E-Sri Lanka: bridging the digital divide

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E-Sri Lanka: bridging the digital divide
Premila Gamage
Institute of Policy Studies, Colombo, Sri Lanka, and

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Received 26 September 2006 Revised 18 October 2006 Accepted 26 October 2006

Edward F. Halpin
Leslie Silver International Faculty, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, UK
Abstract
Purpose – The overall aim of this study is to examine the impact of e-Sri Lanka’s Telecentre Development Programme in bridging the digital divide. Design/methodology/approach – A survey research method was used in the study to collect qualitative and quantitative data from actual and potential Telecentre users in relevant communities. The study was carried out through a survey. The primary sample comprised of 30 percent of the Telecentres. The secondary sample included users and potential users around the Telecentres. The total number of users and potential users was 338. The study was conducted from early January 2005 to the of end February 2006. Findings – The survey data disclosed that still only a small percentage of the total population are aware of Telecentres and use the facilities offered by them. The crucial factor affecting usage is language. According to the majority of respondents, as they understand only native languages they have not benefited from services such as like the internet and e-mail. The content or the information that can be offered through Telecentres plays a pivotal role in this regard. Out of the 70 percent of rural population, the majority are not familiar with the English language. Therefore, Sinhala- and Tamil-speaking people are disadvantaged. The survey data confirms that all Telecentres are highly (100 per cent) dependent on subsidies provided by ICTA. Hence, the sustainability of Telecentres is questionable at present. Research limitations/implications – The Telecentres situated in the North East region had to be excluded from the study due to the resumption of hostilities between the Government of Sri Lanka and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), and a corresponding lack of access and security in the region. The North East Province contains 9.84 per cent of Telecentres set up under the project. Practical implications – The findings of the study will help policy makers, decision makers and donors to properly address the key issues such as connectivity, accessibility, content and services, sustainability, skills development, partnerships with stakeholders and the needs of disadvantaged groups. Further, the problems and successes identified by the study will be useful for policy and decision makers to ensure the sustainability of the Telecentres and how the e-Sri Lanka initiative and especially the 1,000 Telecentre project could be used to narrow the digital divide in Sri Lanka. Originality/value – This will be the first in-depth study on the Telecentres, which are one of the major components of the government’s e-Sri Lanka initiative. The findings and methods used to analyse the data will be relevant to future studies of community-based ICT initiatives and the broader areas of information-seeking, information-seeking behaviour, and user needs. Keywords Telecommunications, Communication technologies, Sri Lanka, Information management Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction The digital divide is a global phenomenon. In the 1990s the term “digital divide” was used to describe the perceived growing gap between those who have access to and the

The Electronic Library Vol. 25 No. 6, 2007 pp. 693-710 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0264-0473 DOI 10.1108/02640470710837128

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skills to use ICT and those who have limited or no access due to various socioeconomic and/or geographical reasons. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) uses “digital divide” to refer to the gap between those who are able to benefit from the new information and communications technology (ICT) and those who are not (see www. itu.int/ITU-D/digitaldivide/). According to the ITU it is not a matter of who has direct access to ICT but who is actually helped or benefited by ICT. Several studies and reports have revealed that the key factor in closing or bridging the divide is not merely providing “access”. Today, more and more scholars and policy makers acknowledge that the digital divide is a social problem which is linked to social systems and communication technologies. Technological disparity lies not only in the access to hardware and software, but also in differences in availability of services, awareness and mastery of new technologies, and the opportunity to learn and use new media (Kai, 2001). Norris (2003) too outlines many factors that may have contributed towards the digital divide, including the structure of opportunities provided by the public policies within each country, such as public and private initiatives towards IT education and training, investment in science and technology, the costs of ISP services, and the regulation of telecommunications and cultural attitudes towards using computers (Norris, 2003). Norris further described the concept of the “digital divide” as a multidimensional phenomenon encompassing the three distinct aspects of global divide, social divide and democratic divide (Norris, 2003). It is clear that in general the digital divide has a connection with basic socioeconomic variables, such as income, age, gender and educational attainment, which are variables in ICT usage. Gartner’s report on the digital divide and American society examined the gap between the technologically destitute and wired citizens across the USA in 2000. According to this survey on the digital divide, socioeconomic status is a good parameter to evaluate one’s likelihood to gain access to the internet and associated benefits (Gartner Group, 2000). The annual official report on Americans’ access to ICT tools entitled “Falling through the Net” (National Telecommunications and Information Administration, 1999), also gives an objective account of digital disparities in the USA through a socioeconomic analysis. Today, governments worldwide regard the digital divide as a top priority issue. The United Nations and other development organisations have taken steps to work cooperatively with developing countries to build digital opportunities in order to foster sustainable human development and reduce poverty. The World Bank, UNDP and UNESCO consider providing telecommunications and other ICT infrastructure to be of vital importance. Many developed as well as developing countries, with the support of the private and non-profit sectors, have already taken different initiatives to bridge technological disparities. The World Bank, in their 1998 report, emphasised the importance of telecentres as “a powerful engine of rural development and a preferred instrument in the fight against poverty” (World Bank, 1998). However, as pointed out in the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (2002) theme report, the most critical challenge is how to effectively and efficiently expand ICT accessibility in rural areas and develop appropriate pro-poor content so that rural disadvantaged communities will be able to benefit from ICTs.

A number of telecentre initiatives have been introduced in developing communities throughout the world, namely Suriname, South Africa, India, Mozambique, Uganda, The Philippines, Egypt, Ghana, Mali, Bhutan, Benin, Honduras, Tanzania, Mexico, Brazil, Hungary, Estonia, Romania, Haiti, Maldives, Vietnam and Sri Lanka (Oestmann and Dymond, 2001). There is a network of 150 telecentres in Tamil Nadu, India. These privately owned franchises provide internet and information services. The main focus is on providing telecommuting jobs in over 50 fields (writing, translating, computer technical, data entry) and each telecentre has provided around 50 jobs (Joseph, 1999). Akshya, Bhoomi, Community Information Centre, Digital Gangetic Plain, e-Chaupal, rural e-Seva, Gyandoot, n-Logue, Tarahaat and Swaminathan Information Village Centres are among the other major Indian initiatives. (Keniston and Kumar, 2003; Kumar, 2001; Manohar, 2005). However, Senthilkumaran (2003) reports that except for a very few projects like the Swaminathan Information Village Centres, most telecentres have failed to achieve the desired results. In Africa, community telecentres were started in 1998 with the Acacia Initiative, which was launched by the IDRC. Acacia’s vision was to target disadvantaged and rural communities who were isolated from information and communication technologies. Therefore, the Acacia project aims to empower sub-Saharan African communities with the ability to apply information and communication technologies to their own social and economic development. There were around 35 telecentres in seven Sub-Saharan Africa initiated by Acacia by the end of 2001 (Etta and Parvyn-Wamahiu, 2002). There are two main types of telecentres in Africa: (1) smaller demand-driven telecentres; and (2) supported multi-purpose telecentres. Donor agencies such as ITU, IDRC and UNESCO have funded a number of telecentres in Mali, Uganda, Tanzania and Mozambique (Jensen, 1998). Based on visits to telecentres in Zambia, Tanzania, Egypt and Tunisia in late 1999, Sibthorpe (2000) reported that some of the centres were very well used while some centres in Egypt were still waiting for a phone line. Further, she reported that economic sustainability was a question with all centres. Many Latin American governments too have set up telecentres in an attempt to narrow the digital divide within their societies. The Peruvian Scientific Network (RCP) has established telecentres to provide access to computers and the internet. RCP uses a franchise model, with three different levels. This network develops information such as health and education, and business opportunities for all the telecentres in the network to use. As this is a very successful initiative, El-Salvador has invited RCP to set up a ´ network in their country (Marquez, 2003). Jorge (2002) emphasised that in order to have sustainable telecentres, it is essential to develop and promote the necessary support systems and appropriate policies such as ensuring gender equity in the implementation process, promoting a pricing policy that favours discounts/subsidies for community telecentres’ services, and financial incentives that promote investment where it is most needed. She further emphasised that, if policy makers want to contribute to universal access in their respective countries, they should focus on the demands and needs of their rural and semi-urban communities, and then telecentres are an option worth investing in.

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2. Position of Sri Lanka Despite 20 years of civil war, Sri Lanka maintains high educational and health standards due to the accent on welfare expenditure. Although its current GDP per capita is US$ 1,031 (Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2005), it leads the South Asian region in many socioeconomic indicators. Table I shows different socioeconomic indicators for Sri Lanka, which is remarkable for a developing country, while Table II shows the developments Sri Lanka has made on the socioeconomic front. Although Sri Lanka leads the South Asian region with its high literacy rate of 91 per cent and national health indicators, computer literacy indicators are not remarkable. 2.1 Status of information and communication technology (ICT) The significant advances and changes in the telecommunications sector in Sri Lanka since 1977 include the introduction of Sri Lanka Telecom (SLT) in 1991, the establishment of the Council for Information Technology (CINTEC) in 1984, the establishment of the Telecommunications Regulatory Commission of Sri Lanka (TRCSL) in 1996, the introduction of the ICT Act in 2003 and the establishment of the Information and Communication Technology Agency of Sri Lanka (ICTA), again in 2003. However, in spite of these measures, the growth of ICT in Sri Lanka has been slow and uneven and concentrated mainly in urban areas.
High human development 78.0 – 91 0.895 9 88.9 80.0 Middle human development 67.2 79.4 66 0.718 46 73.7 64.6 Low human development 46.0 57.5 46 0.486 108 37.5 34.6 South Sri Asia Lanka 63.4 58.9 74.0 90.4

Indicator Life expectancy at birth (years) Adult literacy rate (per cent) Gross school enrolment ratio (per cent) Human development index Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) Females not expected to survive until age 60 (percent) Males not expected to survive until age 60 (percent)

56 69 0.628 0.751 66 67.1 60.0 13 85.6 76.1

Table I. Selected socioeconomic indicators for Sri Lanka with comparison

Note: The closest to the relevant indicator for Sri Lanka is given in italics Source: UNDP Human Development Report (2005)

Indicator Population living below US$1 per day People who have access to safe drinking water Households with electricity Average area served by a school Primary net enrolment ratio (2002) Sources: Central Bank of Sri Lanka (2004), UNDP Human Development Report (2005)

Percentage 7.6 71.5 73 6 97.2

Table II. Selected socioeconomic indicators for Sri Lanka

2.2 Status of computer literacy Table III illustrates some key statistics of the study conducted by the Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka in 2004 to assess the computer literacy of the household population in the age group 5-69 years and the extent of computer use. The study revealed that the percentage of households having computers in Sri Lanka is 3.8 per cent, with a large proportion confined to the Western Province and the district of Colombo (Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka, 2004). As illustrated in Figures 1 and 2, the Western Province reported the highest computer literacy rate of 15.3 per cent, and the lowest percentage of (5 per cent) was reported from Uva and North Central provinces. This study very clearly reflects the digital divide that exists within Sri Lanka and a significantly unequal level of access to ICT. Most significantly the vast majority of rural communities in Sri Lanka, which comprises over 70 per cent of the total population, do not presently have access to ICT and for that same reason do not reap the benefits of ICT. In 2004, a report by the UNDP also confirmed the importance of the rural sector in developing ICT in Sri Lanka (United Nations Development Programme, 2004). 2.3 e-Sri Lanka initiative The flagship ICT programme of the Government of Sri Lanka, known as the e-Sri Lanka initiative, was launched in 2002 (Government of Sri Lanka, 2002). Partially funded by a US$53 million loan (World Bank, 2004) by the International Development Association (IDA), the World Bank’s concessionary lending affiliate, the e-Sri Lanka initiative focuses on the use of IT to improve governance, reduce poverty and improve

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Indicator Computer literacy (percentage of household population in the age group 5-69 who can use computers) Households having computers (national) Households having computers (urban sector) Households having computers (rural sector) Households having computers (estate sector) Households having e-mail facility Households having internet facility Households having computers which had been bought within the 24 months prior to the survey Households having computers and using them for less than ten hours per week Households having computers and experiencing faults during the three months prior to the survey Households without computers and strongly feeling the need to have one Household population in the age group of 5-69 years, who are aware about computers and their applications Household population in the age group 5-69 years who can use e-mail on their own Household population in the age group 5-69 years who can use the internet on their own Source: Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka (2004)

Percentage 9.7 3.8 10.5 3.1 0.3 0.9 0.7 44.2 53.3 26.6 36.1 18.2 2.8 2.6 Table III. Key statistics on computer literacy, use of home computers, e-mail and internet services in Sri Lanka, 2004

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Figure 1. Computer literacy of household population

the quality of life of all Sri Lankans. The ICT Development Roadmap (Ministry of Economic Reforms, Science and Technology, 2003) was launched in 2002. The objective of this roadmap is to take the dividends of ICT to every village, citizen and business and also transform the way the Government works. There are five key programmes within e-Sri Lanka: (1) modernising government and delivering citizen services; (2) leveraging ICT through public-private partnerships; (3) developing ICT human resources; (4) building implementation capacity; and (5) establishing a national information infrastructure The Sri Lanka Information and Communication Technology Agency (ICTA) is the lead agency for coordinating and overseeing these e-Sri Lanka programmes. It is clearly stated in the Roadmap that in order to use of ICT as a key lever for economic and social development, telecentres and other forms of public access to information and communication services will be established in the future. As a result, e-Sri Lanka’s Telecentre Development Programme (TDP), which is called “Global Knowledge Centres” (GKCs) was launched in 2004. This is a long-term plan to connect every village in Sri Lanka to the internet. The TDP is expected to produce the following benefits for the residents of small rural communities, who are the predominant target group:

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Figure 2. Computer literacy of Sri Lanka by district, 2004

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availability of affordable basic communication services, office services and community information in rural and disadvantaged areas; enhanced access and quality of social services; access to private sector services online; e-commerce and information on employment and opportunities for improved entrepreneurship; mobilisation of local knowledge and support to local industry development; empowerment of target groups through community driven development (Information and Communication Technology Agency, 2004a).

Out of planned 100 centres in 2004, only six centres had been set up by June 2004. 2.4 Establishment of 1,000 Telecentres or “Nanasalas” ICTA has incorporated GKCs under the “Nanasala” label to introduce several models of telecentres to be established in all parts of Sri-Lanka to spread ICT services to the rural and semi-urban population (Information and Communication Technology Agency, 2004b). The aim of the project is to meet the infrastructure requirements in order to address the information and communication needs of rural areas in all parts of the country through the establishment of Nanasalas, and the provision of ICT-based services. As stated in the project, ICTA aimed at establishing four types of Nanasala, depending on the complexity and the type of services that will be offered (Information and Communication Technology Agency, 2004b): (1) Nanasala: Rural Knowledge Centres (RKCs) – entrepreneurial model; (2) e-Library Nanasala – community model; (3) Distance & e-Learning Centres (DeLs); and (4) Tsunami Camp Nanasala. The objectives of the Nanasala (RKCs) programme is to establish multi-service community information centres which provide access to the internet, e-mail, telephones, fax, photocopy, computer training classes and other ICT services as well to act as a hub of local, national and global information resources to provide a catalytic effect for rural communities in poverty reduction, social and economic development and peace building while aiming at providing these services in a long-term, sustainable manner. In Phase One it was estimated that 100 centres would be created in the South and North East region, which have little or no access to ICT. These centres follow an entrepreneur-owned model, where eligible owners who reside within the community can apply and are selected in a transparent and competitive evaluation process, and are given intensive training in how to run a sustainable Telecentre for the benefit of the owner as well as the local community. e-Library is a smaller version of the RKCs but follows a community model where some services are provided free with a few paid services to maintain the sustainability of the centre. These centres have telephones and computers with high-speed internet to access national, international and local information. Computer-based training (CBT) media are available to use off-line in Sinhala, Tamil and English. There is also a large

e-library of books and periodicals for the use of students of all ages. These centres are in the process of being established in the centre of villages, mainly in places of worship, public libraries and community centers. IT-trained clergy will also be used as instructors. Eight hundred of these Nanasala e-Libraries will be opened within the next two to three years. There were around 150 Nanasalas (RKCs) and e-libraries open by the end of 2005, predominately within the deep South and North East regions of Sri Lanka. Distance and e-learning centres will have all infrastructure facilities such as a video conferencing room, a multimedia computer laboratory and a playback room. The overall objective of the DeL Centre project is to provide new information sharing and learning opportunities to a large spectrum of users in the country. In order to provide ICT facilities for tsunami victims, ICTA established small computer kiosks or Nanasalas in welfare camps where people who have been displaced due to the tsunami reside. This programme is intended to provide much needed information on health, education, and other relevant content in local languages and to create a database of information on residents. All services to the camp residents are provided free of charge. 3. Study objectives and methodology The study had four basic objectives: (1) to examine the impact of Nanasalas (RKC and e-Library models) in bridging the digital divide; (2) to identify the nature of services provided by Nanasalas; (3) to identify the problems encounter when operating Nanasalas; and (4) to evaluate the sustainability of Nanasalas in the long term. 3.1 Methodology A survey research method was applied for the study and included both qualitative and quantitative methods to gather data from actual and potential Nanasala users in communities. These methods included focus group discussions, naturalistic or realistic observations, key-informant interviews, user interviews, and document analysis. To gather the data interviews were conducted on site, and were supported by observations, which were useful in filling gaps so that associated problems could be studied. 3.2 Sample The study was carried out through a survey of a selected number of Nanasalas that belong to teh RKC and e-Library models. As ICTA holds total responsibility for the implementation and overseeing of the Nanasala network in the country its documentation was evaluated as the primary mechanism to identify the population of the study. The ICTA documentation indicates that at 150 centres had been established and were in operation at the end of 31 December 2005 (Information and Communication Technology Agency, 2004c). However, at the time of survey it was revealed that three centres had not been opened even though equipment had been provided to set them up. A non-probability sampling method was applied to the total

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population. Two types of sample were used. The primary sample comprised of the Nanasalas situated in Colombo, Galle, Matara, Hambantota, Monaragala, Ratnapura, Kegalle and Kandy districts. The research sample of the study was 42 Nanasalas (30 per cent) of the total population, representing a good cross-section. Except for Colombo, the above locations were selected as the largest number of rural population is covered by these locations. The secondary sample included users and potential users around the Nanasalas. The total number of users and potential users was 338. The study was conducted from early January 2005 to the end of February 2006. 3.3 Limitations of the study The Nanasalas situated in the North East region had to be excluded from the study due to the resumption of hostilities between the Government of Sri Lanka and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), and a corresponding lack of access and security in the region. The North East Province contains 9.84 per cent of Telecentres set up under the project. Some respondents discussed frankly the various problems they encountered on the condition that the anonymity of the institutions and the respondents was maintained. This was a frequently encountered request which has been honoured throughout this study. 3.4 Research issues With some modifications and changes, the format of this study is mainly based on a similar study done in Africa (Etta and Parvyn-Wamahiu, 2002). The study addressed three major issues and corresponding specific questions: (1) access; (2) relevance (utility and usefulness of services and the suitability of contents and applications to community needs); and (3) management and sustainability The following research questions formed the basis of the investigations:
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What is the nature of access to ICTs within the Nanasalas? How relevant (i.e. useful and appropriate) are the services, content and applications offered or available at the Nanasalas to community members and how well do they (services, content and applications) meet community needs? How the management is going to contribute to the sustainability of Nanasalas after phasing out of subsidies?

4. Key findings 4.1 Access 4.1.1 Usage. More than 90 per cent of Nanasala users are youths and adults younger than 35 years of age. Students and school-leavers are among them. Around four to five Nanasalas in the sample get tourists as their users. The data analysed suggests that the majority of users are disadvantaged on the basis of education, literacy level and social status. The majority of the Nanasalas get around four to 12 visitors per day. The

centres that offer free use through student voucher schemes receive 15-40 visitors daily. A small percentage of users made more than one visit per day. The most active or frequent users belong to the 12-25 age group. Compared to males, female users are slightly lower (4 per cent). It was observed throughout this survey that older people were not among the users. The survey data disclosed that only a small percentage of the total population are aware of Nanasalas and use the facilities offered by them. Level of education and socioeconomic background are vital factors in the use of Nanasala services. The general belief among the majority (more than 80 per cent) of respondents was that other than for telephone calls and photocopies, services like the internet are for the educated and the elite. Since centres close to educational institutes such as universities and teacher training colleges had higher usage statistics, this appears to support this view. The other crucial factor affecting usage is language. According to the majority of respondents, as they understand only native languages like Sinhala they have not benefited from the services like the internet and e-mail. Of the total population of the country, 70 per cent is in rural areas. Of this 70 per cent, the majority are not familiar with the English language. Therefore, Sinhala- and Tamil-speaking people are disadvantaged. Even though the Nanasala (RKCs) programme is running under the slogan “Global knowledge to the village”, and the ultimate aim of establishing Nanasalas is to provide a catalytic effect for rural communities in poverty reduction and social and economic development, this has not been addressed properly through the programme. If rural communities have access to material chiefly in English while they chiefly use Sinhala or Tamil, this situation will not change. Although ICTA has conducted 3-5 day and one-week training programmes for Nanasala operators on management aspects, discussions held with owners, managers and other workers disclosed that most Nanasala centres are experiencing various management problems such as technical skills and poor attitudes. Again the survey data suggests that level of education and socioeconomic background matters, not only for users but also for the owners of the centres. Out of the total sample only three centres were functioning well, providing many services in a methodical manner. Even though owners of these centres are full-time workers in other organisations, since their jobs are computer-related their knowledge in IT has greatly contributed towards the smooth functioning of the centre. Further, observations confirmed that when people who are running the centre have computer hardware knowledge, those centres function more effectively. Many respondents – operators as well as users – disclosed that there are many cyber-cafes situated close to Nanasalas, and therefore users have a wide choice. Moreover, communication centres offer many other services like lamination and binding services, and sometimes for lower charges. According to respondents the Nanasala centres (RKC models) still get very few customers, with those who do use them doing so mostly for internet use and mainly because Nanasala centres offer fast connection via satellites. 4.1.2 Services. RKC Nanasalas are provided with four computers, one or two computers with a CD-writer, multi-functional equipment which can be used as a computer printer, photocopier, scanner and fax machine (usually known as a four-in-one), and a satellite connection for the internet and for two telephone-lines

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(VoIP). e-Library Nanasalas are provided with 2-4 computers (mostly two), a printer, a scanner, and a satellite connection for the internet and for two telephone lines (VoIP). In general the services offered by Nanasala centres include telephone, fax, photocopying, scanning, computer printing, word-processing, internet, e-mail (just to use their own web accounts) and computer training courses on application software like MS Office. Although there is wide range of services offered by the centres, their level of use is extremely low. According to the survey data, the most popular service is computer training courses, while the second most popular service is the internet. However, data revealed that except for very few centres, most of the instructors have only followed short courses – mostly of less than one year and part-time courses – on application software packages like MS Word. Also, it was observed during the survey that there was a lack of adequate content, as there is no network or coordination among Nanasala centres to ensure that a common syllabus is used. As explained earlier, the reason behind the popularity of their internet service is the speed of the connection. Although most of the nearby cyber cafes have dial-up connections, people prefer Nanasalas since they have much faster satellite connections. ICTA introduced voucher schemes with the objectives (Information and Communication Technology Agency, 2004b) of stimulating the use of ICT-based services by the residents of communities where the Nanasalas are situated, to provide access to ICT-based services at affordable cost to vulnerable groups, and to provide an additional source of revenue for the Nanasalas. Under this scheme the Nanasala issues vouchers to users to use computers free of charge and the Nanasala can get reimbursement from ICTA. However, the owners and operators of many such Nanasala centres claimed that for two months they had not received any reimbursement from the ICTA. Moreover, they complained that this scheme had brought them an additional burden for the operation of the centre. Due to free vouchers, the usage of computers has increased, with most of the time students occupying the limited number of computers and access being denied to others. As a result, they lose their paying customers. A small percentage of centres were given a web camera; it was reported that many of these centres have never used them. Although it was stated that ICTA would make available computer-based training (CBT) media to use off-line in Sinhala, Tamil and English as well as a large e-library of books and periodicals for the use of students of all ages (Information and Communication Technology Agency, 2004b), the survey data confirmed that none of the e-Library centres have been given such materials or offer these services. 4.2 Obstacles to use 4.2.1 Location. During the survey it was observed that many e-Libraries that are situated in extremely remote places, especially those located at temples, were not functioning properly. The explanation for this appears to be that when the person in charge – generally a priest – is not there, nobody has access to the centre. The researcher encountered this problem at many centres during visit. It was also discovered during survey visits that at some centres, even though they have provided an e-Library, none of the people in the temple were aware of how to use the services offered. Moreover, it was also discovered that two of RKC Nanasalas in the research

sample were continuously closed for more than a day. It was observed during the survey that the majority of Nanasala centres are maintained under poor physical conditions. The majority of centres are located in a small floor area within the owner’s house, or in a small area where some other business is also taking place. 4.2.2 Lack of awareness and publicity among community. The Nanasala operators highlighted lack of publicity as one of the main reasons for the low usage of services. Although the ICTA telecasts a weekly programme on one of the television channels, since it is telecast in the early evening it does not reach its desired clients. Also, some respondents disclosed that this particular channel cannot be viewed in certain areas of the country. Therefore, even if ICTA spends a considerable amount of money on publicity and awareness programmes, it seems that the purpose has not been served and their efforts are poorly targeted. Moreover, the researcher also experienced a lack of awareness among communities about Nanasalas when trying to find the physical locations of Nanasala centres for the survey. 4.2.3 Lack of technical and management skills. Except for a very few (n ¼ 55) most Nanasala operators are young people who have passed GCE Advanced Level examinations and have followed part-time courses (mostly less than one year) on application software packages like MS Office. Observations confirmed that, due to the lack of proper training, most were not able to handle troubleshooting, especially on hardware aspects. Hence, even for a minor problem they have to depend on the outside technicians, which incurs considerable time and cost. The data gathered suggests that operators are poorly paid, in most cases depending on the income the Nanasala generates. 4.2.4 Equipment, maintenance and supplies. The equipment used by the Nanasala is provided for use for five years and is eventually then transferred to the ownership of the centre. Connectivity is also subsidised over a four-year period reducing in value (i.e. 100 per cent years 1 and 2, 66.67 per cent in year 3 and 33.3 per cent in year 4) for a period of five years by the ICTA (Information and Communication Technology Agency, 2004d). The survey data confirmed that the technology is already beginning to encounter technical problems and some operators complained that since the day they were provided with computers they have not operated properly. It was evident that the high cost of supplies and maintenance (e.g. cost of computers, cartridges and toner for printers, electricity, telephones, getting technicians or sending equipment to assigned suppliers for repairs or maintenance) was a severe problem that affected use. Because Nanasalas were given voice over IP, local call charges are very high. For this reason operators were not able to pay high bills and connections were disabled at most centres. Moreover, even if they have the connection, Nanasala operators do not use VoIP connection for local calls. The common practice of getting technicians from geographically distant places, for either routine maintenance or repairs, or sending them to assigned vendors, was a constant and heavy burden to carry. High electricity bills also affect the cost. An unstable satellite connection, and in some areas frequent interruption to electricity, were also among the reasons for low usage. All these impediments affected usage greatly. 4.2.5 Cost of services. Except for local telephone charges using VoIP, costs for the other services are approximately similar to, or sometimes less than, other cyber-cafes. However, according to operators, once the subsidy is phased out they will not be in a

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position to provide services at the current rates. Maintenance of multi-functional equipment is very especially high; they are not able to produce photocopies at a lower price, while other cyber-cafes that use ordinary photocopiers charge a very much lower rate. (Some operators called this equipment a “white elephant”.) These costs are usually reflected in service charges. During the survey it was found that some centres have had to stop photocopying services because they have already run out of the toner that they received initially with the machine. Since the price of toner is very high and the cost per copy is also extremely high, unless they increase prices, they will not be able to cover costs. As there are plenty of cheaper places that offer the service at a lower cost, they lose customers. 4.2.6 Level of literacy and language. It the general belief that Nanasala centres offer services for educated people and are not accessible to less educated people, especially those who are not competent in English or have limited literacy skills. Therefore, other than for telephone calls and photocopies people do not see any usefulness in these centres, as there are many places in the localities that provide these other services. 4.3 Relevance of services and the suitability of content and applications to community needs According to the survey data, the main reasons for using Nanasala centres were to follow computer courses and to use the internet. The internet was mainly used by young people to check and send e-mails, and for entertainment purposes such as playing games. Use of the internet for professional and economic purposes was extremely low. Respondents (users as well as operators) disclosed that when they can obtain examination results through the web, then they use the internet. Many young people, especially school-leavers, use computers for word-processing purposes such as ´ to prepare their resumes and to apply for jobs. Use of the internet to obtain information on agriculture, fishing, and other businesses was not common at all. It was revealed during the survey that only two Nanasala (RKC) centres are engaged in such services. These two centres collect information relevant to that particular community and about the area, such as climatic conditions and health information, and make them available in local language. The owners of one of the centres are three youths who were attached to a prominent civil society organisation called “Sarvodaya”. The other owner is a computer instructor attached to a government vocational training institute. 4.4 Management and sustainability As is common to many other projects, the sustainability of Nanasalas is questionable at present. The survey data confirms that all Nanasalas are highly (100 per cent) dependent on subsidies provided by the ICTA. Although they are aware of the phasing out of subsidies, none of the owners or managers has a plan for survival. Many Nanasalas are already facing problems such as computer failures, printer breakdowns, and non-functioning, obsolete or unusable equipment. Even though the Nanasala are popular for the internet, the majority of owners stressed that they are not in a position to fund the connectivity fee once subsidies reduce from the third year onwards. 5. Recommendations and conclusions Earlier attempts (e.g. Kothmale Community Radio Project, Govi Gnana Kendra Project) that were initiated to take ICT to the rural community presented an important warning

about sustainability (Wattegama, 2004). As can already be seen in the Nanasala project, and as confirmed by the survey data, this will remain one of the biggest challenges. As the project cannot run for ever on external funding and subsidies, it is essential to find ways and means in which Nanasala centres can bring in the necessary income in order to sustain their operations. The findings of the survey confirmed the low usage of Nanasala services. Introducing just Nanasala Rural Knowledge Centres and Nanasala e-Libraries will definitely not help rural communities to get the best out of ICT/the internet. The more important issue will be what sort of benefits the rural community can gain from such centres and how convenient and economical ICT can be with compared to the traditional ways they are used to. The content or information that can be offered through Nanasalas plays a pivotal role in this regard. Based on the study findings, the following recommendations can be made: . Nanasala services greatly need improvement. It is important to consider the needs of the rural community and reasons for their non-use of services when establishing Nanasala centres. If services can be offered accordingly, usage can be improved. . Careful selection of locations with considerable physical space and facilities (i.e. booths for privacy). . Since libraries are engaged in information business, are capable of handling and providing information, and are engaged in community services, establishing Nanasalas with the collaboration of public libraries and providing Nanasala services through public libraries are highly recommended. A good public library network already exists within the country and represents a basic infrastructure which can be built upon and developed (Bowden and Gamage, 2003). . It is essential to increase the awareness of Nanasalas and their services among communities. This could be done through the use of handbills, TV advertisements during peak hours, radio broadcasts of services, and the design and delivery of interactive services. . Lack of recognition about Nanasalas among other organisations and institutions in society seemed to be a problem for Nanasala operators when trying to attract clients and implement outreach programmes/services. Hence, it is important to issue some sort of identification for them (i.e. an identity card issued by ICTA). . Most Nanasalas earn considerable income through computer classes. It would be helpful to design a common syllabus and to ensure consistency in course content, etc., for use in the courses offered by Nanasalas, and to make the necessary arrangements to issue a joint certificate. . It is important to identify community needs and make content and information available in local languages as well as off-line. It is essential for internet-based services to be user-friendly for the rural community. Translation into local languages should be encouraged and actively supported. . Rather than providing a certain set of equipment to all centres, depending on the needs of the each centre, affordable and cost effective equipment should be provided, especially connectivity. It was noticed that many centres have not used some equipment such as web cameras at all. Many operators expressed their

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concern on equipment such as photocopiers, laminating machines and spiral binding where there is demand for such services. Efforts should be made to have proper arrangements/agreements with vendors/suppliers for regular maintenance. A technical team should be developed from the respective areas to attend to problems. Financial and technical management training should be provided on a regular basis for Nanasala operators.

If the needs of the rural communities are not correctly identified and solutions are not found immediately to ensure sustainability, then the huge amount of money invested on bridging the digital divide will definitely be a waste. Further the objectives of the whole project will fail to deliver the changes set by government.
References Bowden, R. and Gamage, P. (2003), “Role of libraries in the information society in Sri Lanka: will they have a role?”, paper presented at the National Conference on Library and Information Studies (NACLIS), Sri Lanka Library Association, Colombo, 26 June. Central Bank of Sri Lanka (2004), Annual Report, Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Colombo. Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka (2004), Computer Literacy of Sri Lanka, Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka, Colombo. Etta, F.E. and Parvyn-Wamahiu, S. (Eds) (2002), “The experience with community Telecentres”, available at: www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/105552662601._PAN_AFRICAN_STUDIES_ VOL_2-_TELECENTRES_Prelim_Pages.doc Gartner Group (2000), “The digital divide and American society”, available at: www3.gartner. com Government of Sri Lanka (2002), “e-Sri Lanka”, available at: www.esrilanka.lk Information and Communication Technology Agency (2004a), e-Sri Lanka Telecentre Development Programme, Information and Communication Technology Agency, Colombo. Information and Communication Technology Agency (2004b), “Nanasala project”, available at: www.nanasala.lk/site/nenasala_project_files/establishmentofnenasala.htm (accessed 11 March 2006). Information and Communication Technology Agency (2004c), “Nanasala locations”, available at: http://www.icta.lk/ Information and Communication Technology Agency (2004d), E-Sri Lanka Telecentre Development Programme: Operations Manual, Information and Communication Technology Agency, Colombo. Jensen, M. (1998), “African telecentres as models for rural telecommunications development”, paper presented at the ITU Regional Seminar on Community Telecentres, Budapest, 7-9 December, available at: www.itu.int/ITU-D/univ_access/seminar/buda/papers/final/ f_jensen.pdf Jorge, S.N. (2002), “Telecentres for universal access: engendered policy options”, Women in Action, No. 2, available at: www.isiswomen.org/pub/wia/wia202/telecentres.htm Joseph, L. (1999), “Telecentre evaluation: a tele-community perspective”, in Gomez, R. and Hunt, P. (Eds), Telecentre Evaluation: A Global Perspective: Report of an International Meeting on Telecentre Evaluation, IDRC, Quebec, pp. 165-9, available at: www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/ 10244248430Farhills.pdf

Kai, S.C. (2001), “Bridging the digital divide: a vision to a digital inclusive society”, available at: www.sinchungkai.org.hk/demo/eng/scks_publication/policy_paper.html Keniston, K. and Kumar, D. (Eds) (2003), The Four Digital Divides, Sage Publications, Delhi. Kumar, A. (2001), “Bridging the digital divide: some efforts from Kerala”, paper presented at the International Conference on Information Technologies, Communications and Development, Kathmandu, 29-30 November. Manohar, B.M. (2005), “Information and communication technology applications in development: India as a role model for other developing countries”, Information Development, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 47-52. ´ Marquez, H. (2003), “Telecentres to narrow digital divide”, Inter Press Service, 17 September, available at: www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/inequal/2003/0917digdiv.htm Ministry of Economic Reforms, Science and Technology (2003), ICT Roadmap, Ministry of Economic Reforms, Science and Technology, Colombo. Norris, P. (2003), Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. National Telecommunications and Information Administration (1999), “Falling through the Net: defining the digital divide”, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC, available at: http://spamcon.org/library/NTIA/FTTN.pdf Oestmann, S. and Dymond, A.C. (2001), “Telecentres, experiences, lessons and trends”, in Latchem, C. and Walker, D. (Eds), Telecentres: Case Studies and Key Issues, The Commonwealth of Learning, Vancouver, pp. 1-16, available at: www.col.org/colweb/ webdav/site/myjahiasite/shared/docs/chapter%2001.pdf Senthilkumaran, S. (2003), “Using ICTs in development: Information Village Research Project, Pondicherry”, paper presented at the World Congress on Engineering and Digital Divide, Tunis, 12-19 October, available at: www.wfeo-cic.org/2003/p_Santana_senthil_kumaran. pdf Sibthorpe, C. (2000), African Connections Telecentres Progress Report, IDRC, Johannesburg, available at: www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/inequal/2003/0917digdiv.htm United Nations Development Programme (2004), Promoting ICT for Human Development in Asia 2004: Realizing the Millennium Development Goals, Sri Lanka, Regional Human Development Report, United Nations Development Programme, Colombo. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (2002), “ICT for the social empowerment of the rural poor”, Sustainable Social Development in a Period of Rapid Globalization: Challenges, Opportunities and Policy Options: Theme Study 2002, United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific, Bangkok, pp. 173-98. Wattegama, C. (2004), “Bridging the ‘analogue’ and digital divides: the unique experience of Sri Lanka”, paper presented at the Information for Development Seminar, Beijing, 27-28 August. World Bank (1998), World Development Report, World Bank, Washington, DC. World Bank (2004), “Sri Lanka: connecting the unconnected: World Bank to support E-Sri Lanka”, press release, World Bank, Colombo. About the authors After having worked in two different university libraries in Sri Lanka, since 1997 Premila Gamage (MLS, University of Colombo) ASLLA, MCILIP, has worked as Librarian of the Institute of Policy Studies, which is the leading institute in economic and policy research in Sri Lanka. During her 21-year career as a librarian, she has been involved in most of the classical and

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professional activities of librarianship and library management, focusing, in the last 14 years, on library automation and networking. Among her research interests are community information dissemination through e-governance portals, information provision for disadvantaged groups, and societal application of simple ICTs for awareness among rural citizens. She serves as a Visiting Lecturer at the National Institute of Library and Information Sciences, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka. She is Secretary of the IFLA Regional Standing Committee for Asia and Oceania and Vice-President of the Sri Lanka Library Association. Premila Gamage is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected] Edward F. Halpin MA, MCLIP, is Associate Dean in the Leslie Silver International Faculty at Leeds Metropolitan University. He has a background in politics, community development and social informatics. He has a number of publications on e-government and has researched the use of information and ICTs for human and child rights, including work as an expert for the European Parliament Scientific and Technical Options (STOA) Unit. This work has involved him in working alongside organisations such as Save the Children, the Child Rights Information Network (CRIN) and Amnesty International. He has published widely on these subjects, including the book Human Rights and the Internet (Palgrave, 2000) and co-edited the recently published book Cyberwar, Netwar, and the Revolution in Military Affairs (Palgrave, 2006).

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