Energy Use by Country

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International Comparison of Household Energy Consumption
and Its Indicator
Hidetoshi Nakagami, Chiharu Murakoshi, and Yumiko Iwafune,
Jyukankyo Research Institute

ABSTRACT
The structure of household energy consumption around the world varies greatly,
according to the climate, living standards and lifestyles. It is important to understand the
structure of energy consumption and lifestyle circumstances for each country, including
developing country, for which energy use is expected to increase, from the past to the present
day, in order to investigate the following questions. How much further will the world’s
household energy use increase? How much energy will be needed to deliver sufficient energy
services? Also, where is there room for energy efficiency?
We surveyed residential energy consumption and its indicators in 18 countries, both
developed and developing countries such as USA, Canada, Australia, England, France,
Germany, Italy, Sweden, Denmark, South Korea, China, Taiwan, India, Malaysia, Thailand,
Vietnam and Japan. We surveyed household energy use and the structural factors that influence
it, including housing and household types, lifestyles, and types of equipment use. For the various
survey categories and survey years, each country’s data is scattered, but we attempted, to the
extent possible, to assemble continuous time series data. For developing countries of Asia there
are big differences within the countries, so we assemble separate data for rural and urban areas.
In the western countries, household energy consumption shows a trend toward saturation,
but in the Asian countries it is likely that household energy consumption will continue to rise. In
the developing countries of Asia, we do expect future changes in the structure of energy
consumption to occur. The process by which such changes happen can be broken down into four
parts. These are shown in Figure 8, for the Asian countries we studied here.

Introduction
We surveyed residential energy consumption and its indicators in 18 countries such as
USA, Canada, Australia, England, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Denmark, South Korea,
China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, and Japan. The study period is
from July, 2004 to June, 2006.
We surveyed residential energy use and the structural factors that influence it, including
housing and household types, lifestyles, and types of equipment used. For the various survey
categories and survey years, each country's data is scattered, but we attempted, to the extent
possible, to assemble continuous time series data. For developing countries of Asia there are big
differences within the countries, so we assemble separate data for rural and urban areas. The
main survey categories are shown in Table 1.
Initially, we assembled statistical data and actual survey results for each country from the
literature and from websites. In addition, we visited research organizations and energy-related

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companies in the countries to conduct interviews, in order to obtain more detailed data. In
addition, the data are all by final energy use in this paper.
Table 1. Main Survey Categories
Basic data
Population、number of households、climate conditions(monthly average population-weighted temperature、
heating and cooling degree days)、GDP、per household expenditures
Housing data
Number of residences
Stock and flow numbers、breakdowns for owners vs. renters、building type、
household members、building year
Floor area
Average or frequency distribution
Equipment
Heating and cooling equipment(by fuel type), water heater(by fuel type), breakdown
of central heating energy type
Energy data
Macro data
Whole country final energy use by fuel type and end use
Per household energy
by fuel type, end use, fuel type x end use (including vehicles)
consumption
Per household energy
by fuel type and end use (including vehicles)
cost
Equipment data
<kitchen appliances> oven, range, grill, refrigerator (breakdown by capacity and
model year), freezer, dishwasher, microwave oven, and others <electrical
appliances> air conditioner, television, broadcast satellite tuner, video and DVD
player, stereo, personal computer, washer, dryer, electric water heater, and others <
other> diffusion of vehicles, internet users, cell phones, and others
Energy use per
Refrigerator, freezer, dishwasher, washer, dryer, range (flow and stock)
equipment type
Energy price
By fuel, for residential customers
Other kinds of indicators
Indicators and activities
Insulation, heating/cooling thermostat settings, frequencies of dishwasher, washer,
related to energy use
and dryer use, water temperature setting for clothes washer, cooking frequency,
lighting types, time of occupation, time of TV watching, frequencies of showers and
baths, amount of water usage, etc.

Final Energy Consumption
When one examines the final energy consumption of each country (Fig. 1), the USA is
overwhelmingly large; with 2003 consumption about four times that of Japan. China has a high
rate of growth, in 2003 just under twice that of Japan. South Korea and Thailand have high rates
of increase in final energy consumption, using over twice as much in 2003 as in 1990. Both the
USA and Japan consumed about 20% more in 2002 than in 1990.
Except for India, all these countries have a large increasing trend for the transport sector.
Japan, South Korea, China, and India all have industrial sectors with large shares of final energy
consumption. The European countries have residential sectors with relatively large shares.

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1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
0

1980
1990
2003
1980
1990
2003
1980
1990
2003
1980
1990
2003
1980
1990
2003
1980
1990
2003
1980
1990
2003
1980
1990
2003
1980
1990
2003
1980
1990
2003
1980
1990
2003

Final energy consumption(Milion TOE)

Figure 1. Final Energy Consumption of Each Country

USA

Australia

UK

France Germany

Japan

Industry Sector
Commercial and Public Services
Agriculture/Forestry

South
Korea

China

India

Thailand Vietnam

Transport Sector
Residential
Others

Source: IEA"Energy Balances OECD Countries", IEA " Energy Balances Non-OECD Countries"
( excluding Combustible Renewable Energy Sources and Waste )

Changes in Household Energy Consumption
Household energy use per person is shown in Figure 2. Vietnam, Thailand, India, and the
other Asian countries have high rates of increase. Japan and the European countries have small
rates of increase, and the USA has a small decreasing trend. For South Korea, levels of
consumption were lower than that of 1990 until the second half of that decade, but have
increased greatly from then on. This is attributable to improved energy consumption efficiency
due to fuel switching from coal to natural gas and LPG in that country in the 1990s. In the same
way, because switching from coal to other fuels progressed in China, energy use per person was
less in 2003 than in 1990. The actual demand increased in China, for which these decreasing
values of energy consumption take advantage of the increase in conversion efficiency. Between
1990 and 2003, effective energy consumption per person increased by factors of 1.4 in urban
areas and 1.2 in rural areas (Yadong Ning 2006).

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Figure 2. Change in Energy Consumption per Person for Each Country
Energy consumption per person
(1990=1,German:1991=1,Australia:1993=1)

4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5

USA
Germany
India

Australia
Japan
Thailand

UK
South Korea
Vietnam

2002

2000

1998

1996

1994

1992

1990

1988

1986

1984

1982

1980

0.0

France
China

Source: Western countries and Japan: Estimated by Jyukankyo Research Institute .Others: IEA. Energy Balances
Non-OECD Countries (excluding Combustible Renewable and Waste)

Energy Consumption per Household
The country with the largest energy consumption per household is the USA, with the
European countries also having relatively high consumption. Compared to other developed
countries, Japan consumes a small amount. Figure 3 shows the breakdown by fuel type. Natural
gas consumption is high in the USA and England, while electricity consumption is high in the
USA and Australia. Germany has relatively high kerosene consumption. France has high
consumption of wood. South Korea consumes more city gas and kerosene than Japan, and less
electricity. Energy consumption per household in rural China is high. Because 80% of this is
wood or agricultural waste, with a low efficiency of conversion, a rural Chinese household uses
more energy than does an urban one. For households in rural India, "other" is livestock dung,
while for those in rural Thailand it is charcoal. Just as with China, the low efficiency of
conversion means that a rural household in these countries uses more energy than does an urban
one. In India, Thailand, Vietnam, and other tropical countries, there is no heating demand. In
these countries the main demand is from heating water and showers, or sometimes a lifestyle that
does not even use hot water predominates, so this does not amount to that much energy use.
Therefore, in these countries, I think that the main energy expenditure is for cooking exclude
electricity.
Figure 4 shows energy consumption per household by end use. Compared to the western
countries, Japanese households use very little energy for space heating. French and German
households use little energy for water heating. The temperature in the Seoul metropolitan area,
where a majority of South Koreans live, is comparable to that of the Tohoku region of Japan, but
the heating demand for South Korean households is larger than that of Tohoku households. We
speculate that South Korea has higher levels of space heating than Japan. For rural Chinese

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households, energy used for space heating, water heating, and cooking is nearly all agricultural
waste and firewood, with the actual demand being not large. For households in rural India,
Thailand, and Vietnam, the majority of energy is used for cooking, and this is also mainly
firewood and agricultural waste.
When energy from automobiles and motorcycles is included, energy use of households in
many countries doubles. Currently, the diffusion of cars and motorbikes is still low in China and
India, so consumption is still low, but in the same way as with the other Asian countries, as this
diffusion expands, it is likely that energy use will greatly increase.
Figure 3. Energy Consumption per Household by Fuel Type
7

USA('01)

4

Australia('01) 11

48

17

24

5 1

UK('01)

3

11

6

China - Urban('03) 3 2

7

China - Rural('03)

2

India - Urban('00) 3 3 4
India - Rural('00) 2
Thailand - Urban('00) 3

8

Thailand - Rural('00) 2 2 3

19

27

83

17
13

13

5

74
4 74

1

10

15

6

21

Kerosene
LPG
Natural gas
Coal and Coke
Electricity
fuelwood
Agricultural waste
District heating
other

41
10

3 59

4 2 18
18

26

5 15

55
1

3 24

18

1

1

1

18

8

53
3

24

23

South Korea('01)

1

4 101

1

Germany('01)
Japan('01)

10
56

15

France ('01)

38

11
10

9

26

Vietnam('03) 12 3 6
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Energy consumption per household(GJ/household/year)

Note: Figures for Vietnam's fuel wood, agricultural waste, etc. are unknown and therefore not included

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Figure 4. Energy Consumption per Household by Final Energy Use
USA('01)

46

6

21

Australia('01)

15

UK('01)

2

16

54

Germany('01)
12

1

South Korea('01)

14

3

8

1

China - Rural('03)

7

12

10

India - Urban('00)
India - Rural('00)

33
2
24

21

Thailand - Urban('00) 1 4

7

Thailand - Rural('00)

11
21

4

10

2 18

4 15

10

9

74

7

74

1

97

25

4
2

81

41
10

20

2

7

36

China - Urban('03)

18
7

58

Japan('01)

4

54

50

France('01)

17

2 55

59

Space heating
Space cooling
Water heating
Cooking
Water heating & Cooking
Lighting & Others
Kerosene for Lighting

26

3
2

Vietnam('03) 3 2 6
1

0

10

20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Energy consumption per household (GJ/household/year)

90

100

Note: With regard to Vietnam, the figure for cooking includes only LPG and natural gas. (Figures for fuel
wood, agricultural waste, etc. are unknown and therefore not included)

Correlations of Household Energy Consumption with Other Indicators
Figure 5 shows the relation between winter average temperature and space heating energy
use per urban household. For the western countries, there is a negative linear correlation. We can
see that, compared to the western countries, there is less energy consumption by households in
Japan, South Korea, and China. However, South Korean households have relatively small floor
areas, because multifamily housing is major. When one considers space heating energy
consumption per unit area, Korean consumption is at a level comparable to that of western
households.
Figure 6 shows the relation between per capita GDP and electricity consumption,
excluding that used for cooling and water heating. On the whole, as per capita GDP rises, so does
electricity consumption. Although its per capita GDP is about the same as Japan, electricity
consumption is highest in the USA, at more than twice that of Japan. When the breakdown of
electricity end use is considered, much electricity is used for cooking in Canada, Sweden, and
England. In countries such as Canada, Australia, and the USA, in addition to refrigerators, many
households have freezers, with high electricity consumption. Although, Europeans have higher
ownership of freezers than North Americans, the electricity consumption is less than North
Americans. Among Asian countries, there are many electric cooking appliances, such as the
electric hot water pot, and these consume much electricity.

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Figure 5. Correlation between Average Winter Temperature and per Household Heating
Demand for Western Countries and Urban South Korea and China
70
Montreal

Heating demand(GJ/household)

60
50
40

NewYork
Berlin
Paris
Stockholm
London
Copenhagen
Sapporo

Rome

Seoul
30

Texas

Asian Countries

California

20
Shenyang
Utumqi

10

Sydney
Beijing
Lanzhou

0
-15

-10

-5

Western Countries

Xian

Tokyo
Fukuoka
Wuhan
Shanghai

0
5
10
Average winter temperature(℃)

Florida
15

20

25

Note: Chinese heating demand is for urban household. Source: Heating demand for all locations with the
exception of China estimated by Jyukankyo Research Institute. Heating demand for China is from Yadong Ning,
2006. Prospects for policy effects and analysis of current conditions related to energy and environmental issues of
the Chinese residential sector: dissertation.

Major electricity use in Japan is by home appliances and it had been increased. But in
recent years, it had saturated, because high efficient appliances spread by Top-Runner regulation.
Although per capita GDP of South Korea is only about one fourth that of Japan, per household
electricity consumption is at about the same level. Major electricity use in South Korea is home
appliances and the owner ship of major appliances such as refrigerator; TV, VTR, and PC are
almost same level with Japan. Per capita GDP of Taiwan is a little higher than that of South
Korea, but per capita household electricity consumption exceeds those of both South Korea and
Japan, because of high electricity use by air conditioner, hot water supply and home appliances.
For the other Asian countries, it is likely that the saturation of household electrical appliances
will increase. As the number of air conditioners in use grows, it is possible that electricity
consumption will grow to exceed the levels of Japanese households. In particular, the latent
cooling demand in tropical regions is larger than that of Taiwan, and it is likely that increases in
standards of living will have a major influence on electricity consumption.

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Elictlicity consumption per household
(excluding for heating,cooling and water heating )
(kWh/year)

Figure 6. Correlation between per Capita GDP and Electricity Consumption (Excluding
Cooling and Water Heating)
8,000
7,000

USA

6,000
Developed Countries
5,000
Australia
Canada

Taiwan
4,000
Developping Countries
3,000
Malaysia
2,000

Sweden
UK

South Korea
Italy

Denmark

France
Germany

Japan

Vietnam
Thailand
China
Indonesia
India

1,000
0
0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

45,000

Per Capita GDP(in 2000)(1000US$)

Figure 7 shows diffusions of various equipment and appliances in each country. In North
America, Japan, and South Korea, refrigerators, televisions, and washers have saturated all
households, and, except for South Korea, the number of vehicles exceeds one per household.
Japan has many air conditioners, with more than two per household. The relatively low rate of
0.76 units per household in the USA is probably due to the penetration of central air conditioning
in that country. In Europe, there has hardly been any penetration of air conditioners, but recently
the number of households installing them is apparently on the rise. Japan has a high rate of
personal computer penetration.
In urban areas of China and Thailand, there is relatively high penetration, with nearly all
households having refrigerators and televisions. In Thailand, the rate of car ownership is also
high. In India and rural parts of Asia, as a rule, penetration is low.

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Appliance penetration rate
With
regard
to
Europe
and the United States, figures for refrigerators

air conditioners, and PCs refer to household penetration rate.)

Figure 7. Penetration of Major Equipment and Appliances in Each Country
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Refrigerator

Clothes
washer

USA('01)
France('02)
South Korea('01)
India - Urban('01)
Thailand - Rural('00)

Air
Television
conditioner
Australia('02)
Germany('02)
China - Urban('03)
India - Rural('01)
Vietnam - Urban('02)

Personal
Vehicle
Computer
UK('01)
Japan('03)
China - Rural('03)
Thailand - Urban('00)
Vietnam - Rural('02)

Changes in the Structure of Household Energy Consumption
In the western countries, household energy consumption is already at levels of saturation,
so we do not expect big changes. In the developing countries of Asia, we do expect future
changes in the structure of energy consumption to occur. The process by which such changes
happen can be broken down into four parts, described below. These are shown in Figure 8, for
the Asian countries we studied here. These steps do not necessarily take place in stages, but can
occur simultaneously.
(1)
(2)

(3)
(4)

electrification (expansion of electricity supply)
switching from biomass to cleaner energy sources for cooking and heating use; due to
switching from inefficient fuels like firewood and agricultural waste to LPG, natural gas,
and electricity, the efficiency of conversion increases, leading to decreased primary
energy consumption. However, fossil fuel use increases.
growth in actual demand, mainly in electricity demand, which accompanies increases in
floor areas and improving living standards.
Switching from direct combustion type fuels, such as gas and kerosene, to electricity.

Among the Asian countries studied here, the places which most lag in (1) are rural India,
with an electrification rate of 44% in 2001, and also rural Vietnam, Thailand, and Indonesia,
which all have more than 10% of households without electrification. The places where (2) is

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under way are rural China, India, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam, as well as urban India and
Indonesia. Urban China, with its heavy use of coal for heating, is still in the process of switching
to cleaner sources. Urban Thailand and Vietnam are in the process of (3), while urban China is
undergoing (2) and (3) in parallel. Electricity consumption in Vietnam and China has grown by
more than 10% annually, over the past five years. In Malaysia, compared with South Korea and
Taiwan, there is room for future growth in penetration of refrigerators, washers, and air
conditioners, with an increasing trend for electricity consumption. In South Korea and Taiwan,
basic home appliances are already finished diffusing, and as a part of overall energy
consumption, they have reached a fixed level, with the rate of increase becoming small. However,
electricity consumption is clearly increasing. Particularly in Taiwan, in recent years, LPG
consumption has been decreasing, and it seems that, together with increasing demand for
electrical appliances, electrification of energy for water heating and kitchen use (process (4)) is
proceeding. Also in Japan, levels of energy conservation are generally high, but the switch to
electricity for water heating and cooking is proceeding, so we can see that process (4) is under
way.
In contrast, since 1990, energy consumption in the western countries has not increased
that much, being at sufficient levels. Due to the circumstances of each country, there are
differences in the degree to which they depend upon electricity, but, except for a small increase
in USA electricity consumption, there has been essentially no change since 1990, with no trend
toward fuel switching. We think this may be due to the way heating equipment is treated in these
countries. In most cases, heating equipment is built into houses, which have long lifetimes, and
when the heating equipment is replaced, it can be difficult to switch to a different fuel.
Figure 8. Circumstances of Household Energy Consumption in the Asian Countries
Japan
gas, kerosene to electricity Taiwan
South Korea
Malaysia
growth in demand

biomass to
clean energy
Per capita DGP
High

Thailand
China
Indonesia

electrification India
Vietnam
Low

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In these Asian countries, future large increases in energy consumption appear
unavoidable, due to increasing populations and improved living standards. Numbers of
automobiles and home appliances will probably increase greatly. Especially in tropical regions,
the potential demand for cooling is extremely large. Also, due to switching to cleaner fuels for
cooking, fossil fuel consumption will probably increase.

Conclusion
In this study, we surveyed household energy consumption and related indicators in
various western and Asian countries. In the western countries, household energy consumption
shows a trend toward saturation, but in the Asian countries it is likely that household energy
consumption will continue to rise. In rural areas of Asia, especially because the energy
infrastructure has not yet been completed, there may also be, on the positive side, opportunities
to encourage acquisition of innovative energy systems. For example, these countries have
skipped over mass use of the fixed telephone, and jumped straight to the cellular phone. There
are currently investigations proceeding about shifting directly to the clean use of biomass, away
from the use of low-efficiency combustion of firewood and agricultural waste, without passing
through the intermediate step of commercial fuels, such as LPG.
It is necessary to understand conditions in each country precisely, in order to implement
more effective energy policies. But, especially for the rural regions of Asia, there is still
insufficient information about such things as conditions of biomass energy usage, conditions of
home electrical appliance use, and water heating needs. We think it is important to produce a
data base of energy efficiency indicators for each country in the Asian region, similar to the
European Union program, ODDYSSEE, thereby sharing information and goals.

Acknowledgement
We appreciate Barbara Litt’s help in translating this paper from Japanese.

References
[IEA] International Energy Agency, Energy Balances OECD Countries.
[IEA] International Energy Agency, Energy Balances Non-OECD Countries.
Hidetoshi Nakagami. 2007. Research on residential energy consumption in Japan: dissertation.
Jyukankyo Research Institute. 2006. Annual statistics of house hold energy consumption.
Yadong Ning. 2006. Prospects for policy effects and analysis of current conditions related to
energy and environmental issues of the Chinese residential sector : dissertation (Chuugoku
no kateibumon enerugii kankyou mondai ni kansuru genkyou bunseki to taisaku kouka no
yosoku.; in Japanese:).

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