history of education in india
Content
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Literacy Literacy has never been a fixed stable concept. In the distant past, literacy meant the capacity to speak and sing, to use spoken language eloquently for public purposes. As recently as 100 years ago in the United States, the ability to sign one's own name on a land deed or bank check was the socially accepted mark of literacy. Merely being able to mark an "X" on a deed at times made one literate. Literacy, the ability to sign one's complete name in a registry book, was a prerequisite for voting during the late 19th century in the United States. This requirement kept many rural and poor adult citizens from voting. A similar literacy requirement for voting was extended into the 1960's, though by this time voters had to pass a reading and writing exam. In the 1990's, recent federal and state welfare reform coupled with English-Only laws once again threaten to deny U.S. citizens and residents, along with their families and children, basic human rights unless they can demonstrate a certain abstract level of English language literacy. This concept of literacy can be further complicated when people speak of computer literacy, workplace literacy, school literacy, bureaucratic literacy, bilingual literacy, etc. Young learners of reading and writing can be likewise disadvantaged by the social complications of literacy. Children are not only affected by their
parents' literacy and social standing, but may also be denied basic rights and dignities in their literate dealings with other children, with schooling, with teachers, and with everyday life. We have all known children who were tracked into the "slow" learner class, who were held back a grade, who couldn't read English well enough to succeed in math or science, or even read comic books--although they could tell stories as well as any child. Does telling stories count as literacy? Should it? Can you use storytelling and story listening as ways to learn and teach reading and writing to others? Building on the work of Paulo Freire, this definition names a person as literate when s/he has become politicized. A politicized person is able to manipulate language (speaking, reading, writing, etc.) so as to comprehend his/her own self-identity in the context in which s/he functions. The literate person (child or adult) does not learn to function in a predetermined context, but rather how to use language to function in different, multiple contexts. The learner, together with the educator, decides the content of literate functioning, or at the very least has valued input regarding what is taught and what is learned. This approach allows the learner to determine what they feel a comfortable level of literacy is and whether or not they are at that point or not. It is hardly surprising that we should reflect about literacy, for literacy is an overwhelmingly reflective activity. We think when we read and when we write, as meanings play out in our mind, and we frequently think about what it means to read and to write and to be caught up in the meanings mediated by
reading and writing. One reason we think about these things is that we are constantly making choices as we read and write--about what to read and write, how to do it, what meanings we should take from our own and othersí texts, how these meanings should affect our understanding and action. As literacy educators it is even less surprising that we should reflect on literacy, for our profession demands we think about what it is we are teaching, how it may be taught and developed. Moreover, we constantly look on students grappling with the tasks of literacy and wonder what is happening with them, what their difficulties are, and what we can do to help them. The history of literacy extends about five thousand years, the history of inscription even longer. And the history of articulate reflection on literacy goes back to the earliest extant texts. The Epic of Gilgamesh, dating to the middle of the second Millennium BC., reports the heroís inscription of knowledge as one of his accomplishments: ...the lord of wisdom, he who knew everything, Gilgamesh, who saw things secret, opened the place hidden, and carried back word of the time before the Flood-he travelled the road, exhausted, in pain, and cut his works into a stone tablet.1 (ll.4-8)
1
Gilgamesh. trans. John Gardner and John Maier. New York: Knopf, 1984.
In broad terms, literacy is the ability to make and communicate meaning from and by the use of a variety of socially contextual symbols. Within various levels of developmental ability, a literate person can derive and convey meaning, and use their knowledge to achieve a desired purpose or goal that requires the use of language skills, be they spoken or written. A literate person can mediate their world by deliberately and flexibly orchestrating meaning from one linguistic knowledge base and apply or connect it to another knowledge base. For example, knowing that letters symbolize sounds, and that those sounds form words to which the reader can attach meaning, is an example of the cognitive orchestration of knowledge, a literate person conducts. Literacy is "not in isolated bits of knowledge but in students' growing ability to use language and literacy in more and broader activities".2 We know how much the inscription, education, and knowledge industries have expanded since then.
2
Moll, L. C., (1994). Literacy research in community and classrooms: A sociocultural approach. In. Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading (4th ed..). (pp. 179-207). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
1.2 Education Education on the other hand, is a term which is more easily understood than defined. It has been derived from the Latin word "educatum" which means the act of teaching or training. According to some, it has also come from another Latin term "educare" which means "to bring up", "to raise". Some also believe that it has been originated from the Latin word "educere" which means "to lead forth" or "to come out". Thus education is regarded as "a process of drawing out from within". That is why, Gandhi meant" By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man, body, mind and spirit". Education is thus a process of self-expression. An individual expresses himself through education. These innate powers and potentialities are developed and drawn out through education. It is a means of adjustment of an individual with the society. It is a process by which he is brought into proper relationship with the ideas and Meals, customs and traditions of the society. The child is weak, helpless and ignorant at birth. But he gradually grows and develops. He acquires knowledge and skills. He realizes thoughts into actions and satisfies his needs. He changes his behaviour according to his environment. Such changes, growth and development of the individual are his education This is the result of his learning and maturation.
Learning is living. Learning is the modification of behaviour. Thus education is the process by which the knowledge, character and behaviour of an individual are formed and modified. One's conduct and behaviour are changed and refined according to the desired standard of the society. This is the result of education. 1.3 Literacy and Education in India India is famously known as one of Asia’s rising “giant” countries. Since its independence in 1947, India’s economy has fuelled its power on the world stage. However, India also has numerous pressing problems concerning overpopulation, extensive poverty, corruption, and environmental degradation, to name a few. Two additionally important problems to be addressed in this report are illiteracy and education. In order to fully understand these problems, it is important to also understand some basic information of the country.
List of Basic Demographic Information (CIA World Fact book):3 • India has the second largest population in the world at about 1.2 billion people.
• Spoken languages include: Hindi (41%), Bengali (8.1%), Telugu (7.2%), Marathi (7%), Tamil (5.9%), Urdu (5%), Gujarati (4.5%), Kannada (3.7%), Malayalam (3.2%), Oriya (3.2%), Punjabi (2.8%), Assamese (1.3%), Maithili (1.2%), other (5.9%)
• Religious makeup: Hindu (80.5%), Muslim (13.4%), Christian (2.3%), Sikh (1.9%), other (1.8%), unspecified (.1%)
• Literacy (according to CIA; some research information conflicts with these numbers): total population 74.04% literacy, male 82.14% literacy, female 65.46% (2011)
• Education expenditures: 3.2% of GDP (2005)
• Sex ratio: under 15 years 1.1 male(s)/female, 15-64 years 1.06 male(s)/female
• Population below poverty line: 25% (2007 est.)
3
The World fact Book, CIA. 2011 estimate.
These aspects are just some of the influencing factors on literacy and education in India.
In this report I will be shedding some lights on the literacy and education in India. The problems that is being faced by the Indian economy related to education and illiteracy. The report will be divided into two major sections. The first section will deal with the education in India and the second section will deal with literacy in India.
Chapter 2: Education System in India
2.1 Overview of Education in ancient India: The early history of India is obscure, as the Brahmans, from religious scruples, have ever been opposed to historical records. It is certain that there was an aboriginal race which occupied the country from an unknown period, and that a branch of the Aryan4 or Indo−Germanic race came to India and struggled for supremacy. The Aryans succeeded in reducing the natives to subjection or in driving them into the mountains. The comparatively pure descendants of these races are about equal in number in India, their mixed progeny composing the great mass of the Hindu population. The Sanskrit was their classic language, and the Veda their Bible.
The Caste System - There are four great castes in India :1. The Brahmans, or highest caste, who are the priests, scholars, lawyers, physicians, teachers, etc. This order is highly reverenced by the lower castes, and its members are dignified, abstemious, and sedate. Their highest ideal is to
4
The Aryans are supposed to have originally occupied the country east of the Caspian Sea, though some authorities locate them north of it. The branches of this race are the Hindus, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Celts, Teutons, and Slavs. These branches are related in language and color, and the peoples that find their common origin in the Aryans represent a large part of the world's enterprise and progress.
bring their desires and appetites under complete control. They exercise great influence in the land.5 2. The warriors, who comprise the army and the office holders. 3. The merchants, mechanics, and farmers, who constitute the bone and sinew of India. 4. The servants, who receive no education excepting in matters of politeness and other things connected with their station in life. Each caste must pay respect to the higher castes, and association with persons of a lower caste is considered a degradation. The English government of India does not interfere with the caste system, but it is gradually breaking down. Besides the above−mentioned castes, there are tradesmen's castes which have grown up as new occupations have been introduced. Thus there is a potters' caste, a weavers' caste, a carpenters' caste, etc., each son following his father's trade. This accounts for the marvelous skill of the craftsmen of India in weaving carpets and fine muslins, in metal work, and other arts,—workmanship not equaled anywhere else in the world. Brahmanism and Mohammedanism are the chief religions. Buddhism overran the country in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C., but it did not seem to be suited to the Indians, and now it is found in its purity only in Ceylon. Unlike the Chinese, the Indians are a very religious people.
5
See article in Johonnot's “Geographical Reader,” p. 197.
The Shastas6 declare that “when in the presence of her husband, a woman must keep her eyes upon her master, and be ready to receive his commands. When he speaks, she must be quiet and listen to nothing besides. When he calls, she must leave everything else and attend upon him alone. A woman's husband is her god, her priest, and her religion. The most excellent work that she can perform is to gratify him with the strictest obedience.”7 The system of sale of girls at birth, for wives, of early betrothal and marriage, of perpetual widowhood under most degrading circumstances8, and the practice of polygamy make the condition of woman in India still worse than in China. The English now rule the country with such wisdom and justice that the people are generally contented and loyal. Reforms have been introduced, commerce has been established, improvements have been made, and new life has been awakened. They have also established schools and universities.
The Home - Woman had no educational advantages in ancient India, and she was regarded more as the servant than as the equal of her husband. She may have never appeared uninvited in the presence of any man except her husband. This had worked great hardships for her, especially in cases of sickness, as she can have no medical attendance unless a female medical missionary can be reached. This
6 7
A commentary on the sacred book, the Veda of the Hindus. Houghton, “Women of the Orient,” p. 34. 8 A betrothed girl becomes a widow upon the death of her promised husband even though she be only two or three years old and may never have seen him. She must always remain a widow, and as such is constantly humiliated.
fact had opened a fertile field for missionary enterprise which has been a great blessing to women. Parents love their children, and expect of them unquestioning obedience. Children are taught to love and honour their teachers even more than their parents. They are taught to reverence and respect older persons under all circumstances. Contrary to the Chinese idea of education, which is to prepare for this life, the Indian idea is to prepare for the future life, and children in the home, from their earliest years, are trained with reference to this idea.
The Elementary School - All teachers belong to the Brahman caste. They receive no salary, depending upon gifts for their support. They are mild in discipline, and generally humane in their treatment of their pupils. The instruction is given under trees in the open air on pleasant days, and in a tent or shed when the weather is bad. Instruction is given in reading, writing, and arithmetic, though religion constitutes the principal theme. Memorizing the holy sayings of Brahma occupies a large portion of the time. While the Chinaman worships nature and his ancestors, the Hindu worships Brahma. The cultivation of the memory is considered important, but by no means so essential as in the Chinese system. The reading lessons are from the Veda. In writing, the child begins by forming characters in sand with his finger or a stick, then he writes upon leaves, and finally upon paper, with ink. The work in arithmetic is very elementary, being only such
as will fit the learners for practical life. Servants and girls are excluded from even this limited education. M. Ida Dean says: “How amused you would be if you could take a peep at a school in India taught by a native teacher. The school is often held in an open shed, and no pains whatever is taken to keep it clean. Often the rafters are festooned with cobwebs and dirt. Of furniture, save the teacher's low desk, there is none. The teacher uses a grass mat, while the boys sit cross−legged on the earthen floor. The teacher, in a singsong voice, reads a sentence which the boys shout after him. Then another sentence is read, which the pupils likewise shout in a singsong voice, while their bodies sway to and fro. This goes on until sentence after sentence is memorized. No one knows nor cares what he is saying. The teacher never explains. Neither teacher nor pupil is ever bothered by that troublesome and inquisitive little word why.” The castes are taught separately, and especial attention is given to such instruction as will fit them for their station in life. The highest virtues to be cultivated are politeness, patience, modesty, and truthfulness. Morning, noon, and evening there are impressive religious ceremonies in the school, and the pupils must throw themselves at the feet of their teacher with reverential respect. There is no theory of education among the ancient teachers, each teacher instructing as he pleases, according to historic custom. This precludes any considerable improvement in method or advance in the art of education. There is no authority to
decide upon qualifications of teachers, the only essential requisite being that they shall belong to the Brahman caste.
Higher Education - The Brahmans are the only educated class, although warriors attend their schools for the purpose of such study as is necessary in connection with their calling. The farmer caste, too, may attend the Brahman schools to learn the studies pertaining to their caste. They pursue in their schools the study of grammar, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, medicine, law, literature, and religion. Many of them still speak their classic language, the Sanskrit. As their religion is based on philosophy, this study takes precedence over all others. “The Indians are believed to have originated the decimal system of arithmetical notation which has been transmitted to us through Arabian channels.”9 The end of Indian wisdom is to rise above all human suffering through knowledge. Wuttke says, “Christians pray, 'Thy Kingdom come'; the Chinese, 'Thy Kingdom remain'; the Indians, 'Let whatever thou hast created pass away.'”
9
Williams, “History of Modern Education.”
Criticism of ancient Indian Education 1. It is not universal, a large part of the people being excluded from its benefits. 2. . It is based on castes and the promulgation of the caste system, which is baneful. 3. It depends too much upon the cultivation of the memory. 4. It has no philosophy of education, and, therefore, is non−progressive. 5. It does not properly honor woman, and excludes her from its advantages. 6. It produces a dreamy, self−satisfied, indolent, selfish, and non−progressive people. 7. It makes the people self−reflective, which doubtless accounts for their profound philosophical and mathematical discoveries.
parents' literacy and social standing, but may also be denied basic rights and dignities in their literate dealings with other children, with schooling, with teachers, and with everyday life. We have all known children who were tracked into the "slow" learner class, who were held back a grade, who couldn't read English well enough to succeed in math or science, or even read comic books--although they could tell stories as well as any child. Does telling stories count as literacy? Should it? Can you use storytelling and story listening as ways to learn and teach reading and writing to others? Building on the work of Paulo Freire, this definition names a person as literate when s/he has become politicized. A politicized person is able to manipulate language (speaking, reading, writing, etc.) so as to comprehend his/her own self-identity in the context in which s/he functions. The literate person (child or adult) does not learn to function in a predetermined context, but rather how to use language to function in different, multiple contexts. The learner, together with the educator, decides the content of literate functioning, or at the very least has valued input regarding what is taught and what is learned. This approach allows the learner to determine what they feel a comfortable level of literacy is and whether or not they are at that point or not. It is hardly surprising that we should reflect about literacy, for literacy is an overwhelmingly reflective activity. We think when we read and when we write, as meanings play out in our mind, and we frequently think about what it means to read and to write and to be caught up in the meanings mediated by
reading and writing. One reason we think about these things is that we are constantly making choices as we read and write--about what to read and write, how to do it, what meanings we should take from our own and othersí texts, how these meanings should affect our understanding and action. As literacy educators it is even less surprising that we should reflect on literacy, for our profession demands we think about what it is we are teaching, how it may be taught and developed. Moreover, we constantly look on students grappling with the tasks of literacy and wonder what is happening with them, what their difficulties are, and what we can do to help them. The history of literacy extends about five thousand years, the history of inscription even longer. And the history of articulate reflection on literacy goes back to the earliest extant texts. The Epic of Gilgamesh, dating to the middle of the second Millennium BC., reports the heroís inscription of knowledge as one of his accomplishments: ...the lord of wisdom, he who knew everything, Gilgamesh, who saw things secret, opened the place hidden, and carried back word of the time before the Flood-he travelled the road, exhausted, in pain, and cut his works into a stone tablet.1 (ll.4-8)
1
Gilgamesh. trans. John Gardner and John Maier. New York: Knopf, 1984.
In broad terms, literacy is the ability to make and communicate meaning from and by the use of a variety of socially contextual symbols. Within various levels of developmental ability, a literate person can derive and convey meaning, and use their knowledge to achieve a desired purpose or goal that requires the use of language skills, be they spoken or written. A literate person can mediate their world by deliberately and flexibly orchestrating meaning from one linguistic knowledge base and apply or connect it to another knowledge base. For example, knowing that letters symbolize sounds, and that those sounds form words to which the reader can attach meaning, is an example of the cognitive orchestration of knowledge, a literate person conducts. Literacy is "not in isolated bits of knowledge but in students' growing ability to use language and literacy in more and broader activities".2 We know how much the inscription, education, and knowledge industries have expanded since then.
2
Moll, L. C., (1994). Literacy research in community and classrooms: A sociocultural approach. In. Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading (4th ed..). (pp. 179-207). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
1.2 Education Education on the other hand, is a term which is more easily understood than defined. It has been derived from the Latin word "educatum" which means the act of teaching or training. According to some, it has also come from another Latin term "educare" which means "to bring up", "to raise". Some also believe that it has been originated from the Latin word "educere" which means "to lead forth" or "to come out". Thus education is regarded as "a process of drawing out from within". That is why, Gandhi meant" By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man, body, mind and spirit". Education is thus a process of self-expression. An individual expresses himself through education. These innate powers and potentialities are developed and drawn out through education. It is a means of adjustment of an individual with the society. It is a process by which he is brought into proper relationship with the ideas and Meals, customs and traditions of the society. The child is weak, helpless and ignorant at birth. But he gradually grows and develops. He acquires knowledge and skills. He realizes thoughts into actions and satisfies his needs. He changes his behaviour according to his environment. Such changes, growth and development of the individual are his education This is the result of his learning and maturation.
Learning is living. Learning is the modification of behaviour. Thus education is the process by which the knowledge, character and behaviour of an individual are formed and modified. One's conduct and behaviour are changed and refined according to the desired standard of the society. This is the result of education. 1.3 Literacy and Education in India India is famously known as one of Asia’s rising “giant” countries. Since its independence in 1947, India’s economy has fuelled its power on the world stage. However, India also has numerous pressing problems concerning overpopulation, extensive poverty, corruption, and environmental degradation, to name a few. Two additionally important problems to be addressed in this report are illiteracy and education. In order to fully understand these problems, it is important to also understand some basic information of the country.
List of Basic Demographic Information (CIA World Fact book):3 • India has the second largest population in the world at about 1.2 billion people.
• Spoken languages include: Hindi (41%), Bengali (8.1%), Telugu (7.2%), Marathi (7%), Tamil (5.9%), Urdu (5%), Gujarati (4.5%), Kannada (3.7%), Malayalam (3.2%), Oriya (3.2%), Punjabi (2.8%), Assamese (1.3%), Maithili (1.2%), other (5.9%)
• Religious makeup: Hindu (80.5%), Muslim (13.4%), Christian (2.3%), Sikh (1.9%), other (1.8%), unspecified (.1%)
• Literacy (according to CIA; some research information conflicts with these numbers): total population 74.04% literacy, male 82.14% literacy, female 65.46% (2011)
• Education expenditures: 3.2% of GDP (2005)
• Sex ratio: under 15 years 1.1 male(s)/female, 15-64 years 1.06 male(s)/female
• Population below poverty line: 25% (2007 est.)
3
The World fact Book, CIA. 2011 estimate.
These aspects are just some of the influencing factors on literacy and education in India.
In this report I will be shedding some lights on the literacy and education in India. The problems that is being faced by the Indian economy related to education and illiteracy. The report will be divided into two major sections. The first section will deal with the education in India and the second section will deal with literacy in India.
Chapter 2: Education System in India
2.1 Overview of Education in ancient India: The early history of India is obscure, as the Brahmans, from religious scruples, have ever been opposed to historical records. It is certain that there was an aboriginal race which occupied the country from an unknown period, and that a branch of the Aryan4 or Indo−Germanic race came to India and struggled for supremacy. The Aryans succeeded in reducing the natives to subjection or in driving them into the mountains. The comparatively pure descendants of these races are about equal in number in India, their mixed progeny composing the great mass of the Hindu population. The Sanskrit was their classic language, and the Veda their Bible.
The Caste System - There are four great castes in India :1. The Brahmans, or highest caste, who are the priests, scholars, lawyers, physicians, teachers, etc. This order is highly reverenced by the lower castes, and its members are dignified, abstemious, and sedate. Their highest ideal is to
4
The Aryans are supposed to have originally occupied the country east of the Caspian Sea, though some authorities locate them north of it. The branches of this race are the Hindus, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Celts, Teutons, and Slavs. These branches are related in language and color, and the peoples that find their common origin in the Aryans represent a large part of the world's enterprise and progress.
bring their desires and appetites under complete control. They exercise great influence in the land.5 2. The warriors, who comprise the army and the office holders. 3. The merchants, mechanics, and farmers, who constitute the bone and sinew of India. 4. The servants, who receive no education excepting in matters of politeness and other things connected with their station in life. Each caste must pay respect to the higher castes, and association with persons of a lower caste is considered a degradation. The English government of India does not interfere with the caste system, but it is gradually breaking down. Besides the above−mentioned castes, there are tradesmen's castes which have grown up as new occupations have been introduced. Thus there is a potters' caste, a weavers' caste, a carpenters' caste, etc., each son following his father's trade. This accounts for the marvelous skill of the craftsmen of India in weaving carpets and fine muslins, in metal work, and other arts,—workmanship not equaled anywhere else in the world. Brahmanism and Mohammedanism are the chief religions. Buddhism overran the country in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C., but it did not seem to be suited to the Indians, and now it is found in its purity only in Ceylon. Unlike the Chinese, the Indians are a very religious people.
5
See article in Johonnot's “Geographical Reader,” p. 197.
The Shastas6 declare that “when in the presence of her husband, a woman must keep her eyes upon her master, and be ready to receive his commands. When he speaks, she must be quiet and listen to nothing besides. When he calls, she must leave everything else and attend upon him alone. A woman's husband is her god, her priest, and her religion. The most excellent work that she can perform is to gratify him with the strictest obedience.”7 The system of sale of girls at birth, for wives, of early betrothal and marriage, of perpetual widowhood under most degrading circumstances8, and the practice of polygamy make the condition of woman in India still worse than in China. The English now rule the country with such wisdom and justice that the people are generally contented and loyal. Reforms have been introduced, commerce has been established, improvements have been made, and new life has been awakened. They have also established schools and universities.
The Home - Woman had no educational advantages in ancient India, and she was regarded more as the servant than as the equal of her husband. She may have never appeared uninvited in the presence of any man except her husband. This had worked great hardships for her, especially in cases of sickness, as she can have no medical attendance unless a female medical missionary can be reached. This
6 7
A commentary on the sacred book, the Veda of the Hindus. Houghton, “Women of the Orient,” p. 34. 8 A betrothed girl becomes a widow upon the death of her promised husband even though she be only two or three years old and may never have seen him. She must always remain a widow, and as such is constantly humiliated.
fact had opened a fertile field for missionary enterprise which has been a great blessing to women. Parents love their children, and expect of them unquestioning obedience. Children are taught to love and honour their teachers even more than their parents. They are taught to reverence and respect older persons under all circumstances. Contrary to the Chinese idea of education, which is to prepare for this life, the Indian idea is to prepare for the future life, and children in the home, from their earliest years, are trained with reference to this idea.
The Elementary School - All teachers belong to the Brahman caste. They receive no salary, depending upon gifts for their support. They are mild in discipline, and generally humane in their treatment of their pupils. The instruction is given under trees in the open air on pleasant days, and in a tent or shed when the weather is bad. Instruction is given in reading, writing, and arithmetic, though religion constitutes the principal theme. Memorizing the holy sayings of Brahma occupies a large portion of the time. While the Chinaman worships nature and his ancestors, the Hindu worships Brahma. The cultivation of the memory is considered important, but by no means so essential as in the Chinese system. The reading lessons are from the Veda. In writing, the child begins by forming characters in sand with his finger or a stick, then he writes upon leaves, and finally upon paper, with ink. The work in arithmetic is very elementary, being only such
as will fit the learners for practical life. Servants and girls are excluded from even this limited education. M. Ida Dean says: “How amused you would be if you could take a peep at a school in India taught by a native teacher. The school is often held in an open shed, and no pains whatever is taken to keep it clean. Often the rafters are festooned with cobwebs and dirt. Of furniture, save the teacher's low desk, there is none. The teacher uses a grass mat, while the boys sit cross−legged on the earthen floor. The teacher, in a singsong voice, reads a sentence which the boys shout after him. Then another sentence is read, which the pupils likewise shout in a singsong voice, while their bodies sway to and fro. This goes on until sentence after sentence is memorized. No one knows nor cares what he is saying. The teacher never explains. Neither teacher nor pupil is ever bothered by that troublesome and inquisitive little word why.” The castes are taught separately, and especial attention is given to such instruction as will fit them for their station in life. The highest virtues to be cultivated are politeness, patience, modesty, and truthfulness. Morning, noon, and evening there are impressive religious ceremonies in the school, and the pupils must throw themselves at the feet of their teacher with reverential respect. There is no theory of education among the ancient teachers, each teacher instructing as he pleases, according to historic custom. This precludes any considerable improvement in method or advance in the art of education. There is no authority to
decide upon qualifications of teachers, the only essential requisite being that they shall belong to the Brahman caste.
Higher Education - The Brahmans are the only educated class, although warriors attend their schools for the purpose of such study as is necessary in connection with their calling. The farmer caste, too, may attend the Brahman schools to learn the studies pertaining to their caste. They pursue in their schools the study of grammar, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, medicine, law, literature, and religion. Many of them still speak their classic language, the Sanskrit. As their religion is based on philosophy, this study takes precedence over all others. “The Indians are believed to have originated the decimal system of arithmetical notation which has been transmitted to us through Arabian channels.”9 The end of Indian wisdom is to rise above all human suffering through knowledge. Wuttke says, “Christians pray, 'Thy Kingdom come'; the Chinese, 'Thy Kingdom remain'; the Indians, 'Let whatever thou hast created pass away.'”
9
Williams, “History of Modern Education.”
Criticism of ancient Indian Education 1. It is not universal, a large part of the people being excluded from its benefits. 2. . It is based on castes and the promulgation of the caste system, which is baneful. 3. It depends too much upon the cultivation of the memory. 4. It has no philosophy of education, and, therefore, is non−progressive. 5. It does not properly honor woman, and excludes her from its advantages. 6. It produces a dreamy, self−satisfied, indolent, selfish, and non−progressive people. 7. It makes the people self−reflective, which doubtless accounts for their profound philosophical and mathematical discoveries.
