Loan words in English

UNIVERZITA KONŠTANTÍNA FILOZOFA V NITRE PEDAGOGICKÁ FAKULTA

NEASIMILOVANÉ VÝPOŽIČKY V MODERNEJ ANGLICKEJ SLOVNEJ ZÁSOBE

2012

Gabriela JANUŠOVÁ

UNIVERZITA KONŠTANTŃA FILOZOFA V NITRE PEDAGOGICKÁ FAKULTA

NEASIMILOVANÉ VÝPOŽIČKY V MODERNEJ ANGLICKEJ SLOVNEJ ZÁSOBE

BAKALÁRSKA PRÁCA, DIPLOMOVÁ PRÁCA

Študijný program: Pracovisko: Vedúci bakalárskej práce:

Učiteľstvo anglického jazyka a literatúry Katedra lingvodidaktiky a interkultúrnych štúdií PhDr. Katerina Veselá PhD.

Nitra 2012

Gabriela JANUŠOVÁ

Acknowledgement
I would like to express deep gratitude to PhDr. Katerina Veselá PhD. for her support, valuable suggestions and comments which were a great help during my research
and composing this thesis.

Abstrakt v štátnom jazyku Abstrakt obsahuje informáciu o cieľoch práce, jej stručnom obsahu a v závere abstraktu sa charakterizuje splnenie cieľa, výsledky a význam celej práce. Súčasťou abstraktu je 3 - 5 kľúčových slov. Abstrakt sa píše súvisle ako jeden odsek a jeho rozsah je spravidla 100 až 500 slov.

Abstract in a Foreign Language (Slovak) Text abstraktu v svetovom jazyku je potrebný pre integráciu do medzinárodných informačných systémov (napr. The Network Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations). Ak nie je možné jazykovú verziu umiestniť na jednej strane so slovenským abstraktom, je potrebné umiestniť ju na samostatnú stranu (cudzojazyčný abstrakt nemožno deliť a uvádzať na dvoch stranách).

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Table of Contents
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................ 4 List of Figures.............................................................................................................. 6 Introduction................................................................................................................. 7 1. Borrowing as one of the ways of enriching a language......................................... 9 1.1 1.2 1.3 Motivation for borrowing into English ............................................................. 10 Ways of borrowing into English ....................................................................... 11 Influence of borrowing in English .................................................................... 11 Influence on the semantic fields ................................................................ 12 Influence on word formation ..................................................................... 13 Influence on pronunciation of the words ................................................... 13

1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3

2 Classification of loanwords.................................................................................. 15 2.1 Classification of loanwords according to the borrowed item ............................. 15 Loanwords proper ..................................................................................... 15 Translation loans (Calques) ....................................................................... 15 Semantic loanwords .................................................................................. 16 Loan blends .............................................................................................. 16 Innovative borrowings .............................................................................. 16

2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.1.5 2.2

Classification of loanwords according to the degree of assimilation.................. 16 Completely assimilated loanwords ............................................................ 17 Partially assimilated loanwords ................................................................. 17 Loanwords not assimilated lexically ................................................. 17 Loanwords not assimilated phonetically ........................................... 18 Loanwords not assimilated graphically ............................................. 18 Loanwords not assimilated grammatically ........................................ 18

2.2.1 2.2.2

2.2.2.1 2.2.2.2 2.2.2.3 2.2.2.4 2.2.3 2.3

Unassimilated loanwords or barbarisms .................................................... 19

Classification of loanwords from the historical point of view ........................... 19 The earliest loanwords .............................................................................. 19 Celtic influence ................................................................................ 19 The first period of Latin influence .................................................... 20

2.3.1

2.3.1.1 2.3.1.2 2.3.2

Old English period (600-1100) .................................................................. 20 Latin words in Old English ............................................................... 21 4

2.3.2.1

2.3.2.2 2.3.3

Scandinavian influence..................................................................... 21

Middle English period (1100-1500)........................................................... 22 French influence ............................................................................... 22 Latin influence ................................................................................. 23 Scandinavian influence..................................................................... 23

2.3.3.1 2.3.3.2 2.3.3.3 2.3.4

Early Modern English period (1500-1800) ................................................ 24 Latin and Greek influence ................................................................ 24 Influence of other languages ............................................................. 24

2.3.4.1 2.3.4.2

3 Unassimilated loanwords in Modern English ( from 1800) ................................ 26 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Unassimilated words of Latin and Greek origin ................................................ 27 Unassimilated words of French origin .............................................................. 29 Unassimilated words of Spanish origin ............................................................. 31 Unassimilated words of Japanese origin ........................................................... 32 Unassimilated words of Italian origin ............................................................... 34 Unassimilated loanwords from other languages ................................................ 35 Words from other European languages ...................................................... 36 Words from non- European languages....................................................... 36

3.6.1 3.6.2

Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 39 List of Resources ....................................................................................................... 42 Appendices ................................................................................................................ 44

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List of Figures
Figure 1 Unassimilated loanwords of French origin 29 Figure 2 Unassimilated loanwords of Spanish origin ................................................... 31 Figure 3 Unassimilated loanwords of Japanese origin.................................................. 32 Figure 4 Unassimilated loanwords of Italian origin ..................................................... 34

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Introduction
English is a kind of vacuum cleaner of language- it sucks in vocabulary from any language it can get. David Crystal, British linguist, Time Magazine, 1997

Indeed, whenever English made an acquaintance with another language it quickly engaged new words to enrich its lexicon. Borrowing (as the process described above is named) has always been a very important part of the English language development for it deeply influenced the size and the structure of the English word-stock. To understand the nature of the English language it is necessary to examine its historical background because it has always been the language that reflected even the slightest changes in the life of the people peaking it. English has encountered many such changes since its very early history therefore it is of a great importance to study one part of its history alongside with other parts, taking into consideration and comparing the causes of such changes and try to understand bonds between different these periods. Over its development English came into long and close contact with several languages, mainly Latin, French and Old Norse (Scandinavian) and these sources can be accounted for by many historical events such as Roman civilization, arriving of Christianity (as for first influences of Latin) and Old Norse and later French as the languages of conquerors. Much of French vocabulary entered English in the Middle English period because French was the language of political and social power and the channel through which European culture extended to Britain. Much of second wave of Latin vocabulary entered English during the Renaissance because it was the European language of religion, education and learning and later it covered the vocabulary which had risen out of the consequences of the industrial and scientific revolutions. Other languages also influenced English due to the development of the British colonialism. Another interesting query rising from this topic is what kinds of words were borrowed because very often the reason for borrowing was to speak the language of the conquerors to give the speaker the sense of prestige and later it was simply the need to fill in the gap in the vocabulary in order to describe unfamiliar plants, animals, food and new technologies. 7

Of a great interest is also how loanwords adapted in their new environment

These questions have longed for answers The fact that 70% of the English vocabulary is composed of loanwords and only 30% are the words of native origin is intriguing enough to urge the want to explore the grounds and consequences of such a process. This paper traces borrowing into English from Anglo-Saxon period but laying stress upon the Modern English period, exploring the routes how new words found their way into English lexicon, whether and to what extent they assimilated into their new homeland and finally, if the process of borrowing has undergone any significant changes and the amount and sources of new loanwords differ from the previous periods.

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1. Borrowing as one of the ways of enriching a language
There are many ways how a word-stock of a language can expand. Sometimes a new word is created from elements of a language via a process called word formation, e.g. derivation, compounding, conversion etc., but very often a new word is borrowed from a foreign language. Borrowed words or loan words, as they are sometimes called, have been an essential part of the English vocabulary since the early records of this language. According to Jackson and Zé Amvela (2000) English is believed to be an “insatiable” borrower because while other languages take steps to prevent foreign vocabulary from entering the language, English appears to have accepted such words all through its history. In Kvetko’s opinion (Kvetko 1996) loanwords are defined as new words that were borrowed from another language and that were more or less customized according to the grammatical rules of the English language. Following Jackson and Zé Amvela (2000, p.38): “By definition, when speakers imitate a word from a foreign language and, at least partly, adapt it in sound or grammar to their native language, the process is called “borrowing” and the word thus borrowed is called a “loanword” or “borrowing”.” In connection with borrowing, Yule (2006) stated that the process of borrowing is one of the most widespread sources through which new words enter the vocabulary of the specific language. However, to point out the word “borrow” itself, according to Crystal (2007, p.59) : “[…] When one language 'borrows' from another, it does not give them back. 'Steal' would be more appropriate. “We agree with his remark furthermore when the author suggests that “Share is perhaps more appropriate. But the tradition is to talk of 'loan words', not 'shared words', in such cases. “Crystal (2006, p.38) Indeed, in this case the terminology does not seem to be appropriate since the receiving languages never return the words the have borrowed, moreover the borrowed words often undergo semantic change, thus developing uses different from their original senses. To illustrate such an example, the word mantra (borrowed from Sanskrit, originally in the sense of "sacred message or text, charm, spell, counsel," lit. "instrument of thought", developed the sense of the word “slogan”. (Algeo, 1998)

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One way or another, throughout its long history English language met many other languages and wrestled with many dramatic changes in its country, as we examine in the following chapters. So there is no doubt that richness of its diversity can be found in every aspect of everyday life.

1.1 Motivation for borrowing into English
There are several reasons why English language has borrowed such a vast number of words from other languages. The primary motives have origin in specific condition of the English language development which is directly linked to the turbulent history of the nation and historical events such as the Roman invasion, the introduction of Christianity, The Norman conquest, the enormous influence of the Renaissance on the vocabulary and last but not least the development of British colonialism and consequences of the industrial and scientific revolutions. We agree with Ginzburg et al. (1966) that quantity and nature of the borrowed words show us the relations within the society and that “It is for this reason that the borrowings have often been called the milestones of history”. (ibid.) Indeed English has gone through many periods in which great numbers of words from a particular language were borrowed. The early loanwords arrived from the languages of the invaders and conquerors and later ones were necessary to enter the language in order to describe unfamiliar plants, animals, food and later on new technologies and concepts. In connection with the invasions and conquests we agree with Pyles and Algeo (1993) that in the past the motives might have been e.g. social status such as the want for prestigious ranks in the society. After the Norman invasion in 1066, French became the official language of law and administration since the ruling class spoke French and thus popularised French clothing, cuisine and etiquette. It is obvious that using words from the language of the conquerors gave the speakers sense of sophistication and prestige. Loanwords are even now used as a tool for determining social contrast. For instance average people may feel influential when using this kind of vocabulary, similarly people belonging to the highest class call for words borrowed from other languages in order to present their learning. As a result of this, “[…] the motivation for borrowing may be as much to do with social snobbery or social differentiation as anything else” (Leight, 1983, p.64.) 10

Whatever the grounds for borrowing might have been, throughout its long history this process has definitely left its imprint on the truly multicultural nature of English. It has been established over the centuries owing to the incessant contact with other languages. The wide lexicon of this language is therefore a colourful mixture of words which have their roots in the many corners of the world.

1.2 Ways of borrowing into English
The process of taking new words into a language has always been quite an elaborate one. From the historical point of view new words entered the language in two ways, spoken or a written one. The first one occurred during people in direct contact, the latter one indirectly by contact with written material. As Ginzburg et al. (1966) implied, oral borrowings had occurred earlier than the written ones. The earliest words borrowed via speech were generally shorter and they experienced more changes than the later loans. The written loanwords were longer and kept their spelling as their adoption would have been a more difficult process. This is closely associated with the assimilation of loanwords which is dealt with later on. In connection with ways of borrowing Kemmer (2011) explained that new words were put into use by people who, to at least some extent, mastered the language of the borrowed word. Then these people, very often intentionally, used this new word when speaking English because they did not have an appropriate word which suited the thought they wanted to communicate. Furthermore, if the speakers were familiar with the source language, they were likely to preserve the pronunciation of the word typical for the source language. For instance, when the word garage /g r /entered English

it kept its French pronunciation as the earliest speakers supposedly were acquainted with at least some French and heard native speakers to pronounce the word. (ibid.) However, over the time this word lost its French accentuation as a result of assimilation and it is now pronounced both as a /g r /and more assimilated / g r d /.

1.3 Influence of borrowing in English
As stated above, the great number of loanwords has definitely left some imprint on the English language. The linguistic influences have been various but we focus on

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the most important effects which this process has had on the size and the structure of the language. 1.3.1 Influence on the semantic fields Owing to its stormy history the English language, more than any other language, has borrowed a great majority of words from foreign word stock. While some languages borrow less than others, concerning English, large numbers of loanwords have been borrowed and the process still persists. English has borrowed enormously from French, Latin and Greek, greatly from Italian, German, Spanish, Danish and Dutch and to some extent from other languages English has made contact with. (McArthur, 1992) Stockwell and Minkova (2001) stated that words which had been borrowed since the Norman Conquest substituted over 80 percent of the original word stock. In addition to this information a study by Garland Cannon (1987) showed that out of over a thousand latest loanwords from eighty-four languages, about 25 percent were from French, 8 percent were from each Japanese and Spanish, 7 percent each from Italian and Latin and over fifty other languages such as African, German, Greek, Russian, Yiddish, Chinese and others accounting for 6 and less percent of loanwords (cited in Pyles and Algeo, 1993) In connection with this topic, when a borrowed word entered the language it often either replaced the native element or they both stayed in English word-stock side by side. Crystal (2005) offered such examples of these pairings from the period of Middle English. He explained that in number of cases the native word was needed to clarify the new loanword from French or Latin and vice-versa. It resulted in a great number of synonymic groups e.g. feed-nourish; meet- encounter etc. (Ginzburg et al., 1966) Having summarized all these fact, we are of the same opinion as Crystal that: “A language which can “question” (from French) and “interrogate” (from Latin) as well as “ask” (Old English) is three times more expressive in that respect than a language which can only “ask”. “(Crystal, 2006, p.41) If there is a possibility of choice, it enables the speakers to be more expressive and stylistically distinct, allowing them to demonstrate their education and mastery of their performance. The reason for all this lies in the history of the language which is closely connected with the history of the nation speaking English, especially its turbulent times 12

during the Norman Conquest, exploration, colonization, Industrial revolution and recently with travelling, business and mass media.

1.3.2 Influence on word formation Such a big number of loanwords in the language has also had a great influence on the morphological system of the English language, especially the one related to word formation. Ginzburg et al. (1966) indicated that while some borrowed affixes (for instance re-, inter-, -able, -ee, ism and other) were believed to be very productive and both native and borrowed words could blend with them, some were less productive and were likely to combine only with Romanic words (co-, de-, trans-, -al, -cy, -ic, ical etc.) Some native affixes were replaced by the borrowed ones, e.g. prefix pre- replaced the native prefix fore- , a highly productive prefix expressing priority of action in Middle English. Ginzburg et al. (1966) Arnold (1973) stressed the importance of fulfilling certain condition for the foreign affixes to become a part of the morphological system of English. Firstly the number of words combined with such affixes had to be substantial, the meaning and functions clear and its structural patterns had to follow the patterns already present in the language. We provide some examples of foreign affixes and their influence on vocabulary more thoroughly in the chapter dealing with Latin and Greek influence during Modern English period.

1.3.3 Influence on pronunciation of the words A vast number of loanwords with strange sounds, sound combination and peculiarities in stress have appeared in the English language as a consequence of borrowing. Those are the sounds that are not standard for English and cannot be found in the native word-stock. We can find such examples in French loans point /p /p z/, where a new diphthong / nt/, joint /d nt/, poise

/ appeared. According to Ilyish (1958), this sound

could not have developed from any Old English sound and it came into English with the words mentioned. (cited in Ginzburg et al., 1966) Following Ginzburg et al. (1966), other example of changes in English sounds was the position of phonemes /f/ and /v/,

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when /v/ started to be used in initial positions (e.g. vain, valley) and /f/ only in intervocal position (e.g. effect, affair ) which had been impossible in Old English. Further to this issue, Pyles and Algeo (1993) distinguished some words of French origin and their pronunciation divided according to the time of borrowing. In words spelled with “ch”, the time of adoption was indicated by their pronunciation. Thus words chamber, champion, change, chance etc. were pronounced with /t / and they were borrowed during Middle English whereas words chamois, chauffer, chevron, chic etc. were pronounced with / / and were adopted in Modern English era. (ibid.) Other examples of irregularities in sounds and sound combinations can be seen in the many French loans, especially in those borrowed during Modern English period. Many of these keep their stress on the final syllable, e.g. machine /m /k tu n/, police /p li s/ etc. (Arnold, 1973) i n/, cartoon

As we can see, the influence of borrowing on the phonetic structure of English is highly complex. Although the language absorbed and reshaped many loans to its own criteria, many other still keep some of their peculiarities. More information related to the pronunciation of loanwords in the English language will be discussed in chapters dealing with assimilation of loanwords.

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2 Classification of loanwords
The most characteristic feature of English is its mixed character. To understand the nature of English vocabulary it is necessary to analyze the historical causes of its structure, the role the borrowings have fulfilled in the course of time and their adaptation to the local environment. In the following chapter we examine loanwords according to their type, i.e. the borrowed aspect, from the historical point of view and last but not least from the point of assimilation.

2.1 Classification of loanwords according to the borrowed item
Loanwords include a number of types depending on the item which has been borrowed. There does not exist a unified classification of loanwords and most authors very often offer only two or three types of loanwords. We investigated the most prevailing classifications and the results are as follow:

2.1.1 Loanwords proper Loanwords proper are words taken over with their form and meaning. They can be more or less assimilated into the system of pronunciation, spelling, morphology or semantics. (Algeo, 1998) This group of loanwords is the most numerous. Some examples include restaurant (French), virus (Latin), alligator (Spanish), bravo (Italian), yoghurt (Turkish) and many others.

2.1.2 Translation loans (Calques) According to Kvetko (1999, p.99) translation loans are: “words or expressions formed by the translation of each of the elements from another language”, for example loanword (from German: Lehnwort), white night (from French: nuit blanche). We provide other examples to illustrate such literal translations from other languages: mother tongue (from Latin: lingua materna), skyscraper (from Dutch: wolkenkrabber and German: Wolkenkratzer), moment of truth (from Spanish: el momento de la verdad) (Yule, 2010)

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2.1.3 Semantic loanwords A new word acquires its new meaning when it is influenced by a related word in another language. It is called a semantic loanword. For instance the word mogul (a mound on a ski slope from Norwegian muge) became an expression denoting somebody who has a great power and influence in a particular industry, i.e. “a prominent person” (Algeo, 1998)

2.1.4 Loan blends Loan blends or “Hybrids” as they are called are words that are composed of parts from different languages. Examples of such words from Pyles and Algeo (1993) include mechanics, where a native ending -ics was affixed to a foreign word (from Latin: mechanicus); - dom as in papdom “papacy” (the position and the authority of the Pope) etc.

2.1.5 Innovative borrowings Algeo (1998) defined innovative borrowings as compounds that had been created by combining foreign elements irrespective of the fact that they did not combine in the source language. For instance the word bierkeller (a public house decorated in German style, selling German beers), from German Bierkarten and Ratskeller.

2.2 Classification of loanwords according to the degree of assimilation
When a word is borrowed and it has been used in the word stock of the receiving language for some time, it usually undergoes changes in accordance with the phonetic, graphical, morphological and semantic standards of the language. The degree of such a change can vary according to different criteria and many factors influencing that process must be taken into consideration. First and foremost, the length of the time during the word has been used for is very important. As stated in Ginzburg et al. (1966) the older the borrowing, the more likely is that the word will impersonate the characteristics of English, e.g. those dealing with accentuation and pronunciation. Secondly, the frequency of usage is also of a great importance as those words which are unknown to the majority of speakers and are scarce in every day communication tend to keep their foreign characteristics. Also 16

words borrowed via speech experience more changes than written loanwords as their adoption is often a more difficult process. According to the degree of assimilation, i.e. whether the word has undergone a partial or a complete change, or whether it has stayed in the word stock unchanged, we recognize three groups of loanwords: completely assimilated, partially assimilated and unassimilated loanwords or barbarisms.

2.2.1 Completely assimilated loanwords These words can be found in all layers of vocabulary and they are very often indistinguishable from the native words. The number of completely assimilated loanwords is much greater than the number of partially assimilated ones. Arnold (1973) pointed out that these words follow morphological, phonetic and orthographic standards of English, they are very frequent, stylistically neutral, active in word formation and not easily recognizable phonetically. Examples given: Latin: cheese, street, wall, wine Scandinavian: husband, fellow, gate, root, wing French: table, chair, face, finish, matter (Arnold, 1973)

2.2.2 Partially assimilated loanwords Partially assimilated loanwords are subdivided according to the aspect, which survived unchanged, i.e. depending on whether the word kept characteristics, which are not English, for instance unfamiliar spelling, pronunciation, grammatical structure or denotation. 2.2.2.1 Loanwords not assimilated lexically These loanwords can either denote objects and notions which are typical for the country they came from (they are not assimilated semantically) or their semantic structure undergoes great changes. In connection with the first group Arnold (1973) offered many examples related to foreign clothing (sari, sombrero), foreign titles and professions (shah, rajah, sheik, toreador), foreign vehicles (rickshaw, caique) and food and drinks (pilav, sherbet) In addition to this, Ginzburg et al. (1966) assumed that when

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a new word entered another language, very often its semantic structure changed and thus not all the meanings of polysemantic words were adopted. For instance the French word timbre is a musical term in English, but has a number of meanings in its original language; umbrella borrowed from Italian, originally with the meaning of a sunshade or parasol also denotes protection from the rain. (ibid.) 2.2.2.2 Loanwords not assimilated phonetically Phonetic assimilation is substituting of native sounds and their combination with unfamiliar ones as well as a shift of stress. Arnold (1973) suggested the French loanwords borrowed after 1650 to be a good example because of their accent on the final syllable, e.g. machine, cartoon, and police. As for peculiarities of sounds which are not standard for English the author offered examples such as the sounds / / in words bourgeois, camouflage, sabotage, /w melange /me 2.2.2.3 ã / / as in memoir, or the nasalized /ã/, as in

Loanwords not assimilated graphically This group of words is fairly distinguishable as they keep their diacritic mark,

e.g. café, cliché, some French words keep their digraphs (ch, qu, ou etc.) as in bouquet, brioche, or their final consonant is not pronounced, for instance in words ballet / b le /, buffet / b 2.2.2.4 / and corps / k /. (Arnold, 1973)

Loanwords not assimilated grammatically Having entered another language, it is common for a new word to lose its

previous grammatical category and inflection. However, a great number of loanwords have kept their foreign grammatical characteristics, for instance those borrowed from Latin and Greek which keep their original plural forms, e.g. bacillus-bacilli; crisiscrises; formula-formulae; phenomenon-phenomena. (Arnold, 1973) On the contrary, borrowed and native forms of plural are sometimes in disagreement as

a result of unsteady position in the vocabulary (cactus-cacti/cactuses) or there is a difference in lexical meaning as in indices-indexes; the first one in the meaning of a standard by which the level of something can be judged or measured, the latter one an alphabetical list of names, subjects etc at the back of a book.

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2.2.3 Unassimilated loanwords or barbarisms Completely unassimilated loanwords or so-called barbarisms are the words which have their own English equivalents. The examples given by Arnold (1973) include the Italian addio, ciao, the French affiche and the Latin ad libitum.

In connection with this division we must point out that many loanwords do not fall into only one category of assimilation, especially those partially assimilated ones. Neither there is any easy way of establishing the degree of assimilation, or explaining why one word assimilates more than another. There is rarely a clear borderline between these categories and very often the same loanword indicates incomplete assimilation in several aspects.

2.3 Classification of loanwords from the historical point of view
Throughout the history of the English language thousands of words from almost every language spoken in the world have been borrowed into its lexicon. Many

corpuses have been collected to estimate the importance of different languages from which this language has borrowed. Among all of these, Latin and Greek, Scandinavian and French have left a timeless imprint on English. Not only did they influence the size of the word-stock but they have also made a far reaching impact on the morphological structure and the system of pronunciation and spelling of the English words.

2.3.1 The earliest loanwords 2.3.1.1 Celtic influence The Celtic tribes arrived to the British Isles from the sixth to the second century BC. Their civilisation left some traces in the English language but not many. Crystal (2005) offered such examples as place names Arden, Avon, Leeds, and Severn and other compounds containing a Celtic component, for instance those related to the features of landscape: • • • deep valley- cumb/comb hill fort- dun lake- lin 19

•

hill- torr, pen, crug, bre

The author provides the following examples of compounds, where the Celtic element is in italics: Berkshire, Bray, Bredon, Cambridge, Carlisle, Doncaster, Ilfracombe, Lancaster, Leicester, Penzance and others.

2.3.1.2

The first period of Latin influence The first Latin words entered the speech of the early people living in the country

during The Roman occupation and the majority of them stayed in the language even after the Romans had left England in the early fifth century. These early borrowings were related to the areas the Romans were good at e.g. military field, agriculture, commerce words and culture. About 175 early loanwords were recorded, from which many have survived into Modern English. (Serjeantson, 1935, cited in Pyles and Algeo, 1993) Examples given: • • • • • • ancor ‘anchor’ (Lat. ancora) butere ‘butter’ (Lat. būtyrum) cycene ‘kitchen’ ( Lat. coquīna) mangere ‘monger’ (Lat. mangō) stræt ‘paved road, street’ (Lat. [via] strāta) weall ‘wall’ (Lat. vallum)

The words borrowed during this period were often divided into “popular” and “learned” ones. Popular loanwords were used in every day speech and were acquired orally, for instance plante ‘plant’, catte ‘cat’. Learned words entered English via church or scholarly influence and later became a part of usual speech, e.g. ‘clerk’,(OE cleric, clerc from Latin clēricus) Cleric came from Latin and had other meanings including ‘scholar’, ‘scribe’. (Pyles and Algeo, 1993)

2.3.2 Old English period (600-1100) Old English, in another term Anglo-Saxon, was spoken from around 600 AD until around 1100 AD. This period of English history is connected with the arrival of Germanic warriors from across the North Sea. They were originally invited to help 20

Britons protect their country against the invaders from the north (Picts and Scots) but they soon themselves became conquerors and gradually settled in the country. As for the language, it was quite different from present-day English because of its grammar, spelling and vocabulary. 2.3.2.1 Latin words in Old English Borrowing from Latin continued during The Old English period. Although it was bigger than during the previous period, many words were not put into wide usage and a great part of them were not even known. Jackson and Zé Amvela (2000) estimated that during the whole Old English period approximately 500 words form Latin had been borrowed. Furthermore, the authors added that these later loanwords were characteristic for bigger similarities between the English form and the Latin one, for example alter ‘altar’ (Lat. altar), demon (Lat. daemon), circul ‘circle’ (Lat. circulus). Many hybrid formations came into use when Latin words were combined with native affixes, e.g mechanics, where a native ending -ics was affixed to a foreign word (from Latin: mechanicus ), see 2.1.4. Loanblends. 2.3.2.2 Scandinavian influence The Scandinavian Vikings raided and settled in England from the eighth to the eleventh century. From the linguistic point of view the important fact was that Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian languages (Old Danish and Old Norse) were very much alike as they were all Germanic languages. As a result of this fact words from different areas of vocabulary were easily taken into the language. Crystal (2005) pinpointed place names as an important linguistic feature, for instance those ending with –by, the Old Norse word for ‘town’ (Rugby, Grimsby), -thorpe, ‘village’ (Millthorpe), - thwaite ‘clearing’ (Braithwaite, Applethwaithe) and many others. It is of an importance to mention that most Scandinavian words do not occur in written records until Middle English period as the earliest written texts do not appear until the eleventh century.

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2.3.3 Middle English period (1100-1500) This period lasted approximately from the mid-eleventh to the beginning of the sixteenth century and it is considered to be one of the milestones in the development of the English language. Never before had English absorbed so many new words, neither had it changed the character of the language to such a level. As stated in Crystal (2005, p.144): “[…] around the year 1000, non-Germanic words in English could be numbered in by hundreds; by 1500 the language had incorporated tens of thousands.” 2.3.3.1 French influence After The Norman invasion in 1066, French became the official language of law and administration. Not only did the ruling groups speak French but people used this language in every aspect of every day life such as cooking and etiquette. Graddol et al. (1996) stressed the important fact and indicated that more prestigious dialect of central French and of the king’s court had had a bigger impact on English than the Norman French. In connection with this Crystal (2005) pointed out that two varieties of French; Anglo-Norman and Parisian French had to be taken into consideration. As a result of all these facts some words had been borrowed twice and they stayed in English in several cases. We provide examples of such cases in the following table: Norman loan gaol warden warrant Parisian loan jail guardian guarantee

Culpeper (2005) assumed over 10,000 words to have been borrowed from this language during Middle English, for instance parliament, baron, manor, noble, liberty, government, beauty, art, romance etc. By the end of this period as much as 30 percent of the vocabulary had penetrated into English from French Crystal (2005). The use of French began to die out in the fourteenth century when English displaced French.

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2.3.3.2

Latin influence

The era of Middle English is characteristic by a rapid growth of the vocabulary. New words were borrowed both from Latin and French, so very often it is difficult to determine the source language. As Jackson- Zé Amvela (2000) illustrated, such cases might be the words nature, register, relation and many others. On the contrary Crystal (2005) noted that there are large numbers of loanwords with definitely Latin origin. The author provides the following account

of some loanwords: • • • • • • • • • Alchemy: dissolve, distillation, elixir, essence, ether, mercury Astronomy: ascension, comet, eccentric, equator, equinox Biology: asp, cicade, juniper, locust, lupin, pine Education: abacus, desk, et cetera, formal, major, minor Language and literacy: allegory, clause, index, scribe Law: client, executor, gratis, legitimate, proviso Medicine: dislocate, ligament, saliva, diaphragm Mineralogy: antimony, arsenic, mineral, lapis lazuli Religion: psalm, collect, diocese (Crystal, 2005)

We must point out that some words mentioned above came to English via Latin but their source languages was in fact Greek as it has happened on the many other occasions. 2.3.3.3 Scandinavian influence Another source of loanwords during Middle English was Scandinavian, especially during its early period. Comparing to French loans it is only a small number of words and many of them are not in use anymore but some of them made a great impact on the grammar. The most significant change was the introduction of pronouns they, them, their, both, and same into the language. In addition to this, the form of the verb‘be’ -are, replaced its Old English form. Moreover, the third person singular –s ending appeared in the present tense of verbs. (Crystal, 2005)

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2.3.4 Early Modern English period (1500-1800) The beginning of Early Modern English period is closely associated with the Renaissance. During this era new techniques were developed, boost of art and sciences appeared, as well as exploration of the world. Books became widely available owing to the introduction of printing. 2.3.4.1 Latin and Greek influence All these facts mentioned above led to an increased interest in classical languages and literature. However, a great majority of literary works was written in Latin as it was the language of scholarship and church. It is for this reason that the books started to be widely translated into English, very often keeping Latin words because there was not a suitable word in English. As Culpeper (2005) estimated, in the sixteenth century alone 13,000 loanwords had been borrowed, of which 7,000 were Latin, for example: absurdity, benefit, external, obstruction, vacuum, virus, fact, exact etc. Kvetko (1999) supported this fact and added that not only classical languages had entered English but a considerable number of Latin loanwords had come via one the Romance languages such as French. Moreover, he added that similarly Greek words had entered French and English via Latin, for instance in words academy, atom, theatre etc. 2.3.4.2 Influence of other languages Latin and Greek were not the only sources of loanwords during Early Modern English period but new words were introduced from all major European languages. As stated in Crystal (2005) many words were brought via French either directly or they used this language as a channel, for example anatomy, battery, bayonet, grotesque, moustache, soup, vogue, volunteer etc. The author added other source languages and some words borrowed from them such as: • • • • Italian (directly or via): balcony, carnival, cupola, design, giraffe, sonnet, rocket, piazza, violin, volcano Spanish and Portuguese (directly or via): alligator, apricot, banana, cannibal, desperado, guitar, hurricane, mosquito North American Indian: skunk, totem, moose, opossum, tomahawk Turkish: cabbala, caftan, coffee, kiosk, yoghurt

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•

Hebrew: hallelujah, torah, shekel

It is quite clear that a great deal of the loanwords mentioned came to English due to explorations of both the American continent and the opposite side of the world in the Middle and Far East.

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3 Unassimilated loanwords in Modern English ( from 1800)
Modern English period runs from around the year 1500 until the present days. It is commonly divided into Early Modern English and Modern English (or so-called Late Modern English). However, the borderline between these two periods is not yet clear as some scholars consider the end of Early Modern English as early as 1650 whereas others point out a noticeable difference between these two periods as late as 1800. We are inclined to the latter date on account of a number of factors. Firstly, the main changes in pronunciation that were caused by the Great Vowel Shift were completed by 1800 and at that time the language differed only little from present-day English. Secondly, the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century is closely connected with the Industrial Revolution, thus a great need for new words considering science and technology was to be fed. Thirdly, the British Empire earned a status of the world power and at its height it covered one quarter of the earth's surface, its language consequently absorbing new vocabulary from languages throughout the world. As Crystal has it: “By the end of the eighteen century, the standard language had become so close to that of the present- day, at least in grammar, pronunciation, and spelling, that it is safely described as Modern English.” (Crystal, 2004, p.4) Modern English is treated as the fourth stage in the history and development of the English language. As explained above we will cover the period of time that encompasses the development of the English language from the beginning of the nineteenth century to the present days. Two very important factors influenced the size and the structure of the vocabulary during the Modern English period: the first one was the Industrial Revolution, the second one was British Empire having earned the status of the world power. In connection with the Industrial Revolution, although the technical and scientific vocabulary of the English language constantly grew since the Renaissance, during the 19th century there was a dramatic increase in this field as the effect of scientific and technological discoveries. For these Modern English had to rely upon Latin and Greek and during this period some sciences such as physics, biology and chemistry saw an enormous lexical evolution. As stated in Crystal (2005), tens of thousands of words were added to the lexicon owing the Industrial Revolution.

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Furthermore, while the advancing technology during the Industrial Revolution created the need for new vocabulary, the spreading British Empire encouraged the language to absorb many new foreign words from countries throughout the whole world. The situation served two purposes: it introduced English to the world and, in return, it introduced new words into English, consequently 350 languages being the sources for the present-day lexicon. Crystal (2005) As it has been said, hundreds of languages have influenced the structure and size of the English language and many efforts have been made to analyse the impact of particular languages on English. As we showed in chapter 1.3.3, according to a study by Garland Cannon (1987) the biggest donor of present loanwords is French (about 25 percent) followed by Japanese and Spanish (8 percent each) and Italian (7 percent) (cited in Pyles and Algeo, 1993). It is for this reason that we devote more space and we study words from these languages more thoroughly and only briefly examine loanwords from other resources. In the following analysis we provide a detailed study of 334 loanwords which have been borrowed from different languages since the beginning of the nineteenth century. We compiled a corpus of loanwords mostly from the works of Freeborn (1998), McArthur (1992), Evans (1997), Jackson- Zé Amvela (2000), Pyles- Algeo (1993), Millward- Hayes (2012) and Crystal (2005). Subsequently we verified the exact date of their entry into the English language in compliance with etymological dictionaries and examined them according to the degree of assimilation and the semantic fields these words were associated with. The result of this synthesis is described in detail in the following chapters. We offer only some examples of the loanwords studied, the rest of the corpus can be found in Appendices 2-7. We also provide additional information related to the date these words entered English altogether with their short definition according to reliable dictionaries in Appendix 8.

3.1

Unassimilated words of Latin and Greek origin
Borrowing from Latin and Greek continued to perform the assignment which

they were given during the Early Modern English period, introducing a large number of words in the field of science and technology. But unlike older loanwords, a great number of words never existed during the period these two languages were spoken. Millward- Hayes (2012) noted the word “borrowing” to be rather misleading during this 27

period and offered such an example as retrovirus to explain the notion. This word is of retro-, from Latin rētro “backward” which was the sixteen century prefix, and virus, from Latin vīrus “poison”, also in use in the sixteen century, in its present meaning since the eighteen century. So the word retrovirus was coined out of previously borrowed classical elements and it has been used as an independent word since 1977. (ibid.) Furthermore, Crystal (2005) stressed the importance of compounding to be a way of feeding the need for new scientific terminology. He offered words such as chlorofluorocarbon (strung together from chloro -fluorocarbon) and

bezoylnitroacetanilide (benzoyl- nitro-acet- anilide) Not only compounding but also forming new “loanwords” with the help of many prefixes and suffixes from Latin and Greek was the way of enriching the vocabulary. Here are numbers of Greek elements which fairly educated people are able to understand despite of having no previous knowledge of Greek as these are widely used in word formation even in present days. Barber et al. (2009) offered such examples as:

bio life hydro water macro large mono single photo light thermo heat, hot

crypto hidden, secret hyper over mega large morph shape, form pyro fire

graph writing, drawing hypo under micro small phono voice, sound tele distant

In addition to this we agree with Jackson- Zé Amvela (2000) when we point out that although not the largest proportion of loanwords comes from Latin and Greek, the significance of these languages in coinage of new English words is the one of great importance. However, some of the words did simply enter English directly from Latin and Greek. We examined these words according to the degree of assimilation and the results are as follow: v Words unassimilated grammatically

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These words do not follow grammatical rules of the receiving language and retain their plural forms: bacillus- bacilli calcar- calcaria flagellum- flagella

v Words unassimilated graphically and phonetically radium antioxin rhizome hormone anthropoid clone xylophone electron

To sum up the impact of classical languages on the size and the structure of English vocabulary, we believe that not only were Latin and Greek the first major contributors of loanwords but they definitely have stayed one of the very important sources for word formation in present days. Moreover, many of these words have the advantage of being understood both internationally and by moderately educated English speakers.

3.2 Unassimilated words of French origin
Borrowing from French has gone on since the Middle Ages through Early Modern English and this process continues as well in Modern English. As it has been mentioned above the French language has definitely been the major donor of words throughout the whole history of English language. Algeo (1998) explained that there is a number of explanations for such predominance of French words in English. First of all, the two countries are geographically very close, secondly, there is a tradition of French students studying in schools in England and there is also a very important worldwide status of France as a centre of fashion, cuisine, fine art and entertainment. As a result of all these facts Jackson- Zé Amvela (2000) added that British English was more likely to acquire French words rather than American English. In like manner American Spanish was a big supplier of loanwords into American English, as we examined later on. We provide a sample of 80 loanwords that came into English after 1800, from which it is obvious that unlike older borrowings, recent loanwords often retain their peculiar spelling and even pronunciation. We stress out that many loanwords do not fall into only one category of partial assimilation as there is rarely a clear borderline between these categories and very often the same loanword indicates incomplete 29

assimilation in several aspects. For instance the word fiancé keeps both its French pronunciation and punctuation mark “é” (accent aigu). v Words unassimilated phonetically These words keep either their French pronunciation or are not accentuated on the first syllable. Examples given: surveillance entrepreneur haute couture chic deluxe crochet chef repertoire

v Words unassimilated graphically In this group of loanwords we can find graphical peculiarities which are easily distinguishable from native word stock, such as doubled consonants and distinctive punctuation marks “é, ô, à, è”–(French “accent aigu, accent grave, accent circonflexe”) café coupon soufflé laissez-faire restaurant morgue tulle brioche

18% 11% 27%

25% 19%

Cuisine Art and Entertainment Fashion Politics Others

Figure 1 Unassimilated loanwords of French origin

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From the Chart 1 we recognize that the biggest proportions of loanwords are related to French cuisine and fashion as France is considered to be the world leader in gastronomy and couture. Another area where these loanwords prevail is the world of entertainment and words closely related to performances and fine art. Rather intriguing is the fact that 11% of the words belong to the semantic field covering political domain. We believe this is due to France being considered the cradle of diplomacy and such words as “tranché, attaché and détente” are related to this field.

3.3 Unassimilated words of Spanish origin
The first words from Spanish which entered English were the results of cultural interchange or a trade, later on they were the consequences of exploration and colonization. Some words were borrowed directly from Continental Spanish but many more entered English from “the New World”. According to Millward- Hayes (2012), American variant affected the number of Spanish loanwords on a bigger scale than Spanish from the Continent. Mc Arthur (1992) added that new words appeared in English in two phases, the first one during the contact with indigenous languages, and the second one as a result of Latin American immigration into the US in the course of the twentieth century. In this analysis we examine 49 words from Spanish and categorize them in accordance with the degree of assimilation. v Words unassimilated phonetically Although these words carry graphical signs that they are not from native word stock, we present these words in this category as they are accentuated on other syllable than the initial one. stampede marijuana conquistador v Words unassimilated semantically These words are typical for the country of their origin, in most cases the donor language is American Spanish. 31 cafeteria arroyo picaresque canasta caldera quinine

mustang bonanza

ranch tango

mescal bronco

rodeo lasso

35%

12%

12%

Food and Drinks Music and Dance Wild West Others

41%

Figure 2 Unassimilated loanwords of Spanish origin

It is clear that the largest proportion of loanwords is closely connected with food and drinks due to popularity of Mexican cuisine. Other popular loanwords are related to Latin American music and dance, found in Central and South America and very famous not only in the US but in Europe as well. Also words linked with the people and folklore of the Western United States during the latter half of the nineteenth century account for 11% of the total amount of loanwords. To sum up the overall result of the analysis, we proved the predominance of American Spanish over its Continental variant and its huge influx of words in present-day English.

3.4 Unassimilated words of Japanese origin
Borrowing from Japanese into English begun in the sixteen century with words such as bonze (a Buddhists monk), later on with words sake, shogun, mikado and a few others, and there continued to be quite a constant supply of words related to Japanese culture and life.

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Only the prominence of Japan as the major economic and technological world power in recent years has rocketed the amount of loanwords from Japanese, ranking it as the second biggest source language. Evans (1997) reported that recent studies proved Japanese to be one of the most productive sources of loanwords, thus giving evidence of English- speaking world focusing on Japan to a much bigger degree than ever before. We examined 55 words from the point of view of assimilation and semantic fields which these words come under.

v Words unassimilated semantically hiragana ju-jitsu hara-kiri futon sayonara sumo arigato tofu

5% 43% 16%

Cuisine Martial Arts Economics Culture and Arts Others

20% 16%

Figure 3 Unassimilated loanwords of Japanese origin

It is evident that all loanwords fall into the category of words unassimilated semantically as they symbolize typical Japanese culture, cuisine, and martial art or weaponry terms. It is rather of an interest that although the presence of Japanese loanwords in English is closely linked with the rise of the country as the economic power, the words themselves range over a wide variety of semantic fields and only three words are associated with the economy (kaizen, zaitech and karoshi). We believe that the reason for this lies in the fact that Japan, opening to the world and becoming an

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explorer, also draws attention to its culture, thus offering many attractive and somehow exotic aspect of its life.

3.5 Unassimilated words of Italian origin
Many Italian loanwords have been brought into English as a result of relations in culture and trade. Borrowing from Italian started in the sixteen century and it continued over a long period, reaching its peak during the eighteen century with words related to music and art. Modern English has continued in this process, although not on such a large scale. Our analysis deals with 34 words borrowed from Italian since 1800 and the results are as follow: v Words unassimilated phonetically Although some of the following loanwords show graphical peculiarities, we incorporated them into the category of words unassimilated phonetically since they either keep their Italian pronunciation or they are accentuated on other syllable than the initial one. bravura pizzicato legato inferno alto confetti tombola al dente

v Words unassimilated semantically These loanwords undoubtedly symbolize their source language and are internationally treated as words of Italian origin. lasagna mozzarella gorgonzola pasta spaghetti espresso pizza latte

v Words unassimilated in else manner We provide a handful of examples, which are not assimilated either partially or completely studio- unassimilated graphically

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ciao- unassimilated completely and considered as “barbarism” graffito-graffiti- unassimilated grammatically, it keeps its foreign plural form

19%

34%

47%

Cuisine Music and Arts Others

Figure 4 Unassimilated loanwords of Italian origin

From the chart we can see that the largest proportion of loanwords is related to Italian cuisine. Indeed the popularity of Italian food has made them internationalized culinary terms. It does not come as a surprise that the second biggest number of loanwords is connected with music and arts as Italy is world famous for its influence on music and such words were borrowed not only into English but also to other languages across Europe. The rest of the loanwords belong to different semantic fields.

3.6 Unassimilated loanwords from other languages
English has continued borrowing from other living languages, both European and non-European, for all its undisputed prominence among the world languages today. In the following chapter we illustrate unassimilated examples from some languages which contributed to the English word stock to some extent, but not as significantly as the previous ones.

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3.6.1 Words from other European languages German loanwords Over the time many German words have found their way into English, a great number of them in relation to: • • • • • food and drinks- schnapps, lager, schnitzel, pretzel, kummel, kirsch, hamburger music- leitmotiv, yodel, zither, glockenspiel philosophy- weltanschauung, zeitgeist politics- diktat, realpolitik breed of dogs- Poodle, Spitz, Dachshund, Doberman All these words are unassimilated graphically since they keep some graphical peculiarities from of their language and semantically since the words such as schnitzel, kummel and the names of dog breeds denote the country of their origin. Russian loanwords The impact of Russian on English has been nothing like that of French and Spanish but many loanwords are worth mentioning due to their special connotation. These words are mostly related to: • • culture- vodka, samovar, troika, borsch, borzoi, dacha, babushka, Soviet and Communist usage- gulag, kulak, pogrom, intelligentsia, Bolshevik, Commissar, politburo, agitprop, apparatchik, samizdat, Kalashnikov, glasnost, refusenik, perestroika

3.6.2 Words from non- European languages Continuous contact of English- speaking people with the rest of the world has provided on- going influx of loanwords from exotic countries. The first words gained during this “English has gone global” experience were the outcomes of colonization but later on new words found other effective means of penetration into the English vocabulary. As Millward- Hayes (2012) pointed out, there was also the availability of global communication, information and research as well as the contribution of diplomacy and wars. As the authors said: “Who knew what a ‘burka’ was ten years ago?”. Millward- Hayes (2012, p.328) In addition to all these facts they added studying in collages abroad to be another important factor that influenced the absorption of loanwords from foreign countries into English.

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Loanwords from African languages Since the seventeenth century English has been borrowing from African and Asian continents. African languages contributed only a small amount of loanwords into English, so we mention only a few examples of recent borrowings such as impala, apartheid, tsetse, goober, safari, and trek. Loanwords from Asian languages On a larger scale English has been borrowing from the languages of the Indian subcontinent, mostly from Urdu, Hindi and Sanskrit. Since it were the British who ruled in India until as late as 1947, the loanwords are better known in Britain rather than in America, especially the words related to food because Indian cuisine is widely available and very popular in Britain today. Examples given: • • • • food related- chapatti, chutney, chota peg, popadam, biryani, tikka, puri, naan, tandoori, samosa Indic social customs- purdah, satyagraha linguistics- Aryan, sandhi, svarabhakti, dvandva Indian music- sitar

Chinese • • • food related- chow mein, chop-suey, dim sum, wok martial arts- kung fu, tai chi others- shih- tzu, mah jong The recent interest in Buddhism and Hinduism resulted in adding a considerable number of words related to the Eastern religions into English and this process is more than likely to continue. All the following loanwords originate in Sanskrit, the dominant classical and scholarly language of the Indian subcontinent, the sacred language of Hinduism, language of Buddhism, and the oldest known member of the Indo-European language family. As Mc Arthur (1992, p.885) noted: “Much as Latin influenced European languages, Sanskrit has influenced many languages in South and South-East Asia.” We provide quite a big number of widely used loanwords related to Hinduism and Buddhism: chakra mandala ashram mantra karma nirvana mahatma prana

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Eastern philosophies and religions have grown very popular in the Western culture during the last few decades, thus adding many loanwords into English. Their usage can be seen in many daily practices of our lives such as yoga exercises as well as the discipline of meditation. We often hear that meditation can greatly benefit our health and if we manage to “empty our minds” we will lead a peaceful life. Even reincarnation has become such an ordinary belief that many of us accepted it to be our personal spiritual truth. Eastern philosophies continue spreading in the West, adding to our culture, encouraging us to explore different belief systems and forcing us to try to find our own answers to the universal truth about the world and about ourselves.

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Conclusion
English truly is a global language, not only for its use throughout the whole world but also for its international flavour. This language possesses this certain attribute owing to the endless contacts with other languages and cultures as well as the willingness of its speakers to welcome and accept new words which entered their vocabulary as a result of such contacts. Borrowing from other languages has always been of great significance in the course of the English language development. Not only did this process influence the size of the word-stock, but it also made a far- reaching impact on its structure and diversity, influencing the process of words formation, effecting pronunciation and leaving an imprint on the semantic fields. Although borrowing from other languages has always been present in every stage of developing English, during the Modern English period, in the course of the nineteenth and the twentieth century, it showed some differences to the previous periods. It was definitely no longer the major source of loanwords as it had been during the Middle English and the Early Modern English period. New words found their way into English lexicon due to two very important historical events. The first one was the Industrial Revolution and the necessity to fill in the gaps in the vocabulary related to the science and technology. But regarding this aspect we can hardly speak of “true” loanwords as the Greco-Latin scientific and technical terms never existed in these classical languages and, instead, they were coined out of previously borrowed classical elements and even nowadays the vocabulary is constantly enriched by words manufactured out of Latin and Greek morphemes. The second very important factor influencing borrowing was the status of the British Empire as the world power and the fact that in the nineteenth century it covered one quarter of the world. Loanwords were arriving from different languages, some more exotic than others, but French language keeping its position as the biggest supplier, enriching English lexicon of words related to the semantic fields of fashion, food and politics. The reason for this lies in the geographical proximity of England and France as well as the well-known status of the latter country as the centre of couture and cuisine. As we approached the twentieth century the process of borrowing showed some signs of directing its attention to the East. It seems that English started borrowing from words that had not been the traditional sources for vocabulary. Of quite an interest was

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Japanese language, breaking the traditional rule of European languages predominance and becoming one of two second biggest donors of loanwords into English language, sharing its position with Spanish. But not only exotic Japanese words penetrated into lexicon, words connected to the Eastern philosophies and religions were suddenly becoming present in English vocabulary. For instance, words related to yoga were popular since yoga classes were seen all over the West, offering many people to buy books and DVDs. As for Eastern religious, Buddhism and Hinduism especially have been of a big interest for the past few decades and the interest is more than likely to continue. One hundred years ago no- one would suppose the words such as mantra, nirvana, chakra and karma will be familiar even to the people who are not particularly interested in meditations and reincarnation. The chance to explore different beliefs enabled people to ask questions about the universal truth of the world and have those questions answered in other ways than the traditional western thinking has been able to do. Although the vocabulary extension during Modern English had a different shape than in the previous periods and borrowing was not the biggest means of enriching the lexicon, some loanwords were indeed “true” loanwords and these words reflected the way of life in the speaking communities. There is an intriguing question arising as to what happened to these loanwords and how they assimilated into English lexicon. As has been discussed in Chapter 2.2, there are a few factors which influence the degree of assimilation of loanwords in the language. One of these factors is the length of time during a loanword has been in the vocabulary of the receiving language and because this thesis deals exclusively with words that entered English after 1800, it is obvious that these words still retain some peculiarities of the donor languages. Among the most frequent ones are graphical and phonetic specialities (e.g. distinctive punctuation marks and loanwords which either keep their foreign pronunciation or are accentuated on a different syllable than the first one). Considering pronunciation of loanwords, even though it might seem confusing at first sight, students of the English language may find it useful to be aware of the donor language of a particular loanword. For instance, if they know that words such as mechanic and technology are of Greek origin, they are less likely to make a very common mistake, i.e. to pronounce these words /m@"ch{nIk/ and /tech"nQl@dZI/ instead of the correct /m@"k{nIk/ and /tek"nQl@dZI/ as the English language does not have /ch/ sound and all the loanwords of Greek origin bearing the digraph “ch” are 40

pronounced with /k/. Furthermore, if a student is conscious of the fact that a particular loanword is of late French origin he should have no difficulty pronouncing it correctly even if he does not speak French, because the French speech is easily distinguishable even to those people who have no knowledge of the language, e.g. the word “entrepreneur” / ntr pr 'n / and its rather difficult pronunciation.

The diversity and volume of loanwords in the English language is undoubtedly the result of its speakers’ attitude towards new languages, cultures, philosophies and other aspect of everyday life. English speakers have proved themselves not to be xenophobic, appreciating different nations sharing parts of their cultures with them, thus greatly contributing to the richness and heterogeneity of English. There has never been a “watchdog” that would control the cleanliness of the language, nor there have been any measures taken against loanwords entering the English language. Multicultural education is a part of state educational curricula in many countries of the European Union so there is no reason to believe that a nation and its language can exist without experiencing a contact with other nations and languages, neither there are grounds to reject such an experience and find it useless or even harmful to the national identity. Many English speakers are proud of the cosmopolitan nature of their language and we believe that such a positive attitude towards multiculturalism is a good example for other nations in the present days.

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List of Resources
ALGEO, John. 1998. Vocabulary. In ROMAINE, Suzanne. (Ed.) The Cambridge history of the English language. Volume IV. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0 521 26477 4. [cit. 12 October 2011] [PDF file] Retrieved from http://rapidlibrary.com/index.php?q=cambridge+history+of+the+english+language ARNOLD, I.V. 1973. The English word. Moscow: Higher School Publishing House, 1973. BARBER, Charles et al. 2009. The English language. A historical introduction. Second edition. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009. ISBN-13 978-0-51151667-2. [cit. 17 January 2012] [PDF file] Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/doc/36094349/The-English-Language-A-HistoricalIntroduction-2edition CRYSTAL, David. 2006. The fight for English. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2006. ISBN 978-0-19-920764-0. CRYSTAL, David. 2005. The stories of English. London: The Penguin Group, 2005. ISBN 0-141-01593-4. CRYSTAL, David. 2007. Words, words, words. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-921077-0. CULPEPER, Jonathan. 2005. History of English. Second edition. Oxon: Routledge, 2005. ISBN 0-415-34184-1. EVANS, Toshie M. 1997. A dictionary of Japanese loanwords. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1997. ISBN 0-313-28741-4. [cit.13 February 2012] [PDF file] Retrieved from http://www.4shared.com/office/05SBtqR/A_Dictionary_of_Japanese_Loanw.htm FREEBORN, Denis. 1998. From Old English to Standard English. Second edition. Basingstoke: PALGRAVE, 1998. ISBN 0-333-69155-5. GINZBURG R.S. et al. 1966. A course in modern English lexicology. Moscow: Higher School Publishing House, 1966. GRADDOL, David et al. 1996. English history, diversity and change. Oxon: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-13118-9.

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JACKSON, Howard- ZÉ AMVELA Etienne. 2000. Words, meaning and vocabulary. Second edition. London: Continuum, 2000. ISBN 978-0-8264-9018-6 KEMMER, Suzanne. Loanwords. Major periods of borrowing in the history of English. [cit. 12 August 2011] [online] Last modified 22 August 2011. Retrieved from http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/loanwords.html KVETKO, Pavol. 1999. English lexicology. Bratislava: Pedagogická fakulta Univerzity Komenského, 1999. ISBN 80-88869-44-0. LEITH, Dick, 1997. A social history of English. Second edition. London: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0-415-09797-5. McARTHUR, Tom. 1992. The Oxford companion to the English language. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-19-214183-X. [cit. 13 March 2012] [PDF file] Retrieved from http://www.uloz.to/hledej/?q=tom+mc+arthur MILLWARD, C.M. – HAYES, Mary. 2012. A biography of the English language. Boston: WADSWORTH, Cengage learning, 2012. ISBN-13: 978-0-495-90641-4 or ISBN-10: 0-495-90641-7 [cit. 20 January 2012] [PDF file] Retrieved from http://www.uloz.to/xTHDQBW/a-bio-of-the-english-lang-3rd-ed-c-millward-m-hayescengage-2012-bbs-pdf PYLES, Thomas- ALGEO John. 1993. The origins and development of the English language. Fourth edition. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace α Company, 1993. ISBN 0-15-500168-X. STOCKWELL, Robert- MINKOVA, Donka. 2001. English words: history and structure. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-521-79362-9. ŠTEKAUER, Pavol. 2005. Essentials of English linguistics. Košice: SLOVACONTACT PLUS s.r.o., 2005. ISBN 80-901417-1-4. YULE, George. 2010. The study of language. Fourth edition. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. ISBN-13 978-0-521-74922-0.

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Appendices
Appendix 1 CD media, bachelor thesis in electronic format Appendix 2 Unassimilated words of Latin and Greek origin • Loanwords unassimilated grammatically latex- latices sanatorium- sanatoria referendum-referenda • radula- radulae streptococcus-streptococci thallus- thalli

Loanwords unassimilated graphically and phonetically proton cathode photon electrolysis anode osteoporosis

Appendix 3 Unassimilated loanwords of French origin • Loanwords unassimilated phonetically debacle massage croissant chichi collage taupe parquet sorbet auteur • impasse pastiche voyeur fuselage beige visagiste physique volte-face chassis canard aperitif limousine avant- garde lingerie bonhomie pince-nez art nouveau fromage frais revue chauffeur elite camouflage tranché camaraderie renaissance au pair montage

Loanwords unassimilated graphically coupé matinée brassiere flambé décor courgette cigarette communiqué suède première déjà vu faux 44 attaché fiancé(e) rôtisserie cliché tutu questionnaire dossier foyer risqué espadrille gaga lame

can-can

sauté

mousse

détente

Appendix 4 Unassimilated loanwords of Spanish origin • Loanwords unassimilated semantically chaparral chicano jalapeño mariachi macho fajita piña colada serape margarita guacamole salsa paella fiesta nacho quesadilla conga sangria barrio tamale guerrilla burrito olé rumba zapateado tequila enchilada taco adios Chihuahua palomino gringo canyon

Appendix 5 Unassimilated loanwords of Japanese origin • Loanwords unassimilated semantically netsuke banzai haiku bonsai shiatsu kendo tempura koan dojo nunchaku sensei kaizen kimono sushi kabuki karate ninja reiki wasabi samisen ikebana pachinko sai zaitech judo kamikaze dan origami karaoke sashimi yakitori teriyaki kumite ronin tanto karoshi geisha bushido aikido yokozuna hibachi sukiashi yakuza nintendo kata sakura iaido

Appendix 6 Unassimilated loanwords of Italian origin 45

•

Loanwords unassimilated phonetically intermezzo piccolo salami magenta vendetta vibrato paparazzo scherzo

•

Loanwords unassimilated semantically cappuccino zucchini risotto mafia ciabatta minestrone pesto

Appendix 7 Unassimilated loanwords from Sanskrit mudra ahimsa yantra sangha maya asana avalokiteshvara dharma sutra bodhisattva arhat yoga guru ayurvedic

Appendix 8 The list of loanwords examined in the analysis, accompanied with the date of the entry into English language and their brief definition

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