..... ""'" Grunsci 'II Soc,al,,,,,,, < nall>' II G.-;,Jo tkI ",,,,.:No If .... _ h " " art "'" <2t<ful
,he" mem... ",II ""rite ,baT
(j.."ano Sal,omlni. as quoted Ifl V M.n'o'·,ni. /.0
.,cage lId DIU/III
"rtil.
The his!ory of 1I.1i;,n 'Oafchi,m from ,IS In (h •• n"nn,(h R"'OI!!,m<'ml.>, h> ,I> ,"tuallk'(nI<,ion b)' foK'II1\. has "",·.r ,lie 0"'''''0<1 i, <Ieu.HI, I ,ball not such on . mbllio.b proJcc, her<, I
"h) 110.. did the &lWChi>l mo'Cl1lColl ..... !H .. a "'13' p"" "rthe Italian _,.1,;1 11'<1 labour ",'".. menl. wllil the Tho f'I"I'h<"hc ..-onb ofGllC1.ono Sah emin; .. the of Ihl> ,hapcer hl >t 100ft or [.,<$ fulfilled 11o.,onoamphy C<lnCc",1n8 haloa n anarth,sm h.. been I.ft mo,dy 10 liS . ... ><I i, has only be<:n in II>e la >1 '",cnty.fi,'" yea". wilh the developmen, of. less dog,nall' J i. ,Oj!uc CQmp"""nlS of the lIJ<han left , thai" more ba' .ncN >CCOunl uflh. trlI" .",.", hu \!«n produce,J. Indttd, O<l" might SIIj ,"",
het"'''''"
for. '008 lime .he a"",di" mo'-."",,,! had suffmd an.' en tun •••" I'lie than Salwm,n, IIad predicted for II II Iud '1aile "mply ben! ("'i""en. relegaled '0 I frw fu<Jtnoc", gencnlly roroo<:m,n, "human colour' lI .. u
b cull. an ,"'<rnI'''$ "fltah"" plebei." ttIlture. bYllu.rd ly ckstn In, close scM,ny.; T"" ,ene",""ns of _iali"., bmh lu,,",j', and G",ms.ci',. could no< .,.."d the 81"rel"" lendcn(:y 'hOI coloured ,"" hch.,ioo, of many ""doh,1> And 10 I certain degl'« lo"nll Gramscl and Ihr gr,al rcfomli>l Idrn"fiod the libonarian lradition IS 0"" of lhe palho logioal .ymptom. oflb< ill- f.tcd poS1·!I .. ,t.t. _IfT"."t i embodied lhe It.han ",rjlOft of Sccott.d Inloma""".II" iIOCt.ltstn. "hM G"'m>ci'i pohl"'.' clrter motl 'I1.d by • dt>irc '0 C"li,ile Ind tra"",tnJ Ih l> tradilion. \xlch rmI:Iln<d Ioclcd wilhln 1hc "'"iic c,,,,k ofltalian probInns Ind l13hln obseso"",._ Both I <3rn<'d for. modtm 5O<' IelV iden.ificd ., an ad, .new capll.IiOi ",ho»c 11I>ItHlI"",. and 'cultu,"" prep;lrc 1M ",-ay (ox 5O<'i. h..,,_ liberal 113'y. they belie'cd, '" IS plaMueJ wilh g... It.lj. th<y .houghl. ",,,,ar.. gb.all o f regions. gonmed by • pollll,al oillc. hardly ropre<cnt>tl\ 0 of lhe ""he. of.be ,·.. t nUJ"'''Y of Ihe I[aha" f'OIl" lal ion The llaha" parha lncltl " . s only a parody "f i" COU"lell""" in IIOrlhem EurOj>< lnst.ad o f . d •• ,,) defot ...>d pany sy,lcm. the ... e,;sled "!lXI.Ii",,s of clientele. '" here ptoo>ulily and =Iional m", ... t >«m<:d """" c"",;,,1 than modem .... " particl "'pre<cnting do" or. coo.lilloo of dllS> ml .....,,_ In both poltllcal rh<1onc Itlly " piclured IS I C"OUI\!I'Y prey to clIaoIic rioti"i- ptrptrual scandal-.J poI" ...-a1 adHntU",rj [..:h. In hi. own" I)', bopod Ihil ell'lloli.." "vuld "'" onl)" destroy lhe Ch"....>t" ""II oflhe feudal _tho bul ,..). lhe ground"<><l f.,.. a modem <.en>e o f I'<>hho._ The It.li.n peof'Ilc, 'hey fd •. laded a -">Ie 'I'lflf. "001.1 wtcneh Italy ond Ihe It.h.n, into tile twentlcth cen tLl ry_' Th"", ,,-a •. ho\o.'CI cr. a <""". 1d llT"",,,,,,, belweon Ihc>c two \'cry di\'cn;e 1'"IIt i,-.I ThIS dtlTerence centred Oft lime How loog would on;: ", w"" 1\" c'I'".I,,,,, to dfeot i" chln)l("S1 For- Tunm hi;r"'Y pru. .. d >I .. 011<1 ", ... through ,he porrol.. """" o f ",formism r or-
"""w
,
{Iallan Anarchml. I iPQ-19/l
"'If
GtaIt\SCi, ",orld aOld Impori_li.." hod "",,-en th," • "" olution rould be m..s. "Eo,n" thi, ",form"t >ntorpn:lallOO oflb< d,.l<'<t"'_ For Tur:"', .... and part .."",,!,/), democracy I " , ' " .}-"""ymou. F", Gra"""t soci.li,m '. hean and """I were loe"ed tn lhe modorn fac.O<)". in lhe prnklari." eommLlntt)" ofprodoccl"\ _T"",,, Ind Gra""" t 10 Lll'! a f" hmoos It.".n phrasc - w."'irotdt..nerniri (broth .. "ne lnlOi), for bolh, ,oclalism follo".d in t he foot'I'''' o f capil. II,1 InOOem.zalton Gramoci', idenlif,catton of .... i.li.m·' I·."gu.rd in tho f....,ry prOlCl.nat Mlbe ....,.. ad\'a""cd """lIern ioo"""". wa, p"""'bly eon.idorcd '00 'work"",,' for l"ura1t, bul both m"" Cut .be" te<:th In 5O<' ..1t51 Il101.""'111, thll. ""lit 1hc" "noe,.IIons ""lIt I mo<Ir-rn 100""",.1 "oRlng cl.". "'01" lIIII/Swtl in [lIly_ h " ".11 k",,"'n thai Gram><1 did ''''nlp! to "tdtn "","I"m', bose An 1I_"an """Iution rould no! be carried 001 '" ,,!>out the .... pport oflhe ""'Illem PC"Soan"}. and th"",ghoul h.. co"",r he for a .,."Iogy, b'It trhe had gamed. senSlt" l1y for soothcm p,,>b[cm,. he tiel., Jtmo'ed ,he honhem faclory prol"",,'1 from ii, ,-o"Suard rolc A•• Sonlini.n int.lI«tu.l ... "si1t"o 10 lhe tnJuno. that h i, 01." island h",! luffered tR Ltbe",'l ... [}'. G"'n'lSCl hal """,, p',lured a, 0"'" oflhe fcw \\<>Iem Manim to delclop I colle ....... "&r1'nan policy In facl. "",ny OIher tntollec'wtl .. he yunl<'d 10 hi. ""IiI" !Unol 50<'''')', "The ,..... ... nlr). and el-.-n lhe proIcunInlte<! jXasanu of.be Po 'aile)' "ho compo!oCtllM ""'JOn'Y of 1hc IlItb"n Soc,ah>! Pan) C l"1',cnted Ihe c"''''lI''''''' of modem welall'l poIillc._ lie ",anted til<' pta .. n" to aool\don lheir folkloric I tliOll of the world which he dofiOlcd ...en-", for a .\<i.nlif", outlook buono_Tlic rn'olu"",,"'Y nonhcm prolel. " . 1 "ou lJ br,,"k Lhe cha",. of p<a>3 t\t bad" anlne,. b) prodocli" ro""1"\ of c.pilali sm for l he full MI·.tII.go o f the hali.n PCOl>Ie_ Th. pc.",n"),. and lhoot< clernents of the faCIO<)' proktanal "ho "c,"" .1111 under 11, mn"C""'. 1"'''''01, "''''"'' dttnocd <oolam"\o1'N b) In oarlier Ufi>cicnttf", socI11". tradition. They rould IlOl osc:apt from lbe ,'''''''''' circle o f no! Ind "",Ihy that Gram",i .alled
t.".."
M,,,,,,;,
,,,,,II
"''''tT1''"",O
Borh Tun,i and Gramsci rough'. bank "llaln" ',lib. ,-""" o· "", •• ltsm, bullhe COItIparuool cndi here, Gn",,,i's early " .. inllu."".d b)' , .. riOlI. libena nan rumple<. and he el'cn .nded up being confounded wnh an. rthi'l and 'y ndlealtSi hcrt" ,.s; Turati ', vaha 't! <itf",,,,, of Ih. an.arthm •. on ' he Olio.. Illlld. "-lIS loorc the in'pi"'" oralory of. "lVIl who defended th" righl. o f 11""" on hi. 10 1\ bec' '' >e of pr;IKlpl ... In mll>d. "ncr "'" def••1of the autl><>nuri.n thfC.lt1 in ,he 1891)0.. 1hc a""",ht<lS aoo ,yndiollm "-m: OImply p<imil1¥'"
,nMe<i '>1one al!<' """ialiou', G,,"nsci '$ .. lllionsh,p w"h lhem " .. nlOl'<: ron","" and "omple', for," I>< " ..... ,ed. d'>I,n<lly liben.nan form of during.1>< Fit1l W.,.W W." I'M' en •• red inoo • "ortiog fnend,Jllp '" ,'h I n:tTIlIfbbk groupofTorinae """,h,.. , As hu coonell rommu:tism .merged In tbe "'.." (,I>< Red B,Cf\J\''''''. 1919- 20) i. bono ,I>< hlllnu,k. of Ihe anareh". and hentag._ \I) 11m In Ih" ,nttndllCI<>ry .hapter " ,<> shed tom( hght "" lhe cH.luII"" <>f'M hali,n libenanan mo,,,,=' ber""" (lie rcw.>, '0 inTroduc. O(he, (m,ell()-M""co The 'iulit)' of a""reh,.tn, and a mote Il""",ic an" ,,."" lrad" ,oo ,h.II chara.cle,ilod It,it "n s.eco"d I",ern.,ion.h., _ "h,m. can be .. plained hy eum ioiog Ihre. majur lheme" Ih. of an.rchism·s h;\,ory. tit. W"I;, ,; li.\ of .he PS l. .. ><llh, ....,I,,"on of the [taha" laoou, ,,,,,,,. menl in its p .. w., f""na,I", ""riod, By [914 anl ,>1a",m In Its f"nn I1.>d t.rcOOIe o ..",he[med hy an ri""<>nIlly <Hlenu,d ."",.lI" pally, The .... n:him remai""d a ,,·eak .. pany. parado>"'"lly. ho" . , ... Il><i, ,"I ... , ..... 1Ied !lrong al lhe IP"'" """s. Anarthl!ttl', s)·mbol. .nd heritage OOrn",.,ed mal"" ... m 1... lian _ ... h,,- cullu ... Lnfonunatoly lhe dr""h, un,,1 "",.mly. of "ud'!;S concoming Itaha" _1I1"m ti I p<lpUlar culture th .. curi"", fOCI. Al'hough th"" I probkm "fJfeat ,n ",df. I can ""Iy prc$en' ,he .. ad .. ""h • btt*l ou,[t"" "f. popular soc,ah"", 1111, ean bc<1 be drfinoed .. the 'JtOOnd cul,u",·. tit" I mean a "",wort of ''''"tu,i"", bound '<>a<thc, by I<:n,",tCnll of locah'm. In,i,"'''''''' and '"""ra"mu· I'" QT\<n"",). I( cOllided "'I""trdly ",'h 'he Itahan ,laIc and du,ing IOC"OU' <",e, e\On wi,h Ihe mon: ccn,raitud in>l;lu""n, of Ih. I,il"u, and """i.li st The chambe, of I,bou r. the new isolated 00" 1"·,,, indumi.1 SIlburt>. lhe agrotowns of Apo"" a"" [ m il i" .nd the "",,,pany to..-"s of I.,gu,i •. and Umb" •.• [[ Kcommoda,N. 10 ,.,,,ying dcgrtts. a cull"re' Its ,.1 .. 0' a/f",,.d (iraJ",",;', \Ia"i"" in ncpl"" and ]IO>IIi\O way•. Gram",i', couo<il e"nunun!5m did DOl "",rely spnng from tbe crucible of ,he World and i" .-.'Olul"","ry afle"""'h. The ""'as of s.clf-manage",ent and an aulonomou, culture. SO prom' ... nl ,n .he Gnun><:i of II>< b'"",1lJ 11><W. " . . . aln:ady ptcloCnl ,n ""'_"'r 1.. ly_ On the othe, hand. ,he ,nllability oftbe '>co""" cullo,.". Ind the drmagoguery!lut G... msc, though' prt"Stnl. caused him", be c",..:.1 of 'h" ,radi.ioo
['U"'"
,t)
1'..,
,
The F irsl 1870-410--' ltah3Jl lntnnat,onait,,,, ",a. IlI.I""d Ihrough a naltonal SlTUggk in an agran." SOCtt1y. "here the c.,...,opt of' Italy' "'ti "m"cd '0 a ..... 11 band "r ,ntollectuall. an..... and t.t1blJ\ ptn)' OOttrgCOlI... I'."hen the cmlnlll.,n& "al. om"oo in ,he ';OIlIl'T)'<""', " di'hked. and II lime: it "-as "I'f"J5Cd '(10th and l\3.il In ,he IS6O$ lhe soolh "'I' bluod .. d by a ferocious ci,-il ",or ,n ",lllch a rcak,lranll"Ulntr)-' 0JIp0Sed "hit, ","1 foll,o be • r""'i[{ll "ale. had <kgra.,k<J it> ,eligi"n, f..,."od ,t I" pay great"' In.. and had ccns<npted i'l so", in", a d .. ,.nl anny, n.. brigand. ill ,"" soulh '" lth Ihe Iklurbot ... tld tl .. Cathohc clelllY 0' ""crt inyoh-ed In 1000al qua,,:.I •. Other f0101' of 1" 010" Ih. .lId bread'h of tho po",",ul. I" 1869.• WayC of riOll, nc.,ly a popula, insurrection. wit e."s.cd by tl>c inlmJut:,ion ofa Kroln , .. The I"lia" "atc', gcncrnl poItC)' of IjualiJ",o (I""" <>n .n,eles "r pUrSued In order to pay lhe dr1>ls or lhe "'lira o r 1\)"0lI01 hbtra"on, alio",,'oo the humble, cllSsn_ Later. in 1872 and 18il .• of mikes b""'. "", In \Iilan. Tunn. Fior=tt and B<>l<>¥na. b)' ag".""" among sto... croppers and l.ndlC!!s labourers in lhe Po \1110)'. To many""""'''' ,he f"'gik ltali.n $1.0" al'l'<arrd on.he bnnl ofcollapx; ond" "'IS in 'his .... IIng !lu. the InIC11l3I1<H111'''''''ge<i The 1",li.n Inte"",tional <prUd rar,dly in lhe early 1&70. and """" n,,,"berod mot"C 'haR 30.000 mombrrs. In muhi-H,I"me: hlSlory ofl .. ly G,"'l!:'O CaRd<loru. <It.n or \Jan<1>1 " ... 10rc<:<l'O admll INti tho Inlemallorul "., haly', In. . . pan),-' The bulk of'" membersh,p "o".ist.d or ani,.n, rrom cc",ral and to.aplc,. and a ",,';onal n::pn:: ,emot ion of inleilec'u.l•• nd ,,'''lenIS, Pro"" ti\'o WOlke, ",g.nlzat ionJ the were als<' allll prt:CII""'" oflhc p,,,i,o Ope",,,, 1t.Il.no . lId up<!miJ",u The le.derShip uf'he Ital ian InICrtIl1lonal cn"i!agN tlot ""'01"""" . s • '_,.1 , I'.,lh II>< y..... of di"""", in m,nd. ,hey belt.. Nlhal 'he ",,"onal c"uld be o\Orturn<:<l'hrough anned ,n",r..."ioo. A donoo",,,,,i,(..,, til the COllnlJ};ode, "I.at [rnco M.I:ol<:>la I<'fTI\etl 'propagando I»' """Id pre-poIi,ical ",n,h i",o, conscioul sociali., IIoth a pWtncd ..,,)It In 1874, and I "",milo .. tion in lbe mountaLns oooth ofl\aplcs ,n 1877. " .... mL...",blo ra,I.,..,.. ""oit' 1"""\'1<kt! the: orponun"y for the: go'Cmment to dc<lroy the InternaTional, ond In .. I Sl'"os of my"""Qu' bomb explosiOlU and '''"mpl< upon (he King's hfe. tlw: 11I.."",nonal "'I, oUl[av.cd.' \\ ;th ,he c"".lung [t,Ii.n onan:b,sm railed to create • IOt'g la"in g na,i<mal "rl)anir,'ion n""I ,!,e befo .... ,1!e Fir<! Wotld
roN
w'"
upri>'' '
,
110r War. The go. nnrnen. 11".y, "ruck hard<, a. 1M IJIa",h". "",,'rn'OCn. ,han" d,d ... he .oc,.i1Sl pany, "'n.",h,Sl' and ·In.,,,loold· bch."o u, "cre " lerotificd in oUI >lde II", rrolcc,ioll of ,0nSlilU, i"",,1 auar;lnICCS_ The llllreh", "",,'emen! " 3' d" I< i,icd .. e"he. !errorisl or il\SUn'«,ioruSIIR CIw3cI.... 100 durin, p",-;oo, of """tal "''''''' ,ho IUIIln:hr>'" "",,cd ... ,he: u_1 "'3pog<>alS. AAc.lhe ""'.. of,he 1870. ,ho aga,n rdllhe b-Iovo, of 1I1e Sl'1< ,n !he m,ddle 18SOS dYfI"g the firs, ma.. mikes of Po V.lley Imu,wn" (I.ndl ... • g.ric ulturn l I.bourers) La' e ... In ,he 1890s. 'oc aMrehi" """'emelll was ",rtua lly d eIIW)ed, The leA ""5 Ih"' OIcned IhwUIlI,,,,,, ,hc 1890s. bu, lilt anarch,.!> "ell' panicularly hard hi' \\,ilh tilt fom"IIoo of 3 """';11oriented """i.hsl ,lit anarch».. f.iled 'o moun. ""'JOf "1'1'0'11100 bttlU>C uf'hlllt'Jlf"'Sion arxl 0 d'<One-n1a11OfL on 'heir _n "'ILk. Under Giohll1 ,he .",rchim "("It .,,11 ponttLL,ed, Ahhough G,oh'" had more ",.poel fo, ci,il ngh's Ih.n his prede<ciiOn. he was f .. from bei ng libcn. nan Pohtieal repr<:$s;on ,e""",lly ,par.d ,he roo", moJc"!e """i.lists. buill>< inn.nsigenls. Ih. ,),nd",aIiSlS "nd ,I>< anarchISts could be am-stcd for I "Ide ,-ariel)' ofpm.s ta", and <libel'! ,hat puni.hed publK: den,grauoo oflhe m"",,,,,iIy 000 1111' poh«_G.ohlll al"'a)-.1ricd 10 pm em .narch,,1 or .) ....hc.h,' lead<nhlp from emelling '" lhe: young labou. mo,'om<n', Al,hough be was pc,ftc,l;- prepar«I,o SU]lI'OI1 moderalo- I.d ."ikos. and e"e n r ' ."U.ilC .n' plo)'orS 10 selll •. I>< orde ,ed lbe a""i' ,)1' an.. n;h"llnd lynd,."hSI I>.bou. leaderS regul •• ly,· Anarchi., ht>lOIy" Iwder 10 fol[,o,.· alier 1880 ufthe dis_ conllnuili.s of ,II leadersh,p and ,IS (q3", .."ooS W"h ,he: nse of lhe IOS I aOO Its al'>OClaled union 'he C""feder",o!1O Generale del LIt'o", (CGLI, ' he h,,1<>f)' of hben .. i*n s<>(iahsrn br •• ' s down in'o I sm.,!y of ,IS in fl ue,,,," un OIhe' i""",,,ioru .ueh.s th" PSI. ,he: CGL, the syndicali" uf labQur aOO II>< Uni""" Sin<hocak; .he: """,,,,. of"'B,,,,,,,1 "",ial hi"Of)' ... he:re ",..,,,h,... ma,nuined I moo-. CI)."in"""" physical prcsene •. and ,be ""Ii,-idu.al b,oaraptucs of ,,, n>Or<: na'oo ...1 karkt-<
Iralian " "a r<IIls "" S,' ndln ll s'" and Ihe ·S...., ... nd
1900-14 Althuuah!he InarchlSt mo'c-menl f.,1ed to """",",n • «MIll"""'" naIl(onal .fter,he: di .. ppearatlC<' of!he In,oma.oonal. e ..... 'n arca' be<:'lll<" stronghold" WOCIt: the: """rch,,,,. Ib"'"Wh tradition and 1"",.1 org.ni7.1Iio""1 ",.ns,h . ,"",i"0<1 pcn"". of rep.eSSlon. "IVmg as f"".1 PO'"'' d'Jnng ",,;,"1._ Anarch,s< !coJerShip "';!lln.ted and carfled oul
org:ln''''"''''
,
woo.
mo.I of itS ,n «n'tal h.ly, Lnli! !he m,do.ne 19w... Tuscany. the: l"mbnllnd ROfI\e mna,nro !he ""'"' of'be """-.mcm
d"',,,oo
Wnll III< effec1i.e ro:-pre"ion of the: 1890s. and ,he of ,he: ana",hi!. mo, ."",nl into <li>l"'''f,, 1fllCto oo." of organi7Jlllonali >l' arid ."'i-"'SlL" ,za""".\i m. 'he . n.reh"" ."".. red endangered "'"h poli_ ,ie.1 e. llncll"" In fact .be .no",h,st; mo<kmilN lhe:,. o]JI>C.1 b) pron,.lJy
.doptiog 'Y'><licali>1 argLllncnt •. Through ,I",,, co",rol of ,mponan1 pow", ba,es m ccmra l lt. ly's chambers of labour Rome. forexomple. h.d an an,,,,his1 se<:relari.t for rno" o f the Gio li uian era 'he .n.",hi"$ WCIT assured o f o'1!." iz.tIO".1 proleCtlOn, The ,,,,,,,him were capable ofm,k,ng ,,","hng reappe.rat>:;cs. During 1he unsellkd period "pened by t he Liby.n W.r ( 19 11) and 'emporarily
•
do.ed ,,·ith the World W.r, and laler during the "'-'''', 110. long ",,,,ling popular ity.nd COOItn"" y of """.-chi.", in M""",C.rrara. At>:;om, PiQmbino. Romc .od 1ho i"d u,ui.1 hinlerl,nd. ac'ed as a spri ngboar<l for n.tIO". , IT\'i,'.I, . On its own, however. • narch"m "''" a minor Eve n at ,h. pe.k of prewar .e'i"i'y. o n the eH o f ille Red Wco: k. an a.-.:;hi", Mmbered no more ,it,n 9,000 10 J 0,000.,. Revi"al, al,,"ys th rea'ened by "iolon' faclional which erupted ""''''<en anarc I"" cornnt uni >IS ad\'ocaling OO'H;ectarian labot:r organi,.'ion. anll -organtzallon.1 ana.-clu" communlSIS who de'ested 1h. Mul"tos,an,' ,n <iS1Cncc o n a sep'"'' naltOM I .nar<:h,s, org. nll" ion. an.r<:h"" close ly as<ociated wi,h Ihe syndte. I; "I,bour organi""'i"", and SI' md"',du.' ,,,, preachmg an el i,;<l .eSll>eltci,nt r<:pugnan"o the Olher fac tion" By ,hi: .arly twe""<th cen' u!), a patient o f anaITh", li fe had been e>tabhshed and " ntamed Ill< oonn unlillhe bj'nniu rosso . lAcal tcrrilOria l .'reas of "lla",hiS! were """omp' nied by contro l of a ch.mb<:, of I.hour. or the ap]l<'"ronce o f" l.bour·orien1ed weekly neWSp"pN. The an.tchislS also c"",ributed labour Qrgan,zers 10 the CGL and Ihe , ynd,c"Ii" mQvements, W;,h in (he lulonomous mil w.y wor\<crs "nton, thl: SinJac.,o It. li ,ni (SH): 1hey ass umed a p<nn"nont I."dership, Tl>e al'" ac h""M inl1ucnce in 1M socialiS! F<xlol"'.. , ione lI. li .n. Opera, Met.l lurg ici "" ioo) The gr<:","" 'M",hl>ls ad"."xl was incre'>l ngly felt in the syndIC,Ii" Italian sy ndicalism led • be",,'dcnng li fo. " S'aning olf as a facllOl' oflho SO<',ahSi Pany in 'he ea rly 1900>. ,t sphnt. cre<l into a b ki doscope of local "","·omo,,'S. iound ncW ",engt h in lhe pre...·., !Jnione $ iod acal. Itahana. "nd duri ng an,I.1 ftcr lhe F irsl Wor ld War il w"me conlrollcd di rec, ly by anarchists, iniluoneed de!>." . 1hroughout lix' It"ltan k it. On tho 0". haild. syndIC.h,' inlelleclua ls ,'",.a'ed a iorm of 'PMet;an' soci.lisrn'h"' was su, picious of all forms o f "ale .... n"oni,m or prolec'ionism, .nd w" alltac'ed '0 \I arxt sm b<:e.usc 'he mo-d.", ",vrknlg <lass would modem,ze Itahan cap il. lism by forcmg c'pi..,i" elM' 10 worn< and dlieient and not para'itical o n the fa"u u", of ,he Italian "",e, For tno .. 1I0h.n s;·nJicah,'lhoo<oliei.n" non--cconomi, . rn<>ral were ce"'ral for the f"",,,,ion of " working-c l,,, clile A prole .."" lhal roli od on G,ohlli', i"'·ouf' .• nd "'as soft. "e--d by hi' pr,,!!rnm"'" of SlO1i>l social lcgi.lalt"", Woo Id neyor womc the he roic lhey pmned Iheir hope s un, l hc ,h""""ic,.,"s of synd icalism formed a close alliance and adnUtoi,on for halta " free·lude e<oonQmlSn such as Einaud i, ('ab,a'i and Girc11i .• nd Pare'o h,msel f looked on w ilh 'ymp"hy .m! ;nlere>l a, ,h. beginning, or
I TJw /lallan AMrrhiJIJ_ Iii m 1914
Gru",fCI and 1M AnarrltlSu the SlOOlCaliSI " 0.. thot <Jthcf hand, ,,0<I.'''i-<:1_ OtiI'nlttf'>. """h as h hppoComOOn'. "ttl: of ",<lus.,.;.1 union"m
,h.
""'ft
,n haly. Tiley " ...... d ronccp' of Ill: ("'lOry un" radlt' ,han til< 0< the cham be, of labour as lhe 1>;,,;, of mod< un"", J loweyc" mOSI of (h. non_ . n.nohi" elements In the Pfewu i}'ndlcoli>l ,no' omelOi
",e", dttply ,"nu.need by • Mau,n'3n huil'ge. This me'"' lha. lhey P" as • bndge 10 I popIIla' "'"onah,m In [l>.ly. Some »ndicllisls ..... Impomllllin lhe: Crullon ohM "a,ioo.liSl A'iSOC11';.,n
and ,1>0 0)'11""'''' of
doc,""" and I"*'lic. thai ••,ved OUI •
niche for
fl$'Oi.m a fte. ' he ... t, When "'ar brol. Old In Furopt ,n 1914. ,heS(
w.,
s)ndocali'" <>ptcd for inlen.m;on. for rome, Frane. end angered by I'n"sian feudalism . Others argued lh.I, through Ih. I,uropcan " ar, the ha lo . " "'<lrking c l.ss w<lUld he p rcpar<ti for an inlc,na""",,1 "'Olul;oo Imln",,,,1 a>pee1' "'...... al"" lftS(nl War "u poc,urni ... Ikmocnotic c",..ado or as I l'e'nlunon, J)nd""I"m'. ,erNl ,iole""e coold ""'" ....... '" th< """·.."...."hl!! k'adcnhip abandoned its «.."rol of the '-'noon< Sirda<:.I. the aruroh, su finall) g:alnc:d comrol of I "'\II'lers' OfJ.<3n"auoo of • signifICant. If crnolic, n•• o"c, hundred, of llIou ... nds of If <0" '1';11'( tho «.><iali>l t mlk UIllOn fedoralion, Ihc ( ( iI., to Ihe il "wid h.,. '0 be co ... Mod ,hal lhe IlJI3l'<h,sts ",INlned a juno".- po""'" Th" Jun,or pon"""hlp "'tIh lhe h.li.n _,aIiSI pan) .nd ,he CGL .nll 1""UC",,«I!he !empo and chi""".,. of len·" In, poIi!ical cu"ure ,n 1,.1), ]'I", !,<",ulian"cs of!1Ie I.ahan Sotiolt>l PUl) 11'-" ,he pol,,,al 'pace 'h'" .., cd th<m from ma1'llInalill"'on. " Fonned in 1892, 11 only IdopI«I ' he name PanilO Sot,ah<13 l!nh.no In 1895 , ThIS "'''I a, ilS b inh, it "as • coaht ion of forc", : lhe F.bian · lik" s.:.;,.hs, League ,)! ,' '' I.n. lhe Fasci Si.iha m, Ihe wnrlen>! p.ntlo Opt .."o U' 1i3f\O, ,he ,1«lonl ,'.hlCle of lhe Andrea COIla Ind ,he '0'" of ,he Po Valley landlC'S' 10\I00I1''', ,he Rowluli"""ry So.""l»' p.ny of ,he R"""'8"'" ."., onglnal party t\oh«l from In umbr.ll. of associ.l""" 10 • si"3lc·tnmlb:r boo"" p,llny, "h'eh omcllily " ... >«1 i1> """,,""ion '0 an.",hlSm and or>:Jon,cd lhe Ma.,.,St lOCiah,"1 a nd organ,unonal model oflhe srI) (German Soc ..1 Domoe,"lI. Pon)), Mombtllhip e'pandM ITOm 21,000 '" 1897 to 37,000 in 19 13, II> elec,oral In I\olion. 1poll. g"''' "' ,uffrag. upanokd from 8 per cenl to ""aT "ni".rsal manhood suffrage III 1913 The """a!i""'prurN 9 ptr .tIll of the HII. in 1897 and 17 per ctlll by 1913. Tbt ch",f i",,,,""OO! of lhe pany i,..,ludcd 1M Gl'S (.he "",ialtll ......."""'.ry group), h"wli' (th< n:tlioooal pany ...... , .• he: ",,,,,,,,,,I d"CClOn'O and l'>e local secltonS the Gcnnans, bo".,·,..-, 1M lu!ii1n
",n ...
we
party
lit,,, O1n1ro
nt:I..
"".JOnltI "'lI"niuuons,1IOf did ,he pr .. 10."ly pan ......
'....""0."", "'E-'''"atlOl1' in a dl'IC,phno<! fO$h1Ol1 <l<
I. rly sound ... Just a, Ita han hf. was ' lJ llla<gcly "" hi n. local d"". " . ion. w, 100, "'NO SlXi. I; " pol itics, A $<)Ciali " presence was far more 1""','l$i>"e "uhin the Ind rich poli'ic.1 ,"bcnl!"",. of the nonb<m Indu,,,,ol Suburbs, E,,"ha- Rom.S"a. T.... any and ,\pul .. _ If the PSI u an org.m:tat'(In and .. an <lretonl mach",e tmodro munoc the SPI) aile, ,I> prom",n, elre","1 " .. to".' ofll>< 18901, lhe ltah.n l"If1y ... h«l upon a c""lj,ion of l.ndl,,!. I.boon:'l"$.• ni"ms, Indulmal ,,·o,k.n Ind ,I>< wuc.te,J middl. ct..set quote d,ff.... n! fmm ,no G.nnan c..." The pos'_ ""d lce .. ,,,I., ",110 oo,mnat.d ,h. IOCI.h.t porhamo .. ,a,,· group. did "Ill Ix: fully COn'.l\lInt with ,he co'l'u, of M • .,.', Ind
t"",
Engels" .. rill!!p. Thr" kIlO\'> 1Wg. of n-, C""""""ISI ,Ifamlml) or C"PItal "'IS from ,he 'Cllioos rnodettd by !he ..wehlS! Ca,lo
c.rl<TO,
11111 for th< ead=.nd r1lnk and file of!he pony much Of!helf poI'''cll cduc.,ion "'" ",loa", (In .......,hlS! m:;Il ibel'lOnall IttcnlUrC, AnIl< lmoahsm, Inu,mil,!.>,i,," ond ,nlra",ig"" "'publiczn,sm hnled 'na",hi,," to ,he
br."""" IOClOli" ""'I0"",n"
I'h. ro ll ing g.,.." a l that punc luated!1K: Oio l;I"',," ero illustra te ",'ion ...n a, ,he .ulTrage ,I>< adult m.l. popu!allon ofltaly_ " [n f.,I, through the chambers oflabou, Ilbctun"" cullu", rell1lnnc:d key 10 th< COO$' .....'''"' of ...,.",1", lOC,ab,IOly \>tfart 1914 ."., _iah>l CUlt= of """ ....... /lu""' " ... th<ttf"'" nc«l b)i ana",hLSt p<><m. and ><lIIp fou nd in abundancr a, ,he chamb<ll. panoeulor!y of ' he .n.",hist poel. SIX>ologisl . nd P'e. ro Gun The eh3'''b<.... of I.bour bound t"llCfh .. ,II" so"",,,,,nlS of I"c.li ,m anod an" .",11.", s,, 11 fo und in ,,,, socia h" ,ubtu lmral hc.nlands, and ,1><)' ",,'Oed .. ,h. "" ..... f".- g,ner1l( >lnk •• lh..1 Ik,elopcd in'o open ,""urm:lioos_ TI" •• ""rehl>J",nnue"".d IOCllh'l .abcullU'" "'ted as .n 1IOOlT....I gI1Ipt, ,nc from 190410 1914. and l"N. ,,< .11011 see. In 1919 20, lloe Influ<n<e of the groat 'no",hlSl E,""o Mal ...". (lSSJ 1932) in the c,i,is of 1898 or ,he R«I Wed of 1914 he" how ' he a... ",hislS "-ere a1 the of prolc51 ""\'Ci ,h,1 ,,,, ",,tll. d I'aly u"" 1 !h. Grea, War, 11 TI",refl)l"o ,he lack of fOIl1,a l ""''''btrship w ilhi" Iho >""rehiS! O<]I;"ni'at ion! bef"", th e Fillt \\'" doe!; 001 nttess.>.ily "",on t""tthey "on: '1WlI, ... liztd In the ILOI .. n len. The description oflhe )"""8 G,"","",', pol" ...1bel",f. thai Introduced 'h" chprer hon" a, I <Iou lun'hip ... uh ,he 'yndical"l In,.1Iec1W11s. Ahhough we ",1111Of e""""nl.' Gram",i unlil C.... pI.. J, i' i, wocthwhlle of d'!\'C1
,,,tl...
<0"'''''
"
""""",m.,
Inu,,,,,,,,O& OU' 3IJ!:wnetll. about lhe direc1 Iink.ob'CS ond Ok<:I"", .,fonni", Ihat "o:d ,t... young Sard,",,,,, t" 'II<m. Gram"'i. like ,II< .yndirah<l mlol1«"..1•. Ind. indeed. like ""'ny radlCll. Ind .on>en·'''''' ofall <Ir1pe •. " ... , oMc ..ed by til< (1IIu,.. oflM "'hll(l ,Not folio" o:d lhe Along "'nh the Spa",.""". f't,rtlo. \'osca and An,on", Ubnola. II< fdl''''u ,he Liberal SIa'e waS nolh'II(I 1el4'''''''' rnon..to... abortion. ,..,.,d,ng economic <I<'..,I0'''.... nl Ind degrading public lif•..• Tho f.,l"", 1<, ,u",in • produr"," and Ih. l"'!"Si"e""e of h.hln hu""""m. had led to, c,,",,",J"IOnd,ni r.,lu", of'ho rt'IOdtrn "",k",& cia" 1 he "ate embodied ,II< an . ",ho,d "'dl\',duahlm of 1I.Ii.n daily lifc. "ill g<l\Omcd by thc mlngue. of law,'.ro and ,he scmi-lilCralC in,d h genl<i,. G,u",,,,; . nd lhe .ynd,c.lis's fO<lnd Ih"" ..,I u" on 10 III<" dilclnII13 In thc modem f""tory. II was In l ite of Anuro LobrlOl. and En,"co LCMt Ih .. , he ,p,ri'. if not 'he lettef. of Gr.lIl'lS(I·' ca.ly lov •• ff.i, the f""tory was (If" rt lquaU)' imporunl for Klllng lhe <lagc for lhe fac'ory·hased form. of "'Pn,U"Ofl ad,·onco:d dunng ,I>< />Jcnnoo "''''' ,,,,,.. lbe pi ........ ing effor1.by unlOO',U In ,he lnuncd,ale pro:\Oo-al )c ..... TIle indUSlnal UHlon'§iS "rcs.N,h:>, shi>p.floor democ,ac), ,"""Id ,I>< ba ... for Irsde u",on,"". Tho pre"" .)OOieoli5l' had ,n,,,,.pora,ed d<Tnan<h for shop noor COOltol. ""8" p"-n'Y mel a "'"" """" ,",Ii... nl inlemal OORtmIUoon s)'Stem ,No, for.shadowo:d lhe Iw""w n>ll<>. TI>< ide. \lu., ,liI" Irade """", ...-as ba;ed 011 ,he "ortforce of an ent,re foe'ol)" ""","N by Gram«i in hi' auad orr e,.t).on"",ed unIOns, \1""1 ,mponanoly.'liI" i"",,,e. ,,'htch ,I>< lribu ... of MII'ne'" indus"ial "ni""ism. r Comoon,. employo:d of fO<'Of,e, ., ,I .. . . buildmg blods of I "",W ,nd"",ri.1 "'10. rcm .. ncd " ,lh Gr .. "sci ,Xl G",m"" did 1101 ",.·ttl 10 reahl.c , II.. Labriol •• nd Le"". hod cnvi"'go:d ,II< I"uk u1I"'" in " ' ''''h II .. sam. ro le as h" fa.clory COII""", ' S {i13m"" cnlicized , I>< ,yooi.. I;", for ", lying "" ,be ""de "nioo an ,,"'i,ulion. he .,.pl.,ntd. caught in ,I>< "-.bof ea plt,">""'""ons. Howe"c •• G •• n,sci "'ould _gf« ",,'h lhe ,)'nd,-.It'" ,No, MalAi'm idenlified ,.p;t:lh<rn·' .""ltal COlltn<J,Cl,on 001 in ,he uh,m"e economic CT3$h or '1'1 an in"olulll'u}" falling ... ,e o( profit. bul 'n ,I>< "ruggle on the fXlory noor btI"ccn wod .... demandi,,* Nlf''''''nlgelT1l<n' and the indi_ ,>dual 0" nef>ltip "r .1>< "pl ... In foct ,I>< i} Rlllcah,,,' uaok "noon " .. meant II> <lP' I>UI oflM '),>IC!n, InJcro. GJanu<1 would Bi'e hi' """"" '0 ,Ire .yndtC.Ii" belief \lu.1 ,lie Ind,..ln.1 prolet .... , had '0 >how "",If capable of tq>lxing rapll.t.h,m ""h • more producti'''' .nd efflCie'" i}"em . Gr">lllliCi " as tl>< he;,'o syndicalt'l prod""li, i,m and its pr.llOC of ,he ,,,.olled func,ion.l hl .... "'hy "f ,I>< fac.on Fo. lhe ,yndic.list. tbe unIon wo$' ",urcc of """,al aUlhori,}. forming a new nallonally bast"
."'Sf
"or\.
,,,,.leT
' '!'PO
- 12-
W,,"
11I<)1«"lar unity. r""r,dcd on ,ell prod""li.. rel>!;"n,- TI>< fact",)-ba.>ed 1111"'" u",f,o:d itaitan 1KIC'C1y. Gr.>nuci "",1>«<.1 ,be "'i'n II>< factory rotl"",I. bu, In tn:Iny liS f"""""", wen:: ;Imll.o,. "The 'l'nd;cali>l ,bcoreI.. ,,,,,,, Ind G... msci .I",.hart-d an 1,-er-l1(ln "",-:mIs anarch,,,,,,." TIle e,""" relallon"",p. ......... cr. bc<vo'eC1t!he p""" .... <yndIC.h>! _ '[I2f"<hl" "",,'cmcn's is hitrd '0 dotermillC "'ith On II>< . .1 and .)roical" .. ,,·or\..ed .... pp,ly tog<11><,. bu, "n lhe nalio",l. formal. IMologlCallo"el.!he .onfrorn."on bo'ween . nd 'ynd,calism for-eslu<.lo"eJ ""'ny of Groll'lS(i"s polomlC$ "tilt til< 'na",hi", in the ,.,:m o , on.rch ,.u beh ... «1 'h,,, "ntOn' only $Cr.'cd .. 0 me' n$ to .melioMe Ihe cond'''Oll< of ,he wot\.;ing cia,. and. rnoc" 3$ "'<01'1, to mobili,c worket1 for ac, ion They • pos, ... ,."I""o,,",1)" """ie.y buil, on pl">;lh,y "f ",!!anizali"", bo.std on (."." accord. Ih. unions be,ni only one "'''h In,IItubOn . AI,ho"¥JI >lndK . li,m ,nheriled ,"""h of .",rchum·5 .nn'5I>1i<m. ,I> eonlinual of'I>< need f..,. ",pen, and fUDC""""1 di"urbo:d ,nany _,,",rchisls. althoui;h \101.'tSl>.n anarrhl<lS " ..... qUilc ciQsc.o I func'ion.1 in""""'411o,, of ..,.,.I,""i,u""",. b,,, \lala"'"" and 0Ihc1 .u"Wthl<tS denounced tbe pnlJI<>Sn"", thai prod""'i"" "". a good in I, "'" the dt.<tnbutl'c 000C<:Jl' io IIW'I'bo<umrnunl;l Kropotl..io·s belief lhat ,he Ilrn of "",ah,," "'as ,be full of!be fruns "f labou,. "", ""''''I)" tl>< mond url,n work pro,·ided. lNoI sc-paralN II>< anarch", I",dn,,,,, from GramK; and ,he Grain"",', Marx"rn inheri, ..111>< J} rod",.II>' k g'>:y 'hrough ,I>< Il>rory ofGo"'8"' Sorel. an<ll< .. '" frum I direcl INgcm"nl of [he "or\; "I' Anu", l.ab"ol•• nd Enrico L.. Wh.t he m,..' defini,ely \\..., a ;lyle. lang....¥e.nd rangc of .<:>OCel'I> "hien ,he<J"" ,cal .ynd ical i,," p<>p«131i,ed. bul hi' orrlli",h,y lay i" a n<mp' '0 'yntl><",e ofsyndicali'", "ilb a pol",",1 philowphy inn"orteo:d by 1I_lian nw-,<ieah,m and ,I>< \/an.ism of Ani"";" I.abriol. Throogh lhe pcdagOl!i,,"1 1•• d,l"'" of nco->dclli,m. Grtlms.., "inlOd prod""c,,' ..,.illi,,,, to be "",lized Ihrou¥JI rallOll3.I TIle you:ng Gram",i "35' >oolbcmcr.1 "'"" in a northem ",dus'nal cil). In the no." , ....1"... 1 "in ,I>< 5pOCifIC characteristiCS of lhe Tmnesc "orllns d ... and II< lIru '" 5<><lah". Iln3ITh .., ar<I.yndlcalist m,,,elT1l<nt< bef"", 191..1 A of Twin', 'second cul,u,..· and II> ",I""ion,hip '0 """.1011 ,n",II.."""ls ",II be follo ....ed by an aCCOIIn! of ( ;rum""i's first e""""n"" ""h i, ,n Chapter Three
",,(Ie
d"'lIlg ,,,,,,.1
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I. Moch of thIS cbapItt .. ba;<:d Il(lOO -I ... h.. ,u.rt:h;srn. 1870- 1926', in I) Good"ay led.). For .i n",..hiS'" Hw",u:o/ and n.e""'/U"1I1 Appr<}iJ"h,s. (I 01><100, 1989), I'P 'Ill. be.t 11\ "r It.. """'<",,,nl untol 1892 oS J>ernicone. I,,,,,di,", Pri nceton, 19'93. A 100<1 ",'e.,..icw ofthc mo'-.",.nl <an b< round ,n Pet., Man;han. Dc..::J"d"'g 'he lmf'(l>.<,b/c. A Ifi>l/Jr'o' q( l"",..hi,,,,. London. 19'92. PI' Tht ch,.flIahM Ie,I,"n: E. SanLardli, /I soe."llSIffO o""",hi.... /.. M,lan. 19S9 and 1913 I"" ,$C'Il edilion): G. CcrnlO. Doll' o//a JeIlIlN,"", NUa. Flott"" •. 19n; p C. \I."n., Ss",,<, degli """..-h,,,; dal But""m" .1/u/alr"Q (l861-1892!. M,lJn. 1974: Slam. d.-g/r ana,., h,,,! i',,[',,", ',p<X1J <leg" all<'nlalj MIlan. 1981. A. DaJ., L 'oMn-h,., ",o In fla/w "" punlO d«"",.,,/j Ilell a"wrh"",,, Ila/wno. MIlan. 1984 A . A)I)f Ro ••. li<-ri"ori popolo, Rome, 1966, "0 1. II. pp, 50 I, 3 Thi, has bttn a tT\lOJOI lheme of .. ve ...1 ,,(II'\., by Richard Be llamy • nd OalTO" Scho<:ter 5«. R. MoJtrn I'll/ian &xi,,1 T/rrorl' poIitie, from P"r¥'U' k} ,At Cambridge. 1987. R. Ikllamy. Lib.:rull,,,, and $on<t,.Cambridgc. 1992. pp. 105-56. R Ikllomy Ind 0 Scheele •. C,.,.,.<, alld IIw lIa/i"" Ssll/t. I>bncile.. e•• .. The he>! IoCcOUn, of ,he Firs, 1",u''IlItOooal in Engl,sh i. Pemico .... IIllli"" Ifnarrhl,,,,. Of ... R. 110:>1<11 ••• Ila/.m Soc,,,liJl .I1",,,..,..nl Unglm f/iJ61) ·18S11. yott. 1958 , 5 G C"Il<lcloro, Slol'ia d 'llalia ",odema. 1970, \ 01 VI. P 54 6. P"m ,<""". Ana",hi,·m. PI' 77----S I 7. On Ih. onginl of !he of a ·..,."aI <ce. \\oolf.:f limOI')' 0{ I ' OD-186(,. LoroIon. 1919. PI' 4 ]9---JO 8 P C \h,.ml. fA bil""".Jrl 11m.,.., (la-6- '111. ""Ian. 1958; S. De Coralo. 'M'gi>l"uul3. ... rch"" JO'<"rl>O. U ,i\:t1ld;> doll. Nnd> dol Ri, iJta II, ,"ona Conl""'pOrtUlea. 13. J\O J. 1984. PI'.121-72. 9 f or lhe ,"]pI the g<"'<T3-1 ",1>lIon,hIP" discu,std 'n. G. 1'orpp,. Mo<lo" , . Sr'''fN'''' poIi'ico mllgllt",·"m 1870-1921. R.ri. 1972. R CnnON . nd A. S.nrumo..o .. "",,rch,el < 5OCla/i,,, 0110 fine ,M!'''''t><:ento in Iralia, M,lan. 198 L J. " Da"i,. Conj/i(l "nd C,m/ml. Order in /9/h nnlU')' Jul.I. B.. 1988. I'P 21 7 17; R B Jc"",,n, ['/>uf)' "nd ()rJ('" J1.- n.ffN} anti o(lMI"n PuN,c Poilrr. 1848 /0 Cri,iJ o(tlw 1890;, Jo-ew
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\'on.. 1991. A. De Grand, 'GI01111, and ,he Soc..h,.,'. on SI"'''''''' M DI Scala (w I. /la/ian Soc,alwft Ikr..«n P<>Iilia aM U"",ry·. Amhorsl. 19%. PI' 2J--.17. (0 s..cchelll, 'CQruroilo """ iale c donuc-Iho CQtIIIO Ilell'luh. <Ii,p'Ila·. lIil'iS'" Ss""ca Jell':fnan:hif,.,." "01, 3. no, I. 1996 , pr, 93-1 0-4 L. LOlli. La Imim""" rill' ''', Flon:""., 1912. ,\ p»<,nd,x. Ta bk III, M . "",,,mol;, ' 11 mo'lmcn'" ana.-chico ilaliaoo nc l 19 14' StQ",," I'olilir". \01 13.1913. pp ::!H-5-I. M Anwnooli.nd G. Ck«>'tl:o (W<), II ftnli"calO f"""',ul "allanl WIg'''' al(a,'rnnoo / <;>0'_192'. \li!.n. Tor "'C"le"', of 5«. G. B. hnon:i. I/.illd",·ali;"", "a/ia"". 1977; () 0 Robcn •• Sp.J'call" Chapel 11111. 1979: A De CIemc<!II. TraJ'ltQn tJruJ Ilalll'" I'<>IIIiro Jot:,.,/e nd 5tndtJi'4Iil_ rj,'OIU:"'''''rTO /900---1915, R(IrnC. 1983. C. l. Il.nmnd, 'ReH,1 ulionary S)·nd".IL\m on h.ly·. in \fa.-cd "an dc. Lindcn 000 \1 aynt 'r hOfpe (WI), RI!\'o/.tion"rJ SJ',d,ro/jJm I., Aldo,,""!, 1990. pp 139---5-1. M AIIIO, llIoli. ' 11 s,ndacalismo ri'-Oll'"io","O lIah.,oo·. in \I,"';zio An",,,,ol,. II .<ind", aU,mo il""an,,. ,,'i/Iim' al (""·i.,,,o. S,udi • 1997, PI' 125-S6. >lOOIC.hlt onlcllecll..H '<'<. I). \1aI\>OOO. :frjkro LaINTo/" ,I in 1111/1". Tunn, 19"0: E Zag'Ha.
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Roben,. W. L ';tiMrono til I'Mi,·" Mil. n. 1983. r. F.,·LlII. S""iu del ""Ii""o /Julle orlglni all" /If' crm, M ilan. 1996 1·1 hH' (,,,,,,dOl" sec. M. Anum ">Ii. 'Silllhcah.mo ri",lu,io"",;o C lI1odolli "'Pn'lZa'i , I: <lal """"'110 indusmal,>u d, r ,hPJX> Corridonl '" "nda<-all nal!ionali d'iOO 4>1,,' (1911 1914)'. R":t'rt'M I. 1976. PI'. 14 -0; O."hu)OOlCal." ongiMOh.,......11Wt 000 f01>C"m see. Roberu. Syntliralil, Tratfition: J. J. Tingbiano. f.J",w"Jo From R"'o!WIIl1II<UJ' l!ca/iJ'" '" fuseil",. , .....'
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II 0,,,,, ..". o(,he f'S1•• n be f""nd in J. A D"Ii. 'Soo,ahsm .nd lhe I>" ...... 'ng Cl as, on Italy beU>rc 1914'. in D,ck (ka ry (ed). L,,/J.Qwr ",,,I ';'ww/w .I/ol',·",'nu ill Eul'Ol't' ""(or¥' /914, O,ford . 1989, pp IX2 210. I. !>hller. From 10 MM,' !'O/illC." I'ali,," &X,al,,", in t/"'(;",Imian Fro, 1900--19! 4. Kont, 1990. G a nd S Frdtle I,,<hj, II JQ(-,o/,.,,,,,, nd mr.:ogiom<, d 1mllo 189:-/916: Z . Ciull'ol. el". U OTlj:",i glol""ona. Bari. 1992. \ 1
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1'_ Thc ,hl.fbtoal'lptut< of M.aLatcsu oro 1.1, "C1tbu, £rnco " ....' 1922, L. Fabbri, "'altlln/a. I'"""",, ".ple •. 1951, \ It.ohards, I{altll/!jw Ufr& Ideas, London, 19M AI..,_ G, Lalldl, 'Mllatesta. \lcrl ioo doll. pnma imemuionale alia "I'J'OSi. Zlone .1 fASC,,,,,O· . del MuJt<> dd Ruo'!:""cn,,,, '01. 28. 198). 1'1', 121 56; M Too •• ErricoMalalf>la Baku"ln' La JU" f",."W;WM gio"'ItIi/e nell 'amhicme Nlpolt"l"na (/868 18731. '- . ples, 1988. I It""• • 1«> do. h "",,h "1'«10 of ' ''I''e". 's life. C. L<\'y. " 1>1.10>13 In hile', A,,",,/, <hila ,01. 15, 11181, pp 2" 5-70; C lev)", '\b l.,CSla In london Tho En of 1>j.'lIOIIl i,o·. In Lucio SpOIIZI and Anum Tooi (e<isl. A Celt',")' {'ahan Em,!:""!OII'o Briroin IIIliIb 10 19Ii1h. Fr," """,Ie .....n! W TIlt /rali,,"iJl. ,'01 11. 1993.1'P 25-42. C. U .,y, 'Chari>ma ."d 5.xlal Monment> ; Em<o and h.li.n AIIJrehism" Iml,.. "<>1 . 1_ no. 2. 1998 , rr. 2(}5 I 7, For PIC I'" 1(•• M Am""'''h. Pi.ln, (;oFi, ,I .. ddl·,ma,rni(u. S,uJi e P" •. 1995 1 Ikl l.my and Schc<lcr. G"'lWd 'he Italian Sm,e 19 O. Sch<.""Ie<. G",,,,,d and tJw TItt"<H")'o{{","mnal fN"""CrtK·... AId<-! 1boc, 1991, 1'1' "5. 56--7. 20_ Anlon,oli, 'Sindaca lismo ri,-olw:iooIario llaliano 0 modelli "'Ian it· uli' I' In gtnCf3.1 =. M. Malalc.u.. 'Grarn><:i c il sindac.h.mo n,·otUl.IO,,""O. R. f."ioni ",,1 "'ppano 111. .""tisi sWriOg",flCl C gUldlzlo dl ,·.1"",'. SrorirlN>. ,,,,I 10. 00. I. 1981, 1'1'. Hi 57. F $01<10111. /.a slru""", d..r </Qmlnoo ltd ",via :;0"",;0 e "fi glo.ane GFa,""ri, \I ilan. 1985, .\1 . Mar!ell i, ·G .. ml( i o I. .onsili.",· . in RUllIlO<ro Gi .. omin i. D Losuroo and Mld,do Mm.l h (t,h). Gromsd • I 'lIal,a. L.rbloo. 199 1. 1'1>. 3311-411 21 G U SoKI c gli ...."'h'" "3h,,",', II.J(""' ..... Sro,,,...... "01
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