1395802358422 {{c1::Rouleaux Formation}} is a complication of
Multiple Myeloma that involves the stacking of RBCs on top of each other like po
ker chips on a peripheral lood smear.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1244
2520256914.jpg" /></div>
1397158087573 1395802358422 {{c1::Multiple Myeloma}} is a plasma cell cancer
that involve numerous plasma cells with <>"clock face" </>chromatin and intra
cytoplasmic inclusions that contain immunogloulin.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-12614318948662.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Also notice the eccentric
nuclei and "fried egg" appearance.</i></div>
1397158191757 1395802358422 What type of immunogloulins are involved in the
M-Spike seen in Multiple Myeloma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mostly Monoclonal
IgG (and some Monoclonal IgA)}}</div>
1397158633499 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypercalcemia}} is a serum electrolyte com
plication of Multiple Myeloma that results from an increase in RANKL Secretion f
rom proliferating Plasma Cells.
1397158672492 1395802358422 What type of anaemia is seen in Multiple Myeloma
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normocytic, Normochromic Anaemia}}</div>
1397158693710 1395802358422 {{c1::Lytic Bones Lesions and Back Pain}} are co
mplications of Multiple Myeloma due to systemic osteoclast activation resulting
from RANKL secretion. <r /><div><i>RAN<>KL</> activates Osteo<>KL</>asts.
</i></div>
1397158794576 1395802358422 {{c1::Waldenstrom Macrogloulinema}} is a plasma
cell disorder that involves a monoclonal <>IgM</>&nsp;M-Spike.
1397160145506 1395802358422 {{c1::Waldenstrom Macrogloulinemia}} is a plasm
a cell disorder that <>presents similarly to Multiple Myeloma ut lacks lytic 
one lesions</>.
<r /><div><i>And also involves a monoclonal IgM M-spike
instead of IgG/IgA</i></div>

1397160183465 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperviscosity Symptoms}} are a complicati
on of Waldenstrom Macrogloulinemia due to the large increase in monoclonal IgM
levels.
1397160215910 1395802358422 {{c1::Monoclonal Gammopathy of Undetermined Sign
ificance (MGUS)}} is a plasma cell disorder that involves monoclonal expansion o
f plasma cells with a serum monoclonal M-spike (&lt; 3 g/dL) <>ut no other sym
ptoms</>.
<r><div><i>It is essentially an asymptomatic precursor to multi
ple myeloma.</i></div>
1397160463970 1395802358422 What percentage of patients with MGUS develop Mu
ltiple Myeloma every year?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1-2%}}</div>
1397160485458 1395802358422 {{c1::Myelodysplastic Syndromes}} are a group of
stem cell disorders that involve ineffective hematopoiesis and defective cell m
aturation in all <u style="font-weight: old; ">non-lymphoid</u>&nsp;lineages.
1397160597922 1395802358422 Myelodysplastic Syndromes have a chance to trans
form into which leukemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Myelogenous Leukemia
(AML)}}</div>
1397161066608 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudo-Pelger-Huet Anomaly}} is a histolog
ical phenomenon that manifests in Myelodysplastic Syndromes and involves neutrop
hils with iloed nuclei connected with a thin filament of chromatin.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-14413910245958.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>It is typi
cally seen after chemotherapy.</i></div>
1397161070460 1395802358422 Which class of Leukemia involves proliferation o
f <>immature</>&nsp;cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Leukemias}}</div>
1397161826911 1395802358422 Which class of Leukemia involves proliferation o
f <>mature </>cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Leukemias}}</div>
1397161842554 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukemia}} is a WBC disorder that involves
unregulated growth of Leukocytes in the one marrow, eventually leading to marr
ow failure (pancytopenia) and infection.
<r /><div><i>There is an increa
se risk of infection ecause there is often fewer mature, functional WBCs in cir
culation.</i></div>
1397162463073 1395802358422 Which age groups is commonly affected y Acute L
ympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma (ALL)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 15 y/o}}</
div>
1397162721396 1395802358422 {{c1::T-Cell ALL}} is a type of Acute Lympholas
tic Leukemia that can present with a mediastinal mass due to leukemic infiltrati
on of the thymus.
1397162767752 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoid leukemia is associated wi
th Down Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Lympholastic Leukemia (ALL)}
}</div>
1397163518361 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Lympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma (ALL
)}} is a type of leukemia that involves proliferation of <>lympholasts</>&ns
p;that are visile on oth peripheral lood smear and at the one marrow.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-15599321219418.jpg" /></div>
1397163587778 1395802358422 {{c1::TdT}} is a marker found on pre-T and pre-B
lympholasts that is used to diagnose Acute Lympholastic Leukemia (ALL).
1397163622978 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker found on <u>oth</u>&n
sp;pre-T and pre-B cells is positive in Acute Lympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma (
ALL)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TdT}}</div>
1397163673663 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker found <>only on pre-B
</>&nsp;cells is positive in Acute Lympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma (ALL)?<div>
<r></div><div>{{c1::CD10}}</div>
1397164199432 1395802358422 Which type of leukemia is the most responsive to
therapy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALL}}</div>
1397164217475 1395802358422 Which 2 regions of the ody are common sites of
spread for Acute Lympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma (ALL)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::CNS and Testes}}</div>
1397164260636 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation is <u>most commo
nly</u>&nsp;involved in Acute Lympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma (ALL)?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::t(12;21); if present there is a good prognosis}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Can also involve the Phildelphia chromosome (t[9;22]) which has a worse pr

ognosis.</i></div>
1397164329689 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation associated with
Acute Lympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma involves a <>worse prognosis</>?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::t(9;22); Philadelphia (Ph) chromosome}}</div>
1397164405231 1395802358422 Which age group is most commonly affected y Sma
ll Lymphocytic Lymphoma (SLL)/Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::&gt; 60 y/o}}</div>
1397164452569 1395802358422 {{c1::Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma (SLL)/Chronic L
ymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)}} is a type of leukemia that involves neoplastic proli
feration of <u>mature</u>&nsp;B-cells and involves the presence of <>smudge ce
lls</>&nsp;in a peripheral lood smear.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1
6578573762920.jpg" /></div>
1397164607943 1395802358422 Which type of leukemia is associated with <>smu
dge cells</>&nsp;on a peripheral lood smear?<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-16574278795624.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::SLL/CLL}}</div>
1397164625989 1395802358422 Which cell surface markers (CD) are positive in
Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma (SLL)/Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::CD20+; CD5+}}</div>
1397164699874 1395802358422 {{c1::Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma (SLL)/Chronic L
ymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)}} is a type of leukemia that involves neoplastic proli
feration of <u>mature</u>&nsp;B-cells and is often asymptomatic with a slow pro
gression.
1397164741009 1395802358422 What type of anaemia is associated with&nsp;Sma
ll Lymphocytic Lymphoma (SLL)/Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>SLL and CL
L is a B-cell cancer. Hence, there will e an increase in antiody production an
d hence, AIHA.</i></div>
1397164789060 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)}} is a
leukemia that presents the same as Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma (SLL) except that
is has <u>increased peripheral lood lymphocytosis</u>&nsp;or <u>one marrow in
volvement</u>. <r /><div><i>Rememer, that is essentially the different etwee
n a lymphoma and leukemia.</i></div>
1397164962546 1395802358422 What is the difference etween&nsp;Small Lympho
cytic Lymphoma (SLL) and Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::CLL has <>increased peripheral lood lymphocytosis</>&nsp;or <>one
marrow involvement</>}}</div>
1397165016428 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y Hairy Cel
l Leukemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults, typically the elderly}}</div>
1397165365709 1395802358422 {{c1::Hairy Cell Leukemia}} is a type of leukemi
a that involves a neoplastic proliferation of <u>mature</u>&nsp;B-cells that ha
ve&nsp;<>filamentous, hair-like projections</>&nsp;on peripheral lood smear
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17867063951712.jpg" /></div>
1397165434904 1395802358422 Which immunostain is positive in Hair Cell Leuke
mia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TRAP (tartrate resistant acid phosphatase)}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>"<>TRAP</>&nsp;the <>hairy</>&nsp;east!"</i></div><
div><i>However the TRAP stain has een largely replaced with flow cytometry.</i>
</div>
1397165525467 1395802358422 {{c1::Hairy Cell Leukemia}} is a lymphoid leukem
ia that causes one marrow firosis and will hence yield a dry one marrow tap u
pon aspiration.
1397165581242 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Hair Cell Leukemia?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cladriine (2-CDA)}}</div>
1397165616727 1395802358422 {{c1::Cladriine (2-CDA)}} is an adenosine analo
g used to treat Hairy Cell Leukemia as it is resistant to Adenosine Deaminase de
gradation.
1397165690680 1395802358422 What is the median age of onset of Acute Myeloge
nous Leukemia (AML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::65 y/o}}</div>
1397172058127 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML)}} is a le
ukemia that involves circulating neoplastic <>myelolasts</>&nsp;on a periphe
ral lood smear that contain <>Auer rods</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa

ste-18511309046114.jpg" /></div>
1397172166926 1395802358422 {{c1::AML-M3}} is a type of Acute Myelogenous Le
ukemia (AML) that involves <>Auer rods</>&nsp;(<>peroxidase-positive</>&ns
p;cytoplasmic inclusions).
1397172264476 1395802358422 Which type of chemotherapy is a risk factor for
developing Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alkylati
ng agents}}</div>
1397172307221 1395802358422 Which myeloid leukemia is associated with Down S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML)}}</div>
1397173257550 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation is involved in A
cute Myelogenous Leukemia M3 (AML-M3)?<div><r />{{c1::t(15;17)}}</div>
1397173330573 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Acute Myelogenous Leuk
emia M3 (AML-M3)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::All-<i>trans</i>&nsp;Retinoic Acid
(ATRA; Vitamin A)}}</div>
1397173364266 1395802358422 {{c1::All-<i>trans</i>&nsp;Retinois Acid (ATRA;
Vitamin A)}} is a vitamin drug used to treat Acute Myelogenous Leukemia M3 (AML
-M3) y inducing the differentiation of myelolasts.
1397173408074 1395802358422 {{c1::DIC}} is a common complication of Acute My
elogenous Leukemia M3 (AML-M3) and involves widespread activation of clotting le
ading to a deficiency of clotting factors and a hypocoagulale state. <r /><d
iv><i>Possily due to the release of Auer Rods in response to chemotherapy, howe
ver the process is not fully understood.</i></div>
1397173499171 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y Chronic M
yelogenous Leukemia (CML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::45-85 years (median age of
Dx is 64 y/o)}}</div>
1397173982310 1395802358422 What chromosomal translocation is involved in Ch
ronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(9;22); Philadelph
ia chromosome}}</div> <r /><div><i>Causes a <>cr-al</>&nsp;merger.</i></
div>
1397174047188 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)}} is a
type of leukemia that involves proliferation of myeloid stem cells and presents
with an increase in neutrophils, asophils and metamyelocytes.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-19731079758170.jpg" /></div>
1397174102831 1395802358422 {{c1::Blast Crisis}} is a complication of Chroni
c Myelogenous Leukemia (CML) and involves acceleration of CML and transformation
of it into AML or ALL.
1397174146857 1395802358422 What Leukocyte Alkaline Phosphatase (LAP) score
is seen in Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Very l
ow; due to low LAP activity in mature, <>functioning</>&nsp;granulocytes}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>This is part of why there is an increased risk of infectio
n.</i></div>
1397174247994 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Chronic Myelogenous Le
ukemia (CML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Imatini}}</div>
1397174333317 1395802358422 {{c1::Imatini}} is a small-molecular drug that
is used to treat Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML) y inhiiting the <i>cr-al
</i>&nsp;tyrosine kinase.
1397174372627 1395802358422 Which 2 genes are comined in Chronic Myelogenou
s Leukemia (CML) as a result of the Phildelphia chromosome (t[9;22])?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>cr-al</i>; causing increased tyrosine kinase activity}}</d
iv>
1397174641774 1395802358422 {{c1::Auer Rods}} are <>peroxidase-positive</>
&nsp;cytoplasmic inclusions in granulocytes and myelolasts that are commonly s
een in the neoplastic myelolasts of AML-M3.
1397174692278 1395802358422 Which WBC disorder is associated with the Philad
elphia chromosome (t[9;22])?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CML (and less commonly A
LL)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20774756811109.jpg" /></div>
1397174745869 1395802358422 Which WBC disorder is associated with a t(8;14)
translocation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Burkitt lymphoma}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-20774756811109.jpg" /></div>
1397174784739 1395802358422 Which gene is overactive in Burkitt Lymphoma fol

lowing the t(8;14) translocation?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::<i>C-myc</i>}}</div>
<r><div><img src="paste-20774756811109.jpg" /></div>
1397174832556 1395802358422 Which WBC disorder is associated with a t(11;14)
translocation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mantle Cell Lymphoma (Non-Hodgkin)}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-20774756811109.jpg" /></div>
1397174857079 1395802358422 Which gene is overactive in Mantle Cell Lymphoma
following the t(11;14) translocation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclin D1}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20779051778405.jpg" /></div>
1397174963846 1395802358422 Which WBC disorder is associated with a t(14;18)
translocation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Follicular Lymphoma (Non-Hodgkin)}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20774756811109.jpg" /></div>
1397175023298 1395802358422 Which gene is overactive in Follicular Lymphoma
following the t(14;18) translocation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>cl-2</i>}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-20774756811109.jpg" /></div>
1397175051701 1395802358422 Which WBC disorder is associated with a t(15;17)
translocation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AML-M3}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-20774756811109.jpg" /></div>
1397175080981 1395802358422 Which type of Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML) i
s responsive to all-<i>trans </i>retinoic acid (ATRA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::AML-M3}}</div>
1397175107138 1395802358422 {{c1::Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis}} is a WBC d
isorder that involves proliferation of dendritic (Langerhans) cells from the mon
ocytic lineage.
1397175590055 1395802358422 {{c1::Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis}} is a WBC d
isorder that involves the proliferation of dendritic cells and presents in child
ren as <>lytic one lesions </>and skin rashes.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-21758304321844.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Or it presents as recurren
t otitis media with a mass involving the mastoid one.</i></div>
1397176263046 1395802358422 Which immunostain is positive in Langerhans Cell
Histiocytosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S-100}}</div>
1397176302691 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker (CD) is positive in La
ngerhans Cell Histiocytosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD1a}}</div>
1397176319964 1395802358422 {{c1::Bireck Granules}} are characteristic intr
acellular inclusions in Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis and resemle <>tennis rac
kets</>&nsp;on EM.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22247930593449.jpg" />
</div>
1397176378419 1395802358422 {{c1::Janus Kinase (<i>JAK2</i>)}} is a enzyme t
hat is involved in hematopoietic growth factor signalling and is mutated in a nu
mer of chronic myeloproliferative disorders.
1397177161972 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycythemia Vera}} is a chronic myeloprol
iferative disorder that involves proliferation of RBCs.
1397177224704 1395802358422 What hematocrit (Hct) is diagnostic of Polycythe
mia Vera?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 55%}}</div>
1397177247706 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Polycythemia Vera?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Somatic mutation in <i>JAK2</i>&nsp;(Janus Kinase)}}</div
>
1397177328643 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycythemia Vera}} is a chronic myeloprol
iferative disorder that often presents as intense itching after a hot shower.
1397177356705 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythromelalgia}} is a rare, ut classic s
ymptom of Polycythemia Vera that involves a severe urning pain and reddish or 
luish colouration of the extremities due to episodic lood clots.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-22780506538199.jpg" /></div>
1397177429949 1395802358422 What is the cause of <>secondary</>&nsp;Polyc
ythemia Vera?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A natural or artificial increase in EPO
levels}}</div>
1397177455555 1395802358422 {{c1::Essential Thromocythemia}} is a chronic m
yeloproliferative disorder that involves the overproduction of anormal platelet
s, therey causing oth leeding and thromosis.
1397177704920 1395802358422 {{c1::Essential Thromocythemia}} is a chronic m
yeloproliferative disorder that involves <>enlarged megakaryocytes</>&nsp;at

the one marrow.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22986664968401.jpg" /></di
v>
1397177733279 1395802358422 {{c1::Myelofirosis}} is a chronic myeloprolifer
ative disorder that involves firotic oliteration of the one marrow.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-23012434772177.jpg" /></div>
1397177798422 1395802358422 {{c1::Myelofirosis}} is a chronic myeloprolifer
ative disorder that involves <>teardrop RBCs</>&nsp;and immature forms of the
myeloid line.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23063974379690.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Due to a firotic one marrow.</i></div>
1397177887007 1395802358422 {{c1::Myeloproliferative Disorders}} are a <>ty
pe</>&nsp;of WBC Disorder that involve proliferation of all cells in the myelo
id lineage, however they differ in which myeloid cell is predominant.
1397177978747 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>cr-al</i>}} is a hyrid cell surface
receptor formed y a t(9;22) translocation in CML and leads to an increase in ce
ll division and a decrease in apoptosis.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, the trea
tment is Imatini, a drug that targets tyrosine kinase receptors.</i></div>
1397178083763 1395802358422 What is the only Chronic Myeloproliferative Diso
rder that <>does not</>&nsp;involve a <i>JAK2</i>&nsp;mutation?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-23450521436389.jpg" /></div>
1397178209172 1395802358422 What is the only Chronic Myeloproliferative Diso
rder that involved the Philadelphia chromosome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chron
ic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2345052143638
9.jpg" /></div>
1397178238955 1395802358422 {{c1::Relative Polycythemia}} is a type of Polyc
ythemia that is associated with a decrease in plasma volume.
1397178378141 1395802358422 {{c1::Appropriate Asolute Polycythemia}} is a t
ype of Polycythemia that involves a <>decrease in O<su>2</su>&nsp;saturation
</>&nsp;and is associated with lung disease, congenital heart disease and high
altitude.
1397178440639 1395802358422 {{c1::Inappropriate Asolute Polycythemia}} is a
type of Polycythemia that is associated with renal cell carcinoma, Wilms tumour
, hepatocellular carcinoma or hydronephrosis. <r /><div><i>i.e. it is associa
ted with <>ectopic EPO secretion</></i></div>
1397178494415 1395802358422 {{c1::Inappropriate Asolute Polycythemia}} is a
type of Polycythemia that is associated with <>ectopic EPO secretion</>.
1397178552953 1395802358422 {{c1::Asolute (Secondary) Polycythemia}} is a t
ype of Polycythemia that involves an increase in EPO levels.
<r /><div><i>Ca
n e Appropriate (due to decreased O<su>2</su>&nsp;saturation and hence a nee
d for more EPO) or Inappropriate (due to ectopic EPO secretion, typically y a R
enal or Hepatic cancer).</i></div>
1397178623168 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycythemia Vera (primary polycythemia)}}
is a type of polycythemia that occurs due to defects in negative feedack and h
ematopoietic growth factor signalling. <r><div><i>Rememer, there is a mutatio
n in JAK2.</i></div>
1397178758935 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycythemia Vera}} is a type of Polycythe
mia that involves <>decreased</>&nsp;levels of EPO. <r /><div><i>There is a
lso an increase in plasma volume.</i></div>
1381514842883 1358629116480 How many isoforms of G6PD or HUMARA will neoplas
tic tissue express?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::One}}</div>
1381514894558 1358629116480 How many isoforms of G6PD will normal, polyclona
l tissue express?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Two; in a 1:1 ratio}}</div>
1381514925948 1358629116480 What is the kappa:lamda ratio of immunogloulin
light chains in neoplastic B cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 6:1 or 1:3}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Essentially, a greatly skewed ratio in favour of either ka
ppa or lamda light chains.</i></div>
1381515933039 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours exhiit rapid growth.
1381516204486 1358629116480 Only&nsp;{{c1::malignant}} tumours have the pos
siility to exhiit associated fever and/or weight loss.
1381516244047 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours are generally larger.

1381516279958 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours have poorly defined o
undaries and are hence poorly differentiated on a gross scale.
1381516433448 1358629116480 {{c1::Benign}} tumours have well defined oundar
ies and are hence well differentiated on a gross scale.
1381516449635 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours are generally hard.
1381516474644 1358629116480 {{c1::Benign}} tumours are freely moile.
<r /><div><i>e.g. Firoadenoma of the reast.</i></div>
1381516502410 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours have the aility to e
fixed to surrounding tissue.
1381516534618 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours have the aility to in
vade neary lymph nodes.
1381516762031 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours often exhiit numerous
mitotic figures that are frequently anormal.
1381517072471 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours often invade lood ves
sels, lymphatics or peri-neural space.
1381517118843 1358629116480 How many doulings does it take for a tumour to
reach 1 g in mass?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::30}}</div>
1381518286006 1358629116480 How many doulings does it take for a tumour to
reach 1 kg in mass?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40}}</div>
1381518308846 1358629116480 What is anaplastic tissue?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Anormal tissue/cells that lack differentiation.}}</div>
1381521984944 1358629116480 What is desmoplastic tissue?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Firous tissue made in response to neoplasm.}}</div>
1381522009450 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin of a neoplasm th
at tests positive keratin or cytokeratin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium}
}</div>
1381523501142 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin for a neoplasm t
hat tests positive for epithelial memrane antigen (EMA)?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Epithelium.}}</div>
1381523556531 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin of a neoplasm th
at tests positive for vimentin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesenchyme.}}</div>
1381523588027 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin of a neoplasm th
at tests positive for desmin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscle.}}</div>
1381523609355 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin of a neoplasm th
at tests positive for Leukocyte Common Antigen (LCA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Leukocytes.}}</div>
1381523649672 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin for a neoplasm t
hat tests positive for muscle specific antigen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscl
e.}}</div>
1381523669022 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin for a neoplasm t
hat tests positive for chromogranin, omesin or synaptophysin?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Neuro-endocrine.}}</div>
1381524338765 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin for a neoplasm t
hat tests positive for S-100, melanin or HMB-45?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mela
nocyte}}</div>
1381524366698 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin for a neoplasm t
hat tests positive for Glial Firillary Acidic Protein (GFAP)?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Glial cells}}</div>
1381524404533 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin for a neoplasm t
hat tests positive for vWF or CD31?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blood vessel}}</d
iv>
1381524451371 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin for a neoplasm t
hat tests positive for thyrogloulin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thyroid follicl
e}}</div>
1381524486406 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin of a neoplasm th
at tests positive for alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Germ cel
l tumour of the testes or ovaries or liver}}</div>
1381524561495 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin for a neoplasm t
hat tests positive for placental alkaline phosphatase (PLAP) or eta-hCG?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Germ cell tumour of the testes}}</div>

1381524624877 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin of a neoplasm th
at tests positive for CD10 (CALLA)?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::B cell lympholast}
}</div>
1381524666597 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin of a neoplasm wi
th visile neuro-secretory granules?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuro-endocrine}
}</div>
1381524761990 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin for a neoplasm w
ith visile Weiel Palade odies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endothelium}}</div>
1381524827493 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin for a neoplasm w
ith visile <>Bireck granules</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Histiocyte}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Bireck Granules have a tennis racket appearance; Seen in
Histiocytosis X</i></div>
1381524899831 1358629116480 What is the action of Hypoxia Inducile Factor (
HIF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::It stimulates VEGF transcription.}}</div>
1381534496142 1358629116480 What are the 2 types of malignant tumours that d
o not exhiit metastasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal cell carcinoma and gl
ioma.}}</div>
1381535599276 1358629116480 Which method of spread do most carcinomas employ
for metastasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphatic}}</div>
1381537418400 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::sentinel}} lymph node(s) is the f
irst node or group of nodes to receive lymphatic drainage from a tumour in a reg
ional lymphatic asin.
1381538348479 1358629116480 Where does Stomach adenocarcinoma metastasize to
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Virchow's left supraclavicular node}}</div>
1381538523439 1358629116480 Where does reast cancer metastasize to?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lung or one}}</div>
1381538542287 1358629116480 Where does prostate cancer metastasize to?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Bone}}</div>
1381538555006 1358629116480 Where do testicular tumours metastasize to?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic lymph nodes}}</div>
1381538586982 1358629116480 Osteolastic radio-<>dense</>&nsp;loci are se
en with&nsp;{{c1::prostate}} cancer. It also involves increased serum ALP indic
ative of reactive one formation.
1381539034695 1358629116480 Osteolytic radio<>lucent</>&nsp;loci are seen
in&nsp;{{c1::reast}} cancer due to production of osteoclast activating factor
s y the tumour.
1381539067054 1358629116480 What is cancer cachexia?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::The loss of ody fat, wasting and profound weakness during cancer.}}</div>
1381539096272 1358629116480 Which cytokine typically promotes cancer cachexi
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TNF-a}}</div>
1381539112802 1358629116480 {{c1::Cushing's syndrome}} is a paraneoplastic s
yndrome associated with {{c2::small cell carcinoma}} of the lung and malignant A
CTH secretion.
1381539534030 1358629116480 {{c1::Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH secretion (S
IADH)}} is a paraneoplastic syndrome typically associated with {{c2::small cell}
} carcinoma of the lung and ADH secretion.
1381539623013 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypercalcemia}} is a paraneoplastic syndro
me associated with {{c2::squamous cell}} carcinoma of the lung and PTH-related p
rotein (PTHRP) secretion.
1381539689505 1358629116480 {{c1::Polycythemia}} is a paraneoplastic syndrom
e associated with {{c2::renal cell}} carcinoma and EPO secretion.
1381539717849 1358629116480 {{c1::Carcinoid syndrome}} is a paraneoplastic s
yndrome associated with the EECs of the small intestine and Serotonin secretion.
1381539763565 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthosis nigricans}} is a paraneoplastic
syndrome associated with a visceral malignancy.
1381539801768 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypocalcemia}} is a paraneoplastic syndrom
e associated with a {{c2::medullary}} carcinoma of the thyroid and Calcitonin se
cretion.
1381539842323 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertrophic osteoartropathy}} is a para-n
eoplastic syndrome associated with ronchogenic carcinoma and a periostal reacti

on of the distal phalanges (with cluing).
1381539890867 1358629116480 {{c1::Trousseau syndrome}} or Migratory Thromop
hleitis is a paraneoplastic syndrome associated with&nsp;{{c2::pancreatic}} ca
rcinoma and the activation of clotting factors.
1381539938252 1358629116480 What is characteristic of a Stage IV cancer?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Advanced stage with distant metastasis}}</div>
1381543838259 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::sarcoma}} is a malignant tumour ori
ginating from mesenchyme.
1381544169089 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::carcinoma}} is a malignant tumours
originating from epithelium.
1381544191313 1358629116480 Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is a tumour mark
er indicative of&nsp;{{c1::prostate}} cancer.
1381544248604 1358629116480
eta-hCG is a tumour marker indicative of&nsp;{
{c1::tropholastic}} cancer(s). <r><div><i>e.g. Hydatidiform mole, Chorio-carci
noma, Emryonal carcinoma</i></div>
1381544302069 1358629116480 CA-125 is a tumour marker indicative of&nsp;{{c
1::ovarian}} carcinoma.
1381544599421 1358629116480 alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is a tumour marker indic
ative of&nsp;{{c1::hepatocellular}} carcinoma or germ cell line tumours.
1381544638126 1358629116480 CA-15-3 is a tumour marker indicative of&nsp;{{
c1::reast}} carcinoma.
1381544666730 1358629116480 CA-19-9 is a tumour marker indicative of&nsp;{{
c1::colon}} cancer or&nsp;{{c2::pancreatic}} cancer.
1381544692645 1358629116480 Calcitonin is a tumour marker indicative of&nsp
;{{c1::medullary carcinoma of the thyroid}}.
1381544717130 1358629116480 Neuron specific enolase (NSE) is a tumour marker
indicative of&nsp;{{c1::small cell carcinoma of the lung}}.
1404259885994 1395802358422 {{c1::Monoclonality}} is a feature of neoplastic
cells that results due to all neoplastic cells eing derived from a single moth
er cell.
1404259997260 1395802358422 What is the normal ratio of active isoforms of G
6PD in cells of any tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1:1}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>This stems from random inactivation of an isoform in each cell via lyoniza
tion.</i></div><div><i>This 1:1 ratio is maintained in hyperplasia.</i></div><di
v><i>In neoplasia, <>only one isoform is expressed in the entire tissue</>.</i
></div>
1404260256471 1395802358422 Which 2 proteins expressed on the X-chromosome a
re often used to determine the clonality of new tissue growth?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::G6PD; Androgen Receptor}}</div>
1404260317698 1395802358422 Which protein is used to determine the clonality
of B-cell proliferation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Immunogloulin (Ig) light c
hain}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Each B cell expresses light chain that is either k
appa or lamda. We use the ratio of kappa to lamda to determine clonality.</i><
/div>
1404260697258 1395802358422 What is the ratio of <>kappa:lamda immunoglou
lin light chains</>&nsp;in <>normal</>&nsp;B-cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::3:1}}</div> <r /><div><i>This ratio is maintained in hyperplasia.</i></div>
1404262354017 1395802358422 What is the ratio of <>kappa:lamda immunoglou
lin light chains</>&nsp;in <>neoplastic</>&nsp;B-cells?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::&gt; 6:1 or inversion (lamda:kappa 1:3)}}</div>
1404262405041 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of cancer <>morta
lity?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Lung cancer}}</div>
1404262499035 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of cancer <>incid
ence</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast/prostate}}</div>
1404262521715 1395802358422 How many cellular division occurs in a neoplasti
c cell population efore the earliest clinical symptoms arise?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::30}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. 30 doulings</i></div>
1404263102964 1395802358422 {{c1::Pap smear}} is a screening method that det
ects <>cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)</>&nsp;efore it ecomes canc
erous.

1404263128761 1395802358422 {{c1::Mammography}} is a screening method that d
etects <i>in situ</i>< style="font-style: italic; ">&nsp;</>reast cancer ef
ore it invades.
1404263169385 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Aflatoxins?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular carcinoma}}</div>
1404263618076 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Alkylating Agent
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Leukemia/lymphoma}}</div> <r /><div><i>Alkylating
agents are often used in chemotherapy. Hence Leukemia and lymphoma are possile
complications of chemotherapy.</i></div>
1404263659445 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Alcohol?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the oropharynx/upper esophagus; H
epatocellular carcinoma}}</div>
1404263685780 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Arsenic?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin; Lung cancer; Angiosarco
ma of the liver}}</div> <r /><div><i>Arsenic is present in cigarette smoke.</i>
</div>
1404263704322 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Asestos?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung cancer; Mesothelioma}}</div> <r /><div><i>Lung cance
r is more likely following asestos exposure than mesothelioma.</i></div>
1404263912416 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with cigarette smoke?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Carcinoma of the oropharynx, esophagus, lung, kidney
, ladder and pancreas}}</div> <r /><div><i>The chemicals from cigarette smoke
are asored, enter the lood and then are filtered y the kidneys after which
they sit in the ladder where they can cause cancer.</i></div>
1404263977922 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Nitrosamines?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric carcinoma}}</div>
1404263990996 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Naphthylamine?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urothelial carcinoma of the ladder}}</div>
1404264011265 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Vinyl Chloride?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angiosarcoma of the liver}}</div>
1404264021779 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Nickel?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lung carcinoma}}</div>
1404264031050 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Chromium?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung carcinoma}}</div>
1404264037507 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Beryllium?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung carcinoma}}</div>
1404264045072 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Silica?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lung carcinoma}}</div>
1404264050722 1395802358422 Which fungus is known to make Aflatoxins?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Aspergillus</i>}}</div>
1404264261115 1395802358422 {{c1::Aflatoxin}} is a carcinogen derived from <
i>Aspergillus</i>, a fungus that often contaminates <>rice, grains and peanuts<
/>.
1404264286046 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Aspergillus</i>}} is a fungus that is a
ssociated with the carcinogen <>aflatoxin</>&nsp;and is often a contaminant o
f <>rice, grains</>&nsp;and <>peanuts</>.
1404264358135 1395802358422 What is the most common carcinogen worldwide?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cigarette smoke}}</div>
1404264371976 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycyclic hydrocarons}} are a chemical f
ound in cigarette smoke that is particularly carcinogenic.
1404264419941 1395802358422 {{c1::Nitrosamines}} are a type of carcinogen fo
und in <>smoked foods</>&nsp;that are responsile for the high rate of stomac
h cancer in Japan.
1404264450735 1395802358422 {{c1::Naphthylamines}} are a chemical derived fr
om cigarette smoke that is associated with <>urothelial carcinoma of the ladde
r</>.
1404264480146 1395802358422 {{c1::Vinyl Chloride}} is a carcinogen associate
d with angiosarcoma of the liver that is used to make <>polynivyl chloride</>&
nsp;(PVC) for use in pipes.
1404264782284 1395802358422 Which oncogenic virus is associated with <>naso

pharyngeal carcinoma</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1404264819586 1395802358422 Which oncogenic virus is associated with <>Burk
itt Lymphoma</>&nsp;and <>CNS Lymphoma in AIDS</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::EBV}}</div>
1404265302591 1395802358422 Which oncogenic virus is associated with Kaposi
Sarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HHV-8}}</div>
1404265311182 1395802358422 Which oncogenic virus is associated with hepatoc
ellular carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HCV; HBV}}</div>
1404265326907 1395802358422 Which oncogenic virus is associated with Adult T
-cell Leukemia/Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HTLV-1}}</div>
1404265339338 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with nucle
ar reactor accidents?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ionizing}}</div>
1404265399051 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with Radio
therapy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ionizing}}</div>
1404265405568 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with AML?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ionizing}}</div>
1404265412251 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with CML?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ionizing}}</div>
1404265419908 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with papil
lary carcinoma of the Thyroid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ionizing}}</div>
1404265433313 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with UVB s
unlight?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nonionizing}}</div> <r /><div><i>UVB sunlig
ht is the most common source.</i></div>
1404265453216 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with asal
cell carcinoma of the skin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nonionizing}}</div>
1404265473098 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with squam
ous cell carcinoma of the skin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nonionizing}}</div>
1404265485992 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with melan
oma of the skin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nonionizing}}</div>
1404265493982 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with the f
ormation of <>pyrimidine dimers in DNA</>, which are normally excised y restr
iction endonucleases?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nonionizing}}</div>
1404270826909 1395802358422 Which transition point in the cell cycle is regu
lated y p53?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G1 to S}}</div>
1404271649971 1395802358422 {{c1::p53}} is a tumour suppressor gene that upr
egulates <>BAX</>&nsp;if DNA damage cannot e repaired.
1404271705809 1395802358422 {{c1::BAX}} is a protein upregulated y the tumo
ur suppressor p53 that functions to disrupt <>Bcl2</>, therey causing apoptos
is.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, decreased Bcl2 activity leads to Cytochrome C le
akage from the mitochondria and susequent activation of caspases.</i></div>
1404271820642 1395802358422 {{c1::Li-Fraumeni Syndrome}} is a tumour syndrom
e that involves a germline mutation in p53 and a somatic mutation in p53 as the
second hit.
1404271852248 1395802358422 {{c1::Li-Fraumeni syndrome}} is a tumour syndrom
e due to p53 mutation that is characterized y the propensity to develop multipl
e types of carcinomas and sarcomas.
1404271885957 1395802358422 Which tumour suppressor gene is mutated in Li-Fr
aumeni Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53}}</div>
1404271898828 1395802358422 Which transition point in the cell cycle is regu
lated y R (retinolastoma protein)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G1 to S}}</div>
1404271927100 1395802358422 {{c1::R}} is a tumour suppressor protein that "
holds" the <>E2F</>&nsp;transcription factor needed for the transition into S
-phase. <r /><div><i>E2F is released when R is phosphorylated y CyclinD/CDK4.
</i></div>
1404272291752 1395802358422 Which cyclin-CDK complex functions to phosphoryl
ate R ound to E2F?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CyclinD/CDK4}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>This phosphorylation allows E2F to e free and allows it to drive the tran
sition into the S-phase of the cell cycle.</i></div><div><i>R mutation allows f
or constitutively active E2F and uncontrolled cell growth.</i></div>
1404272372337 1395802358422 {{c1::Unilateral Retinolastoma}} is a type of r

etinolastoma that results from <>2 sporadic (oth somatic) mutations in R</>
.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, R is a tumour suppressor.</i></div><div><i><img
src="paste-15715285336408.jpg" /></i></div>
1404272424477 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Retinolastoma}} is a type of ret
inolastoma that arises from a 2-hit mutation to R (<>1 germline, 1 somatic</
>) and presents with <u style="font-weight: old; ">ilateral retinolastoma</u>
&nsp;and <>osteosarcoma</>.
1404272495919 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with PDGF-B overexpre
ssion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Astrocytoma}}</div>
1404272711967 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with ERBB2 (HER2/neu)
amplification?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast cancer}}</div>
1404272733781 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with RET point mutati
ons?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN2A; MEN2B; Sporadic medullary carcinoma of th
e thyroid}}</div>
1404272760198 1395802358422 Which <>thyroid&nsp;</>tumour is associated w
ith RET point mutations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sporadic medullary carcinoma
of the thyroid}}</div>
1404272775707 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with c-KIT point muta
tions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GI stromal tumour}}</div>
1404272820122 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with RAS point mutati
ons?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Carcinomas, melanoma and lymphoma}}</div>
1404272837148 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with ABL translocatio
n [t(9;22)]?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CML}}</div>
1404272866020 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation involving ABL ca
uses CML or ALL?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(9;22) with BCR}}</div>
1404272886725 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with c-MC translocat
ion [t(8;14)]?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Burkitt lymphoma}}</div>
1404272912523 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation involving c-MC
can cause Burkitt Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(8;14) with Ig heavy cha
in}}</div>
1404272964325 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with n-MC amplificat
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neurolastoma}}</div>
1404272977689 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with L-MC amplificat
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small cell carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404272995295 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with Cyclin D1 transl
ocation [t(11;14)]?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mantle Cell lymphoma}}</div>
1404273019409 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation involving Cyclin
D1 causes mantle cell lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(11;14) involving I
g heavy chain}}</div>
1404273053757 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with CDK4 amplificati
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Melanoma}}</div>
1404273064233 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the Ig heavy chain gene f
ound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::14}}</div>
1404273948151 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation involving Bcl2 c
auses follicular lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(14;18) to the Ig heavy c
hain gene}}</div>
1404273976628 1395802358422 {{c1::Telomerase}} is an enzyme involved with DN
A replication that is often upregualted in cancer, therey resulting in neoplast
ic cells having preserved telomeres.
1404274036695 1395802358422 Which 2 angiogenic growth factors are commonly p
roduced y tumour cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FGF; VEGF}}</div>
1404274066690 1395802358422 Which MHC molecule is often downregulated in can
cer so that tumour cells can evade immune surveillance?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::MHC I}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Immunodeficiency increases the risk for ca
ncer.</i></div>
1404274337874 1395802358422 Which cellular adhesion protein is often downreg
ulated in cancer to allow for dissociation of attached cells and tumour invasion
/spread?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::E-cadherin}}</div>
1404274375937 1395802358422 To which protein in the asal lamina do cancer c
ells ind in tumour invasion/spread?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Laminin}}</div>

1404274460718 1395802358422 Which enzyme upregulated y cancer cells functio
ns to degrade the asement memrane, therey allowing for tumour invasion and sp
read?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Collagenase; Metalloproteinases}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-20074677141952.jpg" /></div>
1404274488276 1395802358422 Which type of collagen is found in the asement
memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1404274496465 1395802358422 To which protein in the extracellular matrix do
cancer cells ind to spread locally?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fironectin}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>From here, entrance into vascular or lymphatic spaces allo
ws for metastasis.</i></div>
1404274543679 1395802358422 Which route of metastasis is characteristic of c
arcinomas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphatic}}</div> <r /><div><i>Initial sp
read is to the regional draining lymph nodes.</i></div>
1404275186477 1395802358422 Which route of metastasis is characteristic of s
arcomas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hematgenous}}</div>
1404275198343 1395802358422 What are the 4 carcinomas that spread hematogeno
usly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal cell carcinoma; hepatocellular carcinoma;
follicular carcinoma of the thyroid; choriocarcinoma}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
nal cell carcinoma --&gt; Renal vein</i></div><div><i>Hepatocellular carcinoma -&gt; Hepatic vein</i></div>
1404275756862 1395802358422 {{c1::"Omental Caking"}} is a phenomenon associa
ted with cancer that involves seeding of the omentum y metastatic ovarian carci
noma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18172006629712.jpg" /></div>
1404275906224 1395802358422 Which type of tumour is associated with a <>low
nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Benign}}</div>
1404276180565 1395802358422 Which type of tumour is associated with a <>hig
h nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Malignant}}</div>
1404276205308 1395802358422 Which type of tissue is associated with Keratin?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-18799
071854926.jpg" /></div>
1404276286666 1395802358422 Which type of tissue is associated with&nsp;Vim
entin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesenchyme}}</div>
1404276297915 1395802358422 Which type of tissue is associated with Desmin?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscle}}</div>
1404276314602 1395802358422 Which type of tissue is associated with GFAP?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroglia}}</div>
1404276322271 1395802358422 Which type of tissue is associated with the Chro
mogranin immunohistochemical stain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroendocrine ce
lls (e.g. small cell carcinoma of the lung; carcinoid tumours)}}</div>
1404276364238 1395802358422 Which type of tissue is associated with the S-10
0 immunohistochemical stain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Melanoma; Schwannoma; La
ngerhans cell histiocytosis}}</div>
1404276404718 1395802358422 What is the single most important prognostic sta
ging factor of cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metastasis}}</div>
1404276549951 1395802358422 What is the <>second most</>&nsp;important pr
ognostic staging factor for cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spread to regiona
l lymph nodes}}</div>
1404318364589 1395802358422 {{c1::P-glycoprotein}} is a surface glycoprotein
expressed y some cancer cells that functions to pump out toxins from the cell,
including chemotherapeutic agents.
<r /><div><i>Aka Multidrug Resistance P
rotein 1 (MDR1).</i></div>
1404318436119 1395802358422 {{c1::Anaplasia}} is a type of cell growth that
involves a <>loss of structural differentiation</>&nsp;and <>function</>&n
sp;of cells, therey resemling primitive cells of the same tissue.
<r /><d
iv><i>May involve giant cells with single large nucleus or several nuclei.</i></
div>
1404318572934 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmoplasia}} is a type of cell growth tha
t involves <>firous tissue formation</>&nsp;in response to neoplasm.
<r /><div><i>e.g. linitis plastica in diffuse stomach cancer</i></div>
1404318605871 1395802358422 {{c1::Tumour grade}} is a prognostic factor of t

umours that is determined y the <>degree of cellular differentiation and mitot
ic activity on histology</>. <div><r /></div><div><i>Stage typically has mor
e prognostic value.</i></div><img src="paste-20804821581917.jpg" />
1404318909214 1395802358422 {{c1::Tumour stage}} is a prognostic factor of t
umours that is determined y the <>degree of localization/spread</>&nsp;and <
<r /><div><img src="paste-2095944040460
>size of the primary lesion</>.
6.jpg" /></div>
1404319329156 1395802358422 {{c1::Leiomyosarcoma}} is a malignant tumour of
smooth muscle.
1404319354139 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhadomyosarcoma}} is a malignant tumour o
f striated muscle.
1404319375312 1395802358422 {{c1::Cachexia}} is a complication of chronic di
sease that is descried as generalized <>weight loss, muscle atrophy</>&nsp;a
nd <>fatigue.</>
<r /><div><i>Mediated y TNF-alpha (aka Cachectin), IFN
-gamma and IL-6.</i></div>
1404319677992 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with acanthosis nig
ricans?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Visceral malignancy (especially gastric)}}</d
iv>
1404320272889 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Actinic Kerato
sis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin}}</div>
1404320285141 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with autoimmune dis
eases?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphoma}}</div>
1404320298998 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Barrett Esopha
gus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Esophageal adenocarcinoma}}</div>
1404320316305 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with chronic atroph
ic gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric adenocarcinoma}}</div>
1404320334521 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with pernicious ana
emia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric adenocarcinoma}}</div>
1404320344434 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with postsurgical g
astric remnants?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric adenocarcinoma}}</div>
1404320362109 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with cirrhosis?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular carcinoma}}</div>
1404320368744 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Cushing Syndro
me?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small cell carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404320382986 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Dermatomyositi
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung cancer}}</div>
1404320393566 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Down Syndrome?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALL; AML}}</div>
1404320403613 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Dysplastic Nev
us?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Malignant melanoma}}</div>
1404320412418 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Hypercalcemia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404320428366 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with immunodeficien
cy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphoma}}</div>
1404320437487 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Lamert-Eaton
syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small cell carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404320474314 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Myashenia Grav
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thymoma}}</div>
1404320482264 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with pure RBC aplas
ia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thymoma}}</div>
1404320489168 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Paget Disease
of Bone?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Secondary osteosarcoma; Firosarcoma}}</div>
1404320528070 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Plummer-Vinson
Syndrome (via Fe deficiency)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinom
a of the esophagus}}</div>
1404320558233 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Polycythemia?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal cell carcinoma; Hepatocellular carcinoma}}</div
>
1404320578081 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with SIADH?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Small cell carcinoma of the lung}}</div>

1404320592524 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Ulcerative Col
itis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colonic adenocarcinoma}}</div>
1404320614884 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Xeroderma Pigm
entosum and Alinism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Melanoma; Basal cell carcinoma;
and especially Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin}}</div>
1404320651444 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Tuerous Scler
osis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Giant cell astrocytoma; Renal angiomyolipoma; C
ardiac Rhadomyoma}}</div>
1404320695351 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with BRAF mutation?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Melanoma}}</div>
1404321116200 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>APC</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colorectal cancer (in FAP)}}</
div>
1404321778440 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>BRCA1</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast and ovarian cancer}}<
/div>
1404321792817 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>BRCA2</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast and ovarian cancer}}<
/div>
1404321802250 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>CPD4/SMAD4</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pancreatic cancer}}</di
v>
1404321816290 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>DCC</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colon cancer}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>"DCC = Deleted In Colon Cancer"</i></div>
1404321831764 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>MEN1</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN type I}}</div>
1404321848182 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>NF1</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neurofiromatosis Type 1}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>NF1 does for a <>ras GTPase activating protein</>&nsp;(
neurofiromin).</i></div>
1404321892013 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>NF2</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neurofiromatosis type 2}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>NF2 codes for a merlin (schwannomin) protein.</i></div>
1404321916983 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>p16</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Melanoma}}</div>
<div><i>
<r /></i></div>
1404321932972 1395802358422 {{c1::p16}} is a tummour suppressor gene that co
des for cyclin-dependent kinase inhiitor 2A.
1404321959059 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>p53</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Most human cancers; Li-Fraumen
i Syndrome}}</div>
1404321988390 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>PTEN</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast cancer; prostate cance
r; endometrial cancer}}</div>
1404322021428 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>R</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Retinolastoma; osteosarcoma}}<
/div>
1404322037040 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>TSC1</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tuerous sclerosis}}</div>
1404322047325 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>TSC1</i>}} is a tumour suppressor gene
associated with Tuerous Sclerosis that codes for a Hamartin protein.
1404322068108 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>TSC2</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tuerous sclerosis}}</div>
1404322088058 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>TSC2</i>}} is a tumour suppressor gene
associated with Tuerous Sclerosis that codes for a Tuerin protein.
1404322106975 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>VHL</i>}} is a tumour suppressor gene a
ssociated with von Hippel-Lindau Syndrome that inhiits hypoxia inducile factor
1a.
1404322154567 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr

essor gene <i>WT1</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wilms tumour (nephrolastoma)}
}</div>
1404322169077 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>WT2</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wilms tumour (nephrolastoma)}
}</div>
1404322182855 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with the tumour marke
r CA-15-3?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast cancer}}</div>
1404322244521 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with the tumour marke
r CA-27-29?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast cancer}}</div>
1404322251078 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with the tumour marke
r CA-19-9?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pancreatic adenocarcinoma}}</div>
1404322266294 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with the tumour marke
r CA-125?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian cancer}}</div>
1404322276504 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with the tumour marke
r Calcitonin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid}}</d
iv>
1404322286120 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with the tumour marke
r eta-hCG?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydatidiform moles; Choriocarcinoma; Test
icular cancer}}</div>
1404322325501 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with the tumour marke
r Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metastases to one; Pag
et disease of one; Seminoma (due to placental ALP)}}</div>
1404322380906 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with the tumour marke
r Carcinoemryonic Antigen (CEA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Produced y ~70% of
colorectal and pancreatic cancers}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Also found in gast
ric, reast and medullary thyroid cancer. Hence it is very nonspecific.</i></div
>
1404322605296 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with the tumour marke
r S-100?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tumours of tissue with <>neural crest origi
n</>; Langerhans cell histiocytosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. (neural crest
cell tumours) melanoma, neural tumours, schwannomas</i></div>
1404322650519 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with the tumour marke
r Tartrate-Resistant Acid Phosphatase (TRAP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hairy c
ell leukemia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>TRAP </>the <>hairy</>&nsp;east."
</i></div>
1404322684896 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with <i>Helicoacter
pylori</i><>?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Gastric adenocarinoma; MALT
Lymphoma}}</div>
1404323364830 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with&nsp;<i>Clonorch
is sinensis</i>&nsp;(Liver fluke)?<div><r />{{c1::Cholangiocarcinoma}}</div>
1404323420420 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with&nsp;<i>Schistos
oma haematoium</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the 
ladder}}</div>
1404323548832 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with aromatic amines
(e.g. enzidine; 2-naphthylamine)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transitional cell
carcinoma of the ladder}}</div>
1404325609614 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Radon?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Lung cancer}}</div> <r /><div><i>Radon is the 2nd leading c
ause of lung cancer after cigarette smoke.</i></div>
1404325641600 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted y Hodgkin Lymphomas can
cause Hypercalcemia as a paraneoplastic syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cal
citriol}}</div>
1404326299428 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted y Small Cell carcinoma o
f the lung can cause Cushing Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACTH}}</div>
1404326318739 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted y small cell carcinoma o
f the lung can cause SIADH as a paraneolplastic syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::ADH}}</div>
1404326341529 1395802358422 Which agent secreted y small cell carcinoma of
the lung can cause Lamert-Eaton syndrome as a paraneoplastic syndrome?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Autoantiodies against Ca channels at the NMJ}}</div>

1404326442770 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted y Renal Cell Carcinoma c
an cause polycythemia as a paraneoplastic syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::E
rythropoietin}}</div>
1404326503477 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted y squamous cell carcinom
a of the lung can cause <>hyper</>calcemia as a paraneoplastic syndrome?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP)}}</div>
1404326616308 1395802358422 {{c1::Psamomma odies}} are laminated, concentri
c, calcific spherules often seen in some cancers.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-26813480829242.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-2683495566561
3.jpg" /></div>
1404326835414 1395802358422 Which primary tumour <>most commonly</>&nsp;c
auses metastases to the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-26980984553770.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Li
ver &gt; reast &gt; GU &gt; Osteosarcoma &gt; Melanoma &gt; GI.</i></div><div><
i>50% of rain tumours are from metastases and present as multiple well-circumsc
ried tumours at the gray/white matter junction.</i></div>
1404327323743 1395802358422 Which primary tumour <>most commonly</>&nsp;c
auses metastasis to the liver?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div><div><img
src="paste-27131308409130.jpg" /><img src="paste-27144193311020.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Colon &gt;&gt; stomach &gt; pancreas.</i></div>
1404327379271 1395802358422 Which primary tumour <>most commonly</>&nsp;c
auses metastasis to the one?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prostate; reast}}</div
><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27230092656936.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Prostate, reast &gt; lung &gt; thyroid.</i></div><div><i>Prostate = last
ic</i></div><div><i>Breast = lytic and lastic</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div>
1381617255451 1358629116480 What are the 2 complement components that functi
on as anaphylatoxins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5a and C3a}}</div>
1381618976724 1358629116480 {{c1::Mellitin}} is a toxin present in ee venom
that is ale to trigger Type I Hypersensitivity reactions.
1381619007700 1358629116480 {{c1::Pemphigus Vulgaris}} is a Type II Hypersen
sitivity disorder where the epithelium unzips and antiodies target the&nsp;{{c
2::desmoglein}} protein in desmosomes, therey forming listers.
1381621091627 1358629116480 ANCA Associated Vasculitis involves the activati
on of&nsp;{{c1::neutrophils}} y auto-antiodies leading to inflammation of the
lood vessel wall.
1381622003980 1358629116480 {{c1::Myasthenia Gravis}} is a Type II hypersens
itivity disorder where auto-antiodies target ACh Receptors, therey locking th
em or triggering their destruction.
1381622160841 1358629116480 {{c1::Type I}} Hypersensitivity involves IgE and
mast cell-mediated lieration of Histamine causing local and systemic anaphylax
is.
<r /><div><i>Type I = A for Allergy, Anaphylaxis and Asthma</i></div>
1381623711483 1358629116480 {{c1::Type II}} Hypersensitivity involves the i
nding of antiodies to cell surface antigens causing damage through classical co
mplement activation or cell cytotoxicity.
1381623765341 1358629116480 {{c1::Type II}} Hypersensitivity involves the i
nding of antiodies to cell surface surface receptors causing stimulation, lock
age or destruction of that receptor.
1381623824714 1358629116480 {{c1::Type III}} Hypersensitivity involves local
or circulating antiody-antigen complexes that cause damage y getting trapped
in tissues and activating complement proteins.
1381623870032 1358629116480 {{c1::Type IV}} Hypersensitivity involves the ac
tivation of T cells resulting in CD4+ mediated macrophage recruitment or CD8+ me
diated cytotoxicity.
1381623954708 1358629116480 What ANAs are indicative of Systemic Lupus Eryth
ematosus (SLE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-dsDNA or nonspecific ANA}}</div>
1381626724903 1358629116480 What ANA is indicative of Drug-induced Lupus Ery
thematosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-histone}}</div>
1381626763463 1358629116480 What ANA is indicative of <>diffuse&nsp;</>Sy
stemic&nsp;Scleroderma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scl-70}}</div>
1381627054060 1358629116480 What ANA is indicative of <>limited </>Systemi

c&nsp;Scleroderma (i.e. CREST Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-centro
mere}}</div>
1381627075578 1358629116480 What ANAs are indicative of Sjogren's Syndrome?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::SS-A/Ro and SS-B/La}}</div>
1381627111555 1358629116480 What is a Malar Butterfly Rash a common clinical
feature of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Systemic Lupus Erythematosus}}</div>
1381627386489 1358629116480 {{c1::Liman-Sacks}} Endocarditis is an aseptic/
sterile form of endocarditis characterized y small deposits on <>oth</>&nsp
;sides of the {{c2::mitral}} valve.
1381628108416 1358629116480 Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome (APS) typical
ly involves which 2 autoantiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anticardiolipin a
nd Lupus Anticoagulant}}</div> <r /><div><i>ielding a false positive syphilis
test and a false elevated PTT respectively.</i></div>
1381628704524 1358629116480 {{c1::Raynaud's}} Phenomenon is characterized y
an excessively reduced lood flow in response to cold or emotional stress, ther
ey causing discoloration of the fingers, toes or other areas.
1381635094021 1358629116480 {{c1::Sjogren's Syndrome}} is an autoimmune diso
rders characterized y the T cell mediated destruction of the lacrimal and saliv
ary glands.
1381635159376 1358629116480 {{c1::Scleroderma}} is an autoimmune disorder ch
aracterized y the activation of firolasts and deposition of collagen.
1404151930975 1395802358422 {{c1::Inflammation}} is a pathological process t
hat involves the allowance of inflammatory cells, plasma proteins and fluid to e
xit lood vessels and enter the interstitium.
1404152054817 1395802358422 Which type of inflammation is characterized y t
he presence of <>edema</>&nsp;and <>neutrophils</>&nsp;in tissue?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Acute}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4788888535
373.jpg" /></div>
1404153262540 1395802358422 Which type of inflammation arises in response to
tissue necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute inflammation}}</div>
1404153444296 1395802358422 Which type of inflammation is an immediate respo
nse and part of the <>innate immunity</>&nsp;(i.e. limited specificity)?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute inflammation}}</div>
1404153488782 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein on macrophages recogn
izes LPS on the outer memrane of gram-negative acteria?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::CD14 (co-receptor for TLR4)}}</div>
1404154057160 1395802358422 Which TLR on macrophages recognizes LPS on the o
uter memrane of gram-negative acteria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TLR4 (alongs
ide CD14)}}</div>
1404154086432 1395802358422 {{c1::NF-kB}} is a nuclear transcription factor
that is upregulated y TLR activation and susequently activated immune respose
genes.
1404154145359 1395802358422 Which enzyme releases Arachidonic Acid from the
phospholipid cell memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phospholipase A<su>2</su
>}}</div>
1404154195657 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Arachidonic Acid into Pros
taglandins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclooxygenase (COX)}}</div>
1404154215458 1395802358422 Which prostaglandin is known to mediate pain and
fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PGE<su>2</su>}}</div>
1404154243928 1395802358422 {{c1::PGI<su>2</su>}},&nsp;{{c2::PGD<su>2</s
u>}} and&nsp;{{c3::PGE<su>2</su>}} are prostaglandins that mediate vasodilat
ion and increased vascular permeaility.
<r /><div><i>The vasodilation o
ccurs at <>arterioles.</></i></div><div><i>The increased vascular permeaility
occurs at <>post capillary venules</>.</i></div>
1404154306282 1395802358422 Which enzymes converts Arachidonic Acid into Leu
kotrienes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5-Lipoxygenase}}</div>
1404154335290 1395802358422 Which Leukotriene functions to attract and activ
ate neutrophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LTB<su>4</su>}}</div>
1404154370362 1395802358422 {{c1::LTC<su>4</su>}},&nsp;{{c2::LTD<su>4</s
u>}} and&nsp;{{c3::LTE<su>4</su>}} are leukotrienes that mediate <>vasocons

triction</>, <>ronchospasm</>&nsp;and <>increased vascular permeaility</
>.
<r /><div><i>This is done through the smooth muscle contraction of:</i>
</div><div><i>- Arteriolar smooth muscle (vasoconstriction)</i></div><div><i>- B
ronchiolar smooth muscle (ronchioconstriction)</i></div><div><i>- Pericytes (in
creased vascular permeaility)</i></div>
1404154476820 1395802358422 Which complement proteins are known to activate
Mast Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3a; C5a}}</div>
1404154504498 1395802358422 Which sustance released from Mast Cell granules
mediates the <>immediate response</>&nsp;of mast cell degranulation?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Histamine}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, vasodilation is
at arterioles and vascular permeaility increases at post-capillary venules.</i>
</div>
1404154584886 1395802358422 Which arachidonic acid metaolite mediates the <
>delayed response</>&nsp;of mast cell degranulation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Leukotrienes}}</div>
1404154621946 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated y C1 ind
ing to IgG or IgM ound to antigen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Classical}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"GM makes classic cars."</i></div>
1404154992356 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated y microi
al products directly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alternative}}</div>
1404155007879 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated y Mannose
-inding Lectin (MBL) inding to mannose on microorganisms?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Mannose-inding lectin pathway}}</div>
1404155061351 1395802358422 Which complement proteins are referred to as ana
phylatoxins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3a; C5a}}</div>
1404155092547 1395802358422 {{c1::C3a}} and&nsp;{{c2::C5a}} are complement
proteins that act as anaphylatoxins, therey triggering mast cell degranulation
and histamine release.
1404155124220 1395802358422 Which complement protein is chemotactic for neut
rophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5a}}</div>
1404155134613 1395802358422 Which complement protein is an opsonin for neutr
ophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3}}</div>
1404155145551 1395802358422 Which complement protein complex lyses microes
y creating a hole in the cell memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MAC}}</div>
1404155170156 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is referred to as Hagem
an Factor?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor XII}}</div>
1404155194912 1395802358422 {{c1::Kallikrein}} is an enzyme that cleaves hig
h-molecular weight kininogen (HMWK) to Bradykinin.
1404155233002 1395802358422 {{c1::Bradykinin}} is a reakdown product of hig
h-molecular weight kininogen that mediates vasodilation and icnreased vascular p
ermeaility as well as pain.
1404161286124 1395802358422 {{c1::Redness (ruor)}} and&nsp;{{c2::warmth (c
alor)}} are 2 cardinal signs of inflammation that arise due to vasodilation.
<r /><div><i>Via relaxation of arteriolar smooth muscle.</i></div><div><i>Key m
ediators are histamine, prostaglandins and radykinin.</i></div>
1404161378472 1395802358422 {{c1::Swelling (tumour)}} is a cardinal sign of
inflammation that arises due to leakage of fluid from postcapillary venules into
the interstitial space (exudate).
<r /><div><i>Key mediators are histamin
e (which causes endothelial cell contraction) and tissue damage which results in
endothelial cell disruption.</i></div>
1404161579549 1395802358422 {{c1::Pain (dolor)}} is a cardinal sign of infla
mmation that is mediated y Bradykinin and PGE<su>2</su>&nsp;action sensitizi
ng sensory nerve endings.
1404161619890 1395802358422 {{c1::Fever}} is a cardinal sign of inflammation
that results from <>IL-1</>&nsp;and <>TNF</>&nsp;release from activated M
acrophages.
1404162502774 1395802358422 Which cytokines released from macrophages in res
ponse to pyrogens increase cyclooxygenase activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I
L-1; TNF}}</div>
1404162534601 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-1}} and&nsp;{{c2::TNF}} are 2 cytokine

s released from macrophages following pyrogen activation that results in increas
ed cyclooxygenase activity in the <>perivascular cells of the hypothalamus</>.
<r /><div><i>The susequent increase in PGE<su>2</su>&nsp;results in fever.<
/i></div>
1404162731893 1395802358422 {{c1::Selectins}} are cell surface proteins upre
gulated on endothelium in Neutrophil margination that act as <>"speed umps</>
".
<r /><div><img src="paste-9543417332413.jpg" /></div>
1404164280118 1395802358422 Which Selectin protein is released from Weiel-P
alade odies in Endothelium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::P-selectin}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>W</>eiel-<>P</>alade odies = v<>W</>F &amp; and <>P</>
-Selectin</i></div>
1404164408771 1395802358422 Which inflammatory mediator trigger P-selectin u
pregulation from Weiel-Palade odies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Histamine}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9543417332413.jpg" /></div>
1404164448782 1395802358422 Which Selectin protein in endothelium is induced
y TNF and IL-1?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::E-selectin}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-9547712299709.jpg" /></div>
1404164595983 1395802358422 Which inflammatory cytokines induce E-Selectin e
xpression in endothelium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TNF; IL-1}}</div>
1404164779348 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein on leukocytes inds t
o selectins on endothelium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sialyl Lewis X}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9543417332413.jpg" /></div>
1404164864652 1395802358422 Which <>adhesion</>&nsp;molecules are upregul
ated on endothelium in inflammation y IL-1 and TNF?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
ICAM; VCAM}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9543417332413.jpg" /></div>
1404164898523 1395802358422 Which inflammatory cytokines upregulate ICAM and
VCAM adhesion molecules on endothelium in inflammation?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::IL-1; TNF}}</div>
1404164936689 1395802358422 {{c1::ICAM}} and&nsp;{{c2::VCAM}} are adhesion
molecules that are upregulated on endothelium during neutrophil adhesion.
<r /><div><i>Induced y IL-1 and TNF.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-95434173
32413.jpg" /></i></div>
1404165097789 1395802358422 What surface proteins on leukocytes inds to <>
ICAM/VCAM</>&nsp;on endothelium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Integrins (LFA-1)}
}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-9543417332413.jpg" /></div>
1404165260296 1395802358422 Which inflammatory mediators upregulate Integrin
(LFA-1) expression on adhering leukocytes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5a; LTB<
su>4</su>}}</div>
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9543417332413.jpg"
/></div>
1404165431966 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency}} is an auto
somal recessive immunological disorder that involves a defect in the CD18 suuni
t of leukocyte integrins.
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>delayed separatio
n of the umilical cord</>, <>increased circulating neutrophils</>&nsp;and <
>recurrent acterial infections without pus formation</>.</i></div>
1404166243047 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Leukocyte Adh
esion Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1404166793993 1395802358422 What are the 4 major chemoattractants for Neutro
phils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5a; IL-8; LTB<su>4</su>; Kinin}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>CILK</>"</i></div><div><i>- C5a</i></div><div><i>- IL-8</i></
div><div><i>- LTB<su>4</su></i></div><div><i>- Kinin</i></div>
1404166892602 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotype functions as an ops
onin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
1404166914184 1395802358422 Which complement protein functions as an opsonin
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3}}</div>
1404166922848 1395802358422 {{c1::Chediak-Higashi Syndrome}} is an autsomal
recessive protein trafficking defect characterized y an impairment in forming p
hagolysosomes.
1404167046624 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Chediak-Higas
hi Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1404167068265 1395802358422 {{c1::Neutropenia}} is a feature of Chediak-Higa

shi Syndrome that presents due intramedullary death of neutrophils.
1404167211427 1395802358422 {{c1::Chediak-Higashi Syndrome}} is a protein tr
afficking disorder that presents with <>giant granules in leukocytes</>&nsp;d
ue to fusion of granules arising from the Golgi apparatus.
1404167273654 1395802358422 {{c1::Alinism}} is a cutaneous complication of
Chediak-Higashi Syndrome that results from defective transport of Melanin from m
elanocytes to keratinocytes.
1404167507356 1395802358422 {{c1::Peripheral neuropathy}} is a neurological
complication of Chediak-Higashi Syndrome due to defective protein trafficking ca
using atrophy of nerve terminals.
1404174237556 1395802358422 Which enzyme in phagocytes converts O2 into supe
roxide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NADPH Oxidase}}</div>
1404174930116 1395802358422 Which enzyme in phagocytes converts superoxide r
adicals into H2O2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide dismutase (SOD)}}</div>
1404174956236 1395802358422 Which enzyme in phagocytes converts H2O2 into HO
Cl (leach)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myeloperoxidase}}</div>
1404174979519 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Granulomatous Disease}} is an immu
nological disorder that is characterized y poor O2-dependent killing due to an
NADPH Oxidase deficiency.
<r /><div><i>Presents with recurrent infection
and granuloma formation y catalase positive organisms.</i></div>
1404175112284 1395802358422 What is a <>colourless</>&nsp;nitrolue tetra
zolium (NBT) test indicative of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NADPH Oxidase defect
}}</div>
1404175154560 1395802358422 {{c1::Myeloperoxidase Deficiency}} is a disorder
of the oxidative urst pathway that presents with the inaility to make HOCl fr
om H2O2.
<r /><div><i>Mostly asymptomatic, ut more Candida infections c
an occur.</i></div>
1404175216629 1395802358422 Which type of infection has an increased risk of
manifesting in patients with Myeloperoxidase Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::<i>Candida</i>}}</div>
1404175244873 1395802358422 What nitrolue tetrazolium (NBT) test result is
seen in Myeloperoxidase Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
<r /><div><i>NBT gauges NADPH Oxidase actino (formation of Superoxide radicals)
.</i></div>
1404175718993 1395802358422 How long after inflammation do neutrophils under
go apoptosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Within 24 hrs}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
is apoptosis of neutrophils is how pus is made.</i></div>
1404175836145 1395802358422 {{c1::Lysozyme}} is an antimicroial enzyme foun
d in the secondary granules of macrophages that function to kill phagocytosed pa
thogens in an O2-independent manner.
1404175878811 1395802358422 {{c1::Major asic protein}} is an antimicroial
enzyme in the secondary granules of Eosinophils that functions to kill pathogens
in an O2-independent manner
1404175913804 1395802358422 How long after inflammation egins do <>macroph
ages</>&nsp;predominate in the tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Peak after 2
-3 days}}</div>
1404175956525 1395802358422 Which 2 anti-inflammatory cytokines are released
y macrophages in the <>resolution</>&nsp;and <>healing</>&nsp;phase of i
nflammation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-10; TGF-eta}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
memer, IL-1 and TNF are the pro-inflammatory cytokines.</i></div>
1404176259030 1395802358422 Which cytokine released y macrophages recruits
additional neutrophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-8}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
is is typically seen at the end of acute inflammation to ensure that there is co
ntinued acute inflammation.</i></div>
1404176851463 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic inflammation}} is a type of inflam
mation that can follow acute inflammation as macrophages present antigen to acti
vate CD4+ helper T cells which secrete cytokines to promote the phenomenon.
1404176936799 1395802358422 Which type of inflammation is characterized y t
he presence of <>lymphocytes</>&nsp;and <>plasma cells</>&nsp;in tissue?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer,&nsp;<>

acute = neutrophils</></i></div>
1404176977488 1395802358422 Which type of inflammation presents as a delayed
response ut with more specificity as part of adaptive immunity?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Chronic inflammation}}</div>
1404177479458 1395802358422 What is the most common stimulus for chronic inf
lammation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Persistent infection}}</div>
1404177511029 1395802358422 Where do T cells mature?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Thymus}}</div>
1404178004538 1395802358422 What is the second activation signal in the acti
vation of CD4+ helper T cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B7 on APCs to CD28 on
CD4+ T cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"7 x 4 = 28"</i></div>
1404178096140 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-gamma}} is a cytokine secreted y <>T
h1</>&nsp;cells that <>activates macrophages</>, <>promotes B-cell class sw
itching</>&nsp;from IgM to IgG and inhiis th2 cells.
1404178201643 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-4}} is a cytokine secreted y <>Th2</
>&nsp;cells that facilitates <>B-cell class switching to IgE</>.
1404178230691 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-5}} is a cytokine secreted y <>Th2</
>&nsp;cells that promotes <>eosinophil chemotaxis and activation</>.
1404178281213 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-5}} is a cytokine secreted y <>Th2</
>&nsp;cells that promotes <>B-cell class switching to IgA</>.
1404178302919 1395802358422 Which cytokine from Th2 cells promotes B-cell cl
ass switching to IgE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-4 (and IL-13)}}</div>
1404178339684 1395802358422 Which cytokine from Th2 cells facilitates B-cell
class switching to IgA?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-5}}</div>
1404178360353 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-10}} is a cytokine secreted y Th2 cell
s that inhiits the Th1 phenotype.
<r /><div><i>i.e. it is anti-inflammato
ry.</i></div>
1404178386998 1395802358422 What is the second activation signal in the acti
vation of <>CD8+ T cells</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-2 from Th1 cells}}<
/div>
1404178539109 1395802358422 {{c1::Perforin}} is an enzyme expressed y CD8+
T cells that creates pores in target cells.
1404178559595 1395802358422 {{c1::Granzyme}} is an enzyme made y CD8+ T cel
ls that enters target cells and triggers apoptosis.
1404178577655 1395802358422 {{c1::FasL}} is a cell surface protein expressed
y CD8+ T cells that inds to Fas on target cells and causes apoptosis.
1404178601909 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotypes are expressed y n
aive B-cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgM; IgD}}</div>
1404178954483 1395802358422 What is the second activation signal in the acti
vation of B-cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD40L on CD4+ T cell to CD40R on B
cells}}</div> <r /><div><i>The helper T cell then secretes cytokines that med
iate B-cell isotype switching, hypermutation and maturation.</i></div><div><i>IL-4 = switch to IgE</i></div><div><i>- IL-5 = switch to IgA</i></div><div><i>IFN-gamma = switch to IgG</i></div>
1404179064494 1395802358422 {{c1::Granulomatous inflammation}} is a sutype
of chronic inflammation that is characterized y <>granulomas</>&nsp;surround
ed y giant cells and lymphocytes.
<r /><div><i>A <>granuloma</>&nsp;=
collection of epithelioid histiocytes (macrophages with aundant pink cytoplasm)
.</i></div>
1404179736031 1395802358422 {{c1::Noncaseating granulomatous inflammation}}
is a type of granulomatous inflammation that <>lacks central necrosis</>.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-18494129176917.jpg" /></div>
1404179938764 1395802358422 Which type of granulomatous inflammation is asso
ciated with <>Sarcoidosis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Noncaseating}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18489834209621.jpg" /></div>
1404179957791 1395802358422 Which type of granulomatous inflammation is asso
ciated with Beryllium exposure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Noncaseating}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-18489834209621.jpg" /></div>
1404179973728 1395802358422 Which type of granulomatous inflammation is asso
ciated with Crohn Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Noncaseating}}</div>

<r /><div><img src="paste-18489834209621.jpg" /></div>
1404179987096 1395802358422 Which type of granulomatous inflammation is asso
ciated with <>cat-scratch disease</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Noncaseating}
}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-18489834209621.jpg" /></div>
1404180004041 1395802358422 Which type of granulomatous inflammation <>lack
s central necrosis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Noncaseating}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-18489834209621.jpg" /></div>
1404180087111 1395802358422 Which type of granulomatous inflammation <>exhi
its central necrosis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caseating}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-19043884990808.jpg" /></div>
1404180094930 1395802358422 Which type of granulomatous inflammation is asso
ciated with <>tuerculosis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caseating}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-19039590023512.jpg" /></div>
1404180112183 1395802358422 Which type of granulomatous inflammation is asso
ciated with <>fungal infections</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caseating}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-19039590023512.jpg" /></div>
1404180126450 1395802358422 {{c1::Cat-scratch disease}} is a acterial infec
tion that is characterized y <>stellate-shaped, noncaseating granulomatous inf
lammation</>.
1404180325793 1395802358422 Which cytokine from macrophages induces helper C
D4+ T cells to differentiate into Th1 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}<
/div> <r /><div><div><i>Steps in the formation of granulomas:</i></div><div><
i>1. Macrophage finds, processes and presents antigen to CD4+ T-cells via MHC II
</i></div><div><i>2. Binding triggers&nsp;<>IL-12</>&nsp;release from the ma
crophage.</i></div><div><i>3. CD4+ T cells ecome the&nsp;<>Th1&nsp;</>suty
pe.</i></div><div><i>4. Th1 cells secrete&nsp;<>IFN-gamma</>&nsp;which conve
rts macrophages into epithelioid histiocytes and giant cells.</i></div></div>
1404180488842 1395802358422 Which cytokine from Th1 cells converts macrophag
es into epithelioid histiocytes and giant cells (i.e. forms granulomas)?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::IFN-gamma}}</div> <r /><div><i>Steps in the formation of
granulomas:</i></div><div><i>1. Macrophage finds, processes and presents antigen
to CD4+ T-cells via MHC II</i></div><div><i>2. Binding triggers <>IL-12</>&n
sp;release from the macrophage.</i></div><div><i>3. CD4+ T cells ecome the <>T
h1 </>sutype.</i></div><div><i>4. Th1 cells secrete <>IFN-gamma</>&nsp;whic
h converts macrophages into epithelioid histiocytes and giant cells.</i></div>
1404180633484 1395802358422 {{c1::DiGeorge Syndrome}} is a primary immunodef
iciency that involves developmental failure of the 3rd and 4th pharyngeal pouche
s.
1404182076931 1395802358422 What is the etiology of DiGeorge Syndrome?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::22q11 chromosomal deletion}}</div>
1404182093421 1395802358422 {{c1::DiGeorge Syndrome}} is a&nsp;primary immu
nodeficiency that presents with <>T-cell deficiency</>&nsp;and <>hypocalcemi
a</>&nsp;due to thymic and parathyroid aplasia respectively.
1404182137644 1395802358422 {{c1::Severe Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID)}}
is a&nsp;primary immunodeficiency that can develop from <>cytokine receptor de
fects.</>
1404182184583 1395802358422 {{c1::Severe Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID)}}
is a&nsp;primary immunodeficiency that can develop from <>Adenosine Deaminase
(ADA) deficiency</>. <r /><div><i>ADA is necessary to deaminate adenosine an
d deoxyadenosine; uildup of oth of them is toxic to lymphocytes.</i></div>
1404182240578 1395802358422 {{c1::Severe Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID)}}
is a&nsp;primary immunodeficiency that can develop from an <>MHC II deficiency
</>&nsp;as MHC II is required for CD4+ helper T cell activation and cytokine p
roduction.
1404182282662 1395802358422 {{c1::Severe Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID)}}
is a&nsp;primary immunodeficiency that can e treated y <>sterile isolation</
>&nsp;("ule ay").
1404182332349 1395802358422 {{c1::X-linked (Bruton) Agammagloulinemia}} is
a&nsp;primary immunodeficiency that involves a complete lack of immunogloulin
due to disordered B-cell maturation as a result of a <i style="font-weight: old

; ">BTK</i>&nsp;mutation.
1404182384469 1395802358422 What is the etiology of X-linked (Bruton) Agamma
gloulinemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mutation in <i>BTK</i>, Bruton tyrosine
kinase}}</div>
1404182424139 1395802358422 {{c1::X-linked (Bruton) Agammagloulinemia}} is
a&nsp;primary immunodeficiency that presents after 6 months of life with recurr
ent acterial, enterovirus and <i>Giardia lamlia</i>&nsp;infections.
1404182470188 1395802358422 {{c1::Bacterial}},&nsp;{{c2::enterovirus}} and&
nsp;{{c3::<i>Giardia lamlia</i>}} infections are 3 hallmark infections of gene
ralised immunogloulin deficiency.
1404182514449 1395802358422 What is the most common immunogloulin deficienc
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Seen in many celia
c patients.</i></div>
1404182547807 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyper IgM Syndrome}} is a&nsp;primary imm
unodeficiency that presents with elevated IgM due to <>mutated CD40L </>on hel
per T cells or <>CD40</>&nsp;on B cells.
<r /><div><i>Hence, <>there is
no secondary signal for B cell activation</>. If there is no B cell activation
, cytokines needed for B cell class switching (IL-4; IL-5) are not produced. The
result is an elevation of IgM (which is the default class) and a significant la
ck of IgA, IgE and IgG.</i></div>
1404182900584 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Hyper IgM Syndrome?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Mutation in CD40L on helper T cells or CD40 on B cells}}<
/div>
1404182998858 1395802358422 {{c1::Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome}} is a&nsp;prima
ry immunodeficiency that presents with thromocytopenia, eczema and recurrent in
fections due to a mutation in WASP.
1404183137353 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::WASP mutation}}</div>
1404183147500 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Wiskott-Aldri
ch Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1404183158836 1395802358422 Which complement deficiency is associated with i
ncreased risk for <i>Neisseria</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5
-C9}}</div>
1404183201081 1395802358422 Which complement deficiency results in Hereditar
y Angioedema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C1 inhiitor deficiency}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-21809843929442.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Ty
pically presents perioritally and at mucosal surfaces.</i></div>
1404183254737 1395802358422 {{c1::Autoimmune Polyendocrine Syndrome}} is an
autoimmune disorder caused y a mutation in <i>AIRE</i>, a transcription factor
in medullary epithelial cells that is involved with the expression of self-antig
ens.
<r /><div><i>A mutation in AIRE allows for self-reactive lymphoytes to
mature.</i></div>
1404183638161 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Autoimmune Polyendocrine
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>AIRE</i>&nsp;mutation}}</div>
1404183655133 1395802358422 {{c1::Autoimmune Polyendocrine Syndrome}} is an
autoimmune disorder due to a mutation in <i>AIRE</i>&nsp;that presents with a t
riad of <>hypoparathyroidism, adrenal failure, </>and <>chronic candida infec
tion</>&nsp;of the skin or oral mucosa.
1404183728145 1395802358422 Which lymphocytes are primarily affected in Auto
immune Polyendocrine Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1404183756706 1395802358422 {{c1::Autoimmune Lymphoproliferative Syndrome (A
LPS)}} is an autoimmune disorder that results from a mutation in the FAS (CD95)
apoptotic pathway.
<r /><div><i>The mutation can either e in FAS, FASL or
Caspase10</i></div>
1404184076562 1395802358422 {{c1::Autoimmune Lymphoproliferative Syndrome (A
LPS)}} is an autoimmune disorder that results from a mutation in the Fas apoptot
ic pathway and involves an <>inaility to induce anergy at the periphery</>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. peripheral tolerance is defective. This affects oth T and B
cells.</i></div>
1404184176174 1395802358422 Which type of lymphocyte is affected in&nsp;Aut

oimmune Lymphoproliferative Syndrome (ALPS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T and B
cells}}</div>
1404184191826 1395802358422 {{c1::Autoimmune Lymphoproliferative Syndrome (A
LPS)}} is an autoimmune disorder that results in <>lymphoproliferation</>&nsp
;due to impaired destruction of self-reactive B-cells as a result of a defect in
the Fas apoptotic pathway.
1404184590720 1395802358422 Polymorphisms in which cell surface protein on r
egulatory T cells are associated with autoimmunity (e.g. MS and T1DM)?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::CD25}}</div>
1404184638672 1395802358422 {{c1::IPEX Syndrome}} is an autoimmune disorder
that results from a mutation in <i>FOXP3</i>. <r /><div><i>IPEX = <>I</>mmu
ne dysregulation, <>P</>olyendocrinopathy, <>E</>nteropathy, <>X</>-linked
</i></div>
1404184694079 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of IPEX Syndrome
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
<r /><div><i>IPEX =&nsp;<>I</
>mmune dysregulation,&nsp;<>P</>olyendocrinopathy,&nsp;<>E</>nteropathy,&
nsp;<>X</>-linked</i></div>
1404184702856 1395802358422 {{c1::IPEX syndrome}} is an autoimmune disorder
due to a <i>FOXP3</i>&nsp;mutation that presents with <>immune dysregulation,
polyendocrinopathy</>&nsp;and <>enteropathy</>.
<r /><div><i>IPEX =&ns
p;<>I</>mmune dysregulation,&nsp;<>P</>olyendocrinopathy,&nsp;<>E</>nter
opathy,&nsp;<>X</>-linked</i></div>
1404184746898 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y autoimmun
e disorders?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div> <r /><div><i>Especially
those of childearing age.</i></div><div><i><u>Estrogen seems to decrease the a
poptosis of self-reactive B cells.</u></i></div>
1404184807940 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y SLE?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Women; especially african americans}}</div>
1404185166699 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype has the strongest association
to autoimmune disorders?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
1404185274495 1395802358422 {{c1::PTPN22}} is a tyrosine phosphatase whose p
olymorphisms can yield a <>gain of function mutation</>&nsp;that <>decreases
the signalling to develop tolerance</>.
1404185311436 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is primarily invol
ved in SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III (antigen-antiody complex)}}</di
v>
<r /><div><div><i>1. Poorly‐cleared apoptotic deris (e.g., from UV damag
e) activates self‐reactive&nsp;</i><i>lymphocytes, which then produce antiodies
to host nuclear antigens.</i></div><div><i>2. Antigen‐antiody complexes are gener
ated at low levels and taken up y&nsp;</i><i>dendritic cells.</i></div><div><i
>3. DNA antigens activate TLRs, amplifying immune response (IFN‐alpha).</i></div><
div><i>4. Antigen‐antiody complexes are susequently generated at higher levels a
nd deposit in multiple tissues causing disease.</i></div><div><i>5. Deficiency o
f early complement proteins (C1q, C4, and C2) is associated with SLE.</i></div><
/div>
1404185559377 1395802358422 Deficiency of which early complement proteins is
associated with SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C1q; C2; C4}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Early complement proteins are involved with opsonization of exposed nuclea
r material from apoptosis (poorly cleared apoptosis).</i></div>
1404185591189 1395802358422 Which complement deficiency is most commonly ass
ociated with SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C2}}</div>
1404185685056 1395802358422 {{c1::Malar rash}} is a cutaneous feature of SLE
that is descried as a <>utterfly-shaped</>&nsp;rash.<div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-24283745091928.jpg" /></div>
1404186040625 1395802358422 {{c1::Discoid Rash}} is a cutaneous feature of S
LE that is descried as an erythematous, scaly rash typically seen on the arm or
other areas exposed to sunlight.
1404186084665 1395802358422 {{c1::Arthritis}} is a musculoskeletal feature o
f SLE that typically involves ≥ joints.
1404186141705 1395802358422 {{c1::Pleuritis}} and&nsp;{{c2::pericarditis}}
are 2 types of serositis that are seen in SLE.

1404186156059 1395802358422 {{c1::Psychosis}} or&nsp;{{c2::seizures}} are 2
CNS complications seen in SLE.
1404186173547 1395802358422 {{c1::Diffuse Proliferative Glomerulonephritis}}
is a renal complication seen in SLE that is the <>most common</>&nsp;and <>
most severe</>&nsp;form of renal injury.
<r /><div><i>Memranous glomeru
lonephritis and other patterns of renal damage also occur.</i></div>
1404186222095 1395802358422 {{c1::Anaemia}},&nsp;{{c2::Thromocytopaenia}}
or&nsp;{{c3::leukopaenia}} are 3 hematological complications of SLE that occur
due to Type II hypersensitivity reactions via autoantiodies against cell surfac
e proteins.
1404186260530 1395802358422 {{c1::Liman-Sacks Endocarditis}} is a type of e
ndocarditis seen in SLE that is characterized y <>small, sterile deposits</>&
nsp;on <>oth sides</>&nsp;of the <>mitral valve</>.
1404186329215 1395802358422 {{c1::Anti-dsDNA antiodies}} and&nsp;{{c2::Ant
i-Sm antiodies}} are 2 autoantiodies that are highly specific for SLE.
1404186395025 1395802358422 {{c1::Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome}} is an
autoimmune disorder that involves autoantiodies directed against proteins oun
d to phopsholipids and is seen in 30% of SLE cases.
1404186944049 1395802358422 {{c1::Anticardiolipin}} is an autoantiody seen
in&nsp;Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome that yields <>false-positive VDRL an
d RPR syphilis tests</>.
<r /><div><i>VDRL and RPR tests for the presenc
e of cardiolipin A's.</i></div><div><i>In SLE patients, we have to use direct t
esting to confirm syphilis.</i></div>
1404187012370 1395802358422 {{c1::Lupus anticoagulant}} is an autoantiody s
een in&nsp;Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome that yields a <>falsely-elevated
PTT</>.
<r /><div><i>This is actually paradoxical as SLE patients are h
ypercoagulale.</i></div>
1404187051800 1395802358422 {{c1::Anticardiolipin}},&nsp;{{c2::anti-eta2-g
lycoprotein I}} and&nsp;{{c3::lupus anticoagulant}} are the 3 autoantiodies se
en in&nsp;Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome.
1404187090214 1395802358422 {{c1::Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome}} is an
autoimmune disorder that is characterized y a <>hypercoagulale state</>&ns
p;due to <>antiphospholipid antiodies</>, especially <>lupus anticoagulant</
<r /><div><i>Presents with arterial and venous thromosis including dee
>.
p venous, hepatic vein, placental and cereral.</i></div><div><i>Requires lifelo
ng anticoagulant.</i></div>
1404187251555 1395802358422 What type of autoantiodies are associated with
drug-induced SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antihistone antiodies}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The ANA is positive and definitive.</i></div>
1404187274483 1395802358422 {{c1::Procainamide}},&nsp;{{c2::Hydralazine}} a
nd&nsp;{{c3::Isoniazid}} are 3 drugs that commonly cause drug-induced SLE.
<r /><div><i>Removal of the drug usually results in remission.</i></div><div><i
>CNS and renal involvement is rare in drug-induced SLE.</i></div>
1404187360380 1395802358422 {{c1::Sjogren Syndrome}} is an autoimmune disord
er that involves destruction of the lacrimal and salivary glands.
1404187501275 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is seen in Sjogren
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1404187516258 1395802358422 {{c1::Keratoconjunctivitis sicca}} is an ocular
complication of Sjogren Syndrome that is descried as dry eyes.
1404187554788 1395802358422 {{c1::Xerostomia}} is an oral complication of Sj
ogren Syndrome that is descried as dry mouth.
1404187590636 1395802358422 {{c1::Recurrent dental caries}} is a dental comp
lication of Sjogren Syndrome due to a lack of salivation.
1404187609774 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Sjogren S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1404187617668 1395802358422 What is a possile <>primary</>&nsp;cause of
Sjogren Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sicca syndrome}}</div>
1404187650866 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatoid factor}} is an autoantiody tha
t is often present in Sjogren Syndrome patients even when rheumatoid arthritis i
s asent.

1404187673064 1395802358422 Whic autoantiodies are associated with Sjogren
Syndrome<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-SS-A (Ro) and Anti-SS-B (La)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>These 2 are especially associated with extraglandular menifestatio
ns (e.g. neuropathy).</i></div>
1404187728812 1395802358422 {{c1::Neonatal lupus}} and&nsp;{{c2::congenital
heart lock}} are 2 possile complications for aies delivered y women with A
nti-SS-A antiodies.
1404187764124 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphocytic Sialadentitis}} is a common di
agnostic feature of Sjogren Syndrome that involves lymphocytic infiltration of m
inor salivary glands.
1404187824642 1395802358422 How does the risk for B-cell (marginal zone) lym
phoma change in Sjogren Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Will present as <>unilateral enlargement of the parotid gland</>
&nsp;late in disease course.</i></div>
1404187874799 1395802358422 {{c1::Scleroderma}} is an autoimmune disorder ch
aracterized y sclerosis of the skin and visceral organs.
1404187949947 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Scleroder
ma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women; esp of 30-50 years}}</div>
1404187968884 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Scleroderma?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Firolast activation leading to collagen deposition}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Possily due to autoimmune damage to mesenchyme (against mesenchym
al antigens).</i></div><div><i><div>Endothelial dysfunction leads to inflammatio
n (increased adhesion molecules), vasoconstriction (increased endothelin and dec
reased NO), and secretion of growth factors (TGF-eta and PDGF).</div><div>The r
esultant firosis starts perivascularly ut progresses to cause organ damage.</d
iv></i></div>
1404188205154 1395802358422 {{c1::Limited Scleroderma}} is a type of Sclerod
erms that has involved limited skin involvement with late visceral involvement.
1404188530598 1395802358422 {{c1::CREST Syndrome}} is a type of Limited Scle
roderma that involves <>anti-centromere antiodies</>.
<r /><div><i><
>CREST</>:</i></div><div><i>- <>C</>alcinosis &amp; anti-<>C</>entromere an
tiodies</i></div><div><i>- <>R</>aynaud phenomenon</i></div><div><i>- <>E</
>sophageal dysmotility</i></div><div><i>- <>S</>clerodactyly</i></div><div><i>
- <>T</>elangiectasia of the skin</i></div>
1404188645678 1395802358422 What does the C in CREST Syndrome stand for?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcinosis &amp; anti-centromere antiodies}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i><>CREST</>:</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>C</>alcinosis &amp;
anti-<>C</>entromere antiodies</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>R</>aynaud phenom
enon</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>E</>sophageal dysmotility</i></div><div><i>-&n
sp;<>S</>clerodactyly</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>T</>elangiectasia of the ski
n</i></div></div>
1404188664246 1395802358422 What does the R in CREST Syndrome stand for?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Raynaud phenomenon}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i><>CR
EST</>:</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>C</>alcinosis &amp; anti-<>C</>entromere
antiodies</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>R</>aynaud phenomenon</i></div><div><i>-&
nsp;<>E</>sophageal dysmotility</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>S</>clerodactyly<
/i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>T</>elangiectasia of the skin</i></div></div>
1404188674301 1395802358422 What does the E in CREST Syndrome stand for?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Esophageal dysmotility}}</div> <r /><div><div><i><>CR
EST</>:</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>C</>alcinosis &amp; anti-<>C</>entromere
antiodies</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>R</>aynaud phenomenon</i></div><div><i>-&
nsp;<>E</>sophageal dysmotility</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>S</>clerodactyly<
/i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>T</>elangiectasia of the skin</i></div></div>
1404188688167 1395802358422 What does the S in CREST Syndrome stand for?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sclerodactyly}}</div> <r /><div><div><i><>CREST</>:
</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>C</>alcinosis &amp; anti-<>C</>entromere antiodi
es</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>R</>aynaud phenomenon</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>
E</>sophageal dysmotility</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>S</>clerodactyly</i></div
><div><i>-&nsp;<>T</>elangiectasia of the skin</i></div></div>
1404188701013 1395802358422 What does the T in CREST Syndrome stand for?<div

><r /></div><div>{{c1::Telangiectasia of the skin}}</div>
<r /><div><div>
<i><>CREST</>:</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>C</>alcinosis &amp; anti-<>C</>en
tromere antiodies</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>R</>aynaud phenomenon</i></div><d
iv><i>-&nsp;<>E</>sophageal dysmotility</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>S</>clero
dactyly</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>T</>elangiectasia of the skin</i></div></div
>
1404188712831 1395802358422 {{c1::Diffuse Scleroderma}} is a type of Sclerod
erma that has <>diffuse</>&nsp;skin involvement with <>early</>&nsp;skin i
nvolvement.
1404188765184 1395802358422 Which autoantiodies are associated with CREST S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-centromere antiodies}}</div>
1404188776127 1395802358422 Which autoantiodies are associated with Diffuse
Scleroderma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Scl-70 (Anti-DNA Topoisomerase I)}
}</div>
1404188805319 1395802358422 {{c1::Mixed Connective Tissue Disease}} is an au
toimmune disorder that involves mixed features of SLE, Scleroderma and Polymyosi
tis.
<r /><div><i>The features often overlap over time, ut there is a <>la
ck of CNS and renal involvement</>.</i></div><div><i>Common cause of death is P
ulmonary HTN.</i></div>
1404188974274 1395802358422 Which autoantiodies are seen in Mixed Connectiv
e Tissue Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-U1 RNP antiodies}}</div>
1404188994289 1395802358422 {{c1::Regeneration}} is a mechanism of wound hea
ling that involves the replacement of damaged tissue with <>native tissue</>.
<r /><div><i>Depends on the regenerative capacity of the tissue (i.e. stale, l
aile, permanent tissue).</i></div>
1404189092700 1395802358422 {{c1::Laile tissue}} is a type of tissue that p
ossesses stem cells that continuously cycle to regenerate the tissue.
1404189134776 1395802358422 Where are the stem cells of the small and large
owels found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mucosal crypts}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-27943057228122.jpg" /></div>
1404189264534 1395802358422 Where are the stem cells of the skin found?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal layer of the skin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-27977416966486.jpg" /></div>
1404189284641 1395802358422 Where are the stem cells of the one marrow foun
d?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hematopoietic stem cells (CD34+)}}</div>
1404189307439 1395802358422 {{c1::Stale tissue}} is a type of tissue that i
s comprised of cells that are quiescent in G<su>0</su>&nsp;ut can reenter th
e cell cycle to regenerate tissue when needed. <r /><div><i>e.g. regeneration
of the liver y compensatory hyperplasia after partial resection. Each hepatocyt
e produces additional cells and then reenters quiescence.</i></div>
1404189392174 1395802358422 {{c1::Permanent tissue}} is a type of tissue tha
t lacks any significant regenerative potential. <r /><div><i>e.g. myocardium, s
keletal muscle and neurons</i></div>
1404189426470 1395802358422 {{c1::Repair}} is a mechanism of wound healing t
hat involves the replacement of damaged tissue with a <>firous scar</>.
<r /><div><i>Seen when a tissue's regenerative capacity (stem cells) are lost o
r permanent tissue is involved.</i></div>
1404189593619 1395802358422 {{c1::Granulation tissue}} is a type of tissue t
hat forms in the initial phase of repair and consists of <>firolasts, capilla
ries</>&nsp;and <>myofirolasts</>.
<r /><div><i>Firolasts secret
e type III collagen.</i></div><div><i>Capillaries provide nutrients.</i></div><d
iv><i>Myofirolasts contract the wound.</i></div><div><i><>Granulation tissue ≠
granuloma</>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-29553669964121.jpg" /></i></div>
1404189653749 1395802358422 What type of collagen is seen in granulation tis
sue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1404189684455 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in scars?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Type I collagen replaces t
ype III collagen in scar formation.</i></div>
1404189710626 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in scar formation removed
type III collagen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Collagenase}}</div>
<r /><d

iv><i>Requires zinc as a cofactor.</i></div>
1404189826439 1395802358422 {{c1::Primary intention}} is a process seen in c
utaneous wound healing that involves wound edges eing rought together.
<r /><div><i>This yields minimal scar formation.</i></div><div><i>e.g. suturing
</i></div>
1404189874065 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondary Intention}} is a process of cuta
neous wound healing that involves a lack of approximation of wound edges.
<r /><div><i>Hence, granulation tissue fills the defect and a large scar is for
med when myofirolasts contract the wound.</i></div>
1404189952105 1395802358422 Which acteria is the most common cause of delay
ed would healing?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div
>
1404189997718 1395802358422 Which water solule vitamin deficiency can delay
wound healing?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin C}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Re
memer, Vitamin C is a cofactor the hydroxylation of proline/lysine residues in
collagen. Collagen is needed in fucking wound healing so.. yeah.</i></div>
1404190104215 1395802358422 {{c1::Copper}} is a trace element that acts as a
cofactor for Lysyl Oxidase, an enzyme which cross links collagen.
<r /><d
iv><i>Deficiency will slow wound healing.</i></div>
1404190163074 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is a trace element that acts as a c
ofactor for Collagenase, an enzyme required in wound healing as it replaces type
III collagen with stronger Type I collagen.
<r /><div><i>Deficiency of zinc
delays wound healing.</i></div>
1404190213176 1395802358422 {{c1::Dehiscence}} is defined as the rupture of
a wound.
<r /><div><i>Most commonly seen after adominal surgery.</i></d
iv>
1404190236647 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertrophic scar}} is a type of aerrant
wound repair that involves <>excess scar production</>&nsp;that is <>localiz
ed to the wound</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-30309584208226.jpg" />
<img src="paste-2972117369249.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Excess Type I coll
agen formation.</i></div>
1404190291608 1395802358422 {{c1::Keloid}} is a type of aerrant wound repai
r that involves excess production of scar tissue that is <>out of proportion to
the wound</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-30429843292517.jpg" /><img
src="paste-3023656976801.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Classically affects the ea
rloes, face and upper extremities.</i></div>
1404190405410 1395802358422 Which type of collagen is made in excess in a <
>Keloid</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-30425548325221.jpg" /><img src="paste-3027951944097.jpg" /></div>
1404190422594 1395802358422 Which type of collagen is made in excess in a <
>hypertrophic scar</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-30489972834662.jpg" /><img src="paste-2976412336545.jpg" /></
div>
1404190440455 1395802358422 Which race is more commonly affected y Keloid?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::African-americans}}</div>
1404237564110 1395802358422 Which type of shock is associated with <>vasodi
lation</>&nsp;(and hence warm, dry skin)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distriut
ive}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-472446402916.jpg" /></div>
1404237619073 1395802358422 Which type of shock is associated with <>high o
utput cardiac failure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distriutive}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-468151435620.jpg" /></div>
1404237677700 1395802358422 Which type of shock is associated with a failure
of IV fluids to increase lood pressure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distriutiv
e}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-468151435620.jpg" /></div>
1404237859722 1395802358422 Which type of shock is associated with <>low ou
tput cardiac failure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypovolemic/cardiogenic}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-468151435620.jpg" /></div>
1404237879480 1395802358422 Which type of shock is associated with <>vasoco
nstriction</>&nsp;(and hence cold, clammy skin)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
povolemic/cardiogenic}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-468151435620.jpg" /><

/div>
1404237919979 1395802358422 Which type of shock is associated with IV fluids
eing ale to restore lood pressure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypovolemic/ca
rdiogenic}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-468151435620.jpg" /></div>
1404238393445 1395802358422 Where along the capillary ed does extravasation
predominantly occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Post-capillary venules}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer,&nsp;</i><i><>vasodilation is at arterioles</>&nsp;an
d <>increased vascular permeaility is at post-capillary venules</>.</i></div>
1404238866108 1395802358422 In leukocyte margination and rolling,&nsp;{{c1:
:E-selectin}} and&nsp;{{c2::P-selectin}} on endothelium inds to&nsp;{{c3::Sia
lyl-Lewis X}} on leukocytes.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1653562409658.jpg" />
</div>
1404239019475 1395802358422 In leukocyte margination and rolling,&nsp;{{c1:
:GlyCAM-1}} and&nsp;{{c2::CD34}} on endothelium inds to&nsp;{{c3::L-selectin}
} on leukocytes.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1649267442362.jpg" /></div>
1404239055174 1395802358422 In leukocyte tight-inding during inflammation,&
nsp;{{c1::ICAM (CD54)}} on endothelium inds to&nsp;{{c2::CD11/18 Integrins (L
FA-1, Mac-1)}} on leukocytes. <r /><div><img src="paste-1649267442362.jpg" />
</div>
1404239102720 1395802358422 In leukocyte tight-inding during inflammation,&
nsp;{{c1::VCAM (CD106)}} on endothelium inds to&nsp;{{c2::VLA-4 Integrin}} on
leukocytes.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1649267442362.jpg" /></div>
1404239163182 1395802358422 In leukocyte diapedesis during inflammation,&ns
p;{{c1::PECAM-1 (<>CD31</>)}} on endothelium inds to&nsp;{{c2::PECAM-1 (<>C
D31</>)}} on leukocytes.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1649267442362.jpg" />
</div>
1404239364558 1395802358422 {{c1::Platelet-derived Growth factor (PDGF)}} is
a mediator of wound repair secreted y <>platelets</>&nsp;and <>macrophages
</>&nsp;that stimulates vascular remodeling, smooth muscle migratino and firo
last growth.
1404239580287 1395802358422 {{c1::Firolast growth factor (FGF)}} is a medi
atorof wound healing that stimulates <>all aspects of angiogenesis</>&nsp;and
<>mediates skeletal development</>.
1404239831562 1395802358422 {{c1::Epithelial Growth Factor (EGF)}} is a medi
ator of wound healing that stimulates cell growth <>via Tyrosine kinases</>.
1404239857011 1395802358422 {{c1::TGF-eta}} is a mediator of wound healing
that stimulated firolasts ut is also <>anti-inflammatory</>.
1404239886981 1395802358422 {{c1::Exudate}} is a type of inflammatory fluid
that is <>protein rich</>&nsp;with a <>specific gravity &gt; 1.020</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-3620657430933.jpg" /></div>
1404241051724 1395802358422 {{c1::Transudate}} is a type of inflammatory flu
id that is <>protein poor</>&nsp;and has a <>specific gravity &lt; 1.012.</
>
1404241077320 1395802358422 How does ESR change in inflammation?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Products of inflammation (
e.g. acute phase reactants) coat RBCs and cause aggregation. This aggregation ca
uses RBCs to fall at a faster rate within the test tue (i.e. increased rate of
sedimentation).</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3779571220816.jpg" /></i></div>
1404241383446 1395802358422 What is the treatment for iron poisoning?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Chelation via IV Deferoxamine or Oral Deferasirox; Dialysis
}}</div>
1393086438931 1358629116480 Which genus of acteria is associated with an al
kaline, odourous urine with NH4?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Proteus sp.</i>}}
</div>
1393086887521 1358629116480 What is the normal range of urine production per
day?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::0.5 - 2 L/day}}</div>
1393087383476 1358629116480 What is the normal pH of urine?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::6}}</div>
1393087389455 1358629116480 What renal disorder is associated with the prese
nce of <>dysmorphic RBCs</>&nsp;in the urine?<div><r /></div><div><img src="

paste-1825361100999.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephritic Syndrome}
}</div></div>
1393088163270 1358629116480 What renal disorder is associated with the prese
nce of excessive tuular epithelial cells in the urine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Acute Tuular Necrosis}}</div>
1393088188355 1358629116480 What renal disorder is associated with eosinophi
luria?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1924145348810.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Drug-Induced Nephritis (Acute Interstitial Nephritis)}}</div>
</div>
1393088298752 1358629116480 Which renal disorder is associated with <>lipid
uria</>&nsp;(fat droplets + oval Maltese cross fat odies)?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
1393088350188 1358629116480 What renal disorder is associated with dysplasti
c cells in clusters in the urine?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-196709502
1649.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bladder malignancy}}</div>
1393104783431 1358629116480 Which renal disorder is associated with fatty, l
ipid casts with "Maltese Crosses"?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-93200790
3461.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div></div>
1393104860585 1358629116480 Which renal disorder is associated with a renal
tuular cast containing tuular epithelium?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-944892805328.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Tuular Necrosis}}<
/div>
1393104974837 1358629116480 Which renal disorder is associated with Broad ca
sts made of waxy, granular material?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-996432
412880.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Renal Failure; reflectin
g stasis within tuules}}</div>
1393105050993 1358629116480 What renal disorder is associated with WBC casts
involving mostly Neutrophils?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-103938208586
2.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pyelonephritis}}</div>
1393105170483 1358629116480 What renal disorder is associated with Waxy cast
s with granular cellular deris and sharp orders?<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-1765231558867.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Renal Fai
lure; indicating stasis within the renal tuules}}</div>
1393105227770 1358629116480 What is the most common type of urinary calculi
(stones)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium}}</div>
1393105820418 1358629116480 What is Azotemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ele
vation of BUN and serum Creatinine}}</div>
1393106044470 1358629116480 {{c1::Azotemia}} is a renal syndrome that involv
es elevation of BUN and serum creatinine, typically due to a reduction in GFR.
<r /><div><i>Azotemia is a change of the lood; Uremia is a renal disease.</i><
/div>
1393106067916 1358629116480 What is Uremia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Azote
mia + the clinical symptoms/manifestations associated with it}}</div>
1393106127114 1358629116480 What is the normal serum BUN:Creatinine ratio?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::~15:1}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1475321266214
9.jpg" /></div>
1393106157754 1358629116480 What is the cause of pre-renal Azotemia?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Reduced urinary lood flow}}</div>
1393106912816 1358629116480 What is the cause of post-renal Azotemia?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Ostruction to urinary outflow}}</div>
1393106926742 1358629116480 {{c1::Pre-Renal Failure}} is a type of acute ren
al failure that is typically caused y a sudden, severe hypotension or decreased
lood flow to the kidneys.&nsp;
1393107310591 1358629116480 {{c1::Intrarenal Failure}} is a type of acute re
nal failure that involves direct damage to the kidneys.
1393107326929 1358629116480 {{c1::Post-Renal Failure}} is a type of acute re
nal failure that involves a sudden ostruction of urine flow. <r /><div><i>e.
g. BPH, kidney stones, ladder tumours, injury</i></div>
1393107366939 1358629116480 What is the duration of renal failure required t
o give a diagnosis of Chronic Renal Failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Minimum

3 months}}</div>
1393107977888 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Chronic Renal F
ailure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diaetes Mellitus}}</div>
1393108676065 1358629116480 What is the most common form of Acute Nephritic
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis}}</di
v>
1393109200280 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephritic Syndrome}} is a type of renal di
sorder that involves significant periorital edema due to salt retention and mil
d proteinuria.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4535485464814.jpg" /></div>
1393109336960 1358629116480 {{c1::Staghorn Caliculi}} are a type of urinary
stone that arises in the renal calyces during or following an infection y <i>Pr
oteus sp.</i>
1393115552705 1358629116480 {{c1::Azotemia}} is a hallmark of many renal dis
orders and involves a uild up of nitrogenous waste products.
1393117212477 1358629116480 What is Oligouria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A
decrease in urine production}}</div>
1393117223937 1358629116480 How does GFR change in Prerenal Azotemia?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1393117274420 1358629116480 What is the serum BUN:Creatinine ratio in Preren
al Failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 15:1}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-14753212662149.jpg" /></div>
1393117337499 1358629116480 What is the value of FENa when renal tuular fun
ction is intact and normal?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FENa &lt; 1%}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-14753212662149.jpg" /></div>
1393117400979 1358629116480 What is the normal urine osmolality when renal t
uular function is intact and normal?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 500 mOsm/k
g}}</div>
1393117502282 1358629116480 The decrease in lood flow in Prerenal Failure l
eads to activation of the {{c1::RAAS}} and downstream Aldosterone release.
1393117563039 1358629116480 How does Aldosterone affect the reasorption of
BUN at the kidneys following RAAS activation in Prerenal Failure?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Increased reasorption}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence an increased
BUN:Creatinine</i></div>
1393117623425 1358629116480 How does GFR change following the acklog of pre
ssure in Postrenal Failure due to urinary outflow ostruction?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Decreased GFR}}</div>
1393117775935 1358629116480 In early stage ostruction in Postrenal Failure,
the increased tuular pressure forces&nsp;{{c1::BUN}} into the lood, yielding
azotemia.
1393118026874 1358629116480 With a long-standing ostruction in Postrenal Fa
ilure, tuular damage results decreased&nsp;{{c1::BUN}} asorption, therey yie
lding milder azotemia.
1393118119629 1358629116480 What is the serum BUN:Creatinine ratio in the&n
sp;<>early stage</>&nsp;of ostruction in Postrenal Failure?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::&gt; 15:1}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-14753212662149.jpg" /
></div>
1393118167051 1358629116480 What is the BUN:Creatinine ratio in the <>long
standing</>&nsp;ostruction in Postrenal Failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&
lt; 15:1}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to tuular damage from the long standi
ng increase in tuular pressure.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-14753212662149
.jpg" /></i></div>
1393118226723 1358629116480 Which value of FENa is associated with <>impair
ed renal tuular function</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FENa &gt; 2%; i.e. the
re is inaility to reasor Na}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1475321266214
9.jpg" /></div>
1393118264095 1358629116480 What urine osmolality is associated with an ina
ility to concentrate urine (i.e. renal tuular impairment)?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::&lt; 500 mOsm}}</div>
1393118597525 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Tuular Necrosis}} is a type of acut
e renal failure that is also known as Intrarenal Failure/Azotemia.

1393118635780 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Acute Renal Fail
ure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Tuular Necrosis (Intrarenal Azotemia)}}</
div>
1393119806445 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Tuular Necrosis}} is a form of acut
e renal failure that involves <>necrotic cells plugging the tuules, causing an
ostruction that decreases GFR.</><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-136622
90968994.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>i.e. Intrarenal Azotemia (Intrinsic Renal
Failure)</i></div>
1393119848437 1358629116480 What type of casts are seen in the urine during
Acute Tuular Necrosis (Intrarenal Azotemia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brown,
granular casts}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-12631498817955.jpg" /></div>
1393119873141 1358629116480 What is the serum BUN:Creatinine ratio in a pati
ent with Acute Tuular Necrosis (Intrarenal Failure)?<div><r />{{c1::&lt; 15:1}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, normal is ~15:1</i></div><div><i><img src="paste
-14753212662149.jpg" /></i></div>
1393119916351 1358629116480 What is the FENa in a patient with Acute Tuular
Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 2%; due to decreased Na reasorption}
}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-14757507629445.jpg" /></div>
1393119948345 1358629116480 What is the urine osmolality of a patient with A
cute Tuular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 500 mOsm/kg}}</div>
1393120312421 1358629116480 What are the 2 major etiologies of Acute Tuular
Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ischemia and Nephrotoxicity}}</div>
1393120349391 1358629116480 {{c1::Ischemic ATN}} is a type of Acute Tuular
Necrosis that is typically preceded y Prerenal Azotemia due to a decrease in l
ood supply/flow.
1393120404006 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::proximal tuule}} and the medulla
ry segment of the {{c2::thick ascending lim}} of the nephron are particularly s
usceptile to ischemic damage.
1393120462057 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::proximal tuule}} of the nephron
is particularly susceptile to nephrotoxic agents.
1393120822630 1358629116480 What drugs are the most common cause of Nephroto
xic Acute Tuular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycosides, Radiocon
trast Agents, Lead, Cisplatin}}</div>
1393120969493 1358629116480 {{c1::Myogloin}} is an endogenous protein that
can cause Nephrotoxic Acute Tuular Necrosis and typically occurs following crus
h injury to the muscle or other types of muscle injury.
1393121024113 1358629116480 {{c1::Ethylene Glycol}} is a sustance found in
anti-freeze that causes&nsp;Nephrotoxic Acute Tuular Necrosis. It is commonly
seen in children as it is lue and tastes sweet.
1393121061022 1358629116480 {{c1::Ethylene Glycol}} is a chemical that cause
s&nsp;Nephrotoxic Acute Tuular Necrosis and is associated with Oxalate Crystal
s in urine.
1393121101667 1358629116480 {{c1::Urate}} is a sustance that causes&nsp;Ne
phrotoxic Acute Tuular Necrosis and is associated with tumour lysis syndrome.
1393121137205 1358629116480 What 2 measures are taken prior to chemotherapy
of Nephrotoxic Acute Tuular Necrosis to decrease the risk of Urate-Induced Acut
e Tuular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydration and administration of A
llopurinol}}</div>
1393121475627 1358629116480 What type of casts are seen in the urine of some
one with Acute Tuular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brown, granular cast
s}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-12627203850659.jpg" /></div>
1393121502944 1358629116480 How is K+ levels affected in Acute Tuular Necro
sis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperkalemia; due to decreased renal excretion}}
</div>
1393121540701 1358629116480 What is the acid-ase status of someone with Acu
te Tuular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anion Gap Metaolic Acidosis due
to Hyperkalemia (decreased K excretion)}}</div>
1393121584035 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Interstitial Nephritis}} is a type o
f Acute Tuular Necrosis that is a result of drug-induced hypersensitivity to th
e renal interstitium and tuules.

1393121639871 1358629116480 What are the 3 main causes of Acute Interstitial
Nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillin, NSAIDs and Diuretics}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Sulfonamides and rifampin can also cause AIN.</i></div>
1393121662917 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Interstitial Nephritis}} is a type o
f Acute Tuular Necrosis that presents with oliguria, fever and <>rash</>&nsp
;days to weeks after exposure to the cause.
<r /><div><i>May also present w
ith <>hematuria, fever, rash</>&nsp;and possile <>costoverteral angle tend
erness</>.</i></div>
1393121710453 1358629116480 Which immune cells are a very key feature of the
urine in a patient with Acute Interstitial Nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Eosinophils}}</div>
1393121741294 1358629116480 {{c1::Renal Papillary Necrosis}} is a type of Ac
ute Renal Failure that involves necrosis of the renal papillae.
1393121769575 1358629116480 What is a complication of Acute Interstitial Nep
hritis if it is allowed to progress?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal Papillary
Necrosis}}</div>
1393121794952 1358629116480 {{c1::Renal Papillary Necrosis}} is a type of ac
ute renal failure that presents with <>gross hematuria, proteinuria and flank p
ain</>.
1393121820321 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Renal Papillary
Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic analgesic use (esp. NSAIDs)}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>Other causes include systemic disorders.</i></div>
1393121863575 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}} is a group of renal g
lomerular disorders characterized y <>mass</>&nsp;<>proteinuria</>&nsp;(&
gt; 3.5 g/day). <r /><div><i>Phroteins!</i></div>
1393126965305 1358629116480 How much protein is lost in the proteinuria of N
ephrotic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 3.5 g/day}}</div>
1393127013796 1358629116480 {{c1::Proteinuria}} is the major feature of Neph
rotic Syndrome and results from a reduction in glomerular memrane integrity.
1393127061983 1358629116480 Which serum protein is significantly lost in Nep
hrotic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alumin}}</div>
1393127086430 1358629116480 What is the cause of pitting edema in&nsp;Nephr
otic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypoaluminemia}}</div>
1393127121452 1358629116480 What is the cause of increased risk of infection
in&nsp;Nephrotic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypogammagloulinemia}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Due to the significant proteinuria (&gt; 3.5 g/day)</i></d
iv>
1393127154417 1358629116480 A loss of&nsp;{{c1::Antithromin III}} in&nsp;
Nephrotic Syndrome results in a hypercoagulale state. <r /><div><i>Rememer,
ATIII is involved in the inactivation of clotting factors.</i></div>
1393127205495 1358629116480 Which apolipoproteins are elevated in Nephrotic
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB, ApoC-II, ApoE}}</div>
1393127605249 1358629116480 What is the cause of Hyperlipidemia and Hypercho
lesterolemia in&nsp;Nephrotic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Compensation
y the Liver for Lipiduria}}</div>
1393127723899 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of&nsp;Nephrotic
Syndrome in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Minimal Change Disease}}</div>
1393127896452 1358629116480 Which cancer is associated with Minimal Change D
isease (Nephrotic Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hodgkin's Lymphoma}}</di
v>
1393127925509 1358629116480 {{c1::Minimal Change Disease}} is a&nsp;Nephrot
ic Syndrome that will show effacement/flattening of podocyte foot processes on E
M and <>nothing else</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6219112645010.jp
g" /><img src="paste-6674379178356.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-24610162609
12.jpg" /></div>
1393128110674 1358629116480 {{c1::Minimal Change Disease}} is a Nephrotic Sy
ndrome that involves selective proteinuria of alumin only, no immunogloulins a
re lost.<div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
1393128169422 1358629116480 {{c1::Minimal Change Disease}} is a&nsp;Nephrot
ic Syndrome that shows excellent response to steroids due to the damage eing me

diated y cytokines from T cells.
1393128225323 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of&nsp;Nephrotic
Syndrome in Hispanics and African Americans?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Focal Se
gmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS)}}</div>
1393128274819 1358629116480 Which illicit drug is associated with Focal Segm
ental Glomerulosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Heroin}}</div>
1393128304859 1358629116480 Which virus is associated with Focal Segmental G
lomerulosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HIV}}</div>
1393128328538 1358629116480 Which red lood cell disorder is associated with
Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sickle Cell Dise
ase}}</div>
1393128352974 1358629116480 What group of renal disorders includes Minimal C
hange Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
1393128375405 1358629116480 What group of renal disorders includes Focal Seg
mental Glomerulosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1679332213041.jpg" /></div>
1393128391117 1358629116480 What group of renal disorders includes Memranou
s Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-1829656068403.jpg" /></div>
1393128426178 1358629116480 What group of renal disorders includes Memranop
roliferative Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}
</div> <r /><div><i>It is a nephritic syndrome that typically presents as neph
rotic.</i></div>
1393129032781 1358629116480 What <>type </>of renal disorder is associated
with Diaetes Mellitus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
1393129070017 1358629116480 What <>type</>&nsp;of renal disorder is assoc
iated with Systemic Amyloidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}
</div>
1393129087996 1358629116480 {{c1::Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis}} is a
Nephrotic Syndrome that involves focal (some glomeruli) and segmental (parts of
the glomerulus) sclerosis with <>effacement of podocyte foot processes</> on E
M.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7529077670334.jpg" /></div><div><img src
="paste-1683627180337.jpg" /></div>
1393129237668 1358629116480 What is the <>only</> Nephrotic Syndrome that
responds to steroids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Minimal Change Disease}}</div>
1393129362365 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Nephrotic Syndr
ome in Caucasian adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memranous Nephropathy}}</di
v>
1393129394149 1358629116480 Memranous or Memranoproliferative renal disord
ers involve the deposition of&nsp;{{c1::immune complexes}} at the glomerular me
mrane, therey making it thicker.
1393129441592 1358629116480 Which type of hepatitis are associated with Mem
ranous Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatitis B; Hepatitis C}}</div>
1393129483443 1358629116480 {{c1::Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)}} is a
systemic autoimmune disorder that is associated with Memranous Nephropathy.
1393129528252 1358629116480 Which drugs are a common cause of Memranous Nep
hropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NSAIDs and Penacillamine}}</div>
1393129653206 1358629116480 {{c1::Memranous Nephropathy}} is a Nephrotic Sy
ndrome that involves a thickened glomerular asement memrane due to <>suepith
elial</>&nsp;deposits with a '<>spike and dome' </>appearance.<div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-8817567858986.jpg" /><img src="paste-1825361101107.jpg"
/><img src="paste-8847632630231.jpg" /></div>
1393129838309 1358629116480 {{c1::Memranous Nephropathy}} is a Nephrotic Sy
ndrome that involves <>suepithelial</>&nsp;deposits of immune complexes with
<>'spike and dome'</>&nsp;appearance.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8
843337662935.jpg" /></div>
1393129884345 1358629116480 What pattern of immunofluorescence is seen in Me
mranous Glomerulopathy due to immune complex deposition?<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-8959301779828.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granular}}
</div></div>

1393129940687 1358629116480 {{c1::Memranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (
MPGN)}} is a type of Nephrotic Syndrome that involves a thickened and <><u>spli
t</u></> glomerular asement memrane with a <>'tram-track'</>&nsp;appearanc
e.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9165460209884.jpg" /><img src="paste-283
8973382966.jpg" /></div>
1393130444959 1358629116480 What pattern of immunofluorescence is seen in Me
mranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (MPGN) due to the immune complex depositi
on?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9298604196213.jpg" /></div><div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Granular}}</div>
1393130545618 1358629116480 Which type of&nsp;Memranoproliferative Glomeru
lonephritis (MPGN) involves <>suendothelial</>&nsp;immune complexes?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1393130589118 1358629116480 Which type of&nsp;Memranoproliferative Glomeru
lonephritis (MPGN) is associated with HBV and HCV?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Type
I}}</div>
1393130602611 1358629116480 Type {{c1::I}}&nsp;Memranoproliferative Glomer
ulonephritis (MPGN) is associated with HBV and HCV.
1393130621855 1358629116480 Type&nsp;{{c1::I}}&nsp;Memranoproliferative G
lomerulonephritis (MPGN) involves <>suendothelial</>&nsp;immune complex depo
sits.
1393130640803 1358629116480 Which type of&nsp;Memranoproliferative Glomeru
lonephritis (MPGN) involves <>intramemranous</>&nsp;immune complex deposits?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II (Dense Deposit Disease)}}</div>
1393130680501 1358629116480 Type&nsp;{{c1::II (Dense Deposit Disease)}}&ns
p;Memranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (MPGN) involves <>intramemranous</
>&nsp;immune complex deposits.
1393130706128 1358629116480 Type&nsp;{{c1::II}}&nsp;Memranoproliferative
Glomerulonephritis (MPGN) is also known as Dense Deposit Disease.
1393130717222 1358629116480 {{c1::C3 Nephritic Factor}} is an antiody that
inds to and stailizes C3 Convertase in Type II&nsp;Memranoproliferative Glom
erulonephritis (MPGN).
1393130755732 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Type II&nsp;Memranopro
liferative Glomerulonephritis (MPGN)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3 Nephritic Fa
ctor; autoantiody that stailizes C3 convertase, allowing for overactivation of
complement}}</div>
1393130802284 1358629116480 Which Nephrotic Syndrome involves <>suepitheli
al</>&nsp;immune complex deposition?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1069
4468567358.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memranous Nephropathy}}</di
v></div>
1393131074073 1358629116480 Which Nephrotic Syndrome involves <>suendothel
ial</>&nsp;immune complex deposition?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-107
37418240337.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I Memranoproliferativ
e Glomerulonephritis (MPGN)}}</div>
1393131140879 1358629116480 Which Nephrotic Syndrome involves <>intramemra
nous</>&nsp;deposition of immune complexes?<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-10771777978690.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II Memranoproli
ferative Glomerulonephritis (Dense Deposit Disease)}}</div></div>
1393171942799 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephritic Syndrome}} is a group of renal g
lomerular disorders characterized y glomerular inflammation and leeding (hemat
uria).
1393172003181 1358629116480 What amount of proteinuria is seen in Nephritic
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 3.5 g/day}}</div>
1393172025233 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertension}} is a key feature of nephrit
ic syndrome due to the salt retention that occurs.
1393172052026 1358629116480 What kind of casts are seen in the urine of a pa
tient with Nephritic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dysmorphic RBCs}}</div
>
1393172075122 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephritic Syndrome}} is a group of renal d
isorders that involves hypercellular, inflamed glomeruli upon iopsy.
1393173507102 1358629116480 {{c1::Immune-complex}} deposition in Nephritic S

yndrome results in the activation of complement.
1393173808174 1358629116480 Which complement protein is chemotactic for Neut
rophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5a}}</div>
1393173823248 1358629116480 {{c1::C5a}} is a complement protein that is chem
otactic for neutrophils, which mediate the damage seen in Nephritic Syndrome.
1393173858912 1358629116480 {{c1::Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN
)}} is a Nephritic Syndrome that arises after a Group A eta-hemolytic streptoco
ccal infection of the skin or pharynx.
1393173913658 1358629116480 What is impetigo?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Con
tagious acterial skin infection}}</div>
1393173983992 1358629116480 What type of Group A strep strains cause&nsp;Po
ststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephritoge
nic strains only}}</div>
1393174023181 1358629116480 What colour urine will e seen in&nsp;Poststrep
tococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hematuria with co
la-coloured urine}}</div>
1393174044705 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephritic Syndrome}} is a type of renal di
sorder that presents with <>hematuria</>, <>limited proteinuria</>, azotemia
and oliguria.
1393174086432 1358629116480 {{c1::Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN
)}} is a Nephritic Syndrome that involves <>suepithelial 'humps'</>&nsp;of i
mmune complexes on EM.
1393174810209 1358629116480 Which demographic has a 25% risk of progressing
from&nsp;Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN) to Rapidly Progressive Glo
merulonephritis (RPGN)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1393174880858 1358629116480 {{c1::Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RP
GN)}} is a Nephritic Syndrome that progresses to renal failure in weeks to month
s.
1393174903639 1358629116480 {{c1::Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RP
GN)}} is a Nephritic Syndrome that is characterized y <>crescents in the Bowma
n's space</>&nsp;of glomeruli on an H&amp;E stain.
1393175063451 1358629116480 What comprises the crescents seen in the Bowman'
s space in&nsp;Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN)?<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-4226247819544.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firi
n and Macrophages}}</div></div>
1393175095585 1358629116480 {{c1::Goodpasture's Syndrome}} is a&nsp;Rapidly
Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN) that shows <>linear</> immunofluorescen
ce.
1393175418266 1358629116480 What type of immunofluorescence is seen in Goodp
asture's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Linear}}</div>
1393175431430 1358629116480 What antiodies are associated with Goodpasture'
s Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Glomerular Basement Memrane (Anti-G
BM) antiodies}}</div> <r /><div><i>Goodpastur's Syndrome is aka Anti-GBM dise
ase</i></div>
1393175473488 1358629116480 {{c1::Goodpasture's Syndrome}} is a <>Type I&n
sp;</>Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN). <r /><div><i>Involves T
ype II hypersensitivity</i></div>
1393175509552 1358629116480 Which demographic is classically affected y Goo
dpasture's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::oung, adult males}}</div>
1393175559831 1358629116480 What type of immunofluorescence is seen in Posts
treptococcal Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granular}}</div>
1393175608720 1358629116480 What type of immunofluorescence is seen in Diffu
se Proliferative Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granular}}</div>
1393175636854 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Diffuse Proliferative Gl
omerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Suendothelial</>&nsp;Ag-A co
mplex deposition}}</div>
1393175702197 1358629116480 What is the most common type of renal disease in
SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diffuse Proliferative Glomerulonephritis}}</div
>
1393175725414 1358629116480 What type of&nsp;Rapidly Progressive Glomerulon

ephritis (RPGN) involves negative immunofluorescence (pauci-immune)?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1393175755231 1358629116480 What type of&nsp;Rapidly Progressive Glomerulon
ephritis (RPGN) involves linear immunofluorescence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T
ype I}}</div>
1393175768385 1358629116480 What type of&nsp;Rapidly Progressive Glomerulon
ephritis (RPGN) involves granular immunofluorescence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Type II}}</div>
1393175784212 1358629116480 Following a Pauci-Immune glomerulus iopsy, what
is the next diagnostic test that should e taken?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AN
CA test}}</div>
1393175844623 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemoptysis}} is a clinical feature of Good
pasture's Syndrome due to cross reaction of Anti-GBM antiodies at the lungs.
1393176058497 1358629116480 What type of glomerular immunofluoresence is see
n in Wegener's Granulomatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pauci-Immune}}</div>
1393176097301 1358629116480 What type of glomerular immunofluorescence is se
en in Microscopic Polyangiitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pauci-Immune}}</div>
1393176118209 1358629116480 What type of glomerular immunofluorescence is se
en Churg-Strauss Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pauci-Immune}}</div>
1393176136963 1358629116480 {{c1::Wegener's Granulomatosis}} is a Type III R
apidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN) associated with <>c-ANCA</>.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Wegener's affects the lungs, kidneys AND pharynx. So do
not automatically think Goodpasture's if there is lung and kidney involvement.</
i></div>
1393176199186 1358629116480 What type of ANCA is seen in Wegener's Granuloma
tosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::c-ANCA}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"We<><u>c
</u></>ener's"</i></div>
1393176226466 1358629116480 What type of ANCA is seen in Microscopic Polyang
iitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p-ANCA}}</div>
1393176244792 1358629116480 What type of ANCA is seen in Churg-Strauss Syndr
ome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p-ANCA}}</div>
1393176257486 1358629116480 {{c1::Churg Strauss Syndrome}} is a Type III&ns
p;Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN) that involves <>p-ANCA, granulo
matous inflammation, eosinophilia and asthma</>.
<r /><div><i>This is th
e distinguishing feature from Microscopic Polyangiitis, as oth have p-ANCA.</i>
</div>
1393176305833 1358629116480 {{c1::Microscopic Polyangiitis}} is a Type III&n
sp;Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN) that involves <>p-ANCA and no
other significant features</>.
1393176393067 1358629116480 What is the most common nephropathy worldwide?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA Nephropathy (Berger's Disease)}}</div>
1393176778070 1358629116480 {{c1::IgA Nephropathy (Berger's Disease)}} is a
Nephritic Syndrome that involves <>IgA immune complex</> deposition in the mes
angium of the glomerulus.
1393176982109 1358629116480 {{c1::IgA Nephropathy}} is a type of Nephritic S
yndrome that often follows mucosal infections, especially gastroenteritis.
1393177031419 1358629116480 {{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}} is an IgA Nephr
opathy that involves systemic vasculitis.
1393177057046 1358629116480 {{c1::Alport Syndrome}} is a Neprhitic Syndrome
that involves an inherited defect in Type IV collagen.
1393177108433 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Alport Syndrome?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Inherited defect in Type IV Collagen}}</div>
1393177126931 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Alport Syndro
me?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked}}</div>
1393177146532 1358629116480 {{c1::Alport Syndrome}} is a Nephritic Syndrome
that involves <>isolated hematuria, sensory hearing loss and ocular disturance
s</>.
1393177172391 1358629116480 {{c1::Alport Syndrome}} is a Nephritic Syndrome
that involves thinning and splitting of the glomerular asement memrane due to
a <>defect in type IV collagen</>.

1393185978048 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::glomerulus}} is the site in the k
idney where the lood is filtered into the urinary tuules.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-6189047873902.jpg" /></div>
1393186657709 1358629116480 What is the normal GFR?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::125 mL/min}}</div> <img src="paste-6743098655079.jpg" />
1393186885319 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Glomerular Basement Memrane}} se
parates the glomerular endothelium from the urinary space, glomerular mesangium
and podocytes (epithelium).
<img src="paste-6773163426111.jpg" />
1393187077770 1358629116480 What type of collagen is aundant at the glomeru
lar asement memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1393187304056 1358629116480 What electrical charge does the glomerular asem
ent memrane have?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Strong negative}}</div>
1393187382374 1358629116480 Which 2 structural proteins are found in the fil
tration slit diaphragm at the podocyte epithelium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ne
phrin and Podocin}}</div>
<img src="paste-7039451398435.jpg" />
1393187434569 1358629116480 What percentage of glomeruli are involved in dif
fuse glomerular disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 50%}}</div>
1393188744187 1358629116480 What percentage of glomeruli are involved in foc
al glomerular disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 50%}}</div>
1393188756725 1358629116480 Many types of glomerulonephritis involve the dep
osition of {{c1::immune complexes}} at various places in and around the glomerul
us.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7563437408654.jpg" /><img src="paste-75
84912244902.jpg" /></div>
<img src="paste-8074538516710.jpg" />
1393189829984 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Granular}} pattern of immunofluores
cence (shown elow) is due to immune complex deposition at the glomerulus.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-8087423418701.jpg" /></div>
1393189867843 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::linear}} immunofluorescence pattern
(shown elow) is typically seen in Goodpasture's Syndrome (Anti-GBM Disease).<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8121783157106.jpg" /></div>
1393189908984 1358629116480 {{c1::IgA Nephropathy}} is a Nephritic Syndrome
that involves an intense granular immunofluorescent pattern with mesangial, "hol
ly leaf" shape.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8327941587190.jpg" /></div>
1393190180071 1358629116480 {{c1::IgA Nephropathy}} is a Nephritic Syndrome
that involves hypercellular expansion of the glomerular mesangium with segmental
sclerosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8362301325558.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Basically, if there are IgA deposits at the mesangium, it is Berge
r's Disease (IgA Nephropathy) until proven otherwise.</i></div>
1393190258739 1358629116480 {{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}} is a Nephritic
Syndrome that presents as <>IgA nephropathy with systemic vasculitis and purpur
ic skin lesions</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8405250998684.jpg" /><
/div>
1393190311429 1358629116480 Which Nephritic Syndrome is associated with hist
ological crescents at glomeruli?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8551279886
695.jpg" /><img src="paste-4230542786840.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN)}}</div>
1393190730125 1358629116480 What comprises the histological crescents seen i
n Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8
594229559657.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firin and Macrophages}}</
div>
1393190788056 1358629116480 {{c1::Anti-GBM Antiodies}} are a type of autoan
tiody found in Goodpasture's Syndrome that targets a peptide in collagen type I
V (Goodpasture's Antigen) of the glomerular asement memrane. <r /><div><i><
r /></i></div>
1393191008626 1358629116480 {{c1::Anti-GBM Antiodies}} are an autoantiody
seen in Goodpasture's Syndrome that may cross react with the pulmonary alveolar
asement memrane, therey causing pulmonary hemorrhaging.
1393191068459 1358629116480 What type of immunofluorescence pattern is seen
in Goodpasture's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9083855831363.jp
g" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Linear IgG GBM}}</div> <r /><div><i>Pr
etty specific to Goodpasture's</i></div>

1393191168649 1358629116480 {{c1::ANCA}} is an antiody that is associated w
ith Pauci-Immune Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis, even if there is no ass
ociated vasculitis.
<r /><div><i>&gt; 90% of isolated, idiopathic cases inv
olve ANCA.</i></div>
1393191644934 1358629116480 What type of immunofluorescence will e seen wit
h Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granular IgG
and C3 deposits}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-9560597201184.jpg" /></div>
1393193801076 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephritic Syndrome}} is a type of renal di
sorder that involves <>diffuse</> endothelial and mesangial <>hypercellularit
y</> with <>neutrophilic infiltration</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-9689446220026.jpg" /></div>
1393193864865 1358629116480 {{c1::Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis}} is
a Nephritic Syndrome that involves <>suepithelial 'humps'</>&nsp;on EM.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-9723805958564.jpg" /><img src="paste-1010176308
0529.jpg" /></div>
1393193935442 1358629116480 What is the major histological feature of Nephro
tic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Loss of epithelial (podocyte) foot proc
esses}}</div>
1393194337327 1358629116480 How is GFR affected in Minimal Change Disease?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unchanged, it is normal}}</div>
1393194798251 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Primary Focal Segmental
Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Idiopathic; not well under
stood}}</div>
1393196888547 1358629116480 Mutations of the podocyte slit diaphragm protein
s&nsp;{{c1::Nephrin}} or&nsp;{{c2::Podocin}} are potential causes of Primary F
ocal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS).
1393196936155 1358629116480 {{c1::Sickle Cell Disease}} is a hematological c
ause of Secondary Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) due to poor oxygenat
ion of the glomeruli and a structural weakness of RBCs.
1393197084591 1358629116480 {{c1::Collapsing Glomerulopathy}} is a variant f
orm of&nsp;Primary Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) that involves <>r
etraction/collapse of the glomerular tuft</> and is associated with proliferati
on of visceral epithelial cells.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1102088608
1887 (1).jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Poor prognosis</i></div>
1393197151900 1358629116480 {{c1::Collapsing Glomerulopathy}} is a variant f
orm of&nsp;Primary Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) that is often asso
ciated with HIV.
1393197364653 1358629116480 What percentage of&nsp;Primary Focal Segmental
Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) patients progress to renal failure?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::20% in 2 years}}</div> <r /><div><i>Children have etter prognosis.</i
></div>
1393197401172 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Memranous Neph
ropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Idiopathic}}</div>
1393197427154 1358629116480 {{c1::Memranous Nephropathy}} is a Nephrotic Sy
ndrome that is common associated with malignancies, especially solid tumours.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1825361101107.jpg" /></div>
1393197545582 1358629116480 {{c1::Memranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (
MPGN)}} is a nephrotic syndrome that involves the interposition of the cell proc
esses of Mesangial cells, therey causing duplication of the glomerular asement
memrane.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11991548690870.jpg" /></div>
1393198508389 1358629116480 <div><r /></div><div>Type {{c1::II}}&nsp;Memr
anoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (MPGN) involves an irregular transformation
of the glomerular asement memrane into an electron dense sustance.</div><div>
<r /></div><img src="paste-12137577578811.jpg" />
1393198555285 1358629116480 Type&nsp;{{c1::II}} Memranoproliferative Glome
rulonephritis (MPGN) involves rion-like C3 deposits on immunofluorescence.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12515534700746.jpg" /></div>
1393198633955 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Glomerulonephritis}} is a renal di
sorder defined as end stage scaarring of the kidneys from multiple types of glom
erulonephritis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13009455940065.jpg" /></div

>
1393198704214 1358629116480 Which antiody is involved in Type II Memranopr
oliferative Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3 Nephritic Factor}}
</div> <r /><div><i>An autoantiody to C3 Convertase, stailizing it and prolo
nging complement activation.</i></div>
1393198784742 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly afflicted y UTIs?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1393201822102 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystitis}} is defined as infection of the
ladder that presents with <>suprapuic pain, dysuria, increased urinary freque
ncy/urgency</>.
<r /><div><i>Systemic signs of fever/chills are usually
asent.</i></div>
1393201833413 1358629116480 What kind of pain is associated with Cystitis?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suprapuic pain}}</div>
1393201864027 1358629116480 What will urinalysis of a patient with Cystitis
show?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cloudy urine with &gt; 10 WBCs per high power f
ield (hpf)}}</div>
1393201924137 1358629116480 What will a dipstick test of a patient with Cyst
itis yield?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive Leukocyte esterase (pyuria) and
possile nitrites}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>Gram-negative acteria convert
nitrates to nitrites</></i></div>
1393201974410 1358629116480 How many colony forming units are found in and u
sed to diagnose Cystitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 100,000}}</div>
1393202006079 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Cystitis?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}}</div>
1393202016618 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Proteus mirailis</i>}} is a acteria t
hat causes cystitis and is associated with <>alkaline urine</> with <>NH4</>
&nsp;and urine with an <>ammonia scent</>.
1393202053596 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus saprophyticus</i>}} is a
gram positive coccus that has an increased incidence of causing cystitis in <>
young, sexually active women</>.
<r /><div><i><>E. coli still the #1 ca
use in this demographic.</></i></div>
1393202250632 1358629116480 What is sterile pyuria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Pyuria with negative urine culture}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, pyuria i
s &gt; 10 WBCs/hpf and leukocyte esterase</i></div>
1393202300585 1358629116480 What is pyuria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The p
resence of &gt; 10 WBCs/hpf and Leukocyte Esterase in the urine}}</div>
1393202323581 1358629116480 Which 2 acterial species are associated with st
erile pyuria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;and <
i>Neisseria gonorhhoeae</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Likely due to them eing i
ntracellular</i></div>
1393202395776 1358629116480 {{c1::Pyelonephritis}} is defined as infection o
f the kidney.
1393202426299 1358629116480 What type of urinary casts will e seen in Pyelo
nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::WBC casts}}</div>
1393202467325 1358629116480 {{c1::Flank Pain}} is a symptom of pyelonephriti
s and occurs due to inflammation sensitizing the nerves of the renal capsule.
1393202552070 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Acute Pyeloneph
ritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}}</div>
1393202566730 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Pyelonephritis}} is a renal disord
er defined as interstitial firosis and atrophy of tuules due to multiple outs
of acute pyelonephritis.
1393202606661 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Chronic Pyelone
phritis in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vesicoureteral Reflux}}</div>
1393202628679 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Chronic Pyelone
phritis in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ostruction; e.g. BPH, cervical ca
rcinoma, etc}}</div>
1393202651960 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Pyelonephritis}} is a urinary trac
t infection that involves atrophic tuules containing <>eosinophilic proteinace
ous material that resemles thyroid follicles</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-11600706666911.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. <>Thyroidization</>

&nsp;of the kidney</i></div>
1393202897601 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Pyelonephritis}} is a UTI that inv
olves cortical scarring with lunted calyces.
1393377199260 1358629116480 What causes the hyaline arteriolosclerosis of th
e glomerular asement memrane in Diaetes Mellitus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Nonenzymatic glycosylation due to hyperglycemia; allows for protein to enter the
BV wall}}</div>
1393377359524 1358629116480 Which glomerular arteriole is more affected in D
iaetes Mellitus Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Efferent arteriole}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i><>Nonenzymatic glycosylation of the efferent arteriole re
sults in an increase in GFR and susequent mesangial expansion</>.</i></div>
1393377393117 1358629116480 Hyaline arteriolosclerosis of the&nsp;{{c1::eff
erent}} arteriole at the glomerulus in Diaetes Mellitus leads to a high glomeru
lar filtration pressure and resultant&nsp;{{c2::microaluminuria}}.
1393377647937 1358629116480 What group of renal disorders includes Diaetes
Mellitus Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
<div><r /></div><img src="paste-3092376453428.jpg" />
1393377673221 1358629116480 {{c1::Kimmelstiel-Wilson nodules}} are a histolo
gical feature of Diaetes Mellitus Nephropathy that involves nodular sclerosis o
f the mesangium.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1065151889731.jpg" /></div
><div><img src="paste-3096671420724.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>This is ve
ry specific to Diaetes Mellitus Nephropathy</i></div>
1393377758588 1358629116480 {{c1::ACE Inhiitors}} are a type of drug that c
an e given in Diaetes Mellitus Nephropathy to slow the progression of the hype
rfiltration induced damage.
1393378061878 1358629116480 Which organ is most commonly involved in Systemi
c Amyloidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kidneys}}</div>
1393378083008 1358629116480 Where at the glomerulus does amyloid deposit?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesangium}}</div>
1393378103010 1358629116480 What colour does amyloid show in polarized light
following staining with Congo red?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Apple-Green Biref
ringence}}</div>
<div><r /></div><img src="paste-2624225018110.jpg" />
1393378155430 1358629116480 What stain is est used to visualize amyloid?<di
v><img src="paste-1473173783026.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congo r
ed}}</div></div>
1393378194663 1358629116480 Which glomerular structure shown elow thickens
as a result of hyaline degeneration and non-enzymatic glycosylation?<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-1722281886132.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Glomerular Basement Memrane}}</div>
1393378741158 1358629116480 What type of antiody immunofluorescence is seen
in Diaetes Mellitus Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17566416
24410.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Linear IgG}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Diaetes is the only other disease esides Goodpasture's that yields linea
r IgG.</i></div>
1393378813291 1358629116480 What type of arteriolosclerosis is seen in Diae
tes Mellitus Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1997159793181.jpg
" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis}}</div>
1393379237956 1358629116480 How does GFR change in Diaetes Mellitus Nephrop
athy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to art
eriolosclerosis of the efferent arteriole.</i></div>
1393379631590 1358629116480 {{c1::Amyloidosis}} is a systemic Nephrotic Synd
rome that presents with a diffuse pattern of glomerular sclerosis.<div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-2190433321331.jpg" /></div>
1393379733657 1358629116480 {{c1::Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)}} is a
systemic autoimmune disease that involves a failure to maintain self tolerance.
1393379966090 1358629116480 Which antiodies are associated with Systemic Lu
pus Erythematosus (SLE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ANA (non-specific); Anti-dsD
NA (highly specific)}}</div>
1393380045411 1358629116480 Which WHO class of Lupus Nephritis involves a no
rmal kidney on LM?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>

1393380144925 1358629116480 Which WHO class of Lupus Nephritis involves Mesa
ngial Glomerulonephritis?<div><r />{{c1::2}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Similar to
IgA nephropathy.</i></div>
1393380171867 1358629116480 Which WHO class of Lupus Nephritis involves Foca
l Proliferative Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
1393380189553 1358629116480 Which WHO class of Lupus Nephritis involves Diff
use Proliferative Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
1393380201966 1358629116480 Which WHO class of Lupus Nephritis involves Mem
ranous Glomerulopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5}}</div>
<r /><div><i>At
this point it is full lown Nephrotic Syndrome.</i></div>
1393380232224 1358629116480 Where are the immune deposits found in stage III
and IV Lupus Nephropathy (Focal and Diffuse Proliferative GN)?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Suendothelium and mesangium}}</div>
1393380446947 1358629116480 Where are the immune deposits found in stage V L
upus Nephropathy (Memranous GN)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suepithelial, sue
ndothelial and mesangial}}</div>
1393380499878 1358629116480 What kind of immunofluorescence is seen in Lupus
Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3577707757790.jpg" /><r /><d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Full House; involving <>granular</>&nsp;IgA, IgG an
d IgM and complement}}</div></div>
1393380561689 1358629116480 What immune elements are included in the Full Ho
use immunofluoresence seen in Lupus Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-3573412790494.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granular IgG, IgA a
nd IgM; Complement}}</div>
1393380601317 1358629116480 Which class of Lupus Nephropathy involves hyperc
ellular glomeruli with few patent <>capillary loops </>(<>"wire looping"</>)
?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3740916515035.jpg" /></div><div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Class IV; Diffuse Proliferative GN}}</div>
1393380872085 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertensive Arteriolonephrosclerosis}} is
a renal vascular pathology seen in hypertension that involves hyaline arteriolo
sclerosis and granular kidneys.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-38010460573
58.jpg" /></div>
1393380969374 1358629116480 Renal ischemia during firinoid necrosis due to
Malignant HTN leads to the stimulation of&nsp;{{c1::RAAS}}, therey causing a d
etrimental cycle of hypertension.
1393381325492 1358629116480 {{c1::Accelerated/Hypertensive Nephrosclerosis}}
is a systemic nephropathy that involves a flea-itten kidney with pinpoint pete
chiae on the cortical surface.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-413175853906
2.jpg" /></div>
1393381402907 1358629116480 {{c1::Accelerated/Hypertensive Nephrosclerosis}}
is a systemic nephropathy that involves firinoid necrosis of glomerular arteri
oles and hyperplastic arteriolosclerosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4
509715661190.jpg" /><img src="paste-4694399254762.jpg" /></div>
1393381455441 1358629116480 Renal Artery Stenosis leads to stimulation of&n
sp;{{c1::Renin}} release from the juxtaglomerular apparatus and susequent hyper
tension.
1393381494471 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Renal Artery St
enosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atherosclerosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Fi
romuscular dysplasia is a close second</i></div>
1393381525061 1358629116480 In Renal Artery Stenosis, which kidney undergoes
atrophy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4741643895149.jpg" /></div><div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::The affected kidney (S)}}</div> <r /><div><i>The affect
ed kidney also releases Renin, causing HTN. The unaffected kidney compensates an
d undergoes hypertrophy.</i></div>
1393381611225 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome}} is a thromoti
c microangiopathy that results from an intestinal infection, typically O157:H7 <
i>E. coli</i>.
1393381686779 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome}} is a thromoti
c microangiopathy that is associated with the Shigella-like toxins made y O157:
H7 <i>E. coli</i>&nsp;as they injure endothelial cells.

1393381738876 1358629116480 Which cells are targeted and injured y the Shig
ella-like toxins from O157:H7 <i>E. coli</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endothe
lial cells}}</div>
1393381764385 1358629116480 {{c1::Atypical HUS}} is a thromotic microangiop
athy that involves a deficiency of complement regulatory proteins (such as facto
r H), therey leading to overactive complement proteins.
1393381837992 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Atypical HUS?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Deficiency of complement regulatory proteins, therey yielding
an overactive complement system}}</div>
1393381869382 1358629116480 Which cells are injured in Atypical HUS due to t
he overactivity of the complement system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endothelium
}}</div>
1393381904084 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Thromotic Thromocytope
nic Purpura (TTP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Deficiency or defect in the ADAMTS
13 Protease (vWF Protease) due to <>autoantiodies</>; therey leading to over
active vWF}}</div>
1393381976831 1358629116480 {{c1::Thromotic Thromocytopenic Purpura (TTP)}
} is a thromotic microangiopathy that involves autoantiodies against ADAMTS13
(vWF Protease) or a genetic defect in ADAMTS13.
1393448387259 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of acute renal fai
lure (especially intrinsic)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Tuular Necrosis (
Acute Kidney Injury)}}</div>
1393448538789 1358629116480 What are the 2 main etiologies of Acute Tuular
Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ischemia and toxins}}</div>
1393448559063 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::ischemic}} type of Acute Tuular
Necrosis involves a patchy pattern of necrosis at the proximal tuule and thick
ascending lim of the loop of Henle.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-858993
459517.jpg" /></div>
1393449127409 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::toxic}} type of Acute Tuular Nec
rosis typically involves extensive necrosis at the proximal tuule.<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-901943132495.jpg" /><img src="paste-2220498092396.jpg"
/></div>
1393449170322 1358629116480 Which type of urinary casts are seen in Acute Tu
ular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-936302870890.jpg" /><img sr
c="paste-1812476199263.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Eosinophilic, di
rty <>granular</>&nsp;casts}}</div></div>
1393449258234 1358629116480 {{c1::Tuulorrhexis}} is a feature of Ischemic A
cute Tuular Necrosis that involves focal necrosis of the renal tuules, typical
ly involving focal rupture of the asement memrane.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-932007903594.jpg" /></div>
1393449544755 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::initiation}} phase of Acute Tuul
ar Necrosis spans the first 36 hrs and is dominated y the precipitating event/t
rauma.
1393449829856 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::maintenance}} phase of Acute Tuu
lar Necrosis spans several days and involves <>oliguria, salt/water overload, h
yperkalemia </>and <>uremia</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-1555637154639
3.jpg" /></div>
1393449873996 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::recovery}} phase of Acute Tuular
Necrosis spans days to months and involves <>polyuria, water/salt/electrolyte
wasting </>and<> hypokalemia</>.
1393449922113 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydronephrosis}} is a renal disorder that
involves <u>dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces with permanent renal atroph
y from urinary ostruction</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25469156069
04.jpg" /><img src="paste-7172595384597.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div><r /
></div></div>
1393450662815 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydronephrosis}} is a renal disorder that
results from Ostructive Uropathy that yields a acklog of pressure due to trapp
ed filtrate. Continued ostruction leads to decreased renal lood flow and decre
ased GFR.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7168300417301.jpg" /><img src="pa
ste-7211250090399.jpg" /></div>

1393451232018 1358629116480 How does GFR change in Ostructive Uropathy?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1393451246167 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydroureter}} is a renal disorder that res
ults from Ostructive Uropathy downstream in the ureter.<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-2856153252312.jpg" /></div>
1393451422225 1358629116480 {{c1::Reflux Nephropathy}} is a renal disorder t
hat involves the retrograde reflux of urine and presents with recurrent UTIs.
1393452169986 1358629116480 {{c1::Reflux Nephropathy}} is a renal disorder t
hat involves the reflux of urine and <>polar scarring</>&nsp;of the kidney, t
ypically at the top and ottom poles.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-30322
46911341.jpg" /></div>
1393452225130 1358629116480 A voiding cystogram of a patient with&nsp;{{c1:
:Reflux Nephropathy}} will show a retrograde flux of urine from the ladder to t
he ureter/kidney.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3152505995644.jpg" /></di
v>
1393452268058 1358629116480 What is the most common route of infection in Py
elonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ascending (up the urethra)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3672197038616.jpg" /></div>
1393452699035 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Pyelonephritis}} is a renal disorder
that involves<> flank pain </>(at the <>costoverteral angle</>)&nsp;and i
nfection of the kidneys.
1393452819189 1358629116480 What type of urinary casts are seen in Pyeloneph
ritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::WBC}}</div>
1393452830808 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Pyelonephritis}} is a renal disorder
that involves an aundance of PMNs in the lumen of the tuules and hence WBC ca
sts in the urine.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3839700762988.jpg" /></di
v>
1393453207842 1358629116480 {{c1::Pyonephrosis}} is defined as an accumulati
on of pus in the renal pelvis and calyces.
1393453250406 1358629116480 {{c1::Renal Papillary Necrosis}} is a renal diso
rder that involves necrosis of more than 1 renal papillae and is typically seen
in Pyelonephritis or Acute Interstitial Nephritis.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-3938485010823.jpg" /></div>
1393453445009 1358629116480 What are the 2 major etiologies of Chronic Pyelo
nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reflux nephropathy or Chronic Ostruction}
}</div>
1393453497575 1358629116480 Which renal disorder is associated with <>thyro
idization</>&nsp;of the kidney?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-420047801
5671.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Pyelonephritis}}</div>
1393453703686 1358629116480 {{c1::Xantogranulomatous Pyelonephritis}} is an
unusual form of Chronic Pyelonephritis associated with <i>Proteus sp.</i>&nsp;i
nfection.
1393453738927 1358629116480 {{c1::Xantogranulomatous Pyelonephritis}} is an
unusual form of Chronic Pyelonephritis that can simulate Renal Cell Carcinoma o
th grossly and histologically due to it's yellow nodules and foamy macrophages (
clear cells) respectively.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4264902525171.jp
g" /><img src="paste-4277787427035.jpg" /></div>
1393453827278 1358629116480 What is the treatment for drug-induced Acute Int
erstitial Nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Withdrawal of the causative agen
t}}</div>
1393453869630 1358629116480 {{c1::Drug-induced Acute Interstitial Nephritis}
} is a renal disorder that may involves <>eosinophilia and rash</> as it is a
hypersensitivity response.
1393453906378 1358629116480 {{c1::Eosinophils}} are a type of immune cell th
at may e present in the urinary casts found in Acute Interstitial Nephritis.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4806068404599.jpg" /></div>
1393453959823 1358629116480 What is the cause of <>Acute</>&nsp;Uric Acid
Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Precipiration of uric acid crystals in
tuules/collecting ducts, therey leading to ostruction of nephrons}}</div>
1393454639877 1358629116480 How can we prevent Uric Acid Nephropathy in pati

ents recieving chemotherapy for lymphoma/leukemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::In
crease urinary pH (alkaline) to prevent precipitation of urate}}</div>
1393454716487 1358629116480 What is the cause of <>Chronic</>&nsp;Urate N
ephropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Hyperuricemia (Gout)}}</div>
1393454746313 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Urate Nephropathy}} is a renal dis
order that involves the deposition of urate crystals in the renal tuular lumen.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5600637354372.jpg" /></div>
1393454779943 1358629116480 {{c1::Light Chain Nephropathy}} is a renal disea
se associated with Multiple Myeloma that involves amyloid light chains comining
with urinary glycoproteins to form ostructive <>angular</> casts in the tuu
les.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5677946765681.jpg" /></div>
1393454864110 1358629116480 {{c1::Light Chain Deposition Disease}} is a rena
l disease associated with Multiple Myeloma and involves the deposition of amyloi
d light chains at the glomeruli (glomerulopathy) or tuular asement memrane (t
uulinterstitial nephritis).
1393470488882 1358629116480 {{c1::Horseshoe Kidney}} is a congenital renal d
isorder that involves conjoined kidneys, typically connected at the lower pole.
<img src="paste-8448200671540.jpg" />
1393470569378 1358629116480 What is the most common congenital renal disorde
r?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Horseshoe kidney}}</div> <img src="paste-84439057
04244.jpg" />
1393470582013 1358629116480 Why is a horseshoe kidney located anormally low
in the adomen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::It gets caught on the IMA root durin
g its ascent from the pelvis}}</div>
1393470656246 1358629116480 {{c1::Unilateral Renal Agenesis}} is a form of r
enal agenesis that leads to hypertrophy of the existing kidney and susequent hy
perfiltration. <r /><div><i>Hyperfiltration presents with a risk of renal fail
ure in later life.</i></div>
1393471012623 1358629116480 {{c1::Bilateral Renal Agenesis}} is a type of re
nal agenesis that leads to oligohydramnios in the mother's wom.
1393471043753 1358629116480 {{c1::Lung Hypoplasia}} is a complication of oli
gohydramnios in Bilateral Renal Agenesis as the lungs require an adequate amount
of amniotic fluid to grow (via stretching).
1393471091437 1358629116480 {{c1::Flat face/low set ears/lim defects}} are
a complication of the oligohydramnios seen in Bilateral Renal Agenesis as the fa
ce, head and lims are pushed up against the mother.
1393471152331 1358629116480 {{c1::Potter Sequence}} is a feature of Bilatera
l Renal Agenesis that involves defects such as lung hypoplasia, flat face, low s
et ears and lim defects.
1393471186688 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysplastic Kidney}} is a congenital malfor
mation of the renal parenchyma characterized y cysts and anormal tissue. It is
<>not inherited </>and is <>not precancerous</>.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-8800387989720.jpg" /></div>
1393471240203 1358629116480 {{c1::Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD)}} is an i
nherited renal disorder that results in ilaterally enlarged kidneys with cysts
in the renal cortex and medulla.
1393471516196 1358629116480 Which form of Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD) a
ffects infants?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div> <img src
="paste-9655086481817.jpg" />
1393471539082 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::autosomal recessive}} form of&ns
p;Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD) may involve Potter's Sequence due to a progre
ssive renal failure resulting from ilateral involvement of the kidneys.
1393471645334 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::autosomal recessive}} form of&ns
p;Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD) is associated with <>congenital hepatic fir
osis which can lead to portal HTN</>.
1393471666559 1358629116480 Which form of&nsp;Polycystic Kidney Disease (PC
KD) affects adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div><div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-16071767622050.jpg" /></div>
<img src="paste16166256902423.jpg" />
1393471683662 1358629116480 Which genes are mutated in the autosomal dominan

t form of&nsp;Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>A
PKD1</i>&nsp;(85%; chromosome 16) and <i>APKD2 </i>(15%; chromosome 4)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>hematuria, flank pain, HTN, urinary infection</>
&nsp;and <>progressive renal failure.</></i></div>
1393471825519 1358629116480 What is responsile for the HTN seen in the auto
somal dominant form of&nsp;Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD)?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Increased Renin release}}</div>
<r /><div><i>HTN and renal fail
ure are the common causes of death.</i></div>
1393471862317 1358629116480 {{c1::Berry Aneurysm}} is a vascular defect asso
ciated with the autosomal dominant form of&nsp;Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD)
and is typically found at the Circle of Willis at the CNS.
<r /><div><i>Mo
therfucka you etter screen a PCKD patient for Berry Aneurysm.</i></div>
1393471923430 1358629116480 {{c1::Mitral Valve Prolapse}} is a cardiac defec
t associated with the autosomal dominant form of&nsp;Polycystic Kidney Disease
(PCKD).
1393471948288 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullary Cystic Kidney Disease}} is an in
herited renal disorder characterized y cysts in the <>medullary collecting duc
t</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16973710754071.jpg" /></div>
1393471995603 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritence of&nsp;Medullar
y Cystic Kidney Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Poor prognosis.</i></div>
1393472006759 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullary Cystic Kidney Disease}} is an au
tosomal dominant renal disorder that involves <>parenchymal/tuulointerstitial
firosis</> and eventually <>shrunken kidneys</> with worsening renal failure
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16969415786775.jpg" /></div>
1393472040944 1358629116480 How many loes/pyramids does a normal kidney hav
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::8+}}</div>
1393472572981 1358629116480 How many loes/pyramids are found in a Hypoplast
ic Kidney?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 6}}</div>
1393472591655 1358629116480 What is the most common location for an ectopic
kidney?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8263517077886.jpg" /></div><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::In or just aove the pelvis}}</div>
1393472740409 1358629116480 What is the most common cystic disease in childr
en?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal Dysplasia}}</div>
1393472771355 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of adominal mass
in neworns?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal Dysplasia}}</div>
1393472836498 1358629116480 What proteins are expressed y <i>APKD1</i>&nsp
;and <i>APKD2</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Polycystin 1 and Polycystin 2}}</d
iv>
1393472886653 1358629116480 What is the most common gene mutation in Autosom
al Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>APKD1</i>&n
sp;on chromosome 16 (85% of cases)}}</div>
1393472941185 1358629116480 Where are the Berry Aneurysms associated with au
tosomal dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cir
cle of Willis}}</div>
1393472972272 1358629116480 What gene is mutated in autosomal recessive Poly
cystic Kidney Disease?<div><r />{{c1::<i>PKHD1</i>; codes for Firocystin}}</di
v>
1393473011315 1358629116480 What protein is expressed y <i>PKHD1</i>, the g
ene implicated in autosomal recessive Polycystic Kidney disease?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Firocystin}}</div>
1393473064939 1358629116480 {{c1::Dialysis associated Cystic Disease}} is a
cystic renal disorder seen after dialysis that may progress to RCC.<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-9839770075405.jpg" /></div>
1393473138746 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Alport's Synd
rome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X linked}}</div>
1393473173105 1358629116480 {{c1::Alport's Syndrome}} is a congenital renal
disorder that results in thinning and splitting of the glomerular asement memr
ane due to a defect in Type IV collagen.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-98
74129813831.jpg" /><img src="paste-10247791968650.jpg" /></div> <img src="paste-

10698763534664.jpg" />
1393473229865 1358629116480 Which type of collagen is defective in Alport's
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1393473620305 1358629116480 {{c1::Thin Basement Memrane Nephropathy}} is an
asymptomatic familial hematuria that involves mutations in the genes encoding t
he alpha chains of type IV collagen.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-107803
67913373.jpg" /></div>
1393473758127 1358629116480 What gene mutations are associated with Thin Bas
ement Memrane Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha chains of Type IV colla
gen}}</div>
1393473783770 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperacute Graft Rejection}} is a type of
graft rejection that occurs minutes to hours after transplant and involves anti
ody mediated thromosis and necrosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11038
065951138.jpg" /></div>
1393474134519 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Rejection}} is a type of graft rejec
tion that occurs days to years after transplant and involves either a cellular o
r humoral rejection.
1393474173398 1358629116480 Which complement reakdown product deposits in A
cute Humoral Graft Rejection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C4d}}</div>
1393474219801 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Graft Rejection}} is a type of renal
graft rejection that involves tuulitis and/or vasculitis.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-11123965296970.jpg" /></div>
1393474268794 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Rejection}} is a type of renal gra
ft rejection that involves interstitial &nsp;and intimal firosis as well as ch
ronic inflammation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11252814315996.jpg" /><
/div>
1393533003110 1358629116480 {{c1::Neprholithiasis}} is a renal disorder defi
ned as precipitation of urinary solute as a stone.
1393533477627 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Nephrolithiasis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium Oxalate and/or Calcium Phosphate (70%)}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-6597069767051.jpg" /></div>
1393534065070 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Calcium Oxalate
/Phosphate Nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Idiopathic hypercalcuria}
}</div> <r /><div><i>However, you must exclude hypercalcemia and related causes
</i></div>
1393534123186 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Calcium Oxalate/Phosph
ate Nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydrochlorothiazide (Ca-sparing
diuretic)}}</div>
1393534330756 1358629116480 What is the <>2nd</>&nsp;most common type of
Nephrolithiasis?<div><r />{{c1::Ammonium magnesium phosphate (15-20%)}}</div>
1393534407662 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Ammonium Magnes
ium Phosphate Nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infection with <>urea
se positive</> organisms (e.g. <i>Proteus vulgaris, Klesiella sp.</i>)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>NH4 formation from urease action leads to alkaline urine that prec
ipitates the formation of stones</i></div>
1393534481569 1358629116480 {{c1::Ammonium Magnesium Phosphate Nephrolithias
is}} is a type of Nephrolithiasis that classically results in a staghorn calculu
s in the renal calyces.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6859062772174.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>Must e removed surgically due to size; pathogen m
ust then e eradicated.</i></div>
1393534565761 1358629116480 {{c1::Uric Acid Nephrolithiasis}} is a type of n
ephrolithiasis that involves radiolucent stones instead of the more common radio
paque stones.
1393534799170 1358629116480 What is the <>3rd</>&nsp;most common cause of
Nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uric Acid}}</div>
1393534813082 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Uric Acid Nephr
olithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperuricemia or Gout}}</div>
1393534852372 1358629116480 What is the treatment of Uric Acid Nephrolithias
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydration and Alkalinization of the urine (with P
otassium Bicaronate)}}</div>

1393534921138 1358629116480 {{c1::Cysteine Nephrolithiasis}} is a rare cause
of Nephrolithiasis and is most commonly seen in children.<div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-6760278524230.jpg" /></div>
1393534949455 1358629116480 What is the cause of Cysteine Nephrolithiasis?<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6755983556934.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Cystinuria}}</div></div>
1393534970675 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystinuria}} is a genetic defect in the re
nal tuules that results in decreased reasorption of cysteine and susequent fo
rmation of cysteine nephrolithiasis.
1393535014989 1358629116480 What type of Nephrolithiasis most commonly cause
s staghorn calculi in <>adults</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-685476
7804878.jpg" /><img src="paste-6176162971929.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Ammonium Magnesium Phosphate}}</div>
1393535083317 1358629116480 What type of Nephrolithiasis most commonly cause
s staghorn calculi in <>children</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cysteine}}</di
v>
1393535090331 1358629116480 {{c1::Angiomyolipoma}} is a renal hamartoma comp
rised of lood vessels, smooth muscle and adipose tissue.
1393535149449 1358629116480 {{c1::Renal Cell Carcinoma}} is a malignant epit
helial tumour arising from <>proximal tuule cells</>&nsp;of the kidney.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-7649336754594.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste
-7675106558231.jpg" /></div>
1393536238957 1358629116480 Which paraneoplastic syndrome results due to EPO
secretion from Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Polycythemia}}<
/div>
1393536324592 1358629116480 Which paraneoplastic syndrome results from Renin
secretion from Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HTN}}</div>
1393536348552 1358629116480 Which paraneoplastic syndrome results from PTHrP
(PTH Releasing Protein) from Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::H
ypercalcemia}}</div>
1393536382074 1358629116480 Which paraneoplastic syndrome results from ACTH
release from Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cushing's Syndrome
}}</div>
1393536415448 1358629116480 {{c1::PTH Related Protein (PTHrP)}} is a paraneo
plastic hormone from Renal Cell Carcinoma that will result in Hypercalcemia.
1393536473072 1358629116480 {{c1::Left-Sided Varicocele}} is a possile comp
lication of renal cell carcinoma that results from lockage of the drainage of t
he left spermatic vein.
1393536530931 1358629116480 Which side of the ody is commonly affected y V
aricocele due to Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left}}</div>
1393536558109 1358629116480 Which major vein does the Right Spermatic Vein d
rain into, therey preventing a right-sided varicocele?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::IVC}}</div>
1393536629739 1358629116480 What is the most common histological variant of
Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clear Cell type}}</div><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-7391638716834.jpg" /></div>
1393536846962 1358629116480 Which gene is mutated in Renal Cell Carcinoma?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>VHL</i>&nsp;tumour suppressor on 3p}}</div>
<r /><div><i>VHL = von Hippel Lindau</i></div>
1393536884862 1358629116480 Loss of the&nsp;{{c1::<i>VHL</i>}} gene in Rena
l Cell Carcinoma leads to an increase in&nsp;{{c2::IGF-1}} which promotes cell
growth.
1393536919179 1358629116480 Loss of the&nsp;{{c1::<i>VHL</i>}} gene in Rena
l Cell Carcinoma results in increased expression of&nsp;{{c2::HIF transcription
factor}} which increases VEGF and PDGF levels and susequent neovascularization
.
1393536977230 1358629116480 Which demographic is most commonly affected y S
poradic Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adult male 50-70 y/o}}<
/div>
1393537026464 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::sporadic}} form of Renal Cell Car

cinoma classically arises in adult males unilaterally as a single tumour in the
upper pole of the kidney.
1393537074819 1358629116480 What is the major risk factor for the sporadic f
orm of Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cigarette smoke}}</div>
1393537091040 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::hereditary}} form of Renal Cell C
arcinoma commonly affects younger adults and presents ilaterally.
1393537115102 1358629116480 {{c1::Von Hippel Lindau Disease}} is an autosoma
l dominant disorder associated with the inactivation of the <i>VHL</i>&nsp;gene
and susequent increased risk for renal cell carcinoma.
1393537151433 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Von Hippel Li
ndau Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1393537169354 1358629116480 Which lood vessel is a common route of metastas
is for Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal Vein to IVC}}</div
>
<div><r /></div><i>Spreads hematogenously to the lungs and one.</i><r
/><div><img src="paste-8993661518175.jpg" /></div>
1393537392109 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes are commonly involved in the s
pread of Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Retroperitoneal Lymph
Nodes}}</div>
1393537421926 1358629116480 {{c1::Wilm's Tumour}} is a malignant kidney tumo
ur that is comprised of <>lastema</>, primitive glomeruli/tuules and stromal
cells.
1393537702654 1358629116480 What is the most common malignant renal tumour i
n children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wilm's Tumour}}</div>
1393537722991 1358629116480 {{c1::WAGR Syndrome}} is a tumour syndrome that
involves <>W</>ilms tumour, <>A</>niridia, <>G</>enital anormalities and
mental/motor <>R</>etardation..
1393538282898 1358629116480 Which Wilms tumour syndrome is associated with a
<>deletion</>&nsp;of the&nsp;<i>WT1</i>&nsp;tumour suppressor gene?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::WAGR Syndrome}}</div>
1393538315199 1358629116480 {{c1::Denys-Drash Syndrome}} is a tumour syndrom
e that involves Wilms tumour, progressive renal failure and <>male pseudohermap
hroditism</>.
1393538702117 1358629116480 Which Wilms tumour syndrome is associated with <
>mutations</>&nsp;of <i>WT1</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Denys-Drash Syndr
ome}}</div>
1393538750653 1358629116480 {{c1::Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome}} is a tumour
syndrome that involves Wilms tumour, neonatal hypoglycemia, muscular hemitrophy
and organomegaly (esp. the tongue).
1393539101894 1358629116480 Which Wilms tumour syndrome is associated with <
>mutations in </><i><>WT2</>, </i>especially IGF-2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Beckwith-Wiedemann}}</div>
1393539156822 1358629116480 What is the most common lower urinary tract canc
er?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urothelial (Transitional Cell) Carcinoma}}</div><
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9118215569829.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-9414568312957.jpg" /></div>
1393539377909 1358629116480 {{c1::Urothelial Carcinoma}} is a malignant tumo
ur arising from the transitional cell lining of the renal pelvis, ureter, ladde
r or urethra.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9122510537125.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-9410273345661.jpg" /></div>
1393539402403 1358629116480 What is the major risk factor for developing Uro
thelial Cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cigarette Smoke}}</div>
1393539416701 1358629116480 {{c1::Azo Dyes}} are a type of chemical used in
hair dyes that can cause Urothelial Carcinoma.
1393539440964 1358629116480 Which 2 drugs are especially associated with ris
k of developing Urothelial Carcinoma, namely with long term use?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Cyclophosphamide and Phenacetin}}</div>
1393539478505 1358629116480 Which cancer is associated with Napthylamine exp
osure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urothelial Carcinoma}}</div>
1393539498928 1358629116480 What type of urine presents in a patient with Ur
othelial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Painless hematuria}}</div>

1393539527461 1358629116480 Which form of Urothelial Carcinoma develops as a
high-grade tumour and then invades?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Flat}}</div>
1393539555491 1358629116480 Which form of Urothelial Carcinoma is associated
with early p53 mutations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Flat}}</div>
1393539571514 1358629116480 Which form of Urothelial Carcinoma is <>not</>
associated with early p53 mutations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Papillary}}</di
v>
1393539598431 1358629116480 Which form of Urothelial Carcinoma develops as a
low-grade tumour and then progresses to an invasive high-grade tumour?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Papillary}}</div>
1393539624700 1358629116480 {{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Bladder}} i
s a malignant proliferation of squamous cells in the ladder that presents with
<>painless hematuria</>.
<r /><div><i>Painless hematuria is often a sign
of ladder cancer.</i></div>
1393539656099 1358629116480 What is the major risk factor for developing Squ
amous Cell Carcinoma of the Bladder in older women?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C
hronic Cystitis}}</div>
1393539679111 1358629116480 Which infectious agent is a risk factor for deve
loping Squamous Cell Carcinoma, especially in Middle Eastern/Egyptian men?<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-11562051960965.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::<i>Schistosoma hematoium</i>}}</div></div>
1393539724466 1358629116480 Where is Renal Adenocarcinoma typically located?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bladder}}</div>
1393539745351 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Urachal Remnant}} is a possile cau
se of Renal Adenocarcinoma and involves a tumour that develops at the dome of th
e ladder.
1393539790631 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystitis Glandularis}} is a cause of Renal
Adenocarcinoma that involves chronic inflammation of the ladder with columnar
metaplasia of the ladder epithelium. <r /><div><i>That metaplastic columnar
epithelium ecomes adenocarcinoma.</i></div>
1393539851349 1358629116480 {{c1::Exstrophy}} is a possile cause of Renal A
denocarcinoma that involves congenital failure of the caudal portion of the ante
rior adominal and ladder walls to form.
1393540065187 1358629116480 What is the #1 risk factor for developing any ty
pe of Nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Dehydration}}</div>
1393540095666 1358629116480 Which type of Nephrolithiasis is the only type t
hat involves <>radiolucent</>&nsp;stones?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uric Aci
d}}</div>
<r /><div><i><u style="font-weight: old; ">U</u>ric acid cryst
als = radiol<u style="font-weight: old; ">u</u>cent&nsp;</i></div>
1393540305734 1358629116480 What is the most common renal tumour?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Renal Cell Carcinoma}}</div>
1393541813390 1358629116480 {{c1::Familial Clear Cell Carcinoma}} is a type
of familial Renal Cell Carcinoma that involves mutation of the <i>VHL</i>&nsp;g
ene ut lacks other features of VHL Syndrome such as cereellar hemangilastoma
and pheochromocytoma. <r /><div><img src="paste-7666516623532.jpg" /></div>
1393541859350 1358629116480 {{c1::Hereditary Papillary Carcinoma}} is a fami
lial Renal Cell Carcinoma that involves multiple ilateral tumours and involves
<>MET proto-oncogene mutations</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-7614977015971
.jpg" /></div>
1393541897466 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Hereditary Pa
pillary Carcinoma (Familial RCC)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}
}</div>
1393542467045 1358629116480 {{c1::Clear Cell Carcinoma}} is a morphological
type of Renal Cell Carcinoma that involves a <>solid traecular/tuular pattern
with aundant clear/granular cytoplasm.</><div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-7679401525587.jpg" /><img src="paste-7387343749538.jpg" /><img src="paste-8237
747274157.jpg" /></div>
1393542548687 1358629116480 {{c1::Papillary Carcinoma}} is a morphological t
ype of Renal Cell Carcinoma that involves a papillary pattern with cuoidal/low
columnar cells and interstitial foamy macrophages.<div><r /></div><div><img src

="paste-7825430413653.jpg" /><img src="paste-8297876816329.jpg" /></div>
1393542903596 1358629116480 {{c1::Chromophoe Carcinoma}} is a morphological
type of Renal Cell Carcinoma that involves <>solid sheets of pale eosinophilic
cells with perinuclear halos and discrete cell memranes</>.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-7868380086612.jpg" /><img src="paste-8349416423816.jpg" /></
div>
1393543046226 1358629116480 {{c1::Sarcomatoid Renal Cell Carcinoma}} is a sp
indle cell-shaped change seen in Renal Cell Carcinoma associated with poor progn
osis. It is more common than true Renal Sarcomas.
1393547323059 1358629116480 {{c1::Oncocytoma}} is a <>enign</> tumour of
the renal <>collecting ducts</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-79929341
38137.jpg" /></div>
1393547741191 1358629116480 {{c1::Oncocytoma}} is a enign tumour of the ren
al collecting ducts made up of uniform cells with aundant granular eosinophilic
cytoplasm (filled with mitochondria).
1393547797495 1358629116480 Which stain is used to differentiate Chromophoe
RCC from Oncocytoma which oth have aundant eosinophilic cells?<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-9229884719480.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Co
lloidal Iron; chromophoe RCC will stain lue}}</div></div>
1393547849117 1358629116480 What is the difference etween Oncocytoma and Ch
romophoe RCC on a <>gross specimen</>?<div><r />{{c1::Both have a homogenous
tan ut Oncocytoma has a <u>scar</u>}}</div> <r /><div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-7988639170841.jpg" /></div>
1393547911628 1358629116480 The aundance of&nsp;{{c1::mitochondria}} <>wi
thout perinuclear clearing</> in Oncocytoma is a histological feature that sets
it apart from Chromophoe RCC which involves <>aundant vesicles</>.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-9328668967319.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-809
6013353380.jpg" /></div>
1393547959465 1358629116480 What is the most common renal tumour in patients
with Tuerous Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9448928051572.jpg
" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angiomyolipoma}}</div></div>
1393547992335 1358629116480 {{c1::Angiomyolipoma}} is a enign renal tumour
that involves vessels, smooth muscle and fat tissue.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-9560597201351.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Angio = lood vessels</i><
/div><div><i>Myo = smooth muscle</i></div><div><i>Lipoma = adipose tissue</i></d
iv>
1393548127538 1358629116480 {{c1::Wilms Tumour}} is a malignant renal tumour
that has a triphasic nature involving <>E</>pithelial elements that surround
nodules of <>B</>lastema amongst a Myxoid <>S</>troma.<div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-9698036154822.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with a hu
ge palpale flank mass and/or hematuria.</i></div>
1393548233087 1358629116480 What is the main, key symptom in Urothelial Carc
inoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Painless hematuria}}</div>
1393548350169 1358629116480 What gene is involved in <>non-invasive</>&ns
p;Urothelial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Deletion of<i>&nsp;p16INK4a<
/i>&nsp;on chr. 9p}}</div>
1393548717696 1358629116480 What gene is involved in <>invasive</>&nsp;Ur
othelial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Deletion of p53 on chr. 17p}}</di
v>
1393548743812 1358629116480 {{c1::Exophytic Papilloma}} is a form of Urothel
ial Carcinoma that involves finger like papillae with a firovascular core.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-10290741641431.jpg" /></div> <img src="paste10277856739600.jpg" />
1393548829259 1358629116480 {{c1::Inverted Papilloma}} is a form of Urotheli
al Carcinoma that involves cords of cytologically normal urothelium grown into t
he lamina propria.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10325101379831.jpg" /></
div>
<img src="paste-10337986281716.jpg" />
1393548911645 1358629116480 {{c1::Low Grade Urothelial Carcinoma}} is a grad
e of Urothelial Carcinoma that involves thick papillary urothelium with mild aty
pia and occasional mitoses. Invasion is rare.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas

te-10819022619033.jpg" /></div>
1393549421535 1358629116480 {{c1::High Grade Urothelial Carcinoma}} is a gra
de of Urothelial Carcinoma that involves a papillary and solid architecture with
prominent nuclear atypia and mitoses.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-10956461572517.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Necrosis may e apparent and invas
ion may e frequently seen.</i></div>
1393549502141 1358629116480 {{c1::Urothelial Carcinoma <i>in situ</i>}} is a
form of Urothelial Carcinoma that involves malignant cells within the epithelia
l layer and a flat red lesion with no nodular masses on gross examination.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-11102490460440.jpg" /><img src="paste-1111537536
2439.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>There is no invasion as the asement memr
ane is intact.</i></div>
1405530331779 1395802358422 What type of urinary casts are seen in Acute Tu
ular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granular "muddy rown" casts}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-12627203850659.jpg" /></div>
1405530398650 1395802358422 Which nephrotic syndrome is associated with <>a
ntiodies against the Phospholipase A<su>2</su>&nsp;receptor</>?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Memranous Nephropathy}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-18253
61101107.jpg" /></div>
1405531284837 1395802358422 What type of immunogloulins deposit in the GBM
and renal mesangium in Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::IgG; IgM; C3 is also seen}}</div>
1405533664675 1395802358422 Which nephritic syndrome is associated with <>p
eripheral</>&nsp;and <>periorital edema</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Post
streptococcal Glomerulonephritis}}</div>
1405533722233 1395802358422 Which nephritic syndrome is associated with <>i
ncreased anti-DNase B titers</>&nsp;and <>decreased complement</>?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
memer, Group A Strep infection is associated with <>elevated ASO and anti-DNAs
e titers</>.</i></div>
1405533761184 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of death in SLE?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis}}</div>
1405534440445 1395802358422 Which type of nephrolithiasis involves <>envelo
pe</>&nsp;or dumell shaped crystals?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium}}</d
iv><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5123895984351.jpg" /></div>
1405534488851 1395802358422 Which type of calcium nephrolithiasis precipitat
es with <>increased</>&nsp;pH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium phosphate}}
</div>
1405534518094 1395802358422 Which type of calcium nephrolithiasis precipitat
es with <>decreased</>&nsp;pH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium oxalate}}</
div>
1405534526858 1395802358422 Which water solule vitamin is associated with o
xalate crystals in the urine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin C ause}}</div>
1405534562599 1395802358422 What change in urinary pH is associated with Amm
onium Magnesium Phosphate nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}
</div>
1405534630588 1395802358422 Which type of nephrolithiasis is associated with
<>coffin lid</>&nsp;stones?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ammonium magnesium ph
osphate}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5570572583136.jpg" /></div>
1405534666559 1395802358422 Which type of nephrolithiasis is aka <>struvite
</>&nsp;stones?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ammonium magnesium phosphate}}</div
>
<r /><div><img src="paste-5566277615840.jpg" /></div>
1405534705152 1395802358422 Which type of nephrolithiasis is associated with
<>infection with urease-positive ugs </>(e.g. <i>Proteus mirailis, Klesiel
la spp., Staphylococcus spp.</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ammonium magnesium
phosphate}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Urease positive ugs are ale to hydrolyze
urease into ammonia, therey causing urinary alkalinization.</i></div>
1405534809480 1395802358422 What urinary pH change is associated with Uric A
cid nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence we treat with <>alkalinization</>&nsp;of the urine.</i></div>

1405534865631 1395802358422 What type of nephrolithiasis is associated with
<>radiolucent rhomoid or rosette-shaped crystals</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Uric Acid}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6231997546720.jpg" /><
/div>
1405534899979 1395802358422 What urinary pH change is associated with Cystei
ne nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>He
nce we treat with <>alkalinization</>&nsp;of the urine.</i></div>
1405534981421 1395802358422 Which type of nephrolithiasis is associated with
<>radiopaque hexagonal crystals</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cysteine nephr
olithiasis}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6644314407138.jpg" /></d
iv>
1405535021311 1395802358422 Which type of nephrolithiasis is associated with
a&nsp;<>positive sodium nitroprusside test</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cy
steine nephrolithiasis}}</div> <r /><div><i>This is also the test for Cystinur
ia.</i></div>
1405535068828 1395802358422 What is the most common <>primary</>&nsp;rena
l malignancy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal Cell Carcinoma}}</div>
1405539410104 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Renal Oncocytoma?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrectomy}}</div>
1405539589389 1395802358422 What is the most common renal malignancy of <>e
arly</>&nsp;childhood (2-4 y/o)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wilms Tumour (Neph
rolastoma)}}</div>
1405539629450 1395802358422 On which chromosome are the <i>WT1</i>&nsp;or <
i>WT2</i>&nsp;tumour suppressor genes found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chromos
ome 11}}</div>
1405539709347 1395802358422 Which urinary tract cancer is associated with <
>painless hematuria</>&nsp;with <>no casts</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bl
adder cancer}}</div>
1405541554896 1395802358422 Which sex is more common affected y Cystitis?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Female}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Especially with "H
oneymoon Cystitis" due to the increase frequency of sexual intercourse.</i></div
>
1405542932656 1395802358422 Which class of virus is associated with Hemorrha
gic Cystitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenovirus}}</div>
1405543006013 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Pyelonephritis}} is a type of pyelon
ephritis that affects the cortex with relative sparing of the glomeruli/vessels.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10844792422816.jpg" /></div>
1405543395312 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Pyelonephritis}} is a type of pyelon
ephritis that presents with <>striated parenchymal enhancement</>&nsp;of the
kidneys on CT scan.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11420318040343.jpg" /><
/div>
1405543593196 1395802358422 {{c1::Diffuse Cortical Necrosis}} is a type of r
enal necrosis that is descried as <>acute generalized cortical infarction of 
oth kidneys</>.
<r /><div><i>Typically due to a comination of <>vasos
pasm and DIC</>.</i></div><div><i>Associated with <>ostetric catastrophes and
septic shock.</></i></div>
1405544161646 1395802358422 Which stage of Acute Tuular Necrosis is associa
ted with <>oliguria</>?<div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phase 2/Maintenance ph
ase}}</div></div>
1405544468336 1395802358422 Which stage of Acute Tuular Necrosis is associa
ted with&nsp;a <>risk of hyperkalemia</>&nsp;and <>metaolic acidosis</>?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phase 2/Maintenance Phase}}</div>
1405544492526 1395802358422 Which stage of Acute Tuular Necrosis is associa
ted with&nsp;<>polyuria</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stage 3/Recovery phase
}}</div>
1405544514469 1395802358422 Which stage of Acute Tuular Necrosis is associa
ted with&nsp;a risk of <>hypokalemia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stage 3/R
ecovery}}</div>
1405544526140 1395802358422 Which stage of Acute Tuular Necrosis is associa
ted with&nsp;<>fall of BUN and creatinine</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stag

e 3/Recovery}}</div>
1405544542650 1395802358422 What is the cause of <>Prerenal Azotemia</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased RBF}}</div>
1405546434763 1395802358422 {{c1::Renal Osteodystrophy}} is a renal disorder
that involves the <>failure of vitamin D hydroxylation, hypocalcemia</>&nsp;
and <>hyperphosphatemia</>&nsp;and presents with <>superiosteal thinning of
<r><div><i>Therey resulting in <>secondary hyperparathyroidis
one</>.
m</>.</i></div><div><i><r></i></div>
1405546614320 1395802358422 Which form of Polycystic Kidney Disease is assoc
iated with <>hepatic firosis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessi
ve}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The hepatic firosis can cause portal hypertension
.</i></div>
1405547136271 1395802358422 Which form of polycystic kidney disease is assoc
iated with <>Potter sequence</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessiv
e; if severe enough}}</div>
1405547292192 1395802358422 Which type of renal cysts are usually found in t
he outer cortex and are filled with ultrafiltrate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Si
mple}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-17317308137896.jpg" /></div>
1405547333069 1395802358422 Which type of renal cyst accounts for the majori
ty of all renal masses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-17313013170600.jpg" /></div>
1405547353513 1395802358422 Which type of renal cysts are <>septated, enhan
ced</>&nsp;or <>have solid components</>, especially on CT?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Complex}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-17454747091366.jpg" /
></div>
1405547407908 1395802358422 Which type of renal cyst require removal due to
the <>risk of renal cell carcinoma</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complex}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><img src="paste-17450452124070.jpg" /></div>
1404076014360 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertrophy}} is a cellular growth adaptat
ion that involves an <>increase in cell size</>.
1404076697248 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperplasia}} is a cellular growth adaptat
ion that involves an <>increase in cell numer</>.
1404076717164 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertrophy}} is a cellular growth adaptat
ion that involves gene activation, protein synthesis and the production of new o
rganelles.
1404076741694 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperplasia}} is a cellular growth adaptat
ion that involves the production of new cells from stem cells.
1404076758402 1395802358422 Which type of tissue <>cannot</>&nsp;make new
cells and hence only undergoes hypertrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Permanen
t tissue (e.g. cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle and nerves)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Otherwise, hypertrophy and hyperplasia generally occur together.</i></div>
<div><i>e.g. uterus during pregnancy</i></div>
1404076809071 1395802358422 Which 3 specific tissues make up <>permanent ti
ssue</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cardiac muscle; skeletal muscle; nerves}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. cardiac myocytes will undergo hypertrophy, not hyperp
lasia, in response to systemic HTN</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-745692221934
88.jpg" /></i></div>
1404076911194 1395802358422 {{c1::Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)}} is a
type of pathological hyperplasia seen at the prostate that <>does not</>&nsp;
increase the risk for cancer. <r /><div><i>Otherwise, pathological hyperplasi
a generally increases the risk for dysplasia and eventually cancer.</i></div><di
v><i>e.g. endometrial hyperplasia</i></div>
1404077177893 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrophy}} is a cellular growth adaptation
that involves a decrease in the <>size</>&nsp;and <>numer</>&nsp;of cells
.
1404078193418 1395802358422 {{c1::Apoptosis}} is a process y which a <>dec
rease in cell numer occurs</>&nsp;(i.e. atrophy).
1404078219822 1395802358422 {{c1::Uiquitin-proteosome degradation}} is a pr
ocess y which a <>decrease in cell size</>&nsp;occurs (i.e. atrophy).
<r /><div><i>Rememer, uiquitin is a tag that lets the proteosome know that so

mething has to e degraded. The cytoskeleton of cells is often tagged, resulting
in a reduction in cell size.</i></div><div><i>Autophagy of cellular components
involves generation of autophagic vacuoles which fuse with lysosomes whose hydro
lytic enzymes reakdown cellular components.</i></div>
1404078427367 1395802358422 {{c1::Metaplasia}} is a cellular growth adaptati
on that involves a <>change in cell type</>&nsp;due to a <>change in stress<
/>&nsp;on that organ or tissue.
<r /><div><i>The idea here is that the
metaplastic cell is etter ale to handle the new stress or the increase in stre
ss.</i></div><div><i>Classic example involves epithelial cells changing to anoth
er type of epithelium.</i></div>
1404078918513 1395802358422 {{c1::Barrett Esophagus}} is a type of pathologi
cal metaplasia that occurs at the esophagus due to <>acid reflux</>&nsp;from
the stomach causing metaplasia from nonkeratinizing squamous epithelium to <>no
nciliated, mucin-producing columnar epithelium</>.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-74582107095374.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>The original nonkeratinizi
ng squamous epithelium is etter suited to handle the friction of a food olus.<
/i></div><div><i>The metaplastic mucin-producing columnar epithelium is etter s
uited to handle the stress of the acid.</i></div>
1404079151977 1395802358422 {{c1::Metaplasia}} is a cellular growth adaptati
on that occurs via the reprogramming of stem cells which then produce the new ce
ll type.
<r /><div><i>Metaplasia is reversile.</i></div><div><i>i.e. Ba
rrett Esophagus can e reversed y treating the gastroesophageal reflux.</i></di
v>
1404079520961 1395802358422 {{c1::Dysplasia}} is a pathological complication
of metaplasia that can present if the metaplastic tissue is held under persiste
nt stress.
<r /><div><i>i.e. Barrett esophagus can progress to adenocarcin
oma of the esophagus</i></div>
1404079611160 1395802358422 {{c1::Apocrine Metaplasia of the Breast}} is an
example of metaplasia that occurs at the reast and <>does not</>&nsp;have an
increased risk for cancer.
1404079654455 1395802358422 Which fat solule vitamin deficiency can result
in metaplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin A}}</div>
1404079681951 1395802358422 Which fat solule vitamin is necessary for the d
ifferentiation of specialized epithelial surfaces?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vi
tamin A}}</div> <r /><div><i>e.g. conjunctiva of the eye</i></div>
1404079732166 1395802358422 {{c1::Keratomalacia}} is an ocular complication
of Vitamin A deficiency that results from the thin squamous lining of the conjun
ctiva undergoing metaplasia into stratified, keratinizing squamous epithelium.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-75453985456483.jpg" /></div>
1404079770504 1395802358422 {{c1::Myositis Ossificans}} is a metaplastic dis
order that involves connective tissue within muscle changing to one during the
healing process following trauma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-755914244
09953.jpg" /></div>
1404079910294 1395802358422 {{c1::Dysplasia}} is a complication of longstand
ing metaplasia and/or hyperplasia that involves disordered cellular growth.
<r /><div><i>Dysplasia is reversile with alleviation of the stress.</i></div><
div><i>If it develops into carcinoma, that is irreversile.</i></div>
1404080021491 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplasia}} is a congenital growth adaptatio
n that is descried as the <>failure of cell production to occur during emryog
enesis</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. unilateral renal agenesis</i></div>
1404080216585 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoplasia}} is a congenital growth adapta
tion that is descried as a <>decrease in cell production during emryogenesis<
/>, therey resulting in a relatively small organ.
<r /><div><i>e.g. strea
k ovary in Turner syndrome</i></div>
1404080585002 1395802358422 What is the final electron acceptor in the ETC o
f oxidative phosphorylation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oxygen}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Hence, in hypoxia oxidative phosphorylation is impaired, resulting in decr
eased ATP production which leads to cellular injury.</i></div>
1404081156557 1395802358422 {{c1::Ischemia}} is a cause of hypoxia that is d
efined as <>decreased lood flow through an organ</>. <r /><div><i>e.g. decre

ased arterial perfusion, decreased venous drainage (Budd-Chiari Syndrome) and sh
ock.</i></div>
1404081377272 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Budd-Chiari Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Polycythemia Vera}}</div>
1404081393350 1395802358422 {{c1::Shock}} is a cause of ischemia that arises
due to <>widespread hypotension</>&nsp;that ultimately results in poor tissu
e perfusion and eventual hypoxia.
1404081425486 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoxemia}} is a cause of hypoxia that is
defined as a <>low partial pressure of oxygen in the lood</>.
1404081452139 1395802358422 Which arterial partial pressure of Oxygen is dia
gnostic of Hypoxemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::P<su>a</su>O<su>2</su>&nsp
;&lt; 60 mmHg}}</div>
1404081486236 1395802358422 Which arterial Oxygen saturation is diagnostic o
f hypoxemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S<su>a</su>O<su>2</su>&nsp;&lt; 90%
}}</div>
1404081594463 1395802358422 {{c1::High altitude}} is a cause of hypoxemia th
at results from <>decreased arometric pressure</>&nsp;causing <>decreased P
<su>A</su>O<su>2</su>.</>
1404081786506 1395802358422 {{c1::Decreased O2 carrying capacity}} is a caus
e of hypoxia that stems from <>loss of Hemogloin</>&nsp;or&nsp;<>hemogloi
n dysfunction</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. anaemia, CO poisoning, methemogloine
mia</i></div>
1404082054272 1395802358422 How does PaO2 change in anaemia?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
<div><i><r /></i></div>
1404082081983 1395802358422 How does SaO2 change in anaemia?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, SaO2 is a <>percentage<
/>, hence it is unchanged in anaemia.</i></div><div><i>S<su>a</su>O<su>2</su
>&nsp;= % of O<su>2</su>&nsp;mocs ound to H</i></div>
1404082145795 1395802358422 How does P<su>a</su>O<su>2</su>&nsp;change
in CO poisoning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
<r /><div><i>CO
inds to H more avidly than O2.</i></div>
1404082247074 1395802358422 How does S<su>a</su>O<su>2</su>&nsp;change
in CO poisoning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>CO
inds to H more avidly than O2.</i></div>
1404082327680 1395802358422 {{c1::CO poisoning}} is a cause of <>decreased
O2 carrying capacity</>&nsp;that often arises following exposure to <>smoke f
rom fires</>&nsp;or <>exhaust from cars/gas heaters</>.
<r /><div><i>Th
erey causes hypoxia.</i></div><div><i>Early sign of exposure is headache. Signi
ficant exposure leads to coma/death.</i></div>
1404082519304 1395802358422 {{c1::CO Poisoning}} is a cause of decreased O2
carrying capacity that classically presents with <>cherry-red appearance of the
skin</>.
1404082618984 1395802358422 Which ionized form of Fe inds to O2?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Fe²⁺}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Fe²⁺&n
sp;inds to O<su>2</su></i></div>
1404082666766 1395802358422 {{c1::Methemogloinemia}} is a cause of decrease
d O2 carrying capacity that involves the oxidation of hemogloin Fe²⁺
&nsp;to Fe³⁺, which cannot ind to oxygen.&nsp;
1404082720246 1395802358422 How does P<su>a</su>O<su>2</su>&nsp;change
in methemogloinemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
1404082735823 1395802358422 How does S<su>a</su>O<su>2</su>&nsp;change
in Methemogloinemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404082757218 1395802358422 {{c1::Methemogloinemia}} is a cause of decrease
d O2 carrying capacity that classically presents with <>cyanosis</>&nsp;and <
>chocolate-coloured lood.</>
1404082793048 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Methemogloinemia?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV Methylene Blue; helps reduce Fe³⁺&nsp;ac
k to Fe²⁺}}</div>
1404087783834 1395802358422 What is the morphological hallmark of <>reversi
le</>&nsp;cell injury?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cellular swelling}}</div>

<r /><div><i>Hence there is a loss of microvilli and memrane leing.</i></di
v><div><i>Swelling of the Rough ER results in dissociation of riosomes and decr
eased protein synthesis.</i></div>
1404088729571 1395802358422 What is the morphological hallmark of <>irrever
sile</>&nsp;cellular injury?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memrane damage}}</di
v>
1404088752190 1395802358422 {{c1::Cytochrome C}} is an enzyme that activates
apoptosis following cellular injury as it leaks out of the mitochondrial memra
ne into the cytosol.
1404088925019 1395802358422 How do intracellular Ca levels change in cellula
r injury?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>This is du
e to a numer of things:</i></div><div><i>- Decreased ATP levels causing decreas
ed Ca pump activity, therey resulting in Ca uildup in the cytosol</i></div><di
v><i>- Plasma memrane damage, leading to Ca entering the cell</i></div><div><i>
<r /></i></div><div><i>The increased Ca in the cytosol results in <>enzyme act
ivation</>. This is especially ad news when lysosomal memranes ecome damaged
and hydrolytic enzymes enter the cytosol.</i></div>
1404089081807 1395802358422 How does cellular pH change in cellular injury?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased pH}}</div> <r /><div><i>This is due to the
failure of aeroic glycolysis and the resultant switch to anaeroic glycolysis
causing a uildup of lactic acid. The decreased pH denatures proteins and precip
itates DNA.</i></div>
1404089237272 1395802358422 How does intracellular Na change in cellular inj
ury?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is du
e to the lack of ATP which disrupts the function of the Na/K ATPase pump. As a r
esult, there is increased intracellular Na and also susequent water uildup in
the cell.</i></div>
1404089316688 1395802358422 What is the morphological hallmark of cell death
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Loss of the nucleus}}</div>
1404089715416 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyknosis}} is a morphological feature of c
ell death that is descried as <>nuclear condensation</>.
1404089735117 1395802358422 {{c1::Karyorrhexis}} is a morphological feature
of cell death that is descried as <>nuclear fragmentation</>.
1404089758304 1395802358422 {{c1::Karyolysis}} is a morphological complicati
on of cell death that is descried as <>nuclear dissolution</>.
1404089783457 1395802358422 What 2 mechanisms can lead to cell death?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Necrosis; Apoptosis}}</div>
1404089819089 1395802358422 {{c1::Coagulative Necrosis}} is a pattern of nec
rosis involving necrotic tissue that is <>firm</>&nsp;and cells/organs that m
aintain their structure due to <>coagulation of proteins</>.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-81179176862029.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>However, s
ince it is necrosis, the <>nuclei are gone</>.</i></div><div><i>In coagulative
necrosis, <>proteins denature first</>, then there is enzymatic degradation.<
/i></div>
1404090096667 1395802358422 Which pattern of necrosis is seen following an i
schemic infarct at any organ except the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coagul
ative necrosis}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-81174881894733.jpg" /></div>
1404090129321 1395802358422 What is the only organ that does not yield <>co
agulative necrosis</>&nsp;following an ischemic infarct?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Brain}}</div>
1404090183973 1395802358422 {{c1::Coagulative Necrosis}} is a pattern of nec
rosis that involves tissue that is often <>wedge-shaped</>&nsp;and <>pale</
>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-81174881894733.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The wedge often <>points towards</>&nsp;the focus of vascular occlusion
.</i></div>
1404090373154 1395802358422 {{c1::Liquefactive necrosis}} is a pattern of ne
crosis that involves necrotic tissue that ecomes liquefied due to <>enzymatic
lysis of cells and protein</>. <r /><div><i>In liquefactive necrosis, <>lysos
omal enzymes leak first</>, hence there is <>enzymatic degradation</>.</i></d
iv><div><i>In coagulative necrosis, <>proteins denature first</>&nsp;then the

re is <>enzymatic degradation</>.</i></div>
1404090446618 1395802358422 Which pattern of necrosis is characteristic of 
rain infarctions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefactive; proteolytic enzymes f
rom microglia liquefy the rain}}</div>
1404090490339 1395802358422 Which pattern of necrosis is characteristic of a
n ascess?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefactive; proteolytic enzymes from neu
trophils liquefy tissue}}</div>
1404090518469 1395802358422 Which pattern of necrosis is characteristic of p
ancreatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefactive; proteolytic enzymes from t
he pancreas liquefy the parenchyma}}</div>
1404090550199 1395802358422 Which pattern of necrosis resemles mummified ti
ssue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gangrenous (dry gangrene)}}</div><div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-81883551498594.jpg" /></div>
1404090598361 1395802358422 Which pattern of necrosis is characteristic of i
schemia at the <>lower lim</>&nsp;and <>GI tract</>?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Gangrenous}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-81879256531298.jpg" /
></div>
1404090628987 1395802358422 {{c1::Wet Gangrene}} is a type of gangrenous nec
rosis that involves a superimposed infection on dead tissue and susequent lique
factive necrosis.
<r /><div><i>It is "wet" due to the pus and inflammator
y exudate.</i></div>
1404090904122 1395802358422 {{c1::Caseous necrosis}} is a pattern of necrosi
s that involves soft, friale necrotic tissue with a <>"cottage-cheese"</>&ns
p;like appearance.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-82222853914976.jpg" /></
div>
1404090969853 1395802358422 {{c1::Caseous Necrosis}} is a pattern of necrosi
s that is a comination of coagulative and liquefactive necrosis.
1404091001679 1395802358422 What pattern of necrosis is characteristically s
een in Tuerculosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caseous necrosis; with granuloma
s}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Also seen in systemic mycoses and Nocardia</i></di
v>
1404091026562 1395802358422 Which pattern of necrosis is descried as <>nec
rotic adipose tissue</>&nsp;with a <>chalky-white appearance</>&nsp;due to
deposition of <>Ca</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fat necrosis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-82957293322586.jpg" /></div>
1404091090945 1395802358422 What pattern of necrosis is characteristic of pa
ncreatitis-mediated damage of peripancreatic fat?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fat
necrosis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-82961588289882.jpg" /></div>
1404091123014 1395802358422 {{c1::Saponification}} is a phenomenon seen in f
at necrosis that involves the release of fatty acids via trauma or pancreatic li
pase and susequent joining of Ca with those fatty acids.
1404091197064 1395802358422 {{c1::Dystrophic Calcification}} is a type of ti
ssue calcification that involves the deposition of <>Ca</>&nsp;on <>dead, ne
crotic tissue</>.
<r /><div><i><r /></i></div>
1404091246889 1395802358422 What type of tissue calcification is associated
with <>normal</>&nsp;serum Ca?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophic calcific
ation}}</div> <r /><div><i>Necrotic tissue acts as a nidus for calcification
in the setting of normal serum Ca and phosphate.</i></div>
1404091317431 1395802358422 Which type of tissue calcification is associated
with <>high</>&nsp;serum Ca and phosphate levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Metastatic Calcification}}</div>
<r /><div><i>High serum Ca leads to cal
cification of <>normal</>&nsp;tissue.</i></div>
1404091381186 1395802358422 {{c1::Metastatic Calcification}} is a type of ti
ssue calcification that involves the deposition of Ca at <>normal</>&nsp;tiss
ue.
1404091392034 1395802358422 {{c1::Metastatic Calcification}} is a type of ti
ssue calcification that occurs at <>normal tissue</>&nsp;in the setting of <
>high serum Ca and PO4.</>
<r /><div><i>Hence it tends to e widespread.</
i></div><div><i>Depisition predominates in the <>interstitium</>&nsp;of kidne
ys, lungs and gastric mucosa as these tissues <u>lose acid quickly</u>. The <u>i

ncrease in pH favours Ca deposition</u>.</i></div>
1404091424961 1395802358422 {{c1::Dystrophic Calcification}} is a type of ti
ssue calcification that occurs at <>necrotic tissue</>&nsp;in the setting of
<>normal Ca and PO4</>.
<r /><div><i>Hence it tends to e localized.</i
></div>
1404091452093 1395802358422 {{c1::Firinoid Necrosis}} is a pattern of necro
sis that involves damage to a lood vessel wall.
1404091474565 1395802358422 Which pattern of necrosis involves damage to lo
od vessel walls?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firinoid}}</div>
1404091524324 1395802358422 {{c1::Firinoid Necrosis}} is a pattern of necro
sis that involves the <>leakage of proteins into the vessel wall</>&nsp;and s
usequent <>right pink staining</>&nsp;of the vessel wall.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-83799106912598.jpg" /></div>
1404091577585 1395802358422 Which pattern of necrosis is characteristically
seen in malignant hypertension?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firinoid Necrosis}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-83794811945302.jpg" /></div>
1404091804767 1395802358422 Which pattern of necrosis is characteristically
seen in Vasculitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firinoid Necrosis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-83794811945302.jpg" /></div>
1404091820384 1395802358422 {{c1::Apoptosis}} is a mechanism of cell death t
hat is descried as <>ATP-dependent, genetically programmed cell death</>&nsp
;involving single cells or a small group of cells.
<r /><div><i>e.g. endom
etrial shedding during menstruation</i></div><div><i>e.g. removal of cells in em
ryogenesis</i></div><div><i>e.g. CD8+ T cell mediated killing of virally infect
ed cells</i></div>
1404093746657 1395802358422 Which mechanism of cell death is <>not</>&nsp
;followed y acute inflammation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Apoptosis}}</div>
1404093917524 1395802358422 Which mechanism of cell death is always followed
y acute inflammation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Necrosis}}</div>
1404093935768 1395802358422 Which mechanism of cell death is associated with
<>shrunken</>&nsp;cells with more <>eosinophilic</>&nsp;cytoplasm?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Apoptosis}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8427
5848282456.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /></div>
1404093999079 1395802358422 {{c1::Caspases}} are enzymes that mediate apopto
sis y activating proteases and endonucleases. <r /><div><i>Proteases reak do
wn the cytoskeleton.</i></div><div><i>Endonucleases reak down nucleic acid.</i>
</div>
1404094092910 1395802358422 {{c1::Bcl2}} is a protein involved with apoptosi
s that functions to maintain the integrity of the mitochondrial memrane, there
y inhiiting Cytochrome C leakage.
<r /><div><i>Following cellular injury,
DNA damage or decreased hormonal stimulation, Bcl2 will ecome inactivated and
cytochrome C will e allowed to leak out of the mitochondria, therey activating
caspases.</i></div>
1404094197573 1395802358422 {{c1::Cytochrome C}} is a protein that leaks out
of the inner mitochondrial matrix when Bcl2 is inactivated.
<r /><div><i>It
then activates caspases and triggers apoptosis.</i></div>
1404094226135 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the Intrinsic Mitochondrial Path
way of apoptosis functions to maintain the integrity of the mitochondrial memra
ne?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bcl2}}</div>
1404094269494 1395802358422 Which ligand is involved in the Extrinsic Recept
or-Ligand pathway in apoptosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FAS Ligand or TNF}}</
div>
<r /><div><i><div></div></i><i>FASL --&gt; FASDR (CD95) --&gt; Apoptosi
s</i></div><div><i>TNF --&gt; TNFR --&gt; Apoptosis</i></div>
1404094336018 1395802358422 Which receptor on target cells is involved in th
e Extrinsic receptor-ligand apoptosis pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FAS De
ath Receptor (CD95) or TNF receptor}}</div>
<r /><div><i>FASL --&gt; FASDR
(CD95) --&gt; Apoptosis</i></div><div><i>TNF --&gt; TNFR --&gt; Apoptosis</i></d
iv>
1404094400602 1395802358422 Which enzyme secreted y CD8+ T cells functions
to create pores in the memrane of target cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Perf

orin}}</div>
1404094425755 1395802358422 Which enzyme secreted y CD8+ T cells functions
to enter the pores made y Perforin and activate Caspases?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Granzyme}}</div>
1404094524835 1395802358422 Which metaolic process is the source of <>phys
iological</>&nsp;generation of free radicals?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oxida
tive phosphorylation}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Partial reduction of O2 y Cytochr
ome C oxidase can yield Superoxide, H2O2 and Hydroxyl (-OH) radicals.</i></div><
div><i>Full reduction of O2 yields H2O (O2 --&gt; O2^-&nsp;--&gt; H2O
2 --&gt; OH^-&nsp;--&gt; H<su>2</su>O).</i></div>
1404095172577 1395802358422 What type of free radicals are formed via Ionizi
ng Radiation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydroxyl (OH) free radicals via hydroly
sis of water}}</div>
1404095319242 1395802358422 What is the most dangerous/reactive free radical
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydroxyl}}</div>
1404095332724 1395802358422 What type of free radical is made through inflam
mation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide Ions via NADPH Oxidase action}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Made during oxygen-dependent killing y neutrophils.</i></
div>
1404095371156 1395802358422 What type of free radicals are made via the Fent
on Reaction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydroxyl radicals (via Fe²⁺)}
}</div>
1404095413341 1395802358422 {{c1::NAPQI}} is a free radical formed y the he
patic P450 system in the metaolization of Acetaminophen.
1404095480069 1395802358422 {{c1::Superoxide Dismutase}} is a mitochondrial
enzyme that functions to convert <>superoxide radicals</>&nsp;into <>H2O2</
>.
1404095523128 1395802358422 {{c1::Glutathione Peroxidase}} is a mitochondria
l enzyme that functions to convert 2GSH + Hydroxyl radicals (OH) into GS-SG and
H2O.
1404095560110 1395802358422 {{c1::Catalase}} is a peroxisomal enzyme that fu
nctions to reakdown H2O2 into O2 and H2O.
1404095579405 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to eliminate Superoxide R
adicals?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide dismutase}}</div>
1404095598625 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to eliminate H2O2?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Catalase}}</div>
1404095613630 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to primarily eliminate Hy
droxyl radicals (OH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glutathione Peroxidase (uses 2G
SH in the process)}}</div>
<div><i><r /></i></div>
1404100030053 1395802358422 {{c1::Caron Tetrachloride (CCl<su>4</su>)}} i
s an organic solvent used in the dry cleaning industry that is converted to CCl<
su>3</su>&nsp;free radicals y hepatic P450 enzymes and causes susequent cel
l injury.
1404100209113 1395802358422 {{c1::Caron Tetrachloride (CCl<su>4</su>)}} i
s an organic solvent that causes cell injury with swelling of the RER and conseq
uent impairments in protein synthesis due to riosome detachment.
1404100270329 1395802358422 {{c1::Reperfusion injury}} is a type of free rad
ical injury that involves the <>return of oxygenated lood to ischemic tissue <
/>and susequent production of <>O2-derived free radicals</>&nsp;that furthe
r damage tissue.
1404100493941 1395802358422 What type of stain is used to visualize Amyloid?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congo Red}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-96142
842921292.jpg" /></div>
1404100610333 1395802358422 What colour is yielded y Amyloid when viewed mi
croscopically under polarized light?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Apple-green ire
fringence}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-4350801871265.jpg" /></div>
1404100649054 1395802358422 {{c1::Systemic Amyloidosis}} is a type of amyloi
dosis that involves amyloid deposition in multiple organs.
1404100702826 1395802358422 {{c1::Primary Amyloidosis}} is a type of Systemi
c Amyloidosis that involves systemic deposition of <>AL amyloid</>&nsp;which

is derived from immunogloulin light chains.
<r /><div><i>Associated with pl
asma cell dyscrasias (e.g. multiple myeloma).</i></div>
1404100759452 1395802358422 {{c1::AL Amyloid}} is a type of amyloid that is
involved in Primary Amyloidosis and is derived from immunogloulin light chains.
1404100792125 1395802358422 Which type of systemic amyloidosis is associated
with Plasma Cell Dyscrasias?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primary Amyloidosis (wi
th AL Amyloid)}}</div>
1404100842538 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Mediterranean Fever (FMF)}} is an
autosomal recessive immunological disorder that involves dysfunctional neutroph
ils and occurs in people of <>Mediterranean origin</>.
<r /><div><i>Pr
esents with episodic fever and acute serosal inflammation with high SAA (amyloid
) attacks.</i></div>
1404100937942 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Familial Medi
terranean Fever (FMF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1404101085522 1395802358422 Which organ is most commonly involved in Systemi
c Amyloidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kidney}}</div>
1404101126328 1395802358422 {{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}} is a classical renal
complication of Systemic Amyloidosis that presents with proteinuria of &gt; 3.5
g/day.
1404101178437 1395802358422 {{c1::Restrictive Cardiomyopathy}} and&nsp;{{c2
::arrhythmia}} are classical cardiovascular complications of systemic amyloidosi
s.
1404101212658 1395802358422 {{c1::Tongue enlargement}} and&nsp;{{c2::malas
orption}} are 2 classical GI complications of systemic amyloidosis.
1404101240708 1395802358422 What is the treatment for amyloid damaged organs
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transplantation; Amyloid cannot e removed}}</div>
1404101290835 1395802358422 {{c1::Localized Amyloidosis}} is a type of Amylo
idosis that is localized to a single organ.
1404101309796 1395802358422 {{c1::Senile Cardiac Amyloidosis}} is a type of
Localized Amyloidosis that involves <><u>non-mutated</u></>&nsp;<>serum tran
sthyretin</>&nsp;deposition at the heart.
<r /><div><i>Typically asymptom
atic. Presents in 25% of individuals &gt; 80 y/o.</i></div>
1404101364437 1395802358422 What is the 2nd most common plasma protein?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Serum Transthyretin}}</div>
1404101380841 1395802358422 Which protein deposits at the heart in Senile Ca
rdiac Amyloidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-mutated serum Transthyretin}}<
/div>
1404101560916 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Amyloid Cardiomyopathy}} is a typ
e of localized amyloidosis that involves <u style="font-weight: old; ">mutated<
/u>&nsp;<>serum transthyretin</>&nsp;deposits at the heart, leading to restr
ictive cardiomyopathy. <r /><div><i>5% of African Americans carry the mutated
gene.</i></div>
1404101604504 1395802358422 {{c1::Restrictive Cardiomyopathy}} is a type of
cardiomyopathy seen in&nsp;Familial Amyloid Cardiomyopathy due to <u style="fon
t-weight: old; ">mutated</u>&nsp;<>serum transthyretin</>&nsp;deposition at
the heart.
1404101656959 1395802358422 {{c1::Non-insulin-dependent T2DM}} is an endocri
ne disorder that involves <>Amylin</>&nsp;deposition in the islets of the pan
creas.
1404101698442 1395802358422 {{c1::Amylin}} is an amyloid protein derived fro
m Insulin that deposits in the islets of the pancreas in Non-insulin-dependent T
2DM.
1404101733178 1395802358422 {{c1::Alzheimer Disease}} is a neurological diso
rder that involves <>Aβ-amyloid </>deposition in the rain forming amyloid plaqu
es.
1404101818058 1395802358422 {{c1::Aβ-amyloid}} is a type of amyloid protein th
at is involved in Alzheimer Disease and is derived from β-amyloid precursor protei
n.
1404101856451 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the gene for the β-amyloid
Precursor Protein found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::21}}</div> <r /><div><i>He

nce Down Syndrome patients develop Alzheimer y 40 y/o (early onset).</i></div>
1404101921005 1395802358422 {{c1::Dialysis-associated Amyloidosis}} is a typ
e of localized amyloidosis that involves β<su>2</su>-microgloulin deposition at
the joints as it is not filtered well in the lood during dialysis.
<r /><d
iv><i>Rememer,&nsp;β<su>2</su>-microgloulin is a transmemrane protein that p
rovides structural support for MHCI molecules.</i></div>
1404102034484 1395802358422 {{c1::Medullary Carcinoma of the Thyroid}} is a
thyroid cancer that presents with <>calcitonin</>&nsp;amyloid deposition with
in the tumour. <r /><div><i>It is a tumour of Parafollicular C-cells that make
Calcitonin amyloid.</i></div>
1404147037373 1395802358422 {{c1::Apaf-1}} is an enzyme that normally induce
s the activation of caspases and is inhiited y <>Bcl2</>.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-639950127736.jpg" /></div>
1404148655566 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with Caspase activation is
inhiited y Bcl2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Apaf-1}}</div> <r /><div><i>Ov
erexpression of Bcl2 = over-inhiition of Apaf-1 = decreased caspase activation
and tumorigenesis.</i></div>
1404148722529 1395802358422 {{c1::FADD}} is a death domain-containing adapte
r protein that is formed following multiple FAS molecules coalescing after FASL
<div><r /></div><i>FADD then ac
inding in the extrinsic apoptotic pathway.
tivates inactive caspases.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-635655160440.jpg" /></d
iv>
1404148868389 1395802358422 Which apoptotic pathway is involves in Thymic me
dullary negative selection of T cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FAS/FASL extri
nsic pathway}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Defective FAS-FASL interaction is th
e asis for many autoimmune disorders.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-63565516044
0.jpg" /></div>
1404150504192 1395802358422 Which area of the heart is most susceptile to i
schemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suendocardium (of the LV)}}</div>
1404150785672 1395802358422 Which area of the kidney is most susceptile to
ischemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Straight segment of the PT; Thick Ascending
Lim}}</div>
1404150817995 1395802358422 Which area of the liver is most susceptile to i
schemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zone III (the area around the central vein)}
}</div>
1404150839569 1395802358422 Which area of the colon is most susceptile to i
schemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Splenic flexure; Rectum}}</div>
1404150865122 1395802358422 {{c1::Red infarct}} is a type of infarct that oc
curs in <>loose tissues</> with <>multiple lood supplies</>.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-2834678415780.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. lungs
, liver, intestines</i></div>
1404151146183 1395802358422 {{c1::Pale infarct}} is a type of infarct that o
ccurs in <>solid tissue</>&nsp;with a <>single lood supply</>.<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-2954937500069.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>e.g. heart
, kidney, spleen</i></div>
1404151197347 1395802358422 {{c1::Chromatolysis}} is a cellular process that
involves <>rounded cellular swelling</>&nsp;of axons following axonal injury
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3466038608150.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>It is also characterized y <u>displacement of the nucleus to periphery</u
>&nsp;and <u>dispersion of Nissl sustance throughout the cytoplasm</u>.</i></d
iv>
1404151558422 1395802358422 What type of amyloid proteins are involved in Pr
imary Amyloidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AL amyloid from Ig Light chains}}<
/div>
1404151695646 1395802358422 What type of amyloid protein is seen in Secondar
y Amyloidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Serum Amyloid A (AA)}}</div>
1404151807394 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipofuscin}} is a <>yellow-rown "wear an
d tear" pigment</>&nsp;that is associated with normal aging.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-4402341478819.jpg" /></div>
1404151867699 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipofuscin}} is a yellow-rown, normally o

ccurring pigment that is formed y oxidation and polymerization of autophagocyto
sed organellar memranes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4398046511523.jpg
" /></div>
1389923405904 1358629116480 What is the most common presentation of ADHD in
adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Predominantly Inattentive}}</div>
1389923686803 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly affected y ADHD?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males (4:1;M:F)}}</div>
1389923728182 1358629116480 What is the major and most apparent prolem asso
ciated with ADHD in students?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Academic difficulties}}
</div>
1389923952991 1358629116480 Which 2 neurotransmitters are found to e in def
icits in patients with ADHD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dopamine and NE}}</div>
1389923997779 1358629116480 The diagnosis of ADHD requires&nsp;{{c1::6}} in
attentive symptoms and/or {{c2::6}} hyperactive/impulsive symptoms.
<r /><d
iv><i>After 17 y/o, 5 symptoms are required. &nsp;Several symptoms must have st
arted efore 12y/o, and must e present in two or more settings (e.g., at home,
school, or work).</i></div>
1389924939532 1358629116480 {{c1::Separation Anxiety Disorder}} is an anxiet
y disorder characterized y excessive fear or anxiety of separation from, harm t
o and loss of an attachment figure.
1389925300955 1358629116480 In a psychiatric sense,&nsp;{{c1::fear}} is def
iend as an emotion seen in response to real or perceived <>imminent</>&nsp;th
reat.
1389925347222 1358629116480 In a psychiatric sense,&nsp;{{c1::anxiety}} is
defined as an emotion in response to the <>anticipation</>&nsp;of a <>future
</>&nsp;threat.
1389925377207 1358629116480 {{c1::Selective Mutism}} is an anxiety disorder
defined as a failure to speak in social situations when expected to. But the pat
ient is ale to speak in other situations.
1389925424042 1358629116480 A {{c1::Specific Phoia}} is defined as fear, an
xiety or avoidance of a circumscried oject or situation. The reaction is often
out of proportion.
1389925503321 1358629116480 What is the most common <>type</>&nsp;of spec
ific phoia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Animal}}</div>
1389925513673 1358629116480 Treatment of specific phoias is through a ehav
ioural therapy process called&nsp;{{c1::systematic desensitization}}.
1389925572704 1358629116480 {{c1::Social Anxiety Disorder}} is a type of soc
ial phoia defined as fear, anxiety or avoidance of social situations that invol
ve eing scrutinized or emarassed.
<r /><div><i>The classic example is a f
ear of pulic speaking.</i></div>
1389925997696 1358629116480 What is the most common Social Anxiety Disorder?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulic Speaking}}</div>
1389926017633 1358629116480 {{c1::Panic Disorder}} is an anxiety disorder th
at is defined y recurrent <>unexpected</>&nsp;panic attacks.
1389926055837 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::panic attack}} is a sudden, arupt
surge of intense fear or discomfort that peaks within minutes. It may e expecte
d.
1389926106234 1358629116480 {{c1::Generalized Anxiety Disorder}} is an anxie
ty disorder defined y excessive fear and anxiety aout various different domain
s.
<r /><div><i>i.e. not a specific domain</i></div>
1389926173945 1358629116480 {{c1::Body Dysmorphic Disorder}} is a type of ps
ych disorder defined as a preoccupation with perceived defects or flaws in one's
physical appearance, typically features that are not oservale or are only sli
ght to others.
1389926646738 1358629116480 {{c1::Hoarding Disorder}} is a psychiatric disor
der defined as a persistent difficulty parting with possessions. More common in
the elderly.
1389926817671 1358629116480 {{c1::Trichotillomania}} is a psychiatric disord
er defined as recurrent pulling out of hair resulting in hair loss despite repea
ted attempts to stop.

1389926852567 1358629116480 {{c1::Excoriation}} is a psychiatric disorder de
fined as recurrent picking of skin resulting in skin lesions. The picked skin ca
n e healthy, lesioned, scaed, etc.
1389926882959 1358629116480 What is the duration of Acute Stress Disorder?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::3 days - 1 month}}</div>
1389926939752 1358629116480 What is the duration of Posttraumatic Stress Dis
order (PTSD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 1 month}}</div>
1389926953570 1358629116480 {{c1::Instrusion Symptoms}} is a symptom seen in
stress disorders involving memories, dreams, flashacks or reactions to reminde
rs of the stressful event.
1389927019384 1358629116480 {{c1::Avoidance}} is a symptom seen in stress di
sorders defined as persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the event.
<r /><div><i>e.g. distressing memories, locations, sounds, people, activities,
etc</i></div>
1389927062276 1358629116480 {{c1::Negative Congitions/Mood}} is a symptom se
en in stress disorders involving the inaility to recall the aspects of the even
t, negative eliefs, laming, negative emotions, etc.
1389927111118 1358629116480 {{c1::Arousal/Reactivity}} is a symptom seen in
stress disorders involving irritaility, anger, recklessness, hypervigilance, et
c.
1389927138838 1358629116480 {{c1::Dissociative Symptoms}} is a symptom seen
in stress disorders involving depersonalization, derealization and dissociative
amnesia.
<r /><div><i>More common in Acute Stress Disorder.</i></div>
1390099156016 1358629116480 At which lood alcohol concentration (BAC) does
someone exhiit impaired vitals and have a high risk of death?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::&gt; 300 mg/dL}}</div>
1390100994366 1358629116480 {{c1::Fetal Alcohol Syndrome}} is a congenital d
isorder resulting from alcohol ause y the mother during gestation.<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-1644972474794.jpg" /></div>
1390101175626 1358629116480 {{c1::Aspiration Pneumonia}} is a respiratory di
sorder that can occur due to vomiting following alcohol consumption and aspirati
on of the vomit.
1390101392124 1358629116480 What is the est la/enzyme marker that indicate
s recent alcohol consumption?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gamma Glutamyltransfera
se (GGT)}}</div>
1390101448625 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c2::wet}} form of Beri-Beri is the on
e that involves edema and cardiac prolems.
1390101483931 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::dry}} form of Beri-Beri is the fo
rm that involves neurological deficits.
1390101493778 1358629116480 What vitamin deficient in Beri-Beri?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::B1; Thiamine}}</div>
1390101514643 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Beri-Beri?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Thiamine (Vit B1)}}</div>
1390101598420 1358629116480 {{c1::Wernicke-Korsakoff}} Syndrome is a neurolo
gical disorder due to ilateral lesion to the mammillary odies following a Thia
mine (B1) deficiency and excessive, consistent alcohol consumption.
1390101665558 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Wernicke-Korsakoff Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thiamine BEFORE Glucose}}</div>
1390101692919 1358629116480 What is the key clinical feature of Korsakoff's
psychosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Confaulation}}</div>
1390101753315 1358629116480 {{c1::Amnesia}} is a symptom in Korsakoff's psyc
hosis that is caused y hemorrhaging into the mammillary odies and periaqueduct
al gray.
1390101799613 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatic Encephalopathy}} is a CNS complica
tion of alcohol ause characterized y confusion, disorientation and asterixis d
ue to acute liver damage and its inaility to metaolize ammonia to urea.
1390101918394 1358629116480 {{c1::Asterixis}} is a symptom seen in Hepatic E
ncephalopathy and is characerized as a "flapping tremor" of the hand.
1390102012216 1358629116480 What type of seizures are seen in Alcohol Withdr
awal?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tonic-Clonic}}</div>

1390318161055 1358629116480 A patient descried as "indifferent" may have&n
sp;{{c1::Schizoid}} personality disorder.
1390318756762 1358629116480 A patient decried as "weird" may have&nsp;{{c1
::Schizotypal}} personality disorder.
1390318768813 1358629116480 A patient descried as "sumissive" may have&ns
p;{{c1::Dependent}} personality disorder.
1390318789795 1358629116480 A patient descried as "melodramatic" may have&n
sp;{{c1::Histrionic}} personality disorder.
1390318810304 1358629116480 A patient descried as "anal-retentive" may have
&nsp;{{c1::Osessive-Compulsive}} personality disorder.
1390318830111 1358629116480 A patient descried as "fragile" may have&nsp;{
{c1::Avoidant}} personality disorder.
1390318847438 1358629116480 A patient descried as "immoral" may have&nsp;{
{c1::Anti-Social}} personality disorder.
<r /><div><i>i.e. Sociopath</i>
</div>
1390318867733 1358629116480 A patient descried as "egotistical" may have&n
sp;{{c1::Narcissistic}} personality disorder.
1390318888428 1358629116480 A patient descried as "unstale" may have&nsp;
{{c1::Borderline}} personality disorder.
1390318914923 1358629116480 Cluster&nsp;{{c1::A}} personality disorders des
crie patients that are said to e odd and eccentric.
1390319014066 1358629116480 Cluster&nsp;{{c1::B}} personality disorder desc
rie patients that are said to e dramatic, emotional, erratic and impulsive.
1390319033610 1358629116480 Cluster&nsp;{{c1::C}} personality disorders des
crie patients that are said to e anxious and fearful.
1390319076284 1358629116480 What cluster personality disorder is Paranoid PD
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A}}</div>
1390324222954 1358629116480 What cluster personality disorder is Schizoid PD
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A}}</div>
1390324237358 1358629116480 What cluster personality disorder is Schizotypal
PD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A}}</div>
1390324246358 1358629116480 What cluster personality disorder is Antisocial
PD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B}}</div>
1390324257111 1358629116480 What cluster personality disorder is Borderline
PD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B}}</div>
1390324265313 1358629116480 What cluster personality disorder is Histrionic
PD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B}}</div>
1390324274335 1358629116480 What cluster personality disorder is Narcissisti
c PD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B}}</div>
1390324282843 1358629116480 What cluster personality disorder is Avoidant PD
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C}}</div>
1390324295823 1358629116480 What cluster personality disorder is Dependent P
D?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C}}</div>
1390324303549 1358629116480 What cluster personality disorder is Osessive-C
ompulsive PD (OCPD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C}}</div>
1390324322723 1358629116480 {{c1::Paranoid PD}} is a Type A personality diso
rder characterized y pervasive distrust and suspiciousness of others.
1390324406905 1358629116480 {{c1::Schizotypal PD}} is a Type A personality d
isorder characterized y eccentricity, odd ehaviour and discomfort with or redu
ced capacity for close relationships.
1390324479020 1358629116480 {{c1::Schizoid PD}} is a Type A personality diso
rder characterized y pervasive detachment from social relations and a restricte
d expression of emotion.
<r /><div><i>i.e. indifferent</i></div>
1390324539545 1358629116480 {{c1::Antisocial PD}} is a Type B personality di
sorder characterized y a disregard for and violation of the rights of others.
<r /><div><i>i.e. Hannial</i></div>
1390324609102 1358629116480 Patients with Antisocial PD must e at least&ns
p;{{c1::18}} years old.
1390324630954 1358629116480 Patients with Antisocial PD have often had a pre
vious diagnosis of&nsp;{{c1::Conduct Disorder}} efore the age of 18.

1390324657632 1358629116480 {{c1::Borderline PD}} is a Type B personality di
sorder characterized y instaility/polarization in relationships &amp; self-ima
ge. They have poor control over impulses.
<r /><div><i>i.e. unstale; ver
y difficult to treat</i></div>
1390324808448 1358629116480 {{c1::Histrionic PD}} is a Type B personality di
sorder characterized y a pervasive pattern of excessive emotionality and attent
ion-seeking. They are often sexually provocative.
1390324987640 1358629116480 {{c1::Narcissistic PD}} is a Type B personality
disorder characterized y a pervasive pattern of gradiosity, need for admiration
and lack of empathy. <r /><div><i>i.e. DiCaprio in The Wolf of Wall Street</
i></div>
1390325159365 1358629116480 {{c1::Avoidant PD}} is a Type C personality diso
rder characterized y social inhiition, feelings of inadequacy and hypersensiti
vity to negative evaluation.
<r /><div><i>i.e. fragile</i></div>
1390325231440 1358629116480 {{c1::Dependent PD}} is a Type C personality dis
order characterized y the need to e taken care of, sumissive/clinging ehavio
ur and fear of separation.
<r /><div><i>High risk of eing victimized y c
luster B.</i></div>
1390325302580 1358629116480 {{c1::Osessive-Compulsive PD}} is a Type C pers
onality disorder characterized y a preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionis
m and mental/interpersonal control at the expense of fleixiility, openness and
efficiency.
<r /><div><i>Common in med school and medical professionals.</i
></div>
1390608145597 1358629116480 Discrete episodes of symptoms in Major Depressiv
e Disorder must last for at least&nsp;{{c1::2}} weeks efore a dx can e given.
<r /><div><img src="paste-60090887438742.jpg" /></div>
1390608218663 1358629116480 {{c1::Anhedonia}} is defined as a loss of intere
st or the aility to feel pleasure.
1390608273042 1358629116480 If a patient is experiencing a mixture of sadnes
s and more pleasant emotions, they likely have&nsp;{{c1::grief}} instead of dep
ression.
1390610364874 1358629116480 In depression, anguish and pain is typically con
tinuous rather than in waves or pangs such as in&nsp;{{c1::grief}}
1390610391960 1358629116480 A grieving patient typically remains hopeful and
is consolale whereas a patient with&nsp;{{c1::depression}} is uniformly gloom
and does not respond to consolation.
1390610438104 1358629116480 {{c1::Persistent Depressive Disorder (or Dysthym
ia)}} is a more chronic and milder form of depression that lasts at least {{c2::
2}} years.
1390610905287 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly affected y Major Dep
ression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Females (10-25%)}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-60086592471446.jpg" /></div>
1390611336113 1358629116480 {{c1::Men}} are more likely to hide their feelin
gs than women, and hence resort to drinking, irritaility and alcoholism as oppo
sed to falling into a Dx of depression.
1390611414888 1358629116480 Which sex exhiits a higher risk of <>suicide a
ttempts</>&nsp;in depression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1390611455325 1358629116480 Which sex exhiits a higher risk of <>suicide c
ompletion</>&nsp;in depression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Men}}</div>
1390611468423 1358629116480 {{c1::Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder}} i
s a depressive disorder that affects kids 6 to 18 y/o.
1390611559354 1358629116480 {{c1::Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder}} i
s a depressive disorder that is characterized y temper outursts that are gross
ly out of proportion in intensity or duration to the situation or provocation.
1390611607602 1358629116480 {{c1::Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder}} is a dep
ressive disorder that often follows ovulation and remits within a few days of me
nses and has a marked impact on functioning.
1390611740394 1358629116480 {{c1::Sustance/Drug-Induced Depressive Disorder
}} is a depressive disorder that is induced y a drug, sustance or medication.
1390611767236 1358629116480 What is the <>nonpharmacological</>&nsp;treat

ment of depression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy}}</
div>
1390613288394 1358629116480 {{c1::Cognitive Restructuring}} is a part of Cog
nitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) that involves identification and changing of in
accurate negative thoughts that contriute to the development of depression.
1390613710428 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Manic Episode}} is a distinct perio
d of anormally and persistently elevated, expansive or irritale mood with goal
-oriented activity/energy that lasts at least&nsp;{{c2::<>1}} week.</>
<r /><div><i>It is present for most of the day, nearly every day. And must incl
ude at least 3 manic symptoms (DIG FAST)</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-597902
39727860.jpg" /></i></div>
1390615550388 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Hypomanic Episode}} is a distinct p
eriod of anormally and persistently elevated, expansive or irritale mood with
goal-oriented activity/energy that lasts at least&nsp;{{c2::4}} consecutive day
s.
<r /><div><i>Plus 3 of DIG FAST.</i></div>
1390615593128 1358629116480 What is the core syndrome of Bipolar I disorder?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Manic Episodes}}</div>
1390615613855 1358629116480 What is the core syndrome of Bipolar II disorder
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypomanic Episodes}}</div>
1390615629349 1358629116480 {{c1::Manic}} Episodes are the core syndrome of
Bipolar I disorder.
1390615641227 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypomanic}} Episodes are the core syndrome
of Bipolar II disorder.
1390615653820 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypomanic}} episodes are commonly seen in
ipolar disorders ut are not severe enough to cause marked impairment in social
/occupational functioning or to necessitate hospitalization.
1390615827893 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypomanic}} episodes are commonly seen in
ipolar disorders ut are not severe enough to involve psychotic features.
1390616203097 1358629116480 {{c1::Cyclothymic Disorder}} is a ipolar disord
er where for <>at least 2 years</> there is numerous periods with hypomania an
d numerous periods of depressive symptoms.
<r /><div><i>But they have neve
r met criteria for manic, hypomanic or major depressive episodes.</i></div>
1390616796409 1358629116480 {{c1::Interpersonal &amp; Social Rhythm Therapy}
} is a form of psychotherapy (non-pharmacological) specifically designed for pat
ients with ipolar disorders.
1390617765411 1358629116480 {{c1::Somatic Symptom}} disorder is a somatoform
disorder characterized y one or more symptoms that produce clinically signific
ant levels of distress or impairment for over&nsp;{{c2::6}} months.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-61392262529570.jpg" /></div>
1390619825210 1358629116480 {{c2::Brief Somatic Symptom}} disorder is a soma
toform disorder where symptoms are present for less than&nsp;{{c3::<>6}} month
s.</>
1390619938478 1358629116480 A {{c1::Somatoform Disorder}} is a psychiatric d
isorder that involves symptoms that cannot e explained y a general medical con
dition or direct effect of a sustance. The symptoms are <>not falsified</>.
<r /><div><i>Medical complaints are typically in excess of what would e expect
ed</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-61392262529570.jpg" /></i></div>
1390620206909 1358629116480 {{c1::Conversion Disorder}} is a somatoform diso
rder that involves a sudden loss of sensory or motor function, typically followi
ng an acute stressor. <r /><div><img src="paste-61392262529570.jpg" /></div>
1390620702131 1358629116480 {{c1::La Belle Indifference}} is a phenomenon se
en in patients with Conversion Disorder where the patient is aware of their symp
toms ut indifferent towards them.
1390620765950 1358629116480 {{c1::Illness Anxiety Disorder (hypochondriasis)
}} is a somatoform disorder defined as a preoccupation with fear of having or ac
quiring a serious disease for at least&nsp;{{c2::6}} months. <r /><div><img
src="paste-61392262529570.jpg" /></div>
1390621157969 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Factitious Disorder}} is a psychiat
ric disorder defined as <>intentional</>&nsp;falsification of physical or psy
chological symptoms in order to gain medical attention. <r /><div><img src="pas

te-61392262529570.jpg" /></div>
1390621257905 1358629116480 {{c1::Malingering}} is defined as a conscious fa
king of disorders in order to attain a specific secondary gain. It is not a ment
al disorder.
<r /><div><i>Such as drugs, money, skipping work, etc</i></div>
<div><i><img src="paste-61396557496866.jpg" /></i></div>
1390621334336 1358629116480 {{c1::Munchausen's Syndrome}} is a <>chronic</
>&nsp;form of factitious disorder with predominantly physical signs and symptom
s.
<r /><div><img src="paste-61392262529570.jpg" /></div>
1390621376441 1358629116480 {{c1::Munchausen's Syndrome y proxy}} is a fact
itious disorder involving harm to a child or elderly person in other to assume a
sick role.
<r /><div><img src="paste-61392262529570.jpg" /></div>
1390621643695 1358629116480 {{c1::Dissociative Identity Disorder}} is a diss
ociative disorder defined as the presence of 2 or more distinct identities or pe
rsonality states with recurrent gaps in recalling events and information.
<r /><div><i>aka Multiple Personality Disorder</i></div>
1390622237248 1358629116480 {{c1::Dissociative Identity Disorder}} is a diss
ociative disorder that is often associated with a history of sexual or physical
ause as a child.
1390622782868 1358629116480 {{c1::Dissociative Amnesia}} is a dissociative d
isorder defined as the inaility to recall important information usually of a tr
aumatic nature that is not consistent with ordinary forgetting. <r /><div><i>Ma
y e accompanied y dissociative fugue.</i></div>
1390622857232 1358629116480 {{c1::Dissociative Fugue}} is a dissociative dis
order characterized y arupt changes in geographical location with no memory of
the past and confusion.
<r /><div><i>Often involves the assumption of a
new identity.</i></div>
1390622931086 1358629116480 {{c1::Depersonalization Disorder}} is a dissocia
tive disorder is characterized y experiences of unreality or eing detached fro
m one's thoughts, feelings, sensations or actions.
<r /><div><i>i.e. feeli
ng like an outside oserver</i></div>
1390665198419 1358629116480 In depression, genetics and adverse life events
contriute towards stress that increases the levels of the hormone&nsp;{{c1::CR
F; Corticotropin Releasing Factor}}, therey increasing glucocorticoid levels do
wnstream.
<r /><div><i>Therey leading to downstream iological and ehav
ioural effects</i></div>
1390665407553 1358629116480 In depression, stress leads to an increase in gl
ucocorticoid levels that then lead to a decrease in the growth factor {{c1::BDNF
}}, therey leading to neuronal atrophy.
1390665511245 1358629116480 The entire asis of antidepressant therapy is th
eir aility to increase levels of the growth factor&nsp;{{c1::BDNF}} through 5HT and NE mediated depression of glucocorticoid levels.
1390665568077 1358629116480 In depression there is a reduction of gray matte
r around the rain, especially at the&nsp;{{c1::Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)
}}, the area that assesses emotional and motivational information.
1390666532831 1358629116480 Inflammation has a major role in depression. Ele
vated levels of IL1, TNF-alpha and IL-6 interfere with hippocampal plasticity an
d reduce levels of the growth factor&nsp;{{c1::BDNF}}
1390666598813 1358629116480 {{c1::Interferon-alpha}} is an anti-viral drug o
ften given for Hepatitis which greatly increases the levels of TNF-alpha and IL6, making depression a common side effect.
1390666655294 1358629116480 The monoamines 5-HT and NE have downstream effec
ts at postsynaptic neurons that increase CREB levels and ultimately the expressi
on of the growth factor&nsp;{{c1::BDNF}}. Hence, they are used in depression.
1390762282537 1358629116480 {{c1::Delirium}} is a psychiatric disorder defin
ed as a <>transient</> disorder of cognition, <>arousal and attention</> wit
h disturances of the sleep-wake cycle and psychomotor ehaviour.
1390763147713 1358629116480 Confusion or delirium is not a disease ut a&ns
p;{{c1::syndrome}} or symptom of another underlying cause.
1390763181023 1358629116480 {{c1::Brief Psychotic Disorder}} is a psychotic
disorder defined as a transient (<>&lt; 1 month</>), acute psychotic syndrome

with <>no attention prolems</>&nsp;and a <>clear sensorium</>.
1390764020618 1358629116480 {{c1::Delirium}} is a cognitive disorder that is
greatly characterized y a disturance in consciousness with an <>acute onset<
/>.
<r /><div><i>Attention and arousal.</i></div>
1390764293858 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::sensorium}} is defined as the sum
of an organism's perception.
1390764367698 1358629116480 Which neurons are most vulnerale to toxic-meta
olic disturances?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reticular Activating System (RAS)}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence, an acute confusional state can occur following anyt
hing taht disturs the ody's homeostasis</i></div>
1390765236962 1358629116480 The most common causes of acute confusional stat
es are&nsp;{{c1::toxic}} or&nsp;{{c2::metaolic}} in nature.
1390765648209 1358629116480 What vitamin is deficient in Wernicke-Korsakoff
syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thiamine (Vit B1)}}</div>
1390768007682 1358629116480 What is the cause of Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thiamine Deficiency}}</div>
1390768778620 1358629116480 What type of amnesia is more commonly seen in Ko
rsakoff's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterograde}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Retrograde still seen, just not as often.</i></div>
1390768820803 1358629116480 Where is the lesion primarily located in Wernick
e-Korsakoff syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mamillary Bodies}}</div>
1390769160609 1358629116480 Petechiae can often e seen at the&nsp;{{c1::Ma
millary Bodies}} in Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-2319282340069.jpg" /></div>
1390769224139 1358629116480 The petechiae and hemorrhaging at the mamillary
odies in Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome often ecomes&nsp;{{c1::hemosiderosis}} a
s the lood pools/collects.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2362232013029.j
pg" /></div>
1390769263629 1358629116480 What is the classic triad of symptoms seen in We
rnicke's Encephalopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Confusion, ataxia and ophtha
lmoplegia}}</div>
1391385138620 1358629116480 A {{c1::delusion}} is a key feature of psychosis
that involves fixed eliefs not amenale to change even in the face of conflict
ing evidence.
1391385202985 1358629116480 What is the most common type of delusion?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Persucutory}}</div>
1391385218807 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::persecutory delusion}} is a type of
delusio that involves the elief that one is going to e harmed.
1391385260269 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::referential delusion}} is a delusio
n that involves the elief that a certain gesture, comment, environmental cue, e
tc are directed at oneself.
1391385294089 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::grandiose delusion}} is a delusion
that involves elief that one has exceptional ailities, wealth or fame.
1391385321629 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Erotomaniac delusion}} is a delusio
n that involves false elief that another person is in love with oneself.
1391385344689 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Nihilistic delusion}} is a type of
delusion that involves the conviction that a major catastrophe will occur.
1391385372338 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::somatic delusion}} is a type of del
usion that involves preoccupations with health and organ function.
1391385386680 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::jealousy delusion}} is a delusion t
hat involves erroneous eliefs that one's spouse or lover is unfaithful.
1391385415303 1358629116480 {{c1::Bizarre delusions}} are a type of delusion
that involves eliefs that are clearly implausile and not understandale to sa
me-culture peers. They do not derive from ordinary life experiences.
1391385463621 1358629116480 A {{c1::hallucination}} is a key feature of psyc
hosis that involves perception-like experiences that occur <>without</> extern
al stimuli.
<r /><div><i>This is different from an <>illusion</>, which i
s a misinterpretation of stimuli that <>are present</></i></div>
1391385553518 1358629116480 What type of hallucinations are the most common
in Schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aud

itory}}</div>
1391385580117 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypnagogic}} hallucinations are a type of
hallucination that occur <>while falling asleep</>. <r /><div><i>Here, REM
sleep essentially starts efore you even sleep and is rather anormal.</i></div>
<div><i>Hypnagogic hallucinations are a staple of <>narcolepsy</>.</i></div>
1391385617063 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypnopompic}} hallucinations are a type of
hallucination that occur while waking up.
<div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>
As you awake from REM sleep, some lingering dreaming can manifest as hallucinati
ons as REM "shuts off". This is typically normal.</i></div>
1391385753945 1358629116480 {{c1::Disorganized Thinking/Speech}} is a key fe
ature of psychosis that involves derailment, loose associations, tangentiality a
nd incoherence.
1391385792137 1358629116480 {{c1::Catatonia}} is a psychological disorder de
scried as a marked decrease in reactivity to the environment, a loss of motor s
kill or constant hyperactive motor activity.
1391385927646 1358629116480 {{c1::Disorganized/Anormal motor ehaviour}} is
a key feature of psychosis that involves disorganized or anormal ehaviour and
catatonia.
1391385996749 1358629116480 {{c1::Alogia}} is a psychiatric syndrome defined
as poverty of speech and dimished speech output.
1391386033345 1358629116480 {{c1::Delusional Disorder}} is a psychotic disor
der that involves <>&gt; 1 month</> of delusions ut no other psychotic sympto
ms.
<r /><div><i>e.g. me thinking that I am actually married to Olivia Wild
e, when i'm not.</i></div>
1391386083540 1358629116480 {{c1::Schizophreniform Disorder}} is a time-limi
ted psychotic disorder that involved symptomatic presentation equivalent to schi
zophrenia ut for less than&nsp;{{c2::<u><>6}} months</></u> and with an ase
nce of declining function.
<r /><div><img src="paste-61942018343281.jpg" /
></div>
1391386152774 1358629116480 How long must symptoms e present for a diagnosi
s of Schizophrenia to e given?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::6 months}}</div>
1391386209896 1358629116480 {{c1::Schizoaffective}} disorder is a time-depen
dent psychotic disorder that involves active-phase symptoms of schizophrenia occ
uring together with a mood episode followed/preceded y <>at least 2 weeks</>
of delusions/hallucinations without prominent mood symptoms.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-61946313310577.jpg" /></div>
1391386889244 1358629116480 {{c1::Drug-induced Psychotic Disorder}} is a psy
chotic disorder rought upon y drug use.
1391387422304 1358629116480 Which Dopamine pathway of the rain is associate
d with the positive symptoms of Schizophrenia (hallucinations, delusions)?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesolimic}}</div>
1391387467670 1358629116480 Which Dopamine pathway of the rain is associate
d with the negative symptoms of Schizophrenia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoco
rtical (to the Dorsolateral PFC)}}</div>
1391387493361 1358629116480 Schizophrenia is thought to e due to an increas
e in the neurotransmitter&nsp;{{c1::Dopamine}} in the mesolimic areas due to h
ypoactive NMDA receptors.
<r /><div><i>NMDA receptors would normally put
a reak on dopamine release and action.</i></div>
1391387736856 1358629116480 Schizophrenia is thought to e associated with a
loss of the neurotransmitter {{c1::dopamine}} in the prefrontal cortex and othe
r cortical areas.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, there is an increase in dopamine
in the mesolimic area.</i></div>
1391387811592 1358629116480 The decrease in dopamine at the prefrontal corte
x in Schizophrenia is thought to e due to a Val for {{c2::Met}} sustitution in
the {{c1::COMT}} gene.
1391387964688 1358629116480 In Schizophrenia, a Val for Met sustitution of
the COMT gene results in increased COMT activity and hence increased metaolism
of&nsp;{{c1::Dopamine}} at the prefrontal cortex.
1391388008760 1358629116480 Which genetic polymoprhism is associated with an
increased occurrence and risk for Schizophrenia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Val

for Met sustitution in the COMT gene}}</div>
1405830620663 1395802358422 What is the most common auser in <>physical</
>&nsp;child ause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Biological mother}}</div>
1405830957882 1395802358422 What is the most common auser in <>sexual</>&
nsp;child ause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Person known to the victim, usually
male}}</div>
1405830984179 1395802358422 {{c1::Rett Disorder}} is an X<>-linked</> perv
asive developmental disorder seen almost exclusive in girls that involves <>reg
ression characterized y loss of development, veral ailities and congition</>
&nsp;as well as <>ataxia </>and <>stereotyped hand-wringing</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>It is not seen in males ecause they die in utero or shortly after irth.<
/i></div>
1405831176364 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Rett Disorder
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked}}</div>
1405831188067 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Autism Sp
ectrum Disorder?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Boys}}</div>
1405831204775 1395802358422 {{c1::Autism Spectrum Disorder}} is a pervasive
developmental disorder that involves <>poor social interactions, communication
deficits, repetitive/ritualized ehaviours</>&nsp;and <>restricted interests<
/>.
<r /><div><i>Rarely accompanied y unusual ailities (savants).</i></di
v><div><i><r /></i></div>
1405831259921 1395802358422 What aspect of orientation is lost first?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Time --&gt; place --&gt; person}}</div>
<div><r /></div
>
1405831292513 1395802358422 {{c1::Tactile hallucinations}} is a type of hall
ucination commonly seen in <>alcohol withdrawal</>&nsp;or <>cocaine use</>&
nsp;that involves the sensation of ugs crawling on the skin.
1405832065679 1395802358422 {{c1::Maternal/Postpartum Blues}} is a postpartu
m mood distruance that is characterized y a <>depressed affect, tearfulness</
>&nsp;and <>fatigue</>&nsp;that <>usually resolves within 10 days</>.
1405833106916 1395802358422 {{c1::Postpartum depression}} is a postpartum mo
od disturance that is characterized y a <>depressed affect, anxiety</>&nsp;
and <>poor concentration</>&nsp;within 4 weeks of delivery that can <>last 2
weeks to a year or more</>.
1405833158746 1395802358422 {{c1::Postpartum Psychosis}} is a rare postpartu
m mood distruance that involves <>delusions, hallucinations, confusion, unusua
l ehaviour</>&nsp;and <>possile homicidal/suicidal ideations/attempts</>&n
sp;that usually lasts <>4-6 weeks</>.
1405833206501 1395802358422 {{c1::Osessive-compulsive disorder}} is a panic
disorder that involves <>reucrring intrusive thoughts/feeling/sensations </>(
osessions) that cause severe distress and are relieved in part y the performat
ion of <>repetitive actions</>&nsp;(compulsions).
1405833311161 1395802358422 {{c1::Adjustment Disorder}} is a type of anxiety
disorder that involves <>emotional symptoms</>&nsp;causing impairment follow
ing an <>identifiale psychosocial stressor</>&nsp;that lasts <>&lt; 6 month
s</>.
1405833382137 1395802358422 {{c1::Agoraphoia}} is an exaggerated fear of op
en or enclosed spaces, using pulic transportation, eing in line/crowds or leav
ing home alone.
1405833421728 1395802358422 {{c1::Anorexia Nervosa}} is an eating disorder t
hat involves excessive dieting due to the intense fear of gaining weight and dis
tortion of ody image. <r /><div><i>May or may not involve purging.</i></div>
1405833802016 1395802358422 {{c1::Lanugo}} is a feature of Anorexia Nervosa
that is descried as <>fine ody hair</>.
1405833824292 1395802358422 {{c1::Bulimia Nervosa}} is an eating disorder th
at involves <>inge eating</>&nsp;following y <>self-induced vomiting or us
e of laxatives/diuretics/emetics</>. <r /><div><i>However,<>&nsp;ody weig
ht is often maintained in a normal range.</></i></div>
1405833877594 1395802358422 {{c1::Russell Sign}} is a cutaneous feature of B
ulimia Nervosa that is descried as <>dorsal hand callouses from induced vomiti

ng</>.
1405833906411 1395802358422 {{c1::Gender Dysphoria}} is a psych disorder tha
t involves s<>trong persistant cross-gender identification</>&nsp;due to <>p
ersistent discomfort with one's assigned sex at irth</>.
<r /><div><i>Su
ch individuals are referred to as <>transgender</>.</i></div>
1405833977403 1395802358422 {{c1::Transexualism}} is a type of gender dyspho
ria that involves the desire to live at the <>opposite sex</>, typically throu
gh surgical or hormonal treatment.
1405834009639 1395802358422 {{c1::Tranvestism}} is a type of gender <>parap
hilia</> that involves wearing clothes of the opposite sex.
1405880845528 1395802358422 {{c1::Sleep Terror Disorder}} is a psych disorde
r that involves <>periods of terror with screming in the middle of the night</
>, typically in children.
1405881039136 1395802358422 During which phase of sleep does Sleep Terror Di
sorder manifest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Slow wave (delta) sleep}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, earlier in the night, as REM sleep is more predominant late
r in the night.</i></div><div><i>This is also why there is <>no memory of arous
al or the dream itself</>&nsp;(vs. dreams that occur in REM which we rememer)
</i></div>
1405881075328 1395802358422 Which stage of sleep is associated with nightmar
es?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Typically
normal.</i></div><div><i>Night terrors = delta (NREM) sleep</i></div>
1405881159001 1395802358422 {{c1::Narcolepsy}} is a sleep disorder that invo
lves disordered regulation of the sleep-wake cycle, primarily involving <>exces
sive daytime sleepiness</>.
<r /><div><i>I'm looking at you Naman..... man
can sleep through an air raid.</i></div>
1405881294909 1395802358422 {{c1::Narcolepsy}} is a sleep disorder that invo
lves a decrease in <>orexin</>&nsp;production in the lateral hypothalamus.
1405881320827 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter deficiency in the hypotha
lamus is associated with Narcolepsy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Orexin}}</div>
1405881915255 1395802358422 {{c1::Narcolepsy}} is a sleep disorder that invo
lves sleep episodes that <>start off</>&nsp;with REM sleep. <r /><div><i>Na
rcolepsy is essentially REM sleep gone wild.</i></div>
1405881956361 1395802358422 {{c1::Cataplexy}} is a possile complication of
Narcolepsy that involves <>loss of muscle tone following a strong emotional sti
mulus</>, such as laughter.
1405881987105 1395802358422 {{c1::Modafinil}} is a drug used to treat Narcol
epsy through <>inhiition of DA reuptake, GABA antagonism</>&nsp;and <>Gluta
mate activation</>.
1405882040293 1395802358422 What are the stages of change in overcoming sus
tance addiction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-3126736191801.jpg" /
>}}</div>
1405882918885 1395802358422 {{c1::Methadone}} is a long-acting oral opiate t
hat is used for heroic detoxification or long-term maintenance.
1405882962419 1395802358422 {{c1::Naltrexone}} is a long-acting opioid antag
onist used for relapse prevention once heroin detoxification is completed.
1405882988417 1395802358422 {{c1::Disulfiram}} is a drug used to treat alcoh
olism as it conditions the patient to astain from alcohol use.
1405883946474 1395802358422 {{c1::Delirium tremens (DTs)}} is a life-threate
ning alcohol withdrawal syndrome that peaks 2-5 days after the last drink and pr
esents with <>autonomic hyperactivity, psychosis</>&nsp;and <>confusion</>.
1405884119094 1395802358422 What type of drugs are used to treat Delirium Tr
emens (DTs)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Benzodiazepines}}</div>
1395161948041 1358629116480 {{c1::Stratum Basalis}} is the epidermal layer t
hat is the regenerative, stem cell layer of the skin.
1395162032282 1358629116480 {{c1::Stratum Spinosum}} is the epidermal layer
that is characterized y desmosomes etween keratinocytes that form noticeale s
pinous processes.
1395162084364 1358629116480 {{c1::Stratum Granulosum}} is the epidermal laye
r that is characterized y granules in keratinocytes.

1395162103498 1358629116480 {{c1::Stratum Corneum}} is the epidermal layer t
hat is characterized y keratin diffusely dispersed in anucleate cells.
1395162139411 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Dermis}} is the layer of the skin
that holds nerve endings, lood vessels, lymphatics and adnexal structures such
as hair follicles and glands.
1395162211173 1358629116480 {{c1::Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema)}} is an infamma
tory skin disorder that involves a <>pruritic</>, erythematous, oozing rash wi
th vesicles and edema due to a <>Type I Hypersensitivity</>&nsp;reaction.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25348896981412.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Ro
ins says Type IV</i></div>
1395162294246 1358629116480 {{c1::Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema)}} is an inflamm
atory skin disorder that is associated with asthma and allergic rhinitis.
<r /><div><i>i.e. other atopic diseases</i></div>
1395162317448 1358629116480 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1395162338858 1358629116480 Where on the ody is Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema)
commonly found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Face and flexor surfaces}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-13670880903388.jpg" /></div>
1395162374208 1358629116480 {{c1::Contact Dermatitis}} is an inflammatory sk
in disorder that involves a pruritic, erythematous, oozing rash with vesicles an
d edema due to a <>Type IV hypersensitivity</>&nsp;response.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-24859270709459.jpg" /><img src="paste-24902220382411.jpg" /
><img src="paste-24885040513234.jpg" /></div>
1395162757587 1358629116480 {{c1::Contact Dermatitis}} is an inflammatory sk
in disorder that arises due to exposure to an allergen.<div><r /></div><div><im
g src="paste-13928578941153.jpg" /></div>
1395162782597 1358629116480 What type of hypersensitivity is involved in Con
tact Dermatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1395162796377 1358629116480 Which metal commonly found in jewelry is a commo
n cause of Contact Dermatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nickel}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-14555644166365.jpg" /></div>
1395163006302 1358629116480 Which plant is commonly a cause of Contact Derma
titis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poison Ivy}}</div>
1395163042945 1358629116480 Which drug is a common cause of Contact Dermatit
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillin}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-14585708937440.jpg" /></div>
1395163417450 1358629116480 {{c1::Acne Vulgaris}} is an inflammatory skin di
sorder that involves comedones (white/lack heads), pustules (pimples) and nodul
es.
1395163480985 1358629116480 {{c1::Acne Vulgaris}} is an inflammatory skin di
sorder that involves chronic inflammation of hair follicles and associated seac
eous glands.
1395163550707 1358629116480 Which hormone is associated with increases in se
um production from skin seaceous glands?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Androgens}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence, increased testosterone can cause acne.</i></div>
1395163578068 1358629116480 {{c1::Comedones}} are a morphological feature of
Acne Vulgaris that occur due to hormone-associated increases in seum productio
n and excess keratin production, oth of which lock hair follicles.
<r /><d
iv><i>aka Black and White heads</i></div>
1395163651480 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Propionoacterium acnes</i>}} is a act
eria that infects comedones and leads to formation of pustules or nodules.
1395163705656 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Propionoacterium acnes</i>}} is a act
eria that infects comedones and produces lipases that reakdown the surrounding
seum into <u>proinflammatory</u>&nsp;fatty acids.
1395163757396 1358629116480 Which acteria is ale to form pustules (pimples
) y infecting comedones and releasing proinflammatory fatty acids through acte
rial lipase action on surrounding seum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Propiono
acterium acnes</i>}}</div>
1395163795355 1358629116480 {{c1::Psoriasis}} is an inflammatory skin disord
er that involves well-circumscried, salmon-coloured plaques with silvery scales

.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17355962843520.jpg" /><img src="paste-187
34647345436.jpg" /><img src="paste-26392574034074.jpg" /></div>
1395164306063 1358629116480 {{c1::Psoriasis}} is an inflammatory skin disord
er that may e associated with pitting of the nails.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-25881472925864.jpg" /></div>
1395164321339 1358629116480 What is the cause of Psoriasis?<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-17351667876224.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Exc
essive keratinocyte production}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Involves thickenin
g of the stratum spinosum and thinning of stratum granulosum.</i></div>
1395164331063 1358629116480 Which HLA sutype is associated with Psoriasis?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-C}}</div>
1395164482755 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthosis}} is a histological feature of
psoriasis that involves epidermal hyperplasia.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-21706764714260.jpg" /><img src="paste-26779121090993.jpg" /><img src="paste26706106646792.jpg" /></div>
1395164526456 1358629116480 {{c1::Parakeratosis}} is a histological feature
of psoriasis that involves hyperkeratosis with retention of keratinocyte nuclei
in the stratum corneum.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21290152886505.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>Normal at mucous memranes.</i></div><div><i>Remem
er, normally the keratinocytes of the stratum corneum are anucleate.</i></div>
1395164572623 1358629116480 {{c1::Munro Microascesses}} are a histological
feature of Psoriasis that involves collections of neutrophils in the stratum cor
neum.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26804890894582.jpg" /></div>
1395164638437 1358629116480 {{c1::Auspitz Sign}} is a gross feature of Psori
asis that involves leeding when scales are picked off due to thinning of the ep
idermis aove elongated dermal papillae.
<r /><div><img src="paste-14628
658610400.jpg" /></div>
1395164702720 1358629116480 {{c1::UVA light}} is a type of UV light used to
treat Psoriasis as is damages the proliferating keratinocytes, therey limiting
scale formation.
1395164736763 1358629116480 {{c1::Psoralen}} is a drug that is administered
alongside UVA light in Psoriasis as it increases the amount of UVA light asore
d.
<r /><div><i>Together, Psoralen and UVA are called PUVA.</i></div>
1395164770936 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Planus}} is an inflammatory skin di
sorder that involves <><u>p</u>ruritic, <u>p</u>lanar, <u>p</u>olygonal, <u>p</
u>urple <u>p</u>apules.</><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16518444220586.
jpg" /><img src="paste-27831388078305.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-20431159
427485.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Look at all dem p's.</i></div>
1395164837664 1358629116480 {{c1::Wickham Striae}} is a gross feature of Lic
hen Planus if there is <>mucosal involvement</> and is descried as <>reticul
ar white lines</> on the surface of mucosal papules.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="Lichen_planusWickham's.jpg" /></div>
1395165211885 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Planus}} is an inflammatory skin di
sorder that involves inflammation of the <>dermal-epidermal junction</>&nsp;w
ith a <>'saw-tooth'</>&nsp;appearance due to lymphocyte infiltration.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-27801323307235.jpg" /><img src="paste-278872226532
50.jpg" /><img src="paste-27908697489615.jpg" /></div>
1395165263890 1358629116480 Which viral infection is associated with Lichen
Planus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HCV}}</div>
1395165274578 1358629116480 {{c1::Pemphigus vulgaris}} is an autoimmune diso
rder of the skin that involves autoimmune destruction of <>desmosomes</>&nsp;
<u>etween keratinocytes</u>.
1395165363201 1358629116480 Which autoimmune skin disorder involves destruct
ion of <>desmosomes</>&nsp;<u>etween keratinocytes</u>?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Pemphigus vulgaris}}</div>
1395165390336 1358629116480 What is the cause of Pemphigus Vulgaris?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::IgG auto-antiodies against the Desmoglein protein of desmos
omes}}</div>
1395165414181 1358629116480 {{c1::Pemphigus Vulgaris}} is a Type II hypersen
sitivity skin disorder that involves IgG antiodies against the desmoglein prote

in of desmosomes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28136330756287.jpg" /><im
g src="paste-17819819311520.jpg" /></div>
1395165441369 1358629116480 Where are the ullae of Pemphigus Vulgaris found
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Skin and oral mucosa}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-28140625723583.jpg" /></div>
1395165461537 1358629116480 {{c1::Pemphigus Vulgaris}} is an autoimmune skin
disorder that involves a <>'tomstone'</>&nsp;appearance of the asal layer
of the epidermis as the asalis layer remains attached to the asement memrane
via hemidesmosomes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28441273434337.jpg" /><
/div>
1395166107797 1358629116480 {{c1::Nikolsky sign}} is a gross feature of Pemp
higus Vulgaris and involves <><u>easy</u> rupture of thin-walled ullae upon st
roking of the skin</>, leading to shallow erosions with dried crust.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-28187870363861.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Bullae in
Pemphigus Vulgaris rupture easily due to the separation eing at the Stratum Spi
nosum, i.e. close to the top of the skin.</i></div>
1395166150632 1358629116480 {{c1::Pemphigus Vulgaris}} is an autoimmune skin
disorder that involves a <>'fish net'</>&nsp;immunofluorescence pattern with
IgG surrounding keratinocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28887950033
132.jpg" /><img src="paste-18219251269913.jpg" /></div>
1395166202405 1358629116480 {{c1::Bullous Pemphigoid}} is an autoimmune diso
rder of the skin that involves destruction of <>hemidesmosomes</>&nsp;<u>etw
een the asal cells and underlying asement memrane</u>.<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-29068338659578.jpg" /></div>
1395166305143 1358629116480 What is the cause of Bullous Pemphigoid?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::IgG auto-antiodies against <>hemidesmosome component BP180
</>&nsp;of the asement memrane}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Antiodies are '<
>ullo'</>&nsp;the epidermis (i.e. asement memrane)."</i></div>
1395166348416 1358629116480 Which autoimmune disorder of the skin involves d
estruction of <>hemidesmosome component &nsp;BP180 (BPAG)</>&nsp;of the ase
ment memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bullous Pemphigoid}}</div>
1395166494432 1358629116480 {{c1::Bullous Pemphigoid}} is an autoimmune diso
rder of the skin that presents as listers on the skin, ut <><u>spares the ora
l mucosa</u></>.
<r /><div><i>Pemphigus vulgaris involves the oral mucos
a.</i></div>
1395166543898 1358629116480 {{c1::Bullous Pemphigoid}} is an autoimmune diso
rder of the skin that involves <>tense ullae</> that do not rupture easily.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-29008209117401.jpg" /><img src="paste-184511
79504031.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>This is ecause the separation is UNDER th
e asement memrane.</i></div>
1395166648858 1358629116480 {{c1::Bullous Pemphigoid}} is an autoimmune diso
rder of the skin that involves a <>linear</>&nsp;pattern of IgG immunofluores
cence along the asement memrane.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-29128468
201717.jpg" /><img src="paste-18519898980634.jpg" /></div>
1395166694588 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatitis Herpetiformis}} is an autoimmun
e disorder of the skin that involves <>IgA deposition at the tips of the dermal
papillae</> with susequent microascesses at these tips.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-29295971926258.jpg" /><img src="paste-29317446762808.jpg" /></d
iv>
1395166731689 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatitis Herpetiformis}} is an autoimmun
e disorder of the skin that involves <>pruritic vesicles, papuls and ullae</>
that are grouped together over an <>erythematous ase</> and resemle the ves
icles of Herpes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-29171417874796.jpg" /></di
v><div><img src="paste-18721762443679.jpg" /></div>
1395166761535 1358629116480 Which autoimmune disorder of the skin has a clos
e association with Celiac's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dermatitis Herpe
tiformis}}</div>
1395166784659 1358629116480 What is the cause of Dermatitis Herpetiformis?<d
iv><r /></div><div><div>{{c1::IgA auto-antiodies against Glutin that cross-rea
ct with reticular fires at the dermal papillae}}</div></div> <r /><div><img

src="paste-29261612187907.jpg" /></div>
1395166830251 1358629116480 {{c1::Erythema Multiforme}} is a Hypersensitivit
y reaction of the skin that involves a targetoid rash and ullae.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-20963735371991.jpg" /><img src="paste-20985210208449.jpg"
/><img src="paste-25486335934883.jpg" /></div>
1395166878597 1358629116480 {{c1::Erythema Multiforme}} is a hypersensitivit
y disorder of the skin that involves a targetoid appearance due to a central are
a of epidermal necrosis, surrounded y erythema.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-25391846654131.jpg" /><img src="paste-25417616457901.jpg" /><img src="past
e-25490630902179.jpg" /></div>
1395166910754 1358629116480 What viral infection is associated with Erythema
Multiforme?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Also assoc
iated with Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i></div>
1395166924356 1358629116480 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Syndrome}} is a hypersensi
tivity skin disorder that involves Erythema Multiforme with oral mucosa and lip
involvement. There may e ullae and vesicles as well.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-17806934409429.jpg" /><img src="paste-25529285607651.jpg" /><img src
="paste-25550760444130.jpg" /></div>
1395166963043 1358629116480 {{c1::Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis}} is a hypersen
sitivity disorder of the skin that is a s<>evere form of Steve-Johnson Syndrome
</>, involving sloughing of the skin with large, flaccid ullae.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-17836999180508.jpg" /><img src="paste-19877108646094.jpg"
/><img src="paste-25589415149756.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-194347270148
17.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Typically due to an adverse drug reaction
and is a medical emergency.</i></div>
1395167028216 1358629116480 {{c1::Seorrheic Keratosis}} is a enign squamou
s proliferation of the skin that presents as a raised, discoloured plaque with a
coin-like, waxy, <>stuck on</> appearance.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-27109833572511.jpg" /><img src="paste-17291538333884.jpg" /><img src="paste-2
6877905338718.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-14839112007901.jpg" /></div>
1395167408185 1358629116480 {{c1::Seorrheic Keratosis}} is a enign squamou
s proliferation of the skin that is characterized y keratin pseudocysts (<>hor
n-cysts</>&nsp;and invagination cysts) on histology.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-27049704030365.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-27135603376307.jpg"
/></div>
1395167447646 1358629116480 {{c1::Leser-Trelat Sign}} is a skin disorder def
ined as the sudden appearance of multiple Seorrheic Keratoses.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-26933739913403.jpg" /></div>
1395167486805 1358629116480 Which cancer is associated with Leser-Trelat Sig
n?<div><r />{{c1::GI carcinoma; Gastric carcinoma}}</div>
1395167504996 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthosis Nigricans}} is a skin disorder
that involves hyperplasia of the epidermis with darkening of the skin, typically
seen at the axilla or groin.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2745772592364
8.jpg" /><img src="paste-27165668147515.jpg" /><img src="paste-27191437951153.jp
g" /></div>
1395167553512 1358629116480 What type of diaetes is associated with Acantho
sis Nigricans?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-insulin dependent diaetes (insuli
n resistance)}}</div>
1395167586846 1358629116480 What type of cancer is commonly associated with
Acanthosis Nigricans?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric carcinoma}}</div>
1395167607707 1358629116480 What is the most common cutaneous malignancy?<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-31718333481267.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Basal Cell Carcinoma of the Skin}}</div></div>
1395167717367 1358629116480 {{c1::Xeroderma Pigmentosum}} is an autosomal re
cessive disorder that involves an increased risk of skin cancer due to mutations
in enzymes needed for nucleotide ase excision repair. <r /><div><i>Hence, the
pyrimidine dimers made y UV light exposure are not corrected.</i></div>
1395167783308 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Xeroderma Pig
mentosum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1395167797635 1358629116480 Which lip is classically affected y Basal Cell

Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upper Lip}}</div>
1395167856201 1358629116480 {{c1::Basal Cell Carcinoma}} is a type of skin c
ancer that presents as an elevated <>'pink, pearl-like'</>&nsp;papule/nodule
with a central, <>ulcerated crater</> surrounded y telangiectatic vessels.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17076789969189.jpg" /><img src="paste-2068456
2497757.jpg" /><img src="paste-31529354920127.jpg" /><img src="paste-31550829756
749.jpg" /><img src="paste-21599390531872.jpg" /></div>
1395167931482 1358629116480 {{c1::Basal Cell Carcinoma}} is a type of skin c
ancer that shows <>nodules of asal cells</> with <>peripheral palisading</>
on histology.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-31666793873642.jpg" /></div>
<div><img src="paste-31795642892672.jpg" /><img src="paste-21517786153247.jpg" /
></div>
1395168340288 1358629116480 {{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma}} is a type of ski
n cancer that involves the formation of <>keratin pearls</> amongst proliferat
ing cells.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-30103425777902.jpg" /><img src="
paste-30691836297614.jpg" /><img src="paste-30129195581703.jpg" /><img src="past
e-22454089023776.jpg" /></div>
1395168405699 1358629116480 Which lip is classically affected y squamous ce
ll carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div> <r /><div><i>B</i></div
><div><i>S</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-22385369547039.jpg" /></i></div>
1395168448510 1358629116480 {{c1::Actinic Keratosis}} is a precursor lesion
of squamous cell carcinoma of the skin and presents as a <>hyperkeratotic, scal
y, sandpaper-like plaque</> on the face, ack or neck.<div><r /></div><div><im
g src="paste-29566554865807.jpg" /><img src="paste-20057497272737.jpg" /></div>
1395168493225 1358629116480 {{c1::Keratoacanthoma}} is a well-differentiated
squamous cell carcinoma of the skin that develops rapidly, regresses spontaneou
sly and presents as a <>cup-shaped tumour</>&nsp;filled with <>keratin deri
s</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-31421980737751.jpg" /><img src="past
e-22518513533215.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-31447750541540.jpg" /><img sr
c="paste-31469225378128.jpg" /></div>
1395168552163 1358629116480 Which amino acid is used as a precursor to melan
in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine}}</div>
1395169044800 1358629116480 Which protein marker is positive in Melanocytes
as it is a derivative of the neural crest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S100}}</di
v>
1395169064464 1358629116480 {{c1::Melanosomes}} are structurues <u>within me
lanocytes</u>&nsp;in which melanin is synthesized.
1395169093108 1358629116480 {{c1::Vitiligo}} is a pigmentation disorder of t
he skin that involves localized loss of skin pigmentation due to autoimmune dest
ruction of melanocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11407433138593.jpg"
/></div>
1395169148868 1358629116480 What is the cause of Vitiligo?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Autoimmune destruction of melanocytes}}</div>
1395169159890 1358629116480 {{c1::Alinism}} is a pigmentation disorder of t
he skin that involves a congenital lack of pigmentation due to enzyme defects in
melanin production.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11300058956193.jpg" />
</div> <r /><div><i>Can also e due to defective tyrosine transport (e.g. Ched
iak-Higashi Syndrome).</i></div><div><i>Can also e due to failure of the neural
crest cells to migrate during development.</i></div>
1395169192542 1358629116480 What is the most common enzyme affected in Alin
ism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosinase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Can also 
e due to defective tyrosine transport (e.g. Chediak-Higashi Syndrome).</i></div>
1395169206255 1358629116480 What is the risk of skin cancer in Alinism?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1395169220345 1358629116480 {{c1::Ephelis (Freckles)}} are a pigmentation di
sorder of the skin that presents as small, tan-rown macules that darken when ex
posed to sunlight.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22862110916774.jpg" /><i
mg src="paste-13533441949916.jpg" /></div>
1395169446469 1358629116480 What is the cause of Ephelis (Freckles)?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increased numer of <>melanosomes</>&nsp;(<>not melanocy

tes</>)}}</div>
1395169467141 1358629116480 {{c1::Ephelis (Freckles)}} is a pigmentation dis
order of the skin that involves an increased numer of <>melanosomes</>, not m
elanocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22896470655134.jpg" /><img src=
"paste-13529146982620.jpg" /></div>
1395169506552 1358629116480 {{c1::Melasma}} is a pigmentation disorder of th
e skin that involves mask-like hyperpigmentation of the cheeks.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-11355893531038.jpg" /></div>
1395169536584 1358629116480 {{c1::Melasma}} is a pigmentation disorder of th
e skin that is associated with pregnancy and oral contraceptives.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-11351598563742.jpg" /></div>
1395169554185 1358629116480 {{c1::Nevus (Mole)}} is a enign neoplasma of me
lanocytes.
1395169576866 1358629116480 {{c1::Congenital Nevus}} is a mole that is prese
nt at irth.
1395169601283 1358629116480 {{c1::Nevus (Mole)}} is a enign proliferation o
f melanocytes that is often associated with hair (melanoma is not).
1395169623309 1358629116480 What is the most common type of mole/nevus in ch
ildren?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Junctional Nevus}}</div><div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-12721693130976.jpg" /></div>
1395169666370 1358629116480 {{c1::Junctional Nevus}} is a type of nevus that
egins as a nest of melanocytes at the <>dermal-epidermal</>&nsp;<>junction
</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23652384899193.jpg" /><img src="paste
-23673859735702.jpg" /><img src="paste-12717398163680.jpg" /></div>
1395169699927 1358629116480 {{c1::Compound Nevus}} is a type of nevus that g
rows y extension into the dermis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23880018
165873.jpg" /><img src="paste-23901493002388.jpg" /></div>
1395169715209 1358629116480 {{c1::Intradermal Nevus}} is a type of nevus tha
t is purely found in the dermis as the junctional component has een lost.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-16458314678443.jpg" /><img src="paste-2396591751
1822.jpg" /></div>
1395169748537 1358629116480 What is the most common type of nevus in adults?
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16462609645739.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Intradermal Nevus}}</div></div>
1395169771987 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysplastic Nevus}} is a type of nevus that
has undergone dysplasia and is a precurose to melanoma.<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-24266565222640.jpg" /><img src="paste-24288040059091.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Often appears asymmetrical or may have non-uniform colouration.</i
></div>
1395169796016 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of death from skin
cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Melanoma}}</div>
1395169811374 1358629116480 {{c1::Melanoma}} is a malignant neoplasm of mela
nocytes that presents as an <>asymmetical</>, <>irregularly shaped</> lesion
with <>non-uniform colour</> and a diameted of <>&gt; 6 mm</><div><><r />
</></div><div><><img src="paste-25138443583706.jpg" /></><img src="paste-2519
8573125694.jpg" /><img src="paste-25237227831361.jpg" /><img src="paste-25258702
667834.jpg" /><><img src="paste-25159918420099.jpg" /></></div>
1395169891227 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysplastic Nevus Syndrome}} is an autosoma
l dominant risk factor for Melanoma that involves the formation of dysplastic ne
vi that may progress to melanoma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-250826090
08948.jpg" /></div>
1395169935775 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Dysplastic Ne
vus Syndrome?<div><r />{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1395169952408 1358629116480 {{c1::Breslow Thickness}} is a measurement of ho
w deep melanoma has extended and is the most important prognostic factor in pred
icting metastasis.
1395170119560 1358629116480 {{c1::Superficial Spreading Melanoma}} is a sut
ype of melanoma that displays early radial growth and minimal vertical growth.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25361781883119.jpg" /><img src="paste-228964
70655262.jpg" /></div>

1395170155566 1358629116480 What is the most common sutype of Melanoma?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superficial Spreading Melanoma}}</div>
1395170172633 1358629116480 {{c1::Lentigo Maligna Melanoma}} is a sutype of
melanoma that involves lentiginous proliferation (a type of radial growth).<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25288767439071.jpg" /><img src="paste-25310242
275557.jpg" /><img src="paste-22978075033886.jpg" /></div>
1395170203281 1358629116480 {{c1::Nodular Melanoma}} is a sutype of melanom
a that involves early vertical growth and hence poor prognosis.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-25683904430281.jpg" /><img src="paste-22943715295519.jpg" /
></div>
1395170239758 1358629116480 {{c1::Nodular Melanoma}} is a sutype of melanom
a that involves nodules on the skin due to early vertical growth that raises the
epithelial layer.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25688199397577.jpg" /></
div>
1395170295519 1358629116480 {{c1::Acral Lentiginous Melanoma}} is a sutype
of melanoma that arises on the palms or soles, typically in dark-skinned individ
uals. It is not related to UV exposure.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-253
96141621443.jpg" /><img src="paste-25417616457910.jpg" /><img src="paste-2305967
9412515.jpg" /></div>
1395170895711 1358629116480 {{c1::Excoriation}} is a macroscopic skin lesion
that involves trauma that reaks the epidermis (e.g. a deep scratch).<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-18283675779216.jpg" /><img src="paste-18309445583050
.jpg" /><img src="paste-18330920419496.jpg" /></div>
1395170921743 1358629116480 {{c1::Macule}} is a macroscopic skin lesion defi
ned as a <>flat</>&nsp;circumscried lesion <>≤ 5 mm</> in diameter.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-15835544420516.jpg" /><img src="paste-1584842932245
5.jpg" /></div>
1395171000251 1358629116480 {{c1::Cafe-au-lait Macules}} are a type of macul
e commonly seen in Neurofiromatosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15891
378995483.jpg" /></div>
1395171028285 1358629116480 {{c1::Patch}} is a macroscopic skin lesion that
is <>flat</>&nsp;ut <>&gt; 5 mm</>.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-15917148799129.jpg" /><img src="paste-15930033700995.jpg" /></div>
1395171069484 1358629116480 {{c1::Papule}} is a macroscopic skin lesion that
has an <>elevated, dome shape</>&nsp;or a <>elevated flat-top shape</>&ns
p;and is <>≤ 5 mm</>&nsp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1597
2983373935.jpg" /><img src="paste-15985868275955.jpg" /><img src="paste-15998753
177798.jpg" /></div>
1395171158129 1358629116480 {{c1::Nodule}} is a macroscopic skin lesion that
is dermal or suQ and is a <>raised</>&nsp;well defined <>&gt; 5mm.</><div
><><r /></></div><div><><img src="paste-16857746637089.jpg" /><img src="past
e-16870631538812.jpg" /></></div>
1395171389318 1358629116480 {{c1::Plaque}} is a macroscopic skin lesion that
is an <>elevated, flat-topped </>lesion usually <>&gt; 5 mm</><div><><r /
></></div><div><><img src="paste-17227113824400.jpg" /><img src="paste-1723999
8726310.jpg" /></></div>
1395171433654 1358629116480 {{c1::Vesicle}} is a macroscopic skin lesion tha
t involves <>fluid-filled raised</>&nsp;lesions <>≤ 5 mm </>with surrounding
erythema.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17416092385425.jpg" /><img src="p
aste-17428977287340.jpg" /><img src="paste-17441862189220.jpg" /></div>
1395171533303 1358629116480 {{c1::Bulla}} are a macroscopic skin lesion that
are <>fluid-filled raised</>&nsp;lesions <>≥ 5 mm</>.<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-17566416240784.jpg" /><img src="paste-17579301142699.jpg" /></div
>
1395171580876 1358629116480 {{c1::Pustule}} is a macroscopic skin lesion tha
t involves <>discrete, pus-filled nodular</>&nsp;or <>raised lesions</>.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18081812316305.jpg" /><img src="paste-1809469
7218256.jpg" /></div>
1395171670417 1358629116480 {{c1::Wheal}} is a macroscopic skin lesion that
involves <>itchy</>, transient, <>elevated</>&nsp;lesions with erythematous

orders. They are due to dermal edema.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-182
19251269751.jpg" /><img src="paste-18232136171726.jpg" /></div>
1395171721938 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichenification}} is a macroscopic skin le
sions that involves <>thickened and rough</>&nsp;skin with prominent markings
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18360985190541.jpg" /><img src="paste-183
73870092518.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Resemles lichen on a tree; due to
chronic ruing</i></div>
1395171802176 1358629116480 {{c1::Scale}} is a macroscopic skin lesion that
is <>dry, horny</>&nsp;and <>plate-like</>&nsp;due to imperfect cornificat
ion.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18507014078589.jpg" /><img src="paste18519898980555.jpg" /></div>
1395171844291 1358629116480 {{c1::Onycholysis}} is a macroscopic skin lesion
defined as the separation of the nail plate from the nail ed.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-18760417149260.jpg" /><img src="paste-25975962206342.jpg" /
></div>
1395176724220 1358629116480 {{c1::Erosion}} is a macroscopic skin lesion tha
t involves <>discontinuity of the skin</>&nsp;showing <>incomplete loss</>&
nsp;of the epidermis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19868518711442.jpg"
/><img src="paste-19881403613390.jpg" /><img src="paste-20349555048889.jpg" /></
div>
1395176799298 1358629116480 {{c1::Ulceration}} is a macrocsopic skin lesion
that involves discontinuity of the skin showing <>complete</>&nsp;loss of the
epidermis, revealing the underlying dermis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-20371029885071.jpg" /><img src="paste-20383914787075.jpg" /></div>
1395176879131 1358629116480 {{c1::Telangiectasia}} is a macroscopic skin les
ion that involves small, dilated, superficial lood vessels that <u>lanch with
pressure</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20495583936683.jpg" /></div>
1395176950865 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperkeratosis}} is a microscopic skin les
ion that involves thickening of the stratum corneum.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-21135534063831.jpg" /></div>
1395177290823 1358629116480 {{c1::Dyskeratosis}} is a microscopic skin lesio
n that involves anormal, premature keratinization within cells elow the stratu
m granulosum.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21419001905388.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Seen in Darier Disease.</i></div>
1395177437700 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypergranulosis}} is a microscopic skin le
sion that involves hyperplasia of the stratum granulosum, often due to intense r
uing.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22011707392289.jpg" /></div>
1395177624101 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydropic Swelling/Ballooning}} is a micros
copic skin lesion that involves intracellular edema of keratinocytes in the skin
. Typically seen in viral infections.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22136
261443794.jpg" /></div>
1395177665047 1358629116480 {{c1::Spongiosis}} is a microscopic skin lesion
that involves intercellular edema of the epidermis. The keratinocytes are still
attached via desmosomes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22226455757054.jpg
" /></div>
1395177744809 1358629116480 {{c1::Acantholysis}} is a microscopic skin lesio
n commonly seen in Pemphigus Vulgaris. It involves separation of the stratum spi
nosum keratinocytes, resulting in listers/ullae.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-22351009808649.jpg" /><img src="paste-22363894710437.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>This is ecause keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum are connecte
d y desmosomes, which are targeted in Pemphigus Vulgaris.</i></div>
1395177833919 1358629116480 {{c1::Lentiginous lesion}} is a microscopic skin
lesion that involves linear growth of melanocytes <u>within</u>&nsp;the epider
mal asal cell layer.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22488448762140.jpg" /
></div>
1395177898110 1358629116480 {{c1::Papillomatosis}} is a microscopic skin les
ion that involves elevation of the surface of the skin due to hyperplasia and en
largement of dermal papillae.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2261300281368
6.jpg" /></div>
1395177947134 1358629116480 What is the most common disorder of pigmentation

of childhood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ephelis (Freckles)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-13529146982620.jpg" /></div>
1395177978130 1358629116480 {{c1::Lentigo}} is a pigmentation disorder of th
e skin that presents as small macules and patches and involves a localized, line
ar hyperplasia of melanocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-229394203280
21.jpg" /><img src="paste-23373212025051.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-22952305230022.jpg" /></div>
1395178123100 1358629116480 {{c1::Spitz Nevus}} is a type of nevus that is c
ommon in children and presents as a <>red-pink</>&nsp;nodule with fascicular
growth. Can e confused with hemangioma.
1395179374706 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysplastic nevus}} is a type of nevus that
involves cytological atypia and lentiginous hyperplasia of atypical melanocytes
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-24618752540924.jpg" /></div>
1395179658782 1358629116480 What gene is mutated in Dysplastic Nevus Syndrom
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>CDKN2A</i>&nsp;on chr 9p21}}</div>
1395179690231 1358629116480 What is the prognosis of Acral Lentiginous Melan
oma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poor}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, this is
unrelated to UV exposure.</i></div>
1395180034271 1358629116480 {{c1::Melanoma}} is a malignant skin cancer that
involves malignant melanocytes that have large nuclei with irregular contours,
clumped chromatin and prominent eosinophilic nuclei.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-26036091748612.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Positive for HMB45 and S10
0.</i></div>
1395180602332 1358629116480 Which 2 genes are involved in <>sporadic</>&n
sp;melanoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::BRAF (60-70%) and NRAS (10-15%)}}</div>
1395180670264 1358629116480 Which gene is most commonly implicated in <>spo
radic</>&nsp;melanoma?<div><r />{{c1::BRAF Kinase}}</div>
1395180683991 1358629116480 {{c1::Clark Level of Invasion}} is a measure of
the depth of invasion of melanoma <u>in terms of the histological skin layers</u
>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26371099197718.jpg" /></div>
1395180723396 1358629116480 Which Breslow thickness of melanoma is considere
d to have a <>favourale</>&nsp;prognosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 1.
7 mm}}</div>
1395180757531 1358629116480 What gene is commonly mutated in Seorrheic Kera
tosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FGFR3}}</div>
1395180898064 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthosis Nigricans}} is a hyperplastic c
ondition of the epidermis that involves <>hyperpigmented skin with "velvet-like
"</> <>texture</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27187142983857.jpg" /
><img src="paste-19829864006045.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>May also involve m
any skin tags.</i></div>
1395181071702 1358629116480 {{c1::Firo-epithelial polyps}} are common cutan
eous lesions that present as soft, flesh coloured, ag-like tumours attached to
the skin y a slender stalk.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27771258536161
.jpg" /></div>
1395181330610 1358629116480 {{c1::Firo-epithelial Polyps}} are a common epi
thelial tumour that involves a firovascular core covered y enign squamous epi
thelium.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27895812587745.jpg" /></div>
1395181382746 1358629116480 {{c1::Epithelial cyst}} are enign tumours of th
e skin that involve an invagination or cystic expansion of the epidermis or hair
follicle.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28101971017896.jpg" /></div>
1395181673989 1358629116480 {{c1::Epithelial Cysts}} are enign tumours of t
he skin and involve cysts filled with keratin and lipid-containing deris from s
eaceous secretions.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28097676050600.jpg" />
<img src="paste-28230820036793.jpg" /></div>
1395181768110 1358629116480 {{c1::Epithelial Inclusion Cyst}} is a type of E
pithelial Cyst that involves a simple cyst with keratin.<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-28355374088377.jpg" /></div>
1395181795574 1358629116480 {{c1::Syringoma}} are enign skin lesions near t
he <>lower eyelid/upper cheek</> with an eccrine differentiation and intra-epi
dermal inclusions of eccrine sweat ducts.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2

8385438859436.jpg" /></div>
1395181875559 1358629116480 {{c1::Cylindroma}} is a enign skin tumour that
involves ductal differentiation and is commonly located around the forehead/scal
p with hat-like growth (<i>aka Turan Tumour</i>).<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-28587302322546.jpg" /><img src="paste-28600187224201.jpg" /></div>
1395182053823 1358629116480 {{c1::Muir-Torre Syndrome}} is a suset syndrome
of heriditary non-polyposis colorectal carcinoma that involves Seaceous Adenom
as of the skin. <r /><div><i>Hence this also involves mutations/defects in DNA
mismatch repair.</i></div>
1395182118006 1358629116480 {{c1::Seaceous Adenoma}} is a enign skin tumou
r that involves loular proliferation of seocytes with a frothy or uly cytop
lasm due to lipid vesicle content.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28797755
720031.jpg" /></div>
1395182160606 1358629116480 {{c1::Pilomatricoma}} is a enign skin tumour th
at involves follicular differentiation and involves <>asaloid cells with trich
ilemmal/hairlike differentiation</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28870
770163993.jpg" /></div>
1395182207787 1358629116480 {{c1::Trichoepithelioma}} is a enign skin tumou
r that involves proliferation of asaloid cells that form primitive structures t
hat resemle <>hair follicles</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2926161
2187930.jpg" /></div>
1395182426759 1358629116480 {{c1::Apocrine Carcinoma}} is a skin cancer that
shows ductal differentiation with prominent decapitation secretion similar to t
hose seen in normal apocrine glands.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-293861
66239506.jpg" /></div>
1395182463451 1358629116480 {{c1::Actinic Keratosis}} is a pre-malignant les
ion to squamous cell carcinoma that can produce an aundant amount of keratin to
the point where <>cutaneous horns</>&nsp;are seen.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-29596619636967.jpg" /></div>
1395182579013 1358629116480 {{c1::Actinic Keratosis}} is a pre-malignant les
ion to squamous cell carcinoma that involves focal areas of parakeratosis and cy
tological atypia in asal keratinocytes.<div><div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-29781303230663.jpg" /></div></div>
1395182627599 1358629116480 {{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma}} is a type of ski
n cancer that grossly presents as a large, sharply demarcated, scaly erythematou
s plaque with possile keratin nodules/ulceration.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-30167850287317.jpg" /><img src="paste-30597347016923.jpg" /><img src="pa
ste-30618821853317.jpg" /></div>
1395182887021 1358629116480 {{c1::Poorly}} differentiated squamous cell carc
inoma has a high level of anaplastic cells with only occasional keratinization/k
eratin nodules.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-31035433681177.jpg" /></div
>
<r /><div><i>Well differentiated tumours will have more keratin nodules
.</i></div>
1395183434196 1358629116480 {{c1::Immunosuppression}} is a major risk factor
for squamous cell carcinoma of the skin due to an increased susceptility of ke
ratinocytes to e infected y oncogenic viruses.
<r /><div><i><r /></i>
</div>
1395183481208 1358629116480 What gene mutation is common in Actinic Keratosi
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53}}</div>
1395183516137 1358629116480 {{c1::Nevoid Basal Cell Carcinoma Syndrome (NBCC
S; Gorlin Syndrome)}} is an autosomal dominant disorder that involves an increas
ed risk of asal cell carcinoma.
1395183835285 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Nevoid Basal
Cell Carcinoma Syndrome (NBCCS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal dominant}}
</div>
1395183863776 1358629116480 What gene is involved in&nsp;Nevoid Basal Cell
Carcinoma Syndrome (NBCCS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PTCH}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Mutation leads to overactive upregulation of transcription factors.</i></d
iv><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-32074815766827.jpg" /></i></d
iv>

1395183910351 1358629116480 What gene is most commonly mutated in <>sporadi
c</>&nsp;Basal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53}}</div>
1395183936650 1358629116480 What gene is most commonly mutated in Xeroderma
Pigmentosum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PTCH}}</div>
1395183950312 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatofiroma}} is a enign tumour of the
dermis that presents as a firm tan papule on the leg, usually &lt; 1 cm in diam
eter.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-32268089295182.jpg" /></div>
1395184033669 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatofiroma}} is a enign tumour of the
dermis that exhiits a dimpling effect when pinched laterally.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-32401233281350.jpg" /></div>
1395184067030 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatofiroma}} is a enign tumour of the
dermis that is formed y spindle-shaped cells arranged in a well-defined, non-e
ncapsulated mass in the mid-dermis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3243559
3019667.jpg" /></div>
1395184122065 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatofirosarcoma protuerans}} is a mal
ignant, well differentiated tumour of the dermis that presents as a firm, solid
nodule with indurated plaque. It is locally invasive.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-32474247725353.jpg" /></div>
1395184169754 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatofirosarcoma protuerans}} is a mal
ignant tumour of the dermis that involves a s<>toriform pattern</>&nsp;in his
tology (firolasts arranged similarly to the lades of a pinwheel).<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-32504312496386.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>There may
e a <>honeycom pattern</>&nsp;if there is deep extension from the dermis in
to suQ fat.</i></div>
1395184280912 1358629116480 {{c1::Mycosis Fungoides}} is a cutaneous T-cell
lymphoma that is typically seen in truncal areas and may spread to the extremiti
es, face and scalp. It involves ulcerated plaques and atypical lymphocytes.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-32731945763035.jpg" /><img src="paste-327534205
99514.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div><r /></div></div>
1395184438252 1358629116480 {{c1::Sezary Syndrome}} is a pre-malignant syndr
ome that involves seeding of the lood y malignant CD4+ cells, therey increasi
ng the risk of Mycosis Fungoides.
1395184483665 1358629116480 {{c1::Pautrier Microascesses}} are small microa
scesses of spongiosis and lymphocytes that are commonly seen in Mycosis Fungioi
des.<div><r /></div><div><img src="wWmXe2u.jpg" /></div>
1395184531725 1358629116480 {{c1::Mastocytosis}} is a group of disorders tha
t involves an increased numer of mast cells at the skin (dermis) or other organ
s.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-33539399614828.jpg" /></div>
1395184572125 1358629116480 {{c1::Urticaria Pigmentosum}} is a type of masto
cytosis that commonly affects children and involves round to oval, red-rown, no
n-scaling papules and plaques.
1395184634608 1358629116480 {{c1::Solitary Mastocytoma}} is a type of mastoc
ytosis that involves pink to tan-rown nodules that may e itchy or may lister.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-33174327394666.jpg" /></div>
1395184686253 1358629116480 {{c1::Systemic Mastocytosis}} is a type of masto
cytosis that usually affects adults and has a poor prognosis.
1395184717926 1358629116480 {{c1::Systemic Mastocytosis}} is a type of masto
cytosis that involves mast cell infiltration of the one marrow, liver, spleen a
nd lymph nodes.
1395184751861 1358629116480 {{c1::Darier Sign}} is a macroscopic skin lesion
seen in mastocytosis that involves a wheal that presents when the skin is rue
d.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-33569464385763.jpg" /><img src="paste-33
582349287618.jpg" /></div>
1395184825902 1358629116480 {{c1::Mastocytosis}} is a disorder that involves
increased numer of mast cells at the dermis and/or organs and may involve syst
emic pruritis, flushing, discharge, pain and/or leeding due to widespread mast
cell degranulation.
1395286628348 1358629116480 {{c1::Impetigo}} is a superficial acterial skin
infection typically caused y <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;or <i>Streptoco
ccus pyogenes</i>.

1395338914590 1358629116480 {{c1::Impetigo}} is a superficial acterial infe
ction of the skin that can lead to pustules that rupture, resulting in dry, erod
ed, <>crusted, honey-coloured serum</> covering the skin.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-16544214024524.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i><>Highly contagio
us</>.</i></div>
1395339371327 1358629116480 {{c1::Cellulitis}} is a deep acterial skin infe
ction that presents as a red, tender, swollen and spreading rash with fever.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16776142258508.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Ty
pically starts from a reak in the skin from trauma or another infection.</i></d
iv>
1395339391538 1358629116480 What is the most common causes of oth Impetigo
and Cellulitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;and
<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>}}</div>
1395339423539 1358629116480 {{c1::Necrotizing Fasciitis}} is a acterial ski
n infection that involves necrosis of sucutaneous tissue due to anaeroic flesh
-eating acteria.
<r /><div><i>Also caused y Streptococcus pyogenes.</i>
</div><div><i>Presents with ullae and purple coloured skin.</i></div><div><i><i
mg src="paste-16853451669842.jpg" /></i></div>
1395339492167 1358629116480 {{c1::Crepitus}} is a complication of Necrotizin
g Fasciitis that involves gas in the skin/dermal tissue due to <>methane </>an
d&nsp;<>CO<su>2</su></>&nsp;production.
1395339526356 1358629116480 Which 2 toxins from <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>
&nsp;cause Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Exf
oliatin A and B}}</div>
1395339564783 1358629116480 Which layer of the epidermis is affected in Stap
hylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stratum granulosum}
}</div>
1395339592519 1358629116480 How is Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome is d
ifferentiated from Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis at the histological level?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::TEN shows separation at the dermal-epidermal junction; SSSS
yields destruction of keratinocyte attachments in the <u>stratum granulosum only
</u>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-25623774888186.jpg" /><img src="paste
-25645249724960.jpg" /></div>
1395340470032 1358629116480 {{c1::Verruca (Warts)}} are <>soft, flesh-colou
red, cauliflower-like papules</> that appear on the skin due to HPV infection o
f keratinocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12292196401378.jpg" /><img
src="paste-12313671237855.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>On the genitals it
is called <>Condyloma acuminatum</>.</i></div>
1395340559909 1358629116480 What is the cause of Verruca (Warts)?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::HPV infection of Keratinocytes}}</div>
1395340580963 1358629116480 {{c1::Molluscum Contagiosum}} is a viral exanthe
m that involves firm, pink, umilicated papules due to poxvirus infection.
1395340614274 1358629116480 {{c1::Molluscum Bodies}} are histological featur
es of Molluscum Contagiosum seen in the cytoplasm of infected keratinocytes.
1395340650395 1358629116480 {{c1::Urticaria (Hives)}} is a common inflammato
ry skin disorder that involves edema of superficial sections of the dermis due t
o localized mast cell degranulation and wheals.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-24326694764759.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>superfici
al dermal edema</>&nsp;and <>lymphatic channel dilation</>.</i></div>
1395341160652 1358629116480 {{c1::IgE-Dependent Urticaria}} is a type of urt
icaria that is antigen-induced and involves IgE.
1395341267945 1358629116480 {{c2::Deficiency of C1 Inhiitor}} is a congenit
al form of urticaria that is complement-mediated and is due to uncontrolled acti
vation of early components of the compliment system and production of vasoactive
mediators.
1395341331187 1358629116480 {{c1::Pustular Psoriasis}} is a rare form of Pso
riasis that involves small pustules on top of the erythematous plaques that are
typically localized to the hands and feet.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste26104811225265.jpg" /></div>
1395342421475 1358629116480 {{c1::Koener Phenomenon}} is a feature of the p

athogenesis of Psoriasis and involves genesis of new Psoriatic lesions at sites
of trauma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26985279520963.jpg" /></div>
1395342801906 1358629116480 {{c1::Seorrheic Dermatitis}} is a chronic infla
mmatory condition of the skin that involves flaky, <>dandruff</>&nsp;skin wit
h poorly demarcated, erythematous plaques of <>greasy, yellow scales</>.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-27444841021663.jpg" /><img src="paste-2745772592
3621.jpg" /></div>
1395343253226 1358629116480 {{c1::Pemphigus Foliaceus}} is a ullous disorde
r of the skin that involves superficial listers that are much less erosive than
in Pemphigus Vulgaris.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28316719382729.jpg"
/><img src="paste-28467043238134.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>IgG antiodies to
Desmoglein are found more superficially.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><
i><img src="paste-28973849379051.jpg" /></i></div>
1395343552919 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatitis Herpetiformis}} is an autoimmun
e disorder of the skin that involves <>IgA antiody deposition at the tips of d
ermal papillae</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-29480655520023.jpg" /><
/div>
1404684176867 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::macule}} is a skin lesion descried
as a flat lesion with cell-circumscried changes in skin color&nsp;that is <u
style="font-weight: old; ">&lt; 1 cm</u>&nsp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-8718783611100.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. freckle; lai
al macule</i></div>
1404685073649 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::patch}} is a skin lesion descried
as a flat lesion with well-circumscried changes in skin colour that is <u style
="font-weight: old; ">&gt; 1 cm</u>&nsp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-8761733284066.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>e.g. irthmark (congenital
nevus)</i></div>
1404685126606 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::papule}} is a skin lesion that is d
escried as an elevated solid lesion <u style="font-weight: old; ">&lt; 1 cm</u
>&nsp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8804682957019.jpg" /></
div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. mole; nevus; acne</i></div>
1404685166206 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::plaque}} is a skin lesion descried
as an elevated solid skin lesion <u style="font-weight: old; ">&gt; 1 cm</u>&n
sp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8839042695391.jpg" /></div
>
<r /><div><i>e.g. psoriasis</i></div>
1404685198189 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::vesicle}} is a skin lesion that is
descried as a small, fluid-containing lister <u style="font-weight: old; ">&l
t; 1 cm</u>&nsp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8899172237534
.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>e.g. Chickenpox/varicella; Shingles/zoster</i></di
v>
1404685307598 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::ulla}} is a skin lesion descried
as a large, fluid-containing lister <u style="font-weight: old; ">&gt; 1 cm</u
>&nsp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8942121910497.jpg" /></
div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. ullous pemphigoid</i></div>
1404685351778 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::pustule}} is a skin lesion that is
descried as a <>vesicle containing pus</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-8976481648866.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>e.g. pustular psoriasis</i></div>
1404685382774 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::wheal}} is a skin lesion that is de
scried as a transient or smooth papule or plaque.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-9143985373410.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. hives/urticaria</i></
div>
1404685792438 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::scale}} is a skin lesion that is de
scried as <>flaking off of the stratum corneum</>&nsp;of the skin.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-9182640079073.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>e.g. eczem
a; psoriasis; SCC</i></div>
1404685845880 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::crust}} is a skin lesion that is de
scried as <>dry exudate</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-100330436036
76.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. impetigo</i></div>
1404686390949 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperkeratosis}} is a dermatological micro
scopic term descried as an <>increased thickness of the stratum corneum</>.

<r /><div><i>e.g. Psoriasis; Callouses</i></div>
1404686617566 1395802358422 {{c1::Parakeratosis}} is a dermatological micros
copic term that is defined as <>hyperkeratosis with retention of nuclei in the
stratum corneum</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. psoriasis</i></div>
1404686846399 1395802358422 {{c1::Spongiosis}} is a dermatological microscop
ic term that is defined as the <>epidermal accumulation of edematous fluid in i
ntercellular spaces</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. eczematous dermatitis</i></di
v>
1404686881087 1395802358422 {{c1::Acantholysis}} is a dermatological microsc
opic term defined as the <>separation of epidermal cells</>. <r /><div><i>e.
g. pemphigus vulgaris</i></div>
1404686907874 1395802358422 {{c1::Acanthosis}} is a dermatological microscop
ic term that is defined as <>epidermal hyperplasia</>, especially at the strat
um spinosum.
<r /><div><i>e.g. Acanthosis nigricans</i></div>
1404704388509 1395802358422 Which acteria are the 2 most common causes of C
ellulitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pyogenes; Staphylococcus
aureus</i>}}</div>
1404704438453 1395802358422 {{c1::Bullous Impetigo}} is a type of impetigo t
hat has <>ullae</>&nsp;and is usually caused y <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16565688861006.jpg" /></div>
1404704547842 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Bullous Impetig
o?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div><div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-16561393893710.jpg" /></div>
1404704570043 1395802358422 What is the cause of Necrotizing Fasciitis?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Anaeroic actera; <i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>}}</div><
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16849156702546.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Flesh-eating acteria.</i></div>
1404704789959 1395802358422 {{c1::Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS
)}} is an infectious skin disorder caused y Staphylococcal exotoxins that prese
nts with <>generalized erythematous rash</>&nsp;with <>sloughing of the uppe
r layers of the epidermis</>&nsp;that heals completely.<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-17313013170512.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Neworns and child
ren most often affected.</i></div>
1404705676087 1395802358422 {{c1::Hairy Leukoplakia}} is an infectious disor
der that presents with <>white, painless plaques </>on the tongue that cannot
e scraped off.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17467631993172.jpg" /></div
>
1404705727511 1395802358422 Which herpesvirus is associated with Hairy Leuko
plakia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div> <r /><div><i>Typically seen in
HIV+ patients.</i></div>
1404705746571 1395802358422 {{c1::Pemphigous vulgaris}} is a listering skin
disorder that presents with <>flaccid intraepidermal ullae</>&nsp;due to ac
antholysis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17815524344224.jpg" /></div>
1404705954692 1395802358422 {{c1::Pemphigous vulgaris}} is a listering skin
disorder that often presents with <>multiple crusty and weepy erythematous ero
sions</>&nsp;on the skin <>where listers have roken</>.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-17815524344224.jpg" /></div>
1404706126894 1395802358422 Which autoimmune disorder of the small owel is
associated with Dermatitis Herpetiformis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac Dise
ase}}</div>
1404706466998 1395802358422 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Syndrome}} is a listering
skin disorder associated with <>adverse drug reactions</> that involves fever
, <>ulla formation</>, necrosis, <>sloughing of the skin</>&nsp;and a <>h
igh mortality rate</>.
1404707520656 1395802358422 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Syndrome}} is a listering
skin disorder that is associated with adverse drug reaactions and <>typically
involves 2 mucous memranes</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1935741760
3488.jpg" /></div>
1404707566546 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis}} is a severe f
orm of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome that affects &gt; 30% of the ody surface area a

nd involves <>depigmentation of the skin due to epidermal sloughing</>.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-19430432047521.jpg" /></div>
1404707663356 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis}} is a severe f
orm of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome that presents with <>large ullae with skin slo
ughing in sheets</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19430432047521.jpg" /
></div>
1404707691536 1395802358422 {{c1::Acanthosis Nigricans}} is a disorder of th
e skin that is associated with <>hyperinsulinemia</>&nsp;and <>gastric adeno
carcinoma</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19825569038749.jpg" /></div>
1404708186464 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythema Nodosum}} is an inflammatory skin
disorder that presents as <>inflammatory lesions of sucutaneous fat</>, espe
cially on the anterior shins.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2009615197840
0.jpg" /></div>
1404708294088 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythema Nodosum}} is an inflammatory diso
rder of the skin that is often idiopathic ut can e associated with sarcoidosis
, coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, TB, streptococcal infections, leprosy and
Crohn Disease.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20091857011104.jpg" /></div>
1404708348969 1395802358422 {{c1::Pityriasis Rosea}} is a skin disorder that
presents with <>multiple plaques</>&nsp;in a <>"herald patch</>" shape fol
lowed days later y a "<>christmas tree</>" distriution.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-20706037334433.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Self resolving in
6-8 weeks.</i></div>
1404708945546 1395802358422 {{c1::Sunurn}} is an <>acute</>&nsp;skin dis
order caused y excessive <>UVB</> radiation that can lead to impetigo and ski
n cancer.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20834886353313.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Damage is caused y UV-radiation induced apoptosis of keratinocyte
s via DNA mutations.</i></div>
1404709002018 1395802358422 Which type of UV radiation is dominant in Sunur
ns?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UVB}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Tanning and photoa
ging uses UVA light.</i></div>
1404709060185 1395802358422 {{c1::Sunurn}} is an <>acute</>&nsp;skin dis
order that presents with an inflammatory reaction due to <>excess UV irradiatio
n</>.
1404709386951 1395802358422 What is the most common skin cancer?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Basal Cell Carcinoma}}</div>
1404709453377 1395802358422 What is the second most common skin cancer?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma}}</div>
1404709558486 1395802358422 Which skin cancer is occasionally associated wit
h Arsenic exposure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous Cell carcinoma}}</div>
1404709922013 1395802358422 Which skin cancer is associated with <>chronic
draining sinuses</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma}}</div>
1404710064579 1395802358422 {{c1::Vemurafeni}} is an anticancer drug that f
unctions as a <>BRAF Kinase inhiitor</>&nsp;and hence may enefit patients w
ith metastatic or unresectale melanoma with <i><>BRAF V600E</>&nsp;mutations
.</i>
1404710308531 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Vemurafeni in the treatment
of Melanoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::BRAF Kinase inhiitor}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Effective in patients with BRAF V600E mutations.</i></div>
1383067976752 1358629116480 {{c1::Achondroplasia}} is a common cause of dwar
fism characterized y impaired {{c2::cartilage}} proliferation at the growth pla
te.
<r /><div><i>Patient may present like <>Sohai</>.</i></div>
1383068999381 1358629116480 Which gene is overexpressed in Achondroplasia an
d causes the pathology seen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>FGFR3</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>FGFR3 overexpression inhiits growth</i></div>
1383069919084 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI)}} is an autos
omal dominant one disorder due to defective Collagen Type&nsp;{{c2::I}} synthe
sis.
1383070287777 1358629116480 What is the cause of Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI
)?<div><r />{{c1::Defective Collagen Type I synthesis}}</div>
1383070321697 1358629116480 What pathology is lue sclera commonly indicativ

e of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI)}}</div>
1383070349267 1358629116480 What cells are proliferating in Osteosarcoma?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteo<><u></u></>lasts}}</div>
1383076945242 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteopetrosis}} is a one disorder involvi
ng defective one resorption.
1383080357991 1358629116480 What enzyme is commonly mutated in Osteopetrosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caronic Anhydrase II}}</div>
1383080383707 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteopetrosis}} is a one disorder charact
erized y anormally thick, heavy ones that fracture easily.
1383080597219 1358629116480 Osteopetrosis involves a&nsp;{{c1::Myelophthisi
c Process}} where the continual growth of one eventually replaces the contents
of the one marrow.
<r /><div><i>Hence, there will e pancytopenia, extrame
dullary hematopoiesis and tear drop cells.</i></div>
1383080691807 1358629116480 What is the effect of Osteopetrosis on Vision an
d Hearing?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Impairment due to the impingement onto cra
nial nerve y one growth}}</div>
1383081336995 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Osteopetrosis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Bone marrow transplant}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer,
Osteoclasts are derived from Monocytes (i.e. through hematopoiesis)</i></div>
1383081393173 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteoporosis}} is a one disorder defined
as a reduction in traecular one mass.
1383081421214 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteoporosis}} is a one disorder that inv
olves <>normal</> la values of serum Ca, PO4, PTH and ALP.
1383081454168 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteomalacia}} is a one disorder that inv
olves <>anormal</>&nsp;la values of serum Ca, PO4, PTH and ALP.
1383081492737 1358629116480 What is a DEXA Scan used to test for?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Bone density; used to dx osteoporosis}}</div>
1383081520370 1358629116480 {{c1::Biphosphonates}} are a group of drugs used
to treat one disorders y inducing apoptosis in&nsp;{{c2::Osteoclasts}}.
1383081558764 1358629116480 {{c1::Rickets}} is due to Vitamin D deficiency i
n children.
1383081678965 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteomalacia}} is due to Vitamin D deficie
ncy in adults.
1383081692090 1358629116480 {{c1::Frontal ossing}} is a feature of Rickets
defined as the expansion of the forehead/skull due to osteoid deposition.
1383081891563 1358629116480 {{c1::Rachitic rosary}} is a feature of Rickets
defined as small, palpale eads of one at the costochondral junctions due to o
steoid deposition.
1383081956980 1358629116480 {{c1::Pigeon-reast}} is a feature of Rickets de
fined as the inward ending of the ris with anterior protrusion of the sternum.
1383081992002 1358629116480 How does serum Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) change
in Osteomalacia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase; due to increased Osteola
st activity}}</div>
1383082227721 1358629116480 How does serum Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) levels
change with increased Osteolast activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, an alkaline environment is needed to lay down Ca
²⁺</i></div>
1383082292861 1358629116480 How are serum PTH levels changed in Osteomalacia
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased due to low levels of Ca and PO4}}</div>
1383082326470 1358629116480 {{c1::Paget's Disease of Bone}} is a one disord
er characterized y an idiopathic imalance etween osteoclast and osteolast fu
nction.
1383082367459 1358629116480 What is an <>isolated </>increase in serum ALP
commonly indicative of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paget's Disease of Bone}}</d
iv>
1383085959741 1358629116480 {{c1::Paget's Disease of Bone}} is a one disord
er that involves <>local</>&nsp;one pathology as opposed to the entire skele
ton.
1383086065572 1358629116480 What is a mosaic pattern of lamellar one (aka C
ement Lines) commonly indicative of?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-110981

95493302.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paget's Disease of Bone}}</div
>
1383086481870 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteomyelitis}} is a one disorder defined
as the infection of one marrow and one.
1383086508735 1358629116480 Osteomyelitis caused y&nsp;{{c1::transient}} 
acteremia is most common in&nsp;{{c2::children}}.
1383086556856 1358629116480 Osteomyelitis caused y&nsp;{{c1::open-wound}}
acteremia is most common in&nsp;{{c2::adults}}.
1383086571206 1358629116480 Where does Osteomyelitis caused y transient ac
teremia seed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The metaphysis}}</div>
1383086610551 1358629116480 Where does Osteomyelitis caused y open-wound a
cteremia seed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The epiphysis}}</div>
1383086642196 1358629116480 What acterial species is the most common cause
of Osteomyelitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div
>
1383086908475 1358629116480 What acterial species is commonly the cause of
Osteomyelitis in sexually active young adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Nei
sseria gonorrhoeae</i>}}</div>
1383086934768 1358629116480 What acterial species is commonly the cause of
Osteomyelitis in Sickle Cell Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Salmonella s
pp.</i>}}</div>
1383086966175 1358629116480 What 2 acterial species is commonly the cause o
f Osteomyelitis in diaetics or IV drug users?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pse
udomonas spp.</i>}}</div>
Patients with Sickle Cell disease contract Osteo
myelitis as a result of Salmonella, whereas IV drug users may e infected with P
seudomonas. &nsp;However, Staphylococcus aureus continues to e most common cau
se of Osteomyelitis in oth these groups of patients.
1383087002756 1358629116480 What acterial species is commonly the cause of
Osteomyelitis in those that have een itten or scratched y cats or dogs?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pasteurella</i>}}</div>
1383087047967 1358629116480 {{c1::Pott's Disease}} is a form of Osteomyeliti
s caused y <i>Mycoacterium tuerculosis.</i> <r /><div><i>It commonly involv
es the <>lumar</>&nsp;veterae</i></div>
1383087099448 1358629116480 What acterial species causes Pott's Disease?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycoacterium tuerculosis</i>}}</div>
1383087146366 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::sequestrum}} refers to the lytic
focus/ascess that is surrounded y sclerotic one in Pott's Disease.
1383087190823 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::involucrum}} refers to the sclero
tic one that surrounds the lytic focus/ascess in Pott's Disease.
1383087219055 1358629116480 {{c1::Dactylitis}} is a form of Avascular Osteon
ecrosis seen at the hands and feet in Sickle Cell Anaemia.
1383087263605 1358629116480 {{c1::RANK-L}} on Osteolasts inds to&nsp;{{c2
::RANK}} on Osteoclasts.
1383088007394 1358629116480 What type of collagen is found in one?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1383092882138 1358629116480 What is a pathological one fracture?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::A fracture that occurs in already diseased one}}</div>
1383094458172 1358629116480 What 2 acterial species are commonly the cause
of Osteomyelitis in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Hemophilus influenza
</i>&nsp;and Group B <i>Streptococcus</i>}}</div>
1383094537178 1358629116480 What is the a key characteristic of necrotic on
e that differentiates it from normal one?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Empty lacu
nae}}</div>
1383178845308 1358629116480 What type of collagen is found in the hyaline ca
rtilage found in articulating surfaces?<div><r />{{c1::Type II Collagen}}</div>
1383178896586 1358629116480 Osteoarthritis involves the formation of osteoph
ytes. What are the osteophytes found at the DIPs of the fingers called?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Heerden Nodes}}</div>
1383180445216 1358629116480 Osteoarthritis involves the formation of osteoph
ytes. What are the osteophytes at the PIPs called?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bo

uchard Nodes}}</div>
1383180473509 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteoarthritis}} is a joint disorder chara
cterized y joint stiffness in the morning that <>worsens</>&nsp;as the day p
rogresses.
1383180914282 1358629116480 What HLA type is associated with Rheumatoid Arth
ritis (RA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR4}}</div>
1383180998050 1358629116480 {{c1::Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)}} is a joint dis
order that involves joint stiffness in the morning that <>improves</>&nsp;dur
ing the day.
1383181387169 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::DIP}} joints of the fingers are t
ypically spared in Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA).
1383181834675 1358629116480 What is a Baker's Cyst?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Swelling of a ursa ehind the knee}}</div>
1383182133677 1358629116480 What is the Rheumatoid Factor (RF)?<div><r>{{c1
::IgM antiodies against the F<su>c</su><su style="vertical-align: su; ">&n
sp;&nsp;</su>portion of IgG}}</div> <r><i>O-M-G, I have rheumatoid factor</
i>
1383183614063 1358629116480 Which HLA type is involved with Seronegative Spo
ndyloarthropathies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
1383184348803 1358629116480 {{c1::Ankylosing Spondyloarthritis}} is a Serone
gative Spondyloarthopathy involving a 'Bamoo spine' due to fusion of the verte
rae.
1383185534479 1358629116480 {{c1::Psoriatic Arthritis}} is a Seronegative Sp
ondyloarthropathy that involves "Sausage" fingers and/or toes at the DIPs of the
hands and feet.
1383185590094 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Infective Arthr
itis in sexually active young adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria go
norrheae</i>}}</div>
1383185703962 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Infectious Arth
ritis in children and adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureu
s</i>}}</div>
1383185731987 1358629116480 What type of crystals are involved in Gout?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Monosodium urate (MSU)}}</div>
1383188838613 1358629116480 What enzyme is deficient in Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome
?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Hypoxanthine Guanine Phosphoriosyl Transferase (HGPR
T)}}</div>
<r><div><i>Rememer, Lesch-Nyhan syndrome causes severe gout</i
></div>
1383188891742 1358629116480 What is Podagra?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acut
e gout of the ig toe}}</div>
1383188906988 1358629116480 Monosodium urate (MSU) crystals in Gout exhiit
{{c1::negative}} irefringence under polarized light. <i><r />They appear yel
low</i>
1383188944152 1358629116480 What type of crystals are involved in Pseudogout
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD)}}</div>
1383188971726 1358629116480 CPPD crystals in Pseudogout exhiit&nsp;{{c1::w
eakly positive}} irefringence under polarized light.
1383319306567 1358629116480 {{c1::Paget's Disease of Bone}} is a one disord
er that involves irregularly thickened skull one.<div><r></div><div><img src="
paste-940597838043.jpg" /></div>
1383319432151 1358629116480 The pooling of lood in one depicted elow is c
haracteristic of&nsp;{{c1::Paget's Disease of Bone}}<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-974957576426.jpg" /></div>
1383319469971 1358629116480 {{c1::Paget's Disease of Bone}} is a one disord
er that involves a mosaic pattern of cement lines.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-1086626726157.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Also notice the giant oste
oclast with aundant nuclei</i></div>
1383319533058 1358629116480 The radiograph elow depicts multiple lim fract
ures at varying stages of healing. This is commonly seen in children with&nsp;{
{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}}<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-137009456769
1.jpg" /></div>

1383319605608 1358629116480 The wedge shaped lesion elow is a ony infarct.
Commonly seen in&nsp;{{c1::Avascular Osteonecrosis}}<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-2100239008007.jpg" /></div>
1383320794304 1358629116480 The radiograph elow shows destruction of the i
g toe through severe gout. Gout at the ig toe is called&nsp;{{c1::Podagra}}<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2345052143881.jpg" /></div>
1383320873584 1358629116480 {{c1::Tophi}} are white, chalky aggregates of ur
ic acid crystals with surrounding firosis that appear in Gout.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-2516850835722.jpg" /></div>
1383320955584 1358629116480 CPPD (Ca Pyrophosphate) crystals exhiit positiv
e/lue irefringence and are rhomoid-shaped. They are typically seen in&nsp;{{
c1::Pseudogout}}<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2774548873480.jpg" /></div
>
1383321031201 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteosarcoma}} is a <>malignant</>&nsp;
tumour of Osteolasts that secrete osteoid.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-3268470112524.jpg" /></div>
1383321124921 1358629116480 A iopsy of one with {{c1::Ewing's Sarcoma}} wi
ll show small, round lue cells that resemle lymphocytes. It is commonly mistak
en for lymphoma or chronic osteomyelitis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3
328599654671.jpg" /></div>
1383321267193 1358629116480 We can use a&nsp;{{c1::PAS}} stain to stain for
Glycogen in Ewing's Sarcoma to confirm our diagnosis.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-3667902071049.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Ewing's Sarcoma is <>glyc
ogen positive</>.</i></div>
1383321337618 1358629116480 Radio<>dense</>&nsp;(osteo<>lastic</>) on
e lesions on an xray are typically associated with metastatic&nsp;{{c1::prostat
e}} cancer.
1383321637614 1358629116480 Radio<>lucent</>&nsp;(osteo<>clastic</>) o
ne lesions on an xray are typically associated with metastatic&nsp;{{c1::reast
}}, lung, kidney or thyroid cancer.
1383321691469 1358629116480 Rheumatoid arthritis involves the formation of a
&nsp;{{c1::pannus}} - a mass of inflamed granulation tissue.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-5484673237261.jpg" /></div>
1383321777473 1358629116480 Liposarcoma involves the proliferation of&nsp;{
{c1::lipolasts}} with large nuclei.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-558345
7485072.jpg" /></div>
1397331492746 1395802358422 {{c1::Achondroplasia}} is a common cause of dwar
fism that involves failure of ones to grow longitudinally (via endochondral oss
ification).
1397344043909 1395802358422 Which type of ossification is defective in Achro
ndroplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossification; hence here is
no longitudinal one growth}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Memranous ossification is
unaffected, hence patients usually have a large head relative to lims.</i></di
v>
1397344115481 1395802358422 {{c1::Achondroplasia}} is a common cause of dwar
fism that involves a large head relative to the short lims as <u>memranous oss
ification of one is not affected</u>.
1397344145129 1395802358422 What gene mutation is associated with Achondropl
asia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firolast Growth Factor Receptor 3 (<i>FGFR3</
i>); the mutant receptor is constitutively active and inhiits chondrocyte proli
feration}}</div>
1397344216818 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Achondroplasia?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Activating mutation of <i>FGFR3</i>, resulting in a constitut
ively active firolast growth factor receptor that inhiits chondrocyte prolife
ration}}</div>
1397344265707 1395802358422 {{c1::Achondroplasia}} is a common cause of dwar
fism that involves a constitutively active Firolast Growth Factor Receptor 3 (
FGFR3), therey resulting in inhiition of chondrocyte proliferation.
1397344308672 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Achondroplasi
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 85% of mutations are sporadic ut it <>can 

e autosomal dominant</>}}</div>
1397344339117 1395802358422 How does the risk of Achondroplasia manifesting
in a child change with advanced paternal age?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increas
ed}}</div>
1397344395985 1395802358422 What is the life span of a patient with Achondro
plasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
1397344414177 1395802358422 What is the fertility of a patient with Achondro
plasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
1397344425046 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteoporosis}} is a one disorder that inv
olves the loss of traecular, spongy one mass and interconnections despite norm
al one mineralization and la values. <r /><div><i>Ca and PO4 are normal in O
steoporosis.</i></div>
1397345019575 1395802358422 What diagnostic test can e used to gauge for Os
teoporosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bone Mineral Density test (DEXA)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>DEXA T-score of ≤ - 2.5 is diagnostic.</i></div>
1397345067764 1395802358422 What DEXA score is diagnostic of osteoporosis?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::T-score of ≤ - 2.5}}</div>
1397345086402 1395802358422 {{c1::Verteral Crush Fractures}} are a common c
omplication of osteoporosis and leads to acute ack pain, loss of height and kyp
hosis. <r /><div><img src="paste-16411070038206.jpg" /></div>
1397345144171 1395802358422 Which type of Osteoporosis is Postmenopausal?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1397345347088 1395802358422 Which type of Osteoporosis is Senile Osteoporosi
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1397345357717 1395802358422 {{c1::Postemenopausal (Type I) Osteoporosis}} is
a type of Osteoporosis that involves an increase in one resorption due to a de
crease in estrogen levels.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Estrogen is needed to ma
intain one.</i></div>
1397345403558 1395802358422 Which type of Osteoporosis is associated with Fe
moral Neck fractures and Distal Radius (Colles) fractures?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Postmenopausal (Type I)}}</div>
1397345450272 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Senile O
steoporosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 70 y/o}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Af
fects oth men and women</i></div>
1397345475349 1395802358422 {{c1::Bisphosphonates}} are a <>type</> of dru
g used to treat Osteoporosis through the induction of apoptosis in Osteoclasts.
<r /><div><i>A decrease in osteoclast action will maintain one mass.</i></div>
1397345625967 1395802358422 {{c1::Denosuma}} is a monoclonal antiody used
to treat Osteoporosis y targeting and inding to RANKL on {{c2::Osteolasts}},
inhiiting Osteoclast maturation.
RANKL is expressed y osteolasts and i
nds RANK on osteoclast precursors resulting in osteoclasts differentiation/matur
ation/activity. Denosuma (mimics osteoprotegerin) prevents the RANKL-RANK indi
ng y targeting RANKL.
1397345750831 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody is used to treat Osteo
porosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Denosuma}}</div>
1397345766772 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Denosuma, a monoclonal anti
ody used to treat Osteoporosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Binding to and inhii
tion of RANKL}}</div>
1397345793396 1395802358422 {{c1::Specific Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SER
Ms)}} is a <>type </>of hormone drugs used to treat Osteoporosis y activating
Estrogen receptors at one.
<r /><div><i>Raloxifene is the drug of choice h
ere.</i></div><div><i>At one, Estrogens inhiit cytokines that activate Osteocl
asts and decrease Osteoclast life span. They also increase Osteolast recruitmen
t, function and life span.</i></div>
1397346003191 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteopetrosis}} is a one disorder that in
volves the failure of normal one resorption to occur due to defective osteoclas
ts, therey resulting in thickened, dense ones prone to fracture.
<r /><d
iv><i>Very dense ones are rittle.</i></div>
1397346104139 1395802358422 {{c1::Pancytopenia}} and {{c2::Extramedullary He
matopoiesis}} are complications of Osteopetrosis that occur due to the expansion

of one into the one marrow.
1397346166264 1395802358422 What enzyme mutation is associated with Osteopet
rosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caronic Anhydrase <>II</>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Specifically type II, which is found in Osteoclasts.</i></div>
1397346193036 1395802358422 {{c1::Caronic Anhydrase II Mutation}} is an enz
yme mutation found in Osteopetrosis that impairs the aility of Osteoclasts to g
enerate an acidic environment necessary for one resorption.
<r /><div><i>Al
kaline Phosphatase in Osteolasts yields an alkaline environment that is needed
for <>laying down one</>.</i></div><div><i>Caronic Anhydrase <>II</>&nsp;
in Osteoclasts yields an acidic environment that is needed for <>resoring one
</>.</i></div>
1397346373407 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteopetrosis}} is a one disorder that wi
ll present with a one-in-one appearance and diffusely dense ones on x-ray.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19237158519087.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Co
mmonly seen est at the pelvis.</i></div>
1397347520901 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteopetrosis}} is a one disorder that ca
n result in cranial nerve impingement and palsies as a result of narrowed forami
na due to one expansion.
1397348003623 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Osteopetrosis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Bone marrow transplant}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer,
the cause is a defect in Osteoclast function. Since Osteoclasts are derived from
the monocyte lineage, one marrow transplant is curative.</i></div>
1397348050118 1395802358422 What one disorder is descried as Vitamin D def
iciency in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteomalacia}}</div>
1397348077849 1395802358422 What one disorder is defined as Vitamin D defic
iency in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rickets}}</div>
1397348094316 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteomalacia}} is a one disorder that is
defined as Vitamin D deficiency in adults and involves defective mineralization
and calfication of osteoid one.
1397348145502 1395802358422 {{c1::Rickets}} is a one disorder that is defin
ed as Vitamin D deficiency in children and involves defective mineralization and
calcification of osteoid, therey yielding soft ones that ow out.
1397348178600 1395802358422 How does serum [Ca] change in Osteomalacia or Ri
ckets?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased due to the Vitamin D deficiency}}</d
iv>
1397348202438 1395802358422 How do PTH levels change in Osteomalacia or Rick
ets?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased PTH due to a decrease in serum Ca and
Vitamin D}}</div>
1397348241023 1395802358422 How does serum [PO<su>4</su>] change in Osteom
alacia and Rickets?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased due to increased PTH ac
tion}}</div>
1397349137368 1395802358422 How do ALP levels change in Osteomalacia or Rick
ets?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased due to increased osteolast activity}}
</div>
1397349170950 1395802358422 {{c1::Paget Disease of Bone (Osteitis Deformans)
}} is a common, localized one disorder that involves an increase in <>oth</>
&nsp;osteolastic and osteoclastic activity.
1397349666673 1395802358422 {{c1::Paget Disease of Bone (Osteitis Deformans)
}} is a disorder of one remodeling that involves a <>mosaic pattern</>&nsp;o
f woven and lamellar one.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20882130993458.j
pg" /></div>
1397349735735 1395802358422 Which one disorder is associated with a <>mosa
ic pattern</>&nsp;of woven and lamellar one?<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-20877836026162.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paget Disease of Bo
ne (Osteitis Deformans)}}</div>
1397350037173 1395802358422 Which one disorder is associated with long one
chalk-stick fractures?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paget Disease of Bone}}</div>
1397350058195 1395802358422 {{c1::High-output heart failure}} is a possile
complication of Paget Disease of Bone that results from an increase in lood flo
w from an increase in arteriovenous shunts.

1397350096919 1395802358422 Which one cancer has an increased risk of occur
ring in Paget Disease of Bone?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteogenic Sarcoma (Os
teosarcoma)}}</div>
1397350115997 1395802358422 Which one disorder is commonly associated with
<>increasing hat size</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21311627723055.
jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paget Disease of Bone}}</div>
1397350159974 1395802358422 {{c1::Hearing Loss}} is a common complication of
Paget Disease of Bone due to narrowing of the auditory foramen.
1397350405372 1395802358422 Which stage of Paget Disease of Bone involves el
evated Osteoclast activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lytic Phase}}</div>
1397350436207 1395802358422 Which stage of Paget Disease of Bone involves in
creases in&nsp;<>oth</>&nsp;Osteoclastic and Osteolastic activity?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Mixed}}</div>
1397350470033 1395802358422 What stage of Paget Disease of Bone involves inc
reased Osteolast activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sclerotic}}</div>
1397350493382 1395802358422 What stage of Paget Disease of Bone involves min
imal osteolast and osteoclast activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Quiescent}}<
/div>
1397350516060 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteonecrosis (Avascular Necrosis)}} is a
one pathology that involves infarction of one and one marrow and is typically
very painful.
1397350560933 1395802358422 Which hematological disorder is associated with
causing Osteonecrosis (Avascular Necrosis)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sickle Ce
ll Disease}}</div>
1397350593149 1395802358422 Which <u>drug of ause</u>&nsp;is associated wi
th causing Osteonecrosis (Avascular Necrosis)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcoho
l}}</div>
1397350608600 1395802358422 {{c1::High-dose corticosteroids}} are a type of
drug that is associated with causing Osteonecrosis (Avascular Necrosis).
1397350716164 1395802358422 What is the most common site of Osteonecrosis (A
vascular Necrosis)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Femoral Head; due to insufficienc
y of the Medial Circumflex Femoral Artery}}</div>
1397350765874 1395802358422 Insufficiency of which artery is associated with
Osteonecrosis (Avascular Necrosis) of the femoral head?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Medial Circumflex Femoral Artery}}</div>
1397350812026 1395802358422 Which one disorder has <>normal</>&nsp;la v
alues (Ca, PO<su>4</su>, ALP and PTH levels)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteo
porosis}}</div>
1397357669266 1395802358422 How does serum Ca change in <>severe, malignant
</>&nsp;Osteopetrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased; otherwise it is n
ormal}}</div>
1397357724184 1395802358422 How does serum Ca change in Paget Disease of Bon
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397357741325 1395802358422 How do PO<su>4</su>&nsp;levels change in Page
t Disease of Bone?<div><r />{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397357766983 1395802358422 How do ALP levels change in Paget Disease of Bon
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1397357780742 1395802358422 How do PTH levels change in Paget Disease of Bon
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397357793403 1395802358422 How does serum Ca change in Hypervitaminosis D?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1397357812267 1395802358422 How do PO<su>4</su>&nsp;levels change in Hype
rvitaminosis D?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397357836613 1395802358422 How do ALP levels change in Hypervitaminosis D?<
div><r />{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397357850726 1395802358422 How do PTH levels change in Hypervitaminosis D?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397357898169 1395802358422 What is the only la value that changes in Paget
Disease of Bone?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALP increases}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Paget Disease involves overactivity of Osteolasts</i></div>

1397357960385 1395802358422 Which one disorder is associated with <>decrea
sed one mass</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoporosis}}</div>
1397357973718 1395802358422 Which one disorder is associated with <>dense,
rittle ones</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteopetrosis}}</div>
1397357986846 1395802358422 Which one disorder is associated with an <>an
ormal "mosaic" one architecture</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paget Disease o
f Bone}}</div>
1397358016413 1395802358422 Which one disorder is associated with <>soft 
ones</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteomalacia and Rickets}}</div>
1397358031173 1395802358422 {{c1::Sarcoidosis}} is a granulomatous disease t
hat can cause Hypervitaminosis D.
<r /><div><i>The other common cause is
over-supplementation of Vitamin D.</i></div>
1397358077214 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteitis Firosa Cystica}} is a one disor
der that involves <>"rown tumours</>" in one due to firous replacement of 
one and superiosteal thinning and is often associated with Hyperparathyroidism.
<r /><div><i>Associated with Hyperparathyroidism (due to Parathyroid hyperplasi
a, adenoma or carcinoma). It is otherwise idiopathic.</i></div>
1397358462489 1395802358422 How does serum Ca change in <>Primary</>&nsp;
Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397358506615 1395802358422 How do PO<su>4</su>&nsp;levels change in&nsp
;<>Primary</>&nsp;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}<
/div>
1397358521643 1395802358422 How do ALP levels change in&nsp;<>Primary</>&
nsp;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397358535834 1395802358422 How do PTH levels change in&nsp;<>Primary</>&
nsp;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Just making sure you're still awake.</i></div>
1397358575590 1395802358422 How does Serum Ca change in&nsp;<>Secondary</
>&nsp;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, secondary hyper-PTH is typically due to chronic renal failure wh
ich involves <>decreased PO<su>4</su>&nsp;excretion</>, therey leading to
<>decreased serum Ca</>&nsp;as PO<su>4</su>&nsp;inds to free serum Ca.</i
></div>
1397358746220 1395802358422 How do PO<su>4</su>&nsp;levels change in <>S
econdary</>&nsp;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, secondary hyper-PTH is typically due to chronic
renal failure which involves&nsp;<>decreased PO<su>4</su>&nsp;excretion</>
, therey leading to <>increased PO<su>4</su></>.</i></div>
1397358760696 1395802358422 How do ALP levels change in <>Secondary</>&ns
p;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<div><i>
<r /></i></div>
1397358847943 1395802358422 How do PTH levels change in <>Secondary</>&ns
p;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Once again, just making sure you're awake.</i></div>
1397402795935 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Giant Ce
ll Tumour of the Bone?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::20-40 y/o}}</div>
1397402856237 1395802358422 Where along the one is Giant Cell Tumour common
ly located?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epiphyseal end}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-700079669560.jpg" /></div>
1397402903702 1395802358422 {{c1::Giant Cell Tumour}} is a enign tumour of
the one that typically arises around the knee.
1397402931056 1395802358422 {{c1::Giant Cell Tumour}} is a enign tumour of
the one that involves a <>"soap ule"</>&nsp;appearance on x-ray.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-850403524815.jpg" /></div>
1397402985059 1395802358422 {{c1::Giant Cell Tumour}} is a enign tumour of
the one that involves <>multinucleated giant cells</>.
1397403001256 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteochondroma (Exostosis)}} is a enign t
umour of the one that involves an outgrowth of mature one with a cartilaginous
cap. <r /><div><img src="paste-1584842932522.jpg" /></div>
1397403044975 1395802358422 What is the most common <>enign</>&nsp;tumou

r of the one?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteochondroma (Exostosis)}}</div>
1397403069242 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Osteocho
ndroma (Exostosis)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males &lt; 25 y/o}}</div>
1397403094414 1395802358422 How often does Osteochondroma transform into Cho
ndrosarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rarely}}</div>
1397403157787 1395802358422 What is the most common <>primary</>&nsp;mali
gnant one tumour?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Multiple Myeloma}}</div>
1397403480763 1395802358422 What is the <>2nd</>&nsp;most common <>prima
ry</>&nsp;malignant one tumour?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteosarcoma (Oste
ogenic Sarcoma)}}</div>
1397403506100 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y Osteosarc
oma (Osteogenic Sarcoma)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bimodal distriution (10-20
y/o and &gt; 65 y/o)}}</div>
1397403550154 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y <>primar
y</>&nsp;Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sarcoma)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::10-20 y
/o}}</div>
1397403570056 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y <>second
ary</>&nsp;Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sarcoma)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt;
65 y/o}}</div>
1397403603839 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Retinolastoma}} is a familial ne
urological cancer that is a predisposing factor for Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sar
coma).
1397404035749 1395802358422 {{c1::Li-Fraumeni Syndrome}} is an autosomal dom
inant hereditary disorder that involves a&nsp;<>germline <i>p53</i>&nsp;mutat
ion</>&nsp;and stands as a predisposing factor for Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sa
rcoma).
1397404144762 1395802358422 {{c1::Paget Disease of Bone}} is a one disorder
that involves a <>mosaic pattern of one</>&nsp;and stands as a predisposing
factor for Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sarcoma).
1397404241211 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sarcoma)}} is a m
alignant one tumour that is commonly found at the <>metaphysis</>&nsp;of lon
g ones, typically around the knee.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3350074
491092.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3414499000618.jpg" /></div>
1397404336469 1395802358422 {{c1::Codman Triangle}} is a feature of Osteosar
coma that involves elevation of the periosteum due to the presence of a heteroge
nous mass.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3582002725166.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3410204033322.jpg" /></div>
1397404591159 1395802358422 Which malignant one tumour is associated with a
<>sunurst pattern</>&nsp;on x-ray?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteosarcoma
(Osteogenic Sarcoma)}}</div>
1397404631697 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sarcoma)}} is an
aggressive, malignant one tumour that is treated with <u>surgical en loc resec
tion (with lim salvage)</u> and chemotherapy.
1397404758823 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Ewing Sa
rcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Boys &lt; 15 y/o}}</div>
1397404780563 1395802358422 What type of cells are proliferating in Osteosar
coma (Osteogenic Sarcoma)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteolasts; hence this is
an osteoid secretion tumour}}</div>
1397404822931 1395802358422 {{c1::Ewing Sarcoma}} is a malignant one tumour
that commonly appears in the <>diaphysis</> of <u>lone ones, pelvis, scapula
and ris.</u> <r /><div><img src="paste-4312147165489.jpg" /></div>
1397404885107 1395802358422 {{c1::Ewing Sarcoma}} is a malignant one tumour
that involves&nsp;<>anaplastic, small lue cells</>.<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-4389456576719.jpg" /></div>
1397404928138 1395802358422 Which malignant one tumour is associated with a
n <>"Onion skin"</>&nsp;appearance in one?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ewing
Sarcoma}}</div>
1397404954958 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation is associated wi
th Ewing Sarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(11;22)}}</div> <r /><div><i>11
+ 22 = 33 = Patrick <>Ewing</>'s jersey numer</i></div><div><i><img src="pas

te-4672924418488.jpg" /></i></div>
1397405538352 1395802358422 {{c1::Ewing Sarcoma}} is an <>extremely aggress
ive</>&nsp;malignant one tumour that is associated with a t(11;22) translocat
ion.
1397405579062 1395802358422 {{c1::Chondrosarcoma}} is a rare, malignant, car
tilagninous tumour that can either y <>primary</>&nsp;or (rarely) <>seconda
ry</>&nsp;from Osteochondroma.
1397405627845 1395802358422 What age groups is commonly affected y Chondros
arcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Men 30-60 y/o}}</div>
1397405645308 1395802358422 {{c1::Chondrosarcoma}} is a malignant, cartilagi
nous tumour that is usually located in the pelvis, spine, scapule, humerus, tii
a or femur.
1397405672660 1395802358422 {{c1::Chondrosarcoma}} is a malignant one tumou
r that presents as an <>expansile glistening mass</>&nsp;within the medullary
cavity of one.
1397405701015 1395802358422 Where along long one is Giant Cell Tumour of th
e Bone located?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epiphysis}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-4977867096368.jpg" /></div>
1397406661873 1395802358422 Where along long one is Osteochondroma (Exostos
is) located?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metaphysis}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-4973572129072.jpg" /></div>
1397406681078 1395802358422 Where along long ones is Osteosarcoma located?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metaphysis}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-49735
72129072.jpg" /></div>
1397406723769 1395802358422 Where along long ones is Chondrosarcoma located
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diaphysis}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-49735
72129072.jpg" /></div>
1397406740186 1395802358422 Where along long ones is Ewing Sarcoma located?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diaphysis}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-49735
72129072.jpg" /></div>
1397406751426 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Osteoarthritis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Joint wear and tear leads to destruction of articular cartila
ge}}</div>
1397407426906 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteoarthritis}} is a joint disorder that
involves suchondral cysts, narrowing of the joint space and joint sclerosis on
x-ray.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6137508266296.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div><r /></div></div>
1397407500880 1395802358422 {{c1::Eurnation}} is a feature of Osteoarthriti
s that involves a polished, ivory-like appearance of the one.
1397407672364 1395802358422 Which type of joint are Heerden Nodes located a
t?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distal Interphalangeal Joints (DIP)}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>B</>&nsp;efore&nsp;<>H</>&nsp;(Bouchard efore Heerden)
</i></div>
1397407815616 1395802358422 Which type of joint are Bouchard Nodes located a
t?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal Interphalangeal Joints (PIPs)}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>B</>&nsp;efore <>H</>&nsp;(Bouchard efore Heerden)</i><
/div>
1397407869614 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteophytes}} are a feature of Osteoarthri
tis that are descried as one spurs located at the joints.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-7232724926807.jpg" /></div>
1397408085596 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteoarthritis}} is a joint disorder that
<>does not</>&nsp;involve the Metacarpophalangeal Joints (MCPs).
<r /><d
iv><div><i>Osteoarthritis = DIPs, PIPs and no MCPs</i></div><div><i>Rheumatoid A
rthritis = MCPs, PIPs and no DIPs</i></div></div>
1397408214376 1395802358422 What is the most common risk factor for Osteoart
hritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Age}}</div>
1397408242969 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteoarthritis}} is a joint disorder that
involves pain that <>worsens</>&nsp;with use (typically at its worse at the e
nd of the day).
1397408406984 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteoarthritis}} is a joint disorder that

classically presents with knee cartilage loss that egins on the medial side, re
sulting in slight owleggedness.
1397408483283 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Rheumatoid Arthritis?<di
v><r />{{c1::Autoimmune destruction of synovial joints}}</div> <r /><div><i>Me
diated y cytokines and Type III and Type IV hypersensitivty.</i></div>
1397408557395 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatoid Arthritis}} is a joint disorder
that involves the formation of <>pannus</>&nsp;at the MCP and PIP joints.
<div><r /></div><i>Rememer, MCPs = knuckles</i><r /><div><img src="paste-8078
833484119.jpg" /></div>
1397411172874 1395802358422 {{c1::Sucutaneous Rheumatoid Nodules}} are a sy
stemic symptom of Rheumatoid Arthritis that involves firinoid necrosis at sucu
taneous tissue.
1397411242155 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatoid Arthritis}} is a joint disorder
that presents with <>ulnar deviation</>&nsp;of the fingers and <>suluxatio
n</>&nsp;of affected joints.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-858563962500
6.jpg" /></div>
1397411295891 1395802358422 {{c1::Baker Cyst}} is a type of cyst that forms
in the popliteal fossa in Rheumatoid Arthritis.
1397411327834 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatoid Arthritis}} is a joint disorder
that <>does not</>&nsp;involve the Distal Interphalangeal (DIP) joints.
<r /><div><i>Osteoarthritis = DIPs, PIPs and no MCPs</i></div><div><i>Rheumatoi
d Arthritis = MCPs, PIPs and no DIPs</i></div>
1397411444217 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Rheumatoi
d Arthritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Females}}</div> <div><i><r /></i></div>
1397411502752 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatoid Factor (anti-IgG IgM antiody)}
} is an autoantiody that is found in 80% of Rheumatoid Arthritis cases and targ
ets the F<su>c</su>&nsp;portion circulating IgG.
1397411616470 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is commonly involved in Rheum
atoid Arthritis?<div><r />{{c1::Rheumatoid Factor (Anti-IgG IgM antiody); targ
ets the F<su>c</su>&nsp;portion of IgG}}</div>
1397411655407 1395802358422 {{c1::Anti-cyclic Citrullinated Peptide Antiody
}} is an antiody seen in Rheumatoid Arthritis that is more specific to the dise
ase than Rheumatoid Factor.
1397412632923 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Rheumatoid
Arthritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR4}}</div>
1397412664256 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatoid Arthritis}} is a joint disorder
that involves morning joint stiffness that <>improves with use</>.
1397412694519 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatoid Arthritis}} is a joint disorder
that involves <>symmetrical joint involvement</>&nsp;and systemic symptoms s
uch as fatigue, pleuritis and pericarditis.
1397412726687 1395802358422 {{c1::Sjogren Syndrome}} is an autoimmune disord
er characterized y the destruction of exocrine glands, especially at the Lacrim
al and Salivary Glands.
1397413812189 1395802358422 Which 2 exocrine glands are commonly destroyed i
n Sjogren Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lacrimal and Salivary}}</div>
1397413831195 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Sjogren S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Females (40-60 y/o)}}</div>
1397413850107 1395802358422 Which age group is more commonly affected y Sjo
gren Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40-60 y/o females}}</div>
1397413866500 1395802358422 {{c1::Dental Caries}} are an oral complication o
f Sjogren Syndrome due to hyposalivation and a lack of actericidal enzymes/comp
ounds in the mouth.
1397413965172 1395802358422 {{c1::Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT) L
ymphoma}} is a tumour and possile complication of Sjogren Syndrome that present
s as unilateral parotid enlargement due to lymphocytic infiltration of the saliv
ary glands.
1397414039260 1395802358422 {{c1::Xerophthalmia}} is a feature of Sjogren Sy
ndrome that involves decreased tear production and often leads to susequent cor
neal damage.
1397414097154 1395802358422 {{c1::Xerostomia}} is a feature of Sjogren Syndr

ome that is defined as a decrease in saliva production.
1397414118360 1395802358422 Which anti-nuclear antiodies are associated wit
h Sjogren Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::SS-A (anti-Ro) and SS-B (anti-La)
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"A-Ro-B-La"</i></div>
1397414184010 1395802358422 {{c1::Sjogren Syndrome}} is an autoimmune disord
er that involves SS-A (anti-Ro) and SS-B (anti-La) antiodies.
1397424254935 1395802358422 {{c1::Gout}} is an acute, inflammatory monoarthr
itis caused y precipitation of monosodium urate crystals in joints.<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-12902081757485.jpg" /></div>
1397424334567 1395802358422 What is the most common <>mechanism</>&nsp;th
at causes Gout?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Underexcretion ofUric Acid (seen in 9
0% of patients)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Overproduction of Uric Acid is seen in 10%
of patients.</i></div>
1397424908947 1395802358422 Which <>type</>&nsp;of diuretics can exacera
te hyperuricemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thiazide diuretics}}</div>
1397425038319 1395802358422 {{c1::Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome}} is a genetic cause
of Gout that involves an X-linked deficiency of Hypoxanthine-Guanine Phosphorio
syltransferase (HGPRT).
1397425116634 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Lesch-Nyhan S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked}}</div>
1397425128342 1395802358422 What enzyme is deficient in Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypoxanthine-Guanine Phosphoriosyltransferase (HGP
RT)}}</div>
1397425160819 1395802358422 {{c1::PRPP (Phosphoriosyl Pyrophosphate)}} is a
compound involved in de novo purine synthesis that can cause Gout when it is in
excess (such as in Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome).
<r /><div><i>PRPP is made into
Uric Acid (among other metaolites). In HGPRT deficiency (LN syndrome), PRPP is
shunted towards Uric Acid. This is also the case in PRPP excess, such as in Tumo
ur Lysis Syndrome.</i></div>
1397426328854 1395802358422 {{c1::Tumour Lysis Syndrome}} is a syndrome asso
ciated with tumours/cancer that can cause Gout due to increased cell turnover an
d a resultant increase in Uric Acid production.
1397426394788 1395802358422 {{c1::von Gierke Disease}} is a Glycogen Storage
Disease that can cause Gout via overproduction of Uric Acid. <r /><div><i>Th
e elevated lactic acid in von Gierke's competes with uric acid for the same tran
sporter at the kidneys, therey causing hyperuricemia.&nsp;</i></div>
1397426565170 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected with Gout?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
1397426749507 1395802358422 {{c1::Gout}} is a joint disorder that involves t
he precipitation of needle shaped, <>negative irfringent </>crystals.
1397426794146 1395802358422 What colour do Uric Acid crystals of Gout show u
nder <>parallel</>&nsp;light?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ellow}}</div>
1397426810082 1395802358422 What colour do the Uric Acid crystals of Gout sh
ow under <>perpendicular</>&nsp;light?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blue}}</div
>
1397426828247 1395802358422 {{c1::Podagra}} is a classical feature of Gout a
nd is descried as asymmetrical and painful MTP joint of the ig toe.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-15887084028209.jpg" /></div>
1397427345469 1395802358422 {{c1::Tophi}} are a feature of Gout that are des
cried as aggregates of Uric Acid crystals that deposit at soft tissue (often th
e external ear, olecranon ursa or Achilles tendon).
1397427415078 1395802358422 Which drug of ause can cause acute attacks of G
out?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol}}</div> <r /><div><i>This is due to alc
ohol metaolites competing for the same excretion sites in the kidney as uric ac
id, leading to hyperuricemia.</i></div>
1397427458024 1395802358422 {{c1::Alcohol}} is a drug of ause that can caus
e acute attacks of Gout due to its metaolites competing for the same excreting
sites in the kidneys as Uric Acid, therey causing hyperuricemia.
1397427491698 1395802358422 Which type of crystals are involved in Gout?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uric Acid}}</div>

1397427599976 1395802358422 Which type of crystals are involved in Pseudogou
t?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium Pyrophosphate}}</div>
1397427616262 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudogout}} is a joint disorder that invo
lves deposition of Calcium Pyrophosphate crystals within the joint space.
1397428040487 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudogout}} is a joint disorder that invo
lves the deposition of <>asophilic, rhomoid crystals</>&nsp;with weakly pos
itive irefringence.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16496969384151.jpg" />
</div>
1397428095619 1395802358422 What is the irefringence of Uric Acid crystals
in Gout?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1397428107507 1395802358422 What is the irefringence of Calcium Pyrophospha
te crystals in Pseudogout?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Weakly positive}}</div>
1397428132452 1395802358422 Which joint is classically affected with Pseudog
out?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Knee}}</div>
<r><div><i>Larger joints are ty
pically the ones affected.</i></div>
1397428355265 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Pseudogo
ut?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 50}}</div> <r /><div><i>Both sexes equally
affected; this is different from Gout which is more common in men</i></div>
1397428383149 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemochromatosis}} is a hematological disor
der associated with Pseudogout and involves elevated levels of iron.
1397428431341 1395802358422 Which endocrine disorders are associated with Ps
eudogout?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyper/hypoparathyroidism}}</div>
1397428459716 1395802358422 What colour do the Calcium Pyrophosphate crystal
s of Pseudogout yield when exposed to <>parallel</>&nsp;light?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Blue}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Gout = ye<>ll</>ow with pa
ra<>ll</>el light</i><div><i>Pseudogout = lue with parallel light<r /></i><d
iv><img src="paste-16492674416855.jpg" /></div></div>
1397428534962 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Infectious Arth
ritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria gonorrheae</i>}}</div>
1397428700030 1395802358422 What is the <>2nd </>most common cause of Infe
ctious Arthritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div
>
1397428718972 1395802358422 {{c1::Gonococcal arthritis}} is an STD infection
that presents as a migratory arthritis with an asymmetric pattern of joint swel
ling, redness and pain. <r /><div><i><>STD</>&nsp;= <>S</>ynovitis (at the
knee), <>T</>enosynovitis (at the hand) and <>D</>ermatitis (pustules at th
e skin).</i></div>
1397428813427 1395802358422 Which joint is most commonly affected y Infecti
ous Arthritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Knee}}</div>
1397428824407 1395802358422 {{c1::Seronegative Spondyloarthropathies}} are a
group of inflammatory arthropathies that <>do not have Rheumatoid factor</>.
1397428947147 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with&nsp;Serone
gative Spondyloarthropathies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27; the gene that
codes for HLA MHC Class I}}</div>
1397428979261 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y&nsp;Sero
negative Spondyloarthropathies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
1397429094533 1395802358422 {{c1::Psoriatic Arthritis}} is a&nsp;Seronegati
ve Spondyloarthropathy that involves joint pain and stiffness and is associated
with Psoriasis.
1397429201651 1395802358422 <div>Which&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy
is associated with <>dactylitis</>&nsp;(sausage fingers)?</div><div><r /></
div>{{c1::Psoriatic Arthritis}}<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18515604013
368.jpg" /></div>
1397429297878 1395802358422 Which&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy is a
ssociated with <>"pencil-in-cup"</>&nsp;finger deformities on x-ray?<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-19013820219709.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Psoriatic Arthritis}}</div></div>
1397429360404 1395802358422 {{c1::Akylosing Spondylitis}} is a Seronegative
Spondyloarthropathy that involves chronic inflammatory disease of the spine and
sacroiliac joints.

1397429757880 1395802358422 {{c1::Ankylosis}} is an axial skeleton disorder
commonly seen in&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy and is descried as a sti
ff spine due to fusion of the joints.
1397429794709 1395802358422 Which type of Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy i
s associated with <>uveitis</> and <>aortic regurgitation</>?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Akylosing Spondylitis}}</div>
1397429823669 1395802358422 {{c1::Bamoo Spine}} is a feature of Akylosing S
pondylitis and is descried as verteral fusion.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-19915763351858.jpg" /></div>
1397429909087 1395802358422 Which type of GI disorder is commonly associated
with&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inflamma
tory Bowel Disease (Crohns or UC)}}</div>
1397429921973 1395802358422 {{c1::Reactive Arthritis (Reiter Syndrome)}} is
a type of&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy that commonly arises following a
GI or <i>Chlamydia</i>&nsp;infection.
1397429975635 1395802358422 Which type of&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropa
thy commonly manifests after a GI infection (<i>Shigella, Salmonella, ersinia,
Campyloacter)</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reactive Arthritis (Reiter Syndro
me)}}</div>
1397430016161 1395802358422 What type of&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropat
hy commonly manifests after <i>Chlamydia</i>&nsp;infections?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Reactive Arthritis (Reiter Syndrome)}}</div>
1397430103502 1395802358422 What is the classic triad of symptoms seen in Re
active Arthritis (Reiter Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cojunctivitis; Ur
ethritis; Arthritis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Can't see, can't pee, can't end
my knee."</i></div>
1397430147694 1395802358422 {{c1::Reactive Arthritis (Reiter Syndrome)}} is
a type of&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy that presents with a classic tri
ad of conjunctivits, urethritis and arthritis. <r /><div><i>"Can't see, can't
pee, can't end my fcking knee."</i></div>
1397430221241 1395802358422 Which type of&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropa
thy is commonly associated with Inflammatory Bowel Disease?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Ankylosing Spondylitis}}</div>
1397430263469 1395802358422 What sex is more commonly affected y&nsp;Syste
mic Lupus Erythematosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Females}}</div>
1397433335783 1395802358422 What demographic is most commonly affected y&n
sp;Systemic Lupus Erythematosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reproductive age fem
ales of African descent}}</div>
1397433361362 1395802358422 {{c1::Lieman-Sacks Endocarditis}} is a complica
tion of&nsp;Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) that involves <>sterile, wart-l
ike vegetations</>&nsp;on oth sides of cardiac valves.
1397433413529 1395802358422 Which autoimmune disorder is Liman-Sacks Endoca
rditis associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
(SLE)}}</div>
1397433433402 1395802358422 Which type of <>Nephritic</>&nsp;syndrome is
associated with Lupus Nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diffuse Proliferativ
e Glomerulonephritis}}</div>
1397433507033 1395802358422 Which type of <>Nephrotic</>&nsp;syndrome is
associated with Lupus Nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memranous Glomerulo
nephritis}}</div>
1397433525281 1395802358422 {{c1::Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)}} is an
autoimmune disorder that is associated with a <>malar</>&nsp;or <>discoid</
>&nsp;rash.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21852793602253.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-22454089023823.jpg" /></div>
1397434375371 1395802358422 Which 2 autoantiodies are <>most commonly</>&
nsp;seen in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti
nuclear (ANA) and Anti-dsDNA antiodies}}</div>
1397434451091 1395802358422 Which autoantiody involved with&nsp;Systemic L
upus Erythematosus (SLE) is <>sensitive</>, ut <>not specific</>&nsp;for t
he disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antinuclear antiodies (ANA)}}</div>

1397434498884 1395802358422 Which autoantiody involved with&nsp;Systemic L
upus Erythematosus (SLE) is <>specific </>to the disease and indicates <>poor
prognosis</>&nsp;and a likelihood of <>renal disease</>?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Anti-dsDNA antiodies}}</div>
1397434553112 1395802358422 Which autoantiody involved with&nsp;Systemic L
upus Erythematosus (SLE) is <>specific</>&nsp;to the disease ut is <>not pr
ognostic</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Smith (anti-Sm) antiodies}}</div>
1397434582093 1395802358422 Which autoantiody involved with&nsp;Systemic L
upus Erythematosus (SLE) is <>directed against snRNPs</>?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Anti-Smith (Anti-Sm) antiodies}}</div>
1397434621593 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is seen in <>Drug Induced</
>&nsp;Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-histo
ne antiodies}}</div>
1397434645140 1395802358422 Which form of&nsp;Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
(SLE) is associated with Anti-Histone Antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dru
g Induced Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)}}</div>
1397434659956 1395802358422 Which autoantiodies involved with&nsp;Systemic
Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) are associated with <>false positive VDRL tests</>&
nsp;and <>paradoxically elevated PTT</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anticardi
olipin antiodies}}</div>
1397434712083 1395802358422 {{c1::Anticardiolipin Antiodies}} are a type of
autoantiody that is associated with&nsp;Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) an
d yields a <>false positive VDRL test</>&nsp;for Syphilis.
1397434750329 1395802358422 {{c1::Anticardiolipin Antiodies}} are a type of
autoantiody in&nsp;Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) that yields a <>parado
xially prolonged PTT</>.
<r /><div><i>There is actually an <>increased<
/>&nsp;risk of arteriovenous thromoemolism.</i></div>
1397434796047 1395802358422 {{c1::Sarcoidosis}} is a systemic inflammatory d
isorder that is characterized y immune-mediated, <>widespread noncaseating gra
nulomas</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23648089932081.jpg" /></div>
1397435943125 1395802358422 Which enzyme is characteristically elevated in S
arcoidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACE}}</div>
<r /><div><i>ACE levels
have een shown to correlate with total granuloma load.</i></div>
1397436067608 1395802358422 Which demographic is most commonly affected y S
arcoidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Black females}}</div>
1397436092099 1395802358422 What incidental chest x-ray finding is associate
d with Sarcoidosis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-24348169601327.jpg" /><
r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral Hilar Adenopathy (and/or reticular op
acities)}}</div></div> <r /><div><i>Aside from the ilateral hilar adenopathy,
notice the right upper lung reticular opacity.</i></div>
1397436223616 1395802358422 What <>type</>&nsp;of lung disease is associa
ted with Sarcoidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Restrictive lung disease (inter
stitial firosis)}}</div>
1397436281286 1395802358422 Which type of facial paralysis is associated wit
h Sarcoidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bell Palsy}}</div>
1397436567592 1395802358422 {{c1::Sarcoidosis}} is a systemic granulomatous
disorder that is associated with epithelioid granulomas with microscopic <>Scha
umann</>&nsp;and <>asteroid odies</>.
1397436616906 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypercalcemia}} is a common association of
Sarcoidosis that presents due to an increase in&nsp;<>1α-hydroxylse–medited vit
min D ctivtion</b> in mcrophges&nbsp;of grnuloms.
1397436681828 1395802358422 Which enzyme in mcrophges of the grnuloms of
Srcoidosis yield the Hyperclcemi ssocited with the disese?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::1α-hydroxylse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>1α-hydroxylse-medited Vit
min D ctivtion leds to hyperclcemi.</i></div>
1397436764332 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Srcoidosis?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Steroids}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Rememebr, steroids re imm
unosuppressnts.</i></div>
1397436795766 1395802358422 Wht eye disorder is ssocited with Srcoidosis
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uveitis}}</div>

1397436961545 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythem Nodosum}} is n inflmmtory skin
disorder ssocited with Srcoidosis.
1397437151323 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymylgi Rheumtic}} is n inflmmtor
y muscle disorder tht involves pin nd stiffness in the shoulders nd hips, of
ten with fever, mlise nd weight loss.
<br /><div><i><u>There is no mus
cle wekness</u>.</i></div>
1397437271496 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly ffected by Polymylg
i Rheumtic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1397437289517 1395802358422 Which ge group is more commonly ffected by Pol
ymylgi Rheumtic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 50 y/o}}</div>
1397437305469 1395802358422 Which type of vsculitis is ssocited with Poly
mylgi Rheumtic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Temporl Gint Cell Arteritis}}</
div>
1397437330505 1395802358422 How does ESR chnge in Polymylgi Rheumtic?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
1397437361372 1395802358422 How do C-Rective Protein levels chnge in Polym
ylgi Rheumtic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
1397437390335 1395802358422 How do Cretine Kinse levels chnge in Polymyl
gi Rheumtic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chnge; norml CK}}</div>
1397437432149 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Polymylgi Rheumtic
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Low-dose corticosteroids}}</div>
1397437457261 1395802358422 Wht sex is more commonly ffected by Fibromylg
i?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femles}}</div>
1397437487292 1395802358422 Wht ge group is more commonly ffected by Fibr
omylgi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::20-50 y/o}}</div>
1397437502016 1395802358422 {{c1::Fibromylgi}} is  musculoskeletl disord
er tht involves chronic, widespred musculoskeletl pin ssocited with stiffn
ess, presthesis, poor sleep nd ftigue.
1397437559693 1395802358422 {{c1::Polyomyositis}} is n inflmmtory muscle
disorder tht involves progressive symmetricl proximl muscle wekness with <b>
endomysil inflmmtion</b>.
1397438480412 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymyositis}} is n inflmmtory muscle d
isorder tht involves <b>endomysil inflmmtion </b>with CD8+ T cells.
1397438519124 1395802358422 Which prt of the body is most commonly ffected
by Polymyositis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Shoulders}}</div>
1397438539446 1395802358422 Which type of T cells re involved in Polymyosit
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD8+ T cells}}</div>
1397438581487 1395802358422 {{c1::Dermtomyositis}} is n inflmmtory muscl
e disorder tht presents similr to Polymyositis but lso involves  <b>mlr r
sh</b>. <div><br /></div><i>Don't lwys think Lupus with  mlr rsh. Red the
history crefully!</i><br /><div><i><b>Dermto</b>myositis hs <b>skin rshes</
b>&nbsp;nd hence the inflmmtion is closer to the skin (<b>perimysil</b>&nbsp
;vs endomysil in Polymyositis).</i></div>
1397438680187 1395802358422 {{c1::Dermtomyositis}} is n inflmmtory muscl
e disorder tht involves <b>perimysil inflmmtion</b>&nbsp;nd trophy with CD
4+ T cells.
<br /><div><i><b>Dermto</b>myositis hs&nbsp;<b>skin rshes</b>
&nbsp;nd hence the inflmmtion is closer to the skin (<b>perimysil</b>&nbsp;v
s endomysil in Polymyositis).</i></div>
1397438729013 1395802358422 Which type of T cells re involved with Dermtom
yositis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ T cells}}</div>
1397438745335 1395802358422 {{c1::Gottron ppules}} re  type of erythemto
us ppules seen in Dermtomyositis nd re found on the knuckles of the hnd.<di
v><br /></div><div><img src="pste-27749783699664.jpg" /></div>
1397438797110 1395802358422 {{c1::Heliotrope Rsh}} is  rsh seen in Dermt
omyositis nd is described s n <b>erythemtous periorbitl rsh.</b>
1397438832144 1395802358422 Which inflmmtory muscle disorder often present
s with  <b>"shwl nd fce"</b>&nbsp;rsh?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste
-27900107555119.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dermtomyositis}}</div>
1397438881670 1395802358422 Which inflmmtory muscle disorder involves n i
ncresed risk for occult mlignncy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dermtomyositis}

}</div>
1397439065491 1395802358422 How do Cretine Kinse (CK) levels chnge in Der
mtomyositis nd Polymyositis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
1397439103877 1395802358422 Which inflmmtory muscle disorder is ssocited
with <b>nti-Jo-1</b>&nbsp;ntibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both Dermtom
yositis nd Polymyositis}}</div>
1397439130433 1395802358422 Which inflmmtory muscle disorder is ssocited
with <b>nti-SRP</b>&nbsp;ntibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both Dermtomy
ositis nd Polymyositis}}</div>
1397439143963 1395802358422 Which inflmmtory muscle disorder is ssocited
with <b>nti-Mi-2</b>&nbsp;ntibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both Dermtom
yositis nd Polymyositis}}</div>
1397439159903 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for&nbsp;Dermtomyositis 
nd Polymyositis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Steroids (immunosuppression; nti-in
flmmtory)}}</div>
1397439188117 1395802358422 Wht is the most common Neuromusculr Junction d
isorder?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mystheni Grvis}}</div>
1397442626767 1395802358422 Wht type of utontibodies re involved in Mys
theni Grvis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autontibodies to <b>postsynptic ACh
receptors</b>}}</div>
1397442659726 1395802358422 Which type of neuromusculr junction disorder <b
>worsens with muscle use</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mystheni Grvis}}</di
v>
1397442690698 1395802358422 Which type of Neuromusculr Junction Disorder is
ssocited with Thymom or Thymic Hyperplsi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myst
heni Grvis}}</div>
1397442717369 1395802358422 How do AChE Inhibitors influence Mystheni Grv
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Symptoms will reverse/improve}}</div>
1397442744715 1395802358422 Wht type of utontibodies re involved in Lbe
rt-Eton Mysthenic Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autontibodies ginst
<b>presynptic C-chnnels</b>, thereby cusing decresed ACh relese}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, C is needed to trigger synptic vesicle trnsmission t
the xon terminl.</i></div>
1397442872838 1395802358422 Which Neuromusculr Junction Disorder involves 
utontibodies to <b>postsynptic ACh receptors</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::M
ystheni Grvis}}</div>
1397442895152 1395802358422 Which Neuromusculr Junction Disorder involves 
utontibodies to <b>presynptic C-chnnels</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lmb
ert-Eton Mysthenic Syndrome}}</div>
1397442916609 1395802358422 Which Neuromusculr Junction Disorder more commo
nly involves <b>proximl muscle wekness</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lmbert
-Eton Syndrome}}</div>
1397442957067 1395802358422 Which Neuromusculr Junction Disorder involves m
uscle wekness tht <b>improves with muscle use</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Lmbert-Eton Syndrome}}</div> <br /><div><i>With progressive muscle use,  C
grdient builds up cross the xonl membrne, thereby mking it esier for C t
o enter the xon terminl nd trigger vesicle relese.</i></div>
1397443017457 1395802358422 How do AChE Inhibitors influence Lmbert-Eton S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Miniml to no effect}}</div>
1397443052153 1395802358422 {{c1::Myositis Ossificns}} is  skeletl muscle
disorder tht involves metplsi of skeletl muscle to bone following musculr
trum.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-30288109371698.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Notice the heterotopic ossifiction of the elbow fter injury nd
prosthetic replcement of the rdil hed.</i></div><div><i>Cn present s  sus
picious mss t the site of injury or s n incidentl finding upon imging.</i>
</div>
1397443164357 1395802358422 Which prt of the body is most commonly ffected
by Myositis Ossificns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Upper or Lower extremities}}
</div>
1397443244615 1395802358422 {{c1::Scleroderm (Systemic Sclerosis)}} is  sy

stemic utoimmune disorder tht involves excessive fibrosis nd collgen deposit
ion throughout the body.&nbsp;
1397443351574 1395802358422 {{c1::Scleroderm (Systemic Sclerosis)}} is  sy
stemic utoimmune disorder tht commonly involves sclerosis of the skin which pr
esents s <b>puffy nd tut skin with the bsence of wrinkles</b>.<div><br /></d
iv><div><img src="pste-31357556228374.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Remember D
r. Johnson's story: Be creful of this in the club. Old ldies could look md yo
ung nd you'd never know until it's too lte.</i></div>
1397443749436 1395802358422 {{c1::Scleroderm}} is  systemic utoimmune dis
order tht presents with <b>digitl pitting </b>&nbsp;nd <b>distl ulcertion</
b>&nbsp;due to widespred sclerosis of the skin.<div><br /></div><div><img src="
pste-32113470472500.jpg" /></div>
1397443997782 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth in Sclero
derm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sclerosis of Pulmonry tissue}}</div>
1397444040206 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly ffected by Scleroder
m?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femles (75%)}}</div>
1397444059610 1395802358422 {{c1::Diffuse Scleroderm}} is  type of Sclerod
erm tht hs widespred skin involvement, rpid progression nd erly viscerl
involvement.
1397444129807 1395802358422 Wht type of utontibody is ssocited with Dif
fuse Scleroderm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Scl-70 (nti-DNA Topoisomerse
I)}}</div>
1397444160915 1395802358422 Which type of Scleroderm is ssocited with <b>
Anti-Scl-70 (nti-DNA Topoisomerse I) utontibodies</b>?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Diffuse Scleroderm}}</div>
1397444187272 1395802358422 {{c1::Limited Scleroderm}} is  type of Sclerod
erm tht involves limited skin involvement, typiclly confined to the fingers 
nd fce.
1397444383013 1395802358422 Wht type of utontibodies re ssocited with
Limited Scleroderm (CREST Syndrome)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Centromere
ntibodies}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>C</b>REST = nti-<b>C</b>entromere</i><
/div>
1397444415554 1395802358422 Wht type of Scleroderm is ssocited with <b>
nti-Centromere ntibodies</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Limited Scleroderm (C
REST Syndrome)}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>C</b>REST = nti-<b>C</b>entromere</i><
/div>
1397444497212 1395802358422 Wht is the C in CREST syndrome?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Clcinosis}}</div>
1397444668854 1395802358422 Wht is the R in CREST Syndrome?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Rynud Phenomenon}}</div>
1397444680047 1395802358422 Wht is the E in CREST syndrome?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Esophgel dysmotility}}</div>
1397444692930 1395802358422 Wht is the S in CREST syndrome?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Sclerodctyly}}</div>
1397444712518 1395802358422 Wht is the T in CREST Syndrome?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Telngiectsi}}</div>
1397444724075 1395802358422 Which mjor type of Scleroderm hs the more ben
ign clinicl course nd lter viscerl involvement?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L
imited Scleroderm (CREST Syndrome)}}</div>
1394581586258 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::Milk Line}} is n imginry line
tht runs from the xill to the vulv. Brest tissue cn develop nywhere long
this line.
1394581666871 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::Luminl}} cell lyer is the inner
cell lyer of the brest ducts nd lobules.
1394581712016 1358629116480 Which cell lyer of the brest lobules is respon
sible for producting milk?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Luminl (inner) cell lyer
}}</div>
1394581750802 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::Myoepithelil}} cell lyer is the
outer cell lyer of the brest ducts nd lobules.
1394581772503 1358629116480 Which cell lyer of the brest ducts nd lobules

hs contrctile function nd propels milk to the nipple?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Myoepithelil}}</div>
1394581800194 1358629116480 {{c1::Glctorrhe}} is defined s milk producti
on by the brests outside of lcttion nd is not  symptom of brest cncer.
1394583366494 1358629116480 Wht is  common physiologicl cuse of Glctor
rhe?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nipple stimultion}}</div>
1394583386148 1358629116480 Wht is the most common pthologicl cuse of G
lctorrhe?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prolctinom}}</div>
1394583400497 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Mstitis}} is defined s cute bcte
ril infection of the brests.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-149250113538
27.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-15010910700006.jpg" /></div>
1394583416727 1358629116480 Wht is the most common cuse of Acute mstitis?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Stphylococcus ureus</i>}}</div>
1394583430129 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Mstitis}} is  type of mstitis th
t is ssocited with brest feeding s fissures develop in the nipple nd provid
e  route of entry for microbes.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1492071638
6531.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-15015205667302.jpg" /></div>
1394583885952 1358629116480 {{c1::Periductl Mstitis}} is  type of mstiti
s tht involved inflmmtion of the subreolr ducts.<div><br /></div><div><img
src="pste-15071040242061.jpg" /></div> <img src="pste-15092515078509.jpg" />
1394583933393 1358629116480 {{c1::Periductl Mstitis}} is  type of mstiti
s tht is commonly seen in smokers.
1394583948929 1358629116480 {{c1::Periductl Mstitis}} is  type of mstiti
s tht involves  reltive Vit A deficiency tht results in squmous cell metpl
si of the lctiferous ducts, yielding blockge of the duct nd inflmmtion.
1394583996738 1358629116480 {{c1::Periductl Mstitis}} is  type of mstiti
s tht presents with  subreolr mss with <b>nipple retrction</b>&nbsp;(due t
o fibromyoblsts involved with the subreolr inflmmtion).
<br /><div><img
src="pste-15088220111213.jpg" /></div>
1394584110184 1358629116480 {{c1::Mmmry Duct Ectsi}} is  <u>rre</u> ty
pe of mstitis tht involve inflmmtion nd <b>diltion</b>&nbsp;of the subreo
lr ducts.
1394584137340 1358629116480 Wht demogrphic of women re most commonly ffe
cted by Mmmry Duct Ectsi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopusl}}</div>
1394584166770 1358629116480 {{c1::Mmmry Duct Ectsi}} is  rre type of m
stitis tht presents s  <u>peri</u>reolr mss with <b>green-brown nipple di
schrge</b>&nbsp;tht is  result of inflmmtory debris.
1394584242241 1358629116480 {{c1::Mmmry Duct Ectsi}} is  type of mstit
is tht involves chronic inflmmtion nd <u>plsm cells</u>&nbsp;on biopsy.<di
v><br /></div><div><img src="pste-15144054686158.jpg" /></div>
1394584268026 1358629116480 {{c1::Ft Necrosis}} is  brest disorder tht i
nvolves necrosis of brest ft s  result of trum.<div><br /></div><div><img
src="pste-15178414424540.jpg" /></div> <br /><div><i>The trum is often incide
ntl nd unnoticed.</i></div>
1394584318160 1358629116480 {{c1::Ft Necrosis}} is  type of inflmmtory b
rest disorder tht presents s  mss on physicl exm or s <u><b>bnorml cl
cifiction</b></u>&nbsp;on mmmogrphy due to the sponifiction of necrotic ft
.
1394584358379 1358629116480 Wht is the most common type of pthologicl ch
nge in <u>pre</u>menopusl brests?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrocystic Chn
ge}}</div>
1394584580481 1358629116480 {{c1::Fibrocystic Chnge}} is  brest pthology
tht involves the development of fibrosis nd cysts in the brest.
1394584606547 1358629116480 {{c1::Fibrocystic Chnge}} is  brest pthology
tht presents with vgue irregulrity of brest tissue (lumpy brest), typicll
y in the upper outer qudrnt. Cysts hve  blue-dome ppernce.
1394584657726 1358629116480 Wht is the risk of invsive crcinom ssocite
d with Apocrine Metplsi of the Brest?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1
6754667421973.jpg" /><br /><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div></div>
1394584771239 1358629116480 Wht is the risk of invsive crcinom ssocite

d with Ductl Hyperplsi nd Sclerosing Adenosis of the brest?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::2x incresed}}</div>
1394584799077 1358629116480 {{c1::Sclerosing Adenosis of the Brest}} is  F
ibrocystic chnge of the brests tht involves <b>clcifiction</b> tht cn be
seen on  mmmogrm.
1394584836654 1358629116480 Wht is the risk for invsive crcinom ssocit
ed with Atypicl Hyperplsi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5x increse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Atypicl hyperplsi cn be ductl or lobulr nd involves signifi
cnt typi</i></div>
1394584875347 1358629116480 {{c1::Intrductl Ppillom}} is  brest disord
er tht involves ppillom growth, typiclly into  lrge mmmry duct.<div><br
/></div><div><img src="pste-15461882266157.jpg" /></div>
1394585041541 1358629116480 {{c1::Intrductl Ppillom}} is  benign brest
disorder tht involves growth of fibrovsculr ppilloms tht re lined by bot
h <b>epithelil (luminl) nd myoepithelil cells</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img
src="pste-15466177233453.jpg" /></div>
1394585103608 1358629116480 Which demogrphic of women is ffected by Intrd
uctl Ppillom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Premenopusl}}</div>
1394585130887 1358629116480 {{c1::Ppillry Crcinom}} is  mlignnt bres
t cncer tht involves growth of fibrovsculr ppilloms tht re lined by <b>e
pithelil cells only.</b>
<br /><div><i>There re no underlying myoepithel
il cells in ppillry crcinom.</i></div>
1394585181635 1358629116480 Wht demogrphic of women re more commonly ffe
cted by Ppillry Crcinom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopusl}}</div>
1394585204761 1358629116480 {{c1::Fibrodenom}} is  benign brest disorder
tht involves growth of fibrous tissue nd brest glnds.<div><br /></div><div>
<img src="pste-15363098018333.jpg" /></div>
1394585230976 1358629116480 Wht is the most common <b>benign neoplsm</b>&n
bsp;of the brest?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrodenom}}</div>
1394585246534 1358629116480 Wht is the most common tumour seen in <b>premen
opusl</b>&nbsp;women?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrodenom of the brest}}<
/div>
1394585263656 1358629116480 Wht demogrphic of women re commonly ffected
by Fibrodenom of the brest?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Premenopusl}}</div>
1394585285264 1358629116480 {{c1::Fibrodenom}} is  benign brest neoplsm
tht presents s  <b>well-circumscribed, mobile, mrble-like mss</b>.<div><br
/></div><div><img src="pste-15393162789237.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-101468602368498.jpg" /></div>
1394585325118 1358629116480 {{c1::Fibrodenom}} is  benign brest neoplsm
tht is sensitive to Estrogen nd hence will grow during pregnncy nd the mens
trul cycle.
1394585352467 1358629116480 Wht is the risk of crcinom ssocited with Fi
brodenom of the brest?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div>
1394585365918 1358629116480 {{c1::Phyllodes Tumour}} is  benign brest neop
lsi similr to Fibrodenom tht involves overgrowth of the fibrous component,
typiclly s  <b>'lef-like' </b>projection on biopsy.<div><br /></div><div><i
mg src="pste-15418932593186.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-10146
4307401202.jpg" /></div>
1394585417723 1358629116480 Wht demogrphic of women is commonly ffected b
y Phyllodes tumour?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopusl women}}</div>
1394585444611 1358629116480 {{c1::Estrone}} is n estrogen hormone mde peri
pherlly by dipose tissue vi the conversion of ndrogens.
1394585795130 1358629116480 {{c1::Ductl Crcinom <i>in situ</i>}} is  ml
ignnt brest cncer tht involves prolifertion of duct cells with <u>no invsi
on of the bsement membrne</u>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1568951553
2830.jpg" /><img src="pste-15723875271191.jpg" /></div>
<img src="pste101795019882910.jpg" />
1394585832123 1358629116480 {{c1::Ductl Crcinom <i>in situ</i>}} is  ml
ignnt brest cncer of duct cells tht commonly involves detectble clcificti
ons on mmmogrphy. Biopsy must be performed to distinguish it from benign condi

tions.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-101799314850206.jpg" /></div>
1394585890527 1358629116480 The&nbsp;{{c1::comedo}} type of Ductl Brest C
rcinom <i>in situ</i>&nbsp;involves <b>high-grde cells with necrosis nd dystr
ophic clcifiction</b> in the center of ducts.<div><br /></div><div><img src="p
ste-15646565859867.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-101876624261540.jpg" /></d
iv>
1394586474104 1358629116480 {{c1::Pget's Disese of the Brest}} is  type
of Brest Ductl Crcinom <i>in situ</i>&nbsp;tht extends up the ducts to invo
lve the skin of the nipple, thereby presenting s <b>nipple ulcertion nd eryth
em</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-16217796510244.jpg" /><img src="p
ste-16243566313880.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-16265041150493.jpg" /></div
>
1394586519761 1358629116480 {{c1::Invsive Ductl Crcinom}} is  type of m
lignnt brest cncer tht involves formtion of duct-like structures by mlign
nt nd invsive duct cells.
1394586838516 1358629116480 Wht is the most common <b>invsive brest</b>&n
bsp;cncer?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Invsive Ductl Crcinom}}</div>
1394586851799 1358629116480 {{c1::Invsive Ductl Crcinom}} is  type of m
lignnt brest cncer tht my result in dimpling of the skin or retrction of
the nipple when it progresses to dvnced stges.<div><br /></div><div><img src=
"pste-15822659519007.jpg" /></div>
1394586895381 1358629116480 {{c1::Tubulr Crcinom}} is  type of Invsive
Brest Ductl Crcinom tht involves well-differentited tubules tht <b>lck m
yoepithelil cells </b>nd hs  good prognosis.
1394587335546 1358629116480 {{c1::Invsive Ductl Crcinom}} is  type of m
lignnt brest cncer tht involves duct-like structures in  desmoplstic stro
m.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-15852724290079.jpg" /></div>
1394587356098 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucinous (Colloid) Crcinom}} is  type o
f Invsive Brest Ductl Crcinom tht involves crcinom with bundnt extrce
llulr mucin (i.e. tumour cells floting in  pool of mucous).<div><br /></div><
div><img src="pste-16011638080031.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i><b>Good pr
ognosis.</b></i></div>
1394587408549 1358629116480 Wht demogrphic of women is commonly ffected b
y <b>Mucinous</b> Invsive Brest Ductl Crcinom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::O
lder (~70 y/o)}}</div>
1394587461912 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullry Crcinom}} is  type of Invsiv
e Brest Ductl Crcinom tht involves lrge, high-grde cells growing in sheet
s with ssocited <b>lymphocytes nd plsm cell infiltrte</b>.<div><br /></div
><div><img src="pste-15968688407071.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Good progn
osis.</i></div>
1394587505470 1358629116480 {{c1::Inflmmtory Crcinom}} is  type of Inv
sive Brest Ductl Crcinom tht involves crcinom <b>in the derml lymphtics
</b>, thereby cusing inflmmtion nd swelling of the brests with no discrete
mss.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-16303695856153.jpg" /></div>
1394587546791 1358629116480 {{c1::Inflmmtory Crcinom}} is  type of Inv
sive Brest Ductl Crcinom tht involves inflmed, swollen brests due to tumo
ur cells blocking dringe of the lymphtics. It cn be mistken for cute msti
tis.
1394587615233 1358629116480 Wht is the prognosis of <b>Inflmmtory</b>&nbs
p;Invsive Brest Ductl Crcinom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Poor}}&nbsp;</div
>
<br /><div><i>Spred is likely nd esy due to ccess to the lymphtics.
</i></div>
1394587646480 1358629116480 {{c1::Lobulr Crcinom <i>in situ</i>}} is  m
lignnt brest cncer tht involves prolifertion of cells in lobules with no in
vsion of the bsement membrne.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1576682494
4160.jpg" /></div>
1394587694721 1358629116480 {{c1::Lobulr Crcinom}} is  mlignnt brest
cncer tht involves dyscohesive cells <b>lcking E-Cdherin</b>&nbsp;dhesion p
roteins.<div><br></div><div><img src="pste-15771119911456.jpg" /></div>
1394587721755 1358629116480 Which dhesion protein is lcking in the mlign

nt cells of Lobulr Crcinom <i>in situ</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::E-Cdhe
rins}}</div>
1394587744039 1358629116480 Wht is the tretment for Lobulr Crcinom <i>i
n situ</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tmoxifen}}</div>
1394587764203 1358629116480 Wht is the risk of progression to invsive crc
inom of Lobulr Crcinom <i>in situ</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div
>
1394587803211 1358629116480 {{c1::Invsive Lobulr Crcinom}} is n mlign
nt brest cncer tht involves invsive crcinom tht grows in  <b>single-file
pttern ("Indin file")</b> with cells tht my exhibit signet-ring morphology.
<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-15925738734111.jpg" /><img src="pste-1594
7213570591.jpg" /></div>
1394587859292 1358629116480 Wht dhesion protein is lcking in the mlignn
t cells of Invsive Lobulr Brest Crcinom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::E-Cdhe
rin}}</div>
1394587878820 1358629116480 Wht re the sentinel lymph nodes for brest cn
cer?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Axillry}}</div>
1394587909110 1358629116480 Wht receptor does Trstuzumb trget?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::HER2/Neu}}</div>
1394587966994 1358629116480 {{c1::HER2/neu}} is  growth fctor receptor com
monly present on the <u>surfce</u> of brest cncer cells.
<br /><div><i>ER
nd PR re nucler receptors.</i></div>
1394588007417 1358629116480 {{c1::Triple-negtive tumours}} re  type of br
est tumours tht re <b>negtive for ER, PR nd HER2/neu</b>. Hence they hve 
poor prognosis.
1394588043917 1358629116480 Wht demogrphic of women hve n incresed prop
ensity to develop triple-negtive crcinom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Africn
Americn women}}</div>
1394588068539 1358629116480 Which 2 genes re the most importnt in ssocit
ed with hereditry brest cncer?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>BRCA1</i>&nbsp;
nd <i>BRCA2</i>}}</div>
1394588100860 1358629116480 Which BRCA gene is ssocited with brest <u>nd
</u> ovrin crcinom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::BRCA1}}</div>
1394588124872 1358629116480 Which BRCA gene is ssocited with brest crcin
om in mles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::BRCA2}}</div>
1394588136841 1358629116480 {{c1::Kleinfelter's Syndrome}} is  sex chromoso
me disorder tht presents with n incresed risk for brest crcinom in mles.
1394588169076 1358629116480 Wht is the most common type of brest cncer in
mles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Invsive Ductl Crcinom}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>As mles do not hve lobulr brest tissue, only ductl.</i></div>
1394588216702 1358629116480 {{c1::Polymsti}} is  congenitl disorder of t
he brests tht involves the development of ≥ 3 reasts along the milk line.<div><
<img src="paste-14426795147809.jpg" />
r /></div><div><r /></div>
1394588948222 1358629116480 {{c1::Polythelia}} is a congenital reast disord
er that involves development of ≥ 3 nipples along the milk line.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-14426795147809.jpg" /></div>
1394588976150 1358629116480 {{c1::Lymphocytic Mastopathy}} is an inflammator
y reast disorder that involves ilateral hard masses and is commonly seen in au
toimmune disorders such as T1DM and Hashimoto's Thyroiditis.
1394589117746 1358629116480 {{c1::Peau d'orange}} is a gross morphological f
eature of reast cancer that has invaded the lymphatics due to the susequent ly
mphedema that occurs.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16432544875033.jpg" /
></div>
1389721169561 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Virchow-Roin}} space is formed 
y extensions of the pia mater that form sleeves around lood vessels that are pa
ssing from the Suarachnoid Space into rain tissue.
<img src="paste-16707422
78438.jpg" />
1389721329129 1358629116480 CSF flows from the&nsp;{{c1::lateral}} ventricl
es to the&nsp;{{c2::3rd}} ventricle through the&nsp;{{c3::interventricular for
amen (of monro)}}

1389721381590 1358629116480 CSF flows from the&nsp;{{c1::3rd}} ventricle to
the&nsp;{{c2::4th}} ventricle through the&nsp;{{c3::cereral aqueduct}}.
1389721410764 1358629116480 CSF flows from the&nsp;{{c1::4th}} ventricle to
the&nsp;{{c2::suarachnoid space}} through the&nsp;{{c3::foramen of Magendie}
} and&nsp;{{c4::foramina of Luschka}} <r /><div><i>Magendie is medial; Luschk
a is lateral.</i></div>
1389721461840 1358629116480 What type of tissue shown elow forms CSF?<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-1928440316128.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Choroid Plexus}}</div>
1389721493680 1358629116480 What causes ostructive, non-communicating hydro
cephalus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ostruction of CSF flow}}</div>
<i><div>
</div></i><i><r /></i>Most commonly at cereral aqueduct; also at foramina of m
onro, luschka or magendie
1389721950004 1358629116480 Communicating, non-ostructive hydrocephalus can
e caused y&nsp;{{c1::increased CSF production}} or&nsp;{{c2::decreased CSF
asorption}}
1389721983505 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of increased CSF p
roduction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Choroid Plexus Tumour}}</div>
1389721998985 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of decreased CSF a
sorption?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sclerosis of arachnoid villi and granulati
ons}}</div>
1389722024429 1358629116480 What is the cause of compensatory (<i>ex vacuo</
i>) hydrocephalus?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2628519985379.jpg" /><r
/><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brain atrophy}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Th
ere is an apparent increase in CSF volume ut that is simply a result of a decre
ase in neural tissue.</i></div>
1389722320129 1358629116480 Type&nsp;{{c1::I}} Arnold-Chiari malformations
are typically enign.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2667174691122.jpg" />
</div>
1389722549554 1358629116480 Type&nsp;{{c1::II}} Arnold-Chiari Malformations
are severe and often present with ostructive hydrocephalus at the {{c2::cerer
al aqueduct}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2804613644607.jpg" /></div>
1389722646200 1358629116480 {{c1::Red Neurons}} are triangular shaped neuron
s with deeply eosinophilic cytoplasm that have undergone irreversile injury.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2907692859675.jpg" /></div>
1389723122882 1358629116480 {{c1::Central Chromatolysis}} occurs following a
xon transection, viral infection or VitB group deficiency.<div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-3096671420685.jpg" /></div>
1389723232191 1358629116480 What is Gliosis/Astrocytosis?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::The formation of a glial scar}}</div>
1389723451322 1358629116480 What is a glial scar?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Long astrocytic processes without collagen}}</div>
<r /><div><i>aka Glial
Firils</i></div>
1389723513425 1358629116480 {{c1::Rod}} cells are seen in rain tissue damag
e as microglia enlarge and elongate.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-339731
9131366.jpg" /></div>
1389723663192 1358629116480 {{c1::Foamy macrophages}} are seen in <>severe<
/>&nsp;rain tissue damage and necrosis as rod cells transform to deal with th
e deris.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3431678869714.jpg" /></div>
1389723701824 1358629116480 What type of necrosis is seen at the rain?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefactive}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, it is se
en typically &gt; 24 hrs&nsp;</i></div>
1389723767529 1358629116480 What does the wall of the neural tue ecome?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::CNS tissue}}</div>
1389724229504 1358629116480 What does the lumen of the neural tue ecome?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricles and central canal}}</div>
1389724242186 1358629116480 Neural Tue Defects are associated with low leve
ls of what vitamin <>prior to</>&nsp;conception?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::F
olate}}</div>
1389724275934 1358629116480 {{c1::Anencephaly}} is a congenital CNS defect d

efined as the asence of the skull and rain due to defects at the cranial end o
f the neural tue.
1389724333497 1358629116480 Anencephaly is commonly associated with&nsp;{{c
1::maternal polyhydramnios}} as the fetus lacks the aility to swallow amniotic
fluid.
1389724392868 1358629116480 {{c1::Spina Bifida}} is a congenital CNS anorma
lity defined as the failure of posterior verteral arches to close.
1389724420778 1358629116480 {{c1::Spina Bifida Occulta}} is a form of Spina
Bifida that presents with a dimple or patch of hair aove the spinal defect.
<r /><div><i>Typically at the lumar level.</i></div>
1389724453036 1358629116480 {{c1::Meningocele}} is a form of Spina ifida th
at presents with a cystic protrustion of <>meninges only</>&nsp;through the v
erteral defect.
1389724478091 1358629116480 {{c1::Meningomyelocele}} is a form of Spina Bifi
da that presents with a cystic protrusion of <>meninges and spinal cord</>&ns
p;through the underlying spinal defect.
1389724529824 1358629116480 Neural Tue Defects can e detected y an elevat
ion of what fetal protein in the amniotic fluid and/or maternal lood?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)}}</div>
1389724580817 1358629116480 What is the most common etiology of Hydrocephalu
s in neworns?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cereral Aqueduct Stenosis}}</div>
1389724599861 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Dandy-Walker}} Malformation is defi
ned as a congenital failure of the cereellar vermis to develop.
<r /><d
iv><i>Presents with a massively dilated 4th ventricle and an asent cereellum.<
/i></div>
1389724656493 1358629116480 What is a Dandy-Walker Malformation?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Failure of the cereellar vermis to develop}}</div>
1389724674968 1358629116480 What is an Arnold-Chiari Malformation?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Downward displacement of the cereellar vermis and tonsils thr
ough the foramen magnum}}</div>
1389724709646 1358629116480 Where are cell odies for the optic nerve locate
d?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5102421148000.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::The ganglion later of the retina}}</div></div>
1389724920647 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::cataract}} is defined as opacificat
ion of the lens of the eye due to degeneration of lens fiers leading to a loss
of optic translucency.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5660766896308.jpg" /
></div>
1389725661552 1358629116480 Cataracts can e acquired secondary to&nsp;{{c1
::diaetes mellitus}} or prolonged use of&nsp;{{c2::corticosteroids}}. <r /><d
iv><i>Increased age has increased risk as well.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste
-30210799960302.jpg" /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-30258044600434.jpg" /><
/i></div><div><i><r /></i></div>
1389725801574 1358629116480 {{c1::Glaucoma}} is defined as an elevation of i
ntraocular pressure with atrophy of the retina and cupping of the optic disk.
1389725846557 1358629116480 What is the cause of glaucoma?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Ostruction of the outflow of aqueous humour into the Canal of Schlemm
}}</div>
1389725872908 1358629116480 What is the most common and severe complication
of glaucoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blindness}}</div>
1389725886133 1358629116480 In&nsp;{{c1::open-angle}} glaucoma, the anterio
r chamer angle is not ostructed.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-29824252
904187.jpg" /></div>
1389725942500 1358629116480 In&nsp;{{c1::closed-angle (or narrow)}} glaucom
a, the anterior chamer angle is ostructed.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-29828547871483.jpg" /></div>
1389725979244 1358629116480 Where is the ostruction located in open-angle g
laucoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Distal</>&nsp;to the anterior chamer a
ngle}}</div>
<img src="paste-6588479832350.jpg" />
1389726157756 1358629116480 What is the most commoncause of&nsp;<>primary<
/>&nsp;open-angle glaucoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Genetic anormalities o

f the traecular meshwork}}</div>
1389726185235 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of <>secondary</
>&nsp;<>open-angle</> glaucoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angular accumulati
on of RBCs due to trauma or tumour/retinal deris}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Tu
mours involved are retinolastoma and melanoma</i></div>
1389726254996 1358629116480 In&nsp;{{c1::primary}} closed-angle glaucoma, t
he angle closure is not the etiology, ut is a symptom of a short optical axis o
r pupil dilation.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-6721623818423.jpg" /><img s
rc="paste-7099580940479.jpg" /></div>
1389726653759 1358629116480 What is the common mechanism of <>secondary</>
&nsp;<>closed angle</> glaucoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Formation of a ne
ovascular memrane over the iris through the release of VEGF in response to hypo
xia}}</div>
<div><r /></div><div><i>Commonly seen in retinal ischemia &amp;
diaetes mellitus</i></div><div><r /></div><img src="paste-7138235646171.jpg"
/><div><r /></div>
1389726821176 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Primary Closed-Angle}} Glaucoma is a
medical emergency characterized y a <>steamy cornea and mid-dilated non-react
ive pupils</> and results from <>increased IOP pushing the iris forward</>.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7670811590853.jpg" /></div>
1389727247605 1358629116480 The central dark spot on the retina is called th
e&nsp;{{c1::fovea}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7756710936864.jpg" />
</div>
1389727303203 1358629116480 {{c1::Papilledema}} is an eye pathology defined
as the swelling of the head of the optic nerve.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-8572754723071.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-30906584662204.jpg" /></div
>
1389727513771 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Papilledema?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased intracranial pressure; leads to ilateral pap
illedema.}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Can also e due to central retinal vein oc
clusion and optic neuritis.</i></div>
1389727588573 1358629116480 On the retinal exam elow, the hyperemic disc, 
lurred margins and asence of a physiological cup is indicative of&nsp;{{c1::pa
pilledema}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8306466750679.jpg" /><img src=
"paste-30906584662204.jpg" /></div>
1389727694377 1358629116480 Optic nerve damage due to&nsp;{{c1::glaucoma}}
involves excavation/cupping of the optic disk and the loss of retinal ganglion c
ells due to elevated intraocular pressure and thinning of the nerve fier layer.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8585639624887.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, the ganglion cells' axons make up the optic nerve.</i></div>
1389727847071 1358629116480 The fundoscopy on the right is showing&nsp;{{c1
::cupping}} of the optic disc.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-868012890551
0.jpg" /></div>
1389727900994 1358629116480 {{c1::Optic Neuritis}} is an eye pathology defin
ed as demyelination of the optic nerve. It may or may not include an inflammator
y component.
1389735399668 1358629116480 What is the major cause of Optic Neuritis?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Multiple Sclerosis}}</div>
1389735475958 1358629116480 Fundoscopy of a patient with Optic Neuritis will
reveal&nsp;{{c1::papilledema}}<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8976481648
942.jpg" /><img src="paste-30910879629500.jpg" /></div>
1389735523155 1358629116480 Flames on a fundoscopy indicate the presence of&
nsp;{{c1::streak-shaped}} hemorrhages.
1389735707936 1358629116480 Dots and lots on a fundoscopy indicate the pres
ence of&nsp;{{c1::small, dot-like}} hemorrhages.
1389735735643 1358629116480 Small yellow swellings on a fundoscopy are indic
ative of accumulations of&nsp;{{c1::transudate/exudate}}.
1389735762391 1358629116480 What is Drusen (typically seen on fundoscopy)?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Deposition of yellowish extracellular material in and
eneath Bruch's memrane and retinal pigment epithelium of the eye.}}</div>
1389735804413 1358629116480 Cotton-wool spots (large fluffy white patches) o

n a fundoscopy are indicative of&nsp;{{c1::axon injury/regeneration}}.
1389735837311 1358629116480 {{c1::Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD)}} i
s an eye pathology that typically affects the fovea of the eye, resulting in a l
oss of central vision.
1389735886363 1358629116480 What is the most common form of AMD?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Dry/atrophic}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3117287263460
0.jpg" /></div>
1389735905365 1358629116480 What is the cause of dry, atrophic AMD?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Atrophy of the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) in the macu
lar area}}</div>
1389735960345 1358629116480 {{c1::Drusen}} are yellowish accumulations of ex
tracellular material in and eneath the retinal pigment epithelium and the Bruch
memrane found in&nsp;{{c2::dry, atrophic}} AMD.<div><r /></div><div><r /></
div>
<img src="paste-9908489552148.jpg" /><img src="paste-31177167601896.jpg"
/>
1389736459316 1358629116480 What is the cause of wet, exudative AMD?<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-10312216477973.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Neovascular memrane growth etween the RPE and photoreceptor layer at the
macula}}</div></div> <i><r /></i><div><i>Results in edema, hemorrhaging and
retinal detachment.</i></div><div><i>Treated with anti-VEGF injections.</i></div
>
1389736584637 1358629116480 What causes retinopathy in essential, enign hyp
ertension?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10784662880485.jpg" /><r /><div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyaline arteriosclerosis of retinal vasculature causing
arteriolar narrowing}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Results in arteriolar narr
owing and tortuosity</i></div>
1389736796106 1358629116480 What fundoscopic finding elow is also found in
Retinopathy secondary due to Benign Hypertension?<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-10797547782370.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arterio-venous ni
cking (and copper/silver wiring of vasculature)}}</div>
1389736868377 1358629116480 What causes Retinopathy in Malignant Hypertensio
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperplastic arteriolosclerosis; causing transudat
e accumulation that separates the photoreceptor layer from the RPE}}</div>
1389737002462 1358629116480 The fundoscopy elow involves papilledema, cotto
n-wool spots, flames and exudates. It is characteristic of&nsp;{{c1::Retinopath
y in malignant HTN}}<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10922101834077.jpg" />
</div>
1389737099382 1358629116480 What is a "Macular Star"?<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-11020886081887.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A star sh
ape of radiating exudate coming out from the macula; seen in advanced cases of R
etinopathy of Malignant HTN}}</div></div>
1389737176935 1358629116480 {{c1::Background/Non-proliferative retinopathy}}
is a type of diaetic retinopathy that involves the <>glycosylation of collage
n</>, therey leading to <>increased vascular permeaility</>.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-11716670783774.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Fundoscopy
will show many exudates (2), dot hemorrhages (3), cotton wool spots (4) and mic
roaneurysms (5)</i></div>
1389737425138 1358629116480 {{c1::Proliferative}} retinopathy is a type of d
iaetic retinopathy that involves <>proliferation of capillaries with the forma
tion of a neovascular memrane</> due to chronic hypoxia.<div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-11828339933453.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Notice the presenc
e of new capillaries and vasculature.</i></div><div><i>Can e treated with antiVEGF injection into the eye.</i></div>
1389737754283 1358629116480 {{c1::Retinal Artery Occlusion}} is an eye patho
logy typically affecting the Central Retinal Artery. It has a sudden onset and c
an rapidly cause ischemic injury and infarct.
1389738107962 1358629116480 Retinal Artery Occlusion presents with sudden un
ilateral loss of&nsp;{{c1::vision}}. <r /><div><i>Retinal infarct can lead t
o permanent unilateral lindness.</i></div>
1389738156804 1358629116480 The fundoscopy elow shows a red fovea (1), empt

y arteries (2), and a pale optic disc (3), therey indicative of&nsp;{{c1::Cent
ral Retinal Artery Occlusion}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12025908429
119.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Note that the occlusion can e at a ranch
as well, such as elow</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste
-12416750453065.jpg" /></i></div>
1389738236817 1358629116480 {{c1::Retinal Vein Occlusion}} is an eye patholo
gy that presents with <>multiple, large flame shaped hemorrhages,</>&nsp;papi
lledema and exudates.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-12429635354980.jpg" /><
/div> <r><i>Pretty much the eye of Sauron</i>
1389738311386 1358629116480 Occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::retinal vein}} prese
nts with sudden <>painless </>loss of vision in the affected eye and can lead
to severe glaucoma.
1389738387441 1358629116480 {{c1::Xanthelasma}} is an eyelid pathology invol
ving yellow plaques of cholesterol. It may e associated with underlying hyperli
pidemia and/or atherosclerosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12657268621
651.jpg" /></div>
1389739271226 1358629116480 {{c1::Sty}} is a small, acute and painful eyelid
pathology defined as an infection of an eyelash follicle and/or associated sea
cious glands.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12717398163628.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>It is self-limiting.</i></div>
1389739386677 1358629116480 {{c1::Chalazion}} is a large, chronic and painle
ss eyelid pathology defined as ostruction and rupture of Meiomian glands with
an accumulation of lipids and susequent inflammation.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-12768937771176.jpg" /></div>
<div><i><r /></i></div>
1389739494878 1358629116480 Which eyelid glands are more commonly affected i
n Sty?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zeis glands}}</div> <r /><div><i>Meiomiam
glands are far less involved</i></div>
1389739525728 1358629116480 {{c1::Blepharitis}} is an eyelid pathology defin
ed as chronic inflammation of the eye; commonly involving hyperemia, flaking and
crusting.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13245679141099.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>It is often painful and itchy.</i></div>
1389739579409 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Angioedema?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Epinephrine}}</div>
1389739599769 1358629116480 What is Entropion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<
>Inward</> rolling of the <>lower</>&nsp;eyelid}}</div>
<img src="paste13327283519679.jpg" />
1389739642750 1358629116480 What is Ectropion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Be
nign <>outward</> rolling of the <>lower</> eyelid}}</div> <img src="paste13370233192639.jpg" />
1389739701487 1358629116480 {{c1::Entropion}} is an eyelid pathology with a
more serious clinical importance as the inwardly rolled eyelashes can lead to co
rneal scarring and lindness.
1389739748110 1358629116480 What is the Episclera?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Loose CT etween the sclera and conjunctiva}}</div>
1389739773704 1358629116480 {{c1::Episcleritis/scleritis}} is an eye patholo
gy defined as inflammation of the episclera or sclera. It is usually idiopathic
or may accompany an autoimmune disease.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-141
69097109682.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Tx is NSAIDs or Glucocorticoids</i
></div>
1389739844197 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::suconjunctival hemorrhage}} is an
eye pathology that occurs spontaneously after trauma or severe outs of coughing
. It does not involve eye pain or photophoia.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-14181982011700.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>However, you <>must first
rule out a leeding disorder</></i></div>
1389739934967 1358629116480 <div>{{c1::Bacterial}} conjunctivitis commonly p
resents with pain, purulent discharge and mating eyelashes.</div><r /><div><img
src="paste-14366665605312.jpg" /></div>
1389739983590 1358629116480 {{c1::Viral}} conjunctivitis typically presents
with hyperemia, minimal exudate and lymphadenopathy.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-14401025343682.jpg" /></div>

1389740023106 1358629116480 {{c1::HSV}} conjunctivitis typically presents wi
th corneal ulceration.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14426795147459.jpg"
/></div>
1389740058973 1358629116480 Conjunctivitis often progresses into&nsp;{{c1::
keratitis}} which commonly presents with corneal ulceration, especially with HSV
1.
1389740130650 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypopyon}} is a sterile exudate from the i
ris and ciliary ody that is typically seen in keratitis.<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-14663018348785.jpg" /></div>
1389740186034 1358629116480 {{c1::Uveitis}} is an eye pathology defined as t
he inflammation of the iris (iritis) and ciliary ody (cyclitis).<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-14705968021733.jpg" /><img src="paste-29326036697436.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with severe photophoia, lurry vision, i
ntraocular pain and <>congestion of the ciliary lood vessels near the cornea.<
/></i></div>
1389740277501 1358629116480 Congestion of the ciliary lood vessels near the
cornea is diagnostic of&nsp;{{c1::Uveitis}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-15182709391589.jpg" /></div>
1389740304164 1358629116480 What is the normal intraocular pressure?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::8-21 mmHg}}</div>
1389740609658 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Angle Closure Glaucoma (AACG)}} is a
n eye pathology that presents with conjunctival hyperemia and a mid-dilated pupi
l.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15414637625574.jpg" /></div>
1389740687437 1358629116480 The shadow sign shown elow is commonly seen in&
nsp;{{c1::Acute Angle Closure Glaucoma (AACG)}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-15474767167670.jpg" /><img src="paste-15573551415479.jpg" /></div>
1389740904123 1358629116480 What level of visual impairment is considered to
e legally lind?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::20/200 to 20/400}}</div>
1389741041286 1358629116480 What level of visual impairment can count finger
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::20/200 to 20/400}}</div>
1389741058971 1358629116480 What level of visual impairment can detect hand
motion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::20/500 to 20/1000}}</div>
1389741075630 1358629116480 What level of visual impairment can perceive lig
ht?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Less than 20/1000, aka near lindness}}</div>
1389741110222 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of vision loss wor
ldwide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cataracts}}</div>
<div><r /></div><img sr
c="paste-30258044600434.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-30215094927598.jpg" />
</div>
1389741153463 1358629116480 What is Emmetropia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c2::N
ormal vision; lightrays focus onto the retina}}</div> <img src="paste-15801184
682120.jpg" />
1389741200855 1358629116480 What is Myopia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::aka S
hort-Sightedness; lightrays focus <>efore </>the retina; eyeall is too long}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Corrected y a diverging lens</i></div><div><i><r /></i><
/div><div><i><img src="paste-15938623635639.jpg" /></i></div>
1389741280351 1358629116480 What is Hypermetropia?<div><r />{{c1::aka Far-S
ightedness; The eyeall is too short; light rays focus <>ehind</>&nsp;the re
tina}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Corrected y a converging lens</i></div><div><i><
r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-15981573308644.jpg" /></i></div>
1389741356256 1358629116480 What is Presyopia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S
tiffening of the lens where the patient cannot accommodate for a close oject}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Corrected y a converging lens.</i></div>
1389741401489 1358629116480 What is an Astigmatism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::When light rays propagate in 2 different planes focused at different areas of
the retina}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Patient can neither see near or far oject
s. Corrected y a cylindrical lens.</i></div>
1389741459393 1358629116480 Pathological cupping of the optic disk is common
ly indicative of&nsp;{{c1::Primary Open Angle Glaucoma}}<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-16484084482417.jpg" /></div>
1389741554627 1358629116480 {{c1::Arcuate Scotomas}} are scimitar shaped are

as of loss of visual acuity seen in Primary Open Angle Glaucoma.<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-16943645982872.jpg" /></div>
1389741690346 1358629116480 What is the leading cause of severe visual loss
in <>adults over 50</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Age-Related Macular Degener
ation (AMD)}}</div>
1389741734844 1358629116480 {{c1::Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD)}} i
s an eye pathology that involves a gradual loss of aility to see ojects clearl
y and distortion of oject shape. It is commonly seen in adults over 50 y/o.
1389835224526 1358629116480 What is normal intracranial pressure (ICP)?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::10-15 mmHg}}</div>
1389835277805 1358629116480 When the volume of a lesion in the rain is&nsp
;{{c1::&gt; 100}} mL, there are clinical manifestations and a need to intervene.
1389835317907 1358629116480 A flattening of the gyri and compression of the
sulci is a common finding when there is increased&nsp;{{c1::intracranial pressu
re (ICP)}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-545460846824.jpg" /></div>
1389835673355 1358629116480 Compressed ventricles are a common sign of incre
ased&nsp;{{c1::intracranial pressure (ICP)}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-588410519784.jpg" /></div>
1389835701713 1358629116480 What is a Sufalcine Herniation?<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-1099511628046.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Her
niation of the cingulate gyrus through the falx cereri to the other side of the
<r /><div><i>aka Cingulate Herniation</i></div>
rain}}</div></div>
1389835874550 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::sufalcine/cingulate}} herniation i
s defined as herniation of the cingulate gyrus through the {{c2::falx cereri}}
to the opposite side of the rain.
<r /><div><img src="paste-4797048972960
9.jpg" /></div>
1389835936800 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::uncal}} herniation is defined as h
erniation of the temporal loe uncus under the {{c2::tentorium cereelli}}.
<r /><div><img src="paste-47966194762313.jpg" /></div>
1389835982220 1358629116480 What is an uncal herniation?<div><r /></div><di
v><img src="paste-1181116006688.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Herniat
ion of the temporal loe uncus under the tentorium cereelli}}</div>
1389836014684 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Duret hemorrhage}} is a CNS trauma
pathology that occurs following an uncal herniation and compression of the {{c2:
:paramedian}} artery and/or perforating ranches of the {{c3::asilar}} artery.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1318554960055.jpg" /><img src="paste-134002
9796653.jpg" /></div>
1389836185346 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::tonsillar}} herniation is defined a
s herniation of the cereellar tonsils through the&nsp;{{c2::foramen magnum}}.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1838246003045.jpg" /><img src="paste-479661
94762313.jpg" /></div>
1389836212956 1358629116480 What is a Tonsillar Herniation?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Herniation of the cereellar tonsils through the foramen magnum}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-47966194762313.jpg" /></div>
1389836305232 1358629116480 What is Cereral Edema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Accumulation of transudate in rain tissue}}</div>
1389836356348 1358629116480 {{c1::Vasogenic}} edema is a type of cereral ed
ema that occurs due to an increase in vascular permeaility.
<img src="paste1898375545063.jpg" />
1389837026800 1358629116480 {{c1::Cytotoxic}} edema is a type of cereral ed
ema that occurs due to cell memrane damage.
<img src="paste-2027224563943.jp
g" />
1389837059368 1358629116480 {{c1::Vasogenic}} edema is a type of cereral ed
ema where transudate accumulates in white matter and/or <>inter</>cellular spa
ces.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2521145803015.jpg" /></div>
1389837106562 1358629116480 {{c1::Cytotoxic}} edema is a type of cereral ed
ema where transudate accumulates in grey matter and/or <u style="font-weight: o
ld; ">intra</u>cellular spaces.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25812753450
49.jpg" /></div>
1389837136787 1358629116480 {{c1::Vasogenic}} edema is a type of cereral ed

ema that has a wet and shiny appearance.
1389837155574 1358629116480 {{c1::Cytotoxic}} edema is a type of cereral ed
ema that has dry and sticky appearance.
1389837217504 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::concussion}} is a traumatic rain i
njury involving transient loss of consciousness secondary to lunt head trauma.
1389837541030 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::contusion}} a traumatic rain injur
y involving rain microhemorrhages due to lunt rain trauma. It does not involv
e cavity formation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2727304233229.jpg" /></
div>
1389837588694 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::laceration}} is a traumatic rain i
njury descried as a tear of rain tissue typically cause y direct contact etw
een the injuring oject and rain tissue via penetrating injury.<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-3212635537662.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>It involve
s cavity/hematoma formation.</i></div>
1389837681592 1358629116480 {{c1::Diffuse Axonal Injury (DAI)}} is a CNS tra
uma injury defined as widespread axonal damage due to shearing stress during ra
in acceleration induced y inertia or impact.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-3723736645740.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>There is no <>direct</>&nsp;dam
age to rain tissue.</i></div>
1389837825065 1358629116480 What is the most common affected CNS structure i
n Diffuse Axonal Injury?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Corpus Callosum}}</div>
1389837874327 1358629116480 {{c1::Axonal swellings}} are spheroids of damage
at the edge of damaged axons in Diffuse Axonal Injury.<div><r /></div><div><im
g src="paste-4204772982999.jpg" /></div>
1389838105874 1358629116480 {{c1::Retraction Balls}} are spots of damage vis
ualized with a silver stain in Diffuse Axonal Injury.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-3822520893642.jpg" /></div>
1389838169130 1358629116480 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::epidural}} hematoma presents as
a lens-shaped lesion.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4217657885023.jpg" />
</div>
1389838214015 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::sudural}} hematoma presents as a c
rescent-shaped lesion and is unale to cross the midline.<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-4252017623456.jpg" /></div>
1389838299363 1358629116480 A(n) {{c1::acute}} sudural hematoma lasts for 7
-10 days and involves lood clots.
1389838359653 1358629116480 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::chronic}} sudural hematoma invo
lves a liquefied lood lot instead of a lood clot.
<r /><div><i>An acute S
DH typically resolves right away or progresses to a chronic SDH.</i></div>
1389838397009 1358629116480 A(n) {{c1::acute}} sudural hematoma had a highe
r density than rain tissue on a CT scan.
1389838458384 1358629116480 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::chronic}} sudural hematoma show
s isodensity or hypodensity when compared to rain tissue on a CT scan.
1389838529594 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::proper}} chronic sudural hematoma
is the form that has the possiility to releed and/or expand.
1389838574557 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::chronic hygroma}} is a type of chro
nic sudural hematoma that is filled with clear, yellow fluid and/or CSF.
1389838611966 1358629116480 Tense dura mater is commonly a sign indicative o
f increased&nsp;{{c1::intracranial pressure}}.
1389838753472 1358629116480 What is an epidural hematoma?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::A collection of lood <>aove</>&nsp;the dura (etween the dura and
skull)}}</div>
1389838784068 1358629116480 What lood vessel is commonly ruptured and cause
s an epidural hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Meningeal Artery}}</di
v>
1389838830117 1358629116480 {{c1::"Talk &amp; Die"}} syndrome is commonly se
en due to herniation secondary to an epidural hematoma and involves sudden, rapi
d deterioration of the patient; often leading to death.
1389838886373 1358629116480 What is a sudural hematoma?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::A collection of lood <>underneath</>&nsp;the dura}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Blood is in contact with the pia.</i></div>

1389838911539 1358629116480 What lood vessel(s) are damaged in the formatio
n of a sudural hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bridging veins etween the
dura and arachnoid}}</div>
1389838952950 1358629116480 A sudural hematoma can occur following&nsp;{{c
1::rain atrophy}}, as the rain shrinks and pulls on ridging vessels, therey
rupturing them.
1389838994756 1358629116480 What structures are compressed following a Tonsi
llar Herniation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The medulla/rain stem; leading to c
ardiopulmonary arrest}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-47966194762313.jpg" /
></div>
1389839073495 1358629116480 What structures are compressed during a Sufalci
ne/Cingulate Herniation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Cereral Artery, le
ading to infarction}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-47966194762313.jpg" /
></div>
1389839103153 1358629116480 Compression of&nsp;{{c1::CN III}} during an&ns
p;{{c2::uncal}} herniation can present with&nsp;{{c3::oculomotor palsy}}.
<r /><div><img src="paste-47966194762313.jpg" /></div>
1389839130018 1358629116480 Which way are the eyes displaced in Oculomotor P
alsy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Down &amp; Out}}</div>
1389839145749 1358629116480 Compression of the&nsp;{{c1::cereral peduncles
}} during an uncal herniation results in lim weakness and extensor rigidity.
<r /><div><img src="paste-47966194762313.jpg" /></div>
1389839178590 1358629116480 Compression of the&nsp;{{c2::posterior cereral
}} artery during an uncal herniation can lead to infarction of the occipital lo
e.
<r /><div><i>Leads to contralateral homonymous hemianopia.</i></div><di
v><i><img src="paste-47966194762313.jpg" /></i></div>
1389909802272 1358629116480 {{c1::Firillary Astrocytoma}} is a primary CNS
tumour that consists of invasive, well-differentiated astrocytes and is typicall
y found at the gray/white matter junction at the cereral hemispheres.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-7610682048824.jpg" /></div>
1389910411168 1358629116480 What kind of cells are found in Firillary Astro
cytoma?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8048768712937.jpg" /></div><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Well-differentiated astrocytes}}</div>
1389910577113 1358629116480 {{c1::Gliolastoma Multiforme (GBM)}} is a prima
ry CNS tumour that exhiits a <>"utterfly lesion"</> as it invades and crosse
s the corpus callosum.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8194797601003.jpg" /
><img src="paste-46127948759376.jpg" /></div>
1389910724889 1358629116480 Where does a Gliolastoma Multiforme (GBM) cross
in the rain from one side to another?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Through the c
orpus callosum}}</div>
1389910748825 1358629116480 {{c1::Gliolastoma Multiforme (GBM)}} is a prima
ry CNS tumour that commonly exhiits <>pseudopalisading</> where neoplastic, t
umour cells surround areas of necrosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-833
6531521736.jpg" /><img src="paste-46153718563154.jpg" /></div>
1389910845973 1358629116480 Endothelial cell proliferation is a key characte
ristic of the primary CNS tumour&nsp;{{c1::Gliolastoma Multiforme (GBM)}}.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8370891260104.jpg" /></div>
1389910893461 1358629116480 Which type of cells are commonly found to prolif
erate in a Gliolastoma Multiforme (GBM)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endothelial
Cells}}</div>
1389910921144 1358629116480 {{c1::Pilocytic Astrocytoma}} is a primary CNS t
umour that involves astrocytes. It is commonly found in children and at the cere
ellum.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8946416877848.jpg" /><img src="past
e-47347719471438.jpg" /></div>
1389911449887 1358629116480 {{c1::Rosenthal Fiers}} are thick, intracellula
r, eosinophillic processes found in the neoplastic astrocytes of&nsp;{{c2::Pilo
cytic Astrocytoma}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8959301779687.jpg" /><
img src="paste-47394964111694.jpg" /></div>
1389911499302 1358629116480 {{c1::Oligodendroglioma}} is a primary CNS tumou
r that involves oligodendrocytes. It commonly exhiits a <>'chicken wire</>' a

ppearance of capillaries.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9062380994822.jpg
" /></div>
1389911673751 1358629116480 {{c1::Oligodendrioglioma}} is a primary CNS tumo
ur that has a 'fried-egg' appearance on histology and may exhiit calcifications
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9105330667751.jpg" /></div>
1389911727661 1358629116480 What type of rosettes are seen in Retinolastoma
?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9251359555887.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Flexner-Wintersteiner rosettes}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Cl
ear lumen.</i></div>
1389912256042 1358629116480 What kind of rosettes are found in Ependyoma?<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9620726743353.jpg" /><img src="paste-10045928
505644.jpg" /><img src="paste-47682726920528.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Perivascular Pseudorosettes}}</div></div> <r /><div><i>Blood vessel in th
e lumen.</i></div>
1389912299725 1358629116480 What kind of rosettes are seen in all 3 of Retin
olastoma, Neurolastoma and Medullolastoma?<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-9655086481716.jpg" /><img src="paste-10243497001200.jpg" /><r /><div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Homer-Wright rosettes (pseudorosettes)}}</div></div>
1389912345572 1358629116480 What is found in the lumen of Homer-Wright roset
tes in Neurolastoma, Retinolastoma and Medullolastoma?<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-9650791514420.jpg" /><img src="paste-10247791968496.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuropils}}</div>
1389912406310 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullolastoma}} is a primary CNS tumour
that is typically found at the cereellar vermis.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-10058813407514.jpg" /><img src="paste-47480863457617.jpg" /></div>
1389912500193 1358629116480 {{c1::Meningioma}} is a primary CNS tumour that
presents as a round mass attached to the dura with a possile "tail".<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-10307921510614.jpg" /><img src="paste-46325517254990.
jpg" /></div>
1389912554709 1358629116480 The whorled pattern seen elow is often seen in
the primary CNS tumour called&nsp;{{c1::meningioma}}.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-10342281249025.jpg" /></div>
1389912593712 1358629116480 {{c1::Psammoma odies}} are nodules of calcifica
tion that can e seen in Meningioma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-103680
51052805.jpg" /><img src="paste-46355582026061.jpg" /></div>
1389912630918 1358629116480 What primary CNS tumour shows the characteristic
Angiocentric Patterning shown elow?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10428
180594905.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CNS B-Cell Lymphoma}}</div>
1389913086655 1358629116480 Where are primary CNS tumours in adults generall
y found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supratentorial}}</div>
1389913680695 1358629116480 Where are primary CNS tumours in children genera
lly found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infratentorial}}</div>
1389913695041 1358629116480 What is the most common primary malignant CNS tu
mour in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gliolastoma Multiforme (GBM)}}</div>
1389913725518 1358629116480 What kind of cells are found in Gliolastoma Mul
tiforme?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Astrocytes}}</div>
1389913746554 1358629116480 What intermediate filament is found in glial cel
ls?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glial Firillary Acid Protein (GFAP)}}</div>
1389913780195 1358629116480 What intermediate filament is found in Gliolast
oma Multiforme?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GFAP}}</div>
1389913795616 1358629116480 What is the most common <>enign</>&nsp;CNS t
umour in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Meningioma}}</div>
1389913831280 1358629116480 What type of cells are found in Meningioma?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Arachnoid cell}}</div>
1389913840618 1358629116480 A meningioma may present with&nsp;{{c2::seizure
s}} as the tumour is ale to compress onto the cortex.
1389913938587 1358629116480 Which cranial nerve is most often affected in a
Schwannoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VIII (Vestiulocochlear); therey resu
lting in tinnitus and vertigo}}</div>
1389913972311 1358629116480 At which location is CN VIII most commonly affec

ted y a Schwannoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The Cereellopontine Angle (CPA)
}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-46952582480198.jpg" /></div>
1389914021451 1358629116480 What tumour marker is present in a Schwannoma?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::S-100}}</div>
1389914036728 1358629116480 Schwannoma is commonly associated with a genetic
disorder called&nsp;{{c1::Neurofiromatosis Type 2}}, with which there will e
presence of ilateral tumours.
1389914343700 1358629116480 Where are Oligodendrogliomas commonly found?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Frontal loe}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-46991
237185868.jpg" /></div>
1389914374228 1358629116480 What is the most common CNS tumour in children?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pilocytic Astrocytoma}}</div>
1389914396487 1358629116480 Where does Pilocytic Astrocytoma typically arise
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cereellum}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-47343
424504142.jpg" /></div>
1389914412754 1358629116480 {{c1::Pilocytic Astrocytoma}} is a primary CNS t
umour that commonly involves a cystic lesion with a mural nodule and Rosenthal f
iers. <r /><div><img src="paste-47390669144398.jpg" /></div>
1389914461659 1358629116480 What intermediate filament is found in Pilocytic
Astrocytoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GFAP}}</div>
1389914476369 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::medullolastoma}} is a CNS tumour t
hat is derived from malignant granular cells of the cereellum from the <>neuro
ectoderm</>.
1389914607106 1358629116480 Where is a medullolastoma commonly found?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Cereellar vermis}}</div>
1389914621917 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullolastoma}} is a CNS tumour that com
monly displays drop metastasis where it metastasizes to the cauda equina via the
CSF.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-47485158424913.jpg" /></div>
1389914650611 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullolastoma}} is a CNS tumour that inv
olves <>small, round lue cells</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-47601
122541904.jpg" /></div>
1389914677399 1358629116480 What kind of cells are found in Ependyoma?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Ependymal Cells}}</div>
1389914696921 1358629116480 Where is Ependymoma commonly found?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::The 4th ventricle}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-47639
777247569.jpg" /></div>
1389914705910 1358629116480 {{c1::Craniopharyngioma}} is a CNS tumour that a
rises from the remnants of Rathke's pouch that may present with <>calcification
s</>&nsp;(tooth enamel-like).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-47764331299
153.jpg" /></div>
1389914734658 1358629116480 {{c1::Craniopharyngioma}} is a CNS tumour that m
ay present with itemporal hemoaniopia due to compression of the tumour onto the
optic chiasm.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-47300474831183.jpg" /></div>
1389914768906 1358629116480 What is a common etiology of Primary CNS B-Cell
Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1389914795477 1358629116480 What demogaphic is Gliolastoma Multiforme commo
nly seen in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1389914847058 1358629116480 What demogaphic is Meningioma commonly found in?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1389914856854 1358629116480 What demogaphic is Firillary Astrocytoma common
ly found in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1389914869078 1358629116480 What demogaphic is Acoustic Schwannoma commonly
found in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1389914880495 1358629116480 What demogaphic is Pilocytic Astrocytoma commonl
y found in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Children}}</div>
1389914895683 1358629116480 What demographic is Ependyoma commonly found in?
<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Children}}</div>
1389914906333 1358629116480 What demographic is is Medullolastoma commonly
found in?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Children}}</div>
1390080096344 1358629116480 Which CNS cells are most susceptile to ischemia

?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neurons}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Neurons &gt; glia
&gt; white matter</i></div>
1390080249091 1358629116480 Which loes of the rain are more vulnerale to
ischemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Occipital &amp; Parietal}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Occipital &amp; Parietal &gt; Temporal &amp; Frontal</i></div>
1390080281713 1358629116480 Ischemic injury to CNS neurons results in the ex
cessive release of&nsp;{{c1::glutamate}}, which activates downstream cation cha
nnels, causing cell death though Ca influx.
1390080335040 1358629116480 {{c1::Cortical Laminar}} necrosis is seen follow
ing moderate ischemia to pyramidal neuron of the cereral cortex.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-1743756722574.jpg" /></div>
1390080695896 1358629116480 What is the duration of a Transient Ischemic Att
ack (TIA)?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::&lt; 24 hrs}}</div>
1390080745079 1358629116480 What is the duration of a Cereral Infarct/Ische
mic Stroke?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 24 hrs}}</div>
1390080765876 1358629116480 A {{c2::pale}} infarct occurs following a&nsp;{
{c1::thromotic}} stroke.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1889785610480.jpg
" /></div>
1390080910670 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::red/hemorrhagic}} infarct occurs fo
llowing an&nsp;{{c2::emolic}} stroke.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-201
0044694771.jpg" /></div>
1390080931725 1358629116480 What type of infarct is shown elow?<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-2044404433251.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Lacunar}}</div>
1390080951548 1358629116480 <div>When do red neurons appear after a cereral
infarction?</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2095944040676.jpg" /></d
iv><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::12 hours}}</div>
1390081021102 1358629116480 When do neutrophils appear after a cereral infa
rction?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2130303779043.jpg" /></div><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::2-3 days}}</div>
1390081097435 1358629116480 When does necrosis appear after a cereral infar
ction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::24 hrs}}</div>
1390081126689 1358629116480 When do microglia (macrophage) appear after a ce
reral infarction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-7 days}}</div>
1390081140090 1358629116480 When does Gliosis and liquefaction appear after
a cereral infarction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2-3 weeks}}</div>
1390081163525 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::penumra}} is the zone of viale
tissue surrounding an infarct where the cells are at an increased risk of underg
oing irreversile injury.
<r /><div><img src="paste-3049426780366.jpg" />
</div>
1390081218906 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Charcot-Bouchard}} aneurysm is comm
only seen in hypertension and can cause intracereral hemorrhages.<div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-3285649981832.jpg" /></div>
1390082482631 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::intracereral hemorrhage}} is defi
ned as leeding into the rain parenchyma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste3354369458435.jpg" /></div>
1390082569611 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::erry}} aneurysm is a developmental
anormality that involves a thin-walled saccular outpouching of vasculature.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3414499000695.jpg" /></div>
1390082660509 1358629116480 What are Arteriovenous Malformations?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Vasculature with no capillary ed; they have direct arterio-ven
ous channels that can rupture}}</div> <img src="paste-3925600108833.jpg" />
1390082817002 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertensive Encephalopathy}} is a type of
hypertensive cererovascular disease characterized y malignant hypertension, c
ereral edema and increased ICP.
1390082882017 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertensive Encephalopathy}} is a type of
hypertensive cererovascular disease caused y malignant hypertension. It <>do
es not</>&nsp;involve infarction or hemorrhage.
1390082931330 1358629116480 {{c1::Binswanger Disease}} is a <>hypertensive
cererovascular disease</> characterized y <>degeneration of sucortical whit

e matter with loss of myelin and axons</>.
<r /><div><i>aka <>Sucortical
Leukoencephalopathy</></i></div>
1390082986462 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::slit hemorrhage}}, shown elow, is
a variant form of intracereral hemorrhaging seen in hypertensive patients.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-4045859193188.jpg" /></div>
1390083022171 1358629116480 How long does it take for cell death to ensue in
neurons?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::3-5 minutes}}</div>
1390084360889 1358629116480 What does mild Gloal Cereral Ischemia present
with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transient confusion; readily correctale}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>e.g. prompt recovery following glucose administration</i><
/div>
1390084480301 1358629116480 What causes a thromotic stroke?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Rupture of atherosclerotic plaque}}</div>
1390084524632 1358629116480 What kind of infarct does a Thromotic stroke ca
use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pale infarct}}</div>
1390084544177 1358629116480 What causes an Emolic Stroke?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Thromoemoli}}</div>
1390084558002 1358629116480 Middle Cereral Artery (MCA) is most commonly af
fected y {{c1::Emolic}} &nsp;Stroke.<div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
<i>Source: Roins asic pathology 9th ed. p816</i>
1390084580706 1358629116480 What kind of infarct does an Emolic Stroke caus
e?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Hemorrhagic (Red) infarct}}</div>
1390084601370 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Lacunar Stroke?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis; seen in HTN and T2DM}}</
div>
1390084636599 1358629116480 What cereral vessels are involved in Lacunar St
roke?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lenticulostriate Vessels}}</div>
1390084652586 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Lacunar}} stroke is a cereral stro
ke that presents with small, cystic, 'lake-like' areas of infarction, typically
at the deep structures of the rain.
1390084684173 1358629116480 A lacunar stroke will present as a pure motor st
roke if the&nsp;{{c1::internal capsule}} is affected.
1390084705083 1358629116480 A lacunar stroke will present as a pure sensory
stroke if the&nsp;{{c1::thalamus}} is affected.
1390084721198 1358629116480 At which cereral vessels are Charcot-Bouchard m
icroaneurysms typically found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lenticulostriate Vesse
ls}}</div>
1390084765722 1358629116480 What is the most common site of Intracereral He
morrhaging?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal Ganglia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Or
other deep rain structures near the MCA.</i></div>
1390084794188 1358629116480 {{c1::Berry}} aneurysms are thin-walled, saccula
r outpouchings of lood vessels in the rain that lack a media layer.
1390084831570 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::suarachnoid}} hemorrhage is a type
of hemorrhagic stroke that will present as the 'worst headache of my life'.
1390084867832 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::suarachnoid}} hemorrhage is a type
of cereral hemorrhage that presents with nuchal rigidity.
1390084888910 1358629116480 {{c1::Xanthochromia}} is often seen upon lumar
puncture of a patient with suarachnoid hemorrhaging. It involves CSF with a yel
low hue due to iliruin reakdown.
1390084935835 1358629116480 What is the most important risk factor for strok
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertension}}</div>
1390086086968 1358629116480 In younger patients, thromotic strokes are like
ly to have occurred due to a&nsp;{{c1::hypercoagulale}} state.
<r /><d
iv><i>Or some other disorder that is not atherosclerosis.</i></div>
1390088014597 1358629116480 {{c1::Watershed}} infarcts are a form of cerera
l infarct that develops from relative hypoperfusion in the most distal arterial
territories. They can produce ilateral symptoms.
<img src="paste-58025008
17103.jpg" /><div><r /><div><i>aka Border Zone Infarcts</i></div></div>
1390088203694 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Suarachnoid He
morrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Berry Anerysm}}</div>

1390088259491 1358629116480 How do you differentiate etween a migraine and
suarachnoid hemorrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::SAH has a sudden onset}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>They are oth vascular in nature.</i></div>
1390088289638 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemorrhagic}} strokes are a form of stroke
that presents with pounding headaches, stiff neck and focal long tract signs.
1390088457343 1358629116480 If there is a stroke at the&nsp;{{c2::Middle Ce
reral}} artery, deficits at the face and arms will e greater than deficits at
the legs.
1390088520773 1358629116480 If there is a stroke at the&nsp;{{c1::Anterior
Cereral}} Artery, then deficits at the legs will e greater than deficits at th
e face and arms.
1390088548188 1358629116480 If there is a stroke at the&nsp;{{c1::Internal
Capsule}} deficits will e equal etween the face, arm and legs.
1390088598551 1358629116480 Occlusion to the Anterior Cereral Artery will r
esult in <>restricted contralateral</> deficits at the {{c1::lower}} lims.
1390090779662 1358629116480 Occlusion to the Middle Cereral Artery will res
ult in <>restricted contralateral&nsp;</>deficits to the&nsp;{{c1::upper}} l
ims.
1390090826958 1358629116480 An occlusion to the {{c1::Posterior Cereral}} A
rtery results in Superior Alternating (Weer's) Syndrome.
1390091325750 1358629116480 An occlusion to the&nsp;{{c1::Posterior Cerera
l}} Artery results in Benedikt's Syndrome.
1390091361903 1358629116480 An occlusion to the&nsp;{{c1::Anterior Inferior
Cereellar (AICA)}} Artery results in {{c2::Lateral Pontine}} Syndrome.
1390091400024 1358629116480 An occlusion to the&nsp;{{c1::Posterior Inferio
r Cereellar (PICA)}} Artery results in&nsp;{{c2::Lateral Medullary (Wallenerg
's)}} Syndrome.
1390091437004 1358629116480 An occlusion to the&nsp;{{c1::Anterior Spinal}}
Artery <>at the medullary level</> results in&nsp;{{c2::Medial Medullary}} S
yndrome.
1390326891973 1358629116480 Alzheimer's Disease is characterized y a loss o
f&nsp;{{c1::cholinergic}} neurons of the asal forerain.
<r /><div><i>Th
ese project to the cortex, neocortex and hippocampus.</i></div>
1390326979433 1358629116480 Aside from cholinergic nuclei of the asal fore
rain, Alzheimer's Disease involves degeneration of the noradrenergic nucleus&ns
p;{{c1::locus ceruleus}}.
1390327041902 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Aβ peptide}} is a pathological prot
ein in Alzheimer's Disease that causes NMDA and AMPA receptor sites to e downre
gulated, therey affected LTP and LTD.
1390327199408 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Aβ peptide}} is a pathological pept
ide in Alzheimer's Disease that inds to BDNF and inactivates it, therey facili
tating neurodegeneration.
1390327362658 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Aβ peptide}} is a pathological prot
ein in Alzheimer's Disease that activates&nsp;{{c2::Caspases}} and other stress
kinases, therey resulting in increased apoptosis.
<r /><div><i>Hence, can
Caspase inhiitors slow the progression of AD?</i></div>
1390327433958 1358629116480 What is the iggest risk factor for developing A
lzheimer's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Old age}}</div> <r /><div><i>Ri
sk doules every 5 years after 65 y/o.</i></div>
1390521932951 1358629116480 Parkinsons Disease is characterized y depigment
ation and neuronal loss of dopaminergic neurons at the&nsp;{{c1::sustantia nig
ra}} of the asal ganglia.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3006477107436.jp
g" /></div>
1390523334057 1358629116480 {{c1::Lewy Bodies}} are round, eosinophilic odi
es of misfolded α-synuclein nd ubiquitin found in ffected neurons in Prkinson's
Disese. There is sometimes  peripherl hlo.<div><br /></div><div><img src="p
ste-3092376453323.jpg" /></div>
1390523413578 1358629116480 Wht misfolded protein is the mjor component of
Lewy Bodies seen in Prkinson's Disese nd Lewy Body Dementi?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::α-synuclein}}</div> <img src="pste-3088081486027.jpg" />

1390523456028 1358629116480 Which bsl gngli structure sees depigmenttio
n nd  loss of neurons in Prkinson's Disese?<div><br /></div><div><img src="p
ste-3161095930033.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Substnti Nigr}}</
div>
1390523514048 1358629116480 Huntington's Disese is chrcterized by trophy
of the cortex nd the&nbsp;{{c1::Cudte nucleus}} of the bsl gngli, ledin
g to expnsion of the ventricles on imging.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pst
e-3616362463535.jpg" /></div>
1390525504567 1358629116480 Prkinson's nd other hypokinetic motor disorder
s reflect dysfunction of the&nbsp;{{c1::direct}} pthwy of the bsl gngli.
1390526368243 1358629116480 Huntington's nd other hyperkinetic disorders ty
piclly reflect  problem with the&nbsp;{{c1::indirect}} pthwy of the bsl g
ngli.
1390526400037 1358629116480 Wht is chore?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Purpo
seless, quick jerks tht my be superimposed on top of voluntry movement}}</div
>
1390526476161 1358629116480 {{c1::Huntington's Chore}} is n utosoml domi
nnt movement disorder chrcterized by degenertion of GABA neurons of the indi
rect pthwy t the cudte nucleus.
<br /><div><i>Typiclly the hed of the
cudte nucleus.</i></div>
1390526537888 1358629116480 {{c1::Sydenhm's Chore}} is  movement disorder
tht rises s  trnsient compliction in some children with rheumtic fever,
commonly in girls.
1390526769754 1358629116480 {{c1::Chore Grvidrum}} is  movement disorder
tht occurs usully during the second trimester of pregnncy.
1390526800350 1358629116480 {{c1::Trdive Dyskinesi}} is n&nbsp;<b>itroge
nic</b> movement disorder chrcterized by repetitive choreic movements ffectin
g the fce, hnds nd trunk.
1390526853430 1358629116480 {{c1::Trdive Dyskinesi}} is n <b>itrogenic</
b>&nbsp;movement disorder tht often results from tretment with ntipsychotics.
1390526882329 1358629116480 {{c1::Athetosis}} is defined s slow, writhing,
involuntry, snke-like movements typiclly evident t the fingers nd hnds.
1390527257828 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemibllismus}} is  hyperkinetic movement
disorder tht results from  lesion of the Subthlmic Nucleus (STN).
1390527317467 1358629116480 Wht is the most common cuse of Hemibllismus?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lcunr Stroke of  thlmoperforting brnch off the
PCA in HTN}}</div>
1390527345300 1358629116480 {{c1::Tourette's Syndrome}} is  movement disord
er chrcterized by fcil nd vocl tics tht progress to jerking movements of
the limbs. Involuntry, explosive, vulgr speech nd behviour my lso be invol
ved.
1390527481262 1358629116480 {{c1::Heptolenticulr Degenertion (Wilson's Di
sese)}} is  movement disorder cused by n utosoml recessive disorder in the
metbolism of copper nd defects in Ceruloplsmin.
1390528333767 1358629116480 Thin, brown&nbsp;{{c1::Kyser-Fleischer}} rings
re seen in the outer corne of ptients with Wilson's Disese.
1390528371880 1358629116480 {{c1::Prkinson's Disese}} is  movement disord
er chrcterized by  degenertive loss of dopminergic neurons in the substnti
 nigr of the bsl gngli.
1390529346612 1358629116480 Rre cses of Prkinson's Disese hve been link
ed to exposure to&nbsp;{{c1::MPTP}},  contminnt of illicit IV drugs.
1390529377229 1358629116480 {{c1::Lewy Body Dementi}} is  form of dementi
tht is chrcterized by <b>erly-onset </b>dementi, hllucintions nd prkin
sonism.
1390529445581 1358629116480 Where re Lewy Bodies found in Lewy Body Dementi
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The cortex}}</div>
1390529464473 1358629116480 {{c1::Huntington's Disese}} is  movement disor
der chrcterized by the degenertion of GABAergic neurons in the cudte nucleu
s of the bsl gngli.
1390529510767 1358629116480 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Huntington's

Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</div>
1390529525537 1358629116480 On wht chromosome is the Huntingtin (Htt) gene
found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
1390529542635 1358629116480 Which trinucleotide repet in the Huntingtin (Ht
t) gene is involved in Huntington's Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</d
iv>
1390529569344 1358629116480 Anticiption is seen in Huntington's Disese due
to further CAG expnsion during&nbsp;{{c1::spermtogenesis}}.
1390678867844 1358629116480 {{c1::Dementi}} is  neurologicl pthology def
ined s  decline in cognitive bility, memory nd/or function with intct consc
iousness.
1390679947868 1358629116480 Ptients with dementi re eventully die in&nbs
p;{{c1::5-10}} yers s symptoms grdully develop nd progress.
1390680001833 1358629116480 Wht is often the first cognitive impirment see
n in dementi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Memory loss nd/or dysfunction}}</div>
1390680072753 1358629116480 Wht neurologicl deficits hve to be present to
meet the criteri for  dignosis of Dementi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Memor
y +1 cognitive deficit}}</div>
1390680215948 1358629116480 Wht is the hllmrk neurologicl deficit in Alz
heimer's Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Memory deficits; with  slow, insid
ious onset nd progression}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Specificlly, there is  p
roblem reclling fcts</i></div>
1390681200489 1358629116480 Hyperphosphoryltion of the&nbsp;{{c1::Tu}} pro
tein is ssocited with Alzheimer's Disese.
1390681423708 1358629116480 Which modifiction to the tu protein is ssoci
ted with Alzheimer's Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperphosphoryltion}}<
/div>
1390681446363 1358629116480 The&nbsp;Aβ amyloid peptide fragments are usually
found in 2 length. The&nsp;{{c1::Aβ<su>42</su>}}&nsp;form is the amyloidogenic
form.
1390681792083 1358629116480 {{c1::Cortical atrophy}} is a key gross anatomic
al feature of Alzheimer's Disease.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10329396
347180.jpg" /></div>
1390682096284 1358629116480 The cortical atrophy seen in Alzheimer's Disease
can cause&nsp;{{c1::Hydrocephalus <i>ex vacuo</i>}}, involving enlarged ventri
cles and increased CSF volume.
1390682151724 1358629116480 {{c1::Neurofirillary tangles}} are a key histol
ogical feature of Alzheimer's Disease that are composed of hyperphosphorylated t
au protein.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10827612553435.jpg" /></div>
1390682235842 1358629116480 {{c1::Neuritic Plaques}} are a key histological
feature of Alzheimer's Disease that involve an amyloid core (2) and peripheral t
au aggregates (3).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10840497455413.jpg" /><i
mg src="paste-10853382357194.jpg" /><img src="paste-10866267259056.jpg" /></div>
1390682320875 1358629116480 What colour do Amyloid proteins show on immunofl
uorescence?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Apple-Green}}</div>
<img src="paste10917806866687.jpg" />
1390682414777 1358629116480 {{c1::Cereral Amyloid Angiopathy}} is a cerero
vascular pathology that occurs due to&nsp;Aβ amyloid accumulation in the tunica m
edia of small vessels in the rain.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1096075
6539642.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Has increased risk of intracereral hemorr
haging.</i></div>
1390697322563 1358629116480 {{c1::Multiple Infarct Dementia}} is a type of v
ascular dementia characterized y multiple-single infarcts that damage functiona
lly critical areas of the rain.
<r /><div><i>There is cognitive decline
within 3 months following such multiple focal infarcts.</i></div>
1390697416452 1358629116480 {{c1::Binswanger's Disease}} is a vascular demen
tia characterized y multiple, tiny lacunar infarcts at sucortical deep white m
atter that is strongly associated with HTN.
1390697490431 1358629116480 {{c1::Binwanger's Disease}} is a vascular dement
ia that presents similarly to Alzheimer's Disease ut will present with vascular

defects upon MRI.
<r /><div><i>Use the patient Hx and MRI to differentiat
e etween the 2.</i></div>
1390697553446 1358629116480 {{c1::Mixed Dementia}} is a form of dementia tha
t involves a comination of Alzheimer's and Binswanger's changes with insidious
progression.
1390697786256 1358629116480 Where does Binswanger's Disease commonly present
in the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Periventricularly}}</div>
1390697815645 1358629116480 What are the 3 key clinical features diagnostic
of Lewy Body Dementia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dementia, Parkinsonism, Halluc
inations}}</div>
1390697920293 1358629116480 {{c1::Lewy Body Dementia}} is a type of dementia
that is characterized y parkinsonism with fluctuating dementia and hallucinati
ons.
<r /><div><i>Hallucinations are non-frightening.</i></div>
1390697973600 1358629116480 What is the second most common dementia?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lewy Body Dementia}}</div>
1390698018786 1358629116480 If dementia precedes parkinsonism in a patient,
the diagnosis is likely {{c2::Lewy Body Dementia}}
<r /><div><i>i.e. if th
e dementia is early onset</i></div>
1390698913688 1358629116480 If parkinsonism precedes dementia y 1 year in a
patient, the diagnosis is likely&nsp;{{c1::Parkinson's Disease}}.
1390698994343 1358629116480 {{c1::Lewy Bodies}} are intraneuronal, intranucl
ear amyloid-like inclusions containing accumulations of misfolded&nsp;{{c2::alp
ha-synuclein}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="ARlZnKt.jpg" /></div>
1390699735254 1358629116480 {{c1::Alpha-synuclein}} is a synaptic protein in
volved in vesicular production that accumulates in Lewy Body Dementia and Parkin
son's as it misfolds.
1390699897956 1358629116480 {{c1::Lewy neurites}} are neurites filled with a
ggregates of misfolded alpha-synuclein.
1390700160382 1358629116480 Where are Lewy Bodies found in Lewy Body Dementi
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cortex}}</div>
1390700190819 1358629116480 Where are Lewy Bodies found in Parkinson's Disea
se?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal Ganglia; Sustantia Nigra}}</div>
1390700241981 1358629116480 {{c1::Frontotemporal Dementia}} is a slowly prog
ressive dementia that has very prominent personality and ehavioural changes (mo
reso than the memory loss).
1390700429120 1358629116480 {{c1::Pick's Disease}} is a dementia that is ver
y similar to Frontotemporal Dementia ut has a rapid progression.
1390700843806 1358629116480 {{c1::Frontotemporal Dementia}} is a dementia th
at primarily affects the frontotemporal loe, yielding much more significant eh
avioural deficits as opposed to memory.
1390700874544 1358629116480 {{c1::Pick's Disease}} is a dementia that primar
ily affects the frontotemporal loe, ut has a <>rapid</>&nsp;progression and
onset.
1390700900596 1358629116480 Cortical neurons in the frontal and temporal lo
es in Frontotemporal Dementia accumulate mutated&nsp;{{c1::tau}} proteins, lead
ing to neuronal loss.
1390701009667 1358629116480 The atrophied gyri in Frontotemporal Dementia (F
TD) are said to have a&nsp;{{c1::knife-edge}} appearance.<div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-4157528342758.jpg" /></div>
1390701201163 1358629116480 {{c1::Pick Cells}} are seen in Pick's Disease an
d are descried as surviving neurons with homogenous swollen cytoplasm.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-4303557230851.jpg" /></div>
1390701248880 1358629116480 {{c1::Pick Bodies}} are intracytoplasmic eosinop
hilic inclusions of mutated&nsp;{{c2::tau protein}} seen in Pick cells of Pick'
s Disease.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4299262263555.jpg" /></div>
1390707933961 1358629116480 Degeneration of the cortex often leads to&nsp;{
{c1::dementia}}
1390707952884 1358629116480 Denegeration of the rainstem and asal ganglia
leads to&nsp;{{c1::movement disorders}}
1390707965558 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Dementia?<div><

r /></div><div>{{c1::Alzheimers}}</div>
1390707981468 1358629116480 Which comination of Secretases yields the <>no
rmal</>&nsp;Aβ amyloid peptide fragment?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha and ga
mma}}</div>
1390708014886 1358629116480 Which comination of Secretases yields the <>pa
thogenic</>&nsp;and <>amyloidogenic</>&nsp;Aβ amyloid peptide fragments?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta and gamma}}</div>
1390708039848 1358629116480 Which isoform of ApoE is linked to an increased
risk of Alzheimers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ApoE4}}</div>
1390708081727 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::ApoE4}} isoform of ApoE is the fo
rm that is deficient in its aility to reakdown&nsp;Aβ amyloid peptide fragments
.
1390708172447 1358629116480 Which isoform of ApoE is associated with a decre
ased risk in developing Alzheimer's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ApoE2; d
ue to it's aility to reakdown Aβ amyloid peptides}}</div>
1390708240468 1358629116480 Mutations in&nsp;{{c1::Presenilin 1 and 2}} res
ult in gamma-secretase having increased activity, therey yielding more&nsp;Aβ am
yloid peptides.
1390708276751 1358629116480 Patients with&nsp;{{c1::Down Syndrome}} often s
ee an early onset of Alzheimer's y the age of&nsp;{{c2::40}} due to the fact t
hat the APP gene is found on chromosome 21.
1390708309774 1358629116480 On which chromosome is the Amyloid Precursor Pro
tein (APP) found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::21}}</div>
1390708332061 1358629116480 {{c1::Neuritic plaques}} are histological featur
es of &nsp;Alzheimer's Disease and involve an extracellular core of&nsp;Aβ amylo
id peptide with entangled neuritic processes.
1390708392745 1358629116480 {{c1::Neurofirillary Tangles}} are a histologic
al feature of Alzheimer's characterized y intracellular aggregates of hyperphos
phorylated&nsp;{{c2::tau protein}} in paired helical fragments.
1390708435481 1358629116480 Which gene codes Tau protein?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::MAPT on chr 17}}</div>
1390708453318 1358629116480 The ehavioural symptoms seen in Pick's Disease
and Frontotemporal Dementia are due to&nsp;{{c1::frontal}} loe degeneration.
1390708509374 1358629116480 The language deficits seen in Pick's Disease and
Frontotemporal Dementia are due to&nsp;{{c1::temporal}} loe degeneration.
1390708539470 1358629116480 {{c1::Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus}} is defined
as an <>idiopathic</>&nsp;increase in CSF, resulting in dementia.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-6309306958060.jpg" /></div>
1390708575967 1358629116480 The increase in CSF in Normal Pressure Hydroceph
alus results in dilated ventricles that stretch the&nsp;{{c1::Corona Radiata}}
in the rain, therey leading to dementia.
1390708608099 1358629116480 Dementia secondary to&nsp;{{c1::Normal Pressure
Hydrocephalus}} commonly presents with a classic triad of u<>rinary incontinen
ce, gait instaility and dementia</>&nsp;due to distortion of the corona radia
ta.
<r /><div><i>Wet, woly and wacky</i></div>
1390708662564 1358629116480 Symptoms of Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus can e
alleviated through a&nsp;{{c1::Lumar Puncture}}.
1390708685742 1358629116480 What is the Tx for Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventriculoperitoneal Shunting}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Surgically formed shunt that allows for increased drainage of CSF into the
venous system.</i></div>
1390960276503 1358629116480 Where is the purulent exudate found in Meningoco
ccal and Pneumococcal Meningitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Over the cereral c
onvexities}}</div>
1390962213659 1358629116480 Where is the purulent exudate found in <i>Haemph
ilus influenzae</i>&nsp;meningitis?<div><r />{{c1::At the ase of the rain}}<
/div>
1390962241760 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Adhesive Arachnoiditis}} is a comp
lication of pneumococcal meningitis characterized y oliteration of the Foramin
a of Luschka and Magendie and firosis of the arachnoid granulations.

1390962319543 1358629116480 Brain ascesses have a central cavity filled wit
h pus and an outer wall that has undergone&nsp;{{c1::firosis}}<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-1108101562721.jpg" /><img src="paste-1095216660734.jpg" />
</div>
1390962411678 1358629116480 What does an ascess in the temporal loe common
ly cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epilepsy}}</div>
1390962440306 1358629116480 Meningitis caused y&nsp;{{c1::<i>Mycoacterium
tuerculosis</i>}} is characterized y a grey-green gelatinous or firinous exu
date in the suarachnoid space and granulomas in CNS tissue.<div><r /></div><di
v><img src="paste-1258425418058.jpg" /></div>
1390962543965 1358629116480 {{c1::Basal Adhesive Arachnoiditis}} is a compli
cation of TB Meningitis characterized y oliteration of the suarachnoid space
or foramina of Luschka and Magendie, causing hydrocephalus.
1390962611181 1358629116480 {{c1::Oliterative Endarteritis}} is a complicat
ion of TB meningitis that can lead to ischemia and cereral infarct.<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-1374389535039.jpg" /></div>
1390962651041 1358629116480 {{c1::Meningovascular Neurosyphilis}} is a type
of Neurosyphilis that involves chronic meningitis at the ase of the rain and o
literative endarteritis (leading to stroke).<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-1537598292227.jpg" /></div>
1390963016427 1358629116480 {{c1::Paretic Neurosyphilis}} is a type of neuro
syphilis that involves cortical atrophy, especially at the frontal loe, and gra
nular ependymitis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1614907703561.jpg" /></d
iv>
1390963081850 1358629116480 {{c1::Taes Dorsalid}} is a complication of neur
osyphilis that involves the loss of myelin and axons in the dorsal root and dors
al columns.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2048699400416.jpg" /></div>
1390963126743 1358629116480 Brain Toxoplasmosis is a CNS infection y&nsp;{
{c1::<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>}} that involves cereral ascesses with tachyzoite
s and ring-enhancing lesions on MRI.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-210453
3975272.jpg" /></div>
1390963333121 1358629116480 What causes Brain Toxoplasmosis?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>}}</div>
1390963354762 1358629116480 What causes Cryptococcal Meningoencephalitis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Cryptococcus neoformans</i>}}</div>
1390963376114 1358629116480 {{c1::Cryptococcal Meningoencephalitis}} is a CN
S infection typically seen in the immunocompromised that involves chronic asal
meningitis, <>'soap ule' cysts</> and encephalitis with cryptococci in Virc
how-Roin's space.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-2224793059559.jpg" /></div
>
1390963446423 1358629116480 What stain is used to visualize <i>Cryptococcus
neoformans</i>&nsp;in the perivascular space in the CNS?<div><r></div><div>{{c
1::Mucicarmine}}</div>
1390963482874 1358629116480 Acute viral meningitis is also known as&nsp;{{c
1::Aseptic meningitis}}
1390963502513 1358629116480 In viral meningitis,&nsp;{{c1::Microglia}} eco
me diffuse and undergo focal hyperplasia into rod cells.<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-2388001816831.jpg" /></div>
1390963566432 1358629116480 {{c1::Neuronophagia}}, shown elow, is a histolo
gical change that microglia under in viral meningoencephalitis.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-2422361555212.jpg" /></div>
1390963626705 1358629116480 {{c1::Cowdry A}} inclusions are eosinophilic int
ranuclear inclusions seen in HSV encephalitis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-2585570312429.jpg" /></div>
1390963681312 1358629116480 {{c1::HSV Encephalitis}} is a viral encephalitis
that involves necrosis and hemorrhaging, typically at the temporal and frontal
loe.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2619930050797.jpg" /></div>
1390963718437 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::anterior}} horn of the spinal cor
d is commonly affected in Poliomyelitis.
1390963762685 1358629116480 {{c1::Negri odies}} are eosinophilic intracytop

lasmic inclusions that are commonly found in pyramidal cells of the hippocampus
and purkinje cells of the cereellum in <>Raies infection</>.<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-2727304233251.jpg" /></div>
1390963831444 1358629116480 In which cells of the Hippocampus are Negri odi
es found in Raies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pyramidal}}</div>
<img src
="paste-2723009265955.jpg" />
1390963861191 1358629116480 In which cells of the cereellum are Negri odie
s found in Raies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Purkinje}}</div> <img src="paste2723009265955.jpg" />
1390963890901 1358629116480 {{c1::Suacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)
}} is a chronic and lethal complication of Measles that involves dementia, loss
of myelin and intranuclear inclusion in oligodendrocytes.
1390963942390 1358629116480 The intranuclear inclusions in Suacute Sclerosi
ng Panencephalitis (SSPE) are found in&nsp;{{c1::oligodendrocytes}}.
1390963977721 1358629116480 {{c1::HIV encephalitis}} is a viral encephalitis
characterized y microglial nodules and giant multinucleated cells.<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-3216930504922.jpg" /></div>
1390964014722 1358629116480 {{c1::Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy
(PML)}} is a complication of <>JC virus</> infection (or AIDS) that affects o
ligodendrocytes and causes <>dementia, weakness, vision loss and ataxia</>.
<r /><div><i>Fatal; mean surivival is 3 months</i></div>
1390964110372 1358629116480 Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML)
is a viral encephalopathy that involves large indistinct purple inclusions in {
{c1::oligodendrocytes}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3375844294892.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>Blue arrow</i></div>
1390964217200 1358629116480 {{c1::Spongiosis}} is a process of microscopic v
acuolation of the neuron somata and surrounding neuropil commonly seen in prion
disease and spongiform encephalopathy.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3539
053052175.jpg" /></div>
1391020158522 1358629116480 Which cells myelinate the PNS?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Schwann Cells}}</div>
1391020174247 1358629116480 Which spinal cord tract is affected in Amyotroph
ic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-738734375199.jp
g" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Corticospinal Tract}}</div>
1391023413813 1358629116480 In ALS, the&nsp;{{c1::ventral}} roots of the sp
inal cord ecome atrophied.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-781684048239.jp
g" /></div>
1391023462744 1358629116480 {{c1::Multiple Sclerosis}} is a demyelinating di
sorder that involve grey paraventricular plaques of demyelinated white matter.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-927712936250.jpg" /><img src="paste-38276748
542369.jpg" /></div>
1391023895929 1358629116480 The presence of Oligoclonal IgG ands on a highresolution electrophoresis gel is indicative of&nsp;{{c1::Multiple Sclerosis}}<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1073741824299.jpg" /></div>
1391024201284 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::endoneurium}} is the layer of cel
ls that are found around individual nerve fiers within a nerve fascicle.
<r /><div><i>Endo --&gt; Peri --&gt; Epi</i></div>
1391024745392 1358629116480 {{c1::Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS)}} is a lifethreatening neuropathy involving <>ascending</>&nsp;paralysis and eventual de
ath from respiratory paralysis and cardiac arrest.
<r /><div><i><r /></i>
</div>
1391025738315 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Guillain-Barre Syndrome?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vaccination, viral infection or acterial infection}
}</div>
1391025842485 1358629116480 What are the common viral causes of Guillain-Bar
re Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CMV; EBV}}</div>
1391025858179 1358629116480 What are the common acterial causes of Guillain
-Barre Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Campyloacter jejuni</i>; <i>Myco
plasma pneumoniae</i>}}</div>
1391025893085 1358629116480 What is responsile for the demyelination seen i

n Guillain-Barre Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells and circulating an
tiodies}}</div>
1391026057497 1358629116480 {{c1::Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS)}} is a perip
heral neuropathy that involves segmental demyelination and perivascular/endoneur
al lymphoid infiltration.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1812476199171.jpg
" /></div>
1391026164795 1358629116480 {{c1::Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) Disease}} is a h
ereditary sensorimotor neuropathy that involves anormalities in myelin synthesi
s due to defective structural and synthesis proteins.
1391026374985 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Charcot-Marie
-Tooth (CMT) Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1391026395952 1358629116480 {{c1::Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) Disease}} is a p
eripheral neuropathy that involves <>peroneal muscular dystrophy and pes cavus
(hollow foot)</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2061584302329.jpg" /></d
iv>
1391026515183 1358629116480 Repetitive remyelination in Charcot-Marie-Tooth
Disease results in concentric layers of Schwann cells around axons called&nsp;{
{c1::Onion Buls}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2147483648251.jpg" /></
div>
1391026586880 1358629116480 {{c1::Diaetic Neuropathy}} is a peripheral neur
opathy defined as a symmetrical sensory and motor neuropathy of distal extremiti
es. However the sensory deficits are greater than the motor deficits.
1391026773137 1358629116480 {{c1::Diaetic Neuropathy}} is a peripheral neur
opathy that involves decreased pain sensation leading to leg trauma and eventual
poor healing of ulcers.
1391026834935 1358629116480 Diaetic Neuropathy involves thickening and hyal
inization of&nsp;{{c1::endoneural}} arterioles, therey leading to peripheral n
europathy and osmotic damage of Schwann cells.
1391026925203 1358629116480 {{c1::Traumatic Neuroma}} is a peripheral neurop
athy that often occurs after trauma where damaged or severed nerves misalign dur
ing recovery and regeneration.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-294634756540
3.jpg" /></div>
1391027137575 1358629116480 What is the typical lifespan of someone with Duc
henne's Muscular Dystrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Into their 20s only}}</di
v>
1391030735323 1358629116480 What is the typical lifespan of someone with Bec
ker Muscular Dystrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
1391030750126 1358629116480 {{c1::Gottron Papules}} are red, scalar papules
found on the elows, knuckles and knees in Dermatomyositis.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-3234110374194.jpg" /></div>
1391031158336 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatomyositis}} is an inflammatory myopa
thy that involves perivascular infiltrate and perifascicular atrophy.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-3414499000669.jpg" /></div>
1391031544458 1358629116480 {{c1::Polyomyositis}} is an imflammatory myopath
y that involves heavy intrafascicular mononuclear infiltrate.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-3560527888720.jpg" /></div>
1391032030551 1358629116480 {{c1::Inclusion Body Myositis}} is an inflammato
ry myopathy that involves anormal folding of eta-amyloid and/or hyperphosphory
lated tau protein at the distal muscles.
1391032214734 1358629116480 Inclusion Body Myositis in an inflammatory myopa
thy that involves intracellular aggregates of misfolded&nsp;{{c1::eta-amyloid}
} filaments.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3813930959184.jpg" /></div>
1391032319915 1358629116480 Which drug do we use to <>diagnose</>&nsp;Mya
sthenia Gravis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Edrophonium, an AChE inhiitor}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>If there is a short-term increase in muscle strength then
the Dx is Myasthenia Gravis</i></div>
1391032403286 1358629116480 A {{c1::Schwannoma}} is a PNS tumour that can e
excised as it grows on the side of axons.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste4539780432060.jpg" /></div>
1391032506145 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::neurofiroma}} is a PNS tumour that

cannot e excised as it grows in etween nerve axons.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-4574140170427.jpg" /></div>
1391032537143 1358629116480 A {{c1::solitary neurofiroma}} is a type of neu
rofiroma that is sporadic and has <>no risk of malignancy</>.
1391032585866 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::plexiform neurofiroma}} is a neuro
firoma that is only seen in NF1 and has a risk of malignancy.<div><r /></div><
div><r /></div>
1391032613263 1358629116480 {{c1::Neurofiroma}} is a PNS tumour that has an
emedded nerve trunk and a serpentine histological pattern.<div><r /></div><di
v><img src="paste-4720169058548.jpg" /></div>
1391032683819 1358629116480 Which type of neurofiromas are characteristic o
f Neurofiromatosis 1?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Plexiform}}</div>
1391032717352 1358629116480 {{c1::Lisch nodules}} are pigmented nodules of t
he iris found in Neurofiromatosis 1 (NF1).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-46020574576977.jpg" /></div>
1391032753534 1358629116480 {{c1::Cafe-au-lait spots}} are a morphological f
eature of Neurofiromatosis 1 seen on the skin.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-4810363371716.jpg" /></div>
1391032800682 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Neurofiromat
osis 1?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal dominant}}</div>
1391032823588 1358629116480 What gene is implicated in Neurofiromatosis 1?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NF1; codes for Neurofiromin, a RAS family GTPase act
ivating proteins}}</div>
1391032856043 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Schwannoma}} is a PNS tumour that i
s associated with Neurofiromatosis 2.
1391032897049 1358629116480 {{c1::Acoustic Neuroma}} is a type of Schwannoma
that affects CN VIII at the cereello-pontine angle (CPA) causing tinnitus and
hearing loss.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5488968204565.jpg" /><img src
="paste-46875273068878.jpg" /></div>
1391032967673 1358629116480 {{c1::Verocay odies}} are a histological featur
e of Schwannomas that involves 2 rows of nuclear odies adjacent to each other.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5527622910143.jpg" /><img src="paste-551473
8008271.jpg" /></div>
1391033061419 1358629116480 Bilateral acoustic neuromas are characteristic o
f&nsp;{{c1::Neurofiromatosis 2}}.
1391033089534 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Neurofiromat
osis 2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal dominant}}</div>
1391043146480 1358629116480 Which meningeal layers make up the leptomeninges
}}</div>
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pia and Arachnoid
1391043195466 1358629116480 What is the most common viral cause of meningiti
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coxsackievirus}}</div>
1391043232704 1358629116480 How is Coxsackievirus transmitted?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Fecal-oral transmission}}</div>
1391043244974 1358629116480 What is the classic triad of symptoms seen in me
ningitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Headache, Nuchal Rigidity, Fever}}</div>
1391043273190 1358629116480 {{c1::Photophoia}} may e a significant symptom
of meningitis, typically when the cause is viral.
1391043299127 1358629116480 At which verteral level is a lumar puncture pe
rformed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Between L4 and L5}}</div>
1391044896853 1358629116480 What is the pathogenic form of prions?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::PrPsc; eta-pleated sheet}}</div>
1391045020919 1358629116480 {{c1::Creutzfeldt-Jako Disease (CJD)}} is a spo
ngiform encephalopathy that is acquired sporadically as prions misfold in the r
ain.
1391045065891 1358629116480 {{c1::Variant CJD}} is a type of Creutzfeldt-Jak
o Disease that is associated with exposure to ovine spongiform encephalopathy.
<r /><div><i>aka Mad Cow</i></div>
1391045105137 1358629116480 {{c1::Familial Fatal Insomnia}} is an inherited
prion disease that presents with severe insomnia and exaggerated startle respons
es.

1391045308068 1358629116480 In demyelinating disorders, the&nsp;{{c1::axons
}} are preserved, therey resulting in greatly impaired signal conduction.
1391045368617 1358629116480 {{c1::Metachromatic Leukodystrophy}} is an autos
omal recessive lysosomal storage disorder with a deficiency of Arylsulfatase, th
erey resulting in a uildup of sulfatide and imapired myelination.
1391045405510 1358629116480 Which enzyme is deficient in Metachromatic Leuko
dystrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arylsulfatase A}}</div>
1391045424635 1358629116480 What enzyme is deficient in Krae's Disease?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Galactocererosidase}}</div>
1391045442701 1358629116480 {{c1::Krae's Disease}} is an autosomal recessi
ve leukoencepalopathy characterized y a deficiency of Galactocererosidase, the
rey resulting in a uildup of galactocereroside and psychosine.
<r /><d
iv><i>The metaolites destroy myelin.</i></div>
1391045472777 1358629116480 {{c1::Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD)}} is an <>X-li
nked</> leukodystrophy that involves an impaired aility to add Coenzyme A to l
ong-chain fatty acids, resulting in uildup at the CNS, adrenal gland and testes
.
<r /><div><i>Watch the movie "Lorenzo's Oil". Sad, ut it's aout ALD.<
/i></div>
1391045530994 1358629116480 {{c1::Multiple Sclerosis}} is a demyelinating di
sorder due to the autoimmune destruction of CNS myelin and oligodendrocytes.
1391045565721 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly affected y Multiple
Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1391045578023 1358629116480 Which HLA sutype is associated with Multiple Sc
lerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2}}</div>
1391045596193 1358629116480 {{c1::Multiple Sclerosis}} is a demyelinating di
sorder that is far more common in regions away from the equator (temporate clima
tes)
1391045619448 1358629116480 What do the IgG autoantiodies in Multiple Scler
osis target?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::K channels on glial cells}}</div>
1391045664046 1358629116480 Lesion of the&nsp;{{c1::Medial Longitudinal Fas
cicle (MLF)}} in Multiple Sclerosis causes&nsp;{{c2::Internuclear Ophthalmopleg
ia (INO)}}
<r /><div><i>INO a MiLF that can't ADD(uct).</i></div><div><i>R
ememer, the MLF is very highly myelinated such that horizontal gaze is smooth a
nd occurs quickly. Hence, in demyelinating disorders, INO is seen early and ofte
n.</i></div>
1391045730692 1358629116480 {{c1::Multiple Sclerosis}} is a demyelinating di
sorder that involves <>periventricular&nsp;</>plaques in white matter, typica
lly noticeale via MRI.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-38272453575073.jpg"
/></div>
1391046080319 1358629116480 {{c1::Multiple Sclerosis}} is a demyelinating di
sorder that involves increased immunogloulins and <>oligoclonal IgG ands</>&
nsp;on a high-res electrophoresis.
1391046121652 1358629116480 What type of ands are seen on a high-res electr
ophoresis in Multiple Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligoclonal IgG and
s}}</div>
1391046153354 1358629116480 {{c1::Suacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)
}} is a progressive, deilitating encephalitis that occurs due to slow, progress
ive, persistent measles virus infection.
1391046617482 1358629116480 {{c1::Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy
(PLE)}} is a demyelinating leukoencephalopathy due to JC virus infection of oli
godendrocytes.
1391046694142 1358629116480 What is the cause of Suacute Sclerosing Panence
phalitis (SSPE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Persistent measles virus infection}}
</div>
1391046720936 1358629116480 What is the cause of Progressive Multifocal Leuk
oencephalopathy (PMLE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::JC virus infection of oligode
ndrocytes}}</div>
1391046756613 1358629116480 {{c1::Central Pontine Myelinosis}} is a demyelin
ating disorder defined as a focal demyelination of the pons due to rapid IV corr
ection of hyponatremia.

1391046791311 1358629116480 What is the cause of Central Pontine Myelinosis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rapid IV correction of hyponatremia}}</div>
1391046804684 1358629116480 {{c1::Locked In Syndrome (Acute Bilateral Paraly
sis)}} is a classical presention of Central Pontine Myelinosis due to ilateral
lesions to the corticospinal tract
1391046848062 1358629116480 What enzyme mutation is seen in some familial ca
ses of ALS?<div><r />{{c1::Superoxide Dismutase (SOD1) gain of toxic function m
utations}}</div>
1391046968542 1358629116480 Degeneration of the&nsp;{{c1::anterior motor ho
rn}} in ALS leads to the LMN deficits seen.
1391047033925 1358629116480 Degeneration of the&nsp;{{c1::lateral corticosp
inal tract}} in ALS leads to the UMN deficits seen.
1391047049510 1358629116480 How is ALS distinguished from Syringomyelia?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALS will not have sensory deficits}}</div>
1391047070812 1358629116480 {{c1::Duchenne's Muscular Dystrophy}} is a muscu
lar dystrophy due to a <>deletion</>&nsp;of the Dystrophin gene.
1391047129185 1358629116480 {{c1::Becker Muscular Dystrophy (BMD)}} is a mus
cular dystrophy that involves a <>mutation </>in Dystrophin.
1391047156722 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatomyositis}} is an inflammatory dystr
ophy that affects the skin and skeletal muscle.
1391047191583 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatomyositis}} is an inflammatory myopa
thy that is thought to e due to an autoimmune reaction against capillaries.
1391047219327 1358629116480 What cancer is commonly associated with Dermatom
yositis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung cancer}}</div>
1391047235738 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Heliotrope rash}} is a rash of the
upper eyelids seen in Dermatomyositis.
1391047274225 1358629116480 {{c1::Gottron papules}} are red, scalar papules
seen on the elows, knees and knuckles in Dermatomyositis.
1391047299103 1358629116480 Which autoantiodies are associated with Dermato
myositis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ANA and Anti-Jo-1}}</div>
1391047325925 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatomyositis}} is an inflammatory myopa
thy that involves <>perimysial inflammation</>&nsp;and <>perifascicular atro
phy</>&nsp;upon iopsy.
1391047363538 1358629116480 {{c1::Polymyositis}} is an inflammatory myopathy
that does not involve the skin and has <>endomysial inflammation</>.
1391048088062 1358629116480 What is the cause of Myasthenia Gravis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Autoantiodies against the postsynaptic ACh receptor at the N
MJ}}</div>
1391048214673 1358629116480 Which sex is more affected y Myasthenia Gravis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1391048234387 1358629116480 {{c1::Myasthenia Gravis}} is an NMJ disorder tha
t <>worsens</>&nsp;with more muscle contractions and improves with rest.
1391048266307 1358629116480 {{c1::Myasthenia Gravis}} is an NMJ disorder tha
t is associated with thymic hyperplasia and thymoma.
1391048286833 1358629116480 {{c1::Lamert Eaton Syndrome}} is an NMJ disorde
r that <>improves</>&nsp;with more muscle contractions.
1391048311426 1358629116480 What is the cause of Lamert Eaton Syndrome?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autoantiodies against presynaptic Ca channels of the NM
J}}</div>
1391048328611 1358629116480 Which cancer is commonly associated with Lamert
-Eaton Syndrome?<div><r />{{c1::Small cell carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1391048351646 1358629116480 {{c1::Lamert-Eaton Syndrome}} is a NMJ disorder
with impaired ACh release due to autoantiody targeting of Ca channels.
1391907050788 1358629116480 Where are Berry aneurysms commonly located?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Circle of Willis; Branch points of the Anterior
Communicating Artery}}</div>
1391918970908 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}} is a gram p
ositive <>cocci</>&nsp;that can cause Styes, an infection of the follicle or
glands of the upper eyelid.
1391919043020 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Propioniacterium acnes</i>}} is a gram

positive <>rod</>&nsp;that can cause Styes, an infection of the follicle or
glands of the upper eyelid.
1391919065665 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Trichinella</i>}} is a genus of nematod
e that is contracted from ingestion of undercooked game/pork.
1391919294234 1358629116480 {{c1::Romana's Sign}} is a feature of Chagas Dis
ease where the upper eyelid ecomes swollen.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-31615254266162.jpg" /></div>
1391919560524 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Neonatal Conjun
ctivitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>}}</div>
1391919611047 1358629116480 Neonatal Conjunctivitis caused y&nsp;{{c1::<i>
Neisseria gonorrheae</i>}} is a medical emergency due to the possiility of seve
re ulceration, perforation and severe lindness.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-32113470472363.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Must e treated immediatel
y; may also occur with Neisseria meningitidis</i></div>
1391919742732 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of ocular keratiti
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV}}</div>
1391919826357 1358629116480 Conjunctivitis due to&nsp;{{c1::HSV}} typically
involves <>periocular vesicles</>, lepharitis and periauricular nodes.
1391919875084 1358629116480 Which serotypes of <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&
nsp;are involved with TRIC (Trachoma Inclusion Body Conjunctivitis)?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::D--K}}</div> <r /><div><i>"TRICH comes from D--K"</i></div>
1391920163116 1358629116480 {{c1::Trachoma}} is a <>chronic</>&nsp;conjun
ctivitis caused y <i>Chlaymydia trachomatis.</i>
1391920191671 1358629116480 What is the cause of Trachoma?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Chronic <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;infection}}</div>
1391920207745 1358629116480 Which serotypes of <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&
nsp;are involved with Trachoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A, B, Ba, C}}</div>
1391920228881 1358629116480 {{c1::TRIC (Trachoma Inclusion Body Conjunctivit
is)}} is a type of inclusion conjunctivitis caused y <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</
i>&nsp;infection, typically in neworns.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3
2405528248730.jpg" /></div>
1391920308929 1358629116480 Which vector transmits <i>Onchocerca volvulus</i
>&nsp;(River Blindness)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Black Fly}}</div>
1405805530948 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with uveitis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
1405805611052 1395802358422 Which race is associated with Open Angle Glaucom
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::African-American}}</div>
1405813754960 1395802358422 On which chromosome is Presenilin 1 found?<div><
r></div><div>{{c1::14}}</div>
1405814148613 1395802358422 On which chromosome is Presenilin 2 found?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
1405814158004 1395802358422 On which chromosome is ApoE2 found?<div><r></di
v><div>{{c1::19}}</div>
1405814186366 1395802358422 Which demyelinating disorder is aka Acute Inflam
matory Demyelinating Polyradiculopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Guillain-Barré
Syndrome}}</div>
1405814346266 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antody increases the risk of P
rogressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Natalizuma
}}</div>
1405814408302 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Disseminated Postinfectious Encephal
omyelitis}} is a demyelinating disorder that involves <>multifocal perivenular
inflammation</>&nsp;and <>demyelination</>&nsp;after an infection or vaccin
ation.
1405814461843 1395802358422 Which viral infections are associated with&nsp;
Acute Disseminated Postinfectious Encephalomyelitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Measles; VZV}}</div>
1405814478239 1395802358422 Which vaccines are associated with&nsp;Acute Di
sseminated Postinfectious Encephalomyelitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Raies;
Smallpox}}</div>
1405814489241 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Metachromatic

Leukodystrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1405814517507 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Krae Diseas
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1405814630989 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Adrenoleukody
strophy (ALD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1405814740082 1395802358422 Which type of seizures <>affect 1 area of the 
rain</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Focal/Partial}}</div>
1405815339625 1395802358422 Which loe is the most common origination of Foc
al/Partial Seizures?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial temporal loe}}</div>
1405815359966 1395802358422 Which type of seizure is often preceded y a <>
seizure aura</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Focal/Partial Seizure}}</div>
1405815381289 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondarily Generalized seizure}} is a typ
e of <>partial seizure</>&nsp;that secondarily generalizes after/if it crosse
s the midline.
1405815414847 1395802358422 {{c1::Simple Partial seizure}} is a type of part
ial seizure that involves <>intact consciousness</>&nsp;and typically present
s with <u>motor, sensory, autonomic, psychic</u>&nsp;manifestations.
1405815455171 1395802358422 {{c1::Complex Partial Seizure}} is a type of par
tial seizure that involves <>impaired consciousness</>.
1405815474535 1395802358422 Which type of partial seizure involves <>impair
ed</>&nsp;consciousness?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complex partial}}</div>
1405815487812 1395802358422 Which type of partial seizure involves <>intact
consciousness</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple}}</div>
1405815499756 1395802358422 Which type of seizure <>is diffuse</>&nsp;and
involves multiple rain areas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Generalized seizures}
}</div>
1405815526266 1395802358422 Which type of generalized seizure presents with
<>a lank stare, 3 Hz rain waves</>&nsp;and <>no postictal confusion</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asence seizure (Petit Mal)}}</div>
1405815809640 1395802358422 Which type of generalized seizure is aka Petit M
al?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asence seizure}}</div>
1405815828306 1395802358422 Which type of generalized seizure presents with
<>quick, repetitive jerks</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myotonic Seizure}}</d
iv>
1405815846785 1395802358422 Which type of generalized seizure presents with
<>alternating stiffening and movement</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tonic-Clo
nic (Grand Mal)}}</div>
1405815862666 1395802358422 Which type of generalized seizure is aka Grand M
al?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tonic-clonic seizure}}</div>
1405815878977 1395802358422 Which type of generalized seizure presents with
<>stiffening</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tonic seizure}}</div>
1405815888141 1395802358422 Which type of generalized seizure presents as a
<>"drop" seizure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atonic seizure}}</div>
1405815909465 1395802358422 Which type of generalized seizure is commonly mi
staken for fainting?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atonic seizure}}</div>
1405815925540 1395802358422 {{c1::Epilepsy}} is a neurological disorder that
involves <>recurrent seizures</>.
<r /><div><i>This does not include fer
ile seizures.</i></div>
1405816107464 1395802358422 {{c1::Status Epilepticus}} is a neurological dis
order that presents with <>continuous seizure for &gt; 30 minutes</>&nsp;<u s
tyle="font-weight: old; ">or</u>&nsp;<>recurrent seizures without regaining c
onsciousness etween them for &gt; 30 min</>. <r /><div><i>Medical emergency.
</i></div>
1405816152928 1395802358422 What is the duration of Cluster headaches?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::15 min - 3 hrs}}</div>
1405816450749 1395802358422 {{c1::Cluster Headache}} is a type of headache t
hat presents with <>excruciating periorital pain with lacrimation and rhinorrh
ea</>. <r /><div><i>Supposedly this is some of the worst pain you can have.</i
></div>
1405816517396 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Cluster H

eadaches?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
1405816557604 1395802358422 What is the treatment for cluster headaches?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhaled O<su>2</su>&nsp;and Sumatriptan}}</div>
1405816574863 1395802358422 What is the duration of tension headaches?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 30 min (typically 4-6 hrs)}}</div>
1405816596789 1395802358422 What is the only type of headache that presents
<>ilaterally</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tension headache}}</div>
1405816609663 1395802358422 {{c1::Tension headache}} is a type of headache t
hat presents with steady pain <>with no aura, no photophoia and no phonophoia
</>.
1405816652567 1395802358422 What is the treatment for chronic tension headac
he?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amitriptyline}}</div>
1405816667058 1395802358422 What is the treatment for tension headache?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::OTC analgesics (acetaminophen, NSAIDs)}}</div>
1405816685630 1395802358422 What is the duration of migraines?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::4-72 hrs}}</div>
1405816698647 1395802358422 {{c1::Migraine}} is a type of headache that pres
ents with <>pulsating pain nausea, photophoia or phonophoia</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to irritation of CN V, meninges, lood vessels.</i></div><div><i><img
src="paste-43392054591610.jpg" /></i></div>
1405816732947 1395802358422 Which type of headache is associated with <>aur
as</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Migraine}}</div>
1405816765670 1395802358422 Which type of headache involves the release of <
>Sutance P, CGRP</>&nsp;and <>vasoactive peptides</>?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Migraine}}</div>
1405816893822 1395802358422 Which type of CNS hemorrhage yields the <>"wors
t headache of life</>"?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suarachoid Hemorrhage}}</di
v>
1405817107082 1395802358422 How is cluster headaches differentiated from tri
geminal neuralgia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Duration}}</div> <r /><div><i>Tr
igeminal neuralgia is in the distriution of CN V and lasts &lt; 1min.</i></div>
<div><i>Cluster headaches typically last &gt; 15 min.</i></div>
1405821054674 1395802358422 {{c1::Vertigo}} is a neurological disorder that
is descried as a <>sensation of spinning while actually stationary</>.
1405821331369 1395802358422 {{c1::Peripheral Vertigo}} is a type of vertigo
that involves damage to the <>inner ear</>.
1405821350603 1395802358422 What is the most common type of vertigo?<div><r
></div><div>{{c1::Peripheral}}</div>
1405821362356 1395802358422 Which type of vertigo involves <>rain stem or
cereellar lesions</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Central vertigo}}</div>
1405821397321 1395802358422 {{c1::Peripheral Vertigo}} is a type of vertigo
that yields <u style="font-weight: old; ">delayed</u>&nsp;horizontal nystagmus
following positional testing.
1405821425699 1395802358422 {{c1::Central Vertigo}} is a type of vertigo tha
t involves <u style="font-weight: old; ">immediate</u>&nsp;nystagmus in any di
rection following positional testing.
1405822470539 1395802358422 Which activating gene mutation is seen in Sturge
-Weer Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>GNAQ</i>}}</div>
1405822693077 1395802358422 {{c1::Tuerous Sclerosis}} is a neurocutaneous d
isorder that involves <>hamartoma formation</>&nsp;in the CNS and skin.
<r /><div><img src="paste-45625437585573.jpg" /></div>
1405822881079 1395802358422 Which cardiac valvular disorder is seen in Tuer
ous Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral regurgitation}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-45621142618277.jpg" /></div>
1405822898581 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Tuerous Scle
rosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-45621142618277.jpg" /></div>
1405822918636 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemangiolastoma}} is a CNS tumour most of
ten found in the <>cereellum</>&nsp;that is associated with <>von Hippel-Li
ndau syndrome</>&nsp;when found with retinal angiomas.<div><r /></div><div><i

mg src="paste-46583215292745.jpg" /></div>
1405823262505 1395802358422 Which primary adult rain tumour can produce ery
thropoietin, therey causing secondary polycythemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Hemangiolastoma}}</div>
1405823299517 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemangiolastoma}} is a primary CNS adult
tumour that involves <>closely arranged, thin-walled capillaries with minimal i
nterleaving parenchyma</>.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-46724949213512.jp
g" /></div>
1405823364613 1395802358422 {{c1::Oligodendroglioma}} is a primary CNS adult
tumour of oligodendrocytes that presents with <>"fried-egg" cells</>&nsp;wit
h round nuclei and clear cytoplasm.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4711579
1237456.jpg" /></div>
1391291307547 1358629116480 {{c1::C-Peptide}} is a protein that is used as a
surrogate marker to indicate the amount of insulin the ody is making.
1391292084464 1358629116480 {{c1::C-peptide}} is a protein that is cleaved o
ff proinsulin in the formation of insulin.
1391292122090 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Insulinoma}} is an endocrine tumou
r of the <>eta-cells of the pancreas</> that presents as a small circumscrie
d mass with uniform eta-cells in nests.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-71
2964571589.jpg" /><img src="paste-725849473256.jpg" /></div>
1391292589655 1358629116480 What 3 endocrine glands are commonly implicated
in Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia 1 (MEN1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parathyroid
hyperplasia, Pancreatic endocrine tumour, Pituitary adenoma}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-33127082754380.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-337069033391
31.jpg" /></div>
1391292643715 1358629116480 {{c1::Insulinitis}} is a common finding in T1DM
and involves T-cell infiltration of the Islets of Langerhans.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-858993459364.jpg" /></div>
1391293913209 1358629116480 {{c1::VNTRs}} in the Insulin gene promoter are a
ssociated with development of T1DM.
1391294036512 1358629116480 Polymorphism in&nsp;{{c1::CD25}}, a gene that c
odes for the IL-2R, is associated with T1DM.
1391294089616 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthosis Nigricans}} is a complication o
f many endocrine disorders and involves thickening and darkening of the skin, ty
pically at the axilla, neck and areas of increased friction (elt line, medial t
high).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1576252997780.jpg" /><img src="paste
-1602022801525.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Common in conditions involving ins
ulin resistance.</i></div>
1391294214510 1358629116480 {{c1::Vulvovaginal Candidiasis}} is a complicati
on of T2DM that involves vulvar pruritis and a white, cottage cheese-like vagina
l discharge with candidiasis involving non-septate hyphae.<div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-1614907703543.jpg" /></div>
1391294328520 1358629116480 {{c1::Incretins}} are a class of hormones from t
he GI tract that increase Insulin release from the pancreas.
1391300629662 1358629116480 {{c1::GLP-1}} is an incretin that stimulates isl
et cell proliferation and neogenesis at the pancreas.
1391300651419 1358629116480 {{c1::Islet Amyloid Polypeptide (IAPP)}} is a pe
ptide hormone that is cosecreted with insulin. In T2DM, it accumulates in islet
cells and prevents the release of insulin from eta-cells.
<r /><div><i>ak
a Amylin</i></div>
1391301077060 1358629116480 The deposition of&nsp;{{c1::Islet Amyloid Polyp
eptide (IAPP)}} in pancreatic eta-cells in T2DM causes death of the eta cells.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2791728742760.jpg" /></div>
1391301166042 1358629116480 What histological stain is used to stain for Amy
loid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congo red}}</div>
1391301179555 1358629116480 What colour does Amyloid show upon receiving pol
arized light?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Apple-green irefringence}}</div>
1391301199697 1358629116480 How many anormal values are required to make a
Dx of diaetes in a <>symptomatic</>&nsp;person?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1
}}</div>

1391302107259 1358629116480 How many anormal values are required to make a
diagnosis of diaetes in an <>asymptomatic</>&nsp;person?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::2}}</div>
1391302130566 1358629116480 {{c1::Gestational Diaetes Mellitus (GDM)}} is a
type of diaetes that affects pregnant women, typically in the later stages of
pregnancy where there is an increase in hormones that antagonize insulin functio
n.
1391302236435 1358629116480 What measurement of Fasting Glc is required to r
each a Dx of Gestational Diaetes Mellitus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 92 m
g/dL}}</div>
1391302473319 1358629116480 {{c1::Maturity Onset Diaetes of the oung (MOD
)}} is a type of diaetes that is due to monogenic mutations in the enzymes&nsp
;{{c2::Glucokinase}} or&nsp;{{c3::Hepatic Nuclear Factor 1 or 2 (HNF1, 2)}}, o
th of which are involved with insulin production.
<r /><div><i>Will e in
family Hx; presents as a mild T1DM</i></div>
1391302580384 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystic Firosis Related Diaetes (CFRD)}}
is a type of diaetes that is associated with cystic firosis and involves sever
e exocrine pancreas and eta-cell dysfunction.
1391302626912 1358629116480 {{c1::Drug-Induced Diaetes Mellitus}} is a type
of diaetes that occurs due to drugs that destroy eta-cells or drugs that anta
gonize insulin action.
1391302655337 1358629116480 Reduction in the level of the glycated hemogloi
n&nsp;{{c1::HA1c}} is associated with a reduction in complications of T1DM and
T2DM.
1391303181103 1358629116480 {{c1::Charcot's Joint}} is a complication of dia
etes and diaetic neuropathy characterized y destruction of the articular surf
ace of a joint and the disorganization/fragmentation of the joint.<div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-4101693767853.jpg" /><img src="paste-4114578669779.jpg"
/></div>
1391303497463 1358629116480 Which change do lood vessels undergo in the set
ting of hyperglycemia in diaetes that makes them thicker yet leaky?<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-4312147165443.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Non-enzymatic glycosylation}}</div></div>
1391304212867 1358629116480 Hyperglycemia can mildly suppress the immune sys
tem, leading to an increase in the risk of infection. However,&nsp;{{c1::antio
dy}} production is normal.
1391304285422 1358629116480 In rare cases, the skin and nares of diaetics c
an ecome infected with&nsp;{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}, a normal flor
a that lives in these areas.
1391304336083 1358629116480 {{c1::Furunculosis}} is an infection commonly se
en in diaetics that involves skin oils.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4
840428142872.jpg" /></div>
1391304362398 1358629116480 Which acteria commonly causes Furunculosis in d
iaetics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div>
1391304379627 1358629116480 Which fungi commonly causes vaginal thrush in di
aetics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Candida alicans</i>}}</div>
1391304398979 1358629116480 Which <>anaeroe</>&nsp;most commonly causes
foot infections in diaetics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bacteroides fragilis
</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer that other acteria also cause foot infec
tions.</i></div>
1391304431416 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteomyelitis}} is a complication of diae
tes where foot infections get severe and extend from soft tissue to the one.
1391304790554 1358629116480 Which cells make Insulin?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Beta-cells}}</div>
1391304812668 1358629116480 {{c1::GLUT4}} is an insulin-dependant Glc transp
orter that is upregulated y Insulin.
1391304835338 1358629116480 Which cells make Glucagon?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Alpha-cells}}</div>
1391304845140 1358629116480 What is the etiology of T1DM?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Autoimmune (T-cell) destruction of eta-cells}}</div>

1391304866567 1358629116480 Which HLA sutypes are associated with T1DM?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR3; HLA-DR4}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Potentiall
y HLA-B8</i></div>
1391304889550 1358629116480 Which islet cell antigens are targeted in T1DM?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GAD-65 and ICA512}}</div>
1391304929660 1358629116480 {{c1::Diaetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)}} is a severe
complication of T1DM characterized y an excess of serum ketones.
<r /><d
iv><i>An increased need for insulin due to stress (e.g. infection) results in ex
cess fat reakdown and <>increased ketogenesis</>&nsp;from those freed fatty
acids.</i></div>
1391304964622 1358629116480 Which type of diaetes is Diaetic Ketoacidosis
associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T1DM}}</div>
1391304977454 1358629116480 {{c1::Kussmaul Breathing}} is a pattern of reat
hing seen in diaetic ketoacidosis that manifests as a response to the acidosis
and presents as <>rapid, deep reathing</>. <r /><div><i>Rapid, deep reath
ing</i></div>
1391305048397 1358629116480 Which type of diaetes involves Insulitis (infla
mmation of the islet cells)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T1DM}}</div>
1391305097069 1358629116480 Which type of diaetes involves IAPP amyloid dep
osition in islet cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T2DM}}</div>
1391305120616 1358629116480 What random Glc level is diagnostic of T2DM?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 200 mg/dL}}</div>
1391305140534 1358629116480 What Fasting Glc level is diagnostic of T2DM?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 126 mg/dL}}</div>
1391305153848 1358629116480 What HA1c level is diagnostic of T2DM?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 6.5%}}</div>
1391305165737 1358629116480 What Oral Glc Tolerance Test result is diagnosti
c of T2DM?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 200 mg/dL 2 hours after Glc loading}}
</div>
1391305190632 1358629116480 What is the normal range of Glc levels?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::70-120 mg/dL}}</div>
1391305209106 1358629116480 What type of diaetes is a Hyperosmolar Non-keto
tic Coma associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T2DM}}</div>
1391305239854 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperosmolar non-ketotic coma}} is a sever
e, life threatening complication of T2DM that involves <>very high Glc</>&nsp
;and severe diuresis, hypotension and possily coma.
1391305275550 1358629116480 Non-enzymatic glycosylation of large and medium
sized vessels in diaetes leads to&nsp;{{c1::Atherosclerosis}}
1391305302711 1358629116480 Non-enzymatic Glycosylation of small vessels (ar
terioles) in diaetes leads to&nsp;{{c1::Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis}}.
1391305322539 1358629116480 {{c1::Kimmelstiel-Wilson Nodules}} are a feature
of diaetic nephropathy and are descried as small nodules at the glomeruli.
1391305381340 1358629116480 What is the result of Non-enzymatic Glycosylatio
n of the <>efferent</>&nsp;arteriole in diaetics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
1391305408908 1358629116480 What is the result of Non-Enzymatic Glycosylatio
n at the <>afferent</>&nsp;arteriole in diaetics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Chronic Renal Failure}}</div>
1391305434285 1358629116480 Non-Enzymatic Glycosylation of hemogloin in dia
etes leads to the formation of&nsp;{{c1::HA1c}}
1391305452466 1358629116480 Hyperglycemia allows Glc to freely enters cells
where the enzyme&nsp;{{c1::Aldose Reductase}} converts it into&nsp;{{c2::Sori
tol}}, leading to osmotic damage.
1391305489575 1358629116480 Which enzyme converts Glc to Soritol in cells?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aldose Reductase}}</div>
1391305506147 1358629116480 {{c1::Insulinoma}} is a pancreatic tumour that p
resents with <>"Whipple's Triad"</> involving <>episodic hypoglycemia, mental
status changes and dramatic reversal of CNS anormalities via Glc administratio
n</>. <r /><div><i>There will also e <>increased C-peptide levels</>.</i><
/div>

1391305567450 1358629116480 What is Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Persistant and resistant ulcers due to a Gastrinoma}}</div>
1391305583718 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastrinoma}} is a pancreatic tumour that p
resents with treatment-resistant peptic ulcers due to excessive gastric acid sec
retion. <r /><div><i>aka Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome</i></div>
1391305632581 1358629116480 {{c1::Somatostatinoma}} is a pancreatic tumour t
hat involves achlorhydria (due to Gastrin inhiition) and cholelithiasis (due to
CCK inhiition)
1391305667985 1358629116480 {{c1::VIPoma}} is a pancreatic tumour that prese
nts with watery diarrhea, hypokalemia and achlorhydria (due to decreased gastric
acid secretion).
1391561296034 1358629116480 How do ACTH and Cortisol levels change in respon
se to hypoglycemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both increase}}</div>
1391561340496 1358629116480 How do GH levels normally change in response to
hypoglycemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1391561377540 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Trans-sphenoidal}} approach is th
e most commonly used surgical approach towards gaining access to the pituitary.
1391561526486 1358629116480 {{c1::Pituitary Adenomas}} are a type of endocri
ne gland tumour that involves a uniformly monomorphic acinar cell population arr
anged in disorganized clusters amongst roken down reticulin.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-867583394142.jpg" /></div>
1391561730131 1358629116480 At least 40% of GH Somatotroph adenomas involve
a spontaneous mutation of the {{c2::alpha}}-suunit of the Gs stimulatory G prot
ein, which is encoded y the&nsp;{{c1::GNAS}} gene.
1391562125902 1358629116480 Which Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia is associated
with Pituitary Adenomas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN 1}}</div>
1391562244301 1358629116480 Which gene is implicated in Multiple Endocrine N
eoplasia 1 (MEN1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN1 gene encoding the tumour supp
ressor protein Menin}}</div>
1391562298319 1358629116480 {{c1::Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)}} is a
hypothalamic hormone that triggers the release of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (
TSH) and&nsp;{{c2::Prolactin}} from the anterior pituitary.
1391562645544 1358629116480 {{c1::Prolactinoma}} is a type of pituitary aden
oma that is composed of mostly chromophoe cells with endocrine amyloid and psam
moma odies.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1700807049482.jpg" /></div>
1391562853002 1358629116480 Prolactin inhiits&nsp;{{c2::GnRH}} action, a g
onadotropin released from the hypothalamus.
1391562922628 1358629116480 The inhiition of&nsp;{{c1::GnRH}} in Hyperprol
actinemia results in decreased FSH and LH release and hence downstream amenorrhe
a and lack of ovulation.
1391562974691 1358629116480 If a patient has headaches, nausea and vomiting,
&nsp;{{c1::increased intracranial pressure}} should always e suspected.
1391563023791 1358629116480 {{c1::Prognathism}} is defined as prominence of
the lower jaw.
1391563159189 1358629116480 How do GH levels normally change in response to
hyperglycemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>A
lack of Glc-induced suppression of GH levels may e indicative of a Somatotroph
Adenoma.</i></div>
1391563205543 1358629116480 How do Glc levels change in response to increase
d GH levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased Glc levels}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Therefore, hyperglycemia is a secondary finding in Somatotroph Adenomas</i
></div>
1391563386257 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperlipidemia}} is a possile complicatio
n of a Somatotroph Adenoma as GH stimulates lipolysis.
1391563430584 1358629116480 {{c1::Sleep Apnea}} is a possile complication o
f Acromegaly due to the tongue enlarging and ostructing the airway.
1391563582032 1358629116480 How does insulin sensitivity change in Acromegal
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased; there is insulin resistance}}</div>
1391563641895 1358629116480 What is the treatment of choice in a Somatotroph
Adenoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surgical removal; via the transphenoidal ap

proach}}</div>
1391563701803 1358629116480 Which neurotransmitter is increased in Carcinoid
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Serotonin}}</div>
1391563808525 1358629116480 GHRH stimulates the release of&nsp;{{c1::GH}} f
rom the anterior pituitary.
1391564396154 1358629116480 Somatostatin (GHIH) inhiits the release of&nsp
;{{c1::GH}} from the anterior pituitary.
1391564415867 1358629116480 {{c1::Scoliosis}} is an adverse effect of GH the
rapy due to uneven growth of the verterae.
1391564542686 1358629116480 {{c1::Craniopharyngioma}} is a suprasellar tumou
r that involves mutations of the glycogen synthase kinase 3-eta inding domain
of&nsp;{{c2::Beta-Catenin}}
1391565259663 1358629116480 {{c1::Craniopharyngioma}} is a suprasellar tumou
r that is filled with cysts that contain a cholesterol-rich, yellow-rown, "mach
ine oil" fluid.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3560527888670.jpg" /></div>
1391565331729 1358629116480 {{c1::Craniopharyngioma}} is a suprasellar tumou
r that involves cysts with a cholesterol-rich fluid. It is full of cholesterol-c
rystals that resemle the shape of the state Utah.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-3680786972941.jpg" /><img src="paste-3779571220681.jpg" /></div>
1391565407296 1358629116480 Which is classically the first hormone to ecome
deficient in Hypopituitarism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GH}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>First GH, then FSH/LH, then TSH and ACTH</i></div>
1391565537702 1358629116480 In high concentrations, Oxytocin can ind to ren
al {{c1::V2}} receptors, therey leading to fluid retention and hyponatremia.
1391565654057 1358629116480 In SIADH, the retained fluid is mostly found in
the&nsp;{{c1::intracellular}} space. This explains why there is no edema or hyp
ertension.
<r /><div><i>There is often cereral edema and seizures ecause
of this though.</i></div>
1391565877723 1358629116480 {{c1::Bitemporal Hemianopia}} is a visual defici
t that occurs if the optic chiasm is compressed, often y a pituitary adenoma.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27466315858337.jpg" /></div>
1391566589348 1358629116480 What kind of visual deficits are seen in itempo
ral hemianopia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Loss of peripheral vision in oth eye
s}}</div>
<img src="paste-5115306049652.jpg" />
1391566664507 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperphagia and weight gain}} is a potenti
al complication of pituitary adenomas if there is compression of the central sat
iety center of the hypothalamus.
1391566686985 1358629116480 {{c1::Oculomotor palsy}} is a potential complica
tion of pituitary adenoma if CN III is compressed.
1391566718369 1358629116480 What is the result of compression of normal pitu
itary tissue due to a pituitary adenoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypopituitar
ism}}</div>
1391566741717 1358629116480 What is the most common pituitary adenoma?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Prolactinoma}}</div>
1391566786888 1358629116480 What is the typical presentation of Prolactinoma
in females?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Galactorrhea and Amenorrhea}}</div>
1391566804441 1358629116480 What is the typical persentation of Prolactinoma
in males?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased liido and headache}}</div>
1391566818618 1358629116480 {{c1::Gigantism}} is a complication of GH Adenom
a seen in children and involves increased longitudinal growth of one as epiphys
eal plates are not fused.
1391566876669 1358629116480 {{c1::Acromegaly}} is a complication of GH adeno
ma seen in <>adults</>&nsp;and involves enlarged ones, visceral organs and t
ongue.
1391566914746 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary Diaetes Mellitus}} is a complic
ation of GH Adenoma due to GH-induced hepatic gluconeogenesis and GH-induced ins
ulin resistance.
1391566968087 1358629116480 How do GH levels change in response to oral Glc
loading <>in a patient with GH Adenoma?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::N
o change}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Normally, they would fall</i></div>

1391567008579 1358629116480 What is pituitary apoplexy?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Bleeding into a pituitary adenoma/mass, leading to necrosis of pituitary
tissue}}</div>
1391567213608 1358629116480 {{c1::Sheehan Syndrome}} is a cause of Hypopitui
tarism that is a pregnancy related infarction of the pituitary gland. <r /><d
iv><i>Pituitary doules in size during pregnancy without getting 2x more perfusi
on. Blood loss during parturition precipitates infarction of the pituitary.</i><
/div>
1391567307209 1358629116480 {{c1::Loss of Puic Hair}} is a very key sign of
hypopituitarism that results from a loss of LH and a susequent loss of Androge
ns.
1391567352968 1358629116480 {{c1::Empty Sella Syndrome}} is a cause of hypop
ituitarism descried as a congenital defect of the sella. Commonly due to hernia
tion of the arachnoid and CSF into the cella. <r /><div><i>Results in destruc
tion of the pituitary, which sits in the sella.</i></div>
1391567420576 1358629116480 {{c1::Central/Neurogenic Diaetes Insipidus}} is
a disorder of the posterior pituitary defined as a deficiency of ADH. <r /><d
iv><i>Commonly due to hypothalamic lesion or posterior pituitary pathology.</i><
/div>
1391567475929 1358629116480 {{c1::Central/Neurogenic Diaetes Insipidus}} is
a disorder of the posterior pituitary that involves hypernatremia, high serum o
smolality, low urine osmolality and symptoms due to water loss.
1391567551801 1358629116480 How does urine concentration normally change fol
lowing the Water Deprivation Test?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1391567586722 1358629116480 How does urine concenration change following the
Water Deprivation Test in a <>patient with Central Diaetes Insipidus</>?<div
><r></div><div>{{c1::No change or decrease}}</div>
<r><i>In a normal perso
n, water deprivation would increase urine concentration.</i>
1391567630544 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephrogenic Diaetes Insipidus}} is a diso
rder of the posterior pituitary that is due to an impaired renal response to ADH
.
1391567669740 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephrogenic Diaetes Insipidus}} is a diso
rder of the posterior pituitary that presents identically to CDI, ut lacks a re
sponse to Desmopressin.
1391567697390 1358629116480 {{c1::SIADH}} is a disorder of the posterior pit
uitary due to excessive ADH secretion, almost always from outside of the pituita
ry.
1391567737264 1358629116480 Which cancer is commonly assocaited with ectopic
ADH secretion and hence SIADH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small cell carcinoma
of the lung}}</div>
1391567778035 1358629116480 {{c1::SIADH}} is a disorder of the posterior pit
uitary that presents with hyponatremia, decreased BUN, low serum osmolality, hig
h urine osmolality and other symptoms of free water retention.
1391567832583 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyponatremia}} is a electrolyte complicati
on of SIADH that leads to neuronal swelling and cereral edema, therey causing
altered mental status and seizures.
<r /><div><i>This hyponatremia <>must
e corrected slowly</>&nsp;in order to avoid <>central pontine myelinolysis.<
/></i></div>
1391720313786 1358629116480 A {{c1::Thyroglossal Duct Cyst}} is a cystic rem
nant of the thryoglossal duct that presents as an <>anterior neck mass</>.
1391721680209 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Lingual Thyroid}} is persistant thy
roid tissue at the ase of the tongue that presents as a <>ase of the tongue</
>&nsp;mass.
1391721705818 1358629116480 How do increased levels of thyroid hormone affec
t asal metaolic rate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1391721743288 1358629116480 Thyroid hormone increases the synthesis of the m
emrane pump {{c1::Na/K ATPase}}, therey leading to an increase in asal metao
lic rate.
1391721774497 1358629116480 Thyroid hormone increases the expression of&nsp
;{{c1::Beta-1 Adrenergic}} receptors, therey leading to increased SNS activity.

1391721811816 1358629116480 How do cholesterol levels change in Hyperthyroid
ism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypocholesterolemia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Du
e to <>increased LDL receptor expression.</></i></div>
1391722443934 1358629116480 How do Glc levels change in Hyperthyroidism?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperglycemia}}</div>
1391722463119 1358629116480 {{c1::Graves Disease}} is a type of Hyperthyroid
ism that involves autoantiody IgG stimulation of the TSH receptor at the thyroi
d.
<r /><div><i>Type 2 Hypersensitivity</i></div>
1391730001009 1358629116480 What do the IgG autoantiodies target in Graves
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TSH Receptor}}</div>
1391730020763 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Hyperthyroidism
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Graves Disease}}</div>
1391730035485 1358629116480 Which demographic is most commonly affected y G
raves Disease?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Women; childearing age (20-40)}}</div>
1391730060004 1358629116480 A {{c1::diffuse goiter}} is a feature of hypothy
roidism due to constant TSH stimulation leading to thyroid hyperplasia and hyper
trophy.
1391730102448 1358629116480 Firolasts ehind the orit and overlying the s
hin express the&nsp;{{c1::TSH}} receptor, hence making exopthalmos and pretiia
l myxedema 2 key signs of Graves Disease.
1391730162273 1358629116480 {{c1::Exopthalmos}} and&nsp;{{c2::Pretiial Myx
edema}} are 2 key features of Graves Disease due to <>TSH receptor activation o
n firolasts</> causing inflammation, firosis, edema and glycosaminoglycan ac
cumulation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22986664968611.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Auto-IgG stimulates TSH receptors on retro-orital and dermal fir
olasts.</i></div>
1391730224562 1358629116480 Irregular follicles with a <>scalloped colloid<
/>&nsp;are characteristic pathological thyroid histology findings in&nsp;{{c1
::Graves Disease}} .
1391730697347 1358629116480 How are TSH levels altered in Graves Disease?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1391730738807 1358629116480 {{c1::Thyroid Storm}} is a potentially fatal com
plication of Graves Disease or Hyperthyroidism and involves elevated catecholami
nes alongside massive T3/T4 excess.
<r /><div><i>Typically occurs in respon
se to stress.</i></div><div><i>Presents with agitation, delirium, fever, diarrhe
a, coma and tachyarrhythmia (the common cause of death).</i></div><div><i>Treat
with the 3 <>P</>'s: <>Propylthiouracil, Propanolol, Prednisolone</>.</i></d
iv>
1391730796037 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Multinodular Goiter}} is defined as
an enlarged thyroid with multiple nodules that yields a euthyroid state.
<r /><div><i>Rarely, the goiter can ecome TSH independent and lead to T4 relea
se and hyperthyroidism.</i></div>
1391730855760 1358629116480 What is the etiology of a Multinodular Goiter?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Relative Iodine Deficiency}}</div>
1391732149803 1358629116480 {{c1::Cretinism}} is a form of hypothyroidism th
at occurs in neonates and infants.
1391732438542 1358629116480 {{c1::Dyshormonogenetic goiter}} is a cause of C
retinism that is due to a congenital defect in thyroid hormone production.
1391732534076 1358629116480 What is a Dyshormonogenetic Goiter?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::A congenital defect in thyroid hormone production}}</div>
1391732558187 1358629116480 Which enzyme is most commonly implicated in Dysh
ormonogenetic Goiter?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thyroid Peroxidase}}</div>
1391732576751 1358629116480 {{c1::Myxedema}} is defined as hypothyroidism in
older children and adults.
1391732794557 1358629116480 How does asal metaolic rate change in Hypothyr
oidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div>
1391732833184 1358629116480 How does SNS activity change in Hypothyroidism?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div>
1391732846242 1358629116480 The accumulation of&nsp;{{c1::glycoaminoglycans
}} in the skin and soft tissue causes myxedema.

1391732940608 1358629116480 How do cholesterol levels change in Hypothyroidi
sm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypercholesterolemia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Du
e to </i><><i>decreased LDL receptor expression</i>.</></div>
1391732971010 1358629116480 What are the 2 most common causes of Hypothyroid
ism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Iodine Deficiency and Hashimoto's Thyroiditis}}<
/div>
1391733006047 1358629116480 {{c1::Hashimoto's Thyroiditis}} is cause of hypo
thyroidism descried as autoimmune destruction of the thyroid gland.
<r /><d
iv><i>There may e initial <>hyper</>thyroidism due to thyrotoxicosis during f
ollicular rupture.</i></div>
1391733038409 1358629116480 Which HLA sutype is associated with Hashimoto's
Thyroiditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR5 and HLA-DR3}}</div>
1391733054357 1358629116480 How are TSH levels changed in Hypothyroidism?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1391733078486 1358629116480 {{c1::Anti-thyrogloulin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Anti-T
hyroid Peroxidase}} antiodies are commonly implicated in Hashimoto's Thyroiditi
s.
1391733121824 1358629116480 Hashimoto's Thyroiditis presents with an increas
ed risk for&nsp;{{c1::B-cell marginal zone}} lymphoma. <r /><div><i>It can pre
sent as an enlarging thyroid gland later in disease course.</i></div>
1391733176012 1358629116480 {{c1::Suacute Granulomatous De Quervian Thyroid
itis}} is a <>granulomatous</> thyroiditis that follows viral infection or flu
-like illness.
1391733217832 1358629116480 {{c1::Suacute Granulomatous De Quervian Thyroid
itis}}&nsp;is a type of thyroiditis that presents as a <>tender</>&nsp;thyro
id with transient episodes of hyperthyroidism. <r /><div><i>The tenderness is
very unique to De Quervian's.</i></div>
1391733262509 1358629116480 {{c1::Riedel's Firosing Thyroiditis}} is a type
of thyroiditis involving chronic inflammation of the thyroid with extensive fi
rosis. <r /><div><i>Firosis may extend to local structures</i>.</div>
1391733295074 1358629116480 {{c1::Riedel's Firosing Thyroiditis}}&nsp;is a
type of thyroiditis that presents with <>hypo</>thyroidism and a <>'hard as
wood'</>, <>nontender</>&nsp;thyroid gland. <r /><div><i>The firosis may e
xtend to local structures, esp. the airway.</i></div>
1391733352294 1358629116480 Which demographic is most commonly affected y R
iedel's Firosing Thyroiditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ounger &amp; middle a
ged females (&lt; 40 y/o)}}</div>
1391733424835 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::goiter}} is an enlarged thyroid tha
t appears independent of the thyroid's functional status.<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-22084721836447.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Seen in oth hyper
- or hypothyroidism.</i></div>
1391733541070 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::hot}} nodule is a thyroid nodule th
at exhiits increased uptake of radioactive I-131 and are typically seen in Grav
es Disease.
1391734608029 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::cold}} nodule is a thyroid nodule t
hat exhiits decreased uptake of radioactive I-131 and are commonly seen in aden
oma and carcinomas.
<r /><div><i>Cold nodules always warrant iopsy.</i></d
iv>
1391734666900 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::follicular adenoma of the thyroid}}
is defined as a enign proliferation of the thyroid follicles surrounded y a f
irous capsule.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-10853382357358.jpg" /></div>
<r><div><i>Typically nonfunctional.</i></div>
1391734859453 1358629116480 What is the most common type of thyroid carcinom
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Papillary Carcinoma (80% of cases)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Excellent prognosis.</i></div>
1391734877537 1358629116480 {{c1::Papillary Carcinoma}} is a type of thyroid
cancer that involves papillae lined with cell that have clear, <>Orphan-Annie
eye</>&nsp;nuclei and nuclear groove (<>coffee ean</>) nuclei.<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-11261404250450.jpg" /><img src="paste-11274289152189.jp
g" /><img src="paste-11287174054067.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>

1391735009733 1358629116480 Which thyroid cancer is commonly associated with
Psamomma Bodies?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11321533792511.jpg" /><r
/><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Papillary Carcinoma}}</div></div>
1391735038545 1358629116480 {{c1::Follicular Carcinoma}} is a thyroid cancer
that is characterized as a malignant proliferation of the thyroid follicle.
1391735082042 1358629116480 {{c1::Follicular Carcinoma}} is a thyroid cancer
that involves a firous capsule and <>invasion through the capsule</>.
<r /><div><i>Invasion through the capsule is the hallmark of follicular carcino
ma.</i></div>
1391735120588 1358629116480 {{c1::Follicular Carcinoma}} is a thyroid cancer
that metastasizes hematogenously.
1391735174690 1358629116480 Most carcinomas spread and metastasize via the {
{c1::lymphatics}}.
1391735206730 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullary Carcinoma}} is a thyroid cancer
that is defined as a malignant proliferation of <>parafollicular C-cells</>&n
sp;of the thyroid.
1391735242242 1358629116480 Which cells make Calcitonin?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Parafollicular C-cells of the Thyroid}}</div>
1391735261383 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullary Carcinoma}} is a thyroid cancer
that presents with <>localized amyloidosis due to polymerization of pro-calcito
nin into eta-sheets</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11699490914636.jp
g" /><img src="paste-23794118820258.jpg" /></div>
1391735404325 1358629116480 Which gene is implicated in Multiple Endocrine N
eoplasia 2 (MEN2)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RET}}</div>
1391735438436 1358629116480 MEN2A is associated with {{c2::medullary thyroid
carcinoma}}, {{c3::pheochromocytoma}} and {{c1::parathyroid adenomas}}.
<r /><div><i>RET mutation</i>.</div><div><img src="paste-33487860007235.jpg" />
</div><div><img src="paste-33736968110202.jpg" /></div>
1391736752721 1358629116480 MEN2B is associated with medullary carcinoma, ph
eochromocytoma and&nsp;{{c1::ganglioneuromas of the oral mucosa}}.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-33513629811033.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-337928026850
15.jpg" /></div>
1391736809010 1358629116480 {{c1::Anaplastic carcinoma}} is a <>very malign
ant</>, undifferentiated thyroid cancer typically seen in the elderly. <r /><d
iv><i>Invades local structures causing dysphagia or respiratory compromise. Prog
nosis is poor.</i></div>
1391736853666 1358629116480 Which demographic is associated with Anaplastic
Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elderly}}</div>
1391736911681 1358629116480 {{c1::Riedel's Firosing Thyroiditis}} is a type
of thyroiditis that presents similarly to <>Anaplastic Carcinoma</> of the Th
yroid.
1391736951855 1358629116480 How do Thyroid Binding Gloulin levels change in
pregnancy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1391737542291 1358629116480 Which thyroid cancer has the worst prognosis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anaplastic Carcinoma}}</div>
1391737893375 1358629116480 Which gene mutation is most commonly implicated
in Papillary Carcinoma of the Thyroid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gain of functi
on mutation in <i>BRAF</i> (60% of cases)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>RET/PTC fu
sion is also seen in 40%</i></div>
1391738014506 1358629116480 {{c2::Papillary Carcinoma}} is a thyroid cancer
that involves cells with nuclear grooves and "coffee ean" nuclei.<div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-13314398617954.jpg" /></div>
1391738093396 1358629116480 {{c1::Papillary Carcinoma}} is a thyroid cancer
that involves cells with <>Orphan Annie Nuclei</>.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-13391708029112.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-23626615095713.jpg" /
></div>
1391738120092 1358629116480 {{c2::Follicular Carcinoma}} is a thyroid cancer
associated with gene mutations in Ras, PAX8 and PPAR-gamma.
1391738174830 1358629116480 Medullary Carcinoma is a thyroid cancer associat
ed with Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia type {{c1::2}}.

1391738232555 1358629116480 {{c1::Pendred Syndrome}} is a type of goitrous h
ypothyroidism due to deficient pendrin protein levels. It presents with sensorin
eural deafness.
1391738876262 1358629116480 {{c1::Hashimoto's Thyroiditis}} is a cause of hy
pothyroidism that involves lymphocytic infiltration of the thyroid and the forma
tion of <>Hurthle cells</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1395005377772
4.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-20478404067748.jpg" /></div>
1391739090630 1358629116480 {{c1::Thyroid Hormone Resistance Syndrome}} is a
rare autosomal-dominant cause of hypothyroidism due to an inherited mutation in
the Thyroid hormone receptor (TR-eta).
<r /><div><i>T3 and T4 levels w
ill e elevated ut TSH is as well, as there is a lack of feedack due to the mu
tation.</i></div>
1391739233886 1358629116480 {{c1::Acropachy}} is an extreme complication of
Graves Disease and involves the swelling of soft tissue and cluing of the fing
ers and toes.
1391739304440 1358629116480 {{c1::Graves Disease}} or other forms of Hyperth
yroidism are associated with scalloping of the colloid at the Thyroid.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-14521284428000.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Du
e to hyperactivity and endocytosis of the colloid.</i></div>
1391739407030 1358629116480 Which viral infection is most commonly associate
d with Suacute Granulomatous De Quervian's Thyroiditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Coxsackievirus}}</div>
1391807481911 1358629116480 Which layer of the adrenal cortex produces Miner
alocorticoids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glomerulosa}}</div>
1391807547348 1358629116480 Which layer of the adrenal cortex produces Gluco
corticoids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fasciculata}}</div>
1391807564165 1358629116480 Which layer of the adrenal cortex produces Sex S
teroids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reticularis}}</div>
1391807579275 1358629116480 {{c1::Cushing's Syndrome}} is an endocrine disor
der characterized y excess levels of cortisol.
1391807607724 1358629116480 {{c1::Muscle weakness}} is a feature of Cushing'
s Syndrome due to cortisol-mediated reak down of muscle to produce amino acids
for gluconeogenesis.
1391807646762 1358629116480 Cushing's Syndrome is characterized y increased
&nsp;{{c1::fat}} storage due to an increase in Insulin levels in response to th
e hyperglycemia.
1391807695613 1358629116480 {{c1::Adominal Striae}} are a feature of Cushin
g's Syndrome that appear on the skin due to <>impaired collagen synthesis</> a
nd <>thinning of the skin</>. They form due to ruptured BVs.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-26190710571239.jpg" /><img src="paste-13700945674661.jpg" />
</div> <r /><div><i>They appear purple.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, Cortisol in
hiits firolast function.</i></div>
1391807756617 1358629116480 Cortisol yields an increase in the expression of
&nsp;{{c1::Alpha-1}} adrenergic receptors, hence HTN is a feature of Cushing's
Syndrome.
1391807796045 1358629116480 {{c1::Immunosuppression}} is a feature of Cushin
g's Syndrome as increased cortisol inhiits Phospholipase A2 function and IL2 an
d Histamine release.
1391808307991 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Cushing's Syndr
ome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Exogenous Corticosteroids}}</div>
1391808385872 1358629116480 Which adrenal glands are atrophied in Cushing's
Syndrome caused y Exogenous Corticosteroids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Due to exogenous suppression of ACTH.</i></div>
1391808459490 1358629116480 Cushing's Syndrome caused y&nsp;{{c1::Exogenou
s Corticosteroids}} is the only one that involves atrophy of oth adrenal glands
.
1391808484761 1358629116480 Which adrenal glands are atrophied in Cushing's
Syndrome caused y Primary Adrenal Adenoma/Hyperplasia/Carcinoma?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Only 1; The one that is not involved}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
e cancer or hyperplastic adrenal gland is going to e enlarged despite decrease

in ACTH.</i></div>
1391808549586 1358629116480 Which adrenal glands are atrophied in Cushing's
Syndrome caused y an ACTH-Secreting Pituitary Adenoma?<div><r />{{c1::None; th
ere is ilateral Adrenal Hyperplasia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to increased A
CTH.</i></div>
1391808584263 1358629116480 {{c1::ACTH}} is a hormone from the anterior pitu
itary that stimulates adrenal gland hyperplasia and function.
1391808612561 1358629116480 Which adrenal glands are atrophied in Cushing's
Syndrome caused y Paraneoplastic ACTH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non
e; there is Bilateral Adrenal Hyperplasia}}</div>
1391808645363 1358629116480 Which cancer is commonly associated with Paraneo
plastic ACTH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small cell carcinoma of the l
ung}}</div>
1391808662183 1358629116480 How will Cortisol levels change following a Dexa
methasone Suppression Test in a patient with an <>ACTH-secreting Pituitary Aden
oma</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The pituit
ary adenoma is still ale to respond to negative feedack from Corticosteroids.<
/i></div>
1391808983298 1358629116480 How will Cortisol levels change following a Dexa
methasone Suppression Test in a patient with <>ectopic ACTH secretion</>?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::No change; remains high}}</div> <r /><div><i>For exampl
e, small cell carcinoma of the lung which lacks an aility to respond to glucoco
rticoid feedack.</i></div>
1391809039789 1358629116480 {{c1::Conn Syndrome}} is an adrenal disorder cha
racterized y excess amounts of Aldosterone.
1391809069409 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertension}} is the key feature of Hyper
aldosteronism due to the Na retention, hypokalemia and metaolic alkalosis.
1391809179735 1358629116480 How does Aldosterone influence Na levels?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Causes Na retention (Hypernatremia)}}</div>
1391809206706 1358629116480 How does Aldosterone influence K levels?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Causes K excretion; Hypokalemia}}</div>
1391809226537 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of <>primary</>&
nsp;hyperaldosteronism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sporadic Adrenal Hyperplasia
}}</div>
1391809261909 1358629116480 How do Renin levels change in Primary Hyperaldos
teronism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased; the HTN downregulates RAAS}}</di
v>
1391809309005 1358629116480 What is the cause of Secondary Hyperaldosteronis
m?<div><r />{{c1::Activation of the RAAS; typically y renal hypertension, CHF,
Renal A sclerosis}}</div>
1391809370195 1358629116480 How are Renin levels changed in <>Secondary</>
&nsp;Hyperaldosteronism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Due to activation of the RAAS</i></div>
1391809394251 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Congenital Adre
nal Hyperplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::21-Hydroxylase deficiency}}</div>
<img src="paste-21058224652723.jpg" />
1391809501649 1358629116480 {{c1::Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia}} is an end
ocrine disorder characterized y an excess of sex steroids alongside ilateral a
drenal hyperplasia.
1391809544493 1358629116480 {{c1::21-Hydroxylase}} is a key enzyme at the ad
renal cortex required for the production of Aldosterone and Corticosteroids, ut
not sex steroids.
<r /><div><img src="paste-21053929685427.jpg" /></div>
1391809585701 1358629116480 How do ACTH levels change in response to a defic
iency of Cortisol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1391809612169 1358629116480 A lack of&nsp;{{c1::Aldosterone}} in a 21-Hydro
xylase deficiency results in hyponatremia, hyperkalemia and hypovolemia.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Aldosterone causes Na retention, consequent fluid retent
ion, and K excretion.</i></div>
1391809718165 1358629116480 A lack of&nsp;{{c1::Cortisol}} in a 21-Hydroxyl
ase deficiency leads to life threatening hypotension. <r /><div><i>Rememer,

Cortisol is needed to maintain vascular tone and increase the expression of alph
a-1 adrenoceptors.</i></div>
1391811223131 1358629116480 How does the excess amounts of Androgens in Cong
enital Adrenal Hyperplasia present in females?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Clitoral
enlargement and virilization}}</div>
1391811371381 1358629116480 How does the excess amounts of Androgens in Cong
enital Adrenal Hyperplasia present in males?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Precocious
puerty}}</div>
1391811379273 1358629116480 {{c1::11-Hydroxylase Deficiency}} is a cause of
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia that involves the production of weak mineralocort
icoids and hence no salt wasting.
<img src="paste-21827023798709.jpg" />
1391811428144 1358629116480 {{c1::17-Hydroxylase deficiency}} is a type of C
ongenital Adrenal Hyperplasia that involves an excess of mineralocorticoids with
no cortisol and no sex steroids.
<img src="paste-21831318766005.jpg" />
1391811497613 1358629116480 {{c1::Waterhouse-Friderichsen Syndrome}} is an <
><u>acute</u></> form of Adrenal Insufficiency characterized y hemorrhagic ne
crosis of the adrenal glands.
1391811631768 1358629116480 What acterial species is commonly associated wi
th Waterhouse-Friderichsen Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria men
ingitidis</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>Septicemia or endotoxic shock causes DIC a
nd hemorrhage into the adrenals.</i></div>
1391811668705 1358629116480 {{c1::Addison's Disease}} is a <>chronic</>&n
sp;form of Adrenal Insufficiency due to progressive destruction of the adrenals.
1391811919509 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Addison's Disea
se in the western world?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autoimmune destruction of th
e Adrenals}}</div>
1391811953031 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Addison's Disea
se in the developing world?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TB}}</div>
1391811966594 1358629116480 Metastatic carcinoma from the&nsp;{{c1::lung}}
can commonly cause Addison's Disease.
1391811992761 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperpigmentation}} of the skin is a key f
eature of Addison's Disease due to increased ACTH y-products that stimulate mel
anocytes, especially at mucosal surfaces.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1
6398185136405.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>MSH is a y-product of ACTH produc
tion from POMC.</i></div>
1391812038104 1358629116480 {{c1::Pheochromocytoma}} is an adrenal disorder
defined as a tumour of the <>chromaffin cells</> of the adrenal medulla.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-18657337934105.jpg" /><img src="paste-1868310773
8017.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-18704582574500.jpg" /></div>
1391812062835 1358629116480 An increase in the level of serum metanephrines
is commonly diagnostic of&nsp;{{c1::Pheochromocytoma}}.
1391812123054 1358629116480 An increase in 14-hour urine levels of metanephr
ines and vanillylmandelic acid is commonly diagnostic of&nsp;{{c1::Pheochromocy
toma}}.
1391812153656 1358629116480 Which enzyme reaks down serum metanephrines (fr
om Epi) and normetanephrines (from NE) into Vanillylmandelic Acid (VMA)?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)}}</div>
1391812197275 1358629116480 {{c1::Phenoxyenzamine}} is an irreversile, non
-selective alpha-adrenergic locker that must e given pre-operatively to a pati
ent with Pheochromocytoma.
<r /><div><i>This is to prevent a hypertensive
crisis as the surgeon manipulates the tumour during the procedure.</i></div><div
><i><>Irreversile alpha-lockade must e achieved efore eta-lockers are giv
en.</></i></div>
1391812250805 1358629116480 {{c1::Pheochromocytoma}} is an adrenal tumour th
at is often said to follow the "Rule of 10's". <r /><div><img src="paste-18777
597018371.jpg" /></div>
1391812294963 1358629116480 Which type of Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia is as
sociated with Pheochromocytoma?<div><r />{{c1::MEN2 (oth 2A and 2B)}}</div>
1391812352425 1358629116480 Which type of Neurofiromatosis is associated wi
th Pheochromocytoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NF1}}</div>

1391812366190 1358629116480 Which gene mutation leads to a 21-Hydroxylase de
ficiency?<div><r />{{c1::Mutation in CP21A}}</div>
1391813127156 1358629116480 {{c1::Sephardic Jews}} are a specific demographi
c that have a high incidence of 11-Hydroxylase deficiency.
1391813275505 1358629116480 How do K levels change in a 21-Hydroxylase defic
iency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperkalemia}}</div>
1391813356445 1358629116480 How do K levels change in a 11-Hydroxylase defic
iency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypokalemia}}</div>
1391813369035 1358629116480 How do Na levels change in a 21-Hydroxylase defi
ciency?<div><r />{{c1::Hyponatremia}}</div>
1391813386815 1358629116480 How do Na levels change in a 11-Hydroxylase defi
ciency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypernatremia}}</div>
1391813424527 1358629116480 Which precursor in adrenal hormone synthesis is
used to diagnose a 21-Hydroxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::17-Hydr
oxyprogesterone}}</div> <img src="paste-25177098289591.jpg" />
1391813477229 1358629116480 Which precursor in adrenal hormone synthesis is
used to diagnose a 11-Hydroxylase deficiency?<div><r />{{c1::11-Deoxycorticoste
rone}}</div>
<img src="paste-25181393256887.jpg" />
1391813527202 1358629116480 {{c1::Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)}} is
a y-product of ACTH production that is formed when ACTH is cleaved off POMC. It
leads to melanocyte activation.
1391814010442 1358629116480 Administration of&nsp;{{c1::Cosyntropin}} in a
ACTH stimulation test allows us to diagnose Addison's Disease.
1391814089603 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>}} is a gram
negative, opportunistic acteria that is ale to cause Waterhouse-Friderichsen S
yndrome.
1391814461770 1358629116480 How are ACTH levels changed in ACTH Independent
Cushing's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1391814584749 1358629116480 How are ACTH levels changed in ACTH Dependent Cu
shing's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1391814600300 1358629116480 {{c1::Cushing's Disease}} is a cause of Cushing'
s Syndrome due to a ACTH secreting pituitary adenoma.
1391814728212 1358629116480 {{c1::Neurolastoma}} is a childhood tumour that
presents with luish discoloration around the eyes.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-26547192856725.jpg" /></div>
1391814950035 1358629116480 {{c1::Neurolastoma}} is a childhood tumour that
commonly produces catecholamines. ielding elevated Homovanillic Acid (from DA)
and Vanillylmandelic Acid (from Epi/NE) in the urine.
1391815112924 1358629116480 Which pseudorosettes are seen in Neurolastoma?<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26809185861981.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Homer-Wright Rosettes}}</div></div>
1391815177768 1358629116480 What is the most common childhood tumour that ap
pears efore 1 y/o?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neurolastoma}}</div>
1391815269423 1358629116480 Amplification of the gene {{c1::N-Myc}} is assoc
iated with a poor prognosis for Neurolastoma.
1391815320071 1358629116480 Elevated levels of the serum marker {{c1::NSE (N
euron Specific Enolase)}} is associated with a poor prognosis Neurolastoma.
1405128453136 1395802358422 What is the treatment for secondary hyperaldoste
ronism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spironolactone}}</div>
1405128507073 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypotension}} is a systemic feature of Add
ison Disease due to a lack of cortisol and hence decreased sympathetic tone.
1405129891040 1395802358422 How do K⁺&nsp;levels change in Addis
on Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperkalemia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Du
e to a lack of aldosterone.</i></div>
1405129956176 1395802358422 How does secondary adrenal insufficiency present
differently from primary adrenal insufficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Seco
ndary adrenal insufficiency has <u>no skin/mucosal hyperpigmentation</u>&nsp;an
d <u>no hyperkalemia</u>}}</div>
1405131724552 1395802358422 Which emryological cell population does Neurol
astoma develop from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural crest cells}}</div>

<r /><div><img src="paste-17098264805793.jpg" /></div>
1405131741465 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurolastoma}} is a tumour of the adrenal
medulla that presents with <>rosettes</>&nsp;and <>classic small, round, l
ue/purple nuclei</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17093969838497.jpg" /
></div> <r /><div><i>It is also <>Bomesin positive</>.</i></div>
1405131767717 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurolastoma}} is a tumour of the adrenal
medulla that most commonly presents as adominal distension and a firm, <>irre
gular mass that can cross the midline</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste17244293693719.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Compare this to <>Wilms' Tumour</
> which is <>smooth</>&nsp;and <>unilateral.</></i></div>
1405131839818 1395802358422 {{c1::Homovanillic acid}} is a reakdown product
of Dopamine that is elevated in the urine in Neurolastoma.
1405131916961 1395802358422 Which oncogene is associated with Neurolastoma?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>N-myc</i>&nsp;overexpression}}</div>
1405131939586 1395802358422
1405132504826 1395802358422 {{c1::Pheochromocytoma}} is a tumour of the adre
nal medulla that is associated with von Hippel-Lindau disease.
1405132672450 1395802358422 {{c1::Pheochromocytoma}} is a tumour of the adre
nal medulla that presents with episodic hyperadrenergic symptoms due to epinephr
ine, norepinephrine and dopamine secretion.
<r /><div><img src="paste-19112
604467439.jpg" /></div>
1405132720950 1395802358422 {{c1::Vanillylmandelic Acid (VMA)}} is a reakdo
wn product of norepinephrine and epinephrine that is found in the urine in Pheoc
hromocytoma.
<r /><div><i>There is also an elevation of plasma catecholamine
s.</i></div>
1405133331886 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of hypothyroidism
in iodine-sufficient areas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hashimoto's Thyroiditis}}
</div>
1405133759363 1395802358422 How does the risk of non-Hodgkin Lymphoma change
in Hashimoto Thyroiditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405133799100 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurthle Cells}} are histological findings
in Hashimoto Thyroiditis that are descried as <>lymphoid aggregates</>&nsp;w
ith germinal centers.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20482699035044.jpg" /
></div>
1405133916637 1395802358422 {{c1::Hashimoto Thyroiditis}} is an autoimmune c
ause of hypothyroidism that presents with a moderately enlarged, <>nontender</
>&nsp;thyroid.
1405134006773 1395802358422 {{c1::Cretinism}} is a type of congenital hypoth
yroidism that presents with <>pot-elly, pale skin, puffy face, protruding umi
licus, protuerant tongue</>&nsp;and <>poor rain development</>.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-21182778704290.jpg" /><img src="paste-21195663606039.
jpg" /></div>
1405135261205 1395802358422 {{c1::Riedel Firosing Thyroiditis}} is a type o
f hypothyroidism that is considered a manifestation of <>IgG<su>4</su>-relate
d systemic disease</>.
1405135507248 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxic Multinodular Goiter}} is a type of m
ultinodular goiter that presents with <>focal patches of hyperfunctioning folli
cular cells</>&nsp;that are <>TSH-indepedent</>&nsp;due to a <>mutation in
the TSH receptor</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22144851378592.jpg"
/></div>
1405135633742 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxic Multinodular Goiter}} is a type of m
ultinodular goiter that presents with <>follicles of various sizes distended wi
th colloid</>&nsp;and <>lined y flattened epithelium</>&nsp;with <>areas
of firosis and hemorrhage</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22140556411
296.jpg" /></div>
1405135679306 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Hyperthyroidism
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Graves Disease}}</div>
1405135705455 1395802358422 {{c1::Hoarseness}} is a possile complication of
thyroid surgery due to damage to the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
1405136775482 1395802358422 {{c1::Medullary Carcinoma of the Thyroid}} is a

type of thyroid cancer that presents with <>solid sheets of cells within an amy
loid stroma</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23789823852962.jpg" /></di
v>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, the amyloid is made of Calcitonin.</i></div>
1405136949141 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteitis Firosa Cystica}} is a complicati
on of primary hyperparathyroidism that presents with <>cystic one spaces fille
d with rown firous tissue</>&nsp;and one pain.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-24378234372376.jpg" /></div>
1405137218925 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Primary Hyperpa
rathyroidism<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parathyroid Adenoma}}</div>
1405137326471 1395802358422 Which type of nephrolithiasis can e seen in pri
mary hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium oxalate stones}}</d
iv>
1405137362196 1395802358422 {{c1::Nephrocalcinosis}} is a complication of pr
imary hyperparathyroidism that involves <>metastatic calcification of the renal
tuules</>, potentially leading to renal insufficiency and polyuria.
1405137435570 1395802358422 How does serum Ca change in primary hyperparathy
roidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405137471090 1395802358422 How does serum PO4 change in <>primary</>&nsp
;hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, PTH inhiits PO4 reasorption at the kidney.</i></div>
1405137521153 1395802358422 How does urinary cAMP change in <>primary</>&n
<r /><d
sp;hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
iv><i>PTH inding at the kidneys increases cAMP via G<su>s</su>&nsp;proteins
and Adenylate Cyclase activity.</i></div><div><i>The cAMP overproduction results
in leakage of cAMP into the urine.</i></div>
1405137577759 1395802358422 How does serum ALP change in <>primary</>&nsp
;hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>PTH activates osteolasts which results in increased ALP expression.</i></
div>
1405137633963 1395802358422 Which type of hyperparathyroidism is associated
with <>increased</>&nsp;cAMP in the urine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primary
}}</div>
1405137666607 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>secondary</
>&nsp;hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic renal failure}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>Renal failure leads to <>decreased phosphate excretion</
>.</i></div><div><i>Serum PO4 inds to free Ca, therey resulting in <>hypocalc
emia</>.</i></div><div><i>The <>decrease in free Ca</>&nsp;results in PTH se
cretion.</i></div><div><i><u>Chronic renal failure also may result in decrease V
itamin D and hence hypocalcemia</u>.</i></div>
1405137690074 1395802358422 How do Ca levels change in <>secondary</>&nsp
;hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to the inding of free Ca y elevated serum PO4.</i></div>
1405137786210 1395802358422 How do PO4 levels change in <>secondary</>&ns
p;hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Typically due to renal failure and decreased PO4 excretion.</i></div>
1405137822363 1395802358422 Which type of hyperparathyroidism is associated
with <>hypo</>calcemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Secondary}}</div>
1405137840120 1395802358422 Which type of hyperparathyroidism is associated
with <>hyper</>phosphatemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Secondary}}</div>
1405137847016 1395802358422 Which type of hyperparathyroidism is associated
with <>hyper</>calcemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primary}}</div>
1405137852485 1395802358422 Which type of hyperparathyroidism is associated
with <>hypo</>phosphatemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primary}}</div>
1405137868120 1395802358422 {{c1::Renal Osteodystrophy}} is a complication o
f secondary hyperparathyroidism that involves <>one lesions</>&nsp;due to re
nal disease.
1405137921759 1395802358422 How do Ca levels change in hypoparathyroidism?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>lol, duh</i></div>
1405137983530 1395802358422 {{c1::Chvostek Sign}} is a neurological feature
of hypoparathyroidism that involves <>contraction of the facial muscles upon ta

pping of the facial nerve.</>
1405138021924 1395802358422 {{c1::Trousseau Sign}} is a neurological feature
of hypoparathyroidism that presents as <>carpal spasm following occlusion of t
he rachial artery</>&nsp;(i.e. lood pressure cuff).
1405138081309 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudohypoparathyroidism}} is a type of hy
poparathyroidism that involves <>end-organ resistance to PTH</>&nsp;due to an
<>autosomal dominant </>defect.
<r /><div><i>Presents identically to hy
poparathyroidism except that <>PTH is elevated or normal</>.</i></div><div><i>
Mutation is often in the G<su>s</su>&nsp;protein of the signalling cascade.</
i></div>
1405138150165 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Pseudohypopar
athyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The defect is often in the G<su>s</su>&nsp;protein of the signalling ca
scade.</i></div>
1405138161487 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudohypoparathyroidism}} is a type of hy
poparathyroidism that is associated with <>short stature</>&nsp;and <>shorte
ning of the 4th and 5th digits</>.
1405138255835 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of death in gigant
ism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cardiac failure}}</div>
1405138695834 1395802358422 {{c1::Acromegaly}} is an endocrine disorder due
to <>excess GH in adults</>&nsp;that presents with <>coarse facial features<
/>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27784143438240.jpg" /></div>
1405138785074 1395802358422 {{c1::Octreotide}} is a somatostatin analog used
to treat Acromegaly.
1405138877970 1395802358422 {{c1::Pegvisomant}} is a GH receptor antagonist
used to treat acromegaly.
1405138914305 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Pegvisomant in the treatment
of Acromegaly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antagonism at the GH receptor}}</div>
1405138933868 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Octreotide in the treatment o
f Acromegaly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Agonism at Somatostatin receptors, ther
ey inhiiting GH release}}</div>
1405138963602 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Central Diaetes Insip
idus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmopressin}}</div>
1405139183550 1395802358422 {{c1::Nephrogenic Diaetes Insipidus}} is a type
of Diaetes Insipidus that can e treated with <>hydrochlorothiazide, indometh
acin</>&nsp;and <>amiloride</>.
1405139230679 1395802358422 How do Aldosterone levels change in SIADH?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <i>Increased ADH activity effectively di
lutes the lood (decreasing the concentrations of solutes such as sodium), causi
ng hyponatremia; Response to water retention results in decreased aldosterone, c
ausing further sodium wasting. &nsp;This hyponatremia causes cereral edema and
seizures.</i>
1405139536961 1395802358422 {{c1::Conivaptan}} is an ADH antagonist used to
treat SIADH y <>non-selective antagonism at V<su>1</su>&nsp;and V<su>2</su
>&nsp;receptors.</>
1405139780299 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Conivaptan in the treatment o
f SIADH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Nonspecific</u>&nsp;antagonism at vasopr
essin V<su>1</su>&nsp;and V<su>2</su>&nsp;receptors}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>"<>Connie</>&nsp;gets around.... that hoe."</i></div>
1405139808279 1395802358422 {{c1::Tolvaptan}} is an ADH antagonist that is u
sed to treat SIADH via <>selective antagonism</>&nsp;at V<su>2</su>&nsp;re
ceptors.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, V<su>2</su>&nsp;receptors are at the
kidney.</i></div>
1405139840316 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tolvaptan in the treatment of
SIADH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Selective</u>&nsp;antagonism at V<su>2 <
/su>receptors}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, V<su>2</su>&nsp;receptors are
at the kidneys.</i></div>
1405139906585 1395802358422 Which type of Diaetes Mellitus is associated wi
th Diaetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T1DM}}</div>
1405140265638 1395802358422 Which type of Diaetes Mellitus is associated wi

th Hyperosmolar Coma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T2DM}}</div>
1405140281607 1395802358422 {{c1::Diaetic Retinopathy}} is an ocular compli
cation of the nonenzymatic glycosylation seen in Diaetes Mellitus that involves
<>hemorrhaging, exudates, microaneurysms</>&nsp;and <>vessel proliferation<
/>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-31013958844697.jpg" /></div>
1405140366986 1395802358422 What type of reath odour is associated with Dia
etic Ketoacidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fruity}}</div> <r /><div><i>Du
e to the exhaled acetone.</i></div>
1405140852368 1395802358422 {{c1::Anion Gap Metaolic Acidosis}} is a type o
f acid-ase imalance seen in diaetic ketoacidosis due to a loss of HCO<su>3</
su>.
1405140984165 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Diaetic Ketoacidosis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperkalemia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer,
Insulin drives K into cells.</i></div><div><i>Acidosis (i.e. ketoacidosis) will
drive K out of cells.</i></div><div><i>So <>not only is there hyperkalemia, the
re is depleted intracellular K as well</>.</i></div>
1405141047670 1395802358422 {{c1::Mucormycosis}} is a life-threatening infec
tion commonly caused y <i>Rhizopus sp.</i>&nsp;that is a complication of diae
tic ketoacidosis.
1405141102006 1395802358422 Which type of Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN)
commonly presents with kidney stones and stomach ulcers?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::MEN1 (Wermer Syndrome)}}</div>
1405141398730 1395802358422 Which type of Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN)
is known as Wermer Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN1}}</div>
1405141419684 1395802358422 Which type of Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN)
is known as Sipple Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN2A}}</div>
1405141439650 1395802358422 Which type of Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia is as
sociated with <>marfanoid haitus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN2B}}</div>
1405141547871 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of all Multiple
Endocrine Neoplasias (MEN)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div
>
1392496103077 1358629116480 {{c1::Tracheoesophageal Fistula}} is a congenita
l defect of the esophagus that results in a connection etween the esophagus and
trachea that commonly presents with an esophageal atresia.
1392497481115 1358629116480 A Tracheoesophageal Fistula will present with vo
miting and polyhydramnios due to the associated&nsp;{{c1::esophageal atresia}}
that commonly occurs with it.
1392498508491 1358629116480 What is an Esophageal We?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::A thin protrusion of the esophageal mucosa}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Ty
pically seen in the upper esopagus</i></div>
1392498547973 1358629116480 {{c1::Esophageal We}} is an esophageal disorder
that presents with dysphagia&nsp;and an increased risk for esophageal squamous
cell carcinoma due to a thin protrusion of esophageal mucosa.
1392498598519 1358629116480 {{c1::Plummer-Vinson Syndrome}} is a form of Iro
n Deficiency Anaemia that presents with <>esophageal we</> and a <>eefy-red
tongue</> due to atrophic glossitis. <r /><div><i>Involves triad of <>dysph
agia, iron deficiency anaemia, glossitis</>.</i></div>
1392498651728 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::diverticulum}} is defined as an out
pouching of the GI wall.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-29042568855780.jpg
" /></div>
1392499300338 1358629116480 What is the cause of Esophageal Diverticuli?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Esophageal motility anormalities and spasms; Acquired d
efect in muscular wall}}</div>
1392499347716 1358629116480 {{c1::Halitosis (Bad Breath)}} is a feature of Z
enker's Diverticulum due to food getting trapped in the diverticulum and rotting
.
1392500213876 1358629116480 {{c1::Mallory-Weiss Syndrome}} is an esophageal
disorder that involves longitudinal <>lacerations</> of the <>mucosa</> at t
he <>gastroesophageal junction</> due to <>severe vomiting</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>Typically seen in <>alcholics</> or <>ulimics</>.</i></div><div><i>Co

mpare this to Beorhaave Syndrome which involves <>transmural</>&nsp;laceratio
ns/tearing.</i></div>
1392500295246 1358629116480 {{c1::Boerhaave's Syndrome}} is an esophageal di
sorder involving <>transmural tear</>&nsp;and&nsp;<>rupture</>&nsp;of the
esophagus due to <>violent retching</>, leading to air entering the mediastin
um and sucutaneous emphysema. <r /><div><i>Is a surgical emergency.</i></div>
1392500346778 1358629116480 {{c2::Mallory-Weiss Syndrome}} is an esophageal
disorder that presents with <>painful</>&nsp;hematemesis.
<img src="paste3719441678637.jpg" />
1392500711368 1358629116480 {{c1::Achalasia}} is an esophageal disorder char
acterized y aperistalsis, partial/incomplete relaxation of the LES upon swallow
ing and increased resting tone of the LES.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste2637109920092.jpg" /><img src="paste-17940078395620.jpg" /></div>
1392500788809 1358629116480 What is the most common <>primary</>&nsp;etio
logy of Achalasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Idiopathic degeneration or damage
to Ganglion Cells in the Myenteric Plexus}}</div>
1392501068571 1358629116480 {{c1::Chagas Disease}} is a common secondary cau
se of Achalasia due to infection y <i>Trypanosoma cruzi</i>.
1392501149276 1358629116480 {{c1::Zenker's Diverticulum}} is a type of esoph
ageal <>false</>&nsp;diverticulum that is found aove the upper esophageal sp
hincter at the esophagopharyngeal junction and involves <>herniation of mucosal
tissue at the Killian triangle</>.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-28776280
88551.jpg" /></div>
1392501719467 1358629116480 {{c1::Traction Diverticulum}} is a type of esoph
ageal diverticulum that is located in the middle of the esophagus and is associa
ted with mediastinal adhesions or anormal esophageal motility.
1392501777079 1358629116480 {{c1::Epiphrenic Diverticulum}} is a type of eso
phageal diverticulum located aove the LES near the diaphragm.
1392501950818 1358629116480 {{c1::Mediastinitis}} is a serious complication
of Mallory-Weiss/Boerhaave's Syndrome that occurs when the stomach wall is penet
rated.
1392502023197 1358629116480 {{c1::Esophageal Varices}} is an esophageal diso
rder that involves varicose veins of the esophagus.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-3843995730359.jpg" /></div>
1392502605046 1358629116480 {{c1::Hiatal Hernia}} is an esophageal disorder
defined as the upward protrustion of the cardia of the stomach through the diaph
ragm.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3929895076150.jpg" /></div> <r /><d
iv><i>Unknown cause; can e congenital; complications include reflux esophagitis
, ulcers, leeding and perforation</i></div>
1392502719692 1358629116480 What is the most common etiology of GERD?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased LES Tone due to alcohol, cigarette smoking}}</div
>
1392502992453 1358629116480 What is the etiology of GERD in oese patients?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased adominal pressure}}</div>
1392503026799 1358629116480 Which immune cells are commonly found in the inf
lamed esophageal mucosa in GERD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neutrophils}}</div>
1392503119182 1358629116480 {{c1::GERD}} is an esophageal disorder where ref
lux of gastric acid/contents causes enlargement of the esophageal mucosa and su
mucosa.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4990751998386.jpg" /></div>
1392503200050 1358629116480 {{c1::Barrett's Esophagus}} is a complication of
GERD that involves a metaplastic change of esophageal squamous epithelium to in
testinal glandular epithelium due to prolonged injurious stimuli.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-5647881994663.jpg" /><img src="paste-5669356831111.jpg" /
></div><div><img src="paste-23244363006302.jpg" /></div>
1392503389320 1358629116480 {{c1::Golet Cells}} are a type of epithelial ce
ll that is required to e seen in metaplastic intestinal epithelium at the esoph
agus in order for Barrett's Esophagus to e diagnosed.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-6008659247382.jpg" /><img src="paste-23210003267922.jpg" /></div>
1392503724139 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Viral Esophagit
is with ulcers?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6519760355742.jpg" /><r />

<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV and CMV}}</div></div>
1392503976006 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Fungal Esophagi
tis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Candida}}</div> <div><r /></div><img src="paste
-6940667150753.jpg" /><div><r /><div><i>Common in immunosuppressed and diaetic
s.</i></div></div>
1392504029390 1358629116480 {{c1::HSV}} is a viral cause of esophagitis that
involves multinucleated giant cells, inclusion odies and fine chromatin.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-6532645257497.jpg" /><img src="paste-65455301594
06.jpg" /></div>
1392504096906 1358629116480 {{c1::CMV}} is a viral cause of esophagitis that
involves Owl's Eye inclusions.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-65798898978
01.jpg" /></div>
1392504160271 1358629116480 {{c1::Eosinophilic Esophagitis}} is an esophagea
l disorder that involves <>esophageal rings</> due to <>contractions of the m
uscularis propria from proteins released y eosinophils</>.<div><r /></div><di
v><img src="paste-7073811136870.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Seen in atopic pat
ients.</i></div>
1392504652577 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Eosinophilic Es
ophagitis?<div><r />{{c1::Food allergies}}</div>
1392504667398 1358629116480 Which type of esophagitis is commonly associated
with aggregations of eosinophils?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-71425306
13621.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Eosinophilic Esophagitis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is <>suggestive</>&nsp;of Eosinophilic Esophagitis, not di
agnostic. GERD involves eosinophils as well, for example.</i></div>
1392504748438 1358629116480 {{c1::Esophageal Varices}} is an esophageal diso
rder that involves <>dilated sumucosal veins in the lower 1/3 of the esophagus
</>.
1392504802070 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Esophageal Vari
ces?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Portal Hypertension}}</div>
1392504837641 1358629116480 The distal Esophageal Veins normally drain into
the&nsp;{{c1::Portal}} vein via the&nsp;{{c2::Left Gastric}} vein.
1392504887843 1358629116480 {{c1::Esophageal Varices}} is an esophageal diso
rder that will present with <>painless</>&nsp;hematemesis.
1392504917364 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of death in Liver
Cirrhosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Esophageal Varices; due to the lood loss
and coagulopathy secondary to the cirrhosis}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-1541893259811.jpg" /></div>
1392506405811 1358629116480 {{c1::Achalasia}} is an esophageal disorder defi
ned as impaired esophageal motility with inaility to relax the LES due to incre
ased resting LES tone.
1392506481182 1358629116480 {{c2::Achalasia}} is an esophageal disorder that
involves <>progressive dysphagia for solids and liquids</> and dilation of th
e distal esophagus due to an increase in&nsp;{{c1::LES}} tone. <r /><div><i>Co
mpared to ostruction which has dysphagia against solids only.</i></div>
1392506610343 1358629116480 How will LES pressure change in Achalasia during
esophageal manometry?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1392506648023 1358629116480 {{c1::Paraesophageal Hernia}} is a type of GI he
rnia that will present with audile owels sounds in the lung areas and potentia
l lung hypoplasia if the defect is congenital.
1392506965158 1358629116480 Acid reflux in GERD can lead to damage of&nsp;{
{c1::enamel}} of teeth.
1392506999692 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::stricture}} is a complication of an
ulcer that involves extensive damage to the mucosa that eliminates stem cells,
therey only allowing healing through firosis.
1392507055077 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Adenocarcinoma
of the Esophagus?<div><r />{{c1::Barrett's Esophagus via GERD}}</div> <r /><d
iv><img src="paste-23575075488083.jpg" /></div>
1392510678983 1358629116480 {{c1::Esophageal Adenocarcinoma}} is defined as
a malignant proliferation of glands at the esophageal mucosa.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-9350143803614.jpg" /><img src="paste-9448928051455.jpg" /></d

iv>
1392510766595 1358629116480 {{c1::Esophageal Adenocarcinoma}} is an esophage
al cancer that can manifest grossly as a single, discrete mass or as a multinodu
lar growth.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9483287789950.jpg" /><img src="
paste-9582072037764.jpg" /></div>
1392510824161 1358629116480 Which tumour suppressor genes are commonly lost
in Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Esophagus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53 and
p16}}</div>
1392511285815 1358629116480 {{c1::Keratin}} nodules are a noticeale feature
of Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the esophagus.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-9775345566046.jpg" /></div>
1392511410739 1358629116480 Which segment of the esophagus is typically affe
cted y Esophageal Adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lower 1/3}}</div>
1392512977070 1358629116480 Which segment of the esophagus is commonly affec
ted y Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Esophagus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uppe
r or middle 1/3}}</div>
1392513015447 1358629116480 The asis of all etiologies of squamous cell car
cinoma of the esophagus is&nsp;{{c1::irritation}} of the mucosa.
1392513053739 1358629116480 {{c1::Hoarseness}} is a possile complication of
squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus due to impingement of the&nsp;{{c2::R
ecurrent Laryngeal}} nerve.
1392513372198 1358629116480 {{c1::Cough}} is a possile complication of squa
mous cell carcinoma of the esophagus due to invasion into or compression of the
trachea.
1392513403772 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes does cancer at the upper 1/3 o
f the esophagus spread to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cervical}}</div>
1392513451388 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes does cancer of the middle 1/3
of the esophagus spread to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mediastinal or Tracheoro
nchial}}</div>
1392513485267 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes does cancer at the lower 1/3 o
f the esophagus spread to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac and Gastric}}</div>
1392513503605 1358629116480 {{c1::Steatorrhea}} is defined as a ulky, greas
y, foul-smelling yellow stool that is a result of excess fecal fat.
1392513659765 1358629116480 Where in the GI tract are most malasorptive pro
lems found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small Intestine}}</div>
1392513693651 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancreatic Insufficiency}} causes {{c1::fa
t malasorption}} due to defective intraluminal digestion of food from a deficie
ncy of pancreatic enzymes.
1392513998015 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Pancreatic Insu
fficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Pancreatitis}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Cystic firosis and ostructing cancer are also possile causes.</i></div>
1392514012894 1358629116480 Which HLA sutypes are associated with Celiac's
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DQ2 and HLA-DQ8}}</div>
1392514054339 1358629116480 {{c1::Celiac Disease}} is an immune mediated mal
asorptive disorder that involves IgA antiodies to Transglutaminase or IgA/IgG
antiodies to Gliadin.
1392514124277 1358629116480 Which intestinal <>enzyme</>&nsp;is targeted
y antiodies in Celiac Disease ?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Tissue Transglutamina
se (tTG)}}</div>
1392514158273 1358629116480 Which wheat protein is targeted y antiodies in
Celiac's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gliadin}}</div>
1392514192062 1358629116480 {{c1::Anti-endomysial Antiodies}} are antiodie
s found in Celiac's Disease that target Transglutaminase found in sheaths of mus
cle fiers.
<r /><div><i>Less sensitive, ut higly specific to Celiac's</i>
</div>
1392514230680 1358629116480 <div>{{c1::Celiac's Disease}} is an immune media
ted malasorptive disorder characterized y <>villous atrophy, crypt hyperplasi
a and an increased numer of intraepithelial lymphocytes</>.</div><div><r /></
div><img src="paste-10861972291927.jpg" /><img src="paste-10874857193808.jpg" />
<div><img src="paste-26723286516053.jpg" /></div>

1392514305928 1358629116480 {{c1::Tropical Sprue}} is a Celiac-like malasor
ptive syndrome <>seen in the tropics</>&nsp;(or recent visitors to the tropic
s) typically after an acute diarrheal enteric infection.
1392514698707 1358629116480 {{c1::Tropical Sprue}} is a malasorptive disord
er with unknown etiology that typically <>responds to road spectrum antiiotic
s</>.
1392514737215 1358629116480 Which acteria causes Whipple's Disease?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Tropheryma whippelii</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>Gram-posit
ive</i></div>
1392514774887 1358629116480 {{c1::Whipple's Disease}} is a malasorptive dis
order caused y <i>Tropheryma whippelii</i>&nsp;and involves <>macrophages stu
ffed with organisms that ostruct the lymphatics</>, therey causing malasorpt
ion.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11875584573789.jpg" /><img src="paste11901354377528.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence there is steatorrhea.</i></d
iv>
1392514869113 1358629116480 Atypical mycoacterial infection of the intestin
es has similar histology to Whipple's Disease. The difference is that <i>Tropher
yma whippelii</i>&nsp;will not e seen through an&nsp;{{c1::acid-fast}} stain.
1392514992418 1358629116480 {{c1::Whipple's Disease}} is a malasorptive dis
order that responds to a <>long course</>&nsp;of road spectrum antiiotics.
1392515696384 1358629116480 {{c1::Aetalipoproteinemia}} is a rare <>autoso
mal recessive</> malasorptive disorder with an inaility to secrete triglyceri
de rich lipoproteins.
1392516116816 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Aetalipoprot
einemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1392516129999 1358629116480 What gene is mutated in Aetalipoproteinemia?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microsomal Triglyceride Transfer Protein (MTP)}}</div>
1392516165364 1358629116480 {{c1::Aetalipoproteinemia}} is a malasorptive
disorder where intestinal lining cells are unale to transport lipoproteins and
free FAs, therey they accumulate triglycerides and ecome vacuolated.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-12253541695866.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Th
ere is an inaility to make apolipoprotein B, hence the aility to generate chyl
omicrons decreases.</i></div><div><i>As a result, the secretion of cholesterol a
nd VLDL into the loodstream decreases, resulting in <>fat accumulation in ente
rocytes</>.</i></div>
1392516233812 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthyocytes (Spur Cells)}} are anormal
RBCs seen in Aetalipoproteinemia due to a <>deficiency of fat solule vitamins
</> and resultant defective cell lipid memranes.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-12390980649323.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Vitamin E is req
uired in RBCs as an antioxidant. Decreased Vitamin E levels results in acanthocy
tes.</i></div>
1392516399259 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Gastritis}} is a form of gastritis
that will present with significant chronic inflammation in the lamina propria.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12790412607922.jpg" /></div>
1392517639232 1358629116480 {{c1::Antral G-Cell Hyperplasia}} is a feature o
f Chronic Gastritis that occurs in response to reduced acid production in parall
el to mucosal atrophy.
1392517724169 1358629116480 Chronic Gastritis presents with decreased levels
of serum {{c1::Pepsinogen I}} as Chief Cells are lost with Parietal Cells.
1392517953906 1358629116480 <div>{{c1::Chronic Gastritis}} is a form of gast
ritis that involves a loss of the folds of the stomach.</div><div><r /></div><i
mg src="paste-13073880449458.jpg" /><img src="paste-13112535155032.jpg" />
1392518044268 1358629116480 Which area of the stomach is affected in <i>Heli
coacter pylori</i>&nsp;Chronic Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antrum}}<
/div>
1392518112752 1358629116480 What is the gastric acid level in&nsp;<i>Helico
acter pylori</i>&nsp;Chronic Gastritis?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Variale; usu
ally high}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The antrum is affected in Type B chronic g
astritis. Hence there is less Somatostatin release.</i></div>
1392518132871 1358629116480 What is the Gastrin level in&nsp;<i>Helicoacte

r pylori</i>&nsp;Chronic Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High}}</div>
1392518146413 1358629116480 Which area of the stomach is affected in Autoimm
une Chronic Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Body and Fundus}}</div>
1392518172450 1358629116480 What is the gastric acid level in&nsp;Autoimmun
e Chronic Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pa
rietal cells are destroyed.</i></div>
1392518180254 1358629116480 What is the Gastrin level in&nsp;Autoimmune Chr
onic Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High}}</div>
1392518188618 1358629116480 Inflammatory polyps are a morphological feature
of&nsp;{{c1::<i>Helicoacter pylori</i>}} Chronic Gastritis.
1392518226990 1358629116480 Neuroendocrine Hyerplasia is a morphological fea
ture of&nsp;{{c1::Autoimmune}} Chronic Gastritis.
1392518246274 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperplastic Inflammatory Polyps}} are en
ign mucosal masses with enlarged foveolar glands and smooth muscle seen in most
patients with gastritis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13619341295914.jpg
" /><img src="paste-13640816132432.jpg" /></div>
1392519357740 1358629116480 {{c1::Fundic Gland Polyps}} are enign and commo
n polyps made of dilated fundic glands with Chief and Parietal Cells.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-13993003450648.jpg" /><img src="paste-14413910245733.
jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Increased incidence in recent year due to use of p
roton pump inhiitors (low acid --&gt; increased gastrin --&gt; fundic gland sti
mulation)</i></div>
1392519493603 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastric Adenoma}} is a enign gastric lesi
on usually seen with atrophic gastritis with intestinal metaplasia or familial p
olyposis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14555644166325.jpg" /><img src="p
aste-14568529068294.jpg" /></div>
1392519804587 1358629116480 What is the prognosis for Gastric Adenocarcinoma
that is confined to the mucosa and sumucosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Good (
&gt; 90% 5 year survival)}}</div>
1392520003714 1358629116480 What is the prognosis for Gastric Adenocarcinoma
that has extended eyond the sumucosa?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Bad (&lt; 10%
5 year survival)}}</div>
1392520035101 1358629116480 Which type of Gastric Adenocarcinoma involves a
glandular, expansile growth pattern?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intestinal}}<r
/><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15406047691025.jpg" /><img src="paste-15
427522527636.jpg" /></div></div>
1392520155632 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::diffuse}} type of Gastric Adenoca
rcinoma involves a <>signet ring</> infiltrating pattern.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-15539191677242.jpg" /><img src="paste-15560666513658.jpg" /><im
g src="paste-25507810771171.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Pale cells in the
lamina propria that don't elong there; this should automatically trigger the th
ought of diffuse type adenocarcinoma</i></div>
1392520174989 1358629116480 {{c1::Linitus Plastica}} is a gross morphologica
l pattern of late <>Diffuse&nsp;</>Gastric Carcinoma that shows diffuse infil
tration elow the sumucosa into the muscle.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-15333033246818.jpg" /></div>
1392520486729 1358629116480 {{c1::Benign}} ulcers are typically small, clean
"punched out" lesions.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15693810499918.jpg"
/></div>
1392520645428 1358629116480 {{c1::Krukenerg Tumour}} is a form of metastasi
s of Gastric Adenocarcinoma that spreads to the ovaries <>ilaterally</> and i
nvolves <>aundant mucous</>&nsp;and <>signet ring cells</>.
1392520728612 1358629116480 What is the most common types Gastric Lymphoma?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marginal Zone and Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma}}</di
v>
1392520768078 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastric Marginal Zone (MALT) Lymphoma}} is
a low grade Gastric Lymphoma associated with <i>Helicoacter pylori</i>&nsp;in
fection.
1392520843625 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastric Marginal Zone (MALT) Lymphoma}} is
a gastric lymphoma that presents with small mature lymphocytes mixed with react

ive germinal centers.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15947213570460.jpg" /
></div>
1392520907512 1358629116480 Which antigen is expressed y Gastric Marginal Z
one (MALT) Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD20}}</div>
1392520946762 1358629116480 {{c1::Lymphoepithelial lesions}} are a feature o
f MALT Lymphoma and involve lymphocytic infiltration of mucosal glands.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-16114717294910.jpg" /></div>
1392521153021 1358629116480 {{c1::Plasmacytoid Cells}} are a feature of MALT
Lymphoma and are descried as differentiated plasma cells with increased pale c
ytoplasm.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16166256902373.jpg" /></div>
1392521213026 1358629116480 {{c1::Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma}} is a gastr
ic lymphoma involving large sheets of large lymphocytes and is aggressive and ra
pidly fatal if left untreated.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-166859479453
73.jpg" /></div>
1392521563440 1358629116480 Which immunostain is positive in Gastric Diffuse
Large B Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Leukocyte Common Antigen (LCA
)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It is also cytokeratin negative.</i></div>
1392521640131 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastric Carcinoid Tumour}} is a gastric ca
ncer of well differentiated neuroendocrine cells associated with endocrine cell
hyperplasia.
1392521723756 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastric Carcinoid Tumour}}&nsp;is a gastr
ic tumour involving sheets and tuules of uniform round cells with minimal atypi
a, finely clumped chromatin and aundant neurosecretory granules.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-17149804413203.jpg" /></div>
1392521800812 1358629116480 Which stain is used to diagnose Gastric Carcinoi
d Tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chromogranin A}}</div>
1392521819990 1358629116480 What level of mitotic activity of a tumour is as
sociated with a high risk of metastasis and aggression?<div><r></div><div>{{c1:
:High}}</div>
1392522026841 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumours (GIST)}}
is a type of gastric cancer involving spindle shaped cells that arises in the wa
ll of the stomach.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17381732647270.jpg" /></
div>
1392522090350 1358629116480 What antigen is expressed in Gastrointestinal St
romal Tumours (GISTs)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17879948853642.jpg"
/><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD117}}</div></div>
1392522120742 1358629116480 What tyrosine kinase receptor is expressed in Ga
strointestinal Stromal Tumours (GISTs)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::c-KIT}}</div>
1392522151990 1358629116480 {{c1::Imatini Mesylate}} is an anticancer thera
py that may e useful in advanced Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumour (GIST) as it t
argets and inhiits tyrosine kinase receptors.
1392522221568 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastroschisis}} is a congenital malformati
on of the anterior adominal wall leading to exposure of adominal contents.
<r /><div><i>Adominal contents are <>are</></i></div>
1392522824558 1358629116480 {{c1::Omphalocele}} is defined as a persistent h
erniation of owel into the umilical cord.
<r /><div><i>Adominal contents
are covered y peritoneum and amnion.</i></div>
1392522854802 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Omphalocele?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Failure of the herniated intestines to return into the ody cavi
ty during development}}</div>
1392522901631 1358629116480 {{c1::Pyloric Stenosis}} is a congenital disorde
r involving hypertrophy of the pyloric smooth muscle.
1392522940192 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly affected y Pyloric S
tenosis?<div><r />{{c1::Males}}</div>
1392522952902 1358629116480 The projectile vomiting in Pyloric Stenosis is&n
sp;{{c1::non-ilious}} as there is no ile in the stomach and duodenal contents
are unale to enter the stomach.
1392567853713 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Gastritis}} is a form of gastritis t
hat involves acidic damage to the stomach mucosa.
1392568641972 1358629116480 What is the cause of Acute Gastritis?<div><r />

</div><div>{{c1::Imalance etween mucosal defenses and acidic environment of th
e stomach}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. there is increased acid or decreased
production</i></div>
1392568674696 1358629116480 Foveolar cells of the stomach secrete&nsp;{{c1:
:mucin}} which acts as a defense mechanism y creating a mucous layer aove the
mucosa.
1392568726883 1358629116480 Surface epithelial cells of the stomach secrete&
nsp;{{c1::icaronate}} that acts as a defense mechanism y neutralizing the ac
idic environment of the stomach.
1392568763142 1358629116480 {{c1::Blood supply}} is a key defense mechanism
at the stomach as it is what provides nutrients and picks up leaked excess acid
from the stomach.
1392568798161 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Curling ulcer}} is an ulcer that is
seen in Acute Gastritis caused y a severe urn and the hypovolemia/decreased 
lood supply that follows.
1392569464708 1358629116480 {{c1::NSAIDs}} are a type of drug that can cause
acute gastritis through decreased levels of PGE<su>2.&nsp;</su>
1392569507434 1358629116480 {{c1::PGE<su>2</su>}} is a prostaglandin that
increases gastric mucous production and gastric lood supply.
1392569541665 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Cushing ulcer}} is an ulcer seen in
acute gastritis that results from increased ICP causing an <>increase in vagal
stimulation</>.
<r><div><i>Increased vagal stimulation = increased ACh
release = increased gastric acid production.</i></div>
1392569600845 1358629116480 Increased ICP leads to increased stimulation of
Cranial Nerve&nsp;{{c1::X}}, therey leading to ACh release onto parietal cells
and hence gastric acid production.
1392569697186 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Gastritis}} is a form of gastritis
that involves chronic inflammation.
1392570149388 1358629116480 Which stomach location is commonly affected y C
hronic Autoimmune Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Body and Fundus}}</div>
1392570202172 1358629116480 What cells are targeted and destroyed in Chronic
Autoimmune Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parietal Cells}}</div>
1392570218482 1358629116480 <div>Which type of autoantiodies are associated
with chronic autoimmune gastritis (type A)??</div><div><r /></div>{{c1::Anti-P
arietal cells; Anti-Intrinsic factor}}.
1392570270783 1358629116480 What type of Hypersensitivity is Chronic Autoimm
une Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1392570291292 1358629116480 {{c1::Achlorhydria}} is a GI disorder defined as
a decrease in gastric acid production and is associated with <>intestinal</>&
nsp;gastric adenocarcinoma.
1392571378179 1358629116480 Which cells make Gastrin?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::G cells}}</div>
1392571403395 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Vit B12 deficie
ncy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Autoimmune Gastritis}}</div>
1392571447031 1358629116480 {{c1::Megalolastic (Pernicious) Anaemia}} is a
complication of Chronic Autoimmune Gastritis that manifests due to the lack of i
ntrinsic factor.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, parietal cells and intrinsic fac
tor can e targeted.</i></div>
1392571493860 1358629116480 Which type of gastric adenocarcinoma is associat
ed with Chronic Autoimmune Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intestinal}}</d
iv>
1392571615326 1358629116480 What is the most common cause and form of Gastri
tis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Helicoacter pylori</i>}}</div>
1392571638445 1358629116480 Which area of the stomach is most commonly affec
ted y <i>Helicoacter pylori</i>&nsp;Chronic Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Antrum}}</div>
1392571683195 1358629116480 Which lymphoma is associated with <i>Helicoacte
r pylori</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MALT Lymphoma}}</div>
1392571725307 1358629116480 Where are most peptic ulcers found?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Proximal duodenum}}</div>

1392572277825 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Duodenal ulcers
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Helicoacter pylori</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>Al
so seen in Zollinger-Ellison syndrome.</i></div>
1392572303925 1358629116480 {{c1::Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome}} is a rare GI
disorder that involves multiple peptic ulcers, typically at the duodenum, due to
Gastrin secretion from a Gastrinoma.
1392572345741 1358629116480 {{c1::Duodenal ulcers}} are a type of ulcer with
epigastric pain that&nsp;<>improves</>&nsp;with meals due to the production
of neutralizing sustances and protective mechanisms.
1392573246863 1358629116480 Hypertrophy of the {{c1::Brunner}} glands are a
key diagnostic endoscopic finding in duodenal ulcers.
1392573280318 1358629116480 Duodenal ulcers commonly present at the&nsp;{{c
1::anterior}} duodenum.
1392573310992 1358629116480 <div>Which artery is commonly affected following
rupture of a <>duodenal artery</>?</div><div><r /></div>{{c1::Gastroduodenal
artery}}
<r /><div><i>Acute pancreatitis may also occur.</i></div>
1392573351102 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Gastric ulcer?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Helicoacter pylori</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>De
creases mucosal protection.</i></div><div><i>Other causes include NSAIDs.</i></d
iv>
1392573365580 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastric ulcers}} are a type of ulcer with
epigastric pain that <>worsens</>&nsp;with meals due to stimulation of acid s
ecretion.
1392573421231 1358629116480 Where in the stomach are Gastric ulcers commonly
found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lesser curvature}}</div>
1392573547688 1358629116480 Which artery is commonly affected y a ruptured
gastric ulcer, especially on the lesser curvature of the stomach?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Left Gastric Artery}}</div>
1392573571323 1358629116480 {{c1::Benign}} peptic ulcers are typically small
, sharply demarcated, punched out and surrounded y radiating folds of mucosa.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23098334117994.jpg" /></div>
1392573756932 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} peptic ulcers are large with i
rregular shape and heaped up margins.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23218
593202282.jpg" /></div>
1392573787961 1358629116480 Which type of Gastric Adenocarcinoma is the most
common?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intestinal}}</div>
1392573817263 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::intestinal}} type of Gastric Aden
ocarcinoma presents as a <>large, irregular ulcer with heaped up margins</>, t
ypically at <>the lesser curvature of the antrum</>.
1392573883019 1358629116480 Where is <>intestinal</>&nsp;Gastric Adenocar
cinoma typically found in the stomach?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lesser curvatu
re of the antrum}}</div>
1392573902335 1358629116480 Which lood type is a risk factor for intestinal
Gastric Adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A}}</div>
1392573939658 1358629116480 {{c1::Nitrosamines}} are a chemical found in smo
ked foods that have an increased risk of causing <>intestinal</> Gastric Adeno
carcinoma.
1392573982166 1358629116480 The {{c1::diffuse}} type of Gastric Adenocarcino
ma involves <>signet ring</> cells that diffusely infiltrate the gastric wall.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25503515803875.jpg" /></div>
1392574019310 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthosis Nigricans}} is a rare feature o
f Gastric Carcinoma and involves darkening of the skin, typically at the axilla.
1392574055776 1358629116480 {{c1::Leser-Trelat sign}} is a rare feature of G
astric Carcinoma that involves a sudden appearance of dozens of severe keratoses
all over the skin.
1392574091182 1358629116480 Which lymph node is most commonly involved in th
e spread of Gastric Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Supraclavicular N
ode (Virchow's Node)}}</div>
1392574128910 1358629116480 Which organ is most commonly the site of metasta
sis of Gastric Carcinoma?<div><r />{{c1::Liver}}</div>

1392574149589 1358629116480 {{c1::Sister Mary Joseph nodule}} is a feature o
f Gastric Carcinoma and involves metastasis to the periumilical region.&nsp;
<r /><div><i>Commonly seen with intestinal type.</i></div>
1392775453107 1358629116480 Which Zone of the Hepatic Acinus most commonly s
hows histological signs of viral hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-10419590660458.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1 - adjacent to the por
tal tract}}</div>
1392775889101 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Hepatitis}} is a form of hepatitis t
hat involves swollen hepatocytes, cholestasis, Kupffer cell hyperplasia and port
al/periportal inflammation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10634339025428.
jpg" /><img src="paste-10647223927254.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
<img src
="paste-10660108829111.jpg" />
1392776189941 1358629116480 {{c2::Acidophillic ody}} is a histological find
ing in Acute Hepatitis and is the remnant of dead hepatocytes.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-10780367913387.jpg" /></div>
1392776250750 1358629116480 {{c1::Interface Hepatitis}} is a histological fi
nding in Acute Hepatitis where portal inflammation spills over into periportal h
epatocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10840497455531.jpg" /></div>
1392776417247 1358629116480 {{c1::Fulminant Hepatitis}} is a severe form of
Acute Hepatitis that involves total liver failure and destruction within 2-3 wee
ks.
<r /><div><i>Mortality is very high.</i></div>
1392776458982 1358629116480 {{c1::Fulminant Hepatitis}} is a severe form of
Acute Hepatitis that involves a small shrunken liver with extensive necrosis.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11033770983893.jpg" /></div>
1392776502101 1358629116480 How long must hepatitis e present efore it is
considered to e chronic?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::6 months}}</div>
1392779965941 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Chronic Viral H
epatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HCV}}</div>
1392779984153 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatitis C}} is a type of viral Hepatitis
that involves lymphoid aggregates and steatosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-11742440587687.jpg" /></div>
1392780028477 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatitis B}} is a type of viral Hepatitis
that involves ground glass hepatocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11
776800326073.jpg" /></div>
1392780059456 1358629116480 Periportal/ridging firosis is a histological f
eature of&nsp;{{c1::chronic}} hepatitis and indicates that the liver is close t
o ecoming cirrhotic.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11931419148715.jpg" /
></div>
1392780601178 1358629116480 {{c1::Autoimmune Hepatitis}} is a form of hepati
tis that has a histology similar to chronic hepatitis, ut with increased numer
s of plasma cells.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12313671238077.jpg" /></
div>
1392780644456 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of acute liver fai
lure?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12816182411685.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Acetaminophen overdose}}</div></div> <r /><div><i>Notice the
necrosis on the right, mild fatty change in the center and normal hepatocytes o
n the left.</i></div>
1392781003354 1358629116480 {{c1::Steatosis}} is a stage of fatty liver dise
ase that is descried as reversile fatty change that typically occurs with mode
rate alcohol intake.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13438952669718.jpg" />
<img src="paste-13460427506149.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-12781822673236.
jpg" /></div>
1392781383284 1358629116480 {{c1::Steatohepatitis}} is a stage of fatty live
r disease that involves liver cell injury and firosis.
1392781404056 1358629116480 {{c1::Cirrhosis}} is a stage of fatty liver dise
ase characterized y extensive firosis and hyperplastic nodules of hepatocytes.
It is irreversile.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13009455940009.jpg" />
</div><div><img src="paste-1069446857041.jpg" /></div>
1392781511408 1358629116480 {{c1::Mallory Bodies}} are non-specific histolog
ical findings of <>steatohepatitis</> and <>alcoholic hepatitis</>&nsp;that

consist of eosinophilic/pink cytoplasmic clumps of cytokeratin within hepatocyt
es.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13602161426872.jpg" /></div>
1392781711849 1358629116480 Firosis in the fatty liver disease {{c1::Steato
hepatitis}} starts around hepatocytes in the central acinar zone.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-13748190314846.jpg" /></div>
1392781954080 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Hemochromatos
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1392781968814 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemochromatosis}} is an autosomal recessiv
e disorder characterized y the deposition of hemosiderin in hepatocytes and il
e ducts.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13855564497325.jpg" /></div>
1392782054293 1358629116480 What stain is used to visualize intracellular ir
on?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13851269530029.jpg" /><r /><div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Prussian Blue}}</div></div>
1392782073543 1358629116480 {{c1::Kayser-Fleischer Rings}} are a morphologic
al feature of Wilson's Disease that appear due to copper accumulation in the cor
nea.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13941463843162.jpg" /><img src="paste16956530884948.jpg" /></div>
1392782248918 1358629116480 What pulmonary disease is involved in an Alpha1Antitrypsin Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary Emphysema}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Occurs due to uninhiited inflammatory proteases at the lungs</i><
/div>
1392822635171 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Biliary Cirrhosis}} is a chronic,
progressive liver disease characterized y <>autoimmune&nsp;</>destruction of
intrahepatic ile ducts, inflammation and scarring.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-481036337538.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Often fatal. Notice the <
>granulomatous, non-suppurative inflammation</>.</i></div>
1392822751823 1358629116480 What is the treatment for <>early</>&nsp;Prim
ary Biliary Cirrhosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ursodeoxycholic Acid}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Late treatment is liver transplantation</i></div>
1392822801227 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary Biliary Cirrhosis}} is a type of
liver cirrhosis that arises from prolonged ostruction of the <>extrahepatic 
iliary tree</> that causes damage and changes within the liver.<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-1318554960234.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /></div><i>Invo
lves an <>increase in pressure of the intrahepatic ducts</>&nsp;resulting in
<>injury/firosis and ile stasis</>.<r /></i><div><i>Complicated y <>ascen
ding cholangitis</>.</i></div><div><i>Cirrhosis with cholestasis typically alwa
ys manifest.</i></div>
1392822936359 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis}} is a live
r disease that involves strictures and intervening ductular dilations of the il
e ducts, yielding a <>"string of pearls"/eaded appearance on Cholangiogram</>
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1460288881055.jpg" /></div>
1392823659667 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis}} is a live
r disease that affects intrahepatic and extrahepatic ile ducts. It involves per
iductal firosis that yields an 'onion skin' appearance.<div><r></div><div><img
src="paste-1511828488627.jpg" /></div>
1392823750348 1358629116480 {{c1::Cirrhosis}} is an end stage chronic liver
disorder that has an architecture consisting of firosis with numerous regenerat
ive nodules.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1675037245685.jpg" /></div><di
v><img src="paste-1065151889745.jpg" /></div>
1392823890472 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatic Encephalopathy}} is a complication
of liver failure that involves CNS deficits due to an <>elevation of ammonia i
n the lood</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-13919989006512.jpg" /></div>
1392823952325 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatorenal Syndrome}} is a complication o
f liver failure that involves decreased renal perfusion, activation of renal SNS
with vasoconstriction and increased synthesis of vasoactive mediators.
1392824018602 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatopulmonary Syndrome}} is a complicati
on of liver failure that involves hypoxemia and intra-pulmonary vascular dilatio
ns due to increased NO and VQ mismatch.
1392824068706 1358629116480 {{c1::Spider Angioma}} is a morphological featur
e of liver disease that appears on the skin due to a decrease in detoxification

y the failing liver.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2014339661980.jpg" />
</div>
1392824201315 1358629116480 {{c1::Nutmeg Liver}} is a form of passive hepati
c congestion that arises following right-sided heart failure or Budd-Chiari Synd
rome.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2091649073489.jpg" /></div>
1392824239194 1358629116480 {{c1::Budd-Chiari Syndrome}} is a hepatic circul
atory disorder that involves liver enlargement, pain and ascites due to ostruct
ion of 2 or more major hepatic veins.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22119
08157671.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Associated with myeloproliferative disorde
rs, hypercoagulaility and cancer (esp hepatocellular carcinoma)</i></div>
1392824364641 1358629116480 Which type of Hepatitis is associated with multi
nucleated giant hepatocytes?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2254857830828.
jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Idiopathic Neonatal}}&nsp;</div>
1392841476157 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatitis}} is defined as inflammation of
the liver parenchyma.
1392841755059 1358629116480 Which 2 non-hepatitis viruses are ale to cause
viral hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CMV; EBV}}</div>
1392841774727 1358629116480 Which liver transaminase is more elevated in <>
viral</>&nsp;hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALT}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>A<>L</>T &gt; AST with vira<>L </>hepatitis</i></div>
1392841832014 1358629116480 Which liver transaminase is more elevated in <>
alcohol-related</>&nsp;liver disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AST; it is a
mitochondrial enzyme and is preferentially increased via EtOH damage}}</div>
1392841878535 1358629116480 Symptoms of acute hepatitis last less than&nsp;
{{c1::6}} months.
1392841952233 1358629116480 Symptoms of chronic hepatitis last longer than&n
sp;{{c1::6}} months.
1392841963452 1358629116480 Which hepatitis virus is commonly acquired y tr
avelers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HAV}}</div>
1392842016669 1358629116480 Which hepatitis virus is common acquired from co
ntaminated water or undercooked seafood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HEV}}</div>
1392842033186 1358629116480 {{c1::Fulminant Hepatitis}} is a severe form of
acute hepatitis that is commonly seen following HEV infection in pregnant women.
1392842188226 1358629116480 Which serological HBV antigen is the first to ri
se and is the key marker of HBV infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HBsAg}}</d
iv>
1392842364282 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::window}} phase of HBV infection i
s the period where IgM antiodies have nearly resolved the infection. <r /><d
iv><i>From&nsp;this point, either chronic infection or immunity is yielded. If
protective Anti-HBsAg IgG is made in time and in enough quantity, immunity and r
esolution is achieved.</i></div>
1392843185586 1358629116480 Which mediator from Stellate Cells governs the f
irosis seen in cirrhosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TGF-eta}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Stellate cells are found eneath the endothelial cells that line the sinus
oids</i></div>
1392843412902 1358629116480 {{c1::Ascites}} is a complication of portal hype
rtension that involves fluid accumulation in the peritoneal cavity.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-1537598292515.jpg" /></div>
1392843509471 1358629116480 {{c1::Congestive Splenomegaly/Hypersplenism}} is
a complication of portal hypertension as lood acks up from the liver into the
spleen.
1392843552264 1358629116480 {{c1::Thromocytopenia}} is a complication of Co
ngestive Splenomegaly as lood acks up into the spleen and facilitates sequestr
ation of platelets in the spleen.
1392843586623 1358629116480 {{c1::Esophageal Varices}} is a form of portosys
temic shunt that presents at the esophagus in portal hypertension.
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-1537598292515.jpg" /></div>
1392843635089 1358629116480 CNS deficits secondary to liver failure and decr
ease in detoxification manifest due to an increase in serum&nsp;{{c1::ammonia}}
levels.

1392843783848 1358629116480 Which hormone is elevated in cirrhosis due to de
creased detoxification and causes <>gynecomastia, spider angiomas and palmar er
ythema</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrogen (Hyperestrinism)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1537598292515.jpg" /></div>
1392843876925 1358629116480 How does PT change in cirrhosis?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Elevation; degree of liver damage is in line with the increase in PT
}}</div>
1392843930035 1358629116480 {{c1::Coagulopathy}} is a complication of cirrho
sis due to decreased synthesis of clotting factors.
1392843949732 1358629116480 Deficiency of which serum protein in cirrhosis c
auses edema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alumin (Hypoaluminemia)}}</div>
1392843991706 1358629116480 Which metaolite of alcohol mediates the liver d
amage seen in Alcohol-related liver disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acetalde
hyde}}</div>
1392855475460 1358629116480 What cytokeratin elements are found in Mallory 
odies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Damaged intermediate filaments}}</div>
1392855566948 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemochromatosis}} is an autosomal recessiv
e disorder involving excess ody iron and deposition of iron in tissue with orga
n damage.
<r /><div><i>Iron loss through menstruation slows the disease p
rogression in women.</i></div>
1392855680570 1358629116480 What is the difference etween Hemosiderosis and
Hemochromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemosiderosis is simply deposition
of iron at tissue; Hemochromatosis involves organ damage}}</div>
1392855716407 1358629116480 What mediates the tissue and organ damage in Hem
ochromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Free radicals; made via Fenton reaction
}}</div>
1392855741487 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of <>secondary</
>&nsp;Hemochromatosis?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Chronic lood transfusions}}</d
iv>
<r><div><i>There is no way to get rid of iron physiologically, hence ea
ch ag of lood is another ag of iron.</i></div><div><i>Commonly seen in eta-t
halassemia patients.</i></div>
1392856285803 1358629116480 What is the cause of <>primary</>&nsp;Hemochr
omatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive mutation in the <i>HFE<
/i>&nsp;gene}}</div>
1392856335588 1358629116480 Which gene is commonly mutated in Hemochromatosi
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>HFE</i>}}</div>
1392856357993 1358629116480 Which mutation in the <i>HFE</i>&nsp;gene is ty
pically seen in Hemochromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C282 (Cysteine repl
aces Tyrosine at pos. 282); or H63D}}</div>
1392856393248 1358629116480 What change in skin colour is seen in Hemochroma
tosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bronze colouration}}</div>
1392856576016 1358629116480 How do Ferritin levels change in Hemochromatosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1392856632019 1358629116480 How does TIBC change in Hemochromatosis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1392856657323 1358629116480 How does Serum Fe&nsp;change in Hemochromatosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1392856667246 1358629116480 How does % Saturation&nsp;change in Hemochromat
osis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1392856679310 1358629116480 How do we distinguish etween rown coloured Fe
deposition at tissue and physiological rown-pigmented Lipofuscin?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Prussian lue stain distinguishes iron}}</div>
1392856728276 1358629116480 {{c1::Lipofuscin}} is a physiological rown pigm
ent that is a y-product from turnover of peroxidized lipids. <r /><div><i>It
is seen as a derivative of aging.</i></div>
1392856777737 1358629116480 Which cancer has an increased risk of manifestin
g in Hemochromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC)}
}</div>
1392856803107 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Hemochromatosis?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Phleotomy}}</div>

1392856812536 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Wilson's Dise
ase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
<r /><div><i>AT
P7B gene on chromosome 13</i></div>
1392856946282 1358629116480 Which gene is mutated in Wilson's Disease?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>ATP7B</i>; an ATP-mediated Hepatocyte Copper transporte
r}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Autosomal recessive defect on chromosome 13.</i></
div>
1392856998835 1358629116480 {{c1::Wilson's Disease}} is an <>autosomal rece
ssive</>&nsp;disorder in <>ATP-mediated hepatocyte copper transport</>, ther
ey resulting in a lack of copper transport into the ile and a lack of copper i
ncorporation into Ceruloplasmin.
<r /><div><i>i.e. a failure in copper e
xcretion.</i></div><div><i>Involves copper deposition in the liver, rain, corne
a, kidneys and joints.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-17905718657331.jpg" /></
i></div>
1392857044212 1358629116480 What is the mechanism of tissue damage in Wilson
's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Copper mediated Hydroxyl free radical tis
sue damage}}</div>
1392857084780 1358629116480 Deposition of copper at the&nsp;{{c1::Basal Gan
glia}} in Wilson's Disease leads to ehavioural changes, dementia, chorea and Pa
rkinsonism.
1392857695204 1358629116480 Deposition of copper at the cornea in Wilson's D
isease leads to the formation of&nsp;{{c1::Kayser-Fleischer rings}}.
1392857718645 1358629116480 How do Ceruloplasmin levels change in Wilsons Di
sease?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Decreased; ceruloplasmin cannot e secreted with
out incorporated copper}}</div>
1392857758351 1358629116480 Which cancer has a higher risk of manifesting in
Wilson's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC)}}</
div>
1392857772509 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Wilson's Disease?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::D-Penicillamine, a copper chelater; or Trientene}}</div>
1392857794291 1358629116480 Which antiodies are present and are a key marke
r in Primary Biliary Cirrhosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-mitochondrial}}<
/div>
1392857833163 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Biliary Cirrhosis}} is a liver dis
order descried as autoimmune granulomatous destruction of intrahepatic ile duc
ts.
1392857880363 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis}} is a live
r disorder that involves inflammation and <>"onion skin"</> firosis of intrah
epatic and extrahepatic ile ducts.
1392858513029 1358629116480 {{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}} is an IBD commonly as
sociated with Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis.
1392858546365 1358629116480 Which cancer has an increased risk of manifestin
g in Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis?<div><r />{{c1::Cholangiocarcinoma}}</div>
1392858590233 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatic Adenoma}} is a enign tumour of he
patocytes associated with <>oral contraceptive use</>.
1392858653095 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC)}} is define
d as a malignant tumour of hepatocytes. <r /><div><img src="paste-1499373083068
0.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-15268608737623.jpg" /></div>
1392858680574 1358629116480 Which toxin from <i>Aspergillus</i>&nsp;is ale
to cause Hepatocellular Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aflatoxins}}</div
>
1392858714611 1358629116480 Which microe grows in grains and nuts is associ
ated with Hepatocellular Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Aspergillus</i
>; via aflatoxins}}</div>
1392858763530 1358629116480 What is the mechanism through which Aflatoxins f
rom <i>Aspergillus</i>&nsp;induces Hepatocellular Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Induction of p53 mutations}}</div>
1392858805955 1358629116480 {{c1::Budd-Chiari Syndrome}} is a liver disorder
descried as liver infarction secondary to <>hepatic vein ostruction</>.
1392858865454 1358629116480 Which serum tumour marker is associated with Hep

atocellular Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-Fetoprotein}}<r /><div>
<r /></div><div><r /></div></div>
1392858907861 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatocellular Carcinoma}} is a liver canc
er associated with <>elevated serum alpha-fetoprotein</> levels.
1392858933786 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Cholelithiasis (
Gallstones)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9083855831362.jpg" /><img src=
"paste-20791936680163.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cholesterol}}</di
v>
<r /><div><img src="paste-21586505630036.jpg" /></div>
1392861285752 1358629116480 {{c1::Biliruin stones}} are a type of gallstone
that have a dark pigmented appearance.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-920
4114915632.jpg" /></div>
1392861308963 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Cholecystitis}} is a gallladder dis
order involving acute inflammation of the gallladder wall, typically due to os
truction causing ischemia and downstream inflammation/necrosis.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-9444633084335.jpg" /><img src="paste-21650930139472.jpg" />
</div>
1392861835730 1358629116480 {{c1::Choledocholithiasis}} is a iliary disorde
r defined as the presence of stones in the ile ducts of the iliary tree.
1392862331649 1358629116480 Which gene is sometimes implicated in Acute Panc
reatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>PRSS1</i>}}</div>
1392862347914 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Hemorrhagic Pancreatitis}} is a form
of pancreatitis that involves hemorrhaging into the pancreatic acini.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-10183367459084.jpg" /><img src="paste-10196252360969
.jpg" /></div>
1392862457779 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Pancreatitis}} is a form of pancreat
itis that presents with yellow-white chalky foci of fat necrosis.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-10273561772290.jpg" /><img src="paste-10295036608787.jpg"
/></div>
1392862514657 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Pancreatitis}} is a form of pancre
atitis that involves firosis, acinar loss and proliferation of ductules and isl
ets.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10436770529818.jpg" /></div>
1392863079572 1358629116480 {{c1::Congenital Pancreatic Cysts}} are a type o
f pancreatic cyst that arise from anomalous duct development. <r /><div><i>Ma
y e sporadic or associated with Polycystic Kidney Disease or von Hippel-Lindau
disease.</i></div>
1392863723732 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancreatic Pseudocyst}} is a type of pancr
eatic cyst that arises from pancreatitis or trauma. It has a <>firous, granula
tion tissue lining with no epithelium.</><div><><r></></div><div><><img src
="paste-11209864643019.jpg" /></></div>
1392863772076 1358629116480 What is the most common cystic lesion of the pan
creas?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11205569675723.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Pancreatic Pseudocyst}}</div></div>
1392863813946 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancreatic Serous Cystadenoma}} is a enig
n multicystic neoplasm of the pacnreas that is glycogen rich and has clear cuoi
dal epithelium.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11312943858072.jpg" /><img
src="paste-24313809862883.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Typically seen in the seve
nth decade of life; more common in females</i></div>
1392863872920 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucinous Cystadenoma}} are cystic lesions
of the pancreas that involve mucinous columnar epithelium. 66% are enign, 33% a
re malignant.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11347303596428.jpg" /></div>
1392863936650 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly affected y Mucinous
Cystic Neoplasms of the pancreas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1392863958245 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucinous Cystic Neoplasms}} are mucinous c
ystic lesions of the pancreas that need to e completely resected in order for c
arcinoma to e ruled out.
1392863999366 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucinous Cystadenocarcinoma}} is a maligna
nt form of mucinous cystic lesions.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1143320
2942375.jpg" /></div>
1392864028530 1358629116480 {{c1::Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome}} is a disorder tha
t presents with 130x increased risk of developing Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcino

ma.
1392864495199 1358629116480 Which gene mutation is most commonly implicated
in Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::K-RAS}}</div>
1392864522849 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma}} is a malignant
tumour of the pancreas that arises from the pancreatic ducts.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-11613591568920.jpg" /><img src="paste-24318104830179.jpg" />
</div>
1392864574697 1358629116480 {{c1::Intraductal Papillary Mucinous Neoplasms}}
is a type of pancreatic neoplasm that is characterised as dilatation of existin
g pancreatic ducts with dysplastic mucinous epithelium.<div><r></div><div><img
src="paste-11845519802799.jpg" /><img src="paste-11858404704564.jpg" /></div>
1392924977086 1358629116480 {{c1::Gallladder adenocarcinoma}} is a cancer o
f the gallladder that is typically found in the gallladder wall at the fundus
or neck of the GB.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-717259538833.jpg" /></di
v>
<r /><div><i>The adenocarcinoma looks like your typical one with glands
and a firous stroma.</i></div>
1392925326100 1358629116480 {{c1::Bile Duct Hamartomas (Von Meyenurg Comple
xes)}} is a <>enign</> tumour-like lesion of the liver that involves multiple
small nodules of <>dilated irregular ile ducts</> in the liver near or withi
n the portal area.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-1606317769107.jpg" /></div
>
1392925549784 1358629116480 {{c1::Focal Nodular Hyperplasia}} is a focal liv
er mass that involves a central scar and all components of regular liver.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-1619202670917.jpg" /></div>
1392925605377 1358629116480 What is the most common enign tumour of the liv
er?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1760936591812.jpg" /><r /><div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Hepatic Hemangioma; usually the cavernous type}}</div></div>
1392925645726 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatic Adenoma}} is a enign tumour of he
patocytes.
1392925761456 1358629116480 Which type of drug is commonly associated with H
epatic Adenoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oral Contraceptives in women}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Regresses with drug withdrawal</i></div>
1392926020449 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatic Adenoma}} is a enign liver tumour
that is a different colour from the rest of the liver. It involves sheets of we
ll differentiated hepatocytes with no portal tracts or central veins.<div><r></
div><div><img src="paste-2336462209271.jpg" /><img src="paste-2349347111253.jpg"
/></div>
1392926130606 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatocellular Carcinoma}} is a liver tumo
ur that involves ile production and a green colour due to hepatocellular differ
entiation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2503965933964.jpg" /></div><div>
<img src="paste-14993730830680.jpg" /></div>
<img src="paste-3002182140325.jp
g" />
1392926337125 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatocellular Carcinoma}} is a liver canc
er that involves atypical hepatocytes in a t<>raecular or pseudoglandular patt
ern</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2538325672239.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Picture is traecular (similar to normal liver, ut with thicker c
ords)</i></div>
1392926410955 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Firolamellar}} variant of Hepato
cellular Carcinoma involves large eosinophilic hepatocytes within ands of colla
gen.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3015067042238.jpg" /></div>
1392926453997 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatolastoma}} is a liver tumour that co
mmonly affects children and is composed of epithelial cells resemling fetal hep
atocytes with small immature lue emryonic cell or mesenchymal differentiation.
<div><r /></div><div>&nsp;<img src="paste-3173980832131.jpg" /></div>
1392926715734 1358629116480 What is the most common liver tumour of young ch
ildhood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatolastoma}}</div>
1392926737392 1358629116480 {{c1::Cholangiocarcinoma}} is defined as adenoca
rcinoma arising from the ile ducts.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-377527
6253614.jpg" /></div>
1392927170112 1358629116480 Which liver fluke infection is associated with C

holangiosarcoma, typically in SE Asia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clonorchis sin
ensis}}</div>
1392927207745 1358629116480 {{c1::Klatskin tumour}} is the most common type
of Cholangiosarcoma that is found at the extrahepatic ducts of the liver hilum.
1392927274240 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatic Angiosarcoma}} is a liver tumour t
hat is associated with exposure to <>Vinyl Chloride, Arsenic or Thorotrast</>.
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3805341024733.jpg" /></div>
1392927441282 1358629116480 {{c1::Annular Pancreas}} is a congenital malform
ation in which the head of the pancreas forms a rings around the duodenum, there
y posing a risk of duodenal ostruction.
1392940082834 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute pancreatitis}} is a form of pancreat
itis that is due to autodigestion of the pancreatic parenchyma y pancreatic enz
ymes. <div><r></div><i>This results in extensive fluid collections surroundin
g the pancreas that are visile on axial CT.</i><r><div><img src="paste-2263018
2682963.jpg" /></div>
1392940268798 1358629116480 Which pancreatic enzyme is typically prematurely
activated to trigger the activation of other pancreatic enzymes?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Trypsin}}</div>
1392940317062 1358629116480 What type of necrosis is seen <>at the pancreas
</> in Acute Pancreatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefactive, hemorrhagic
necrosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The hemorrhaging is due to high pancreatic
perfusion.</i></div>
1392940374433 1358629116480 What type of necrosis is seen at the <>peripanc
reatic fat</>&nsp;in Acute Pancreatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fat necros
is}}</div>
1392940399682 1358629116480 What are the 2 most common causes of Acute Pancr
eatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol and Gallstones}}</div>
1392940426127 1358629116480 {{c1::Alcohol}} is a cause of Acute Pancreatitis
that acts through contraction of the Sphincter of Oddi at the pancreatic ampull
a, therey causing a decrease in pancreatic drainage.
1392940480149 1358629116480 {{c1::Trauma}} is a cause of Acute Pancreatitis
that is especially common in children in car accidents due to the seat elt push
ing into the adomen.
1392940516643 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypercalcemia}} is a cause of acute pancre
atitis that acts through increased levels of Ca which are ale to activate enzym
es.
1392940549958 1358629116480 Rupture of a&nsp;{{c2::Posterior Duodenal Ulcer
}} is a potential cause of acute pancreatitis due to the proximity of the pancre
as posterior due to the duodenum.
1392940917139 1358629116480 Where does the pain in Acute Pancreatitis radiat
e to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epigastric pain that radiates to the ack}}</di
v>
1392941014372 1358629116480 Which pancreatic enzymes are elevated and diagno
stic in Acute Pancreatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amylase and Lipase}}</div
>
1392941050972 1358629116480 Which pancreatic enzyme is more specific for pan
creatic damage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lipase}}</div>
1392941067785 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypocalcemia}} is a feature of acute pancr
eatitis as calcium is <>consumed during saponification in fat necrosis</>.
1392941096584 1358629116480 {{c1::Shock}} is a complication of acute pancrea
titis that manifests due to peripancreatic hemorrhage and fluid sequestration.
1392941461074 1358629116480 Which acteria commonly causes pancreatic asces
ses in acute pancreatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}}<
/div>
1392941497385 1358629116480 {{c1::DIC}} is a complication of acute pancreati
tis due to pancreatic enzymes entering the lood and acting on coagulation facto
rs, therey activating them.
1392941546248 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome}} is a
complication of acute pancreatitis due to pancreatic enzymes acting at the alve
olar surface.

1392941633424 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancreatic Pseudocyst}} is a complication
of acute pancreatitis formed y firous tissue surrounding liquefactive necrosis
and pancreatic enzymes.
1392941752705 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Chronic Pancrea
titis in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol}}</div>
1392941774432 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Chronic Pancrea
titis in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cystic Firosis; due to thickened
pancreatic secretions that lead to decreased drainage}}</div>
1392942049573 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancreatic Insufficiency}} is a complicati
on of chronic pancreatitis that results in malasorption with <>steatorrhea</>
and <>Vitamin ADEK deficiency</>.
1392942091734 1358629116480 Amylase and Lipase are useful serum markers only
in&nsp;{{c1::acute}} pancreatitis.
1392942104572 1358629116480 What type of calcification is seen at the pancre
atic parenchyma upon imaging in Pancreatitis?<div><r>{{c1::Dystrophic}}</div>
1392942142518 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary Diaetes Mellitus}} is a late co
mplication of chronic pancreatitis due to destruction of islet cells.
1392942175890 1358629116480 What are the 2 major risk factors for developing
Pancreatic Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smoking &amp; Chronic Pancreat
itis}}</div>
1392942711341 1358629116480 Which area of the pancreas is most commonly affe
cted y Pancreatic Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Head}}</div>
1392942757620 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary Diaetes Mellitus}} is a late co
mplication of pancreatic carcinoma when the tumour arises in the ody or tail
1392942789559 1358629116480 {{c1::Migratory Thromophleitis (Trousseau's Si
gn)}} is a feature of pancreatic carcinoma that presents with swelling, erythema
, and tenderness at the extremities.
1392942993689 1358629116480 Which serum tumour marker is associated with pan
creatic carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CA 19-9}}</div>
1392943021776 1358629116480 The {{c1::Whipple Procedure}} is a surgical proc
edure that involves en loc removal of the head and neck of the pancreas, proxim
al duodenum and gallladder.
1392943178587 1358629116480 {{c1::Biliary Atresia}} is a gallladder disorde
r defined as a failure to form or an early destruction of the extrahepatic ilia
ry tree.
<r /><div><i>Causes iliary ostruction in the first 2 months o
f life with jaundice and progressive cirrhosis.</i></div>
1392943278075 1358629116480 {{c1::Crohn's Disease}} is an inflammatory owel
disease that acts as a risk factor for cholesterol cholelithiasis due to damage
to the ileum causing decreased ile reuptake and hence decreased cholesterol so
luilization.
1392943373710 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Ascaris lumricoides</i>}} is a common
roundworm that infects the iliary tract, therey increasing the risk for gallst
ones.
1392943427451 1358629116480 How is the roundworm&nsp;<i>Ascaris lumricoide
s</i>&nsp;transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fecal-oral}}</div>
1392943444155 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Clonorchis sinensis</i>}} is a liver fl
uke that infects the iliary tract, increasing the risk of gallstones, cholangit
is and cholangiosarcoma.
<r /><div><i>Endemic in China, Korea and Vietna
m</i></div>
1392943499044 1358629116480 {{c1::Biliary Colic}} is a complication of galls
tones that presents as a <>waxing and waning RUQ pain</> due to the GB contrac
ting against a stone lodged in the cystic duct. <r /><div><i>Can present withou
t pain in diaetics.</i></div>
1392943550200 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Cholecystitis}} is a gallladder con
dition defined as acute inflammation of the gallladder wall.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-21650930139472.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Most commonly due
to gallstone locking the cystic duct.</i></div>
1392943915794 1358629116480 Which acteria is associated with overgrowth in
the gallladder wall due to impacted stones in the cystic duct?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}}</div>

1392943983020 1358629116480 Which liver enzyme is elevated in Acute Cholecys
titis due to damage to the ile ducts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alkaline Phosp
hatase}}</div>
1392944022008 1358629116480 Where does the pain radiate to in Acute Cholecys
titis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RUQ to right scapula}}</div>
1392944113563 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Cholecystitis}} is defined as chro
nic inflammation of the gallladder due to chemical irritation from long standin
g cholelithiasis.
<r /><div><i>With or without superimposed outs of acut
e cholecystitis.</i></div>
1392944184175 1358629116480 {{c1::Rokitansky-Aschoff sinus}} is a characteri
stic of chronic cholecystitis due to herniation of the gallladder mucosa into t
he muscular wall.
1392944324761 1358629116480 {{c1::Porcelain Gallladder}} is a late complica
tion of <>chronic cholecystitis</> and is due to a shrunken, hard GB due to ch
ronic inflammation, firosis and dystrophic calcification.<div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-22204980920658.jpg" /></div>
1392944387000 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Chronic Cholecystitis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cholecystectomy}}</div>
1392944412674 1358629116480 {{c1::Ascending Cholangitis}} is defined as act
erial infection of the ile duct, typically due to ascending infection with ente
ric gram-negative acteria.
1392944461081 1358629116480 {{c1::Galllader Adenocarcinoma}} is a gallladd
er cancer that arises from the glandular epithelium that lines the GB wall.
1392944513571 1358629116480 What is the major risk factor for Gallladder Ad
enocarcinoma?<div><r />{{c1::Gallstones, esp with porcelain gallladder}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Porcelain ladder must e excised prophylactically due to th
e risk of cancer.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-22200685953362.jpg" /></div>
1393210129664 1358629116480 {{c1::Jaundice}} is defined as yellow discolorat
ion of the skin.
1393210193267 1358629116480 What is the earliest sign of jaundice?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Scleral Icterus}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-16011
638079715.jpg" /></div>
1393210219718 1358629116480 What level of serum iliruin causes Jaundice?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::&gt; 2.5 mg/dL}}</div>
1393210247235 1358629116480 In the normal metaolism of iliruin,&nsp;{{c1
::protoporphyrin}} from heme is converted into&nsp;{{c2::unconjugated iliruin
(UCB)}}.
1393210470382 1358629116480 What plasma protein carries unconjugated iliru
in to the liver?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alumin}}</div>
1393210722539 1358629116480 Which hepatic enzyme conjugates iliruine?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Uridine Glucuronyl Transferase (UGT)}}</div>
1393210747625 1358629116480 Intestinal flora convert conjugated ile to&nsp
;{{c1::uroilinogen}}, which is oxidized into&nsp;{{c2::Stercoilin}} and&nsp;
{{c3::Uroilin}}.
1393211790182 1358629116480 Which metaolite of uroilinogen makes stool ro
wn?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stercoilin}}</div>
1393211818199 1358629116480 Which metaolite of Uroilinogen makes urine yel
low?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uroilin}}</div>
1393211836594 1358629116480 {{c1::Uroilin}} is a metaolite of uroilinogen
that is partially reasored into the lood and filtered y the kidneys. It mak
es urine yellow.
1393211876907 1358629116480 {{c1::Extravascular Hemolysis (or poor Hematopoi
esis)}} is a cause of jaundice that involves an extremely high level of unconjug
ated iliruin that overwhelms the conjugating aility of the liver.
1393212237153 1358629116480 What type of iliruin will e elevated in jaund
ice due to Extravascular Hemolysis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UCB}}</div>
1393212259809 1358629116480 What type of iliruin will e elevated in jaund
ice due to Physiological Jaundice of the neworn?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UCB
}}</div>
1393212278305 1358629116480 What type of iliruin will e elevated in jaund

ice due to Gilert Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UCB}}</div>
1393212289992 1358629116480 What type of iliruin will e elevated in jaund
ice due to Criggler-Najjar Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UCB}}</div>
1393212304702 1358629116480 What type of iliruin will e elevated in jaund
ice due to Duin-Johnson Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CB}}</div>
1393212352722 1358629116480 What type of iliruin will e elevated in jaund
ice due to Rotor Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CB}}</div>
1393212368648 1358629116480 What type of iliruin will e elevated in jaund
ice due to a Biliary Tract Ostruction (Ostructive Jaundice)?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::CB}}</div>
1393212381255 1358629116480 What type of iliruin will e elevated in jaund
ice due to Viral Hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CB and UCB}}</div>
1393212391652 1358629116480 {{c1::Extravascular Hemolysis}} is a cause of ja
undice that will involve dark urine due to an elevated level of urinary&nsp;<>
uroilinogen</>.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, uroilinogen is NOT UCB, it is a
metaolite of CB.</i></div>
1393212524888 1358629116480 {{c1::Extravascular Hemolysis}} is a haematologi
cal cause of jaundice that has an increased risk for pigmented iliruin gallsto
nes.
1393212560677 1358629116480 {{c1::Phyiological Jaundice of the neworn}} is
a cause of jaundice that occurs due to neworns having <>transiently low levels
of hepatic Uridine Glucuronyl Transferase activity</>, therey they are unale
to conjugate iliruin.
1393213064787 1358629116480 {{c1::Kernicterus}} is a complication of hyperi
liruinemia and involves deposition of ile at the asal ganglia, leading to neu
rological deficits and death. <r /><div><i>This is ecause UCB is fat solule
.</i></div>
1393213334334 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Kernicterus/Physiologi
cal Jaundice of the Neworn?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phototherapy; reakdown
down UCB and makes it water solule; does not conjugate UCB, ut allows it to e
excreted via urine}}</div>
1393213378192 1358629116480 {{c1::Gilert Syndrome}} is a cause of jaundice
that involves <>mildly low</>&nsp;Glucuronyl Transferase activity, therey re
sulting in decreased iliruin uptake y hepatocytes. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-16355235463941.jpg" /></div>
1393213549706 1358629116480 {{c1::Gilert Syndrome}} is a cause of jaundice
that typically only presents following stress (e.g. infection) and is otherwise
not clinically significant.
<r /><div><img src="paste-16359530431237.jpg" /
></div>
1393213586842 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritence of Gilert Syndr
ome?<div><r />{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1393213604214 1358629116480 {{c1::Crigler-Najjar Syndrome}} is a cause of ja
undice that involves a <>total asence</>&nsp;of Glucuronyl Transferase, ther
ey causing death via kernicterus in a few years.
<div><r /></div><i>Pres
ents early in life.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-16355235463941.jpg" /></div>
1393213650012 1358629116480 {{c1::Duin-Johnson Syndrome}} is a cause of jau
ndice that involves a deficiency of iliruin canalicular transport proteins.
<r /><div><i>i.e. defective liver excretion.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1
6355235463941.jpg" /></i></div>
1393213697150 1358629116480 {{c1::Duin-Johnson Syndrome}} is a cause of jau
ndice that involves a <>dark liver</> due to intrahepatic uildup of ile. It
is otherwise not clinically significant.
<r><div><img src="paste-1635523
5463941.jpg" /></div>
1393213724320 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Duin-Johnson
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1393213738564 1358629116480 {{c1::Rotor Syndrome}} is a cause of jaundice th
at is similar to Duin-Johnson syndrome, ut l<>acks the liver discolouration</
<r /><div><img src="paste-16355235463941.jpg" /></div>
>.
1393213763193 1358629116480 Which liver fluke is associated with ostructive
jaundice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Clonorchis sinensis</i>}}</div>

1393213799236 1358629116480 What liver enzyme is elevated in Ostructive Jau
ndice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alkaline Phosphatase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
memer, AlkPhos is a ile canalicular enzyme.</i></div>
1393214192428 1358629116480 How does the level of <>urine uroilinogen</>&
nsp;change in ostructive jaundice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased; CB ca
nnot get to the GI tract and hence uroilinogen cannot e made}}</div>
1393214253062 1358629116480 What causes the pruritis seen in Ostructive Jau
ndice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased plasma ile acids}}</div>
1393214298941 1358629116480 {{c1::Steatorrhea}} is a feature of ostructive
jaundice due to decreased levels of ile at the GI tract.
<div><i><r /></
i></div>
1393214350167 1358629116480 Which vitamin deficiency/malasorption is common
ly seen in Ostructive Jaundice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vit A, D, E, K}}</di
v>
1393214379561 1358629116480 How do cholesterol levels change in ostructive
jaundice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypercholesterolemia; with xanthomas}}</div
>
1393214423772 1358629116480 Which form of Biliruin is water solule?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::CB}}</div>
1393618518019 1358629116480 What is the cause of Pseudomemranous Colitis?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Clostridium difficile</i>}}</div>
1393618899071 1358629116480 {{c1::Pseudomemranous Colitis}} is a type of en
terocolitis caused y <i>Clostridium difficile</i>&nsp;and involves pus and inf
lammatory deris scattered over the mucosa.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-1013612282302.jpg" /></div>
1393619012034 1358629116480 {{c1::Irritale Bowel Syndrome (IBS)}} is a GI d
isorder that involves adominal pain, loating and <>regular changes in owel h
aits</>&nsp;typically etween constipation or diarrhea due to irregular GI mo
tility. <r /><div><i>Bowel movements typically alleviate symptoms.</i></div>
1393619154834 1358629116480 {{c1::Microscopic Colitis}} is a form of enteroc
olitis that manifests at the microscopic level and yields chronic, watery nonlo
ody diarrhea. <r /><div><i>Pathogenesis is uncertain.</i></div>
1393619215021 1358629116480 {{c1::Lymphocytic Colitis}} is a type of Microsc
opic Colitis that involves an increased amount of surface intraepithelial lympho
cytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1563368096099.jpg" /></div>
1393619257186 1358629116480 {{c1::Collagenous Colitis}} is a type of Microsc
opic Colitis that involves intraepithelial lymphocyte ut also a thickened suep
ithelial collagen tale.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1623497638247.jpg"
/></div>
1393619307518 1358629116480 {{c1::Colonic Angiodysplasia}} is a GI disorder
that involves dilation of malformed sumucosal and mucosal lood vessels in the
right colon, therey presenting with <>hematochezia</>.<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-2113123909956.jpg" /></div>
1393619352417 1358629116480 Which area of the GI tract commonly involves Col
onic Angiodysplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Colon}}</div>
1393619395605 1358629116480 {{c1::Crohn's Disease}} is an Inflammatory Bowel
Disease that involves <>transmural</>&nsp;inflammation.<div><r></div><div><
img src="paste-3401614098804.jpg" /></div>
1393620030933 1358629116480 {{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}} is an Inflammatory Bo
wel Disease that involves only <>mucosal and sumucosal</>&nsp;inflammation.
1393620056087 1358629116480 Which inflammatory owel disease can affect <>a
ny portion of the GI tract?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Crohn Disease}
}</div>
1393620084061 1358629116480 {{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}} is an inflammatory o
wel disease that is limited to the colon and rectum.
1393620100903 1358629116480 Chronic colitis with distorted glands, often in
the shape of animals, is a common sign of&nsp;{{c1::Inflammatory Bowel Disease}
}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2435246457208.jpg" /></div><div><img src
="paste-2456721293737.jpg" /></div>
1393620813357 1358629116480 {{c1::Crohn's Disease}} is an inflammatory owel

disease that shows <>segmental</>&nsp;<>transmural</>&nsp;inflammation at
any region of the owel.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2856153252062.jpg
" /><img src="paste-2881923055789.jpg" /></div>
1393620901440 1358629116480 The transmural inflammation of the IBD&nsp;{{c1
::Crohn's Disease}} can involve ulceration, fissures and granulomas (35%).<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-2877628088493.jpg" /></div>
1393620931973 1358629116480 Which IBD involves skip lesions or segmental inf
lammation?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2937757630674.jpg" /></div><div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn's Disease}}</div>
1393620958077 1358629116480 Which IBD involves <>linear ulcers</>&nsp;and
a <>colestone appearance</>&nsp;from the linear ulcers if they intersect?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn's Disease}}<r /><div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-2963527434655.jpg" /><img src="paste-2976412336461.jpg" /></div></div>
1393621049525 1358629116480 Which histological feature of Crohn's Disease (s
hown elow) is a key distinguishing feature from Ulcerative Colitis?<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-3414499000693.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Noncaseating Granulomas}}</div>
1393621083383 1358629116480 {{c1::Crohn's Disease}} is an IBD that can e tr
iggered y smoking.
1393621125574 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancolitis}} is a feature of Ulcerative Co
litis that results from extension of UC from the rectum to the entire colon.
1393621178040 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly affected y Ulcerativ
e Colitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1393621214274 1358629116480 {{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}} is an IBD that involv
es <>continuous inflammation</>&nsp;that egins in the rectum and extends to
the cecum and even terminal ileum in very severe cases.<div><r></div><div><img
src="paste-3547642986695.jpg" /></div>
1393621287141 1358629116480 {{c1::Ulcerative Coliits}} is an IBD that only i
nvolves the <>mucosa and sumucosa only</>, therey yielding ulcers and <>pse
udopolyps</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3582002725045.jpg" /><img sr
c="paste-3612067496298.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-28157805592916.jpg" /><
/div>
1393621346958 1358629116480 Which IBD involves crypt ascesses that contain
neutrophils/pus in intestinal crypts?<div><r /><div><img src="paste-36550171692
59.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}}</div></div></di
v>
1393621402654 1358629116480 {{c1::Toxic Megacolon}} is a complication of Ulc
erative Colitis where inflammatory mediators distur the neuromuscular function
of owel leading to massive dilation, ischemia and high risk of perforation.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4157528342901.jpg" /></div>
1393621905371 1358629116480 Which IBD is more commonly associated with fistu
lae?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn's Disease}}</div>
1393621969853 1358629116480 {{c1::Indeterminate Colitis}} is an IBD that can
not e definitely classified as either Crohn's Disease or Ulcerative Colitis.
<r><div><i>Aout 10% of cases.</i></div>
1393622033473 1358629116480 Which cancer has an increased risk of manifestin
g in IBD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colonic Adenocarcinoma}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Especially after 8-10 years of disease</i></div>
1393622131505 1358629116480 {{c1::Diversion Colitis}} is a GI disorder that
looks like IBD that develops in a post-surgical lind pouch that lacks normal fe
cal flow.
1393622492099 1358629116480 {{c1::Adhesion}} is a cause of ischemic owel di
sease that results from inflammation, most commonly following surgery, and <>in
volves the twisting of owel loops around a firous peritoneal and</>.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-5136780886469.jpg" /><img src="paste-5149665788076
.jpg" /></div>
1393622600825 1358629116480 {{c1::Intussusception}} is a cause of ischemic 
owel that results from one segment of owel telescoping into a segment <>downst
ream</>&nsp;from it.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5235565134147.jpg" /
><img src="paste-29673929048365.jpg" /></div>

1393622657957 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Intussusception
in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphoid hyperplasia}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Is often idiopathic and is an emergency.</i></div>
1393622736310 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Intussusception
in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tumour}}</div> <r /><div><i>The tumour
acts as a lead point that is pulled into the lumen of the distal owel segment.
</i></div>
1393622752543 1358629116480 {{c1::Volvulus}} is a cause of ischemic owel th
at involves the complete twisting of owel around its mesenteric ase, therey l
eading to <>infarction</>&nsp;and <>ostruction</>.<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-5450313498925.jpg" /><img src="paste-29996051595573.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Typically occurs in areas that have large redundant loops of sigmo
id colon and small intestine where there is a lot of mesentery.</i></div>
1393622818417 1358629116480 {{c1::Transmural Infarction}} is a pattern of Is
chemic Bowel that typically results from sudden occlusion of major vessels, espe
cially the Superior Mesenteric Artery of Mesenteric Vein.
1393622910464 1358629116480 {{c1::Mural/Mucosal Infarction}} is a pattern of
Ischemic Bowel that commonly occurs due to hypotension and hypoperfusion of wat
ershed areas.
1393622945412 1358629116480 {{c1::Colonic Diverticular Disease (Diverticulos
is)}} is a GI disorder that involves the outpouching of mucosa into or through t
he muscularis propria.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6073083757005.jpg" /
><img src="paste-6094558593476.jpg" /></div>
1393623053282 1358629116480 What is the cause of Colonic Diverticular Diseas
e (Diverticulosis)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Exaggerated muscle contractions a
nd a low fier diet}}</div>
1393623073923 1358629116480 What is Hematochezia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Rectal leeding}}</div>
1393623191862 1358629116480 Which morphological type of colonic polyp is fla
t and difficult to remove endoscopically?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6
244882448560.jpg" /><img src="paste-6657199309076.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Sessile}}</div></div>
1393623428067 1358629116480 Which morphological type of colonic polyp has a
stalky shape and is easy to remove?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6279242
186956.jpg" /><img src="paste-6717328851261.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Pedunculated}}</div></div>
1393623506384 1358629116480 What is the most common GI Hamartomatous polyp?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Juvenile Polyp}}</div>
1393623541130 1358629116480 {{c1::Juvenile polyps}} are a type of colonic po
lyp that are most common in the rectum of y<>oung children (&lt; 5 y/o)</> and
are made of <>dilated glands in expanded inflamed lamina propria</>.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-6803228197200.jpg" /></div>
<r><div><i>Most
prolapse and present with hematochezia</i></div>
1393623666450 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Juvenile Poly
posis Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1393623821317 1358629116480 {{c1::Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome}} is a GI polyposis
syndrome that involves <>multiple GI hamartomatous polyps</> and <>mucocutan
eous hyperpigmentation</>&nsp;(esp. at the mouth, lips, hands and genitalia).<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7696581394834.jpg" /></div><div><img src="p
aste-7722351198474.jpg" /></div>
1393623874970 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Peutz-Jeghers
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal dominant}}</div>
1393623914587 1358629116480 What gene is mutated in Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LKB1/STK11}}</div>
1393623974963 1358629116480 {{c1::Colonic Hyperplastic Polyps}} are a type o
f GI polyps that are <>enign</>&nsp;and involve a <>serrated architecture</
>&nsp;with golet cells.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8160437862835.jp
g" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Must e distinguished from sessile serrated adenom
as.</i></div>
1393624104826 1358629116480 {{c1::Sessile Serrated Adenoma}} is a colonic po

lyp that appears similar to hyperplastic polyps ut involves <u>serrated growth
extending to the crypts</u>, dilated crypts and <u>lateral crypt growth</u>.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8190502633802.jpg" /></div>
1393624279668 1358629116480 {{c1::Sessile Serrated Adenoma}} is a colonic po
lyp that involves crypts with a golf clu or anchor shape.<div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-8224862372220.jpg" /></div>
1393624332845 1358629116480 {{c1::Tuular adenoma}} is a type of intestinal
adenoma that resemles the colonic mucosa and involves numerous tuules.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-8431020802521.jpg" /><img src="paste-8443905704342
.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-31722628448601.jpg" /></div>
1393624605246 1358629116480 {{c1::Villous Adenoma}} is a type of intestinal
adenoma that resemles the SI mucosa and villi.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-8486855377370.jpg" /><img src="paste-8499740279266.jpg" /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-31799937859924.jpg" /></div>
1393624655625 1358629116480 {{c1::Tuulovillous adenoma}} is a type of intes
tinal adenoma that incorporates oth tuules and villi.<div><r /></div><div><im
g src="paste-8534100017590.jpg" /></div>
1393624686236 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritence of Familial Aden
omatous Polyposis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1393624770989 1358629116480 What gene is mutated in Familial Adenomatous Pol
yposis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenomatous Polyposis Coli (APC)}}</div>
1393624793429 1358629116480 {{c1::Gardener's Syndrome}} is a variant of FAP
syndrome that involves FAP with <>osteomas and firomatosis</>.
1393624836326 1358629116480 {{c1::Turcot Syndrome}} is a variant FAP syndrom
e that involves <>FAP and CNS tumours.</>
1393624850269 1358629116480 What is the first gene mutated in the Adenoma-Ca
rcinoma sequence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::APC}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><img src="paste-33474975105080.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-33440615366890
.jpg" /></div>
1393625525072 1358629116480 What is the second gene mutated in the Adenoma-C
arcinoma Sequence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::K-Ras}}</div>
<r /><div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-33474975105080.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-334
40615366890.jpg" /></div></div>
1393625544151 1358629116480 What is the third gene mutated in the Adenoma-Ca
rcinoma Sequence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53}}</div>
<r /><div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-33474975105080.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-334
40615366890.jpg" /></div></div>
1393625559125 1358629116480 Which genes are mutated in the Microsatellite In
staility Pathway, therey leading to a loss of DNA mismatch repair?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::MLH1 and MSH2}}</div>
1393625596841 1358629116480 Colonic Adenocarcinoma on the&nsp;{{c1::right}}
side of the ody typically involves polypoid structure and cause fatigue and ir
on deficiency anaemia.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9324373999966.jpg" /
></div>
1393625648867 1358629116480 Colonic Adenocarcinoma on the&nsp;{{c1::left}}
side of the ody are usually annular and stenosing. They cause leeding, owel d
ysfunction and cramping.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9375913607538.jpg"
/></div>
1393625703787 1358629116480 What does the T in TNM tumour staging signify?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Depth of tumour invasion}}</div>
1393626033570 1358629116480 What does the N in TNM tumour staging signify?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spread to regional lymph nodes}}</div>
1393626130059 1358629116480 What does the M in TNM tumour staging signify?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distant metastasis}}</div>
1393626143342 1358629116480 {{c1::Appendiceal Mucinous Cystadenoma}} is a e
nign <>mucin-filled</>&nsp;cystic tumour of the appendix lined y dysplastic
epithelium.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9710921056532.jpg" /><img src="
paste-9723805958514.jpg" /></div>
1393626391837 1358629116480 {{c1::Appendiceal Mucinous Cystadenocarcinoma}}
is a mucin-filled tumour of the appendix that invades the appendiceal wall and c

an lead to widespread metastasis of mucinous carcinoma in the peritoneal cavity.
1393626493929 1358629116480 {{c1::Pseudomyxoma Peritonei}} is a complication
of Appendiceal Mucinous Cystadenocarcinoma that involves metastasis of mucinous
carcinoma into the peritoneal cavity.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1017
4777524552.jpg" /></div>
1393626532128 1358629116480 Where in the appendix is Appendiceal Carcinoid t
ypically found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::In the tip}}</div>
1405644641136 1395802358422 {{c1::Achalasia}} is an esophageal disorder that
involves a <>"ird's eak"</>&nsp;appearance of the esophagus on arium swal
low.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17935783428324.jpg" /></div>
1405646048386 1395802358422 Which infectious disease is a possile secondary
cause of Achalasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chagas Disease}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Caused y Trypanosoma cruzi.</i></div>
1405646096870 1395802358422 How does the risk of esophageal squamous cell ca
rcinoma change in Achalasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405646144985 1395802358422 Which esophageal pathology is associated with <
>lye ingestion</>&nsp;and <>acid reflux</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Esoph
ageal strictures}}</div>
1405646978608 1395802358422 Which herpesvirus is associated with esophagitis
in the immunocompromised that presents with <>punched-out ulcers</>?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div>
1405647331002 1395802358422 Which herpesvirus is associated with esophagitis
in the immunocompromised that presents with&nsp;<>linear ulcers</>?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div>
1405647354322 1395802358422 Which fungal species is associated with esophagi
tis in the immunocompromised that presents with&nsp;a <>white pseudomemrane</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Candida spp.</i>}}</div>
1405647452860 1395802358422 {{c1::Esophageal dysmotility}} is an esophageal
complication of CREST syndrome that involves <>esophageal smooth muscle atrophy
</>&nsp;and a resultant decrease in <>LES pressure and dysmotility</>.
<r /><div><i>Therey leads to acid reflux and dysphagia and <>eventual strictu
res, Barrett esophagus and apiration</>.</i></div>
1405653625420 1395802358422 What is the more common <>type</>&nsp;of esop
hageal carcinoma <>worldwide</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carc
inoma}}</div>
1405653820227 1395802358422 What is the most common <>type</>&nsp;of esop
hageal carcinoma <>in the united states</>?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Adenocarc
inoma}}</div>
1405653841896 1395802358422 Which type of gastritis is considered erosive?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute}}</div>
1405654395449 1395802358422 Which type of gastritis is considered nonerosive
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic}}</div>
1405654405124 1395802358422 Which type of chronic gastritis involves the fun
dus/ody of the stomach?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type A}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>A efore B.</i></div>
1405654433454 1395802358422 Which type of chronic gastritis involves the ant
rum of the stomach?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type B}}</div> <r /><div><i>A
efore B.</i></div>
1405654447131 1395802358422 Which type of chronic gastritis is associated wi
th pernicious anemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type A (autoimmune)}}</div>
1405654595756 1395802358422 Which type of chronic gastritis involves autoimm
une destruction of the parietal cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type A}}</div>
1405654616231 1395802358422 Which type of chronic gastritis is the most comm
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type B}}</div>
1405654624500 1395802358422 Which type of chronic gastritis is caused y <i>
Helicoacter pylori</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type B}}</div>
1405654640122 1395802358422 {{c1::Ménétrier Disease}} is a gastric disorder desc
ried as <>gastric hypertrophy with protein loss, parietal cell atrophy and inc
rease in mucous cells</>.
<r /><div><i>Precancerous.</i></div>
1405654800870 1395802358422 {{c1::Ménétrier Disease}} is disorder of the stomach

that involves <>hypertrophy of the rugae of the stomach</>&nsp;so severely t
hat they look like rain gyri.
1405654833913 1395802358422 Which acteria is associated with <>Intestinal<
/>&nsp;Gastric Adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Helicoacter pylo
ri</i>}}</div>
1405654993563 1395802358422 Which type of gastric carcinoma is associated wi
th Nitrosamines?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intestinal gastric adenocarcinoma}}<
/div>
1405655020235 1395802358422 Which type of gastric adenocarcinoma is associat
ed with achlorhydria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intestinal}}</div>
1405655058539 1395802358422 Which type of peptic ulcer is associated with <
>weight loss</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric ulcer}}</div>
1405655237104 1395802358422 Which type of peptic ulcer is associated with <
>weight gain</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenal}}</div>
1405655250501 1395802358422 Which type of peptic ulcer involves the hypertro
phy of Brunner glands?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenal}}</div>
1405655313311 1395802358422 Perforation of which type of peptic ulcer is ass
ociated with <>air under the diaphragm</>&nsp;and <>referred pain to the sho
ulder?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Anterior duodenal ulcer}}</div>
1405655464187 1395802358422 Which demographic is most commonly affected y W
hipple's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Older men}}</div>
1405656047898 1395802358422 {{c1::Whipple's Disease}} is a malasorptive dis
order caused y <i>Tropheryma whipplei</i>&nsp;that involves <>cardiac symptom
s, arthralgias</>&nsp;and <>neurologic symptoms</>.
1405656097887 1395802358422 Which demographic is associated with Celiac Dise
ase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Northern Europeans}}</div>
1405656158582 1395802358422 Which 3 autoantiodies are associated with Celia
c Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-endomysial; Anti-tissue transglutamin
ase; Anti-gliadin}}</div>
1405656210799 1395802358422 Which malasorptive disorder is associated with
<>Dermatitis herpetiformis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac Disease}}</di
v>
1405656424466 1395802358422 What is the urinary excretion of D-xylose in pan
cretic insufficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
memer, <>D-xylose test gauges for intestinal mucosa defects or acterial overg
rowth.</></i></div><div><i>If mucosal function is normal, D-xylose excretion in
the urine will e normal.</i></div>
1405656647634 1395802358422 What is the most common disaccharidase deficienc
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lactase Deficiency}}</div>
1405656666574 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is seen in Lactase Deficie
ncy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Watery, osmotic diarrhea}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to lactose staying in the lumen.</i></div>
1405656727623 1395802358422 Which inflammatory owel disease is associated w
ith <>"string sign"</>&nsp;on <>arium swallow</>&nsp;due to <>owel wall
thickening</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn Disease}}</div><div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-27599459844437.jpg" /></div>
1405656879698 1395802358422 Which inflammatory owel disease involves <>non
caseating granulomas</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn Disease}}</div>
1405656931578 1395802358422 Which inflammatory owel disease is associated w
ith a Th<su>1</su>&nsp;mediated response?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn Di
sease}}</div>
1405656960772 1395802358422 Which inflammatory owel disease is associated w
ith a Th<su>2</su>&nsp;mediated response (and hence no granulomas)?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}}</div>
1405656976733 1395802358422 Which inflammatory owel disease is associated w
ith <>loody diarrhea</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}}</div
>
1405657010184 1395802358422 Which inflammatory owel disease is associated w
ith <>migratory polyarthritis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn Disease}}</
div>

1405657068247 1395802358422 Which inflammatory owel disease is associated w
ith <>primary sclerosing cholangitis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulcerative
Colitis}}</div>
1405657081175 1395802358422 Which inflammatory owel disease is associated w
ith <>kidney stones</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn Disease}}</div>
1405657091905 1395802358422 Which inflammatory owel disease is associated w
ith a <>loss of haustra</>&nsp;and a resultant <>"lead pipe"</>&nsp;appear
ance on imaging?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}}</div>
1405657198868 1395802358422 Which demographic is most commonly affected y I
rritale Bowel Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle-aged women}}</div>
1405657279586 1395802358422 What is the cause of appendicitis in adults?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ostruction y fecalith}}</div>
1405657602062 1395802358422 What is the cause of appendicitis in children?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphoid hyperplasia}}</div>
1405657618092 1395802358422 {{c1::McBurney Point}} is an anatomical landmark
found 1/3 of the distance from the ASIS to the umilicus.
<r /><div><i>Re
levant in appendicitis.</i></div>
1405657655620 1395802358422 Which type of diverticulum has <>all 3 gut laye
rs </>in the outpouch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::True}}</div>
1405657841299 1395802358422 Which type of diverticulum has <>only the mucos
a and sumucosa </>outpouch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::False}}</div>
1405657868091 1395802358422 Which area of the GI tract most commonly sees di
verticula?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sigmoid colon}}</div>
1405657886428 1395802358422 {{c1::Diverticulitis}} is a GI disorder descrie
d as <>inflammation of a diverticula</>&nsp;and classically presents with LLQ
pain, fever and leukocytosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-292401373515
07.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>May perforate causing <>peritonitis, asc
ess formation or owel stenosis</>.</i></div>
1405657989403 1395802358422 {{c1::Colovesical Fistula}} is a fistula that ca
n appear as a complication of diverticulitis and is descried as a <>fistula e
tween the colon and ladder</>.
1405658080105 1395802358422 {{c1::Zenker's Diverticulum}} is a type of esoph
ageal&nsp;<>false</>&nsp;diverticulum that involves&nsp;<>herniation of mu
cosal tissue at the Killian triangle etween the thyropharyngeal and cricopharyn
geal parts of the inferior pharyngeal constrictor</>.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-29523605193044.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div></div>
1405658192187 1395802358422 Which demographic is most commonly affected y Z
enker diverticulum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elderly males}}</div>
1405658210922 1395802358422 {{c1::Intussusception}} is a GI disorder that in
volves the telescoping of owel segments and hence presents with <>compromised
lood supply</>&nsp;and <>intermittent aodminal pain with "currant jelly" st
ool</>.
1405658335977 1395802358422 {{c1::Meckel Diverticulum}} is a <>true</>&ns
p;diverticulum that occurs due to <>persistence of the vitelline duct</>&nsp;
and may present with <>ectopic acid-secreting gastric mucosa or pancreatic tiss
ue</>.<div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
<img src="paste-30021821399393.j
pg" /><r /><div><i>Presents with <>melena, RLQ pain, intussusception, volvulus
or ostruction</>.</i></div>
1405658479047 1395802358422 What type of diverticulum is Meckel Diverticulum
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::True}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-30017
526432097.jpg" /></div>
1405658493723 1395802358422 What type of diverticulum is Zenker Diverticulum
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::False}}</div>
1405658504707 1395802358422 What is the most common congenital anomaly of th
e GI tract?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Meckel Diverticulum}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-30017526432097.jpg" /></div>
1405658527985 1395802358422 {{c1::Meckel Diverticulum}} is a GI diverticulum
that is <>2 inches long</>&nsp;and found <>2 feet from the ileocecal valve<
/>&nsp;in <>2% of the population</>.
<r /><div><img src="paste-30399
778521345.jpg" /></div>

1405658859725 1395802358422 {{c1::Hirschsprung Disease}} is a congenital GI
disorder characterized y <>megacolon due to a lack of ganglion/enteric nervous
plexuses</>&nsp;(oth Auerach and Meissner) as a result of <>failed neural
crest cell migration</>.
<r /><div><i>Typically involves the rectum.</i>
</div><div><i>Presents with <>ilious emesis, adominal distention, failure to
pass meconium in the first 48hrs of life</>&nsp;and <>chronic constipation</
>.</i></div>
1405659111789 1395802358422 Which gene mutation is associated with Hirschspr
ung Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>RET</i>}}</div>
1405659125384 1395802358422 Which chromosomal trisomy is associated with Hir
schsprung Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1405659199123 1395802358422 {{c1::Duodenal Atresia}} is a congenital duodena
l malformation that results in <>early ilious vomiting</>&nsp;and <>proxima
l stomach distention</>&nsp;with <>"doule ule"</>&nsp;on x-ray due to <
>failure of the duodenum to recanalize</>.
1405659319688 1395802358422 Which chromosomal trisomy is associated with Duo
denal Atresia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1405659332228 1395802358422 {{c1::Ileus}} is a GI disorder that involves <>
intestinal hypomotility without ostruction</>&nsp;therey resulting in <>con
stipation</>&nsp;and <>adominal distention</>.
<r /><div><i>Associated
with surgery, opiates, hypokalemia and sepsis.</i></div>
1405659417771 1395802358422 {{c1::Meconium Ileus}} is a GI disorder that inv
olves formation of a <>meconium plug</>&nsp;which ostructs the intestine, th
erey <>preventing stool passage at irth</>.
1405659455866 1395802358422 {{c1::Necrotizing Enterocolitis}} is a GI disord
er that involves <>necrosis of the intestinal mucosa and possile perforation</
<r /><div><i>The colon is usually involved ut the entire GI tract can
>.
e affected.</i></div><div><i>More common in premature aies due to decreased i
mmunity.</i></div>
1405659517239 1395802358422 Which type of polyp is more commonly associated
with malignancy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Villous}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-31795642892628.jpg" /></div>
1405659948793 1395802358422 What is the most common <>non-neoplastic polyp
in the colon</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperplastic Polyp}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>&gt; 50% found in the rectosigmoid colon.</i></div>
1405659978837 1395802358422 {{c1::Juvenile Polyposis Syndrome}} is a polypos
is syndrome seen in children that presents with <>multiple juvenile polyps</>&
nsp;and an <>increased risk of adenocarcinoma</>.
1405660059605 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>APC</i>&nsp;gene
found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5q}}</div>
1405660392120 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP)}} is
an autsomal dominant polyposis that causes colorectal cancer via the <>2-hit hy
pothesis</>&nsp;as thousands of polyps arise at a young age. <r /><div><i>Pa
ncolonic.</i></div><div><i>Always involves the rectum.</i></div>
1405660449320 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Hereditary No
npolyposis Colorectal Cancer (HNPCC; Lynch Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Autosomal dominant}}</div>
1405660539971 1395802358422 Which mechanism of DNA repair is defective in&n
sp;Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer (HNPCC; Lynch Syndrome)?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Mismatch repair}}</div>
1405660558610 1395802358422 Colorectal cancer on the&nsp;{{c1::right}} side
of the ody typically presents with leeding.
1405660591541 1395802358422 Colorectal cancer on the<>&nsp;</>{{c1::left}
} side of the ody typically presents with ostruction.
1405660610438 1395802358422 In which section of the colon does colorectal ca
ncer present as an <>exophytic mass</>&nsp;with <>iron deficiency anaemia</
>&nsp;and <>weight loss</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ascending colon}}</div
>
1405660806704 1395802358422 In which section of the colon does colorectal ca
ncer present as an <>infiltrating mass</>&nsp;with <>partial colonic ostruc

tion, colicky pain</>&nsp;and <>hematochezia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Descending colon}}</div>
1405660842608 1395802358422 Which type of GI cancer is associated with an <
>"apple core"</>&nsp;lesion on arium x-ray?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colore
ctal cancer}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-33359010988351.jpg" /><
/div>
1405660903360 1395802358422 Which tumour marker is useful for monitoring the
recurrence of colorectal cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CEA}}</div>
1405660921990 1395802358422 What gene is implicated in the most common molec
ular pathogenesis pathway of sporadic colorectal cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::APC/eta-catenin (~85%)}}</div>
1405693131296 1395802358422 {{c1::Cirrhosis}} is a liver disorder that prese
nts with <>nodularity of the liver contour</>&nsp;on CT scan <>secondary to
regenerating macronodules</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-137868450235
4.jpg" /></div>
1405693547373 1395802358422 {{c1::Fetor Hepaticus}} is a feature of liver fa
ilure that involves a <>musty reath smell</>.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-1537598292515.jpg" /></div>
1405693666624 1395802358422 {{c1::Asterixis}} is a CNS complication of liver
failure that is descried as a <>coarse hand tremor</>.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-1537598292515.jpg" /></div>
1405693705857 1395802358422 How does PT change in liver failure?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1537598292515
.jpg" /></div>
1405693737013 1395802358422 Which liver aminotransferase is elevated in <>v
iral</>&nsp;hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALT &gt; AST}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"vir<>ALT"</></i></div>
1405693820082 1395802358422 Which liver aminotransferase is elevated in <>a
lcoholic</>&nsp;hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AST &gt; ALT}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The ratio is usually &gt; 1.5:1</i></div>
1405693839515 1395802358422 Which pancreatic enzyme is used as a diagnostic
serum marker in Mumps?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amylase}}</div>
1405693870043 1395802358422 How do Ceruloplasmin levels change in Wilson Dis
ease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405693893625 1395802358422 How does gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) change
in alcohol use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405694009178 1395802358422 {{c1::gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT)}} is a he
patic serum marker that is increased in various liver and iliary diseases, <>
ut not in one disease</>.
<r /><div><i><u>This is a very important distin
guishing factor from ALP which can e elevated in all 3: liver, iliary and one
disease.</u></i></div>
1405694084294 1395802358422 Which pancreatic enzyme is the <>most specific<
/>&nsp;diagnostic serum marker in acute pancreatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Lipase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>vs. amylase</i></div>
1405694113123 1395802358422 {{c1::Alcoholic Cirrhosis}} is the final and irr
eversile form of alcoholic liver disease that presents with a <>micronodular,
irregularly shrunken liver </>with a <>"honail"</>&nsp;appearance.
1405694667384 1395802358422 Which liver aminotransferase is elevated in <>n
on-alcoholic fatty liver disease</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALT &gt; AST}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-13700945674439.jpg" /></div>
1405694804480 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepatic Encephalopathy}} is a CNS disorder
secondary to liver disease that involves <>disorientation/asterixis (mild)</>
&nsp;to <>difficult arousal/coma (severe)</>.
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-13915694039216.jpg" /></div>
1405694939866 1395802358422 Which osmotic laxative is used to treat Hepatic
Encephalopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lactulose}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-13915694039216.jpg" /></div>
1405694973279 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifaximin}} is an antiiotic used to treat
Hepatic Encephalopathy as it destroys <>ammonia-generating</>&nsp;acteria i
n the intestines.

1405695002189 1395802358422 {{c1::Reye Syndrome}} is a rare, fatal childhood
hepatoencephalopathy associated with <>aspirin use following viral infection</
>, especially VZV and Influenza B.
1405695055286 1395802358422 Which 2 viruses are associated Reye Syndrome due
to aspirin administration?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VZV and Influenza B}}</di
v>
1405695079479 1395802358422 {{c1::Reye Syndrome}} is a rare, fatal childhood
hepatoencephalopathy that results due to <>aspirin metaolites decreasing eta
-oxidation y reversile inhiition of mitochondrial enzymes</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence it presents with mitochondrial anormalities, fatty liver, hypoglyce
mia, vomiting, hepatomegaly, coma.</i></div>
1405695984428 1395802358422 What is the most common primary malignant tumour
of the liver in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular carcinoma}}</
div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-14998025797976.jpg" /></div>
1405700240246 1395802358422 Which type of Crigler-Najjar Syndrome is more se
vere?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-16355
235463941.jpg" /></div>
1405704162364 1395802358422 Which type of Crigler-Najjar Syndrome is less se
vere and responds to phenoarital which drives liver enzyme synthesis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-1635523546394
1.jpg" /></div>
1405704188595 1395802358422 Which anaemia disorder is associated with Wilson
Disease?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Hemolytic anaemia}}</div>
<r><div><img sr
c="paste-17901423690035.jpg" /></div>
1405704938290 1395802358422 Which liver disorder is also referred to as Hepa
tolenticular Degeneration?<div><r />{{c1::Wilson Disease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-17901423690035.jpg" /></div>
1405705085703 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemochromatosis}} is a disorder of iron de
position that involves a classic triad of <>micronodular <u>c</u>irrhosis, <u>d
</u>iaetes mellitus</>&nsp;and <><u></u>ronze skin colourization</>.
<r /><div><i>"BCD"</i></div>
1405705220620 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Hemochromat
osis??<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-A3}}</div>
1405705430891 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <>hereditary</>&nsp
;hemochromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Repeated phleotomy; Deferasirox; D
eferoxamine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. phleotomy and iron chelators</i></di
v>
1405705627098 1395802358422 How do cholesterol levels change in Biliary Trac
t disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1405707862163 1395802358422 How do ALP levels change in iliary tract diseas
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405707889851 1395802358422 Which kind of iliruin is elevated in iliary t
ract disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Conjugated iliruin}}</div>
1405707939033 1395802358422 {{c1::Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis}} is a ili
ary tract disease that is associated with hypergammagloulinemia (esp. with IgM)
.
1405708696570 1395802358422 What are the 4 important risk factors for Cholel
ithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-21049634717867.jpg" />}}</d
iv>
1405709110175 1395802358422 What is the Charcot triad of cholangitis?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Jaundice; Fever; RUQ pain}}</div>
1405709140398 1395802358422 {{c1::Gallstone Ileus}} is a type of ileus that
results due to a gallstone ostructing the ileocecal valve.
<r /><div><i>Ty
pically results from cholelithiasis forming a fistula etween the gallladder an
d small intestine.</i></div>
1405709607970 1395802358422 {{c1::Murphy Sign}} is a clinical feature of cho
lecystitis that involves <>arupt inspiratory arrest</>&nsp;upon palpation of
the RUQ due to pain.
1405709651710 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Acute Pancreati
tis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol; Gallstones}}</div>
<div><r /></div

><img src="paste-22973780066336.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-22960895164583
.jpg" /></div>
1405717055334 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Pancreatitis}} is a type of pancre
atitis that involves <>near complete atrophy of the pancreas</>&nsp;with resi
dual coarse calcifications.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23785528885587.
jpg" /></div>
1405717728719 1395802358422 Which section of the pancreas is more commonly a
ffeted y pancreatic tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Head of the pancreas}}<
/div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-24442658881876.jpg" /></div>
1405718019849 1395802358422 Which tumour marker is associated with pancreati
c adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CA-19-9}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Al
so CEA, which is less specific.</i></div>
1405718053345 1395802358422 Which demographic is more commonly affected with
pancreatic adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Jewish and African-Americ
an males}}</div>
1405718073186 1395802358422 {{c1::Courvoisier Sign}} is a complication of pa
ncreatic adenocarcinoma that involves ostructive jaundice with a palpale, nont
ender gallladder.
1385427739856 1358629116480 <i>Bordetella pertussis</i>&nsp;is a gram-{{c1:
:negative}} coccoacillus.<div><r /><div><img src="paste-2276332667173.jpg" /><
/div></div>
1385428302931 1358629116480 <i>Bordetella pertussis</i>&nsp;grows est on t
he&nsp;{{c1::Bordet-Gengou}} agar.
1385431620851 1358629116480 What is the function of the fimriae and pertact
in virulence factors from <i>Bordetella pertussis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Adhesion}}</div>
1385431668647 1358629116480 What is the MOA of the Pertussis toxin?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::ADP riosylation of regulatory G proteins, therey resulting
in increased [cAMP] and overactive adenylate cyclase}}</div>
1385431701414 1358629116480 What is the MOA of the Adenylate Cyclase toxin f
rom&nsp;<i>Bordetella pertussis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplasmic ade
nylyl cyclase; increases [cAMP]}}</div>
1385431732180 1358629116480 The Adenylate Cyclase toxin from&nsp;<i>Bordete
lla pertussis</i>&nsp;works to impair&nsp;{{c1::chemotaxis}} and&nsp;{{c2::H<
su>2</su>O<su>2</su>}} production in neutrophils, lymphocytes and monocytes.
1385431788963 1358629116480 What is the MOA of the Tracheal cytotoxin from&n
sp;<i>Bordetella pertussis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Destruction of cilia
ted respiratory epithelium}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Likely the cause of the wh
ooping cough</i></div>
1385431826728 1358629116480 What is the MOA of the Filamentous Hemagglutinin
(FHA) toxin from&nsp;<i>Bordetella pertussis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A
ttachment of&nsp;<i>Bordetella pertussis</i>&nsp;to respiratory epithelium}}</
div>
1385431856910 1358629116480 Coughing spells of Whooping Cough can e followe
d y&nsp;{{c1::vomiting}} and&nsp;{{c2::cyanosis}}.
1385431889056 1358629116480 Which vaccine is used to vaccinate against&nsp;
<i>Bordetella pertussis</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DTaP vaccine}}</div>
1391020119522 1358629116480 Which cells myelinate the CNS?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
1420548759570 1367090743656 <>Enzyme kinetics</><div><><r /></></div><d
iv><>Michaelis-Menten kinetics</></div><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c8::[S]}
} = {{c9::concentration of sustrate}}; {{c10::V}} = {{c11::velocity}}.</div><di
v><><r /></></div><div><><img src="paste-8053063680113.jpg" /></></div><div
><><r /></></div><div><div>{{c1::Km}} is {{c2::inversely}} related to the aff
inity of the enzyme for its sustrate.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c3::Vmax}} i
s directly proportional to the enzyme concentration.</div><div><r /></div><div>
Most enzymatic reactions follow a {{c4::hyperolic curve}} (follow Michaelis-Men
ten kinetics); however, enzymatic reactions that exhiit a {{c5::sigmoid}} curve
usually indicate {{c6::cooperative}} kinetics (i.e., {{c7::hemogloin}}).</div>
</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>

1420548934539 1367090743656 <>Enzyme Kinects</><div><><r /></></div><di
v><>{{c8::Lineweaver-Burk plot}}</></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-8216272437367.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::increase}} y-intercept,
{{c2::decrease}} V . ma</div><div><r /></div><div>The further to the {{c3::righ
t}} the x-intercept (i.e., closer to zero), the {{c4::greater}} the {{c5::Km}} a
nd the {{c6::lower}} the {{c7::affinity}}</div>
1420635247550 1367090743656 <>Enzyme inhiition</><div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-20044612370565.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Competitive inhiitors}} cross each other competitively, whereas {{c2::no
ncompetitive inhiitors}} do not.</div>
1420635347493 1367090743656 <>Pharmacokinetics vs. pharmacodynamics</><div
><><r /></></div><div><>{{c1::Pharmacokinetics}}:&nsp;</>{{c6::The effects
of the ody on the drug}}.&nsp;<>ADME:&nsp;</>{{c5::Asorption}},&nsp;{{c5
::Distriution}},&nsp;{{c5::Metaolism}}, {{c5::Excretion}}</div><div><><r />
</></div><div><>{{c2::Pharmacodynamics}}:&nsp;</>{{c3::The effects of the dr
ug on the ody}}.&nsp;Includes concepts of {{c4::receptor inding}}, {{c4::drug
efficacy}}, drug {{c4::potency}}, {{c4::toxicity}}.</div>
1420635375932 1412253438515 <img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592
a1_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_tmpqa7Nh6.png" />
1420635376053 1412253438515 <img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592
a1_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_tmpqa7Nh6.png" />
1420635376058 1412253438515 <img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592
a1_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_A_0.svg" />
<img src="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="a568d42c156a76ed7d608336d32ea245592a1_tmpqa7Nh6.png" />
1420635466069 1412253438515 <img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf
07_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_A_0.svg" />
<img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_tmpQyPlgZ.png" />
1420635466071 1412253438515 <img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf
07_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_A_0.svg" />
<img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_tmpQyPlgZ.png" />
1420635466072 1412253438515 <img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf
07_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_A_0.svg" />
<img src="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="147550523e001465a382dda2e0238c6461cf07_tmpQyPlgZ.png" />
1420635714100 1412253438515 <img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c09
1_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_tmpQyPlgZ.png" />
1420635714102 1412253438515 <img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c09
1_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_tmpQyPlgZ.png" />
1420635714103 1412253438515 <img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c09
1_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_A_0.svg" />
<img src="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="d5f70d28c579ed377c7785c5562a456af5c091_tmpQyPlgZ.png" />
1421622626809 1367090743656 <div><>{{c1::</><>Bioavailaility (F)</><div
></div>}}</div><div><><r /></></div><div><div>{{c2::Fraction of administered
drug that reaches systemic circulation unchanged.}}</div><div><r /></div><div>F
or an <>{{c6::IV dose}}</>, F = {{c3::100}}%.</div><div><r /></div><div><>Or
ally</>: F typically {{c4::&lt;100}}% due to {{c5::incomplete asorption and fi
rst-pass metaolism.}}</div></div>
1421623058769 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Volume of distriution&nsp;(Vd)}}</><

div><><r /></></div><div>Theoretical volume occupied y {{c4::the total asor
ed drug amount at the plasma concentration.&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div>
Apparent Vd of plasma protein–ound drugs can e altered y {{c5::liver}} and {{c5
::kidney}} disease ({{c3::decreasing}} protein inding, {{c2::increases}} Vd). D
rugs may distriute in more than one compartment.</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c
6::Vd}} = {{c7::amount of drug in the ody}} / {{c8::plasma drug concentration}}
</div>
1421623163778 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Half-life (t1/2)}}</><div><><r /></
></div><div>{{c6::The time required to change the amount of drug in the ody y
1⁄2 during elimination (or constant infusion).&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div>
Property of {{c7::first}}-order elimination. A drug infused at a constant rate t
akes {{c8::4–5}} half-lives to reach {{c9::steady state}}. It takes {{c10::3.3}} h
alf-lives to reach {{c11::90}}% of the steady-state level.</div><div><r /></div
><div>{{c2::t1/2}} = {{c3::0.693}} × {{c5::Vd}} / {{c4::CL}}</div><div><r /></div
><div><r /></div>
1421623263498 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623263588 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623263589 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623263591 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623263592 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623263594 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623263595 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623263596 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623263597 1412253438515 <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0
af_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_A_0.svg" />
<img src="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7ffc61aa8408a49edf996762825311090c9a0af_tmp36MOt.png" />
1421623372726 1367090743656 <>{{c1::Clearance (CL)}}</><div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c2::The volume of plasma cleared of drug per unit time}}.&nsp;</div><div><
r /></div><div>Clearance may e impaired with defects in {{c3::cardiac}}, {{c3:
:hepatic}}, or {{c3::renal function}}.</div><div><r /></div><div>CL = {{c4::rat
e of elimination of drug}} / {{c5::plasma drug concentration}} =&nsp;{{c6::Vd}}
× {{c7::Ke (elimination constant)}}</div>
1421623414237 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src

="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414240 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414241 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414242 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414243 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414244 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414246 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623414258 1412253438515 <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184
f_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_A_0.svg" />
<img src="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c61fd84017431676a8dc580c11e2a69df4184f_tmpQ05qHj.png" />
1421623519455 1367090743656 <>Dosage calculations</><div><r /></div><div>
{{c2::Loading dose}} = {{c6::Cp}} × {{c5::Vd}} / {{c4::F}}</div><div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Maintenance dose}} = {{c3::Cp × CL × τ / F}}</div><div><br /></div><div><div
>Cp = are plasma concenraion a seady sae&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><d
iv>τ = dosae inerval (ime beween doses), if no</div><div>adminisered coninu
ously</div></div><div><br /></div><div><b>Noe</b>:&nbsp;In renal or liver disea
se, mainenance dose {{c7::decreases}} and loadin dose is usually {{c8::unchan
ed}}.</div><div><br /></div><div>Time o seady sae depends primarily on {{c9:
:1/2}} and is independen of dose and dosin fre uency.</div>
1421623675232 1367090743656 <b>Eliminaion of drus</b><div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Zero}}-order eliminaion</div><div><br /></div><div>Rae of eliminaion i
s {{c2::consan reardless of Cp (i.e., consan amoun of dru eliminaed per
uni ime).&nbsp;}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Cp decreases {{c3::linearly}} wi
h ime.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Examples of drus—{{c4::Phenyoin}}, {{c5
::Ehanol}}, and {{c6::Aspirin (a hih or oxic concenraions).}}</div><div><b
r /></div><div><div><br /></div></div> <div>Capaciy-limied eliminaion.</div>
<div><b>PEA.</b> (A pea is round, shaped like he “0” in</div><div>“zero-order.”)</div>
1421623776874 1367090743656 <b>Eliminaion of drus</b><div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Firs}}-order eliminaion</div><div><br /></div><div>Rae of eliminaion
is {{c2::direcly proporional o he dru concenraion (i.e., consan fracio
n of dru eliminaed per uni ime).}}&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Cp {{c3:
:decreases}} exponenially wih ime.</div><div><br /></div>
Flow-dependen e
liminaion.
1421623845426 1367090743656 <b>Urine pH &amp; dru eliminaion</b><div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Ionized}} species are rapped in {{c2::urine}} and cleared ui
ckly. {{c3::Neural}} forms can be {{c4::reabsorbed}}.</div><div><br /></div>
1421623916363 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916481 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0

96_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916482 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_2.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916483 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_3.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916527 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_4.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916529 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_5.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916530 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_6.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623916532 1412253438515 <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd0
96_Q_7.sv" /> <im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_A_0.sv" />
<im src="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="e7edb7da40545e0a39c26bffbee968e55d3bd096_mpJOuTPw.pn" />
1421623954582 1367090743656 <div><b>Urine pH &amp; Dru eliminaion-</b>Ioni
zed species are rapped in urine and cleared uickly. Neural forms can be reabs
orbed.</div><div><br /></div><b>Weak {{c1::acids}}</b><div><br /></div><div><b>E
xamples</b>: {{c2::phenobarbial}}, {{c3::mehorexae}}, {{c4::aspirin}}.&nbsp;
</div><div><br /></div><div>Trapped in {{c5::basic}} environmens.&nbsp;</div><d
iv><br /></div><div>Trea overdose wih {{c6::bicarbonae}}.</div>
1421624020204 1367090743656 <b>Urine pH &amp; Dru eliminaion-</b>Ionized s
pecies are rapped in urine and cleared uickly. Neural forms can be reabsorbed
.<div><br /></div><div><b>Weak {{c1::bases}}</b></div><div><br /></div><div>Exam
ple: {{c2::ampheamines}}. Trapped in {{c3::acidic}} environmens.&nbsp;</div><d
iv><br /></div><div>Trea overdose wih {{c4::ammonium chloride}}.</div>
1421624061812 1367090743656 <b>Dru meabolism</b><div><b><br /></b></div><d
iv><b>{{c19::Phase I}}-</b>{{c12::Reducion}}, {{c13::oxidaion}}, {{c14::hydrol
ysis}} wih {{c15::cyochrome P-450}} usually yield {{c16::slihly polar}}, {{c
17::waer}}-soluble meabolies (ofen sill {{c18::acive}}).</div><div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Geriaric}} paiens lose {{c2::phase I}} firs.</div><div><b><b
r /></b></div><div><b>{{c20::Phase II}}-</b>{{c11::Conjuaion}} ({{c7::Glucuron
idaion}}, {{c7::Aceylaion}}, {{c7::Sulfaion}}) usually yields very {{c8::pol
ar}}, {{c9::inacive}} meabolies ({{c10::renally}} excreed).</div><div><br />
</div><div><div>Geriaric paiens have GAS (phase {{c3::II}}).</div><div>Paien
s who are slow {{c4::aceylaors}} have reaer&nbsp;{{c5::</div><div>side&nbsp
;effecs}}&nbsp;from cerain drus because of {{c6::decreased}} rae of meaboli
sm.</div></div>
1421624179783 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179785 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179787 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_2.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />

<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179789 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_3.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179790 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_4.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179792 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_5.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179793 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_6.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624179795 1412253438515 <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578
ef_Q_7.sv" /> <im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_A_0.sv" />
<im src="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="c30d9c3657cdddc0518d33a6b2db1b79852578ef_mpCzhYXn.pn" />
1421624319840 1367090743656 <b>Efficacy vs. poency</b><div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Efficacy}}-{{c3::Maximal}} effec a dru can produce. Hih-efficacy dru
classes are {{c4::analesic (pain) medicaions}}, {{c5::anibioics}}, {{c7::an
ihisamines}}, and {{c6::deconesans}}. Parial aoniss have {{c8::less}} eff
icacy han full&nbsp; aoniss.</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c2::Poency}}-Amoun o
f dru needed for {{c9::a iven effec}}. {{c10::increase}} poency, {{c11::incr
ease}} affiniy for recepor. Hihly poen dru classes include {{c12::chemohe
rapeuic (cancer) drus}}, {{c13::anihyperensive (blood pressure) drus}}, and
{{c14::&nbsp;lipid-lowerin (choleserol) drus.}}</div>
1421624505381 1367090743656 <b>{{c8::Therapeuic index}}</b><div><br /></div
><div>Measuremen of {{c1::dru safey}}</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c7::TD50}}
/{{c6::ED50}} = {{c4::median oxic dose}}/{{c5::median effecive dose}}</div><di
v><br /></div><div>{{c3::Therapeuic window}}-measure of {{c2::clinical dru eff
eciveness for a paien}}</div><div><br /></div><div><div>TITE: Therapeuic Ind
ex = TD50 / ED50. Safer drus have {{c9::hiher}} TI values.&nbsp;</div><div><br
/></div><div>Examples&nbsp;of drus wih {{c11::low}} TI values include {{c10::
dioxin}},</div><div>{{c12::lihium}}, {{c13::heophylline}}, and {{c14::warfari
n}}.</div><div><br /></div><div>LD50 (lehal median dose) ofen replaces TD50</d
iv><div>in animal sudies.</div></div>
1421624599457 1412253438515 <im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a87
25_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_A_0.sv" />
<im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_mpaFfMrH.pn" />
1421624599460 1412253438515 <im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a87
25_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_A_0.sv" />
<im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_mpaFfMrH.pn" />
1421624599463 1412253438515 <im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a87
25_Q_2.sv" /> <im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_A_0.sv" />
<im src="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="632de64995122466428caff40a85f51af00a8725_mpaFfMrH.pn" />
1421624835386 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835390 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src

="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835392 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_2.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835394 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_3.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835396 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_4.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835429 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_5.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835431 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_6.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835432 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_7.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835433 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_8.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835435 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_9.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835437 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_10.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835438 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_11.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835440 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_12.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835441 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_13.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835442 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_14.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835443 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_15.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835444 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_16.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src

="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835445 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_17.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835446 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_18.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835447 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_19.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835448 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_20.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835449 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_21.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835450 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_22.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835451 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_23.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835452 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_24.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835453 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_25.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835454 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_26.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624835455 1412253438515 <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d7067
57_Q_27.sv" /> <im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_A_0.sv" />
<im src="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="ba50b88ed7fe05d85eae9965a23aea353d706757_mp8XsiSs.pn" />
1421624978660 1367090743656 <b>{{c1::Ach}} recepors</b><div><b><br /></b></
div><div><div syle="fon-weih: bold; "><br /></div><div>{{c2::Nicoinic}} ACh
recepors are {{c3::liand}}-aed {{c4::Na+/K+}} channels; NN (found in {{c5::
auonomic anlia}}) and NM (found in {{c6::neuromuscular juncion}}) subypes.<
/div><div><br /></div><div>{{c7::Muscarinic}} ACh recepors are {{c8::G-proein–co
upled}} recepors ha usually ac hrouh {{c9::2nd messeners}}; 5 subypes: {
{c10::M1, M2, M3, M4, and M5.}}</div></div>
1421625033640 1412253438515 <im src="2dfd48c0b86baaaa60bfa50b70074ef857b70a
60_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="2dfd48c0b86baaaa60bfa50b70074ef857b70a60_A_0.sv" />
<im src="2dfd48c0b86baaaa60bfa50b70074ef857b70a60_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="2dfd48c0b86baaaa60bfa50b70074ef857b70a60_mpvjNemE.pn" />
1421625033643 1412253438515 <im src="2dfd48c0b86baaaa60bfa50b70074ef857b70a
60_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="2dfd48c0b86baaaa60bfa50b70074ef857b70a60_A_0.sv" />
<im src="2dfd48c0b86baaaa60bfa50b70074ef857b70a60_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="2dfd48c0b86baaaa60bfa50b70074ef857b70a60_mpvjNemE.pn" />

1421625302032 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302653 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302655 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_2.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302656 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_3.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302683 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_4.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302684 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_5.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302685 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_6.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302687 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_7.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302688 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_8.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302689 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_9.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302690 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_10.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302691 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_11.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302692 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_12.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302693 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_13.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302695 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_14.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />

1421625302697 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_15.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302699 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_16.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302700 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_17.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302701 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_18.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625302702 1412253438515 <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1
d9_Q_19.sv" /> <im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="3d75c261497317c119306c174c1142ffa4e3b1d9_mpEY0rso.pn" />
1421625393787 1367090743656 <b>Cholineserase inhibior poisonin</b><div><b
><br /></b></div><div>Ofen due o {{c1::oranophosphaes}}, such as {{c2::para
hion}}, ha irreversibly inhibi {{c3::AChE}}.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div
>Causes {{c4::Diarrhea}}, {{c5::Urinaion}}, {{c6::Miosis}}, {{c7::Bronchospasm}
}, {{c8::Bradycardia}}, Exciaion of {{c9::skeleal muscle}} and {{c10::CNS, La
crimaion, Sweain, and Salivaion.}}</div><div><br /></div><div><div>DUMBBELSS
.</div><div>Oranophosphaes are componens of</div><div>{{c11::insecicides}};
poisonin usually seen in {{c12::farmers}}.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div><b>
Anidoe</b>—{{c13::aropine}} (acs as {{c14::compeiive inhibior}}) +</div><di
v>{{c15::pralidoxime}} (reeneraes {{c16::AChE}} if iven early).</div></div>
1421625556643 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_0.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_mpbmkH4V.pn" />
1421625556646 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_1.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_mpbmkH4V.pn" />
1421625556647 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_2.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_mpbmkH4V.pn" />
1421625556648 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_3.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_mpbmkH4V.pn" />
1421625556649 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_4.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_mpbmkH4V.pn" />
1421625556650 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_5.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_mpbmkH4V.pn" />
1421625556651 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_6.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_mpbmkH4V.pn" />
1421625556652 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_7.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />

<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_mpbmkH4V.pn" />
1421625556653 1412253438515 <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf23
1b_Q_8.sv" /> <im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_A_0.sv" />
<im src="6379aeb8adb5ffa11a5c8953b211582627bf231b_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421626010428 1412253438515 <im src="3116e987d8cdbd09d0b3336d9762cfc1af4ddb
aa_Q_32.sv" /> <im src="3116e987d8cdbd09d0b3336d9762cfc1af4ddbaa_A_0.sv" />
<im src="3116e987d8cdbd09d0b3336d9762cfc1af4ddbaa_source_sv.sv" /> <im src
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1421626127638 1367090743656 <b>Norepinephrine vs. isoproerenol</b><div><b><
br /></b></div><div><b><br /></b><div>Norepinephrine causes {{c1::increase}} in
sysolic and diasolic pressures as a resul of α1-medited vsoconstriction leds
to {{c2::increse}} in men rteril pressure leding to {{c3::brdycrdi}}.&n
bsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>However, isoproterenol (no longer commonly used)
hs little {{c4::α}} effect but cuses β2-mediated {{c5::vasodilation}}, resulting
in {{c6::decreased}} mean arterial pressure and {{c7::increased}} heart rate thr
ough {{c8::β1}} and reflex activity.</div><div><r /></div></div>
1421626241396 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241398 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />

<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241400 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_2.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241401 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_3.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241403 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_4.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241404 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_5.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241405 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_6.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241407 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_7.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241408 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_8.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241409 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_9.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241410 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_10.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241411 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_11.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241434 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_12.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241436 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_13.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
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1421626241437 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_14.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241438 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_15.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241439 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_16.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />

<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241441 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_17.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241442 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_18.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241443 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_19.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241444 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_20.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241445 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_21.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241446 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_22.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626241447 1412253438515 <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395fec
cd_Q_23.svg" /> <img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_A_0.svg" />
<img src="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e0ff73676e10166616a145940cd58c6395feccd_tmp7vcfNs.png" />
1421626368628 1412253438515 <img src="f33cce9d2ffa040514a600914dd741ac451
50_Q_0.svg" /> <img src="f33cce9d2ffa040514a600914dd741ac45150_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f33cce9d2ffa040514a600914dd741ac45150_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f33cce9d2ffa040514a600914dd741ac45150_tmptIVnTg.png" />
1421626368663 1412253438515 <img src="f33cce9d2ffa040514a600914dd741ac451
50_Q_1.svg" /> <img src="f33cce9d2ffa040514a600914dd741ac45150_A_0.svg" />
<img src="f33cce9d2ffa040514a600914dd741ac45150_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f33cce9d2ffa040514a600914dd741ac45150_tmptIVnTg.png" />
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1421628199641 1412253438515 <img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d
57_Q_18.svg" /> <img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d57_A_0.svg" />

<img src="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d57_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9755f3dead14e2e1e628772a3579908154822d57_tmptWp8Km.png" />
1401145902833 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein moves materi
al <>throughout the Golgi</>&nsp;(i.e. is <i>trans</i>-Golgi)?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Clathrin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" />
</div>
1385425559088 1358629116480 What stain is needed to visualize <i>Legionella
pneumophila</i>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1146756268514.jpg" /></div
><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gimenez stain}}</div>