Film Studies1

FILM STUDIES
UNIT 1
Indian cinema
Following the screening of the Lumière moving pictures in London (1895) cinema became a
sensation across Europe and by July 1896 the Lumière films had been in show in Bombay
(now Mumbai).] The first short films in India were directed by Hiralal Sen, starting with The
Flower of Persia (1898)[22]
The first Indian movie released in India was Shree pundalik a silent film
in Marathi by Dadasaheb Torne on 18 May 1912 at 'Coronation Cinematograph', Mumbai.[23]
[24]

Torne is also considered as a Father of Indian Cinema.[25]

The first full-length motion picture in India was produced by Dadasaheb Phalke, Dadasaheb is
the pioneer of Indian film industry a scholar on India's languages and culture, who brought
together elements from Sanskrit epics to produce his Raja Harishchandra( The full-length motion
picture). (1913), a silent film in Marathi. The female roles in the film were played by male actors.
[26]

The first Indian chain of cinema theaters was owned by the Calcutta entrepreneur Jamshedji

Framji Madan, who oversaw production of 10 films annually and distributed them throughout
the Indian subcontinent.[26]
Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu was an Indian artist and a pioneer in the production of silent Indian
movies and talkies. Starting from 1909, he was involved in many aspects of Indian cinema's
history, like travelling to different regions in Asia, to promote film work. He was the first to build
and own cinema hall's in Madras. The Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu Award is an annual award
incorporated into Nandi Awards to recognize people for their contributions to the Telugu film
industry.[27][28]
During the early twentieth century cinema as a medium gained popularity across India's
population and its many economic sections.[21] Tickets were made affordable to the common
man at a low price and for the financially capable additional comforts meant additional admission
ticket price.[21]Audiences thronged to cinema halls as this affordable medium of entertainment
was available for as low as an anna (4 paisa) in Bombay.[21] The content of Indian commercial
cinema was increasingly tailored to appeal to these masses.[21] Young Indian producers began to
incorporate elements of India's social life and culture into cinema.[29] Others brought with them
ideas from across the world.[29] This was also the time when global audiences and markets
became aware of India's film industry.[29]
In 1927, the British Government, in order to promote the market in India for British films over
American ones, formed the Indian Cinematograph Enquiry Committee. The ICC consisted of
three British and three Indians, led by T. Rangachari, a Madras lawyer.[30] This committee failed
to support the desired recommendations of supporting British Film, instead recommending
support for the fledgling Indian film industry. Their suggestions were shelved.
Ardeshir Irani released Alam Ara which was the first Indian talking film, on 14 March 1931.
[26]

H.M. Reddy, produced and directed Bhakta Prahlada (Telugu), released on 15 September

1931 and Kalidas (Tamil)[31]released on 31 October 1931. Kalidas was produced by Ardeshir

Irani and directed by H.M. Reddy. These two films are south India's first talkie films to have a
theatrical release.[32] Following the inception of 'talkies' in India some film stars were highly
sought after and earned comfortable incomes through acting.[26] As sound technology advanced
the 1930s saw the rise of music in Indian cinema with musicals such as Indra Sabhaand Devi
Devyani marking the beginning of song-and-dance in India's films.[26] Studios emerged across
major cities such as Chennai, Kolkata, and Mumbai as film making became an established craft
by 1935, exemplified by the success of Devdas, which had managed to enthrall audiences
nationwide.[33] Bombay Talkies came up in 1934 and Prabhat Studios in Pune had begun
production of films meant for the Marathi language audience.[33] Filmmaker R. S. D. Choudhury
produced Wrath (1930), banned by the British Raj in India as it depicted actors as Indian
leaders, an expression censored during the days of the Indian independence movement.[26]
The Indian Masala film—a slang used for commercial films with song, dance, romance etc.—
came up following the second world war.[33] South Indian cinema gained prominence throughout
India with the release of S.S. Vasan's Chandralekha.[33] During the 1940s cinema in South
India accounted for nearly half of India's cinema halls and cinema came to be viewed as an
instrument of cultural revival.[33] The partition of India following its independence divided the
nation's assets and a number of studios went to the newly formed Pakistan.[33] The strife of
partition would become an enduring subject for film making during the decades that followed.[33]
After Indian independence the cinema of India was inquired by the S.K. Patil Commission.
[34]

S.K. Patil, head of the commission, viewed cinema in India as a 'combination of art, industry,

and showmanship' while noting its commercial value.[34] Patil further recommended setting up of
a Film Finance Corporation under the Ministry of Finance.[35] This advice was later taken up in
1960 and the institution came into being to provide financial support to talented filmmakers
throughout India.[35] The Indian government had established a Films Division by 1948 which
eventually became one of the largest documentary film producers in the world with an annual
production of over 200 short documentaries, each released in 18 languages with 9000 prints for
permanent film theaters across the country.[36]
The Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA), an art movement with a communist inclination,
began to take shape through the 1940s and the 1950s.[34] A number of realistic IPTA plays, such
as Bijon Bhattacharya's Nabanna in 1944 (based on the tragedy of the Bengal famine of 1943),
prepared the ground for the solidification of realism in Indian cinema, exemplified by Khwaja
Ahmad Abbas's Dharti Ke Lal (Children of the Earth) in 1946.[34] The IPTA movement continued
to emphasize on reality and went on to produce Mother India and Pyaasa, among India's most
recognizable cinematic productions.
Golden Age of Indian cinema
Following India's independence, the period from the late 1940s to the 1960s are regarded by
film historians as the 'Golden Age' of Indian cinema.[38][39][40] Some of the most critically acclaimed
Indian films of all time were produced during this period. This period saw the emergence of a
new Parallel Cinema movement, mainly led by Bengali cinema.[41] Early examples of films in this
movement include Chetan Anand's Neecha Nagar (1946),[42] Ritwik Ghatak's Nagarik (1952),[43]
[44]

and Bimal Roy's Do Bigha Zameen (1953), laying the foundations for

Indian neorealism[45] and the "Indian New Wave".[46] Pather Panchali (1955), the first part of The
Apu Trilogy (1955–1959) by Satyajit Ray, marked his entry in Indian cinema.[47] The Apu
Trilogy won major prizes at all the major international film festivals and led to the 'Parallel
Cinema' movement being firmly established in Indian cinema. Its influence on world cinema can
also be felt in the "youthful coming-of-agedramas that have flooded art houses since the midfifties" which "owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy" The cinematographer Subrata Mitra,
who made his debut with Satyajit Ray's The Apu Trilogy, also had an important influence
on cinematography across the world. One of his most important techniques was bounce lighting,
to recreate the effect of daylight on sets. He pioneered the technique while
filming Aparajito (1956), the second part of The Apu Trilogy.[49] Some of the experimental
techniques which Satyajit Ray pioneered include photo-negative flashbacksand Xray digressions while filming Pratidwandi (1972).[50] Ray's 1967 script for a film to be called The
Alien, which was eventually cancelled, is also widely believed to have been the inspiration
forSteven Spielberg's E.T. (1982).[51][52][53] Satyajit Ray and Ritwik Ghatak went on to direct many
more critically acclaimed 'art films', and they were followed by other acclaimed Indian
independent filmmakers such as Mrinal Sen, Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Mani Kaul and Buddhadeb
Dasgupta.[41] During the 1960s, Indira Gandhi's intervention during her reign as the Information
and Broadcasting Minister of India further led to production of off-beat cinematic expression
being supported by the official Film Finance Corporation.[35]
Commercial Hindi cinema also began thriving, with examples of acclaimed films at the time
include the Guru Dutt films Pyaasa (1957) and Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959) and the Raj
Kapoor filmsAwaara (1951) and Shree 420 (1955). These films expressed social themes mainly
dealing with working-class urban life in India; Awaara presented the city as both a nightmare and
a dream, whilePyaasa critiqued the unreality of city life.[41] Some epic films were also produced
at the time, including Mehboob Khan's Mother India (1957), which was nominated for
the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film,[54] and K. Asif's Mughal-e-Azam (1960).
[55]

V. Shantaram's Do Aankhen Barah Haath (1957) is believed to have inspired

the Hollywood film The Dirty Dozen (1967).[56]Madhumati (1958), directed by Bimal Roy and
written by Ritwik Ghatak, popularized the theme of reincarnation in Western popular culture.
[57]

Other mainstream Hindi filmmakers at the time included Kamal Amrohi and Vijay Bhatt.

Ever since Chetan Anand's social realist film Neecha Nagar won the Grand Prize at the first
Cannes Film Festival,[42] Indian films were frequently in competition for the Palme d'Or at
the Cannes Film Festival for nearly every year in the 1950s and early 1960s, with a number of
them winning major prizes at the festival. Satyajit Ray also won the Golden Lion at the Venice
Film Festival forAparajito (1956), the second part of The Apu Trilogy, and the Golden Bear and
two Silver Bears for Best Director at the Berlin International Film Festival.[58] Ray's
contemporaries, Ritwik Ghatak and Guru Dutt, were overlooked in their own lifetimes but had
belatedly generated international recognition much later in the 1980s and 1990s.[58][59] Ray is
regarded as one of the greatest auteursof 20th century cinema,[60] with Dutt[61] and Ghatak.[62] In
1992, the Sight & Sound Critics' Poll ranked Ray at #7 in its list of "Top 10 Directors" of all time,
[63]

while Dutt was ranked #73 in the 2002 Sight & Sound greatest directors poll.[61]

A number of Indian films from different regions, from this era are often included among
the greatest films of all time in various critics' and directors' polls. At this juncture, Telugu cinema
and Tamil cinema experienced their respective golden age and during this time the production of
Indian Folklore, fantasy and Mythological films like Mayabazar and Narthanasala grew up. A
number of Satyajit Ray films appeared in the Sight & Sound Critics' Poll, including The Apu
Trilogy (ranked #4 in 1992 if votes are combined),[64] The Music Room (ranked #27 in
1992), Charulata (ranked #41 in 1992)[65] and Days and Nights in the Forest (ranked #81 in
1982).[66] The 2002 Sight & Sound critics' and directors' poll also included the Guru Dutt
films Pyaasa and Kaagaz Ke Phool(both tied at #160), the Ritwik Ghatak films Meghe Dhaka
Tara (ranked #231) and Komal Gandhar (ranked #346), and Raj Kapoor's Awaara, Vijay
Bhatt's Baiju Bawra, Mehboob Khan's Mother India and K. Asif's Mughal-e-Azam all tied at #346.
[67]

In 1998, the critics' poll conducted by the Asian film magazine Cinemaya included The Apu

Trilogy (ranked #1 if votes are combined), Ray'sCharulata and The Music Room (both tied at
#11), and Ghatak's Subarnarekha (also tied at #11).[62] In 1999, The Village Voice top 250 "Best
Film of the Century" critics' poll also included The Apu Trilogy (ranked #5 if votes are combined).
[68]

In 2005, The Apu Trilogy and Pyaasa were also featured in Time magazine's "All-TIME" 100

best movies list.[69]
Modern Indian cinema
Some filmmakers such as Shyam Benegal continued to produce realistic Parallel Cinema
throughout the 1970s,[70] alongside Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, Mrinal Sen, Buddhadeb
Dasgupta andGautam Ghose in Bengali cinema; Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Shaji N. Karun, John
Abraham and G. Aravindan in Malayalam cinema; Nirad Mohapatra in Oriya cinema; and Mani
Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani and Vijaya Mehta in Hindi cinema.
[41]

However, the 'art film' bent of the Film Finance Corporation came under criticism during a

Committee on Public Undertakings investigation in 1976, which accused the body of not doing
enough to encourage commercial cinema.[71] The 1970s did, nevertheless, see the rise of
commercial cinema in form of enduring films such as Sholay (1975), which solidified Amitabh
Bachchan's position as a lead actor.[71] The devotional classic Jai Santoshi Ma was also released
in 1975.[71] Another important film from 1975 was Deewar, directed by Yash Chopra and written
by Salim-Javed. A crime film pitting "a policeman against his brother, a gang leader based on
real-life smuggler Haji Mastan", portrayed by Amitabh Bachchan, it was described as being
“absolutely key to Indian cinema” by Danny Boyle.[72]
Long after the Golden Age of Indian cinema, South India's Malayalam cinema of
Kerala regarded as one of the best Indian film genres experienced its own 'Golden Age' in the
1980s and early 1990s. Some of the most acclaimed Indian filmmakers at the time were from
the Malayalam industry, including Adoor Gopalakrishnan, G. Aravindan, T. V.
Chandran and Shaji N. Karun.[73] Adoor Gopalakrishnan, who is often considered to be Satyajit
Ray's spiritual heir,[74] directed some of his most acclaimed films during this period,
including Elippathayam (1981) which won theSutherland Trophy at the London Film Festival, as
well as Mathilukal (1989) which won major prizes at the Venice Film Festival.[75]
Shaji N. Karun's debut film Piravi (1989) won the Camera d'Or at the 1989 Cannes Film Festival,
while his second film Swaham (1994) was in competition for the Palme d'Or at the 1994 Cannes

Film Festival.[76] Commercial Malayalam cinema also began gaining popularity with the action
films of Jayan, a popular stunt actor whose success was short-lived when he died while filming a
dangerous stunt, followed by Mohanlal, whose film Yodha was acclaimed for its action
sequences and technical aspects.
Commercial Hindi cinema further grew throughout the 1980s and the 1990s with the release of
films such as Ek Duuje Ke Liye (1981) Mr India (1987), Qayamat Se Qayamat
Tak (1988), Tezaab(1988), Chandni (1989), Maine Pyar
Kiya (1989), Baazigar (1993), Darr (1993),[71] Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge (1995) and Kuch
Kuch Hota Hai (1998), many of which starred Shahrukh Khan,Aamir Khan and Salman Khan.
Tabarana Kathe, a Kannada film, was screened at various film festivals including Tashkent,
Nantes, Tokyo, and the Film Festival of Russia.[77]
In the late 1990s, 'Parallel Cinema' began experiencing a resurgence in Hindi cinema, largely
due to the critical and commercial success of Satya (1998), a low-budget film based on
the Mumbai underworld, directed by Ram Gopal Varma and written by Anurag Kashyap. The
film's success led to the emergence of a distinct genre known as Mumbai noir,[78] urban films
reflecting social problems in the city of Mumbai.[79] Later films belonging to the Mumbai
noir genre include Madhur Bhandarkar's Chandni Bar (2001) and Traffic Signal (2007), Ram
Gopal Varma's Company (2002) and its prequel D (2005), Anurag Kashyap's Black
Friday (2004), Irfan Kamal's Thanks Maa (2009), and Deva Katta's Prasthanam (2010). Other
art film directors active today include Mrinal Sen, Mir Shaani, Buddhadeb Dasgupta, Gautam
Ghose, Sandip Ray, Aparna Sen and Rituparno Ghosh in Bengali cinema; Adoor
Gopalakrishnan, Shaji N. Karun, Santosh Sivan and T. V. Chandran in Malayalam cinema; Nirad
Mohapatra in Oriya cinema; Mani Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani, Shyam
Benegal,[41] Mira Nair, Nagesh Kukunoor, Sudhir Mishra and Nandita Das in Hindi cinema; Mani
Ratnam in Tamil cinema; and Deepa Mehta, Anant Balani, Homi Adajania, Vijay Singh
and Sooni Taraporevala in Indian English cinema
Tamil cinema
Main article: Tamil cinema
The Tamil language film industry, also known as Kollywood, is among India's three largest film
industries in terms of number of films produced annually. As of 2012, it is third after the Hindi
and Telugu film-industries in terms of the number of films produced annually. However, it comes
next to Bollywood (Hindi film industry) in terms of revenue, production and worldwide distribution
including worldwide box office.[161] [162][163][164] It is based at Kodambakkam in Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
Tamil films are distributed to various parts of Asia, Southern Africa, Northern
America,Europe and Oceania.[165] The industry has inspired Tamil filmmaking in Sri
Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and Canada. Tamil cinema and Dravidian politics have heavily
influenced each other.[166]
With Chennai serving as a secondary hub for filmmaking for other industries and the
establishment of the Madras Film Institute, Tamil cinema established itself as an influential and
leading industry in South Indian cinema and further attained international exposure with the
works of various filmmakers. In 1985, the Tamil film industry made its peak, with a net output
was 236 films.[119] Tamil films stand next to Hindi films in terms of the number of films submitted
by India in contest for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.[167] Kamal Haasan,
considered to be one of the most versatile actors in India, has the distinction of being awarded

the most number of Southern Filmfare Awards and the only actor with the most number of
National Film Awards. Music directors from the industry, such as Ilaiyaraaja and A. R.
Rahman made a foray into other regional industries and have a reputation and following, while
also being predominantly active in Tamil cinema.
Some female Bollywood actress have their origin from Tamil, even though some of them not had
their initial debut in Tamil cinema. It includes Vyjayanthimala, Waheeda Rehman, Hema
Malini,Rekha Ganesan, Sridevi, Meenakshi Sheshadri and Vidya Balan. Actress Vyjayanthimala,
Hema Malini and Sridevi are also considered "Numero Uno actresses" of Hindi cinema.[168][169]
Genres and styles
[edit]Film music
Music in Indian cinema is a substantial revenue generator, with the music rights alone
accounting for 4–5% of the net revenues generated by a film in India.[20] The major film music
companies of India are Saregama, Sony Music etc.[20] Commercially, film music accounts for
48% India's net music sales.[20] A typical Indian film may have around 5-6 choreographed songs
spread throughout the film's length.[181]
The demands of a multicultural, increasingly globalized Indian audience often led to a mixing of
various local and international musical traditions.[181] Local dance and music nevertheless remain
a time tested and recurring theme in India and have made their way outside of India's borders
with its diaspora.[181] Playback singers such as Lata Mangeshkar drew large crowds with national
and international film music stage shows.[181] The end of the 19th century and the beginning of
the 21st saw extensive interaction between artists from India and the western world.[182] Artists
from Indian diaspora blended the traditions of their heritage to those of their country to give rise
to popular contemporary music.[182]
Awards
This section lists the most important film awards given for Indian cinema by national and state
authorities.

Award

Year of
Inception

Awarded by

Bengal Film Journalists'
Association Awards

1937

Government of West Bengal

National Film Awards

1954

Directorate of Film Festivals, Government
of India

Maharashtra State Film Awards

1963

Government of Maharashtra

Nandi Awards

1964

Government of Andhra Pradesh

Tamil Nadu State Film Awards

1967

Government of Tamil Nadu

Karnataka State Film Awards

1967

Government of Karnataka

Kerala State Film Awards

1969

Government of Kerala

Below are the major non-governmental awards.

Award

Year of
Inception

Awarded by

Filmfare Awards
Filmfare Awards South

1954

Bennett, Coleman and Co. Ltd.

Screen Awards

1994

Screen Weekly

IIFA Awards

2000

Wizcraft International Entertainment
Pvt Ltd

South Indian International Movie
Awards

2012

South Indian Film Industry

[edit]Film Institutes in India
Several institutes, both government run and private, provide formal education in various aspects
of filmmaking. Some of the prominent ones include


Arya Film and Television Academy, Jaipur [2]



AJK Mass Communication Research Centre, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi



Annapurna International School of Film and Media, Hyderabad



Asian Academy of Film & Television



City Pulse Institute of Film & Television, Gandhinagar, Gujarat



Film and Television Institute of India, Pune



Indian Film and Television Institute(IFTI), Merrut



KIIT School of Film and Media Sciences, Bhubaneswar



Madras Film Institute, Chennai



Matrikas Film School



Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute, Kolkata



Whistling Woods International



Govt. Film and Television Institute, Bangalore



Film and Television Institute, Pune



Biju Pattanaik Film and Television Institute, cuttack



Centre for advanced media studies, Patiala

FILM 4 CMMNCTN & SOCIAL CHANGE
As tool for social change
Social movement media has a rich and storied history (see Agitprop) that has changed at a rapid
rate since New Media became widely used (Chris Atton).[16] The Zapatista Army of international
Liberation of Chiapas, Mexico were the first major movement to make widely recognized and
effective use of New Media for communiques and organizing in 1994.[17] Since then, New Media
has been used extensively by social movements to educate, organize, share cultural products of
movements, communicate, coalition build, and more. The WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999
protest activity was another landmark in the use of New Media as a tool for social change. The
WTO protests used media to organize the original action, communicate with and educate
participants, and was used as an alternative media source.[18] The Indymedia movement also
developed out of this action, and has been a great tool in the democratization of information,
which is another widely discussed aspect of new media movement.[19] Some scholars even view
this democratization as an indication of the creation of a "radical, socio-technical paradigm to
challenge the dominant, neoliberal and technologically determinist model of information and
communication technologies."[20] A less radical view along these same lines is that people are
taking advantage of the Internet to produce a grassroots globalization, one that is anti-neoliberal
and centered on people rather than the flow of capital.[21] Of course, some are also skeptical of
the role of New Media in Social Movements. Many scholars point out unequal access to new
media as a hindrance to broad-based movements, sometimes even oppressing some within a
movement.[22] Others are skeptical about how democratic or useful it really is for social
movements, even for those with access.[23] There are also many New Media components that
activists cite as tools for change that have not been widely discussed as such by academics.
New Media has also found a use with less radical social movements such as the Free Hugs
Campaign. Using websites, blogs, and online videos to demonstrate the effectiveness of the
movement itself. Along with this example the use of high volume blogs has allowed numerous
views and practices to be more widespread and gain more public attention. Another example is
the on-goingFree Tibet Campaign, which has been seen on numerous websites as well as
having a slight tie-in with the band Gorillaz in their Gorillaz Bitez clip featuring the lead
singer 2D sitting with protesters at a Free Tibet protest. Another social change seen coming from
New Media is trends in fashion and the emergence of subcultures such as Text
Speak, Cyberpunk, and various others.
FILM PRODUCTN

A film, also called a movie or motion picture, is a series of still or moving images. It is
produced by recording photographic images with cameras, or by creating images
using animation techniques or visual effects. The process of filmmaking has developed into
an art form and industry.
Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures, which reflect those cultures, and, in turn,
affect them. Film is considered to be an important artform, a source of popular entertainment
and a powerful method for educating – or indoctrinating – citizens. The visual elements of
cinema give motion pictures a universal power of communication. Some films have become
popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles that translate the dialogue into the
language of the viewer.
Films are made up of a series of individual images called frames. When these images are
shown rapidly in succession, a viewer has the illusion that motion is occurring. The viewer
cannot see the flickering between frames due to an effect known as persistence of vision,
whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been
removed. Viewers perceive motion due to a psychological effect called beta movement.
The origin of the name "film" comes from the fact that photographic film (also called film stock)
has historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many
other terms exist for an individual motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving
picture, photo-play andflick. A common name for film in the United States is movie, while in
Europe the term film is preferred. Additional terms for the field in general includethe big
screen, the silver screen, the cinema and the movies.
Production
Main article: Filmmaking
At its core, the means to produce a film depend on the content the filmmaker wishes to show,
and the apparatus for displaying it: the zoetrope merely requires a series of images on a strip of
paper. Film production can therefore take as little as one person with a camera (or even without
a camera, as in Stan Brakhage's 1963 film Mothlight), or thousands of actors, extras and
crewmembers for a live-action, feature-length epic.
The necessary steps for almost any film can be boiled down to conception, planning, execution,
revision, and distribution. The more involved the production, the more significant each of the
steps becomes. In a typical production cycle of a Hollywood-style film, these main stages are
defined as:
1. Development
2. Pre-production
3. Production
4. Post-production
5. Distribution
Technology
Film stock consists of transparent celluloid, acetate, or polyester base coated with an emulsion
containing light-sensitive chemicals. Cellulose nitrate was the first type of film base used to
record motion pictures, but due to its flammability was eventually replaced by safer materials.
Stock widths and the film format for images on the reel have had a rich history, though most
large commercial films are still shot on (and distributed to theaters) as 35 mm prints.
Originally moving picture film was shot and projected at various speeds using handcranked cameras and projectors; though 1000 frames per minute (16⅔ frame/s) is generally

cited as a standard silent speed, research indicates most films were shot between 16 frame/s
and 23 frame/s and projected from 18 frame/s on up (often reels included instructions on how
fast each scene should be shown).[5] When sound film was introduced in the late 1920s, a
constant speed was required for the sound head. 24 frames per second was chosen because it
was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound quality.
Improvements since the late 19th century include the mechanization of cameras – allowing them
to record at a consistent speed, quiet camera design – allowing sound recorded on-set to be
usable without requiring large "blimps" to encase the camera, the invention of more
sophisticated filmstocks and lenses, allowing directorsto film in increasingly dim conditions, and
the development of synchronized sound, allowing sound to be recorded at exactly the same
speed as its corresponding action. The soundtrack can be recorded separately from shooting
the film, but for live-action pictures many parts of the soundtrack are usually recorded
simultaneously.
As a medium, film is not limited to motion pictures, since the technology developed as the basis
for photography. It can be used to present a progressive sequence of still images in the form of
a slideshow. Film has also been incorporated into multimedia presentations, and often has
importance as primary historical documentation. However, historic films have problems in terms
of preservation and storage, and the motion picture industry is exploring many alternatives. Most
movies on cellulose nitrate base have been copied onto modern safety films. Some studios save
color films through the use of separation masters: three B&W negatives each exposed through
red, green, or blue filters (essentially a reverse of the Technicolor process). Digital methods have
also been used to restore films, although their continued obsolescence cycle makes them (as of
2006) a poor choice for long-term preservation. Film preservation of decaying film stock is a
matter of concern to both film historians and archivists, and to companies interested in
preserving their existing products in order to make them available to future generations (and
thereby increase revenue). Preservation is generally a higher concern for nitrate and single-strip
color films, due to their high decay rates; black-and-white films on safety bases and color films
preserved on Technicolor imbibition prints tend to keep up much better, assuming proper
handling and storage.
Some films in recent decades have been recorded using analog video technology similar to that
used in television production. Modern digital video cameras and digital projectors are gaining
ground as well. These approaches are preferred by some moviemakers, especially because
footage shot with digital cinema can be evaluated and edited with non-linear editing
systems (NLE) without waiting for the film stock to be processed. Yet the migration is gradual,
and as of 2005 most major motion pictures are still shot on film.
India's film industry: Bollywood rising :UTV Motion Pictures is using Hollywood methods to
modernise Indian film
IN 1958 the film “Mother India” was nominated for an Oscar, and its director, Mehboob Khan,
wanted to go to Los Angeles for the awards. India was short of foreign currency, and according
to a book about Bollywood by Mihir Bose, Mr Khan had to beg the government for money for the
trip, writing, “I should be able to show that our government is also backing me. Otherwise, I will
look small and lonely.” How things have changed. Now Hollywood is courting Indian film
producers: Disney, Viacom, News Corporation and Sony Pictures have all done deals with
Bollywood companies in the past few years, and within the next month Disney plans to increase
its stake in UTV Software, the parent of an ambitious young film studio in Mumbai, from 14.9%
to as much as 30%.
When Ronnie Screwvala, UTV's founder, started its film studio in 1995, he noted that the market
was dominated by small, family-run operations which stuck to one formula: the song-and-danceladen love story. “There was no experimentation and the market was not developing,” he says.
Bollywood took a leap forward in 2001 when the government gave it industry status, meaning
banks were allowed to lend to it. Cash from criminals was previously thought to finance many

movies, and legitimate funds helped professionalise the industry. But until very recently, the films
themselves did not change much.
What is Digital Cinema Projection?
A video projector takes a video signal and projects the corresponding image on a projection
screen using a lens system. All video
Digital Cinema Projection (or Digital Cinema, for short) is a method whereby the traditional film
containing the movie is replaced by an electronic copy contained on a storage device, such as a
high-capacity hard drive and server. Instead of projecting light through film, digital cinema
utilizes technologies such as DLP and LCOS to accomplish the task.
Digital Cinema is a new technology that is poised to spread in popularity in the movie industry.
"Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones" was the first all-digital live action feature, no film
was used in the creation of that movie until film copies had to be made for theaters without
Digital Cinema projectors. Many filmmakers (a term that is nearing a level of obsolesence) are
using, or are considering using, digital technologies to create their movies. George Lucas (Star
Wars movies, et al) has stated that his future films will be shot digitally, and Robert
Rodriguez (Spy Kids, et al.) used digital cinema cameras to create "Once Upon a
Time in Mexico."
Is Digital Cinema Better Than Traditional Film?
While the technologies behind Digital Cinema do not yet meet the image resolution
capability of film, our experience has shown that many theaters showing traditional film
presentations do not meet the capability of film either.
When comparing the average film presentation to the average digital cinema presentation, we
have found that the digital cinema presentation was equal in picture quality and was a more
stable image than film. While some complain of seeing artifacts, we have not observed problems
with the presentations we've seen. Digital presentations do not get scratched, fade, or suffer the
other problems that film experiences, especially after being played for an extended time. The
picture and sound should be as good on day 100 as they were on day 1.
Because of this, we believe that Digital Cinema presentations improve the movie-going
experience, and we are happy to identify those presentations in a special way in our publication.
Digital Cinema Makes 3D Better and Easier
The advent of digital cinema projection systems has brought about a rebirth of 3D efforts on the
part of the movie studios. Previously, 3D using 35mm film was a tedious process to project and
you were limited to wearing those odd-looking red and blue 3D glasses. Today's 3D Digital
Cinema systems still use glasses, but they are mostly clear and are capable of delivering a
better 3D experience than the old red-blue "anaglyph" process.

Language

Film is considered to have its own language. James Monaco wrote a classic text on film theory
titled "How to Read a Film". Director Ingmar Bergman famously said, "[Andrei] Tarkovsky for me
is the greatest [director], the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it
captures life as a reflection, life as a dream." Examples of the language are a sequence of back
and forth images of one actor's left profile speaking, followed by another actor's right profile
speaking, then a repetition of this, which is a language understood by the audience to indicate a
conversation. Another example is zooming in on the forehead of an actor with an expression of
silent reflection, then changing to a scene of a younger actor who vaguely resembles the first
actor, indicating the first actor is having a memory of their own past
Industry
Main article: Film industry
The making and showing of motion pictures became a source of profit almost as soon as the
process was invented. Upon seeing how successful their new invention, and its product, was in
their native France, the Lumières quickly set about touring the Continent to exhibit the first films
privately to royalty and publicly to the masses. In each country, they would normally add new,
local scenes to their catalogue and, quickly enough, found local entrepreneurs in the various
countries of Europe to buy their equipment and photograph, export, import and screen additional
product commercially. The Oberammergau Passion Play of 1898[citation needed] was the first
commercial motion picture ever produced. Other pictures soon followed, and motion pictures
became a separate industry that overshadowed the vaudeville world. Dedicated theaters and
companies formed specifically to produce and distribute films, while motion picture actors
became major celebrities and commanded huge fees for their performances. By 1917 Charlie
Chaplin had a contract that called for an annual salary of one million dollars.
From 1931 to 1956, film was also the only image storage and playback system for television
programming until the introduction of videotape recorders.
In the United States today, much of the film industry is centered around Hollywood. Other
regional centers exist in many parts of the world, such as Mumbai-centered Bollywood, the
Indian film industry's Hindi cinema which produces the largest number of films in the world.[2]
Whether the ten thousand-plus feature length films a year produced by the Valley pornographic
film industry should qualify for this title is the source of some debate.[citation needed] Though the
expense involved in making movies has led cinema production to concentrate under the
auspices of movie studios, recent advances in affordable film making equipment have allowed
independent film productions to flourish.
Profit is a key force in the industry, due to the costly and risky nature of filmmaking; many films
have large cost overruns, a notorious example being Kevin Costner's Waterworld. Yet many
filmmakers strive to create works of lasting social significance. The Academy Awards (also
known as "the Oscars") are the most prominent film awards in the United States, providing
recognition each year to films, ostensibly based on their artistic merits.
There is also a large industry for educational and instructional films made in lieu of or in addition
to lectures and texts.
UNIT2
Film Culture was an American film magazine started by Adolfas Mekas and his brother Jonas
Mekas in 1954, and is now defunct. It is best known for exploring the avant-garde cinema in
depth, but also published articles on all aspects of cinema, including Hollywood films.

Articles from Film Culture are compiled in a book entitled Film Culture Reader, published by
Cooper Square Press.

Film genre
In film theory, genre refers to the method based on similarities in the narrative elements from
which films are constructed. Most theories of film genre are borrowed fromliterary
genre criticism. As with genre in a literary context, there is a great deal of debate over how to
define or categorize genres.[citation needed]. Besides the basic distinction
in genre betweenfiction and documentary (from which hybrid forms emerged founding a new
genre, docufiction), film genres can be categorized in several ways.
Fictional films are usually categorized according to their setting, theme topic, mood, or format.
The setting is the milieu or environment where the story and action takes place. Thetheme or
topic refers to the issues or concepts that the film revolves around. The mood is the emotional
tone of the film. Format refers to the way the film was shot (e.g., anamorphic widescreen) or the
manner of presentation (e.g.: 35 mm, 16 mm or 8 mm). An additional way of categorizing film
genres is by the target audience. Some film theorists argue that neither format nor target
audience are film genres.
Film genres often branch out into subgenres, as in the case of the courtroom and trial-focused
subgenre of drama known as the legal drama. They can be combined to form hybrid genres,
such as the melding of horror and comedy in the Evil Dead films.
Cinematic Elements Terms

Shots and Framing:
Shot: a single piece of film uninterrupted by cuts.
Establishing Shot: often a long shot or a series of shots that sets the scene. It is used to
establish setting and to show transitions between locations.
Long Shot (LS): a shot from some distance. If filming a person, the full body is shown. It may
show the isolation or vulnerability of the character (also called a Full Shot).
Medium Shot (MS): the most common shot. The camera seems to be a medium distance from
the object being filmed. A medium shot shows the person from the waist up. The effect is to
ground the story.
Close Up (CU): the image being shot takes up at least 80 percent of the frame.
Extreme Close Up: the image being shot is a part of a whole, such as an eye or a hand.

Two Shot: a scene between two people shot exclusively from an angle that includes both
characters more or less equally. It is used in love scenes where interaction between the two
characters is important.

Camera Angles

Eye Level: a shot taken from a normal height; that is, the character’s eye level. Ninety to ninetyfive percent of the shots seen are eye level, because it is the most natural angle.
High Angle: the camera is above the subject. This usually has the effect of making the subject
look smaller than normal, giving him or her the appearance of being weak, powerless, and
trapped.
Low Angle: the camera films subject from below. This usually has the effect of making the
subject look larger than normal, and therefore strong, powerful, and threatening.

Camera Movements

Pan: a stationary camera moves from side to side on a horizontal axis.
Tilt: a stationary camera moves up or down along a vertical axis
Zoom: a stationary camera where the lens moves to make an object seem to move closer to or
further away from the camera. With this technique, moving into a character is often a personal or
revealing movement, while moving away distances or separates the audience from the
character.
Dolly/Tracking: the camera is on a track that allows it to move with the action. The term also
refers to any camera mounted on a car, truck, or helicopter.
Boom/Crane: the camera is on a crane over the action. This is used to create overhead shots.

Lighting

High Key: the scene is flooded with light, creating a bright and open-looking scene.

Low Key: the scene is flooded with shadows and darkness, creating suspense or suspicion.
Bottom or Side Lighting: direct lighting from below or the side, which often makes the subject
appear dangerous or evil.
Front or Back Lighting: soft lighting on the actor’s face or from behind gives the appearance of
innocence or goodness, or a halo effect.

Editing Techniques

Cut: most common editing technique. Two pieces of film are spliced together to “cut” to another
image.
Fade: can be to or from black or white. A fade can begin in darkness and gradually assume full
brightness (fade-in) or the image may gradually get darker (fade-out). A fade often implies that
time has passed or may signify the end of a scene.
Dissolve: a kind of fade in which one image is slowly replaced by another. It can create a
connection between images.
Wipe: a new image wipes off the previous image. A wipe is more fluid than a cut and quicker
than a dissolve.
Flashback: cut or dissolve to action that happened in the past.
Shot-Reverse-Shot: a shot of one subject, then another, then back to the first. It is often used
for conversation or reaction shots.
Cross Cutting: cut into action that is happening simultaneously. This technique is also called
parallel editing. It can create tension or suspense and can form a connection between scenes.
Eye-Line Match: cut to an object, then to a person. This technique shows what a person seems
to be looking at and can reveal a character’s thoughts.

Sound

Diegetic: sound that could logically be heard by the characters in the film.

Non-Diegetic: sound that cannot be heard by the characters but is designed for audience
reaction only. An example might be ominous music for foreshadowing.
Indian New Wave / Parallel Cinema
Years
active

1946 - present (Parallel Cinema)
1952 - 1976 (New Wave)

Country

India

Major
figures

Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, Mrinal Sen,
Bimal Roy, V. Shantaram, Chetan
Anand, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, Adoor
Gopalakrishnan, G. Aravindan, Shyam
Benegal, Shaji N.Karun, Jahnu Barua,
Bhabendra Nath Saikia, Mira Nair,
Aparna Sen, Rituparno Ghosh,
Buddhadeb Dasgupta, Goutam Ghosh

Indian theatre, Bengali literature, social
Influences realism, poetic realism, Italian
neorealism
The Indian New Wave, commonly known in India as Art Cinema or Parallel Cinema as an
alternative to the mainstream commercial cinema, is a specific movement in Indian cinema,
known for its serious content, realism and naturalism, with a keen eye on the sociopolitical
climate of the times. This movement is distinct from mainstream Bollywood cinema and began
around the same time as the French New Wave and Japanese New Wave. The movement was
initially led by Bengali cinema (which has produced internationally acclaimed filmmakers such as
Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen, Ritwik Ghatak and others) and then gained prominence in the other
film industries of India.
Documentary films constitute a broad category of nonfictional motion pictures intended to
document some aspect of reality, primarily for the purposes of instruction or maintaining a
historical record.[1] A 'documentary film' was originally shot on film stock — the only medium
available — but now includes video and digital productions that can be either direct-to-video,
made as a television program or released for screening in cinemas. "Documentary" has been
described as a "filmmaking practice, a cinematic tradition, and mode of audience reception" that
is continually evolving and is without clear boundaries.
Defining 'documentary'
In popular myth, the word 'documentary' was coined by Scottish documentarian John Grierson in
his review of Robert Flaherty's film Moana (1926), published in the New York Sun on 8 February
1926, written by "The Moviegoer" (a pen name for Grierson).[3]
Grierson's principles of documentary were that cinema's potential for observing life could be
exploited in a new art form; that the "original" actor and "original" scene are better guides than
their fiction counterparts to interpreting the modern world; and that materials "thus taken from
the raw" can be more real than the acted article. In this regard, Grierson's definition of
documentary as "creative treatment of actuality"[4] has gained some acceptance, with this
position at variance with Soviet film-maker Dziga Vertov's provocation to present "life as it is"
(that is, life filmed surreptitiously) and "life caught unawares" (life provoked or surprised by the
camera).

The American film critic Pare Lorentz defines a documentary film as "a factual film which is
dramatic."[5] Others further state that a documentary stands out from the other types of nonfiction films for providing an opinion, and a specific message, along with the facts it presents.[6]
Documentary Practice is the complex process of creating documentary projects. It refers to what
people do with media devices, content, form, and production strategies in order to address the
creative, ethical, and conceptual problems and choices that arise as they make documentaries.
There are clear connections in terms of practice with magazine and newspaper feature-writing
and indeed to non-fiction literature. Many of the generic forms of documentary, for example the
biopic or profile; or the observational piece. These generic forms are explored on the University
of Winchester Journalism Department 'features web' where 'long form journalism' is classified by
genre or content, rather than in terms of production as film, radio or 'print'.
Unit-3
Film prodfuction
Filmmaking (often referred to in an academic context as film production) is the process of
making a film, from an initial story idea or commission, through scriptwriting, shooting, editing,
directing and distribution to an audience. ...
Production:_The job of a film producer is to bring all the elements of a movie and bind it
together. He is usually involved from inception to completion and delivery of a film project. A
course in Production includes studio production techniques; editorial and scriptwriting skills;
single and multi-camera operation; microphone and sound recording skills; production
management; radio and television presentation, production and direction; editing for radio and
television.
The Digital Filmmaking Pre-production Process
Step 1: Film Concept
Step 2: Writing your script
Step 3: Drawing your storyboards
Step 4: Film Funding
Step 5: Cast & Crew

Step 6: Location, Location, Location
Step 7: Shooting Script
Step 8: Scheduling
Step 9: Call Sheets
Step 10: Equipment

Where to start
Step 1: Film Concept/ Idea
This is the foundation on which to start building your script. An idea or principle/belief you can
use as the focus of your script, around which to tell a story.
DO carry a pen and paper with you everywhere you go. You can’t predict when that winning idea
will pop into your head. If you don’t write it down, you are likely to forget later in the day. Write
any ideas down immediately!
DON’T write down just one idea and expect that to be the basis for your entire film. It may well
be a great idea, but the greater the variety of ideas you have to choose from, the more flexible
you can be with story/characters and plot when writing your script.
TOP TIP
If you have trouble thinking of ideas during the day, keep a pen and a piece of paper next to your

bed. You can come up with some truly bizarre concepts in your sleep, so not writing down
anything you remember from a dream can be a true waste. Write in as much detail as you can
recall, and include absolutely everything no matter how silly or inconsequential it may seem.
Sometimes these little ideas/concepts can be a valuable resource.
Step 2: Writing Your Script
Script: A general term for a written work detailing story, setting, and dialogue.
For information about how to convert your ideas into a working script, visit:
DO keep writing down any new ideas, just because you’ve started your script doesn’t mean any
new ideas you have a worthless. Also do not worry if you still have ‘holes’ in your story when you
come to writing your script. The more you write, the more the story develops. Eventually you will
find the ‘holes’ will have filled themselves.
DO try and be organised. The initial stages of converting your ideas into the basis for a script
can seem a little daunting. This is complicated further when you keep getting new ideas as you
are half-way through writing about a first one. Don’t panic. Keep a separate document handy
and the moment you get a new idea write it down as quickly and as concisely as you can before
turning you attention back to your original. Once that is finished, look back to your new idea and
consider developing it further.
DON’T try and develop too many ideas at once. Sometimes it’s better to wait a while before
going back to an idea to develop it further. Don’t work yourself too hard; tackle any new ideas
with a fresh attitude. Further your ideas because you want too, not because you feel you need
too.
TOP TIP
Share your script revisions with people you trust to give you an honest opinion. Be able to take
criticism, but also use that to help better your script. Sharing your script in this way can often
help you get a fresh perspective and help you get around an obstacle you may have hit.
Step 3: Drawing Storyboards for your film
A sequence of rough sketches, created by an illustrator to communicate major changes of action
or plot in a scene.
Don’t worry if you can’t draw too well: The point of storyboarding is to communicate your vision
of the film to a crew who will be working under your direction. For them to understand what
you’re trying to achieve is imperative. This saves a lot of communication problems when you
eventually come to film on set, making your life as director a lot easier.

TOP TIPS
The drawings need not be large, you can comfortably fit 4-6 on a page of A4 paper. Leave space
under each drawing box to write down details of the shot, for example details of location, and a
brief description of the action that is occurring.
REMEMBER:
Your storyboards are draw sequentially. They are a rough guide to how the film should look after
you complete post-production.
Step 4: Funding for your Film

Once you’ve finished your script and storyboards, you may want to send them off to certain
companies to try and get financing for you film, allowing you to hire professional equipment or
people.
Presentation is very important. If you can, get an illustrator to draw some of your key
storyboards.
For more information about places to send you script with a view to getting funding, visit:
Step 5: How to find Cast & Crew for your film

Cast & crew are obviously vital if you are to make your film successfully. There are a number of
resources available to find the people you need.
TOP TIPS:
Finding the right person for your film is tricky. You must devote a lot of time towards finding the
right actor for your role. Don’t just hire the first person you meet (unless of course you have
auditioned everyone else and they are most suited to the role).
Ask for details of work they have done. Have an auditioning day. Do a few screen tests.
For vital crew members (ie DOP, or Producer), ask them for a breakdown of work they have
done. Some will have a show-reel to let you view, but don’t rely on this. Most professionals are
freelance, working regularly on different shoots so have very little time or means to make a
show-reel.
NOTE:
Some crew members may have their own equipment. Ask them. If they are willing to use it, it will
help you. See Step 10 for details on Equipment
Step 6: Scouting for Locations

Location:
Filming which occurs at a place not constructed specifically for the production is said to be 'on
location'. This is usually outdoors, at a well-known location, or a real place which suffices.
TOP TIPS
Don’t just go to one location; travel around to as many as possible. Keep in mind these key
aspects:
• Filming in any location will require plenty of space for cast & crew, as well as moderately easy
accessibility for all the camera/sound & lighting equipment.
• Unless you have a petrol generator, you will want to limit outdoor filming as much as possible.
If you are running the camera off batteries you only have a certain amount of power to get the
shots you need. This often leads to shots being rushed or not finished properly, which brings
down the overall quality of the work.
• When scouting for locations, take a digital camera with you, such as the Kodak EasyShare
LS743. Take as many pictures as you can and log the photos for each location. To save time,
this can be done simply by writing the place name on a piece of paper and having it in the first
shot of that location.
Step 7: Preparing a Shooting Script

Shooting Script:
The script from which a movie is made. Contains scenes placed in order of filming. Usually
contains technical notes and/or drawings. A shooting script is essentially a script that breaks the
film into scenes, placed in sequence as they are to be filmed on set/location.
These can include any sketches or photographs of locations, include ideas you may wish to film
in as well as scene breakdowns, types of shot (ie. A tracking shot) and technical drawings.
Step 8: Organising a Schedule
Your schedule is to accompany your shooting script.
A schedule gives you control over the day-to-day shooting of the film. You can allocate how
much time you feel is needed for each shot, by looking at your storyboards and shooting script
simultaneously.
Scheduling will certainly test your patience. You will need to make countless calls and send
countless E-mails to make sure all your cast and crew are available on the days you want to
shoot. If one person can’t make it, then you will need to re-organise the whole day again.
TOP TIP
It is worth while over-estimating for your first shoot until you get to grips with how long different
tasks take (ie setting up lighting, moving cameras etc)
Give yourself more time than you need.
Step 9: Writing and Distributing Call Sheets
A call sheet is a listing of which cast members should arrive for make-up, what time actors/crew
are due on set, what scenes they are in and what special requirements (if any) are needed. It is
essentially a daily breakdown of the shoot. You should also include pick-up times and locations if
you have arranged transport.
TOP TIP On the call sheet include the actor’s name as well as the character’s name.
Step 10: Equipment for filming
The range of digital video equipment varies greatly.
Depending on your budget, you have different options available to you.
Entry level equipment, such as the JVC GR-D33 MiniDV Digital Camcorder is ideal for films on a
low budget. The convenience of having your own camera also stops any potential restrictions
you may have by renting one.
For those with a slightly larger budget, we reccomend the Sony HDR-HC1E or the Sony HDRFX1 .
TOP TIPS
When buying a camera it is worthwhile getting additional extras;
Buying an extra battery is incredibly useful for outdoor filming, and having camera equipment
such as tripods or monopods available to you help with the filming process.
Lighting:
For indoor filming, you are going to need lighting. Do not underestimate the importance of

lighting. It can make all the difference to a shot being the best you’ve filmed, or ending up on the
cutting room floor.
Cutting Room Floor:
Term applied to a piece of footage that does not appear in the final cut of the film. Scenes or
shots are usually dropped because of time constraints, or an error in the filming process.
(Script Writer) Screenwriters or scenarists or scriptwriters are people in a film crew who
write/create the screenplays from which films and television programs are made.
A character is the representation of a person in a narrative work of art (such as a novel, play, or
film). Derived from the ancient Greek word kharaktêr, the English word dates from the
Restoration, although it became widely used after its appearance in Tom Jones in 1749. From
this, the sense of "a part played by an actor" developed. Character, particularly when enacted by
an actor in the theatre or cinema, involves "the illusion of being a human person." In literature,
characters guide readers through their stories, helping them to understand plots and ponder
themes. Since the end of the 18th century, the phrase "in character" has been used to describe
an effective impersonation by an actor. Since the 19th century, the art of creating characters, as
practised by actors or writers, has been called characterisation.
A character who stands as a representative of a particular class or group of people is known as
a type. Types include both stock characters and those that are more fully individualised. The
characters in Henrik Ibsen's Hedda Gabler (1891) and August Strindberg's Miss Julie (1888), for
example, are representative of specific positions in the social relations of class and gender, such
that the conflicts between the characters reveal ideological conflicts.
The study of a character requires an analysis of its relations with all of the other characters in
the work. The individual status of a character is defined through the network of oppositions
(proairetic, pragmatic, linguistic, proxemic) that it forms with the other characters. The relation
between characters and the action of the story shifts historically, often miming shifts in society
and its ideas about human individuality, self-determination, and the social order.


How to Edit & Record Sound Tracks



By Lori Spencer, eHow Contributor




Using simple software, you can turn your home into a recording studio.
These days, you need not spend a fortune on equipment or pay for expensive recording
studio time to produce a professional-sounding product.
There are many free software packages you can download for recording and editing
sound files. Two of the most popular are Audacity and WavePad; both are easy for
beginners to learn and are compatible with Windows and Mac operating systems.
Advanced users may want to consider paying for sophisticated software such as MixPad,
ProTools or Digital Performer. This is highly recommended if you plan to do multi-track
recording, mixing, and more complicated editing tasks.
No matter which audio software you choose, the basics of recording and editing digital
sound tracks is pretty much the same across the board. Feel free to experiment until you
find the software that works best for your needs.

UNIT-4

Special effect
.

A Fireball In The Dark

Bluescreens are commonly used in chroma key special effects.

A methane bubble bursting
The illusions used in the film, television, theatre, videogame, or simulator industries to simulate
the imagined events in a story or virtual world are traditionally called special effects (often
abbreviated as SFX, SPFX, or simply FX).
Special effects are traditionally divided into the categories of optical effects and mechanical
effects. With the emergence of digital film-making tools a greater distinction between special
effects and visual effects has been recognized, with "visual effects" referring to digital postproduction and "special effects" referring to on-set mechanical effects and in-camera optical
effects.
Optical effects (also called photographic effects), are techniques in which images or film frames
are created photographically, either "in-camera" using multiple exposure, mattes, or the
Schüfftan process, or in post-production processes using an optical printer. An optical effect
might be used to place actors or sets against a different background.
Mechanical effects (also called practical or physical effects), are usually accomplished during the
live-action shooting. This includes the use of mechanized props, scenery, scale models,
pyrotechnics and Atmospheric Effects: creating physical wind, rain, fog, snow, clouds etc.
Making a car appear to drive by itself, or blowing up a building are examples of mechanical
effects. Mechanical effects are often incorporated into set design and makeup. For example, a

set may be built with break-away doors or walls to enhance a fight scene, or prosthetic makeup
can be used to make an actor look like a monster.
Since the 1990s, computer generated imagery (CGI) has come to the forefront of special effects
technologies. CGI gives film-makers greater control, and allows many effects to be
accomplished more safely and convincingly – and even, as technology marches on, at lower
costs. As a result, many optical and mechanical effects techniques have been superseded by
CGI.
Mise-en-scène refers to the visual design of a film. A narrative film’s visual elements can
include lighting, set décor, costume design, props, blocking, spatial relationships, scene
composition—Mise-en-scène is how these visual elements work together to tell the story. Every
visual element designed for narrative film is considered mise-en-scène. Even non-narrative
films, such as documentaries, can be said to have a certain degree of mise-en-scène. This
arrangement and design expresses aspects of the characters, themes, and story that
are necessarily in dialogue.
The 'Night Visitor' scene of Robert Wiene’s "The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari." The film's mise-enscène is used to express aspects of the characters or story visually, without relying on dialogue.
Consider the “Night Visitor” scene of Robert Wiene’s The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari. The character
Cesare has entered the bedroom of Jane Olsen. The mise-en-scène of The Cabinet of Dr.
Caligari is not realistic at all – it reflects the state of mind of the storyteller, Francis. As Francis
relates the story, the mise-en-scène accents the emotional subtext. Cesare is a dark and
threatening character. He lurks in the shadows, his features obscured in darkness. Obfuscation
reflects Cesare’s inhumanity–he has no free will or personality of his own. He is a dark figure
carrying out evil deeds at his master’s behest.
Jane lays asleep in her bed. White pillows and lace coddle her. This décor suggests a virginal
and vulnerable character, unaware of impending danger. This image directly conflicts with the
threatening Cesare. He emerges from the shadows towards her. The set design behind Cesare
is sharp and angular. There are several dagger-like shapes jutting overhead. Cesare walks
underneath these sinister shapes, implying his murderous intentions. The actor’s blocking (or
pre-ordained path) to Jane continues underneath the dagger-shapes, shapes which aim at the
defenseless Jane.
Thin film characterization is one of many core technologies at Balazs NanoAnalysis. As a
global leader, Balazs has supported hundreds of high-technology companies in their R&D and
manufacturing processes. Raising the bar on quality, performance, and problem solving is how
Balazs finds new and innovative ways to help its clients reach their goals.
Visualizing is the key to realizing. The more and more you visualize what you want, the better
chance of success you will have. In this article, you are going to learn two types of visualization
techniques. First, you're going to learn how to visualize properly. Second, you're going to learn a
different technique called visualize and verbalize.
Unit -4
How to Write a Movie Review
Writing a movie review is a great way of expressing your opinion of a movie. The purpose of
most movie reviews is to help the reader in determining whether they want to watch, rent or
buy the movie. The review should give enough details about the movie that the reader can
make an informed decision, without giving anyway any essentials such as the plot or any
surprises. Below are our guidelines and tips for writing a good movie review.
1. Watch the movie

The first step in writing the review is to watch the movie. Watch the movie in a relaxed
environment you are familiar with. You do not want to be distracted by an unfamiliar room.
Watching the movie a second time will help you to absorb a lot more detail about the movie.
Most movie reviewers take notes as they watch the movie.
2. Give your opinion
Most movie reviewers will give their opinion of the movie. This is important as the reviewer
can express the elements of the movie they enjoyed or disliked. However, as in all good
journalism, the reviewer should also give impartial details, and allow the reader to make their
own mind over an issue the reader liked or disliked. Opinions should be explained to allow the
reader to determine whether they would agree with your opinion .
Many regular movie reviewers will develop a following. If one can find a reviewer who shares a
similar taste in films, one can confidently follow the reviewers recommendations.
3. Who is your audience?
You need to consider who your likely readers are. Writing a movie review for children
requires a different approach than if writing for a movie club. Ensure you report on the factors
that matter to your likely audience.
4. Give an outline
Give the outline of the movie, but don't give away essential details such as the end or any
surprises. If there is a big surprise you want to entice readers by telling them something special
happens, just don't say what.
5. Actors
If the movie contains actors, as most do, detail who is starring in the movie and how well you
think they acted.
6. Structure
Did the movie follow a regular predictable story line, or did it get you thinking like a Quentin
Tarantino movie?
7.Cinematography and lighting
Give details about how well the movie was shot and directed. Was the lighting good in the
moody scenes?
8. Music
Did the movie have its own score like Koyaanisqatsi or ET, or did it feature songs from popular
artists?
9. Read, read and read
Read and check your review thoroughly. It can be embarrassing to find errors in your work
after it has been published. This is especially important for reviews that will be published on the
Internet, as search engines are always looking for the correct spellings of keywords.
What is Film Appreciation
To be able to appreciate there needs to be an ‘understanding’ and that is what film appreciation
is all about for me. To help you understand the key dynamics of what film is made up of –

technology, art, industry. The next stage of the process hopefully would be to reflect on it and to
appreciate it.
To look back at the history of cinema is important as there lies the story of the evolution of the
language of cinema. To really understand what contemporary cinema is made up of we need to
look at what went before because on the foundation of the past is based the present and the
future.
The language of cinema is universal which crosses all boundaries. Cinema has been influenced
by various artists, countries, innovators, art forms, businesses and the coming together of these
forces creates something unique which is cinema as we know it today. Understanding these
contributions makes the study of cinema more interesting and valuable.
‘Film Appreciation’ is a humble attempt to make you aware of the potential of cinema and
empower the artist and audience aiming towards a more enriching experience.
Film criticism is the analysis and evaluation of films, individually and collectively. In general,
this can be divided into journalistic criticism that appears regularly in newspapers, and other
popular, mass-media outlets and academic criticism by film scholars that is informed by film
theory and published in journals.
Journalistic criticism
Film critics working for newspapers, magazines, broadcast media, and online publications,
mainly review new releases. The plot summary and description of a film that makes up the
majority of any film review can have an important impact on whether people decide to see a film.
Poor reviews can doom a film to obscurity and financial loss.
In recent times, the impact reviews have on a film's box office performance and DVD
rentals/sales have become a matter for debate. There are those who think modern movie
marketing, using pop culture convention appearances and social media along with traditional
means of advertising, have become so invasive and well financed that established reviewers
with legitimate criticism cannot be heard over the din of popular support. Moreover, this has led,
in part, to a decline in the readership of many reviewers for newspapers and other print
publications. The vast majority of film critics on television and radio have all but disappeared
over the last thirty years, as well. It can be observed that most of the discussion of film on
television is focused on the amount of box office business a film does, as if financial success
were the only criterion needed to define artistic success. Today arts criticism in general does not
hold the same place it once held with the general public.
Conversely, it's been claimed positive film reviews have been known to spark interest in littleknown films. For example, independent films with smaller marketing budgets, such as The Hurt
Locker, are promoted more widely thanks to the positive reviews they received. There are those
who believe critics are biased towards art-house films (examples: The Hurt Locker, Blue
Valentine) and against commercial blockbusters (examples: Pirates of the Caribbean, Cowboys
& Aliens). However, many critics analyze a film by its inexhaustibility, or the range of its impact
and appeal on to generations of fans beyond its original release date.
Today, fan-run film analysis websites like Box Office Prophets and Box Office Guru routinely
factor in general public film review opinion with those of more experienced reviewers in their
projections of a film. Other websites, such as Rotten Tomatoes, combines all reviews on a
specific film published online and in print to come up with an aggregated rating known as a
"freshness rate."

Content analysis or textual analysis is a methodology in the social sciences for studying the
content of communication. Earl Babbie defines it as "the study of recorded human
communications, such as books, websites, paintings and laws."
According to Dr. Farooq Joubish, content analysis is considered a scholarly methodology in the
humanities by which texts are studied as to authorship, authenticity, or meaning. This latter
subject include philology, hermeneutics, and semiotics.
Harold Lasswell formulated the core questions of content analysis: "Who says what, to whom,
why, to what extent and with what effect?." Ole Holsti (1969) offers a broad definition of content
analysis as "any technique for making inferences by objectively and systematically identifying
specified characteristics of messages." Kimberly A. Neuendorf (2002, p. 10) offers a six-part
definition of content analysis:
"Content analysis is a summarising, quantitative analysis of messages that relies on the
scientific method (including attention to objectivity, intersubjectivity, a priori design, reliability,
validity, generalisability, replicability, and hypothesis testing) and is not limited as to the types of
variables that may be measured or the context in which the messages are created or
presented."
FILMCLUB is an education charity which sets up film clubs in schools and other education and
care establishments in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. The
scheme is free to all state primary and secondary schools in Wales and England. The
organisation was founded in September 2006, and after a successful pilot in 2007,[1] the initial
UK roll-out began in April 2008.
FILMCLUB gives children from participating schools access to thousands of films and organises
school visits by professionals from within the film industry. Pupils are encouraged to watch a
diverse range of films including classics, black and white movies, documentaries, blockbusters
and foreign language titles, and to review the films they watch on the organisation's website
(www.filmclub.org). The clubs are generally run by teachers or similar education professionals,
but may also be led by older pupils, often from a school's 6th Form. The organisation is
a charity, and is funded by the Department for Education in England, and The BFI Lottery
Transition Fund for Audience Development, with the DVD rental service provided by LOVEFiLM.
Club funding
FILMCLUB is funded in England by the Department for Education and works in partnership with
the BFI, BAFTA, and fellow members of the leadership group Film: 21st Century Literacy (see
below). In Northern Ireland, FILMCLUB is funded by the Department of Culture, Arts and
Leisure and Northern Ireland Screen in partnership with CineMagic (film festival). In Wales,
FILMCLUB is funded by the Welsh Assembly in partnership with Film Agency for Wales, Arts
Council of Wales, S4C, It's My Shout, and BBC Cymru Wales. In the Isle of Man, FILMCLUB
works with Isle of Man Government, Isle of Man Film and Cinema NX.