Lecture Notes

Humanities 3 9/23/11 Lecture 1 1. Introduction 1.1. This class we will Start with Renaissance and end with Milton in 1674 1.2. Montaigne influence on Shakespear 1.3. Hobbes, believed all men are internally evil Beginning of the modern world 1.4. Chronology a) Renaissance b) Reformation • more of a set of events c) Early Modern 1.5. Course Themes a) Art intersects with politics, religion, and vice versa. Everything intersects each other b) Think of controversial works of arts created, how it relates to politics, art, literature c) How does everything connect to each other. d) Know the “big questions” from the website. Philosophy e) without language we cannot pass a culture on, yet language can also be inadequate, lies, deception. So is our culture also a decptoin of what one person wanted? What is supposed to be our true culture. 1.6. What we should know (relevent to our class) 1.7. Hum 3 Objectives 2. Machivelli How accurate is Machiavelli's analysis of an effective ruler?
Does it have application to politics today? Does it give sufficient attention to issues of morality (i.e. how a rulerought to act)?

9/25/11 Lecture 2 2. Florence and the Renaissance 2.1. Outline a) Meanings of “Renaissance” b) developments in the Visual Arts c) Florence under Medici d) The Art of Botticelli 2.2. Italy a) Broken up into many different kingdoms, very hard to manage. Always a failing and raising government. There isn't a country of Italy, it is many different smaller countries b) Papal States= the Pope is the ruler • Pope has army, can get in war withoutther states. • He's at odds with Kingdom of Naples. • Main goal of the Medici is to get there son to get into the Papal state rulership c) Northern states= ruled by dukes and also many of them are also republics • Florence is a republic • Republic= a state in which the people are self determining • Machiavelli is a defender of freedom. • Machiavelli is at odds with the Medici d) Florence and Venice trace their roots back to Rome because they are republics

2.3. a) b)

c) d) e) f)

2.4. a) b) c) d) 2.5. a)

b)

c)

The medici family corrupt the republic with money and power Meaning of Renaissance period spanning the 14th through 16th centuries Literally “rebirth” Renaissance=rebirth • there is a very direct revival of art, philosphy, literature of Ancient Roman/ Greece • works are actually preserved and are brought back • but there were other art forms and literature which were also repressed • scribes had to write books and suff • most of the scribes are members of the religious order • Religious order decides which book gets preserved and which dies middle of 15th century, Eastern Orthodox churches bring to Italy the books that they preserved. Many of these works are new to the Italians because the Italians had nt Preserved these Pagan values/ pagan aesthetic values are reintroduced Recovery of classical texts and Ideals emphasis on the perfectionand divinity of man • Plato= the reality of things is not limited to the here and now. If you want to become more , you have to look to something greater. Escape the here and now. Human beings are capable of perfecting theirselve • this idea threatens the ideas of St. Paul and St. Augustine Literature Dante Alighieri, Divine Comedy (1304-21) Francesco Petrarch Giovanni Boccaccio Marilio Ficino, Theologia Platonica ( development in the Visual Arts (of florence) Greater realism and naturalism, especially in the depicion of the human body and human emotions • emphasis of depicting people in natural settings, putting people in their place • representing them as people with emotions Invention of Perspective • making 2 dimensions look 3 dimensions. 3D looking art. • realism introduction of secular themes, especially classical myths • before renaissance, the art of the Medival world focused on being devotional art • in the renaissance, secular themes are challenging the themes of the bible • art becomes a social function of representing the social and monetary power of people who could afford to have this art (sponser art) • ***slide by, Giotto, Madonna and Child Enthroned. Purpose was to inspire people to pray • ***slide by Fra Angelico, Annunciation. This image introduces depth perspecttive, and an new 3D perspective. • Trees, outside setting, in the natural setting of the angel • however it places Mary in a setting that is influenced by ancient Roman Architeture • results in a faux realism. Not an accurate historical painting • however, the figures still don not display emotion •

d) e) f) g) h) i) j) 2.6. a) b) c) 2.7. a) b) c) d) e)

*** slide of Mural on a chapel by Masaccio, frescoes Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine (1424-28) • beauty becomes more important • wealthy people use art to exhibit their wealth • ***detail from the same Frescoe called Baptism of the Neophytes • the men show emotion. But they are made strong looking like ancient Romans • taking a Biblical story and adding a human ideal • *** Masaccio, Expulsion from the Garden of Eden • shows the emotion, the distraught face as adam and eve are sent out of Eden • ***Donatello's king David sculpture • ***Pierro della Francesca, the Flagellation of Christ • the artist does not place jesus in the foreground. It the subject is not jesus ***Leonardo da Vinci ***Pieta ***Davic by Michelangelo ***The Creation by Michelangelo on the Sistene Chapel ***Vulcan and Aeolus byPiero di Cosimo ***the Discovery of Honey changing social function of art The Flourentine Republic The republic ofFlorence was a city-state centered on the city of Florence The republic was founded in 1115 after the people rebelled against the nobility the republic was ruled by a council, known as the signria. Florence under the Medici (1434-1492) once they gain money they gain power and they sway the elections. Cosimo becomes too powerful that he is ostracized Lorenzo the magnificent. 1469-1492 he represents Florence ****Boticelli, Adoration of the Magi the Medici are responsible of the flourishing of the arts •

9/28/11 Lecture 3 3. Florence under the Medici (1434-1492) a) florence tradtionally a republic: a free cith-state governed by a constiution; citizens serve as legislators, chosen by lot or ballot b) A lot of corruption c) 1434 Cosimo de Medici returns from his exile and seizes power in Florence. d) Next 60 years, the medici family is in control e) 1478 Pope Sixtus IV is part of a plot (the Pazzi conspiracy) to overthrow the Medici. Lorenzo escapes asssasination attempt, but his brother Guiliano is killed f) 1479 Lorenzo excommunicate by Sixus; armies of the pop and king of Naples move against Florence. Sixtus excommunicate by Tuscn bishops. Parties reconcile the following year. g) 1492 Death of Lorenzo 3.2. Paradox of the Medici 3.3. Florence under the Medici is an oligarchy where power rest with a handful of wealthy individuals connected to the Medici by ties of blood and personal loyalty

3.4. Yet the Medici are responsible for much of what we admire about the Florentine Renaissance: a) The central theme of becoming godlike, of the fall of humans/ the sin 3.5. **** Boticelli, Primavera a) pagan gods. Venus in the center of the painting. The story that is displayed is Love b) it's a natural condition to find love, it is a natural occurance c) it's good to fall in love d) However, on the other side of the painting there is a nymph figure being seized by the wind, but reappearing in a floral gown e) part three: this painting was comissioned by the Medici. It was a wedding present. Boticelli uses ancient pagan myths 3.6. ***Pallas and the Centaur a) Athena represents the higher values of society 3.7. ****Venus and Mars a) love and war b) love conquers war c) sponsored by a family who were friends of the Medici. 3.8. ****Birth of Venus a) represent the culture of Florence. 3.9. The Platonice Academy 3.10. 1464 Cosimo provides Marsilio Ficino with manuscripts cpntaing alll of Plato's surving works and orders them to be translated into Latin 3.11. 1473 Platonic Academy founded by Lorenzo. The peeps were Giovanni Pico della Mirandola and Ficino and the poet Angelo Polizianp a) he only believes he is able to organize all of everthing we know of human knowledge. 3.12. 148publishes Oration on the Dignity of Man as the preface to a book of 900 these, which he proposes to defend publicly in Rome. The book was banned by the Pope. a) The preface to this book becomes famous despite it being banned 3.13. Picos Philosophy a) Ascent to God b) Ancient Wisdom c) Cabala and the Conversion of the Jews 3.14. Florence : New Athens or New Jerusalem? 3.15. Platonice philosophers such as Ficino and Pico saw no contradition 3.16. Savanrola= powerful religious leader 3.17. 1481 Domenican friar Giorlamo Savonarola (1452-98) arrives in Florence; stays for five years 3.18. 1490 Savonarola returns to Florence and begins to preach against the decadence of the city-state 3.19. he is opposed to all the philosophers, because the philosophers legitimate other ways of thinking 3.20. how is salvation reached? Through art and philosophy or faith in Jesus Christ? 3.21. The Savonarola Years, 1492-98 a) April 1492 Lorenzo dies aged 43 and is succeeded by his son Piero b) 1492 Rodrigo Borgia attains the papacy by simony and takees the name Alexander VI. He fathers seven children with 2 mistreses. c) Savonarola denounces the moral corruption of the Pope, and preaches a return to a pious, biblically based Christian life d) ***Rodrigo Borgia and his mistress, in 1513, Lorenzo's son becomes Pope. They bu

there way into the papacy. 3.22. The Rise and Fall of Savonarola. 9/30/11 Lecture 4 4. Lecture 4 a) as a contribution to political theory b) Machiavelli's own stance: does he support everyhing he says? • Machiavelli on principalitys vs the republic • Machiavelli favors the republic over princes • which parts of the book are specific to his local time and which parts apply to our current government 4.2. Learning from History a) Machiavelli is responding to the political discord that prevailed in the Italy of his day, which he believes can be overcome through the study of history—both recent and ancient • ex, Machiavelli includes many examples of leaders and of how princes behaved in the past. • There is a sufficient continuity between the ancient rullers of greece to his time in Italy b) 1492 Death of Lorenzo de' Medici; Rodrigo borgia becomes pope c) death of Savonarola d) people elect Piero Soderinin gonfaloniere for life • government has been shrunk e) 1498, gov't republic is reinstated, also death of Savonarola, but the Medici overthrow the govt • Machiavelli was a republic worker, so the Medici kick him out once they gain powe 4.3. The role of the Papacy (ch 11) a) the Pope has a lot of control over Italy b) Alexander VI= according to Machiavelli's the Prince, this Pope exhibits all good qualities of a good leader • He and his son die early • from Spain c) Julius II is now the Pope, and he has the Italians behind him d) Leo X (1513-21) is Pope after Julius. • He is the son of Lorenzo 4.4. Who is the Prince? a) A prince= first in order. Ruler of the state b) his authority is absokute; he answers to no one c) by station he may ne king, a duke, a sultan, or a pope d) he may become prince by inheriting power, seizing it, or by havig it given to him by his fellow citizens 4.5. Types of Government a) republic vs Principality • republic= composed of free citizens, capable of governing themselves b) Principality may be hereditary or new c) Distinction prince v tyrant • a prince rules legitimately and wisely (for the good of his people) • tyrant rules illegitimately and uses his power to support his own interests

4.6.

Traditional Views a) a prince rules by the grace of God b) must be virtueous c) philosophers believe that they should educate the rulers 4.7. Machiavelli's Revolution a) Machiavelli presents himself as advising the prince b) his book does not anywhere address the issue of being divinely appointed as a prince c) he rejects the notion of the prince as an exemplar or moral view d) it is more of a manual of how to obtain and sustain power as a prince. Acquire and retain power. If you want to be a prince, this is how you'd conduct yourself 4.8. Principalities won by a) Prowess and arms • b) fortune and foreign arms c) crime d) election through nobles or people 4.9. Maciavelli's KEY IDEAS a) the iimportance of “prowess” (virt'u in prowess) b) the opposition between prowess and fortune c) Violence is an essential tool of ruling, but it must be used prudently d) prowess • needs inteligence, assertiveness, cunning, strength willingness to use violence in order for a better result. Violence is a necessary evil e) fortune and prowess are necessary to be a good leader f) fortune by itself is not enough (ex you may attain power through an act of luck, but without prowess, you may not be able to maintain your power 4.10. Subduing “fortune” a) quote • fortune seen as a woman • fortune is powerful, the only thing you can do is plan • the best laid plans of mice and men often go astray 4.11. Prowess vs Crime a) Can the actions of Cesare Borgia be distinguishedfrom those of Agathocles and Oliveretto? 4.12. Other Qualtites of te Prince a) Fear is the surest guarantee of obedience and loalty: it is better to be feared tan loved if you cannot have both b) In ruling, appearaces matter most (not honesty or piety but seeming to have these qualities) the prince must leran from the fox and the lion c) HATRED and CONTEMPT are the most important things to avoid d) Do we really know what our politicians think or is it just an appearance. Machiavelli says that appearances are what they should be 4.13. Keeping the Support of the People 4.14. Machiavelli states that you should have the people on your side rather than the nobles. They have to feel like they are not being oppressed

10/03/11 Lecture 5 5. Spain and the New World: Birth of a Nation 5.1. Outline a) The creation of Spain b) The Inquistition c) Events of 1492: • Moors kicked out of Spain • Jews kicked out of Spin • It becomes a unified Roman Catholic Nation • Same year that Lorenzo de Medici is Dying and Savonarola d) Politics and Religion e) the Legacy of Ferdinand and Isabella 5.2. Machiavelli's Hope a) The last chapter of the Prince: to rid Italy of Foregin armies and restore liberty and order under the rule of a prince b) Cesare Borgia might have filled this role but he died c) Machiavelli praises Ferdinand of Aragon as a prince who has succeeded in uniting Spain and turning it into a formidable power. • Ferdinand and Isabella create a unified country, that Italy has not been able to do 5.3. Machiavelli on Ferdinand 5.4. Spain a) closely related to Italy b) Roman Catholic c) Limited number of Kingdoms which can be united more easily than in Italy d) Spain has other religions whereas in Italy there is only one religion • Spain Catholics vs “the other” (Muslims and Jews) 5.5. Spain: a Historical Background a) 711 Muslim armies enter the peninsula from Arica( spain is not a country, it is just the Iberian Peninsula) b) Jews had lived in Spain since the 5th c. BCE, but many more Jews enter the Peninsula when the Muslims do • by 12th c., 90% of the Jews in the world lived in Spain c) 8th c. Christian armies attempt to turn back the Arab presence in the Iberian Peninsula. The Crusades 5.6. The Raise of Anti-Semitism a) 1215 Fourth Lateran Council makes Jews wear badge of Shame b) 1290 all jews expelled from England c) 1348-51 the black death blamed on the Jews d) 1391 Anti Jewish riots throughout Castile and Aragon e) 1415 Study of Talmud forbidden by Papall bull. Many Jews converto to Christianity (conversos) those who continued to pracice Judaism secretly were called marranos (swine) 5.7. Ferdinand and Isabella a) 11469 Marriage of these peeps. Children is Catherin of Aragon – Henry VIII first wife b) 1474 Isabella and Ferdinand jointly succeed to the throne of Castille and Leon c) 1479 d) during 1480s Ferdinand and Isabella drive the last Muslim presence on the Spanish

e) 5.8. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) 5.9. a) b) c) d) e) f) 5.10. a)

b) c)

5.11. 10/5/11 Lecture 6 6. A New World Order 6.1. Who owns what? • might Makes right mentality • versus the original people is better 6.2. Outline • Review: Religion, Identity and Politics • WHAT IS THE CENTRAL ROLE OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH??? • Voyages 6.3. Roman Catholic Church ca. 1500 a) the “one true Church” which offers the only path to salvation (re-affirmed by the pope I 2007) b) stresses conversion (Jews, Muslim, indigenous peoples of the “new world” c) concerned to eradicate heresy: • early Church: Arianism (denial of Jesus' divinity); Pelagianism (salvation through

peninsula to Granada. Special taxes and rhe possesions of Jews wo are imprisoned are killed or expelled are dedicated to the cause doctrine pierza de sangre The Spanish Inquistiion 1478 Inquisition is set up to root out he marranos in cities throught Spain 1483 The Dominican monk Tom'as de Torquemada appointed as chief inquisitor the Inquisition was religious proceeding. Officially, it aimed at exposing heresy: Christians who were secretly practicing Judaism • Religious movement to find heretical Christians Many brought before the Inquisition were absolved or “reconciled” those who were not were condemned as heretics and handed over to the secular authorities for punishments. Sources claim that as many as 2000 Jews were burned at the stake. The Inquisition officially continued until 1834. The most intense period of persecution of conversos lasted until 1530. ***slide Depiction of strappado Events of 1492 January Ferdinand and Isabella seize Granada, driving the moors from Spain March 31 Urged by Torquemada, Ferd and Isabel sign the edict of expulsion June 30 Last Jews (between 75,000 and 200,00) leave Spain, mainly for Portugal August 3 Columbus sails from Palos. Lands at San Salvador on October 11. ***Slide Edict of Expulsion ***Map of the Expulsion of the Jews • Alexander the 6th welcomes the Jews Politics and Religion Machiavelli's says that Ferdinand uses religion as a cover for his political ambitions. Whether this is true or not, Ferdinand succeeds by virtue of a complex set of factors, which includes appeal to a notion of national identity premised on ethnic and religious exclusiveness. NO recognition of freedom Is there an inevitable tension between notions of identity based on religion or ethnicity and the constitution of a state based on the values of freedom (ie a republic)? Famiy Tree of Ferdinand and Isabella

d) e) f) g) 6.4. a)

b)

6.5. a) b) c) 6.6. a) b) c) d) 6.7. 6.8. a) b) c) d) e) f) 6.9. 6.10. 6.11. a) b) c)

works) • Spanis Inquisition: exposure of marranos, converts to Catholiscism (conversos) who secretly practice Judaism Pope claims absolute spiritual power and temporal power as prince of the Papal States Temporal = worldly Spiritual power > temporal power Challenges to the pope's authority: I) from critics within the Church; ii) from sources of competing knowledge (philosophy, science) ; iii) from the political and militar power exercised by princes Politics Two models of government (sovereignty): • Republicanism: free citizens are self- governing • Principality: the right to rule belongs toa single individual, who exerise supreme power Strengthening the state (Machiavelli suggests a prince is best able to do this • througj religion( war against Moors; Ferdinand initiates the Spanish Inquisition) • through marriage • through conquests Christopher Columbus (1451- 1506) Columbus sailed Spain on August 3, 1492 and landed at “san Salvador” on October 11, 1492 Site of first landfall is contested he makes 4 voyages to the new world Why did Columbus set Sail personal glory and profit: looking for a route to the east: to Chia (cathay) and the East Indies. This is where he thought he had landed Economic Motives: gold, mastic, aloe-wood, slaves. Spain is broke after costly war against the Moors Religious motives: conversion of the native people to Catholiscism. People who went to the New World are people who don't have anything in the old world Papal Bull Granting Spain the Right to the New World (1493) Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512) Member of prominent Florentine famiy, long assoctiated with Medici Made either four of (more likely) two voyages: 1499-1500 (Spain) and 1501-2 (Portugal) In 1503 his letter to Lorenzo di Pierfrancescos de'Medici announcing the discovery of a “New World” (Mundus Novus) is published. This letter and related writings (his letter to Piero Soderinin) are seprinted many times and circulated throughout Europe They come to the attention of a group of scholars and mapmakers n the Strasbourg region, who in 1507 literally remake the world In short: America is called “America” because Vespucci had better PR ***Maps Ptolemy, Cosmographia ***Series of Maps and how they evolved to show the whole globe Perception of Natives: Columbus they are humans: Columbus calls them childlike they can be made christian's because they act Childlike

d) idolators however could be enslaved 6.12. Vespucci's perception a) also thinks they are childlike b) believes they are truly primitive, without law or religion 6.13. The Price of Contact a) death of the people of the new world b) colonization 10/07/11 Lecture 7 7. Fishing for Souls, Punishing Bodies 7.1. Factors a) Religion b) Human Psychology • greed, cruelty, agression c) Biology transfer of species back and forth between Europe and the Americas d) Political Economy • spain is bankrupt so it needs wealth • Europe becomes wealthy after landing in the new world 7.2. Bartolom'e de Las Casas (1484-1576) a) arrives in the New World (Hispaniola) n 1502 b) Participates in the conquest of Cuba and witneses the masacre of its inhabitants c) Becomes a priest in 1510 d) he was a colonist of the New World and thus had serfs who were once native people e) 1514 frees his serfs which were native americans f) 1520 Las Casas covinces Charles V to suppot the plan of a colony of farm communities inhabited by Spanish and Free Idians g) 1522 Plan fails because of the opposition of the local land owners. Las Casas begins his History of the Indies • Las Casas believes they are our equals h) 1537 Pope Paul III issues bull declarin that American Indians are rational beings with souls i) 1542 the iShort account is published j) 1542 Las Casas persuades Charles V to pass laws putting an end to the serfdom system (encomienda system) hola k) 1544 Appointed bishop of Chiapas; attempts to enforce new laws. Colonists (including clergy) resist. A year later the laws are rescinded by Charles V l) 1550 Public debate with Juan Gines de Sepulveda over treatment of Indians 7.3. Argument of the Short Account a) writing to the future king of Spain, King Philip II (and to his father , the holy Roman Empreor Charles V) an official report (relaci'on) to inforn him of the abuses taking place in the colonies. b) Las Casas seeked a reforn of colonial practices, including the end of encomienda 7.4. Encomienda syste, a) to prevent settlers from creating feudal fiefs, King Ferdinand and Isabela decreed that all land would remain the possesion pf the Crown b) Indians were compelled to work on behalf of te landholders, in exchange for which they were offered the protection of the Crown, instruction In the Chistian faith, and a small wage

c) Legally, the native peoples “were subjects and vassals” of the Spanish crown 7.5. How Bad Was it? a) It was really bad b) but las casas doesnt challenge Spains right to be in the new world and to nurture it's land and its people` • Pope gave spain the right to own the New World 7.6. Pre-COntact America a) 1500 population of the Americas est. to be 800-100million. Aztec empire (Mexico) and Incan empire (Pacific coast/ Andes) each had roughly 20 million people b) By 1600 the population of these two groups had fallen to about 1 million people each c) Most died as a result of disease brought by Europeans (smallpox, bubonic plague, influenza, measles) 7.7. A Case of Genpcide? a) Writings in 1542 Las Casas claims 12-15 million killed over 40 years b) pre-contact population of Antilles between 5-8. By 17th c. Arawak people virtually extinct c) Motivated simply b greed d) Failure to recognize the indigenous people as fully human? “piles of dung in the middle of the road” 7.8. Extermination a) Expedition to Venezuela b) Report of Brother Marcos in Peru 7.9. Religious Mission a) Las Casas says the conversion and saving of souls is the first priorty b) biblical support c) Las Casas denies that this can be done b force; but make then=m convert to Christianity, d) cruicial idea is that Conversion cannot be forced. IT is a spiritual act that must happen in the heart and soul of the person being converted. 7.10. Requerimientoo (1513) 7.11. What's the REAL Argument? a) Death and physical suffering of the indigenous people? b) Failure to convert them, or save ther souls? c) Wickedness pf Spanish “Christians:? • The soldiers are poor representations f Christians and Spainiards d) The consequences of all of these for Spain? 7.12. Failure of Conversion 7.13. The Consequences of Spain a) pg 127) b) Compare Savonarola's prophecies of divine retribution for the moral and spiritual 7.14. Upseting the Order of Things a) Tere is a natural order to human affairs instituted by God. b) A Catholic king s the divenlt aponinted ruler, to whon others are naturally subject c) Natural l aws hovern the actions of human beings. This law requires that we act justly and acoud unnecesay cruelty 7.15. Just War a) Justice governs the waging of war and the subjection of foreign peoples (se 53-54) b) By natural law, the natice peoples are justifies in waging war te Spanish Lecture 8 10/11/12

8. Outline • The Northern Reanissance • Bosch: Sin and Disorder • Erasmus' Christian Humanism • A Complete 8.2. The Art of the Nortern Renaissance a) Jan van Eyck (1309-1441) • ***Van Eych The Annunciation • biblical scene in a church • **The Virgin of the Chancellor • ***Bethothal of Arnolfini • Jan van Eyck was here b) Hieronymus Bosch (1450-1516) • Haiywain • Christianity. Haywain is a wagon in the middle pannel is. People trying to get to the top of the Haywain. It symbolizes how to get to Jesus • animals dominate the humans in hell • The Garden of Earthly Delights • outside panels is the globe • his representation of the source of sin • very strange imagery. But still animals are rulling over the humans • made in northern italy • bOsch is really unique, no one else does his pianints c) Albrecth Durer. • Paugartner Altarpiece • Self Portrait • St. Michaels Fight Against the Dragon • Self portrait at age 22 • Self Portrait at age 26 • Self Portrait at age 28 (looks like Jesus) • The Large Turf • Birds wings • Melancholia I 151 8.3. Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1536) a) Illegitimate son of a monk (Gerhard) b) Educated in Holland and Paris • university life at Paris : young boys, like 15-18 go to the university. Erasmus didn't like it. He was like 20 years old and the other students are younger than him c) Ordained as a priest but never serves a parish or joins a religious community • he has no pastoral life d) Lives as an iteration teacher and scholar in England, FR, It, Ge, and Switz e) Refuses to follow Luther in breaking with the Catholic Church 8.4. Erasmus' Humanism a) Educational reform. Erasmus was upset with the college in Paris b) educational reform: learning based on literacy and knowledge of classical literature rather than the trivial exercise of scholastics philosophy

c) Emphasis on eloquence and rhetoric rahter than logic and dialect (but Plato and Pico are important influences) d) Scholarship[: new edition of ancient texts sacred and secular. Models himself as St. Jerome: knowledge of Christianity must be based on the best sources; prepare first reliable edition of New Testament in Greek e) Erasmus and Sir Thomas More Hans Holbein and the Younger 8.5. Erasmus' Christianity a) According to Erasmus, a life of learning and intellectual activity does not preclude a life devotion to Christ: one can be a humanist schoar and a pious Christianity b) Yet Erasmus denies that piety is a product of learning or philosophical knowledge. In fact, Christianity is based not on wisdom, but on “folly” c) In Praise of Folly • in 1511 Erasmus publishes his Prais e of Folly (Encomium Moriae) which is dedicated to his friend, Thomas More • Earsmus' conception of Christinty is strongly influenced by 1 Corinthias 1:17-27 d) Erasmus on Peace • Erasmus sees peace (love, charity) as the essecne of Christianity, symbolized by the person of Christ Lecture 9 10/12/11 9. “Here I Stand” Erasmus and Luther The 95 Theses “The Three Walls” 9.1. Erasmus a) Humanist: teacher, editor, and translator of scared and secular texts (esp. Greek edition of the New Testament) b) Christianity is not based on human wisdom but on folly (St. Paul) c) the foundation of Christianity is the person of Christ, a God pf love and peace d) paradox between Jesus as God as a smbol that represents wisdom 9.2. Erasums on Peace a) Erasmus seess peace (lovem charity) as the essence of Christianity, symbolized by the person of Jesus Christ b) Erasmus is against war and sees it as unholy. It destroys piety and religion c) writes letter to the Archbishop about peace d) Erasmus never breaks with the church • why? Because he believes in the importance of unity. People are in more peace if they are as one rather than divided as many 9.3. Martin Luther (1483-1546) a) son of a minsiter b) University Educated c) 1507 Ordained as a Catholic Priest d) 1510-11 travels to Rome where he is appalled by the corruption he sees e) he is opposite of Erasmus f) he is as intelligent as Erasmus 9.4. Sisteine Chapel ***slide of the chapel a) showed Martin Luther how extravaggant the churches in Rome where. They are very

corrupt and not pious. Too much worldliness. Martin Luther sees t as very unchristianlike “beauty and art don't redeem the act” 9.5. Martin Luther contnued a) 1512-46 Professor of biblical exegesis ar University of Wittenberg b) begns to preach the doctrine of salvation by faith rather than works c) October 31, 1517 95 Theses nailed to the door of the castle church d) 1518 Pope summons Luther to Rome to answer for his theses; Luther refuses e) 1520 Publishes An Appeal to the Ruling Class of German Nationally f) one needs to overcome worldly goods g) Jesus is the only way of salvation h) 1520 Excommunicated by Pope Leo X i) 1521 Charles V, holy Roman Emperor, convenes Diet of Worms: Luther refuse to relent j) 1524-4 Erasmus publishes discourse on Free Will. Luther responds with The Bondage of the Will. Peasants war in Germany: 100,000 die k) 1525 Marries Katherine von Bora 9.6. Luther v Erasmus a) both intelligent b) Luther writes in German, identifies with the German nation; Erasmus writes in Latin, lives throughout Europe c) Luther is a preacher who is ready to fight for Christianity against the church; Erasmus is a scholar who stresses peace and the unity of the Church d) Two views of Human Nature • Although Erasmus recognizes the depth of human sinfulness, he stresses the possibilities of spiritual renewal through the example of Jesus Christ • Luther regards sinfulness is an irremediable part of human life; our nature is “fallen” (we bear the mark of Adam's “original sin”) Suffering for one's sinfulness must be the basis of a Christian Life (symbolized by Christ crucified) • Erasmus= be better people and don't sin. Live through peace. Optimistic view • Luther= you will always carry your sin even if you are the most pious virtuous person ever. You must always bear your sin and suffer for it. Very pessimistic 9.7. 95 Theses on Indulgences. You cannot do anything perfectly good because you still have to carry that sin of Adam a) Indulgences are payment made to the Church for the remission of sins, especially as means of lessening the time souls must spend in purgatory b) Indulgences were collected by Rome as a way of financing the rebuilding of St. Peters Basilica c) In Wittenberg, Luther was spurred to action by the flagrant sale of indulgences by the Dominican Johanna Tetzel 9.8. Luther's Main Criticism a) ndulgences have nothing to do with the remssion of sin. All once can do in this regard isto make a full and honest confession of and repentance for one's sins b) Only god can remove sin c) Absolution is granted only by God d) Luther disagrees with how the Pope is selling “ways out of purgatory” 9.9. Key Ponts of Luther's Theology a) a christian life is dominated by the cnsciousness of sin: “The entire life of believers is to be one of penitinve” (1) 9.10 Psychology of Faith

9.11. a) 9.12. a) b) c)

a) if you were going to be svaed, then you wouldn't be afraid b0 if you had sinned then you were going to be afraid No salvation Pope has no role in relationship between you an god. The Pope is not a Luther's Teaching sola fide “faith alone”= you come to god by faith and not by reason; we have no ability to fathom God's omnipotence sola scriptura “b scripture alone”= God's will is revealled in scripture sola gratia “by grace alone”= no human being merits salvation. Even if we had free choice (which we don't, we could not earn salvation through our actions. God's grace alone renders our actions meritorious, and grace is given withouht regard to our apparent degree of goodness (eleciton)

Lecture 10? Lecture 11 10/17/11 11.Wars of Religion 11.1. Luthers Theology a) Following st. Augustine, Luther stressest he fallness of human nature and the infinite distance between human beings and God b) one should be in constant pentinence c) “sola scriptura” only scripture d) human beings lack any knowledge of God's will e) No action that follows from human nature is worthy of reward in the eyes of God 11.2. Grace and Salvation a) human beings can be saved only through Jesus b) luther offers: “comfortable ceratinty” that one is saved c) this certainty, which belongs to the person who has true faith and a perfect love of God, is the effect of divine grace. It is mothing we can bring about through acts of “free will” 11.3. Multiple Meaning of Freedom a) Luther argues against the existence of freedom of the will : a power of choice that makes us accountable for our actions b) Luter argues for the freedom of human beings to worship according to the dicatates of their faith/conscience. This is a kind of political freedom • this idea comes out during the reformation. Every christian should be able to read and interpret the Bible for themselves 11.4. Religious conflict in 16th c. Europe a) The force of conviction: Luther stresses the need for certainty concerning points of the doctrine b) No recognized right of conscience or support for religious toleration c) No overarching secular political institutions d) Many causes unrelated to religion (desire for political power or wealth) 11.5. Reformation a) The Reformation is no one envent, no single break with Rome b) There are a variety of Reformations, in Germany, switzerland, etc 11.6. Germany reformation a) 1517 Martin Luther nails his 95 Theses to the door of Wittenbergs all saints Church b) 1520 The Anabaptists, a Protestant sect that rejected infant babptism, claimed direct inspirtation by the Holy Spirit, and sought political rule by a spiritual elect (a theocracy)

c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k)

11.7. a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

grows as a movenment in Switzerland, Germ, and Nether 1521 they arrive in Wittenberg and attempt to take over the city-state 1522 When he returns from Wartburg, Luther forces them from the city and surrounding towns 1524-5 Peasant's War: uprising prompted by economic discontent leave as many as 100,00 dead 1534-4 Anabaptists seize control of the city of Munster, which they rule as a theocarcy for 18 months. The city is besesiged, and ultimately recaptured by its Catholic • Munster Cathedral tool bodies and put them in cages. Like the Handmaids Tale 1530 Augsburg Confession 1536 John Calvin publishes Institues of the Christian Religion in Geneva 1543 Inquistiion of Paul III begins in Rome; Protestant heretics burned at the stake 1545 Council of Trent; beginning of the Roman Catholic Counter-reformation 1555 Lutherine acknowledged by the Holy Roman Empie in the Peace of Augsburg, the first oermanent legal basis for the existence of two religions in Germany • ****Map of Europe c. 1560 • Jugonauts = french Calvinists England is Anglican Henry VIII. • 1509 Henry Tudor crowned King Henry VIII following death of his father. He marries Catherine of Aragon (she is the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella), his brother Arthur's widow and the aunt of Charles V, and the fathers Mary, future queen of England. • 1510 Henry VIII and Castile's Ferdinand II join Pope Julius II's Holy Legaue to drive the French from Italy • 1514 Engalnd and France declare a truce. Mary Tudor, Henry's sister marries Louis the 12th The English Reformations • 1521 At Henrys request tHomas More writes Defence of the Seven Sacraments, ia refuation of Luthers babylonian Captivity of the Church • 1526 Henry VIII leaves Catherine of Aragon for her lady in waiting, Anne Boleyn • 1533 Archbishop of Cantebury, Thomas Cromwell annuls Henry's marriage to Catherine and he marries Anne Boleyn, who is already pregnant with the future Elizabeth I The Church of England (1534) • Henry VIII starts a series of acts so that he may divorce Catherine and also he states that King of England is head of the Church in England • Act of Succession: declares Henry's marriage to Caterine null and void from the begnning and declares Henry's marriagge to Anne Boleyn • Act of Supremacy: confirms Henry as “Supreme Head of the Church in England” nullifying the pope's authorith in England and giving the Kings the right to reform the church and judg heresies Sir Thomas More (1478-1535) • friend of Erasmus • author of Utopia • refuses to sign the Henry VIII oaths and is beheaded 1536 Anne Boleyn executed on trumped-up charges after failing to produce a son.

Within 24 hours, Henry marries Jane Seymour, Annes lady in waiting f) 1537 Jane gives birth to a son, Edward, and dies two weeks later g) 1540 Henry marries Anne of Cleves: the marriage is annulled the same year. He marries Katherine Howard h) 1542 Kathryn Howard executed for adultery i) 1543 Henry marries Catherine Parr j) 1547 Henry Dies, succeeded by Edward VI (10 years old) k) 1553 Edward succeeded by his cousin, Lady Jane Grey, who reins for nine days l) Henry's daughter Mary is recognized as the rightful heir. She restores Roman Catholicism and Lady Jane Grey is executed the following year m) 1555 Mary weds Philip II of Spain; over 300 Protestants are burned at the stake n) 1558 Elizabeth I succeeds to the throne. The Church of England reestablished o) 1560 Presbyterianism established by the Scottish Calvinist John Knox; the beginnings of English Puritanism p) 1564 Shakespeare born 11.8. Catherine de' Medii and France a) slide family tree 11.9. France Wars of Religion a) 1561-2 Catholics riot agains Huguenots (French Calvinsits) Catholic league led by Duke of Guise, Protestants by Kings of Navarre b) 1563 Peace of Ambiose ends First War of Religion, Huegnots gaine limite tolerance Lecture 12 10/19/11 12. Michel de Montaigne 12.1. How the Essays came to be: a) he wrote a lot 12.2. “on Idleness” a) quote b) Montaigne spends a lot of time editing and revising his essays c) confessional writing/ autobiography... d) ****Slide Montaigne at Work • he had quotations from classical texts eched into his ceiling • 65 Inscriptions on the Ceiling • “to every argument one can oppose an argument of equal force” --Sextus Empiricus 12.3. Montaigne's Later Life a) 1580 Travels to Italy; while gone, elected mayor of Bordeaux b) 1582-85 Serves two terms as mayor during which he moderates between Catholic supporters of the king, Henry III and Protestant supporters of Henry of Navarre, the designated heir to the throne c) 1589 Henry III assasinated; Montaigne helps keep Bordeaux loyal to Henry of Navarre, who is crowned king (after converting to Catholicism) d) 1592 Montaigne dies 12.4. The Essays a) first Edition 1580 b) second edition 1585 c) Third edition 1588 12.5. What are the “essays”?

a) Montaigne invents a new literary form b) 'Essay' means to test, examine, or try (literally essay= assay) c) The essay's are in the first place examinations of himself: “for it is my own self that I am painting... I myself am the subject of my book” (“to the reader”) 12.6. Skeptical Crisis of the 16th c. a) Who is an authority on what to believe and how to live? • Many versions of Christianity arise during this time • the pope? The king? Me? The priests? b) Who has a justified claim to knowledge about God, the worldm the natue od human beings, what is good and evil? • There is no god, vs there is one god • many different religions now c) Skeptical response: no one can support the claim to have knowledge in ths sense: not philosophers, not theologians, not Montaigne himself • this skepticism will always undermine authority, • skepticism, you can't explain that • is your faith such that you can claim for it knowledge for other people. Is it strong enough to convert other people • “On the Resemblence of the Children to Their Father” • science in his time was not well developed. He doesnt believe that there is an authority strong enough to convince him that the medicine or science is correct • so what is he to believe? The only thing he can do is look inward “afer all of my readings and learning, what can I conclude on myself” 12.7. Montainge's Skepticism a) Borrows from the ancients skeptics: equally strong (or weak) arguments on both sides=> doubt, “suspension of judgment” b) For Montainge: doubt=> inquiry (to essay: a “trying” or “testing” of oneself) c) In the absence of certainty, one can only rely on one's own experience: it shows the world to contain some patters, but alas to be highly variable; one's beliegs are always subject to revision. 12.8. Order and Disorder a) In reading the Essays one tries to ompose oreder on them. To discern what Montaigne's position really is b) But his goes against the character of the work: “On Repenting” • Basic Ideas on Repenting • Self-knowledge • Mutabiliy and variability • everything is changing • because of this idea of everything changes, there are no simple certainties (attitude of skepticism • Underlying order to things and a pattern to one's life that can be uncovered • everyone is born, everyone grows up, everyone has parents, everyone matures , everyone dies • to discover this, and to accept it, is to be content with oneself Lecture 13 10/21/11 Sub

13. 13.1. a) b) c) d) e) 13.2. a) b)

c) 13.3. a) b) c) 13.4. a) b)

13.5. a)

b) 13.6. a) b) c) 13.7. a) b) c)

What do I Know? Montaigne's project Philosophy as self-examination Importance of solitude Skepticism as approach to the uncertainty of the world • there is a difference between relativistic and being skeptical of someone else's opinion Results in politics of toleration Montaigne as professing Catholic and skeptic • he is a devote Catholic yet he also questions the authority of the Church What Did People Know c. 1580 They didn't know much about medicine and technology. Munch less than we do today: Montaigne says many things that reflect his pessimism about the limits of human knowledge (eg medicine) and he attacks the willingness of people to believe unsupported reports of witchcraft and ghosts • he questions people who are 100% sure of something But are we really different? Do most people regulate their beliefs by reason and science? The Dangerous wish for Certainty Certainty would be fine, if we could have it, but we can't It is a weakness of the human mind that we are led to extravagant conclusions based on little of no evidence • our conclusions outstrip our evidence We stubbornly cling to our opinions in the face of contrary evidence and are willing to do horrible things on the bias of them. In short: opinions that are taken to be more than opinions are dangerous “On the Lame” called on the lame because he thought it was going to be good so it turned out being good • how something results is biased upon how your previous outlook on something • desire creates the outcome Dangerous Opininons pg 358 • there must be a real reason to kill someone. It's ok to have clashing ideas but to kill someone because they do not agree with you is ridiculous. There is always the uncertainty • he believes life is very important • ex, what if you execute an innocent person pg 360 Montaigne Morality Deference to he Church: Supported by skepticisms Tolerance of those different than ourselves (“On Cannibalism”) One's sense of morality discovered within, through self-examination “On Cannibals” We are apt to judge barbarous and savage whatever is different from ourselves there is something admirable about the natives of the Mew World, because they are in a “natural” state They have a natural virtue (courage, honor, love of their wive) even if their culture is war-like and cruel

13.8. Conclusion of “On Cannibals” a) On the wole, the society of the New World peoples compares favorably with European society b) Virtue can exist even when the conventional signs of it are different c) Power of custom: “Ah! But they wear no breeches...” (92) • Montaigne ponders and comes to the concluscion that there are even worse cruelt'es in his homeland than in the cannabalism of the Native Americans • It is hard to be unbiased. It is a gut biasis that he just can't get past because hs is sooooo unaccustomed to that 13.9. Montaignes Virtue: “On Cruelty” a) pg 176 • how can one approach this problem? • Virtue is when everything points in one direction but you go the other direction b) pg 179 13.10. Are we innately Cruel? 13.11. Montaigne's Universal Morality a) He doesnt know why people would burn someone, and then he is like, why would you be cruel to an animal? (Back then they didn't have PETA) b) quote about universal anticruelty (pg 185) • we have a duty to respect man (in every human being there is a reason for justice) • why add to the hurt and suffering to the world if you don't have to • kindness and gentleness to the rest of creation • “ I am not afraid to admit that my nature is so childishly affectionate that I cannot easily refute Lecture 14 10/24/11 14. Lecture 14 14.1. Montaigne morality 14.2. Montaigne universal Morality a) he is not an aout about relativism 14.3. Questions about Morality a) Is morality (virtue/ vice,right/wrong) merely conventional or is it set of standards that transcend social conventions? Are there transcultural norms? b) Where do different practices fall along the nature/ convectional divide? Diet? Marriage? Sex? Gender roles? Religion? 14.4. Nature versus Conventional a) Nature (Phusis) = the natural order of things, or the order dictated by God; the way things must or should be • there is some sort of natrual law that is established withoneach other • it's a universal law because of god b) Convention (nomos)= what a society does, as a matter of custon or legislated law, but what others might do differntly without doing anything fundamentally wrong (styles of dress, food, music) 14.5. What to say about religion? a) The authority of religion is no different than the authority of the sate. Theocracy. b) Or, if you are skeptical you could say that the authority of the religion to the authority of the state: it is a state sanction set of beliefs. c) Or the state should have a neutral framework in which religion an be practice. Tolerance

d) Tolerance superceeds the power of religion 14.6. Toleration as a Moral Value a) In liberal societies, the secong view wins out over the first b) But note that this eams subordination religious belief/ practices to the prior authority of the state/ universal morality. Which cannot be identified with the position of any one religion. 14.7. WILLIAM SHAKESPEAR (1564-1616) a) Born in Stratford upon Avon, son of John Shakespeare, a glove maker, and Mary Arden —both from old Catholic families b) attended local grammar school (Ben Jonson: small Latin and less Greek) c) at 18 marries Anne Hathaway, 26, who was already three months pregnant d) between 1585 and 1613, Shakespeare wrote some 40 plays (as well as 154 sonnets and several other major poems) e) 1583 Birth of Susanna f) 1585 twins born g) 1592 Shakespeare is in London where he works as an actor and playwrite h) 1596 Death of Hamnet i) 1597 Buys second largest house in Stratford j) Shakespeare and Montaigne • while religion lies in the background of their works, their themes are mainly secular • Both are preoccupied with the diversity of human life and the patterns underlying this diversity • They focus on issues of character and identiy • individuals who struggle with the question of their own identity • individuals who fail in their endeavours because of a flaw of character • for Shakespeare these are often eminent persons: kings, queens and their children • How are Mintain and Shakespeare realted • the avoid talking about religion. It almost becomes irrelevant • they both are preoccupied with diversity and difference • “king lear” who am I if I am not a king? k) Elizabeth I (reigned 1558-1603) • Elizabeth's Regin • Eliabeth comes to the throne unexpectedlat a young age (25) • as an unmarried woman, her authority is vulnerable from the start. Throughout her reign, she brilliantly (and ruthlessly) controls the powerful men around here • Religion and a powerful Spain are a constant threats • England defeats the Spanish Armada in 1588; this brings Elizabeth enormous popularity • the cult of the queen (virgin, warrior, goddess) grows (think of Botticelli's Palls Athena) • Elizabeth the golden Age • Elizabeth to her people • The Final Years • Elizabeth faced one of her last threts from Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex • he wins glory fighting the Spanish, but fails when given the task of suppressing rebellion in Ireland • Against the queens orders he reutrns to England; a series

15. 15.1. a) b) c) d) e) f) 15.2. a)

15.3. a) b) c) d) 15.4. a) b)

15.5. a)

b) c) 15.6.

Lecture 15 The Divine Right of Kings Prior to ascending to the English Throne, King James wrote two wotks in which he laid out his views of the absolute authority of monarchs. He presesnte the view in his speech to parliament of March 1609 The issue is whether the kings policies and requests for funds are subject to the approval of parliament or whetehr parliament assembles only to hear and assent to the kings intentions. King James says that he is god's annointed soverign. He HAS ABSOLUTE right t te crown parliament is asserting it's will against the King Kings James says that he doesnt need anyones authority because he is THE KING Kings as Gods Kings are not only “God's Lieutenants” on earth, but are ineffet gods themselves: • Kings are justly called Gods, for they exercise a manner or resemblance of divine power on earth • Kings have, under the “law of nature” paternal authority (patriam potestem) which is the power of lif and eath pver their children • as the head of the natural body (the nation) the king has the power of directn all the members of the body to that use which the judgment of the head thinks best (in Lear see I.1.169-4) Shakespeare and the theater Around 1585 Shaekspeare leaves Stratford and joins a company of players as a minor actor and playwrite Getween 1590 and 1611 he composes as many as 40 plays 1599: Globe Theatre in which Shakespeare is an investor, opens 1603: James I issues a patent to Shakespeares troupe, who rename themselves the “Kings Men”; plague kills at least 33,000 in london Place of the Theatre in London Plays offer an occasion for the people to congregate and express their views; they also shape public opinion. For these reasons they are dangerous in the eues of the authorities. Playwrights are subjects to censorship, suppression, imprisonment and worse, if deemed to be covertly political • Shakespeare however never gets in trouble, even though some of his plays (ie King Lear) has undertones that insult the monarchy Shakespeares Aims Entertainment: plays are pitched simulataneously to the people (lots of low humor) and noble, educated audiences • The theatre is the one place were different classes of people get together. Also it is a place where people of different educational backgrounds get together • (so shakespeares plays are unique in that he appeals to the whole audience, he can bring humor down and he can also bring in very intelligent issues Address the issues of the day: the idea of the English nation (historical plas); the conflict among valus Most originally ,the enactment of psycological conflict; in S's greatst works, the play mirrors the mind of a character struggling to act as the situation requires (Hamlet, King Lear Macbeth, Julius Caesar) The History of King Lear

a) King Lear written in 1605-05 b) Sources include The True Chronicle History of King Leir and His Daughters (anonymous, 1594); The Chronicles of ngland ,Scotland and Irland, by Raphael Holinshed (1587) c) First documented performanc before King James I at Whitehall on December 26, 1606 d) Published in Quarto (1608, 1619) and Folio (1623) editions (the last after S's death) 15.7. King Lear Charactrs a) Lear: has daughters Goneril/ Albany, (good guy), Regan/ Cornwall (evil husband), Cordelia/ married to King of France b) Gloucester: sonsa re Edgar and Edmund (bastard asshole) • Truth tellers • Kent= comes back as a servant • Fool c) ****Video clip first part of King Lear 15.8. Lears abdictaion a) What does Lear give up? • He gives up his land and essentially his whole kingship to his two bitch ass daughters • he loses Cordelia, his favorite daughter • HE loses his mind • He loses his knights essentially, he only retains his King name in name, so he is really just a subject and Kent's Like, “what ho sir! This is stupid, now you have no power dumbass” 16 17. 17.1. a) b) c) 17.2. a) Lecture 17 Outline review of the Last 2 weeks Crash cource in Aristotelian Science Overview of the Scientific Revolution Some Big themes sovereignity (Machiavelli, Luther, James I) • what is the basis of (legitamate) political authority; Divine right? Power? Consent of subjects? • How, if at all, does divine authority differ from human authority? Identity (Montainge, Shakespeare) • Montaignes focus a lot on the question : who am I? • King Leer asks the same question • Does one understande oneselft as part of a group (religion, ethicity) through a role (e.g monarch) or as an individual (in relation to others)? Nature vs Natural Order Naturalism about Human Affair Las Casas, Erasmus, and Luther view human actions and politics through theological lens: how should one behave as a Christian, and what are the implications of out actions n relation to God's providence? Like Machiavelli, Montaigne and Shakespeare take human beings as they are and seek to understand the mtices of their actions and ow those motive are shaped by inderlyinh psycological and social forces. Two senses of Natural

b)

c) 17.3. a) b) 17.4.

a) King Lear draws on two senses of what is natural: one normative (moral), one not b) Lear and his daughters talk of natural bonds between parent and child, whose rupture would constitute a wrong: c) Edmund draws on this sense of ' natural' when he claims inheritance should track “birthright” rather than legitamcy, which is mere custom d) But Edmund is playing a deeper game: he sees the world as consisting solely of reltaions of power, in which the strong and capable naturally dominatae the weak. This is a world without morality. 17.5. Nature and science a) Montaigne stressed the infinite variety and variablilty of natire, which he is skeptial can be reduced to any simple scheme. We can at most proceed tentatively, on the basis of experience b) Discerning underlying order within the diversity of nature is the task of science. The question is: how to do this? c) For> 1500 years it was assummed that Aristotle had succeeded in this regard. At the beginning of the 17th c. philosphers and scientist began to question this assumption. d) Galileo was upset because arguments can be based on the fact just because Aristotle said so. 17.6. Aristotles Universe a) 55 concentric spheres b) Earth is at the center and immobile c) outermost sphere is the prium mobile, wose motion moves the other spheres d) for christians beyond this I heaven where the angels and blessed reside 17.7. Theory of Substance a) particular thinfs are substances b) substances are divided into inds or species (dogs, bats, human, chairs houses) c) Everysubstance is hylemorphic meaning it is composed of matter and formidable d) form gives a substance its distnctive properties as a member of a species eg the form of caninity accounts for Fidos being a member of the species dog 17.8. Theory of Four Causes a) scientific explantaions are answers to why questions eg why did this happen? Why does this thing have this property b) to anwers a why question is to identiy a cause that explains the phenonmeon c) aristotle postulated that “why” questions could be answered in four different ways, corresponding to the formal, material, efficient, and final causes. d) HE uses this way to explain that things want to go back to their home 17.9. Example 2: Living things a) why does the apple fall when dropped? Because its matteris heavy (material caus 17.10. example 3 18. Lecture 18 Banishing Idols 18.1. Criticism of Aristotelian Science a) Geocentric cosmology b) distinction of sublunary and celestial spheres c) Physical theory (hylomorphic substance; formal and final causes) d) Appeal to authority e) Insuffiecient attention to inductive methods 18.2. The Scientific Mind 18.3. Experimental Method a) inductive reasning is more than simple observation or the recording of “curiosities”: it

also requires method( Bacon's true induction” b) hypothesis testing c) instrumentation, precise measurement 18.4. Mathematization of Nature 18.5. Institutionalization of 18.6. Francis Bacon 18.7. Bacons Political Rise and Fall a) 1603 James I becomes king b) 1607 Solicitor General c) 1613 Attorny General d) 1618 Lord Chancellor e) 1621 Impeched for bribery, briefly imprisoned in Tower; upon release retires to country 18.8. Francisces Death 18.9. Bacon's Goal a) Bacons bug unfinished project was a series of works entitled The Great Insturation b) The first book in the series was the Advancement of Learning ; the second The New Oraganon (1620) c) “Instauration” means renewel, looking towards the future as opposed to renaissance which is to revive the past d) Ao, Bacons primary goal is to put science—knowledge 18.10. The New Oraganon 18.11. Frontispiece New Oraganon ****slide of frontispiece a) the pillars of Hercules represents Aristotelian ideas that are holding back the ships of discovery 18.12. Scientific Progress= Divine Providence 18.13. Bacon: Science and the Fall a) “For man by the fall fell at the same time from his state of innocence and from his dominion over creation. Both of these losses however can even in this life be in some part repaired; the former by religion and faith, the latter by arts and sciences. For creation was not by the curse made altogehter and forever a rebe;, bi=ut in virtue of that charter, 'in the swear of thy face shalt thou eat bread, it is now by various labors...at length and in some measure subdued to the supplying of man with bread, that is, to the usees of human life” (II.52) Dominoin over creation is achieved by mastery of the arts and the science. 18.14. Significance of the Title a) The title refers to Aristotles Organon, or “instrument” of logic, which Bacon ais to replace. b) Deductive syllogism • All men are mortal • Socrates is a man • Socrates is mortal • Socrate's mortality is explained by the univerzal truth that all men are moral and the fact that he is a man. Howeverm we don't thereby discover any new knowledge... 18.15. Bacons Conception of Science a) Empirical/ Experimental b) Methodical c) Cooperative

d) Applied: knowledge is power e) Science promises f) success is te measure of truth 18.16. Impediments to Progress: Idols 18.17.