Minerals

MINERALS
are single inorganic elements that are widely distributed in nature.
they perform a variety of metabolic functions with a widely varying amount of each
element needed in the body to do these tasks.
Variety of Functions
They build body tissue; activate, regulate, and control metabolic processes; and transmit
neurologic messages.
Examples: Na and K control water balance, Ca and P build the body framework, Fe helps
build the vital oxygen carrier hemoglobin and I builds thyroid hormone, which in turn
regulates the overall rate of all body metabolisms.
Relative amounts of selected essential minerals in the body
Mineral elements
Body weight (%)
Major minerals
Calcium (Ca)
Phosphorus (P)
Potassium (K)
Sulfur (S)
Sodium (Na)
Chlorine (Cl)
Magnesium (Mg)
Trace elements
Iron (Fe)
Zinc (Zn)
Selenium (Se)
Manganese (Mn)
Copper (Cu)
Iodine (I)

1.5 – 2.2
0.8 – 1.2
0.35
0.25
0.15
0.15
0.05
0.004
0.002
0.0003
0.0002
0.00015
0.00004

Calcium forms a relatively large amount in the body weight- about 2%. Most of this
amount is in bone tissue. And adult who weighs 150 lbs has about 3 lbs of calcium in the
body. On the other hand, iron occurs in very small amounts. The same adult has only
about 3 grams of iron in the body. In both cases, the amount of each mineral is essential
for its specific task.
Classes of body minerals
Major Minerals- elements for which our bodies require more than 100 mg/day and they
occur in larger amounts in the body.
Minor Minerals- those we need in smaller amounts and they occur in very small traces or
amounts in the body.
Control of amount and distribution
Absorption. Three general factors influence how much of a mineral is actually absorbed
into the body system from the gastrointestinal tract:
1. Food form- minerals in animal foods are usually more readily absorbed than
those in plant foods.
2. Body need- if the body is deficient, more is absorbed than if the body has
enough
3. Tissue health- if the absorbing tissue is affected by disease, its absorptive
capacity is greatly diminished.

Tissue Uptake- some minerals are controlled at the point of their “target” tissue uptake
by regulating hormones, with the excess being excreted in the urine.
Occurrence in the body- body minerals are found in several forms in places related to
their functions.
1) Free- particles may exist free as ions (meaning that they carry an electrical
charge) in body fluids, such as sodium in tissue fluids, which helps to control
water balance.
2) Combined- minerals may exist combined with other minerals, such as calcium
with phosphorus to form bone, or combined with organic substances, such as
iron with heme and globin to form the organic compound hemoglobin.
Issue of Mineral Supplementation
 Life Cycle Needs- added minerals may be needed during rapid growth periods in the
life cycle.
a) Pregnancy and lactation- women require added Ca, P, and Fe to meet the
demands of rapid fetal growth and milk production
b) Adolescence- the rapid growth during adolescence requires increased calcium
for long bone growth.
c) Adulthood- healthy adults do not need supplementation, except if there is a
need in relation to treatment of some diseases.


Clinical Needs- severe clinical problems, or persons at high-risk of developing these
problems, require mineral supplementation.
a. Iron-deficiency anemia- one of the most prevalent health problems
encountered in population surveys. Pregnant and breast-feeding women
require daily supplements of 30-60 mg. Other high-risk groups may also need
to supplement their diets: adolescent girls, low-income adolescent boys,
athletes, and elderly persons eating poor diets.
b.
Zinc deficiency- increased use of processed foods and vegetarian diets
have increased concern about possible zinc deficiency, especially among
pregnant and lactating women, children, and elderly persons. Signs of
deficiency are slow growth; impaired taste and smell, poor wound healing and
skin problems. Others at risk include alcoholics, persons on long-term lowcaloric diets, and elderly persons in long term institutional care.
c. Potassium-losing drugs- persons requiring long-term use of potassium-losing
diuretic drugs for treatment of hypertension may need potassium
replacement supplements and increase intake of foods high in potassium.

Major Minerals
 Calcium
Functions:
1. Bone and tooth formation- most of the body calcium, 99%, is found in bone
tissues. If dietary calcium is insufficient during childhood growth, especially
during initial fetal skeletal formation and rapid growth of long bones during
adolescence, the production of healthy bone tissue is hindered.
2. Blood clotting- calcium is essential for the formation of fibrin that makes up
the blood clot.
3. Muscle and nerve action- calcium ions stimulate muscle contraction and
transmit impulses along nerve fibers.
4. Metabolic reactions- calcium is included in the absorption of Vitamin B12,
activation of the fat-splitting enzyme pancreatic lipase, and secretion of
insulin from special cells in the pancreas where it is synthesized.
Requirements:
 Adults- 800 mg/day

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


Women during pregnancy and lactation- 1200 mg/day
Adolescents- 800 to 1200 mg/day
Older adults- 1500 mg/day

Food Sources:
 Milk, cheese, green leafy vegetables, whole grains, egg yolk, legumes, nuts
Deficiency States
 Rickets-related to a deficiency of vitamin D to support adequate calcium
absorption.
 Tetany- caused by a decrease of calcium in the blood, in relation to its serum
partner phosphorus. This condition is characterized by abnormal muscle
spasms.
 Osteoporosis- abnormal thinning of the bones in adult years resulting from
bone calcium loss.


Phosphorus
Functions:
1. Bone and Tooth formation- the calcification of bones and teeth depends on
the fixing of phosphorus in the bone forming tissue as calcium phosphate.
2. Energy Metabolism- phosphate is necessary for the controlled oxidation of
carbohydrate, fat, and protein in producing and storing available energy for
the body.
3. Acid-base balance- phosphate is an important buffer material to prevent
changes in the acidity of body fluids.
Requirements:
 At least 800 mg/day
*if the diet is adequate in protein, it will have sufficient phosphorus also.
Food Sources:
 Milk, cheese, meat, egg yolk, whole grains, legumes, nuts
Deficiency States:
 Those persons consuming large amounts of antacids, which interfere with
phosphorus absorption or in persons with conditions that cause excessive
urinary loss of phosphorus. Symptoms such as fatigue, loss of appetite, and
demineralization of bone result.



Sodium
Functions:
1. Water Balance-sodium is the major electrolyte controlling the amount of body
water outside the cells. As such, it helps to prevent dehydration.
2. Acid-base balance- sodium accounts for about 90% of the alkalinity of fluids
outside of cells and helps to balance acid-forming elements.
3. Muscle action- sodium ions are necessary for normal transmission of nerve
impulses to stimulate muscle action.
4. Glucose absorption- sodium is essential as a transport substance for glucose
across absorbing membranes of the small intestine.
Requirements:
 Needs vary with growth, sweat losses, and loss in other secretions, as in
diarrhea.

Food Sources:
 Table salt, milk, egg, meat, baking soda, baking powder, carrots, spinach,
celery
Deficiency States:
 Additional salt is needed by persons who engage in heavy labor, athletes
doing strenuous physical exercise or those who have heavy sweating to
replace heavy sodium losses.


Potassium
Functions:
1. Water Balance-potassium is the major electrolyte controlling the amount of
water inside of cells. It balances the sodium concentration in the water
outside of cells.
2. Metabolic reactions- potassium is involved in the synthesis of glycogen and
protein in the cell and in energy production.
3. Muscle action- potassium ions also play a role in nerve impulse transmission
to stimulate muscle action.
4. Insulin release- potassium is involved in insulin release from the pancreas
when it is triggered by a rise in blood glucose level.
5. Blood pressure- sodium is a main dietary factor related to elevated blood
pressure. However, a potassium intake equal to that of sodium may be the
protecting factor.
Requirements:
 Adequate intake for adults- 1875 to 5625 mg/day
Food Sources:
 Whole grains, meat, legumes, fruits, vegetables
Deficiency States:
 Deficiency is more likely to occur in situations of loss, such as prolonged
vomiting or diarrhea, use of diuretic drugs, severe malnutrition, and surgery.
Characteristic symptoms include overall muscle weakness, poor intestinal
muscle tone with resulting bloating, heart muscle problems with possible
cardiac arrest, and weakness of respiratory muscles with breathing
difficulties.



Magnesium
Functions:
1. General metabolism- magnesium serves as a significant catalyst in hundreds
of reactions in cells through which energy is produced, body compounds are
synthesized, or nutrients are absorbed and transported.
2. Protein synthesis- magnesium activates amino acids for protein synthesis and
facilitates the synthesis and maintenance of the cell genetic material DNA.
3. Muscle action- magnesium ions help conduct nerve impulses to muscles for
normal contraction.
4. Basal metabolic rate- magnesium influences the secretion of the thyroid
hormone thyroxine and thus helps in the maintenance of a normal metabolic
rate and adaptation of the body to cold temperatures.
Requirements:
 Women- 300 mg/day
 Men- 350 mg/day



Women- 450 mg/day
*approximately 5 mg/ kg body weight

Food sources:
 (green leafy) vegetables, legumes, seafood, nuts, cereals, dairy products
Deficiency states:
 Tetany
 Early tremors to severe convulsive seizures
 Some of the conditions that bring deficiency include- 1) starvation, 2)
persistent vomiting or diarrhea with loss of magnesium-rich intestinal
secretions,
3) surgical trauma and prolonged post-operative use of
magnesium-free fluids, and 4) excessive use of alcohol, which increases the
rate of magnesium excretion.


Chlorine
Functions:
1. Digestion- chlorine is a necessary element in the hydrochloric acid secreted in
the gastric juices. This constant secretion maintains the acidity of stomach
fluids necessary for the action of gastric enzymes.
2. Respiration- chloride ions help red blood cells transport large amounts of CO2
to the lungs for release in breathing.
Requirements:
 Adults- 1700 to 5100 mg/day
Food sources:
 Table salt
Deficiency states:
 Related to diarrhea, vomiting, or heavy sweating.



Sulfur
Functions:
1. Hair, skin and nails- sulfur is involved in the structure of hair, skin, and nails
through its presence in two amino acids, methionine and cystine, which are
concentrated in the tissue protein keratin.
2. General metabolic functions- combined with hydrogen, sulfur is an important
high-energy bond in building many tissue compounds. It helps transfer
energy as needed in various tissues.
3. Vitamin structure- sulfur is a part of several vitamins- thiamin, pantothenic
acid, biotin, and lipoic acid- which in turn act as coenzymes in cell
metabolism.
4. Collagen structure- sulfur is necessary for collagen synthesis, and thus is
important in building connective tissue.
Requirements:
 No stated requirements for dietary sulfur
 Diet adequate in protein contains adequate sulfur
Food sources:
 Milk, egg, cheese, meat, nuts, legumes

Deficiency states:
 No deficiency states have been reported
 Such conditions would relate only to general protein malnutrition

Definition of Electrolytes
 Electrolytes are substances that become ions in solution and acquire the capacity to
conduct electricity.
 Electrolytes are present in the human body, and the balance of the electrolytes in our
bodies is essential for normal function of our cells and our organs.
Importance of electrolytes
 Maintaining fluid balance
 Contributing to acid-base regulation
 Facilitating enzyme reactions
 Transmitting neuromuscular reactions
Regulating Electrolytes
 Sodium
 It is the most abundant cation in the extracellular fluid and a major contributor to
serum osmolality.
 Normal serum sodium levels are 135 to 145 mEqs/L
 It controls and regulates water balance.
 It maintains ECF.
 Found in many foods: bacon, ham, cheese, table salt
 Potassium
 Major cation in the intracellular fluids, with only a small amount found in plasma and
interstitial fluid.
 ICF levels of potassium are usually 125 to 140 mEqs/L.
 Normal serum potassium levels are 3.5 to 5.0 mEqs/L.
 The ratio of ICF and ECF must be maintained for neuromuscular response to stimuli.
 It is a vital electrolyte for skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle activity.
 It is involved in maintaining acid-base balance and contributes to intracellular
enzyme reactions.
 It must be ingested daily because the body can’t conserve it.
 Contained in foods like: vegetables, meat, fish, fruits
 Here are some potassium rich foods
 Vegetables: carrot, baked potato, tomato, spinach

 Fruits: raisins & dates, banana, orange
 Meats and Fish: beef, cod, pork, veal
 Beverage: milk, orange juice
 Calcium
 99% of calcium in the body is in the skeletal system with a relatively small amount
in ECF.
 1% of the total body calcium is found outside the bones and in the teeth.
 It is vital in regulating muscle contraction and relaxation, neuromuscular function
and cardiac function.
 Milk and milk products are the richest sources of calcium with dark green leafy
vegetables.
 Serum calcium is reported in two ways: 50% is free, ionized or unbound form and
another 50% circulates in the plasma (plasma proteins/ nonprotein ions)
 Normal total serum calcium levels are 8.5 to 10.5 mg/ dl (bound and unbound
calcium)
 Normal ionized serum calcium ranges 4.0 to 5.0 mg/dl (circulates in the plasma in
free, unbound form)
 Magnesium
 It is primarily found in the skeleton and in the ICF.
 It is the second most abundant cellular cation.
 Normal serum magnesium levels are 1.5 to 2.5 mEqs/ L
 Important for intracellular metabolism, involved in the production and use of ATP
 It is necessary for protein and DNA synthesis within the cells.
 1% of magnesium in the body is in the ECF.
 It is involved in neuromuscular and cardiac function.
 Magnesium rich foods: cereals grains, nuts, dried fruits, legumes, green leafy
veggies, meat, fish and dairy products
 Chloride
 It is the major anion of ECF.
 Normal serum chloride levels are 95 to 108 mEqs/L
 It functions with sodium to regulate serum osmolality and blood volume.
 It is a major component of gastric juice as Hydrochloric acid and involved in
regulating acid-base balance.
 Acts as a buffer in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the RBCs.
 Phosphate
 It is the major anion of ICF.
 It is also found in ECF (bone, skeletal muscle, nerve tissue)
 Normal serum phosphate levels in adults are 2.5 to 4.5 mg/dl
 It is essential in the functioning of the muscles, nerves and RBCs.
 Involved in the metabolism of fats, protein, and CHO
 Absorbed in the intestine and found in meat, fish, poultry, milk products and
legumes.
 Bicarbonate
 It is present in both ICF and ECF.
 Its primary function is to regulate the acid-base balance as an essential component
of the carbonic acid bicarbonate buffering system.
 Extracellular bicarbonate levels are regulated by the kidneys

 Adequate amounts of bicarbonates are produced through metabolic processes to
meet body’s needs.

Eyes are organs that detect light, and convert it to electro-chemical impulses in neurons.
Anterior Chamber
The space between the cornea and iris filled with Aqueous Humor.
Aqueous Humor
A water like fluid, produced by the ciliary body, it fills the front of the eye between the lens
and cornea and provides the cornea and lens with oxygen and nutrients. It drains back into
the blood stream through the canals of schlemm.
Choroid
The choroid is a layer of blood vessels between the retina and sclera; it supplies blood to
the retina. In the disease called Macular Degeneration, abnormal blood vessels grow into
the space between the retina and choroid damaging the macula.
Ciliary Body
This is where the Aqueous Humor is produced.
Ciliary Muscle
The eye can bring the fine print in a phone book into focus, or focus in on the moon over
¼ million miles away. The ciliary muscle changes the shape of the lens - (this is called
accommodation). It relaxes to flatten the lens for distance vision; for close work it
contracts rounding out the lens. Everyone will develop an eye condition called presbyopia.
As we age, the ciliary muscle and crystalline lens lose their elasticity. This is why most
people need reading glasses by their 40's.
Conjunctiva
The conjunctiva is a thin, clear membrane covering the front of the eye and inner eyelids.
Cells in this lining produce mucous that helps to lubricate the eye. This is the eyes first
layer of protection against infection. Inflammation of this membrane is called
conjunctivitis, or pink eye.
Cornea

The cornea is a clear, dome-shaped surface that covers the front of the eye. It is the first
and most powerful lens in the eye's optical system. To keep it transparent the cornea
contains no blood vessels. Tears that flow over it and aqueous humor in the chamber
behind it keep it nourished. When you hear of eye banks and eye transplants, it is the
cornea that is being replaced. The cornea can be damaged from: accidents, infections, and
genetic defects.
Optic Nerve
Each optic nerve has about 1.2 million nerve fibers. This is the cable connecting the eye to
the brain.
Posterior Chamber
The space between the iris and the front of the lens filled with Aqueous Humor.
Retina
The retina is the film of the eye. It converts light rays into electrical signals and sends
them to the brain through the optic nerve. The sides of the retina are responsible for our
peripheral vision. The center area, called the macula, is used for our fine central vision and
color vision. The retina is where most the problems leading to vision loss Occur. Three of
the leading causes of blindness, from retina damage, are Retinitis Pigmentosa, Macular
Degeneration and Diabetic Retinopathy.