History of Islamic Science

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History of Islamic Science
Course summary
Semester: Semester 1, 2005
Instructor: Professor Osman Bakar
Time: Thursday, 2.00 – 4.00 pm
Venue: Room 1
Course pre-requirements: None
Course evaluation: mid-semester examination and a full end of semester paper on any topic pertaining
to course materials
Course Synopsis
This course offers a comprehensive account of the history of Islamic science from the time of its birth to its
post-seventeenth century encounters with modern Western science, particularly as experienced by Ottoman
science. It does so not simply by presenting it as a chapter or episode in the history of Western science but
rather as a science with its own goals and characteristics as seen from within Islamic civilization. The course
treats not only the leading makers of Islamic science over the centuries with their respective contributions to
scientific ideas, practices and institutions, but also the creative interplay of scientific and non-scientific
(religious, intellectual, political, socio-cultural) factors that had influenced and shaped the historical
development of Islamic science. Furthermore, the course seeks to understand the kind of minds that had been
responsible for the creation of Islamic science. With this in view, several works of prominent and influential
philosophers (including al-Kindi, al-Khwarazmi, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, al-Biruni, and ibn al-Haytham) have
been selected for reading and analysis in class.
Learning Outcome
1. A better appreciation of the vast scope of Muslim scientific activities and contributions to the
advancement of knowledge in their history
2. A better appreciation of the continued relevance of Islamic science to Muslim intellectual and
scientific life in the contemporary world
3. An understanding of the history of Islamic science as seen from within Islamic civilization rather than
just viewing it from the Western-centric perspective of intellectual and scientific history
Weekly Lecture Topics and Readings
Lecture 1
Introduction: Philosophical and methodological approaches to the study of history of science, implications for
the study and teaching of science in Islamic civilization. The meaning of Islamic science: science as cultivated
in Islamic civilization. Why science as understood in Islamic intellectual tradition is far more comprehensive
than modern science: prevailing views in classical Islam of reality, knowledge and its methods of acquisition.
Readings:
Lecture notes
Lecture 2
The Quranic roots of Islamic science: the religious sciences as the foundation of Islamic science. The religious
origin of the Muslim scientific spirit: the concern with classifications of things, rational interpretations and
various kinds of proofs, logical thought and emphasis on observation and empirical data in the early religious
sciences. The birth of the distinctively Islamic sciences of the transmitted type (al-‘ulum al-naqliyyah) as the
basis for the development of Islamic science

Readings:
Osman Bakar, 1999. The History and Philosophy of Islamic Science. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society.
Chapter 1
S. H. Nasr, 1968. Science and Civilization in Islam. Cambridge: Harvard University Press
S. H. Nasr, 1976. Islamic Science: an Illustrated Study. London: World of Islam Festival Publishing
Company Ltd. Chapter 1
Lecture 3
The external origins of Islamic science: the translations into Arabic of pre-Islamic scientific and philosophical
works from major civilizations, particularly the Greek, Persian, and Indian civilizations. The significance of
the Muslim translation movement: the role of non-Muslim translators and scientists in the development of
Islamic science, the birth and growth of scientific institutions, and the laying of a new philosophical
foundation systematized by Islam for Islamic science.
Readings:
A. I. Sabra, 1994. Optics, Astronomy and Logic: Studies in Arabic Science and Philosophy. Aldershot:
Variorum. Chapter ‘The Appropriation and Subsequent Naturalization of Greek Science in Medieval Islam’
Jan P. Hogendijk and A. I. Sabra, 2003. The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives. Cambridge:
MIT Press
George Saliba, ‘Translation and Translators’ in Joseph Strayer, ed., 1989. Dictionary of the Middle Ages.
Charles Scribner’s Sons
Richard Walzer, 1962. From Greek to Arabic. Oxford: Bruno Cassirer
Howard R. Turner, 1997. Science in Medieval Islam. Austin: University of Texas Press
Lecture 4
The Muslim understanding of the world of mathematics: continuity and change. The historical development of
Islamic mathematics: historical origin and influences, leading Muslim mathematicians, including alKhwarazmi, al-Farabi, al-Battani, Ikhwan al-Safa’, al-Biruni, ibn al-Haytham, ‘Umar Khayyam, and Nasir alDin al-Tusi, and Baha’ al-Din ‘Amili, and their respective contributions. Muslim innovations in mathematical
thought and foundations of independent sciences such as algebra, trigonometry, and optics. This lecture
concentrates on Muslim achievements in number theory, geometry, and astronomy.
Readings:
Roshdi Rashed, 1994. The Development of Arabic Mathematics: Between Arithmetic and Algebra. Boston:
Kluwer Academic Publishers
Roshdi Rashed in collaboration with Regis Morelon, 1996. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science.
London: Routledge. Volume 2
Osman Bakar, 1997. Classifications of Knowledge in Islam. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society. Chapters on
al-Farabi
S. H. Nasr, 1976. Islamic Science. Chapters V & VI
Lecture 5
Muslim intellectual activities and output in mathematics continued: optics, algebra, music, and the engineering
sciences insofar as they are considered as branches of mathematics
Readings:
Ibn al-Haytham, trans. A. I. Sabra, 1989. Ibn al-Haytham’s Optics. London: The Warburg Institute
A. I. Sabra, 1994. Optics, Astronomy and Logic. Read parts on optics
Roshdi Rashed and B. Vahabzabeh, 2000. Omar Khayyam the Mathematician. Paris: Bibliotheca Persica Press
Al-Farabi, Ihsa’ al-‘ulum. Section on music
Donald R. Hill, 1996. Islamic Science and Engineering. Chicago: Kazi Publications
Lecture 6

Islamic physics: principles of natural philosophy dealing with the nature of time, space, matter and motion
according to different intellectual schools. Major figures and ideas, and its historical development: fields
treated include mechanics, dynamics, optics (part belonging to physics), science of weights and measures, and
simple machines.
Readings:
Osman Bakar, 1999. The History and Philosophy of Islamic Science. Chapter on Ash’arite atomism
S. H. Nasr, 1968. Science and Civilization in Islam.
S.H. Nasr, 1976. Islamic Science. Chapter VII
Donald R. Hill, 1992. Islamic Technology: an Illustrated Study. Lanham: UNPUB
Donald Hill, 1974. The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Devices. Dordrecht-Boston
Ibn al-Haytham, 1989. Ibn al-Haytham’s Optics. 2 volumes
E. A. Moody, 1951. ‘Galileo and Avempace,’ Journal of the History of Ideas, vol. XII, no. 2, pp. 163-193 and
no. 3, pp. 375-422
Roshdi Rashed and B. Vahabzabeh, 2000. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. Volume 2
(Mathematics and Physical Sciences)
Lecture 7
Islamic alchemy and the foundation of chemistry: foundation, major contributors, ideas, historical
development and breakthroughs. Al-Razi: the founder of chemistry
Readings
Titus Burckhardt, 1967. Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul, trans. W. Stoddart. London
E. J. Holmyard, 1957. Alchemy. London
S. H. Nasr, 1968. Science and Civilization in Islam.
S. H. Nasr, 1976. Islamic Science. Chapter IX
R. J. Forbes, 1970. A Short History of the Art of Distillation. Leiden
Roshdi Rashed and B. Vahabzabeh, 2000. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. Volume 3
(Technology, Alchemy, and Life Sciences)
Lecture 8
Islamic geosciences: geology, geography and geodesy, meteorology, mineralogy, paleontology. Sources,
scope, historical development, and achievements: al-Biruni as the greatest Muslim scientist in the field.
Readings
Nafis Ahmad, 1947. Muslim Contributions to Geography. Lahore
S. H. Nasr, 1968. Science and Civilization in Islam
S. H. Nasr, 1978. An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines
Al-Biruni, 1967. The Determinations of the Coordinates of Cities, trans. Jamil Ali. Beirut
Al-Biruni, 1910. Alberuni’s India, trans. E. C. Sachau, vol. I. London
S. H. Barani, 1932. ‘Muslim researches in geodesy,’ Islamic Culture, vol. 6, pp. 363-369
Z. Validi Togan, 1937-38. Biruni’s Picture of the World, Memoirs of the Archeological Survey of India, vol.
53, pp. 57-58. Calcutta
F. Krenkow. ‘The Chapter on Pearls in the Book of Precious Stones by al-Biruni,’ Islamic Culture, vol. 15
(1941), pp. 399-421, and vol. 16 (1942), pp. 11-36
Lecture 9
Islamic biological sciences: Muslim perspectives on the meanings of life, the soul as an organizing principle
of life. Faculty psychology as an important scientific principle for the life sciences according to the school of
philosopher-scientists; botany and zoology as natural history. The focus in this lecture is on botany, its
sources, scope, historical development, and its applications in various domains, particularly agriculture and
medicine

Readings
Osman Bakar, 1999. Classification of Knowledge in Islam
S. H. Nasr, 1968. Science and Civilization in Islam
Roshdi Rashed and B. Vahabzabeh, 2000. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science.
Volume 3 (Technology, Alchemy, and Life Sciences)
Lecture 10
Islamic zoology: foundation, sources, scope, historical development, and applications
Readings
Roshdi Rashed and B. Vahabzabeh, 2000. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. Volume 3
S. H. Nasr, 1978. An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Boulder: Shambala, revised edition
S. H. Nasr, 1968. Science and Civilization in Islam
J. de Somogy, 1950. ‘Ad-Damiri’s Hayat al-hayawan: an Arabic Zoological Lexicon,’ Osiris, vol. 9, pp. 33-43
Lecture 11
Islamic medical sciences: foundation, sources, historical development, major figures and their achievements.
Ibn Sina: his grand synthesis and influence
Readings
Osman Bakar, 1997. The History and Philosophy of Islamic Science. Chapter 6
O. G. Gruner, 1930. A Treatise on the Canon of Medicine: Incorporating a Translation of the First Book.
London
G. W. Wickens, ed., 1952. Avicenna: Scientist and Philosopher. London: Luzac
M. Meyerhof, 1935. ‘Thirty-three Clinical Observations by Rhazes (circa 900 AD),’ Isis, vol. 23, pp. 321-356
G. Lewis, 1973. Abulcasis on Surgery and Instruments, A Definitive Edition of the Arabic Text with English
Translation and Commentary. London
S. H. Nasr, 1968. Science and Civilization in Islam
S. H. Nasr, 1976. Islamic Science. Chapter VIII
Manfred Ullman, 1978. Islamic Medicine. Edinburgh
Lecture 12
Islamic medicine continued: the same readings
Lecture 13
Islamic cognitive sciences: principles of cognitive psychology, cognitive powers and functions of man’s
external senses, internal senses (the imaginative faculty), and faculty of intellect-reason. Muslim theories of
al-‘aql (intellect-reason): the case of al-Farabi
Readings
Osman Bakar, 1999. Classification of Knowledge in Islam. Chapter 2 in particular
Osman Bakar, 1997. The History and Philosophy of Islamic Science.
Al-Farabi. Treatise on the Intellect, trans. A. Hyman
Majid Fakhry, 1987. A History of Islamic Philosophy. New York: Columbia University Press.
Lecture 14
The decline of Islamic science: internal and external factors. Islamic science and its encounter with modern
Western science: the Ottoman experience and surviving elements of Islamic science in contemporary Muslim
world
Readings
Ihsanoglu Ekmeleddin, ed., 1992. Transfer of Modern Science and Technology to the Muslim World. Istanbul:
IRCICA
Osman Bakar, 1997. The History and Philosophy of Islamic Science.
Osman Bakar, 2002. ‘Why the Muslim world lags behind in science.’ Seminar paper

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