Human Anatomy and Physiology
Content
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Overview -
Most of us are naturally curious about our bodies; we want to know what Most makes us tick
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Infants – stare at their own hands for a long period of time Children wonder where food goes when they swallow it Some believe they could grow a watermelon in their belly if they swallow the seeds Screa Sc ream m loudl loudly y when when appro approac ache hed d by medica medicall perso personn nnel el but but like like to play play doctors
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Anatomy
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Study of the structure & shape of the body & body parts & their relationships to one another If we study large body structures (heart & bones – we are observing gross anatomy !erived from "reek words – to cut (tomy apart (ana #n the other hand$ if a microscope or magnifying instrument is used to see very small structures in the body – microscopic anatomy
Physiology -
Study of how the body & its parts work or function physio nature; (ology the study of ( physio %ike anatomy$ physiology has many subdivisions Neurophysiology – – e'plains the workings of the S Cardiac physiology – – studies the function of the heart w)c acts as a muscular pump to keep blood flowing throughout the body
Relationshi !"# Anatomy an$ Physiology
In the real world$ ana & physio are always related *he parts of our body form a well+organi,ed well+organi,ed unit$ & each of those parts has a -ob to do to make the body operate as a whole Structures determine what functions can take place .'/ – the lungs are not muscular chambers like the heart & cannot pump blood through the body$ but because the walls of their sacs are very thin$ they can e'change gases & provide o'ygen to the body *he intimate relationship b)w anatomy & physiology is stressed throughout this book to make your learning meaningful
Levels o% Str&'t&ral Organi(ation )rom Atoms to Organisms
*he human body e'hibits many levels of structural comple'ity Simplest level of the structural ladder is the 'hemi'al level$ w)c we will study later on 0t this level$ atoms – tiny building blocks of matter$ combine to form molecules such as water$ sugar$ & proteins Molecule Mole cules s in turn associate associate in specific specific ways to form microscop microscopic ic 'ells – the smallest units of all living things; simplest living creatures are composed of single cells$ cel ls$ but in compl comple' e' organ organis isms ms like like human human being beings$ s$ the the struct structura urall ladde ladder r continues on to the tissue level Tiss&es – consist of groups of similar cells that have a common function; each of the 1 basic tissue types plays a definite but different role in the body Organ – is a structure composed of 2 or more tissue types that performs a specific speci fic fu funct nction ion for the the body body;; at the organ organ level level of organ organi,a i,atio tion$ n$ e'tr e'treme emely ly comple' functions become possible; e'/ Small int/ w)c digests & absorbs food is
composed of all four tissue types; all the body3s organs are grouped so that a number of organ systems are formed 0n organ system – is a grp/ #f organs that cooperate to accomplish a common purpose; e'/ – digestive system includes the esophagus$ stomach$ & sml/ & large int/ (to name a few; each organ has its own -ob to do & working together$ they keep food moving through the !S so that it is properly broken down & absorbed in the blood$ providing fuel to all body cells In all$ 44 organ systems make up the organism w)c presents the highest level of structural organi,ation$ the organismal level
Organ Systems Overview •
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Integ&mentary System – e'te Integ&mentary e'tern rna al cov coverin ering g of the the body body$$ or the the sk skin in;; it waterproofs the body & cushions & protects the deeper tissues from in-ury; also secretes secr etes salts & urea (perspi (perspirati ration on & helps helps regulate regulate body temp/; temp/; temperature$ pressure$ & pain receptors located in the skin alert us to what happening at the body surface S*eletal System – consist consists s of bones$ cartilages$ ligaments$ & joints; supports th the e body body & prov provid ides es a fram framew ewor ork k that that the the sk skel elet etal al musc muscle les s use use to caus cause e mov mo vemen ment; also lso has pr pro otec tectiv tive functio ction n (skull enclose oses the brain rain; ; hematopoieisis (forma (formati tion on of bloo blood d cells cells goes goes on w) w)n n the the caviti cavities es of the the skeleton; hard substance of bones acts as a storehouse for minerals M&s'&lar M&s'&l ar System – have have only only 4 funct functio ion n – to contra contract) ct)sh short orten en$$ when when this this
happens$$ movement occurs; can be viewed as machines of the body; mobility of happens
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the body as a whole reflects the activity of the skeletal muscles – the large fleshy muscles attached to the bones; form the muscular system; these muscles are distinct from the muscles of the heart & other hollow organs w)c move fluids or other substances along definite pathways w)n the body Nervo&s Nervo& s System – body body3s 3s fast+ fast+ac actin ting g contr control ol syste system; m; cons consist ists s of the brain$ spinal cord $ nerves$ & sensory receptors; must be able to respond to stimuli from the outside & inside then send messages to CS$ the CS in return assess the info & responds by activating the appropriate body muscle or glands +n$o'rine +n$o'ri ne System – like the S it controls the body activities$ but acts more slowly; produce molecules called hormones & release them into the blood to travel to relatively distant target organs; include the pituitary $ thyroid $ parathyroid $ adrenals$ thymus$ pancreas$ pineal $ ovaries & testes ,ar$iovas'&la ,ar$iov as'&larr System – compo compose sed d of heart & blood vessels; blood as the transporting transport ing fluid$ the CS carries #2$ nutrient nutrients$ s$ hormones$ & other substances substances to & from the tissue cells where e'changes are made Lymhati' System – complementary (interdependent to CS; include lymphatic vessels$ lymph nodes$ & other other lymphoid organs (spleen & tonsils; return fluid leaked from the blood to the bld/ vessels so that blood can be kept continuously circulating circulatin g through the body; lymph l ymph nodes help to cleanse the blood & house the cells involved in immunity Resiratory Resir atory System – keep the body constantly supplied w) #2 & remove Carb Ca rbon on dio' dio'id ide; e; cons consis ists ts of the the nasa nasall pass passag ages es$$ pharynx $ larynx $ trachea$ bronchi $ & lungs; w)n the lungs are tiny air sacs where gas e'changes (through the thin walls are made to & from the blood Digestive Digest ive System – basically a tube running through the body from mouth to anus$ anu s$ inclu include de oral oral cavi cavity ty$$ es esop opha hagus gus$$ stomac stomach$ h$ small small & large large intes intestin tines$ es$ & rectum; break down food & deliver the products to the blood for dispersal to the body cells; breakdown activities begin in the mouth$ ends in the sml/ Intestine; include liver & pancreas Urinary System – removes wastes like nitrogen+containing waste (urea & uric acid w)c results from the breakdown of proteins & nucleic acids; often called excretory excreto ry system$ composed of kidneys$ ureters$ bladder $ & urethra; also also maintains body water & salt balance & acid+base balance of the blood Rero$&'tive System – e'ists primarily to produce offspring offspring;; male 5S includes testes$ scrotum$ penis$ accessory glands$ & duct system; female 5S include ovary $ uterine tubes$ uterus$ & vagina
Maintaining Li%e Ne'essary Li%e )&n'tions
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human beings maintain their boundaries$ move$ respond to env3tal changes$ ta take kes s in & dige digest st nutr nutrie ient nts$ s$ ca carr rry y out out meta metabo boli lism sm$$ disp dispos ose e of wast wastes es$$ reproduce themselves$ & grow #rgans work to promote well+being of entire body
Maintaining !o&n$aries -
.very cell of the human body is surrounded by an e'ternal membrane *he body as a whole is enclosed by integumentary system – protects internal organs from drying out$ from bacteria$ from damaging effects of heat$ sunlight$ chemical substances in the e'ternal env3t
Movement -
Includes all activities promoted by MS
Resonsiveness -
#r irritability – – ability to sense changes in the env3t & react to them
Digestion -
6rocess of breaking down ingested food into simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood; one+celled organism
Meta-olism -
0ll chemical reactions reactions that occur w)n body cells; includes includes breaking down comple' substances into simpler building blocks; depends on the !S & 5S$ & on CS
+.'retion -
6rocess of removing e'creta$ form the body; !S rids body of indigestible food residues in feces; 7S disposes nitrogen+containing metabolic wastes in urine
Rero$&'tion -
6roduction of offspring; can occur on cellular)organismal level; cellular – – cell divides div ides producing producing 2 identica identicall daughte daughterr cells; cells; organismal – sperm unites w) egg$ develops into baby
Growth -
Increase in si,e
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(inc/ in no/ of cells
S&rvival Nee$s -
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Nutrients – contain chemicals used for energy & cell building O2 – – 289 of the air we breathe Water – – :8+89 of body wt/ ody temp/ – must be maintained at <=C (>? !tmospheric pressure – force e'erted on the surface of the body by the wt/ of
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air; breathing & e'change of #2 & C#2 0ll of these these must be be present present in appropriate appropriate amounts amounts
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Homeostasis
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@ody3s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world is continuously changing ( homeoAt Athe he sa same me$$ stasisAstanding still; dynamic state of e"uilibrium @ody @o dy is in ho homeo meost stasi asis s when when its need needs s are are being being adeB adeBua uatel tely y met & its functioning smoothly
Homeostati' ,ontrol Me'hanism - 0ll homeostatic homeostatic control control mechanisms mechanisms have have at least least < components components Re'etor – some some type type of sens sensor or that that monito monitors rs & respo responds nds to chan changes ges (stimuli in the env3t; sends info to control center through afferent path#ay ,ontrol 'enter – – analy,es info it receives & determines appropriate response or course of action +%%e'tor – provi provides des the means means for the contr control ol center center3s 3s resp respon onse se to the efferent ent path#ay path#ay ; res st stimu imulus lus thro through ugh effer result ults s of the the respon response se feed feed back back to influence stimulus$ either depressing it ( negative feedback $ $ or enhancing it $% feedback – – tends to increase original disturbance Mostly are (+ feedback -
.'/ @lood clotting & birth of baby Homeostati' Im-alan'e -
omeos ome osta tasi sis s is so im imp3 p3tt that that most most d3s d3se is rega regard rded ed as a resu result lt of its its disturbance (homeostatic imbalance 0s we age$ age$ our body organs organs become become less efficien efficientt & less stable
The Lang&age o% Anatomy -
Confusion is likely to occur without speciali,ed terminology
Anatomi'al Position / Dire'tional Terms
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*o accura accuratel tely y descr describe ibe body body parts parts & posit position ion$$ we must must have have an initi initial al reference point & use directional terms *o avoid avoid confu confusio sion$ n$ it is alw alway ays s assume assumed d that that the the body body is in a stand standar ard d position – anatomical position (to demonstrate demonstrate ask student to stand up$ stand erect w) feet parallel & arms hanging at sides w) palms facing forward
S&erior (cranial)cephalad (cranial)cephalad – toward the head end or upper part of a structure or
the body; above – e'/ *he forehead is superior to the nose In%erior (cau (cauda dal l – away away from from the head head end end or towar toward d the the lowe lowerr part part of a structure of the body; below – e'/ *he navel is inferior to the breastbone Anterior (ventral – toward or at the front of the body; in front of – e'/ *he breastbone is anterior to the spine Posterior (dorsal (dorsal – toward or at the backside of the body; behind – e'/ *he
heart is
posterior to the breastbone
Me$ial – toward at the midline of the body; on the inner side of – e'/ *he heart is
medial to the arm Lateral – away form the midline of the body; on the outer side of – e'/ *he arms
are lateral to the chest Interme$iate – b)w a more medial & a more lateral structure – e'/ *he armpit is intermediate b)w the breastbone & shoulder Pro.imal – close to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk – e'/ *he elbow is pro'imal to the wrist (elbow is closer to the shoulder or attachment point of the arm than the wrist is Distal – farther from the origin of a body part or the pt/ of attachment of a limb to
the body trunk – e'/ *he knee is distal to the thigh S&er%i'ial – toward or at the body surface – e'/ *he skin is superficial to the skeleton
Dee – away from the body surface; more internal – e'/ *he lungs are deep to
the rib cage
Dire'tional terms – allow to e'plain e'actly where one body structure is in relation to another; another;
e'/ De could describe the relationship b)w the ears & the nose informally by saying E*he ears are located on each side of the head to the 5 & % of the nose/F *o E*he ears are lateral to the noseF + *hus$ using using anatomical anatomical terminology terminology – saves a good deal deal of description description & once learned is much clearer + @efore we continue$ let3s check check your understanding on what what you3ve learned + "ive "ive the relation relationshi ship p b)w the ff body parts parts using the correct correct anato anatomica micall terms 4/ *he wrist is GGG to the hand + superior 2/ *he breastbone is GGGG to the spine + anterior </ GGG to to the spinal cord ++ superior superior 1/ *he *he brain lungs is are GGG the stomach H/ *he thumb is GGG to the fingers (be careful here$ 5emember the anatomical position – lateral Regional Terms + there are many visible landmarks on the surface of the body; once you know their proper anatomical names$ you can be specific in referring to different regions of the body Anterior !o$y Lan$mar*s • • • • • • • • • • • • •
!bdominal – – anterior body trunk inferior to ribs !cromial – – point of shoulder !ntecubital – – anterior surface of elbow !xillary – – armpit rachial – – arm uccal – – cheek area Carpal – – wrist Cervical – – neck region Coxal – – hip Crural – – leg igital – – fingers$ toes 'emoral – – thigh 'ibular – – lateral part of leg
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(nguinal – – area where thigh meets body trunk; groin Nasal – – nose area Oral – – mouth Orbital – – eye area )atellar – – anterior knee )elvic – – area overlying the pelvis anteriorly )ubic – – genital region Sterna – breastbone area *arsal – – ankle region *horacic – – chest +mbilical – – navel
Posterior !o$y Lan$mar*s • • • • • • • • • •
Cephalic – – head eltoid – – curve of shoulder formed by large deltoid muscle ,luteal – – buttock -umbar – – area of back b)w ribs & hips Occipital – – posterior surface of head )opliteal – – posterior knee area Sacral – – area b)w hips Scapular – – shoulder blade region Sural – – the posterior surface of lower leg; the calf .ertebral – – area of spine
!o$y Planes an$ Se'tions -
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De find it necessary to make a section or cut; when the section is made through the body wall or through an organ$ it is made along an imaginary line called a plane Since body is <!$ we can refer to < types of planes)sections that lie at right angles to one another Saggital se'tion – a cut made along the lengthwise$ or longitudinal plane of the body$ dividing the body into 5 & % parts If the cut is made down the median plane of the body & the 5 & % parts are eBual in si,e – midsagittal/median section )rontal se'tion – a cut made along a lengthwise lengthwise plane that divides the body (or organ into anterior & posterior parts (also called coronal section Transverse se'tion – a cut made along a hori,ont hori,ontal al plane$ dividing the body or organ into superior & inferior parts (also called cross section
!o$y ,avities
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*he body has 2 sets of internal cavities that provide different degrees of protection to the organs w)n them
Dorsal !o$y ,avity – has 2 subdivisions w)c are continuous w) each other cranial cavity – spac space e inside inside bony bony skul skull; l; spinal cavity – e'tends from cranial cavity nearly to the end of the v/c/ 0entral !o$y ,avity – much larger than dorsal cavity; contains structure w)n the chest & abdomen; subdivided into thoracic cavity – – separated from the rest of the ventral cavity by a dome+shaped muscle (diaphragm; organs included here are heart$ lungs$ others protected by the rib cage; - !bdominopelvic cavity – conta contain in the the stomac stomach$ h$ %iver %iver$$ intest intestine ines$ s$ & other other organs )elvic cavity – – w) repro organs$ bladder$ & rectum •
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7mbilical region – centermost region deep to & surrounding the umbilicus (navel .pigastric region – located superior to the umbilical region (epiAabove ypogastric (pubic region – inferior to the umbilical region 5 & % iliac)inguinal regions – lateral to the hypogastric region 5 & % lumbar regions – lie lateral to the umbilical region (lumbusAloin 5 & % hypochondriac region – flank (side the epigastric region & contain the lower ribs (chondroAcartilage
5eview uestions 4/ Cons Consid ider er the the ff/ lev levels els 4/ Chem Chemic ical al;; 2/ *issu issue; e; </ #rga #rgan; n; 1/ Cell Cellu ular; lar; H/ #rganismal; :/ Systematic/ Dhich of the ff/ choices has the levels listed in order of increasing comple'ityJ $1 23 43 53 63 73 8 a/ 4$ 2$ <$ 1$ H$ : b/ 4$ 1$ 2$ H$ <$ : c/ <$ 4$ 2$ 1$ :$ H e/ 1$ 4$ <$ 2$ :$ H 2/ Dhich of the ff/ is)are is)are involved in maintaining maintaining homeostasisJ homeostasisJ a1 .ffector -/ control center '/ receptor $1 feed feedba back ck e/ lac lack k of c cha hang nge e </ Dhich Dhich is not essentia essentiall to surv surviva ivalJ lJ '1 gravity a/ Dater b/ #2
d/ 0tm 0tmos osph pher eric ic pre press ssur ure e
e/ nut nutri rien ents ts
1/ 0 neurosurgeon neurosurgeon orders orders a spinal spinal tap for a pt/ into what body body cavity will the needle needle be insertedJ a/ Kentral b/ *horacic '1 Dorsal d/ Cranial e/ 6elvic H/ Dhich of the ff/ ff/ groupings groupings of the abdominope abdominopelvic lvic regions regions is medialJ a/ ypocho ypochondri ndriac$ ac$ hypoga hypogastri stric$ c$ umbilic umbilical al b/ ypocho ypochondri ndriac$ ac$ lumbar lumbar$$ inguin inguinal al '1 Hyoga Hyogastri stri'3 '3 &m-ili' &m-ili'al3 al3 eigas eigastri tri' '
d/ %umba %umbarr$ umbi umbilic lical al$$ iliac iliac e/ Iliac$ Iliac$ umbilica umbilical$ l$ hypoch hypochondr ondriac iac
!ASI, ,H+MISTRY -
Dhy include it hereJ *he food we eat & the medicines we take when we are ill are composed of chemicals Chemi Ch emical cal react reaction ion unde underli rlie e all body body proc process esses es – moveme movement nt$$ diges digestio tion$ n$ pumping of heart$ even our thoughts
,on'ets o% Matter an$ +nergy 0atter – – anything that occupies space & has mass $#t1 Chemistry studies the nature of matter – how its building blocks are put together & how they interact .'ist in solid$ liBuid$ & gaseous states May be changed both physically & chemically; physical changes – do not alter the basic nature of a substance (ice melting$ cutting food to smaller pieces; chem chemic ical al ch chang anges es – alter the composition composition of the substance substance (fermenting (fermenting
grapes$ digestion of food +nergy -
In contrast to matter$ is massless & does not take up space !efined as the ability to do #ork or to put matter into motion ac actua tually lly doing doing work – kinetic energy (energy in motion; when inactive or stored (batteries of unused toy – potential energy all all living living things things are built built of matter matter$$ & to grow & funct function ion they they reBuir reBuire e a continuous supply of energy thus$ matter is a substance; energy is the mover of the substance
)orms o% +nergy Chemical energy – – stored in the bonds of chemical substances •
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3lectrical energy – – results from the movement of charged particles 0echanical energy – directly directly involved involved in moving moving matter 4adiant energy – – energy of the electromagnetic spectrum$ travels in waves
+nergy )orm ,onversions Chemical energy of foods trapped in the bonds of 0*6 transformed into electrical energy of a nerve impulse)mech/ .nergy of shortening muscles Conversions liberate (release heat w)c makes us warm+blooded & contribute to high body temp/ Dhen heated$ particles begin to move more Buickly (kinetic energy increases
,omosition o% Matter +lements an$ Atoms
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3lements – compose the matter; uniBue subs/ *hat cannot be broken down into int o simpl simpler er subs/ subs/ by ordin ordinary ary chemi chemica call metho methods; ds; 442 disco discove vered red$$ >8 produced naturally$ the rest$ produced artificially in accelerator devices 1 elements – C$ #$ $ $ >:9 of body wt/ @uilding block of element – atom; designated designated by 4+ or 2+ chemical chemical shorthand$ st atomic symbol – – in most cases are 4 letters of the element3s name (e'/ Ca for Calcium; some from %atin name (e'/ natrium for a
Atomi' Str&'t&re "reek word – Eincapable of being divided F - 0toms representing representing 442 442 elements are composed of different different nos/ & proportions of < basic subatomic particles$ w)c differ in their mass$ electrical charge$ & location #/n the atom Protons – have L charge; Ne&tron – uncharged)neutral; Protons / Ne&tron – are heavy particles & have appro'imately appro'imately the same mass (4 atomic mass unit$ or 4 amu; +le'trons – (+ charge$ 8 amu 3lectrical 3lect rical charge – a measure of particle in its ability to attract)repel other charged particles 6articles w) same type of charge (L to L)+ to + repel each other$ but particles
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w) unlikenor charges (L by to charged + attractparticles each other; eutral particles are neither attracted repelled @ecaus @ec ause e all atoms are electrical electrically ly neutral neutral$$ the no1 of protons an atom has must be precisely balanced by by its no/ of electrons (e'/ – has 4 proton & 4 electron
I$enti%ying +lements Dhat determines the uniBue properties of each elementJ – atoms of different different el elem emen ents ts are are comp compos osed ed of diff differ eren entt numb number ers s of prot proton ons$ s$ neut neutro rons ns$$ & electrons Atomi' Mass N&m-er Sum of the protons & neutrons contained in its nucleus (sotopes – structural variations !ecomposition of isotopes of atoms to become more stable – radioisotopes - 0tomic decay – radioactivity; radioactivity; e-ection of particles particles (alpha or beta or el elec ectr trom omag agne neti tic c ener energy gy (gam (gamma ma ray rays from from the the atom atom3s 3s nucl nucleu eus s & are are damaging to living cells
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Mole'&les an$ ,omo&n$s • •
0olecules – combination of 2 or more atoms Compound – – combination of 2 or more different atoms (e'/ 1 atoms & 4 C atom interact to form methane 1 L C A C 1 (methane
,hemi'al !on$swhenever an$ ,hemi'al #ccur atoms Rea'tions combine w) or dissociate from other atoms
Role o% +le'trons in -on$ %ormation 0alen'e len'e shell – imp3t 0a imp3t when when conside considering ring bonding bonding behavior; behavior; are those those in the atom3s outermost shell shell Dhen the valence shell of an atom contains electrons$ the atom is completely stable & is chemically inactive (inert Dhen valence shell contains fewer than $ an atom will tend to gain$ lose$ or share electrons w) other atoms to reach a stable state Dhen any of these events occurs$ chemical bonds are formed *he key to chemical reactivity is referred to as the rule of 8s – atoms interact in such a way that they will have electrons in their valence shell Tyes Ty es o% ,hemi'al !on$s
4/ Ioni' !on$s – form when electrons are completely transferred from 4 atom to another electricall rically y neutral neutral $ but when they gain or lose electrons - 0toms are elect during dur ing bondin bonding$ g$ their their (L & (+ charg charges es are no longer longer balan balance ced d & charged particles called ions result -
0tom gains electron – (+ charge – because because more electrons electrons than protons$ a/k/a/ anions 0tom loses electron + L charged ion$ 'ation – more more proto protons ns than electron .'/ #f ionic bond + aCl (table salt
2/ ,ovalent !on$s – bonds in w)c covalent molecules share electrons </ Hy$rogen !on$s – are e'tremely weak bonds formed when a hydrogen hydrogen atom bound to one electron+hungry or # atom is attracted by another electron+ hungry atom$ & the atom forms a bridge b)w them Patterns o% ,hemi'al Rea'tion Synthesis Rea'tion #ccur when 2 or more atoms or molecules combine to form a larger$ more compl comple' e' molec molecul ule e (0 L @ A 0@ @;; ana-oli' (constructive; e'/ ?ormation of C# molecule De'omosition Rea'tions #ccur when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules$ atoms$ or ions & ca can n be indic indicat ated ed by 0@ A 0 L @; 'ata-oli' (destructive; e'/ !igestion$ breakdown of glycogen to glucose +.'hange Rea'tions -
Involve broken both synthesis & decomposition reactions; bonds are both made &
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0@ L C
0C L @ & 0@ L C! L C@
!io'hemistry9 the ,hemi'al ,omosition o% Living Matter
Chemicals found in the body fall into 4 of 2 ma-or classes of molecules; this is determined by the presence or absence of Carbon Organi' Organi ' 'omo&n$s 'omo&n$s – carbon+ carbon+con contain taining ing compoun compounds; ds; e'/ Carbohy Carbohydrat drates$ es$ lipids$ proteins$ nucleic acids$ C#2 Inorgani' 'omo&n$s – lack carbon & tend to be simpler$ smaller molecules$ e'/ 2#$ salts$ & many acids & bases
Inorgani' ,omo&n$s •
#ater – – most abundant$ 2)< of body wt/
4/ 5igh heat capacity – – absorbs & releases large amts/ #f heat before its temp/ changes 2/ )olarity/Solvent properties – water is Euniversal solventF – liBuid or gas in w)c smaller amounts of other substances substances called sol&tes ("$ %$ S$ can be dissolved or suspended </ Chemical reactivity – – e'/ *o digest food$ water molecules are added to the bonds of larger molecules$ hydrolysis reaction 1/ Cushioning – – e'/ CS? cushion around the brain; amniotic fluid •
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Salts – e'/ Ca & 6h; when dissolved in body fluids$ easily separate into their ions$ called dissociation; vital to body functioning; functioning; e'/ Na & 6 ions – essential essential for nerve impulses$ 'e – forms part of the hgb/ molecule that transports #2 w) 5@Cs @ecause @ecaus e ions are charged particles$ all salts are ele'trolytes – substances that conduct an electrical current in solution A'i$s / !ases – are also electrolytes$ they ioni,e & dissociate in 2# & can then conduct an electrical current - p5 – – relative concentration of (& hydro'yl ions in various body fluids; runs from 8 to 41$ each change of 4 p unit represents a tenfold change in +ion concentration - ph 7 – – midpoint$ solution is neutral$ neither acidic nor basic; blood p (also distilled 2#$ semen has p of =/<H+=/1H regulated by kidneys$ lungs & buffers (no/ of chemicals
42):)42 Organi' ,omo&n$s ,ar-ohy$rates : ;hyrated carbon3$ includes sugar & starches$ C$ $ & #; classified
according to si,e as mono+$ di+$ or polysaccharides
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0onosaccharides – simple sugars; single+chain)single+ring structure; e'/ "lucose (universal cellular fuel$ fructose$ galactose$ ribose$ deo'yribose isaccharides – or double sugars; formed when 2 simple sugar are -oined by dehydrat dehy dration ion synthes synthesis; is; e'/ Sucrose Sucrose (glucos (glucose+fr e+fructo uctose$ se$ cane cane sugar; sugar; lactose lactose (glucose+galactose$ found in milk; maltose (glucose+glucose$ malt sugar )olysaccharides – Emany sugarsF are long$ branching chains of simple sugars; e'/ Starch (plants – grain products & root vegetables; "lycogen – smaller$ but similar polysaccharide (animal tissue
Lii$s – large large & diver diverse se grou group p or organ organic ic compo compoun unds; ds; e'/ Meat$ Meat$ egg yolk$ yolk$ milk products$ oils •
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Neutral 'ats – or triglycerides$ composed of 2 types of building blocks – fatty acids$ & glycerol; saturated fats – animal fats; plant oils)oils – unsaturated )hospholipids – has phosphoro phosphorous+c us+conta ontainin ining g group group that3s that3s always always part of the molecule & takes the place of 4 of the fatty acid chains
Steroi$s – flat molecules formed of 1 interlocking rings; their structure differs Buite a bit
from that of fats; made largely of & C atoms & are fat+soluble Homeostati' Im-alan'e Saturated fats w) cholesterol – atherosclerosis (deposit of fatty substances in arterial walls & arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries; olive oil & liBuid spreads as substitute Proteins -
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0bout H89 of the organic matter in the body$ body$ have most varied functions; amino acids for about 28 varieties
'ibrous (structural proteins & ,lobular )roteins – e'/ Collagen (found in bones$
cartilage$ & tendons; most abundant protein in the body; Neratin (hair & nails •
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,lobular )roteins (functional proteins – do the work rather than structural; e'/ .n,ymes – biological catalysts that regulate chemical reaction Dhen <! structures are destroyed$ proteins are said to be denatured – can no longer perform their roles; functions depend on specific structure – active sites – fit & interact w) other molecules Most imp3t types of functional proteins are described w) the organ system to w)c they are closely relate 3n8ymes & 3n8yme !ctivity ?unctional proteins that acts as biological catalysts;
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Catalyst – subst substanc ance e that that incre increas ases es the the rate rate of a chemi chemica call react reaction ion w)o w)o becoming part of the product; capable of cataly,ing millions of reactions ) minute amed a med ac accor cordin ding g to spec specifi ific c type type of react reaction ion they they cataly cataly,e ,e;; e'$ e'$ hydrolases – w)c add add 2#$ 2#$ oxidases – w)c cause o'idation; usually ends in –ase
Nucleic !cid Make up the genes that provide basic blueprint of life; not only determine what type of organism you will be$ but also direct growth & dev3t Composed of C$ #$ $ $ & 6h atoms @uilding blocks – nucleotides; comes in bases – !denine (0$ ,uanine ("$ Cytosine (C$ *hymine (*$ +racil (7 (7 2 ma-or kinds – deo'yribonucleic acid (!0 & ribonucleic acid (50 N! – (4 replicates itself before a cell divides ensuring that genetic info in every cell is identical; (2 provides instruction for building every protein in the body 4N! – Omolecular slave3$ carries out the orders for protein synthesis issued by !0 !denosine *r *riphosphate iphosphate $!*) $!*) – provides a form of energy that is usable by all body cells
,+LLS AND TISSU+S -
Ro-ert Hoo*e (late 4:88s – saw cube+like structures that he named as cells
,ells – made up primarily of 1 elements – C$ #$ $ plus much smaller amount
of ?e$ N$ a Ca – blood blood clotting; clotting; '3 – make hgb w)c carrie carries s #2 in the blood blood;; (odine – make the thyroid hormone that controls metabolism Ca9 Na9 & 6 – – can carry an electrical charge (electrolytes Na & 6 ions – essential if nerve impulses are to be transmitted & muscles are to contract Interstitial fluid – like a dilute saltwater sol3n !ifferent !iffere nt shapes shapes disk:shaped – 5@Cs; 5@Cs; threadlike extensions – nerve cells; toothpicks pointed at each end – smooth muscle muscle cells; cells; cubelike – epithelial cells
Anatomy o% a Generali(e$ ,ells -
N&'le&s – contro controll center $ contains the gene; < distinct regions)structures – nuclear envelope$ nucleoli $ chromatin - Nuclear envelope – selectively permeable$ encloses a -elly+like fluid called nucleoplasm - Nucleoli – – sites where ribosomes are assembled$ the actual sites of protein synthesis - Chromatin – loose network of threads that coil to form rod+like bodies called chromosomes
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Plasma mem-rane Plasma mem-rane – fragi fragile$ le$ trans transpa paren rentt barri barrier er that that cont contain ains s the cell cell content con tents s & separat separates es them them from the surround surrounding ing env3t; env3t; has receptors receptors as binding sites - 0icrovilli – – (little shaggy hairs tiny fingerlike pro-ections that greatly increase cell3s surface area for absorption -
membrane ne junctions junctions – tight junctions junctions (prev as membra (prevent ents s subs/ subs/ ?rom ?rom passi pas sing$ ng$ e'/ In sml/ sml/ Intest Intestine ine – preve prevent nt diges digestiv tive e en en,y ,ymes mes from from seeping seep ing into the bloods bloodstrea tream; m; desmosomes (anchoring -unction that prevents cells from being pulled apart$ e'/ Skin; gap junctions – allows communication b)w cells$ connected by connexons -
,ytolasm – site factor tory y areaF; has < ma-or site of most most cellul cellular ar act activi ivitie ties$ s$ Efac elements – cytosol – – semitransparent semitransparent fluid that suspends the other elements; organelles – metab metabol olic ic machin machinery ery of the the cell cell – e'/ e'/ Synth Synthesi esi,e ,e prot protein eins; s; inclusions – stored nutrients or cell products$ include fat droplets common in fat cells$ glycogen granules$ pigments such as melanin seen in skin & hair cells$ mucus & other secretory products$ & various kinds of crystals
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,ytolasmi ,ytola smi' ' organe organelle lles s – Elit Elittl tle e orga organs nsF$ F$ are are spec specia iali li,e ,ed d cell cellul ular ar compartments that maintains the life of the cell - Mito'hon$ria – threadli threadlike)s ke)sausa ausage+s ge+shape haped d organel organelles$ les$ contain contains s en,ymes that cause chemical reaction (e'/ @reaking down of food$ formation of 0*6$ powerhouse of the cell; liver & muscle cells – has huge amts/ #f 0*6 while an unfertili,ed egg has -ust a few
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Ri-osomoes – tiny$ round$ dark bodies made of proteins & variety of 50 (r (rib ibos osom omal al 50 50$$ Oact Oactua uall site sites3 s3 of prot protei ein n sy synt nthe hesi sis s in the the cell cell$$ when when ribosomes are attached to membranes$ the whole ribosome combination is called rough endoplasmic reticulum
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+n$olasmi' Reti'&l&m – Enetwork w)n the cellF$ a system of fluid+filled cisterns (tubules (tubules w)c serves as mini circulatory system for the cell because it provides a network of channels for carrying substances from 4 part of the cell to another 4ough ugh 34 – where - 4o where buildi building ng materi materials als of cellu cellula larr membr membran anes es are are formed$ fold into <! shape -
Smooth 34 – function Smooth functions s in cholest cholesterol erol synthesis synthesis & breakdo breakdown$ wn$ fat metabolism$ & deto'ification of drugs (e'/ Cells of male testes that manufacture testosterone
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Golgi Aarat&s Aarat&s – stack stack of flatten flattened ed membran membranous ous sacs$ principa principall Otraffi Otraffic c director3 for cellular proteins$ modify & package proteins in specific ways$ depending on their final destination
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Lysosomes – Ebreakd Ebreakdown own bodiesF bodiesF$$ membran membrane e Obags3 Obags3 contain containing ing powerfu powerfull di dige gest stiv ive e en,y en,yme mes$ s$ capa capabl ble e of dige digest stin ing g worn worn+o +out ut or non+ non+us usab able le ce cell ll structures & most foreign substances that enter the cell; abundant in D@C that engulf bacteria & other harmful substances
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Pero.isomes – membr membrano anous us sacs contain containing ing oxidase en,ymes en,ymes that use molecul mole cular ar o'y o'ygen gen to deto'ify deto'ify a no/ of harmful) harmful)pois poisonou onous s subs/$ subs/$ includi including ng alcohol & formaldehyde; Odisarm3 dangerous free radicals; numerous in liver & & kidney cells cells (active in deto'ification - 'ree radicals – highly reactive chemicals w) unpaired electrons that can can scra scramb mble le the the stru struct ctur ure e of prot protei eins ns & nucl nuclei eic c acid acids; s; norm normal al byproducts of cellular metabolism
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,ytos*eleton – elab elabora orate te netwo network rk of prote protein in struct structure ures$ s$ cell3 cell3s s Obone Obones s & muscles3$ determines cell shape$ support other organelles$ & provides the
machiner machi nery y needed needed for intra intracel cellul lular ar trans transpor portt & vario various us types types of cellu cellular lar movements - 0icrofilament – (e'/ (e'/ 0cti ctin n & myosin myosin$ $ involv involved ed in cell cell motili motility ty & in producing changes in cell shape - 0icrotubules – determine the overall shape of a cell & the distribution of organelles; imp3t during cell division -
,entrioles – rod+shaped bodies made up of fine microtubules; direct the formation of mitotic spindle during cell division
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Some cell have ro<e'tions – cilia – whip+like cellular e'tensions that move subs/ along cell surface (e'/ Ciliated cells in 5S that move mucus up & away from the lungs; flagella – longer pro-ections of cell (e'/ Sperm
,ell Diversity *rillions of cells in the human body are made up of 288 different cell types that vary greatly in si,e$ shape$ & function 21 ,ells ,ells that 'onne' 'onne'tt -o$y -o$y arts arts 'ibroblast + elong elongate ated d shap shape e that that lies lies along along cable cable+l +like ike fibers fibers that that it secretes 3rythrocyte $4C – carries #2$ in the bloodstream$ concave disk+shaped – provides provides e'tra surface surface area area for uptake uptake of #2 #2 •
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51 ,ells ,ells that that 'over 'over / line line -o$y -o$y organ organs s 3pithelial cell – – he'agonal shape that allows to pack together in sheets that resist tearing when rubbed)pulled •
61 ,ells ,ells that that move move organ organs s / -o$y -o$y arts arts Skele Ske leta tall & smoot smooth h musc muscle le cell cells s – elon elonga gate ted d & fill filled ed w) abun abunda dant nt contractile contractil e filaments that shorten forcefully & move bones)change bones)change the si,e of internal organs •
41 ,ell ,ell that that stor stores es n&tri n&trien ents ts 'at cell – – huge spherical shape of fat cell produced by large lipid droplet in its cystoplasm •
81 ,ell ,ell tha thatt %igh %ights ts $is $iseas ease e 0acrophage $a phagocytic cell – e'tends long pseudopods (false feet; digest the infectious M/#/ it takes up •
71 ,ell that gathers in%o / 'ontrols 'ontrols -o$y %&n'tions %&n'tions Nerve Nerv e cell cell $neuron $neuron – has has long long proces processe ses s for for rece receivi iving ng mess message ages s & transmitting them to other structure in the body •
=1 ,ell ,ells s o% o% rero rero$& $&'ti 'tion on Oocyte $female $female – large largest st cell cell in the body; body; conta contains ins many copies copies of organ org anell elles es for distri distribut bution ion to the daug daught hter er cells cells that that arise arise when when the fertili,ed egg divides to become an embryo Sperm $male – long & streamlined built for swimming to the egg for fertili,ation; has flagellum •
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,ell Physiology Mostt cells Mos cells have have the abili ability ty to metab metaboli oli,e ,e (use (use nutri nutrient ents s to build build new cell cell materi mat erial al$$ break break down down subs substan tances ces$$ make make 0*6 6$$ diges digestt foods foods$$ dispo dispose se of wastes$ reproduce$ grow$ move$ & respond to stimulus
Mem-rane Transort
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It is imp3t to really understand solutions before we dive into e'planation of membrane transport Solution – a homogenous mi'ture of 2 or more components (e'/ 0ir we breathe – mi'ture of gases; seawater – mi'ture of water & salt *he *h e disso dissolvi lving ng mediu medium m is called called solvent ; subs subs// pres present ent in smalle smaller r amounts – solute (C' ; interstitial 'luid – – continuously bathes the e'terior of our cells$ contains cont ains nutrien nutrients ts (sug (sugar ar$$ vitamins vitamins$$ hormone hormones$ s$ neu neurotr rotrans ansmitte mitters$ rs$ waste products )lasma )lasm a membrane membrane – selectiv selectively ely permeable permeable – barrier barrier allows allows some substances to pass through it while e'cluding others omeostatic Imbalance Imbalance if damaged (burn$ can no longer be selective$ becomes permeable to nearly everything Mov Mo veme ement of subs/ happen pens in 2 ways ays passive transport – substanc subs tances es are transpor transported ted across across the membran membrane e w)o any energy energy input from the cell; active transport – cell provides provides 0*6 0*6 that drives the the transport process )assive *ransport )rocess Diffusion – imp3t means for every cell of the body; Filtration – generally occurs only across capillary walls
Di%%&sion process by w)c molecules tend to scatter from a region of greater –concentration to a region of lesser concentration (e'/ Puice to their concentration gradient Simple diffusion – unassisted diffusion of solutes through the plasma membrane !iffusion of 2# through a selectively permeable membrane (plasma membrane – osmosis facilitated itated diffusion diffusion – provides a 0nother e'/ of diffusion diffusion – facil means for certain substances that are both lipid+insoluble & too large to pass through the membrane pores to enter the cell )iltration + process by w)c water & solutes are forced through a membra mem brane ne by fluid fluid or hydrostatic pressure (usually e'erted by blood in the body Pressure gradient – – pushes solute+containing fluid from higher+ pressure area to lower pressure area (in kidneys – water & sml/ solu solute tes s filt filter er out out of the the ca capi pill llar arie ies s into into the the kidn kidney ey tubu tubule les s becau bec ause se the the blood blood press pressure ure in the capil capillar laries ies is the the fluid fluid pressure in the tubules
A'tive Transort Pro'esses !*) ) supply to Dhen cell uses some of its !* to move substances across the membrane Solute Pumping (active transport) – similar to facilitated diffusion diffusion – both processes processes reBuire protein carriers to be transported transported across the membrane; uses 0*6 to energi,e its protein carriers$ called
solute pumps $Na:6 )ump; no pump – no transport
Bulk Transport – – transport some subs/ that cannot get through the plasma membrane w) the help of 0*6; types 3xocytosis – Oout Oout of the the ce cell ll3; 3; move moves s subs subs// out out of cell cells; s; packaged into sac & migrates to pm$ fuse w) it$ & ruptures 3ndocytosis – Ointo the cell3; engulf e'tracellular subs/$ sac is formed$ detaches from pm$ moves into cytoplasm$ fuses w) lysosom lys osome e & digest digest the content contents; s; typ types es phagocytosis (cell+ eati ea ting ng; ; pinocytosis – (cell (cell drink drinking ing$ $ prese presentl ntly y know known n as bulk+phase endocytosis
,ell Division 2 ma-or ma-or periods periods interphase (metabolic phase – cell grows & carries on metabolic activities; cell division – where it reproduces itself DN !eplication ucleotides – building blocks$ consists deoxyribose sugar$ phosphate grp/$ nitrogen+containing bases "vent of #ell Division 2 events events mitosis – or division of nucleus occurs 4 st; 2nd – division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis$ begins when mitosis is nearly completed Mitos Mit osis3 is3 stages stages + result results s in the forma formati tion on of 2 daug daughte hterr nucle nucleii w) e'actly the same genes as the mother nucleus 4/ Prophase – separation of cell content 2/ $etaphase – they cluster & become aligned </ naphase – they split & move slowly apart toward opposite ends of cell 1/ Telophase – formation of cleavage & separation of cell into 2 Protein synthesis – directed by !0 The Role o% RNA !0 reBuires not only a decoder but also a messenger to achieve its task !N – single+stranded$ single+stranded$ have ribose instead of deo'yribose$ has uracil
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base instead of thymine; types transfer !N (t50$ ri%osomal !N mess sseng enger er !N !N (m5 (r50$ me (m50 0;; invo involv lves es 2 ma-o ma-orr phas phases es transcription & translation - *ranscription – transfer of info from !03s base seBuence into the compl compleme ement ntary ary base base seBuen seBuence ce of m50; m50; only only !0 !0 & m50 are involved - *ranslation – the base seBuence (language of nucleic acid is translated into the language of proteins (amino acid seBuence m50 (atta m50 (attach ches es to the the ribo riboso some me ribosome bound together by en,ymes
t5 t50 0 transfe transferr amino amino ac acids ids to
!ODY TISSU+S "roup of cells that are similar in structure & function #rgani,ed into organs (heart$ kidneys$ lungs Study of tissues should be helpful in your later study of body3s organs & how they work
+ithelial tiss&e"+theli&m (covering – lining$ covering & glandular glandular tissue of the body; functions functions include protection$ protectio n$ absorption$ absorption$ filtration & secretion (e'/ Skin$ lining the 5*$ 5*$ stomach$ sml/ Intestine$ Intestine$ kidneys; kidneys; they are avascular (no (no bld/ supply of their own$ if well nourished$ regenerate easily ,lassi%i'ation (by cell arrangement o Simple e epithelium epithelium (4 layer 4/ Simpl layer of cells cells – forms forms membra membranes nes where where filtration or e'change of substances by rapid diffusion occurs (e'/ 0ir sacs of lungs$ walls of capillaries$ serous membranes membranes – line the ventral body cavity & cover organs in cavity 2/ Stratified epithelium ( 4 cell layer o (by shape S"uamo amous us cells cells – flat 4/ S"u flatte tene ned d like like fish fish scal scale$ e$ (str (strat atif ifie ied d e'/ e'/
.sophagus$ mouth$ outer portion of skin 2/ Cuboidal – cube+ cube+sh shape aped$ d$ common common in gland glands s & their their ducts (e'/ Salivar Sal ivary y glands$ glands$ pancrea pancreas$ s$ walls walls of kidney kidney tubules tubules$$ coverin covering g of ovaries </ Columnar cells – shaped like columns$ e'/ (goblet cells – produce lubrica lub ricating ting mucus$ lines !igestiv !igestive e tract tract form form stomach stomach to anus; anus; mucosa – membranes that line body cavities open to body e'terior )seudostratified – – lines most of the 5* ,landular epithelium – 2 ma-or types endocrine glands (ductless; exocrine glands – retain their ducts (e'/ Sweat$ oil glands$ liver$ pancreas
,onne'tive Tiss&e – connects connects body parts$ most abundant abundant & widely distributed$ distributed$ involved involved in protecting$ supporting$ & binding together other body tissues; ability to absorb large amounts of 2# thus serve as water reservoir ,hara'teristi's o - Ka Kariat riations ions in blood blood supply supply – tendons & ligaments have poor bld/ Supply; cartilages – avascular; heals slowly when in-ured - "'tracellular matri' – – includes collagen (white fibers$ elastic (yellow fibers$ reticular (fine collagen fibers Tyes 4/ Bone (sometimes called osseous – sit in cavities called lacunae$ surrounded by hard matri' that contains Ca salts -
Cartilage cartilage – lessread hard & more ice fle'ible bone; – most widespread widesp (laryn')voice (laryn')vo bo'$than attach ribs hyalin to breastbone$
covers ends of bones covers bones where they form -oints; -oints; fibrocartilage – cushi cus hion+ on+lik like e disks disks b)w the the verteb vertebra ra of spina spinall colum column; n; elastic cartilage – foun found d wher where e stru struct ctur ure e of elas elasti tici city ty is desi desire red d (supports e'ternal ear 51 Dense ,onne'tive ,onne'tive Tiss&e"$en Tiss&e"$ense se %i-ro&s %i-ro&s tiss&e a/ *endons – attach skeletal muscles to bones b/ -igaments – connect bones to bones at -oints c1 ermis </ Loose ,onne'tive Tiss&e – softer$ have more cells$ fewer fibers - reolar tissue – helps to hold internal organs together; lamina propria – soft soft laye layerr of areo areola larr tiss tissue ue unde underl rlie ies s all all muco mucous us membranes - dipose tissue – areolar tissue in w)c fat cells predominate; forms the subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin - !eticular connective tissue – support many free blood cells in lymphoid organs 1/ !loo$ – (or vascular tissue consists of blood cells surrounded by a non+l no n+liv iving ing fluid fluid mat matri' ri'$$ blood blood plasma$ cont contain ains s fiber fibers s seen seen es esp/ p/ during blood clotting
M&s'le Tiss&e – highly speciali,ed speciali,ed to contract$ contract$ to to produce produce movement movement •
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S*eletal M&s'le – these are packaged by connective tissue sheets into organs organs w)c are attache attached d to skeleto skeleton; n; controlled controlled voluntarily ; form the Oflesh3 of the body; their their cells are long$ long$ cylindrica cylindrical$ l$ multinucleate$ multinucleate$ have striations (stripes ,ar$ia ,ar $ia' ' M&s'le M&s'le – foun found d only only in the the hear heart; t; has has stri striat atio ion$ n$ are are uninu un inucle cleate ate$$ has inter intercal calate ated d disks disks (bran (branch chin ing g cells cells that that fit tight tightly ly toget tog ether her at -unct -unction ions s – wher where e ions ions pass pass free freely ly result resulting ing in rapid rapid conducti cond uction on of electric electrical al impulse impulse across the heart; heart; under involuntary control Smooth M&s'le – or visceral muscle is so called because no striations are visible; have single nucleus & are spindle+shaped spindle+shaped (pointed at each end; found in the walls of hollow organs (stomach$ bladder$ uterus$ & blood vessels; contracts much more slowly; peristalsis
Nervo&s Tiss&e – we think of cells called called neurons; irritability & conductivity + 2 ma-or functional characteristics; make up the structure of the S – brain$ s/c/$ & nerves
Tiss&e Reair >#o&n$ Healing? Inflammation – generali,ed (nonspecific body response that attempt to prevent further in-ury -
Immune response – specific attacks against recogni,ed invaders
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#ccurs #ccu rs in 2 ma-o ma-orr ways ways regeneration – replace replacement ment of destroy destroyed ed tis tissue sue by the the same same kind kind of cells; cells; fibrosis – involves repair by dense (fibrous connective tissue (e'/ ?ormation of scar tissue – depends – types of tissue damage$ severity of the in-ury The capillaries %ecome very permea%le - Owalls off3 in-ured area ranulation tissue forms - 6ink tissue composed of new capillaries$ are fragile & bleed freely – when a scab is picked away from skin wound; contains phagocytes phagocy tes + dispose blood blood clot & synthesi,e synthesi,e collagen collagen fibers fibers (scar tissue The surface epithelium regenerates - Makes its way across granulation tissue$ covers underlying area of fibrosis
!evelopmental 0spects of Cells and *issues -
De all begin as a single cell
(6reliminary .'am
TH+ INT+GUM+NTARY SYST+M S*in : body3s tough$ outer protective covering *ogether w) its glands$ hair$ & nails$ the skin makes up the integumentary system 6artly e'posed to view – we scrub it$ cream it$ coat it w) makeup; cut$ shave$ curls its hair$ & manicure its nail - 0lso important in communication – has sensory perception that permit us to feel a handshake$ kiss$ stroke$ sBuee,e$ or slap Involu Inv olunta ntary ry chan change ges s in the the skin skin reflec reflectt emoti emotion onal al states states – e'/ @lush @lush w) embarrassment$ blanch (turn pale w) fear or rage; sweat e'cessively when an'ious - 0ppeara 0ppearance$ nce$ coloration$ temperature temperature & feel of the skin are imp3t indicators indicators of general health & of many d3se states
s a Protective Barrier #uter boundary of the body – in direct contact w) e'ternal env3t Must resist wear & tear$ drying$ e'posure to cold$ heat$ & to'ic substances Imp3t in maintaining homeostasis – the balanced internal env3t
4/ 6rotect 6rotects s body against against in-u in-ury ry & is the the body3 body3s s 4st line of defense against harmful bacteria & other agents of d3se
2/ 5eceives 5eceives info about about outside outside world – w) sensory sensory receptors receptors for for touch$ pressure$ pressure$ heat$ cold$ & pain </ 6r 6reve events nts drying drying out – are bathe bathed d in an inter interna nall sea sea – dil dilute ute salt salt solut solution ion essential to life so that cells wont loss fluid & dry out 1/ elps elps maintain maintain body temp/ temp/ – capillary capillary netw networks orks & sweat sweat glands glands – are part of the body3s temperature+regulating system H/ as sweat sweat glands glands that e'crete e'crete e'cess e'cess water water & some wastes from the body :/ Contain Contains s compound compound that that is converted converted to vitamin vitamin ! when the skin skin is e'posed e'posed to the 7K rays of the sun
#onsists of the "pidermis and Dermis Consists of 2 main layers epidermis & dermis/ @eneath it is the underlying subcutaneous layer
The "pidermis #ontinuously !eplaces tself - 0s thick as the page page of your your book$ yet consists consists of several several sublayers sublayers Consists of stratified s"uamous epithelial tissue #uter cells continuously wear off & are immediately replaced by new cells 6eratin – a tough water+proofing protein that gives skin mechanical strength & -
fle'ibility
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The Dermis Provides Strength and "lasticity Dermis – thick layer of the skin beneath the epidermis; consists of dense connective tissue composed mainly of collagen fibers – largely responsible for the mechanical strength of the skin 6ermits skin to stretch & return to its normal form again @lood vessels & nerves w)c are generally absent in the epidermis are found throughout the dermis Speciali,ed Speciali ,ed skin structures structures such as hair follicles & glands are found in it; they develop from cells of the epidermis that push down into the dermis 7pper portion has many small fingerlike e'tensions ( dermal papillae that pro-ect into the epidermal tissue; its e'tensive networks of capillaries deliver #2 & nutr nutrie ient nts s to the the cell cells s of the the epid epider ermi mis s & also also f'n f'n in temp temper erat atur ure e regulation 6att 6a tter erns ns of ridges & grooves visi visibl ble e on the the skin skin of the the so sole les s & pa palm lms s (including fingertips reflect the arrangement of the dermal elevations beneath *hese patterns provide the fingerprints so useful to law enforcement officials *hey also serve as friction ridges that help us hold onto the ob-ects we grasp
The Su%cutaneous (*ypodermis) +ayer ttaches the Skin to ,nderlying Tissues - 0/k/a/ s&er%i s&er%i'ial 'ial %as'ia – consi consist sts s of loose loose conne connecti ctive ve tissu tissue$ e$ usua usually lly containing a lot of adipose tissue (fat - 0ttache 0ttaches s the skin skin to the muscles muscles & other tissues tissues beneath beneath
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elps protect underlying organs from mechanical shock$ insulates the body$ thus conserving heat
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?at stored w)n the adipose tissue can be mobili,ed & used as an energy source when adeBuate food is not available Its distribution is largely responsible for characteristic M & ? body shapes
S-eat lands *elp $aintain Body Temperature - 0lso called s&$ori s&$ori%ero&s %ero&s glan$ – is a tiny coiled tube in the dermis or subcutaneous tissue$ w) a duct that e'tends up through the skin & opens onto the surface - 0bout <M in the skin help maintain body temp/ temp/ – because heat is reBuire reBuired d for evaporation$ the body becomes cooler as sweat evaporates from the skin Secretes e'cess water$ salts$ & sml/ amounts of wastes - 0bout 4 Buart (4%J of water is e'creted e'creted in sweat each day; normally perspiration is unnoticed; more salt is lost in sweat Certain sweat glands found in association w) hairs are concentrated in a few specific areas (armpits & genitals; secretion is thick$ sticky$ & odorless
Se%aceous lands +u%ricate the *air and Skin - 0lso known known as oil glan$s – attached to hair follicles by little ducts through w)c they release their secretion; most numerous on face & scalp -
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Secrete oily substance (se-&m that oils the hair$ lubricates the skin$ & helps pr prev event ent water water loss; loss; inhibi inhibits ts the grow growth th of certai certain n bacte bacteria ria & may have have antifungal action Dhen sebum accumulates in the duct of the sebaceous gland & hair follicle & blocks it$ it forms a blackhead (comedo (comedo
*air & Nails are ppendages of the Skin Serves a protective function; found on all skin surface e'cept palms & soles 6art of the hair we see is the sha%t; the portion below skin surface is the root *he root$ together w) its epithelial & connective tissue coverings is the hair %olli'le .ach hair consists of cells that multiply$ manufacture keratin as they move outward$ & then die Shaft of hair consists of dead cells & their products - 0s long as hair follicle remains remains intact$ intact$ new hair will continue to grow *iny bundles of smooth muscle are associated w) hair follicles ( arre'tor ili m&s'le & contract in response to cold or fear (gooseflesh)goosebumps ails a ils deve develop lop from from horny horny epide epiderma rmall cells cells & consi consist st mainly mainly of a close closely ly compressed$ tough *eratin *he actively actively growing growing area is the white white 'res'ent (lunula at the base of the nail
$elanin *elps Determine Skin #olor Scattered Scatter ed throughout the lowest layer of the epidermis that produce granules containing pigment - 0sians have have yellowish yellowish pigment pigment (carotene (carotene & melanin melanin In albinism$ an inherited condition$ the cells are not able to produce melanin Imp3t protective screen against the sun – absorbs harmful 7K rays
Ameri'an ,an'er So'iety Suggests that sun worshippers periodically (regularly e'amine their skin for moles mol es or pigmen pigmented ted spots spots & apply apply A!,D rule rule for reco recogn gni,i i,ing ng melanoma (malignancy A : Asymmetry – 2 sides of pigmented spot)mole do not match ! : !or$er irreg&larity – borders of the lesion are not smooth but e'hibit indentations , : ,olor – – the pigmented spots contain areas of different colors (black$ brown$ tan$ sometimes blue & red D : Diameter – – spot is larger than :mm in dm (the si,e of a pencil eraser
,hater @&i(
4/ *he skin w) w) its glands$ glands$ hair$ nails$ & other other structures structures makes makes up the GGGGG GGGGG system/ system/ + IS 2/ *he 2 main main layers of the skin skin are the the outer GGGG & the inner GGGG/ – epi & der der </ *he tough tough waterproofi waterproofing ng protein protein of the epidermis epidermis is GGGG/ + keratin keratin 1/ *he GGGG GGGG layer beneath beneath the dermis consists of loose connective connective tissue/ tissue/ + subcu subcu H/ GGGGG GGGGG glands glands are attach attached ed to each each hair follic follicle le by ducts; ducts; they they secre secrete te an oil oil substance called GGG/ – seb/ "lands$ sebum :/ Sweat Sweat consists consists mainly mainly of GGGG GGGG w) some GGGGG$ GGGGG$ & small small amounts amounts of wastes/ wastes/ – water$ salts =/ *he root of the hair hair together together w) its coverings coverings is called called a GGGGG GGGGG GGGGGGG/ GGGGGGG/ + hf / ails ails consists consists of tough$ tough$ compre compresse ssed d GGGG/ GGGG/ keratin keratin >/ 6igment granules granules in the the skin produce the dark dark pigment pigment GGG/ + melanin melanin 48/Melanin protects against the sun by absorbing GGG rays/ 7K Review @&estions9
4/ In what ways ways does does the skin skin help maintai maintain n homeosta homeostasisJ sisJ 2/ Compare the structure structure of of the epidermis w) that that of the the dermis/ dermis/ </ Dhich cells cells of the epidermis epidermis actively actively divideJ Dhich are are deadJ deadJ 1/ Dhat Dhat ar the functions *he subcutaneous layerJ layhapp erJppen H/ Dh at are ise the th e functions func functi tion on of of the the thedermisJ se seba bace ceou ous s subcutan glan glands dsJ Jeous Dhat Dhat ha ens s when when they they malfunctionJ :/ Dhy is mel melan anin in impo importa rtantJ ntJ =/ %abe %abell the the diag diagra ram/ m/
TH+ S+L+TAL SYST+M !ones9 An Overview Dould creep along the ground like slugs )&n'tions o% the !ones9
4/ Support – internal internal framework framework that that supports supports & anchors all soft organs 2/ 6rotecti 6rotection on – e'/ Skull Skull – brain; verteb vertebra ra – spinal spinal cord; rib cage cage – vital organs organs of thora' </ Movement Movement – muscles muscles use bone bones s as lever levers s 1/ Storage Storage – fat$ fat$ minera minerals ls (Ca$ (Ca$ 6h H/ @lood Cell ?ormation ?ormation – hematopoies hematopoiesis is occurs occurs w)n w)n the marrow Classification of @ones 2 types Compact bone – dense$ looks smooth & homogenous Spongy bone – composed of small needlelike pieces of bone$ has open space Classification according to shape • •
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%ong bones – have shaft w) heads at both ends$ mostly compact bone (bones of limbs Short bones – cube+shaped$ cube+shaped$ mostly spongy bone (bones of wrist & ankle$ patella ?lat bones – thin$ flattened$ usually curve (bones of skull$ ribs$ sternum Irregular bones – (vertebra$ hip bones
Structure of a %ong @one
"ross 0natomy
!i !iap aphy hysi sis s – sh shaf aft$ t$ cove covere red d & prot protec ecte ted d by fibr fibrou ous s conn connec ecti tive ve tiss tissue ue (periosteum Sharp Sh arpey ey3s 3s fibers fibers – conn connec ectiv tive e tissu tissue e fiber fibers s that that secur secure e perio perioste steum um to underlying bone .piphyses – ends of long bones 0rticularr cartilage – (a hyaline cartilage 0rticula cartilage covers e'ternal e'ternal surface of the epiphyses; provides a smooth$ slippery surface .piphyseal line .piphyseal plate Qellow marrow)medullary cavity – storage for adipose tissue; red marrow – in infants$ forms blood cells @one markings – where muscles$ tendons$ ligaments attach & where bld/ Kessels els & ner erv ves pass; 2 categorie ries – pro-ect -ectio ions ns))proc rocess esses & depressions)cavities; all terms beginning w) * are pro-ections$ while ? (e'cept facet are depressions
Microscopic 0natomy
#steocytes – mature bone cells$ found w)n the matri' called lacunae
%acunae – arranged %acunae arranged in concent concentric ric circles circles called called lamellae lamellae around around central central aversian canals #steon)aversian system – central canal & matri' rings Canaliculi – tiny canals; form a transportation system that connect all bone cells to nutrient supply through hard bone matri' 6erfora 6er foratin ting g (Kol (Kolkman kmann3s n3s canals canals – complete completes s the communi communicat cation ion pathway pathway from outside of bone to its interior (& central canal
@one ?ormation$ "rowth$ & 5emodeling
#ssification – bone formation occurs at articular cartilages & epiphyseal plates by appositional growth 2 phases yaline cartilage – completely covered w) bone matri' by bone+ forming cells (osteoblasts #steoclasts – giant bone+destroying cells #steocytes – mature bone cells •
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omeostatic Imbalance 5ickets – d3se of children$ bones fail to calcify$ lack of Ca)Kit/ !
@one ?ractures omeostatic Imbalance • • •
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Closed)simple fracture – bone breaks cleanly but does not penetrate the skin #pen)compound fracture – broken bone ends penetrate through the skin *' – reduction reduction – realignment realignment of broken bone ends; closed reduction – bones are coa'ed back into their normal position by the physician3s hands; open reduction – surgery is performed$ bone ends secured together w) pins or wires; immobili,ed by cast)traction to allow healing process to begin ealing time – :+ wks/
5epair of @one ?ractures 4/ ematoma ematoma format formation ion – ruptur ruptured ed bld/ bld/ Kessel Kessels s 2/ Splinte Splinted d by fibrocar fibrocartila tilage ge callus callus – mass of repair repair tissue tissue </ @ony callus – osteoblast osteoblast & osteoclast osteoclast migrate into the the area area 1/ 5emodeling 5emodeling – in response response to mechanica mechanicall stresses stresses placed placed on it *wo parts of Skeleton 0RI0% SN.%.*# SN.%.*# ?orms the longitudinal a'is of the body – skull$ vertebral column$ bony thora'
Skull – formed by 2 sets of bones Cranium – encloses the brain ?acial bones Poined together by sutures Cranium – bo'like$ has large flat bones$ parietal & temporal only (are paired •
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?acial bones – has 41 bones$ 42 are paired (mandible & vomer are single Ma'ill Ma' illae ae – has has e'ten e'tensio sions ns (pala (palatin tine e proce process sses$ es$ conta contain in sinus sinuses es (paranasal sinuses – lighten skull bones & amplify the sounds we speak -
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?rontal 6arietal *emporal bones – imp3t bone markings – e'ternal auditory meatus$ styloid process$ ,ygomatic process$ mastoid process$ -ugular foramen$ carotid canal omeostatic omeosta tic imbalance Mastoiditis – mastoid sinuses are close to the middle ear$ may become infected too #ccipital bone – at the base is foramen magnum$ occipital condyle Sphe Sp heno noid id bone bone – butt butter erfl fly+ y+sh shap aped ed$$ has has sml/ sml/ !epr !epres essi sion on$$ sell sella a turcica)*urk3s saddle (holds pituitary gland in place$ foramen ovale – allows cranial nerve H to pass$ w) air cavities$ the sphenoid sinuses .thmoid .thm oid bone – forms forms roof of nasal nasal cavity cavity$$ has crista crista galli galli (cock3s (cock3s comb$ cribriform plates – allow nerve fibers from olfactory receptors (from nose to reach the brain
6alatine bones – forms the hard palate ygomatic bones – commonly referred as cheekbones & orbits %acrimal bones – fingernail+si,e bones asal bones – lower part is made up of cartilage Komer bone – single bone at midline of nasal cavity Inferior conchae – form the wall of nasal cavity Mandible – lower -aw$ largest$ strongest bone of face$ forms the only freely movable -oints in skull
yoid bone Suspended in the midanterior neck
Tmention regarding fetal skull
Kertebral Column (Spine ?ormed from 2: irregular bones - 0t birth$ there are are << vertebrae$ vertebrae$ > fuse forming forming sacrum sacrum & coccy' coccy' 21 singl single e bones bones (at adult adult$ $ = vert/ vert/ of neck neck (cerv (cervica icall verte vertebr brae ae$ $ 42 thorac tho racic ic vert/$ vert/$ H suppo supporti rting ng the lower lower back back (lumba (lumbarr verteb vertebra rae e – remember the meal times (=am$ 42 nn$ Hpm Separated Separat ed by fle'ible by pads of fle'ible fibrocartilag fibrocartilage e – intervertebral intervertebral discs – cushion vertebrae & absorb shocks <oung person person – >89 omeostatic imbalance – herniated (slipped discs; scoliosis$ kyphosis$ lordosis – may be congenital$ result from d3se$ poor posture$ uneBual muscle pull on the spine
Common ?eatures of Kertebrae @ody or centrum – weight+bearing part Kertebral arch – laminae & pedicles Kertebral foramen – canal where spinal cord pass *ransverse processes – lateral pro-ections Spinous process – rising$ single pro-ection
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Superiorr & inferior Superio inferior articul articular ar processe processes s – paired paired pro-ect pro-ection ions s that that allow vertebra to form -oints with ad-acent vertebrae
Cervical Kertebrae Identified as C4+C=; 4 st two – atlas & a'is – perform functions not shared by other cervical vertebrae - 0tlas for for Oyes3; a'is a'is Ono3 due to odontoid odontoid process)d process)dens ens *horacic Kertebrae *4 – *42; larger than c/ vertebrae; has long spinous process %umbar Kertebrae -
%4+%H; have massive$ block+like bodies$ most sturdy •
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Sacrum ?ormed by fusion of H vertebrae; forms posterior of wall of pelvis Coccy' ?ormed from fusion of <+H tiny irregularly shaped vert/; tailbone
@ony *hora' (composed of sternum$ ribs$ & thoracic vertebrae; often called thoracic cage •
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Sternum (b (bre reas astb tbon one e is a flat flat bone bone;; res result ult of the the fusi fusion on of < bone bones s – st manubrium$ body$ & 'yphoid process; attached to 4 = pairs of ribs Sternal puncture 5ibs -
42 pairs of ribs form the walls of the thoracic cage 0ll articulate articulate w) the the vert/ column st *rue ribs – 4 = pairs – attach directly to sternum ?alse ribs – +42 – attach indirectly to sternum; 2 are floating ribs Inte Interc rcos osta tall spac spaces es – spac spaces es b)w b)w ribs ribs fill filled ed w) musc muscle les s that that aid aid breathing
066.!IC7%0 066. !IC7%05 5 SN.%.*# SN.%.*#
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Composed of 42: bones of limbs (appendages$ pectoral & pelvic girdles$ w)c attach limbs to a'ial skeleton
@ones of Shoulder "irdle #r pectoral girdle consists of 2 bones – clavicle & scapula Clavicle or collarbone – acts as brace to hold the arm$ prevents shoulder
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dislocation Scapulae or shoulder blades – Owings3$ imp3t processes – acromion & coracoids
@ones of the 7pper %imbs <8 separate bones are foundations of the arm$ forearm$ & hand •
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?orearm radius – lateral bone$ thumb side radius & ulna articulate at raidoulnar -oints; connected by interosse interosseous ous membrane radial tuberosity – where tendon of biceps muscle attaches ulna – on little+finger side; w) coronoid process & olecranon process – separated by trochlear notch and -
formed by typic formed typical al long long bone$ bone$ humer humerus; us; has has 2 bony bony pro-ec pro-ectio tions ns – greater & lesser tubercles – sites of muscle attachment; roughened area of shaft – deltoid tuberosity; radial groove – radial nerve; trochlea$ capi capitu tulu lum m – -oin -oin w) bone bones s of fore forear arm; m; coro corono noid id foss fossa a – ante anteri rior or depression; olecranon fossa – posterior depression
Consists of carpals$ metacarpals$ phalanges carpal bones – carpus or wrist Metacarpals – form palm of the hand$ its head form the Oknuckles3 6halanges – bones of the fingers .ach .a ch conta contains ins 41 phal phalan anges ges;; < in each each finge fingerr (pro' (pro'ima imal$ l$ middle middle & distal e'cept in thumb with 2 (pro'imal & distal
@ones of the 6elvic "irdle ?ormed by 2 co'al bones or ossa co'ae commonly called hip bones *ogether w) sacrum & coccy'$ forms the bony pelvis %arge & heavy @earing wt/ is the most imp3t function •
.ach hip bone -
?ormed by fusion of ilium$ ischium$ & pubis
Ilium – connects w) sacrum at sacroiliac -oint; large bone that forms most of the hip bone; iliac crest Ischium – Ositdown bone3$ forms most of the inferior part of the co'al bone Ischial tuberosity – receives body weight when sitting Ischial spine – narrows the outlet of the pelvis through w)c the baby must pass "reater sciatic notch – allows blood vessel & large sciatic nerve to pass 6ubis – most anterior part of co'al bone #bturator foramen – an opening w)c allows blood vessels & nerve to pass into anterior part of thigh 6ubic 6u bic bone bones s fuse fuse ante anterio riorly rly to form form cartil cartilag agino inous us -oi -oint nt$$ the the pubic pubic symphysis 0cetabulum 0cetabu lum – a deep socket where ilium$ ischium$ & pubis fuse; Ovinegar cup3; receives head of the thigh bone !ivided into 2 regions false & true pelvis – allows infant3s head to pass (true p/ #utlet – inferior opening & inlet – superior opening are critical
@ones of the %ower %imbs Carry out total body wt/ when we are erect •
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?emur or thigh bone – only bone in the thigh; heaviest$ strongest strongest bone in the body as a ball+like head$ a neck$ & greater & lesser trochanters separated anterior ante riorly ly by intertro intertrocha chanter nteric ic line & posteri posteriorly orly by intertro intertrocha chanter nteric ic crest "luteal tuberosity + & trochanter serves as sites for muscle attachment eck of femur – common fracture site esp/ among old age deep Intercondylar notch – separate the lateral & medial condyles
Connected by interosseous membrane$ composed of tibia & fibula *ibia or shinbone – larger & more medial *ibial tuberosity – where patellar ligament attach medial malleolus – forms inner bulge of the ankle anterior crest – anterior surface of tibia; unprotected by muscles fibula – lies alongside of tibia$ thin & sticklike lateral malleolus – forms the outer part of the ankle
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Composed of tarsals$ metatarsals$ & phalanges
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2 imp3t functions supports body wt/$ acts as a lever that propels our body forward when we walk or run *arsus – forms posterior half of foot; composed of = tarsal bones @ody wt/ carried mostly by calcaneus or heelbone & talus or ankle H metatarsals – form the sole; 41 phalanges form the toes %ike the hand$ each toe has < phalanges e'cept great toe w) 2 %igaments – tough tissue that bind foot bones together *endons – tough band connecting muscle that help hold bones Deak arches – referred to as Ofallen arches3 or Oflat feet3
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Dhere 2 bones meet; w) 4 e'ception (hyoid every bone in the body forms a -oint w) at least other bone bone -oints or articulatio articulations3 ns3 2 functions functions – hold hold bones together together securely securely but but give rigid skeleton mobility synarthroses – immovable -oints$ and amphiarthroses – slightly movable; restricted to a'ial skeleton where firm attachments & protection of internal organs are priorities diarthroses – freely movable -oints; predominate in the limbs where mobility is imp3t MUS,ULAR SYST+M OUTLIN+
M&s'le tyes9 skeletal – ssv smooth – vin cardiac – sci • • •
M&s'le %&n'tions9 4/ pr prod oduc ucin ing g movem movemen entt
2/ mai ntaini ining po ure </ mainta st stab abil ili, i,in ing gng-oin -opost inttsture 1/ gene genera rati ting ng heat heat Mi'ros'oi' Anatomy o% S*eletal M&s'le sarcolemma myofibrils light (I and dark (0 bands sarcomeres myof my ofil ilam amen ents ts – thic thick k fila filame ment nt (myo (myosi sin n;; thin thin fila filame ment nt (act (actin in$ $ myos myosin in heads)cross bridges sarcoplasmic reticulum (S5 S*eletal M&s'le A'tivity
Stimulation and #ontraction of Single Skeletal $uscle #ells -
Nerve Stimulus & !ction )otential – neuromuscular -unctions$ synaptic cleft$ neurotransmitter – 0ch; action potential
0ch
synaptic cleft
receptors (sarcolemma
a rush into muscle cell
generates EupsetF of muscle electric current (action potential - 0echanism of 0uscle Contraction= *he Sliding 'ilament *heory Muscle fibers activated by S cross bridges attach to myosin binding sites (thin filaments sliding begins
(.nergi,ed by 0*6 each cross bridge attaches & detaches several times durin du ring g contr contract action ion musc muscle le cell cell sh shor orte tens ns reBuir reBuires es Ca ions ions (actio (action n potential causes S5 to release stored Ca into sarcoplasm
Twhen action potential ends$ Ca ions reabsorbed into S5$ muscle cell rela'es (takes a few thousandths of second 4)4=)4<
#ontraction of a Skeletal $uscle as a .hole
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,raded 4esponses > different degrees of shortening + by changing the freBuency of muscle stimulation$ & + by changing the no/ of muscle cells being stimulated
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Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation – muscle twitches (single$ (sin gle$ brief$ brief$ -erky -erky contract contractions ions; ; fused)c fused)compl omplete ete tetanus) tetanus)tita titanic nic contraction Muscle response to stronger stimuli – e'tent how many cells are stimulated
)roviding 3nergy for 0uscle Contraction + 0*6 0*6 molecules mole cules hydroly,ed release the needed energy
creatin tine e pho phosph sphate ate – from C6 to 4/ !i !ire rect ct phosp phospho hory ryla lati tion on of 0!6 0!6 by crea 0!6 2/ 0ero 0erobi bic c resp respir irat atio ion n – occu occurs rs in mi mito toch chon ondr dria ia$$ invo involv lve e meta metabo boli lic c pathways that use o'ygen referred to as o'idative phosphorylation
+ glucose broken down
to C#2 & 2#
</ 0naerob 0naerobic ic glycolysi glycolysis s and lactic acid formation formation – glucose glucose breakdown breakdown occurs in glycolysis (does not use #2$ occurs in cytosol
+ glucose pyruvic acid enters #2+reBuiring aerobic pathways in mitochondria produce more 0*6 + intense muscle activity)#2 & glucose delivery is inadeBuate to meet need nee d of worki working ng muscles muscles cann cannot ot keep up deman demands ds for 0*6 0*6 pyruvic acid converted to lactic acid (anaerobic glycolysis
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0uscle 'atigue and Oxygen ebt – – result of #2 debt that occurs during prolonged muscle activity
+ w) w)o o rest rest active muscle begins to tire until ceases reacting stops contracting
contract more weakly
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*ypes of 0uscle *ypes 0usc le Contractions + Isotoni' 'ontra'tion + Esame toneF)tension; muscle shortens; e'/ @ending the knee$ rotating the arms$ smiling$ straighten a bent elbow + Isometri' 'ontra'tion – Esame measurementF; muscles do not shorten; myosin filament are skidding; e'/ *rying to lift a 188+lb/ ob-ect alone$ push against the wall w) bent elbows 0uscle *one – state of continuous partial contraction 3ffect 3ff ect of 3xerci 3xercise se on 0uscles 0uscles – Euse Euse it or lose lose itF; itF; inc/ inc/ muscl muscle e si,e si,e$$ strength & endurance 0erobic 0erobic)enduran )endurance ce – aerobics aerobics class$ class$ -ogging$ -ogging$ biking; improves digestion$ elimination$ enhance neuro+muscular coordination 5esistance)isometric e'ercises + where muscles are uneven against some immovable ob-ect
M&s'le Movements3 Tyes3 an$ Names - H golden rules 4/ 0ll muscles muscles cross cross at at least least 4 -o -oint/ int/ 2/ *ypically *ypically$$ the bulk of the muscle lies pro'imal pro'imal to the -oint crossed/ crossed/ </ 0ll muscl muscles es have have at least least 2 attac attachmen hments ts the the origin & the insertion/ 1/ Muscles Muscles can can only only pull; pull; they they never never push/ push/ H/ !uring contraction$ contraction$ the the muscle muscle insertion insertion moves moves toward toward the origin origin
Tyes Ty es o% !o$y Movements - Origin – attached to the immovable or less movable bone - (nsertion – attached to the movable bone (when muscle contracts$ insertion moves toward the origin
'lexion – dec/ angle of -oint$ bring 2 bones close together 3xtension – inc/ the angle b)w 2 bones$ hypere'tension 4otation – mov3t of bone around its longitudinal a'is$ common mov3t of ball & socket -oints
!bduction – moving limb away from midline of body$ mov3t of fingers or toes when spread apart !dduction – mov3t of limb toward body midline Circumduction – combination of fle'ion$ e'tension$ abduction$ & adduction$ seen in ball & socket -oint (shoulder -
Special movements – occurs only at few -oints orsiflexion & plantar flexion (nversion & eversion Supination (turning backward & pronation (turning forward Opposition
Tyes Ty es o% M&s'les )rime mover – – has ma-or responsibility for causing a particular mov3t !ntagonists – oppose or reverse a mov3t (e'/ @icep & tricep Synergists – together$ erg A work; help prime movers stabili,e; e'/ Making a fist w)o bending the wrist 'ixators – speciali,ed synergists; stabili,e origin of prime mover; e'/ 6ostural muscles that stabili,e vertebral column$ muscles that anchor the scapula to thora' T0ll in all – produces smooth$ coordinated$ & precise mov3ts Naming S*eletal M&s'les Direction of muscle fi%ers – rectus (straight – run parallel; e'/ 5ectus femoris (straight muscle of thigh; obliBue (slanted !elative si/e of the muscle – ma'imus (largest$ minimus (smallest$ & longus (long +ocation of the muscle – temporalis & frontalis for muscles that overlie the temporal & frontal bones of the skull Num%er of origins – e'/ @iceps$ triceps (2)< origin +ocation of the muscle0s origin & insertion – e'/ Sternocleidomastoid – sterno (sternum$ cleido (clavicle$ mastoid (inserts on mastoid process of temporal bone Shape of the muscle – e'/ !eltoid (triangular ction of the muscle – e'/ ?le'or$ e'tensor (e'tends the wrist$ adductor (brings about adduction$
Gross Anatomy o% S*eletal M&s'les
*ead and Neck $uscles - )a'ial m&s'les – frontalis$ orbicularis oculi$ orbicularis oris$ buccinator$ ,ygomaticus -
,hewing m&s'les – masseter$ temporalis$ Ne'* m&s'les – platysma$ sternocleidomastoid$
Trunk $uscles - Anterior m&s'les – pectoralis ma-or$ intercostal muscles$ muscles of the abdominal girdle – rectus abdominis$ e'ternal obliBue$ internal obliBue$ transverses abdominis - Posterior m&s'les – trape,ius$ latissimus dorsi$ erector spinae$ deltoid -
M&s'les lim-that a't on the %orearm – biceps brachii$ M&s'les o% o% the the &er H&mer&s brachialis$ brachioradialis$ triceps brachii M&s'les o% the Lower lim- M&s'les 'a&sing movement at the hi <oint – gluteus ma'imus$ gluteus medius$ iliopsoas$ adductor muscles - M&s'les 'a&sing movement at the *nee <oint – hamstring group – biceps femoris$ semimembranosus$ semitendinosus; Sartorius$ Buadriceps group – rectus femoris$ < vastus muscles$ - M&s'les 'a&sing movement at the an*le an$ %oot – tibialis anterior$ e'tensor digitorum longus$ fibularis muscles$ gastrocnemius$ soleus
Homeostati' Im-alan'e •
Muscular dystrophy$ atrophy$ !uchenne muscular dystrophy$ myasthenia gravis
@&i(9
4/ Muscle Muscle cells cells are referre referred d to as muscle muscle GGGGG GGGGGG/ G/ – muscle fibers 2/ *he GGGGG GGGGG is the connective connective tissue covering covering around the muscle/ muscle/ + epimysium </ Cords of connective connective tissue that connect connect muscles muscles to bones bones are called GGGGG/ GGGGG/ + tendons 1/ *hick filaments filaments consist consist mainly of the protein protein GGGGGG; GGGGGG; thin thin filaments filaments consists consists of GGGG/ – myosin; actin H/ 0 muscle is stimulated stimulated to contract contract by 0ch released by a GGGG GGGG GGGG/ – motor nerve/neuron :/ 0n action action potential potential in muscle stimulates the release release of GGGG/ + Ca !*) ) =/ *he immediate immediate source source of of energy for muscle muscle contraction contraction is GGGG/ GGGG/ – !* / Creatin Creatine e phospha phosphate te is a compound compound that that stores stores GGGG/ GGGG/ + energy >/ *he state state of partial partial contraction contraction that that e'ists in a muscle muscle even when when we are are not moving is called GGGG GGGG/ – muscle tone 48/0 muscle that opposes a prime mover (agonist is called a (an GGGG/ + antagonists 44/ Synergists are muscles that stabili,e GGG/ – joints 42/*he striations in striated muscle result to form a/ creatine phosphate$ b/ 0*6 breakdown$ '/ the overlapping of actin & myosin filaments$ d/ the pattern isometric contraction characteristic of these muscles/
4</Myosin binds to actin$ forming cross bridges/ Dhat happens ne'tJ a/ 0ch is released$ b/ Ca ions stimulate a process that leads to e'posure of active sites$ '1 filaments slide past each other)muscle fiber shortens$ d/ myosin is energi,ed 41/"lycoge 41/ "lycogen n is a/ produced produced by actin$ -/ an energy storage molecule$ c/ depleted w)n 4 sec of strenuous activity$ d/ causes o'ygen debt when depleted 4H/0 muscle used in chewing is the a/ triceps brachii$ b/ gluteus ma'imus$ c/ Buadriceps femoris$ $/ masseter 4:/0 4:/ 0 muscle muscle that e'tends the thigh is the a/ gluteus ma'imus$ b/ deltoid$ c/ Buadriceps femoris$ d/ gastrocnemius 4=/0 muscle that fle'es the trunk is a/ e'ternal obliBue$ -/ rectus abdominis$ c/ Buadriceps femoris$ d/ gastrocnemius 4/0 muscle that e'tends the elbow is the a/ triceps brachii$ b/ gluteus ma'imus$ c/ Buadriceps femoris$ d/ masseter 4>/0 muscle that e'tends leg at the knee is the a/ biceps femoris$ b/ deltoid$ '/ Buadriceps femoris$ d/ the gastrocnemius 28/0 muscle that plantar fle'es the foot is the a/ Sartorius$ b/ deltoid$ c/ Buadriceps femoris$ $/ soleus
N+R0OUS SYST+M Intro$&'tion
Qou are crossing the street when suddenly you stopped due to a fast+ approaching vehicle
Qou are eating Oeminems3 then a single piece suddenly fell off out of your hand but you were able to catch it because you sensed right away that it would fall/ *hese are all functions of ervous System
Nervo&s System – master controlling and and communicating system system of the body + communicating due to electrical impulses (rapid and specific 6 overlaing %&n'tions9 4/ Sensory re'etors (millions + monitor changes (stimuli gathered info sensory input 2/ 6rocesse 6rocesses s and interpr interprets ets input input and makes makes decision decisions s ( integration </ .ffects .ffects a respon response se by activat activating ing muscle muscles s or glands glands ( motor o&t&t
.'/ driving seegoes a redfor light (sensory S integration of info (red lightDhen means stop and foot brake pedal input (motor output
TDorks with endocrine system as regulating system
Organi(ation o% the NS Str&'t&ral ,lassi%i'ation9 #NS – – brain and spinal cord (dorsal (dorsal body cavity – integrating and command center of ervous System PNS – – outside CS – nerves from brain to spinal cord Spinal nerves – carry impulses to and from the s/c/ Cranial nerves – carry impulses to and from the brain )&n'tional ,lassi%i'ation PNS – Sensory fferent Division – nerve fibers – convey impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors Somatic sensory fibers – deliver impulse from skin$ skeletal muscle$ and -oints .isceral sensory fibers – transmit impulse from CS to effector organs$ muscles$ and glands - .ffect)bring about a motor response 5 $ivisions9 4/ Somatic nervous system1voluntary NS – – voluntary control skeletal muscles 2/ NS1invol2 NS – – regulates activity automatic)involuntary – e'/ 0ctivity of cardiac$ smooth muscles$ & gland 5 arts9 6arasympathetic & Sympathetic Nervo&s Tiss&e - Made up of supporting cells and neurons
Supporting cells – ne&roglia (nerve glue or glia Include •
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Astro'ytes – star+ shaped nearly half of neural tissue; pick up e'cess ions$ recapture released neurotransmitters Mi'roglia – spider+like; dispose off debris (brain cells$ bacteria +en$ymal 'ells – line the brain & s/c/; helps circulate CS? Oligo$en$ro'ytes – wrap their flat e'tensions to nerve fibers forming myelin sheath
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Ne&roglia – not able to transmit nerve impulses; never lose ability to divide; most brain tumors are gliomas)tumors formed by glial cells (neuroglia
5 ma<or varieties9 Sch-ann cells – form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers (6S
Satellite cells – protective$ cushioning cells
Ne&ronBs Anatomy 0/k/a/ as nerve 'ells -
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#ell %ody – – contain nucleus$ metabolic center of the cell; contains usual organelles e'cept centiroles e'cept centiroles Niss0l su%stance (rough .5 & neurofi%rils – maintain cell shape rm3like processes1fi%ers – from microscopic to <+1 ft/ (from lumbar region of spine to the big toe Convey incoming messages (electrical signals toward cell body dendrites "enerate nerve impulses$ conduct then away from cell body a'ons
@ranch a terminal ends forming hundreds to thousands a'onal terminal - Contains hundreds of tiny vesicle)membranous sacs that contain chemicals neurotransmitters "ap b)w a'onal terminal and ne't neuron synaptic cleft ; ; functional -unction synapse $yelin – covering of nerve fibers; whitish fatty material; has wa'y appearance - 6rotects$ insulates fibers and inc/ transmission rate of nerve impulses 6art of Schwann cell$ e'ternal to myelin sheath neurilemma "aps of myelin sheath)indentations – nodes of !anvier Cell bodies are found in the CS clusters nuclei Small collections of cell bodies ganglia - ?ound in 6S
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@undles of nerve fibers (neuron processes running through the CS - (in 6S – nerves .hite matter – – myelinated fibers fibers ray matter – – unmyelinated fibers fibers and cell bodies
tracts
,lassi%i'ation
)&n'tional 'lassi%i'ation – groups neurons according to the direction direction the nerve impulse is traveling; there are sensory $ motor $ & association neurons Sensory1afferent neurons – carry impulses from sensory receptors to CS – cutaneous sense organs – sensory receptors in skin; proprioceptors – sensory receptors in tendons & muscles •
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$otor1efferent neurons – carry impulses form CS to viscera)muscles)glands; cell bodies are always located in CS
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ssociation neuron1interneurons – connect motor & sensory neurons in neural pathways; cell bodies always located in CS
Str&'t&ral 'lassi%i'ation – is based on the no/ of processes e'tending from cell body $ultipolar neuron – several •
Bipolar neuron – w) 2 processes – a'on & dendrite; found in some organs (eyes$ ear ,nipolar neurons – have single process emerging form cell body; found in 6S ganglia
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Physiology Nerve Im&lses >along &nmyelinate$ %i-ers? 5 ma<or %&n'tional roerties Irrita-ility – ability to respond to stimulus & convert it into nerve impulse o ,on$&'tivity – ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons$ muscles$ o or glands -
Polari(e$ (there are fewer L ion on inner face of p/m/; ma-or cation is 3 while Na on outside
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!ifferent types of stimuli e'cite neurons to become active & generate impulse – e'/ %ight – eye$ sound – ear$ pressure – skin$ neurotransmitters
inward rush of a ions changes polarity of neuron membrane ($eolari(ation inside more L$ outside less L
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Stimulus strong enough activate neuron to initiate & transmit action potential)nerve impulse in neurons
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0ll or one one response response
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0fter a ions rush rush inward inward membrane perm/ Changes impermeable to a but permeable to N ions N ion allowed to diffuse outside
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#utflow of L ions from cell restores electrical condition at membrane – to polari,ed)resting state (reolari(ation
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7ntil repolari,ation occurs$ a neuron cannot conduct another impulse
a & N ions in & out are restored by activation of NaC &m (uses 0*6 0* 6
(myelinated fibers – conduct impulses faster co, nerve impulse -ump from node to node (saltatory conduction
,on$&'tivity
0ction potential potential arrives arrives vesicle fuses w) plasma membrane neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft neurotransmitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron3s membrane ion channel opens ion channel closes
Re%le. Ar' -
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0lthough there are many types types of communicatio communication n b)w neurons$ neurons$ much much of what we do is programmed as refle'es – are rapid$ predictable$ & inovl/ responses to stimuli 5efle'es occur over neural path#ays – re%le. ar's *ypes autonomic & & somatic A&tonomi' re%le.es – regulate activity of smooth muscles$ heart$ & glands – e'/ secretion of saliva (salivary refle'$ changes in si,e of eye pupils (pupillary refle' 4egulate body functions – digestion$ elimination$ @6$ sweating Somati' re%le.es – stimulate skeletal muscles Moving your finger away from painful ob-ect (e'/ 6ins$ knife ? elements sensory receptor (reacts (reacts to stimulus$ effector organ (muscle)gland$ afferent & efferent neurons (to connect the 2 integration center (synapse (synapse b)w the 2 .'/ 6atellar)knee+-erk refle' (Buadriceps muscle attached to hit tendon is stretched Ill&stration sensory re'etor a%%erent or sensory ne&ron integration 'enter – – association neuron e%%erent or motor ne&ron e%%e'tor
,+NTRAL N+R0OUS SYST+M -
Ne&ral t&-e (in embryonic dev3t (1th wk anterior end begins to e'pand brain formation begins rest of tube becomes s/c/ central canal
form chamber (ventricles
)&n'tional Anatomy o% the !rain - about 2 fistfuls of pinkish gray tissue$ wrinkled$ has te'ture of cold oatmeal$ weighs over <+lbs/ - 1 ma-or regions cerebral hemispheres$ diencephalon$ brain stem$ cerebellum
#ere%ral *emispheres - Most superior part of the brain - .ntire surface have elevated ridges of tissue – gyri (twisters; separated by shallow grooves + s&l'i (furrows; deeper grooves – %iss&res (separate large regions of brain - *hese divide each cerebral hemisphere into lo-es – named after for cranial bones that lie over them - Speech$ memory$ logical & emotional response)consciousness$ interpretation of sensation$ vol/ mov3t/ Somati' sensory area >Parietal Lo-e? - Interpret impulses form sensory receptors (e'cept special senses - .'/ 5ecogni,e pain$ coldness$ light touch -
6athways are crossed – the % side of the sensory corte' receives impulses from the 5 side of the body
0is&al area >O''iital Lo-e? A&$itory area3 Ol%a'tory >Temoral >Temoral Lo-e? - 0lso involves involves comple' comple' memories memories Primary motor area >)rontal Lo-e? - 0llows us us to consciously consciously move skeletal skeletal muscles muscles - ?orm the ma-or voluntary motor tract – pyramidal)corticospinal tract - Control body areas having finest motor control (face$ mouth$ hands - @elieved to involve higher intellectual reasoning ; also comple' memories - %anguage comprehension !ro'aBs area – ability to speak – usually at left$ causes inability to say words properly if damaged See'h area – located at the -unction of temporal$ parietal$ & occipital lobes; allows to sound out words; usually in only 4 cerebral hemisphere ,or&s 'allos&m – very large fiber tract that connects the cerebral hems/ to communicate w) each other !asal n&'lei – help regulate voluntary motor activities$ found w)n white matter
Homeostati' im-alan'e9 6roblem in @asal uclei – unable to walk normally)do vol/ mov3ts (huntington3s chorea$ parkinson3s d3se
Diencephalon 4
@&i(9
4/ 0n e'ampl e'ample e of integra integratio tion n by the S is a/ the feel of a cold old bree,e e,e b/ the shive ivering ing & goo goose bumps umps tha hatt res result ult $1 the $e'ision to go -a'* %or an &m-rella c/ the sound of rain 2/ 0 type of brain trauma trauma likely likely to result in a long+term long+term coma is a/ concussion b/ cortical contusion '1 -rain stem 'ont&sion d/ uncontrolled subdural hemorrhage </ Cranial nerves that have have some function in vision vision include include the the '1 a-$&'ens a/ trochlear b/ trigeminal
d/ facial
1/ a+N pumps mps a/ help maintain the hyperpolari,ed state of the resting neuron b/ pump N ions out of the neuron '1 hel maintain the resting otential o% the ne&ron d/ are activated by strong voltage H/ 0n ac actio tion n pote potenti ntial al a1 is an allCorCnone resonse b/ depends on the presence of myelin in the neuron c/ is accelerated by . d/ is the mechanism of neural signaling across synapses :/ *he part part of the the brain brain that helps maintain posture & eBuilibrium eBuilibrium is the -1 'ere-ell&m a/ medulla c/ cerebrum d/ thalamus =/ *he part part of the the brain brain that controls voluntary movement movement is the the '1 'ere-r&m a/ medulla b/ cerebellum
d/ hypothalamus
/ *he part of the brain brain that links the the nervous nervous and endocrine endocrine systems is the $1 hyothalam&s a/ medulla b/ thalamus c/ cerebrum >/ Kisu Kisual al info info is integ integrat rated ed in a1 o''iital lo-e b/ frontal lobe
c/ temporal lobe
d/ parietal lobe
48/Spinal 48/ Spinal nerves nerves are -1 transmit sensory in%o to the s1'1 a/ mainly motor nerves c/ transmit motor info to the s/c/ d/ consist of both preganglionic & postg/ postg/ neuron 44/ eurons that release 0ch are referred to as -1 'holinergi' a/ adrenergic c/ preganglionic
d/ terminal
42/*he CS consists of the GGGGGG and the GGGG GGGG + brain$ spinal cord 4</*he supporting cells of nervous tissue are called + glial 41/Cells that are speciali,ed to transmit nerve impulses are called GGGG/ + neurons 4H/*he fiber of a neuron speciali,ed to transmit impulses away from the cell body is the GGGGGGGG/ + a'on 4:/*he -unction b)w 2 neurons is called GGGGGGGGG/ + synapse 4=/*he cavities w)n the brain are called GGGGGGGG/ + ventricles 4/*he 4/ *he medulla$ pons$ & midbrain make up the GGGGGGG/ 4>/*he central canal of the spinal cord is surrounded by an area of GG matter/ + gray 28/*he outermost of the meninges is the tough GGGGGGG/ – dura mater 24/*he space below arachnoid membrane is known as GGGG/ – subarachnoid space 22/*he part of the 6S that keeps the body in ad-ustment w) the e'ternal env3t is the GGGGG division/ division/ – somatic 2</*he 2nd cranial nerve is the GGGG$ the 48 th cranial nerve is the GGG/ – optic$ vagus 21/*he dorsal root of a spinal nerve consists of GGGG fibers/ – sensory (afferent 2H/*he rate & force of contraction of the heart are increased by its GGG nerves/ – sympathetic
S+NS+ ORGANS @&i(9
4/ 6hotorec 6hotorecepto eptors rs that that function function in dim dim light light are a1 ro$s b/ cones c/ rods & cones
d/ ciliary processes
2/ *he area of sharp sharpest est visio vision n is the a/ %ovea b/ optic disc c/ iris
d/ optic chiasm
</ *he pigment pigment GGGGGGG GGGGGGG in the the rod cells cells is responsibl responsible e for our ability to see – rho$osin 1/ *he ability ability to change change focus focus for near near or far vision by changing changing the shape shape of the the lens is called – a''ommo$ation H/ *he auditory auditory ossicle ossicles s are are the the – malle&s$ in'&s$ staes :/ *he orga organ n of Corti Corti are are locate located d in the the – 'o'hlea
=/ Information Information about about turning turning movements movements is sensed by the three – semi'ir'&lar 'anals / Information Information from receptors receptors in the olfactory olfactory epithelium epithelium is transmitted transmitted by what what nerveJ – ol%a'tory >/ #tolith #toliths s are found found in the the GGG GGG & GGG/ GGG/ – sa''&le$ &tri'le 48/ow do sensory receptors help us maintain homeostasisJ +NDO,RIN+ SYST+M
4/ Hyothalam&s
releasing & inhibiting factors
21 Pit&itary glan$
stimulating hormone
-5
4'
*S5 $ -5
Negative )ee$-a'*
dec/ *S
inc/ *<$ *1$ *hyrocalcitonin
Positive )ee$-a'* Me'hanism
inc/ *S$ inc/ thyroid hormones
0drenal corte'
steroids (a retention$ N secretion
Hyerthyroi$ism >GraveBs Disease?"Thyroto.i'osis CS stimulation
Calcitonin – dec/ Ca metabolism
blood
inc/ @M5 – hyperactivity
bones
stress response
)arathormone – inc/ Ca metabolism – bones – blood
inc/ Ca resorption
Ca – clotting factor U 1 </ Thym&s – * cells (*@
41 Pan'reas 3xocrine gland acinar cells – pancreatic en,ymes (amylase$ lipase$ proteases 3ndocrine gland islets of %angherhans – hormones !lpha cells – glucagon – glycogen glucose eta cells – glucose glycogen + cellular uptake of glucose + conversion of e'cess glucose to fats
inc/ Ca absorption
(release
Concentrated urine – osmotic diuresis
?ats
ketones
yperglycemia – 4888 mg)dl
CS depressants
!N0 (type 2
coma
HHN (type 4 c'
H/ A$renal glan$s – inc/ cortisol Hyer'ortisolism; ,&shing syn$rome; inc/ C#$ fat$ dec/ C# metabolism; stress response$ anti+inflammatory
,&shingBs Syn$rome >Hyer'ortisolism? – hypernatremia; hypokalemia$ mood swings (androgen & estro; edema (inc/ a retention A inc/ 2o retention; inc/ blood volume (hypervolemia$ PK!$ ascites$ anasarcha$ inc/ v)s$ muscle weakness$ paralysis$ constipation In'rease$ ,HO Meta-olism – hyperglycemia; inc/ fat embolism deposition – buffalo hump$ trunchal obesity$ moon face
fatty
De'rease$ ,HON Meta-olism – muscle wasting$ dec/ blood cell production$ s)s
of anemia$ inc/)dec/ D@C$ dec/ platelet ct/ – poor wound healing$ bleeding tendencies$ fragile skin In'rease$ Se. Hormones – inc/ androgen – masculination$ hirsutism (?; (M – inc/ estrogen – gynecomastia A$$sionBs Disease >Hyo'ortisolism? - yponatremia$ hyperkalemia$ wt/ loss$ orthostatic hypotension$ bradycardia - @ron,e discoloration of d3se (cardinal sign ,ohnBs Syn$rome >Hyeral$osteronism?
A$renal me$&lla (Sympathetic S activation Pheo'hromo'ytoma – tumor in adrenal medulla; inc/ catecholamines
:/ Ovaries – pregnancy – no ovulation; 188+1H8 viable ova
+NDO,RIN+ SYST+M @&i(9
4/ Dhat does does the the endocr endocrine ine gland gland lackJ lackJ – duct duct 2/ It is defined defined as a chemical chemical messenge messengerr that stimulates stimulates a change in some metabolic activity – hormone </ ormone ormones s combine combine w) w) receptor receptors s on GGG cells cells// + target target
1/ H/ :/ =/ / >/
*he hormone hormone GGG GGG stimulates stimulates contraction contraction of the uterus – o'ytocin o'ytocin *he hormone hormone GGG sitmulates sitmulates milk production production in in the lactating lactating breast breast – prolactin prolactin " is produ produced ced by what what part part of the 6"J – anter anterior ior 0ntidiuretic 0ntidiuretic hormone hormone is produced produced by what part part of the pituitary glandJ – posterior posterior ypersecretion ypersecretion of of " during during childhood childhood may result in GGGG + gigantism gigantism *he main function of the * is to stimulate the GGG + metabolism)rate metabolism)rate of metabolism 48/In addition to *$ thyroid gland produces a hormone called GGGG + calcitonin 44/ 0 hormone that raises the level of a in the blood is G GGG GG + aldosterone 42/@lood glucose concentration is lowered by the hormone GGG released by the pancreas – insulin 4</@lood glucose concentration is raised by the hormone GGG released from the pancreas – glucagon 41/0drenal medulla releases GGGG & GGGG + epinephrine & norepinephrine 4H/Dhich of the ff/ hormones is (are secreted by neuronsJ a1 o.yto'in '1 ADH b/ insulin d/ cortisol
4:/ 06$ 06$ the hormone secreted by the heart has e'actly the opposite function to this hormone secreted by the outermost ,one of the adrenal corte' '1 al$osterone a/ epinephrine b/ coritsol d/ testosterone
4=/ 6 may result from hypersecretion of a/ thyro'ine b/ cortisol c/ aldosterone
4/ Dhich of the following is given as a drug to reduce inflammationJ -1 'ortisol a/ epinephrine c/ aldosterone d/ 0!
4>/ *he following are not a correct pair a/ coritsol)glucocorticoid coritsol)glucocort icoid c/ o'ytocin)neurohormone
28/ the ff/ hormone raises blood calcium concentration -1 PTH a/ calcitonin c/ melatonin d/ progesterone
$1 ADH"0asoressin ADH"0asoressin
b/ 0C*)tropic hormone $1 estrogens"mineralo'orti'oi$
!LOOD >28 items?
4/ 2/ </ 1/ H/ :/ 71
*he function function of of red blood cells is to transport transport GGGGGGG/ GGGGGGG/ – oxygen *he liBuid liBuid porti portion on of blood blood is called called GGGG GGGGGGGG GGGGG/ G/ – plasma Some of of the gamma gamma globu globulins lins serve serve as as GGGGG/ GGGGG/ – antibodies ?ibrinog ?ibrinogen en functio functions ns in blood blood GGGG GGGGGGG GGGG/ G/ – clotting 5ed bloo blood d cells cells are prod produced uced in in the GGGGG GGGGGG/ G/ – red bone marro# 0 defic deficienc iency y of hgb hgb is called called GGGGG GGGGGGG/ GG/ – anemia *he function of neutrophils is to GGGGGGGG/ – defend body against dAse; fight acute infection
/ GGGGGG GGGGGGGGGG GGGGG G patch patch damaged damaged blood blood vessel vessels/ s/ – platelets >/ ?ibrinogen ?ibrinogen is converte converted d to GGGGG GGGGG by an en,yme en,yme called GGGGG/ – fibrin; thrombin 48/0 person w) type @ blood has type GGGGGGG antigens on the surfaces of his 5@Cs and GGGGG antibodies in his plasma/ – ; anti !; 44/ emolytic anemia in the newborn (erythroblastosis fetalis may occur when when there is GGGGG incompatibility/ *his may occur when a woman with GGGGGG blood 4h 4h:negative 4h:positive produces a baby with GGGGG blood/ – ; ; ,ar$iovas'&lar System >28 items?
4/ *he outer outer layer layer of the the heart heart is the the visceral visceral GGGGG/ GGGGG/ – pericardium pericardium 2/ *he bulk of the heat heat wall wall consists of GGGGG/ GGGGG/ – myocardium) myocardium) cardiac cardiac muscle muscle </ *he wall wall separating separating the ventricles ventricles of the heart heart is called called the GGGG/ – interventricular septum 1/ *he left 0K valve valve is often often called called the GGGG GGGG valve/ valve/ – bicuspid)mitra bicuspid)mitrall H/ 0ortic 0ortic & pulmonary pulmonary valves valves are are GGGGG GGGGG valves valves – semilunar semilunar :/ @lood is is delivered delivered to the heart heart wall wall by the the GGGG arteries/ arteries/ – coronary coronary =/ *he GGGG GGGG is called the the pacemaker pacemaker of the heart/ – S0)sinoatrial S0)sinoatrial node / ?rom the 0K node$ node$ the electrical electrical impulse impulse spreads spreads into speciali,ed speciali,ed muscle muscle fibers that form the 0K GGGGG/ – bundle >/ In the cardiac cardiac cycle$ cycle$ the period period of contract contraction ion is called called GGGGGG GGGGGG & the period of of rela'ation is called GGGGGG/ – systole; diastole 48/0t 48/ 0t the time the atria are contracting$ contracting$ the ventricles are in GGGGG/ diastole 44/ *he volume of blood pumped by 4 ventricle in 4 minute is the GGGGG/ + C# 42/*he amount of blood pumped by 4 ventricle during 4 beat is the GGGG/ + SK 13. eart rate is slowed by GGGGG nerves and speeded by GGGGG/+ parasympathetic; sympathetic
