Introduction to Leadership

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Kurs: Introduction to Leadership Verantwortlicher: Prof. Dr. Kehr Semester: Credits: Winter Semester 2011/12 3

Session 1 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 5 Definition of Leadership .................................................................................................................. 5 Why it is defined in so many different ways ................................................................................... 5 How to measure leadership effectiveness ...................................................................................... 5 Measurement criteria depending on the system level: .................................................................. 6 Development of management theories .......................................................................................... 6 Mediation vs. Moderation ............................................................................................................... 6 Development of leadership theories ............................................................................................... 6 Description of leadership ................................................................................................................ 7 Meaning of leadership and differentiation from management ...................................................... 8 Influence of leadership on organizational performance ................................................................. 9 Important leadership roles ............................................................................................................ 10 Major satisfactions and frustrations associated with leadership role .......................................... 10 Framework for understanding leadership..................................................................................... 11 Direct vs. Indirect Leadership ........................................................................................................ 11 Session 2 Traits Motives and Characteristics of Leaders................................................................... 12 Characteristics of Leaders in Contrast to Managers ..................................................................... 12 General personality traits of effective leaders .............................................................................. 12 Task related personality traits for effective leaders ..................................................................... 12 Leadership motives (task related) ................................................................................................. 13 Cognitive factors and leadership ................................................................................................... 13 Level 5 leadership .......................................................................................................................... 14 Strengths and Limitations of the leaders characteristics approach .............................................. 14 Session 3 Effective Leadership Behaviors, Delegation and Participation ......................................... 15 Autocratic versus Democratic Leadership Style ............................................................................ 15 Effective and ineffective leader behavior ..................................................................................... 15 Mintsberg’s Managerial Roles ....................................................................................................... 15 Ohio State Michigan State Leadership Studies ............................................................................. 16

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Participative Leadership ................................................................................................................ 16 Consequences of Participative Leadership.................................................................................... 16 How to Diagnose Decision Situations ............................................................................................ 16 How to encourage participation ................................................................................................... 16 What to delegate ........................................................................................................................... 17 Pros and Cons of Delegation ......................................................................................................... 17 How to delegate ............................................................................................................................ 17 Limitations of Participation Research ........................................................................................... 17 Normative Decision Model (Vroom and Yetton) ........................................................................... 18 Casual Relationship in the normative decision model .................................................................. 18 Simplified Version of the Normative Decision Model ................................................................... 19 Leadership Continuum (Tannenbaum,Schmidt) ........................................................................... 19 Session 4 Charisma and Transformational Leadership ..................................................................... 20 Charisma ............................................................................................................................................ 20 Max Webers Approach to Charisma ............................................................................................. 20 Attribution Theory of Charismatic Leadership .............................................................................. 20 Routinization of Charisma ............................................................................................................. 20 Effects of charisma ........................................................................................................................ 20 Types of charismatic leaders ......................................................................................................... 21 Characteristics of charismatic leaders ........................................................................................... 21 Vision ............................................................................................................................................. 21 Communication Style .................................................................................................................... 21 Development of charisma ............................................................................................................. 22 Downsides of charismatic leadership ............................................................................................ 22 Transformational/ Transactional leadership .................................................................................... 22 transformational leadership .......................................................................................................... 22 Guideline for Transformational Leadership .................................................................................. 23 Transactional leadership ............................................................................................................... 23 Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 23 Session 5 Legitimation of Leadership, Power and Influence Tactics ..................................................... 24 Definitions ......................................................................................................................................... 24 Sources and types of power .............................................................................................................. 24 Difference Transformational / Transactional leadership .................................................................. 25 Empowerment ................................................................................................................................... 25 Components of empowerment ..................................................................................................... 25

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Empowering practices ................................................................................................................... 25 Effective delegation and empowerment....................................................................................... 26 Guidelines .......................................................................................................................................... 26 Reward Power ............................................................................................................................... 26 Coercive Power.............................................................................................................................. 26 Expert power ................................................................................................................................. 26 Referent power ............................................................................................................................. 27 Organizational Politics ....................................................................................................................... 27 Tactics and strategies to gain power ............................................................................................. 27 Tactics and strategies aimed at building relationships ................................................................. 27 Avoiding political blunders ............................................................................................................ 27 Political tactics and strategies ....................................................................................................... 28 The power network ........................................................................................................................... 28 Session 6 Situational Leadership and Theories of Motivation .............................................................. 29 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory ................................................................................................. 29 Alderfer’s ERG theory ........................................................................................................................ 30 McClellands’s acquired needs theory ............................................................................................... 31 Herzberg’s two-factor theory ............................................................................................................ 32 Vrooms VIE Theory ............................................................................................................................ 33 Valence .......................................................................................................................................... 33 Expectancy..................................................................................................................................... 33 Instrumentality .............................................................................................................................. 33 Behavior Modification Strategies ...................................................................................................... 34 Fiedler’s Contingency Theory ............................................................................................................ 35 Hersey & Blanchard’s Contingency Approach ................................................................................... 36 Path Goal Theory ............................................................................................................................... 37 Leadership Substitutes Theory .......................................................................................................... 38 Yukl’s Multiple Linkage Model .......................................................................................................... 39 General Evaluation of Contingency Models ...................................................................................... 39 Goal setting theory ............................................................................................................................ 40 SMARTCH Goals ............................................................................................................................. 40 Goal-Goal Conflict ......................................................................................................................... 40 Goal-Motive Conflict ..................................................................................................................... 40 Approach and fear motives ........................................................................................................... 40 Volitional mechanisms .................................................................................................................. 40

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Self –regulation vs. Self-control .................................................................................................... 41 Action regulation ........................................................................................................................... 41 Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation.................................................................................................... 41 Useful methods for situations incongruent with personal needs ................................................. 42 Vision ............................................................................................................................................. 42 Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 42 Kehr’s Compensatory Model of Work Motivation and Volition ....................................................... 43 Underlying beliefs:......................................................................................................................... 43 What to do..................................................................................................................................... 43 Diagnose the situation .................................................................................................................. 44 Guideline for situational leadership .............................................................................................. 44

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Session 1 Overview
Definition of Leadership Durbin: Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how it can be done effectively, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish the shared objectives Rosenstiel: Leadership is goal directed influence Yukl: Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives. Leadership:   Does not have to be voluntary at all times Almost every behavior that can be followed can be considered leadership behavior

Why it is defined in so many different ways It is usually defined according to the individual perspectives and the aspects of the phenomenon of most interest to the researchers. Definitions differ:      Specialized role or shared influenced process Distinction between leader and follower Type of influence process (ethnical/ unethical use of power, etc.) Purpose of influence attempts (in organizational context, selfless/selfish) Influence based on reason or emotions

How to measure leadership effectiveness Leadership can be measured by:      Subordinate satisfaction On goals / goal achievement Sales/ profit Project fulfillment Performance increases

but: -> subjective measure -> Quality of group processes -> multiple criteria -> immediate and delayed outcome

Key variables are:  Characteristics of the leader o Confidence and optimism o Skills and expertise o Behavior o Integrity and ethics, etc.

Introduction to Leadership 

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

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Characteristics of the followers o Skills and expertise o Confidence and optimism o Attributions about the leader o Trust in the leader o Satisfaction with job and leader Characteristics of the situation o Size of unit o Position power and authority of leader o Task structure and complexity o Task interdependence o Environmental uncertainty

Measurement criteria depending on the system level:
Individual •satisfaction •happiness, joy Team •stability •group coheision Organisation •sucess •productivity, output

Development of management theories Starts with Phenomenon Correlations Causal mechanism Theory: Explanation Irregularities/Failures of explanation

Example e.g. birds that fly Between wind size and body weight Wing size is most important Setup of theory Test/experience (humans with large wings can’t fly)

Refinement of theory Contingency theory: Prediction and action  Theory makes only sense if practical experience can be used Mediation vs. Moderation A moderator variable is one that influences the strength of a relationship between two other variables, and a mediator variable is one that explains the relationship between the two other variables. Example red traffic light: A car has to stop when there is a red traffic light. The law to stop would be the mediator. In different countries the same law exists but not everyone stops at every red traffic light. The region would be the moderator. The mediator is the reason for the relation between stopping cars and red traffic lights. The moderator is responsible for the diversity in the relation between red light and stopping the car. Development of leadership theories Trait Approach:
Leader Traits and Skills Performance Outcomes

-Some people are natural leaders, endowed with certain traits not possessed by other people

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Style theory, focus on leader/ behavior approach
Leader Traits and Skills Leader Behavior Performance Outcome

-Leadership effectiveness depends in part on how well a manager resolves role conflicts, copes with demands, recognizes opportunities and overcomes constraints.

Style theory, focus on follower / power-influence approach
Follower Attidudes and Behaviors

Leader Traits and Skills

Leader Behaviour

Influence Proccesses

Performance Outcomes

A general contingency model of leadership/ situational approach
Follower Attidudes and Behaviors

Leader Traits and Skills

Leader Behaviour

Influence Proccesses

Performance Outcomes

Situational Variables, e.g. stress

Description of leadership Individual process Seldom, as leadership involve influence processes between individuals. More: Self management theories Dyadic process In order to understand leadership effectiveness i the influence between leader and follower over time is to be examined. Group process Leadership can be viewed as a group process. Two key topics include the nature of the leadership role in a task group and how a leader contributes to group effectiveness. Measurement criteria are:     How well the work is organized to utilize personal and resource How committed members are to performing their work roles How confident members are that the task can be accomplished successfully Extend to which members trust each other and cooperate in accomplishing task objectives

Introduction to Leadership Organizational process

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Group approach extended to a larger social system.    Adaptation to the environment Acquisition of necessary resources Efficiency of the transformation process used by the organization to produce its products and services (rationality)

Leader vs. Follower-Centered Theory Theories that focus almost exclusively on either the leader or the follower are less useful than theories that offer a more balanced explanation. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Theory Descriptive theories explain leadership processes, describe the typical activities of leaders and explain why certain behaviors occur in particular situations. Prescriptive theories specify what leaders must do to become effective and they identify any necessary conditions for using a particular type of behavior effectively. Universal vs. Contingency Theory Universal theories can be either descriptive or prescriptive. They describe either typical functions performed to some extend by all types of leaders (descriptive) or they specify functions all leaders must perform to be effective (prescriptive). Contingency theories describe an aspect of leadership that applies to some situations but not to others. They can also be descriptive or prescriptive.

Meaning of leadership and differentiation from management Def.: Leadership is the ability to inspire confidence and support among the people who are needed to achieve organizational goals. Regarded as a long-term relationship between leaders and group member main characteristics are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Exchange of purpose. Everyone is responsible for defining visions and values A right to say no. To punishment for expression of contrary opinion Joint accountability. Everyone is responsible for the outcome and the current situation. Absolute honesty. Management Planning, organizing and controlling , directing Administrative aspects Leading is a part of management More formal and scientific than leadership Universal skills: planning, budgeting, controlling based on reasoning and testing

Leadership Change, inspiration, motivation and influence Interpersonal aspects

Having a vision of what the organization can become Requires eliciting cooperation and teamwork, motivation and persuasion

Introduction to Leadership Produces change (e.g. new products) Transform organizations Creates a vision

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12 Produces a degree of predictability and order Maintain organizations Implements the vision

Good managers have to be good leaders and good leaders have to be good managers. Critical viewpoint   People don’t neatly fit into these two stereotypes Can be distinct processes but can be performed by the same people

Influence of leadership on organizational performance Cons: Substitutes for leadership Substitutes for leadership are factors in the work environment that provide guidance and incentives to perform, making the leader’s role almost unnecessary.     Closely knit teams Intrinsic satisfaction Computer technology (monitoring software) Professional norms

Leader irrelevance    Factors outside the leaders control have a larger impact on business outcomes than leadership actions (e.g. change in demand, trend, environmental changes) Leaders control is limited by obligations to stakeholders (shareholders, consumers) Organizations tend to choose leaders who are compatible with company values, therefore leaders behavior are fairly similar.

Complexity theory   Pros:   Change of leaders often leads to sudden change of profit Knowledge of business makes a difference in leadership effectiveness Organizations are complex systems which can’t be explained by usual roles of nature Companies faith is determined by forces outside the leader

Introduction to Leadership Important leadership roles
Figurehead

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Spokesperson

Negotiator

Coach

Team builder Team player

Technical problem solver Entrepreneur

Strategic planer

Entertaining clients and customers as an official representative Making oneself available as an representative of the organization Escorting official visitors For upper-level management Clients and customers Important outsiders and labor unions Professional colleagues General public Bargaining with superiors for funds, facilities, equipment and support Bargaining with others units for the use of staff, etc. Bargaining with suppliers and vendors for services, etc. Informally recognize team members achievements Providing team members with feedback concerning ineffective behavior Inform team members of steps that can improve their performance Ensuring that team members are recognized for their accomplishments Initiating activities that contribute to group morale Displaying appropriate personal conduct Cooperating with other units in the organization Displaying loyalty to superiors by supporting their plans Serving as a technical expert or adviser Performing individual contributor tasks on a regular basis (e.g. sales calls) Keep up with what is happening in the industry Talking with customers to keep aware of changing needs and requirements Getting involved in situations outside the unit that suggest ways of improving the unit’s performance Setting a direction for the organization Helping the firm deal with the external environment Helping develop organizational policies

Major satisfactions and frustrations associated with leadership role Sources of satisfaction:        Feeling of power and prestige Chance to help others grow and develop High income Respect and status Good opportunities for advancement Feeling of “being in on” things Opportunity to control money and other resources

Sources of dissatisfaction and frustration        Too much uncompensated overtime Too many headaches Not enough authority to carry out responsibility Loneliness Too many problems involving people Too much organizational politics Pursuit of conflicting goals

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Framework for understanding leadership
Leader characteristics and traits

internal and external environment

leader behaviour and style

group member characteristics

Leadership characteristics and traits Leader behavior and style Group members characteristics Internal and external environment Direct vs. Indirect Leadership Indirect leadership   

Inner qualities: self confidence, problem solving abilities Activities engaged in by the leader Attributes of the group members

Influence transmitted down the hierarchy of an organization Influence transmitted over formal programs, managements systems and structural forms Influence over the organization culture (shared believes and values of members)

Direct leadership  Leadership through direct (face to face) contact e.g. in meetings

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Session 2 Traits Motives and Characteristics of Leaders
Characteristics of Leaders in Contrast to Managers Managers Leaders Value stability an order Value flexibility and innovation Risk avoiders Risk seekers Efficiency Effectiveness Do the things right Do the right things Develop goal hierarchies Inspire with vision Low emotional involvement High emotional involvement

Leaders:     Selectively show their weaknesses Rely heavily on intuition Practice tough empathy Reveal their differences

General personality traits of effective leaders  Self confidence  High tolerance for frustration  Warmth  Sense of humor  Trustworthiness  Extroversion  Assertiveness  Emotional stability Task related personality traits for effective leaders  Passion  Courage  Locus of control (preferred internal=prime movers behind events, closely related to self confidence)  Flexibility and capability  Emotional intelligence o Self awareness o Self regulation o Motivation o Empathy o Social skill

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Leadership motives (task related)  Power motive (strong dominant characteristics) o Act with determination to exert their power o Invest much time in thinking about ways to alter the behavior of others o Care about personal standing those around them o Personal motive to further own interests or o Socialized motive to achieve organizational goals  Drive and achievement motive (strong effort in achieving work goals) o Joy in accomplishment for its own sake o Achieve through ones one efforts and take responsibility for success or failure o Take moderate risks that can be handled through one’s own efforts o Receive feedback on level of performance o Introduce novel, innovative or creative solutions o Plan and set goals  Strong work ethic o Firm believe in the dignity of work o Well motivated because they value hard work Tenacity o Good in overcoming obstacles

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Cognitive factors and leadership  Openness to experience  Knowledge of the business or group task o Show knowledge in the group task to some extend  Creativity  Insight into people and situations o Considerable intuition and common sense o Ability to make wise choices in selecting people for key assignments  Farsightedness and conceptual thinking o Ability to understand the long-range implications of actions and policies

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Level 5 leadership Distinguishing traits of effective leaders: Level 1 2 3 4 5 Traits As an individual, the person makes productive contributions through talent, knowledge, skills and good work habits As a contributing team member, the person contributes individual capabilities to achievement of group objectives and works effectively with others in a groups setting As a manager, the person organizes people and resources towards the effective and efficient pursuit of predetermined objectives As a leader, the person catalyses commitment to and vigorous pursuit of a clear and compelling vision, stimulation high performance standards The distinguishing traits are the ability to build enduring greatness through a paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will

Strengths and Limitations of the leaders characteristics approach Strengths Limitations Leaders posses personal characteristics that Doesn’t tell which traits are absolutely needed in differ from those of nonleaders which leadership situation Doesn’t say anything about the right amount of trait, characteristic or motive Week empirical evidence Interactive effects of different traits unknown Intuitively compelling, but overly simplistic. Leads to an elitist conception of leadership that might discourage people from seeking leadership positions

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Session 3 Effective Leadership Behaviors, Delegation and Participation
Involving others in making decisions is often a necessary part of the political process for getting decisions approved and implemented in organizations. Delegation is a distinct type of power-sharing process that occurs when a manager gives subordinates the responsibility and authority for making some types of decisions formerly made by the manager. Empowerment involves the perception by members of an organization that they have the opportunity to determine their work roles, accomplish meaningful work and influence important events. Autocratic versus Democratic Leadership Style Autocratic Centralizes authority Dictates work methods Makes unilateral decisions Limits employee participation Democratic Involves employees in decision making Delegates authority (“empowerment”) Encourages participation in deciding work methods and goals Uses feedback as opportunity to coach empl. Laissez-Fair Gives employees complete freedom to ask decisions and complete their work as they see fit Provides materials and answers questions

Result of Boys Group Experiments on Leadership Styles    Quantity of work high for democratic and autocratic Quality of work high in democratic Productivity and Satisfaction low in Laissez-Fair, more conflicts

Effective and ineffective leader behavior considered effective leader behavior Delegation ability Total awareness of situation Calmness Knowing when to interact and when to let go Mintsberg’s Managerial Roles Role Information processing roles Decision making roles Interpersonal roles

Considered ineffective leader behavior Unwillingness to accept chance, critics Perfectionism Stress and hectic

Behavior Disseminator (hand out information), Monitor, Spokesperson Entrepreneur, Disturbance Handler, Resource Allocator, Negotiator Liaison (brings people together), Figurehead (is identified for something

Introduction to Leadership
people oriented relation oriented •treats all work-unit members as his or her equal •is friendly and approachable •does little things to make work pleasant •puts suggestions made by the work unit into operation •looks out for personal walfare of work unit members •creates supportive socioemotional work atmosphere •maintains high morale in work unit •mentorizes and coaches

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Ohio State Michigan State Leadership Studies
concept •for the Ohio state leadership studies it's is a unidemensional concept (either, or) •for the michigan leadership studies it's a bidimensional concept task oriented •lets work-unit membergs know what is expected of them •schedueles the work to be done •encourages the use of uniform work procedures •assigns work-unit members to particular tasks •plans tasks for work-unit members •makes his or her attidude clear to the work unit •clarifies work roles •asks for results

According to the Michigan Group effective managers have a high concern for both people and production/task orientation

Participative Leadership Levels in participative leadership decision making process autocratic decission tell consultation sell/consult joint decision share/consult delegation share

Consequences of Participative Leadership Benefits     Decision quality (more information in group) Decision acceptance (high identification) Satisfaction with decision process (dignity and respect) Development of participant skills (skills and confidence)

How to Diagnose Decision Situations  Evaluate importance of decision  Identification of people with relevant expertise and knowledge  Are participants willing to cooperate?  Would there be acceptance without participation?  Feasibility of meeting (Ausführbarkeit) How to encourage participation  Encourage expression of concerns  Describe proposals as tentative  Record ideas and suggestions

Introduction to Leadership    

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Build on ideas and suggestions Listen to dissenting views without getting defensive Utilize suggestions and deals with concerns Show appreciation for suggestions

What to delegate  Tasks that a subordinate can do better  Tasks that are urgent but not of high priority  Tasks relevant to a subordinate’s career  Tasks of appropriate difficulty  Both pleasant and unpleasant tasks  Tasks not central to the manager’s role Pros and Cons of Delegation When to Develop subordinate skills and confidence Enable sub. To deal with problems quickly Move decisions close to action Increase subordinate commitment

When not to Decisions involving confidential information Very important tasks and decisions Keep task and decision central to leader role Task for which mistakes are highly visible

How to delegate  Specify responsibilities clearly  Provide adequate authority and specify limits of discretion  Specify reporting requirements  Ensure subordinate acceptance of responsibilities  Inform others who need to know  Monitor progress in appropriate ways  Arrange for the subordinate to receive necessary information  Provide support and assistance but avoid reverse delegation  Make mistakes a learning experience

Limitations of Participation Research  Lack of evidence  Problems in measurement of direction of causality  Weak methods used (studies where participation was combined with other interventions, no effort made in identifying the particular mix or decision procedures, organizational programs rather than manager individual behavior)  Overall satisfaction measured rather than satisfaction with particular decision handling  Various forms of participations effectives in some situation but not consistently

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Normative Decision Model (Vroom and Yetton) AI Decide for Yourself Confidential information, High importance, Central to leader role AII Ask for Information, then decide CI Consult with individual group members, then decide CII Consult with the whole team, then Way to develop subordinate skills and confidence decide (together) When high commitment to task is desired GII Give decision to group Way to move subordinates close to action Way to make job more interesting to subordinates But: Time consuming Biggest gap between CI and CII: restricted participation (participants chosen by leader) to full participation. Casual Relationship in the normative decision model Decision procedure Situational variables Situational variables      Decision Acceptance Decision Quality     Decision Rules Important decision, subordinates posses relevant information lacked by the leader Quality important, subordinates do not share the leaders concern for task goals Quality important, unstructured decision problem, leader does not possess necessary information Acceptance important, subordinates unlikely to accept autocratic decision Acceptance important, subordinates likely to disagree among each other Decision quality not important, acceptance important, autocratic decisions not accepted Decision acceptance important, subordinates share leaders task objectives Not AI, AII! Not GII! CII, GII Not AI, AII! Not AI, AII, CI GII GII Amount of relevant information possessed by leader and subordinates Likelihood that subordinates will accept an autocratic decision Likelihood that subordinates will cooperate if allowed to participate Amount of disagreement among subordinates with respect to their prefferd alternatives Extend to which the decision problem is unstructured and requires creative problem solving Degree of commitment to implement a decision effectively Objective aspects of decision that affect group performance aside effects mediated by decision acceptance Quality is high when best alternative is selected Important when important consequences for group performance Decision quality and acceptance Unit/team performance

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12 Subordinate Acceptance Not important or assured Important and not with autocratic decision assured with autocratic decision Autocratic Group Autocratic Group

Simplified Version of the Normative Decision Model Decision Quality

Not important Important, but leader has sufficient information, members share leaders goals Important, but leader has sufficient information, members do not share the leaders goals Important and the leader lacks essential information: members share leader goals Important and the leader lacks essential information. Members don’t share leaders goals

Autocratic

Consultation

Consultation Consultation

Group Consultation

Leadership Continuum (Tannenbaum,Schmidt)

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Session 4 Charisma and Transformational Leadership Charisma
Max Webers Approach to Charisma  Charisma is a “divinely inspired gift” (Greek)  Charisma is one out of three types of authority: o Traditional authority o Bureaucratic- legal authority o Charismatic authority  Facilitation condition: Crisis  Leader attributes: Radical vision, exceptional powers  Follower perceptions: Believe in leader’s vision, attribute superhuman powers to charismatic leader Attribution Theory of Charismatic Leadership  Charisma as an attributional phenomenon  Leader traits and behaviors o Vision (not too incompatible with followers values), unconventional actions, selfsacrifices, personal risks, self-confidence, personal appeals o Use of slogans, symbols, rituals, and ceremonies  Influence processes o Personal identification, follower’s desire to please and imitate the leader, idolization, fear of being rejected  Facilitating conditions o Follower disenchantment, crisis Routinization of Charisma  Difficult to find a successor  Charisma can be transferred with rites and ceremonies o Hard find an extraordinary successor o Unwillingness of charismatic leader to ensure transition  Weber says: Routinization of charisma by bureaucratic organization Effects of charisma  Similarity of beliefs  Affection for the leader  Identification with and emulation of the leader  Group member trust  Unquestioning acceptance  Willing obedience  Emotional involvement  Heightened goals  Perceived ability to contribute

Referent Power: Ability to influence others that stems from the leader’s desirable traits and characteristics Expert Power: Ability to influence others because of one’s specialized knowledge, skills or abilities Job involvement by the follower: Task or Mission related

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Types of charismatic leaders Socialized charismatic leader Personalized charismatic Office-holder charismatic

Personal charismatic Devine charismatic

Restrains the use of power in order to benefit others Exercise few restraints on their use of power so they may best serve their own interests Charismatic leadership is more a property of the office occupied than of his or her personal characteristics (loses charisma when leaving office) Gain very high esteem through the extent to which others have faith in them as a people Endowed with a gift of divine grace (Max Weber)”Savior that leads people through a crisis”

Characteristics of charismatic leaders Visionary Offer an exciting image of where the organization is headed and how to get there Masterful communication skills Colorful language and exciting metaphors and analogies Ability to inspire trust Able to make group members feel capable Emotional expressiveness and Express positive feelings, warm gestures and frequent touching warmth of group members Romanticize risks Feel empty in absence of risk Unconventional strategies to achieve success Self promoting personality Allow others to know how important they are Being dramatic and unique Vision     

Lofty, long-term goal Effective leader supposed to have a vision Major task of top management is to create vision Important part of strategy implementation Need to be supported by managers who are strong at implementation

Communication Style  Colorful imaginative and expressive manner  Open communication with group members  Encourage two way communication  Promoting a sense of confidence  Use of metaphors and analogies  Gear language to different audiences  Use of memorable anecdotes

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Development of charisma  Be enthusiastic, optimistic and energetic  Create visions for others  Be persistent  Remember names of people to show respect and appreciation  Make impressive appearance  Be candid, explicit in giving assessment of a situation  Display an “in your face” attitude Downsides of charismatic leadership  Leader reduces good suggestions by followers  Desire for leader acceptance inhibits criticism by followers  Excessive confidence and optimism blind the leader to real dangers  Denial of problems and failures reduces organizational learning  Taking complete credit for successes alienates some key followers  Impulsive, nontraditional behavior creates enemies as well as believers

Transformational/ Transactional leadership
transformational leadership

The focus of transformational leadership is on what the leader accomplishes rather than on the leader’s personal characteristics and his or her relationship with group members.(charismatic leadership) It serves to change the status quo by:    Appealing to followers’ values and their sense of higher purpose Reframing issues so they are aligned with the leader’s vision and the followers values Operating at a higher stage of moral development than their followers

It transforms followers by    Increasing awareness of task outcomes Transcending followers self interest Activation followers higher order needs

It is characterized by idealized influence/ Inspirational motivaton individual consideration

intellectual stimulation

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Motives are
power (Influence and dominance, social control) Affiliation (Establishment and intensification of social relations) Achievment (Meeting or excelling of self-set achievement-related standards)

Guideline for Transformational Leadership  Be authentic  Be empathetic  Articulate a clear and appealing vision  Explain how the vision can be attained  Act confident and optimistic  Express confidence in followers  Use dramatic, symbolic actions to emphasize key values  Lead by example  Empower people to achieve the vison

Transactional leadership Transactional leadership is characterized by leaders and followers being in an exchange relationship. E.g. exchanging money for work, votes for votes, loyalty for consideration. It involves    Exchange processes Enhances follower compliance Does not generate enthusiasm or commitment

Summary Charisma is a special quality of leaders whose purposes, power and extraordinary determination differentiate them from others. Charisma is also a positive and compelling quality of a person, which creates a desire in many others to be led by him or her. The relationship between group members and the leaders is significant because the group members must attribute charismatic qualities to the leader.

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Session 5 Legitimation of Leadership, Power and Influence Tactics
Definitions
Power involves the capacity of one party to influence another party and control resources. Authority involves the rights, prerogatives and obligations, duties associated with particular positions in an organization or social system. Manipulation is influencing somebody to one’s own advantage without recognizing the others advantage. It involves non-transparent means of influence and aims at conveying the impression that the other person has made a free decision. Machiavellism:    People are self-centered and self serving Leaders must be strong, ruthless and cynical Machiavellians are people who ruthlessly manipulate others, practice deception and bluff

Sources and types of power
Position Power Usually referred to Manager characteristics, derive from the organizational setting rather than from the person itself Rather transactional leadership The lawful right to make a decision and expect compliance (Army general) The authority to give employees rewards for compliance

Personal Power

Power stemming from owners Power stemming from providing resources Power derived from capitalizing on

Legitimate power Reward power Coercive The power to punish for noncompliance; based on fear power Information The power stemming from formal control over the power information people need to do their work (e.g. ITAdministrators) Ecological The power stemming from control over important resources power Usually referred to leadership characteristics, derive rather from the person than from the organization. Rather transformational leadership Expert Ability to influence others through specialized knowledge, power skills or abilities Referent Ability to influence others through desirable traits and power characteristics Prestige The power stemming from one’s status and reputation power e.g. acting on behalf of a company’s shareholders

Leader has control over important resources (Ecological power), but loses power when the power to control resources declines Power derived from being in the right place at the right time and taking the appropriate action

Introduction to Leadership opportunity Power stemming from managing critical problems Power stemming from being close to power

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12 The units or individuals best able to cope with critical problems acquire relatively large amounts of power. E.g. legal department when company faces lawsuits. The closer a person is to power, the grater the power he or she exerts. (E.g. Individuals reporting directly to CEO has higher power than others reporting to general manager)

Difference Transformational / Transactional leadership
Transformational leadership is depicted as the influence a leader acquires through being respected and admired by group members. In contrast transactional leadership is largely based on exchanges between the leader and group members, such as using rewards and punishments to control behavior.

Empowerment
The nature of empowerment refers to passing decision making authority and responsibility from managers to group members. Almost any form of participative management, shared decision making and delegation can be regarded as empowerment. Components of empowerment  Meaning, value of a work goal, evaluated in relation to a person’s ideals or standards  Competence/ self-efficiency, an individual’s belief in his or her capability to perform a particular task well  Self determination, an individual’s feeling of having a choice in initiating and regulation actions  Impact, degree to which the worker can influence strategic  Internal commitment toward work goals. Empowering practices Foster initiative and responsibility

Link work activities to the goals of the organization Provide ample information

Allow group members to choose methods Encourage self-leadership Implement team-based human resource policies Establish limits to empowerment

Empower team members by fostering greater initiative and responsibility in their assignments. E.g. Assign higher importance to the task, or promote employees without changing their tasks Align work activities with the strategic goals of the organization. Leads to more identification with the companies. Employees should have all important information about everything that affects their work Explain the group(members) what needs to be done and leave the how open to them Encouraging team members to lead themselves is the heart of empowerment e.g. basing pay on team performance Make clear what boundaries of empowerment are

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Effective delegation and empowerment Delegation is narrower than empowerment because delegation deals with a specific task, whereas empowerment covers a broad range of activities and a mental set about assuming more responsibility.          Assign duties to the right people When feasible delegate the whole task Give as much instruction as needed Allow group member to choose the method for accomplishing the assignment Retain some important tasks for yourself Obtain feedback on the delegated task Delegate both pleasant and unpleasant tasks to group members Step back from details Evaluate and reward performance

Guidelines
Reward Power  Offer the type of rewards that people desire  Offer rewards that are fair and ethical  Don’t promise more than you can deliver  Explain the criteria for giving rewards and keep it simple  Provide rewards as promised if requirements are met  Use rewards symbolically (not in manipulative way) Coercive Power  Explain rules and requirements  Respond to infractions promptly  Investigate to get the facts before using punishment  Provide oral and written warnings  Administer warning and reprimands in private  Stay calm  Express a sincere desire to help the person comply with the role  Invite the person to suggest ways to correct the problem  Maintain credibility by administering punishment  Use punishments that are legitimate and fair Expert power  Explain the reasons for a request or proposal  Provide evidence that a proposal will be successful  Don’t make rash careless or inconsistent statements  Don’t exaggerate or misrepresent facts  Listen seriously to the person’s concerns and suggestions  Act confidently and decisively in a crisis

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Referent power  Show acceptance and positive regard  Act supportive and helpful  Use sincere forms of ingratiation  Defend and back up people when appropriate  Do unsolicited favors  Make self sacrifices to show concern  Keep promises

Organizational Politics
Ways and approaches to gaining power through means other than merit or luck Composites are:    Tactics to gain power Tactics to build personal relationships Tactics to avoid political blunders

Tactics and strategies to gain power  Develop power contacts  Control vital information  Keep informed  Control lines of communication  Bring in outside experts  Make a quick showing of dramatic results to gain acceptance Tactics and strategies aimed at building relationships  Display loyalty  Manage your impression  Ask satisfied customers to contact your boss  Be courteous, pleasant and positive  Ask advice  Send thank you notes to large numbers of people  Flatter others sensibly Avoiding political blunders  Never criticize the boss in public forum  Never bypass the boss  Hardly ever decline offer from top management

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Political tactics and strategies  Back stabbing, pretend to be nice but all the while plan someone’s demise  Embrace or demolish, remove rivals that suffered from your efforts, otherwise the wounded rivals might retaliate at a vulnerable moment  Setting a person up for failure, place a person in a position where he or she will either fail outright or look ineffective  Divide and rule, have subordinates fight among themselves to yield the balance of power to another person  Play territorial games, e.g. protecting and hoarding resources (information, relationships)

The power network

Direction of influence Intensity of influence Higher ranked Lower ranked Closer Further away

Proactive Influence Tactics Rational Persuasion Inspirational appeals Consultation Collaboration Apprising (Explain benefits) Ingratiation (praise &flattery) Exchange Personal appeals Coalition tactics Legitimation tactics Pressure

RAT INS CON COL APP ING EXC PER COA LEG PRE

Undue Influence Tactics Undue pressure, threats, persistent reminders Upward appeal from leader to follower Silent treatment Blemish Foot in the door( start with small favor continue with big) Door in the face (start with big favor continue with small) Good cop bad cop Erratic behavior Back stabbing Embrace or demolish Setting person up for failure Playing territorial games

UPRE APP SIL BLE FITD DITF GCBC ERR STA EOD SPF PTG

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Session 6 Situational Leadership and Theories of Motivation
Motivation to work refers to forces within an individual that account for the level, direction and persistence of effort expended at work.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
1960

Critics:       Not always a bottom to top direction Hardly any empirical evidence There is a problem in deciding when a level has actually been "satisfied" The model ignores the often-observed behavior of individuals who tolerate low-pay for the promise of future benefits The same need (e.g. the need to interact socially at work) may cause quite different behavior in different individuals Individual behavior seems to respond to several needs - not just one

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Alderfer’s ERG theory
The ERG Theory was developed by Clayton Alderfer in the late 60’s. This theory differs from Maslow’s theory. It says that instead of hierarchy of needs, there are only three parameters to motivate people. Alderfer believes that there can be more than one need which motivates people at a time.

Satisfaction, Progression Frustration, Reduction Maslow Self Actualization Self Esteem Social Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs Alderfer Growth Relatedness Existence

Critics: In reality needs are not well-defined and differentiated

Introduction to Leadership Only one with empirical research!

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

McClellands’s acquired needs theory
According to McClelland, most people posses and portray a mixture of these characteristics. Some people display a strong bias towards a particular motivational need which, in return, influences their behavior and influences their working/management style.

Maslow Self actualization Social needs High need for power

McClellands Need for achievement Need for affiliation Esteem needs

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Hygiene Factors Hygiene factors are based on the need to for a business to avoid unpleasantness at work. If these factors are considered inadequate by employees, then they can cause dissatisfaction with work. Hygiene factors include:       Company policy and administration Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration Quality of supervision Quality of inter-personal relations Working conditions Feelings of job security

Motivator Factors Motivator factors are based on an individual's need for personal growth. When they exist, motivator factors actively create job satisfaction. If they are effective, then they can motivate an individual to achieve above-average performance and effort. Motivator factors include:       Status Opportunity for advancement Gaining recognition Responsibility Challenging / stimulating work Sense of personal achievement & personal growth in a job

Critics:     May be “method-bound” by self-serving bias Some individual differences, like desire for pay, rejected as a motivator. Also, not everyone wants an enriched job Assumes satisfaction (presence of motivators) = motivation theory does not allow for individual differences

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Vrooms VIE Theory
assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Together with Edward Lawler and Lyman Porter, Victor Vroom suggested that the relationship between people's behavior at work and their goals was not as simple as was first imagined by other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individuals factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. The theory suggests that although individuals may have different sets of goals, they can be motivated if they believe that:
   

There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance, Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward, The reward will satisfy an important need, The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile.

The theory is based upon the following beliefs: Valence Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes [rewards]. The depth of the want of an employee for extrinsic [money, promotion, time-off, benefits] or intrinsic [satisfaction] rewards). Management must discover what employees value. Expectancy Employees have different expectations and levels of confidence about what they are capable of doing. Management must discover what resources, training, or supervision employees need. Instrumentality The perception of employees as to whether they will actually get what they desire even if it has been promised by a manager. Management must ensure that promises of rewards are fulfilled and that employees are aware of that. Vroom suggests that an employee's beliefs about Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence interact psychologically to create a motivational force such that the employee acts in ways that bring pleasure and avoid pain.

Critics:  Hardly ever done, as decisions usually made by intuition

Introduction to Leadership OB mod Rules are:         

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Behavior Modification Strategies
Target the desired behavior Choose an appropriate reward or punishment Supply ample feedback Do not give everyone the same size reward Find some constructive behavior to reinforce Schedule rewards intermittently Rewards and punishments should follow the behavior closely in time Change the reward periodically Make the rewards visible and the punishments known Desirable consequences Positive Reinforcement Strengthens and increases the likelihood of a particular behavior being repeated because a desirable consequence is presented (personal bonus for good performance) Extinction Remove a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a response. (cut Christmas bonus for bad performance, already too late to change behavior) Undesirable consequences Punishment Add an unpleasant stimulus as a consequence of a response (lay off workers) Negative Reinforcement Strengthens the probability of a particular behavior being repeated by withdrawing an undesirable consequence (Manager looks angry at employees having too many coffee brakes, employees go back to work as they don’t like the boss to look angry at them)

Presented

Removed

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
The contingency theory of leadership says the closer the match between leader style and a particular situation, the more effective the leader will be. This theory follows the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale, as shown to the right. If a leader scores high on the LPC, it means the leader is relationship oriented, whereas being low on the LPC means that the leader is task oriented according to Rowe & Guerrero.

Task motivated leader With Low LPC High control situations

Relation motivated leader With high LPC Moderate control situations

Task motivated leader With Low LPC Low control situations

Advancements:   Focused on situational factors Stimulated much research

Problems:      Empirical results inconsistent LPC measure questionable Theoretical foundation lacking Leader behavior is treated as a trait Conclusions ethically questionable

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Hersey & Blanchard’s Contingency Approach
The fundamental underpinning of the situational leadership theory is there is no single "best" style of leadership. Effective leadership is task-relevant and that the most successful leaders are those that adapt their leadership style to the maturity ("the capacity to set high but attainable goals, willingness and ability to take responsibility for the task, and relevant education and/or experience of an individual or a group for the task) of the individual or group they are attempting to lead/influence. That effective leadership varies, not only with the person or group that is being influenced, but it will also depend on the task, job or function that needs to be accomplished.   S1: Telling - is characterized by one-way communication in which the leader defines the roles of the individual or group and provides the what, how, why,when, and where to do the task S2: Selling - while the leader is still providing the direction, he or she is now using two-way communication and providing the socioemotional support that will allow the individual or group being influenced to buy into the process. S3: Participating - this is now shared decision making about aspects of how the task is accomplished and the leader is providing less task behaviors while maintaining high relationship behavior. S4: Delegating - the leader is still involved in decisions; however, the process and responsibility has been passed to the individual or group. The leader stays involved to monitor progress.

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Advancements:       Builds on Blake & Mouton’s two dimensional approach Easy to understand and to apply Broadly used in management training Problems Concept of “maturity” collapses motivation and abilities Simplistic concept of motivation

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Path Goal Theory
The path–goal theory, also known as the path–goal theory of leader effectiveness or the path–goal model, is a leadership theory developed by Robert House, an Ohio State University graduate, in 1971 and revised in 1996. The theory states that a leader's behavior is contingent to the satisfaction, motivation and performance of her or his subordinates. The revised version also argues that the leader engages in behaviors that complement subordinate's abilities and compensate for deficiencies. The path–goal model can be classified both as a contingency or as a transactional leadership theory.
Causual Variables Leader behavior Intervening Variables Subordinate expectancies, instrumentalities, valences (VIE) (EIV) End-Result Variables Subordinate effort and sattisfaction

Situational Moderator Variables Characteristics of task and environment Characteristics of subordinates

Leadership Styles:     Directive Supportive Participative Achievement-oriented

Advancements:    Conceptual framework to identify situational variables and to act accordingly Systematic approach, easy to apply Founded in motivational psychology (Vrooms VIE model)

Problems:    Based on VIE model, only Important aspects of human motivation are disregarded Empirical results are inconclusive

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Leadership Substitutes Theory
There are subsitutes for leadeship e.g. strong employee identification with the company or high effort and neutralizers. Even the best leadership effort does not work if neutralizers are strong e.g. no authority. The aim is to erase neutralizers and support substitutes.

Subordinate characteristic
Experience ability training Professional orientation Indifference toward rewards

Supportive leadership

Instrumental leadership

O S N O O S S N O O N

S S N S S O S N S N N

Task characteristics
Structured routine task Feedback provided by task Intrinsically satisfying task

Organization characteristics
Cohesive work group Low position power Formalization (roles, procedures) Inflexibility (rules, policies) Dispersed subordinate work sites

Introduction to Leadership   

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Yukl’s Multiple Linkage Model
Direct, immediate effects (aim directly at EIV’s) Direct delayed effects (e.g. removing neutralizers) Indirect effects ( try to influence situational variables e.g. change environment)

General Evaluation of Contingency Models
Advancements:    Drew the attention on situational moderators of effective leadership Advanced theorizing and empirical research Economically successful in management trainings

Problems:       Leader traits mostly neglected Mostly narrow focus on instrumental, supportive, and participative leadership Intervening variables (i.e. the coworker!) not explicitly discussed, restricted to cognitive aspects, or very broad (Yukl) The theoretical basis is rather narrow Empirical support mostly inconclusive Applicability impaired because models are mostly overly simplistic

What new models need: A theory with both universal elements (general principals) and situational elements (guidelines to help identify desirable behaviors for a particular type of situation)

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Goal setting theory
Goals are anticipated positive future states or events which a person strives to achieve. Goals are seen as an effective means for promoting motivation and are therefore used as an instrument for leading and motivating people. SMARTCH Goals  Specific (specifying the what, why and how)  Measurable (availability of criteria for assessing progress and success)  Attainable (the goal is not out of reach)  Realistic (availability of required skills, resources, and time)  Timely (clearly set time frame)  CHalleging Goal-Goal Conflict Preexisting goal conflicts which preserve over time might also impair the attainment of newly set goals. Types of goal conflicts are:    Approach-Approach (decide between two appealing goals) Approach-Avoidance (option has positive and negative aspects) Avoidance-Avoidance (choice between two disliked opportunities)

Goal-Motive Conflict People who pursue goals which are not in line with their latent motives are less satisfied even if they reach their goals. If a person’s explicit motives do not align with his implicit motives, he may have cognitive preferences and goals that conflict with his affective preferences and needs.  Implicit motives are subconsciously aroused through certain situational cues and cause affective preferences and unconscious behavioral impulses. They cannot be assessed with self-report techniques and are mostly not aware to the person. o Affiliation o Achievement o Power Explicit motives represent the person’s self-ascribed motives. They are social cues and cause cognitive preferences, which result in explicit action tendencies. They can be assessed by self-report techniques. A way to assess implicit motives is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Aim is to write a story about a picture which then can by assessed by psychologists who should reveal implicit motives. Another method is a emotion diary, which asses the feelings of a person throughout a day.

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Approach and fear motives People may also have approach motives (hope of success, hope of control…) and fear motives (fear of failure, fear o floss of control…). Fear and approach motives can create conflicts. Volitional mechanisms Volitional mechanisms are required in order to overcome motive-goal conflicts. Volition is defined as an array of self-regulatory strategies to support goals against competing behavioral impulses from aroused implicit motives. Volition compensates for lacking or insufficient motivation.

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Possible ways of volition are:  Motivation control (e.g. develop positive fantasies)  Emotion control (e.g. lifting one’s mood by going out for drinks)  Attention control (focusing one’s attention on the task at hand) But:    

Volitionally supporting a challenging goal can be difficult and exhausting People differ in their ability to control their behavior volitionally (volitional strength, self control strength) Person’s volitional strength may be decreased as a result of extensive volitional activities High discrepancies in implicit and explicit motives decrease volitional strength

Self –regulation vs. Self-control  Self regulation corresponds to the concept of volition. It is the ability to overcome not existing or conflicting motivation for existing goals.  Self control is a self disciplined style of action control. E.g. rigid planning of actions (strictly planning of every step without allowing flexibility for spontaneous actions) Action regulation Different goal types are:     Values Superior, long-term goals Subordinate, short-term goals Subgoals (goals in order to reach other goals)

Discrepancies between the given results and the defined goal will initiate a new operation intended to ultimately achieve the goal. The goal has motivational (goal energizes or pulls the action) and cognitive (the goal as a point of reference) functions in the process of action regulation. Regulation problems can be:    Regulation obstacles (difficulties e.g. lack of information, or interruptions Regulation uncertainty (person does not know how to achieve a goal) Overtaxing regulations (excessive demands regarding the speed and intensity of regulations, eg. Time pressure)

Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation  Intrinsic motivation describes a behavior that is carried out for its own sake  Extrinsic motivation describes a behavior that is aimed at reaching a benfit which is not included in the activity itself  If implicit and explicit motives are combined with adequate perceived abilities the person will experience flow  Flow experience is a specific form of intrinsic motivation, it is characterized by full attention to the task, impeded sense of time and an absence of intrapersonal conflict and selfreferential or other disturbing thoughts

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Useful methods for situations incongruent with personal needs  Reframing: Putting the current situation into a new – generally a broader picture. It generally increases the potential of the situation to arouse one’s implicit motives.  Volition strategies  Reorganizing functions. Visualize single steps and feel affective responsive. Choose the steps with positive affective responses to achieve motivation. Vision Comparing goals and visions, goals operate on a conscious cognitive level and are based on rational facts. A vision is image based and seems to affect a person more unconsciously and emotionally. Goals set a definite timeframe and influence specific rational choices. Visions operate from a longterm perspective with a vague timeframe and offer global point of reference. The following mechanisms mediate the influence of visions on the follower’s actions:      The future image expressed in an vision indicates the venture’s direction, idea and uniqueness Visions orient actions and efforts toward a set of evocative goals Visions provide a general structure for the integration and coordination of activities Visions formulate beliefs that are fundamental for the development of corporate norms and structures Visions support the feeling of identification and meaningfulness

Goals are related to a person’s explicit motives, visions are based on the arousal of implicit motives.

Summary  Self awareness of ones’s own needs and preferences (SMARTCH)  Anticipation of possible conflicts with other goals or hindering external conditions  Having the courage to sometimes admit that a goal may simply not be suitable for oneself  Goals aren’t the only motivating agents: People can be motivated by an enjoyable and satisfying activity as well as by a vision

Introduction to Leadership

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12

Kehr’s Compensatory Model of Work Motivation and Volition
Underlying beliefs:  Everyone has motivational energy  The energy is often blocked in the workplace  Removing blockages requires employee participation What to do  Find out “how the person ticks” through informal conversation  Put together a list of possible outcomes and allow reframing goals (way goals are formulated)  Formal meeting o Affirmative assertion (positive formulated statements) o Leverage questioning (ask the right questions to find out if a certain idea is right or wrong) o Moment of truth (subordinate finds the reason himself

Implicit motives

Explicit motives

Increase Overlap by Volition

Organismic needs deeper motives  Subconsciously activated  Energize spontaneous and pleasurable behavior  Affiliation, achievement, power  Fear(avoidance) and hope (approach) components  Measured by (TAT, MMG, picture test) Explicit goals, self-attributed motives  Consciously reflected  Energize goal-directed actions  Measured by: questionnaire (PRF) Suppress unwanted impulses from aroused implicit motives.

Introduction to Leadership Typical Volition strategies

Prof. Dr. Kehr WS 11/12 Support need-discrepant goals Motivation control (positive fantasies) Emotion control (attaining positive mood) Attention control (Focusing attention)  Abilities and skills are basic ingredients of behavior Ability and explicit motives: Important abilities but not enjoyed Ability and intrinsic motives: Unimportant abilities but enjoyed Ability and no match: Abilities present but not motivation

Abilities Integration of abilities in the model

Diagnose the situation Implicit motives

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Explicit motives

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Abilities

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Do team members really like the project Is there a fit between the project and the team members’ needs and predilections Is the project really important to team members Do team members really want to realize the project Do team members have the abilities/skills required for the project Did team members successfully realize similar projects in the past

Guideline for situational leadership +A, G, N

+G, N –A

+A, G -N

+A,N –G

Flow experience: Delegation Self management Training/ coaching Problem solving Networking Reframing the goal Give sense to the task Find out what motivates Avoid over control Explain importance Incentives, rewards Develop goals Find rewards Resolve goal conflicts