Measuring Happiness - From Fluctuating Happiness To Authentic-Durable Happiness

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

published: 07 February 2012 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00016

Measuring happiness: from fluctuating happiness to authentic–durable authentic–d urable happiness Michaël Dambrun 1 *, Matthieu Ricard 2,3 , Gérard Després 1 , Emilie Drelon 1 , Eva Gibelin 1 , Marion Gibelin 1 , Mélanie Loubeyre 4 , Delphine Py 1 , Auror urore e Delpy 1 , Céline Garibbo 1 , Elise Bray 1 , Gérard Lac 5  and  Odile Michaux 5  1

Laboratoire de Psychologie Sociale et Cognitive Cognitive,, CNRS, Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, Clermont-Ferrand, France 



Mind and Life Institute, Boulder, Boulder, USA 3  Shechen, Shech en, Kathmandu, Kathmandu, Nepal  4  CHU, Clermont-Ferrand Clermont-Ferrand et Thiers, Université Blaise Pascal, Clermont-F Clermont-Ferrand, errand, France  5  Laboratoire de Biologie des Activités Physiques et Sportives Sportives,, Clermont Universit Université, é, Université Blaise Pascal, Clermont-F Clermont-Ferrand, errand, France 

Edited by:  Colin G. DeY DeYoung, oung, University of  Minnesota, USA Reviewed by:  John Zelenski, Carleton University, Canada  Erik E. Noftle,Willamette University, University, USA *Correspondence:  Michaël Micha ël Dambrun, Department of  Psychology, Laboratoire de  Psychologie Psyc hologie Sociale et Cognitive Cognitive,, CNRS, Clermont Université, Université Universit é Blaise Pascal, 34 avenue  Carnot, Cler mont-Ferrand 63037, 63037, France. e-mail: michael.dambrun@  univ-bpclermont.fr 

On the basis basis of the theore theoretic tical al distin distincti ction on between between self-c self-cent entere eredne dness ss and selfles selflesss2011), the main goal of this research was to develop two ness (Dambrun (Dambrun and Ricard, Ricard,   2011), new sca scales les assess assessing ing dis distin tinct ct dimens dimension ions s of hap happin piness ess.. By trying trying to maximi maximize ze ple pleaasures and to avoid displeasures, we propose that a self-centered functioning induces a fluctuating happiness in which phases of pleasure and displeasure alternate repeatedly (i. (i.e., e., Flu Fluct ctuat uating ing Happin Happiness ess). ). In contra contrast, st, a selfles selfless s psyc psychol hologi ogical cal functi functioni oning ng postu postulat lates es the existence of a state of durable plenitude that is less dependent upon circumstances but rather is related to a person’s inner resources and abilities to deal with whatever comes his way in life (i.e., Authentic–Durable Happiness). Using various samples (n 735), we =

developed a 10-item Scalective measuring Subjective (SFHS) 13item scale assessing asses sing Subjectiv Subje e Authentic– Authentic–Durabl Durable eFluctuating Happin Happiness ess Happiness (SA– (SA–DHS). DHS). Results Resu lts and indicated indicaated high intern internal al consistenci consistencies, es, satisfact satisfactory ory test–retest test–retest vali validities dities,, and adequ adequate ate conv convergen ergentt and discriminant validities with various constructs including a biological marker of stress (salivary cortisol). Consistent with our theoretical framework, while self-enhancement values were related only to fluctuating happiness, self-transcendence values were related only to authentic–durable happiness. Support for the distinction between contentment and inner-peace, two related markers of authentic happiness, also was found. Keywords: happiness, fluctuating happiness, authentic–durable happiness

INTRODUCTION

Since the early 1990s, researchers in the movement of positive psycho psy chology logy hav havee enc encour ourage aged d the stu study dy of the co condit ndition ionss and processes which contribute to the optimal functioning of indi-

selfless psychological functioning emerges when the perception of the self is flexible, strongly connected with the environment including others, favoring an authentic and durable happiness. Ricard,, 2011 2011), ), the per per-According to the SSHM (Dambrun (Dambrun and Ricard

viduals viduals, , group groups, s, and insti institutions tutions (  (Seligman Seligman and the Csikszentmihalyi Csikszentmihalyi, 2000;;  Gable 2000 and Haidt Haidt, ,  2005  2005). ). In recent years, study of well-, being and happiness has gradually become a field of primary  2000;   Csiksze Csikszentmihal ntmihalyi yi and Hun Hunter ter,, importance importan ce (e.g., (e.g.,   Diener, Diener,   2000; 2003;; Ly 2003 Lyubo ubomirs mirsky ky et al. al.,, 2005 2005). ). In orde orderr to st stud udyy hap happi pine ness ss a va vali lid d measuring instrument is needed ( needed  (Layard Layard,, 2010  2010). ). The first aim of  the studies presented in this paper is the development of two such scales: the Subjective Fluctuating Happiness Scale (SFHS) and the Subjective Authentic–Durable Happiness Scale (SA–DHS). The development of these two scales is intimately linked to a recent theoretical theore tical model: the Self-c Self-center enteredness edness/Selfles /Selflessness sness Happi Happiness ness  2011). ). Under this perspecModel (SSHM; Dambrun (SSHM; Dambrun and Ricard, Ricard, 2011 tive, our second objective is to empirically test the validity of some hypotheses derived from this model. According Acc ording to this recent theoretical model, the attainm attainment ent of 

ception of the self as a real entity with  sharp underlies a self-centered functioning.   Laborit (1979 1979))boundaries   proposes that each entity (or organized structure in the form of an entity), which aims at its preservation, is led to favor gratifications that positively reinforce it, and to avoid disagreeable things that threaten its homeostasis. homeostasis. A self-c self-centere entered d functioning functioning and the exagg exaggerated erated importance given to the self which comes out of it, leads to a  1997). ). In this principle, indi“hedonic principle” (e.g., Higgins (e.g.,  Higgins,,  1997 viduals are motivated to obtain pleasure (i.e., approach) and to avoid displeasure (i.e., avoidance). Attaining these objectives (i.e., obtaining obtaini ng gratifica gratification tion and avoiding avoiding disagr disagreeable eeable stimul stimuli) i) create createss a feeling of pleasure, joy joy,, and transitory satisfa satisfaction. ction. How However ever,, these stimulus-driven pleasures are contingent upon the appearance or Shapiro,, 2006 2006). ). The disappearance of certain stimuli (W (Wallace and Shapiro experience of pleasure is by nature fleeting and dependent upon

happiness theelself, andesmore particularly to thea structur turee of the is self. sellinked f. Thi Thiss to mod model pro propos poses that the per percep ceptio tion n of self self as a perm permane anent, nt, ind indepe epende ndent, nt, and solid solid entity entity lea leads ds to a self-c self-cent entere ered d psychologic psyc hological al functio functioning ning that favo favors rs a fluctua fluctuating ting happiness. A

circumstances. is unstable the sensations it evokes et soon becomes neutralIt(i.e., hedonicand adaptation; e.g.,  Brickman e.g., Brickman al. , al., 1978). 1978 ). In addition, the impossibility to attaining valued objectives gives rise to afflictive afflictive affects suc such h as frustrat frustration, ion, anger anger,, hostil hostility ity,, or

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Dambrun et al.

 Miller et al.,  1996). ). Thus,  jealousy that damage well-being (e.g., (e.g., Miller al.,  1996 by trying to maximize pleasures and avoiding displeasures, selfcenteredne cent eredness ss induces a fluctua fluctuating ting happiness in which phases of  pleasure and displeasure alternate repeatedly. Happiness can thus be, at least partly partly,, characteriz characterized ed by the alternation of positi positive ve and negative phases that provoke fluctuating happiness. Using the experience sampling method, the work done by  Csikszentby  Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter (2003 (2003)) provides a support for the existence of  fluctuating happiness. For example, momentary-level scores show  that reported happiness varies significantly both with the time of day and day of week. While particular activities significantly  increase incre ase happiness (e.g., talking with friends), others are associated ated witha dec decrea rease se in happ happine iness ss (e. (e.g.,homew g.,homework ork andprofes andprofessio sional nal work), with the result being that there are important fluctuations in happiness over the course of a day or week. Because the experiencee sam enc sampli pling ng meth method od is very dem demand anding,a ing,a scale scale that ass assess esses es per per-ceived fluctuating degrees of happiness would be useful. Second, while the experience sampling method assesses “experienced wellbeing,” traditional scales measure “evaluated well-being.” Each of  these two interdependent components has potentials meaningful Riis,,   2005). 2005). antecedents and consequences (see  Kahneman and Riis Thus, a scale measuring evaluated fluctuating happiness would be both valuable and useful. To To our knowledge, such a scale does not ex exis ist. t. Thus Thus the first first objec objecti tive ve of our our rese resear arch ch wa wass to deve developa lopa va vali lid d instrument which would reflect perceived degrees of variation in happin hap piness(i.e.,the ess(i.e.,the SFH SFHS).Such S).Such a meas measurewouldcontri urewouldcontribut butee to our understanding of happiness and, more particularly, would permit to examine the validity of the SSHM using a quest questionnair ionnairee based correlational study. On the basis of the SSHM, we predict that subjective fluctuating happiness would be robustly and positively  related to self-centered values such as Sch Schwartz’ wartz’ self-enhancement  1992,, 2003  2003). ). values (i.e., achievement and success; e.g., Schwartz e.g.,  Schwartz,, 1992 Some theorists propose the existence of a more durable and authentic happiness characterized by meaning and engagement (e.g., Seligman (e.g.,  Seligman et al. al.,,  2005  2005), ), both intrinsic and pro-social values (e.g., Ryan and Deci Deci,, 2001 2001;; Lyubomirsky et al. al.,, 2005 2005), ), the dev developelopment of character strengths such as gratitude (e.g., Peterson (e.g.,  Peterson and Seligman, 2004 2004),wisdom(e.g., ),wisdom(e.g.,Le Le,, 2011 2011),or ),or selfles selflessne sness ss (Dambrun and Ricard Ricard,,   2011). 2011). How However ever,, all these characteris characteristics tics are both antecedents antec edents and cons consequenc equences es of authen authentic–du tic–durable rable happine happiness ss rather rath er tha than n mark markers ers of it. Au Authe thentic ntic happin happiness ess is und unders erstoo tood d here as an optimal way of being, a state of durable contentment and plenitude or inner-peace (based on a quality of consciousness which underlies and imbues each experience, emotion emotion,, and behavior, behavi or, and allow allowss us to embrace all the joys and the pain with which we are confronted). The SSHM (Dambrun ( Dambrun and Ricard, Ricard, 2011)) proposes that authentic–durable happiness is intimately  2011 linked to selflessness, a psychological functioning characterized by benev benevolent olent affects (e.g., compass compassion, ion, empathy) empathy).. These affects enhance emotional stability and generate a feeling of being in harmony that favors for example the experience of durable innerpeace and seren serenity ity,, some markers of authent authentic–dura ic–durable ble happine happiness. ss. First, while contentment has been the focus of much research  Diener et al. al.,,  1985  1985;;   Lyubomirsky and Lepper Lepper,,  1999  1999), ), plen(e.g., Diener (e.g., itude or inner-peace has rarely been taken into account. Thus, in order to assess authentic happiness, it seems relevant and important to take into accou account nt these two compl complementary ementary dimension dimensions. s. Second, authentic happiness would be a  lasting state  that state  that could

Measuring happiness

be main maintai tained ned throug through h the vari various ous uph upheav eavals als of lif life. e. Som Somee recentt resea recen researches rches support the susta sustainable inable happiness model of  Lyubomirsky et al. (2005 (2005)). This model proposes that lasting gains in happiness can occur under specific optimal circumstances. For example, using a longitudinal design, Sheldon design,  Sheldon et al. (2010) (2010) reveal that sustai sustained ned gains gains in hap happin piness ess wer weree obs observ erved ed in three three tre treatme atment nt conditions (autonomy vs. competence competence vs. relatedness), only when therewas there was conti continuinggoal nuinggoal engage engagement. ment. Thus Thus,, the“durable the“durable”” dimension would also be an important marker of authentic happiness. In other words, a measure of authentic–durable happiness would consist of two related constructs, namely durable contentment and durable inner-peace or plenitude. To our knowledge, existing scales of happiness do not directly assess these dimensions. Many  scales assessing happiness and well-being have been developed  Gurin et al. al.,,  1960  1960;;  Cantril,  Cantril,  1965  1965;;  Bradburn,  Bradburn,  1969  1969;;  Tellegen,  Tellegen, (e.g., Gurin (e.g., 1982;; Dupuy , 1984 1982 1984;; Diener et al. al.,, 1985 1985;; Watson et al. al.,, 1988 1988;; Argyle et al.,   1989; 1989;   Lyubomirsky and Lepper, Lepper,   1999; 1999;   Hills and Argyle Argyle,, 2002), 2002 ), but none of them seem to focus on the authentic–durab authentic–durable le happiness that is characterized by both durable contentment and durable inner-peace. Thus, one of the objectives of the present stu study dy wasto dev developa elopa val valid id ins instrum trument ent whi which ch wou would ld ass assesssubje esssubjecctive authentic–durable happiness (i.e., SA–DHS). Such a measure would wou ld perm permit it to tes testt oneof thehypothese thehypothesess deri derivedfromthe vedfromthe SSH SSHM. M. Specifically, on the basis of this model, we predict that subjectiv tivee aut authen hentic– tic–dura durable ble hap happin piness ess wou would ld be rob robust ustly ly and positi positive vely  ly  related to selfless values such as Schwartz’ self-transcendence values (i.e.,benevolenc (i.e.,benevolencee and universalis universalism; m; e.g., e.g.,Schwartz Schwartz,, 1992 1992,, 2003 2003). ). In sum, this paper describes two new instruments assessing distinct components of happiness (i.e., the SFHS and the SA– DHS), and presents studies examining their reliability and validity using various psychological and biological constructs. Data are presented on factorial structure, internal consistency, test– retest reliability, convergent and discriminant validity. Moreover, on the basis of the SSHM   (Dambrun and Ricard Ricard,,   2011) 2011) and using the Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ;  Schwartz  Schwartz,,  2003  2003), ), we predict that while subjective fluctuating happiness would be robustly and positively related to self-enhancement values (i.e., self-centeredness), subjective authentic–durable happiness would be robust robustly ly and positi positivel velyy relate related d to self-tr self-trans anscen cenden dence ce val values ues (i.e., (i.e., selflessness).

MATERI TERIALS ALS AND METH METHODS ODS MA SCALE SCAL E DEVEL DEVELOPMEN OPMENT T

The 10-item SFHS was created in two steps. First, five items were administered to a university student sample (n  ( n  320) in a pilot study. Because reliability of this scale was only moderate (α 0.70), we incorporated five additional items resulting in a 10-item 10-it em scale. This last version provid provides es adequa adequate te psyc psychometric hometric validity (i.e., high Cronbach alpha and a single factor solution, see below). A single composite composite score of subjec subjective tive fluctuating fluctuating happiness is computed by averaging responses to the 10 items. Thus the possible range of scores is from 1.0 to 7.0, with higher scores reflecting greater fluctuating happiness. Both French and =

=

English versions of this scale are presented in  Table 1. Items were introduced introdu ced by the following: “Belo “Below w is a colle collection ction of statem statements. ents. Using the 1–7 scale below, please read each statement carefully  and then indicate how much you agree or disagree by circling the

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Measuring happiness

Table 1 | Factor loadings, means, SDs, and item-total correlations. correlations. Scale item

F 1

 

 

F 2

 

F 3

 



 

SD

IT

SUBJECTIVE FLUCTUATING HAPPINESS SCALE (SFHS) In my life . . .2 Dans ma vie . . .

1. I have had satisfactions and also great disappointments

0.52

4.93

1.54

0.45

2. T he he periods of pleasure that I have known are always followed by periods of displeasure

0.67

3.53

1.74

0.57

3. My level of serenity is ver y changeable

0.59

4.57

1.69

0.56

0.75

3.58

1.77

0.68

0.71

3.36

1. 1.89

0. 0 .67

0.77

3.53

1.77

0.72

0.73

3.78

1.83

0.71

0.73

3.47

1.70

0.71

0.72

3.99

1.71

0.61

0.62

4.48

1.83

0.58

3.92

1.24

0.70

4.72

1.17

0.73

0.83

4.91

1.23

0.74

0.83

4.79

1.18

0.70

0.69

4.02

1.47

0.73

0.67

3.97

1.52

0.68

0.69

4.52 4.37

1.20 1.34

0.68 0.68

3.37

1.53

0.68

 je connais des satisfactions, mais également des insatisfactions importantes  les phases de plaisir que je connais laissent toujours place à des phases de déplaisir  mon niveau de sérénité est très variable 

4. I have often known periods of euphoria but they are almost always followed by much less exciting periods  je connais souvent des phases d’euphorie, mais qui laissent presque toujours place à des  phases beaucoup moins exaltantes 

5. I often go from euphoria to sadness.  je passe souvent de l’euphorie à la tristesse 

6. Periods of ill-being follow periods of well-being à des phases de bien-être succèdent des phases de mal-être 

7. My level of happiness is rather unstable, sometimes high, sometimes low mon niveau de bonheur est plutôt instable, tantôt élevé, tantôt bas 

8. I often go from a rather high level of pleasure to a rather low level of pleasure  je passe souvent d’un niveau de plaisir assez élevé à un niveau de plaisir assez faible 

9. I have times when I swing from moments of tot aall bliss to much less satisfying moments

 je connais des alternances entre des moments de plénitude totale et des moments  beaucoup moins satisfaisants 

10. In the same day, I can sometimes be happy and sometimes sad dans la même journée, il peut m’arriver d’être tantôt joyeux, tantôt malheureux 

Full scale

SUBJECTIVE AUTHENTIC–DURA AUTHENTIC–DURABLE BLE HAPPINESS SCALE (SA-DH (SA-DHS) S) 2 1 In your life , what is your regular level of. . . Dans votre vie, quel est votre niveau regulier de . . .

1. Overall well-being?  bien-être general 

 

2. Happiness Happiness ?  bonheur 

 

3. Pleasure?  plaisir 

 

4. Bliss (seemingly complete happiness)?  félicité (bonheur qui paraît complet) 

 

5. Peace of mind?  quiétude (tranquillité d’esprit) 

 

6. Satisfacti Satisfaction? on? satisfaction 7. Serenity?  sérénité 

 

0.59

 

8. Displeasure?  déplaisir  9. Beatitude (perfect happiness)?  béatitude (bonheur parfait) 

 

10. Inner-peace?  paix intérieure 

 

11. Fulfillment?  épanouissement  12. Joy?  Joie 

0.56 0.74

   

3.90

1.59

0.67

0.64

4.52

1.30

0.68

0.75

4. 4 .8 2

1.18

0.66

0.75

4.11

1.44

0.67

0.66

4.03

1.36

0.74

4.31

1.01

13. Feeling bad  Mal-être  14. Tranquility ranquilit y (inner-calm)?  Calme intérieur 

 

15. Plenitude (feeling of complete satisfaction, happiness and fulfillment)?   Plénitude  (sentiment d’entière satisfaction, de bonheur et d’épanouissement complets) 

16. Unhappiness?  Malheur  Full scale 1

See text footnote 1



See text footnote 2 

number which best corresponds to what you think.” The accompanyingg seven panyin seven-point -point scale was ranged from 1 (stro (strongly ngly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

The 13-item SA–DHS was derived from an original pool of  17 self-report items. These items were incorporated in the pilot study. From these original items, five were dropped because they 

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Dambrun et al.

Measuring happiness

assessed various irrelevant dimensions (e.g., euphoria, frustration). Then, four new items were added to the previous scale. Specifically, in order to control for a compliance bias, two negatively tive ly valenc valenced ed items were added (i.e., disple displeasure asure and unhapp unhappiiness). Finally, two other items assessing inner-peace were added (i.e., inner-peace inner-peace and plenitu plenitude). de). The final vers version ion compri comprised sed 16 items with 13 items assessing authentic–durable happiness and three asses assessing sing durable unhappines unhappiness. s. Because, Because, we were only  interested in assessing happiness (i.e., the positive dimension), the three negatively valenced items were only used to control for the compliance bias. Thus, they were not incorporated into the mean score of happiness. A single composite score for sub jective authentic–durable happiness was computed by averaging responses to the 13 positively valenced items. Thus the possible range of scores was from 1.0 to 7.0, with higher scores reflecting greater authentic–durable happiness. Two sub-scores were calculated by averaging items assessing the contentment component (i.e., overall well-b well-being, eing, happine happiness, ss, pleasu pleasure, re, bliss bliss,, satisf satisfaction, action, beatitude, fulfillment, and joy) and the inner-peace dimension (i.e., peace of mind, serenity, inner-peace, inner-calm/tranquility, and plenit plenitude ude). ). Thi Thiss scale scale is pre presen sentedin tedin Table 1. Items Items wer weree intr introoduced by the following:“Using following: “Using the 1–7 scale below, please indicate what is your regular 1 level of happiness in your life2 .” The acc accomompanying seven-point scale was ranged from 1 (very low) to 7 (very  high).

1 It is possible to enhance the lasting dimension of authentic happiness by using the

word“permanent” instead of the wor word d “regular.” “regular.” This modification doe doess not change the psychometric properties of the scale. 2 It is possible to impose a recent time frame (e.g., within the past year or within the past few months) to create a more uniform frame of reference.

SAMPLES

The assessment of reliability and validity of the two scales of  happiness were obtained through six samples, collected at different times and locations (see  Table 2). The temporal stability of  the scales was examined using sample A over a 3-month period. The first sample (i.e., sample A) was realized in 2004. The last sample was realized in 2010 (i.e., sample F). The total number of participants was 735. Unlike many studies in personality and social psychology, we did not rely exclusively on university stu 1986). ). In fact, four of our six  dents for our samples (see Sears (see  Sears,,  1986 samples were composed exclusively of adults from the regional community commu nity (one sample was mixed). They were adequat adequately ely heterogeneous in age, gender, education, religiosity, and SES. All the samples were from France.  Table 2  describes each of the samples, and the means, SDs, and alpha reliabilities of the two scales. A formal ethical review of this study was not sought as this study  was non-experimental in nature and was a voluntary voluntary,, confidential (sample A), or anonymous (samples B–F) survey of consenting adults. Verbal informed consent was obtained from all respondents. Thus data were collected and analyzed anonymously or confidentiall confid entially.All y.All ethica ethicall conc concerns erns of the Hels Helsinki inki declara declaration tion were followed. MATERIALS

First, three measures of happiness and well-being were used to validate the two scales of happiness. The Satisfaction with Life al.,, 1985  1985), ), the Positive Affectivity and NegaScale (SLF; Diener (SLF; Diener et al. tive Affectivity Scale (P (PANAS; ANAS; Watson et al. al.,, 1988 1988), ), and a se selection lection of eight items from the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) Hills and Argyle Argyle,, closely related to happiness and life satisfaction ( satisfaction  (Hills 2002;; e.g., “I do not have particularly happy memories of the 2002 past,” “I am well satisfied about everything in my life”). Second,

Table 2 | Sample characteristics. Characteristics

Samples

Population



 

Age mean (years)

A

B

C

D

E

F

Regional community

Regional community

Mixed: regional community/ university students

Regional community

Regional community

University students

181

1 15 53

50

118

155

78

38.9

35.5

35.6

39.3

50.3

20.3

Female (%)

55

62

56

60

52

85

Religious believer (%)

26

20

20

32

27



Socio economic status (SES)

3 .0

2 .9

3 .0

3.0

3 .0



Education

3 .5

2 .8

3 .4







SUBJECTIVE FLUCTUATING HAPPINESS SCALE (SFHS – 10-ITEM) Mean 3.80 4.29 3.78

3.87

3.78

4.05

SD

1.36

1.06

1.26

1.24

1.19

1.22

Cronbach alpha

0.92

0.85

0.89

0.88

0.88

0.92

SUBJECTIVE AUTHENTIC–DURA AUTHENTIC–DURABLE BLE HAPPINESS SCALE (SA-DHS (SA-DHS – 13-ITEM) Mean

4.23

4.16

4.33

4.40

4.48

4.33

SD

1.08

0.92

1.16

0.97

0.95

0.71

Cronbach alpha

0.93

0.90

0.95

0.94

0.94

0.87

SESwas coded coded from1 (extreme (extremely ly lowSES) to 5 (extrem (extremely ely highSES). Similarly Similarly,, educ educatio ation n wascoded from1 (extreme (extremely ly loweducati loweducation) on) to 5 (ext (extreme remely ly higheducati higheducation). on). Levell of education was not measured in samples D and E. Only age and sex were assessed in sample F. Leve

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Dambrun et al.

Measuring happiness

two measures of mental health were used: the Beck Depression al.,,   1988) 1988) and the scale of psychologInventory (BDI;  Beck et al. ical distre distress ss   (Dambrun, Dambrun,  2007  2007). ). In order to examine convergent validity, several constructs were measured: (1) dispositional optimism (LOT-R;  (LOT-R;   Scheier et al. al.,,  1994  1994); ); (2) self-efficacy (Jerusalem (Jerusalem and Schwarzer, 1992 1992); ); (3) the sense of coherence with the Sense of  Coherence Coher ence Quest Questionnair ionnairee (SCQ; (SCQ;Antonovsky  Antonovsky , 1987 1987); ); (4)perce (4)perceiv ived ed 3 resiliency (Dambrun (Dambrun,,  2009  2009)) ; (5) mindfulness with the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown (MAAS;  Brown and Ryan Ryan,,  2003  2003); ); (6) mental rumination ( rumination  (Trapnell Trapnell and Campbell Campbell,,  1999  1999); ); (7) presence of and searc search h for meaning in life with the Mean Meaning ing in Life Questionnaire (MLQ; Steger (MLQ;  Steger et al. al.,,  2006  2006); ); and (8) salivary cortisol cortisol4 (a biological biologi cal marker of stres stress; s; sample F). To the extent that severa severall Steptoee and Wardle ardle,, markers of happiness such as positive affects ( affects  (Stepto 2005;;  Steptoe et al. 2005 al.,, 2005  2005)) and some dimensions of psychological al.., 2006 2006)) wer weree fou found nd to cor correl relatenegati atenegativel velyy and well-being (Ryff Ryff et al significantly with salivary cortisol, we predict that our measure of  authentic–du authent ic–durable rable happine happiness ss wouldbe negati negatively velyand and signific significantly  antly  related to the level of salivary cortisol. Finally, Finally, in order to examine the validity of some of the hypotheses derived from the Selfcentered/S cent ered/Selfless elflessness ness Happi Happiness ness Mode Model, l, self-e self-enhance nhancement ment (i.e., achievement, achiev ement, powe power), r), and self-t self-transcen ranscendence dence (i.e., benevolenc benevolence, e, universalism) values were measured (PVQ; (PVQ; Schwartz  Schwartz,, 2003  2003). ). RESUL TS AND DISC DISCUSS USSION ION RESULTS EXPLORATORY EXPLORA TORY FACTOR ANAL ANALYSES YSES

To explore the factor structure of the two scales, we used the first five samples, resulting in a pool of 657 Adults French Citizens (see  Table 2). Because sample F was exclusively composed of  psychology students, it was not included in the factor analyses. THE SUBJECTIVE SUBJECTIVE FLUC FLUCTUA TUATING TING HAPP HAPPINESS INESS SCAL SCALE E

The principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation of  the 10 items revealed a single factor solution. The Kaiser measure of sampling adequacy was 0.91. The single factor accounted for 50.53% of the total variance (Eigenvalue 5.05). All items loaded appropriately on a single factor (factor loadings ranged from 0.53 to 0.80).

(i.e., overall well-b well-being, eing, happine happiness, ss, pleasu pleasure, re, bliss bliss,, satis satisfaction faction,, beatitude, fulfillment, and joy; Eigenvalue 7.25; factor loadings ranged from 0.58 to 0.85). The second factor accounted for 8.57% of the explained variance and regrou regrouped ped five items assessing assessing the inner-peace inner -peace compone component nt of happine happiness ss (i.e., peace of mind, serenity, inner-peace, inner-calm, plenitude; Eigenvalue 1.11; factor loadings ranged from 0.52 to 0.80). =

=

ARE SUBJECTIVE SUBJECTIVE FLUC FLUCTUA TUATING TING HAPP HAPPINESS INESS AND AUTHENTIC AUTH ENTIC–DURA –DURABLE BLE HAPP HAPPINESS INESS DISTI DISTINCT NCT CONST CONSTRUCT RUCTS? S?

To ans answer wer this this que questi stion, on, we per perform formed ed a new Fac Factor tor Analysis with all items from the two scales. The Kaiser measure of  sampling adequacy was 0.94. This analysis disclosed three factors with Eigenvalues greater than 1. The first factor accounted for 40.8% 40.8% of the exp explai lained ned varianc variancee and regrou regrouped ped all ite items ms assessing asses sing subjective fluctuating happiness. The secon second d facto factorr accounted for 13.05% of the explained variance and regrouped items assessing assessing durable contentme contentment. nt. Finall Finally, y, the third factor accounted for 5.22% of the explained variance and regrouped items assessing durable inner-peace. Thus, fluctuating happiness and authentic–durable happiness are two distinct constructs. The inter-corr inter -correlationbetween elationbetween these thesetwo two scalesis 0.4 0.48. 8. In oth other er wor words, ds, thesee sca thes scalesshare lesshare 23%of the vari varianc ance. e. Fin Finally ally,, the int interer-cor correl relatio ation n between the two factors of authentic–durable happiness (i.e., contentmen tentmentt and inner inner-pe -peace ace)) is 74, thus they sha share re 55% of the variance. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) revealed the same basic findings5 . −

INTERN INTERNAL AL CON CONSIS SISTEN TENCY CY OF THE SCA SCALES LES

The internal consistency of the two scales was examined using all samples. For the SFHS, Cronbach alpha was equal to 0.89. Concernin cerningg the SA SA–DH –DHS, S, the Cronba Cronbach ch alph alphaa was 0.9 0.93. 3. We also also exa exammined the internal consistency of the sub-dimensions of this scale. Both the contentment sub-scale (α 0.90) and the inner-peace sub-scale (α 0.87) had satisfactory internal consistencies. =

=

=

THE SUBJECTIVE SUBJECTIVE AUTH AUTHENTIC– ENTIC–DURA DURABLE BLE HAPPINESS HAPPINESS SCAL SCALE E

The principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation of  the 13 items disclos disclosed ed two factors with Eigen Eigenvalues values greater than 1. The Kaiser measure of sampling adequacy was 0.93. The first fac factor tor acc accoun ounted ted for 56% of th thee exp explai lained ned vari varianc ancee and regr regroup ouped ed eight items assessing the contentment dimension of happiness

TEST–RETES TEST –RETEST T RELIA RELIABILI BILITY TY AND AGRE AGREEMENT EMENT

The temporal stability of the scales was examined using sample A over a 3-mont 3-month h period. Both subjec subjective tive authentic authentic–durab –durable le  p < 0.001) and subjective fluctuating 0.90, p  happiness scores (r  (r  0.90, happin hap piness ess sc score oress (r  0.85,   p < 0.00 0.001) 1) were highly correl correlated ated betwee between n time 1 and time 2 (3 mon months ths later later). ). Anoth Another er index of  stability is test–retest score agreement, that is, individuals generally receive the same scale scores over repeated assessment (Dawis ( Dawis,, 2000). 2000 ). Scores on the SA–DHS were not significantly different between time 1 (M  (M 1 4.25, SD 1.09) and time 2 [M  [ M 2 4.21,  t (171) SD 1.10; 1.10; t  (171) < 1]. Similarly, scores on the SFHS were similar in time 1 (M  (M 1 3.80, SD 1.37) and time 2 [M  [ M 2 3.79,  t (171) SD 1.27; 1.27; t  (171) < 1]. =

=

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3 This

=

=

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scale included six-items which assessed perceived resiliency (e.g., “When something unpleasant happens to me I get over it fairly quickly”). This scale has a satisf satisfacto actory ry reliability reliability ( α 0.83), adequate construct validity, and has a single factor structure. 4 Cortisol was assayed by ELISA using commercial kits (AbCys SA, Paris, France), accordin accordingg to the manuf manufactur acturer’ er’ss reco recommend mmendation ationss (including (including sampli sampling ng steps) steps) allowing the best performances of coefficient of variation (CV) and sensitivity. Sensitivity, intra- and interassay CVs were 0.05 0.05 ng/ml, 7 and 9.3%. Because salivary  cortisol varies greatly during the day, one strategy consists to measure salivary cor-

series of confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the predicted model with three latent variables [i.e., (1) items assessing fluctuating happiness and authentic– durable happiness decomposed in (2) items assessing durable contentment and (3) items assessing durable inner-peace] provided a better description of the data

tisol repeatedly. Another possibility is to measure salivary cortisol at times when it does not vary or low (between 10am and 12am in the morning and between 16:30 and 19:30 in the afternoon; e.g., Lac e.g.,  Lac and Chamoux, 2000). 2000). For constraints reasons, we opted for the latter latter..

[χ (223) 1051,  p  0.001; NFI 0.89; CFI 0.91; RMSEA 0.07] than models with two latent variables or a single latent variable [respectively,  χ 2 (227) 1324, 2  p < 0.001; NFI 0.85; CFI 0.86; RMSEA 0.09, and  χ (229) 3538,  p < 0.001; NFI 0.60; CFI 0.62; RMSEA 0.15].

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Dambrun et al.

Measuring happiness

In order to assess convergent validity, we examined the correlatio tions ns betwee between n ourtwo scales scales andpublis andpublished hed meas measure uress of happ happine iness, ss, well-being, and mental health. This analysis was performed using samples A, B, C, and D.  Table 3 presents the main findings, which show substantial correlations between the main measures (i.e., subjective well-being, OHQ, depression, and psychological distress) and the SA–DHS (r  ( r  ranged  ranged from 0.48 to 0.71;  M  0.60) and moderate correlations in the case of the SFHS (r  (r  ranged   ranged from 0.24 to 0.48; M  0.48;  M  0.38). We also performed partial corr correlation elations, s, in which, first, the relationships tionsh ips between SA–DHS and the various depend dependent ent variabl variables es was controlled for fluctuating happiness, and second, the relationships between, SFHS and the various dependent variables was controlled for authentic–durable happiness. While positive affectivity was robustly related to the SA–DHS (partial r  (partial  r  ranged  ranged from 0.32 to 0.38), negative affectivity was more robustly related to the SFHS (partial r  (partial r  ranged  ranged from 0.51 to 0.55). As for positive affectivity, life satisfaction was more robustly related to the SA–DHS than to the SFHS. However, both scales correlated significantly with  r    ranged subjective well-being; negatively for the SFHS (partial  r  from 0.24 to 0.44), and positively for the SA–DHS (partial r  (partial  r  ranged rang ed from from 0.5 0.566 to 0.6 0.66).Itemsselect 6).Itemsselected ed from from the OHQcorre OHQcorrelat lated ed appropriately with the two scales. Finally, both measures of mental health (i.e., depre depression ssion and psyc psychologic hological al distr distress) ess) correlated  r  ranged significantly and positively with the SFHS (partial  r   ranged from 0.36 to 0.48) and negatively with the SA–DHS (partial r  (partial  r    ranged from 0.36 to 0.43).

and empirically associated in previous research, namely optimism Scheierand eierand Carv Carver er,, 1985 1985;; Seligman, Seligman, 1991 1991),self-e ),self-effica fficacy cy (Bandura, Bandura, (Sch 1991),a 1991 ),a se sens nsee of coh coher eren ence ce (Antonovsky , 1987 1987), ), resil resiliency  iency ((Rutter Rutter,, 1985;; Werner 1985 Werner,, 1992 1992), ), mindfu mindfulness( lness(Bro Brown wn and Ry Ryan an,, 2003 2003),mental ),mental  1999), ), and presence of and rumination ruminati on (Trapnell and Campbell, Campbell,  1999 er et al. al.,, 2006 2006). ). The The mai main n re resu sult ltss ar aree sear search ch fo forr me mean aningin ingin life life (Steg Steger presented in   Table 4.  Correlations with relevan relevantt const constructs ructs were moderate, ranging from 0.22 to 0.53 for the SA–DHS (M  ( M  0.37) and from 0.25 to 0.53. (M  ( M  0.39) for the SFHS. Again, we calculated partial correlations. The results showed that SA–DHS is robustly and positively related to optimism, selfefficacy,, a senseof coher efficacy coherence,perceiv ence,perceived ed resil resiliency iency,, and the prese presence nce of meaning in life. Thus, those who perceived themselves as experiencing authentic–durable happiness, were optimistic, perceived themselves themse lves as effecti effective, ve, resilie resilient, nt, having a sense of coher coherence, ence, and indicated the presence of meaning in their life. Subjective fluctuating happiness was robustly and positively correlated to mental rumination and the search for meaning in life. Thus, those who exp experie erience nced d fluc fluctuat tuating ing happ happine iness ss wer weree thos thosee who rumi ruminat nated ed and searched for meaning in their life. Similarly, those who perceived themselves as optimistic, coherent, resilient, mindful, and havinga hav inga pre presen sence ce of mea meaningin ningin thei theirr lif lifee rep reporte orted d signific significant antly ly les lesss fluctuating happiness. It is worth noting that while self-efficacy is robustly related only to authentic–durable happiness, both mental rumination and mindlessness are robustly correlated only with fluctuating happiness. Thus, both the absence of mental rumination and mindfulness are not robust predictors of authentic– durable happiness, happiness, they are only relate related d to a decrease in terms of  fluctuation in happiness.

CONVERGEN CONV ERGENT T VA VALIDIT LIDITY Y WITH RELEVANT RELEVANT PSYCH PSYCHOLOG OLOGICAL ICAL

SELF-ENHAN SELFENHANCEMEN CEMENT T AND SELFSELF-TRANS TRANSCEND CENDENCE ENCE VAL VALUES UES AND

CONSTRUCTS

HAPPINESS

We also assessed conv convergent ergent validity using a number of psyc psychohological constructs with which happiness has been theoretically 

Correlations Correl ations between values and happiness measures are presented in   Table sented Table 4.   As pred predic icte ted d on the the basi basiss of the SSHM, SSHM,

CONVER CON VERGEN GENT T VA VALID LIDITY ITY WITH WITH MEASUR MEASURES ES OF WEL WELL-B L-BEIN EING G AND MENTAL HEALTH

=

=

=

=









Table 3 | Correlations of the Subjective Authentic–Durable Authentic–Durable Happiness Scale and the Subjective Fluctuating Happiness Scale with vario various us measures of well-being, happiness, and mental health. Scales

Sample(s)

SA–DHS r 

Positive affectivity

A A D

Life satisfaction

Subjective Subjectiv e

well-being (SWB)‡

Partial  r

  0.38***

D Negative affectivity

0.38***

0.35*** 0.31***

 



 

0.33***



SFHS

0.32***  

 

r   

 

Partial  r 

  0.11

0.12



0.17†

0.05





0.06

0.51***

0.49***

0.17†

0.55***

0.49***





A

0.60***

0.49***

 



B

0.64***

0.43***

 



C

0.61***

0.45***

 



D

0.67***

0.61***

 



A

0.68***

0.56***

 



 



0.62***

 



0.48***

 



0.38***

 



0.53***

 



0.54***

 



0.57***

 



D

0.71***

0.66***

 



Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ)

B

0.59***

0.39***

 



Depression (BDI)

D

 



Psychological distress

D

 



0.52***

 



0.48***

 



0.13†

0.42***

0.40*** 0.12 0.20* 0.24*** 0.44*** 0.35***

0.43***

0.47***

0.36***

0.36***

0.56***

0.48***

***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05;  †  p < 0.10 0.10;; SA–DHS SA–DHS,, Subjective Authentic–Durable Authentic–Durable Happiness Scale; SFHS, Subjective Fluctuating Happiness Scale. ‡ 

The measure of Subjective Well-Being (SWB) is constituted by the presence of positive affectivity, the absence of negative affectivity, and the presence of life 

). satisfaction  ( Diener  Diener ,  1984 ).

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Table 4 | Correlations of the Subjective Authentic–Durable Authentic–Durable Happiness Scale and the Subjective Fluctuating Happiness Scale with vario various us convergent conver gent measures (samples D and E). Scales

SA–DHS  



SFHS Partial  r

 



Optimism (LOT-R)

0.53***

0.40***

 



Self-efficacy

0.37***

0.32***

 



Sense of coherence (SOC) Perceived resiliency

0.42*** 0.43***

0.26** 0.33***

0.50***

Rumination

0.26***

 



 

0.14

0.12

Meaning in life – presence

0.41***

0.32***

Meaning in life – search

0.30***

 

Self-enhancement Self-enhance ment values

 



 



0.32***

 



0.37***

 



0.44*** 0.27**

0.38***  

0.33***



 



0.28** 0.25**

0.20*

0.36***

0.29**

0.23**

0.24**

0.02

0.04

0.04

0.09

0.19*

0.22**



Self-transcendence values

0.13



 

0.53*** 0.39***





0.22*



 



 

0.35***

 

0.25**

 

Mindfulness (MAAS)

Partial  r 

 





***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01 0.01;; *p < 0.05 0.05;; p < 0.10 0.10;; SA–DHS, SA–DHS, Subjective Authenti Authentic–Durable c–Durable Happiness Scale; SFHS, Subjective Fluctuating Happiness Scale. Self-  transcendence transcende nce values comprise benevolenc benevolence e and universalism. Power and achie achievement vement compose self-enhancement values.

self-enhancement values (i.e., achievement and power) were were positively and significantly related to subjective fluctuating happiness, but not to subje subjectiv ctivee authen authentic–du tic–durable rable happiness. The exact opposite oppos ite was foundfor selfself-transce transcendenc ndencee values(i.e., benevo benevolence lence and universalism); they were positively and significantly related to authentic–durable happiness, but not to subjective fluctuating happiness.

Table 5 | Correlations between salivary cortisol and happiness and well-being measures (Sample F). Scales

Salivary cortisol level (ng/ml)

Life satisfaction CONVERGEN CONV ERGENT T VA VALIDIT LIDITY Y WITH SALIVAR SALIVARY Y CORTI CORTISOL SOL

We also assessed convergent validity using a biological marker with which well-being has been empirically associated in previous  Steptoe et al.,  2005;;  Ryff  research, resea rch, namely saliv salivary ary cortiso cortisoll (e.g., (e.g., Steptoe al.,  2005 et al., 2006 al.,  2006). ). The main results are presented in   Table 5.  Interestingly, the only scale that was significantly related to this hormone stress was the SA–DHS (r  (r  0.22, p  0.22,  p < 0.05). The life satisfaction scale, the measure of subjective well-being, and the SFHS were not significantly related to this biological marker. = −

 

r   

Partial  r 

0.13



0.04





Subjective well-being

 



0.18†

SFHS SA–DHS

 

0.22*



0.12





Factor 1: contentment Factor 2: inner-peace inner-peace

0.09

 

 



0.29**



 

0.26*



**p < 0.01; *p < 0.05;  †  p < 0.10.

THE TWO COMPONENTS COMPONENTS OF SUBJ SUBJECTIV ECTIVE E AUTH AUTHENTIC ENTIC–DURA –DURABLE BLE DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY

HAPPINESS HAPP INESS:: DISTI DISTINGUIS NGUISHING HING CONTE CONTENTMEN NTMENT T AND INNER INNER-PEAC -PEACE E

In ord order er to pro provide vide an add additi itional onal test for the robus robustnes tnesss of  our two new scales scales,, we per perform formed ed som somee dis discrim crimina inant nt anal analyyses. According to Veenhoven to  Veenhoven   (1997 1997)), in Western countries such as France, constructs that should not be related to happiness include age and education. Thus, we computed the correlations betwee between n the these se vari variable abless and our two mea measur sures es of hap happine piness ss across the samples. As expected, age was neither correlated with the SFHS (r  (r  0.05,   p > 0.10), nor to the SA–DHS (r  0.05, ( r  0.04,  p > 0.10). Similarly, the SFHS (r  ( r  0.03, 0.03,   p > 0.10) and the SA– DHS (r  (r  0.07, p  0.07,  p > 0.10) were not signific significantly antly related to education. Furthermore, we did not find support for gender differences. Social status showed only a marginal effect which is Veenhoven,,   1997); 1997); peoconsistent cons istent with previou previouss studi studies es (see (see   Veenhoven ple in advantaged social positions experienced marginally more  p < 0.09) and marginally  authentic–durable happiness (r  (r  0.07, 0.07, p  less fluctuating happiness happiness (r  0.07,   p < 0.08 0.08). ). Finally Finally,, there were no signific significant ant differ differences ences between atheists and religio religious us believers.

After finding support for a two factors solution of the SA–DHS sc scale ale,, we ex exam amin ined ed ho how w eac each h co comp mpon onen entt was was re relat lated ed to ot othe herr co connstructs.. First, we studied how the cont structs contentment entment sub-sc sub-scale ale and the inner-peacesub-scalecorrelatedwith inner -peacesub-scalecorrelatedwith othermeasur other measures es of happin happiness, ess, well-being and mental health. Second, we examined the relationshi ships ps betwee between n these these twodimen twodimensio sions ns andthe relevan relevantt psy psycho chologi logical cal and biological constructs. Using samples A to E, it is interesting to note that participants reported a greater level of durable contentment (M  (M  4.46; SD 1.00) than of durable innerinner-peace peace [M  4.07; SD 1.18; 1.18; t   t (650) (650) 12.38, 12.38, p   p < 0.001]. Table 6 indi indicat cates es the relati relations onship hipss betwee between n the two dim dimens ension ionss of the SA SA–DH –DHSS and the vari variousmeasur ousmeasures es of happ happine iness,wellss,well-bei being, ng, and mental health. The Pearson correlations indicate that the two sub-scales correlate appropriately with the various measures. In a second step, we also computed partial correlations. Interestingly, once durable inner-peace is statistically controlled for, the relati relationship onshipss betwee between n durable contentment contentment,, subjec subjective tive wellbeing and the OHQ still remain highly significant. On the other

= −

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Dambrun et al.

Measuring happiness

hand, when durable contentment is statistically controlled for, the relationships between durable inner-peace and these two measures are strongly reduced. These results suggest that the contentment sub-scale is more closely related to the existing measures of  happin hap pinessand essand wel well-b l-bein eingg tha thatt the inne inner-p r-peac eacee sub sub-sc -scale ale.. We fou found nd the exact opposite when we looked at mental health measures. Whilee the relati Whil relationship onshipss betwee between n durable cont contentment,depressio entment,depression, n, and psychological distress vanish when inner-peace is statistically  controlled for, the relationships between inner-peace and mental health measures still remain highly significant when durable contentment is statistically controlled. Thus, durable inner-peace is a more robust predictor of mental health than contentment.

Finally, we explored the relationships between these two subTable able 7)   and scales and various convergent psychological (see   T biological (Table 5) constructs. While the Pearson correlations indicate indica te adequ adequate ate converge convergent nt validi validity, ty, the partial correlations reveal some interesting findings. Concerning psychological constructs, when durable inner-peace is statistically controlled for, onlyy the correl onl correlati ation on bet betwee ween n dura durable ble con conten tentmen tmentt and optioptimism (LOT-R) remains significant. All the other relationships become non-significant. On the other hand, when durable contentment is statistically controlled for, most of the relationships between durable inner-peace and the various convergent psychological constructs remain significant or marginally significant. For

Table 6 | Correlations of the two components of Subjective Authen Authentic–Durable tic–Durable Happiness (i.e., contentment and inner-peace) with various measures of well-being, happiness, and mental health. Scales

Sample(s)

Factor 1: contentment  



Positive affectivity

A D

Negative affectivity

A

Subjective Subjectiv e well-being (SWB)†

Partial  r

 



0.43***

0.37***

0.27***

0.34***

0.16†

0.32***

0.26***

0.01

 



 



D A

Life satisfaction

Factor 2: inner-peace

0.26*** 0.62***

Partial  r   

0.09



0.10

0.33***

0.25***

 



 



 



 



0.03 0.46***

0.37*** 0.51***

B

0.67***

0.54***

0.48***

C

0.67***

0.60***

0.47***

0.27** 0.06  

0.04



0.29*

D

0.68***

0.47***

0.56***

0.09

A

0.69***

0.52***

0.57***

0.13†

D

0.68***

0.40***

0.64***

0.25**

Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ)

B

Depression (BDI)

D

 



0.59***

Psychological distress

D

 



0.39***

0.46***

 



0.42***

 



0.48***

0.12

 



0.11

 



0.09

0.52***

 



0.30***

0.48***

 



0.26***

***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05;  †  p < 0.10 0.10;; SA–DHS SA–DHS,, Subjective Authentic–Durable Authentic–Durable Happiness Scale; SFHS, Subjective Fluctuating Happiness Scale. † 

The measure of Subjective Well-Being (SWB) is constituted by the presence of positive affectivity, the absence of negative affectivity, and the presence of life 

Diener  ). satisfaction  ( D iener ,  1984 ).

Table 7 | Correlations of the two components of Subjective Authen Authentic–Durable tic–Durable Happiness (i.e., contentment and inner-peace) with various convergent conver gent measures (Samples D and E). Scales

Factor 1: contentment  



Factor 2: inner-peace

Partial  r

 



Partial  r 

Optimism (LOT-R)

0.49***

0.24*

0.51***

0.20*

Self-efficacy

0.34***

0.12

0.35***

0.15

Sense of coherence (SOC)

0.35***

0.07

0.43***

0.25**

Perceived resiliency

0.36***

0.04

0.45***

0.29**

Rumination

0.17†

 

0.17†

Meaning in life – presence

0.38***

Meaning in life – search

0.10



Mindfulness (MAAS)

0.39***

0.17†

0.07 0.08

Self-enhancement values

0.08

***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05;  †  p < 0.10.

0.30***



0.13

0.22* –

 

0.18†

0.20**



0.34***



0.25***

Self-transcendence values

 

 

0.02



 

0.37***



0.22**  

0.05



 

0.29**



0.17 –

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example, only durable inner-peace is robustly related to a sense of coherence, perceived resiliency, rumination, mindfulness, the search for meaning in life, and the presence of meaning in life. Finally, only durable inner-peace is significantly and negatively  related to the salivary cortisol level (see  Table 5). Thus, this relatively ativ ely unexp unexplored lored dimension appears to have highly relevan relevantt associations. GENERAL DISCUSSIO DISCUSSION N

This study provides the first empirical support for the distinction between betwe en evaluat evaluated ed fluctua fluctuating ting happin happiness ess and evalua evaluated ted authent authentic– ic– durable happiness. Despite some limitations, the present study  provides some significant advances. We proposed two new instruments – the SFHS and the SA–DHS – that are characterized by  high internal consistency, a logical factorial structure, and stability over time. Importantly, and as predicted, items from the SFHS and those of the SA–DHS load on distinct factors, suggesting they are distinct dimensions of happiness. Despite a moderate but significant negative correlation between these two dimensions, fluctuating happiness seems not to be simply the reverse of  authentic–durable happiness. Exploration of the scales’ construct validity confirms, first, that both scales have adequate convergent construct validity, and, second, using partial correlations, that they assess distinct facets of human happiness. While the SA–DHS was more closely related to positive affectivity and life satisfaction satis faction,, the SFSH was more closely related to negati negative ve affectivity. Thus, fluctuation of happiness, despite the experience of  phases of pleasure, seems to be more linked to emotional negativity than to emotional positivity. While both scales were robustly  related to optimism, a sense of coherence, perceived resiliency, and the presence of and the search for meaning in life, only  the SFHS was robustly related to both mental rumination and mindlessness. Thus both mental rumination and escape from the presen pre sentt mom moment ent are in invol volved ved in fluc fluctua tuatin tingg hap happin piness ess.. Bro Brown wn and Ryan (2003 (2003))   found that mindfulness was a robust predictor of  well-being. The present results suggest that mindfulness, being able to focus on the present moment and not focus on past or futuree events futur events,, rather than enhanci enhancing ng conte contentment ntment or happin happiness, ess, is robustly related related to a decre decrease ase of alterna alternation tion between phases of  satisfaction and dissatisfaction. These results must be confirmed in future research. We also found support for a distinction between two markers of auth authent entic ic hap happin piness ess,, name namely ly dur durabl ablee con conten tentmen tmentt and durable inner-peace or plenitude. First, factor analyses showed a two factors solution with items assessing contentment loading on the first factor and those assessing inner-peace loading on the second factor. Second, the relevance of this distinction was confirmed by analyses examining the relationships between these two dimens dimensions ions and both well-being and relevant psyc psychohological and biological constructs. As predicted, existing happiness and well-being measures (i.e., SWB, life satisfaction, the OHQ) were strongly and robustly correlated with durable contentment, but not not,, or not str strongl onglyy correl correlate ated d with dura durable ble inne innerr-peac peace. e. This confirms that cont contentment entment is alread alreadyy prese present nt in existing scales, but not inner-peace. However, the only robust predictor of mental health and cortiso cortisoll level was durable inner-pe inner-peace. ace. This suggests that inner-peace, rather than contentment, could have

Measuring happiness

beneficial conse beneficial consequenc quences es in terms of treating treating stres stress, s, depre depression ssion,, and psychological distress. The negative correlation between durable inner-peace and salivary cortisol is consistent with the existing  2005;;  Ryff et al. al.,,  2006  2006). ). However, literature (e.g., Steptoe (e.g.,  Steptoe et al., al.,  2005 it would be important to replicate this result using a multiple measurement measur ement of saliv salivary ary cortiso cortisoll4 . Finally, examination of the relationships between the two factors of the SA–DHS and convergent verge nt psyc psychologica hologicall const constructs ructs revea revealed led some inter interesting esting resu results. lts. While both components were robustly related to optimism, only  durable inner-peace was found to robustly predict the other various constructs such as a sense of coherence, perceived resiliency, mental rumination, mindfulness, and the search for and the presencee of mea enc meanin ningg in lif life. e. The These se result resultss sug sugges gestt that the relati relations onship hipss between happiness, life satisfaction and their usual psychological correlates may be due, at least partly, to an unmeasured component, namely durable inner-peace. In order to determine the respective role of contentment and inner-peace in the psychology  of human happiness, it is important that future research includes measurement of these two dimensions. Results of the present study also provide a preliminary support Dambrun run and Ric Ricard ard,, 2011 2011). ). Ac Accor cordin dingg to this this the the-for for the the SSHM SSHM (Damb oretical framework, while fluctuating happiness would be related to a self-c self-center entered ed functi functioning,authentic–du oning,authentic–durable rable happin happiness ess would be related to selflessness. Using the PVQ (Schwartz ( Schwartz,,  2003  2003), ), we examined to correlations between self-centered values such as self-enhancement (i.e., achievement, power), selfless values such as self-t self-transcen ranscendence dence (i.e., univ universalis ersalism m and benevolence benevolence)) and the two types of happiness, namely fluctuating and authentic– durable happiness. Consistent with this model, while fluctuating happin hap piness ess was relate related d onl onlyy to self-e self-enhan nhancem cement ent val values ues,, aut authent hentic– ic– durable happiness happiness was related only to self-transce self-transcendence ndence values. Of course, because our design is correlational, it is impossible to provide strong claims about causality. Future studies using experimental designs would increase our confidence in the causal direction between self-based psychological functioning (i.e., selfcenteredness and selflessness) and happiness (i.e., fluctuating and authentic–du authent ic–durable). rable). More Moreover over the psychologic psychological al proc processes esses that are theoretically implied in this relation need to be examined. No Nonet nethele heless,these ss,these result resultss pro provide vide a first first emp empiric irical al sup support port for this model. Finally, this study has some limitations that must be taken into account. First, using the experience sampling method, it would be relevant to reproduce the present findings. According to the SSHM, self-centeredness and selflessness are not only related to distinct distin ct patterns of evaluat evaluated ed happiness, but also to distinct pattern tern of exp experie erience nced d hap happin piness ess.. In add additio ition, n, the mod model el pre predic dicts ts that self-centeredness and selflessness can be evaluated, but would first experie exp erience nced. d. Thu Thus, s, it wou would ld be relevan relevantt to exa examin minee the hyp hypoth othese esess derived deriv ed from this model using the experie experience nce sampling method. This approach would test our model by minimizing the bias associated with the recovery of memories and those associated with the development of global judgments (e.g., judgments based on 1999). In addition, the most accessib accessible le memories memories;;   Kahneman, Kahneman,   1999). these techniques provide continuous monitoring of longitudinal samples in the short or long term that can permit to infer temporal relationships (e.g., Steger (e.g.,  Steger et al. al.,, 2008  2008). ). Second, some cautions need to be taken concerning both the content and the ultimate

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construct validity of our scales. Concerning the content construct validity, the fact that the two types of happiness were measured differently may reduce artificially the correlation between the two constructs cons tructs and also may favo favorr a separat separated ed factor structu structure. re. Concerningg the ultimate co cernin construct nstruct validi validity ty of the SFHS, more rese research arch

is needed. For example, it would be relevant to examine the extent to which SFHS is distinct from a self-report scale of bipolar disorder.. Demo der Demonst nstrati rating ng thatthe sca scalesprese lespresente nted d in this this pape paperr correl correlate ate in the expected sense to actual experiential trends in happiness could make a convincing case.

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Rec Receiv eived: ed: 17 Ma Mayy 2011; 2011; accepte accepted: d: 13

 fluctuating happiness to authentic–  durable durab le happin happiness. ess. Fron Front. t. Psycho Psychology  logy  3 :16. :16. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00016  doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00016  This article was submitted to Frontiers  in Pers Personalit onalityy Science and Indivi Individual  dual  Differences, Differen ces, a specialt specialtyy of Frontiers in  Psychology. Copyrigh Copyrightt © 2012 2012 Damb Dambrun, run, Ricard, Ricard, Despr Després, és, Dr Drel elon, on, Gi Gibe beli lin, n, Gi Gibe beli lin, n, Loubeyr Loubeyre, e, Py, Delpy, Delpy, Gari Garibbo, bbo, Bray,

 January 2012; published online: 07  February 2012. Ci Cita tatio tion: n: Da Damb mbrun run M, Rica Ricard rd M, Després G, Drelon E, Gibeli Gibelin n E, Gibelin  M, Loubeyre M, Py D, Delpy A, Garibbo  C, Bray Bray E, Lac G an and d Mi Mich chau auxx O  (2012) (2012) Me Measu asuring ring happin happiness ess:: fro from m

Lac and Michaux. This is an open-access  article article dist distribu ributed ted under under the ter terms ms of    the  Creative   Creative Commons Attribution Non  Commercial License, which License, which permits noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in other forums, provided the  original authors and source are credited.

Conflict Confl ict of Inte Interest rest Statement Statement::   Con-

flict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial financ ial relationsh relationships ips that could be const construe rued d as a potent potential ial co confli nflict ct of  interest.

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