National Security

Published on May 2017 | Categories: Documents | Downloads: 72 | Comments: 0 | Views: 538
of 17
Download PDF   Embed   Report

Comments

Content

TECHNOLOGY FOR NATIONAL SECURITY

Introduction: In the days following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on America, countries from around the world denounced the attacks. Traditional foes such as Russia publicly expressed sympathy while long-standing allies such as Canada, Great Britain, Australia, and France pledged their support in finding and prosecuting those responsible. This global outpouring of sympathy gave U.S. officials reason to hope that they could count on the international community to help fight terrorism. However, as the United States began to execute its war on terrorism in the months following September 11, international support began to diminish. Although President George W. Bush seemed determined to continue the war without the help of allies, critics of his stance argued that America‘s security would depend upon the relationships it nurtured with other nations. As the forces of globalization change the economic, political, and social relationships between nations, the geographic bulwarks that America counted on to protect it are proving insufficient. Two oceans and two friendly neighbors may help protect a nation from invasion but do little to thwart terrorists. Advances in information technologies have, in essence, shrunk the distances between countries, allowing people to conduct business from anywhere on the globe. Such advances made it possible for the September 11 terrorists to coordinate the attack from various nations. Globalization has also led to an increase in tourism and travel, making it easier for terrorists to hide in host countries without drawing attention. All nineteen of the September 11 terrorists came to the United States on legal visas, and several overstayed them without drawing the notice of U.S. security agencies. In addition to globalization, other changes have affected America‘s security. With the Cold War over, America‘s enemies have changed. Some of the most serious threats to national security are no longer established nation-states such as Russia but terrorist groups such as al-Qaeda, the group responsible for the September 11 attacks. During the Cold War, security was in large part a matter of outspending enemies on military hardware and sending American spies to the Kremlin. Such Cold War methods have proven ineffective in combating loosely organized terrorist groups scattered all over the globe. As became evident after September 11, the largest military in the world cannot prevent terrorists from flying commercial airplanes into buildings. Moreover, CIA operatives who can speak Russian are of little help in infiltrating terrorist cells in Afghanistan. In the post–Cold War era, with globalization making national borders more porous, America‘s reliance on shear strength to keep enemies at bay has come under increased scrutiny. Professor Janice Gross Stein asserts, ―Military preeminence, no matter how overwhelming, does not buy the United States security from attack, even in its heartland.‖ In light of this fact, as Stein puts it, the nation needs to ―acknowledge the need for multilateral solutions.‖ Without the help of its friends, many analysts argue, the United States will find itself isolated. Henry Kissinger, national security adviser and later secretary of state under former presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford, asserts, ―The United States will not be able to sort out every international problem alone without exhausting itself physically and psychologically.‖ Therefore, he concludes, ―the ultimate challenge for American foreign policy is to turn dominant power into a sense of shared responsibility.‖ By nurturing international alliances, these analysts assert, America can help create a unified front against terrorism. Despite arguments for multilateralism, the Bush administration early on illustrated its willingness to go it alone in fighting America‘s enemies. Although Bush was successful in gaining the help of allies to fight the war in Afghanistan to rout the Taliban, the ruling regime that had sponsored al-Qaeda, further actions extending the war on terrorism met with international resistance. As the United States contemplated an invasion of Iraq in an attempt to neutralize the threat posed by Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein, who purportedly helped al- Qaeda carry out the September 11 attacks, America‘s allies balked. Many argued

that the use of preemptive strikes against Iraq would violate the United Nations (UN) Charter, which prohibits signatories from using aggression against another nation unless for self-defense. Such a lack of international support did not discourage Bush, however, who illustrated a partiality toward unilateralism early in his administration. One example of Bush‘s willingness to pursue America‘s interests in the face of international protest is his endorsement of a national missile defense system—a shield that would protect the homeland from ballistic missiles. However, pursuing such a system would violate the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM), the international arms control agreement responsible for slowing nuclear proliferation. The international community voiced strong opposition to U.S. withdrawal from the treaty, but Bush elected to withdraw anyway. As professor Stein puts it, ―More and more, the U.S. is insisting on an exception for itself from the rules that govern others.‖ However, many U.S. presidents besides Bush have viewed international agreements such as the ABM Treaty as restrictive and ultimately serving the needs of other nations at the expense of America‘s security. At the heart of the debate about national security is the question of how much the safety of the United States depends on its relationships with other nations. Those who minimize this dependency are confident that America‘s military superiority can guarantee its security with minimal help from other nations. Others argue that force alone is not enough. They believe that post– Cold War era threats demand more coalition building. The authors in National Security: Opposing Viewpoints debate many of the methods now being considered and implemented to enhance the nation‘s safety in the following chapters: What Are the Most Serious Threats to National Security? How Can National Security Best Be Enhanced? How Should the United States Respond to Terrorism? Do Efforts to Enhance National Security Threaten Civil Liberties? One thing is certain: The threats facing America have changed, and the nation will have to adopt new approaches to combating them if it is to avoid another September 11

Technology for national security is the requirement to maintain the survival of the state through the use ofeconomic, diplomacy, power projection and political power. The concept developed mostly in theUnited States of America after World War II. Initially focusing on military might, it now encompasses a broad range of facets, all of which impinge on the non military or economic security of the nation and the values espoused by the national society. Accordingly, in order to possess national security, a nation needs to possess economic security, energy security, environmental security, etc. Security threats involve not only conventional foes such as other nation-states but also non-state actors such as violent non-state actors, narcotic cartels, multinational corporations and non-governmental organisations; some authorities include natural disasters and events causing severe environmental damage in this category. Measures taken to ensure national security include:

      

using diplomacy to rally allies and isolate threats marshalling economic power to facilitate or compel cooperation maintaining effective armed forces implementing civil defense and emergency preparedness measures (including anti-terrorism legislation) ensuring the resilience and redundancy of critical infrastructure using intelligence services to detect and defeat or avoid threats and espionage, and to protect classified information using counterintelligence services or secret police to protect the nation from internal threats Contents

   

1 Definitions 2 History of the national security concept 3 Current American views 4 Elements of national security

o o o o o    

4.1 Military security 4.2 Political security 4.3 Economic security 4.4 Environmental security 4.5 Security of energy and natural resources

5 National security and rights & freedoms 6 Technical aspects 7 See also 8 References

Definitions

There is no single universally accepted definition of "National Security" since there are some differences on describing National as State and everything consist in a nation. The variety of definitions provide an overview of the many usages of this concept. The concept still remains ambiguous, having originated from simpler definitions which initially emphasised the freedom from military threat and political coercion to later increase in sophistication and include other forms of non-military security as suited the circumstances of the time.[1]:1-6[2]:52-54 A typical dictionary definition, in this case from the Macmillan Dictionary (online version), defines the term as "the protection or the safety of a country’s secrets and its citizens" emphasising the overall security of a nation and a nation state.[3] Walter Lippmann, in 1943, defined it in terms of war saying that "a nation has security when it does not have to sacrifice its legitimate ínterests to avoid war, and is able, if challenged, to maintain them by war".[1]:5 A later definition by Harold Lasswell, a political scientist, in 1950, looks at national security from almost the same aspect, that of external coercion:[1]:79 "The distinctive meaning of national security means freedom from foreign dictation." Arnold Wolfers (1960), while recognising the need to segregate the subjectivity of the conceptual idea from the objectivity, talks of threats toacquired values:[4] "An ambiguous symbol meaning different things to different people. National security objectively means the absence of threats to acquired values and subjectively, the absence of fear that such values will be attacked." The 1996 definition propagated by the National Defence College of India accretes the elements of national power:[5]

"National security is an appropriate and aggressive blend of political resilience and maturity, human resources, economic structure and capacity, technological competence, industrial base and availability of natural resources and finally the military might." Harold Brown, U.S. Secretary of Defense from 1977 to 1981 in the Carter administration, enlarged the definition of national security by including elements such as economic and environmental security: [6]:5 "National security then is the ability to preserve the nation's physical integrity and territory; to maintain its economic relations with the rest of the world on reasonable terms; to preserve its nature, institution, and governance from disruption from outside; and to control its borders." In Harvard history professor Charles Maier's definition of 1990, national security is defined through the lens of national power:[7] "National security... is best described as a capacity to control those domestic and foreign conditions that the public opinion of a given community believes necessary to enjoy its own self-determination or autonomy, prosperity and wellbeing."

History of the national security concept

The origin of the modern concept of "national security" as a philosophy of maintaining a stable nation state can be traced to the Peace of Westphalia, wherein the concept of a sovereign state, ruled by a sovereign, became the basis of a new international order of nation states.[8]:19 It was Thomas Hobbes in his 1651 work "Leviathan" who stated that citizens yield to a powerful sovereign who in turn promises an end to civil and religious war, and to bring forth a lasting peace, and give him the right to conduct policy, including wage war or negotiate for peace for the good of the "commonwealth", i.e. a mandate for national security.[9] The Clausewitzian view of diplomacy and war being the instruments of furthering national cause, added to the view of national security being sought by nations by exercising self-interest at all times.[9] This view came to be known as "classical realism" in international relations. Immanuel Kant, in his 1795 essay, "Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch" (Zum ewigen Frieden. Ein philosophischer Entwurf.), proposed a system where nation-states and dominating national interests were replaced by an enlightened world order, a community of mankind where nation-states subsumed the national interests under the rule of the international law because of rational insight, common good and moral commitment. National security was achieved by this voluntary accession by the leadership to a higher order than the nation-state, viz. "international security". Thus was born the "idealism" school of international relations.[9] As an academic concept, national security can be seen as a recent phenomenon which was first introduced in the United States after World War II,[1]:2-4 and has to some degree replaced other concepts that describe the struggle of states to overcome various external and internal threats. The earliest mention of the term national security, however, was made in Yale University in 1790 wherein reference was made to its relation with domestic industries. [2]:52 The concept of national security became an official guiding principle of foreign policy in the United States when the National Security Act of 1947 was signed on July 26, 1947 by U.S. President Harry S. Truman.[1]:3 Together with its 1949 amendment, this act created important facets for American national security such as the precursor to the Department of Defense), subordinated the military branches to the new cabinet level position of the Secretary of Defense, established the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency.[10] The Act did not define national security which was conceivably advantageous as its

ambiguity made it a powerful phrase to invoke whenever issues threatened by other interests of the state, such as domestic concerns, came up for discussion and decision.[1]:3-5 The realization that national security encompasses more than just military security was present, though understated, from the beginning itself. The US National Security Act of 1947 was set up "to advise the President on the integration of domestic, military and foreign policies relating to national security".[2]:52 Gen. Maxwell Taylor's essay of 1974 titled "The Legitimate Claims of National Security" has this to say:[11] The national valuables in this broad sense include current assets and national interests, as well as the sources of strength upon which our future as a nation depends. Some valuables are tangible and earthy; others are spiritual or intellectual. They range widely from political assets such as the Bill of Rights, our political institutions and international friendships, to many economic assets which radiate worldwide from a highly productive domestic economy supported by rich natural resources. It is the urgent need to protect valuables such as these which legitimizes and makes essential the role of national security.

Current American views

The United States Armed Forces defines national security (of the United States) in the following manner :[12] national security — A collective term encompassing both national defense and foreign relations of the United States. Specifically, the condition provided by: a. a military or defense advantage over any foreign nation or group of nations; b. a favorable foreign relations position; or c. a defense posture capable of successfully resisting hostile or destructive action from within or without, overt or covert. In 2010, Barack Obama included an all-encompassing world-view in his definition of America's national security interests as:[13] • The security of the United States, its citizens, and U.S. allies and partners; • A strong, innovative, and growing U.S. economy in an open international economic system that promotes opportunity and prosperity; • Respect for universal values at home and around the world; and • An international order advanced by U.S. leadership that promotes peace, security, and opportunity through stronger cooperation to meet global challenges. In the same National Security Strategy, Obama mentioned that polarization between the Republicans and Democrats could pose a threat to national security. In the President's estimation, polarization had the potential to affect the country's policies and posture around the world. Elements of national security Main article: Elements of national security As in the case of national power, the military aspect of security is an important, but not the sole, component of national security. To be truly secure, a nation needs other forms of security. Authorities differ in their choice of nation security elements. Besides the military aspect of security, the aspects of diplomacy or politics; society; environment; energy and natural resources; and economics are commonly listed. The elements of national security corelate closely to the concept of the elements of national

power. Romm (1993) lists security from narcotic cartels, economic security, environmental security and energy security as the non-military elements of national security. Military security Main article: Military security This is traditionally, the earliest recognised form of national security. [2]:67 Military security implies the capability of a nation to defend itself, and/or deter military aggression. Alternatively, military security implies the capability of a nation to enforce its policy choices by use of military force. The term "military security" is considered synonymous with "security" in much of its usage. One of the definitions of security given in the Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, may be considered a definition of "military security":[14] A condition that results from the establishment and maintenance of protective measures that ensure a state of inviolability from hostile acts or influences. —Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms

Political security The political aspect of security has been offered by Barry Buzan, Ole Wæver, Jaap de Wilde as an important component of national security, Political security is about the stability of the social order. Closely allied to military security and societal security, other components proposed in a framework for national security in their book "Security: a new framework for analysis", it specifically addresses threats to sovereignty.[15]System referent objects are defined, such as nation-states, nations, transnational groups of political importance including tribes, minorities, some religious organisations, systems of states such as the European Union and the United Nations, besides others. Diplomacy, negotiation and other interactions form the means of interaction between the objects,

Economic security Historically, conquest of nations have made conquerors rich through plunder, access to new resources and enlarged trade through controlling of the conquered nations' economy. In today's complex system of international trade, characterised by multi-national agreements, mutual inter-dependence and availability of natural resources etc., the freedom to follow choice of policies to develop a nation's economy in the manner desired, forms the essence of economic security. Economic security today forms, arguably, as important a part of national security as military security.

Environmental security Main article: Environmental security Environmental security deals with environmental issues which threaten the national security of a nation in any manner. The scope and nature of environmental threats to national security and strategies to engage them are a subject of debate. [1]:29-33 While all environmental events are not considered significant of being categorised as threats, many transnational issues, both global and regional would affect national security. Romm (1993) classifies these as :[1]:15

 

Transnational environmental problems that threaten a nation's security, in its broad defined sense. These include global environmental problems such as climate change due to global warming, deforestation and loss of biodiversity, etc. [1]:15 Environmental or resource problems that threaten a nation's security, traditionally defined. These would be problems whose outcomes would result in conventional threats to national security as first or higher order outcomes. Such disputes could range from heightened tension or outright conflict due to disputes over water scarcity in the Middle East, to illegal immigration into the United States caused by the failure of agriculture in Mexico[1]:15. The genocide in Rwanda,indirectly or partly caused by rise in population and dwindling availability of farmland, is an example of the extremity of outcome arising from problems of environmental security.[16]



Environmentally threatening outcomes of warfare, e.g. Romans destroyed the fields of Carthage by pouring salt over them; Saddam Hussein's burning of oil wells in the Gulf War;[1]:15-16 the use of Agent Orange by the USA in the Vietnam War for defoilating forests for military purposes.

Security of energy and natural resources A resource has been defined as:[2]:179 "...a support inventory... biotic or abiotic, renewable or expendable,... for sustaining life at a heightened level of well-being." —Prabhakaran Paleri (2008) Resources include water, sources of energy, land and minerals. Availability of adequate natural resources is an important for a nation to develop its industry and economic power. Lack of resources is a serious challenge for Japan to overcome to increase its national power. In the Gulf War of 1991, fought over economic issues, Iraq captured Kuwait in order to capture its oil wells, among other reasons. Water resources are subject to disputes between many nations, including the two nuclear powers, India and Pakistan. Nations attempt to attain energy and natural resource security by acquiring the needed resources by force, negotiation and commerce.

National security and rights & freedoms The measures adopted to maintain national security in the face of threats to society has led to ongoing dialectic, particularly in liberal democracies, on the appropriate scale and role of authority in matters of civil and human rights. Tension exists between the preservation of the state (by maintaining self-determination and sovereignty) and the rights and freedoms of individuals. Although national security measures are imposed to protect society as a whole, many such measures will restrict the rights and freedoms of all individuals in society. The concern is that where the exercise of national security laws and powers is not subject to good governance, therule of law, and strict checks and balances, there is a risk that "national security" may simply serve as a pretext for suppressing unfavorable political and social views. Taken to its logical conclusion, this view contends that measures which may ostensibly serve a national security purpose (such as mass surveillance, and censorship of mass media), could ultimately lead to an Orwellian dystopia. In the United States, the politically controversial USA Patriot Act and other government action has brought some of these issues to the citizen's attention, raising two main questions - to what extent, for the sake of national security, should individual rights and freedoms be restricted and can the restriction of civil rights for the sake of national security be justified.

Technology and security The world has witnessed two significant events during last three decades which has changed the contours of global strategic thought. The first being the end of the Cold War and second is the September 11, 2001 World Trade Center (WTC) terrorist attacks (9/11). The end of the Cold War could be said to have started a phase of unilateralism with United States (US) being in the so called ‗command‘ of the world affairs while the 9/11 attacks could be said to have challenged the hegemony of the US to such an extent that they are still unsure about how to address this ‗asymmetric‘ challenge posed by the terrorist organizations. So in a way it could be argued that the end of the Cold War created opportunities for the US dominance while 9/11 could be said to be the US‘s Achilles‘ heel. The end of the Cold War also gave an opportunity for many states towards developing peace and prosperity, at the same time it also threw new challenges to the security apparatus of the nation-states. On the other hand, 9/11 made the world (read West) aware about the menace of terrorism However, it could be incorrect to argue that these two events were instrumental only in shaping the US policies to address the 21st century challenges. The end of the Cold War also gave an opportunity for many states towards developing peace and prosperity, at the same time it also threw new challenges to the security apparatus of the nation-states. On the other hand, 9/11 made the world (read West) aware about the menace of terrorism and unfortunately, also could be said to have motivated the terrorist organizations to continue working on this path by using more heinous ways to spread terror in many other parts of the world. To seize opportunities and meet the challenges of the post Cold War and post 9/11 era, the one strategy which states across the globe have been found bestowing upon is that of the investments in technologies. This is essentially because such investments have paid dividends and are expected to offer solutions to many challenges, if not all. Few states have developed a comprehensive approach to putting science and technology to the service of national security and global stability. States understand that their security rests on three pillars: the readiness and capabilities of military forces, their engagement with other states to prevent conflict from occurring, and the strength of their economy. Strategies of many developed and few developing states are grounded in the conviction that advances in science and technologies are a vital part of the solution to many of the problems that world is facing today. Last few decades have witnessed an exponential growth of technology. This growth has not remained restricted to few limited fields but various new/applied fields have emerged leading to significant changes into lifestyles. From security perspective impact of technologies has become an important premise of study particularly, during the last few decades. This article takes a macro view of impact of technology on security. It essentially argues that recent conflicts like the Gulf War (1993), Kosovo conflict and the US invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq have clearly demonstrated the relevance of technology for war fighting. The market forces essentially dictate the growth of technology and subsequently military technologists take a note of it and then modify it for militaristic purposes. Another reason for this could be the realization by the global powers in regard to blind investments into military weaponry/ technology. States have learnt from the erstwhile USSR example and are not ready to invest in military hardware just for ‗effect‘. Various modern day tools of war fighting are driven by technology and that makes technology an important theme in the study of international security. The impacts of science and technology on international security environment are all-encompassing.

Technology is instrumental in influencing the ‗concept of war-waging‘ in the minds of both the political and military leadership for many centuries but it appears that in the present scenario, it has almost become over-arching. Presently many emerging technologies are being talked about which have major relevance for militaries. Modern day wars are not always envisaged to be fought only on the battleground. 21st century defence preparedness involves demonstration of technological strength, display of technologies via various military exercises, conducting ‗tests‘ of new weapons/weapon delivery platforms for the purposes of the expression of the power and building up of an effective deterrence mechanism. In short, there exists an inter-relation between security and technology. Technology has always played a significant role in defence. But, there is a subtle difference in the development of technology vis-à-vis military and civilian fields during both, the World War II era and the Post Cold War era. During and after World War II, the efforts of states used to be towards the development of technologies, essential for militaristic purposes and such technologies used to find their relevance towards the civilian filed subsequently. Computers and Internet could be said to be the products of such a military development which in turn has brought in revolution in the civilian fields too. However, for the last few decades it has been observed that the market forces essentially dictate the growth of technology and subsequently military technologists take a note of it and then modify it for militaristic purposes. Another reason for this could be the realization by the global powers in regard to blind investments into military weaponry/ technology. States have learnt from the erstwhile USSR example and are not ready to invest in military hardware just for ‗effect‘. At the same time, the growth of technology in military field needs to be viewed in two stratums. One, the investments made by defence industry in weapons & weapon delivery platforms. Two, the overall investments by the states in various ‘support‘ technologies. The support technologies could be categorized as technologies that improvise the manufacturing process of military hardware. Here, support is not only in terms of providing the software support but it also involves making the existing hardware more stealthy, more users friendly, lighter and more lethal. Various innovations in the recent past in Information Technology fields and Communications have helped militaries to make their basic hardware and support infrastructure faster, securer and dependable. On the other hand, innovations in the fields like composite materials and nano-technology have made the platforms lighter and stealthier. Particularly, the dependence of states on various technologies for war fighting could be said to have brought in the concept of Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA). This involves induction of computer networks that confer information superiority, allows precision strikes on the targets, permits dominant maneuver, and undertakes usage of space based assets for militaristic purposes. Basic important aspects of the RMA are the advent of trustworthy standoff weapons. Also, induction of weapons like JDAMS (Joint direct attack munitions), delivered over a target from an aircraft with the help of global navigational systems like GPS has helped the states to avoid collateral damage. Such weapons could be dropped from higher heights and under any other weather conditions. It needs to be mentioned here that the concept of RMA goes beyond technology. It also involves doctrine, strategy, training, administrative support, etc. But, the entire process of doctrine and strategy development would have to have the technology premise at its backdrop. Nano-technologies have wider applicability both in electronics and materials. It would eventually make ships, aircrafts and spacecrafts further lighter and stronger. This would allow the states to use them more effectively and offers wider flexibility in terms of flying heights and load carrying capabilities.

Presently, RMA technologies are changing the nature of war-waging by enabling precise destruction of targets from a distance and speeding up the processes of decision making. This quest for modernization caters for emerging capabilities of states potential adversaries, cost factor and raising the technological threshold of armed forces. This advent of the RMA clearly indicates how technology plays an important role in regard to national security. Over the years states have understood that science and technology investment enables them to counter military threats and to overcome any advantages that adversaries may seek. It also expands the military options available to policymakers, including options other than warfare in pursuing the objectives of promoting stability and preventing conflict. The militaries also rely on science and technology to make advanced military systems more affordable through their entire life cycle period. For this purpose there is a need for the defence science and technology community to maintain a close dialogue with the militaries and remain sensitive to users need. They also need to educate the user to the possibilities that technology offers for responding to evolving threats. In the past it has been observed that every industrial revolution had outcomes in the form of technology innovation which in turn had direct or indirect impacts on the military architecture of nation-states. The innovation of the steam engine can be termed as the beginning of first industrial revolution because this period saw the textile industry and mechanical engineering as noteworthy outcomes (1780-1840). The second industrial revolution (1840-1900) begun with the emergence of railways and steel industry, whereas the third revolution (1900-1950) produced electric engine, heavy chemicals, automobiles and consumer durables. Post 1950 could be said to have started the fourth revolution that started in 1950s with dominance on oil industry and information technology. Military technology (in some form or other) has impacted all these various phases of industrial revolutions. From simple detonators to nuclear weapons to submarines to intercontinental ballistic missiles to fifth generation fighter aircrafts, the military technologists have always provided various weapons and weapon delivery platform options to the states for the purposes of safeguarding their national interests. Two technologies that have dominated the entire landscape of military revolution particularly during last two to three decades, are information technology (IT) and space technologies. The presence of both these technologies has been instrumental in bringing the concept of network centric warfare to reality. These technologies have succeeded in converting the modern day battle fields into digital battlefields. C4ISR capabilities and network-centric tactics have become an important element of war fighting in the 21st century. IT revolution and military utility of various space technologies have made a significant impact on the state‘s preparedness level. It has dictated the policy making in regard to national security strategy, military doctrine, and operational concepts in regard to many states. Modern day commanders require almost real time digital picture of the battlefield and this has become possible because of both these technologies. Sensor technology has also been instrumental towards digitizing the battlefield. Multi-spectral sensors are increasingly being used in equipments and platforms used for war fighting in all four dimensions, viz. land, sea, air and space based platforms. Various IT tools have helped towards bringing in sophistication and speed in various military platforms. Space technologies are relevant for the purposes of communication and navigation. They also have a significant role towards guiding the standoff weapons.

Satellites are found extremely important for the purposes of intelligence gathering. Particularly remote sensing satellites are significant for the purposes of reconnaissance and imagery intelligence. Specific satellites are found playing a significant role towards gaining intelligence. Satellites are useful for the purposes of electronic intelligence (ELINT), signals intelligence (SIGINT), communication intelligence (COMINT), and radar intelligence (RADINT). IT revolution and military utility of various space technologies have made a significant impact on the state‘s preparedness level. It has dictated the policy making in regard to national security strategy, military doctrine, and operational concepts in regard to many states. However, the availability of such technology, still more or less remains restricted to the hands of few states and hence there exists a ‗digital divide‘ amongst the few developed states (and their allies to whom such technology has been transferred by them) and others. Such a divide clearly elucidates the fact that the era of making militaries numerically stronger would fast be replaced with militaries that are digitally stronger. IT and space technologies being at the heart of the RMA has partially succeeded from shifting the focus from weapon-centric warfare to network-centric warfare. Two basic technologies which are being discussed for their potentiality and are expected to change the face of future war fighting are the nano-technology and bio-technology. These technologies are likely to make the fifth industrial revolution a reality. Nanotechnologies have wider applicability both in electronics and materials. It would eventually make ships, aircrafts and spacecrafts further lighter and stronger. This would allow the states to use them more effectively and offers wider flexibility in terms of flying heights and load carrying capabilities. Bio-technologies could bring in a revolution in logistics supply chain. It would help carrying lighter foods which have more shelf life and nutrition (this would help in having a leaner ―tooth-to-tail ratio‖). The technology could make the soldier‘s uniform more lighter and also could inject camouflage capabilities in them. Developed states and few developing states, have understood the relevance of technology from national security perspective and are making investments in various fields of technologies that have both short and long term security relevance. Such technologies are commonly known as Strategic Technologies. The current focus is on space and near-space technologies, networks, and closein and standoff sensor technologies. It is also important to look at strategic materials and is expected that military technologists would have a narrow focus on this area in near future. What is problematic in today‘s world is the advantage even the non-state actors are gaining by taking commercially available technologies like GPS, mobile phones, satellite phones and more importantly the Internet. Following are few areas of technology which could be considered as Core Strategic Technologies:

     

Advanced 3D image processing, analysis, and feature extraction approaches. Advanced electronic vision and situation awareness devices, algorithms and systems. Biofabrication processes for improved nanostructured devices and materials, Innovative methods to visualize complex, self-organizing systems Microelectronic systems comprising advanced system concepts coupling electronics, sensors and actuators with micro-scale packaging and battery technologies Novel three-dimensional data visualization and projection methods

 

Power harvesting technologies and devices Self assembly and/or manufacture techniques

States understand that the 21st century threats are not restricted to the conventional realm only. Technological help is also essential to counter special threats such as terrorism. Recent history has shown that such threats cannot be met by conventional military tools and tactics. None of the technology could be identified as an effective tool to fight the menace of terrorism. At the same time, it could be unwise to argue that all tools and tactics available with militaries are irrelevant to fight terrorism. Terrorism being an asymmetric threat it is important to use both conventional and unconventional tactics to defeat the unknown aggressor. So the intelligent use of technology is more important than technology itself. No situation in most of the terror attacks is similar, hence every situation demands innovative usage of available technologies. Few specific technologies like small robots for the purpose of tactical intelligence gathering could be used; humanoid robots could also become part of the first line of defence in specific cases. There is also a need to invest into non-lethal weapons8 to address these issues. Such weapons are useful to incapacitate personnel or material, while minimizing fatalities. They are useful in a scenario when the state requires catching the terrorists alive to trace back the terror network. Technologies based on Acoustics, Optical Science, Bio and Chem Science are being developed for such purposes by few states. For many states in the world over last few decades, the threats and the enemies have changed. At places few rouge states have started supporting terrorism as a covert policy. There even exists a danger that non-state actors may adapt to the strategies involving Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). In short, enemies in the 21st century pose a gigantic challenge that demands a new approach in form of methodological changes in intelligence gathering and usage of military tactics. States need to understand that their Technology Strategy has to be a dynamic process. This would depend on the geo-political environment as well as the growth of technology itself. The formulation of strategy to meet new threats would depend on how best the states could factor the technology in their planning process. The recent conflicts have successfully demonstrated the capabilities of smart weapons. This demonstration by the US and allied forces have forced many other nation-states to invest in such technologies. Today, states are investing in all kinds of military and non-military technologies for a simple reason that these technologies are critical to progress. They allow them socio-economic development as well as guarantee security These conflicts have demonstrated that technology makes military capabilities far superior. Naturally, this has fueled an arms race amongst states. But, interestingly this arms race is not on the lines of the arms race in the Cold War era. In a way it could be said that the new arms race has started where states are interested in investing more in ‗aid‘ (support) technologies rather than going for bigger weapons. For fighting 21st century warfare what is important is to offer soldiers lighter weapons, reduce the burden on logistic chain, and have weapon delivery platforms which are light and able to deliver weapons on the target mostly from standoff range. In the past thirty years, the world has experienced more dramatic changes brought about by technology than ever before in history. Given some in-depth insights into advanced technology research organizations (both public and private); there are wondrous new developments ahead that will shape mankind‘s lives in ways yet unimaginable. These scientific and technological breakthroughs have far reaching political, economic and social implications. These implications are not limited in scope to the country or jurisdiction where the development takes place but throughout the world.1

Technology is viewed as a force multiplier. But at the same time dependence on technology also allows the enemy to cripple your infrastructure by attacking your assets and cause substantial damage. The state‘s dependence on various IT tools has unfortunately converted them into a lucrative target also. Issues with technology to protect cyberspace is one of the most urgent national security problem faced by many states. Also, historically it has been seen that almost every military technological superiority is being challenged by counter measures be it ECM or ECCMs (Electronic counter and counter-counter measures) or missile defence shields. However, what is problematic in today‘s world is the advantage even the non-state actors are gaining by taking commercially available technologies like GPS, mobile phones, satellite phones and more importantly the Internet. Today, states are investing in all kinds of military and non-military technologies for a simple reason that these technologies are critical to progress. They allow them socio-economic development as well as guarantee security. States view possession of stateof-the – art technology infrastructure as a strategic asset which in turn could be viewed as symbol of national power. In the context of international relations and diplomacy, power is normally considered as the ability of one state to influence or control other states. Investments in technology allow states to possess four commonly accepted instruments of national power2 viz. political, economic, informational, and military. Hence, even though this article has discussed importance of technology for military instrument of national power it needs to be understood that the concept of national security in the 21st century has wider connotations and should not be viewed only through a narrow prism of military. Investments in technology allow nation states have political, economic and informational superiority as well. It gives them leverage for the execution of state‘s foreign policy through diplomatic means. Military industrial complex as well as other industries with technologically superior products allows them to attract global customers giving boost to economy. Technology also allows access to information which other states may not have. Over the years the methods of war fighting have always responded to the evolution of technology. In some cases the technology itself came into being because it was researched for militaries. It has been aptly demonstrated during last few decades that the advances in technology dramatically expand the options available for the use of force. However, the process of scientific evolution is a difficult task. Scientific discoveries have their own momentum and further its transformation into technology could not always be guaranteed. The entire process of scientific discovery to its conversion into usable technology is an intricate progression involving large number of complex variables. Technical revolution is essentially a dynamic process and is constantly evolving and its impact on society as a whole and national security in particular will vary with the transformation in technology.

Technical aspects Because of the highly competitive nature of nation states, national security for countries with significant resources and value is based largely on technical measures and operational processes. This ranges from information protection related to state secrets to weaponry for militaries to negotiations strategies with other nation states. The national security apparatus depends largely on combinations of management practices, technical capabilities, the projection of images both internally and externally, and the capacity to gain enough of the will of the people to gather taxes and spend them on useful efforts. While some nation states use power to gain more power for their leadership, others provide quality of life improvements to their people, thus creating larger geopolitical conflicts between types of governments. These all have foundations in internal education and communications

systems that serve to build the nation states on strategic and tactical bases and create the conditions for success and failure of the nation state. Increasingly the world is replacing transportation with communication and thus the ability to communicate effectively and convey messages in the information environment is critical to national security for the Western nations. Issues like global warming and research priorities increasingly dominate the reality of competition between nation states. All of these lead to the need to have a clear understanding of the technical issues underlying national security in order to create and sustain the institutions that ultimately feed the future of the nation state. The vital role of science in modern life is not overstated in view of today's world. Science and technology have profoundly influenced the course of human civilization. Science has provided us remarkable insights into the world we live in. The scientific revolutions of the 20th century have led to many technologies, which promise to herald wholly new eras in many fields, As we stand today at the beginning of a new century, we have to ensure fullest use of these developments for the well being of our people. Science and technology have been an integral part of Indian civilisation and culture over the past several millennia. Few are aware that India was the fountainhead of important foundational scientific developments and approaches. These cover many great scientific discoveries and technological achievements in Mathematics, Astronomy, Architecture, Chemistry, Metallurgy, Medicine, Natural Philosophy and other areas. A great deal of this traveled outwards from India. Equally, India also assimilated scientific ideas and techniques from elsewhere, with open-mindedness and a rational attitude, characteristic of a scientific ethos. India's traditions have been founded on the principles of universal harmony, respect for all creations and an integrated holistic approach. This background is likely to provide valuable insights for future scientific advances. During the century prior to independence, there was an awakening of modem science in India through the efforts of a number of outstanding scientists. They were responsible for great scientific advances of the highest international caliber. Apart from the vast changes it has brought about, the development of a scientific temper in the people is considered important. In the planned economy of a country, science must necessarily play an especially important role. Improvements in techniques evolved as a result of scientific research brings about great increases in production in the different sectors of the economy. National resources are augmented by the substitution of cheap and abundant materials for those in scarce supplies and by finding uses for materials, which have remained un-utilized, prior to independence, very little attention was given to the problem of scientific and industrial research in India. A number of universities and institutes carried out research, mostly on fundamental aspects of science. Certain industries also had their own research organizations. However, industry depended, by and large, on foreign techniques and did not develop research programmes of its own. A large number of products that had been imported into the country had to be manufactured to meet both civilian and military needs. Indian substitutes had to be found for imported materials and processes had to be developed which would use these materials in place of imported ones. In these circumstances, the Government of India constituted die Board of Scientific and Industrial Research in 1940. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research was formed in 1942. Since independence there has been a greater emphasis on the provision of additional facilities for the promotion of scientific and industrial research. The most significant development in this sphere has been the establishment of a chain of national laboratories and research institutes in different parts of the country. The establishment of national laboratories and research institutes has a special importance in a country like India where medium and small-scale producers contribute a considerable proportion of industrial production. These industries cannot afford to have research facilities of their own, as the larger producers can. Besides these laboratories and research institutes, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research has made contributions towards the promotion of fundamental and applied research at a number of institutions and universities. In the half century since independence, India has been committed to the task of promoting the spread of science. The key role of technology as an important element of national development is also well recognized. The Scientific Policy Resolution of 1958

and the Technology Policy Statement of 1983 enunciated the principles on which die growth of science and technology in India has been based over the past several decades. These policies have emphasized self-reliance, as also sustainable and equitable development. Successes in agriculture, health care, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, nuclear energy, astronomy and astrophysics, space technology and applications, defence research, biotechnology, electronics, information technology and oceanography are widely acknowledged. Major national achievements include very significant increase in food production, eradication or control of several diseases and increased life expectancy of our citizens. While these developments have been highly satisfying, one is also aware of die dramatic changes that have taken place, and continue to do so, in die practice of science, in technology development, and their relationships with, and impact on die society. Particularly striking is die rapidity with which science and technology is moving ahead. Science is becoming increasingly interand multi-disciplinary, and calls for multi-institutional and, in several cases, multi-country participation. Major experimental facilities, even in several areas of basic research, require very large amount of materials, human and intellectual resources. Science and technology have become so closely intertwined, and so reinforce each other that, to be effective, any policy needs to view them together. The continuing revolutions in die field of information and communication technology have had profound impact on the manner and speed with which scientific information becomes available, and scientific interactions take place. Science and technology have had unprecedented impact on economic growth and social development. Knowledge has become a source of economic might and power. This has led to increased restrictions on sharing of knowledge, to new norms of intellectual property rights, and to global trade and technology control regimes. Scientific and technological developments today also have deep ethical, legal and social implications. There are deep concerns in society about these. The ongoing globalization and the intensely competitive environment have a significant impact on the production and service sectors. Because of all this, our science and technology system has to be infused with new vitality if it is to play a decisive and beneficial role hi advancing the well being of all sections of our society. The nation continues to be firm in its resolve to support science and technology in all its facets. It recognizes its central role in raising the quality of life of the people of the country, particularly of the disadvantaged sections of society, in creating wealth for all, in making India globally competitive, in utilizing natural resources in a sustainable manner, in protecting die environment, and ensuring national security. India has the third largest scientific and technical manpower in the world; 162 universities award 4,000 doctorates and 35,000 post-graduate degrees and the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research runs 40 research laboratories that have made some significant achievements. In the field of missile launch technology, India is among the five top nations of the world. Science and Technology, however, is used as an effective instrument of growth and change. It is being brought into the mainstream of economic planning in the sectors of agriculture, industry and services. The country's resources are used to derive the maximum output for the benefit of society and improvement in the quality of life. About 85 per cent of the funds for science and technology come directly or indirectly from the Government. The science and technology infrastructure in the country accounts for more than one per cent of the GNP. Science and technology in India is entering a new frontier. The prime objective of India's nuclear energy programme is the development and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes such as power generation, applications in agriculture, medicine, industry, research and other areas. India is today recognized as one of the countries most advanced in nuclear technology including production of source materials. The country is self-reliant and has mastered the expertise covering the complete nuclear cycle-from exploration and mining to power generation and waste management. Accelerators and research and power reactors are now designed and built indigenously. The sophisticated variable

energy cyclotron at Kolkata and a medium energy heavy ion accelerator 'pelletron' set up recently at Mumbai are national research facilities in the frontier areas of the science. As part of its programme for peaceful uses of atomic energy, India has also embarked on a program of nuclear power generation. Currently eight nuclear stations are producing 8 billion kilowatts of electricity. Four more nuclear power stations have been planned. The new nuclear reactors have been completely designed in India. The peaceful nuclear programme also includes producing radio-isotopes for use in agriculture, medicine, industry and research. The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), under the Department of Space (DOS), is responsible for research, development and operation in space systems in the areas of satellite communications, remote sensing for resource survey, environmental monitoring, meteorological services etc. DOS is also the nodal agency for the Physical Research Laboratoty which conducts research in the areas of space science, and the National Remote Sensing Agency which deploys modern remote sensing techniques for natural resource surveys and provides operational services to user agencies. India is the only third world country to develop its own remote sensing satellite. India joined a select group of six nations on October 15,1994, when the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) successfully .accomplished its mission of placing the 800-kg remote sensing satellite, IRS-P2, in the intended orbit. The INSAT series of satellites launched earlier are performing well and provide vital services for telecommunications, television, meteorology, disaster warning and distress detection. The latest INSAT series will include new features like Kit-band transponders and mobile satellite service, transponders. The remote-sensing satellites, launched in 1988 and 1991, have already become the mainstays of the natural resource management system of the country. The projected launch of advanced remote sensing satellite will not only enhance the scope of their application, but will also offer commercial service to other countries. The most significant milestone of the Indian Space Programme during the year 2005-06 was the successful launch of PSLV-C6. On may 5,2006, the ninth flight of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C6) from Satish Dhawan Space centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota successfully placed two satellites-1560 kg CARTOSTAR-1 and 42 kg HAMSAT-into a predetermined polar Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO). The successful launch of INSAT-4A, the heaviest and most powerful Satellite built by India so far, on 22 December 2005 was the other major event of the year 2005-06. INSAT-4A is capable of providing Direct-To-Home (DTH) television broadcasting services. The Indian space programme entered a new era when ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch vehicle (PSLV)-C7 successfully launched on January 10,2007 four satellites into high polar orbit from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), Sriharikota. The four satellites put into orbit were India's CARTUSAT-2 and space Capsule Recovery Experiment. (SRE-1), Indonesia's LAPAN-TUBSAT and Argentina's PEHUENSAT-1. The Indian achievement in the application of space-based remote sensing technology has led a US company to enter into an agreement for marketing the data from Indian satellites globally. India's progress in space technology has attracted worldwide attention and demand, with leasing agreements for marketing of IRS data and supply of space hardware and services. India also believes in co-operation in space with agencies all over the world. A high-level UN team selected India for setting up a UN Centre for Space Science and Technology Education. India is on the threshold of achieving self-reliance in the launch capability. It will be a befitting tribute to the father of the Indian space program, Dr. Vikararn Sarabhai, whose 90th birth anniversary was observed in August 2006.

India has been the forerunner among the developing countries in promoting multi-disciplinary activities in the field of biotechnology, recognizing the practically unlimited possibility of their applications in increasing agricultural and industrial production, and in improving human and animal life. The nucleus of research in this area is the National Biotechnology Board, constituted in 1982. A Department of Biotechnology was created in 1986. Recently, the Biotechnology Consortium India Limited was set up. It will play the role of catalyst in bridging the gap between Research and Development, Industrial and Financial Institutions. Some of the new initiatives taken include developing techniques for gene mapping, conservation of biodiversity and bioindicators' research, special biotechnology programs for the benefit of die scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and activities in the area of plantation oops. The areas, which have been receiving attention, are cattle herd improvement through embryo transfer technology, in vitro propagation of disease resistant plant varieties for obtaining higher yields, and development of vaccines for various diseases. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) was established in 1942, and is today the premier institution for scientific and industrial research. It has a network of 40 laboratories, two co-operative industrial research institutions and more than 100 extension and field centres. The Council's research programs are directed towards effective utilization of the country's natural resources and development of new processes and products for economic progress. It is now playing a leading role in the fulfillment of the technology missions evolved by the Government. Thus, we see that India has made unprecedented development in the field of scientific research and technology during the postindependence period and this just seems to be the beginning of a road with endless possibilities. All we need is to plan and organize in a way so as to be able to harness our intelligentsia in the right direction and provide it with the right opportunities.

Sponsor Documents

Or use your account on DocShare.tips

Hide

Forgot your password?

Or register your new account on DocShare.tips

Hide

Lost your password? Please enter your email address. You will receive a link to create a new password.

Back to log-in

Close