Net Worth

Net Worth
Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East
Jessica Simon • Dario Eubank • Hesham Alghannam • Ashley Starr Kinseth IP502H: Research Methods • Professor Jeff Langholz • Tuesday, December 16 2008

For the past several years, the mainstay of the United States’ foreign policy strategy in the Middle East has centered upon democracy promotion (Carothers & Ottaway 2005). In order to implement this strategy, the U.S. State Department launched the Middle East Peace Initiative (MEPI) in 2002, a program designed to bolster democracy development by funding programs that promote education, economic growth and women’s empowerment (Middle East Peace Initiative 2008). The Initiative’s final dimension, women’s empowerment, embodies a crucial component of building strong democracies as well as solidifying overall security (Coleman 2004, Tryggestad 2008). Therefore, the following proposed study will seek to investigate women’s empowerment in the political arena. Because the MEPI program seeks to tackle key issues at the grassroots level (Hamzawy 2008), we have sought to develop a plan for research that will provide information to assist in this endeavor. We thus focus on ascertaining how women outside of government perceive their social positions as well as the roles they feel they play in shaping their political environment. Above all, we seek to
Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 1

understand if and how Middle Eastern women are finding ways to relate to other women in order to create a unique voice that represents their collective point of view to state powers. It seems as though the Internet represents an ideal tool for helping women augment their political empowerment. Several studies have demonstrated that women who write and post their thoughts on the web gain greater confidence in developing a political identity (Radsch 2008, Otterman 2008, Skalli 2006, Sakr 2004). Additionally, many research projects examine the role of the web in circumventing severe censorship practices under autocratic regimes in order to access information typically blocked by the government in other venues (Kalathil & Boas 2003, The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 2001, Lynch 2008). However, to date, no research has attempted to establish a direct, measurable correlation between Internet usage and women’s political empowerment. Thus our study means to rectify this omission by providing a project that will, in’shallah, supply concrete answers.

Review of the Literature
One key component of democracy involves freedom of expression, and as such, its presence or absence can serve as a prime indicator of the extent to which democracy has taken root. Considering that United States foreign policy relies heavily on spreading democracy in order to enhance stability, it seems vital to examine the ways in which government censorship may act as a hindrance to democratic growth (Carothers & Ottaway 2005). Largely due to the ramifications of September 11, the Middle East is often heavily scrutinized in terms of democracy development; thus exploring censorship in this region makes for a compelling study. The book Censorship in the Arab World represents a
Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 2

highly comprehensive analysis which illuminates the tensions inherent in states where public opinion is at odds with the government’s agenda (Nsouli & Meho 2006). In countries where autocratic regimes hold sway, the media tends to be closely controlled by those in power, and anyone who dares to deviate from the official script may face severe consequences (Kalathil 2003). Censorship, of course, hardly represents a new phenomenon (Dearborn 2001). Yet the development of modern communication technology introduces a unique twist altering the relationship between the government and its subjects. The internet in particular provides a critical means of circumventing censorship in that it presents difficulties for the government in squelching public dissent (Nsouli & Meho 2006). Consequently, several scholars have applied qualitative measures and case studies in an attempt to gauge the impact of the internet in developing greater freedom of speech in the Middle East (Lynch 2008, Radsch 2008, Black 2008, Amin 2008, Washington Institute for Near East Policy 2007, Kalathil & Boas 2003, al-Rasheed 2000). Some authors believe that the presence of the internet may be overrated and that its presence will likely make little difference in fostering meaningful change. Mamoun Fandy, a senior fellow at the prestigious Baker Institute, rejects the notion that Arab societies will use the internet to spread democratic ideals, but rather asserts that it will be used as a platform for the propagation of pre-existing local norms and values. Fandy attributes this projected phenomenon to the notion that Internet represents a barrier to the interpersonal interactions which are highly valued in daily Middle Eastern life, noting that many Middle Easterners rely on word of mouth to determine “truth” and thus are not apt to believe information coming from unfamiliar sources (including radio, television and
Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 3

internet). Additionally, many authors point out that only a small segment of the population – typically the wealthier urban set – have ready access to the latest technology, thus excluding the vast majority from the freedom of speech potentially allotted by internet access (Fandy 2000). As a result, they argue, many voices continue to go unheard within the digital context. Finally, many scholars note that governments are typically well aware that this worldwide portal could weaken their grip on power, and as a result often set up barriers such as stringent firewalls in order to try to maintain control (Ebrahimian 2003, Hall & Huges 2001). Alternatively, some scholars see the internet as a key catalyst in providing a forum for free speech. One such author, Edmund Ghareeb in his “New Media and the Information Revolution in the Arab World: An Assessment,” suggests that increased internet access has transformed political discourse in the space of a few years, thus creating a “new type of political debate that transcends national boundaries.” While he recognizes that governments may be able to block certain sites, Ghareeb notes that “bureaucrats are not always as creative as the computer users and those maintaining the sites, who can change addresses frequently or create multiple ‘mirror’ pages” (Ghareeb 2000). Women constitute a marked contingent of these “creative computer users,” and it appears that many have begun harnessing the internet to make a name for themselves in the public sphere. Naomi Sakr, a prominent Middle East scholar, proffers several illuminating examples of women’s empowerment in her book Women and Media in the Middle East: Power of Self-Expression (Sakr 2004). Media, she stresses, represents a critical tool for women in that it gives them a chance to emerge from the background to make their voices heard.

Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 4

The internet in particular opens up many doors, and a number of articles recently published in both Arab Media and Society and the Journal of Middle Eastern Women’s Studies speak to this trend (Radsch 2008, Otterman 2008, Skalli 2006, Lynch 2007). In her article “Communicating Gender in the Public Sphere: Women and Information Technologies in MENA,” Loubna Skalli delves into women’s political blogging in the Middle East. She argues that women, by writing about their environment, “are creating alternative discursive spaces where it is possible to redefine patriarchal gender roles while questioning the socio-cultural, economical, political and legal institutions constraining them”(Skalli 2006). She also notes that many internet-savvy women are able to access information otherwise denied them due to government censorship restrictions. Although Skalli and others (Wheeler 2004, Lynch 2007) note that economic constraints still prevent many women from participating in the online discourse, those who do possess technical knowledge appear to play a vital role in agitating for political change.

Research Question & Hypothesis As highlighted above, numerous studies have shown the Internet to provide a powerful means of escaping censorship imposed by authoritarian states in the Middle East. The act of blogging in particular represents an ideal forum in which beleaguered citizens are able to express and clarify their concerns, which they in turn share with like-minded people who harbor similar problems. It seems that women in particular would have a lot to gain from utilizing this medium, especially in a culture that often actively suppresses female voices. We therefore seek to determine whether the Internet might give women the courage to challenge the status quo, as it may create an opportunity for political dialogue to emerge
Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 5

from shared frustrations amongst female participants in the blogosphere. It also seems plausible that the Internet might enable women to expand their horizons by virtue of providing access to websites containing uncensored political content. With this in mind, we pose the question:

•

To what extent does women's increased Internet usage augment women's political empowerment in the Middle East?

In light of this proposition, it seems highly possible that the Internet may indeed play a role in developing female political empowerment. Consequently, we hypothesize that:

•

The more Middle Eastern women are able to utilize the Internet, the more politically empowered they will likely be. We therefore plan to track women’s internet usage in order to

determine its impacts on women’s political empowerment. Women’s political empowerment will be defined in terms of how Middle Eastern women outside the official political realm relate to politics in their daily lives. According to both the World Bank’s Empowerment Source Book and the United Nations Development Program’s Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM), two key elements of empowerment include awareness and choice (World Bank Empowerment Source Book, 2008) and (UNDP GEM, 2008). In addition to these indicators, we plan to ascertain the level of active political participation on the part of Middle Eastern women. The detailed operationalization of these indicators, in addition to that of internet usage, will be further explored in the sections to come.

Sample and Unit of Analysis Not all opportunities for Internet access are created equal. Certain countries in the Middle East tend to be far more draconian than others both
Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 6

in terms of their treatment of women and the influence they wield over Internet censorship (Kalathi and Boas 2003). Variations in socio-economic conditions must be taken into account as well, as studies demonstrate that women living in large cities are better able to access the Internet than their country-dwelling counterparts (Lynch 2008). Thus in looking at individual women in the Middle East, our unit of analysis, our sampling strategy will seek to take the above two factors into account. To that end, we have chosen three countries ranked on an ordinal scale in terms of level of autocracy: Saudi Arabia (high), Egypt (mid), and Jordan (low), as established by the World Bank’s Autocracy Index (2008). Next, we chose two different sites in each country – one urban and one rural – in order to account for plausible socio-economic differences. To that end, we will conduct research in the countries’ respective capital cities – Riyadh, Cairo, and Amman – in conjunction with the three respective provincial cities of Khamis Mushait, Siwah, and Ma’an.

Operationalization of Variables The study will conceptualize the dependent variable, women’s political empowerment, in terms of three indicators – political awareness, choice and participation. The first indicator, awareness, seeks to assess the degree to which women possess knowledge and information relating to politically relevant events, persons and circumstances. The indicator of choice aims to measure the degree to which women control the shaping of their political attitudes and beliefs based on the information they possess. Finally, participation seeks to assess the degree to which women are able to apply said knowledge and attitudes in order to engage actively in the political process – for instance, by voting or participating in demonstrations.
Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 7

The study will conceptualize the independent variable, internet usage, in terms of two indicators – frequency and content. The first indicator aims to determine the degree of frequency with which women use the internet, regardless of the purpose(s) for which it is being used. Content seeks to describe the purpose(s) for which women use the internet – in particular, to what extent said women employ the internet for politically relevant purposes.

Data Collection Methodology The research team will measure the variables and their respective indicators using an in-person survey performed in the aforementioned urban and rural areas of Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Jordan. To achieve a margin of error of +/-5% or better, interviewers will aim to conduct approximately 400 surveys in each location (Research Advisors 2006) 1. Persons to be interviewed will be chosen at random as interviewers go door-to-door to propose survey participation, each day selecting a new, arbitrary neighborhood for exploration. A team of two female interviewers will perform each survey in tandem. The research design team will hire all interviewers from major local universities, and as a prerequisite, all must be native to the region, fluent in the local dialect, and proficient in English. In each region, four teams of two interviewers will be trained on location in English by a leading member of the research design team for a period of one week before spending up to two months collecting data. Per their training, said interviewers will be free to ask participants for elaboration or additional
1

Given populations in each of the capital cities (Riyadh, Cairo, and Amman) of between 1,000,000 and 10,000,000, a minimum of 384 surveys are required to achieve a margin of error of +/- 5%. Given populations in each of the provincial cities of between 10,000 and 50,000 (Khamis Mushait, Siwah, and Ma’an), between 370-381 surveys are required to achieve an equivalent margin of error. To allow for incomplete or flawed surveys and to maintain uniformity and simplicity, 400 surveys will be performed in each location. Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 8

relevant information insomuch as she feels it may be valuable to the study. Nonetheless, the basic survey format to be used as a guideline for interviews has been appended here (Appendix A). Finally, the interviewers will translate survey responses into English for data analysis on the part of the research design team. Before beginning research in the Middle East, however, the in-person survey will be tested using a parallel process in the San Francisco (urban) / Monterey (rural) areas. To that end, the team will hire two local university students in each location. Each team will spend one week conducting the same survey in the manner outlined above (excepting, of course, the language). We will then analyze the resultant data to test for comprehensibility before applying the survey methodology in the Middle East.

Data Analysis Methodology Due to the highly qualitative nature of “women’s political empowerment,” the dependent qualities of awareness, choice and participation will be measured primarily using Likert scales and assignedvalue multiple choice questions as a means of permitting survey participants to quantify their relationships to the political process. Frequency of usage, a quantitative measure, will be measured using a single close-ended ratio scale. The final dimension of study, content, will ask participants to categorize their time spent on the internet according to a variety of potential uses. Participants will also be asked to respond to open-ended questions regarding their preferred browsing activities. The research team will then utilize these responses to develop three indices: a women’s political empowerment index (WPEI) an internet usage index (IUI), and finally, a political internet usage index (IUIP). The
Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 9

first index, WPEI, will account for all three empowerment indicators equally (awareness, choice and participation each at 1/3 of total WPEI) and will measure women’s political empowerment on a scale of 0-1. Each Likert and multiple choice response, measured on a scale of 1-5, will be translated to fit the 0-1 scale; then, response values will be averaged to determine a final WPEI score. For instance, if a survey participant answers “4” to all Likert scale questions, as well as indicating the fourth-ranked response of five on each WPEI-related multiple choice question, she would have a WPEI of 0.75 (relatively high). Similarly, IUI will measure general internet usage on a scale of 0-1, and survey responses will be assigned values between 0-1 approximating the degree of internet usage they represent. For instance, if a survey participant indicates that she spends “10-20 hours” online each week (the fifth-highest internet usage response of six), analysts would assign her an IUI of 0.8 (relatively high). Alternatively, IUIP, a composite measure, aims to quantify internet usage for specifically political purposes on a scale of 0-1. In this index, general internet usage (IUI) will account for half of total IUIP, while the degree of political relevance of said internet usage, defined as follows, will also account for half. While admittedly more analytically subjective, researchers will assign 0-1 values to a wide array of possible internet activities aimed at accurately representing that activity’s degree of political relevance. For instance, a response indicating “shopping for beauty products” as a preferred internet activity may receive a political relevance score of 0, while a response indicating “reading an environmental studies journal” as a preferred activity may receive a score of 0.5, and yet another response indicating “reading news on international politics” as a preferred activity may receive a score of 1. Responses will
Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 10

then be weighted according to the percentage of time spent on each activity as specified by the survey participant. Lastly, the two components will be averaged to determine a composite IUIP. Finally, the research design team will calculate two distinct empowerment-internet ratios ((EIR = WPEI / IUI) and (EIRP= WPEI / IUIP)) to determine a) the degree of correlation between women’s political empowerment and general internet usage (EIR), and b) the degree of correlation between women’s political empowerment and the use of internet for politically relevant purposes (EIRP). EIR values close to 1.0 indicate a strong direct correlation between women’s political empowerment and general internet usage; meanwhile, values close to 0 indicate low empowerment relative to internet usage, and values significantly above 1.0 indicate significant political empowerment coupled with little or no internet usage. In parallel, EIRP values close to 1.0 indicate a strong direct correlation between women’s political empowerment and internet usage for politically relevant purposes; meanwhile, values close to 0 indicate low empowerment relative to political internet usage, and values significantly above 1.0 indicate significant political empowerment coupled with little or no politically relevant internet usage.

Schedule The research team anticipates spending two weeks in each of the six cities in order to allow for organization, hiring and one week of interviewer training. The interviewers, eight women (or four teams of two) from local universities in each location, will then be allotted a period of up to two months to collectively gather the 400 surveys required of each location, as well as two weeks to translate and submit the data to the primary research team. The interviewers, most of whom will likely be students, will be
Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 11

expected to work three days per week at an approximate rate of four surveys per day per team of two to achieve a total of 400 surveys per location within the allotted two month time frame. Data compilation and analysis will begin at the end of month four, when the primary research team returns to Monterey and begins to receive data from hired interviewers in Riyadh. Data analysis will continue on a rolling basis through month eight as interviewers from the remaining cities complete their survey sets and continue to submit survey results. See figure 1, below.

Figure 1. Schedule

Budget Transportation costs, including airfare to Riyadh and from Cairo for the primary research staff as well as connecting flights in the Middle East
Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 12

and domestic transport, are estimated to total $12,300. The four primary research staff members will require lodging in the form of a two-bedroom apartment for a period of two weeks in each of the six cities of inquiry; and while housing costs vary dramatically depending on location, total lodging costs are anticipated to total approximately $2,550. Each primary researcher will receive a living stipend of $1500. Interviewers in major metropolitan areas (Riyadh, Cairo and Amman) will be paid at a rate of $10 per survey, while interviewers in rural regions (Khamis Mushait, Siwah and Ma’an) will be paid at a rate of $8 per survey. Therefore, the research team anticipates personnel costs of approximately $27,600. Though the study will not require any significant equipment or research materials, the research staff wishes to request $5,000 in additional funding for discretionary purposes. Therefore, the team requests $47,450 in total funding to complete the given research design. For a detailed breakdown of costs, see figure 2, below.

Figure 2. Budget

Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 13

Appendix A: Sample Survey Verbal Introduction: Good (morning/afternoon/evening). My name is (first name) and this is (first name). We are conducting a survey concerning women’s internet usage and politics here in (name of country), and we were wondering if you might be able to spare 20-25 minutes to answer a few brief questions. Your responses will be kept purely confidential and any insight you provide will be used strictly for informational purposes. Would you be interested in participating? Please rank the statements below according to the following scale:
1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neither agree nor disagree; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5 I know a lot about my national government. I am aware of my political rights as a citizen. I am usually up to date on the latest political news. I feel pressure from society to adopt common opinions on political matters. My political opinions are based on accurate information. I am able to openly express my political opinions in public. I actively seek alternative ways to express my concerns to government officials. I vote a) b) c) d) e) f) in public elections: always. usually. sometimes. rarely. never. my country does not have public elections.

I participate in political demonstrations: a) frequently. b) occasionally. d) rarely. e) never. f) my country does not have political demonstrations. On average, how much time do you spend using the internet each week? a) I do not use the internet. b) 0-2 hours c) 2-5 hours d) 5-10 hours e) 10-20 hours f) more than 20 hours Please estimate the percent of your time online you spend engaging in the following activities and, if applicable, respond to the sub-question(s). %____ Checking and sending email
Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 14

if so, pertaining to what? __________________________________________ (ie, personal, school, business, etc.) %____ Shopping if so, for what kinds of items? ______________________________________ (ie, clothing, furniture, software, etc.) %____ Studying and/or doing schoolwork if so, which subject(s)? ____________________________________________ (ie, literature, political science, chemistry, linguistics, etc.) %____ Playing games if so, which type(s)? _____________________________________________ (ie, multi-player, sports, educational, etc.) %____ Reading the news if so, which type(s)? ______________________________________________ (ie, local/national/world, opinion, sports, science, travel, home & garden, etc.) %____ Reading magazines/journals if so, what type(s)? _______________________________________________ (ie, politics, gossip, fashion, shelter, beauty, scholarly (please specify), etc.) %____ Reading blogs and/or alternative news sources if so, what type(s)? _______________________________________________ (ie, politics, gossip, fashion, shelter, beauty, scholarly (please specify), etc.) %____ Keeping a personal blog/website OPTIONAL: please provide your web address. ______________________________________________________________ %____ Networking if so, using which sites? ___________________________________________ (ie, Facebook, MySpace, Match.com, etc.) %____ Other: ____________________________________________________________ %____ Other: ____________________________________________________________

Please list the websites you visit most in order of preference. 1.__________________________________________________________________________
Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 15

2. __________________________________________________________________________ 3.__________________________________________________________________________ 4. __________________________________________________________________________ 5.__________________________________________________________________________

What year were you born ? _______ What is your ethnicity? ______________________

Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 16

Works Cited
Carothers, Thomas and Ottaway, Marina, eds. Uncharted Journey: Promoting Democracy in the Middle East. Washington DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2005. Coleman, Isobel. “The Payoff From Women’s Rights” Foreign Affairs (May/June 2004): 48-57. Dahl, Robert. On Democracy. New Haven: Yale University, 1982. Dearborn, Fitzroy, ed. Censorship: A World Encyclopedia. London: Oxford Press, 2001. Ebrahimian, Laleh. “Socio-economic Development in Iran through Information and Communications Technology” Middle East Journal 57 (Winter 2003): 93-111. Fandy, Mamoun.“Information Technology, Trust, and Social Change in the Arab World.” Middle East Journal 54 (Summer 2000). Ghareeb, Edmund. “New Media and the Information of the Arab World: An Assessment.” Middle East Journal 54 (Summer 2000): 154-163. Hall, Kevin and Huges, John. “Cyber Politics: Citizen Activism in the Age of Internet.” Middle East Journal 55 (Summer 2001): 439-458. Hamzawy, Amr. “Islamists in Politics: The Dynamics of Participation” Carnegie Endowment of International Peace Carnegie Paper (December 2008). Kalathil, Shanthi. “Dot.com for Dictators” Foreign Policy 135 (March/April 2003): 135-142. Kalathil, Shanthi and Boas, Taylor. Open Networks, Closed Regimes. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2003. Lynch, Marc. “Young Bloggers in Cyberspace” Middle East Report (Winter 2007). Lynch, Marc. “Blogging the New Arab Public” Arab Media and Society. (Fall 2008) Nsouli, Mona and Meho, Lokhman, eds. Censorship in the Arab World: An Annotated Bibliography. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2006. Otterman, Sharon. “Publicizing the Private: Egyptian Bloggers Speak Out” Arab Media and Society (Fall 2008). Radsch, Courtney. “Core to Commonplace: The Evolution of Egypt’s Blogosphere” Arab Media Society (Spring 2008)

Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 17

Sakr, Naomi. Women in the Middle East: Power Through Self-Expression. London: IB Taurus, 2004. Skalli, Loubna. “Communicating Gender in the Public Sphere: Women and Information Technologies in the MENA” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 2 (Spring 2006): 35-51. Tryggestad, Torunn. “Peacebuilding: Women in International Perspective” Journal of Peace Research 45 (May 2008): 441. United Nations Development Program, Gender Empowerment Measure, 2008. http://hdrstats.undp.org/indicators/279.html United States State Department, “Middle East Partnership Intiative, 2008.” http://mepi.state.gov/ Washington Report on Middle East Affairs. “Women’s Empowerment and the Internet” 2001. Wheeler, Deborah. The Internet in the Middle East. NY: SUNY Press, 2005. World Bank, World Bank Autocracy Index (2008) http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/WBI/EXTWBIGOVANTCO World Bank, World Bank Empowerment Source Book (2008) http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEMPOWERMENT/Resources/

Net Worth: Internet Usage and Women’s Political Empowerment in the Middle East 18