February African American Culture
Content
African American culture
African American culture in the United States includes the various cultural traditions of African ethnic groups. It is both part of and distinct from American culture. The U.S. Census Bureau defines African Americans as "people having origins in any of the Black race groups of Africa." !" African American culture is indigenous to the descendants in the U.S. of survivors of the #iddle $assage. It is rooted in Africa and is an amalgam of chiefly sub%Saharan African and Sahelean cultures. Although slavery greatly restricted the ability of Africans in America to practice their cultural traditions& many practices& values and beliefs survived and over time have incorporated elements of 'uropean American culture. There are even certain facets of African American culture that (ere brought into being or made more prominent as a result of slavery) an e*ample of this is ho( drumming became used as a means of communication and establishing a community identity during that time. The result is a dynamic& creative culture that has had and continues to have a profound impact on mainstream American culture and on (orld culture as (ell. After 'mancipation& these uni+uely African American traditions continued to gro(. They developed into distinctive traditions in music& art& literature& religion& food& holidays& amongst others. ,hile for some time sociologists& such as -unnar #yrdal and $atrick #oynihan& believed that African Americans had lost most cultural ties (ith Africa& anthropological field research by #elville .ersovits and others demonstrated that there is a continuum of African traditions among Africans in the /e( ,orld from the ,est Indies to the United States. The greatest influence of African cultural practices on 'uropean cultures is found belo( the #ason%0i*on in the southeastern United States& especially in the Carolinas among the -ullah people and in 1ouisiana. African American culture often developed separately from mainstream American culture because of African Americans2 desire to practice their o(n traditions& as (ell as the persistence of racial segregation in America. Conse+uently African American culture has become a significant part of American culture and yet& at the same time& remains a distinct culture apart from it.
History
3rom the earliest days of slavery& slave o(ners sought to e*ercise control over their slaves by attempting to strip them of their African culture. The physical isolation and societal marginali4ation of African slaves and& later& of their free progeny& ho(ever& actually facilitated the retention of significant elements of traditional culture among Africans in the /e( ,orld generally& and in the U.S. in particular. Slave o(ners deliberately tried to repress political organi4ation in order to deal (ith the many slave rebellions that took place in the southern United States& Bra4il& .aiti& and the 0utch -uyanas.
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African cultures&slavery&slave rebellions&and the civil rights movements8circa !9::s% !;:s<have shaped African American religious& familial& political and economic behaviors. The imprint of Africa is evident in myriad (ays& in politics& economics& language& music& hairstyles& fashion& dance& religion and (orldvie(& and food preparation methods. In the United States& the very legislation that (as designed to strip slaves of culture and deny them education served in many (ays to strengthen it. In turn& African American culture has had a pervasive& transformative impact on myriad elements of mainstream American culture& among them language& music& dance& religion& cuisine& and agriculture. This process of mutual creative e*change is called creoli4ation. =ver time& the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been ubi+uitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture& but on (orld culture as (ell.
Oral tradition
Slaveholders limited or prohibited education of enslaved African Americans because they believed it might lead to revolts or escape plans. .ence& African%based oral traditions became the primary means of preserving history& morals& and other cultural information among the people. This (as consistent (ith the griot practices of oral history in many African and other cultures that did not rely on the (ritten (ord. #any of these cultural elements have been passed from generation to generation through storytelling. The folktales provided African Americans the opportunity to inspire and educate one another. '*amples of African American folktales include trickster tales of Br2er >abbit and heroic tales such as that of ?ohn .enry. The Uncle >emus stories by ?oel Chandler .arris helped to bring African American folk tales into mainstream adoption. .arris did not appreciate the comple*ity of the stories nor their potential for a lasting impact on society. Characteristics of the African American oral tradition present themselves in a number of forms. African American preachers tend to perform rather than simply speak. The emotion of the sub@ect is carried through the speaker2s tone& volume& and movement& (hich tend to mirror the rising action& clima*& and descending action of the sermon. =ften song& dance& verse and structured pauses are placed throughout the sermon. Techni+ues such as call%and%response are used to bring the audience into the presentation. In direct contrast to recent tradition in other American and ,estern cultures& it is an acceptable and common audience reaction to interrupt and affirm the speaker. Spoken (ord is another e*ample of ho( the African American oral tradition influences modern American popular culture. Spoken (ord artists employ the same techni+ues as African American preachers including movement& rhythm& and audience participation. >ap music from the !A9:2s and beyond has been seen as an e*tension of oral culture.
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Harlem Renaissance
Bora /eale .urston (as a prominent literary figure during the .arlem >enaissance. Main article: Harlem Renaissance The first ma@or public recognition of African American culture occurred during the .arlem >enaissance. In the !AC:s and !AD:s& African American music& literature& and art gained (ide notice. Authors such as Bora /eale .urston and /ella 1arsen and poets such as 1angston .ughes& Claude #cEay& and Countee Cullen (rote (orks describing the African American e*perience. ?a44& s(ing& blues and other musical forms entered American popular music. African American artists such as ,illiam .. ?ohnson and $almer .ayden created uni+ue (orks of art featuring African Americans. The .arlem >enaissance (as also a time of increased political involvement for African Americans. Among the notable African American political movements founded in the early C:th century are the United /egro Improvement Association and the /ational Association for the Advancement of Colored $eople. The /ation of Islam& a notable Islamic religious movement& also began in the early !AD:s.
African American cultural movement
The Black $o(er movement of the !A;:s and !AF:s follo(ed in the (ake of the non% violent American Civil >ights #ovement. The movement promoted racial pride and ethnic cohesion in contrast to the focus on integration of the Civil >ights #ovement& and adopted a more militant posture in the face of racism. It also inspired a ne( renaissance in African American literary and artistic e*pression generally referred to as the African American or "Black Arts #ovement." The (orks of popular recording artists such as /ina Simone 8Young, Gifted and Black< and The Impressions 8Keep On Pushin'<& as (ell as the poetry& fine arts and literature of the time& shaped and reflected the gro(ing racial and political consciousness. Among the most prominent (riters of the African American Arts #ovement (ere poet /ikki -iovanni) poet and publisher 0on 1. 1ee& (ho later became kno(n as .aki #adhubuti)
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poet and play(right 1eroi ?ones& later kno(n as Amiri Baraka) and Sonia Sanche4. =ther influential (riters (ere 'd Bullins& 0udley >andall& #ari 'vans& ?une ?ordan& 1arry /eal and Ahmos Bu%Bolton. Another ma@or aspect of the African American Arts #ovement (as the infusion of the African aesthetic& a return to a collective cultural sensibility and ethnic pride that (as much in evidence during the .arlem >enaissance and in the celebration of !gritude among the artistic and literary circles in the U.S.& Caribbean and the African continent nearly four decades earlier5 the idea that "black is beautiful." 0uring this time& there (as a resurgence of interest in& and an embrace of& elements of African culture (ithin African American culture that had been suppressed or devalued to conform to 'urocentric America. /atural hairstyles& such as the afro& and African clothing& such as the dashiki& gained popularity. #ore importantly& the African American aesthetic encouraged personal pride and political a(areness among African Americans.
Music
#en playing the d@embG& a traditional ,est African drum adopted into African American and American culture. The bags and the clothing of the man on the right are printed (ith traditional kente cloth patterns. African American music is rooted in the typically polyrhythmic music of the ethnic groups of Africa& specifically those in the ,estern& Sahelean& and Sub%Saharan regions. African oral traditions& nurtured in slavery& encouraged the use of music to pass on history& teach lessons& ease suffering& and relay messages. The African pedigree of African American music is evident in some common elements5 call and response& syncopation& percussion& improvisation& s(ung notes& blue notes& the use of falsetto& melisma& and comple* multi%part harmony. 0uring slavery& Africans in America blended traditional 'uropean hymns (ith African elements to create spirituals. #any African Americans sing 1ift 'v2ry Hoice and Sing in addition to the American national anthem& The Star%Spangled Banner& or in lieu of it. ,ritten by ?ames ,eldon ?ohnson and ?ohn >osamond ?ohnson in !A:: to be performed for the birthday of Abraham 1incoln& the song (as& and continues to be& a popular (ay for African Americans to recall past struggles and e*press ethnic solidarity& faith and hope for the future. The song (as adopted as the "/egro /ational Anthem" by the /AAC$ in !A!A. African American children are taught the song at school& church or by their families. 1ift http566en.(ikipedia.org6(iki6African7American7culture
'v2ry Hoice and Sing traditionally is sung immediately follo(ing& or instead of& The Star% Spangled Banner at events hosted by African American churches& schools& and other organi4ations. In the !9::s& as the result of the blackface minstrel sho(& African American music entered mainstream American society. By the early t(entieth century& several musical forms (ith origins in the African American community had transformed American popular music. Aided by the technological innovations of radio and phonograph records& ragtime& @a44& blues& and s(ing also became popular overseas& and the !AC:s became kno(n as the ?a44 Age. The early C:th century also sa( the creation of the first African American Broad(ay sho(s& films such as Eing Hidor2s Hallelu"ah#& and operas such as -eorge -ersh(in2s Porg$ and Bess. >ock and roll& doo (op& soul& and >IB developed in the mid C:th century. These genres became very popular in (hite audiences and (ere influences for other genres such as surf. The do4ens& an urban African American tradition of using rhyming slang to put do(n your enemies 8or friends< developed through the smart%ass street @ive of the early Seventies into a ne( form of music. In the South Bron*& the half speaking& half singing rhythmic street talk of 2rapping2 gre( into the hugely successful cultural force kno(n as .ip .op. .ip .op (ould become a multicultural movement. .o(ever& it is still important to many African Americans. The African American Cultural #ovement of the !A;:s and !AF:s also fueled the gro(th of funk and later hip%hop forms such as rap& hip house& ne( @ack s(ing and go go. African American music has e*perienced far more (idespread acceptance in American popular music in the C!st century than ever before. In addition to continuing to develop ne(er musical forms& modern artists have also started a rebirth of older genres in the form of genres such as neo soul and modern funk%inspired groups.
Dance
The Cake(alk (as the first African American dance to gain (idespread popularity in the United States.
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African American dance& like other aspects of African American culture& finds its earliest roots in the dances of the hundreds of African ethnic groups that made up African slaves in the Americas as (ell as influences from 'uropean sources in the United States. 0ance in the African tradition& and thus in the tradition of slaves& (as a part of both every day life and special occasions. #any of these traditions such as get do(n& ring shouts& and other elements of African body language survive as elements of modern dance. In the !9::s& African American dance began to appear in minstrel sho(s. These sho(s often presented African Americans as caricatures for ridicule to large audiences. The first African American dance to become popular (ith ,hite dancers (as the cake(alk in !9A!. 1ater dances to follo( in this tradition include the Charleston& the 1indy .op& and the ?itterbug. 0uring the .arlem >enaissance& all African American Broad(ay sho(s such as Shuffle Along helped to establish and legitimi4e African American dancers. African American dance forms such as tap& a combination of African and 'uropean influences& gained (idespread popularity thanks to dancers such as Bill >obinson and (ere used by leading ,hite choreographers (ho often hired African American dancers. Contemporary African American dance is descended from these earlier forms and also dra(s influence from African and Caribbean dance forms. -roups such as the Alvin Ailey American 0ance Theater have continued to contribute to the gro(th of this form. #odern popular dance in America is also greatly influenced by African American dance. American popular dance has also dra(n many influences from African American dance most notably in the hip hop genre.
Art
%and &unes at %unset, 'tlantic (it$ by .enry =ssa(a Tanner !9JA%!ADF 3rom its early origins in slave communities& through the end of the t(entieth century& African%American art has made a vital contribution to the art of the United States. 0uring http566en.(ikipedia.org6(iki6African7American7culture
the period bet(een the !;::s and the early !9::s& art took the form of small drums& +uilts& (rought%iron figures and ceramic vessels in the southern United States. These artifacts have similarities (ith comparable crafts in ,est and Central Africa. In contrast& African American artisans like the /e( 'nglandKbased engraver Scipio #oorhead and the Baltimore portrait painter ?oshua ?ohnson created art that (as conceived in a thoroughly (estern 'uropean fashion. 0uring the !9::s& .arriet $o(ers made +uilts in rural -eorgia& United States that are no( considered among the finest e*amples of nineteenth%century Southern +uilting. 1ater in the C:th century& the (omen of -eeLs Bend developed a distinctive& bold& and sophisticated +uilting style based on traditional African American +uilts (ith a geometric simplicity that developed separately but (as like that of Amish +uilts and modern art. After the American Civil ,ar& museums and galleries began more fre+uently to display the (ork of African American artists. Cultural e*pression in mainstream venues (as still limited by the dominant 'uropean aesthetic and by racial pre@udice. To increase the visibility of their (ork& many African American artists traveled to 'urope (here they had greater freedom. It (as not until the .arlem >enaissance that more (hites began to pay attention to African American art in America.
Eara ,alker& (ut& Cut paper and adhesive on (all& Brent Sikkema /MC. 0uring the !AC:s& artists such as >aymond BarthG& Aaron 0ouglas& Augusta Savage& and photographer ?ames Han 0er Bee became (ell kno(n for their (ork. 0uring the -reat 0epression& ne( opportunities arose for these and other African American artists under the ,$A. In later years& other programs and institutions& such as the /e( Mork City% based .armon 3oundation& helped to foster African American artistic talent. Augusta Savage& 'li4abeth Catlett& 1ois #ailou ?ones& >omare Bearden& ?acob 1a(rence and others e*hibited in museums and @uried art sho(s& and built reputations and follo(ings for themselves. In the !AJ:s and !A;:s& there (ere very fe( (idely accepted African American artists. 0espite this& The .igh(aymen& a loose association of CF African American artists from 3t. $ierce& 3lorida& created idyllic& +uickly reali4ed images of the 3lorida landscape and http566en.(ikipedia.org6(iki6African7American7culture
peddled some J:&::: of them from the trunks of their cars. They sold their art directly to the public rather than through galleries and art agents& thus receiving the name "The .igh(aymen". >ediscovered in the mid%!AA:s& today they are recogni4ed as an important part of American folk history. Their art(ork is (idely collected by enthusiasts and original pieces can easily fetch thousands of dollars in auctions and sales. The Black Arts #ovement of the !A;:s and !AF:s (as another period of resurgent interest in African American art. 0uring this period& several African%American artists gained national prominence& among them 1ou Stovall& 'd 1ove& Charles ,hite& and ?eff 0onaldson. 0onaldson and a group of African%American artists formed the Afrocentric collective A3>IC=B>A& (hich remains in e*istence today. The sculptor #artin $uryear& (hose (ork has been acclaimed for years& is being honored (ith a D:%year retrospective of his (ork at the #useum of #odern Art in /e( Mork starting /ovember C::F. /otable contemporary African American artists include 0avid .ammons& 'ugene ?. #artin& Charles Tolliver& and Eara ,alker.
Literature
1angston .ughes& a notable African American poet of the .arlem >enaissance. African American literature has its roots in the oral traditions of African slaves in America. The slaves used stories and fables in much the same (ay as they used music.These stories influenced the earliest African American (riters and poets in the !9thcentury such as $hillis ,heatley and =laudah '+uiano. These authors reached early high points by telling slave narratives. 0uring the early C:th century .arlem >enaissance& numerous authors and poets& such as 1angston .ughes& ,.'.B. 0ubois& and Booker T. ,ashington& grappled (ith ho( to respond to discrimination in America. Authors during the Civil >ights era& such as >ichard ,right& ?ames Bald(in and -(endolyn Brooks (rote about issues of racial segregation& oppression and other aspects of African American life. This tradition continues today (ith authors (ho have been accepted as an integral part of American literature& (ith (orks such as Roots: )he %aga of an 'merican *amil$ by Ale* .aley& http566en.(ikipedia.org6(iki6African7American7culture
)he (olor Purple by Alice ,alker& and Belo+ed by /obel $ri4e%(inning Toni #orrison& and series by =ctavia Butler and ,alter #osley that have achieved both best%selling and6or a(ard%(inning status.
Museums
The African American #useum #ovement emerged during the !AJ:s and !A;:s to preserve the heritage of the African American e*perience and to ensure its proper interpretation in American history. #useums devoted to African American history are found in many African American neighborhoods. Institutions such as the African American #useum and 1ibrary at =akland and The African American #useum in Cleveland (ere created by African Americans to teach and investigate cultural history that& until recent decades (as primarily preserved trough oral traditions.
Language
-enerations of hardships imposed on the African American community created distinctive language patterns. Slave o(ners often intentionally mi*ed people (ho spoke different African languages to discourage communication in any language other than 'nglish. This& combined (ith prohibitions against education& led to the development of pidgins& simplified mi*tures of t(o or more languages that speakers of different languages could use to communicate. '*amples of pidgins that became fully developed languages include Creole& common to .aiti&and -ullah& common to the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and -eorgia. African American Hernacular 'nglish is a type variety 8dialect& ethnolect and sociolect< of the American 'nglish language closely associated (ith the speech of but not e*clusive to African Americans.,hile AAH' is academically considered a legitimate dialect because of its logical structure& some of both Caucasians and African Americans consider it slang or the result of a poor command of Standard American 'nglish. Inner city African American children (ho are isolated by speaking only AAH' have more difficulty (ith standardi4ed testing and& after school& moving to the mainstream (orld for (ork. It is common for many speakers of AAH' to code s(itch bet(een AAH' and Standard American 'nglish depending on the setting.
Fashion and aesthetics
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A man (eaving kente cloth in -hana.
Attire
The cultural e*plosion of the !A;:s sa( the incorporation of surviving cultural dress (ith elements from modern fashion and ,est African traditional clothing to create a uni+uely African American traditional style. Eente cloth is the best kno(n African te*tile. These festive (oven patterns& (hich e*ist in numerous varieties& (ere originally made by the Ashanti and '(e peoples of -hana and Togo. Eente fabric also appears in a number of ,estern style fashions ranging from casual t%shirts to formal bo( ties and cummerbunds. Eente strips are often se(n into liturgical and academic robes or (orn as stoles. Since the Black Arts #ovement& traditional African clothing has been popular amongst African Americans for both formal and informal occasions. Another common aspect of fashion in African American culture involves the appropriate dress for (orship in the Black church. It is e*pected in most churches that an individual should present their best appearance for (orship. African American (omen in particular are kno(n for (earing vibrant dresses and suits. An interpretation of a passage from the Christian Bible& "...every (oman (ho prays or prophesies (ith her head uncovered dishonors her head..."& has led to the tradition of (earing elaborate Sunday hats& sometimes kno(n as "cro(ns."
Hair
.air styling in African American culture is greatly varied. African American hair is typically composed of tightly coiled curls. The predominant styles for (omen involve the straightening of the hair through the application of heat or chemical processes. These treatments form the base for the most commonly socially acceptable hairstyles in the United States. Alternatively& the predominant and most socially acceptable practice for men is to leave one2s hair natural. =ften& as men age and begin to lose their hair& the hair is either closely cropped& or the head is shaved completely free of hair. .o(ever& since the !A;:s& natural hairstyles& such as the afro& braids& and dreadlocks& have been gro(ing in popularity. Although the association (ith radical political movements and their vast difference from mainstream ,estern hairstyles& the styles have not yet attained (idespread social acceptance. #aintaining facial hair is more prevalent among African American men than in other male populations in the U.S. In fact& the soul patch is so named because African American men& particularly @a44 musicians& populari4ed the style. The preference for facial hair among African American men is due partly to personal taste& but because they are more prone than other ethnic groups to develop a condition kno(n as pseudofolliculitis ,ar,ae& commonly referred to as ra-or ,umps& many prefer not to shave.
Body image
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The 'uropean aesthetic and attendant mainstream concepts of beauty are often at odds (ith the African body form. Because of this& African American (omen often find themselves under pressure to conform to 'uropean standards of beauty. Still& there are individuals and groups (ho are (orking to(ards raising the standing of the African aesthetic among African Americans and internationally as (ell. This includes efforts to(ard promoting as models those (ith clearly defined African features) the mainstreaming of natural hairstyles) and& in (omen& fuller& more voluptuous body types.
Religion
,hile African Americans practice a number of religions& $rotestant Christianity is by far the most popular. Additionally& !NO of #uslims in the United States and Canada are African American.
Christianity
A river baptism in /e( Bern& /orth Carolina near the turn of the C:th century. The religious institutions of African American Christians commonly are referred tocollectively as the black church. 0uring slavery& many slaves (ere stripped of their African belief systems and typically denied free religious practice. Slaves managed& ho(ever& to hang on to some practices by integrating them into Christian (orship in secret meetings. These practices& including dance& shouts& African rhythms& and enthusiastic singing& remain a large part of (orship in the African American church. African American churches taught that all people (ere e+ual in -od2s eyes and vie(ed the doctrine of obedience to one2s master taught in (hite churches as hypocritical. Instead the African American church focused on the message of e+uality and hopes for a better future. Before and after emancipation& racial segregation in America prompted the development of organi4ed African American denominations. The first of these (as the A#' Church founded by >ichard Allen in !F9F. An African American church is not necessarily a separate denomination. Several predominantly African American churches e*ist as members of predominantly (hite denominations. African American churches have served to provide African American people (ith leadership positions and opportunities to organi4e that (ere denied in mainstream American society. Because of this& African American pastors became the bridge bet(een the African American and 'uropean American communities and thus played a crucial role in the American Civil >ights #ovement.
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1ike many Christians& African American Christians sometimes participate in or attend a Christmas play. Black ati+it$ by 1angston .ughes is a re%telling of the classic /ativity story (ith gospel music. $roductions can be found a African American theaters and churches all over the country.
Islam
A member of the /ation of Islam selling merchandise on a city street corner. 0espite the popular assumption that the /ation represents all or most African American #uslims& less than CO are members. -enerations before the advent of the Atlantic slave trade& Islam (as a thriving religion in ,est Africa due to its peaceful introduction via the lucrative trans%Saharan trade bet(een prominent tribes in the southern Sahara and the Berbers to the /orth. In his attesting to this fact the ,est African scholar Cheikh Anta 0iop e*plained5 "The primary reason for the success of Islam in Black Africa...conse+uently stems from the fact that it (as propagated peacefully at first by solitary Arabo%Berber travelers to certain Black kings and notables& (ho then spread it about them to those under their @urisdiction" #any first% generation slaves (ere often able to retain their #uslim identity& their descendants (ere not. Slaves (ere either forcibly converted to Christianity as (as the case in the Catholic lands or (ere besieged (ith gross inconviences to their religious practice such as in the case of the $rotestant American mainland. In the decades after slavery and particularly during the depression era& Islam reemerged in the form of highly visible and sometimes controversial heterodo* movements in the African American community. The first of these of note (as the #oorish Science Temple of America& founded by /oble 0re( Ali. Ali had a profound influence on ,allace 3ard& (ho later founded the Black nationalist /ation of Islam in !AD:. 'li@ah #uhammad became head of the organi4ation in !ADN. #uch like #alcolm P& (ho left the /ation of Islam in !A;N& many African American #uslims no( follo( traditional Islam. A survey by the Council on American%Islamic >elations sho(s that D:O of Sunni #os+ue attendees are African Americans. African American orthodo* #uslims are often the victims of stereotypes& most notably the assumption that an African American #uslim is a member of the /ation of Islam. They are often vie(ed by the uneducated African%American community in general as less authentic than #uslims from the #iddle 'ast or South Asia (hile credibility is less of an issue (ith immigrant #uslims and #uslim (orld in general.
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Other religions
Aside from Christianity and Islam& there are also African Americans (ho follo( ?udaism& Buddhism& and a number of other religions. The Black .ebre( Israelites are a collection of African American ?e(ish religious organi4ations. Among their varied teachings& they often include that African Americans are descended from the Biblical .ebre(s 8sometimes (ith the parado*ical claim that the ?e(ish people are not<. There is a small but gro(ing number of African Americans (ho participate in African traditional religions& such as Hodou and Santeria or Ifa and diasporic traditions like >astafarianism. #any of them are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean and South America& (here these are practiced. Because of religious practices& such as animal sacrifice& (hich are no longer common among American religions and are often legally prohibited& these groups may be vie(ed negatively and are sometimes the victims of harassment.
Life events
3or most African Americans& the observance of life events follo(s the pattern of mainstream American culture. There are some traditions (hich are uni+ue to African Americans. Some African Americans have created ne( rites of passage that are linked to African traditions. $re%teen and teenage boys and girls take classes to prepare them for adulthood. They are typically taught spirituality& responsibility& and leadership. #ost of these programs are modeled after traditional African ceremonies& (ith the focus largely on embracing African ideologies rather than specific rituals. To this day& some African American couples choose to "@ump the broom" as a part of their (edding ceremony. Although the practice& (hich can be traced back to -hana& fell out of favor in the African American community after the end of slavery& it has e*perienced a slight resurgence in recent years as some couples seek to reaffirm their African heritage. 3uneral traditions tend to vary based on a number of factors& including religion and location& but there are a number of commonalities. $robably the most important part of death and dying in the African American culture is the gathering of family and friends. 'ither in the last days before death or shortly after death& typically any friends and family members that can be reached are notified. This gathering helps to provide spiritual and emotional support& as (ell as assistance in making decisions and accomplishing everyday tasks. The spirituality of death is very important in African American culture. A member of the clergy or members of the religious community& or both& are typically present (ith the family through the entire process. 0eath is often vie(ed as transitory rather than final. #any services are called homegoings& instead of funerals& based on the belief that the person is going home to the afterlife. The entire end of life process is generally treated as http566en.(ikipedia.org6(iki6African7American7culture
a celebration of life rather than a mourning of loss. This is most notably demonstrated in the /e( =rleans ?a44 3uneral tradition (here upbeat music& dancing& and food encourage those gathered to be happy and celebrate the homegoing of a beloved friend.
Cuisine
A traditional soul food dinner consisting of fried chicken& candied yams& collard greens& cornbread& and macaroni and cheese. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States& such as yams& peanuts& rice& okra& sorghum& grits& (atermelon& indigo dyes& and cotton& can be traced to African influences. African American foods reflect creative responses to racial and economic oppression and poverty. Under slavery& African Americans (ere not allo(ed to eat better cuts of meat& and after emancipation many often (ere too poor to afford them. Soul food& a hearty cuisine commonly associated (ith African Americans in the South 8but also common to African Americans nation(ide<& makes creative use of ine*pensive products procured through farming and subsistence hunting and fishing. $ig intestines are boiled and sometimes battered and fried to make chitterlings& also kno(n as "chitlins." .am hocks and neck bones provide seasoning to soups& beans and boiled greens 8turnip greens& collard greens& and mustard greens<. =ther common foods& such as fried chicken and fish& macaroni and cheese& cornbread and hoppin2 @ohn 8black%eyed peas and rice< are prepared simply. ,hen the African American population (as considerably more rural than it generally is today& rabbit& possum& s+uirrel& and (aterfo(l (ere important additions to the diet. #any of these food traditions are especially predominant in many parts of the rural South. Traditionally prepared soul food is often high in fat& sodium and starch. .ighly suited to the physically demanding lives of laborers& farmhands and rural lifestyles generally& it is no( a contributing factor to obesity& heart disease& and diabetes in a population that has become increasingly more urban and sedentary. As a result& more health%conscious African%Americans are using alternative methods of preparation& esche(ing trans fats in favor of natural vegetable oils and substituting smoked turkey for fatback and other& cured pork products) limiting the amount of refined sugar in desserts) and emphasi4ing the consumption of more fruits and vegetables than animal protein. There is some resistance to such changes& ho(ever& as they involve deviating from long culinary tradition.
Holidays and observances
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A (oman (earing traditional ,est African clothing lighting the candles on a kinara for a E(an4aa celebration. As (ith other American racial and ethnic groups& African Americans observe ethnic holidays alongside traditional American holidays. .olidays observed in African American culture are not only observed by African Americans. The birthday of noted American civil rights leader #artin 1uther Eing& ?r has been observed nationally since !A9D. It is one of three federal holidays named for an individual. Black .istory #onth is another e*ample of another African American observance that has been adopted nationally. Black .istory #onth is an attempt to focus attention on previously neglected aspects of the African American e*perience. It is observed during the month of 3ebruary to coincide (ith the founding of the /AAC$ and the birthdays of 3rederick 0ouglass& a prominent African American abolitionist& and Abraham 1incoln& the United States president (ho signed the 'mancipation $roclamation. 1ess (idely observed outside of the African American community is 'mancipation 0ay. The nature and timing of the celebration vary regionally. It is most (idely observed as ?uneteenth& in recognition of the official reading of the 'mancipation $roclamation on ?une !A& !9;J in Te*as. Another holiday not (idely observed outside of the African American community is the birthday of #alcolm P. The day is observed on #ay !A in American cities (ith a significant African American population& including ,ashington& 0.C.. =ne of the most noted African American holidays is E(an4aa. 1ike 'mancipation 0ay& it is not (idely observed outside of the African American community& although it is gro(ing in popularity (ithin the community. African American scholar and activist "#aulana" >on Earenga invented the festival of E(an4aa in !A;;& as an alternative to the increasing commerciali4ation of Christmas. 0erived from the harvest rituals of Africans& E(an4aa is observed each year from 0ecember C; through ?anuary !. $articipants in E(an4aa celebrations affirm their African heritage and the importance of family and community by drinking from a unity cup) lighting red& black& and green candles) e*changing heritage symbols& such as African art) and recounting the lives of people (ho struggled for African and African American freedom.
ames
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African American names are often dra(n from the same language groups as other popular names found in the United States. The practice of adopting neo%African or Islamic names did not gain popularity until the late Civil >ights era. 'fforts to recover African heritage inspired selection of names (ith deeper cultural significance. $rior to this& using African names (as not practical for t(o reasons. 3irst& many African Americans (ere several generations removed from the last ancestor to have an African name since slaves (ere often given 'uropean names. Second& a traditional American name helps an individual fit into American society. Another African American naming practice that predates the use of African names is the use of "made%up" names. In an attempt to create their o(n identity& gro(ing numbers of African American parents& starting in the post%,orld ,ar II era& began creating ne( names based on sounds they found pleasing such as #ar+uon& 0aSha(n& 1aTasha& or Shandra.
Family
,hen slavery (as practiced in the United States& it (as common for families to be separated through sale. 'ven during slavery& ho(ever& African American families managed to maintain strong familial bonds. 3ree& African men and (omen& (ho managed to buy their o(n freedom by being hired out& (ho (ere emancipated& or (ho had escaped their masters& often (orked long and hard to buy the members of their families (ho remained in bondage and send for them. =thers& separated from blood kin& formed close bonds comprised of fictive kin) pla$ relations& pla$ aunts& cousins and the like. This practice& perhaps a holdover from African tradition& survived 'mancipation& (ith non%blood family friends commonly accorded the status and titles of blood relations. This broader& more African concept of (hat constitutes family and community& and the deeply rooted respect for elders that is part of African traditional societies may be the genesis of the common use of the terms like "aunt"& "uncle"& "brother&" "sister"& "#other" and "#ama" (hen addressing other African American people& some of (hom may be complete strangers. =r& it could have arisen in the Christian church as a (ay of greeting fello( congregants and believers. Immediately after slavery& African American families struggled to reunite and rebuild (hat had been taken. As late as !A;:& F9O of African American families (ere headed by married couples. This number steadily declined over the latter half of the C:th century. A number of factors& including attitudes to(ards education& gender roles& and poverty have created a situation (here& for the first time since slavery& a ma@ority of African American children live in a household (ith only one parent& typically the mother. These figures appear to indicate a (eak African American nuclear family structure& especially (ithin a large patriarchal society. This apparent (eakness is balanced by mutual aid systems established by e*tended family members to provide emotional and economic support. =lder family members pass on social and cultural traditions such as religion and manners to younger family http566en.(ikipedia.org6(iki6African7American7culture
members. In turn& the older family members are cared for by younger family members (hen they are unable to care for themselves. These relationships e*ist at all economic levels in the African American community& providing strength and support both to the African American family and the community.
!olitics and social issues
Since the passing of the Hoting >ights Act& African Americans are voting and being elected to public office in increasing numbers. As of ?anuary C::! there (ere A&!:! African American elected officials in America. African Americans are over(helmingly 0emocratic. =nly !!O of African Americans voted for -eorge ,. Bush in the C::N $residential 'lection. Social issues such as racial profiling& the racial disparity in sentencing& higher rates of poverty& institutional racism& and lo(er access to health care are important to the African American community. ,hile the divide on racial and fiscal issues has remained consistently (ide for decades& seemingly indicating a (ide social divide& African Americans tend to hold the same optimism and concern for America as ,hites. In the case of many moral issues such as religion& and family values& African Americans tend to be more conservative than ,hites. Another area (here African Americans outstrip ,hites in their conservatism is on the issue of homose*uality. $rominent leaders in the Black church have demonstrated against gay rights issues such as gay marriage. There are those (ithin the community (ho take a more inclusive position most notably& the late #rs. Coretta Scott Eing& and the >everend Al Sharpton& (ho& (hen asked in C::D (hether he supported gay marriage& replied that he might as (ell have been asked if he supported black marriage or (hite marriage.
eighborhoods
African American neighborhoods are types of ethnic enclaves found in many cities in the United States. The formation of African American neighborhoods is closely linked to the history of segregation in the United States& either through formal la(s& or as a product of social norms. 0espite this& African American neighborhoods have played an important role in the development of nearly all aspects of both African American culture and broader American culture. 0ue to segregated conditions and (idespread poverty some African American neighborhoods in the United States have been called "ghettos." The use of this term is controversial and& depending on the conte*t& potentially offensive. 0espite mainstream AmericaLs use of the term "ghetto" to signify a poor urban area populated by ethnic minorities& those living in the area often used it to signify something positive. The African American ghettos did not al(ays contain dilapidated houses and deteriorating pro@ects& nor (ere all of its residents poverty%stricken. 3or many African Americans& the ghetto (as "home" a place representing authentic blackness and a feeling& passion& or emotion derived from the rising above the struggle and suffering of being of African descent in America. 1angston .ughes relays in the "/egro -hetto" 8!AD!< and "The .eart of .arlem" 8!ANJ<5 "The buildings in .arlem are brick and stone6And the streets
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are long and (ide&6But .arlemLs much more than these alone&6.arlem is (hatLs inside." $lay(right August ,ilson used the term "ghetto" in #a >aineyLs Black Bottom 8!A9N< and 3ences 8!A9F<& both of (hich dra( upon the authorLs e*perience gro(ing up in the .ill district of $ittsburgh& an African American ghetto. Although African American neighborhoods may suffer from civic disinvestment& (ith lo(er +uality schools& less effective policing and fire protection. There are institutions such as churches and museums and political organi4ations that help to improve the physical and social capital of African American neighborhoods. In African American neighborhoods the churches may be important sources of social cohesion.3or some African Americans the kind spirituality learned through these churches (orks as a protective factor against the corrosive forces of racism. #useums devoted to African American history are also found in many African American neighborhoods. #any African American neighborhoods are located in inner cities& These are the mostly residential neighborhoods located closest to the central business district. The built environment is often ro( houses or bro(nstones& mi*ed (ith older single family homes that may be converted to multi family homes. In some areas there are larger apartment buildings. Shotgun houses are an important part of the built environment of some southern African American neighborhoods. The houses consist of three to five rooms in a ro( (ith no hall(ays. This African American house design is found in both rural and urban southern areas& mainly in African%American communities and neighborhoods.
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African American culture in the United States includes the various cultural traditions of African ethnic groups. It is both part of and distinct from American culture. The U.S. Census Bureau defines African Americans as "people having origins in any of the Black race groups of Africa." !" African American culture is indigenous to the descendants in the U.S. of survivors of the #iddle $assage. It is rooted in Africa and is an amalgam of chiefly sub%Saharan African and Sahelean cultures. Although slavery greatly restricted the ability of Africans in America to practice their cultural traditions& many practices& values and beliefs survived and over time have incorporated elements of 'uropean American culture. There are even certain facets of African American culture that (ere brought into being or made more prominent as a result of slavery) an e*ample of this is ho( drumming became used as a means of communication and establishing a community identity during that time. The result is a dynamic& creative culture that has had and continues to have a profound impact on mainstream American culture and on (orld culture as (ell. After 'mancipation& these uni+uely African American traditions continued to gro(. They developed into distinctive traditions in music& art& literature& religion& food& holidays& amongst others. ,hile for some time sociologists& such as -unnar #yrdal and $atrick #oynihan& believed that African Americans had lost most cultural ties (ith Africa& anthropological field research by #elville .ersovits and others demonstrated that there is a continuum of African traditions among Africans in the /e( ,orld from the ,est Indies to the United States. The greatest influence of African cultural practices on 'uropean cultures is found belo( the #ason%0i*on in the southeastern United States& especially in the Carolinas among the -ullah people and in 1ouisiana. African American culture often developed separately from mainstream American culture because of African Americans2 desire to practice their o(n traditions& as (ell as the persistence of racial segregation in America. Conse+uently African American culture has become a significant part of American culture and yet& at the same time& remains a distinct culture apart from it.
History
3rom the earliest days of slavery& slave o(ners sought to e*ercise control over their slaves by attempting to strip them of their African culture. The physical isolation and societal marginali4ation of African slaves and& later& of their free progeny& ho(ever& actually facilitated the retention of significant elements of traditional culture among Africans in the /e( ,orld generally& and in the U.S. in particular. Slave o(ners deliberately tried to repress political organi4ation in order to deal (ith the many slave rebellions that took place in the southern United States& Bra4il& .aiti& and the 0utch -uyanas.
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African cultures&slavery&slave rebellions&and the civil rights movements8circa !9::s% !;:s<have shaped African American religious& familial& political and economic behaviors. The imprint of Africa is evident in myriad (ays& in politics& economics& language& music& hairstyles& fashion& dance& religion and (orldvie(& and food preparation methods. In the United States& the very legislation that (as designed to strip slaves of culture and deny them education served in many (ays to strengthen it. In turn& African American culture has had a pervasive& transformative impact on myriad elements of mainstream American culture& among them language& music& dance& religion& cuisine& and agriculture. This process of mutual creative e*change is called creoli4ation. =ver time& the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been ubi+uitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture& but on (orld culture as (ell.
Oral tradition
Slaveholders limited or prohibited education of enslaved African Americans because they believed it might lead to revolts or escape plans. .ence& African%based oral traditions became the primary means of preserving history& morals& and other cultural information among the people. This (as consistent (ith the griot practices of oral history in many African and other cultures that did not rely on the (ritten (ord. #any of these cultural elements have been passed from generation to generation through storytelling. The folktales provided African Americans the opportunity to inspire and educate one another. '*amples of African American folktales include trickster tales of Br2er >abbit and heroic tales such as that of ?ohn .enry. The Uncle >emus stories by ?oel Chandler .arris helped to bring African American folk tales into mainstream adoption. .arris did not appreciate the comple*ity of the stories nor their potential for a lasting impact on society. Characteristics of the African American oral tradition present themselves in a number of forms. African American preachers tend to perform rather than simply speak. The emotion of the sub@ect is carried through the speaker2s tone& volume& and movement& (hich tend to mirror the rising action& clima*& and descending action of the sermon. =ften song& dance& verse and structured pauses are placed throughout the sermon. Techni+ues such as call%and%response are used to bring the audience into the presentation. In direct contrast to recent tradition in other American and ,estern cultures& it is an acceptable and common audience reaction to interrupt and affirm the speaker. Spoken (ord is another e*ample of ho( the African American oral tradition influences modern American popular culture. Spoken (ord artists employ the same techni+ues as African American preachers including movement& rhythm& and audience participation. >ap music from the !A9:2s and beyond has been seen as an e*tension of oral culture.
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Harlem Renaissance
Bora /eale .urston (as a prominent literary figure during the .arlem >enaissance. Main article: Harlem Renaissance The first ma@or public recognition of African American culture occurred during the .arlem >enaissance. In the !AC:s and !AD:s& African American music& literature& and art gained (ide notice. Authors such as Bora /eale .urston and /ella 1arsen and poets such as 1angston .ughes& Claude #cEay& and Countee Cullen (rote (orks describing the African American e*perience. ?a44& s(ing& blues and other musical forms entered American popular music. African American artists such as ,illiam .. ?ohnson and $almer .ayden created uni+ue (orks of art featuring African Americans. The .arlem >enaissance (as also a time of increased political involvement for African Americans. Among the notable African American political movements founded in the early C:th century are the United /egro Improvement Association and the /ational Association for the Advancement of Colored $eople. The /ation of Islam& a notable Islamic religious movement& also began in the early !AD:s.
African American cultural movement
The Black $o(er movement of the !A;:s and !AF:s follo(ed in the (ake of the non% violent American Civil >ights #ovement. The movement promoted racial pride and ethnic cohesion in contrast to the focus on integration of the Civil >ights #ovement& and adopted a more militant posture in the face of racism. It also inspired a ne( renaissance in African American literary and artistic e*pression generally referred to as the African American or "Black Arts #ovement." The (orks of popular recording artists such as /ina Simone 8Young, Gifted and Black< and The Impressions 8Keep On Pushin'<& as (ell as the poetry& fine arts and literature of the time& shaped and reflected the gro(ing racial and political consciousness. Among the most prominent (riters of the African American Arts #ovement (ere poet /ikki -iovanni) poet and publisher 0on 1. 1ee& (ho later became kno(n as .aki #adhubuti)
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poet and play(right 1eroi ?ones& later kno(n as Amiri Baraka) and Sonia Sanche4. =ther influential (riters (ere 'd Bullins& 0udley >andall& #ari 'vans& ?une ?ordan& 1arry /eal and Ahmos Bu%Bolton. Another ma@or aspect of the African American Arts #ovement (as the infusion of the African aesthetic& a return to a collective cultural sensibility and ethnic pride that (as much in evidence during the .arlem >enaissance and in the celebration of !gritude among the artistic and literary circles in the U.S.& Caribbean and the African continent nearly four decades earlier5 the idea that "black is beautiful." 0uring this time& there (as a resurgence of interest in& and an embrace of& elements of African culture (ithin African American culture that had been suppressed or devalued to conform to 'urocentric America. /atural hairstyles& such as the afro& and African clothing& such as the dashiki& gained popularity. #ore importantly& the African American aesthetic encouraged personal pride and political a(areness among African Americans.
Music
#en playing the d@embG& a traditional ,est African drum adopted into African American and American culture. The bags and the clothing of the man on the right are printed (ith traditional kente cloth patterns. African American music is rooted in the typically polyrhythmic music of the ethnic groups of Africa& specifically those in the ,estern& Sahelean& and Sub%Saharan regions. African oral traditions& nurtured in slavery& encouraged the use of music to pass on history& teach lessons& ease suffering& and relay messages. The African pedigree of African American music is evident in some common elements5 call and response& syncopation& percussion& improvisation& s(ung notes& blue notes& the use of falsetto& melisma& and comple* multi%part harmony. 0uring slavery& Africans in America blended traditional 'uropean hymns (ith African elements to create spirituals. #any African Americans sing 1ift 'v2ry Hoice and Sing in addition to the American national anthem& The Star%Spangled Banner& or in lieu of it. ,ritten by ?ames ,eldon ?ohnson and ?ohn >osamond ?ohnson in !A:: to be performed for the birthday of Abraham 1incoln& the song (as& and continues to be& a popular (ay for African Americans to recall past struggles and e*press ethnic solidarity& faith and hope for the future. The song (as adopted as the "/egro /ational Anthem" by the /AAC$ in !A!A. African American children are taught the song at school& church or by their families. 1ift http566en.(ikipedia.org6(iki6African7American7culture
'v2ry Hoice and Sing traditionally is sung immediately follo(ing& or instead of& The Star% Spangled Banner at events hosted by African American churches& schools& and other organi4ations. In the !9::s& as the result of the blackface minstrel sho(& African American music entered mainstream American society. By the early t(entieth century& several musical forms (ith origins in the African American community had transformed American popular music. Aided by the technological innovations of radio and phonograph records& ragtime& @a44& blues& and s(ing also became popular overseas& and the !AC:s became kno(n as the ?a44 Age. The early C:th century also sa( the creation of the first African American Broad(ay sho(s& films such as Eing Hidor2s Hallelu"ah#& and operas such as -eorge -ersh(in2s Porg$ and Bess. >ock and roll& doo (op& soul& and >IB developed in the mid C:th century. These genres became very popular in (hite audiences and (ere influences for other genres such as surf. The do4ens& an urban African American tradition of using rhyming slang to put do(n your enemies 8or friends< developed through the smart%ass street @ive of the early Seventies into a ne( form of music. In the South Bron*& the half speaking& half singing rhythmic street talk of 2rapping2 gre( into the hugely successful cultural force kno(n as .ip .op. .ip .op (ould become a multicultural movement. .o(ever& it is still important to many African Americans. The African American Cultural #ovement of the !A;:s and !AF:s also fueled the gro(th of funk and later hip%hop forms such as rap& hip house& ne( @ack s(ing and go go. African American music has e*perienced far more (idespread acceptance in American popular music in the C!st century than ever before. In addition to continuing to develop ne(er musical forms& modern artists have also started a rebirth of older genres in the form of genres such as neo soul and modern funk%inspired groups.
Dance
The Cake(alk (as the first African American dance to gain (idespread popularity in the United States.
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African American dance& like other aspects of African American culture& finds its earliest roots in the dances of the hundreds of African ethnic groups that made up African slaves in the Americas as (ell as influences from 'uropean sources in the United States. 0ance in the African tradition& and thus in the tradition of slaves& (as a part of both every day life and special occasions. #any of these traditions such as get do(n& ring shouts& and other elements of African body language survive as elements of modern dance. In the !9::s& African American dance began to appear in minstrel sho(s. These sho(s often presented African Americans as caricatures for ridicule to large audiences. The first African American dance to become popular (ith ,hite dancers (as the cake(alk in !9A!. 1ater dances to follo( in this tradition include the Charleston& the 1indy .op& and the ?itterbug. 0uring the .arlem >enaissance& all African American Broad(ay sho(s such as Shuffle Along helped to establish and legitimi4e African American dancers. African American dance forms such as tap& a combination of African and 'uropean influences& gained (idespread popularity thanks to dancers such as Bill >obinson and (ere used by leading ,hite choreographers (ho often hired African American dancers. Contemporary African American dance is descended from these earlier forms and also dra(s influence from African and Caribbean dance forms. -roups such as the Alvin Ailey American 0ance Theater have continued to contribute to the gro(th of this form. #odern popular dance in America is also greatly influenced by African American dance. American popular dance has also dra(n many influences from African American dance most notably in the hip hop genre.
Art
%and &unes at %unset, 'tlantic (it$ by .enry =ssa(a Tanner !9JA%!ADF 3rom its early origins in slave communities& through the end of the t(entieth century& African%American art has made a vital contribution to the art of the United States. 0uring http566en.(ikipedia.org6(iki6African7American7culture
the period bet(een the !;::s and the early !9::s& art took the form of small drums& +uilts& (rought%iron figures and ceramic vessels in the southern United States. These artifacts have similarities (ith comparable crafts in ,est and Central Africa. In contrast& African American artisans like the /e( 'nglandKbased engraver Scipio #oorhead and the Baltimore portrait painter ?oshua ?ohnson created art that (as conceived in a thoroughly (estern 'uropean fashion. 0uring the !9::s& .arriet $o(ers made +uilts in rural -eorgia& United States that are no( considered among the finest e*amples of nineteenth%century Southern +uilting. 1ater in the C:th century& the (omen of -eeLs Bend developed a distinctive& bold& and sophisticated +uilting style based on traditional African American +uilts (ith a geometric simplicity that developed separately but (as like that of Amish +uilts and modern art. After the American Civil ,ar& museums and galleries began more fre+uently to display the (ork of African American artists. Cultural e*pression in mainstream venues (as still limited by the dominant 'uropean aesthetic and by racial pre@udice. To increase the visibility of their (ork& many African American artists traveled to 'urope (here they had greater freedom. It (as not until the .arlem >enaissance that more (hites began to pay attention to African American art in America.
Eara ,alker& (ut& Cut paper and adhesive on (all& Brent Sikkema /MC. 0uring the !AC:s& artists such as >aymond BarthG& Aaron 0ouglas& Augusta Savage& and photographer ?ames Han 0er Bee became (ell kno(n for their (ork. 0uring the -reat 0epression& ne( opportunities arose for these and other African American artists under the ,$A. In later years& other programs and institutions& such as the /e( Mork City% based .armon 3oundation& helped to foster African American artistic talent. Augusta Savage& 'li4abeth Catlett& 1ois #ailou ?ones& >omare Bearden& ?acob 1a(rence and others e*hibited in museums and @uried art sho(s& and built reputations and follo(ings for themselves. In the !AJ:s and !A;:s& there (ere very fe( (idely accepted African American artists. 0espite this& The .igh(aymen& a loose association of CF African American artists from 3t. $ierce& 3lorida& created idyllic& +uickly reali4ed images of the 3lorida landscape and http566en.(ikipedia.org6(iki6African7American7culture
peddled some J:&::: of them from the trunks of their cars. They sold their art directly to the public rather than through galleries and art agents& thus receiving the name "The .igh(aymen". >ediscovered in the mid%!AA:s& today they are recogni4ed as an important part of American folk history. Their art(ork is (idely collected by enthusiasts and original pieces can easily fetch thousands of dollars in auctions and sales. The Black Arts #ovement of the !A;:s and !AF:s (as another period of resurgent interest in African American art. 0uring this period& several African%American artists gained national prominence& among them 1ou Stovall& 'd 1ove& Charles ,hite& and ?eff 0onaldson. 0onaldson and a group of African%American artists formed the Afrocentric collective A3>IC=B>A& (hich remains in e*istence today. The sculptor #artin $uryear& (hose (ork has been acclaimed for years& is being honored (ith a D:%year retrospective of his (ork at the #useum of #odern Art in /e( Mork starting /ovember C::F. /otable contemporary African American artists include 0avid .ammons& 'ugene ?. #artin& Charles Tolliver& and Eara ,alker.
Literature
1angston .ughes& a notable African American poet of the .arlem >enaissance. African American literature has its roots in the oral traditions of African slaves in America. The slaves used stories and fables in much the same (ay as they used music.These stories influenced the earliest African American (riters and poets in the !9thcentury such as $hillis ,heatley and =laudah '+uiano. These authors reached early high points by telling slave narratives. 0uring the early C:th century .arlem >enaissance& numerous authors and poets& such as 1angston .ughes& ,.'.B. 0ubois& and Booker T. ,ashington& grappled (ith ho( to respond to discrimination in America. Authors during the Civil >ights era& such as >ichard ,right& ?ames Bald(in and -(endolyn Brooks (rote about issues of racial segregation& oppression and other aspects of African American life. This tradition continues today (ith authors (ho have been accepted as an integral part of American literature& (ith (orks such as Roots: )he %aga of an 'merican *amil$ by Ale* .aley& http566en.(ikipedia.org6(iki6African7American7culture
)he (olor Purple by Alice ,alker& and Belo+ed by /obel $ri4e%(inning Toni #orrison& and series by =ctavia Butler and ,alter #osley that have achieved both best%selling and6or a(ard%(inning status.
Museums
The African American #useum #ovement emerged during the !AJ:s and !A;:s to preserve the heritage of the African American e*perience and to ensure its proper interpretation in American history. #useums devoted to African American history are found in many African American neighborhoods. Institutions such as the African American #useum and 1ibrary at =akland and The African American #useum in Cleveland (ere created by African Americans to teach and investigate cultural history that& until recent decades (as primarily preserved trough oral traditions.
Language
-enerations of hardships imposed on the African American community created distinctive language patterns. Slave o(ners often intentionally mi*ed people (ho spoke different African languages to discourage communication in any language other than 'nglish. This& combined (ith prohibitions against education& led to the development of pidgins& simplified mi*tures of t(o or more languages that speakers of different languages could use to communicate. '*amples of pidgins that became fully developed languages include Creole& common to .aiti&and -ullah& common to the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and -eorgia. African American Hernacular 'nglish is a type variety 8dialect& ethnolect and sociolect< of the American 'nglish language closely associated (ith the speech of but not e*clusive to African Americans.,hile AAH' is academically considered a legitimate dialect because of its logical structure& some of both Caucasians and African Americans consider it slang or the result of a poor command of Standard American 'nglish. Inner city African American children (ho are isolated by speaking only AAH' have more difficulty (ith standardi4ed testing and& after school& moving to the mainstream (orld for (ork. It is common for many speakers of AAH' to code s(itch bet(een AAH' and Standard American 'nglish depending on the setting.
Fashion and aesthetics
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A man (eaving kente cloth in -hana.
Attire
The cultural e*plosion of the !A;:s sa( the incorporation of surviving cultural dress (ith elements from modern fashion and ,est African traditional clothing to create a uni+uely African American traditional style. Eente cloth is the best kno(n African te*tile. These festive (oven patterns& (hich e*ist in numerous varieties& (ere originally made by the Ashanti and '(e peoples of -hana and Togo. Eente fabric also appears in a number of ,estern style fashions ranging from casual t%shirts to formal bo( ties and cummerbunds. Eente strips are often se(n into liturgical and academic robes or (orn as stoles. Since the Black Arts #ovement& traditional African clothing has been popular amongst African Americans for both formal and informal occasions. Another common aspect of fashion in African American culture involves the appropriate dress for (orship in the Black church. It is e*pected in most churches that an individual should present their best appearance for (orship. African American (omen in particular are kno(n for (earing vibrant dresses and suits. An interpretation of a passage from the Christian Bible& "...every (oman (ho prays or prophesies (ith her head uncovered dishonors her head..."& has led to the tradition of (earing elaborate Sunday hats& sometimes kno(n as "cro(ns."
Hair
.air styling in African American culture is greatly varied. African American hair is typically composed of tightly coiled curls. The predominant styles for (omen involve the straightening of the hair through the application of heat or chemical processes. These treatments form the base for the most commonly socially acceptable hairstyles in the United States. Alternatively& the predominant and most socially acceptable practice for men is to leave one2s hair natural. =ften& as men age and begin to lose their hair& the hair is either closely cropped& or the head is shaved completely free of hair. .o(ever& since the !A;:s& natural hairstyles& such as the afro& braids& and dreadlocks& have been gro(ing in popularity. Although the association (ith radical political movements and their vast difference from mainstream ,estern hairstyles& the styles have not yet attained (idespread social acceptance. #aintaining facial hair is more prevalent among African American men than in other male populations in the U.S. In fact& the soul patch is so named because African American men& particularly @a44 musicians& populari4ed the style. The preference for facial hair among African American men is due partly to personal taste& but because they are more prone than other ethnic groups to develop a condition kno(n as pseudofolliculitis ,ar,ae& commonly referred to as ra-or ,umps& many prefer not to shave.
Body image
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The 'uropean aesthetic and attendant mainstream concepts of beauty are often at odds (ith the African body form. Because of this& African American (omen often find themselves under pressure to conform to 'uropean standards of beauty. Still& there are individuals and groups (ho are (orking to(ards raising the standing of the African aesthetic among African Americans and internationally as (ell. This includes efforts to(ard promoting as models those (ith clearly defined African features) the mainstreaming of natural hairstyles) and& in (omen& fuller& more voluptuous body types.
Religion
,hile African Americans practice a number of religions& $rotestant Christianity is by far the most popular. Additionally& !NO of #uslims in the United States and Canada are African American.
Christianity
A river baptism in /e( Bern& /orth Carolina near the turn of the C:th century. The religious institutions of African American Christians commonly are referred tocollectively as the black church. 0uring slavery& many slaves (ere stripped of their African belief systems and typically denied free religious practice. Slaves managed& ho(ever& to hang on to some practices by integrating them into Christian (orship in secret meetings. These practices& including dance& shouts& African rhythms& and enthusiastic singing& remain a large part of (orship in the African American church. African American churches taught that all people (ere e+ual in -od2s eyes and vie(ed the doctrine of obedience to one2s master taught in (hite churches as hypocritical. Instead the African American church focused on the message of e+uality and hopes for a better future. Before and after emancipation& racial segregation in America prompted the development of organi4ed African American denominations. The first of these (as the A#' Church founded by >ichard Allen in !F9F. An African American church is not necessarily a separate denomination. Several predominantly African American churches e*ist as members of predominantly (hite denominations. African American churches have served to provide African American people (ith leadership positions and opportunities to organi4e that (ere denied in mainstream American society. Because of this& African American pastors became the bridge bet(een the African American and 'uropean American communities and thus played a crucial role in the American Civil >ights #ovement.
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1ike many Christians& African American Christians sometimes participate in or attend a Christmas play. Black ati+it$ by 1angston .ughes is a re%telling of the classic /ativity story (ith gospel music. $roductions can be found a African American theaters and churches all over the country.
Islam
A member of the /ation of Islam selling merchandise on a city street corner. 0espite the popular assumption that the /ation represents all or most African American #uslims& less than CO are members. -enerations before the advent of the Atlantic slave trade& Islam (as a thriving religion in ,est Africa due to its peaceful introduction via the lucrative trans%Saharan trade bet(een prominent tribes in the southern Sahara and the Berbers to the /orth. In his attesting to this fact the ,est African scholar Cheikh Anta 0iop e*plained5 "The primary reason for the success of Islam in Black Africa...conse+uently stems from the fact that it (as propagated peacefully at first by solitary Arabo%Berber travelers to certain Black kings and notables& (ho then spread it about them to those under their @urisdiction" #any first% generation slaves (ere often able to retain their #uslim identity& their descendants (ere not. Slaves (ere either forcibly converted to Christianity as (as the case in the Catholic lands or (ere besieged (ith gross inconviences to their religious practice such as in the case of the $rotestant American mainland. In the decades after slavery and particularly during the depression era& Islam reemerged in the form of highly visible and sometimes controversial heterodo* movements in the African American community. The first of these of note (as the #oorish Science Temple of America& founded by /oble 0re( Ali. Ali had a profound influence on ,allace 3ard& (ho later founded the Black nationalist /ation of Islam in !AD:. 'li@ah #uhammad became head of the organi4ation in !ADN. #uch like #alcolm P& (ho left the /ation of Islam in !A;N& many African American #uslims no( follo( traditional Islam. A survey by the Council on American%Islamic >elations sho(s that D:O of Sunni #os+ue attendees are African Americans. African American orthodo* #uslims are often the victims of stereotypes& most notably the assumption that an African American #uslim is a member of the /ation of Islam. They are often vie(ed by the uneducated African%American community in general as less authentic than #uslims from the #iddle 'ast or South Asia (hile credibility is less of an issue (ith immigrant #uslims and #uslim (orld in general.
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Other religions
Aside from Christianity and Islam& there are also African Americans (ho follo( ?udaism& Buddhism& and a number of other religions. The Black .ebre( Israelites are a collection of African American ?e(ish religious organi4ations. Among their varied teachings& they often include that African Americans are descended from the Biblical .ebre(s 8sometimes (ith the parado*ical claim that the ?e(ish people are not<. There is a small but gro(ing number of African Americans (ho participate in African traditional religions& such as Hodou and Santeria or Ifa and diasporic traditions like >astafarianism. #any of them are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean and South America& (here these are practiced. Because of religious practices& such as animal sacrifice& (hich are no longer common among American religions and are often legally prohibited& these groups may be vie(ed negatively and are sometimes the victims of harassment.
Life events
3or most African Americans& the observance of life events follo(s the pattern of mainstream American culture. There are some traditions (hich are uni+ue to African Americans. Some African Americans have created ne( rites of passage that are linked to African traditions. $re%teen and teenage boys and girls take classes to prepare them for adulthood. They are typically taught spirituality& responsibility& and leadership. #ost of these programs are modeled after traditional African ceremonies& (ith the focus largely on embracing African ideologies rather than specific rituals. To this day& some African American couples choose to "@ump the broom" as a part of their (edding ceremony. Although the practice& (hich can be traced back to -hana& fell out of favor in the African American community after the end of slavery& it has e*perienced a slight resurgence in recent years as some couples seek to reaffirm their African heritage. 3uneral traditions tend to vary based on a number of factors& including religion and location& but there are a number of commonalities. $robably the most important part of death and dying in the African American culture is the gathering of family and friends. 'ither in the last days before death or shortly after death& typically any friends and family members that can be reached are notified. This gathering helps to provide spiritual and emotional support& as (ell as assistance in making decisions and accomplishing everyday tasks. The spirituality of death is very important in African American culture. A member of the clergy or members of the religious community& or both& are typically present (ith the family through the entire process. 0eath is often vie(ed as transitory rather than final. #any services are called homegoings& instead of funerals& based on the belief that the person is going home to the afterlife. The entire end of life process is generally treated as http566en.(ikipedia.org6(iki6African7American7culture
a celebration of life rather than a mourning of loss. This is most notably demonstrated in the /e( =rleans ?a44 3uneral tradition (here upbeat music& dancing& and food encourage those gathered to be happy and celebrate the homegoing of a beloved friend.
Cuisine
A traditional soul food dinner consisting of fried chicken& candied yams& collard greens& cornbread& and macaroni and cheese. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States& such as yams& peanuts& rice& okra& sorghum& grits& (atermelon& indigo dyes& and cotton& can be traced to African influences. African American foods reflect creative responses to racial and economic oppression and poverty. Under slavery& African Americans (ere not allo(ed to eat better cuts of meat& and after emancipation many often (ere too poor to afford them. Soul food& a hearty cuisine commonly associated (ith African Americans in the South 8but also common to African Americans nation(ide<& makes creative use of ine*pensive products procured through farming and subsistence hunting and fishing. $ig intestines are boiled and sometimes battered and fried to make chitterlings& also kno(n as "chitlins." .am hocks and neck bones provide seasoning to soups& beans and boiled greens 8turnip greens& collard greens& and mustard greens<. =ther common foods& such as fried chicken and fish& macaroni and cheese& cornbread and hoppin2 @ohn 8black%eyed peas and rice< are prepared simply. ,hen the African American population (as considerably more rural than it generally is today& rabbit& possum& s+uirrel& and (aterfo(l (ere important additions to the diet. #any of these food traditions are especially predominant in many parts of the rural South. Traditionally prepared soul food is often high in fat& sodium and starch. .ighly suited to the physically demanding lives of laborers& farmhands and rural lifestyles generally& it is no( a contributing factor to obesity& heart disease& and diabetes in a population that has become increasingly more urban and sedentary. As a result& more health%conscious African%Americans are using alternative methods of preparation& esche(ing trans fats in favor of natural vegetable oils and substituting smoked turkey for fatback and other& cured pork products) limiting the amount of refined sugar in desserts) and emphasi4ing the consumption of more fruits and vegetables than animal protein. There is some resistance to such changes& ho(ever& as they involve deviating from long culinary tradition.
Holidays and observances
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A (oman (earing traditional ,est African clothing lighting the candles on a kinara for a E(an4aa celebration. As (ith other American racial and ethnic groups& African Americans observe ethnic holidays alongside traditional American holidays. .olidays observed in African American culture are not only observed by African Americans. The birthday of noted American civil rights leader #artin 1uther Eing& ?r has been observed nationally since !A9D. It is one of three federal holidays named for an individual. Black .istory #onth is another e*ample of another African American observance that has been adopted nationally. Black .istory #onth is an attempt to focus attention on previously neglected aspects of the African American e*perience. It is observed during the month of 3ebruary to coincide (ith the founding of the /AAC$ and the birthdays of 3rederick 0ouglass& a prominent African American abolitionist& and Abraham 1incoln& the United States president (ho signed the 'mancipation $roclamation. 1ess (idely observed outside of the African American community is 'mancipation 0ay. The nature and timing of the celebration vary regionally. It is most (idely observed as ?uneteenth& in recognition of the official reading of the 'mancipation $roclamation on ?une !A& !9;J in Te*as. Another holiday not (idely observed outside of the African American community is the birthday of #alcolm P. The day is observed on #ay !A in American cities (ith a significant African American population& including ,ashington& 0.C.. =ne of the most noted African American holidays is E(an4aa. 1ike 'mancipation 0ay& it is not (idely observed outside of the African American community& although it is gro(ing in popularity (ithin the community. African American scholar and activist "#aulana" >on Earenga invented the festival of E(an4aa in !A;;& as an alternative to the increasing commerciali4ation of Christmas. 0erived from the harvest rituals of Africans& E(an4aa is observed each year from 0ecember C; through ?anuary !. $articipants in E(an4aa celebrations affirm their African heritage and the importance of family and community by drinking from a unity cup) lighting red& black& and green candles) e*changing heritage symbols& such as African art) and recounting the lives of people (ho struggled for African and African American freedom.
ames
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African American names are often dra(n from the same language groups as other popular names found in the United States. The practice of adopting neo%African or Islamic names did not gain popularity until the late Civil >ights era. 'fforts to recover African heritage inspired selection of names (ith deeper cultural significance. $rior to this& using African names (as not practical for t(o reasons. 3irst& many African Americans (ere several generations removed from the last ancestor to have an African name since slaves (ere often given 'uropean names. Second& a traditional American name helps an individual fit into American society. Another African American naming practice that predates the use of African names is the use of "made%up" names. In an attempt to create their o(n identity& gro(ing numbers of African American parents& starting in the post%,orld ,ar II era& began creating ne( names based on sounds they found pleasing such as #ar+uon& 0aSha(n& 1aTasha& or Shandra.
Family
,hen slavery (as practiced in the United States& it (as common for families to be separated through sale. 'ven during slavery& ho(ever& African American families managed to maintain strong familial bonds. 3ree& African men and (omen& (ho managed to buy their o(n freedom by being hired out& (ho (ere emancipated& or (ho had escaped their masters& often (orked long and hard to buy the members of their families (ho remained in bondage and send for them. =thers& separated from blood kin& formed close bonds comprised of fictive kin) pla$ relations& pla$ aunts& cousins and the like. This practice& perhaps a holdover from African tradition& survived 'mancipation& (ith non%blood family friends commonly accorded the status and titles of blood relations. This broader& more African concept of (hat constitutes family and community& and the deeply rooted respect for elders that is part of African traditional societies may be the genesis of the common use of the terms like "aunt"& "uncle"& "brother&" "sister"& "#other" and "#ama" (hen addressing other African American people& some of (hom may be complete strangers. =r& it could have arisen in the Christian church as a (ay of greeting fello( congregants and believers. Immediately after slavery& African American families struggled to reunite and rebuild (hat had been taken. As late as !A;:& F9O of African American families (ere headed by married couples. This number steadily declined over the latter half of the C:th century. A number of factors& including attitudes to(ards education& gender roles& and poverty have created a situation (here& for the first time since slavery& a ma@ority of African American children live in a household (ith only one parent& typically the mother. These figures appear to indicate a (eak African American nuclear family structure& especially (ithin a large patriarchal society. This apparent (eakness is balanced by mutual aid systems established by e*tended family members to provide emotional and economic support. =lder family members pass on social and cultural traditions such as religion and manners to younger family http566en.(ikipedia.org6(iki6African7American7culture
members. In turn& the older family members are cared for by younger family members (hen they are unable to care for themselves. These relationships e*ist at all economic levels in the African American community& providing strength and support both to the African American family and the community.
!olitics and social issues
Since the passing of the Hoting >ights Act& African Americans are voting and being elected to public office in increasing numbers. As of ?anuary C::! there (ere A&!:! African American elected officials in America. African Americans are over(helmingly 0emocratic. =nly !!O of African Americans voted for -eorge ,. Bush in the C::N $residential 'lection. Social issues such as racial profiling& the racial disparity in sentencing& higher rates of poverty& institutional racism& and lo(er access to health care are important to the African American community. ,hile the divide on racial and fiscal issues has remained consistently (ide for decades& seemingly indicating a (ide social divide& African Americans tend to hold the same optimism and concern for America as ,hites. In the case of many moral issues such as religion& and family values& African Americans tend to be more conservative than ,hites. Another area (here African Americans outstrip ,hites in their conservatism is on the issue of homose*uality. $rominent leaders in the Black church have demonstrated against gay rights issues such as gay marriage. There are those (ithin the community (ho take a more inclusive position most notably& the late #rs. Coretta Scott Eing& and the >everend Al Sharpton& (ho& (hen asked in C::D (hether he supported gay marriage& replied that he might as (ell have been asked if he supported black marriage or (hite marriage.
eighborhoods
African American neighborhoods are types of ethnic enclaves found in many cities in the United States. The formation of African American neighborhoods is closely linked to the history of segregation in the United States& either through formal la(s& or as a product of social norms. 0espite this& African American neighborhoods have played an important role in the development of nearly all aspects of both African American culture and broader American culture. 0ue to segregated conditions and (idespread poverty some African American neighborhoods in the United States have been called "ghettos." The use of this term is controversial and& depending on the conte*t& potentially offensive. 0espite mainstream AmericaLs use of the term "ghetto" to signify a poor urban area populated by ethnic minorities& those living in the area often used it to signify something positive. The African American ghettos did not al(ays contain dilapidated houses and deteriorating pro@ects& nor (ere all of its residents poverty%stricken. 3or many African Americans& the ghetto (as "home" a place representing authentic blackness and a feeling& passion& or emotion derived from the rising above the struggle and suffering of being of African descent in America. 1angston .ughes relays in the "/egro -hetto" 8!AD!< and "The .eart of .arlem" 8!ANJ<5 "The buildings in .arlem are brick and stone6And the streets
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are long and (ide&6But .arlemLs much more than these alone&6.arlem is (hatLs inside." $lay(right August ,ilson used the term "ghetto" in #a >aineyLs Black Bottom 8!A9N< and 3ences 8!A9F<& both of (hich dra( upon the authorLs e*perience gro(ing up in the .ill district of $ittsburgh& an African American ghetto. Although African American neighborhoods may suffer from civic disinvestment& (ith lo(er +uality schools& less effective policing and fire protection. There are institutions such as churches and museums and political organi4ations that help to improve the physical and social capital of African American neighborhoods. In African American neighborhoods the churches may be important sources of social cohesion.3or some African Americans the kind spirituality learned through these churches (orks as a protective factor against the corrosive forces of racism. #useums devoted to African American history are also found in many African American neighborhoods. #any African American neighborhoods are located in inner cities& These are the mostly residential neighborhoods located closest to the central business district. The built environment is often ro( houses or bro(nstones& mi*ed (ith older single family homes that may be converted to multi family homes. In some areas there are larger apartment buildings. Shotgun houses are an important part of the built environment of some southern African American neighborhoods. The houses consist of three to five rooms in a ro( (ith no hall(ays. This African American house design is found in both rural and urban southern areas& mainly in African%American communities and neighborhoods.
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