mcs

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Meaning of Motivation: A motivation is one’s willingness to push up efforts to accomplish
some specific goals.
Definition: Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological
deficiency or need that activates behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.
Theories of Motivation:
1) Abraham Maslow‟s “Need Hierarchy Theory” :
One of the most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the hierarchy of needs theory put
forth by psychologist Abraham Maslow.
Maslow saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy, ascending from the lowest to the
highest, and he concluded that when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to
be a motivator.
As per his theory this needs are :

(i) Physiological needs :
These are important needs for sustaining the human life. Food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep,
medicine and education are the basic physiological needs which fall in the primary list of
need satisfaction. Maslow was of an opinion that until these needs were satisfied to a degree
to maintain life, no other motivating factors can work.
(ii) Security or Safety needs : These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of the
fear of losing a job, property, food or shelter. It also includes protection against any emotional
harm.
(iii) Social needs : Since people are social beings, they need to belong and be accepted by
others. People try to satisfy their need for affection, acceptance and friendship.
(iv) Esteem needs : According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong,
they tend to want to be held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of need
produces such satisfaction as power, prestige status and self-confidence. It includes both
internal esteem factors like self-respect, autonomy and achievements and external esteem
factors such as states, recognition and attention.
(v) Need for self-actualization : Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It
is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming, it includes growth, achieving one‟s
potential and self-fulfillment. It is to maximize one‟s potential and to accomplish something.
2) “Theory X and Theory Y” of Douglas mcgregor :
McGregor, in his book “The Human side of Enterprise” states that people inside the
organization can be managed in two ways. The first is basically negative, which falls under
the category X and the other is basically positive, which falls under the category Y. After
viewing the way in which the manager dealt with employees, McGregor concluded that a
manager‟s view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions

and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior towards subordinates according to these
assumptions. Under the assumptions of theory X :
 Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will attempt to avoid
it.
 Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or threatened with
 punishment to achieve goals.
 Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal directions are issued.
 Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors and display
little ambition.
In contrast under the assumptions of theory Y :
 Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play.
 People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they are committed to those goals.
 Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and exercise imagination,
ingenuity and creativity in solving the problems of the organization.
 That the way the things are organized, the average human being‟s brainpower is only
partly used.
On analysis of the assumptions it can be detected that theory X assumes that lower-order
needs dominate individuals and theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate
individuals. An organization that is run on Theory X lines tends to be authoritarian in nature,
the word “authoritarian” suggests such ideas as the “power to enforce obedience” and the
“right to command.” In contrast Theory Y organizations can be described as “participative”,
where the aims of the organization and of the individuals in it are integrated; individuals can
achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts towards the success of the organization.
However, this theory has been criticized widely for generalization of work and human
behavior.
3) Frederick Herzberg‟s motivation-hygiene theory : Frederick has tried to modify
Maslow‟s need Hierarchy theory. His theory is also known as two-factor theory or Hygiene
theory. He stated that there are certain satisfiers and dissatisfiers for employees at work. Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with
dissatisfaction. He states that presence of certain factors in the organization is natural and the
presence of the same does not lead to motivation. However, their nonpresence leads to
demotivation. In similar manner there are certain factors, the absence of which causes no
dissatisfaction, but their presence has motivational impact.

Examples of Hygiene factors are : Security, status, relationship with subordinates, personal
life, salary, work conditions, relationship with supervisor and company policy and
administration. Examples of Motivational factors are : Growth prospectus job advancement,
responsibility, challenges, recognition and achievements.
4) Contributions of Elton Mayo :
The work of Elton Mayo is famously known as “Hawthorne Experiments.” He conducted
behavioral experiments at the Hawthorne Works of the American Western Electric Company
in Chicago. He made some illumination experiments, introduced breaks in between the work
performance and also introduced refreshments during the pause‟s. On the basis of this he
drew the conclusions that motivation was a very complex subject. It was not only about pay,
work condition and morale but also included psychological and social factors. Although this
research has been criticized from many angles, the central conclusions drawn were :
 People are motivated by more than pay and conditions.
 The need for recognition and a sense of belonging are very important.
 Attitudes towards work are strongly influenced by the group.
5) Vroom‟s Valence x Expectancy theory : The most widely accepted explanations of
motivation has been propounded by Victor Vroom. His theory is commonly known as
expectancy theory. The theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a specific way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome
and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual to make this simple, expectancy
theory says that an employee can be motivated to perform better when their is a belief that the
better performance will lead to good performance appraisal and that this shall result into
realization of personal goal in form of some reward. Therefore an employee is : Motivation =
Valence x Expectancy. The theory focuses on three things :
 Efforts and performance relationship
 Performance and reward relationship
 Rewards and personal goal relationship

This leads us to a conclusion that :
6) The Porter and Lawler Model : Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler developed a
more complete version of motivation depending upon expectancy theory.
Actual performance in a job is primarily determined by the effort spent. But it is also affected
by the person‟s ability to do the job and also by individual‟s perception of what the required
task is. So performance is the responsible factor that leads to intrinsic as well as extrinsic
rewards. These rewards, along with the equity of individual leads to satisfaction. Hence,
satisfaction of the individual depends upon the fairness of the reward.

7) Clayton Alderfer‟s ERG Theory :
Alderfer has tried to rebuild the hierarchy of needs of Maslow into another model named
ERG i.e. Existence – Relatedness – Growth. According to him there are 3 groups of core
needs as mentioned above. The existence group is concerned mainly with providing basic
material existence. The second group is the individuals need to maintain interpersonal
relationship with other members in the group. The final group is the intrinsic desire to grow
and develop personally. The major conclusions of this theory are :
1. In an individual, more than one need may be operative at the same time.
2. If a higher need goes unsatisfied than the desire to satisfy a lower need intensifies.
3. It also contains the frustration-regression dimension.
8) McClelland‟s Theory of Needs : David McClelland has developed a theory on three
types of motivating needs :
1. Need for Power:
Basically people for high need for power are inclined towards influence and control. They
like to be at the center and are good orators. They are demanding in nature, forceful in
manners and ambitious in life. They can be motivated to perform if they are given key
positions or power positions.
2. Need for Affiliation:
In the second category are the people who are social in nature. They try to affiliate
themselves with individuals and groups. They are driven by love and faith. They like to build
a friendly environment around themselves. Social recognition and affiliation with others
provides them motivation.
3. Need for Achievement:
People in the third area are driven by the challenge of success and the fear of failure. Their
need for achievement is moderate and they set for themselves moderately difficult tasks.
They are analytical in nature and take calculated risks. Such people are motivated to perform
when they see atleast some chances of success.
McClelland observed that with the advancement in hierarchy the need for power and
achievement increased rather than Affiliation. He also observed that people who were at the
top, later ceased to be motivated by this drives.
LEADERSHIP
A traditional definition of leadership:
DEFINITION
Leadership is the art of influencing and inspiring subordinates to perform their duties
willingly, competently and enthusiastically for achievement of groups objectives.

According to Wendell French, "Leadership is the process of influencing the behavior of
others in the direction of a goal or set of goals or, more broadly, toward a vision of the
future”,
According to Keith Davis, “Leadership is the process of encouraging and helping others to
workenthusiastically towards objectives”.
According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Leadership is the art or process of influencing people
so that they will strive willingly towards the achievement of group goals".
According to Peter Drucker, "Leadership means the lifting of man's visions to higher sights,
the raising of man's performance to higher standard, the building of man's personality beyond
its normal limitations".
Thus, leaders are people who are able to influence the behavior of others without recourse to
threats or other forms of force towards the individuals. Leaders are the people who are
accepted by the other individuals, as a superior person to them.
FEATURES OF LEADERSHIP:
The features of leadership are as follows:










Leadership is the process of influencing behavior of individuals of an organization.
Leadership uses non-coercive methods to direct and coordinate the activities of the
individuals
of an organization.
Leadership directs the individuals to attain the tasks assigned to them by following the
instructions of their leaders.
A leader possesses qualities to influence others.
Leadership gives the individuals, a vision for future.
Leadership is a group activity. Leader influences his followers and followers also
exercise influence over his leader.
Leadership is meant for a given situation, given group for a pre-determined period of
lime.
Leadership is continuous process of influencing behavior. It encourages liveliness in
the group.

IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP:
The following points can judge the importance of leadership:








A leader should act as a friend of the people whom he is leading.
A leader must have the capacity to recognize the potentials of the individuals and
transform them
into realities.
A leader should have the confidence of the individuals of the organization.
A leader must be able to unite the people as a team and build up team spirit.
A leader should be able to maintain discipline among his group and develop a sense of
responsibility.
A leader must be able to build up a high morale among the individuals of the
organization.






A leader should motivate his people to achieve goals.
A leader should try to raise the morale of the individuals and should maintain ethical
standards
among the individuals.
A leader should act as a link between the work groups and the forces outside the
organization.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
Leading and managing go together but some differences exist between the two. The
following are the differences between the leadership and the management:






Management takes rational and logical decisions while leadership takes decision on
expectations of the followers. Leadership has an emotional appeal while management
acts on rationality.
The management establishes relationship through a lawful authority while leadership
establishes relationship through power.
Managers have formal authority but the leaders have no such authority.
All leaders are not managers and all managers are leaders.
Management is a process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling the
activities of others to attain the organizational objectives. Leadership on the other
hand, is a process of influencing the behavior of the people to attain their assigned
tasks. A successful manager must possess both the managerial and leadership
qualities.

TYPES OF LEADERSHIP
Following are the main types of leadership:
I. Autocratic or Authoritarian








In this type of leadership, there is a complete centralization of authority in the leader,
i.e., authority is centered in the leader himself.
He has all the powers to make decisions.
He uses coercive measures and adopts, negative method of motivation.
He wants immediate obedience of his orders and instructions.
Any negligence on the part of subordinates results in punishment.
There is no participation from the subordinates in decision-making.
A leader thinks that he is the only competent person in the organization.

According to Edwin B. Filippo, there are following three types of leaders in autocratic:
1. Hard Boiled or Strict Autocrat:
Leader, under such type uses negative influence and expects that the employees should obey
his orders immediately.

Non-compliance of his orders results in punishment.
He makes all decisions and does not disclose anything to anyone.
He is quite rigid on performance.
2. Benevolent Autocrat:
Benevolent autocrat leader uses positive influences and develops effective human relations.
He is known as paternalistic leader.
He praises his employees if they follow his orders and invites them to get the solutions of the
problems from him.
He feels happy in controlling all the actions of his subordinates.
3. Manipulative Autocrat:
Leader, under such type is manipulative in nature.
He creates a feeling in the minds of his subordinates and workers that they are participating in
decision-making processes.
But he makes all decisions by himself. Non-compliance of his orders also results in
punishment.

II.Democratic or Participative











Democratic or Participative leadership is also known as group centered or
consultative leadership.
In this type of leadership, leaders consult their groups and consider their opinion in
the decision-making process.
Leaders encourage discussion among the group members on the problem under
consideration and arrive at a decision depending on their consent.
Participation or involvement of the employees in the decision-making process is also
rewarded.
Exchange of ideas among subordinates and with the leader is given encouragement.
Leaders give more freedom to their group members, who feel that, their opinions arc
honored and they are given importance.
It develops a sense of confidence among subordinates and they derive job satisfaction.
It improves quality of decision as it is taken after due consideration of valued opinions
of the talented group members.
The demerit of this type of leadership is that it takes more time to arrive at a decision,
as a lot of time is wasted while taking the views from the employee.
It is, therefore, very time consuming.

III. Laissez-faire or Free Rein:


In this type of leadership, there is virtual absence of direct leadership. It is, therefore,
known as "no leadership at all".






There is complete delegation of authority to subordinates so that they can make
decisions by themselves.
Absence of leadership may have both positive and negative effects.
Free rein leadership may be effective if members of the group are highly committed to
their work.
The negative aspect shows that the leader is not competent enough to lead his group
effectively. Members may feel insecure and develop frustration for lack of decisionmaking authority.

IV. Bureaucratic:
This type of leadership emphasizes the rules and regulations of an organization.
The behavior of a leader is determined by the rules, regulations and procedure to be followed
under his leadership.
The leader and the subordinates both follow these rules and regulations. Therefore, there is no
difference between the management and the administration in this type of leadership.
The employees, themselves cannot do anything in this regard. It is the rules that determine
their performance.

V. Manipulative





This type of leadership manipulates the employees to attain their assigned tasks.
A manipulative leader is quite selfish and exploits the aspirations of the employees for
his gains.
He knows very well the needs and desires of the employees but he does very little to
fulfill them.
Due to such attitude, he has to face the hatred of the employees at times.

VI. The paternalistic leadership
It believes in the concept that the happy employees work better and harder.
It maintains that the fatherly altitude is the right one for better relationship between the
manager and the employees.
Everyone within the organization should work together like a family.

VII. Expert Leadership




The expert leadership emerged as a result of complex structure of modern
organizations.
This type of leadership is based on the ability, knowledge and competence of the
leaders.
He handles the situation skillfully with his talent.



The employees feel relieved as they are working under a person who is expert and can
handle the situation without any problem.
 In modern organizations, human resources vary in terms of skill, knowledge and
competences. They differ in quality, determination and their attitude towards the
organization.
 They exhibit different behaviors as they differ in attitude and outlook also.
 The leader must understand their behavior and accordingly can make use of the
various types
LEADERSHIP VERSUS MANAGEMENT:
A leader can be a manager, but a manager is not necessarily a leader. The leader of the work
group may emerge informally as the choice of the group. If a manager is able to influence
people to achieve the goals of the organization, without using his or her formal authority to
do so, then the manager is demonstrating leadership.
According to John P. Kotter in his book, “A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs From
Management” (The Free Press, 1990), managers must know how to lead as well as manage.
Without leading as well as managing, today's organizations face the threat of extinction.
Management is the process of setting and achieving the goals of the organization through the
functions of management: planning, organizing, directing (or leading), and controlling. A
manager is hired by the organization and is given formal authority to direct the activity of
others in fulfilling organization goals. Thus, leading is a major part of a manager's job. Yet a
manager must also plan, organize, and control. Generally speaking, leadership deals with the
interpersonal aspects of a manager's job, whereas planning, organizing, and controlling deal
with the administrative aspects. Leadership deals with change, inspiration, motivation, and
influence. Management deals more with carrying out the organization's goals and maintaining
equilibrium.
The key point in differentiating between leadership and management is the idea that
employees willingly follow leaders because they want to, not because they have to. Leaders
may not possess the formal power to reward or sanction performance. However, employees
give the leader power by complying with what he or she requests. On the other hand,
managers may have to rely on formal authority to get employees to accomplish goals.
THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
1. Trait Theories


In the 1920's and 1930's, leadership research focused on trying to identify the traits
that differentiated leaders from non-leaders.



These early leadership theories were content theories, focusing on "what" an effective
leader is, not on 'how' to effectively lead.



The trait approach to understanding leadership assumes that certain physical, social,
and personal characteristics are inherent in leaders.



Sets of traits and characteristics were identified to assist in selecting the right people
to become leaders. Physical traits include being young to middle-aged, energetic, tall,
and handsome.



Social background traits include being educated at the "right" schools and being
socially prominent or upwardly mobile.



Social characteristics include being charismatic, charming, tactful, popular,
cooperative, and diplomatic.



Personality traits include being self-confident, adaptable, assertive, and emotionally
stable. Task-related characteristics include being driven to excel, accepting of
responsibility, having initiative, and being results-oriented.



Trait theories intended to identify traits to assist in selecting leaders since traits are
related to leadership effectiveness in many situations.



The trait approach supports the use of tests and interviews in the selection of
managers.



The interviewer is typically attempting to match the traits and characteristics of the
applicant to the position.



For example, most interviewers attempt to evaluate how well the applicant can work
with people.

DRAWBACKS:


Trait theory has not been able to identify a set of traits that will consistently
distinguish leaders from followers.



Trait theory positions key traits for successful leadership (drive, desire to lead,
integrity, self-confidence, intelligence, and job-relevant knowledge).



Yet does not make a judgment as to whether these traits are inherent to individuals or
whether they can be developed through training and education.



No two leaders are alike. Furthermore, no leader possesses all of the traits.



Comparing leaders in different situations suggests that the traits of leaders depend on
the situation. Thus, traits were de-emphasized to take into account situational
conditions (contingency perspective).

2. BEHAVIORAL THEORIES:
 The behavioral theorists identified determinants of leadership so that people could be
trained to be leaders.
 They developed training programs to change managers' leadership behaviors and
assumed that the best styles of leadership could be learned.

Theory X and Theory Y
 Douglas McGregor described Theory X and Theory Y in his book, The Human Side
of Enterprise.
 Theory X and Theory Y each represent different ways in which leaders view
employees.
 Theory X managers believe that employees are motivated mainly by money, are lazy,
uncooperative, and have poor work habits.
 Theory Y managers believe that subordinates work hard, are cooperative, and have
positive attitudes.
Theory X is the traditional view of direction and control by managers.
1. The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid if he or she can.
2. Because of this human characteristic of dislike of work, most people must be controlled,
directed, and threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort toward
the achievement of organizational objectives.
3. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, and has
relatively little ambition, wants security above all.
 Theory X leads naturally to an emphasis on the tactics of control to procedures and
techniques for telling people what to do, for determining whether they are doing it,
and for administering rewards and punishment.
 Theory X explains the consequences of a particular managerial strategy.
 Because its assumptions are so unnecessarily limiting, it prevents managers from
seeing the possibilities inherent in other managerial strategies.
 As long as the assumptions of Theory X influence managerial strategy, organizations
will fail to discover, let alone utilize, the potentialities of the average human being.
Theory Y is the view that individual and organizational goals can be integrated.
1. The expenditures of physical and mental effort in work are as natural as play or rest.
2. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing out
effort toward organizational objectives.
3. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their
achievement.
4. The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but also to
seek responsibility.
5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and
creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in
the population.
6. Under the condition of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the
average human being are only partially utilized.
 Theory Y's purpose is to encourage integration, to create a situation in which an
employee can achieve his or her own goals best by directing his or her efforts toward
the objectives of the organization.
 It is a deliberate attempt to link improvement in managerial competence with the
satisfaction of higher-level ego and self-actualization needs.
 Theory Y leads to a preoccupation with the nature of relationships, with the creation
of an environment which will encourage commitment to organizational objectives and
which will provide opportunities for the maximum exercise of initiative, ingenuity,
and self-direction in achieving them.

University of Iowa
 Another approach to leader behavior focused on identifying the best leadership styles.
 Work at the University of Iowa identified democratic (participation and delegation),
autocratic (dictating and centralized) and laissez-faire styles (group freedom in
decision making).
 Research findings were also inconclusive.
3. THE MANAGERIAL GRID:


The dimensions identified at the University of Michigan provided the basis for the
development of the managerial grid model developed by Robert Blake and Jane
Mouton.



It identifies five various leadership styles that represent different combinations of
concern for people and concern for production.



Managers who scored high on both these dimensions simultaneously (labeled team
management) performed best.



The five leadership styles of the managerial grid include impoverished, country
club, produce or perish, middle-of-the road, and team.



The impoverished style is located at the lower left-hand corner of the grid, point (1,
1).



It is characterized by low concern for both people and production.



The primary objective of the impoverished style is for managers to stay out of trouble.



The country club style is located at the upper left-hand corner of the grid, point (1, 9).



It is characterized as a high concern for people and a low concern for production.



The primary objective of the country club style is to create a secure and comfortable
atmosphere and trust that subordinates will respond positively.



The produce or perish style is located at the lower right-hand corner of the grid, point
(9,1).



A high concern for production and a low concern for people characterize it.



The primary objective of the produce or perish style is to achieve the organization's
goals.



To accomplish the organization's goals, it is not necessary to consider employees'
needs as relevant.



The middle-of-the-road style is located at the middle of the grid, point (5, 5).



A balance between workers' needs and the organization's productivity goals
characterize it.



The primary objective of the middle-of-the-road style is to maintain employee morale
at a level sufficient to get the organization's work done.



The team style is located at the upper right-hand of the grid, point (9, 9).



It is characterized by a high concern for people and production. \



The primary objective of the team style is to establish cohesion and foster a feeling of
commitment among workers.

4. CONTINGENCY THEORIES:
Successful leaders must be able to identify clues in an environment and adapt their leader
behavior to meet the needs of their followers and of the particular situation. Even with good
diagnostic skills, leaders may not be effective unless they can adapt their leadership style to
meet the demands of their environment.
4.1. Fiedler's Contingency Model:


Fred E. Fiedler's contingency theory postulates that there is no best way for
managers to lead.



Situations will create different leadership style requirements for a manager.



The solution to a managerial situation is contingent on the factors that impinge on the
situation.



For example, in a highly routinized (mechanistic) environment where repetitive tasks
are the norm, a certain leadership style may result in the best performance.



The same leadership style may not work in a very dynamic environment.

Fiedler looked at three situations that could define the condition of a managerial task:
1. Leader member relations: How well do the manager and the employees get along?
2. The task structure: Is the job highly structured, fairly unstructured, or somewhere in
between?
3. Position power: How much authority does the manager possess?
Managers were rated as to whether they were relationship oriented or task oriented.


Task oriented managers tend to do better in situations that have good leader-member
relationships, structured tasks, and either weak or strong position power.



They do well when the task is unstructured but position power is strong.



Also, they did well at the other end of the spectrum when the leader member relations
were moderate to poor and the task was unstructured.



Relationship oriented managers do better in all other situations.



Thus, a given situation might call for a manager with a different style or a manager
who could take on a different style for a different situation.

4.2. Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership


The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership theory is based on the amount of
direction (task behavior) and amount of socio-emotional support (relationship
behavior) a leader must provide given the situation and the "level of maturity" of the
followers.



Task behavior is the extent to which the leader engages in spelling out the duties and
responsibilities to an individual or group.



This behavior includes telling people what to do, how to do it, when to do it, where to
do it, and who is to do it. In task behavior the leader engages in one-way
communication.



Relationship behavior is the extent to which the leader engages in two-way or multiway communications. This includes listening, facilitating, and supportive behaviors.



In relationship behavior the leader engages in two-way communication by providing
socio-emotional support.



Maturity is the willingness and ability of a person to take responsibility for directing
his or her own behavior.



People tend to have varying degrees of maturity, depending on the specific task,
function, or objective that a leader is attempting to accomplish through their efforts.

To determine the appropriate leadership style to use in a given situation, the leader must
first determine the maturity level of the followers in relation to the specific task.


Once the maturity level is identified, the appropriate leadership style can be
determined.



The four leadership styles are telling, selling, participating, and delegating.



High task/low relationship behavior (S1) is referred to as "telling."



The leader provides clear instructions and specific direction.



Telling style is best matched with a low follower readiness level.



High task/high relationship behavior (S2) is referred to as "selling."



The leader encourages two-way communication and helps build confidence and
motivation on the part of the employee, although the leader still has responsibility and
controls decision making.



Selling style is best matched with a moderate follower readiness level.



High relationship/low task behavior (S3) is referred to as "participating."



With this style, the leader and followers share decision making and no longer need or
expect the relationship to be directive.



Participating style is best matched with a moderate follower readiness level.



Low relationship/low task behavior (S4) is labeled "delegating."



This style is appropriate for leaders whose followers are ready to accomplish a
particular task and are both competent and motivated to take full responsibility.



Delegating style is best matched with a high follower readiness level.

4.3. House's Path-Goal Model


The path-goal theory developed by Robert House is based on the expectancy theory
of motivation.



The manager's job is viewed as coaching or guiding workers to choose the best paths
for reaching their goals.



"Best" is judged by the accompanying achievement of organizational goals.



It is based on the precepts of goal setting theory and argues that leaders will have to
engage in different types of leadership behavior depending on the nature and demands
of the particular situation.



It's the leader's job to assist followers in attaining goals and to provide direction and
support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the organizations.



Path goal theory identifies achievement-oriented, directive, participative and
supportive leadership styles.



In achievement-oriented leadership, the leader sets challenging goals for followers,
expects them to perform at their highest level, and shows confidence in their ability to
meet this expectation. This style is appropriate when the follower suffers from a lack
of job challenge.



In directive leadership, the leader lets followers know what is expected of them and
tells them how to perform their tasks. This style is appropriate when the follower has
an ambiguous job.



Participative leadership involves leaders consulting with followers and asking for
their suggestions before making a decision. This style is appropriate when the
follower is using improper procedures or is making poor decisions.



In supportive leadership, the leader is friendly and approachable. He or she shows
concern for followers' psychological well being. This style is appropriate when the
followers lack confidence.

4.4. VROOM, YETTON, JAGO LEADER-PARTICIPATION MODEL:


The Vroom, Yetton, Jago leader-participation model relates leadership behavior and
participation to decision making.



The model provides a set of sequential rules to determine the form and amount of
participative decision making in different situations.



It is a decision tree, requiring yes and no answers incorporating contingencies about
task structure and alternative styles.



The following contingency questions must be answered to determine the appropriate
leadership style in the leader-participation model.
 Quality Requirement: How important is the technical quality of this decision?
 Commitment Requirement: How important is subordinate commitment to the
decision?
 Leader's Information: Do you have sufficient information to make a high-quality
decision?
 Problem Structure: Is the problem well structured?
 Commitment Probability: If you were to make the decision yourself, are you
reasonably certain that your subordinates would be committed to the decision?
 Goal Congruence: Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be attained in
solving this problem?
 Subordinate Conflict: Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solutions
likely?
 Subordinate Information: Do subordinates have sufficient information to make a
high-quality decision?

4.5. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP:
 Transformational leadership blends the behavioral theories with a little of trait
theories.
 Transactional leaders, guide followers in the direction of established goals by
clarifying role and task requirements.
 However, transformational leaders, who are charismatic and visionary, can inspire
followers to transcend their own self-interest for the good of the organization.
 Transformational leaders appeal to followers' ideals and moral values and inspire
them to think about problems in new or different ways.
Leader behaviors used to influence followers include vision, framing, and impression
management.
 Vision is the ability of the leader to bind people together with an idea.
 Framing is the process whereby leaders define the purpose of their movement in
highly meaningful terms.

 Impression management is a leader's attempt to control the impressions that others
form about the leader by practicing behaviors that make the leader more attractive and
appealing to others.
COMMUNICATION
Communication is the exchange of messages between people for the purpose of achieving common
meanings. Unless common meanings are shared, managers find it extremely difficult to influence
others. It is the process that links group members and enables them to coordinate their activities.
Therefore, when managers foster effective communication, they strengthen the connections between
employees and build cooperation. Communication also functions to build and reinforce
interdependence between various parts of the organization. As a linking mechanism among the
different organizational subsystems, communication is a central feature of the structure of groups and
organizations. It helps to coordinate tasks and activities within and between organizations.
DEFINITION
According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Communication, is an intercourse by words, letters symbols or
messages, and is a way that the organization members shares meaning and understanding with
another".
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication is important in building and sustaining human relationships at work. Communication
can be thought of as a process or flow. Before communication can take place, a purpose, expressed as
a message to be conveyed is needed. It passes between the sender and the receiver. The result is
transference of meaning from one person to another.
The figure below depicts the communication process. This model is made up of seven parts:

(1) Source, (2) Encoding, (3) Message, (4) Channel, (5) Decoding, (6) Receiver, and (7)
Feedback.
a) Source:
The source initiates a message. This is the origin of the communication and can be an individual,
group or inanimate object. The effectiveness of a communication depends to a considerable degree on
the characteristics of the source. The person who initiates the communication process is known as
sender, source or communicator. In an organization, the sender will be a person who has a need or
desire to send a message to others. The sender has some information which he wants to communicate
to some other person to achieve some purpose. By initiating the message, the sender attempts to
achieve understanding and change in the behaviour of the receiver.
b) Encoding:
Once the source has decided what message to communicate, the content of the message must be put in
a form the receiver can understand. As the background for encoding information, the sender uses his
or her own frame of reference. It includes the individual's view of the organization or situation as a
function of personal education, interpersonal relationships, attitudes, knowledge and experience.
Three conditions are necessary for successful encoding the message.
• Skill: Successful communicating depends on the skill you posses. Without the requisite skills, the
message of the communicator will not reach the requisite skills; the message of the communicator will
not reach the receiver in the desired form. One's total communicative success includes speaking,
reading, listening and reasoning skills.
• Attitudes: Our attitudes influence our behaviour. We hold predisposed ideas on a number of topics
and our communications are affected by these attitudes.
• Knowledge: We cannot communicate what we don't know. The amount of knowledge the source
holds about his or her subject will affect the message he or she seeks to transfer.

c) The Message:
The message is the actual physical product from the source encoding. The message contains the
thoughts and feelings that the communicator intends to evoke in the receiver. The message has two
primary components:• The Content: The thought or conceptual component of the message is contained in the words, ideas,
symbols and concepts chosen to relay the message.
• The Affect: The feeling or emotional component of the message is contained in the intensity, force,
demeanour (conduct or behaviour), and sometimes the gestures of the communicator.
d) The Channel:
The actual means by which the message is transmitted to the receiver (Visual, auditory, written or
some combination of these three) is called the channel. The channel is the medium through which the
message travels. The channel is the observable carrier of the message. Communication in which the
sender's voice is used as the channel is called oral communication. When the channel involves written
language, the sender is using written communication. The sender's choice of a channel conveys
additional information beyond that contained in the message itself. For example, documenting an
employee's poor performance in writing conveys that the manager has taken the problem seriously.
f) Decoding:
Decoding means interpreting what the message means. The extent to which the decoding by the
receiver depends heavily on the individual characteristics of the sender and receiver. The greater the
similarity in the background or status factors of the communicators, the greater the probability that a
message will be perceived accurately. Most messages can be decoded in more than one way.
Receiving and decoding a message are a type of perception. The decoding process is therefore subject
to the perception biases.
g) The Receiver:
The receiver is the object to whom the message is directed. Receiving the message means one or more
of the receiver's senses register the message - for example, hearing the sound of a supplier's voice over
the telephone or seeing the boss give a thumbs-up signal. Like the sender, the receiver is subject to
many influences that can affect the understanding of the message. Most important, the receiver will
perceive a communication in a manner that is consistent with previous experiences. Communications
that are not consistent with expectations is likely to be rejected.
h) Feedback:
The final link in the communication process is a feedback loop. Feedback, in effect, is communication
travelling in the opposite direction. If the sender pays attention to the feedback and interprets it
accurately, the feedback can help the sender learn whether the original communication was decoded
accurately. Without feedback, one-way communication occurs between managers and their
employees. Faced with differences in their power, lack of time, and a desire to save face by not
passing on negative information, employees may be discouraged from providing the necessary
feedback to their managers.
GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION:
(i) Senders of message must clarify in their minds what they want to communicate. Purpose of the
message and making a plan to achieve the intended end must be clarified.
(ii) Encoding and decoding be done with symbols that are familiar to the sender and the receiver of
the message.
(iii) For the planning of the communication, other people should be consulted and encouraged to
participate.
(iv) It is important to consider the needs of the receivers of the information. Whenever appropriate,
one should communicate something that is of value to them, in the short run as well as in the more
distant future.
(v) In communication, tone of voice, the choice of language and the congruency between what is said
and how it is said influence the reactions of the receiver of the message.
(vi) Communication is complete only when the message is understood by the receiver. And one never
knows whether communication is understood unless the sender gets a feedback.
(vii) The function of communication is more than transmitting the information. It also deals with
emotions that are very important in interpersonal relationships between superiors, subordinates and
colleagues in an organization.
(viii) Effective communicating is the responsibility not only of the sender but also of the receiver of
the information.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION:

Barriers to communication are factors that block or significantly distort successful communication.
Effective managerial communication skills helps overcome some, but not all, barriers to
communication in organizations. The more prominent barriers to effective communication which
every manager should be aware of is given below:
a) Filtering:
Filtering refers to a sender manipulating information so it will be seen more favourably by the
receiver. The major determinant of filtering is the number of levels in an organization's structure. The
more vertical levels in the organization's hierarchy, the more opportunities for filtering. Sometimes the
information is filtered by the sender himself. If the sender is hiding some meaning and disclosing in
such a fashion as appealing to the receiver, then he is "filtering" the message deliberately. A manager
in the process of altering communication in his favour is attempting to filter the information.
b) Selective Perception:
Selective perception means seeing what one wants to see. The receiver, in the communication process,
generally resorts to selective perception i.e., he selectively perceives the message based on the
organizational requirements, the needs and characteristics, background of the employees etc.
Perceptual distortion is one of the distressing barriers to the effective communication. People interpret
what they see and call it a reality. In our regular activities, we tend to see those things that please us
and to reject or ignore unpleasant things. Selective perception allows us to keep out dissonance (the
existence of conflicting elements in our perceptual set) at a tolerable level. If we encounter something
that does not fit out current image of reality, we structure the situation to minimize our dissonance.
Thus, we manage to overlook many stimuli from the environment that do not fit into out current
perception of the world. This process has significant implications for managerial activities. For
example, the employment interviewer who expects a female job applicant to put her family ahead of
her career is likely to see that in female applicants, regardless of whether the applicants feel that
way or not.
c) Emotions:
How the receiver feels at the time of receipt of information influences effectively how he interprets
the information. For example, if the receiver feels that the communicator is in a jovial mood, he
interprets that the information being sent by the communicator to be good and interesting. Extreme
emotions and jubilation or depression are quite likely to hinder the effectiveness of communication. A
person's ability to encode a message can become impaired when the person is feeling strong emotions.
For example, when you are angry, it is harder to consider the other person's viewpoint and to choose
words carefully. The angrier you are, the harder this task becomes. Extreme emotions – such as
jubilation or depression - are most likely to hinder effective communication. In such instances, we are
most prone to disregard our rational and objective thinking processes and substitute emotional
judgments.
d) Language:
Communicated message must be understandable to the receiver. Words mean different things to
different people. Language reflects not only the personality of the individual but also the culture of
society in which the individual is living. In organizations, people from different regions, different
backgrounds, and speak different languages. People will have different academic backgrounds,
different intellectual facilities, and hence the jargon they use varies. Often, communication gap arises
because the language the sender is using may be incomprehensible, vague and indigestible. Language
is a central element in communication. It may pose a barrier if its use obscures meaning and distorts
intent. Words mean different things to different people. Age, education and cultural background are
three of the more obvious variables that influence the language a person uses and the definitions he or
she gives to words. Therefore, use simple, direct, declarative language. Speak in brief sentences and
use terms or words you have heard from you audience. As much as possible, speak in the language of
the listener. Do not use jargon or technical language except with those who clearly understand it.
e) Stereotyping:
Stereotyping is the application of selective perception. When we have preconceived ideas about other
people and refuse to discriminate between individual behaviours, we are applying selective perception
to our relationship with other people. Stereotyping is a barrier to communications because those who
stereotype others use selective perception in their communication and tend to hear only those things
that confirm their stereotyped images. Consequently, stereotypes become more deeply ingrained as we
find more "evidence" to confirm our original opinion. Stereotyping has a convenience function in our
interpersonal relations. Since people are all different, ideally we should react and interact with each
person differently. To do this, however, requires considerable psychological effort. It is much easier to
categorize (stereotype) people so that we can interact with them as members of a particular

category. Since the number of categories is small, we end up treating many people the same even
though they are quite different. Our communications, then, may be directed at an individual as a
member of a category at the sacrifice of the more effective communication on a personal level.
f) Status Difference:
The organizational hierarchy pose another barrier to communication within organization, especially
when the communication is between employee and manager. This is so because the employee is
dependent on the manager as the primary link to the organization and hence more likely to distort
upward communication than either horizontal or downward communication. Effective supervisory
skills make the supervisor more approachable and help reduce the risk of problems related to status
differences. In addition, when employees feel secure, they are more likely to be straightforward in
upward communication.
g) Use of Conflicting Signals:
A sender is using conflicting signals when he or she sends inconsistent messages. A vertical message
might conflict with a nonverbal one. For example, if a manager says to his employees, "If you have a
problem, just come to me. My door is always open", but he looks annoyed whenever an employee
knocks on his door". Then we say the manager is sending conflicting messages. When signals
conflict, the receivers of the message have to decide which, if any, to believe.
h) Reluctance to Communicate:
For a variety of reasons, managers are sometimes reluctant to transmit messages. The reasons
could be:• They may doubt their ability to do so.
• They may dislike or be weary of writing or talking to others.
• They may hesitate to deliver bad news because they do not want to face a negative reaction.
When someone gives in to these feelings, they become a barrier to effective communications.
i) Projection:
Projection has two meanings.
(a) Projecting one's own motives into others behavior. For example, managers who are motivated by
money may assume their subordinates are also motivated by it. If the subordinate's prime motive is
something other than money, serious problems may arise.
(b) The use of defense mechanism to avoid placing blame on oneself. As a defense mechanism, the
projection phenomenon operates to protect the ego from unpleasant communications. Frequently,
individuals who have a particular fault will see the same fault in others, making their own fault seem
not so serious.
j) The "Halo Effect":
The term "halo effect" refers to the process of forming opinions based on one element from a group of
elements and generalizing that perception to all other elements. For example, in an organization, a
good attendance record may cause positive judgments about productivity, attitude, or quality of work.
In performance evaluation system, the halo effect refers to the practice of singling out one trait of an
employee (either good or bad) and using this as a basis for judgments of the total employee.
STEPS TO OVERCOME BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION:
The following steps are required to be followed to overcome barriers to effective communication:
(i) Clarity of Information. Subordinates should be kept informed on policy matters that affect them
on a regular basis. Clear-cut instructions should be issued and followup measures should be taken to
ensure that the instructions are thoroughly understood and are being implemented.
(ii) Prompt Information. The management should make a practice of passing along the information
promptly to everyone concerned so that action, where required, is not delayed.
(iii) Creation of Proper Atmosphere. In particular cases, as for instance, when a boss is talking to
his subordinate, the atmosphere must be peaceful so that there is effective communication of
instructions and suggestions.
(iv) Effective Listening. The sender must listen to the receiver's words attentively so that the receiver
may also listen to the sender at the same time.

(v) Feedback. Communication should be a two-way traffic. There should be some system by which
the workers should be able to convey their suggestions and grievances to the top management.
Two-way communication is also necessary for feedback for the purpose of control.
(vi) Efficient Channels. Management should try to cut the root of the rumors. If the communication
channel is well maintained, there will be no room for rumours, lies, guesses and misconceptions.
Workers should get open doors for any clarification or consideration at all times. This will also
increase the morale of the employees.
TYPES OF CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION:
a) Formal Communication
Formal communication follows the route formally laid down in the organization structure. There are
three directions in which communications flow: downward, upward and laterally (horizontal).
i) Downward Communication
Downward communication involves a message travelling to one or more receivers at the lower level
in the hierarchy. The message frequently involves directions or performance feedback. The downward
flow of communication generally corresponds to the formal organizational communications system,
which is usually synonymous with the chain of command or line of authority. This system has
received a great deal of attention from both managers and behavioural scientists since it is crucial to
organizational functioning.
ii) Upward Communication
In upward communication, the message is directed toward a higher level in the hierarchy. It is often
takes the form of progress reports or information about successes and failures of the individuals or
work groups reporting to the receiver of the message. Sometimes employees also send suggestions or
complaints upward through the organization's hierarchy. The upward flow of communication involves
two distinct manager-subordinate activities in addition to feedback:
• The participation by employees in formal organizational decisions.
• Employee appeal is a result against formal organization decisions. The employee appeal is a result of
the industrial democracy concept that provides for two-way communication in areas of disagreement.
iii) Horizontal Communication
When takes place among members of the same work group, among members of work groups at the
same level, among managers at the same level or among any horizontally equivalent personnel, we
describe it as lateral communications. In lateral communication, the sender and receiver(s) are at the
same level in the hierarchy. Formal communications that travel laterally involve employees engaged
in carrying out the same or related tasks.
The messages might concern advice, problem solving, or coordination of activities.
Significance of Formal Communication:


Downward communication is used for giving orders and instructions, providing information,
or for influencing attitudes and behavior of the subordinates.



Upward communication is used for reporting, informing, requesting and suggesting.



It is also used to influence decisions and to protest against certain actions or decisions of the
management.



Horizontal channels are used for informing and coordinating.

All these channels are equally important for the proper functioning of any organization.

b) Informal Communication or Grapevine
Informal communication, generally associated with interpersonal communication, was primarily seen
as a potential hindrance to effective organizational performance. This is no longer the case. Informal
communication has become more important to ensuring the effective conduct of work in modern
organizations.
Probably the most common term used for the informal communication in the workplace is
“grapevine” and this communication that is sent through the organizational grapevine is often

considered gossip or rumor. While grapevine communication can spread information quickly Cand
can easily cross established organizational boundaries, the information it carries can be changed
through the deletion or exaggeration crucial details thus causing the information inaccurate – even if
it’s based on truth.
The use of the organizational grapevine as an informal communication channel often results when
employees feel threatened, vulnerable, or when the organization is experiencing change and when
communication from management is restricted and not forthcoming.
Merits of Informal Communication:



The informal communication has the following advantages:
It helps in, achieving better human relations in the organization.



It links even those people who do not fall in the official chain of command.



Its speed is very fast as it is free from all barriers.



It serves to fill the possible gaps in the formal communication.

Demerits of Informal Communication:



Informal communication is not authentic. The message may be distorted.
It may lead to generation of rumors in the organization.



Informal channels may not always be active. So informal communication is not dependable.



It may lead to the leakage of confidential information.

BASED ON THE METHODS OF EXPRESSION:
Oral Communication:
Communication with the help of spoken words is known as oral communication. Oral communication
may take place: (a) by face-to-face conversation, and (b) through mechanical devices.
Face-to-face conversation is the most natural way of transmitting message. It is the best means of
securing cooperation and resolving problems. Various studies have shown that face-to-face
communication carries the message better than any other media. It avoids misunderstanding between
the persons talking face-to-face. It is because by having face-to-face conservation, one can convey the
message both by words and expressions or gestures. Sometimes, it is desirable to have face-to-face
communication because of confidential nature of the message.
Mechanical devices, which are used, for oral communication in most organizations include signals,
telephones, intercom systems, electric paging systems and dictating machines.
Written Communication
Comprehensive devices for written communication in the form of circulars, bulletins, manuals,
handbooks, notes, orders, instructions, etc., are widely used in modem organizations. Howsoever

elaborate a communication system may be, it cannot be composed of verbal communication only. The
objectives of written communication may be:


to give information;



to receive information;



to record recommendations and decisions of a meeting; to give orders and instructions.

Written communication can be conveyed to the workers through house magazines, notice boards,
employee handbooks and memoranda. Workers can communicate upward through writing their
suggestions and grievances. Upward communication in written form is generally discouraged as the
workers are reluctant to use

it to express their opinions. Management should encour age it by

installing a suggestion system in the organization. Written communication serves as a permanent
reference for future. It is formal and carries weight. It is not possible to change the contents of written
message by receivers. Written messages are more clear and specific as they are carefully
drafted.Written communication serves as a reliable record for future reference and can be used as
evidence in legal proceedings. Response to written communication is generally well thoughtout since
the receiver gets to evaluate and understand the message. In many cases, written commu nication is
even more effective that the oral communication.
Written communication is slow, as compared to oral communication. It may also become a source of
dispute as once a written message is sent, it is difficult to withdraw it. Written messages may give rise
to queries for clarification, and elaboration, which lead to loss of time. Written communication is
generally formal in nature and may be blocked due to bureaucratic procedures in the organization.
Therefore, the management should take proper step to ensure that written communication does not
lose its effectiveness.
Gestural Communication
Communication through gestures or postures is often used as a means to supplement verbal
communication. If there is a face-to-face conversation between two persons, they can better
understand the feelings, attitudes and emotions of each other. Gestural communication is very much
helpful to motivate the subordinates, as for instance, handshake with the subordinate or a pat on the
back of the subordinate. Similarly, gestures taken by the listeners can help the communicator to know
their reactions.
Oral vs. Written Communication
Oral Communication
1. Communication is expressed through spoken words.
2. It may not be precise.
3. Oral communication may not be complete. It may be difficult to understand it.
4. It is generally informal in nature.
5. It may not be taken seriously.
6. Oral message may not be verifiable.

Written Communication
1. Communication is expressed in writing.
2. It can be very precise.
3. It is not difficult to understand written communication if it is expressed in unambiguous terms.
4. It is generally formal in nature.
5. It is generally taken seriously.
6. Written message is verifiable from the records.