Hugo Chávez

Hugo Chávez
caused the economy to falter, with inflation,[26] poverty[7]
and shortages in Venezuela increasing. Chávez’s presidency also saw significant increases in the country’s
This name uses Spanish naming customs: the first
[27][28][29][30]
and corruption within the
or paternal family name is Chávez and the second or murder rate
police force and government.[31][32] His use of enabling
maternal family name is Frías.
acts[33][34] and his government’s use of Bolivarian
propaganda was also controversial.[35][36][37][38]
Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈuɣo
rafaˈel ˈtʃaβes ˈfɾi.as]; 28 July 1954 – 5 March 2013) was Internationally, Chávez aligned himself with the Marxista Venezuelan politician and the President of Venezuela Leninist governments of Fidel and then Raúl Castro in
from 1999 until his death in 2013. He was the leader of Cuba, and the socialist governments of Evo Morales
the Fifth Republic Movement from its foundation in 1997 (Bolivia), Rafael Correa (Ecuador), and Daniel Ortega
until 2007, when it merged with several other parties to (Nicaragua). His presidency was seen as a part of the
form the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), socialist "pink tide" sweeping Latin America. Chávez
described his policies as anti-imperialist, being a promiwhich he led until 2012.
nent adversary of the United States’s foreign policy as
Born into a working-class family in Sabaneta, Barinas, well as a vocal critic of US-supported neoliberalism
Chávez became a career military officer, and after be- and laissez-faire capitalism.[39] He described himself as
coming dissatisfied with the Venezuelan political system a Marxist.[40][41][42][43][44] He supported Latin Ameribased on the Punto Fijo Pact,[1] he founded the clan- can and Caribbean cooperation and was instrumental in
destine Revolutionary Bolivarian Movement-200 (MBR- setting up the pan-regional Union of South American
200) in the early 1980s. Chávez led the MBR-200 in an Nations, the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, the
unsuccessful coup d'état against the Democratic Action Bank of the South, and the regional television network
government of President Carlos Andrés Pérez in 1992, TeleSUR. Chavez’s ideas, programs, and style form the
for which he was imprisoned. Released from prison af- basis of "Chavismo", a political ideology closely associter two years, he founded a political party known as the ated with Bolivarianism and Socialism of the 21st CenFifth Republic Movement and was elected president of tury.
Venezuela in 1998. He was re-elected in 2000 and again
in 2006 with over 60% of the vote. After winning his
fourth term as president in the October 2012 presidential
1 Early life
election,[2] he was to be sworn in on 10 January 2013, but
Venezuela’s National Assembly postponed the inauguration to allow him time to recover from medical treatment 1.1 Childhood
in Cuba.[3] Suffering a return of the cancer originally diagnosed in June 2011, Chávez died in Caracas on 5 March Further information: Early life of Hugo Chávez
Hugo Chávez was born on 28 July 1954 in his paternal
2013 at the age of 58.[4][5]
grandmother Rosa Inéz Chávez’s home, a modest threeFollowing the adoption of a new constitution in 1999,
room house located in the rural village Sabaneta, Barinas
Chávez focused on enacting social reforms as part
State. The Chávez family were of Amerindian, Afroof the Bolivarian Revolution. Using record-high oil
Venezuelan, and Spanish descent.[45] His parents, Hugo
revenues of the 2000s, his government nationalized key
de los Reyes Chávez and Elena Frías de Chávez, were
industries, created participatory democratic Communal
schoolteachers who lived in the small village of Los RasCouncils, and implemented social programs known as
trojos.
the Bolivarian Missions to expand access to food, hous[46][47]
The
ing, healthcare, and education.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14] Hugo was born the second of seven children.
This led to improvements in areas such as poverty, couple lived in poverty and sent Hugo and his older
[48]
literacy, income equality, and quality of life.[7][15] brother Adán to live with their grandmother Rosa,
Going into the 2010s, economic actions performed whom Hugo later described as being “a pure human be[49]
She was a devout
by Chávez’s government over the previous decade ing... pure love, pure kindness.”
[16][17][18][19][20]
such as overspending
and price Roman Catholic, and Hugo was an altar boy at a local
[50]
controls[21][22][23][24][25] proved to be unsustainable and church. Hugo described his childhood as “poor... [but]
very happy”.[51]
For other uses, see Hugo Chávez (disambiguation).

1

2

1

EARLY LIFE

progressing with them to the Venezuelan National Baseball Championships. He also wrote poetry, fiction, and
drama, and painted,[60] and he researched the life and
political thought of 19th-century South American revolutionary Simón Bolívar.[61] He also became interested
in the Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara (1928–67) after reading his memoir The Diary of Che Guevara.[62]
In 1974, he was selected to be a representative in the
commemorations for the 150th anniversary of the Battle
of Ayacucho in Peru, the conflict in which Simon Bolívar’s lieutenant, Antonio José de Sucre, defeated royalist forces during the Peruvian War of Independence. In
Peru, Chávez heard the leftist president, General Juan
Velasco Alvarado (1910–1977), speak, and inspired by
Velasco’s ideas that the military should act in the interSabaneta, Barinas, where Chávez was born and raised.
ests of the working classes when the ruling classes were
perceived as corrupt,[63] he “drank up the books [VeAttending the Julián Pino Elementary School, Chávez lasco had written], even memorising some speeches alwas particularly interested in the 19th-century federalist most completely.”[64]
general Ezequiel Zamora, in whose army his own greatgreat-grandfather had served.[52][53] In the mid-1960s, Befriending the son of Panamanian President Omar
Hugo, his brother and their grandmother moved to the Torrijos (1929–1981), another leftist military general,
city of Barinas so that the boys could attend Daniel Chávez visited Panama, where he met with Torrijos, and
was impressed with his land reform program that was
O'Leary High School.[54]
designed to benefit the peasants. Influenced by Torrijos
and Velasco he saw the potential for military generals to
seize control of a government when the civilian author1.2 Military Academy: 1971–1975
ities were perceived as serving the interests of only the
[63][65]
In contrast to Torrijos and Velasco,
Aged seventeen, Chávez studied at the Venezuelan wealthy elites.
Chávez
became
highly
critical of Augusto Pinochet, the
Academy of Military Sciences in Caracas, following a
right-wing
general
who
had recently seized control in
curriculum known as the Andrés Bello Plan, instituted
Chile
with
the
aid
of
the
American
CIA.[66] Chávez later
by a group of progressive, nationalistic military officers.
This new curriculum encouraged students to learn not said, “With Torrijos, I became a Torrijist. With Velasco
only military routines and tactics but also a wide vari- I became a Velasquist. And with Pinochet, I became
[67]
ety of other topics, and to do so civilian professors were an anti-Pinochetist”. In 1975, Chávez graduated from
brought in from other universities to give lectures to the the military academy as one of the top graduates of the
year.[68][69][70]
military cadets.[55][56][57]

1.3 Early military career: 1976–1981
Further information: Military career of Hugo Chávez

Supporters of Hugo Chávez at his funeral at the Military academy
of Venezuela.

Living in Caracas, he saw more of the endemic poverty
faced by working class Venezuelans, and said that this
experience only made him further committed to achieving social justice.[58][59] He also began to get involved
in activities outside of the military school, playing baseball and softball with the Criollitos de Venezuela team,

I think that from the time I left the academy I was oriented
toward a revolutionary movement... The Hugo Chávez
who entered there was a kid from the hills, a Ilanero{sic}
with aspirations of playing professional baseball. Four
years later, a second-lieutenant came out who had taken
the revolutionary path. Someone who didn't have obligations to anyone, who didn't belong to any movement,
who was not enrolled in any party, but who knew very
well where I was headed.
Hugo Chávez[71]
Following his graduation, Chávez was stationed as a
communications officer at a counterinsurgency unit in
Barinas,[72] although the Marxist-Leninist insurgency
which the army was sent to combat had already been erad-

3
icated from that state.[73] At one point he found a stash
of Marxist literature that apparently had belonged to insurgents many years before. He went on to read these
books, which included titles by Karl Marx, Vladimir
Lenin and Mao Zedong, but his favourite was a work
entitled The Times of Ezequiel Zamora, written about
the 19th-century federalist general whom Chávez had
admired as a child.[74] These books further convinced
Chávez of the need for a leftist government in Venezuela:
“By the time I was 21 or 22, I made myself a man of the
left”.[75]
In 1977, Chávez’s unit was transferred to Anzoátegui,
where they were involved in battling the Red Flag Party,
a Marxist-Hoxhaist insurgency group.[76] After intervening to prevent the beating of an alleged insurgent by other
soldiers,[77] Chávez began to have his doubts about the
army and their methods in using torture.[75] At the same
time, he was becoming increasingly critical of the corruption in the army and in the civilian government, coming
to believe Venezuela’s poor were not benefiting from the
oil wealth, and began to sympathize with the Red Flag
Party and their cause and their violent methods.[78]
In 1977, he founded a revolutionary movement together
with Luis R. Gonzalez an William Jimenez, within the
armed forces, in the hope that he could one day introduce
a leftist government to Venezuela: the Venezuelan People’s Liberation Army (Ejército de Liberación del Pueblo
de Venezuela, or ELPV), consisted of him and a handful
of his fellow soldiers who had no immediate plans for direct action, though they knew they wanted a middle way
between the right wing policies of the government and the
far left position of the Red Flag.[77][79][80] Nevertheless,
hoping to gain an alliance with civilian leftist groups in
Venezuela, Chávez set up clandestine meetings with various prominent Marxists, including Alfredo Maneiro (the
founder of the Radical Cause) and Douglas Bravo.[81][82]
At this time, Chávez married a working-class woman
named Nancy Colmenares, with whom he had three
children: Rosa Virginia (born September 1978), Maria
Gabriela (born March 1980) and Hugo Rafael (born October 1983).[83]

2

Later military career and the
Bolivarian Revolutionary Army200: 1982–1991

Logo of MBR-200.

Five years after his creation of the ELPV, Chávez went
on to form a new secretive cell within the military, the
Bolivarian Revolutionary Army-200 (EBR-200), later
redesignated the Revolutionary Bolivarian Movement200 (MBR-200).[55][84][85] He was inspired by Ezequiel
Zamora (1817–1860), Simón Bolívar (1783–1830) and
Simón Rodríguez (1769–1854), who became known as
the “three roots of the tree” of the MBR-200.[86][87]
Later, Chávez said that “the Bolivarian movement that
was being born did not propose political objectives...
Its goals were imminently internal. Its efforts were directed in the first place to studying the military history
of Venezuela as a source of a military doctrine of our
own, which up to then didn't exist”.[88] However, he always hoped for the Bolivarian Movement to become a
politically dominant party that would “accept all kinds of
ideas, from the right, from the left, from the ideological
ruins of those old capitalist and communist systems.”[89]
Indeed, Irish political analyst Barry Cannon noted that
the MBR’s early ideology “was a doctrine in construction, a heterogeneous amalgam of thoughts and ideologies, from universal thought, capitalism, Marxism, but
rejecting the neoliberal models currently being imposed
in Latin America and the discredited models of the old
Soviet Bloc.”[90]
In 1981, Chávez, by now a captain, was assigned to teach
at the military academy where he had formerly trained.
Here he introduced new students to his so-called “Bolivarian” ideals and recruited some of them. By the
time they had graduated, at least thirty out of 133 cadets
had joined his cause.[91] In 1984 he met Herma Marksman, a recently divorced history teacher with whom he
had an affair that lasted several years.[92][93] During this
time Francisco Arias Cárdenas , a soldier interested in
liberation theology, also joined MBR-200.[94] Cárdenas
rose to a significant position within the group, although he
came into ideological conflict with Chávez, with Chávez
believing that they should begin direct military action in
order to overthrow the government, something Cárdenas
thought was reckless.[95]
After some time, some senior military officers became
suspicious of Chávez and reassigned him so that he would
not be able to gain any more fresh new recruits from
the academy. He was sent to take command of the remote barracks at Elorza in Apure State,[96] where he organized social events for the community and contacted
the local indigenous tribal peoples, the Cuiva and Yaruro.
Distrustful as they were because of the mistreatment at
the hands of the Venezuelan army in previous decades,
Chávez gained their trust by joining the expeditions of
an anthropologist to meet with them. Chávez said his
experiences with them later led him to introduce laws
protecting the rights of indigenous tribal peoples.[97] In
1988, after being promoted to the rank of major, the
high-ranking General Rodríguez Ochoa took a liking to
Chávez and employed him to be his assistant at his office
in Caracas.[98]

4

2.1

3

POLITICAL RISE: 1992–1998

Operation Zamora coup attempt: 1992

Main article: 1992 Venezuelan coup d'état attempts
In 1989, centrist Carlos Andrés Pérez (1922–2010) was
elected President, and though he had promised to oppose
the United States government’s Washington Consensus
and the International Monetary Fund's policies, he opposed neither once he got into office, following instead
the neoliberal economic policies supported by the United
States and the IMF, angering the public.[99][100][101] In an
attempt to stop the widespread protests and looting that
followed his social spending cuts, Pérez initiated Plan
Ávila and a violent repression of protesters, known as
El Caracazo unfolded.[102][103][104] Though members of
Chávez’s MBR-200 movement had allegedly participated
in the crackdown,[105] Chávez did not participate since
he was then hospitalized with chicken pox and later condemned the event as "genocide".[106][107]
Chávez began preparing for a military coup d'état[104][108]
known as Operation Zamora.[109] The plan involved inside members of the military, the overwhelming of military locations along with communication installations and
the establishment of Rafael Caldera in power following
the capture and assassination of President Perez.[110] Initially prepared for December, Chávez delayed the MBR200 coup until the early twilight hours of 4 February
1992.[110]
On that date, five army units under Chávez’s command
moved into urban Caracas. Despite years of planning,
the coup quickly encountered trouble since Chávez could
command the loyalty of less than 10% of Venezuela’s
military forces.[111] After numerous betrayals, defections, errors, and other unforeseen circumstances, Chávez
and a small group of rebels found themselves hiding
in the Military Museum, unable to communicate with
other members with Pérez managing to escape Miraflores
Palace.[112] Fourteen soldiers were killed, and fifty soldiers and some eighty civilians injured during the ensuing
violence.[113][114][115] Another unsuccessful coup against
the government occurred in November,[108][116] with the
fighting during the coups resulting in the deaths of at least
143 people and perhaps as many as several hundred.[117]
Chávez gave himself up to the government and appeared
on television, in uniform, to call on remaining coup members to lay down their arms.[118] Many viewers noted that
Chávez in his speech had remarked that he had failed
only "por ahora" (for now),[55][119][120][121][122] and many
Venezuelans, particularly poor ones, began seeing him
as someone who stood up against government corruption
and kleptocracy.[123][124][125]

The San Carlos military stockade, where Hugo Chávez was held
after attempting to overthrow President Pérez in 1992.

after.[128] The government meanwhile began a temporary crackdown on media supportive of Chávez and the
coup.[129] Pérez himself was then impeached a year later
for malfeasance and misappropriation of funds for illegal
activities.[130][131]

3 Political rise: 1992–1998

A painted mural in support of the Fifth Republic Movement
(MVR) found in Barcelona, Venezuela

While Chávez and the other senior members of the MBR200 were in prison, his relationship with Herma Marksman broke up in July 1993.[132] In 1994, Rafael Caldera
(1916–2009) of the centrist National Convergence Party
and who had knowledge of the coup was elected president, and soon after freed Chávez and the other imprisoned MBR-200 members, though Caldera banned them
from returning to the military.[133][134] Chávez went on
a 100-day tour of the country, promoting his Bolivarian cause of social revolution.[135] On his tours around
the country he met Marisabel Rodríguez, who would give
birth to their daughter shortly before becoming his second
wife in 1997.[136][137]

Chávez was arrested and imprisoned at the San Carlos
military stockade, where he remained wracked with guilt,
feeling responsible for the coup’s failure.[126][127] ProChávez demonstrations that took place outside of San Travelling around Latin America in search of foreign supCarlos led to his being transferred to Yare prison soon port for his Bolivarian movement, he visited Argentina,

4.1

First presidential term: 2 February 1999 – 10 January 2001

Uruguay, Chile, Colombia, and finally Cuba, where he
met Castro and became friends with him.[138] After his
return to Venezuela, Chávez was critical of President
Caldera and his neoliberal economic policies.[139] A drop
in per capita income, coupled with increases in poverty
and crime, “led to gaps emerging between rulers and ruled
which favoured the emergence of a populist leader”.[140]
By now Chávez was a supporter of taking military action,
believing that the oligarchy would never allow him and his
supporters to win an election,[141] while Francisco Arias
Cárdenas insisted that they take part in the representative democratic process. Indeed, Cárdenas soon joined
the Radical Cause socialist party and won the December
1995 election to become governor of the oil-rich Zulia
State.[142] As a result, Chávez and his supporters founded
a political party, the Fifth Republic Movement (MVR –
Movimiento Quinta República) in July 1997 in order to
support Chávez’s candidature in the Venezuelan presidential election, 1998.[113][143][144][145]

3.1

1998 election

At the start of the election run-up, front runner Irene
Sáez was backed by one of Venezuela’s two primary political parties, Copei.[146] Chávez’s revolutionary rhetoric
gained him support from Patria Para Todos (Fatherland
for All), the Partido Comunist Venezolano (Venezeuelan Communist Party) and the Movimiento al Socialismo
(Movement for Socialism).[145][147] Chávez’s promises of
widespread social and economic reforms won the trust
and favor of a primarily poor and working class. By
May 1998, Chávez’s support had risen to 30% in polls,
and by August he was registering 39%.[148] With his support increasing, and Sáez’s decreasing, both the main
two political parties, Copei and Democratic Action, put
their support behind Henrique Salas Römer, a Yale University-educated economist who represented the Project
Venezuela party.[149]

5

4.1 First presidential term: 2 February
1999 – 10 January 2001
Chávez’s presidential inauguration took place on 2 February 1999, and during the usual presidential oath he deviated from the prescribed words to proclaim that “I swear
before God and my people that upon this moribund constitution I will drive forth the necessary democratic transformations so that the new republic will have a Magna
Carta befitting these new times.”[154][155] He appointed
new figures to a number of government posts, including
promoting various leftist allies to key positions; he for instance gave one of the founders of MBR, Jesús Urdaneta,
the position in charge of the Bolivarian Intelligence
Agency; and made one of the 1992 coup leaders, Hernán
Grüber Ódreman, governor of the Federal District of
Caracas.[156] Chávez also appointed some conservative,
centrist and centre-right figures to government positions
as well, reappointing Caldera’s economy minister Maritza Izaquirre to that same position and also appointing
the businessman Roberto Mandini to be president of the
state-run oil company Petroleos de Venezuela.[157] His
critics referred to this group of government officials as
the "Boliburguesía" or “Bolivarian bourgeoisie”,[158][159]
and highlighted the fact that it “included few people with
experience in public administration.”[154] The involvement of a number of his immediate family members in
Venezuelan politics led to accusations of nepotism.[160]
In June 2000 he separated from his wife Marisabel, and
their divorce was finalised in January 2004.[161]

The Chávez government’s initial policies were moderate, capitalist and centre-left, having much in common
with those of contemporary Latin American leftists like
Brazil’s president Lula da Silva.[162][163] Chávez initially
believed that capitalism was still a valid economic model
for Venezuela, but only Rhenish capitalism, not the USsupported neoliberalism of former governments.[164] He
followed the economic guidelines recommended by the
International Monetary Fund and continued to encourage foreign corporations to invest in Venezuela,[165] even
visiting the New York Stock Exchange in the United
Voter turnout in the election is the subject of dispute. States in an attempt to convince wealthy investors to do
Voter turnout was at 63.45%, with Chávez winning the so.[166][167]
election with 56.20% of the vote.[150][151] Academic analysis of the election showed that Chávez’s support had Chávez set into motion a social welfare program called
come primarily from the country’s poor and the “disen- Plan Bolívar 2000, which he organised to begin on 27
chanted middle class”, whose standard of living had de- February 1999, the tenth anniversary of the Caracazo
creased rapidly in the previous decade,[152] and much of massacre. Chávez said he would set aside $20.8 million
for the plan, though some state that the program costed
the middle and upper class vote went Römer.[153]
$113 million. Plan Bolívar 2000 involved 70,000 soldiers, sailors and members of the air force going out
into the streets of Venezuela where they would repair
roads and hospitals, remove stagnant water that offered
4 Presidency: 1999–2013
breeding areas for disease-carrying mosquitoes, offer
free medical care and vaccinations, and sell food at low
[168][169][170][171]
Further information: History of Venezuela (1999– prices.
present)

In May 2000 he launched his own Sunday morning radio
show, Aló Presidente (Hello, President), on the state radio

6

4

network, as well as a Thursday night television show, De
Frente con el Presidente (Face to Face with the President).
He followed this with his own newspaper, El Correo del
Presidente (The President’s Post), founded in July, for
which he acted as editor-in-chief, but which was later shut
amidst accusations of corruption in its management.[172]
In his television and radio shows, he answered calls from
citizens, discussed his latest policies, sang songs and told
jokes, making it unique not only in Latin America but the
entire world.[173]
4.1.1

Constitutional reform

Chávez then called for a public referendum which
he hoped would support his plans to form a
constitutional assembly, composed of representatives from across Venezuela, as well as from indigenous
tribal groups, which would be able to rewrite the
nation’s constitution.[174][175] The referendum went
ahead on 25 April 1999, and was an overwhelming
success for Chávez, with 88% of voters supporting the
proposal.[174][175]

PRESIDENCY: 1999–2013

subordinate to it.[181] The assembly also declared a “judicial emergency”, granting itself the power to overhaul
the judicial system. The Supreme Court, which ruled that
the assembly did indeed have such authority, was eventually replaced by the 1999 Constitution, which created the
“Supreme Tribunal of Justice” in its place.[182][183]
The elected members of the constituent assembly put together a new constitution, and a referendum on the issue
of whether to adopt it was held in December 1999; the
referendum saw an abstention vote of over 50%, although
among those voting, 72% approved the new constitution’s
adoption.[178][184][185] The constitution gave greater powers to the president, not only by extending their term but
also by giving them the power to legislate on citizen rights
as well as the economic and financial matters that they
were formerly unable to do.[186] It also gave the military
a role in the government by providing it with the mandated role of ensuring public order and aiding national
development, something it had been expressely forbidden from doing under the former constitution.[186] As a
part of the new constitution, the country, which was then
officially known as the Republic of Venezuela, was renamed the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (República
Bolivariana de Venezuela) at Chávez’s request.[177][178]

4.2 Second presidential term: 10 January
2001 – 10 January 2007

Chávez holds a miniature copy of the 1999 Venezuelan Constitution at the 2003 World Social Forum held in Brazil.

Then Chávez called for an election to take place on 25
July, in which the members of the constitutional assembly would be voted into power.[176] Of the 1,171 candidates standing for election to the assembly, over 900 of
them were opponents of Chávez. Despite the large number of opposition candidates, Chavez’s supporters won
another overwhelming electoral victory creating “a very
pro-Chávez Constitutional Assembly”, with his supporters taking 125 seats (95% of the total), including all of
those belonging to indigenous tribal groups, whereas the
opposition were voted into only 6 seats.[174][177][178]
On 12 August 1999, the new constitutional assembly
voted to give themselves the power to abolish government institutions and to dismiss officials who were perceived as being corrupt or operating only in their own
interests. Opponents of the Chávez regime argued that
it was therefore dictatorial.[179][180] Most jurists believed
that the new constitutional assembly became the country’s
“supreme authority” and that all other institutions were

Chávez visiting Porto Alegre, Brazil in 2003

Under the new constitution, it was legally required that
new elections be held in order to re-legitimize the government and president. This presidential election in July
2000 would be a part of a greater “megaelection”, the first
time in the country’s history that the president, governors,
national and regional congressmen, mayors and councilmen would be voted for on the same day.[187][188][189] Going into the elections, Chávez had control of all three
branches of government.[182] For the position of president, Chávez’s closest challenger proved to be his former
friend and co-conspirator in the 1992 coup, Francisco
Arias Cárdenas, who since becoming governor of Zulia
state had turned towards the political centre and begun to
denounce Chávez as autocratic.[190] Although some of his

4.2

Second presidential term: 10 January 2001 – 10 January 2007

supporters feared that he had alienated those in the middle class and the Roman Catholic Church hierarchy who
had formerly supported him, Chávez was re-elected with
59.76% of the vote (the equivalent of 3,757,000 people),
a larger majority than his 1998 electoral victory,[191][192]
again primarily receiving his support from the poorer sectors of Venezuelan society.[193]
That year, Chávez helped to further cement his geopolitical and ideological ties with the Cuban government
of Fidel Castro by signing an agreement under which
Venezuela would supply Cuba with 53,000 barrels of oil
per day at preferential rates, in return receiving 20,000
trained Cuban medics and educators. In the ensuing
decade, this would be increased to 90,000 barrels a
day (in exchange for 40,000 Cuban medics and teachers), dramatically aiding the Caribbean island’s economy
and standard of living after its "Special Period" of the
1990s.[194] However, Venezuela’s growing alliance with
Cuba came at the same time as a deteriorating relationship with the United States: in late 2001, just after the
American-led invasion of Afghanistan in retaliation for
11 September attacks against the U.S. by Islamist militants, Chávez showed pictures of Afghan children killed
in a bomb attack on his television show. He commented
that “They are not to blame for the terrorism of Osama
Bin Laden or anyone else”, and called on the American
government to end “the massacre of the innocents. Terrorism cannot be fought with terrorism.” The U.S. government responded negatively to the comments, which
were picked up by the media worldwide.[195]

7

porations having a significant level of control, but the
Chávez administration wished to curb this foreign control over the country’s natural resources by nationalising
much of it under the state-run oil company, Petróleos de
Venezuela S.A. (PdVSA). In 2001, the government introduced a new Hydrocarbons Law through which they
sought to gain greater state control over the oil industry: they did this by raising royalty taxes on the oil companies and also by introducing the formation of “mixed
companies”, whereby the PdVSA could have joint control
with private companies over industry. By 2006, all of the
32 operating agreements signed with private corporations
during the 1990s had been converted from being primarily or solely corporate-run to being at least 51% controlled
by PdVSA.[198]

4.2.1 Opposition and the CD
During Chávez’s first term in office, the opposition movement had been “strong but reasonably contained, [with]
complaints centering mainly on procedural aspects of the
implementation of the constitution”.[189]
The first organized protest against the Bolivarian government occurred in January 2001, when the Chávez administration tried to implement educational reforms through
the proposed Resolution 259 and Decree 1.011, which
would have seen the publication of textbooks with a heavy
Bolivarian bias. The protest movement, which was primarily by middle class parents whose children went to privately run schools, marched to central Caracas shouting
out the slogan “Don't mess with my children.” Although
the protesters were denounced by Chávez, who called
them “selfish and individualistic,” the protest was successful enough for the government to retract the proposed
education reforms and instead enter into a consensusbased educational program with the opposition.[200]

Later into 2001, an organization known as the Coordinadora Democrática de Acción Cívica (CD) was founded,
under which the Venezuelan opposition political parties, corporate powers, most of the country’s media,
the Venezuelan Federation of Chambers of Commerce,
the Frente Institucional Militar and the Central WorkChávez’s second term in office saw the implementation of social ers Union all united to oppose Chávez’s regime.[196][201]
missions, such as this one to eliminate illiteracy in Venezuela.
The prominent businessman Pedro Carmona (1941–) was
chosen as the CD’s leader.[196] They received support
Meanwhile, the 2000 elections had led to Chávez’s sup- from various foreign sources.
porters gaining 101 out of 165 seats in the Venezue- The CD and other opponents of Chávez’s Bolivarian govlan National Assembly, and so in November 2001 they ernment accused it of trying to turn Venezuela from
voted to allow him to pass 49 social and economic a democracy into a dictatorship by centralising power
decrees.[196][197] This move antagonized the opposition amongst its supporters in the Constituent Assembly and
movement particularly strongly.[189]
granting Chávez increasingly autocratic powers. Many of
At the start of the 21st century, Venezuela was the world’s
fifth largest exporter of crude oil, with oil accounting
for 85.3% of the country’s exports, therefore dominating the country’s economy.[198][199] Previous administrations had sought to privatise this industry, with U.S. cor-

them pointed to Chávez’s personal friendship with Cuba’s
Fidel Castro and the one-party socialist government in
Cuba as a sign of where the Bolivarian government was
taking Venezuela.[196] Others did not hold such a strong
view but still argued that Chávez was a “free-spending,

8

4

PRESIDENCY: 1999–2013

Chávez’s response was to moderate his approach, implementing a new economic team that appeared to be more
centrist and reinstated the old board of directors and managers of the state oil company Petróleos de Venezuela
S.A. (PDVSA), whose replacement had been one of the
reasons for the coup.[208][209] At the same time, the Bolivarian government began increased the country’s military capacity, purchasing 100,000 AK-47 assault rifles
and several helicopters from Russia, as well as a number of Super Tucano light attack and training planes from
Brazil. Troop numbers were also increased.[210]
In 2002, after appointing political allies to head the
PDVSA and replacing the company’s board of directors
with loyalists who had “little or no experience in the oil
industry”,[211] Chávez faced a two-month management
strike at the PDVSA.[212] The Chávez government’s reauthoritarian populist" whose policies were detrimental
sponse was to fire about 19,000 striking employees for ilto the country.[202]
legally abandoning their posts and then employing retired
workers, foreign contractors, and the military to do their
jobs instead.[213] According to one observer, this move
4.2.2 Coup, strikes and the recall referendum
further damaged the strength of Chávez’s opposition by
Main articles: 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt, removing the many managers in the oil industry who had
[213]
Venezuelan general strike of 2002–2003 and Venezuelan been supportive of their cause to overthrow Chávez.
recall referendum, 2004
The 1999 constitution had introduced the concept of a
On 11 April 2002, during mass protests in Caracas recall referendum into Venezuelan politics, so the opposition called for such a referendum to take place. A
2004 referendum to recall Chávez was defeated. 70%
of the eligible Venezuelan population turned out to vote,
with 59% of voters deciding to keep the president in
power.[192][214] Unlike his original 1998 election victory,
this time Chávez’s electoral support came almost entirely
from the poorer working classes rather than the middle
classes, who “had practically abandoned Chávez” after he
“had consistently moved towards the left in those five and
a half years”.[215]
Chávez visiting the USS Yorktown, a US Navy ship docked at
Curaçao in the Netherlands Antilles, in 2002

4.2.3 “Socialism of the 21st century”
A 2004 rally against Chávez in Caracas, demanding his removal
from the presidency.

The various attempts at overthrowing the Bolivarian government from power had only served to further radicalize Chávez. In January 2005, he began openly proclaiming the ideology of "Socialism of the 21st Century", something that was distinct from his earlier forms
of Bolivarianism, which had been social democratic in nature, merging elements of capitalism and socialism. He
used this new term to contrast the democratic socialism,
which he wanted to promote in Latin America from the
Marxist-Leninist socialism that had been spread by socialist states like the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China during the 20th century, arguing that the
latter had not been truly democratic, suffering from a lack
of participatory democracy and an excessively authoritarian governmental structure.[90]

against the Bolivarian government,[203] twenty people
were killed, and over 110 were wounded.[204] A group of
high-ranking anti-Chávez military officers had been planning to launch a coup against Chávez and used the civil
unrest as an opportunity.[205] After the plotters gained significant power, Chávez agreed to be detained and was
transferred by army escort to La Orchila; business leader
Pedro Carmona declared himself president of an interim
government.[206] Carmona abolished the 1999 constitution and appointed a small governing committee to run
the country.[189] Protests in support of Chávez along with
insufficient support for Carmona’s regime, which many
felt was implementing totalitarian measures, quickly led In May 2006, Chávez visited Europe in a private capacity,
to Carmona’s resignation, and Chávez was returned to where he announced plans to supply cheap Venezuelan
power on 15 April.[207]
oil to poor working class communities in the continent.

4.4

Fourth presidential term: 10 January 2013 – 5 March 2013

9

The Mayor of London Ken Livingstone welcomed him, United Nations’ International Labour Organization howdescribing him as “the best news out of Latin America in ever expressed concern over some voters’ being pressured
many years”.[216]
to join the party.[225]

4.3

Third presidential term: 10 January
2007 – 10 January 2013

In the presidential election of December 2006, which
saw a 74% voter turnout, Chávez was once more elected,
this time with 63% of the vote, beating his closest challenger Manuel Rosales, who conceded his loss.[214] The
election was certified as being free and legitimate by the
Organization of American States (OAS) and the Carter
Center.[217][218][219] After this victory, Chávez promised
an “expansion of the revolution.”[220]
4.3.1

United Socialist Party of Venezuela and domestic policy

On 15 December 2006, Chávez publicly announced that
those leftist political parties who had continually supported him in the Patriotic Pole would unite into one
single, much larger party, the United Socialist Party
of Venezuela (Partido Socialista Unido de Venezuela,
PSUV).[145] In the speech which he gave announcing the
PSUV’s creation, Chávez declared that the old parties
must “forget their own structures, party colours and slogans, because they are not the most important thing for
the fatherland.”[145] According to political analyst Barry
Cannon, the purpose of creating the PSUV was to “forge
unity amongst the disparate elements [of the Bolivarian
movement], providing grassroots input into policy and
leadership formation, [and] uniting the grassroots and
leadership into one single body.”[221] It was hoped that by
doing so, it would decrease the problems of clientelism
and corruption and also leave the movement less dependent on its leadership:[221] as Chávez himself declared,
“In this new party, the bases will elect the leaders. This
will allow real leaders to emerge.”[221]

In 2007, the Bolivarian government set up a constitutional
commission in order to review the 1999 constitution and
suggest potential amendments to be made to it. Led by
the prominent pro-Chávez intellectual Luis Britto García,
the commission came to the conclusion that the constitution could include more socially progressive clauses, such
as the shortening of the working week, a constitutional
recognition of Afro Venezuelans and the elimination of
discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation.[214] It
also suggested measures that would have increased many
of the president’s powers, for instance increasing the presidential term limit to seven years, allowing the president
to run for election indefinitely and centralizing powers
in the executive.[214] The government put the suggested
changes to a public referendum in December 2007.[226]
Abstention rate was high however, with 43.95% of registered voters not turning out, and in the end the proposed changes were rejected by 50.65% of votes.[214][227]
This would prove to the first electoral loss that Chávez
had faced in the thirteen electoral contests held since he
took power,[214] something analysts argued was due to the
top-down nature of the changes, as well as general public dissatisfaction with “the absence of internal debate on
its content, as well as dissatisfaction with the running of
the social programmes, increasing street crime, and with
corruption within the government.”[228]
In order to ensure that his Bolivarian Revolution became socially engrained in Venezuela, Chávez discussed
his wish to stand for re-election when his term ran out
in 2013, and spoke of ruling beyond 2030.[229] Under
the 1999 constitution, he could not legally stand for reelection again, and so brought about a referendum on 15
February 2009 to abolish the two-term limit for all public offices, including the presidency.[230] Approximately
70% of the Venezuelan electorate voted, and they approved this alteration to the constitution with over 54%
in favor, allowing any elected official the chance to try to
run indefinitely.[229][230][231]

4.4 Fourth presidential term: 10 January
2013 – 5 March 2013
The logo for the PSUV, Chávez’s socialist political party founded
in 2007

Chávez had initially proclaimed that those leftist parties
which chose to not dissolve into the PSUV would have
to leave the government, however, after several of those
parties supporting him refused to do so, he ceased to issue
such threats.[222] There was initially much grassroots enthusiasm for the creation of the PSUV, with membership
having risen to 5.7 million people by 2007,[221][223] making it the largest political group in Venezuela.[224] The

On 7 October 2012, Chávez won election as president
for a fourth time, his third six-year term. He defeated
Henrique Capriles with 54% of the votes versus 45%
for Capriles, which was a lower victory margin than in
his previous presidential wins, in the 2012 Venezuelan
presidential election[2][232] Turnout in the election was
80%, with a hotly contested election between the two
candidates.[233] There was significant support for Chávez
amongst the Venezuelan lower class. Chávez’s opposition blamed him for unfairly using state funds to spread
largesse before the election to bolster Chavez’s support

10

5 POLITICAL IDEOLOGY
Acting executive officials produced orders of government signed by Chávez, which were suspected of
forgery by some opposition politicians, who claimed that
Chávez was too sick to be in control of his faculties.
Guillermo Cochez, recently dismissed from the office of
Panamanian ambassador to the Organization of American States, even claimed that Chávez had been brain-dead
since 31 December 2012.[235][236] Near to Chavez’s death,
two American attachés were expelled from the country
for allegedly undermining Venezuelan democracy.

Due to the death of Chávez, Vice President Nicolas
Maduro took over the presidential powers and duties for
the remainder of Chávez’s abbreviated term until presChávez (far right) with fellow Latin American leftist presidents
in 2009. From left to right: Paraguay’s Fernando Lugo, Bolivia’s idential elections were held. Venezuela’s constitution
Evo Morales, Brazil’s Lula da Silva and Ecuador’s Rafael Correa specifies that the speaker of the National Assembly, Diosdado Cabello, should assume the interim presidency if a
president cannot be sworn in.[237]
among his primary electoral base, the lower class.[232]

5 Political ideology
Democracy is impossible in a capitalist system. Capitalism is the realm of injustice and a tyranny of the richest
against the poorest. Rousseau said, 'Between the powerful and the weak all freedom is oppressed. Only the rule
of law sets you free.' That’s why the only way to save
the world is through socialism, a democratic socialism...
[Democracy is not just turning up to vote every five or
four years], it’s much more than that, it’s a way of life,
it’s giving power to the people... it is not the government
of the rich over the people, which is what’s happening
in almost all the so-called democratic Western capitalist
countries.
Hugo Chávez, June 2010[164]

Chávez in June 2012.

Chávez propagated what he called “socialism for the
21st century”, but according to the pro-Chavez academic Gregory Wilpert, “Chávez has not clearly defined
twenty-first century socialism, other than to say that it
is about establishing liberty, equality, social justice, and
solidarity. He has also indicated that it is distinctly different from state socialism", as implemented by the governments of the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China.[238] As a part of his socialist ideas, he
emphasised the role of so-called "participatory democracy", which he claimed increased democratic participation, and was implemented through the foundation of the
Venezuelan Communal Councils and Bolivarian Circles
which he cited as examples of grassroots and participatory democracy.[239]

The inauguration of Chávez’s new term was scheduled for
10 January 2013, but as he was undergoing medical treatment at the time in Cuba, he was not able to return to
Venezuela for that date. The National Assembly president Diosdado Cabello proposed to postpone the inauguration and the Supreme Court decided that, being just
another term of the sitting president and not the inauguration of a new one, the formality could be bypassed.
The Venezuelan Bishops Conference opposed the verdict, 5.1 Bolivarianism
stating that the constitution must be respected and the
Venezuelan government had not been transparent regard- Main articles: Bolivarianism and Bolivarian Circles
ing details about Chávez’s health.[234]

5.2

Marxism

11
other Enlightenment or national liberation thinker.”[241]
Chávez’s ideology originating from Bolívar has also received some criticism because Chávez had occasionally
described himself as being influenced by Karl Marx, a
critic of Bolívar.[242][243] Beddow and Thibodeaux noted
the complications between Bolívar and Marx, stating
that "[d]escribing Bolivar as a socialist warrior in the
class struggle, when he was actually member of the
aristocratic 'criollos,' is peculiar when considering Karl
Marx’s own writings on Bolivar, whom he dismissed as a
false liberator who merely sought to preserve the power
of the old Creole nobility which he belonged”.[243]

5.2 Marxism

19th century general and politician Simón Bolívar provided a
basis for Chávez’s political ideas.

Hugo Chávez defined his political position as
Bolivarianism, an ideology he developed from that
of Simón Bolívar (1783–1830) and others. Bolívar
was a 19th-century general who led the fight against
the colonialist Spanish authorities and who is widely
revered across Latin America today. Along with Bolívar,
the other two primary influences upon Bolivarianism
are Simón Rodríguez (1769–1854), a philosopher who
was Bolívar’s tutor and mentor, and Ezequiel Zamora,
(1817–1860), the Venezuelan Federalist general.[240]
Political analyst and Chávez supporter Gregory Wilpert,
in his study of Chávez’s politics, noted that “The key
ingredients for Chávez’s revolutionary Bolivarianism
can be summarized as: an emphasis on the importance
of education, the creation of civilian-military unity,
Latin American integration, social justice, and national
sovereignty. In many ways this is not a particularly
different set of principles and ideas to those of any

Chávez’s connection to Marxism was a complex one,
though he had described himself as a Marxist on some
occasions.[40][41][42][43][44] In May 1996, he gave an interview with Agustín Blanco Muñoz in which he remarked
that “I am not a Marxist, but I am not anti-Marxist. I
am not communist, but I am not anti-communist.”[244]
In a 2009 speech to the national assembly, he said: “I
am a Marxist to the same degree as the followers of the
ideas of Jesus Christ and the liberator of America, Simon Bolivar.”[40][245] He was well versed in many Marxist texts, having read the works of many Marxist theoreticians, and often publicly quoted them. Various international Marxists supported his government, believing it to
be a sign of proletariat revolution as predicted in Marxist
theory.[246] In 2010, Hugo Chávez proclaimed support for
the ideas of Marxist Leon Trotsky, saying “When I called
him (former Minister of Labour, José Ramón Rivero)"
Chávez explained, “he said to me: 'President I want to
tell you something before someone else tells you ... I am
a Trotskyist', and I said, 'well, what is the problem? I am
also a Trotskyist! I follow Trotsky’s line, that of permanent revolution,” and then cited Marx and Lenin.[247][248]

5.3 Other influences
Chávez’s early heroes were nationalist military dictators that included former Peruvian president Juan Velasco Alvarado[61] and former Panamanian “Maximum
Leader” Omar Torrijos.[65][249] Chávez was also well acquainted with the various traditions of Latin American socialism, espoused by such figures as Colombian
politician Jorge Eliécer Gaitán[250] and former Chilean
president Salvador Allende.[250] Early in his presidency,
Chávez was advised and influenced by the Argentine fascist Norberto Ceresole.[249] Cuban Communist revolutionaries Che Guevara and Fidel Castro also influenced
Chávez, especially with Castro’s government assistance
with the Bolivarian Missions.[249][250] Other indirect influences on Chávez’s political philosophy are the writings
of American linguist Noam Chomsky[251] and the Gospel
teachings of Jesus Christ.[252][253] Other inspirations

12

6

POLICY OVERVIEW

of Chávez’s political view are Giuseppe Garibaldi,[254]
Antonio Gramsci and Antonio Negri.[255][256][257][258]

ments in addressing illiteracy, healthcare and poverty,[15]
and economic and social advances.[262] with Venezuelans’ quality of life improving according to a UN Index.[7]
The Gini coefficient, a measure of income inequality,
also dropped from nearly .50 in 1998 to .39 in 2011,
6 Policy overview
putting Venezuela behind only Canada in the Western
Hemisphere.[263] The poverty rate fell from 48.6 per6.1 Economic and social policy
cent in 2002 to 29.5 percent in 2011, according to the
U.N. Economic Commission for Latin America.[7] The
See also: Economic policy of the Hugo Chávez govern- drop of Venezuela’s poverty rate compared to poverty
in other South American countries was slightly behind
ment and Economy of Venezuela
From his election in 1998 until his death in March that of Peru, Brazil and Panama.[264] Venezuelans aged
15 and older, 95.2% could also read and write, with
Venezuela having one of the highest literacy rates in the
region,[265] though some scholars have refuted that literacy improvements during Chavez’s presidency resulted
from his administration’s policies.[12] Teresa A. Meade
wrote that Chávez’s popularity strongly depended “on the
lower classes who have benefited from these health initiatives and similar policies.”[266]
The social works initiated by Chávez’s government relied
on oil products, the keystone of the Venezuelan economy, with Chávez’s administration suffering from Dutch
disease as a result.[18][267] Economist Mark Weisbrot, in
a 2009 analysis of the Chávez administration stated that
economic expansion during Chávez’s tenure “began when
the government got control over the national oil company
in the first quarter of 2003”.[268] Chávez gained a reputation as a price hawk in OPEC, pushing for stringent
enforcement of production quotas and higher target oil
prices.[269] According to Cannon, the state income from
oil revenue grew “from 51% of total income in 2000
to 56% 2006";[269] oil exports increased “from 77% in
1997 [...] to 89% in 2006";[269] and his administration’s
dependence on petroleum sales was “one of the chief
problems facing the Chávez government”.[269] In 2012,
the World Bank also explained that Venezuela’s economy is “extremely vulnerable” to changes in oil prices
since in 2012 “96% of the country’s exports and nearly
The blue line represents annual rates. The red line represents half of its fiscal revenue” relied on oil production, while
trends of annual rates given throughout the period shown. GDP by 2008, according to Foreign Policy, exports of everyis in billions of Local Currency Unit that has been adjusted for thing but oil “collapsed”.[18][270] The Chávez administrainflation.
tion then used such oil prices on his populist policies and
Sources: International Monetary Fund, World Bank
for voters.[18][260]
2013, Chávez’s administration proposed and enacted
democratic socialist economic policies. Domestic policies included redistribution of wealth, land reform,
and democratization of economic activity via workplace self-management and creation of worker-owned
cooperatives.[259] With increasing oil prices in the early
2000s and funds not seen in Venezuela since the 1980s,
Chávez created the Bolivarian Missions, aimed at providing public services to improve economic, cultural,
and social conditions.[10][14][21][260] The Missions entailed
the construction of thousands of free medical clinics for
the poor,[10] and the enactment of food[21] and housing
subsidies.[14] A 2010 OAS report[261] indicated achieve-

Economists say that the Venezuelan government’s overspending on social programs and strict business policies contributed to imbalances in the country’s economy,
contributing to rising inflation and widening shortages
near the end of Chavez’s presidency.[16][17][18][260][263]
Into the 2010s, poverty began to rise in Venezuela
increase and funding for healthcare in Venezuela began to decrease.[7][271] According to analysts, the economic woes Venezuela suffered under President Nicolás
Maduro would have still occurred with or without
Chávez.[272]
The balance between the public and private sectors of
the Venezuelan economy remained relatively unchanged

6.1

Economic and social policy

13

during Chavez’s presidency, according to estimates from
the Central Bank of Venezuela in 2009, with the private
sector accounting for a slightly larger share than before
Chavez took office, having grown faster than the government between 2003 and 2006 when the economy was
healthy. According to the Venezuelan government, despite several nationalizations the government still controlled the same percent of the economy as when Chavez
was elected in 1998.[273] In January 2013 near the end
of Chávez’s presidency, the Heritage Foundation and the
Wall Street Journal gave Venezuela’s economic freedom a
low score of 36.1, twenty points lower than 56.1 in 1999,
ranking its freedom very low at 174 of 177 countries,
with freedom on a downward trend.[274] Nicholas Kozloff,
Chávez’s biographer, stated of Chávez’s economic poli- Shoppers waiting in line at a government-run MERCAL store.
cies: “Chávez has not overturned capitalism, he has done
much to challenge the more extreme, neo-liberal model
of development.”[275]
tors and hoarders” for these scarcities[284] and strictly enforced his price control policy, denouncing anyone who
sold food products for higher prices as “speculators”.[278]
6.1.1 Food and products
In 2011, food prices in Caracas were nine times higher
than when the price controls were put in place and resulted in shortages of cooking oil, chicken, powdered
milk, cheese, sugar and meat.[22] The price controls increased the demand for basic foods while making it difficult for Venezuela to import goods causing increased
reliance on domestic production. Economists believe
this policy increased shortages.[284][285] Shortages of food
then occurred throughout the rest of Chávez’s presidency
with food shortage rates between 10% and 20% from
2010 to 2013.[24] One possible reason for shortages is
the relationship between inflation and subsidies, where
no profitability due to price regulations affect operations. In turn, the lack of dollars made it difficult to
purchase more food imports.[23] Chávez’s strategy in response to food shortages consisted of attempting to inEmpty shelves in a Venezuelan market due to shortages in crease domestic production through nationalizing large
parts of the food industry, though such nationalizations
Venezuela.
allegedly did the opposite and caused decreased producIn the 1980s and 1990s health and nutrition indexes in tion instead.[286][287]
Venezuela were generally low, and social inequality in ac- As part of his strategy of food security Chávez
cess to nutrition was high.[276] Chávez made it his stated started a national chain of supermarkets, the Mercal
goal to lower inequality in the access to basic nutrition, network, which had 16,600 outlets and 85,000 emand to achieve food sovereignty for Venezuela.[277] The ployees that distributed food at highly discounted
main strategy for making food available to all economic prices, and ran 6000 soup kitchens throughout the
classes was a controversial policy of fixing price ceil- country.[288] Simultaneously Chávez expropriated many
ings for basic staple foods implemented in 2003.[278] Be- private supermarkets.[288] According to Commerce Mintween 1998 and 2006 malnutrition related deaths fell ister Richard Canan, “The average [savings] for the baby 50%.[279] In October 2009, the Executive Direc- sic food bundle (at the Mercal Bicentennial markets) is
tor of the National Institute of Nutrition (INN) Mari- around 30%. There are some products, for example
lyn Di Luca reported that the average daily caloric in- cheese and meat, which reach a savings of 50 to 60%
take of the Venezuelan people had reached 2790 calo- compared with capitalist markets.”[289] The Mercal netries, and that malnutrition had fallen from 21% in 1998 work was criticized by some commentators as being a
to 6%.[280] Chávez also expropriated and redistributed 5 part of Chávez’s strategy to brand himself as a provider
million acres of farmland from large landowners.[281]
of cheap food, and the shops feature his picture promiPrice controls initiated by Chávez created shortages of nently. The Mercal network was also subject to frequent
goods since merchants could no longer afford to im- scarcities of basic staples such as meat, milk and sugar –
port necessary goods.[282][283] Chávez blamed “specula- and when scarce products arrived, shoppers had to wait

14

6

POLICY OVERVIEW

in lines.[288]
6.1.2

Communes

Every factory must be a school to educate, like Che Guevara said, to produce not only briquettes, steel, and aluminum, but also, above all, the new man and woman, the
new society, the socialist society.
Hugo Chávez, May 2009[290]
After his election in 1998, more than 100,000 stateowned cooperatives – which claimed to represent some
1.5 million people – were formed with the assistance of
government start-up credit and technical training;[291] and
the creation and maintenance, as of September 2010, of
over 30,000 communal councils, examples of localised
participatory democracy; which he intended to be integrated into regional umbrella organizations known as
“Communes in Construction”.[292]
In 2010, Chávez supported the construction of 184
communes, housing thousands of families, with $23 million in government funding. The communes produced
some of their own food, and were able to make decisions by popular assembly of what to do with government
funds.[293] In September 2010, Chávez announced the location of 876 million bolivars ($203 million) for community projects around the country, specifically communal councils and the newly formed communes. Chávez
also criticised the bureaucracy still common in Venezuela
saying, when in discussion with his Communes Minister Isis Ochoa, that “All of the projects must be carried
out by the commune, not the bureaucracy.” The Ministry for Communes, which oversees and funds all communal projects, was initiated in 2009.[292] Despite such
promises, the Venezuelan government often failed to construct the number of homes they had proposed.[294][295]
According to Venezuela’s El Universal, one of the Chávez
administration’s outstanding weaknesses is the failure to
meet its goals of construction of housing.[294]
6.1.3

Blue line represents implied value of VEF compared to USD. The
red line represents what the Venezuelan government officially
rates the VEF.
Sources: Banco Central de Venezuela, Dolar Paralelo, Federal
Reserve Bank, International Monetary Fund

tinued to devalue for Venezuelan citizens and merchants
since the government held the majority of the more reliable currencies.[297]
The implied value or “black market value” is what
Venezuelans believe the Bolivar Fuerte is worth compared to the United States dollar.[298] The high rates in
the black market make it difficult for businesses to purchase necessary goods since the government often forces
these businesses to make price cuts. This leads to businesses selling their goods and making a low profit.[299]
Since businesses make low profits, this leads to shortages
since they are unable to import the goods that Venezuela
is reliant on.[300]

6.2 Crime and punishment
For more details on this topic, see Crime in Venezuela.
During the 1980s and 1990s there was a steady increase

Currency controls

For more details on this topic, see Economy of Venezuela
§ Currency Black Market.
In the first few years of Chavez’s office, his newly created social programs required large payments in order to
make the desired changes. On February 5, 2003, the
government created CADIVI, a currency control board
charged with handling foreign exchange procedures. Its
creation was to control capital flight by placing limits on
individuals and only offering them so much of a foreign
currency.[296] This limit to foreign currency led to a creation of a currency black market economy since Venezuelan merchants rely on foreign goods that require payments
with reliable foreign currencies. As Venezuela printed
more money for their social programs, the bolívar con-

Murder rate (1 murder per 100,000 citizens) from 1998 to 2013.
Sources: OVV,[301][302] PROVEA,[303][304] UN[303][304][305]
* UN line between 2007 and 2012 is simulated missing data.

in crime in Latin America. The countries of Colombia,
El Salvador, Venezuela, and Brazil all had homicide rates

6.2

Crime and punishment

15
only 1,332 investigations for kidnappings were opened or
about 7% of the total kidnapping cases, with 90.4% of
the kidnappings happening away from rural areas, 80%
of all being express kidnappings and the most common
victim being lower-middle or middle class Venezuelans
and middle-aged men.[319] Also in 2009, it was reported
that Venezuelan authorities would assign judicial police
to Caracas area morgues to speak with families.[320] At
that time, they would advise families not to report the
murder of their family member to the media in exchange
to have the process of recovering the victim’s body in an
expedited manner.[320]

Number of kidnappings in Venezuela 1989–2011.
Source: CICPC[306][307][308]
* Express kidnappings may not be included in data

above the regional average.[309] During his terms as president, hundreds of thousands of Venezuelans were murdered due to violent crimes occurring in the country.[310]
Gareth A. Jones and Dennis Rodgers stated in their book
Youth violence in Latin America: Gangs and Juvenile
Justice in Perspective that, “With the change of political
regime in 1999 and the initiation of the Bolivarian Revolution, a period of transformation and political conflict
began, marked by a further increase in the number and
rate of violent deaths” showing that in four years, the murder rate had increased to 44 per 100,000 people.[311] Kidnappings also rose tremendously during Chavez’s tenure,
with the number of kidnappings over 20 times higher in
2011 than when Chavez was elected.[306][307][308] Director James Brabazon, stated “kidnapping crimes had skyrocketed ... after late Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez
freed thousands of violent prisoners as part of controversial criminal justice system reforms” while kidnappings
and murders also increased due to Colombian organized
crime activity as well.[312][313] He further explained that
common criminals felt that the Venezuelan government
did not care for the problems of the higher and middle
classes, which in turn gave them a sense of impunity that
created a large business of kidnapping-for-ransom.[312]

In September 2010, responding to escalating crime rates
in the country, Chávez stated that Venezuela is no more
violent than it was when he first took office.[321] An
International Crisis Group report that same year stated
that when Chávez took office, there were some factors
beyond his control that led to the crime epidemic throughout Venezuela, but that Chávez ignored it as well as
corruption in the country; especially among fellow state
officials. The report also stated that international organised crime filters between Colombia and Venezuela
with the assistance among “the highest spheres of government” in Venezuela, lead to higher rates of kidnapping, drug trafficking, and homicides. Chávez supporters stated that the Bolivarian National Police has reduced
crime and also said that the states with the highest murder rates were controlled by the opposition.[322][323] According to the publications El Espectador and Le Monde
diplomatique, rising crime in rural and urban areas of
Venezuela was partly due to increased cross-border activity by Colombian right-wing paramilitary groups like
Águilas Negras.[324]

6.2.1 Prisons
During Chávez’s presidency, there were reports of prisoners having easy access to firearms, drugs, and alcohol.
Carlos Nieto—head of Window to Freedom—alleges
that heads of gangs acquire military weapons from the
state, saying: “They have the types of weapons that can
only be obtained by the country’s armed forces. ... No
one else has these.” Use of internet and mobile phones
are also a commonplace where criminals can take part in
street crime while in prison. One prisoner explained how,
“If the guards mess with us, we shoot them” and that he
had “seen a man have his head cut off and people play
football with it.”[325]

Under Chávez’s administration, crimes were so prevalent
that by 2007 the government no longer produced crime
data.[314] Homicide rates in Venezuela more than tripled,
with one NGO finding the rate to have nearly quadrupled. The majority of the deaths occur in crowded slums
in Caracas.[27][28] The NGO found that the number of
homicides in the country increased from 6,000 in 1999 to
24,763 in 2013.[29][30][315] In 2010 Caracas had the highest murder rate in the world.[316] According to the United Edgardo Lander, a sociologist and professor at the CenNations Office on Drugs and Crime, in 2012 there were tral University of Venezuela with a PhD in sociology
13,080 murders in Venezuela.[317]
from Harvard University explained that Venezuelan prisIn leaked government INE data for kidnappings in the ons were “practically a school for criminals” since young
year 2009, the number of kidnappings were at an esti- inmates come out “more sort of trained and hardened
mated 16,917, contrasting the CICPCs number of only than when they went in”. He also explained that pris673,[307] before the Venezuelan government blocked the ons are controlled by gangs and that “very little has been
data.[313][318][319] According to the leaked INE report, done” to control them.[326]

16

6.3

6

POLICY OVERVIEW

Corruption

old “Fourth Republic” political parties. Venezuela’s trade
unionists and indigenous communities have participated
For more details on this topic, see Corruption in in peaceful demonstrations intended to impel the government to facilitate labor and land reforms. These commuVenezuela.
In December 1998, Hugo Chávez declared three goals nities, while largely expressing their sympathy and support for Chávez, criticize what they see as Chávez’s slow
progress in protecting their interests against managers and
mining concerns, respectively.[333][334][335]
6.3.1 Aiding FARC
According to the International Institute for Strategic
Studies (IISS), “Chavez’s government funded FARC's
office in Caracas and gave it access to Venezuela’s intelligence services” and said that during the 2002 coup
attempt that, “FARC also responded to requests from
(Venezuela’s intelligence service) to provide training in
Venezuela’s perception of corruption scores between 2004 and
urban terrorism involving targeted killings and the use of
2013.
( * ) Score was averaged according to Transparency Interna- explosives.” The IISS continued saying that “the archive
offers tantalizing but ultimately unproven suggestions that
tional’s method.
FARC may have undertaken assassinations of Chavez’s
Source: Transparency International
political opponents on behalf of the Venezuelan state.”
for the new government; “convening a constituent as- Venezuelan diplomats denounced the IISS' findings say[336]
sembly to write a new constitution, eliminating govern- ing that they had “basic inaccuracies”.
ment corruption, and fighting against social exclusion In 2007, authorities in Colombia claimed that through
and poverty”. However, during Hugo Chávez’s time in laptops they had seized on a raid against Raul Reyes, they
power, corruption has become widespread throughout the found in documents that Hugo Chávez offered payments
government due to impunity towards members of the of as much as $300 million to the FARC “among other
government, bribes and the lack of transparency.[327] In financial and political ties that date back years” along
2004, Hugo Chávez and his allies took over the Supreme with other documents showing “high-level meetings have
Court, filling it with supporters of Chávez and made new been held between rebels and Ecuadorean officials” and
measures so the government could dismiss justices from some documents claiming that FARC had “bought and
the court.[328] According to the libertarian Cato Institute, sold uranium".[337][338]
the National Electoral Council of Venezuela was under
In 2015, Chávez’s former bodyguard Leamsy Salazar
control of Chávez where he tried to “push a constitustated in Bumerán Chávez that Chávez met with the
tional reform that would have allowed him unlimited ophigh command of FARC in 2007 somewhere in rural
[329]
portunities for reelection”.
The Corruption PercepVenezuela. Chávez created a system in which the FARC
tions Index, produced annually by the Berlin-based NGO,
would provide the Venezuelan government with drugs
Transparency International (TNI) reports findings of corthat would be transported in live cattle and the FARC
ruption in countries around the world. In the later years
would receive money and weaponry from the Venezueof Chávez’s tenure, corruption worsened; it was 158th out
lan government. According to Salazar, this was done in
of 180 countries in 2008, and 165th out of 176 (tied with
order to weaken Colombian President Álvaro Uribe, an
[330]
Burundi, Chad, and Haiti)
). Most Venezuelans beenemy of Chávez.[339]
lieved the government’s effort against corruption is ineffective, that corruption has increased, and that government institutions such as the judicial system, parliament,
6.4 Human rights
legislature and police are the most corrupt.[331]
In Gallup Poll's 2006 Corruption Index, Venezuela
ranked 31st out of 101 countries according to how
widespread the population perceive corruption as being in the government and in business. The index lists
Venezuela as the second least corrupt nation in Latin
America, behind Chile.[332] Some criticism came from
Chávez’s supporters. Chávez’s own political party, Fifth
Republic Movement (MVR), had been criticized as being
riddled with the same cronyism, political patronage, and
corruption that Chávez alleged were characteristic of the

For more details on this topic, see Human rights in
Venezuela.

6.4.1 1999 Venezuelan Constitution
In the 1999 Venezuelan constitution, 116 of the 350 articles were concerned with human rights; these included
increased protections for indigenous peoples and women,

6.4

Human rights

17
and the Direccion de Inteligencia Seguridad y Prevención
(DISIP) stating that they “allegedly used excessive force
to control the situation on a number of occasions” during
protests involving the 2004 Venezuela recall.[343] It was
also noted that many of the protesters detained seemed
to not be “brought before a judge within the legal time
limit”.[343]

Chávez, speaking at the 2003 World Social Forum in Porto Alegre, Brazil

and established the rights of the public to education, housing, healthcare, and food. It called for dramatic democratic reforms such as ability to recall politicians from office by popular referendum, increased requirements for
government transparency, and numerous other requirements to increase localized, participatory democracy, in
favor of centralized administration. It gave citizens the
right to timely and impartial information, community access to media, and a right to participate in acts of civil
disobedience.[340][341]
6.4.2

Criticisms

In 2008, Human Rights Watch released a report reviewing Chávez’s human rights record over his first decade
in power.[344] The report praises Chávez’s 1999 amendments to the constitution which significantly expanded
human rights guarantees, as well as mentioning improvements in women’s rights and indigenous rights, but noted
a “wide range of government policies that have undercut the human rights protections established” by the revised constitution.[344] In particular, the report accused
Chávez and his administration of engaging in discrimination on political grounds, eroding the independence of the
judiciary, and of engaging in “policies that have undercut
journalists’ freedom of expression, workers’ freedom of
association, and civil society’s ability to promote human
rights in Venezuela.”[345] The Venezuelan government retaliated for the report by expelling members of Human
Rights Watch from the country.[346] Subsequently, over
a hundred Latin American scholars signed a joint letter
with the Council on Hemispheric Affairs criticizing the
Human Rights Watch report for its alleged factual inaccuracy, exaggeration, lack of context, illogical arguments,
and heavy reliance on opposition newspapers as sources,
amongst other things.[347][348][349]
The International Labor Organization of the United Nations had also expressed concern over voters being pressured to join the party.[225]

Freedom ratings in Venezuela from 1998 to 2013. (1 = Free, 7
= not free)
Source: Freedom House

Shortly after Hugo Chávez’s election, ratings for freedom
in Venezuela dropped according to political and human
rights group Freedom House and Venezuela was rated
“partly free”.[342] In 2004, Amnesty International criticized President Chavez’s administration of not handling
the 2002 coup in a proper manner, saying that violent incidents “have not been investigated effectively and have
gone unpunished” and that “impunity enjoyed by the perpetrators encourages further human rights violations in
a particularly volatile political climate”.[343] Amnesty International also criticized the Venezuelan National Guard

Chávez meets with Hillary Clinton at the Summit of the Americas
on 19 April 2009.

In 2010, Amnesty International criticized the Chávez administration for targeting critics following several politically motivated arrests.[350] Freedom House listed
Venezuela as being “partly free” in its 2011 Freedom in
the World annual report, noting a recent decline in civil
liberties.[351] A 2010 Organization of American States report found concerns with freedom of expression, human
rights abuses, authoritarianism, press freedom, threats to

18

6

POLICY OVERVIEW

democracy,[352][353] as well as erosion of separation of
powers, the economic infrastructure and ability of the
president to appoint judges to federal courts.[352][353][354]
OAS observers were denied access to Venezuela;[354]
Chávez rejected the OAS report, pointing out that its authors did not even come to Venezuela. He said Venezuela
should boycott the OAS, which he felt is dominated by
the United States; a spokesperson said, “We don't recognize the commission as an impartial institution”. He
disclaimed any power to influence the judiciary.[355] A
Venezuelan official said the report distorted and took
statistics out of context, and said that “human rights violations in Venezuela have decreased”.[356] Venezuela said
it would not accept an IACHR/OAS visit as long as Santiago Cantón remains its Executive Secretary, unless the
IACHR apologizes for what he described as its support
of the 2002 coup.[261][357]
In November 2014, Venezuela appeared before the
United Nations Committee Against Torture over cases
between 2002 and 2014.[358] Human rights expert of the
UN committee, Felice D. Gaer, noted that in “only 12
public officials have been convicted of human rights violations in the last decade when in the same period have
been more than 5,000 complaints”.[359] The United Nations stated that there were 31,096 complaints of human
rights violations received between the years 2011 and
2014.[360] Of the 31,096 complaints, only 3.1% of the
cases resulted in only in an indictment by the Venezuelan Venezuelans protesting against the closing of RCTV.
Public Ministry.[360][361]
Allegations of Anti-semitism See also: Accusations
of Chávez anti-Semitism
Chavez’s opposition to Zionism and close relations with
Iran led to accusations of antisemitism[362][363] Such
claims were made by the Venezuelan Jewish community at a World Jewish Congress Plenary Assembly in
Jerusalem.[364] Claims of antisemitism were prompted
by various remarks Chávez made, including in a 2006
Christmas speech where he complained that “a minority, the descendants of the same ones that crucified
Christ”, now had “taken possession of all of the wealth
of the world”.[365][366] In 2009, attacks on a synagogue
in Caracas were alleged to be influenced by “vocal denunciations of Israel” by the Venezuelan state media and
Hugo Chávez even though Chavez promptly condemned
the attacks blaming an “oligarchy”.[364][367] A weeklong
CICPC investigation revealed the synagogue attack to be
an 'inside job', the motive apparently being robbery rather
than anti-semitism.[368][369]

Venezuela’s press as being “Not Free” in its 2011 Map of
Press Freedom, noting that "[t]he gradual erosion of press
freedom in Venezuela continued in 2010.”[370] Reporters
Without Borders criticized the Chávez administration for
“steadily silencing its critics”.[371] In the group’s 2009
Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders noted
that “Venezuela is now among the region’s worst press
freedom offenders.”[371]
In July 2005 Chávez inaugurated TeleSUR, a PanAmerican equivalent of Al Jazeera that sought to challenge the present domination of Latin American television news by Univision and the United States-based CNN
en Español.[372] In 2006 Chávez inaugurated a statefunded movie studio called Villa del Cine (English: Cinema City).[373]

Chávez also had a Twitter account with more than
3,200,000 followers as of August 2012.[374][375][376] A
team of 200 people sorted through suggestions and com6.5 Media and the press
ments sent via Twitter. Chávez said Twitter was “another mechanism for contact with the public, to evaluate
Human Rights Watch criticized Chávez for engaging in many things and to help many people”,[377] and that he
“often discriminatory policies that have undercut journal- saw Twitter as “a weapon that also needs to be used by
ists’ freedom of expression.”[345] Freedom House listed the revolution”.[378]

19

6.6

Foreign policy

Further information: Foreign policy of the Hugo Chávez
government
Chávez refocused Venezuelan foreign policy on Latin

Chávez with fellow South American presidents of Argentina and
Brazil

American economic and social integration by enacting bilateral trade and reciprocal aid agreements, including his so-called “oil diplomacy”.[379][380] Relationships with Cuba (Cuba–Venezuela relations) and Iran
(Iran–Venezuela relations) were of particular importance. Chávez focused on a variety of multinational institutions to promote his vision of Latin American inte- Bolivarian memorabilia for sale in Venezuela, 2006
gration, including Petrocaribe, Petrosur, and TeleSUR.
Bilateral trade relationships with other Latin American
• On January 15, 2014, Mexican novelist Norma
countries also played a major role in his policy, with
Gomez released Swan Song, a political thriller that
Chávez increasing arms purchases from Brazil, forming
points to American involvement in the death of
oil-for-expertise trade arrangements with Cuba, and creHugo Chávez.[388]
ating unique barter arrangements that exchange Venezuelan petroleum for cash-strapped Argentina’s meat and
• On 5 March 2014, Oliver Stone and teleSUR release
dairy products. He also befriended pariah states such as
the documentary film Mi Amigo Hugo (My Friend
[381]
Belarus and Iran.
Hugo), a documentary about his political life, one
year after his death. The film also is a “spiritual answer” and a tribute from Stone to Chávez.[389]

7

In popular culture

• Syndicated cartoonists from around the world cre- 8 Personal life
ated cartoons, illustrations, and videos of Hugo
Chávez’s controversial political career and the reacChávez married twice. He first wed Nancy Colmenares,
tions to his death.[382][383][384][385]
a woman from a poor family in Chávez’s hometown of
Sabaneta. Chávez and Colmenares remained married for
• Hugo Chávez appears as a heroic character in the 18 years, during which time they had three children: Rosa
Latin American postmodern fantasy novel United Virginia, María Gabriela, and Hugo Rafael, the latter of
States of Banana (2011) by Giannina Braschi; whom suffers from behavioural problems.[390] The couChávez leads left-wing Latin American leaders Evo ple separated soon after Chávez’s 1992 coup attempt.
Morales, Lula, Fidel Castro, and Cristina Fernán- During his first marriage, Chávez had an affair with hisdez de Kirchner on a quest to liberate the people of torian Herma Marksman; their relationship lasted nine
Puerto Rico from the United States.[386]
years.[391] Chávez’s second wife was journalist Marisabel
Rodríguez de Chávez, with whom he separated in 2002
• Oliver Stone directed the 2009 documentary South and divorced in 2004.[392] Through that marriage, Chávez
of the Border, where he “sets out on a road trip had another daughter, Rosinés.[393] Both María and Rosa
across five countries to explore the social and po- provided Chávez with grandchildren.[390][394] Allegations
litical movements as well as the mainstream media’s were made that Chávez was a womanizer, and had been
misperception of South America, while interview- throughout both his marriages, but these have remained
unproven and are contradicted by statements provided by
ing seven of its elected presidents.”[387]

20

10

other figures close to him.[395]
Chávez was a Catholic. He intended at one time to become a priest. He saw his socialist policies as having
roots in the teachings of Jesus Christ,[396] (liberation theology) and he publicly used the slogan of “Christ is with
the Revolution!"[397] Although he traditionally kept his
own faith a private matter, Chávez over the course of
his presidency became increasingly open to discussing
his religious views, stating that he interpreted Jesus as a
Communist.[398] He was, in general, a liberal Catholic,
some of whose declarations were disturbing to the religious community of his country. In 2008 he expressed
his skepticism of an afterlife, saying that such idea was
false.[399] He also would declare his belief in Darwin's
theory of evolution, stating that “it is a lie that God created man from the ground.”[400] Among other things, he
cursed the state of Israel,[401] and he had some disputes
with both the Venezuelan Catholic clergy and Protestant
groups like the New Tribes Mission,[402][403] whose evangelical leader he “condemned to hell”.[404] In addition,
he showed syncretistic practices such as the worship of
the Venezuelan goddess María Lionza.[405][406] In his last
years, after he discovered he had cancer, Chávez became
more attached to the Catholic Church.[407]

9

Illness

Chávez walking with a cane accompanied by Rafael Correa in
July 2011, shortly after his surgery.

In June 2011, Chávez revealed in a televised address from
Havana, Cuba, that he was recovering from an operation
to remove an abscessed tumor with cancerous cells.[408]
Vice President Elías Jaua declared that the President remained in “full exercise” of power and that there was
no need to transfer power due to his absence from the
country.[409] On 3 July, the Venezuelan government denied, however, that Chávez’s tumour had been completely
removed, further stating that he was heading for “complete recovery”.[410] On 17 July 2011, television news reported that Chávez had returned to Cuba for further cancer treatments.[411]

DEATH

57th birthday, in which he stated that his health troubles had led him to radically reorient his life towards a
“more diverse, more reflective and multi-faceted” outlook, and he went on to call on the middle classes and
the private sector to get more involved in his Bolivarian
Revolution, something he saw as “vital” to its success.[412]
Soon after this speech, in August Chávez announced that
his government would nationalize Venezuela’s gold industry, taking it over from Russian-controlled company
Rusoro, while at the same time also moving the country’s
gold stocks, which were largely stored in western banks,
to banks in Venezuela’s political allies like Russia, China
and Brazil.[413]
On 9 July 2012, Chávez declared himself fully recovered
from cancer just three months before the 2012 Venezuelan presidential election, which he won, securing a fourth
term as president.[414] In November 2012, Chávez announced plans to travel to Cuba for more medical treatment for cancer.[415]
On 8 December 2012, Chávez announced he would undergo a new operation after doctors in Cuba detected
malignant cells; the operation took place on 11 December 2012.[416] Chávez suffered a respiratory infection
after undergoing the surgery but it was controlled.[417]
It was announced 20 December by the country’s vicepresident that Chávez had suffered complications following his surgery.[418] It was announced on 3 January
2013 that Chávez had a severe lung infection that had
caused respiratory failures following a strict treatment
regimen for respiratory insufficiency.[419] However he
was reported to have overcome this later that month,[420]
and it was reported that he was then undergoing further treatment.[421] On 18 February 2013, Chávez returned to Venezuela after 2 months of cancer treatment
in Cuba.[422] On 1 March 2013, Vice President Nicolás
Maduro said that Chávez had been receiving chemotherapy in Venezuela following his surgery in Cuba.[423] On 4
March, it was announced by the Venezuelan government
that Chávez’s breathing problems had worsened and he
was suffering a new, severe respiratory infection.[424]

10 Death
Main article: Death and state funeral of Hugo Chávez

On 5 March 2013, Vice President Nicolás Maduro announced on state television that Chávez had died in a military hospital in Caracas at 16:25 VET (20:55 UTC).[425]
The Vice President said Chávez died “after battling a
tough illness for nearly two years.”[425] According to the
head of Venezuela’s presidential guard, Chávez died from
a massive heart attack, and his cancer was very advanced
when he died.[426] Gen. Jose Ornella said that near the
end of his life Chávez could not speak aloud, but mouthed
Chávez gave a public appearance on 28 July 2011, his his last words: “Yo no quiero morir, por favor no me

21
dejen morir” (I don't want to die. Please don't let me
die).[426] Chávez is survived by four children and four
grandchildren.[427]
Suggestions of foul play[425][428] (that Chávez had been
poisoned or infected with cancer,[429][430][431] ) were
strongly denied by the U.S. Department of State as
“absurd”.[432]
His death triggered a constitutional requirement that a
presidential election be called within 30 days. Chavez’s
Vice President, Maduro, was elected president on April
14, 2013.

11
11.1

Honours and awards
Recognition

• Beijing University, China; Honorary Doctorate in
Economics, 24 May 2001.
• Higher University of San Andrés, Bolivia; Honorary
Doctorate, 24 January 2006.[450]
• UARCIS, Chile; Honorary Doctorate – Granted
by Rector Carlos Margotta Trincado on 7 March
2006.[451]
• University of Damascus, Syria; Honorary Doctorate
– Granted by Rector Wael Moualla on 30 August
2006.[452]
• University of Tripoli, Libya; Honorary Doctorate in Economy and Human Sciences, 23 October
2010.[453][454]

12 See also

The United States-based Time magazine included Hugo
Chávez among their list of the world’s 100 most influen• Bolivarianism
tial people in 2005 and 2006, noting the spreading of his
• Chavismo
anti-globalization efforts and anti-US sentiment through[440][441]
out Latin America.
In a 2006 list compiled by
the leftist British magazine New Statesman, he was voted
eleventh in the list of “Heroes of our time”.[442] In 2010 13 References
the magazine included Chávez in its annual The World’s
50 Most Influential Figures.[443] His biographers Marcano 13.1 Footnotes
and Tyszka believed that within only a few years of his
presidency, he “had already earned his place in history [1] McCoy, Jennifer L; Myers, David J. (2006). The Unravelas the president most loved and most despised by the
ing of Representative Democracy in Venezuela. Baltimore,
Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 310. ISBN
Venezuelan people, the president who inspired the great9780801884283.
est zeal and the deepest revulsion at the same time.”[444]
In 2008 Chávez was awarded the Blue Planet Award [445]
by the Ethecon Foundation,[446] one of the comparatively
very few 'grass-root' foundations.[447]

[2] Cawthorne, Andrew (8 October 2012). “Venezuela’s
Chávez re-elected to extend socialist. rule”. Reuters. Retrieved 8 October 2012.

11.2

[3] “Chavez swearing-in delay legal, rules Venezuela Supreme
Court”. World.myjoyonline.com. 9 January 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2013.

Honorary degrees

Chávez was awarded the following honorary degrees:[448]

[4] Castillo, Mariano (5 March 2013). “Venezuelan leader
Hugo Chávez dies”. CNN. Retrieved 5 March 2013.

• Kyung Hee University, South Korea; Honorary
Doctorate in Political Science – Granted by Rector
Chungwon Choue on 16 October 1999.

[5] Cawthorne, Andrew (5 March 2013). “Venezuela’s Hugo
Chávez dies from cancer: VP”. Reuters. Retrieved 5
March 2013.

• Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic; Honorary Doctorate in Jurisprudence,
9 March 2001.

[6] Ian James (4 October 2012). “Venezuela vote puts 'Chavismo' to critical test”. Yahoo. Archived from the original
on 4 Sep 2014. Retrieved 2 February 2013.

• University of Brasília, Brazil; Honorary Doctorate –
Granted by Rector Alberto Pérez on 3 April 2001.

[7] Charlie Devereux & Raymond Colitt. March 7, 2013.
“Venezuelans’ Quality of Life Improved in UN Index Under Chavez”. Bloomberg L.P. Archived from the original
on 4 Sep 2014. Retrieved 7 March 2013.

• Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería, Nicaragua;
Honorary Doctorate in Engineering – Granted by
Rector Aldo Urbina on May 2001.[449]

[8] Social Panorama of Latin America 2014 (PDF). ECLAC.
March 2014. pp. 91–92. Retrieved 15 June 2015.

• Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Russia; Honorary Doctorate, 15 May 2001.

[9] Montilla K., Andrea (23 April 2014). “Hoy se inicia consulta nacional para el currículo educativo”. El Nacional.
Retrieved 24 April 2014.

22

[10] “Estrategia de Cooperación de OPS/OMS con Venezuela
2006–2008” (PDF) (in Spanish). Pan American Health
Organization. June 2006. pp. p. 54. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 2006-10-24. Retrieved 31 December
2006.
[11] Márquez, Humberto (28 October 2005). “Venezuela se
declara libre de analfabetismo” (in Spanish). Inter Press
Service. Archived from the original on 4 Sep 2014. Retrieved 29 December 2006.
[12] “Propaganda, not policy”. The Economist. 28 February
2008. Archived from the original on 4 Sep 2014. Retrieved 3 May 2014.
[13] Weisbrot, Mark; Rosnick, David (May 2008).
""Illiteracy” Revisited: What Ortega and Rodríguez
Read in the Household Survey” (PDF). Retrieved 3 May
2014.
[14] “Banco de la Vivienda transfirió 66 millardos para subsidios” (in Spanish). El Universal. 10 November 2006.
Retrieved 29 December 2006.
[15] Alonso, Juan Francisco (24 February 2010). “IACHR requests the Venezuelan government to guarantee all human
rights”. El Universal. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
[16] Siegel, Robert (25 December 2014). “For Venezuela,
Drop In Global Oil Prices Could Be Catastrophic”. NPR.
Retrieved 4 January 2015.
[17] Scharfenberg, Ewald (1 February 2015). “Volver a ser
pobre en Venezuela”. El Pais. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
[18] Corrales, Javier (7 March 2013). “The House That
Chavez Built”. Foreign Policy. Retrieved 6 February
2015.
[19] Gallagher, J. J. (25 March 2015). “Venezuela: Does an
increase in poverty signal threat to government?". The
Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
[20] Corrales, Javier (7 May 2015). “Don’t Blame It On the
Oil”. Foreign Policy. Retrieved 10 May 2015.
[21] Barreiro C., Raquel (4 March 2006). “Mercal es 34% más
barato” (in Spanish). El Universal. Retrieved 29 December 2006.
[22] “Venezuela’s economy: Medieval policies”.
The
Economist. 20 August 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2014.
[23] “Las principales causas de la escasez en Venezuela”.
Banca & Negocios. 27 March 2014. Retrieved 21 April
2014.
[24] “EL ASCENSO DE LA ESCASEZ”. El Universal. 13
February 2014. Retrieved 21 April 2014.
[25] "¿Por qué faltan dólares en Venezuela?". El Nacional. 8
October 2013. Retrieved 21 April 2014.
[26] “Venezuela’s economy: Medieval policies”.
The
Economist. 20 August 2011. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
[27] Pretel, Enrique Andres (2 September 2010). “Chavez
defends his record on crime in Venezuela”. Reuters.
Archived from the original on 2010-09-16. Retrieved 10
September 2010.

13

REFERENCES

[28] “Venezuela murder-rate quadrupled under Chávez:
NGO”. Reuters. 11 March 2010. Retrieved 10
September 2010.
[29] Holland, Alisha. A decade under Chávez: political intolerance and lost opportunities for advancing human rights in
Venezuela Human Rights Watch, New York (2008) ISBN
1-56432-371-4
[30] “Chavez criticizes US take on crime in Venezuela”. The
Boston Globe. 27 March 2012. Archived from the original
on 2013-12-17. Retrieved 16 May 2012.
[31] Wills, Santiago (10 July 2013). “The World Is Getting
More Corrupt, and These Are the 5 Worst Offenders”.
Fusion. Archived from the original on 2014-08-25. Retrieved 18 March 2014.
[32] “Venezuela: Police corruption blamed for kidnapping epidemic”. The Scotsman. 30 May 2011. Retrieved 18
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[46] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. pp. 7–8, 247.

[82] Jones 2007. pp. 65–77.

[47] Jones 2007. p. 21.

[83] Jones 2007. p. 634.

[48] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. pp. 08–09.

[84] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. pp. 48–49, 56.

[49] Chávez quoted in Jones 2007. pp. 22, 25.

[85] Wilpert 2007. p. 16.

[50] Jones 2007. p. 24.

[86] Gott 2005. pp. 23–24.

[51] Chávez quoted in Jones 2007. pp. 23, 25–26.

[87] Cannon 2009. p. 56.

[52] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. p. 11.

[88] Chávez, quoted in Jones 2007. p. 80.

[53] Jones 2007. pp. 23–24, 26–27.

[89] Chávez, quoted in Jones 2007. p. 81.

[54] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. pp. 07, 24–26.

[90] Cannon 2009. p. 58.

[55] Cannon 2009. p. 55.

[91] Jones 2007. pp. 83–85.

[56] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. p. 30.

[92] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. pp. 51–53.

[57] Jones 2007. p. 38.

[93] Jones 2007. pp. 86–90.

[58] Jones 2007. pp. 49–50.

[94] Jones 2007. pp. 92–93.

[59] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. p. 31.

[95] Cárdenas, quoted in Jones 2007. pp. 92–93.

[60] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. p. 35.

[96] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. p. 50.

[61] Jones 2007. pp. 40–47.

[97] Jones 2007. p. 98-102.

[62] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. pp. 29–30.

[98] Jones 2007. pp. 105, 108.

[63] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. p. 36.

[99] Cannon 2009. pp. 36–37.

[64] Chávez quoted in Jones 2007. p. 40-47.

[100] Kozloff 2006. pp. 43–44.

[65] Jones 2007. pp. 52–53.

[101] Gibbs 2006. p. 270.

[66] Jones 2007. p. 54.

[102] Inter-American Court of Human Rights 1999.

[67] Chávez quoted in Marcano and Tyszka 2007. pp. 36–37. [103] Pretel 2005.
[68] “Hugo Chávez Frías / Venezuela / América del Sur / [104] Kozloff 2006. pp. 46–47.
Biografías Líderes Políticos / Documentation / CIDOB
[105] Nelson, Brian A. (2009). The silence and the scorpion : the
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[69] Jones 2007. pp. 54–56.
[70] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. p. 37.

[106] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. p. 55.

[71] Chávez quoted in Jones 2007 pp. 54–55.

[107] Jones 2007. pp. 122–123, 126.

[72] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. p. 38.

[108] Cannon 2009. pp. 55–56.

[73] Jones 2007. pp. 57–59.

[109] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. p. 64.

[74] Jones 2007. p. 59.
[75] Chávez, quoted in Jones 2007. p. 59.

[110] Maria Delgado, Antonio (16 February 2015). “Libro devela sangriento objetivo de la intentona golpista de Hugo
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[76] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. p. 39.

[111] Gott 2005. p. 64.

[77] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. p. 41.

[112] Gott 2005. p. 63.

[78] Chávez, quoted in Jones 2007. pp. 60–64.

[113] Sylvia and Danopolous 2003. p. 66.

[79] Jones 2007. pp. 63–65.

[114] Gott 2005. p. 69.

[80] Wilpert 2007. p. 15.

[115] Jones 2007. pp. 131–155.

[81] Cannon 2009. p. 54.

[116] Marcano and Tyszka 2007. p. 95.

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13.1

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29

[348] “Scholars Respond to HRW’s Kenneth Roth’s Riposte on [366] “Playing the 'Anti-Semitism' Card Against Venezuela”.
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13.2 Bibliography
13.2.1 Books
• Ali, Tariq (2006). Pirates of the Caribbean: Axis of
Hope. London and New York: Verso. ISBN 978-184467-102-1.
• Brewer-Carías, Allan (2010). Dismantling Democracy in Venezuela: The Chávez Authoritarian Experiment. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19587-4.
• Bruce, Iain (2008). The Real Venezuela: Making
Socialism in the 21st century. London: Pluto Press.
ISBN 978-0-7453-2736-5.

32

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• Cannon, Barry (2009). Hugo Chávez and the Bolivarian Revolution: Populism and Democracy in a
Globalised Age. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-7771-5.

• Wilpert, Gregory (2007). Changing Venezuela by
Taking Power: The History and Policies of the
Chávez Government. London and New York: Verso.
ISBN 978-1-84467-552-4.

• Carroll, Rory (2013). Commandante: myth and reality in Hugo Chávez’s Venezuela. New York: The
Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-59420-457-9.

• Woods, Alan (2006). The Venezuelan Revolution: A
Marxist Perspective (Third Edition). London: Well
Red Books. ISBN 978-1-900007-21-4.

• Corrales, Javier and Penfold, Michael (2011).
Dragon in the Tropics: Hugo Chávez and the Politi- 13.2.2 Academic articles
cal Economy of Revolution in Venezuela. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0• Ellner, Steve, S. (2002). “The 'Radical' Thesis on
8157-0497-3.
Globalization and the Case of Venezuela’s Hugo
Chávez”. Latin American Perspectives (Thousand
• Gates, Leslie C. (2010). Electing Chávez: The Busioaks, California: SAGE Publications) 29 (6): 88–
ness of Anti-Neoliberal Politics in Venezuela. Pitts93. doi:10.1177/0094582X0202900609. JSTOR
burgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press.
3185001.
ISBN 978-0-8229-6064-5.
• Gibbs, Terry, T. (2006). “Business as Usual:
• Gott, Richard (2005). Hugo Chávez and the Boliwhat the Chávez era tells us about democvarian Revolution in Venezuela. London and New
racy under globalisation”. Third World QuarYork: Verso. ISBN 978-1-84467-533-3.
terly (London: Routledge) 27 (2): 265–279.
doi:10.1080/01436590500492931.
JSTOR
• Hawkins, Kirk A. (2010). Venezuela’s Chavismo
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and Populism in Comparative Perspective. New
York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0• López Maya, Margarita (2003). “Hugo Chávez
521-76503-9.
Frías: His Movement and His Presidency”. In Ell• Jones, Bart (2007). Hugo! The Hugo Chávez Story
from Mud Hut to Perpetual Revolution. Hanover,
New Hampshire: Steerforth Press. ISBN 978-158642-135-9.
• Kozloff, Nicholas (2006). Hugo Chávez: Oil, Politics, and the Challenge to the United States. New
York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-40397315-3.
• Kozloff, Nicholas (2008). Revolution!: South America and the Rise of the New Left. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-61754-4.
• Marcano, Christina and Tyszka, Alberto Barrera
(2007). Hugo Chávez: The Definitive Biography
of Venezuela’s Controversial President. New York:
Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-45666-7.
• McCaughan, Michael (2005).
The Battle of
Venezuela. New York: Seven Stories Press. ISBN
978-1-58322-680-3.

ner, Steve; Hellinger, Daniel. Venezuelan Politics
in the Chávez Era: Class, Polarization and Conflict.
Boulder: Lynne Riener. pp. 73–92. ISBN 978-158826-297-4.
• Ramírez, Cristóbal Valencia, C. b. V. (2005).
“Venezuela’s Bolivarian Revolution: Who Are the
Chavistas?". Latin American Perspectives (Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications) 32 (3):
79–97. doi:10.1177/0094582X05275532. JSTOR
30040243.
• Sylvia, Ronald D. and Danopoulos, Constantine P.,
R. D.; Danopoulos, C. P. (2003). “The Chávez Phenomenon: Political Change in Venezuela”. Third
World Quarterly (London: Routledge). 24 (1) (1):
63–76. doi:10.1080/713701367. JSTOR 3993630.
• Zúquete, José Pedro, José Pedro (Spring 2008).
“The Missionary Politics of Hugo Chávez”.
Latin American Politics and Society (Hoboken,
New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell) 50 (1): 91–121.
doi:10.1111/j.1548-2456.2008.00005.x. JSTOR
30130840.

• Tarver, H. Michael and Frederick, Julia C. (2005).
The History of Venezuela. Westport, Connecticut:
Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-31313.2.3 News articles, reports and essays
33525-9.
• Trinkunas, Harold A. (2005). Crafting Civilian Control of the Military in Venezuela: A Comparative Perspective. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of
North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-5650-5.

• Anderson, Jon Lee (January 28, 2013). “Slumlord
: what has Hugo Chávez wrought in Venezuela?".
Letter from Caracas. The New Yorker 88 (45): 40–
51. Retrieved 2015-04-08.

33
• Beaumont, Peter (7 May 2006). “The new kid in the 13.2.5 Websites and e-publications
barrio”. The Observer (London: Guardian Media
• Trinkunas, Harold and McCoy, Jennifer (February
Group). Retrieved 25 March 2011.
1999). “Observation of the 1998 Venezuelan Elec• Bellos, Alex (17 December 1999). “New Venezuela
tions: A Report of the Council of Freely Elected
hands Chávez wide powers”. The Guardian (LonHeads of Government” (PDF). Atlanta, Georgia:
don: Guardian Media Group). Retrieved 25 March
The Carter Centre. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
2011.
• “Del Caracazo Case”. Inter-American Court of Human Rights. 11 November 2011. Retrieved 21
• Carl, Traci (11 January 2007). “Nicaragua’s Ortega
March 2011.
Signs Trade Pact”. The Washington Post (Washington D.C.: The Washington Post Company). Re• “Venezuela: Hugo Chávez’s Revolution”. Internatrieved 12 May 2011.
tional Crisis Group. 22 February 2007. Retrieved 8
April 2011.
• Carroll, Rory (16 February 2009). “Hugo Chávez
wins referendum allowing indefinite re-election”.
The Guardian (London: Guardian Media Group).
Retrieved 27 March 2011.
14 External links
• Padgett, Tim (18 April 2005). “Hugo Chávez: The
Radical with Deep Pockets”. Time (New York City:
Time Inc.). Retrieved 25 March 2011.
• Padgett, Tim (30 April 2006). “Hugo Chávez:
Leading the Left Wing Charge”. Time (New York
City: Time Inc.). Retrieved 25 March 2011.
• Padgett, Tim (3 March 2008). “War Drums in Latin
America”. Time (New York City: Time Inc.). Retrieved 25 March 2011.
• Pretel, Enrique Andres (21 September 2009).
“Venezuela exhumes unnamed dead in riot investigation”. London: Reuters. Retrieved 30 March
2011.
• Romero, Simon (16 February 2010). “Purging Loyalists, Chávez Tightens His Inner Circle”. The New
York Times (New York City: The New York Times
Company). Retrieved 10 April 2011.
• Shifter, Michael, M. (May–June 2006). “In Search
of Hugo Chávez”. Foreign Affairs (New York
City: Council on Foreign Relations) 85 (3): 45–59.
doi:10.2307/20031966. JSTOR 20031966.
• “Chávez offers oil to Europe’s poor”. The Observer
(London: Guardian Media Group). 14 May 2006.
Retrieved 27 March 2011.
• “Chávez wins Venezuela re-election”. London:
BBC News. 4 December 2006. Retrieved 27 March
2011.
13.2.4

Interviews

• Sackur, Stephen; Chávez, Hugo (subject) (15 June
2010). “Hugo Chávez, President of Venezuela”.
HARDtalk. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 25 March 2011.

• Official personal blog (Spanish)
Multimedia
• PBS Frontline Documentary: The Hugo Chávez
Show
• Chavez: Inside the Coup: The Revolution Will Not
Be Televised on YouTube
• The Guardian: The Rise and Rule of 'Hurricane
Hugo' audio slide show
• Democracy Now! 16 September 2005 Interview:
Part I and Part II with Hugo Chávez, in New York
City
• ABC News Video, 27 April 2007: Barbara Walters
interviews Hugo Chávez
• Interview with Hugo Chávez about the American
threat on YouTube October 2009
• NPR Audio Report, 18 February 2008: The Politics
of Venezuela’s Hugo Chávez
• Appearances on C-SPAN
Articles and Interviews
• BBC News: Profile: Hugo Chávez
• Shifter, Michael. In Search of Hugo Chávez. Foreign Affairs, May/June 2006 issue
• Palast, Greg. Hugo Chávez Interview. The Progressive, July 2006
• Hugo Chávez collected news and commentary at Al
Jazeera English
• Hugo Chávez collected news and commentary at
The Guardian

34
• Hugo Chávez collected news and commentary at
The New York Times
• Hugo Chávez collected news and commentary at
The Wall Street Journal
• “Controversial Venezuelan Leader Hugo Chavez’s
Death Teaches Vital Lesson About Cancer”.
Archived from the original on 2013-03-27.
Miscellaneous
• Extended biography by CIDOB (in Spanish)
• Hugo Chávez at the Internet Movie Database
• Works by or about Hugo Chávez in libraries
(WorldCat catalog)

14

EXTERNAL LINKS

35

15
15.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
Text

• Hugo Chávez Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez?oldid=674769536 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Jimbo
Wales, Derek Ross, Eloquence, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Taw, Slrubenstein, DanKeshet, Eclecticology,
Youssefsan, Danny, Rmhermen, William Avery, Shii, Zoe, Daniel C. Boyer, JDG, Rickyrab, Ericd, Leandrod, Stevertigo, Edward, Bdesham, Nealmcb, Asereje, Jtdirl, Gabbe, 172, Qaz, Delirium, Skysmith, Loisel, Greenman, Kosebamse, Ronabop, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier,
Synthetik, KAMiKAZOW, Pjamescowie, J'raxis, Stevenj, Docu, Notheruser, BigFatBuddha, Darkwind, Александър, Julesd, Sir Paul,
Cyan, Vzbs34, Andres, Jiang, Kaihsu, Evercat, Panoramix, Cherkash, Mxn, Wfeidt, Conti, Vodex, Hauser, TheSeez, Charles Matthews,
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36

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15.2

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Yeah 93, PICAWN, E4024, 306ujfv, Dexbot, Webclient101, Bilingual2000, Charles Essie, Mogism, Zcbeaton, Geochron, Livermorium,
MrGcCc, Deel2, WroteOddly, VIAFbot, Kayat941183, TortoiseWrath, LeoXXVI, WolfgangAzureus, Alexander1257, EeuHP, JustAMuggle, Hillbillyholiday, Mskole, Ppsathyan, Cantalapiedralalalá, Marxistfounder, Furious Style, I am One of Many, BreakfastJr, Redd
Foxx 1991, Kazim5294, WikiIkiIkiIki, Melonkelon, TRGUY, Frellington, FPO123, Advocata, LGA, Rybec, Emilia Leblanc, Musician21,
SamX, Polyglotism, Kyre67, ArmbrustBot, Hedgefall, Reuther, Hans, JacobiJonesJr, LatinCultureTodat, StefanoRR, El machisimo 1000,
Tessf, D6011, Heeren10, PrivateMasterHD, Ginsuloft, Te og kaker, Back slade, Logical1004, Anti Wikileaks, Stormmeteo, CommunistUSSR, Zozs, Mosfetfaser, Kevieman94, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, SANTABABES, Kascanio, BIG COXX, Leerslost, Chowdhary747,
Vinícius94, LeroyFranz, Marcelo Armando, Cathar66, GreekSocialist100, Elcoñoetuhhhh, Victorvilleg, TonyJJFish, KasparBot, Dinoloco27 and Anonymous: 1429

15.2

Images

• File:1998_to_2013_Venezuela_Murder_Rate.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/1998_to_2013_
Venezuela_Murder_Rate.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zfigueroa
• File:Anti-chavez_march.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Anti-chavez_march.jpg License: CC BYSA 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Spaceriqui at English Wikipedia
• File:Artículos_comerciales_sobre_Hugo_Chávez.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Art%C3%
ADculos_comerciales_sobre_Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as 04-Chavez
Original artist: Jean-Marc /Jo BeLo/Jhon-John
• File:Bolivar_Arturo_Michelena.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Bolivar_Arturo_Michelena.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Galería de Arte Nacional. Original artist: Arturo Michelena (1863-1898)
• File:By-order_friendship_of_nations_rib.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/By-order_friendship_
of_nations_rib.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Chavez_Kirch_Lula141597.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Chavez_Kirch_Lula141597.jpg
License: CC BY 3.0 br Contributors: Agencia Brasil [1] - [row,column]=[2,2] (#123217) Original artist: Ricardo Stuckert/PR
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).”
• File:El_pueblo_venezolano_acompaña_los_restos_de_su_presidente_Hugo_Chávez_Frías_en_la_Academia_Militar.jpg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/El_pueblo_venezolano_acompa%C3%B1a_los_restos_de_
Source:
su_presidente_Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez_Fr%C3%ADas_en_la_Academia_Militar.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/dgcomsoc/8539058970/ Original artist: Cancillería del Ecuador
• File:Escasez_en_Venezuela,_Central_Madeirense_8.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Escasez_
en_Venezuela%2C_Central_Madeirense_8.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: The Photographer
• File:Escasez_en_Venezuela,_Mercal.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Escasez_en_Venezuela%
2C_Mercal.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: The Photographer
• File:Flag_of_Belarus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.tnpa.by/ViewFileText.php?UrlRid=52178&UrlOnd=%D1%D2%C1%20911-2008 Original artist: Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Cuba.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:Madden Original artist: see below
• File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contributors: URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.html
Original artist: Various

38

15

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg
License:
Public domain Contributors:
Own work based on:
<a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='https:
//docs.google.com/viewer?a=v,<span>,&,</span>,q=cache:tRiqYRg_YJ4J:www.casc.gob.ni/index.php?option%3Dcom_
docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D704%26Itemid%3D4+ley+sobre+los+simbolo+patrios+nicaragua+
2002,<span>,&,</span>,hl=es,<span>,&,</span>,gl=ni,<span>,&,</span>,pid=bl,<span>,&,</span>,srcid=ADGEEShaqFptSDRqZyUoeWlWgMGTvcFvWOs
About Characteristics And Use Of Patriotic Symbols of Nicaragua</a> Original artist: C records (talk · contribs)
• File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vítor Luís Rodrigues; António Martins-Tuválkin (2004; this specific vector set: see sources)
• File:Flag_of_Serbia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: From http://www.parlament.gov.rs/content/cir/o_skupstini/simboli/simboli.asp. Original artist: sodipodi.com
• File:Flag_of_Venezuela.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg License: Public domain Contributors: official websites Original artist: Zscout370
• File:Freedom_ratings_in_Venezuela_-_Hugo_Chavez.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/
Freedom_ratings_in_Venezuela_-_Hugo_Chavez.png License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ZiaLater
• File:Fórum_Social_Mundial_2008_-_AL.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/F%C3%B3rum_
Social_Mundial_2008_-_AL.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 br Contributors: Agência Brasil Original artist: Fabio Rodrigues Pozzebom/ABr
• File:Hillary_Clinton_and_Hugo_Chavez.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Hillary_Clinton_and_
Hugo_Chavez.png License: CC BY 3.0 us Contributors: http://venezuelanalysis.com/news/4376 Original artist: venezuelanalysis.com
• File:HugoChavez1820.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/HugoChavez1820.jpeg License: CC BY 3.0
br Contributors: AgenciaBrasil Original artist: Victor Soares/ABr
• File:HugoChavez1823.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/HugoChavez1823.jpeg License: CC BY 3.0
br Contributors: Agência Brasil Original artist: Victor Soares/ABr
• File:HugoChavez1824.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/HugoChavez1824.jpeg License: CC BY 3.0
br Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Hugo_Chavez_Signature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Hugo_Chavez_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Traced in Adobe Illustrator from http://www.thedegree.org/venezuela.jpg Original artist: Hugo Chavez
• File:Hugo_Chávez_(02-04-2010).jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez_
%2802-04-2010%29.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: http://archive.premier.gov.ru/events/news/10054/photolents.html Original
artist: Premier.gov.ru
• File:Hugo_Chávez_2012.jpg Source:
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License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: This file was derived from: Hugo Chávez (2).jpg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez_(2).jpg' class='image'><img alt='Hugo Chávez (2).jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/d/d5/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez_%282%29.jpg/50px-Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez_%282%29.jpg' width='50' height='50'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez_%282%29.jpg/75px-Hugo_Ch%C3%
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Original artist: Hugo_Chávez_(2).jpg: https://secure.flickr.com/photos/waltervargas/7364456714/
• File:Hugo_Chávez_on_USS_Yorktown.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez_
on_USS_Yorktown.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 020302N0872M506 <a class='external text'
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Files_created_by_the_United_States_Navy_with_known_
IDs,<span>,&,</span>,filefrom=020302N0872M506#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: PH1 (AW/NAC) MARTIN MADDOCK, USN
• File:Lieutenant_Colonel_(Venezuela).png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Lieutenant_Colonel_
%28Venezuela%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rango_Oficiales_Venezuela.jpg Original
artist: Gilbertobm
• File:Logo1_MVR.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Logo1_MVR.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tomatejc
• File:MBR-200_logo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3c/MBR-200_logo.jpg License: Fair use Contributors:
http://www.uncafeconangiolillo.com/2014/02/el-mbr-200-ante-los-ultimos.html Original artist: ?
• File:Military_shield_of_venezuela.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Military_shield_of_venezuela.
png License: Public domain Contributors:
• Escudo_del_ejercito.svg Original artist: Escudo_del_ejercito.svg: Ybsen lucero
• File:Mision_robinson_wayuu_by_Franklin_Reyes.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Mision_
robinson_wayuu_by_Franklin_Reyes.png License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Eejeru Tatuman, Yo si Puedo Original artist: Franklin Reyes
from La Habana, Cuba
• File:Noveno_encuentro_presidencial_Ecuador_-_Venezuela_(5809138669).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/b/b6/Noveno_encuentro_presidencial_Ecuador_-_Venezuela_%285809138669%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors:
Flickr Original artist: Cancillería Ecuador
• File:Orden_Republike_Srbije_2.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Orden_Republike_Srbije_2.gif
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 rs Contributors: [1] Original artist: Snake bgd
• File:Orden_al_Mérito_IRI.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Orden_al_M%C3%A9rito_IRI.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alexeinikolayevichromanov

15.3

Content license

39

• File:PRT_Order_of_Prince_Henry_-_Grand_Cross_BAR.png Source:
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PRT_Order_of_Prince_Henry_-_Grand_Cross_BAR.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wiki Romi
• File:Presidential_Standard_of_Venezuela.svg
Source:
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Original artist: Standard_President_of_Venezuela.png: *Flag_of_Venezuela_(state).svg:
• File:ProtestosRCTV.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/ProtestosRCTV.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 br
Contributors: Agência Brasil [1] Original artist: Américo Morillo/ABN
• File:Red_flag_waving.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Red_flag_waving.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Original PNG by Nikodemos. Original artist: Wereon
• File:Ribbon_jose_marti.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Ribbon_jose_marti.png License: CC BY
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• File:Sabaneta_calle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Sabaneta_calle.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Periergeia
• File:San_Carlos_military_stockade_-_Venezuela.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/San_Carlos_
military_stockade_-_Venezuela.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/mcdemoura/2316758515 Original
artist: Márcio Cabral de Moura
• File:United_Socialist_Party_of_Venezuela_logo.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f6/United_Socialist_Party_
of_Venezuela_logo.gif License: PD Contributors:
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• File:Venezuela’{}s_Corruption_Score_2004_to_2013.png
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• File:Venezuela_Black_Market_2010-2014.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Venezuela_Black_
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• File:Venezuela_Economic_Indicators,_Chávez_administration.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/
Venezuela_Economic_Indicators%2C_Ch%C3%A1vez_administration.png License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:
ZiaLater
• File:Venezuela_kidnappings_past_1989.png
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Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
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15.3

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