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Afro-Asian Literature BSED 3G

1-Mrs.Reynon

Chinese Literature
Chinese literature extends thousands of years, from the earliest recorded dynastic court archives to the
mature fictional novels that arose during the Ming Dynasty to entertain the masses of literate Chinese.
The introduction of widespread woodblock printing during the Tang Dynasty (618–907) and the
invention of movable type printing by Bi Sheng (990–1051) during the Song Dynasty (960–1279) rapidly
spread written knowledge throughout China. In more modern times, the author Lu Xun (1881–1936) is
considered the founder of baihua literature in China.
There is a wealth of early Chinese literature dating from the Hundred Schools of Thought that occurred
during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770-256 BCE). The most important of these include the Classics of
Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, as well as works of military science and Chinese
history. Note that except for the books of poems and songs, most of this literature is philosophical and
didactic; there is little in the way of fiction. However, these texts maintained their significance through
both their ideas and their prose style.
The Confucian works in particular have been of key importance to Chinese culture and history, as a set
of works known as the Four Books and Five Classics were, in the 12th century CE, chosen as the basis for
the Imperial examination for any government post. These nine books therefore became the center of
the educational system. They have been grouped into two categories: the Five Classics, allegedly
commented and edited by Confucius, and the Four Books. The Five Classics include:
1. The I Ching, or Book of Changes , a divination manual attributed to the mythical emperor Fu Xi
and based on eight trigrams. The I Ching is still used by adherents of folk religion.
2. The Classic of Poetry, a collection of poems, folk songs, festival and ceremonial songs, and
religious hymns and eulogies.
3. The Classic of Rites or Record of Rites
4. The Classic of History, a collection of documents and speeches allegedly written by rulers and
officials of the early Zhou period and before. It contains the best examples of early Chinese
prose.
5. The Spring and Autumn Annals, a historical record of Confucius' native state, Lu, from 722 to 479
BCE.
The Four Books include: the Analects of Confucius, a book of pithy sayings attributed to Confucius and
recorded by his disciples; Mencius, a collection of political dialogues; the Doctrine of the Mean, a book
that teaches the path to Confucian virtue; and the Great Learning, a book about education, self-
cultivation and the Dao.
Other important philosophical works include the Mohist Mozi, which taught "inclusive love" as both an
ethical and social principle, and Hanfeizi, one of the central Legalist texts.
Important Daoist classics include the Dao De Jing, the Zhuangzi, and the Classic of the Perfect Emptiness.
Later authors combined Daoism with Confucianism and Legalism, such as Liu An (2nd century BCE),
whose Huainanzi (The Philosophers of Huai-nan) also added to the fields of geography and topography.

Afro-Asian Literature BSED 3G

2-Mrs.Reynon

Chinese Proverbs
 Add legs to the snake after you have finished drawing it.
 After three days without reading, talk becomes flavorless.
 An ant may well destroy a whole dam.
 Be not afraid of growing slowly, be afraid only of standing still.
 Behind an able man there are always other able men.
 Better a diamond with a flaw than a pebble without one.
 Better do a good deed near at home than go far away to burn incense.
 Better to light a candle than to curse the darkness
 A book is like a garden carried in the pocket.
 A book holds a house of gold.
 Butcher the donkey after it finished his job on the mill.
 A camel standing amidst a flock of sheep.
 Clear conscience never fears midnight knocking.
 A closed mind is like a closed book; just a block of wood
 A crane standing amidst a flock of chickens.
 Crows everywhere are equally black.
 A dish of carrot hastily cooked may still has soil uncleaned off the vegetable.
 Dismantle the bridge shortly after crossing it.
 Distant water won't help to put out a fire close at hand.
 Distant water won't quench your immediate thirst.
 Do not employ handsome servants.
 Do not want others to know what you have done? Better not have done it anyways.
 Donkey's lips do not fit onto a horse's mouth.
 A dog won't forsake his master because of his poverty; a son never deserts his mother for her
homely appearance.
 Dream different dreams while on the same bed.
 Enjoy yourself. It's later than you think.
 Enough shovels of earth -- a mountain. Enough pails of water -- a river.
 Even a hare will bite when it is cornered.
 Experience is a comb which nature gives to men when they are bald.
 Fail to steal the chicken while it ate up your bait grain.
 A fall into a ditch makes you wiser.
 Fight a wolf with a flex stalk.
 A flea on the top of a bald head.
 Flowing water never goes bad; our door hubs never gather termites.
 A frog in a well shaft seeing the sky.
 Flies never visit an egg that has no crack.
 Forget injuries, never forget kindnesses.
 A gem cannot be polished without friction, nor a man perfected without trials.
 A good fortune may forbode a bad luck, which may in turn disguise a good fortune.
 Govern a family as you would cook a small fish -- very gently.
 Great souls have wills; feeble ones have only wishes.
 Happiness is like a sunbeam, which the least shadow intercepts, while adversity is often as the
rain of spring.
 Have a mouth as sharp as a dagger but a heart as soft as tofu.
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 Have one's ears pierced only before the wedding ceremony starts.
 He who asks is a fool for five minutes, but he who does not ask remains a fool forever.
 He who hurries can not walk with dignity.
 He who sacrifices his conscience to ambition burns a picture to obtain the ashes.
 A horse cannot gain weight if not fed with extra fodder during the night; a man cannot become
wealthy without earnings apart from his regular salaries.
 How can you expect to find ivory in a dog's mouth?
 How can you put out a fire set on a cart-load of firewood with only a cup of water?
 If a son is uneducated, his dad is to blame.
 If I keep a green bough in my heart, the singing bird will come.
 If you are patient in a moment of anger, you will escape a hindred days of sorrow.
 If you bow at all, bow low.
 If you do not study hard when young you'll end up bewailing your failures as you grow up.
 If you have never done anything evil, you should not be worrying about devils to knock at your
door.
 If you must play, decide on three things at the start: the rules of he game, the stakes, and the
quitting time.
 If you see in your wine the reflection of a person not in your range of vision, don't drink it.
 If you suspect a man, don't employ him, and if ypu employ him, don't suspect him.
 If you want 1 year of prosperity, grow grain. If you want 10 years of prosperity, grow trees. If
you want 100 years of prosperity, grow people.
 If you wish to know the mind of a man, listen to his words.
 In reviling, it is not necessary to prepare a preliminary draft.
 An inch of time is an inch of gold but you can't buy that inch of time with an inch of gold.
 It is easy to dodge a spear that comes in front of you but hard to keep harms away from an
arrow shot from behind.
 It is later than you think.
 A Jade stone is useless before it is processed; a man is good-for-nothing until he is educated.
 A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step.
 Judge not the horse by his saddle.
 Keep your broken arm inside your sleeve.
 Kill a chicken before a monkey.
 Kill one to warn a hundred.
 Learning is a treasure that will follow its owner everywhere.
 Life is a dream walking death is a going home.
 Like ants eating a bone.
 Lift a stone only to drop on your own feet.
 Listen to all, plucking a feather from every passing goose, but, follow no one absolutely.
 The longer the night lasts, the more our dreams will be.
 Looking for the ass on its very back.
 Make happy those who are near, and those who are far will come.
 The man who does not learn is dark, like one walking in the night.
 Man who waits for roast duck to fly into mouth must wait very, very long time.
 Married couples tell each other a thousand things without speech.
 Mend the pen only after the sheep are all gone.
 Never do anything standing that you can do sitting, or anything sitting that you can do lying
down.
 Never write a letter while you are angry.
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 No wind, no waves.
 Of all the strategems, to know when to quit is the best.
 Of all the thirty-six alternatives, running away is best.
 Once bitten by a snake, he/she is scared all his/her life at the mere sight of a rope.
 Once on a tiger's back, it is hard to alight.
 One cannot refuse to eat just because there is a chance of being choked.
 One dog barks at something, the rest bark at him
 One monk shoulders water by himself; two can still share the labor among them. When it comes
to three, they have to go thirsty.
 One never needs their humor as much a when they argue with a fool.
 One should be just as careful in choosing one's pleasures as in avoiding calamities.
 Only when all contribute their firewood can they build up a strong fire.
 An overcrowded chicken farm produce fewer eggs.
 The palest ink is better than the best memory.
 Paper can't wrap up a fire.
 Pick up a sesame seed but lose sight of a watermelon.
 Play a harp before a cow.
 Regular feet can't be affected by irregular shoes.
 Reshape one's foot to try to fit into a new shoe.
 The saving man becomes the free man.
 Shed no tears until seeing the coffin.
 A single conversation with a wise man is better than ten years of study.
 A sly rabbit will have three openings to its den.
 A smile will gain you ten more years of life.
 Some prefer carrot while others like cabbage.
 Sow much, reap much; sow little, reap little.
 Steal a bell with one's ears covered.
 There are always ears on the other side of the wall.
 There is no silver here: three hundred taels.
 Those who have free seats at a play hiss first.
 Three humble shoemakers brainstorming will make a great statesman.
 A tiger never returns to his prey he did not finish off.
 To attract good fortune, spend a new coin on an old friend, share an old pleasure with a new
friend, and lift up the heart of a true friend by writing his name on the wings of a dragon.
 To know the road ahead, ask those coming back.
 To understand your parents' love you must raise children yourself.
 Use power to curb power.
 Vicious as a tigeress can be, she never eats her own cubs.
 Waiting for a rabbit to hit upon a tree and be killed in order to catch it.
 We are not so much concerned if you are slow as when you come to a halt.
 A weasel comes to say Happy New Year to the chickens.
 With time and patience the mulberry leaf becomes a silk gown.
 When eating bamboo sprouts, remember the man who planted them.
 When you are poor, neighbors close by will not come; once you become rich, you'll be surprised
by visits from (alleged) relatives afar.
 When you have only two pennies left in the world, buy a loaf of bread with one, and a lily with
the other.
 When you want to test the depths of a stream, don't use both feet.
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 When planning for a year, plant corn. When planning for a decade, plant trees. When planning
for life, train and educate people.
 Without rice, even the cleverest housewife cannot cook.
 You can only go halfway into the darkest forest; then you are coming out the other side.
 You cannot prevent the birds of sorrow from flying over your head, but you can prevent
 You can't catch a cub without going into the tiger's den. them from building nests in your hair.
 You can't expect both ends of a sugar cane are as sweet.
 You think you lost your horse? Who knows, he may bring a whole herd back to you someday.
 You won't help shoots grow by pulling them up higher.
 Your fingers can't be of the same length.

The Analects

The sayings of Confucius were remembered by his followers and were later compiled in a book of
Analects (sayings), perhaps having been expanded on in the meantime. Through them we discover
Confucius' notions of the virtues, i.e., the positive character traits, to which we should aspire. Foremost
among these is Filial Piety, the respect which children owe to parents--and by extension, wives owe to
husbands, sisters to brothers, and everyone to ancestors. When such virtue is cultivated in the home, it is
supposed to carry over into one's relations in affairs of state as well.

On Filial Piety
Mang I asked what filial piety is. The Master said, "It is being obedient." Soon after, as Fan Chi was
driving him, the Master told him "Mang asked me what filial piety is, and I answer him 'being obedient.'"
Fan Chi asked, "What exactly did you mean?" The Master replied, "That parents, when alive, should be
served according to ritual; that, when dead, they should be buried according to ritual; and that they
should be sacrificed to according to ritual."
Ziyou asked what filial piety is. The Master said, "The filial piety of now-a-days means providing
nourishment for one's parents. But dogs and horses likewise are able to do something along that line for
their own kind. Without reverence, what is there to distinguish the one support given from the other?"

On Goodness
The Master said, "A youth, when at home, should behave well toward his parents, and when abroad,
respectfully to his elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should overflow in love to all, and
cultivate the friendship of the good. When he has time and opportunity, after doing those things, he
should study the polite arts."
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The Master said, "With coarse rice to eat, with water to drink, and my bended arm for a pillow, I still
have joy in the midst of these things. Riches and honours acquired by unrighteousness are to me as a
floating cloud."
Zhonggong asked about perfect virtue. The Master said, "When abroad, behave to everyone as if you
were receiving an important guest; treat people as if you were assisting at a great sacrifice; do not do to
others as you would not wish done to yourself. Thereby you will let no murmuring rise against you in the
country, and none in the family. . . ."

On the Gentleman
Confucius took the notion of the gentleman, as one who owned land and had some political power, and
reworked it into a moral notion which captures the essence of the good life. The graciousness and self-
discipline which characterize such a gentleman are fostered by, and expressed in, ritual and music. But
this also leads to many detailed guidelines about how to dress and how to perform the rituals. (The
counterpart would be rules of etiquette in our society.)
Why is ritual supposed to be important? What happens to otherwise virtuous traits without such ritual?

The Master said, "Riches and honours are what men desire; but if they cannot be obtained in the proper
way, they should be let go. Poverty and meanness are what men dislike; but if they cannot be avoided in
the proper way, they should not be avoided. If a gentleman abandons virtue, how can he fulfill the
requirements of his title? A gentleman not, even for the space of a single meal, act contrary to virtue.
Even in moments of haste, and in times of danger, he clings to virtue."
The Master said, "A gentleman, well studied in literature, and abiding by the rules of ritual, will not go
very wrong."
"When gentlemen perform well all their duties to their relations, the people are inspired to virtue. When
they remain true to their old friends, the people are preserved from irresponsible behavior."
The Master said, "A gentleman points out the admirable qualities of men and does not point out their
bad qualities. A petty man does just the opposite."
The Master said, "A gentleman is distressed by his lack of ability, but he is not distressed by men's not
knowing him."
The Master said, "What the gentleman demands is something of himself. What the petty man demands
is something of others."
A gentleman does not wear a deep purple or a puce color, nor in his at-home clothes does he wear red. In
warm weather, he wears a single-layered garment, either of coarse or fine texture, but when going out
he wears it over another garment. He wears lambskin with a garment of black, fawn with white, and fox
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with yellow. His fur dressing gown should be long, but with the right sleeve short. His night clothes must
be half again as long as his body. When staying at home, he wears thick furs of the fox or the badger. So
long as he is not in mourning, he wears all the trimmings of his girdle. . . . He does not wear lamb's fur or
a black cap when making a visit of condolence. And on the first day of the month he must put on his
court robes and present himself at court.

On Ritual and Music
The Master said, "If a man lacks the human virtues, what has he to do with ritual? If a man lacks the
human virtues, what has he to do with music?"
The Master said, "Respectfulness, without the rules of ritual becomes laborious bustle; carefulness,
without the rules, becomes timidity; boldness becomes insubordination; straightforwardness becomes
rudeness.
The Master said, "It is by the Odes that a man's mind is aroused, by the rules of ritual that his character
is established, and by music that he is perfected [finished]. . . ."

Education is, of course, important to Confucius, as one needs to learn the traditions and profit from the
wisdom of the past. Government can then be carried on by "moral force," as opposed to requiring
military or legal force. As to religion, Confucius does not challenge it, but he doesn't put his hope in it
either. His stress is always on living well, which means living properly, here and now and by our own
actions.
Which is more important for an orderly state: food, weapons, or a government that one can trust.

On Education
The Master said, "Anyone learning without thought is lost; anyone thinking but not learning is in peril."
The Master said, "Yu, shall I teach you what knowledge is? When you know a thing, to realize that you
know it; and when you do not know a thing, to allow that you do not know it: this is knowledge." The
Master said, [I have been] "a transmitter and not a maker, believing in and loving the ancients. . ."
When the Master went to Wei, Ran Yu acted as driver of his carriage. The Master observed, "How
numerous the people are!" Ran Yu asked, "When they are more numerous, what more shall be done for
them ?" "Enrich them," was the reply. "And when they have been enriched, what more shall be done?"
The Master said, "Instruct them."

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On Government
The Master said, "To rule a country of a thousand chariots requires reverent attention to business,
sincerity, economy in expenditures, and love for men, as well as the employment of the people only in the
right seasons."
The Master said, "If the people are governed by laws and punishment is used to maintain order, they will
try to avoid the punishment but have no sense of shame. If they are governed by virtue and rules of
propriety [ritual] are used to maintain order, they will have a sense of shame and will become good as
well."
Ji Kang Zi asked Confucius about government, saying, "What do you say to killing those who are
unprincipled [i.e., the immoral] for the good of those who are principled?" Confucius replied, "Sir, in
carrying on your government, why should you use killing at all? Let your obvious desires be for what is
good, and the people will be good. The relation between superiors and inferiors is like that between the
wind and the grass: the grass is bound to bend when the wind blows across it."
Zigong asked about government. The Master said, "The requisites of government are that there be
sufficient food, sufficient military equipment, and the confidence of the people in their ruler." Zigong
said, "If one had to dispense with one of those three, which should be given up first?" "The military
equipment, " said the Master. Zigong again asked, "If on had to dispense with one of the two remaining,
which should be given up?" The Master answered, "Give up the food. From of old, death has always been
the lot of men; but if the people have no faith in their rulers, they cannot stand."

On Religion
Someone asked the meaning of the great sacrifice. The Master said, "I do not know. Anyone who knew
its meaning would find it as easy to govern the kingdom as to look on this," and he pointed to the palm
of his hand.
Zilu asked about serving the ghosts of the dead. The Master said, "Until you are able to serve men, how
can you serve their ghosts?" When Zilu ventured to ask about death, the answer was: "While you do not
know life, how can you [hope to] know about death?"


The Soul of the Great Bell
by Lafcadio Hearn (1850-1904)
The water-clock marks the hour in the Tachung sz’, in the Tower of the Great Bell: now the mallet is
lifted to smite the lips of the metal monster—the vast lips inscribed with Buddhist texts from the sacred
Fa-hwa-King, from the chapters of the holy Ling-yen-King! Hear the great bell responding!—how mighty
her voice, though tongueless! KO-NGAI! All the little dragons on the high-tilted eaves of the green roofs
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shiver to the tips of their gilded tails under that deep wave of sound; all the porcelain gargoyles tremble
on their carven perches; all the hundred little bells of the pagodas quiver with desire to speak. KO-
NGAI—all the green-and-gold tiles of the temple are vibrating; the wooden goldfish above them are
writhing against the sky; the uplifted finger of Fo shakes high over the heads of the worshippers through
the blue fog of incense! KO-NGAI!—What a thunder tone was that! All the lacquered goblins on the
palace cornices wriggle their fire-coloured tongues! And after each huge shock, how wondrous the
multiple echo and the great golden moan, and, at last, the sudden sibilant sobbing in the ears when the
immense tone faints away in broken whispers of silver, as though a woman should whisper, “Hiai!” Even
so the great bell hath sounded every day for well-nigh five hundred years—Ko-Ngai: first with
stupendous clang, then with immeasurable moan of gold, then with silver murmuring of “Hiai!” And
there is not a child in all the many-coloured ways of the old Chinese city who does not know the story of
the great bell, who cannot tell you why the great bell says Ko-Ngai and Hiai!
Now this is the story of the great bell in the Tachung sz’, as the same is related in the Pe-Hiao-Tou-
Choue, written by the learned Yu-Pao-Tchen, of the City of Kwang-tchau-fu.
Nearly five hundred years ago the Celestially August, the Son of Heaven, Yong-Lo, of the “Illustrious” or
Ming dynasty, commanded the worthy official Kouan-Yu that he should have a bell made of such size
that the sound thereof might be heard for one hundred li. And he further ordained that the voice of the
bell should be strengthened with brass, and deepened with gold, and sweetened with silver; and that
the face and the great lips of it should be graven with blessed sayings from the sacred books, and that it
should be suspended in the centre of the imperial capital to sound through all the many-coloured ways
of the City of Pe-King.
Therefore the worthy mandarin Kouan-Yu assembled the master-moulders and the renowned bellsmiths
of the empire, and all men of great repute and cunning in foundry work; and they measured the
materials for the alloy, and treated them skilfully, and prepared the moulds, the fires, the instruments,
and the monstrous melting-pot for fusing the metal. And they laboured exceedingly, like giants
neglecting only rest and sleep and the comforts of life; toiling both night and day in obedience to Kouan-
Yu, and striving in all things to do the behest of the Son of Heaven.
But when the metal had been cast, and the earthen mould separated from the glowing casting, it was
discovered that, despite their great labour and ceaseless care, the result was void of worth; for the
metals had rebelled one against the other—the gold had scorned alliance with the brass, the silver
would not mingle with the molten iron. Therefore the moulds had to be once more prepared, and the
fires rekindled, and the metal remelted, and all the work tediously and toilsomely repeated. The Son of
Heaven heard and was angry, but spake nothing.
A second time the bell was cast, and the result was even worse. Still the metals obstinately refused to
blend one with the other; and there was no uniformity in the bell, and the sides of it were cracked and
fissured, and the lips of it were slagged and split asunder; so that all the labour had to be repeated even
a third time, to the great dismay of Kouan-Yu. And when the Son of Heaven heard these things, he was
angrier than before; and sent his messenger to Kouan-Yu with a letter, written upon lemon-coloured silk
and sealed with the seal of the dragon, containing these words:
“From the Mighty Young-Lo, the Sublime Tait-Sung, the Celestial and August, whose reign is called
‘Ming,’ to Kouan-Yu the Fuh-yin: Twice thou hast betrayed the trust we have deigned graciously to place
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in thee; if thou fail a third time in fulfilling our command, thy head shall be severed from thy neck.
Tremble, and obey!”
Now, Kouan-Yu had a daughter of dazzling loveliness whose name—Ko-Ngai—was ever in the mouths of
poets, and whose heart was even more beautiful than her face. Ko-Ngai loved her father with such love
that she had refused a hundred worthy suitors rather than make his home desolate by her absence; and
when she had seen the awful yellow missive, sealed with the Dragon-Seal, she fainted away with fear for
her father’s sake. And when her senses and her strength returned to her, she could not rest or sleep for
thinking of her parent’s danger, until she had secretly sold some of her jewels, and with the money so
obtained had hastened to an astrologer, and paid him a great price to advise her by what means her
father might be saved from the peril impending over him. So the astrologer made observations of the
heavens, and marked the aspect of the Silver Stream (which we call the Milky Way), and examined the
signs of the Zodiac—the Hwang-tao, or Yellow Road—and consulted the table of the Five Hin, or
Principles of the Universe, and the mystical books of the alchemists. And after a long silence, he made
answer to her, saying: “Gold and brass will never meet in wedlock, silver and iron never will embrace,
until the flesh of a maiden be melted in the crucible; until the blood of a virgin be mixed with the metals
in their fusion.” So Ko-Ngai returned home sorrowful at heart; but she kept secret all that she had heard,
and told no one what she had done.
At last came the awful day when the third and last effort to cast the great bell was to be made; and Ko-
Ngai, together with her waiting-woman, accompanied her father to the foundry, and they took their
places upon a platform overlooking the toiling of the moulders and the lava of liquefied metal. All the
workmen wrought at their tasks in silence; there was no sound heard but the muttering of the fires. And
the muttering deepened into a roar like the roar of typhoons approaching, and the blood-red lake of
metal slowly brightened like the vermilion of a sunrise, and the vermilion was transmuted into a radiant
glow of gold, and the gold whitened blindingly, like the silver face of a full moon. Then the workers
ceased to feed the raving flame, and all fixed their eyes upon the eyes of Kouan-Yu; and Kouan-Yu
prepared to give the signal to cast.
But ere ever he lifted his finger, a cry caused him to turn his head and all heard the voice of Ko-Ngai
sounding sharply sweet as a bird’s song above the great thunder of the fires—“For thy sake, O my
father!” And even as she cried, she leaped into the white flood of metal; and the lava of the furnace
roared to receive her, and spattered monstrous flakes of flame to the roof, and burst over the verge of
the earthen crater, and cast up a whirling fountain of many-coloured fires, and subsided quakingly, with
lightnings and with thunders and with mutterings.


Then the father of Ko-Ngai, wild with his grief, would have leaped in after her, but that strong men held
him back and kept firm grasp upon him until he had fainted away, and they could bear him like one dead
to his home. And the serving-woman of Ko-Ngai, dizzy and speechless for pain, stood before the
furnace, still holding in her hands a shoe, a tiny, dainty shoe, with embroidery of pearls and flowers—
the shoe of her beautiful mistress that was. For she had sought to grasp Ko-Ngai by the foot as she
leaped, but had only been able to clutch the shoe, and the pretty shoe came off in her hand; and she
continued to stare at it like one gone mad.
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But in spite of all these things, the command of the Celestial and August had to be obeyed, and the work
of the moulders to be finished, hopeless as the result might be. Yet the glow of the metal seemed purer
and whiter than before; and there was no sign of the beautiful body that had been entombed therein.
So the ponderous casting was made; and lo! when the metal had become cool, it was found that the bell
was beautiful to look upon and perfect in form, and wonderful in colour above all other bells. Nor was
there any trace found of the body of Ko-Ngai; for it had been totally absorbed by the precious alloy, and
blended with the well-blended brass and gold, with the intermingling of the silver and the iron. And
when they sounded the bell, its tones were found to be deeper and mellower and mightier than the
tones of any other bell, reaching even beyond the distance of one hundred li, like a pealing of summer
thunder; and yet also like some vast voice uttering a name, a woman’s name, the name of Ko-Ngai.
And still, between each mighty stroke there is a long low moaning heard; and ever the moaning ends
with a sound of sobbing and of complaining, as though a weeping woman should murmur, “Hiai!” And
still, when the people hear that great golden moan they keep silence, but when the sharp, sweet
shuddering comes in the air, and the sobbing of “Hiai!” then, indeed, do all the Chinese mothers in all
the many-coloured ways of Pe-King whisper to their little ones: “Listen! that is Ko-Ngai crying for her
shoe! That is Ko-Ngai calling for her shoe!”
















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The Doctrine of the Mean
The Doctrine of the Mean belongs to the Confucian Canon, which has inspired Chinese Culture for
centuries. The text is said to be composed around 450-500 BCE (estimatedly), written down by
Confucian students and scholars after Confucius' death.
The text is rich with symbolism and guidance to perfecting oneself, and has been subjected to different
interpretations. In James Legge's translation and understanding of the text, the goal is to maintain
balance and harmony from directing the mind to a state of constant equilibrium and stick to it. Thereby
superior persons are cautious, gentle teachers that do what is natural enough where they happen to be.
The doctrine of the mean may be taken to represent moderation, rectitude, objectivity, sincerity,
honesty and propriety. [Ebu]
The work is divided into three parts. They are:
1. The Axis - Confucian Metaphysics (chaps 1-17)
2. The Process - Politics (chaps 18-24)
3. The Perfect Word/Sincerity - Ethics (chaps 25-33)
Below is the whole text in James Legge's translation, which is in the public domain. - Tormod Kinnes

Chapter 1
1. What Heaven has conferred is called THE NATURE; an accordance with this nature is called THE PATH
of duty; the regulation of this path is called INSTRUCTION.
2. The path may not be left for an instant. If it could be left, it would not be the path. On this account,
the superior man does not wait till he sees things, to be cautious, nor till he hears things, to be
apprehensive.
3. There is nothing more visible than what is secret, and nothing more manifest than what is minute.
Therefore the superior man is watchful over himself, when he is alone.
4. While there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind may be said to be in the state
of EQUILIBRIUM. When those feelings have been stirred, and they act in their due degree, there ensues
what may be called the state of HARMONY. This EQUILIBRIUM is the great root from which grow all the
human actings in the world, and this HARMONY is the universal path which they all should pursue.
5. Let the states of equilibrium and harmony exist in perfection, and a happy order will prevail
throughout heaven and earth, and all things will be nourished and flourish.
Chapter 2. Only the superior man can follow the Mean; the mean man is always violating it
1. Chung-nî said, "The superior man embodies the course of the Mean; the mean man acts contrary to
the course of the Mean.
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2. "The superior man's embodying the course of the Mean is because he is a superior man, and so
always maintains the Mean. The mean man's acting contrary to the course of the Mean is because he is
a mean man, and has no caution."
Chapter 3. The rarity, long existing in Confucius's time, of the practice of the Mean
The Master said, "Perfect is the virtue which is according to the Mean! Rare have they long been among
the people, who could practice it!
Chapter 4. How it was that few were able to practice the Mean
1. The Master said, "I know how it is that the path of the Mean is not walked in: The knowing go beyond
it, and the stupid do not come up to it. I know how it is that the path of the Mean is not understood: The
men of talents and virtue go beyond it, and the worthless do not come up to it.
2. "There is nobody but eats and drinks. But they are few who can distinguish flavours."
Chapter 5
The Master said, "Alas! How is the path of the Mean untrodden!"
Chapter 6. How Shun pursued the course of the Mean
The Master said, "There was Shun: He indeed was greatly wise! Shun loved to question others, and to
study their words, though they might be shallow. He concealed what was bad in them and displayed
what was good. He took hold of their two extremes, determined the Mean, and employed it in his
government of the people. It was by this that he was Shun!"
Chapter 7. Their contrary conduct shows men's ignorance of the course and nature of the Mean
The Master said "Men all say, 'We are wise;' but being driven forward and taken in a net, a trap, or a
pitfall, they know not how to escape. Men all say, 'We are wise;' but happening to choose the course of
the Mean, they are not able to keep it for a round month."
Chapter 8. How Hûi held fast the course of the Mean
The Master said "This was the manner of Hûi: he made choice of the Mean, and whenever he got hold of
what was good, he clasped it firmly, as if wearing it on his breast, and did not lose it."
Chapter 9. The difficulty of attaining to the course of the Mean
The Master said, "The kingdom, its States, and its families, may be perfectly ruled; dignities and
emoluments may be declined; naked weapons may be trampled under the feet;— but the course of the
Mean cannot be attained to."
Chapter 10. On energy in its relation to the Mean
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1. Tsze-lû asked about energy.
2. The Master said, "Do you mean the energy of the South, the energy of the North, or the energy which
you should cultivate yourself?
3. "To show forbearance and gentleness in teaching others; and not to revenge unreasonable conduct:
this is the energy of Southern regions, and the good man makes it his study.
4. "To lie under arms; and meet death without regret: this is the energy of Northern regions, and the
forceful make it their study.
5. "Therefore, the superior man cultivates a friendly harmony, without being weak.— How firm is he in
his energy! He stands erect in the middle, without inclining to either side.— How firm is he in his energy!
When good principles prevail in the government of his country, he does not change from what he was in
retirement.— How firm is he in his energy! When bad principles prevail in the country, he maintains his
course to death without changing.— How firm is he in his energy!"
Chapter 11. Only the sage man can come up to the requirements of the Mean
1. The Master said, "To live in obscurity, and yet practice wonders, in order to be mentioned with honor
in future ages: this is what I do not do.
2. "The good man tries to proceed according to the right path, but when he has gone halfway, he
abandons it: I am not able so to stop.
3. "The superior man accords with the course of the Mean. Though he may be all unknown, unregarded
by the world, he feels no regret.— It is only the sage who is able for this."
Chapter 12. The course of the Mean reaches far and wide, but yet is secret
1. The way which the superior man pursues, reaches wide and far, and yet is secret.
2. Common men and women, however ignorant, may intermeddle with the knowledge of it; yet in its
utmost reaches, there is that which even the sage does not know. Common men and women, however
much below the ordinary standard of character, can carry it into practice; yet in its utmost reaches,
there is that which even the sage is not able to carry into practice. Great as heaven and earth are, men
still find some things in them with which to be dissatisfied. Thus it is that, were the superior man to
speak of his way in all its greatness, nothing in the world would be found able to embrace it, and were
he to speak of it in its minuteness, nothing in the world would be found able to split it.
3. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "The hawk flies up to heaven; the fishes leap in the deep." This
expresses how this way is seen above and below.
4. The way of the superior man may be found, in its simple elements, in the intercourse of common men
and women; but in its utmost reaches, it shines brightly through heaven and earth.
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Chapter 13. The path of the Mean is not far to seek. Each man has the law of it in himself, and it is to be
pursued with earnest sincerity
1. The Master said "The path is not far from man. When men try to pursue a course, which is far from
the common indications of consciousness, this course cannot be considered THE PATH.
2. "In the Book of Poetry, it is said, 'In hewing an ax-handle, in hewing an ax-handle, the pattern is not
far off.' We grasp one ax handle to hew the other; and yet, if we look askance from the one to the other,
we may consider them as apart. Therefore, the superior man governs men, according to their nature,
with what is proper to them, and as soon as they change what is wrong, he stops.
3. "When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and exercises them on the principle
of reciprocity, he is not far from the path. What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to
others.
4. "In the way of the superior man there are four things, to not one of which have I as yet attained.— To
serve my father, as I would require my son to serve me: to this I have not attained; to serve my prince,
as I would require my minister to serve me: to this I have not attained; to serve my elder brother, as I
would require my younger brother to serve me: to this I have not attained; to set the example in
behaving to a friend, as I would require him to behave to me: to this I have not attained. Earnest in
practicing the ordinary virtues, and careful in speaking about them, if, in his practice, he has anything
defective, the superior man dares not but exert himself; and if, in his words, he has any excess, he dares
not allow himself such license. Thus his words have respect to his actions, and his actions have respect
to his words; is it not just an entire sincerity which marks the superior man?"
Chapter 14. How the superior man, in every varying situation, pursues the Mean, doing what is right,
and finding his rule in himself
1. The superior man does what is proper to the station in which he is; he does not desire to go beyond
this.
2. In a position of wealth and honor, he does what is proper to a position of wealth and honor. In a poor
and low position, he does what is proper to a poor and low position. Situated among barbarous tribes,
he does what is proper to a situation among barbarous tribes. In a position of sorrow and difficulty, he
does what is proper to a position of sorrow and difficulty. The superior man can find himself in no
situation in which he is not himself.
3. In a high situation, he does not treat with contempt his inferiors. In a low situation, he does not court
the favor of his superiors. He rectifies himself, and seeks for nothing from others, so that he has no
dissatisfactions. He does not murmur against Heaven, nor grumble against men.
4. Thus it is that the superior man is quiet and calm, waiting for the appointments of Heaven, while the
mean man walks in dangerous paths, looking for lucky occurrences.
5. The Master said, "In archery we have something like the way of the superior man. When the archer
misses the center of the target, he turns round and seeks for the cause of his failure in himself."
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Chapter 15. In the practice of the Mean there is an orderly advance from step to step
1. The way of the superior man may be compared to what takes place in traveling, when to go to a
distance we must first traverse the space that is near, and in ascending a height, when we must begin
from the lower ground.
2. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "Happy union with wife and children is like the music of lutes and
harps. When there is concord among brethren, the harmony is delightful and enduring. Thus may you
regulate your family, and enjoy the pleasure of your wife and children."
3. The Master said, "In such a state of things, parents have entire complacence!"
Chapter 16. An illustration, from the operation and influence of spiritual beings, of the way of the Mean
1. The Master said, "How abundantly do spiritual beings display the powers that belong to them!
2. "We look for them, but do not see them; we listen to, but do not hear them; yet they enter into all
things, and there is nothing without them.
3. "They cause all the people in the kingdom to fast and purify themselves, and array themselves in their
richest dresses, in order to attend at their sacrifices. Then, like overflowing water, they seem to be over
the heads, and on the right and left of their worshippers.
4. "It is said in the Book of Poetry, 'The approaches of the spirits, you cannot surmise;— and can you
treat them with indifference?'
5. "Such is the manifestness of what is minute! Such is the impossibility of repressing the outgoings of
sincerity!"
Chapter 17. The virtue of filial piety, exemplified in Shun as carried to the highest point, and rewarded
by Heaven
1. The Master said, "How greatly filial was Shun! His virtue was that of a sage; his dignity was the throne;
his riches were all within the four seas. He offered his sacrifices in his ancestral temple, and his
descendants preserved the sacrifices to himself.
2. "Therefore having such great virtue, it could not but be that he should obtain the throne, that he
should obtain those riches, that he should obtain his fame, that he should attain to his long life.
3. "Thus it is that Heaven, in the production of things, is sure to be bountiful to them, according to their
qualities. Hence the tree that is flourishing, it nourishes, while that which is ready to fall, it overthrows.
4. "In the Book of Poetry, it is said, 'The admirable, amiable prince displayed conspicuously his excelling
virtue, adjusting his people, and adjusting his officers. Therefore, he received from Heaven his
emoluments of dignity. It protected him, assisted him, decreed him the throne; sending from Heaven
these favors, as it were repeatedly.'
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5. "We may say therefore that he who is greatly virtuous will be sure to receive the appointment of
Heaven."
Chapter 18. On king Wan, king Wû and the duke of Châu
1. The Master said, "It is only king Wan of whom it can be said that he had no cause for grief! His father
was king Chî, and his son was king Wû. His father laid the foundations of his dignity, and his son
transmitted it.
2. "King Wû continued the enterprise of king T'âi, king Chî, and king Wan. He once buckled on his armor,
and got possession of the kingdom. He did not lose the distinguished personal reputation which he had
throughout the kingdom. His dignity was the royal throne. His riches were the possession of all within
the four seas. He offered his sacrifices in his ancestral temple, and his descendants maintained the
sacrifices to himself.
3. "It was in his old age that king Wû received the appointment to the throne, and the duke of Châu
completed the virtuous course of Wan and Wû. He carried up the title of king to T'âi and Chî, and
sacrificed to all the former dukes above them with the royal ceremonies. And this rule he extended to
the princes of the kingdom, the great officers, the scholars, and the common people. If the father were a
great officer and the son a scholar, then the burial was that due to a great officer, and the sacrifice that
due to a scholar. If the father were a scholar and the son a great officer, then the burial was that due to
a scholar, and the sacrifice that due to a great officer. The one year's mourning was made to extend only
to the great officers, but the three years' mourning extended to the Son of Heaven. In the mourning for
a father or mother, he allowed no difference between the noble and the mean.
Chapter 19. The far-reaching filial piety of king Wû, and of the duke of Châu
1. The Master said, "How far-extending was the filial piety of king Wû and the duke of Châu!
2. "Now filial piety is seen in the skillful carrying out of the wishes of our forefathers, and the skillful
carrying forward of their undertakings.
3. "In spring and autumn, they repaired and beautified the temple halls of their fathers, set forth their
ancestral vessels, displayed their various robes, and presented the offerings of the several seasons.
4. "By means of the ceremonies of the ancestral temple, they distinguished the royal kindred according
to their order of descent. By ordering the parties present according to their rank, they distinguished the
more noble and the less. By the arrangement of the services, they made a distinction of talents and
worth. In the ceremony of general pledging, the inferiors presented the cup to their superiors, and thus
something was given the lowest to do. At the concluding feast, places were given according to the hair,
and thus was made the distinction of years.
5. "They occupied the places of their forefathers, practiced their ceremonies, and performed their
music. They reverenced those whom they honored, and loved those whom they regarded with affection.
Thus they served the dead as they would have served them alive; they served the departed as they
would have served them had they been continued among them.
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6. "By the ceremonies of the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth they served God, and by the ceremonies of
the ancestral temple they sacrificed to their ancestors. He who understands the ceremonies of the
sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, and the meaning of the several sacrifices to ancestors, would find the
government of a kingdom as easy as to look into his palm!"
Chapter 20. On government: showing principally how it depends on the character of the officers
administering it, and how that depends on the character of the sovereign himself
1. The duke Âi asked about government.
2. The Master said, "The government of Wan and Wû is displayed in the records,— the tablets of wood
and bamboo. Let there be the men and the government will flourish; but without the men, their
government decays and ceases.
3. "With the right men the growth of government is rapid, just as vegetation is rapid in the earth; and,
moreover, their government might be called an easily-growing rush.
4. "Therefore the administration of government lies in getting proper men. Such men are to be got by
means of the ruler's own character. That character is to be cultivated by his treading in the ways of duty.
And the treading those ways of duty is to be cultivated by the cherishing of benevolence.
5. "Benevolence is the characteristic element of humanity, and the great exercise of it is in loving
relatives. Righteousness is the accordance of actions with what is right, and the great exercise of it is in
honoring the worthy. The decreasing measures of the love due to relatives, and the steps in the honor
due to the worthy, are produced by the principle of propriety.
6. "When those in inferior situations do not possess the confidence of their superiors, they cannot retain
the government of the people.
7. "Hence the sovereign may not neglect the cultivation of his own character. Wishing to cultivate his
character, he may not neglect to serve his parents. In order to serve his parents, he may not neglect to
acquire knowledge of men. In order to know men, he may not dispense with a knowledge of Heaven.
8. "The duties of universal obligation are five, and the virtues wherewith they are practiced are three.
The duties are those between sovereign and minister, between father and son, between husband and
wife, between elder brother and younger, and those belonging to the intercourse of friends. Those five
are the duties of universal obligation. Knowledge, magnanimity, and energy, these three, are the virtues
universally binding. And the means by which they carry the duties into practice is singleness.
9. "Some are born with the knowledge of those duties; some know them by study; and some acquire the
knowledge after a painful feeling of their ignorance. But the knowledge being possessed, it comes to the
same thing. Some practice them with a natural ease; some from a desire for their advantages; and some
by strenuous effort. But the achievement being made, it comes to the same thing."
10. The Master said, "To be fond of learning is to be near to knowledge. To practice with vigor is to be
near to magnanimity. To possess the feeling of shame is to be near to energy.
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11. "He who knows these three things knows how to cultivate his own character. Knowing how to
cultivate his own character, he knows how to govern other men. Knowing how to govern other men, he
knows how to govern the kingdom with all its states and families.
12. "All who have the government of the kingdom with its States and families have nine standard rules
to follow;— viz. the cultivation of their own characters; the honoring of men of virtue and talents;
affection towards their relatives; respect towards the great ministers; kind and considerate treatment of
the whole body of officers; dealing with the mass of the people as children; encouraging the resort of all
classes of artisans; indulgent treatment of men from a distance; and the kindly cherishing of the princes
of the States.
13. "By the ruler's cultivation of his own character, the duties of universal obligation are set forth. By
honoring men of virtue and talents, he is preserved from errors of judgment. By showing affection to his
relatives, there is no grumbling nor resentment among his uncles and brethren. By respecting the great
ministers, he is kept from errors in the practice of government. By kind and considerate treatment of
the whole body of officers, they are led to make the most grateful return for his courtesies. By dealing
with the mass of the people as his children, they are led to exhort one another to what is good. By
encouraging the resort of all classes of artisans, his resources for expenditure are rendered ample. By
indulgent treatment of men from a distance, they are brought to resort to him from all quarters. And by
kindly cherishing the princes of the states, the whole kingdom is brought to revere him.
14. "Self-adjustment and purification, with careful regulation of his dress, and the not making a
movement contrary to the rules of propriety: this is the way for a ruler to cultivate his person.
Discarding slanderers, and keeping himself from the seductions of beauty; making light of riches, and
giving honor to virtue: this is the way for him to encourage men of worth and talents. Giving them
places of honor and large emolument. and sharing with them in their likes and dislikes: this is the way
for him to encourage his relatives to love him. Giving them numerous officers to discharge their orders
and commissions: this is the way for him to encourage the great ministers. According to them a
generous confidence, and making their emoluments large: this is the way to encourage the body of
officers. Employing them only at the proper times, and making the imposts light: this is the way to
encourage the people. By daily examinations and monthly trials, and by making their rations in
accordance with their labors: this is the way to encourage the classes of artisans. To escort them on
their departure and meet them on their coming; to commend the good among them, and show
compassion to the incompetent: this is the way to treat indulgently men from a distance. To restore
families whose line of succession has been broken, and to revive states that have been extinguished; to
reduce to order States that are in confusion, and support those which are in peril; to have fixed times for
their own reception at court, and the reception of their envoys; to send them away after liberal
treatment, and welcome their coming with small contributions: this is the way to cherish the princes of
the States.
15. "All who have the government of the kingdom with its States and families have the above nine
standard rules. And the means by which they are carried into practice is singleness.
16. "In all things success depends on previous preparation, and without such previous preparation there
is sure to be failure. If what is to be spoken be previously determined, there will be no stumbling. If
affairs be previously determined, there will be no difficulty with them. If one's actions have been
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previously determined, there will be no sorrow in connection with them. If principles of conduct have
been previously determined, the practice of them will be inexhaustible.
17. "When those in inferior situations do not obtain the confidence of the sovereign, they cannot
succeed in governing the people. There is a way to obtain the confidence of the sovereign;— if one is
not trusted by his friends, he will not get the confidence of his sovereign. There is a way to being trusted
by one's friends;— if one is not obedient to his parents, he will not be true to friends. There is a way to
being obedient to one's parents;— if one, on turning his thoughts in upon himself, finds a want of
sincerity, he will not be obedient to his parents. There is a way to the attainment of sincerity in one's
self;— if a man do not understand what is good, he will not attain sincerity in himself.
18. "Sincerity is the way of Heaven. The attainment of sincerity is the way of men. He who possesses
sincerity is he who, without an effort, hits what is right, and apprehends, without the exercise of
thought;— he is the sage who naturally and easily embodies the right way. He who attains to sincerity is
he who chooses what is good, and firmly holds it fast.
19. "To this attainment there are requisite the extensive study of what is good, accurate inquiry about it,
careful reflection on it, the clear discrimination of it, and the earnest practice of it.
20. "The superior man, while there is anything he has not studied, or while in what he has studied there
is anything he cannot understand, Will not intermit his labor. While there is anything he has not inquired
about, or anything in what he has inquired about which he does not know, he will not intermit his labor.
While there is anything which he has not reflected on, or anything in what he has reflected on which he
does not apprehend, he will not intermit his labor. While there is anything which he has not
discriminated or his discrimination is not clear, he will not intermit his labor. If there be anything which
he has not practiced, or his practice fails in earnestness, he will not intermit his labor. If another man
succeed by one effort, he will use a hundred efforts. If another man succeed by ten efforts, he will use a
thousand.
21. "Let a man proceed in this way, and, though dull, he will surely become intelligent; though weak, he
will surely become strong."
Chapter 21. The reciprocal connection of sincerity and intelligence
When we have intelligence resulting from sincerity, this condition is to be ascribed to nature; when we
have sincerity resulting from intelligence, this condition is to be ascribed to instruction. But given the
sincerity, and there shall be the intelligence; given the intelligence, and there shall be the sincerity.
Chapter 22. The results of sincerity; and how the possessor of it forms a ternion with Heaven and Earth
It is only he who is possessed of the most complete sincerity that can exist under heaven, who can give
its fun development to his nature. Able to give its full development to his own nature, he can do the
same to the nature of other men. Able to give its full development to the nature of other men, he can
give their full development to the natures of animals and things. Able to give their full development to
the natures of creatures and things, he can assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven
and Earth. Able to assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth, he may with
Heaven and Earth form a ternion.
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Chapter 23. The way of man;— the development of perfect sincerity in those not naturally possessed of
it
Next to the above is he who cultivates to the utmost the shoots of goodness in him. From those he can
attain to the possession of sincerity. This sincerity becomes apparent. From being apparent, it becomes
manifest. From being manifest, it becomes brilliant. Brilliant, it affects others. Affecting others, they are
changed by it. Changed by it, they are transformed. It is only he who is possessed of the most complete
sincerity that can exist under heaven, who can transform.
Chapter 24. That entire sincerity can foreknow
It is characteristic of the most entire sincerity to be able to foreknow. When a nation or family is about
to flourish, there are sure to be happy omens; and when it is about to perish, there are sure to be
unlucky omens. Such events are seen in the milfoil and tortoise, and affect the movements of the four
limbs. When calamity or happiness is about to come, the good shall certainly be foreknown by him, and
the evil also. Therefore the individual possessed of the most complete sincerity is like a spirit.
Chapter 25. How from sincerity comes self-completion, and the completion of others and of things
1. Sincerity is that whereby self-completion is effected, and its way is that by which man must direct
himself.
2. Sincerity is the end and beginning of things; without sincerity there would be nothing. On this
account, the superior man regards the attainment of sincerity as the most excellent thing.
3. The possessor of sincerity does not merely accomplish the self-completion of himself. With this
quality he completes other men and things also. The completing himself shows his perfect virtue. The
completing other men and things shows his knowledge. But these are virtues belonging to the nature,
and this is the way by which a union is effected of the external and internal. Therefore, whenever he —
the entirely sincere man — employs them,— that is, these virtues,— their action will be right.
Chapter 26. A parallel between the Sage possessed of entire sincerity, and Heaven and Earth, showing
that the same qualities belong to them
1. Hence to entire sincerity there belongs ceaselessness.
2. Not ceasing, it continues long. Continuing long, it evidences itself.
3. Evidencing itself, it reaches far. Reaching far, it becomes large and substantial. Large and substantial,
it becomes high and brilliant.
4. Large and substantial;— this is how it contains all things. High and brilliant;— this is how it
overspreads all things. Reaching far and continuing long;— this is how it perfects all things.
5. So large and substantial, the individual possessing it is the co-equal of Earth. So high and brilliant, it
makes him the co-equal of Heaven. So far-reaching and long-continuing, it makes him infinite.
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6. Such being its nature, without any display, it becomes manifested; without any movement, it
produces changes; and without any effort, it accomplishes its ends.
7. The way of Heaven and Earth may be completely declared in one sentence.— They are without any
doubleness, and so they produce things in a manner that is unfathomable.
8. The way of Heaven and Earth is large and substantial, high and brilliant, far-reaching and long-
enduring.
9. The Heaven now before us is only this bright shining spot; but when viewed in its inexhaustible
extent, the sun, moon, stars, and constellations of the zodiac, are suspended in it, and all things are
overspread by it. The earth before us is but a handful of soil; but when regarded in its breadth and
thickness, it sustains mountains like the Hwâ and the Yo, without feeling their weight, and contains the
rivers and seas, without their leaking away. The mountain now before us appears only a stone; but when
contemplated in all the vastness of its size, we see how the grass and trees are produced on it, and birds
and beasts dwell on it, and precious things which men treasure up are found on it. The water now
before us appears but a ladleful; yet extending our view to its unfathomable depths, the largest
tortoises, iguanas, iguanodons, dragons, fishes, and turtles, are produced in it, articles of value and
sources of wealth abound in it.
10. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "The ordinances of Heaven, how profound are they and unceasing!"
The meaning is, that it is thus that Heaven is Heaven. And again, "How illustrious was it, the singleness
of the virtue of king Wan!" indicating that it was thus that king Wan was what he was. Singleness
likewise is unceasing.
Chapter 27. The glorious path of the Sage; and how the superior man endeavors to attain to it
1. How great is the path proper to the Sage!
2. Like overflowing water, it sends forth and nourishes all things, and rises up to the height of heaven.
3. All-complete is its greatness! It embraces the three hundred rules of ceremony, and the three
thousand rules of demeanor.
4. It waits for the proper man, and then it is trodden.
5. Hence it is said, "Only by perfect virtue can the perfect path, in all its courses, be made a fact."
6. Therefore, the superior man honors his virtuous nature, and maintains constant inquiry and study,
seeking to carry it out to its breadth and greatness, so as to omit none of the more exquisite and minute
points which it embraces, and to raise it to its greatest height and brilliancy, so as to pursue the course
of the Mean. He cherishes his old knowledge, and is continually acquiring new. He exerts an honest,
generous earnestness, in the esteem and practice of all propriety.
7. Thus, when occupying a high situation he is not proud, and in a low situation he is not insubordinate.
When the kingdom is well governed, he is sure by his words to rise; and when it is ill governed, he is sure
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by his silence to command forbearance to himself. Is not this what we find in the Book of Poetry,—
"Intelligent is he and prudent, and so preserves his person?"
Chapter 28. An illustration of the sentence in the last Chapter— "In a low situation he is not
insubordinate."
1. The Master said, "Let a man who is ignorant be fond of using his own judgment; let a man without
rank be fond of assuming a directing power to himself; let a man who is living in the present age go back
to the ways of antiquity;— on the persons of all who act thus calamities will be sure to come."
2. To no one but the Son of Heaven does it belong to order ceremonies, to fix the measures, and to
determine the written characters.
3. Now over the kingdom, carriages have all wheels, of the-same size; all writing is with the same
characters; and for conduct there are the same rules.
4. One may occupy the throne, but if he have not the proper virtue, he may not dare to make
ceremonies or music. One may have the virtue, but if he do not occupy the throne, he may not presume
to make ceremonies or music.
5. The Master said, "I may describe the ceremonies of the Hsiâ dynasty, but Chî cannot sufficiently attest
my words. I have learned the ceremonies of the Yin dynasty, and in Sung they still continue. I have
learned the ceremonies of Châu, which are now used, and I follow Châu."
Chapter 29. An illustration of the sentence in the twenty-seventh Chapter— "When he occupies a high
station he is not proud;" or rather, the Sage and his institutions seen in their effect and issue..
1. He who attains to the sovereignty of the kingdom, having those three important things, shall be able
to effect that there shall be few errors under his government.
2. However excellent may have been the regulations of those of former times, they cannot be attested.
Not being attested, they cannot command credence, and not being credited, the people would not
follow them. However excellent might be the regulations made by one in an inferior situation, he is not
in a position to be honored. Unhonored, he cannot command credence, and not being credited, the
people would not follow his rules.
3. Therefore the institutions of the Ruler are rooted in his own character and conduct, and sufficient
attestation of them is given by the masses of the people. He examines them by comparison with those
of the three kings, and finds them without mistake. He sets them up before Heaven and Earth, and finds
nothing in them contrary to their mode of operation. He presents himself with them before spiritual
beings, and no doubts about them arise. He is prepared to wait for the rise of a sage a hundred ages
after, and has no misgivings.
4. His presenting himself with his institutions before spiritual beings, without any doubts arising about
them, shows that he knows Heaven. His being prepared, without any misgivings, to wait for the rise of a
sage a hundred ages after, shows that he knows men.
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5. Such being the case, the movements of such a ruler, illustrating his institutions, constitute an example
to the world for ages. His acts are for ages a law to the kingdom. His words are for ages a lesson to the
kingdom. Those who are far from him, look longingly for him; and those who are near him, are never
wearied with him.
6. It is said in the Book of Poetry,— "Not disliked there, not tired of here, from day to day and night to
night, will they perpetuate their praise." Never has there been a ruler, who did not realize this
description, that obtained an early renown throughout the kingdom.
Chapter 30. The eulogium of Confucius, as the beau-ideal of the perfectly sincere man, the Sage, making
a ternion with Heaven and Earth
1. Chung-nî handed down the doctrines of Yâo and Shun, as if they had been his ancestors, and elegantly
displayed the regulations of Wan and Wû, taking them as his model. Above, he harmonized with the
times of Heaven, and below, he was conformed to the water and land.
2. He may be compared to Heaven and Earth in their supporting and containing, their overshadowing
and curtaining, all things. He may be compared to the four seasons in their alternating progress, and to
the sun and moon in their successive shining.
3. All things are nourished together without their injuring one another. The courses of the seasons, and
of the sun and moon, are pursued without any collision among them. The smaller energies are like river
currents; the greater energies are seen in mighty transformations. It is this which makes heaven and
earth so great.
Chapter 31. The eulogium on Confucius continued
1. It is only he, possessed of all sagely qualities that can exist under heaven, who shows himself quick in
apprehension, clear in discernment, of far-reaching intelligence, and all-embracing knowledge, fitted to
exercise rule; magnanimous, generous, benign, and mild, fitted to exercise forbearance; impulsive,
energetic, firm, and enduring, fitted to maintain a firm hold; self-adjusted, grave, never swerving from
the Mean, and correct, fitted to command reverence; accomplished, distinctive, concentrative, and
searching, fitted to exercise discrimination.
2. All-embracing is he and vast, deep and active as a fountain, sending forth in their due season his
virtues.
3. All-embracing and vast, he is like Heaven. Deep and active as a fountain, he is like the abyss. He is
seen, and the people all reverence him; he speaks, and the people all believe him; he acts, and the
people all are pleased with him.
4. Therefore his fame overspreads the Middle Kingdom, and extends to all barbarous tribes. Wherever
ships and carriages reach; wherever the strength of man penetrates; wherever the heavens overshadow
and the earth sustains; wherever the sun and moon shine; wherever frosts and dews fall: all who have
blood and breath unfeignedly honor and love him. Hence it is said,— "He is the equal of Heaven."
Chapter 32. The eulogium of Confucius concluded
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1. It is only the individual possessed of the most entire sincerity that can exist under Heaven, who can
adjust the great invariable relations of mankind, establish the great fundamental virtues of humanity,
and know the transforming and nurturing operations of Heaven and Earth;— shall this individual have
any being or anything beyond himself on which he depends?
2. Call him man in his ideal, how earnest is he! Call him an abyss, how deep is he! Call him Heaven, how
vast is he!
3. Who can know him, but he who is indeed quick in apprehension, clear in discernment, of far-reaching
intelligence, and all-embracing knowledge, possessing all Heavenly virtue?
Chapter 33. The commencement and the completion of a virtuous course
1. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "Over her embroidered robe she puts a plain single garment,"
intimating a dislike to the display of the elegance of the former. Just so, it is the way of the superior man
to prefer the concealment of his virtue, while it daily becomes more illustrious, and it is the way of the
mean man to seek notoriety, while he daily goes more and more to ruin. It is characteristic of the
superior man, appearing insipid, yet never to produce satiety; while showing a simple negligence, yet to
have his accomplishments recognized; while seemingly plain, yet to be discriminating. He knows how
what is distant lies in what is near. He knows where the wind proceeds from. He knows how what is
minute becomes manifested. Such a one, we may be sure, will enter into virtue.
2. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "Although the fish sink and lie at the bottom, it is still quite clearly
seen." Therefore the superior man examines his heart, that there may be nothing wrong there, and that
he may have no cause for dissatisfaction with himself. That wherein the superior man cannot be
equalled is simply this,— his work which other men cannot see.
3. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "Looked at in your apartment, be there free from shame as being
exposed to the light of heaven." Therefore, the superior man, even when he is not moving, has a feeling
of reverence, and while he speaks not, he has the feeling of truthfulness.
4. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "In silence is the offering presented, and the spirit approached to;
there is not the slightest contention." Therefore the superior man does not use rewards, and the people
are stimulated to virtue. He does not show anger, and the people are awed more than by hatchets and
battle-axes.
5. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "What needs no display is virtue. All the princes imitate it." Therefore,
the superior man being sincere and reverential, the whole world is conducted to a state of happy
tranquility.
6. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "I regard with pleasure your brilliant virtue, making no great display of
itself in sounds and appearances." The Master said, "Among the appliances to transform the people,
sound and appearances are but trivial influences. It is said in another ode, 'His Virtue is light as a hair.'
Still, a hair will admit of comparison as to its size. 'The doings of the supreme Heaven have neither
sound nor smell.'— That is perfect virtue."

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