Gender And
Content
An executive summary for managers and executive readers can be found at the end of this article
Gender and coupon use
Susan K. Harmon C. Jeanne Hill
Assistant Professor of Marketing, College of Business, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, Tennessee, USA Professor of Marketing, College of Business, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, Tennessee, USA Keywords Consumer behaviour, Gender, Purchasing, Promotional coupons Abstract Men have not traditionally been considered a viable target market for most household purchases and, thus, for coupon distribution. However, with significant social changes over the last several decades, men may offer an opportunity for sales growth in many product categories. This study surveyed 206 males and females to identify gender differences in products purchased, frequency of coupon use by product type, and coupon source. The study also used demographics and parental coupon use to profile gender differences. Men were found to play a major role in household purchases, particularly for groceries, and to be light users of coupons overall. Men also were found to purchase more online products and more food delivery services than women but to use fewer coupons. Men were, however, found to be heavy users of grocery store loyalty cards.
Household purchases have traditionally been the role of the woman
Introduction Conventional wisdom holds that the majority of coupon users are female, primarily because household purchases have traditionally been the role of the woman in the household. Although the demographic profile of US households has been changing over the last few decades, the preponderance of papers written and research conducted exploring factors that predispose an individual to coupon redemption remain focused solely on wives/mothers in nuclear families. The reported research on coupon use includes an investigation of household demographics such as income and education, with varying conclusions (see, for example, Bawa and Shoemaker, 1987; Cronovich et al., 1997; Gonzales, 1988; Levedahl, 1988; Mittal, 1994; Montgomery, 1971). In general, most of the studies have found both income and education positively related to coupon use. However, the population of interest examined in these studies (while often stated as ``families'') is typically the wife/mother. With the exception of one recent study (Otnes and McGrath, 2001), men as ``shoppers'' have been largely ignored in the research literature. Changing role of men While we accept the premise that women continue to comprise the majority of coupon users, we see an opportunity for companies to enhance coupon effectiveness by targeting men. For a number of reasons, men have become increasingly more visible in the marketplace. We assert that the male role in the household has been changing since at least the 1960s and has gained
Authorship of this paper is shared equally.
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/1061-0421.htm
166
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003, pp. 166-179, # MCB UP LIMITED, 1061-0421, DOI 10.1108/10610420310476924
significance as a result of at least three societal changes. Both an increase in the average age of first marriages (now 24.4 for women and 26.5 for men) and an increase in the divorce rate have led to more male-only and singleparent households. The US Census Bureau predicts a 15.4 percent increase in men living alone between 2000 and 2010, presenting an increase from 9.9 million to 10.7 million. Also predicted is a 9 percent increase in single-father households during the same time period. Greater male responsibility In addition to the changes stated above, most women are now part of the workforce (80 percent in 2000). Single-parent households, whether headed by a man or a woman, and families with two working parents, provide a different socialization environment for boys. Many male children have therefore developed a different view of both their own and the female's role within the household. Similarly, the increase in male-only households has necessitated greater male responsibility in the functioning of the household and, as a consequence, greater participation in the marketplace. Coupon distribution and effectiveness Coupon distribution in the USA is at an all-time high, while the redemption rate has proven erratic over the years, with long periods of decline (e.g. 1992 through 1996). Coupon redemption has been declining in recent years from 4.6 billion coupons redeemed in 1999 (Valassis Communications, 2000) down to 4.5 billion in 2000 and 4.0 billion redeemed in 2001 (Brown, 2002). In 1993, 86.4 percent of shoppers used coupons, with that figure dropping to 82.8 percent by 1996 (Forecast, 1998). As more stores issue loyalty cards to collect consumer data and offer associated price savings, it is possible that consumers view store loyalty cards as a convenient substitute for paper coupons. Many stores provide ongoing reinforcement by isolating card savings on the customer's receipt. In the ACNielsen ``Frequent Shopper Programs'' study for 1998, nearly three-quarters of grocery store loyalty card holders identified savings as the reason for initially adopting the card (Staff reporter, 1998). Competition for brand visibility has increased While coupon distribution continues to be high, and to constitute a major element in the promotional mix for many consumer companies, a number of factors have led to a lessening of its impact for individual companies. First, coupons are being used by an increasing number of companies, including a greater variety of service companies. As a result, the efforts of individual companies are less likely to be noticed. Second, the number of vehicles for distributing coupons has increased. More recent additions to the traditional distribution of coupons through newspaper advertisements include freestanding inserts (FSI) in newspapers, direct mail coupons (singles and packs), coupons on or in products, electronic in-store coupon machines, coupon booklets often sold as fundraisers, and online coupon sites (e.g. Coolsavings.com). Finally, the competition for brand visibility in the marketplace has increased, leading to the institutionalization of couponing. Thus, while couponing appears to be here to stay, its potential for continuing effectiveness is debatable. Research questions As a consequence of the factors discussed, promotional managers are facing greater pressure to make promotional dollars count. Thus, some companies have recently become interested in targeting once ``undesirable'' segments of the market with a variety of promotional vehicles (Whigham-Desir, 1997). We contend that men, largely ignored as shoppers for a wide variety of
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003 167
products and services, now comprise a viable and important target segment for price reduction instruments such as coupons and store loyalty cards. Gender differences The broader purpose of this study was to explore the role, if any, coupons and store loyalty cards play in male purchase behavior. Because we failed to find any major reported studies addressing gender and coupon usage, we believe this initial exploration to be fully warranted. Specifically, this study investigated gender differences and coupon use as described in the following research questions: RQ1. Do men and women differ in shopping behavior as evidenced by the extent to which they purchase products/services from different types of retail outlets? RQ2. Does the frequency of use of coupons and store loyalty cards differ for men and women and does the frequency vary by type of product? If so, are there demographic characteristics that contribute to an understanding of differences? RQ3. Do men and women differ in the sources used for coupons? If so, do demographic characteristics contribute to an understanding of differences? Method Sample A two-stage sampling process was utilized to select male and female adults for this study. In the first stage, students were recruited from business classes at a large southern university in the USA to complete the survey. In the second stage, students from a marketing research class were enlisted to administer questionnaires to additional sample members. Students were directed to interview non-student adults based on designated gender and age quotas. The participants recruited by students were asked to provide contact information. Roughly 20 percent of the non-student participants were re-contacted by the researchers to verify participation and to ensure proper research techniques were followed. A total of 206 usable questionnaires, 64 students and 142 non-students, provided the basis of this initial investigation into the role of coupon use in male purchase behavior. The final sample of respondents was 48 percent male and 52 percent female. Most respondents (50 percent) were 25-39 years old or 40-59 (32 percent), while 17 percent were younger than 25 and a very small percentage (1 percent) were 60 or older. Only 14 percent of respondents lived alone, while 42 percent lived with one other person, 24 percent lived in a three-person household, and the remainder lived in households of four or more. The education level of the sample ranged from high school/technical school graduate or less (23 percent) to some college/currently attending (40 percent) to college graduate (38 percent). Less than 10 percent of the sample had an annual household income under $15,000, 18 percent an income of $15,000-29,000, 25 percent an income of $30,000-44,999, 19 percent an income of $45,000-59,999, 13 percent an income of $60,000-74,999 and 16 percent an income of $75,000 or more. Measurement Sample members were asked to complete a questionnaire consisting of three sections. Section one asked respondents to describe the frequency with which they used coupons to purchase products/services in the three-month period prior to the survey from the following 11 outlets: grocery stores,
168 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
Investigation into male purchase behavior
department stores, discount stores, electronics/computer stores, food delivery outlets, fast food restaurants, all other restaurants, dry cleaners, e-retailers, auto maintenance shops, and other outlets. Section two asked respondents to indicate, for the prior three-month period, the frequency with which they used the following as sources for coupons and/or store loyalty cards: grocery stores, drug stores, bookstores, other outlets offering loyalty cards, coupon booklets, coupons found on a shelf/ rack or elsewhere in the store, coupons on/in products, coupons in newspapers, coupons received in the mail, coupons found on the Internet, and coupons from other sources such as telephone books and magazines. Both sections one and two utilized a five-point frequency scale of always, usually, sometimes, rarely, and never. Each scale also included a did not purchase option. The third section asked for sample members' gender, age, education, household income and whether or not their parents used coupons. Indication of gender differences in purchase behavior Analysis The first phase of analysis compared the relative frequencies with which men and women purchased the specified products based on the did not purchase option. Responses to this question provide an indication of gender differences in basic purchase behavior. The second phase of analysis focused on responses to the two central questions of the study. Relative frequencies (and any significant differences) of coupon usage by men and women were calculated for the purchase of various products and from various coupon sources. A composite measure of coupon use from any source was calculated by summing scores for usage by source. A score of 7 indicated the respondent had never used coupons from any listed source in the previous three months. A score of 35 indicated the respondent always used coupons from all sources. A similar composite score was calculated for store loyalty cards at various stores. For the loyalty card composite, a score of 4 indicated no use of the identified loyalty cards in the previous three months. A score of 20 indicated the respondent always used loyalty cards from all store types identified. Each of the composite scores was grouped to allow simple cross-tabulations. Finally, to understand better any gender differences found in the relative frequencies distribution, gender groups were profiled using the demographic characteristics stated previously. Based on the chi-square goodness-of-fit test, only those demographic differences significant at the 0.00 to 0.10 level of probability are discussed in the profile section. Results Who shops for groceries? Counter to conventional wisdom, we found the number of men responsible for purchasing a variety of products and services similar to that of women. For example, 36 percent of men were the primary purchasers of groceries during the three-month period covered in the study and 25 percent bought groceries equally often with others in the household. A 1995 study (Dholakia et al., 1995) found only 10 percent of men the primary grocery shopper. Nearly all men (92 percent) had purchased groceries during the previous three months. Gender differences in products purchased The results of this study suggest little difference in the purchase behavior of men and women (see Table I). In addition to groceries, a large percentage
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003 169
Most men had purchased groceries during the previous three months
Outlet Groceries Fast food restaurants Food delivery services Other restaurants Department stores Auto maintenance services Discount stores Dry cleaning Electronics/computers Online purchases Products from other outlets Notes: a 2 = 2.62; df = 1; p = 0.07; df = 1, p = 0.00
b
Male (%) 92 89 85 83 82 81 79 60 60 56 49 2 = 2.61; df = 1; p = 0.07;
c
Female (%) 92 85 76a 79 88 74 74 53 51 45b 21c 2 = 16.48;
Table I. Rate of purchase of product/service items during previous three months
(approximately three-quarters or more) of both groups had purchased items from fast food restaurants, department stores, food delivery services, other restaurants, auto maintenance shops and discount stores. Fewer from both groups had purchased products/services from dry cleaners, electronic/ computer stores, e-retailers, and other outlets. For only three types of products did the purchase frequency of men and women differ significantly. To summarize Table I findings, similar percentages of males and females purchased products from each outlet investigated in this study, with the exceptions of food delivery services, products from the Internet, and products from other, non-specified outlets. More men had food delivered to their home Specifically, 56 percent of male respondents versus 45 percent of females purchased items online. This finding is not surprising given that men were early adopters of the Internet; additionally, men may view online shopping as less of a hassle than physically ``going shopping''. Significantly more men (85 percent v. 76 percent) also had food delivered to their home. Perhaps men are still less likely to prepare food, so when alone or responsible for feeding the family, they opt to ``order in''. Finally, significantly more men (49 percent) than women (21 percent) purchased items from outlets other than those listed (e.g. bookstores). While not statistically significant, a fairly large difference was observed in electronics/computer purchases, with 60 percent of males and 51 percent of females having purchased these products in the previous three-month period. Certainly, these results weaken the notion that men are not shoppers. Gender differences in coupon use Based on the summated score across all sources of coupons (coupon booklet, coupons found in store, on/in product, online, newspaper, received in mail, or other sources), 25 percent of men and 13 percent of women reported they did not use coupons from any of these sources during the three-month period prior to the survey. Nearly half of men not using coupons and 31 percent of women not using coupons were the sole grocery shopper for their household. In contrast, 17 percent of men and 24 percent of women in the sample were heavy coupon users, using coupons often and from multiple sources. Only a small proportion of respondents had not used any of the store loyalty cards in the prior three-month period (7 percent of men and 2 percent of women). Respondents were more likely to have used a grocery store loyalty card
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
Small proportion had not used any store loyalty cards in three months
170
(71 percent of men, 76 percent of women) than any other price reduction method included in the study. Only two significant gender differences were found in the frequency of coupon use for purchasing products/services from the major outlets investigated in this study (see Table II). Men were more likely to have used coupons in electronics/computer stores Electronics/computer stores and e-retailers. While findings from Table I indicate more men than women had purchased products from both electronics/computer stores and from online retailers in the previous three-month period, men were more likely to have used coupons in electronics/computer stores and women were more likely to have used them for online purchases. The majority of both groups never or rarely used coupons when purchasing electronics/computers items; however, 21 percent of men always/usually used coupons to purchase these products compared with only 6 percent of women. More men never/rarely used coupons to purchase items through the Internet Alternatively, 19 percent of women and 6 percent of men always/usually used coupons when purchasing products from e-retailers. In addition, more men than women never/rarely (80 percent v. 75 percent) and sometimes (15 percent v. 6 percent) used coupons to purchase items through the Internet. While not significant overall, the following differences were notable:
.
Of females, 61 percent always/usually used coupons when paying for food delivery services, while the same was true for only 46 percent of men. In non-fast food restaurants, 70 percent of men never/rarely used coupons, versus 56 percent of women. On the other hand, 30 percent of women sometimes used coupons in these restaurants, compared with 20 percent of men. While the majority of each group never or rarely used coupons for dry cleaning, more women (23 percent v. 10 percent)) always/usually used coupons. For automobile maintenance services, 52 percent of men never/rarely used coupons, compared with 40 percent of women.
Never/rarely Male Female (%) (%) 40 53 30 70 68 52 72 75 66 80 86
b
.
.
.
Outlet Groceries Fast food restaurants Food delivery services Other restaurants Department stores Automobile maintenance services Discount stores Dry cleaning Electronics/computers Online purchases Products from other outlets Notes:
a
Sometimes Always/usually Male Female Male Female (%) (%) (%) (%) 24 29 24 20 21 18 15 15 14 15 02 31 30 16 30 25 23 21 18 21 06 15 36 18 46 10 11 30 13 10 21 06 11 32 24 61 14 15 37 12 23 06a 19b 10
38 46 24 56 60 40 68 60 74 75 75
2 = 5.68; df = 2; p = 0.06;
2 = 5.62; df = 2; p = 0.06
Table II. Frequency of coupon use during previous three months
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003 171
.
In other purchase situations, such as bookstores and discount cigarette outlets, 2 percent of men and 15 percent of women sometimes used coupons; 86 percent of men and 75 percent of women never/rarely used them.
One conclusion to be gained from this analysis is that men are buying a variety of products today. While for most of the products included in this study coupons were not used substantially by either males or females, females were more likely to use coupons for online purchases and men for electronics/computer purchases. Younger women never or rarely used any coupons Profiling gender differences in coupon use Age. Surprisingly, age did not explain differences in the frequency with which men used coupons to purchase products from any of the product/ service categories studied. However, although not statistically significant, younger men were more likely than older men (28 percent v. 14 percent) not to use coupons. The behavior of women did vary significantly by age. More younger women never/rarely used coupons to purchase groceries, discount store items, and automobile maintenance. More older women always/usually used coupons for grocery and discount store purchases and sometimes for automobile maintenance. Overall, a greater percentage of older women sometimes or frequently used many coupons from many sources while more younger women never or rarely used any coupons from any source. Thus, women did use coupons more often than men in this study. However, it was older women who were most likely to use coupons and to obtain them from a variety of sources. Younger women did not seem to use coupons very frequently for the majority of most frequently purchased items such as groceries and discount store items. Income. As with age, income did not affect the frequency with which men used coupons to purchase the products studied, but it did affect women's purchases of groceries and food delivery services. Substantially fewer lower income women always/usually used coupons to purchase groceries and food delivery services, while somewhat more middle-income than upper-income women always/usually used coupons for those purchases. Education affected men and women differently Education. Education affected men and women differently in their use of coupons to purchase specific types of products. For men, education differences were linked to the frequency of use of coupons in the purchase of department store items, discount store items and automobile maintenance services. Specifically, more male college graduates always/usually used coupons to purchase products from department and discount stores and more men with some college experience sometimes purchased automobile maintenance services with coupons. Also, for overall coupon use, male college graduates were less likely than men with high school degrees or some college experience not to use coupons. Educational differences affected one aspect of women's overall coupon use. Only 3 percent of female college graduates and 24 percent of females with high school or less education never used coupons from any source. However, education differences did not seem to be associated with women who frequently used coupons from many sources. In conclusion, age and income did not affect male coupon use but did affect females' use, particularly females who were older and had higher incomes. Education, on the other hand, had a disparate effect on men and women.
172 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
Parental influence on coupon use Respondents were asked to identify whether or not their mothers and fathers used coupons. Those respondents who had not used coupons in the past three months were more likely to have parents who did not use coupons. Among male non-users, 39 percent had mothers who did not use coupons as compared with about 10 percent of all male coupon users ( 2 = 12.96, df = 6, p = 0.04). The variation was less clear-cut for fathers' use of coupons: 65 percent of male non-users had fathers who did not use coupons versus 31-62 percent of all male coupon users. For women in the sample, the results were not significant for either mother or father; however, the pattern was quite similar to that for men. Over half of non-user females said their mothers did not use coupons, compared with less than 10 percent of heavy female coupon users. Most effective coupon distribution vehicle was the grocery store loyalty card Gender differences in sources of coupons By far the most effective coupon distribution vehicle for both men and women was the grocery store loyalty card, with 71 percent of men and 76 percent of women always or usually using these cards. Other sources were utilized much less frequently. For men, the second most commonly used coupon sources were products (24 percent) and newspapers (24 percent). For women, the second most frequently used source is products (33 percent) then newspapers (30 percent) and mail (30 percent). Thus, in general, the extent of coupon use from various sources did not appear to differ much by gender. Only two significant differences were found in the sources of coupons used by men and women (see Table III): coupons found on/in products and coupons found in the store. Compared with women, a substantially larger percentage of men (55 percent v. 34 percent) never/rarely used coupons found on or in product packaging; contrarily, more females than males sometimes (33 percent v. 22 percent) and always/usually (33 percent v. 24 percent) used coupons from this source. With regards to coupons that can be found on store shelves, display racks, or available elsewhere in the store, female respondents were generally more likely to have used coupons from this source. Specifically, 64 percent of men never/rarely used in-store sources, compared with 49 percent of women.
Never/rarely Male Female (%) (%) 11 55 51 64 52 64 76 74 65 89
b
Source Grocery store loyalty card Coupons on/in product Newspapers Drug store loyalty card Mail In-store coupons Bookstore loyalty card Other store loyalty card Coupon booklet Internet Notes:
a
Sometimes Male Female (%) (%) 17 22 26 14 28 18 11 10 21 04 17 33 25 22 20 26 13 12 30 06
Always/usually Male Female (%) (%) 71 24 24 21 20 17 13 16 14 07 76 33a 30 28 30 26b 15 09 11 07
08 34 46 51 51 49 71 79 59 88
2 = 8.91; df = 2; p = 0.01;
2 = 4.85; df = 2; p = 0.09
Table III. Frequency of coupon/store loyalty card source during previous three months
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003 173
Other findings of gender differences in the use of coupons and/or store loyalty cards from different sources are interesting, although not statistically significant. These include the following:
.
While both groups used grocery store loyalty cards to a similar extent, 64 percent of male respondents stated they never/rarely used drug store loyalty cards, compared to 51 percent of females. A total of 30 percent of females and 21 percent of males sometimes used coupons from coupon booklets. Of the females, 30 percent also stated they always/usually used coupons received in the mail, while only 20 percent of men responded similarly.
.
.
Older men sometimes used coupons from newspapers
Profiling gender differences in sources of coupons Age. Age was found to affect the frequency with which both men and women used specific distribution sources for coupons and/or store loyalty cards. However, with the exception of newspapers, age effects showed up in different sources for each gender. More older men (39 percent) always/ usually used drug store loyalty cards; more older men sometimes used coupons from newspapers and phone books/magazines. Age affected the frequency with which women used coupons received in the mail and from newspapers, with more older women always/usually using these sources. Income. Income also had an effect on the frequency with which both male and female respondents used grocery store and drug store loyalty cards. Middle-income ($30,000-$59,999) men and women displayed a higher incidence of always/usually using grocery store loyalty cards. On the other hand, the incidence of never/rarely using grocery store loyalty cards increased as income increased for men but decreased as income increased for women. Thus, higher income men were less likely to use grocery store loyalty cards while higher income women were more likely to use them.
Income had differing effects for men and women
For drug store loyalty cards income had a different effect on men than it did women. Fewer middle-income men sometimes used loyalty cards and fewer with an income under $30,000 always/usually used them. For female respondents, fewer with a mid-range income never/rarely used them and more females with a mid-range income always/usually used them. In addition, higher income women ($60,000 and over) were much more likely to have used bookstore loyalty cards. Education. Education had a fairly extensive effect on coupon sources used by both male and female respondents. However, other than one notable exception, education did not distinguish gender differences in coupon sources used by respondents. The exception is that newspaper coupons were more likely to be always/usually used by men with a high school degree or less (33 percent) or by college graduates (29 percent) than by those with some college (13 percent). Education had a similar effect on males and females in the frequency of bookstore loyalty card use and the use of coupons found on/in products. More male and female college graduates always/usually used bookstore loyalty cards. In addition, more males and females with a high school or less education always/usually used coupons on/in products. Finally, more men and women with some college never/ rarely used coupons on/in products. Summary of major findings The following constitute the major findings of this study, with particular emphasis on those findings relevant to male purchase behavior:
174
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
.
At least three-quarters of male and female respondents had purchased items from all of the outlets included in this study with the exception of dry cleaners, electronics/computer stores, and e-retailers, all of which were purchased by 60 percent or less. Men purchased products from various outlets to the same extent as women, with a few exceptions: men purchased more products online, more food delivery services, and more products from other outlets not specified in this study. A total of 17 percent of male respondents were heavy coupon users, while 25 percent had not used coupons in the past three months. Men purchased more products online, but few used coupons (and fewer than women). Men purchased more food delivery services and typically used a coupon (but fewer than women). Somewhat more men purchased items from electronics/computer stores but did not typically use coupons (although more men than women used them). Men and women purchased automobile maintenance services equally but men rarely used coupons and these men were typically high school and college graduates. Grocery store loyalty cards were by far the most used source for both men and women, with approximately three-quarters of both groups always or usually using them. Middle income men were more likely than other income groups to use the cards. Other sources of coupons were much less common but, for men, the next most frequent were newspapers, mail, and on/in products. Newspapers as a source for coupons was most frequent among less educated, older men. The men who obtained coupons on/in products tended to be less educated. Men rarely used drug store loyalty cards, but older, less educated men were the most likely. Men also rarely used coupons found in the store. While large numbers of men purchased products from drug stores, department stores and discount stores, coupons were not likely to be used very often. The influence of parental coupon use was significant only for men. Men whose mothers did not use coupons were more likely not to use coupons themselves.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
There do not appear to be ``guy stores'' versus ``girl stores''
Managerial implications and applications Men and women are the same ± at least in terms of retail outlets shopped in the past three months. Contrary to popular opinion, for the most part there do not appear to be ``guy stores'' versus ``girl stores''. Fairly equal percentages of both men and women had purchased products from grocery stores, fast food restaurants, other restaurants, department stores, auto maintenance shops, discount stores, dry cleaners and electronics/computer stores. Men are assuming an enhanced role in shopping for the household. Almost all respondents in this study had bought groceries during the previous three-month period and over one-third of the men indicated they were the primary grocery shopper for the household. The question for marketers to
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
175
consider is whether current marketing and promotional efforts should continue to be focused on women as the primary grocery shopper. If a substantial segment of men are making household purchase decisions, price reduction promotions that have traditionally been used to reach the female shopper may not be effective on the male shopper. Online retailers, food delivery services and other retail outlets may want to pay particular attention to men since men indicated a higher rate of purchases from these retailers than did women. Online traffic patterns have shifted Is the difference in shopping online a short-term phenomenon or is it a lasting trend? Since men dominated the traffic online in the early days of the World Wide Web, it is not surprising that they would be more comfortable buying products online. However, online traffic patterns have shifted in the past few years as more and more women have entered the online world. What remains to be seen is whether the increased presence of women on the Internet will translate into an increase in online purchases, or whether there is some aspect of shopping that women desire that the Internet cannot provide. It is possible that men prefer the low-contact nature of online shopping and will continue to be the dominant users of this retail outlet. Can couponing efforts reach men? While a sizable segment of men (25 percent) had not used coupons in the past three months, the majority of men had at least occasionally used coupons during this period. The difficulty lies in identifying a particular source as the best method for reaching men. Of the sources studied, two ± newspapers and on/in products ± had the highest percentage of frequent use by men; yet each of these sources was cited by only 24 percent of men. Also, newspapers may be a less effective medium for distributing coupons to younger men since newspaper readership among the young is declining. The price promotion vehicle used by a majority of men The grocery store loyalty card appears to be the price promotion vehicle used by a majority of men. Manufacturers may want to consider linking their promotional efforts to grocery stores' loyalty cards. Point-of-purchase displays could highlight special card savings offered by manufacturers. Other than use of the card, men appear to be less likely than women to use coupons found in the store or on/in the product. Promotions managers need to gain a better understanding of how men shop ± time spent in the store, pattern of product selection, interaction with in-store displays ± to determine the best way to distribute coupons to men at the point of purchase. It is quite possible that the current rate of non-use of coupons among men may be compounded over time, particularly with the potential influence of parental coupon use. While a mother's use of coupons influenced the likelihood of the son's use of coupons in this study, we might anticipate that the shopping patterns of fathers will also influence young boys of today as men assume a more active role in household shopping. Creative strategies needed The major message to promotions managers from this study is the need to act quickly in recognizing both the similarities of men and women in their purchase behavior and coupon use as well as the differences that require creative strategies for distributing coupons to men and encouraging their use.
References Bawa, K. and Shoemaker, R.W. (1987), ``The coupon-prone consumer: some findings based on purchase behavior across product classes'', Journal of Marketing, Vol. 51 No. 4, pp. 99-110.
176 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
Brown, C.K. (2002), ``CPGs change coupon media mix and purchase requirements: strategy results in less products moved by coupons at the retail level'', NCH Marketing Services, available at: www.nchmarketing.com/us/news/press.asp Cronovich, T., Daneshjvary, R. and Schwer, R.K. (1997), ``The determinants of coupon usage'', Applied Economics, Vol. 29 No. 12, pp. 1631-42. Dholakia, R., Pedersen, B. and Hikmet, N. (1995) ``Married males and shopping: are they sleeping partners?'', International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 23 No. 3, pp. 27-33. Forecast (1998), Vol. 18 No. 2, p. 7. Gonzales, M. (1988), ``Coupon craze cools'', American Demographics, Vol. 10 No. 10, p. 20. Levedahl, J.W. (1988), ``Coupon redeemers: are they better shoppers?'', Journal of Consumer Affairs, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 264-83. Mittal, B. (1994), ``An integrated framework for relating diverse consumer characteristics to supermarket coupon redemption'', Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 31 No. 4, pp. 533-44. Montgomery, D.B. (1971), ``Consumer characteristics associated with dealing: an empirical example'', Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 118-20. Otnes, C. and McGrath, M.A. (2001), ``Perceptions and realities of male shopping behavior'', Journal of Retailing, Vol. 77 No. 1, pp. 111-37. Staff reporter (1998), ``Frequent shoppers cite use of card over price and customer service'', ACNeilsen Global Site, available at: http://acnielsen.com/news/american/us/1998/ 19980416.htm Valassis Communications (2000), ``Valassis reports on coupon category trends'', Direct Marketing, Vol. 63 No. 2, p. 12. Whigham-Desir, M. (1997), ``Cashing in on coupons'', Black Enterprise, Vol. 27 No. 7, pp. 171-4.
&
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
177
This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of this article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full benefit of the material present
Executive summary and implications for managers and executives
Some thoughts on ``macho'' shopping! Harmon and Hill make a very profound observation:
The question for marketers to consider is whether current marketing and promotional efforts should continue to be focused on women as the primary grocery shopper.
While this article is about the use of coupons, it touches on the wider issue of who shops and whether the strategies used by marketers reflect changes in the behaviour of men and women. Such concerns are clearly in need of study but what Harmon and Hill throw up is of major concern to those responsible for planning and delivering promotions. There are three issues that are evident from the study of coupon use: (1) media strategy; (2) promotion planning; (3) design and presentation. Addressing these concerns will go some way towards reducing the problem of male exclusion from the marketers perception of shopping behaviour (ironic given the predominance of men in the marketing of fast moving consumer goods). Media strategy and selection Marketers continue to distribute coupons through ``female-friendly'' media channels and the result of this approach is to exclude men from access to coupons. While it could be argued that door drops and newspaper coupons are gender neutral such arguments lose validity when targeting is applied either to where in the paper the coupon appears or to the careful selection neighbourhoods for coupon drops. The problem with coupons is that the measurement of effectiveness is on the basis of numbers redeemed set against numbers distributed. One suspects that where more male oriented channels are tried they result in a lower rate of redemption compared to female oriented channels. Nevertheless, marketers need to re-examine their selection of media channels so as to encompass male as well as female shoppers. The reassessment of targeting for direct mail and door drops, consideration of specialist publications and opportunistic distribution through handouts and leaflet racks all need consideration if full advantage is to be taken of the opportunities presented by the growing number of male shoppers. Promotion planning As with media selection the planning of promotions needs to recognise the dynamics of the marketplace and the increase in male participation in shopping. Several issues may be worthy of consideration here:
.
Shopping behaviour ± perhaps men are less ``practised'' as shoppers. Men certainly lack (in general terms) the shopping socialization that women receive. This situation reflects the fact that women were the primary shoppers for most families until relatively recently and today's generation of male shoppers picked up their shopping habits from their mothers ± mostly indirectly.
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
178
.
Time commitment ± it is possible that men give less time to considering shopping that women even where they are the primary shopper. As a result there may be less chance of a male shopper picking up on and acting upon a promotional opportunity. Seasonality and the shopping cycle ± with more divided families where men take a primary role in childcare for part of the time, the question of when men shop may be pertinent. If men only shop when they have the kids marketers need to consider whether timing of promotions is significant both on a week-by-week basis and seasonally. Laziness and forgetfulness ± perhaps men are less willing to cut out, keep and remember to use coupons. This is reinforced in general terms by the effectiveness of store cards which require less effort and memory than do traditional coupons.
.
.
Marketers need to build into their promotion planning process a greater degree of consideration for male shoppers. One of the questions asked during the planning process should relate to the way in which the promotion reaches men and encourages them to act. In doing this we should bear in mind that, while outcomes are similar (the coupon is used), the motivations to take such action may differ by gender. Design and presentation There is something pretty sissy about a coupon especially when it has been designed to appeal to the typical grocery shopper (who we assume to be a woman). If men a becoming more significant as shoppers marketers need to consider how they design and present the promotion as well as how they plan and distribute the offer. Harmon and Hill's findings seem to suggest that men are more comfortable with using coupons for traditionally male-oriented purchases such as electrical goods. In part this will be a response to coupons designed and presented to appeal to men. In the wider field of grocery shopping marketers need to consider whether there is any advantage to be gained from ``de-sexing'' coupons or even producing ``his and hers'' versions. As with everything in marketing and especially in sales promotions, we need to consider the effectiveness of our strategies in the real world. This means carefully structured tests to assess whether changes in design, presentation, distribution or planning act to address the concerns expressed here by Harmon and Hill. The winner is likely to be the marketer who takes seriously the need to reach out to men as they taking more and more of a role in everyday shopping. (A precis of the article ``Gender and coupon use''. Supplied by Marketing  Consultants for Emerald.)
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
179
Gender and coupon use
Susan K. Harmon C. Jeanne Hill
Assistant Professor of Marketing, College of Business, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, Tennessee, USA Professor of Marketing, College of Business, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, Tennessee, USA Keywords Consumer behaviour, Gender, Purchasing, Promotional coupons Abstract Men have not traditionally been considered a viable target market for most household purchases and, thus, for coupon distribution. However, with significant social changes over the last several decades, men may offer an opportunity for sales growth in many product categories. This study surveyed 206 males and females to identify gender differences in products purchased, frequency of coupon use by product type, and coupon source. The study also used demographics and parental coupon use to profile gender differences. Men were found to play a major role in household purchases, particularly for groceries, and to be light users of coupons overall. Men also were found to purchase more online products and more food delivery services than women but to use fewer coupons. Men were, however, found to be heavy users of grocery store loyalty cards.
Household purchases have traditionally been the role of the woman
Introduction Conventional wisdom holds that the majority of coupon users are female, primarily because household purchases have traditionally been the role of the woman in the household. Although the demographic profile of US households has been changing over the last few decades, the preponderance of papers written and research conducted exploring factors that predispose an individual to coupon redemption remain focused solely on wives/mothers in nuclear families. The reported research on coupon use includes an investigation of household demographics such as income and education, with varying conclusions (see, for example, Bawa and Shoemaker, 1987; Cronovich et al., 1997; Gonzales, 1988; Levedahl, 1988; Mittal, 1994; Montgomery, 1971). In general, most of the studies have found both income and education positively related to coupon use. However, the population of interest examined in these studies (while often stated as ``families'') is typically the wife/mother. With the exception of one recent study (Otnes and McGrath, 2001), men as ``shoppers'' have been largely ignored in the research literature. Changing role of men While we accept the premise that women continue to comprise the majority of coupon users, we see an opportunity for companies to enhance coupon effectiveness by targeting men. For a number of reasons, men have become increasingly more visible in the marketplace. We assert that the male role in the household has been changing since at least the 1960s and has gained
Authorship of this paper is shared equally.
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/1061-0421.htm
166
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003, pp. 166-179, # MCB UP LIMITED, 1061-0421, DOI 10.1108/10610420310476924
significance as a result of at least three societal changes. Both an increase in the average age of first marriages (now 24.4 for women and 26.5 for men) and an increase in the divorce rate have led to more male-only and singleparent households. The US Census Bureau predicts a 15.4 percent increase in men living alone between 2000 and 2010, presenting an increase from 9.9 million to 10.7 million. Also predicted is a 9 percent increase in single-father households during the same time period. Greater male responsibility In addition to the changes stated above, most women are now part of the workforce (80 percent in 2000). Single-parent households, whether headed by a man or a woman, and families with two working parents, provide a different socialization environment for boys. Many male children have therefore developed a different view of both their own and the female's role within the household. Similarly, the increase in male-only households has necessitated greater male responsibility in the functioning of the household and, as a consequence, greater participation in the marketplace. Coupon distribution and effectiveness Coupon distribution in the USA is at an all-time high, while the redemption rate has proven erratic over the years, with long periods of decline (e.g. 1992 through 1996). Coupon redemption has been declining in recent years from 4.6 billion coupons redeemed in 1999 (Valassis Communications, 2000) down to 4.5 billion in 2000 and 4.0 billion redeemed in 2001 (Brown, 2002). In 1993, 86.4 percent of shoppers used coupons, with that figure dropping to 82.8 percent by 1996 (Forecast, 1998). As more stores issue loyalty cards to collect consumer data and offer associated price savings, it is possible that consumers view store loyalty cards as a convenient substitute for paper coupons. Many stores provide ongoing reinforcement by isolating card savings on the customer's receipt. In the ACNielsen ``Frequent Shopper Programs'' study for 1998, nearly three-quarters of grocery store loyalty card holders identified savings as the reason for initially adopting the card (Staff reporter, 1998). Competition for brand visibility has increased While coupon distribution continues to be high, and to constitute a major element in the promotional mix for many consumer companies, a number of factors have led to a lessening of its impact for individual companies. First, coupons are being used by an increasing number of companies, including a greater variety of service companies. As a result, the efforts of individual companies are less likely to be noticed. Second, the number of vehicles for distributing coupons has increased. More recent additions to the traditional distribution of coupons through newspaper advertisements include freestanding inserts (FSI) in newspapers, direct mail coupons (singles and packs), coupons on or in products, electronic in-store coupon machines, coupon booklets often sold as fundraisers, and online coupon sites (e.g. Coolsavings.com). Finally, the competition for brand visibility in the marketplace has increased, leading to the institutionalization of couponing. Thus, while couponing appears to be here to stay, its potential for continuing effectiveness is debatable. Research questions As a consequence of the factors discussed, promotional managers are facing greater pressure to make promotional dollars count. Thus, some companies have recently become interested in targeting once ``undesirable'' segments of the market with a variety of promotional vehicles (Whigham-Desir, 1997). We contend that men, largely ignored as shoppers for a wide variety of
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003 167
products and services, now comprise a viable and important target segment for price reduction instruments such as coupons and store loyalty cards. Gender differences The broader purpose of this study was to explore the role, if any, coupons and store loyalty cards play in male purchase behavior. Because we failed to find any major reported studies addressing gender and coupon usage, we believe this initial exploration to be fully warranted. Specifically, this study investigated gender differences and coupon use as described in the following research questions: RQ1. Do men and women differ in shopping behavior as evidenced by the extent to which they purchase products/services from different types of retail outlets? RQ2. Does the frequency of use of coupons and store loyalty cards differ for men and women and does the frequency vary by type of product? If so, are there demographic characteristics that contribute to an understanding of differences? RQ3. Do men and women differ in the sources used for coupons? If so, do demographic characteristics contribute to an understanding of differences? Method Sample A two-stage sampling process was utilized to select male and female adults for this study. In the first stage, students were recruited from business classes at a large southern university in the USA to complete the survey. In the second stage, students from a marketing research class were enlisted to administer questionnaires to additional sample members. Students were directed to interview non-student adults based on designated gender and age quotas. The participants recruited by students were asked to provide contact information. Roughly 20 percent of the non-student participants were re-contacted by the researchers to verify participation and to ensure proper research techniques were followed. A total of 206 usable questionnaires, 64 students and 142 non-students, provided the basis of this initial investigation into the role of coupon use in male purchase behavior. The final sample of respondents was 48 percent male and 52 percent female. Most respondents (50 percent) were 25-39 years old or 40-59 (32 percent), while 17 percent were younger than 25 and a very small percentage (1 percent) were 60 or older. Only 14 percent of respondents lived alone, while 42 percent lived with one other person, 24 percent lived in a three-person household, and the remainder lived in households of four or more. The education level of the sample ranged from high school/technical school graduate or less (23 percent) to some college/currently attending (40 percent) to college graduate (38 percent). Less than 10 percent of the sample had an annual household income under $15,000, 18 percent an income of $15,000-29,000, 25 percent an income of $30,000-44,999, 19 percent an income of $45,000-59,999, 13 percent an income of $60,000-74,999 and 16 percent an income of $75,000 or more. Measurement Sample members were asked to complete a questionnaire consisting of three sections. Section one asked respondents to describe the frequency with which they used coupons to purchase products/services in the three-month period prior to the survey from the following 11 outlets: grocery stores,
168 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
Investigation into male purchase behavior
department stores, discount stores, electronics/computer stores, food delivery outlets, fast food restaurants, all other restaurants, dry cleaners, e-retailers, auto maintenance shops, and other outlets. Section two asked respondents to indicate, for the prior three-month period, the frequency with which they used the following as sources for coupons and/or store loyalty cards: grocery stores, drug stores, bookstores, other outlets offering loyalty cards, coupon booklets, coupons found on a shelf/ rack or elsewhere in the store, coupons on/in products, coupons in newspapers, coupons received in the mail, coupons found on the Internet, and coupons from other sources such as telephone books and magazines. Both sections one and two utilized a five-point frequency scale of always, usually, sometimes, rarely, and never. Each scale also included a did not purchase option. The third section asked for sample members' gender, age, education, household income and whether or not their parents used coupons. Indication of gender differences in purchase behavior Analysis The first phase of analysis compared the relative frequencies with which men and women purchased the specified products based on the did not purchase option. Responses to this question provide an indication of gender differences in basic purchase behavior. The second phase of analysis focused on responses to the two central questions of the study. Relative frequencies (and any significant differences) of coupon usage by men and women were calculated for the purchase of various products and from various coupon sources. A composite measure of coupon use from any source was calculated by summing scores for usage by source. A score of 7 indicated the respondent had never used coupons from any listed source in the previous three months. A score of 35 indicated the respondent always used coupons from all sources. A similar composite score was calculated for store loyalty cards at various stores. For the loyalty card composite, a score of 4 indicated no use of the identified loyalty cards in the previous three months. A score of 20 indicated the respondent always used loyalty cards from all store types identified. Each of the composite scores was grouped to allow simple cross-tabulations. Finally, to understand better any gender differences found in the relative frequencies distribution, gender groups were profiled using the demographic characteristics stated previously. Based on the chi-square goodness-of-fit test, only those demographic differences significant at the 0.00 to 0.10 level of probability are discussed in the profile section. Results Who shops for groceries? Counter to conventional wisdom, we found the number of men responsible for purchasing a variety of products and services similar to that of women. For example, 36 percent of men were the primary purchasers of groceries during the three-month period covered in the study and 25 percent bought groceries equally often with others in the household. A 1995 study (Dholakia et al., 1995) found only 10 percent of men the primary grocery shopper. Nearly all men (92 percent) had purchased groceries during the previous three months. Gender differences in products purchased The results of this study suggest little difference in the purchase behavior of men and women (see Table I). In addition to groceries, a large percentage
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003 169
Most men had purchased groceries during the previous three months
Outlet Groceries Fast food restaurants Food delivery services Other restaurants Department stores Auto maintenance services Discount stores Dry cleaning Electronics/computers Online purchases Products from other outlets Notes: a 2 = 2.62; df = 1; p = 0.07; df = 1, p = 0.00
b
Male (%) 92 89 85 83 82 81 79 60 60 56 49 2 = 2.61; df = 1; p = 0.07;
c
Female (%) 92 85 76a 79 88 74 74 53 51 45b 21c 2 = 16.48;
Table I. Rate of purchase of product/service items during previous three months
(approximately three-quarters or more) of both groups had purchased items from fast food restaurants, department stores, food delivery services, other restaurants, auto maintenance shops and discount stores. Fewer from both groups had purchased products/services from dry cleaners, electronic/ computer stores, e-retailers, and other outlets. For only three types of products did the purchase frequency of men and women differ significantly. To summarize Table I findings, similar percentages of males and females purchased products from each outlet investigated in this study, with the exceptions of food delivery services, products from the Internet, and products from other, non-specified outlets. More men had food delivered to their home Specifically, 56 percent of male respondents versus 45 percent of females purchased items online. This finding is not surprising given that men were early adopters of the Internet; additionally, men may view online shopping as less of a hassle than physically ``going shopping''. Significantly more men (85 percent v. 76 percent) also had food delivered to their home. Perhaps men are still less likely to prepare food, so when alone or responsible for feeding the family, they opt to ``order in''. Finally, significantly more men (49 percent) than women (21 percent) purchased items from outlets other than those listed (e.g. bookstores). While not statistically significant, a fairly large difference was observed in electronics/computer purchases, with 60 percent of males and 51 percent of females having purchased these products in the previous three-month period. Certainly, these results weaken the notion that men are not shoppers. Gender differences in coupon use Based on the summated score across all sources of coupons (coupon booklet, coupons found in store, on/in product, online, newspaper, received in mail, or other sources), 25 percent of men and 13 percent of women reported they did not use coupons from any of these sources during the three-month period prior to the survey. Nearly half of men not using coupons and 31 percent of women not using coupons were the sole grocery shopper for their household. In contrast, 17 percent of men and 24 percent of women in the sample were heavy coupon users, using coupons often and from multiple sources. Only a small proportion of respondents had not used any of the store loyalty cards in the prior three-month period (7 percent of men and 2 percent of women). Respondents were more likely to have used a grocery store loyalty card
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
Small proportion had not used any store loyalty cards in three months
170
(71 percent of men, 76 percent of women) than any other price reduction method included in the study. Only two significant gender differences were found in the frequency of coupon use for purchasing products/services from the major outlets investigated in this study (see Table II). Men were more likely to have used coupons in electronics/computer stores Electronics/computer stores and e-retailers. While findings from Table I indicate more men than women had purchased products from both electronics/computer stores and from online retailers in the previous three-month period, men were more likely to have used coupons in electronics/computer stores and women were more likely to have used them for online purchases. The majority of both groups never or rarely used coupons when purchasing electronics/computers items; however, 21 percent of men always/usually used coupons to purchase these products compared with only 6 percent of women. More men never/rarely used coupons to purchase items through the Internet Alternatively, 19 percent of women and 6 percent of men always/usually used coupons when purchasing products from e-retailers. In addition, more men than women never/rarely (80 percent v. 75 percent) and sometimes (15 percent v. 6 percent) used coupons to purchase items through the Internet. While not significant overall, the following differences were notable:
.
Of females, 61 percent always/usually used coupons when paying for food delivery services, while the same was true for only 46 percent of men. In non-fast food restaurants, 70 percent of men never/rarely used coupons, versus 56 percent of women. On the other hand, 30 percent of women sometimes used coupons in these restaurants, compared with 20 percent of men. While the majority of each group never or rarely used coupons for dry cleaning, more women (23 percent v. 10 percent)) always/usually used coupons. For automobile maintenance services, 52 percent of men never/rarely used coupons, compared with 40 percent of women.
Never/rarely Male Female (%) (%) 40 53 30 70 68 52 72 75 66 80 86
b
.
.
.
Outlet Groceries Fast food restaurants Food delivery services Other restaurants Department stores Automobile maintenance services Discount stores Dry cleaning Electronics/computers Online purchases Products from other outlets Notes:
a
Sometimes Always/usually Male Female Male Female (%) (%) (%) (%) 24 29 24 20 21 18 15 15 14 15 02 31 30 16 30 25 23 21 18 21 06 15 36 18 46 10 11 30 13 10 21 06 11 32 24 61 14 15 37 12 23 06a 19b 10
38 46 24 56 60 40 68 60 74 75 75
2 = 5.68; df = 2; p = 0.06;
2 = 5.62; df = 2; p = 0.06
Table II. Frequency of coupon use during previous three months
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003 171
.
In other purchase situations, such as bookstores and discount cigarette outlets, 2 percent of men and 15 percent of women sometimes used coupons; 86 percent of men and 75 percent of women never/rarely used them.
One conclusion to be gained from this analysis is that men are buying a variety of products today. While for most of the products included in this study coupons were not used substantially by either males or females, females were more likely to use coupons for online purchases and men for electronics/computer purchases. Younger women never or rarely used any coupons Profiling gender differences in coupon use Age. Surprisingly, age did not explain differences in the frequency with which men used coupons to purchase products from any of the product/ service categories studied. However, although not statistically significant, younger men were more likely than older men (28 percent v. 14 percent) not to use coupons. The behavior of women did vary significantly by age. More younger women never/rarely used coupons to purchase groceries, discount store items, and automobile maintenance. More older women always/usually used coupons for grocery and discount store purchases and sometimes for automobile maintenance. Overall, a greater percentage of older women sometimes or frequently used many coupons from many sources while more younger women never or rarely used any coupons from any source. Thus, women did use coupons more often than men in this study. However, it was older women who were most likely to use coupons and to obtain them from a variety of sources. Younger women did not seem to use coupons very frequently for the majority of most frequently purchased items such as groceries and discount store items. Income. As with age, income did not affect the frequency with which men used coupons to purchase the products studied, but it did affect women's purchases of groceries and food delivery services. Substantially fewer lower income women always/usually used coupons to purchase groceries and food delivery services, while somewhat more middle-income than upper-income women always/usually used coupons for those purchases. Education affected men and women differently Education. Education affected men and women differently in their use of coupons to purchase specific types of products. For men, education differences were linked to the frequency of use of coupons in the purchase of department store items, discount store items and automobile maintenance services. Specifically, more male college graduates always/usually used coupons to purchase products from department and discount stores and more men with some college experience sometimes purchased automobile maintenance services with coupons. Also, for overall coupon use, male college graduates were less likely than men with high school degrees or some college experience not to use coupons. Educational differences affected one aspect of women's overall coupon use. Only 3 percent of female college graduates and 24 percent of females with high school or less education never used coupons from any source. However, education differences did not seem to be associated with women who frequently used coupons from many sources. In conclusion, age and income did not affect male coupon use but did affect females' use, particularly females who were older and had higher incomes. Education, on the other hand, had a disparate effect on men and women.
172 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
Parental influence on coupon use Respondents were asked to identify whether or not their mothers and fathers used coupons. Those respondents who had not used coupons in the past three months were more likely to have parents who did not use coupons. Among male non-users, 39 percent had mothers who did not use coupons as compared with about 10 percent of all male coupon users ( 2 = 12.96, df = 6, p = 0.04). The variation was less clear-cut for fathers' use of coupons: 65 percent of male non-users had fathers who did not use coupons versus 31-62 percent of all male coupon users. For women in the sample, the results were not significant for either mother or father; however, the pattern was quite similar to that for men. Over half of non-user females said their mothers did not use coupons, compared with less than 10 percent of heavy female coupon users. Most effective coupon distribution vehicle was the grocery store loyalty card Gender differences in sources of coupons By far the most effective coupon distribution vehicle for both men and women was the grocery store loyalty card, with 71 percent of men and 76 percent of women always or usually using these cards. Other sources were utilized much less frequently. For men, the second most commonly used coupon sources were products (24 percent) and newspapers (24 percent). For women, the second most frequently used source is products (33 percent) then newspapers (30 percent) and mail (30 percent). Thus, in general, the extent of coupon use from various sources did not appear to differ much by gender. Only two significant differences were found in the sources of coupons used by men and women (see Table III): coupons found on/in products and coupons found in the store. Compared with women, a substantially larger percentage of men (55 percent v. 34 percent) never/rarely used coupons found on or in product packaging; contrarily, more females than males sometimes (33 percent v. 22 percent) and always/usually (33 percent v. 24 percent) used coupons from this source. With regards to coupons that can be found on store shelves, display racks, or available elsewhere in the store, female respondents were generally more likely to have used coupons from this source. Specifically, 64 percent of men never/rarely used in-store sources, compared with 49 percent of women.
Never/rarely Male Female (%) (%) 11 55 51 64 52 64 76 74 65 89
b
Source Grocery store loyalty card Coupons on/in product Newspapers Drug store loyalty card Mail In-store coupons Bookstore loyalty card Other store loyalty card Coupon booklet Internet Notes:
a
Sometimes Male Female (%) (%) 17 22 26 14 28 18 11 10 21 04 17 33 25 22 20 26 13 12 30 06
Always/usually Male Female (%) (%) 71 24 24 21 20 17 13 16 14 07 76 33a 30 28 30 26b 15 09 11 07
08 34 46 51 51 49 71 79 59 88
2 = 8.91; df = 2; p = 0.01;
2 = 4.85; df = 2; p = 0.09
Table III. Frequency of coupon/store loyalty card source during previous three months
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003 173
Other findings of gender differences in the use of coupons and/or store loyalty cards from different sources are interesting, although not statistically significant. These include the following:
.
While both groups used grocery store loyalty cards to a similar extent, 64 percent of male respondents stated they never/rarely used drug store loyalty cards, compared to 51 percent of females. A total of 30 percent of females and 21 percent of males sometimes used coupons from coupon booklets. Of the females, 30 percent also stated they always/usually used coupons received in the mail, while only 20 percent of men responded similarly.
.
.
Older men sometimes used coupons from newspapers
Profiling gender differences in sources of coupons Age. Age was found to affect the frequency with which both men and women used specific distribution sources for coupons and/or store loyalty cards. However, with the exception of newspapers, age effects showed up in different sources for each gender. More older men (39 percent) always/ usually used drug store loyalty cards; more older men sometimes used coupons from newspapers and phone books/magazines. Age affected the frequency with which women used coupons received in the mail and from newspapers, with more older women always/usually using these sources. Income. Income also had an effect on the frequency with which both male and female respondents used grocery store and drug store loyalty cards. Middle-income ($30,000-$59,999) men and women displayed a higher incidence of always/usually using grocery store loyalty cards. On the other hand, the incidence of never/rarely using grocery store loyalty cards increased as income increased for men but decreased as income increased for women. Thus, higher income men were less likely to use grocery store loyalty cards while higher income women were more likely to use them.
Income had differing effects for men and women
For drug store loyalty cards income had a different effect on men than it did women. Fewer middle-income men sometimes used loyalty cards and fewer with an income under $30,000 always/usually used them. For female respondents, fewer with a mid-range income never/rarely used them and more females with a mid-range income always/usually used them. In addition, higher income women ($60,000 and over) were much more likely to have used bookstore loyalty cards. Education. Education had a fairly extensive effect on coupon sources used by both male and female respondents. However, other than one notable exception, education did not distinguish gender differences in coupon sources used by respondents. The exception is that newspaper coupons were more likely to be always/usually used by men with a high school degree or less (33 percent) or by college graduates (29 percent) than by those with some college (13 percent). Education had a similar effect on males and females in the frequency of bookstore loyalty card use and the use of coupons found on/in products. More male and female college graduates always/usually used bookstore loyalty cards. In addition, more males and females with a high school or less education always/usually used coupons on/in products. Finally, more men and women with some college never/ rarely used coupons on/in products. Summary of major findings The following constitute the major findings of this study, with particular emphasis on those findings relevant to male purchase behavior:
174
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
.
At least three-quarters of male and female respondents had purchased items from all of the outlets included in this study with the exception of dry cleaners, electronics/computer stores, and e-retailers, all of which were purchased by 60 percent or less. Men purchased products from various outlets to the same extent as women, with a few exceptions: men purchased more products online, more food delivery services, and more products from other outlets not specified in this study. A total of 17 percent of male respondents were heavy coupon users, while 25 percent had not used coupons in the past three months. Men purchased more products online, but few used coupons (and fewer than women). Men purchased more food delivery services and typically used a coupon (but fewer than women). Somewhat more men purchased items from electronics/computer stores but did not typically use coupons (although more men than women used them). Men and women purchased automobile maintenance services equally but men rarely used coupons and these men were typically high school and college graduates. Grocery store loyalty cards were by far the most used source for both men and women, with approximately three-quarters of both groups always or usually using them. Middle income men were more likely than other income groups to use the cards. Other sources of coupons were much less common but, for men, the next most frequent were newspapers, mail, and on/in products. Newspapers as a source for coupons was most frequent among less educated, older men. The men who obtained coupons on/in products tended to be less educated. Men rarely used drug store loyalty cards, but older, less educated men were the most likely. Men also rarely used coupons found in the store. While large numbers of men purchased products from drug stores, department stores and discount stores, coupons were not likely to be used very often. The influence of parental coupon use was significant only for men. Men whose mothers did not use coupons were more likely not to use coupons themselves.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
There do not appear to be ``guy stores'' versus ``girl stores''
Managerial implications and applications Men and women are the same ± at least in terms of retail outlets shopped in the past three months. Contrary to popular opinion, for the most part there do not appear to be ``guy stores'' versus ``girl stores''. Fairly equal percentages of both men and women had purchased products from grocery stores, fast food restaurants, other restaurants, department stores, auto maintenance shops, discount stores, dry cleaners and electronics/computer stores. Men are assuming an enhanced role in shopping for the household. Almost all respondents in this study had bought groceries during the previous three-month period and over one-third of the men indicated they were the primary grocery shopper for the household. The question for marketers to
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
175
consider is whether current marketing and promotional efforts should continue to be focused on women as the primary grocery shopper. If a substantial segment of men are making household purchase decisions, price reduction promotions that have traditionally been used to reach the female shopper may not be effective on the male shopper. Online retailers, food delivery services and other retail outlets may want to pay particular attention to men since men indicated a higher rate of purchases from these retailers than did women. Online traffic patterns have shifted Is the difference in shopping online a short-term phenomenon or is it a lasting trend? Since men dominated the traffic online in the early days of the World Wide Web, it is not surprising that they would be more comfortable buying products online. However, online traffic patterns have shifted in the past few years as more and more women have entered the online world. What remains to be seen is whether the increased presence of women on the Internet will translate into an increase in online purchases, or whether there is some aspect of shopping that women desire that the Internet cannot provide. It is possible that men prefer the low-contact nature of online shopping and will continue to be the dominant users of this retail outlet. Can couponing efforts reach men? While a sizable segment of men (25 percent) had not used coupons in the past three months, the majority of men had at least occasionally used coupons during this period. The difficulty lies in identifying a particular source as the best method for reaching men. Of the sources studied, two ± newspapers and on/in products ± had the highest percentage of frequent use by men; yet each of these sources was cited by only 24 percent of men. Also, newspapers may be a less effective medium for distributing coupons to younger men since newspaper readership among the young is declining. The price promotion vehicle used by a majority of men The grocery store loyalty card appears to be the price promotion vehicle used by a majority of men. Manufacturers may want to consider linking their promotional efforts to grocery stores' loyalty cards. Point-of-purchase displays could highlight special card savings offered by manufacturers. Other than use of the card, men appear to be less likely than women to use coupons found in the store or on/in the product. Promotions managers need to gain a better understanding of how men shop ± time spent in the store, pattern of product selection, interaction with in-store displays ± to determine the best way to distribute coupons to men at the point of purchase. It is quite possible that the current rate of non-use of coupons among men may be compounded over time, particularly with the potential influence of parental coupon use. While a mother's use of coupons influenced the likelihood of the son's use of coupons in this study, we might anticipate that the shopping patterns of fathers will also influence young boys of today as men assume a more active role in household shopping. Creative strategies needed The major message to promotions managers from this study is the need to act quickly in recognizing both the similarities of men and women in their purchase behavior and coupon use as well as the differences that require creative strategies for distributing coupons to men and encouraging their use.
References Bawa, K. and Shoemaker, R.W. (1987), ``The coupon-prone consumer: some findings based on purchase behavior across product classes'', Journal of Marketing, Vol. 51 No. 4, pp. 99-110.
176 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
Brown, C.K. (2002), ``CPGs change coupon media mix and purchase requirements: strategy results in less products moved by coupons at the retail level'', NCH Marketing Services, available at: www.nchmarketing.com/us/news/press.asp Cronovich, T., Daneshjvary, R. and Schwer, R.K. (1997), ``The determinants of coupon usage'', Applied Economics, Vol. 29 No. 12, pp. 1631-42. Dholakia, R., Pedersen, B. and Hikmet, N. (1995) ``Married males and shopping: are they sleeping partners?'', International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 23 No. 3, pp. 27-33. Forecast (1998), Vol. 18 No. 2, p. 7. Gonzales, M. (1988), ``Coupon craze cools'', American Demographics, Vol. 10 No. 10, p. 20. Levedahl, J.W. (1988), ``Coupon redeemers: are they better shoppers?'', Journal of Consumer Affairs, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 264-83. Mittal, B. (1994), ``An integrated framework for relating diverse consumer characteristics to supermarket coupon redemption'', Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 31 No. 4, pp. 533-44. Montgomery, D.B. (1971), ``Consumer characteristics associated with dealing: an empirical example'', Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 118-20. Otnes, C. and McGrath, M.A. (2001), ``Perceptions and realities of male shopping behavior'', Journal of Retailing, Vol. 77 No. 1, pp. 111-37. Staff reporter (1998), ``Frequent shoppers cite use of card over price and customer service'', ACNeilsen Global Site, available at: http://acnielsen.com/news/american/us/1998/ 19980416.htm Valassis Communications (2000), ``Valassis reports on coupon category trends'', Direct Marketing, Vol. 63 No. 2, p. 12. Whigham-Desir, M. (1997), ``Cashing in on coupons'', Black Enterprise, Vol. 27 No. 7, pp. 171-4.
&
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
177
This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of this article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full benefit of the material present
Executive summary and implications for managers and executives
Some thoughts on ``macho'' shopping! Harmon and Hill make a very profound observation:
The question for marketers to consider is whether current marketing and promotional efforts should continue to be focused on women as the primary grocery shopper.
While this article is about the use of coupons, it touches on the wider issue of who shops and whether the strategies used by marketers reflect changes in the behaviour of men and women. Such concerns are clearly in need of study but what Harmon and Hill throw up is of major concern to those responsible for planning and delivering promotions. There are three issues that are evident from the study of coupon use: (1) media strategy; (2) promotion planning; (3) design and presentation. Addressing these concerns will go some way towards reducing the problem of male exclusion from the marketers perception of shopping behaviour (ironic given the predominance of men in the marketing of fast moving consumer goods). Media strategy and selection Marketers continue to distribute coupons through ``female-friendly'' media channels and the result of this approach is to exclude men from access to coupons. While it could be argued that door drops and newspaper coupons are gender neutral such arguments lose validity when targeting is applied either to where in the paper the coupon appears or to the careful selection neighbourhoods for coupon drops. The problem with coupons is that the measurement of effectiveness is on the basis of numbers redeemed set against numbers distributed. One suspects that where more male oriented channels are tried they result in a lower rate of redemption compared to female oriented channels. Nevertheless, marketers need to re-examine their selection of media channels so as to encompass male as well as female shoppers. The reassessment of targeting for direct mail and door drops, consideration of specialist publications and opportunistic distribution through handouts and leaflet racks all need consideration if full advantage is to be taken of the opportunities presented by the growing number of male shoppers. Promotion planning As with media selection the planning of promotions needs to recognise the dynamics of the marketplace and the increase in male participation in shopping. Several issues may be worthy of consideration here:
.
Shopping behaviour ± perhaps men are less ``practised'' as shoppers. Men certainly lack (in general terms) the shopping socialization that women receive. This situation reflects the fact that women were the primary shoppers for most families until relatively recently and today's generation of male shoppers picked up their shopping habits from their mothers ± mostly indirectly.
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
178
.
Time commitment ± it is possible that men give less time to considering shopping that women even where they are the primary shopper. As a result there may be less chance of a male shopper picking up on and acting upon a promotional opportunity. Seasonality and the shopping cycle ± with more divided families where men take a primary role in childcare for part of the time, the question of when men shop may be pertinent. If men only shop when they have the kids marketers need to consider whether timing of promotions is significant both on a week-by-week basis and seasonally. Laziness and forgetfulness ± perhaps men are less willing to cut out, keep and remember to use coupons. This is reinforced in general terms by the effectiveness of store cards which require less effort and memory than do traditional coupons.
.
.
Marketers need to build into their promotion planning process a greater degree of consideration for male shoppers. One of the questions asked during the planning process should relate to the way in which the promotion reaches men and encourages them to act. In doing this we should bear in mind that, while outcomes are similar (the coupon is used), the motivations to take such action may differ by gender. Design and presentation There is something pretty sissy about a coupon especially when it has been designed to appeal to the typical grocery shopper (who we assume to be a woman). If men a becoming more significant as shoppers marketers need to consider how they design and present the promotion as well as how they plan and distribute the offer. Harmon and Hill's findings seem to suggest that men are more comfortable with using coupons for traditionally male-oriented purchases such as electrical goods. In part this will be a response to coupons designed and presented to appeal to men. In the wider field of grocery shopping marketers need to consider whether there is any advantage to be gained from ``de-sexing'' coupons or even producing ``his and hers'' versions. As with everything in marketing and especially in sales promotions, we need to consider the effectiveness of our strategies in the real world. This means carefully structured tests to assess whether changes in design, presentation, distribution or planning act to address the concerns expressed here by Harmon and Hill. The winner is likely to be the marketer who takes seriously the need to reach out to men as they taking more and more of a role in everyday shopping. (A precis of the article ``Gender and coupon use''. Supplied by Marketing  Consultants for Emerald.)
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 3 2003
179
