Investigative Journalism
Content
INVESTIGATIVE JOURNALISM: GATHERING INFORMATION
News is a more general term that applies to any new thing that has happened. Journalism, more specifically, is a report on something that happened that references credible sources and presents a more objective view of the topic. Journalism can be considered a process and a product because it must go through many steps to develop something that can be released to the public. Information has to be gathered, sources need to be checked for credibility and reliability, which is the process. Then the information that is found has to be put into a form that can be easily understood, which is the product. What is significant about truth to journalists is something that they can cite. If they can report on something and also include facts that can be backed up then they consider that to be truth. If a journalist cannot cite where they get their information from, they consider the information to be made up. Most consumers of news assume everything they hear to be true or rely on a single source. A reader should do background checks on the news they hear. They can do this by reading into different sources, looking up information about the journalist to see if they are reporting out of self interest, or finding out whether or not the organizations sourced are pushing an agenda. This is especially important today because there are numerous amounts of media outlets.
1. INTERVIEW
The one aspect of gathering information in journalism is the interview. An interview is a conversation between two people (the interviewer and the interviewee) where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee. An interview is "a formal face-to-face meeting, especially, one arranged for the assessment of the qualifications of an applicant, as for employment or admission.... A conversation, as one conducted by a reporter, in which facts, or statements are elicited from another." (The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition) The interview is a specific form of meeting or conference, and is usually limited to two persons, the interviewer and the interviewee. In special circumstances there may be more than one interviewer or more than one interviewee in attendance. In these cases there should still be one primary interviewer and one primary interviewee. TYPES OF INTERVIEWS During the analysis process, interviews are conducted for a variety of purposes and with a variety of goals in mind. An interview can be conducted at various times within the process for 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Initial introduction Familiarization or background Fact gathering Verification of information gathered elsewhere Confirmation of information gathered from the interviewee Follow-up, amplification, and clarification
INTERVIEWING COMPONENTS
The interview process itself consists of a number of parts. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Selection of the interviewee and scheduling time for the interview Preparation of interview questions, or script The interview itself Documentation of the facts and information gathered during the interview Review of the interview write up with the interviewee Correction of the write up, sign-off, and filing
INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES
•
Reporters take a lot of notes. If possible, have a tape recorder with you when you do any interviewing. It will help keep the interview moving along while allowing you to be accurate.
o o o
o o
1. If you have only a few questions, call the person up on the phone. For longer interviews, arrange a meeting or conference call. Do background research to help you compile a general list of questions to be answered. This is the information you hope to gather from your source. During the actual interview, use your prepared questions to get things started and to avoid forgetting to ask a specific question. However, never limit yourself to just these questions. Often, your best material will come from follow-up questions that you won’t know to ask until you receive the responses to your prepared questions. Take good notes. If you use a tape recorder, be sure to get the Interviewee’s permission. Write up the interview as soon as possible, while facts and phrasing are still fresh in your mind. When you are done, check back with the interviewee to verify any facts or quotes you are uncertain about.
INTERVIEWING GUIDELINES Given these various phases and the variety of goals of an interview, the importance of a properly conducted interview should be self-evident. Since each interview is in fact a personal exchange of information between two personalities, a set of guidelines for the interviewer should be established to ensure that nothing interferes with the stated goal, i.e., gathering complete, accurate information. The interview is not an adversary relationship; instead it should be a conversation. Above all it is a process, and like most processes it has certain rules and guidelines which should be followed. 1. First and foremost, establish the tone of the interview. 2. Let the interviewee know the reason for the interview and why he or she was selected to be interviewed. 3. Stress that the interviewee's knowledge and opinions are important, and will aid in the analysis process. 4. Gain the interviewee's trust and cooperation early on, and maintain it throughout. 5. Establish what will happen to the information gathered. 6. Determine any areas of confidentiality or restricted information. 7. Let the interviewee know that candor and honesty will be valued and that nothing will be published or passed on until it has been reviewed and verified by the interviewee. 8. Firmly establish that there are no negative consequences to being interviewed. DO’S AND DON’TS IN INTERVIEWING The rules of interviewing are similar to the rules which govern most human interactions and to the rules which govern most investigative and problem-solving processes. In effect they can be called the rules of the game.
1. Do not assume anything. 2. Do not form pre-judgments.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Do Do Do Do Do 8. Do 9. Do 10. Do 11.Do 12.Do 13.Do 14. Do 15.Do 16.Do 17.Do 18.Do
ask questions which start with who, what, where, when, why, and how, where possible. ask both open and closed questions. verify understanding through probing and confirming questions. avoid confrontation. act in a friendly but professional manner. not interrupt. listen actively. take notes, but do not be obtrusive about it. let the interviewee do most of the talking establish rapport early and maintain it. maintain control over the subject matter. not go off on tangents. establish a time frame for the interview and stick to it. conclude positively. allow for follow-up or clarification interviews later on. be polite and courteous.
2.COMPUTER ASSISTED REPORTING
Journalism)
(also known as Data Base
Computer-assisted reporting or CAR stands for computer-assisted reporting, a catchall term used by journalists to talk about the electronic data collection, management, presentation and analysis techniques they use. The spread of computers, software and the Internet is changing how reporters work. Reporters now routinely collect information in databases, analyse public records with spreadsheets and statistical programs, study political and demographic change with geographic information system mapping, conduct interviews by e-mail, and research background for articles on the Web. Collectively this has become known as computer-assisted reporting, or CAR. Journalists closely tie it to “precision” or analytic journalism, which refer specifically to the use of techniques of the social sciences and other disciplines. (i.e. SPSS) Computers and computer-assisted reporting have become ubiquitous in most Western news organizations. Using computers and databases is even, according to some, part of the definition of a journalist. Therefore, database journalism as a form of computer-assisted reporting has, by the beginning of the 21st century, come to merge with journalism. Beginning with the early years of the 21st century, some researchers expanded the conceptual dimension for databases in journalism, and in digital journalism or cyberjournalism.[14] A conceptual approach begins to consider databases as a specificity of digital journalism, expanding their meaning and identifying them with a specific code, as opposed to the approach which perceived them as sources for the production of journalistic stories, that is, as tools, according to some of the systematized studies in the 90s
3. SURVEYS
Survey is a method used to collect in a systematic way, information from a sample of individuals. Although most people are familiar with public opinion surveys that are reported in the press, most surveys are not public opinion polls (such as political polling), but are used for scientific purposes. Surveys provide important information for all kinds of research fields, e.g.,
marketing research, psychology, health professionals and sociology. A survey may focus on different topics such as preferences (e.g., for a presidential candidate), behaviour (smoking and drinking behavior), or factual information (e.g., income), depending on its purpose. Since survey research is always based on a sample of the population, the success of the research is dependent on the representativeness of the population of concern (see also sampling (statistics) and survey sampling). The methods involved in survey data collection are any of a number of ways in which data can be collected for a statistical survey. These are methods that are used to collect information from a sample of individuals in a systematic way. There are several ways of administering a survey. The choice between administration modes is influenced by several factors, including 1) costs, 2) coverage of the target population, 3) flexibility of asking questions, 4) respondents’ willingness to participate and 5) response accuracy. Different methods create mode effects that change how respondents answer. The most common modes of administration are listed TELEPHONE
• • • • • • • •
use of interviewers encourages sample persons to respond, leading to higher response rates. interviewers can increase comprehension of questions by answering respondents' questions. fairly cost efficient, depending on local call charge structure good for large national (or international) sampling frames some potential for interviewer bias (e.g. some people may be more willing to discuss a sensitive issue with a female interviewer than with a male one) cannot be used for non-audio information (graphics, demonstrations, taste/smell samples) unreliable for consumer surveys in rural areas where telephone density is low three types: o traditional telephone interviews o computer assisted telephone dialing o computer assisted telephone interviewing (CATI)
MAIL
• • • • • • • •
the questionnaire may be handed to the respondents or mailed to them, but in all cases they are returned to the researcher via mail. An advantage is, is that cost is very low, since bulk postage is cheap in most countries long time delays, often several months, before the surveys are returned and statistical analysis can begin not suitable for issues that may require clarification respondents can answer at their own convenience (allowing them to break up long surveys; also useful if they need to check records to answer a question) no interviewer bias introduced large amount of information can be obtained: some mail surveys are as long as 50 pages response rates can be improved by using mail panels o members of the panel have agreed to participate o panels can be used in longitudinal designs where the same respondents are surveyed several times
ONLINE SURVEYS
• • • • • • • • • • •
can use web or e-mail. Web is preferred over e-mail because interactive HTML forms can be used often inexpensive to administer very fast results easy to modify response rates can be improved by using Online panels - members of the panel have agreed to participate honesty of responses can be an issue if not password-protected, easy to manipulate by completing multiple times to skew results data creation, manipulation and reporting can be automated and/or easily exported into a format that can be read by statistical analysis software data sets created in real time often difficult to determine/control selection probabilities, hindering quantitative analysis of data used in large scale industries.
PERSONAL IN-HOME SURVEY
•
suitable for locations where telephone or mail are not developed
PERSONAL MALL INTERCEPT SURVEY
• • • • •
shoppers at malls are intercepted - they are either interviewed on the spot, taken to a room and interviewed, or taken to a room and given a self-administered questionnaire socially acceptable - people feel that a mall is a more appropriate place to do research than their home potential for interviewer bias fast easy to manipulate by completing multiple times to skew results
HYBRID METHODOLOGY Researchers can combine several above methods for the data collection. For example, researchers can invite shoppers at malls, and send willing participants questionnaires by emails. HOW TO WRITE GOOD SURVEY QUESTIONS Rules for writing good questions are given in classical survey books. A summary of these rules was made by Ten Brink (1992).
• • •
Rule 1. Use correct spelling, punctuation and grammar style . Rule 2. Use specific questions. For example, "did you read a newspaper yesterday?", instead of "did you read a newspaper?". Rule 3. Use a short introduction to question of behaviors. In this way you cannot only refresh the memory of the respondent, but also explain what you mean with the concept you are using. For example, with wines, you may not only mean red or white wine, but liqueurs, cordials, sherries, tables wines and sparkling wines.
•
•
• • •
Rule 4. Avoid the use of technical terms and jargon. An exception to this rule are questions that are made for a specific group of respondents, who regularly use jargon, e.g., doctors, lawyers and researchers. Rule 5. Avoid questions that do not have a single answer. For example, "do you like to walk and ride to school?". Somebody who likes to walk, but does not like to cycle, cannot answer this question in the right way. Rule 6. Avoid negative phrasing, e.g., "should the school not be improved?". This can lead to confusion and cost more effort to answer the question correctly. Rule 7. Avoid words and expressions with multiple-meanings, like any and just. Rule 8. Avoid stereotyping, offensive and emotionally loaded language.
ADVANTAGES Surveys are useful in describing the characteristics of a large population. No other method of observation can provide this general capability Surveys are an efficient way of collecting information from a large number of respondents. Very large samplings are possible. Statistical techniques can be used to determine validity, reliability, and statistical significance. Surveys are flexible in the sense that a wide range of information can be collected. They can be used to study attitudes, values, beliefs, and past behaviors. There is an economy in data collection due to the focus provided by standardized questions. Only questions of interest to the researcher are asked, recorded, codified, and analyzed. Time and money is not spent on tangential questions. DISADVANTAGES They depend on subjects' motivation, honesty, memory, and ability to respond. Subjects may not be aware of their reasons for any given action. They may have forgotten their reasons. They may not be motivated to give accurate answers; in fact, they may be motivated to give answers that present themselves in a favorable light. Structured surveys, particularly those with closed ended questions, may have low validity when researching affective variables.
4. PRESS RELEASES
A press release (also called as news release, media release, press statement or video release) is a written or recorded communication directed at members of the news media for the purpose of announcing something ostensibly newsworthy. Typically, they are mailed, faxed, or e-mailed to assignment editors at newspapers, magazines, radio stations, television stations, and/or television networks The use of press releases is common in the field of public relations (PR). Typically, the aim is to attract favorable media attention and/or provide publicity for products or events marketed by those clients. A press release provides reporters with an information subsidy containing the basics needed to develop a news story. Press releases can announce a range of news items, such as scheduled events, personal promotions, awards, new products and services, sales and other financial data, accomplishments, etc. They are often used in generating a feature story or are sent for the purpose of announcing news conferences, upcoming events or a change in corporation.
A press statement is information supplied to reporters. This is an official announcement or account of a news story that is specially prepared and issued to newspapers and other news media for them to make known to the public. ELEMENTS OF A PRESS RELEASE Technically, anything deliberately sent to a reporter or media source is considered a press release: it is information released by the act of being sent to the media. However, public relations professionals often follow a standard format that they believe is efficient and increases their odds of getting the publicity they desire. The format is supposed to help journalists separate press releases from other PR communication methods, such as pitch letters or media advisories. Some of these common structural elements include: Headline — used to grab the attention of journalists and briefly summarize the news. Dateline — contains the release date and usually the originating city of the press release. If the date listed is after the date that the information was actually sent to the media, then the sender is requesting a news embargo, which journalists are under no obligation to honor. Introduction — first paragraph in a press release, that generally gives basic answers to the questions of who, what, when, where and why. Body — further explanation, statistics, background, or other details relevant to the news. Boilerplate — generally a short "about" section, providing independent background on the issuing company, organization, or individual. Close — in North America, traditionally the symbol "-30-" appears after the boilerplate or body and before the media contact information, indicating to media that the release has ended. A more modern equivalent has been the "###" symbol. In other countries, other means of indicating the end of the release may be used, such as the text "ends". Media contact information — name, phone number, email address, mailing address, or other contact information for the PR or other media relations contact person. VIDEO NEWS RELEASE Some public relations firms send out video news releases (VNRs) which are pre-taped video programs that can be aired intact by TV stations. Often, the VNRs are aired without the stations' identifying or attributing them as such. VNRs can be turned into podcasts then posted onto newswires. Further to this, a story can be kept running longer by engaging "community websites", which are monitored and commented on by many journalists and features writers. EMBARGOED PRESS RELEASE Sometimes a press release is distributed early and embargoed — that is, news organizations are requested not to report the story until a specified time. For instance, news organizations usually receive a copy of presidential speeches several hours in advance. Product or media reviewers are commonly given a sample or preview of a product ahead of its release date. Unless the journalist has voluntarily agreed to honor the embargo in advance, usually via a legally binding non-disclosure agreement, the journalist is under no obligation to honor it.
However, even in the absence of any obligation, news organizations generally do not break the embargo for sources that they wish to cultivate. If they do, then the agency or client that sent the release may blacklist them. A blacklisted news organization will not receive any more embargoed releases, or possibly any releases at all. However, it is very hard to enforce embargoes on journalists, as there is constant pressure by editors to scoop other news outlets. It is unlikely that a PR agency will blacklist a form of media, as other clients may want to be featured in this publication. This problem is sometimes overcome by controlling the timing of a release via email rather than relying on the journalist to do so.
News is a more general term that applies to any new thing that has happened. Journalism, more specifically, is a report on something that happened that references credible sources and presents a more objective view of the topic. Journalism can be considered a process and a product because it must go through many steps to develop something that can be released to the public. Information has to be gathered, sources need to be checked for credibility and reliability, which is the process. Then the information that is found has to be put into a form that can be easily understood, which is the product. What is significant about truth to journalists is something that they can cite. If they can report on something and also include facts that can be backed up then they consider that to be truth. If a journalist cannot cite where they get their information from, they consider the information to be made up. Most consumers of news assume everything they hear to be true or rely on a single source. A reader should do background checks on the news they hear. They can do this by reading into different sources, looking up information about the journalist to see if they are reporting out of self interest, or finding out whether or not the organizations sourced are pushing an agenda. This is especially important today because there are numerous amounts of media outlets.
1. INTERVIEW
The one aspect of gathering information in journalism is the interview. An interview is a conversation between two people (the interviewer and the interviewee) where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee. An interview is "a formal face-to-face meeting, especially, one arranged for the assessment of the qualifications of an applicant, as for employment or admission.... A conversation, as one conducted by a reporter, in which facts, or statements are elicited from another." (The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition) The interview is a specific form of meeting or conference, and is usually limited to two persons, the interviewer and the interviewee. In special circumstances there may be more than one interviewer or more than one interviewee in attendance. In these cases there should still be one primary interviewer and one primary interviewee. TYPES OF INTERVIEWS During the analysis process, interviews are conducted for a variety of purposes and with a variety of goals in mind. An interview can be conducted at various times within the process for 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Initial introduction Familiarization or background Fact gathering Verification of information gathered elsewhere Confirmation of information gathered from the interviewee Follow-up, amplification, and clarification
INTERVIEWING COMPONENTS
The interview process itself consists of a number of parts. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Selection of the interviewee and scheduling time for the interview Preparation of interview questions, or script The interview itself Documentation of the facts and information gathered during the interview Review of the interview write up with the interviewee Correction of the write up, sign-off, and filing
INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES
•
Reporters take a lot of notes. If possible, have a tape recorder with you when you do any interviewing. It will help keep the interview moving along while allowing you to be accurate.
o o o
o o
1. If you have only a few questions, call the person up on the phone. For longer interviews, arrange a meeting or conference call. Do background research to help you compile a general list of questions to be answered. This is the information you hope to gather from your source. During the actual interview, use your prepared questions to get things started and to avoid forgetting to ask a specific question. However, never limit yourself to just these questions. Often, your best material will come from follow-up questions that you won’t know to ask until you receive the responses to your prepared questions. Take good notes. If you use a tape recorder, be sure to get the Interviewee’s permission. Write up the interview as soon as possible, while facts and phrasing are still fresh in your mind. When you are done, check back with the interviewee to verify any facts or quotes you are uncertain about.
INTERVIEWING GUIDELINES Given these various phases and the variety of goals of an interview, the importance of a properly conducted interview should be self-evident. Since each interview is in fact a personal exchange of information between two personalities, a set of guidelines for the interviewer should be established to ensure that nothing interferes with the stated goal, i.e., gathering complete, accurate information. The interview is not an adversary relationship; instead it should be a conversation. Above all it is a process, and like most processes it has certain rules and guidelines which should be followed. 1. First and foremost, establish the tone of the interview. 2. Let the interviewee know the reason for the interview and why he or she was selected to be interviewed. 3. Stress that the interviewee's knowledge and opinions are important, and will aid in the analysis process. 4. Gain the interviewee's trust and cooperation early on, and maintain it throughout. 5. Establish what will happen to the information gathered. 6. Determine any areas of confidentiality or restricted information. 7. Let the interviewee know that candor and honesty will be valued and that nothing will be published or passed on until it has been reviewed and verified by the interviewee. 8. Firmly establish that there are no negative consequences to being interviewed. DO’S AND DON’TS IN INTERVIEWING The rules of interviewing are similar to the rules which govern most human interactions and to the rules which govern most investigative and problem-solving processes. In effect they can be called the rules of the game.
1. Do not assume anything. 2. Do not form pre-judgments.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Do Do Do Do Do 8. Do 9. Do 10. Do 11.Do 12.Do 13.Do 14. Do 15.Do 16.Do 17.Do 18.Do
ask questions which start with who, what, where, when, why, and how, where possible. ask both open and closed questions. verify understanding through probing and confirming questions. avoid confrontation. act in a friendly but professional manner. not interrupt. listen actively. take notes, but do not be obtrusive about it. let the interviewee do most of the talking establish rapport early and maintain it. maintain control over the subject matter. not go off on tangents. establish a time frame for the interview and stick to it. conclude positively. allow for follow-up or clarification interviews later on. be polite and courteous.
2.COMPUTER ASSISTED REPORTING
Journalism)
(also known as Data Base
Computer-assisted reporting or CAR stands for computer-assisted reporting, a catchall term used by journalists to talk about the electronic data collection, management, presentation and analysis techniques they use. The spread of computers, software and the Internet is changing how reporters work. Reporters now routinely collect information in databases, analyse public records with spreadsheets and statistical programs, study political and demographic change with geographic information system mapping, conduct interviews by e-mail, and research background for articles on the Web. Collectively this has become known as computer-assisted reporting, or CAR. Journalists closely tie it to “precision” or analytic journalism, which refer specifically to the use of techniques of the social sciences and other disciplines. (i.e. SPSS) Computers and computer-assisted reporting have become ubiquitous in most Western news organizations. Using computers and databases is even, according to some, part of the definition of a journalist. Therefore, database journalism as a form of computer-assisted reporting has, by the beginning of the 21st century, come to merge with journalism. Beginning with the early years of the 21st century, some researchers expanded the conceptual dimension for databases in journalism, and in digital journalism or cyberjournalism.[14] A conceptual approach begins to consider databases as a specificity of digital journalism, expanding their meaning and identifying them with a specific code, as opposed to the approach which perceived them as sources for the production of journalistic stories, that is, as tools, according to some of the systematized studies in the 90s
3. SURVEYS
Survey is a method used to collect in a systematic way, information from a sample of individuals. Although most people are familiar with public opinion surveys that are reported in the press, most surveys are not public opinion polls (such as political polling), but are used for scientific purposes. Surveys provide important information for all kinds of research fields, e.g.,
marketing research, psychology, health professionals and sociology. A survey may focus on different topics such as preferences (e.g., for a presidential candidate), behaviour (smoking and drinking behavior), or factual information (e.g., income), depending on its purpose. Since survey research is always based on a sample of the population, the success of the research is dependent on the representativeness of the population of concern (see also sampling (statistics) and survey sampling). The methods involved in survey data collection are any of a number of ways in which data can be collected for a statistical survey. These are methods that are used to collect information from a sample of individuals in a systematic way. There are several ways of administering a survey. The choice between administration modes is influenced by several factors, including 1) costs, 2) coverage of the target population, 3) flexibility of asking questions, 4) respondents’ willingness to participate and 5) response accuracy. Different methods create mode effects that change how respondents answer. The most common modes of administration are listed TELEPHONE
• • • • • • • •
use of interviewers encourages sample persons to respond, leading to higher response rates. interviewers can increase comprehension of questions by answering respondents' questions. fairly cost efficient, depending on local call charge structure good for large national (or international) sampling frames some potential for interviewer bias (e.g. some people may be more willing to discuss a sensitive issue with a female interviewer than with a male one) cannot be used for non-audio information (graphics, demonstrations, taste/smell samples) unreliable for consumer surveys in rural areas where telephone density is low three types: o traditional telephone interviews o computer assisted telephone dialing o computer assisted telephone interviewing (CATI)
• • • • • • • •
the questionnaire may be handed to the respondents or mailed to them, but in all cases they are returned to the researcher via mail. An advantage is, is that cost is very low, since bulk postage is cheap in most countries long time delays, often several months, before the surveys are returned and statistical analysis can begin not suitable for issues that may require clarification respondents can answer at their own convenience (allowing them to break up long surveys; also useful if they need to check records to answer a question) no interviewer bias introduced large amount of information can be obtained: some mail surveys are as long as 50 pages response rates can be improved by using mail panels o members of the panel have agreed to participate o panels can be used in longitudinal designs where the same respondents are surveyed several times
ONLINE SURVEYS
• • • • • • • • • • •
can use web or e-mail. Web is preferred over e-mail because interactive HTML forms can be used often inexpensive to administer very fast results easy to modify response rates can be improved by using Online panels - members of the panel have agreed to participate honesty of responses can be an issue if not password-protected, easy to manipulate by completing multiple times to skew results data creation, manipulation and reporting can be automated and/or easily exported into a format that can be read by statistical analysis software data sets created in real time often difficult to determine/control selection probabilities, hindering quantitative analysis of data used in large scale industries.
PERSONAL IN-HOME SURVEY
•
suitable for locations where telephone or mail are not developed
PERSONAL MALL INTERCEPT SURVEY
• • • • •
shoppers at malls are intercepted - they are either interviewed on the spot, taken to a room and interviewed, or taken to a room and given a self-administered questionnaire socially acceptable - people feel that a mall is a more appropriate place to do research than their home potential for interviewer bias fast easy to manipulate by completing multiple times to skew results
HYBRID METHODOLOGY Researchers can combine several above methods for the data collection. For example, researchers can invite shoppers at malls, and send willing participants questionnaires by emails. HOW TO WRITE GOOD SURVEY QUESTIONS Rules for writing good questions are given in classical survey books. A summary of these rules was made by Ten Brink (1992).
• • •
Rule 1. Use correct spelling, punctuation and grammar style . Rule 2. Use specific questions. For example, "did you read a newspaper yesterday?", instead of "did you read a newspaper?". Rule 3. Use a short introduction to question of behaviors. In this way you cannot only refresh the memory of the respondent, but also explain what you mean with the concept you are using. For example, with wines, you may not only mean red or white wine, but liqueurs, cordials, sherries, tables wines and sparkling wines.
•
•
• • •
Rule 4. Avoid the use of technical terms and jargon. An exception to this rule are questions that are made for a specific group of respondents, who regularly use jargon, e.g., doctors, lawyers and researchers. Rule 5. Avoid questions that do not have a single answer. For example, "do you like to walk and ride to school?". Somebody who likes to walk, but does not like to cycle, cannot answer this question in the right way. Rule 6. Avoid negative phrasing, e.g., "should the school not be improved?". This can lead to confusion and cost more effort to answer the question correctly. Rule 7. Avoid words and expressions with multiple-meanings, like any and just. Rule 8. Avoid stereotyping, offensive and emotionally loaded language.
ADVANTAGES Surveys are useful in describing the characteristics of a large population. No other method of observation can provide this general capability Surveys are an efficient way of collecting information from a large number of respondents. Very large samplings are possible. Statistical techniques can be used to determine validity, reliability, and statistical significance. Surveys are flexible in the sense that a wide range of information can be collected. They can be used to study attitudes, values, beliefs, and past behaviors. There is an economy in data collection due to the focus provided by standardized questions. Only questions of interest to the researcher are asked, recorded, codified, and analyzed. Time and money is not spent on tangential questions. DISADVANTAGES They depend on subjects' motivation, honesty, memory, and ability to respond. Subjects may not be aware of their reasons for any given action. They may have forgotten their reasons. They may not be motivated to give accurate answers; in fact, they may be motivated to give answers that present themselves in a favorable light. Structured surveys, particularly those with closed ended questions, may have low validity when researching affective variables.
4. PRESS RELEASES
A press release (also called as news release, media release, press statement or video release) is a written or recorded communication directed at members of the news media for the purpose of announcing something ostensibly newsworthy. Typically, they are mailed, faxed, or e-mailed to assignment editors at newspapers, magazines, radio stations, television stations, and/or television networks The use of press releases is common in the field of public relations (PR). Typically, the aim is to attract favorable media attention and/or provide publicity for products or events marketed by those clients. A press release provides reporters with an information subsidy containing the basics needed to develop a news story. Press releases can announce a range of news items, such as scheduled events, personal promotions, awards, new products and services, sales and other financial data, accomplishments, etc. They are often used in generating a feature story or are sent for the purpose of announcing news conferences, upcoming events or a change in corporation.
A press statement is information supplied to reporters. This is an official announcement or account of a news story that is specially prepared and issued to newspapers and other news media for them to make known to the public. ELEMENTS OF A PRESS RELEASE Technically, anything deliberately sent to a reporter or media source is considered a press release: it is information released by the act of being sent to the media. However, public relations professionals often follow a standard format that they believe is efficient and increases their odds of getting the publicity they desire. The format is supposed to help journalists separate press releases from other PR communication methods, such as pitch letters or media advisories. Some of these common structural elements include: Headline — used to grab the attention of journalists and briefly summarize the news. Dateline — contains the release date and usually the originating city of the press release. If the date listed is after the date that the information was actually sent to the media, then the sender is requesting a news embargo, which journalists are under no obligation to honor. Introduction — first paragraph in a press release, that generally gives basic answers to the questions of who, what, when, where and why. Body — further explanation, statistics, background, or other details relevant to the news. Boilerplate — generally a short "about" section, providing independent background on the issuing company, organization, or individual. Close — in North America, traditionally the symbol "-30-" appears after the boilerplate or body and before the media contact information, indicating to media that the release has ended. A more modern equivalent has been the "###" symbol. In other countries, other means of indicating the end of the release may be used, such as the text "ends". Media contact information — name, phone number, email address, mailing address, or other contact information for the PR or other media relations contact person. VIDEO NEWS RELEASE Some public relations firms send out video news releases (VNRs) which are pre-taped video programs that can be aired intact by TV stations. Often, the VNRs are aired without the stations' identifying or attributing them as such. VNRs can be turned into podcasts then posted onto newswires. Further to this, a story can be kept running longer by engaging "community websites", which are monitored and commented on by many journalists and features writers. EMBARGOED PRESS RELEASE Sometimes a press release is distributed early and embargoed — that is, news organizations are requested not to report the story until a specified time. For instance, news organizations usually receive a copy of presidential speeches several hours in advance. Product or media reviewers are commonly given a sample or preview of a product ahead of its release date. Unless the journalist has voluntarily agreed to honor the embargo in advance, usually via a legally binding non-disclosure agreement, the journalist is under no obligation to honor it.
However, even in the absence of any obligation, news organizations generally do not break the embargo for sources that they wish to cultivate. If they do, then the agency or client that sent the release may blacklist them. A blacklisted news organization will not receive any more embargoed releases, or possibly any releases at all. However, it is very hard to enforce embargoes on journalists, as there is constant pressure by editors to scoop other news outlets. It is unlikely that a PR agency will blacklist a form of media, as other clients may want to be featured in this publication. This problem is sometimes overcome by controlling the timing of a release via email rather than relying on the journalist to do so.
