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The Indian economy is currently passing through a growth phase.
Growth has been kicked off and inflation remains low. The fiscal and
current account deficits are also at a high level. We need to address
these issues, if we have to achieve a sustained high growth rate.
However, these developments should not hide the fact that over the
seven year period beginning 2005-06, the average annual growth
rate has been 8.3 per cent. We should not also under-estimate the
changes that have occurred in the Indian economy over the last two
decades.

Nor should we overlook

the impact of poor economic

performance of the advanced economies after the international
financial crisis. While the US has shown some improvement, many
countries in the Europe are caught in a second recession.

These

developments are bound to affect the growth prospects of the
Indian economy. The year 1991 is a landmark in the postindependent economic history of India. The country faced a severe
economic crisis, triggered in part by a serious balance of payments
situation.

The crisis was converted into an opportunity to effect

some fundamental changes in the content and approach to
economic policy.

There is a common thread running through all the

measures introduced since July 1991. The objective is simple and
that is to improve the efficiency of the system.
mechanism

involving

multitudes

of

controls

The regulatory
had

fragmented

capacity and reduced competition even in the private sector. The
thrust of the new economic policy is towards creating a more
competitive environment in the economy as a means to improving
the productivity and efficiency of the system. This is to be achieved
by removing the barriers to entry and the restrictions on growth of
firms.

While the industrial policy seeks to bring about a greater

competitive environment domestically, the trade policy seeks to
improve international competitiveness subject to the protection
offered by tariffs which are coming down.

The private sector is

being given a larger space to operate in as much as some of the
areas earlier reserved exclusively for the public sector are also now

allowed to the private sector. In these areas, the public sector will
have to compete with the private sector, even though the public
sector may continue to play a dominant role. What is sought to be
achieved is an improvement in the functioning of the various
entities, whether they are in the private or public sector by injecting
an element of competition. There is, however, nothing in the new
economic policy which takes away the role of the State or the public
sector in the system.

The New Economic Policy of India has not

necessarily diminished the role of state; it has only redefined it,
expanding it in some areas and reducing in some others. As it has
been said, somewhat paradoxically, ‘more market’ does not mean
‘less Government’, but only ‘different Government’.

ii

CHEPTER-I
INTRODUCTION TO TOPIC

iii

There are mainly two types of determinants (factors) which influence the economic
development of a country.

A) Economic Factors in Economic Development:
In a country’s economic development the role of economic factors is decisive. The stock
of capital and the rate of capital accumulation in most cases settle the question whether at
a juven point of time a country will grow or not. There are a few other economic factors
which also have some bearing on development but their importance is hardly comparable
to that of capital formation. The surplus of foodgrains output available to support urban
population, foreign trade conditions and the nature of economic system are some such
factors whose role in economic development has to be analyzed:
1) Capital Formation:
The strategic role of capital in raising the level of production has traditionally been
acknowledged in economics. It is now universally admitted that a country which wants to
accelerate the pace of growth, has m choice but to save a high ratio-of its income, with the
objective of raising the level of investment. Great reliance on foreign aid is highly risky,
and thus has to be avoided. Economists rightly assert that lack of capital is the principal
obstacle to growth and no developmental plan will succeed unless adequate supply of
capital is forthcoming.
Whatever be the economic system, a country cannot hope to achieve economic progress
unless a certain minimum rate of capital accumulation is realized. However, if some
country wishes to make spectacular strides, it will have to raise its rate of capital formation
still higher.

1

2) Natural Resources:
The principal factor affecting the development of an economy is the natural resources.
Among the natural resources, the land area and the quality of the soil, forest wealth, good
river system, minerals and oil-resources, good and bracing climate, etc., are included. For
economic growth, the existence of natural resources in abundance is essential. A country
deficient in natural resources may not be in a position to develop rapidly. In fact, natural
resources are a necessary condition for economic growth but not a sufficient one. Japan
and India are the two contradictory examples.
According to Lewis, “Other things being equal man can make better use of rich resources
than they can of poor”. In less developed countries, natural resources are unutilized,
under-utilized or mis- utilized. This is one of the reasons of their backwardness. This is
due to economic backwardness and lack of technological factors.
According to Professor Lewis, “A country which is considered to be poor in resources
may be considered very rich in resources some later time, not merely because unknown
resources are discovered, but equally because new methods are discovered for the known
resources”. Japan is one such country which is deficient in natural resources but it is one
of the advanced countries of the world because it has been able to discover new use for
limited resources.
3) Marketable Surplus of Agriculture:
Increase in agricultural production accompanied by a rise in productivity is important from
the point of view of the development of a country. But what is more important is that the
marketable surplus of agriculture increases. The term ‘marketable surplus’ refers to the
excess of output in the agricultural sector over and above what is required to allow the
rural population to subsist.
The importance of the marketable surplus in a developing economy emanates from the
fact that the urban industrial population subsists on it. With the development of an
economy, the ratio of the urban population increases and increasing demands are made on
agriculture for foodgrains. These demands must be met adequately; otherwise the
consequent scarcity of food in urban areas will arrest growth.

2

In case a country fails to produce a sufficient marketable surplus, it will be left with no
choice except to import foodgrains which may cause a balance of payments problem. Until
1976-77, India was faced with this problem precisely. In most of the years during the
earlier planning period, market arrivals of foodgrains were not adequate to support the
urban population.
If some country wants to step-up the tempo of industrialization, it must not allow its
agriculture to lag behind. The supply of the farm products particularly foodgrains, must
increase, as the setting-up of industries in cities attracts a steady flow of population from
the countryside.
4) Conditions in Foreign Trade:
The classical theory of trade has been used by economists for a long time to argue that
trade between nations is always beneficial to them. In the existing context, the theory
suggests that the presently less developed countries should specialize in production of
primary products as they have comparative cost advantage in their production. The
developed countries, on the contrary, have a comparative cost advantage in manufactures
including machines and equipment and should accordingly specialize in them.
In the recent years, a powerful school has emerged under the leadership of Raul Prebisch
which questions the merits of unrestricted trade between developed and under-developed
countries on both theoretical and empirical grounds.
Foreign trade has proved to be beneficial to countries which have been able to set-up
industries in a relatively short period. These countries sooner or later captured
international markets for their industrial products. Therefore, a developing country should
not only try to become self-reliant in capital equipment as well as other industrial products
as early as possible, but it should also attempt to push the development of its industries to
such a high level that in course of time manufactured goods replace the primary products
as the country’s principal exports.
In countries like India the macro-economic interconnections are crucial and the solutions
of the problems of these economies cannot be found merely through the foreign trade
sector or simple recipes associated with it.
5) Economic System:

3

The economic system and the historical setting of a country also decide the development
prospects to a great extent. There was a time when a country could have a laissez faire
economy and yet face no difficulty in making economic progress. In today’s entirely
different world situation, a country would find it difficult to grow along the England’s path
of development.
The Third World countries of the present times will have to find their own path of
development. They cannot hope to make much progress by adopting a laissez faire
economy. Further, these countries cannot raise necessary resources required for
development either through colonial exploitation or by foreign trade. They now have only
two choices before them:
i) They can follow a capitalist path of development which will require an efficient market
system supported by a rational interventionist role of the State.
ii) The other course open to them is that of economic planning.
The latest experiments in economic planning in China have shown impressive results.
Therefore, from the failure of economic planning in the former Soviet Union and the
erstwhile East European socialist countries it would be wrong to conclude that a planned
economy has built-in inefficiencies which are bound to arrest economic growth.
B) Non-Economic Factors in Economic Development:
From the available historical evidence, it is now obvious that non- economic factors are as
much important in development as economic factors. Here we attempt to explain how they
exercise influence on the process of economic development:
1) Human Resources:
Human resources are an important factor in economic development. Man provides labour
power for production and if in a country labour is efficient and skilled, its capacity to
contribute to growth will decidedly be high. The productivity of illiterate, unskilled,
disease ridden and superstitious people is generally low and they do not provide any hope
to developmental work in a country. But in case human resources remain either unutilized
or the manpower management remains defective, the same people who could have made a
positive contribution to growth activity prove to be a burden on the economy.

4

2) Technical Know-How and General Education:
It has never been, doubted that the level of technical know-how has a direct bearing on the
pace of development. As the scientific and technological knowledge advances, man
discovers more and more sophisticated techniques of production which steadily raise the
productivity levels.
Schumpeter was deeply impressed by the innovations done by the entrepreneurs, and he
attributed much of the capitalist development to this role of the entrepreneurial class.
Since technology has now become highly sophisticated, still greater attention has to be
given to Research and Development for further advancement. Under assumptions of a
linear homogeneous production function and a neutral technical change which does not
affect the rate of substitution between capital and labour, Robert M. Solow has observed
that the contribution of education to the increase in output per man hour in the United
States between 1909 and 1949 was more than that of any other factor.
3) Political Freedom:
Looking to the world history of modern times one learns that the processes of
development and underdevelopment are interlinked and it is wrong to view them in
isolation. We all know that the under-development of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri
Lanka, Malaysia, Kenya and a few other countries, which were in the past British
colonies, was linked with the development of England. England recklessly exploited them
and appropriated a large portion of their economic surplus.
Dadabhai Naoroji has also candidly explained in his classic work ‘Poverty and Un-British
Rule in India’ that the drain of wealth from India under the British was the major cause of
the increase in poverty in India during that period, which in turn arrested the economic
development of the country.
4) Social Organisation:
Mass participation in development programs is a pre-condition for accelerating the growth
process. However, people show interest in the development activity only when they feel
that the fruits of growth will be fairly distributed. Experiences from a number of countries
suggest that whenever the defective social organisation allows some elite groups to
appropriate the benefits of growth, the general mass of people develop apathy towards

5

State’s development programs. Under the circumstances, it is futile to hope that masses
will participate in the development projects undertaken by the State.
India’s experience during the whole period of development planning is a case in point.
Growth of monopolies in industries and concentration of economic power in the modern
sector is now an undisputed fact. Furthermore, the new agricultural strategy has given rise
to a class of rich peasantry creating widespread disparities in the countryside.
5) Corruption:
Corruption is rampant in developing countries at various levels and it operates as a
negative factor in their growth process. Until and unless these countries root-out
corruption in their administrative system, it is most natural that the capitalists, traders and
other powerful economic classes will continue to exploit national resources in their
personal interests.
The regulatory system is also often misused and the licenses are not always granted on
merit. The art of tax evasion has been perfected in the less developed countries by certain
sections of the society and often taxes are evaded with the connivance of the government
officials.
6) Desire to Develop:
Development activity is not a mechanical process. The pace of economic growth in any
country depends to a great extent on people’s desire to develop. If in some country level of
consciousness is low and the general mass of people has accepted poverty as its fate, then
there will be little hope for development. According to Richard T. Gill, “The point is that
economic development is not a mechanical process; it is not a simple adding- up of
assorted factors. Ultimately, it is a human enterprise. And like all human enterprises, its
outcome will depend finally on the skill, quality and attitudes of the men who undertake”.

6

THEORETICAL REVIEW/PERSPECTIVE

7

India was a latecomer to economic reforms, embarking on the process in earnest only
in 1991, in the wake of an exceptionally severe balance of payments crisis. The need
for a policy shift had become evident much earlier, as many countries in east Asia
achieved high growth and poverty reduction through policies which emphasized
greater export orientation and encouragement of the private sector. India took some
steps in this direction in the 1980s, but it was not until 1991 that the government
signaled a systemic shift to a more open economy with greater reliance upon market
forces, a larger role for the private sector including foreign investment, and a
restructuring of the role of government.
India’s economic performance in the post-reforms period has many positive features.
The average growth rate in the ten year period from 1992-93 to 2001-02 was around
6.0 percent, as shown in Table 1, which puts India among the fastest growing
developing countries in the 1990s. This growth record is only slightly better than the
annual average of 5.7 percent in the 1980s, but it can be argued that the 1980s growth
was unsustainable, fuelled by a buildup of external debt which culminated in the crisis
of 1991. In sharp contrast, growth in the 1990s was accompanied by remarkable
external stability despite the east Asian crisis. Poverty also declined significantly in
the post-reform period, and at a faster rate than in the 1980s according to some studies
(as Ravallion and Datt discuss in this issue).
However, the ten-year average growth performance hides the fact that while the
economy grew at an impressive 6.7 percent in the first five years after the reforms, it
slowed down to 5.4 percent in the next five years. India remained among the fastest
growing developing countries in the second sub-period because other developing
countries also slowed down after the east Asian crisis, but the annual growth of 5.4
percent was much below the target of 7.5 percent which the government had set for
the period. Inevitably, this has led to some questioning about the effectiveness of the
reforms.
Opinions on the causes of the growth deceleration vary. World economic growth was
slower in the second half of the 1990s and that would have had some dampening
effect, but India’s dependence on the world economy is not large enough for this to
account for the slowdown. Critics of liberalization have blamed the slowdown on the
effect of trade policy reforms on domestic industry (for example, Nambiar et al, 1999;

8

Chaudhuri, 2002). However, the opposite view is that the slowdown is due not to the
effects of reforms, but rather to the failure to implement the reforms effectively. This
in turn is often attributed to India’s gradualist approach to reform, which has meant a
frustratingly slow pace of implementation. However, even a gradualist pace should be
able to achieve significant policy changes over ten years. This paper examines India’s
experience with gradualist reforms from this perspective.
We review policy changes in five major areas covered by the reform program: fiscal
deficit reduction, industrial and trade policy, agricultural policy, infrastructure
development and social sector development. Based on this review, we consider the
cumulative outcome of ten years of gradualism to assess whether the reforms have
created an environment which can support 8 percent GDP growth, which is now the
government target.
Savings, Investment and Fiscal Discipline
Fiscal profligacy was seen to have caused the balance of payments crisis in 1991 and
a reduction in the fiscal deficit was therefore an urgent priority at the start of the
reforms. The combined fiscal deficit of the central and state governments was
successfully reduced from 9.4 percent of GDP in 1990-91 to 7 percent in both 199192 and 1992-93 and the balance of payments crisis was over by 1993. However, the
reforms also had a medium term fiscal objective of improving public savings so that
essential public investment could be financed with a smaller fiscal deficit to avoid
“crowding out” private investment. This part of the reform strategy was unfortunately
never implemented.
As shown in Table 2, public savings deteriorated steadily from +1.7 percent of GDP in
1996-97 to –1.7 percent in 2000-01. This was reflected in a comparable deterioration
in the fiscal deficit taking it to 9.6 percent of GDP in 2000-01. Not only is this among
the highest in the developing world, it is particularly worrisome because India’s
public debt to GDP ratio is also very high at around 80%. Since the total financial
savings of households amount to only 11 percent of GDP, the fiscal deficit effectively
preempts about 90 percent of household financial savings for the government. What is
worse, the rising fiscal deficit in the second half of the 1990s was not financing higher
levels of public investment, which was more or less constant in this period.

9

These trends cast serious doubts on India’s ability to achieve higher rates of growth in
future. The growth rate of 6 percent per year in the post-reforms period was achieved
with an average investment rate of around 23 percent of GDP. Accelerating to 8
percent growth will require a commensurate increase in investment. Growth rates of
this magnitude in east Asia were associated with investment rates ranging from 36-38
percent. While it can be argued that there was overinvestment in East Asia, especially
in recent years, it is unlikely that India can accelerate to 8 percent growth unless it can
raise the rate of investment to around 29-30 percent of GDP. Part of the increase can
be financed by increasing foreign direct investment, but even if foreign direct
investment increases from the present level of 0.5 percent of GDP to 2.0 percent -- an
optimistic but not impossible target -- domestic savings would still have to increase
by at least 5 percentage points of GDP.
Can domestic savings be increased by this amount? As shown in Table 2, private
savings have been buoyant in the post-reform period, but public savings have declined
steadily. This trend needs to be reversed. Both the central government and the state
governments would have to take a number of hard decisions to bring about
improvements in their respective spheres.
The central government’s effort must be directed primarily towards improving
revenues, because performance in this area has deteriorated significantly in the post
reform period. Total tax revenues of the center were 9.7 percent of GDP in 1990-91.
They declined to only 8.8 percent in 2000-01, whereas they should have increased by
at least two percentage points. Tax reforms involving lowering of tax rates,
broadening the tax base and reducing loopholes were expected to raise the tax ratio
and they did succeed in the case of personal and corporate income taxation but
indirect taxes have fallen as a percentage of GDP. This was expected in the case of
customs duties, which were deliberately reduced as part of trade reforms, but this
decline should have been offset by improving collections from domestic indirect taxes
on goods and by extending indirect taxation to services. This part of the revenue
strategy has not worked as expected. The Advisory Group on Tax Policy for the Tenth
Plan recently made a number of proposals for modernizing tax administration,
including especially computerization, reducing the degree of exemption for small
scale units and integration of services taxation with taxation of goods (Planning
Commission, 2001a). These recommendations need to be implemented urgently.
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There is also room to reduce central government subsidies, which are known to be
highly distortionary and poorly targeted (e.g. subsidies on food and fertilizers), and to
introduce rational user charges for services such as passenger traffic on the railways,
the postal system and university education. Overstaffing was recently estimated at 30
percent and downsizing would help reduce expenditure.
State governments also need to take corrective steps. Sales tax systems need to be
modernized in most states. Agricultural income tax is constitutionally assigned to the
states, but no state has attempted to tax agricultural income. Land revenue is a
traditional tax based on landholding, but it has been generally neglected and abolished
in many states. Urban property taxation could yield much larger resources for
municipal governments if suitably modernized, but this tax base has also been
generally neglected. State governments suffer from very large losses in state
electricity boards (about 1 percent of GDP) and substantial losses in urban water
supply, state road transport corporations and in managing irrigation systems.
Overstaffing is greater in the states than in the center.
The fiscal failures of both the central and the state governments have squeezed the
capacity of both the center and the states to undertake essential public investment.
High levels of government borrowing have also crowded out private investment.
Unless this problem is addressed, the potential benefits from reforms in other areas
will be eroded and it may be difficult even to maintain the average growth rate of 6
percent experienced in the first ten years after the reforms, let alone accelerate to 8
percent.
Reforms in Industrial and Trade Policy
Reforms in industrial and trade policy were a central focus of much of India’s reform
effort in the early stages. Industrial policy prior to the reforms was characterized by
multiple controls over private investment which limited the areas in which private
investors were allowed to operate, and often also determined the scale of operations,
the location of new investment, and even the technology to be used. The industrial
structure that evolved under this regime was highly inefficient and needed to be
supported by a highly protective trade policy, often providing tailor-made protection
to each sector of industry. The costs imposed by these policies had been extensively
studied (for example, Bhagwati and Desai, 1965; Bhagwati and Srinivasan, 1971;
11

Ahluwalia, 1985) and by 1991 a broad consensus had emerged on the need for greater
liberalization and openness. A great deal has been achieved at the end of ten years of
gradualist reforms.
Industrial Policy
Industrial policy has seen the greatest change, with most central government industrial
controls being dismantled. The list of industries reserved solely for the public sector -which used to cover 18 industries, including iron and steel, heavy plant and
machinery, telecommunications and telecom equipment, minerals, oil, mining, air
transport services and electricity generation and distribution -- has been drastically
reduced to three: defense aircrafts and warships, atomic energy generation, and
railway transport. Industrial licensing by the central government has been almost
abolished except for a few hazardous and environmentally sensitive industries. The
requirement that investments by large industrial houses needed a separate clearance
under the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act to discourage the
concentration of economic power was abolished and the act itself is to be replaced by
a new competition law which will attempt to regulate anticompetitive behavior in
other ways.
The main area where action has been inadequate relates to the long standing policy of
reserving production of certain items for the small-scale sector. About 800 items were
covered by this policy since the late 1970s, which meant that investment in plant and
machinery in any individual unit producing these items could not exceed $ 250,000.
Many of the reserved items such as garments, shoes, and toys had high export
potential and the failure to permit development of production units with more modern
equipment and a larger scale of production severely restricted India’s export
competitiveness. The Report of the Committee on Small Scale Enterprises (1997) and
the Report of the Prime Minister’s Economic Advisory Council (2001) had both
pointed to the remarkable success of China in penetrating world markets in these
areas and stimulating rapid growth of employment in manufacturing. Both reports
recommended that the policy of reservation should be abolished and other measures
adopted to help small-scale industry. While such a radical change in policy was
unacceptable, some policy changes have been made very recently: fourteen items
were removed from the reserved list in 2001 and another 50 in 2002. The items

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include garments, shoes, toys and auto components, all of which are potentially
important for exports. In addition, the investment ceiling for certain items was
increased to $1 million. However, these changes are very recent and it will take some
years before they are reflected in economic performance.
Industrial liberalization by the central government needs to be accompanied by
supporting action by state governments. Private investors require many permissions
from state governments to start operations, like connections to electricity and water
supply and environmental clearances. They must also interact with the state
bureaucracy in the course of day-to-day operations because of laws governing
pollution, sanitation, workers’ welfare and safety, and such. Complaints of delays,
corruption and harassment arising from these interactions are common. Some states
have taken initiatives to ease these interactions, but much more needs to be done.
A recently completed joint study by the World Bank and the Confederation of Indian
Industry (Stern, 2001) found that the investment climate varies widely across states
and these differences are reflected in a disproportional share of investment, especially
foreign investment, being concentrated in what are seen as the more investor-friendly
states (Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu) to the
disadvantage of other states (like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal). Investors
perceived a 30 percent cost advantage in some states over others, on account of the
availability of infrastructure and the quality of governance. These differences across
states have led to an increase in the variation in state growth rates, with some of the
less favored states actually decelerating compared to the 1980s (Ahluwalia, 2002).
Because liberalization has created a more competitive environment, the pay off from
pursuing good policies has increased, thereby increasing the importance of state level
action. Infrastructure deficiencies will take time and resources to remove but
deficiencies in governance could be handled more quickly with sufficient political
will.
Trade Policy
Trade policy reform has also made progress, though the pace has been slower than in
industrial liberalization. Before the reforms, trade policy was characterized by high
tariffs and pervasive import restrictions. Imports of manufactured consumer goods
were completely banned. For capital goods, raw materials and intermediates, certain
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lists of goods were freely importable, but for most items where domestic substitutes
were being produced, imports were only possible with import licenses. The criteria for
issue of licenses were nontransparent, delays were endemic and corruption
unavoidable. The economic reforms sought to phase out import licensing and also to
reduce import duties.
Import licensing was abolished relatively early for capital goods and intermediates
which became freely importable in 1993, simultaneously with the switch to a flexible
exchange rate regime. Import licensing had been traditionally defended on the
grounds that it was necessary to manage the balance of payments, but the shift to a
flexible exchange rate enabled the government to argue that any balance of payments
impact would be effectively dealt with through exchange rate flexibility. Removing
quantitative restrictions on imports of capital goods and intermediates was relatively
easy, because the number of domestic producers was small and Indian industry
welcomed the move as making it more competitive. It was much more difficult in the
case of final consumer goods because the number of domestic producers affected was
very large (partly because much of the consumer goods industry had been reserved for
small scale production). Quantitative restrictions on imports of manufactured
consumer goods and agricultural products were finally removed on April 1, 2001,
almost exactly ten years after the reforms began, and that in part because of a ruling
by a World Trade Organization dispute panel on a complaint brought by the United
States.
Progress in reducing tariff protection, the second element in the trade strategy, has
been even slower and not always steady. As shown in Table 3, the weighted average
import duty rate declined from the very high level of 72.5 percent in 1991-92 to 24.6
percent in 1996-97. However, the average tariff rate then increased by more than 10
percentage points in the next four years. In February 2002, the government signaled a
return to reducing tariff protection. The peak duty rate was reduced to 30 percent, a
number of duty rates at the higher end of the existing structure were lowered, while
many low end duties were raised to 5 percent. The net result is that the weighted
average duty rate is 29 percent in 2002-03.
Although India’s tariff levels are significantly lower than in 1991, they remain among
the highest in the developing world because most other developing countries have

14

also reduced tariffs in this period. The weighted average import duty in China and
southeast Asia is currently about half the Indian level. The government has announced
that average tariffs will be reduced to around 15 percent by 2004, but even if this is
implemented, tariffs in India will be much higher than in China which has committed
to reduce weighted average duties to about 9 percent by 2005 as a condition for
admission to the World Trade Organization.
Foreign Direct Investment
Liberalizing foreign direct investment was another important part of India’s reforms,
driven by the belief that this would increase the total volume of investment in the
economy, improve production technology, and increase access to world markets. The
policy now allows 100 percent foreign ownership in a large number of industries and
majority ownership in all except banks, insurance companies, telecommunications
and airlines. Procedures for obtaining permission were greatly simplified by listing
industries that are eligible for automatic approval up to specified levels of foreign
equity (100 percent, 74 percent and 51 percent). Potential foreign investors investing
within these limits only need to register with the Reserve Bank of India. For
investments in other industries, or for a higher share of equity than is automatically
permitted in listed industries, applications are considered by a Foreign Investment
Promotion Board that has established a track record of speedy decisions. In 1993,
foreign institutional investors were allowed to purchase shares of listed Indian
companies in the stock market, opening a window for portfolio investment in existing
companies.
These reforms have created a very different competitive environment for India’s
industry than existed in 1991, which has led to significant changes. Indian companies
have upgraded their technology and expanded to more efficient scales of production.
They have also restructured through mergers and acquisitions and refocused their
activities to concentrate on areas of competence. New dynamic firms have displaced
older and less dynamic ones: of the top 100 companies ranked by market
capitalization in 1991, about half are no longer in this group. Foreign investment
inflows increased from virtually nothing in 1991 to about 0.5 percent of GDP.
Although this figure remains much below the levels of foreign direct investment in
many emerging market countries (not to mention 4 percent of GDP in China), the

15

change from the pre-reform situation is impressive. The presence of foreign-owned
firms and their products in the domestic market is evident and has added greatly to the
pressure to improve quality.
These policy changes were expected to generate faster industrial growth and greater
penetration of world markets in industrial products, but performance in this respect
has been disappointing. As shown in Table 1, industrial growth increased sharply in
the first five years after the reforms, but then slowed to an annual rate of 4.5 percent
in the next five years. Export performance has improved, but modestly. The share of
exports of goods in GDP increased from 5.7 percent in 1990-91 to 9.7 percent, but
this reflects in part an exchange rate depreciation. India’s share in world exports,
which had declined steadily since 1960, increased slightly from around 0.5 percent in
1990-91 to 0.6 percent in 1999-2000, but much of the increase in world market share
is due to agricultural exports. India’s manufactured exports had a 0.5 percent share in
world markets for those items in 1990 and this rose to only 0.55 percent by 1999.
Unlike the case in China and southeast Asia, foreign direct investment in India did not
play an important role in export penetration and was instead oriented mainly towards
the domestic market.
One reason why export performance has been modest is the slow progress in lowering
import duties that make India a high cost producer and therefore less attractive as a
base for export production. Exporters have long been able to import inputs needed for
exports at zero duty, but the complex procedure for obtaining the necessary duty-free
import licenses typically involves high transactions cost and delays. High levels of
protection compared with other countries also explains why foreign direct investment
in India has been much more oriented to the protected domestic market, rather than
using India as a base for exports. However, high tariffs are only part of the
explanation for poor export performance. The reservation of many potentially
exportable items for production in the small scale sector (which has only recently
been relaxed) was also a relevant factor. The poor quality of India’s infrastructure
compared with infrastructure in east and southeast Asia, which is discussed later in
this paper, is yet another.
Inflexibility of the labor market is a major factor reducing India’s competitiveness in
exports and also reducing industrial productivity generally (Planning Commission,

16

2001). Any firm wishing to close down a plant, or to retrench labor in any unit
employing more than 100 workers, can only do so with the permission of the state
government, and this permission is rarely granted. These provisions discourage
employment and are especially onerous for labor-intensive sectors. The increased
competition in the goods market has made labor more willing to take reasonable
positions, because lack of flexibility only leads to firms losing market share.
However, the legal provisions clearly remain much more onerous than in other
countries. This is important area of reform that has yet to be addressed. The lack of
any system of unemployment insurance makes it difficult to push for major changes
in labor flexibility unless a suitable contributory system that is financially viable can
be put in place. The government has recently announced its intention to amend the
law and raise the level of employment above which firms have to seek permission for
retrenchment from 100 workers at present to 1000 while simultaneously increasing
the scale of retrenchment compensation. However, the amendment has yet to be
enacted.
These gaps in the reforms provide a possible explanation for the slowdown in
industrial growth in the second half of the 1990s. It can be argued that the initial
relaxation of controls led to an investment boom, but this could have been sustained
only if industrial investment had been oriented to tapping export markets, as was the
case in east Asia. As it happened, India’s industrial and trade reforms were not strong
enough, nor adequately supported by infrastructure and labor market reforms to
generate such a thrust. The one area which has shown robust growth through the
1990s with a strong export orientation is software development and various new types
of services enabled by information technology like medical transcription, backup
accounting, and customer related services. Export earnings in this area have grown
from $100 million in 1990-91 to over $6 billion in 2000-01 and are expected to
continue to grow at 20 to 30 percent per year. India’s success in this area is one of the
most visible achievements of trade policy reforms which allow access to imports and
technology at exceptionally low rates of duty, and also of the fact that exports in this
area depend primarily on telecommunications infrastructure, which has improved
considerably in the post-reforms period.
Reforms in Agriculture

17

A common criticism of India’s economic reforms is that they have been excessively
focused on industrial and trade policy, neglecting agriculture which provides the
livelihood of 60 percent of the population. Critics point to the deceleration in
agricultural growth in the second half of the 1990s (shown in Table 2) as proof of this
neglect. However, the notion that trade policy changes have not helped agriculture is
clearly a misconception. The reduction of protection to industry, and the
accompanying depreciation in the exchange rate, has tilted relative prices in favor of
agriculture and helped agricultural exports. The index of agricultural prices relative to
manufactured products has increased by almost 30 percent in the past ten years
(Ministry of Finance, 2002, Chapter 5). The share of India’s agricultural exports in
world exports of the same commodities increased from 1.1 percent in 1990 to 1.9
percent in 1999, whereas it had declined in the ten years before the reforms.
But while agriculture has benefited from trade policy changes, it has suffered in other
respects, most notably from the decline in public investment in areas critical for
agricultural growth, such as irrigation and drainage, soil conservation and water
management systems, and rural roads. As pointed out by Gulati and Bathla (2001),
this decline began much before the reforms, and was actually sharper in the 1980s
than in the 1990s. They also point out that while public investment declined, this was
more than offset by a rise in private investment in agriculture which accelerated after
the reforms. However, there is no doubt that investment in agriculture-related
infrastructure is critical for achieving higher productivity and this investment is only
likely to come from the public sector. Indeed, the rising trend in private investment
could easily be dampened if public investment in these critical areas is not increased.
The main reason why public investment in rural infrastructure has declined is the
deterioration in the fiscal position of the state governments and the tendency for
politically popular but inefficient and even iniquitous subsidies to crowd out more
productive investment. For example, the direct benefit of subsidizing fertilizer and
underpricing water and power goes mainly to fertilizer producers and high income
farmers while having negative effects on the environment and production, and even
on income of small farmers. A phased increase in fertilizer prices and imposition of
economically rational user charges for irrigation and electricity could raise resources
to finance investment in rural infrastructure, benefiting both growth and equity.

18

Competitive populism makes it politically difficult to restructure subsidies in this way,
but there is also no alternative solution in sight.
Some of the policies which were crucial in promoting food grain production in earlier
years, when this was the prime objective, are now hindering agricultural
diversification. Government price support levels for food grains such as wheat are
supposed to be set on the basis of the recommendations of the Commission on
Agricultural Costs and Prices, a technical body which is expected to calibrate price
support to reasonable levels. In recent years, support prices have been fixed at much
higher levels, encouraging overproduction. Indeed, public food grain stocks reached
58 million tons on January 1, 2002, against a norm of around 17 million tons! The
support price system clearly needs to be better aligned to market demand if farmers
are to be encouraged to shift from food grain production towards other products.
Agricultural diversification also calls for radical changes in some outdated laws. The
Essential Commodities Act, which empowers state governments to impose restrictions
on movement of agricultural products across state and sometimes even district
boundaries and to limit the maximum stocks wholesalers and retailers can carry for
certain commodities, was designed to prevent exploitive traders from diverting local
supplies to other areas of scarcity or from hoarding supplies to raise prices. Its
consequence is that farmers and consumers are denied the benefit of an integrated
national market. It also prevents the development of modern trading companies,
which have a key role to play in the next stage of agricultural diversification. The
government has recognized the need for change and recently removed certain
products -- including wheat, rice, coarse grains, edible oil, oilseeds and sugar -- from
the purview of the act. However, this step may not suffice, since state governments
may be able to take similar action. What is needed is a repeal of the existing act and
central legislation that would make it illegal for government authorities at any level to
restrict movement or stocking of agricultural products (Planning Commission, 2001).
The report of the Task Force on Employment has made comprehensive proposals for
review of several other outdated agricultural law (Planning Commission, 2001b). For
example, laws designed to protect land tenants, undoubtedly an important objective,
end up discouraging marginal farmers from leasing out nonviable holdings to larger
farmers for fear of being unable to reclaim the land from the tenant. The Agricultural

19

Produce Marketing Acts in various states compel traders to buy agricultural produce
only in regulated markets, making it difficult for commercial traders to enter into
contractual relationships with farmers. Development of a modern food processing
sector, which is essential to the next stage of agricultural development, is also
hampered by outdated and often contradictory laws and regulations. These and other
outdated laws need to be changed if the logic of liberalization is to be extended to
agriculture.
Infrastructure Development
Rapid growth in a globalized environment requires a well-functioning infrastructure
including especially electric power, road and rail connectivity, telecommunications,
air transport, and efficient ports. India lags behind east and southeast Asia in these
areas. These services were traditionally provided by public sector monopolies but
since the investment needed to expand capacity and improve quality could not be
mobilized by the public sector, these sectors were opened to private investment,
including foreign investment. However, the difficulty in creating an environment
which would make it possible for private investors to enter on terms that would
appear reasonable to consumers, while providing an adequate risk- return profile to
investors, was greatly underestimated. Many false starts and disappointments have
resulted.
The greatest disappointment has been in the electric power sector, which was the first
area opened for private investment.

Private investors were expected to produce

electricity for sale to the State Electricity Boards, which would control of
transmission and distribution. However, the State Electricity Boards were financially
very weak, partly because electricity tariffs for many categories of consumers were
too low and also because very large amounts of power were lost in transmission and
distribution. This loss, which should be between 10 to 15 percent on technical
grounds (depending on the extent of the rural network), varies from 35 to 50 percent.
The difference reflects theft of electricity, usually with the connivance of the
distribution staff. Private investors, fearing nonpayment by the State Electricity
Boards insisted on arrangements which guaranteed purchase of electricity by state
governments backed by additional guarantees from the central government. These
arrangements attracted criticism because of controversies about the reasonableness of

20

the tariffs demanded by private sector power producers. Although a large number of
proposals for private sector projects amounting to about 80 percent of existing
generation capacity were initiated, very few reached financial closure and some of
those which were implemented ran into trouble subsequently.
Because of these difficulties, the expansion of generation capacity by the utilities in
the 1990s has been only about half of what was targeted and the quality of power
remained poor with large voltage fluctuations and frequent interruptions.
The flaws in the policy have now been recognized and a more comprehensive reform
is being attempted by several state governments. Independent statutory regulators
have been established to set tariffs in a manner that would be perceived to be fair to
both consumers and producers. Several states are trying to privatize distribution in the
hope that this will overcome the corruption which leads to the enormous distribution
losses. However, these reforms are not easy to implement. Rationalization of power
tariffs is likely to be resisted by consumers long used to subsidized power, even
though the quality of the power provided in the pre-reform situation was very poor.
The establishment of regulatory authorities that are competent and credible takes time.
Private investors may not be able to enforce collection of amounts due or to
disconnect supply for non-payment without adequate backing by the police. For all
these reasons, private investors perceive high risks in the early stages and therefore
demand terms that imply very high rates of return. Finally, labor unions are opposed
to privatization of distribution.
These problems are formidable and many state governments now realize that a great
deal of preliminary work is needed before privatization can be successfully
implemented.

Some of the initial steps, like tariff rationalization and enforcing

penalties for non-payment of dues and for theft of power, are perhaps best
implemented within the existing public sector framework so that these features, which
are essential for viability of the power sector, are not attributed solely to privatization.
If the efforts now being made in half a dozen states succeed, it could lead to a visible
improvement within a few years.
The results in telecommunications have been much better and this is an important
factor underlying India’s success in information technology. There was a false start
initially because private investors offered excessively high license fees in bidding for
21

licenses which they could not sustain, which led to a protracted and controversial
renegotiation of terms. Since then, the policy appears to be working satisfactorily.
Several private sector service providers of both fixed line and cellular services, many
in partnership with foreign investors, are now operating and competing with the preexisting public sector supplier. Teledensity, which had doubled from 0.3 lines per 100
population in 1981 to 0.6 in 1991, increased sevenfold in the next ten years to reach
4.4 in 2002. Waiting periods for telephone connections have shrunk dramatically.
Telephone rates were heavily distorted earlier with very high long distance charges
cross-subsidizing local calls and covering inefficiencies in operation. They have now
been rebalanced by the regulatory authority, leading to a reduction of 30 percent in
long distance charges. Interestingly, the erstwhile public sector monopoly supplier has
aggressively reduced prices in a bid to retain market share.
Civil aviation and ports are two other areas where reforms appear to be succeeding,
though much remains to be done. Two private sector domestic airlines, which began
operations after the reforms, now have more than half the market for domestic air
travel. However, proposals to attract private investment to upgrade the major airports
at Mumbai and Delhi have yet to make visible progress. In the case of ports, 17
private sector projects involving port handling capacity of 60 million tons, about 20
percent of the total capacity at present, are being implemented. Some of the new
private sector port facilities have set high standards of productivity.
India’s road network is extensive, but most of it is low quality and this is a major
constraint for interior locations. The major arterial routes have low capacity
(commonly just two lanes in most stretches) and also suffer from poor maintenance.
However, some promising initiatives have been taken recently. In 1998, a tax was
imposed on gasoline (later extended to diesel) , the proceeds of which are earmarked
for the development of the national highways, state roads and rural roads. This will
help finance a major program of upgrading the national highways connecting Delhi,
Mumbai, Chennai and Calcutta to four lanes or more, to be completed by the end of
2003. It is also planned to levy modest tolls on these highways to ensure a stream of
revenue which could be used for maintenance. A few toll roads and bridges in areas of
high traffic density have been awarded to the private sector for development.

22

The railways are a potentially important means of freight transportation but this area
is untouched by reforms as yet. The sector suffers from severe financial constraints,
partly due to a politically determined fare structure in which freight rates have been
set excessively high to subsidize passenger fares, and partly because government
ownership has led to wasteful operating practices. Excess staff is currently estimated
at around 25 percent. Resources are typically spread thinly to respond to political
demands for new passenger trains at the cost of investments that would strengthen the
capacity of the railways as a freight carrier. The Expert Group on Indian Railways
(2002) recently submitted a comprehensive program of reform converting the
railways from a departmentally run government enterprise to a corporation, with a
regulatory authority fixing the fares in a rational manner. No decisions have been
announced as yet on these recommendations.
Financial Sector Reform
India’s reform program included wide-ranging reforms in the banking system and the
capital markets relatively early in the process with reforms in insurance introduced at
a later stage.
Banking sector reforms included: (a) measures for liberalization, like dismantling the
complex system of interest rate controls, eliminating prior approval of the Reserve
Bank of India for large loans, and reducing the statutory requirements to invest in
government securities; (b) measures designed to increase financial soundness, like
introducing capital adequacy requirements and other prudential norms for banks and
strengthening banking supervision; (c) measures for increasing competition like more
liberal licensing of private banks and freer expansion by foreign banks. These steps
have produced some positive outcomes. There has been a sharp reduction in the share
of non-performing assets in the portfolio and more than 90 percent of the banks now
meet the new capital adequacy standards. However, these figures may overstate the
improvement because domestic standards for classifying assets as non-performing are
less stringent than international standards.
India’s banking reforms differ from those in other developing countries in one
important respect and that is the policy towards public sector banks which dominate
the banking system. The government has announced its intention to reduce its equity
share to 33-1/3 percent, but this is to be done while retaining government control.
23

Improvements in the efficiency of the banking system will therefore depend on the
ability to increase the efficiency of public sector banks.
Skeptics doubt whether government control can be made consistent with efficient
commercial banking because bank managers are bound to respond to political
directions if their career advancement depends upon the government. Even if the
government does not interfere directly in credit decisions, government ownership
means managers of public sector banks are held to standards of accountability akin to
civil servants, which tend to emphasize compliance with rules and procedures and
therefore discourage innovative decision making. Regulatory control is also difficult
to exercise. The unstated presumption that public sector banks cannot be shut down
means that public sector banks that perform poorly are regularly recapitalized rather
than weeded out. This obviously weakens market discipline, since more efficient
banks are not able to expand market share.
If privatization is not politically feasible, it is at least necessary to consider
intermediate steps which could increase efficiency within a public sector framework
(see for example Ahluwalia 2002). These include shifting effective control from the
government to the boards of the banks including especially the power to appoint the
Chairman and Executive Directors which is at present with the government; removing
civil servants and representatives of the Reserve Bank of India from these board;
implementing a prompt corrective action framework which would automatically
trigger regulatory action limiting a bank’s expansion capability if certain trigger
points of financial soundness are breeched; and finally acceptance of closure of
insolvent public sector banks (with appropriate protection for small depositors).
Unless some initiatives along these lines are taken, it is highly unlikely that public
sector banks can rise to the levels of efficiency needed to support rapid growth.
Another major factor limiting the efficiency of banks is the legal framework, which
makes it very difficult for creditors to enforce their claims. The government has
recently introduced legislation to establish a bankruptcy law which will be much
closer to accepted international standard. This would be an important improvement
but it needs to be accompanied by reforms in court procedures to cut the delays which
are a major weakness of the legal system at present.

24

Reforms in the stock market were accelerated by a stock market scam in 1992 that
revealed serious weaknesses in the regulatory mechanism. Reforms implemented
include establishment of a statutory regulator; promulgation of rules and regulations
governing various types of participants in the capital market and also activities like
insider trading and takeover bids; introduction of electronic trading to improve
transparency in establishing prices; and dematerialization of shares to eliminate the
need for physical movement and storage of paper securities. Effective regulation of
stock markets requires the development of institutional expertise, which necessarily
requires time, but a good start has been made and India’s stock market is much better
regulated today than in the past. This is to some extent reflected in the fact that
foreign institutional investors have invested a cumulative $21 billion in Indian stocks
since 1993, when this avenue for investment was opened.
An important recent reform is the withdrawal of the special privileges enjoyed by the
Unit Trust of India, a public sector mutual fund which was the dominant mutual fund
investment vehicle when the reforms began. Although the Unit Trust did not enjoy a
government guarantee, it was widely perceived as having one because its top
management was appointed by the government. The Trust had to be bailed out once in
1998, when its net asset value fell below the declared redemption price of the units,
and again in 2001 when the problem recurred. It has now been decided that in future
investors in the Unit Trust of India will bear the full risk of any loss in capital value.
This removes a major distortion in the capital market, in which one of the investment
schemes was seen as having a preferred position.
The insurance sector (including pension schemes), was a public sector monopoly at
the start of the reforms. The need to open the sector to private insurance companies
was recommended by an expert committee (the Malhotra Committee) in 1994, but
there was strong political resistance. It was only in 2000 that the law was finally
amended to allow private sector insurance companies, with foreign equity allowed up
to 26 percent, to enter the field. An independent Insurance Development and
Regulatory Authority has now been established and ten new life insurance companies
and six general insurance companies, many with well-known international insurance
companies as partners, have started operations. The development of an active
insurance and pensions industry offering attractive products tailored to different types

25

of requirements could stimulate long term savings and add depth to the capital
markets. However, these benefits will only become evident over time.
Privatization
The public sector accounts for about 35 percent of industrial value added in India, but
although privatization has been a prominent component of economic reforms in many
countries, India has been ambivalent on the subject until very recently. Initially, the
government adopted a limited approach of selling a minority stake in public sector
enterprises while retaining management control with the government, a policy
described as “disinvestment” to distinguish it from privatization. The principal
motivation was to mobilize revenue for the budget, though there was some
expectation that private shareholders would increase the commercial orientation of
public sector enterprises. This policy had very limited success. Disinvestment receipts
were consistently below budget expectations and the average realization in the first
five years was less than 0.25 percent of GDP compared with an average of 1.7 percent
in seventeen countries reported in a recent study (see Davis et.al. 2000). There was
clearly limited appetite for purchasing shares in public sector companies in which
government remained in control of management.
In 1998, the government announced its willingness to reduce its shareholding to 26
percent and to transfer management control to private stakeholders purchasing a
substantial stake in all central public sector enterprises except in strategic areas. The
first such privatization occurred in 1999, when 74 percent of the equity of Modern
Foods India Ltd. (a public sector bread-making company with 2000 employees), was
sold with full management control to Hindustan Lever, an Indian subsidiary of the
Anglo-Dutch multinational Unilever. This was followed by several similar sales with
transfer of management:

BALCO, an aluminium company; Hindustan Zinc;

Computer Maintenance Corporation; Lagan Jute Machinery Manufacturing Company;
several hotels; VSNL, which was until recently the monopoly service supplier for
international telecommunications; IPCL, a major petrochemicals unit and Maruti
Udyog, India’s largest automobile producer which was a joint venture with Suzuki
Corporation which has now acquired full managerial controls.
The privatization of Modern Foods and BALCO generated some controversy, not so
much on the principle of privatization, but on the transparency of the bidding process
26

and the fairness of the price realized. Subsequent sales have been much less
problematic and although the policy continues to be criticized by the unions, it
appears to have been accepted by the public, especially for public sector enterprises
that are making losses or not doing well. However, there is little public support for
selling public sector enterprises that are making large profits such as those in the
petroleum and domestic telecommunications sectors, although these are precisely the
companies where privatization can generate large revenues. These companies are
unlikely to be privatized in the near future, but even so, there are several companies in
the pipeline for privatization which are likely to be sold and this will reduce resistance
to privatizing profit-making companies.
An important recent innovation, which may increase public acceptance of
privatization, is the decision to earmark the proceeds of privatization to finance
additional expenditure on social sector development and for retirement of public debt.
Privatization is clearly not a permanent source of revenue, but it can help fill critical
gaps in the next five to ten years while longer term solutions to the fiscal problem are
attempted. Many states have also started privatizing state level public sector
enterprises. These are mostly loss making enterprises and are unlikely to yield
significant receipts but privatization will eliminate the recurring burden of financing
losses.
Social Sector Development in Health and Education
India’s social indicators at the start of the reforms in 1991 lagged behind the levels
achieved in southeast Asia 20 years earlier, when those countries started to grow
rapidly (Dreze and Sen, 1995). For example, India’s adult literacy rate in 1991 was 52
percent, compared with 57 percent in Indonesia and 79 percent in Thailand in 1971.
The gap in social development needed to be closed, not only to improve the welfare of
the poor and increase their income earning capacity, but also to create the
preconditions for rapid economic growth. While the logic of economic reforms
required a withdrawal of the state from areas in which the private sector could do the
job just as well, if not better, it also required an expansion of public sector support for
social sector development.
Much of the debate in this area has focused on what has happened to expenditure on
social sector development in the post-reform period. Dev and Moolji (2002) find that
27

central government expenditure on towards social services and rural development
increased from 7.6 percent of total expenditure in 1990-91 to 10.2 percent in 2000-01,
as shown in Table 4. As a percentage of GDP, these expenditures show a dip in the
first two years of the reforms, when fiscal stabilization compulsions were dominant,
but there is a modest increase thereafter. However, expenditure trends in the states,
which account for 80 percent of total expenditures in this area, show a definite decline
as a percentage of GDP in the post-reforms period. Taking central and state
expenditures together, social sector expenditure has remained more or less constant as
a percentage of GDP.
Closing the social sector gaps between India and other countries in southeast Asia will
require additional expenditure, which in turn depends upon improvements in the fiscal
position of both the central and state governments. However, it is also important to
improve the efficiency of resource use in this area. Saxena (2001) has documented the
many problems with existing delivery systems of most social sector services,
especially in rural areas. Some of these problems are directly caused by lack of
resources, as when the bulk of the budget is absorbed in paying salaries , leaving little
available for medicines in clinics or essential teaching aids in schools. There are also
governance problems such as nonattendance by teachers in rural schools and poor
quality of teaching.
Part of the solution lies in greater participation by the beneficiaries in supervising
education and health systems, which in turn requires decentralization to local levels
and effective peoples’ participation at these levels. Nongovernment organizations can
play a critical role in this process. Different state governments are experimenting with
alternative modalities but a great deal more needs to be done in this area.
While the challenges in this area are enormous, it is worth noting that social sector
indicators have continued to improve during the reforms. The literacy rate increased
from 52 percent in 1991 to 65 percent in 2001, a faster increase in the 1990s than in
the previous decade, and the increase has been particularly high in the some of the
low literacy states such as Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Conclusions

28

The impact of ten years of gradualist economic reforms in India on the policy
environment presents a mixed picture. The industrial and trade policy reforms have
gone far, though they need to be supplemented by labor market reforms which are a
critical missing link. The logic of liberalization also needs to be extended to
agriculture, where numerous restrictions remain in place. Reforms aimed at
encouraging private investment in infrastructure have worked in some areas but not in
others. The complexity of the problems in this area was underestimated, especially in
the power sector. This has now been recognized and policies are being reshaped
accordingly. Progress has been made in several areas of financial sector reforms,
though some of the critical issues relating to government ownership of the banks
remain to be addressed. However, the outcome in the fiscal area shows a worse
situation at the end of ten years than at the start.
Critics often blame the delays in implementation and failure to act in certain areas to
the choice of gradualism as a strategy. However, gradualism implies a clear definition
of the goal and a deliberate choice of extending the time taken to reach it, in order to
ease the pain of transition. This is not what happened in all areas. The goals were
often indicated only as a broad direction, with the precise end point and the pace of
transition left unstated to minimize opposition—and possibly also to allow room to
retreat if necessary. This reduced politically divisive controversy, and enabled a
consensus of sorts to evolve, but it also meant that the consensus at each point
represented a compromise, with many interested groups joining only because they
believed that reforms would not go “too far”. The result was a process of change that
was not so much gradualist as fitful and opportunistic. Progress was made as and
when politically feasible, but since the end point was not always clearly indicated,
many participants were unclear about how much change would have to be accepted,
and this may have led to less adjustment than was otherwise feasible.
The alternative would have been to have a more thorough debate with the objective of
bringing about a clearer realization on the part of all concerned of the full extent of
change needed, thereby permitting more purposeful implementation. However, it is
difficult to say whether this approach would indeed have yielded better results, or
whether it would have created gridlock in India’s highly pluralist democracy. Instead,
India witnessed a halting process of change in which political parties which opposed

29

particular reforms when in opposition actually pushed them forward when in office.
The process can be aptly described as creating a strong consensus for weak reforms!
Have the reforms laid the basis for India to grow at 8 percent per year? The main
reason for being optimistic is that the cumulative change brought about is substantial.
The slow pace of implementation has meant that many of the reform initiatives have
been put in place recently and their beneficial effects are yet to be felt. The policy
environment today is therefore potentially much more supportive, especially if the
critical missing links are put in place. However, the failure on the fiscal front could
undo much of what has been achieved. Both the central and state governments are
under severe fiscal stress which seriously undermines their capacity to invest in
certain types of infrastructure and in social development where the public sector is the
only credible source of investment. If these trends are not reversed, it may be difficult
even to maintain 6 percent annual growth in the future, let alone accelerate to 8
percent. However, if credible corrective steps are taken on the fiscal front, then the
cumulative policy changes that have already taken place in many areas, combined
with continued progress on the unfinished agenda, should make it possible for India to
accelerate to well beyond 6 percent growth over the next few years.
Acknowledgements
The views expressed in this article are those of the author and do not
necessarily reflect the views of either the International Monetary Fund or the
Government of India. Thanks are due to Suman Bery, Ashok Gulati, Deena
Khatkhate, Arvind Panagariya, Parthasarathi Shome, TN Srinivasan, Nicholas Stern
and Timothy Taylor.

30

OBJECTIVES
 To critically appraise the factor of economy development.
 To evaluate the success story of India from 1991 to recent past
 To analyze how Indian economy has been grown successfully over the years.
 To suggest measure to control the recession in the economy.

31

LITERATURE REVIEW
The BBNN model shows an economy’s real exchange rate, which is the point
of equilibrium between the labor market and the balance of payments. The
labor market is represented by a curve (NN) that includes all of the points in
which there is no pressure on wages to either increase or decrease. This is
otherwise known as the natural rate of unemployment.

The balance of

payments is represented by a curve (BB) that shows all the points in which
the value of exports is equal to the value of imports. At any of these points,
the economy has neither a current account deficit nor a current account
surplus. Included in the BBNN is an additional curve, called the social peace
curve. Social peace relates the happiness of the populace: if the economy is
significantly below the social peace curve, there will be social unrest. (India’s
BBNN is illustrated in figure 1 of the appendix.)
Labor participation in India is 39% overall, 52% for men and 26% for
women. The majority of the population lives in rural areas, and agriculture
employs approximately two thirds of the labor force while providing for one
fourth of the country’s GDP. India produced a total of 600 million tons of food
per year, making it one of the world’s top producers of food. Manufacturing is
responsible for an additional one fourth of GDP. The services sector, which
has seen enormous growth in the last twenty years, has increased from
12.8% of GDP in 1980 to 48.8% of GDP in 2001.
Population growth and migration from the country to the city both have
a profound effect on the natural rate of unemployment (the NN curve.) India’s
population exceeded 1 billion in March of 2001. Of this population, 742 million
people live in the country.

Although population growth is slowing, it is

expected to continue until 2030, when the country’s population will reach 1.5
billion, making it the largest in the world. Population growth pushes the NN
curve outward by increasing the number of workers looking for jobs.

In

addition, migration from rural areas to urban areas further pushes the NN
curve to the right by flooding the industrial markets with more potential
workers. By 2010, the urban population is expected to comprise one third of
the total population.

The immediate effects of population growth and

migration are additional unemployment and pressure on wages to decrease.

32

In the 50s, 60s, and 70s, the Indian economy grew at a rate of only
3.5%, or 1% growth in GDP per person, which came to be known as the
“Hindu rate of growth.” The economy picked up as economic reforms were
implemented, reaching a high of 7.7% in 1995/1996. In 2002/2003, lower
growth of 4.4% was attributed to a poor monsoon and low agricultural output.
Although this shows the dependence of the Indian economy on its agricultural
sector, growth of 4.4% despite a poor monsoon also demonstrates that the
economy is diversifying into other sectors. Today India has one of the six
fastest growing economies in the world. In the second quarter of 2003, GDP
growth was 8.4%. Growth for the fiscal year 2002/2003 is estimated at 8.2%.
(See figure 5)
India achieved its first current account surplus in 24 years in the fiscal
year 2002/2003. Major growth in the services sector, including information
technology outsourcing, as well as inflows from the Indian Diaspora
contributed to the surplus. In 2002/2003, the current account surplus totaled
USD$4.1 billion, while the trade deficit was USD$7.7 billion. India’s principal
goods exports are cotton, yarn, textile, readymade garments, leather goods,
gems, jewelry, and agricultural and processed food products.

Exports of

merchandise grew by more than 20% in 2002, and the foreign reserves
increased to USD$109.6B. Increased productivity and exports from the IT
services industry moves the balance of payments (BB) curve outward. In
addition, capital inflows from Indians abroad increase the surplus and move
the economy’s position on the BBNN inward.
Economic reforms, if suited to growth, will contribute to outward
movement in the BB curve, increasing the value of the current account.
Reforms began in earnest in 1991 following India’s payments crisis, in which
the country had to borrow money from the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
to escape defaulting on payments.

Before providing funding, one of the

conditions the IMF imposed on India was increased liberalization of its
economy.

One of the most significant reforms was privatization of State

Owned Enterprises (SOEs.) Privatization has already had a profound effect
on the economy, despite moving slower than many proponents had hoped for.
Privatization initially targeted the power, steel, oil refining and exploration,
road construction, air transport, telecom, ports, mining, pharmaceuticals, and
33

financial sectors.

Also, restrictions limiting the size of companies in the

garments and textiles industry were removed.

Federal Direct Investment

(FDI,) critical for promoting competition and efficient industry, was welcomed
in most sectors. Competition was also fomented by reducing licensing and
other governmental controls, although labor relations and bankruptcy are still
largely managed by the government. Many tariffs were lowered, and most
import quotas were eliminated.

In addition, reforms have increased the

efficiency and attractiveness of India’s capital markets, which has attracted
investments from foreign institutional investors.
Exchange rate policy affects an economy’s position on the BBNN by
determining the competitiveness of its industry.

With an artificially low

exchange rate, exports will be expensive and there will be pressure on wages
to decrease. The opposite is true for an artificially high exchange rate. In
1991, the rupee was devalued by 22% to better reflect the real exchange rate,
and a market exchange rate was introduced in 1993. Although exchange rate
policies have become much more flexible, capital outflows are still regulated
because of insecurities resulting from a weak banking sector, relatively high
fiscal deficit, the East Asian financial crisis, and conflict with Pakistan. The
rupee has been appreciating with respect to the dollar recently, in part
because of India’s growing foreign exchange reserves and continued
economic liberalization.
Lastly, social indicators have improved since the economy opened up and
economic reforms began in 1991. The biggest gains have been in the south
and along the west coast, areas which have attracted industry and high tech.
Literacy and life expectancy have increased significantly. All of these factors
contribute to a movement upward in the social peace curve. (See figure 1)
The Indian ISLM
The ISLM model is comprised of two curves, the IS curve and the LM curve.
The IS curve (I stands for Investment and S stands for Savings) describes the
market for real goods and services, and the LM curve (L stands for Liquidity
and M stands for Money) describes the supply of and demand for money in an
economy. A movement in either curve has an affect on both interest rates and
the production of goods and services. A country’s fiscal policy is responsible
for movements in the IS curve, whereas its monetary policy is responsible for
34

movements in the LM curve. The ISLM is useful for explaining the effects that
fiscal and monetary policies have on interest rates, inflation, and short-term
output. (India’s ISLM is illustrated in figure 4 of the appendix.)
For many years, India practiced expansionary fiscal policy, as
witnessed by its large fiscal deficit. The national deficit reached a high of
6.6% of GDP in 1991, when the country suffered the payments crisis. Despite
having recovered from the payments crisis, India still maintains a large deficit.
In 2002/2003 the national deficit was 5.9% of GDP, and state deficits were an
additional 4.2% of GDP. National and state deficits are the result of excessive
government spending, financed by borrowing from the public. Expansionary
fiscal policy pushes the IS curve out, raising interest rates and limiting the
amount of capital that is invested in the private sector. Today, India appears
to be adopting more conservative attitudes towards fiscal expenditures.
Healthy economic growth, stricter tax collection, and loan repayments by state
governments should help to reduce the deficit. (See figure 2)
India’s current government has been following an expansionary
monetary policy. In 2002, interest rates reached their lowest since 1974.
Interest rates were able to decline due to a period of low inflation. However,
in the near future the central bank of India may follow a contractionary
monetary policy. It may raise interest rates in the coming year to prevent
inflation from rising. In a situation with stable fiscal policy, raising interest
rates is equivalent to restricting the money supply, or moving the LM inwards.
(See figures 3 and 4)
Aside from monetary policy, inflation in India is affected mainly by
agricultural support prices and GDP growth. Other major forces acting on
inflation are increased competition in the manufacturing sector, which has
reduced inflation, and an increase in the prices of fuels and raw materials,
which increased inflation. Inflation was 10% from 1992 to 1997 but only 4.9%
in 2001/2002, and is expected to remain around 5% for the near future. (See
figure 6)
India as a Transition Economy
Transition economies, in order to succeed, need political stability, an export
base, a coordinating device, property rights, and checks and balances such
Source: Confederation of Indian Industry

as a free press, elections, accountability, and multi-party political systems.
35

India has a transition economy in that it is changing from a closed, socialist
state to a more open and liberalized system. In the 50s, 60s, and 70s, the
country championed import substitution and discouraged foreign direct
investment. Since the 80s and especially after the payments crisis in 1991,
India has been moving towards a more open economy and has been
privatizing many government owned corporations. India has political stability,
due to its plethora of political parties and long-standing democratic
institutions. The judiciary, the election commission, and the media are strong
institutions in India that provide checks and balances. Finally, the payments
crisis in 1991 acted as a coordinating device, and has aligned the country’s
multiply political parties around free market reforms and economic
liberalization.
Three Key Issues: Privatization, Agricultural Productivity, and IT
Outsourcing
Privatization, agricultural productivity, and the information technology
export sector will be important catalysts for future economic growth.
Privatization is paramount to increasing productivity and competitiveness, as
well as attracting foreign direct investment.

Agricultural productivity is

necessary to free up labor for more enriching economic activities, and for
India to reach developed nation status. The information technology export
sector has already fueled much of India’s growth, and will grow in its
importance as the rupee appreciates against the dollar and wages begin to
rise.
Privatization
On Saturday, March 20, 2004, I was part of a group of students from Sloan
that met in Delhi with Dr. Arun Shourie, India’s Minister for IT,
Communications, and Disinvestment. A major part of our discussion involved
disinvestment, or privatization.

The Indian government, according to Dr.

Shourie, will not privatize companies in the atomic energy, defense, and
railway sectors, or the largest companies dedicated to petroleum exploration
and natural gas. The government decides which firms to privatize based on
the recommendations of the disinvestment commission, which assesses each
of the 1000 publicly owned corporations.

Dr. Shourie seemed somewhat

frustrated with the speed with which the government was instituting reforms,
36

and alluded to the fragmented interest groups and political factions as a cause
of the lethargic pace of progress.
The public sector is extremely inefficient when compared to the private
sector, and its large size makes it an obstacle to growth. In India, the state
employs 70% of the 28 million workers in organized employment. In addition,
the private sector would benefit greatly from further liberalization and less
government control. However, as corroborated by the opinion of Dr. Shourie,
many reforms have been delayed or cancelled due to vested interest by many
in the status quo. In particular, labor unions are powerful and have strongly
opposed labor reforms. (See figure 7)
Agricultural Productivity
Roughly two thirds of the workforce in India is employed in the
agricultural sector, and the majority of these workers are subsistence farmers.
Despite its prominence in total number of employees, agriculture accounts for
only 25% of GDP. Productivity is extremely low and the vast majority of
farmers depend on the monsoon for a healthy crop. Only 1/3 rd of all cropland
is irrigated, and few farmers have consistent access to fertilizers, irrigation, or
high-quality seeds.
One fourth of public investment is in agriculture, and this number will
increase if a new large scale government project to link many of India’s rivers
is implemented. Government initiatives to increase productivity, such as the
Green Revolution, have proved effective mostly for the wealthier farmers, who
comprise 10% of farm households but own 53% of farmland. The Green
Revolution involved the dissemination of high-yield crop varieties and
advanced fertilization and irrigation techniques.
Government involvement in the agricultural sector has also prevented
increases in farm productivity. The government sets minimum support prices
for food grains and enforces these prices by purchasing part of the crop yield.
This has caused the governments food stores to exceed its storage capacity
and has raised the prices of food grains to artificially high levels. High support
prices give farmers little incentive to efficiently allocate their crop production
according to market demand, or to produce a larger variety of crops. Since
domestic demand is artificially high for certain crops such as sugar, cotton,

37

just, vegetable oil, tea, and coffee,) farmers have neglected potentially
lucrative export markets in other crops such as rice, cotton, fruit, and flowers.
Information Technology Outsourcing
India has emerged as a leader in information technology services and
advanced research and development.

Although this is surprising for a

developing country, India’s strengths in IT services are a natural outgrowth of
the country’s competitive advantages. India’s institutions of higher education
produce the world’s second largest pool of scientists and engineers (behind
the US.) Additionally, these professionals are relatively inexpensive to hire,
costing ½ to ¼ that of an American software engineer. Due to its previous
status as an English colony, English is widely spoken, especially among the
educated classes.
The Indian software industry started to develop after IBM left India in 1977
because of policy differences with the government. Tata Consulting and other
local companies sought to fill the void by providing low end export services to
multinationals.

These low end services comprised activities such as

maintenance of legacy systems, programming and testing for the Y2K
millennium bug, and Euro conversion. Indians educated in the United States
facilitated the development of India’s IT sector, as many moved back to India
and accelerated the learning curve of local software companies.

Other

Indians who stayed in the United States were able to strengthen relationships
between new Indian software firms and American multinationals.

Also,

declining prices for data communications infrastructure and computer
hardware, combined with lower import tariffs in the 1990s, lowered the
barriers to entry for new companies and increased the range of services
available for outsourcing. Many Indian companies that began with low end
services now specialize in more sophisticated IT services such as business
process outsourcing, primary research and development, and engineering
design. Global companies such as Lucent, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Microsoft,
Cisco, and Eli Lilly are also establishing operations in India. GE’s largest
R&D lab, which employs 2600 scientists, is in India in the city of Bangalore.
As a testament to India’s sharp learning curve in IT services, the country is
home to over half of all software companies to have achieved Carnegie
Mellon University’s prestigious CMM Level-5 rating.
38

The IT sector’s growth has been equally impressive as its learning
curve. By 2000, over 200 of the fortune 1000 companies were outsourcing
software development to India. In the same year, IT outsourcing had grown to
20% of India’s export revenues, and services exports were larger than the
combined exports from the country’s two largest manufactured goods
industries (textiles/garments and gems/jewelry.) IT services had grown an
average of 46% per year since 1993 and has remained an export industry:
foreign demand accounts for 80% of total production.
alone receives 60% of India’s software exports.

The United States

By 2008, the services

industry in India is predicted to reach $87 billion, including $50 billion in
exports. Also in 2008, Indian services companies are predicted to number
400 and command a market capitalization of US$225 billion.

These

predictions would place India’s share of the US software market in 2008 at a
modest 4.1%.
Although India’s dual BBNNs may appear similar to China’s BBNNs, there is
one important difference. Growth in China’s private sector BBNN is related to
the increase in manufacturing in China, which creates a lot of jobs. Growth in
India’s private sector BBNN can be attributed largely to the successes of
information technology outsourcing. Dr. Shourie pointed out that India’s IT
industry,

as

well

as

other

promising

Indian

industries

such

as

pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and nanotechnology, generate publicity and
income but do not create large numbers of jobs. This has a few implications
for future growth.

Eventually, China will have to transition from a

manufacturing economy to more sophisticated industries. India will already
have competencies in high tech and will only need to grow these sectors as it
develops. However, early development of high tech may cause problems of
income distribution. Dr. Ravi Ramamurti, in his speech at Sloan on the 23rd
of February, 2004, predicted that the growth of the IT sector in India would
widen the income gap between the rich and the poor.

Large income

differentials often affect social peace, and may cause civil unrest. In addition
to promoting high tech industries, India will have to develop industries with the
potential for large scale job creation in order to eradicate poverty and maintain
social peace.

39

A Prescription for Future Growth
As reflected by its GDP growth, India has been following sound economic
policies since 1991. These policies should continue, although some could be
refined or enhanced, and new policies should be undertaken to insure
continued economic growth in the future. Specifically, India should institute
faster privatization (if possible,) including privatizing industries that the
government has excluded from disinvestment plans, increase agricultural
productivity and ease the transition of subsistence farmers into the national
economy, and continue infrastructure development and promotion of IT and
other high tech sectors.
Privatization and increased agricultural productivity will have an
immediate effect of increasing the labor pool, which will increase the level of
unemployment. However, as long as the economy is growing, new jobs will
soon be available to displaced public sector employees and farmers. These
new jobs will be better and more productive than the public sector positions
previously available. Employment will flow to where it will be most efficiently
used, thus feeding a virtuous cycle of job creation and raising the
government’s tax base.

Also, selling public corporations will increase

government revenues and help to reduce the fiscal deficit, as long as fiscal
expenditures are relatively conservative.
A flood of new workers into the workforce will put pressure on wages to
decrease, if all other factors are held constant. This may be good for the
Indian economy because the rupee has been appreciating, making the
economy as a whole less competitive. An appreciating currency is not good
for a transition economy since there is latent unemployment due to excess
employment in the underperforming public sector. Job creation is easier when
exports are more competitively priced. Although the speed of privatization
should increase, it should not happen all at once.

Sudden massive

unemployment would not be palatable for many citizens and could create
social unrest.
A portion of the additional income generated through privatization should be
spent on infrastructure projects and other programs aimed at increasing
agricultural productivity. Increased agricultural productivity can be achieved

40

through education, increased use of technology, better infrastructure, and less
government involvement in produce markets.
Government participation in agricultural markets should be limited to
promoting renewable energy and reducing both pollution and India’s
dependence on foreign oil. Dr. Shourie advocated government subsidies for
growing oil rich seeds that can be used to produce energy. Support prices
should be gradually eliminated, which will have the added benefit of allowing
farmers to produce agricultural goods for profitable export markets.

In

addition, specialization and larger farm sizes will facilitate an increase in
productivity.
As infrastructure improves, new economic activities will be possible, trade will
increase, and companies will become more efficient.

An increase in

agricultural productivity will cause the relocation of many subsistence and
small scale farmers to other industries in rural and urban settings. New job
creation due to improved infrastructure will become available to the displaced
farmers, who would eventually achieve a better standard of living and
contribute more to the growth of the Indian economy. (See figure 8)
India has benefited greatly from its promotion of the IT sector. Business
process outsourcing, engineering design, call centers, and other similar
industries

are

well

suited

to

take

advantage

telecommunications and data processing networks.

of

India’s

robust

Bangalore and

Hyderabad, both cities in southern India, have experienced tremendous
successes with the growth of software and other skill intensive industries.
The government’s role in this growth has been positive, by easing regulations
and by investing in advanced telecommunications infrastructure.

This

infrastructure, while much less costly, has achieved similar economic goals as
building more traditional infrastructure such as railways and ports. Promotion
of IT and other high tech sectors should continue and included areas such as
pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and nanotechnology. If India is to sustain
growth, its services sector should look to build competitive advantages that
are not dependent on cost arbitrage, as this may disappear in the future.
India should focus on leveraging skills and talent and producing cutting edge
technology to prepare itself for future competition as a first world economic
power.
41

These policies, if successful, would further alter India’s economic landscape
and produce changes that can be easily illustrated by the BBNN.

As

productivity increases in the agricultural sector, migration to the cities will
increase, further pushing the NN outward and raising the level of
unemployment. Non agricultural economic activity must continue to grow to
absorb these workers. Increased productivity in agriculture may also provide
an economic stimulus to small towns by allowing subsistence farmers to
concentrate on other activities.
The rupee would maintain its position relative to the dollar, despite impressive
and sustained growth in IT and other high tech sectors. Growth in these
industries would be helped by the stable exchange rate. A stable rupee would
also give high tech companies time to develop strong competitive advantages
in preparation for the future appreciation of the rupee and a less forgiving
competitive landscape.
In the small towns, migration to the cities and productivity increases in
agriculture will result in the small town BBNN depicted below. Population
decreases, output increases slightly, and incomes increase significantly. (See
figure 9)
Even if these policies are successful, it may take 20 to 30 years before the
real natural rate of unemployment is reached and the rupee begins to
appreciate.

The numbers of workers who must transition from public

companies and agriculture to industry in the private sector is overwhelming.
Two thirds of the work force is employed in agriculture, and 70% of the
remaining workers (in organized employment) are employed by the
government. If these numbers are correct, 80% percent of the organized
workforce would need to transition to private sector industry (given that 10%
of the workforce remains in agriculture.)

The biggest risk from increased

productivity in the agricultural sector is that job creation in industry and in the
cities will not keep up with the increasing supply of labor. Another risk is that
total agricultural production will decline. Agricultural productivity will need to
rise at least as quickly as the transition from agriculture to industry takes
place. For example, if productivity rises 4% per year, 4% of the agricultural
workforce can find jobs outside of farming every year, while maintaining prices
and output stable. In actuality, productivity may rise faster than the industry
42

transition, since rising incomes will most likely increase demand for
agricultural products.
India has seen impressive rates of growth in the last 13 years. If it
continues its policies of economic liberalization and privatization, it may
eradicate extreme poverty among its people within the next twenty or thirty
years. India is poised to contribute significantly to advances in science and
technology, and its development will benefit not just India, but the entire world.

43

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Sample and Sampling Method
Sampling is the process of collecting information only from a small
representative part of the population. Stratified Random Sampling is one
amongst the most elementary random sampling techniques. A stratified
random sampling is a method that allows each possible sample to have an
equal probability of being picked and each item or individual in the entire
population have an equal chance of being included in the sample. For this
project work, without replacement sampling method is used. It means that a
person or item once selected is not returned to the frame and therefore
cannot be selected again. This selection process continues until the desired
sample size ‘n’ is obtained.

Sample Selection: As the objective of the project is to study the Employee
Engagement to know the perception of the Employees, sample is selected
from Voice and Non voice based profiles.

Sampling Size: A sample size of 15 is drawn, where the respondents are the
Employees who work for Voice and Non Voice process.

Source of data:
For the purpose of the study the following sources of data are used.
Primary data: Primary data refers to the collection of first hand data.

Data is collected through
44



Questionnaire



Observations

Questionnaire: Questionnaire is prepared and circulated to the employees to
know their opinion.
Observations: Observations were done during the visits to the organization.

Secondary data:
Secondary data refers to the data, which is not newly generated but rather
obtained from.


Published sources.



Unpolished sources i.e., information about the performance of the
company



Report on the study.



Review of literature etc.

i.

Sampling chosen with the Random method

ii.

Sampling Area would be Delhi & NCR and near area only

iii.

Sample Size: 100

SECONDARY DATA –
I will collect the Secondary data from following sources:

Newspaper / Magazine - Harvard Business Review, Xlri Journal /
Notes- Professors Notes



Website: RBI



Book Bindseil, U. (2010), "Central Bank Liquidity Management:
Theory and Practice",

PRIMARY DATAPRIMARY DATAI will collect the data through structure questionnaire.

45

TOOL USEDExcel sheet
SAMPLING METHOD
Random sampling method

46

CHEPTER-III
ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION

47

That our economic reforms are on the right track is vindicated by
the performance of the economy since the launch of reforms. In the
post-reform period beginning 1992-93, the economy has grown at
an average rate of 6.9 per cent per annum, a significant
improvement over the pre-reform period (Table 1).

Coming to the more recent period, as mentioned earlier,
economic growth in the seven year period beginning 2005-06
despite the crisis affected year of 2008-09, was at an average of 8.3
per cent.

This clearly represented an acceleration in the pace of

growth. Per capita GDP grew at an average of 7.0 per cent in these
seven years.

48

Table 1

Growth in GDP at factor cost and its Components at 2004-05 prices
(Percent per annum)
Agricul

Minin

-ture

g

Forestr
y&
Fishing

&

Manu- Cons- Elect
fac-

truc-

ri-

tion

city,

turing

gas,

Quarrying

and

Trade,
hotels,
storage,
transport
and
communica

water -tions
suppl

Finance,

Commu-

GDP

insu-

nity,

at

rance,

social

real

and

estate & personal
busines

Fact

r cos

services

s
services

y
1980
-81

12.9

12.2

0.2

13.2

5.7

5.7

1.9

4.1

7.5

4.6

13.7

8.2

5.5

9.5

6.2

8.1

2.1

5.7

-0.3

11.9

3.3

-7.0

6.6

5.4

9.5

7.7

2.9

10.1

2.9

10.2

5.4

6.9

5.1

9.8

3.7

7.8

1.6

1.2

4.2

3.5

10.8

4.8

7.5

6.9

4.0

0.3

5.5

3.2

5.7

7.9

7.9

9.8

5.7

4.3

-0.4

12.2

5.5

2.4

10.3

6.0

10.5

7.5

4.5

-88

-1.6

3.8

5.6

5.7

7.8

5.3

7.3

7.2

3.7

1988

15.6

16.2

8.5

7.0

9.7

5.8

9.8

6.0

10.1

1981
-82
1982
-83
1983
-84
1984
-85
1985
-86
1986
-87
1987

49

-89
1989
-90

1.2

7.6

8.8

7.0

9.7

7.4

12.4

7.9

6.3

4.0

10.5

4.8

11.8

6.7

5.1

6.2

4.4

5.4

-2.0

3.4

-2.4

2.1

9.7

2.6

10.8

2.6

1.6

6.7

0.9

3.1

3.5

6.9

5.6

5.4

6.0

5.3

3.3

1.4

8.6

0.6

7.5

6.9

11.2

4.5

5.7

4.7

9.3

10.8

5.4

9.4

9.9

3.9

2.3

6.4

-0.7

5.9

15.5

6.0

6.8

13.2

8.1

7.3

7.4

9.9

0.6

9.5

1.9

5.4

8.1

6.2

8.1

7.8

-2.6

9.8

0.1

10.5

7.7

7.5

11.7

8.3

4.5

6.3

2.8

3.1

6.3

7.0

7.6

7.8

9.7

6.6

2.7

3.2

3.2

8.4

5.5

8.2

9.2

11.5

6.5

-0.2

2.4

7.7

6.2

2.1

7.3

4.1

4.7

4.4

6.3

1.8

2.5

4.0

1.7

9.2

7.3

4.1

5.7

-7.2

8.8

6.8

7.9

4.7

9.4

8.0

3.9

4.0

1990
-91
1991
-92
1992
-93
1993
-94
1994
-95
1995
-96
1996
-97
1997
-98
1998
-99
1999
-00
2000
-01
2001
-02
2002
-03

50

2003
-04

10.0

3.1

6.6

12.0

4.8

12.0

5.6

5.4

8.4

0.05

8.2

8.7

16.1

7.9

10.7

8.7

6.8

7.6

5.1

1.3

10.1

12.8

7.1

12.0

12.6

7.1

9.5

4.2

7.5

14.3

10.3

9.3

11.6

14.0

2.8

9.6

5.8

3.7

10.3

10.8

8.3

10.9

12.0

6.9

9.3

0.1

2.1

4.3

5.3

4.6

7.5

12.0

12.5

6.7

1.0

6.3

9.7

7.0

6.3

10.3

9.4

12.0

8.4

7.0

5.0

7.6

8.0

3.0

11.1

10.4

4.5

8.4

2.8

-0.9

2.5

5.3

7.9

9.9

9.6

5.8

6.5

2004
-05
2005
-06
2006
-07
2007
-08
2008
-09
2009
-10
2010
-11
2011
-12

Source (Basic data): National Income Accounts, CSO

Note: for years prior to 2004-05, the 1999-00 base series is taken backwards base
on splicing.
Under the severe impact of the global crisis, the Indian
economy registered a growth of 6.8 per cent in 2008-09 after having
registered a growth rate exceeding 9 per cent for three consecutive
years.

By any standard, the Indian economy was able to protect

itself reasonably well in the turbulent conditions of the financial
crisis.

The growth rate picked up soon and the economy achieved a
growth rate of 8.4 per cent in 2009-10, despite a severe drought.

51

The growth rate was maintained at 8.4 per cent in 2010-11 as
well. There was a substantial jump in agricultural production. The
monsoon was good and, therefore, the agricultural GDP grew at 7.0
per cent. The manufacturing sector grew by 7.6 per cent and the
services sector by 9.4 per cent.

Economic activity moderated quite substantially in 2011-12.
The overall growth rate was 6.5 per cent. Growth in the last quarter
was a

low 5.3 per cent.

While agriculture grew at 2.8 per cent

which came on top of a sharp increase in the previous year, the
performance

of

the

manufacturing

sector

was

a

great

disappointment. It grew at 2.5 per cent. The service sector also
showed some deceleration.

The low growth was caused by

supplyside bottlenecks, price shocks and weak investment demand.
Coal output fell.

So also did several other minerals.

The

investment sentiment was affected by various factors including noneconomic. The external environment was also not hospitable.

In the current fiscal, the monsoon was disappointing to begin
with. But rains were normal in the months of August and September
2012.

Manufacturing is yet to pick up.

Our March-September,

manufacturing sector showed a negative growth of -0.4 per cent.
We can see an improved performance in the second half of the year.
Some recent decisions relating to FDI as well as pricing of petroleum
products should help to change the investment sentiment. On the
whole, the growth rate in the current year may stay between 5.5
and 6 per cent, perhaps closer to 6 per cent.

52

As I look ahead, the next fiscal 2013-14 may turn out to be
better. The growth rate can be one per cent higher than this year
that is around 7 per cent.

The full impact of the change in

investment sentiment may be reflected through the year resulting in
higher growth in manufacturing.

There will also be a special

emphasis on achieving the production and capacity creation targets
in the infrastructure sectors that lie in the public domain such as
coal, power, roads and railways.

Potential Rate of Growth
In the light of India’s economic performance in recent years, a
frequently asked question is whether India has the potential to grow
at 8 to 9 per cent in a sustained way. In 2007-08, India’s domestic
savings rate was 36.8 per cent and the investment rate was 38 per
cent.

Since then, these rates have come down significantly.

However, the rates already achieved indicate the potential that
exists.

Even with an incremental capital-output ratio of 4, the

investment

rate achieved in the past should enable the Indian

economy to grow at 9 per cent.

This, however, is the potential

and to achieve it we must also take actions to remove the
constraints that may come in the way.

We need to reverse the

declining trend in savings rate and investment rate. In this context,
I would like to highlight three macro economic concerns and two
sectoral constraints.

Macro Economic Concerns

53

Inflation
First and foremost, we must tame inflation.

We have had

three years of high inflation. Just to give one number, inflation as
measured by wholesale price index stood at 1.2 per cent in April
2009. 10.9 per cent in April 2010, 9.7 per cent in April 2011 and 7.5
per cent in April 2012. As of November 2012, it stood at 7.2 per
cent. The retail inflation still stands higher at 9.5 per cent. Inflation
is largely due to certain severe supply constraints, particularly of
agricultural products. The fact that inflation is triggered primarily by
supply side shocks does not mean that monetary policy and fiscal
policy have no role to play. Food price inflation, if it persists long
enough, gets generalized.

This has happened as evidenced by

inflation in manufacturing prices rising from 5.3 per cent in March
2010 to 8.2 per cent in November 2011. Thus, monetary policy and
fiscal policy have to play their part in containing the overall demand
pressures.

High growth does not warrant a higher level of inflation. We
must use all of our policy instruments – interventions in the
foodgrains market, monetary policy and fiscal policy – to bring down
the current inflation and re-anchor inflationary expectations to the
5-6 per cent comfort zone.

Balance of Payments
The second macro-economic concern relates to the balance of
payments.

India’s current account deficit (CAD) remained low till

2008-09. Since then, it has started climbing. The CAD rose sharply
in 2011-12 to touch 4.2 per cent of the GDP. Trade deficit was 10.2
per cent of GDP. While this was a sharp rise from the trade deficit of
7.5 per cent in 2010-11, the adjusted trade deficit excluding gold

54

remained more or less at same level. There was a huge increase in
import of gold in 2011-12. It rose to $62 billion as compared to $43
billion in the previous year. The year 2011-12 also faced difficulties
in financing the CAD. Capital flows were inadequate to cover the
CAD and reserves had to be drawn down.

It is this mismatch

between CAD and capital flows that put pressure on the rupee. The
CAD continues to remain at a high level in the current fiscal. In the
Second Quarter, it touched 5.4 per cent of GDP.

Gold imports

continue to remain high. We need to dissuade the attraction for the
yellow metal. An attractive return on financial assets and taming of
inflation will play a key role. For the year as a whole the CAD may
show a marginal increase over last year. Over the medium term,
efforts must be made to keep the CAD around the manageable
level of 2.5 per cent of GDP.

This is desirable to impart much

needed stability on the external payment front and to reduce the
risk the domestic economy runs from volatility in international
financial markets.

Fiscal Deficit
The third macro-economic concern is fiscal consolidation
which is a necessary pre-requisite for sustained growth. In the wake
of the international financial crisis, India like many other countries
adopted an expansionary fiscal policy in order to stimulate demand.
As a consequence, the fiscal deficit of the Government of India
which was coming down started rising. In 2008-09, the fiscal deficit
was 6 per cent of GDP.

It rose to 6.4 per cent in the next year.

Unlike other countries in the advanced world, where there is a
continuing debate regarding when to terminate the expansionary
fiscal policies, we in India have taken a decision to initiate the
process of fiscal consolidation. In 2010-11, the fiscal deficit came
down to 4.7 per cent of GDP and it was projected to fall to 4.6 per
cent in 2011-12. However, the actual deficit turned out to be 5.9
55

per cent of GDP. The budget for the current year indicated a deficit
of 5.1 per cent of GDP. The Finance Minister has recently said that it
could be around 5.3 per cent. To gain credibility, it is important that
the fiscal deficit is brought down close to this level. The Finance
Minister has outlined a programme of fiscal consolidation which will
take the fiscal deficit down to 3 per cent of GDP over the next five
years. This is indeed a reassuring message. While efforts must be
made to raise the revenue-GDP ratio, there is an imperative need to
contain expenditures more particularly subsidies which need to be
pruned, well focused and prioritized.

This calls for several policy

actions which may not be popular. Nevertheless, such actions are
needed. It is in this context one must understand the action of the
Central government to raise the price of diesel.

Sectoral Constraints
In the medium term, the two sectors which pose a major
challenge are the farm economy and the power sector. The first of
these, the farm economy is primarily constrained by the relatively
low levels of yield in major cereal crops and pulses as compared to
other Asian economies especially China. We have large science and
technology establishments for agricultural research. But the results
in terms of productivity gains leave much to be desired.

Thus,

necessary steps must be taken to revitalize the traditional crop
agriculture which is vital to food security and farm income. Equally,
as shifts in demand occur reflecting changes in income and taste,
agricultural production must also respond to them.

The last two

years have clearly shown how a decline in agricultural production
can cause serious distortions in the economy.

It is, therefore,

imperative that we aim at GDP originating from agriculture and
allied activities growing at 4 per cent per annum.

56

The second challenge for the country is the shortage of
physical infrastructure of which the single most important item is
electricity.

Shortage of electric power leads not only to direct

production losses but also results in inefficiency in a broad range of
areas impacting profitability and competitiveness.

Recent data

clearly indicate a short fall in achieving the targets for capacity
creation during the Eleventh Plan. This is despite the fact that the
achievement in capacity creation in the 11 th Plan is significantly
higher than that in the 10th Plan. Government is the largest player
in production, transmission and distribution of power and a high
order of Government intervention in capacity creation and other
supportive components of electricity business is crucial to sustaining
a high growth rate of 8 per cent.

A more aggressive path of

capacity creation must start immediately. Constraints such as the
availability of coal, land acquisition and environmental issues need
to be tackled so that the desired growth in capacity expansion can
be achieved.

In many ways the coming decade will be crucial for India. If
India grows at 8 to 9 per cent per annum, it is estimated that per
capita GDP will increase from the current level of US$1,600 to US$
8,000-10,000 by 2025.

Then India will transit from being a low

income to a middle income country. We need to overcome the low
growth phase as quickly as possible, as growth is the answer to
many of our socio-economic problems.

In the recent period, we

have launched a number of schemes aimed at broadening the base
of growth.

These include the employment guarantee scheme,

universalisation of education, expansion of rural health, and food
security. All these programmes have made a substantial demand on
public expenditure. This has been made possible only because of
the strong growth that we have seen in recent years. Growth has
facilitated raising more resources by the Government.

57

Reforms are on the move again. The recent decisions of the
Government to raise the price of diesel as well as to promote foreign
direct investment in several sectors signify Government’s intent to
move forward with the reforms.

The rating agencies and other

analysts while assessing India’s economy need to take note of four
factors. One, the current growth of 6.0 per cent of India is still a
high growth in the present world situation.

There are a very few

countries in the world which have such a growth.

Of course, our

intention is to accelerate the rate of growth and move on a higher
trajectory of growth as quickly as possible.
committed to fiscal consolidation.

Second, India is

Finance Minister has recently

outlined the road map. Third, reforms are once again on the top of
the agenda of the Government as evidenced by the recent
decisions. Fourth, apart from reforms, all efforts are being made to
clear the bottlenecks that come in the way of faster implementation
of the investment decisions.
Development has many dimensions. It has to be inclusive; it
must be poverty reducing and it must be environment-friendly. We
need to incorporate all these elements in the growth process.

A

strong and balanced growth will enable the economy to achieve
multiple goals including lowering inflation and reducing poverty.

58

FINDINGS & INFERENCES
In the conduct of Economic Development, although the experiences and the
choices made by individual countries vary, recent surveys highlight a number
of common features, viz.,


First, at the macro level, there is now widespread concern about the
potential harmful effects of persistently high fiscal deficits as it may lead to
excessive monetisation.



Second, there have been significant reductions in the reserve ratio to
relieve the pressure on the banking sector and reduce the costs of
intermediation. In fact, a number of countries now have no reserve
requirement. And, in some countries, the level of minimum deposit at the
central bank has fallen to such low levels that it is no longer considered an
active monetary instrument.



Third, the deepening of financial markets and the growth of non-bank
intermediation have induced the central banks to increase the market
orientation of their instruments. A consequence of this is a greater activism
of central banks in liquidity management.



Fourth, the greater activism through indirect instruments led to a more
intensive use of open market operations (OMO) through flexible
instruments like repo. The OMO can be used for net injection or absorption
of liquidity and can be resorted to irrespective of whether the operating
target works through the rate channel or quantity channel.



Fifth, the market environment has induced many central banks to focus
more on the interest rates rather than bank reserves in trying to influence
liquidity.



Sixth, increasing evidence of market integration implies that central
banks can concentrate on the very short end of the yield curve. There is
growing evidence in favour of co-movements of interest rates of different
maturit y. This has simultaneously increased monetary policy challenges,

59

as central banks have to keep a watchful eye on all markets and be
cautious of any cascading effect or contagion emerging in the domestic
economy or originating in a foreign economy.


Seventh, at an operational level, while there is increasing transparency on
the long-run strategic objective, central banks may not disclose their
tactical considerations as some manoeuverability in influencing the market
is required. However, in many cases information is revealed to the market
with a lag. Many central banks also attempt to estimate market
expectations directly through surveys. While market expectations play a
major

guidepost

in

formulating

monetary

strategies,

information

management plays a crucial role for short-run stabilisation.


Eighth, a notable consequence of recent financial and currency crises has
been the increasing emphasis on the quantity and quality of data
dissemination, i.e., adequate, timely and reliable information in a
standardised form.



Ninth, a number of central banks now also disseminate the minutes of the
meetings of major monetary policy decisions, which help to gain credibility
and in building a reputation of the central bank in achieving the objectives
of monetary policy.



Tenth, an important issue is policy coordination between the fiscal and the
monetary authorities. The stance of fiscal policy is important as it has a
much broader spectrum of objectives. If fiscal authorities are the dominant
players, monetary policy instruments are rendered less effective. As
monetary policy evolves from a transitional setting of fiscal dominance,
issues like direct access of government to central bank credit becomes
important and crucial for fiscal-monetary coordination.



Eleventh, policy coordination is also an important issue facing economies
linked by trade and capital flows. In an increasingly synchronised business
cycle environment, international policy coordination becomes extremely
important.

60



Twelfth, internationally, there has been more awareness that policy
effectiveness is constrained by uncertainty. In fact, in many countries, the
central bank projections are now published in the form of a fan chart rather
than point estimates.

61

LIMITATIONS

1. There was a time restriction of 45 days, so the study was conducted by
selecting the secondary data for the research.

62

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

63

CONCLUSION
The Economy of India is the eleventh largest in the world by nominal
GDP and the fourth major by purchasing power parity (PPP). In 2015
the country's per capita GDP (PPP) is $3,290 (IMF, 127th). Following
strong

economic

reforms

from

the

post-independence

socialist

economy, the country's economic growth progress at a quick pace, as
free

market

principles

were

initiate

in

1991

for

international

antagonism and foreign investment.
The value of any money in an economy is hard to bet, to be stable for a
long stage of time as there are number of factor influence its approval
and the depreciation. The currency value of an economy influences the
growth rate of GDP in an economy. Several other factors that have a
direct power on the over or the undervaluation of a currency are listed
below:
Following are the main factors affecting economic growth india
1. Capital flows and the stock market of India
This is important to note that in spite of suffering depression, an
economy can grow if the capital inflow is constant or incessantly rising.
In India even if the GDP rate is less, the currency can still get
overvalued due to great capital inflows made by the FII’s in the Indian
economy.
2. Global currency trends
Like many other money Indian rupee have also tied its knot with some
of the big economy of the world as well as the names of UK, US, Japan
and Canada. The depreciation or approval in the currency any of these,
especially in the US dollar, influences the valuation of the Indian
currency in one way or the other.
3. RBI Intervention
The assessment of the Indian currency highly depends on RBI that
manages the ‘balance of payments’, slight modification in which can
define the over or the under assessment of the Indian currency.
4. Oil factors
India is a major importer of oil and the valuation of Indian money gets
with no trouble exaggerated by the increase in the prices of the crude

64

oil. It can further result in spreading inflation in an economy due to the
over valuation of the Indian currency.
5. Political factors
Several other factors that influence the currency constancy are some
political factors like change in the government set up, introduction of
new export and import policies, tax rates and many more.
Decisively, there are many factors that arise from the economic
arrangement of Indian economy and affect the valuation of the Indian
currency that in turn affect the economic growth rate of the economy
of a country.

65

RECOMMENDATION


The India economy grew at a rate of 6.9% in the last financial year (per
Press note: Advance estimates of national income, 2014-15 released
by the Central Statistics Office [CSO press release]). This figure falls
short of the initial target of 8.2%. This essay will examine the reasons
behind the decline in the growth rate. Next, the issue of sustainability
of/ improvement from the current growth rates will be examined; this
issue entails an inquiry into the problems ailing the economy at present
and an assessment of the response to those problems.



Fall in the growth rate are due to both internal and external factors.
Internal factors include monetary tightening in the economy and a slack
in investments. Monetary tightening, as evident from thirteen rounds of
increase in interest rates from March to December 2014, increased the
cost of borrowing money in the economy. This is bound to affect the
Aggregate Demand in the economy by affecting Consumption and
Investments. Consumption of interest rate sensitive goods like houses
and cars will rise at a slower rate with such a move. Such a result may,
however, by offset by a rise in consumer confidence witnessed by India
in 2014 (Seventh Round of Consumer Confidence Survey, conducted
by RBI).

66



A rise in interest rates also reduces the profitability of investments,
consequently

reducing

investment

levels.

Declining

business

expectations and confidence (per NCAER Survey on Business
Confidence) and persistent inflation are additional factors exacerbating
the problem relating investment rates. That the investment rates are
falling is evident from the Reserve Bank of India's statement that there
has been a sharp decline in new corporate fixed investment since H2
of 2010-11 and this trend continues. (RBI, Macroeconomic and
Monetary Developments, Third Quarterly Review, January 23, 2012).
Reduced investment levels, in turn, adversely affect the aggregate
demand and the long-run aggregate supply. A stagnation of the longrun aggregate supply not only has ramifications for growth rates, but
also for inflation levels. This problem is acutely apparent in the
agriculture sector, which is plagued with low productivity. The growth
rate in the sector has been fluctuating over the years in response to the
weather. 2.5% growth was registered in the sector over the last year.
The dependence on weather can be reduced and higher growth rates
can be achieved through technological and institutional investments in
the sector. Other internal sectors, including mining, manufacturing,
construction etc. also registered lower growth rates than previous years
(per CSO press release, p7). The slack in investments characterizing
the various economic sectors needs to be pulled.



External factors affecting the growth rates are a global slowdown,
reducing the demand for exports and rising import expenditure. While
there was a growth in export revenue of 24.9%, the growth in import
expenditure was 32.2% (CSO press release, p7). Turbulence in the
Euro-Zone and the uncertain economic outlook of the US are possible
factors affecting the demand of exports. Increase in imports of priceinelastic crude oil is a factor causing an increase in import expenditure.
The price of crude oil has remained consistently high over the year.
Import expenditure outstripped export revenue; the net export revenue

67

was thus negative in 2014 and this put a downward pressure on the
Aggregate Demand in the economy, thus resulting in lower growth
rates. The next issue that will be discussed is the sustainability of the
2014 growth rates. This will be discussed in light of the following
problems: inflation, fiscal deficit and current account deficit.



High and persistent inflation rates will deter investments and, as has
been established above, this will adversely affect growth levels. As
purchasing power of money falls, consumption is also likely to fall, also
affecting growth. Aside from purely economic considerations, inflation
is likely to cause public outcry, especially given India's socio-economic
fragmentation since inflation will hit the poor the worst. This brings in
the question of inclusive growth- are we willing to have high growth
figures benefiting the privileged few, and the rest languishing with
crippling inflation? India has been facing inflation rates near 8%. The
monetary policy response has contained inflation, while sacrificing the
year's growth figures. Expected inflation rate in March 2012 is 6.5%.
The response was apt given the pressing need to contain inflation. In
the long run, however, we need to identify other fundamental, structural
weaknesses and eradicate them. Supply side policies, which increase
the full-employment level in the economy, will be more appropriate in
the long run since they can address the problem of inflation without
compromising growth. In this respect, investments in infrastructure and
technology are paramount. Investing in the labour force through skills
and education programmes are also helpful steps in this direction.



India's fiscal deficit (estimated at 5.6% for the financial year ending in
March 2012) is problematic in that it limits the government's ability to
invest in infrastructure projects in the future. Such investments may
prove to be crucial in providing the economy an impetus for growth.
The economically inefficient yet politically attractive option of subsidies

68

and handouts should be done-away with in favour of government
spending on infrastructure/ labour force development projects to
sustain growth in the long run. An alternative to subsidies worthy of
consideration is social business (can be entirely public or public-private
or wholly private ventures). A successful example of a private venture
into social business is the Grameen micro-finance scheme in
Bangladesh. Such a venture is preferable to subsidies, which breed
dependence,

fail

to

provide

adequate

incentives

for

skills

improvements and solve the symptom instead of the disease. There is
a need to rebalance public spending from consumption to investment
to ensure a more sustainable growth.



The current account deficit for the past financial year is expected to be
3.6%. There is a need to balance the current account to ensure that the
consequent depreciation of the rupee does not hinder growth
significantly through inflation and rise in import expenditure, which may
offset any gains accrued from increased price competitiveness of
exports. The growth rate of the economy in 2014 was affected by both
internal and external factors. The underlying problems characterizing
the economy in 2014 need to be addressed to ensure sustainable
growth rates.

69

APPENDICES

70

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Search Engine : Google
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3. Ahluwalia, Isher J., “Industrial Growth in India: Stagnation since the midsixties,” Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1995.
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71

11. Dreze, Jean, and Amartya Sen, “Economic Development and Social
Opportunities,” Oxford University Press, New Delhi (1995).
12. Expert Group on Indian Railways, “The Indian Railways Report – 2001 Policy
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13. Gulati, Ashok, and Seema Bathla, “Capital Formation in Indian Agriculture:
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72

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