Petroleum
Content
PETROLEUM Source Petroleum is typically found beneath the surface of the earth in accumulations known as fields. Fields can contain oil, gas, tar, water, and other substances, but oil, gas, and water are the most common. In order for a field to form, there must be some sort of structure to trap the petroleum, a seal on the trap that prohibits leakage of the petroleum, and a reservoir rock that has adequate pore space, or void space, to hold the petroleum. To find these features together in an area in which petroleum has been generated by chemical reactions affecting organic remains requires many coincidences of timing of natural processes.
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In order for petroleum generation to occur, organic matter such as dead plants or animals must accumulate in large quantities. The organic matter can be deposited along with sediments and later buried as more sediments accumulate on top.
-
The sediments and organic material that accumulate are called source rock. After burial, chemical activity in the absence of oxygen allows the organic material in the source rock to change into petroleum without the organic matter simply rotting.
Uses Most major industrial uses of petroleum are gasoline, jet fuel and heating oil, other uses include natural gas and for the generations of electricity.
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Other than the major uses of petroleum, other products, like plastic, are used to make toys, computers, houses cars and clothing. The asphalt used in constructing roads is a petroleum product just like rubber for car tires. Wax comes from petroleum, so does fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, detergents, records, film, furniture, packaging, paints, fibers, upholstery and carpet foundations.
Type of hazard produced Occupational Hazards × Burns and other injuries due to occupational accidents at disposal sites × Bone and muscle disorders due to handling of heavy containers × Benzene poses the greatest risk to workers using petroleum solvents containing benzene. Benzene poisoning through inhalation of the vapours evaporating from the solvent and by absorbing it through the skin by handling materials soaked with the solvents. Consequences: rare forms of Leukaemia. Although banned in the US, but still used in some degree in most petroleum solvents in many of the oil producing nations. × Ingestion of petroleum hydrocarbons may result in sudden death from Per acute Bloat. The most common cause of illness or death following exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons is Aspiration Pneumonia which may cause a chronic progressive deterioration of health, with death after several days or weeks. Petroleum hydrocarbons, salt water, and caustic chemicals have the potential of altering rumen flora as well as damaging the urinal and gastrointestinal epithelium
-
Proximity of livestock to drilling operations and production sites often results in poisoning of animals from ingestion of crude oil, condensate, salt water, heavy metals, and caustic chemicals.
-
Commercially available Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is currently derived from fossil fuels. Burning LPG releases CO2, an important greenhouse gas, contributing to global warming. Physical damage – drill site clearance; damage by survey line clearing
-
-
Groundwater loss
× In traditional or conventional petroleum wells, the oil or gas is produced over the life of the well, without much water. As soon as the oil or gas well starts to produce water it indicates that the main production period is over. By contrast, in coal seam methane wells the area around the well/ drill hole is first drained of groundwater at the underground gas level. Only when the underground pressure is reduced, by removing the groundwater, will any significant amount of gas be produced. Once a number of gas wells have been dewatered and tested a decision may be made to produce gas on a commercial basis. At this time a production lease may be applied for and an environmental impact statement prepared. Large amounts of water are removed from the underground aquifers over the life of the gas field, mainly from the coal seams themselves. This may lower the water table on a regional scale, and appropriate disposal methods must also be found for this groundwater. The lowering of the water table, the possibly mixing of previously separate groundwater systems and the disposal of unwanted groundwater all begin within the exploration phase and under an exploration tenement
-
Groundwater contamination Waste water, or ‘produced water’ – surface contamination by dissolved mineral salts or organic compounds; × ‘Produced water’ includes all water produced by drilling, including ground water (or ‘formation water’) and water introduced by the drilling or testing operations. The main type of pollution hazard associated with water produced during the extraction of coal seam methane is the high concentration of dissolved salts. Other possible pollutants include crude oil released by coal-bearing strata into the water in some coalfields.
-
HALOGENATED HYDROCARBON Sources Halogenated hydrocarbons are derivatives of hydrocarbons (that is, organic compounds that only contain carbon and hydrogen atoms) which include some halogen atoms within their chemical structure. The most commonly encountered halogens in halogenated hydrocarbons are fluorine and chlorine, but sometimes bromine or iodine occur, or combinations of any of these.
-
Some halogenated hydrocarbons occur naturally, being synthesized by halogenations reactions occurring during combustion of biomass containing the constituent atoms (that is, carbon, hydrogen, and halogens). For example, these syntheses occur commonly but at low rates during forest fires. However, most species of halogenated hydrocarbons are synthetic, and are manufactured by humans as industrially useful materials, or are incidentally produced as a by-product during industrial chemical reactions, or during the incineration of municipal waste.
Uses Chlorinated hydrocarbons are a well known group, with a wide variety of uses. × A number of these chemicals have been used as insecticides, including DDT, DDD, lindane, chlordane, aldrin, and dieldrin. × Others have been used as herbicides, especially 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. × Polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs have been widely used as dielectric fluids in electrical transformers and for other purposes.
-
Chlorofluorocarbon are another group of halogenated hydrocarbons that have been used extensively in refrigeration, air conditioning, and for cleaning electrons.
Type of hazard produced Dioxins, including the deadly TCDD, are trace contaminants synthesized during the manufacture of other chlorinated hydrocarbons and in spontaneous chlorination reactions in incinerators and pulp mills.
-
Chlorinated
hydrocarbons
are
associated
with
some
well
known
environmental problems, because most of these chemicals are persistent in the environment, and they accumulate in organisms, sometimes causing toxicity. Chlorofluorocarbons or freons are another group of halogenated
hydrocarbons. After their use these chemicals are often discharged to the atmosphere, where they are very persistent, and appear to be involved in ozone-destroying reactions occurring in the stratosphere. This is an important environmental problem, because ozone is critical in screening life on Earth's surface from the deleterious effects of exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation, which can cause skin cancers, cataracts, and other problems. In recognition of the environmental problems associated with these chemicals, the manufacturing and use of chlorofluorocarbons are rapidly being curtailed through international agreements.
NON-HALOGENATED HYDROCARBON Sources Uses Type of hazard produced
EXPLOSIVES Sources All chemical explosives, whether solid, liquid, or gas, consist of a fuel, a substance that burns, and an oxidizer, a substance that provides oxygen for the fuel. The burning and the resulting release and expansion of gases during explosions can occur in a few thousandths or a few millionths of a second. The rapid expansion of gases produces a destructive shockwave. The greater the pressure of the shockwave, the more powerful the blast.
-
Fire or combustion results when a substance combines with oxygen gas. Many substances that are not explosive by themselves can explode if oxygen is nearby. Turpentine, gasoline, hydrogen, and alcohol are not explosives. In the presence of oxygen in the air, however, they can explode if ignited by a flame or spark.
-
The reaction of oxygen with other atoms such as nitrogen and carbon can produced the most power chemical explosives. Nitrogen is usually introduced through the action of nitric acid, which is often mixed with sulphuric acid. Nitrogen is an important component of common chemical explosives like TNT, nitro-glycerine, gunpowder, guncotton, nitrocellulose, picric acid, and ammonium nitrate.
-
Another source of explosion can happen when very fine powders or dust mixes with air in an enclosed space. Anytime a room or building is filled with dust of flammable substances such as wood, coal, or even flour, a spark can start a fire that will spread so fast through the dust cloud that an explosion will result. Dust explosions such as these have occurred in silos where grain is stored.
Uses Explosives continue to have many important peacetime uses in fields like engineering, construction, mining, and quarrying. They propel rockets and space shuttles into orbit. Explosives are also used to bond different metals, like those in United States coins, together in a tight sandwich. Explosives carefully applied to carbon produce industrial diamonds for as cutting, grinding and polishing tools.
-
"Slurry explosives," are liquid and can be poured into place. One popular explosive for industrial use is made from fertilizers like ammonium nitrate or urea, fuel oil, and nitric or sulphuric acid. This "ammonium nitrate-fuel oil" or ANFO explosive has replaced dynamite as the explosive of choice for many peacetime uses.
-
Other explosives in use today include PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate), Cyclonite or RDX, a component of plastic explosives, and Amatol, a mixture of TNT (trinitrotoluene) and ammonium nitrite.
-
Nuclear explosives have evolved too. They are more compact than they were in the mid-part of the century. Today they fit into artillery shells and missiles launched from land vehicles. Weapons designers also have created "clean" bombs that generate little radioactive fallout and "dirty" bombs that generate more radioactive fallout than older versions. Explosions of "neutron" bombs have been designed to kill humans with neutron radiation but cause little damage to buildings compared to other nuclear explosives.
Type of hazard produced Secondary explosives (TNT, HMX, and RDX) have historically been discussed within the realm of safety related issues versus an HTRW waste classification perspective.
-
Explosives-contaminated process waste waters can be subdivided into two categories: red water from the manufacture of TNT and pink water which
include any wash water associated with load, assemble, and pack operations or with the demilitarization of munitions involving contact with finished explosive. Despite their names, red and pink water cannot be identified by colour. Both are clear when they emerge from their respective processes and subsequently turn pink, light red, dark red, or black when exposed to light. The chemical composition of pink water varies depending on the process and explosive operation from which it is derived; red water has a more defined chemical composition. Pink water is a wastewater generated in the production and handling of high explosive munitions. The principal contaminants in pink water are
trinitrotoluene (TNT) and cyclo trimethylene trinitramine (RDX); they are transferred to water in wash down operations, and washout and steamout of old munitions. TNT and RDX are persistent contaminants that are regulated in discharges from Army Ammunition Plants. Chemical compounds such as TNT and RDX are resistant to aerobic attack because the nitro compounds act as electron-withdrawing substituent. Other substituent that cause the same effect are halogens, such as chlorine, which is often found in synthetic organic compounds persistent in the natural environment. Under ambient environmental conditions, explosives are highly persistent in soils and groundwater, exhibiting a resistance to naturally occurring volatilization, bio-degradation, and hydrolysis. Where biodegradation of TNT occurs, 2-AmDNT and 4-AmDNT are the most commonly identified transformation products. Photochemical decomposition of TNT to TNB occurs in the presence of sunlight and water, with TNB being generally resistant to further photo degradation. TNB is subject to biotransformation to 3,5dinitroaniline, which has been recommended as an additional target analyte in EPA Method 8330. Picrate is a hydrolysis transformation product of tetryl, and is expected in environmental samples contaminated with tetryl. Site investigations indicate that TNT is the least mobile of the explosives and most frequently occurring soil contamination problem. RDX and HMX are the most mobile explosives and present the largest groundwater contamination problem. TNB, DNTs, and tetryl are of intermediate mobility and frequently
occur as co-contaminants in soil and groundwater. Metals are cocontaminants at facilities where munitions compounds were handled, particularly at OB/OD sites.
PESTICIDES Sources Pesticides can be classified by target organism, chemical structure, and physical state. Pesticides can also be classed as inorganic, synthetic, or biological (bio pesticides), although the distinction can sometimes blur. Bio pesticides include microbial pesticides and biochemical pesticides. Plantderived pesticides, or "botanicals", have been developing quickly. These include the pyrethroids, rotenoids, nicotinoids, and a fourth group that includes strychnine and scilliroside.
-
Many pesticides can be grouped into chemical families. Prominent insecticide families include organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates. Organochlorine hydrocarbons (e.g. DDT) could be and separated other into
dichlorodiphenylethanes,
cyclodiene
compounds,
related
compounds. They operate by disrupting the sodium/ potassium balance of the nerve fiber, forcing the nerve to transmit continuously. Some major of sources of pesticides is came from chemical warfare developers and is mainly the rough agricultural practices and use of concentrated pesticides and fertilisers which are used for a better yield. Uses Pesticides are used to control organisms that are considered to be harmful. For example, they are used to kill mosquitoes that can transmit potentially deadly diseases like West Nile virus, Yellow Fever, and Malaria. They can also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause allergic reactions. Insecticides can protect animals from illnesses that can be caused by parasites such as
fleas. Pesticides can prevent sickness in humans that could be caused by mouldy food or diseased produce.
-
Herbicides can be used to clear roadside weeds, trees and brush. They can also kill invasive weeds that may cause environmental damage. Herbicides are commonly applied in ponds and lakes to control algae and plants such as water grasses that can interfere with activities like swimming and fishing and cause the water to look or smell unpleasant. Uncontrolled pests such as termites and mould can damage structures such as houses. Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage rodents and insects that infest food such as grain.
Type of hazard produced Pesticides may cause acute and delayed health effects in those who are exposed. Pesticide exposure can cause a variety of adverse health effects. These effects can range from simple irritation of the skin and eyes to more severe effects such as affecting the nervous system, mimicking hormones causing reproductive problems, and also causing cancer. A 2007 systematic review found that "most studies on non-Hodgkin lymphoma and leukaemia showed positive associations with pesticide exposure" and thus concluded that cosmetic use of pesticides should be decreased. Strong evidence also exists for other negative outcomes from pesticide exposure including neurological, birth defects, fatal death, and neurodevelopment disorder.
-
Pesticide use raises a number of environmental concerns. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including non-target species, air, water and soil. Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides are one of the causes of water pollution, and some pesticides are persistent organic pollutants and contribute to soil contamination.
-
In addition, pesticide use reduces biodiversity, reduces nitrogen fixation, contributes to pollinator decline, destroys habitat (especially for birds), and
threatens endangered species. Pests can develop a resistance to the pesticide (pesticide resistance), necessitating a new pesticide. Alternatively a greater dose of the pesticide can be used to counteract the resistance, although this will cause a worsening of the ambient pollution problem.
METALS Sources Almost all metals present in the environment have been biogeochemically cycled since the formation of the Earth. Human activity has introduced additional processes that have increased the rate of redistribution of metals between environmental compartments, particularly since the industrial revolution.
-
Although a few metals occur uncombined in nature, the great majority are found combined in their ores. The separation of metals from their ores is called extractive metallurgy. Metals are mixed with each other in definite amounts to form alloys; a mixture of mercury and another metal is called an amalgam. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, and brass contains copper and zinc. Steel is an alloy of iron and other metals with carbon added for hardness.
Uses Uses of common metals × Iron Cast iron is used for making pipes, sinks, cylinders, stoves and so on. Wrought iron is used for making agricultural implements, wire nets, chairs, nails, etc. It is also used for making cores of electromagnets.
Iron is converted into different kinds of steel. The steel is used for making tools, ships, bridges, machinery, etc.
× Aluminium It is used for making paints and mirrors. It is used for making utensils, aluminium foil, electric wires, etc., as it is malleable and ductile. Since it is a light metal, it is used for making the body of ships, cars, etc. For making alloys such as duralumin and magnesium, etc., which are very strong. These alloys are used for making aircraft, rockets, etc.
× Copper Extensively used for making electric appliances. For making electric conductors for generators and electrical transmission. As electrodes for electroplating applications. Used in printed circuit boards for electric circuits of electronic equipments. For making certain alloys like brass, bronze and German silver.
× Zinc The metal is used principally as a protective coating, or galvanizer, for iron and steel; as an ingredient of various alloys, especially brass; as plates for dry electric cells; and for diecasting. Zinc dust is used as an important reducing agent in the manufacture of synthetic drugs, perfumes, etc.
× Lead Lead is used for making many alloys. It is used for making lead pipes and containers for corrosive liquids.
It is used in storage batteries. It is used for making protective screens for X-rays and other harmful radiations. Underground telephone cables are protected by lead covering.
Type of hazard produced Suspected or proven effects of metals on human health:
Metal
Organic diseases
Neurological and psychiatric effects
Aluminium
Joint pains, bone calcium
Dementia, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, encephalopathy with loss of memory, concentration and mobility
Arsenic
Type 2 diabetes
Damage to nervous system, leading to weakness, deafness, paraesthesia, organic psychoses with drowsiness, agitation, stupor, delirium, schizophrenia
Calcium
Damage to kidneys and lungs, fragile bones, anaemia, increased risk of cancer if inhaled.
No reference found at this stage
Mercury
Brain damage, autoimmune disease (rheumatic arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis), cardiovascular diseases (such as hypertension), liver cancer
Diminished intelligence, speech disorders, restlessness, eggressiveness, visul and hearing disorders, polyneuropathy, myasthenia gravis, Alzheimer’s
Nickel
Allergies, dermatitis, eczema
Headaches, dizziness, lack of sleep
Lead
Haematological and cardiovascular effects (hypertension), kidney damage
Depression that may lead to suicide, lack of attention, damage to visual intelligence and motor functions, memory disorders, learning difficulties, fatigue, agitation, aggressiveness, psychoes, hallucinations, peripheral polyneuropathy, encephalopathy, saturnism (lead poisoning)
Organic zinc
Stomach cramps, nausea, vomiting, anaemia, damage to the pancreas.
Cerebral oedema with nausea, vomiting, dizziness, visual disorders, cramps, forgetfulness, fatigue, lack of interest, headaches, sleeping difficulties.
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Environment effects: × Chromium often accumulates in aquatic life, adding to the danger of eating fish that may have been exposed to high levels of chromium. × (tambah lah lagi... heee copy kat kwn yg lain...)
-
In order for petroleum generation to occur, organic matter such as dead plants or animals must accumulate in large quantities. The organic matter can be deposited along with sediments and later buried as more sediments accumulate on top.
-
The sediments and organic material that accumulate are called source rock. After burial, chemical activity in the absence of oxygen allows the organic material in the source rock to change into petroleum without the organic matter simply rotting.
Uses Most major industrial uses of petroleum are gasoline, jet fuel and heating oil, other uses include natural gas and for the generations of electricity.
-
Other than the major uses of petroleum, other products, like plastic, are used to make toys, computers, houses cars and clothing. The asphalt used in constructing roads is a petroleum product just like rubber for car tires. Wax comes from petroleum, so does fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, detergents, records, film, furniture, packaging, paints, fibers, upholstery and carpet foundations.
Type of hazard produced Occupational Hazards × Burns and other injuries due to occupational accidents at disposal sites × Bone and muscle disorders due to handling of heavy containers × Benzene poses the greatest risk to workers using petroleum solvents containing benzene. Benzene poisoning through inhalation of the vapours evaporating from the solvent and by absorbing it through the skin by handling materials soaked with the solvents. Consequences: rare forms of Leukaemia. Although banned in the US, but still used in some degree in most petroleum solvents in many of the oil producing nations. × Ingestion of petroleum hydrocarbons may result in sudden death from Per acute Bloat. The most common cause of illness or death following exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons is Aspiration Pneumonia which may cause a chronic progressive deterioration of health, with death after several days or weeks. Petroleum hydrocarbons, salt water, and caustic chemicals have the potential of altering rumen flora as well as damaging the urinal and gastrointestinal epithelium
-
Proximity of livestock to drilling operations and production sites often results in poisoning of animals from ingestion of crude oil, condensate, salt water, heavy metals, and caustic chemicals.
-
Commercially available Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is currently derived from fossil fuels. Burning LPG releases CO2, an important greenhouse gas, contributing to global warming. Physical damage – drill site clearance; damage by survey line clearing
-
-
Groundwater loss
× In traditional or conventional petroleum wells, the oil or gas is produced over the life of the well, without much water. As soon as the oil or gas well starts to produce water it indicates that the main production period is over. By contrast, in coal seam methane wells the area around the well/ drill hole is first drained of groundwater at the underground gas level. Only when the underground pressure is reduced, by removing the groundwater, will any significant amount of gas be produced. Once a number of gas wells have been dewatered and tested a decision may be made to produce gas on a commercial basis. At this time a production lease may be applied for and an environmental impact statement prepared. Large amounts of water are removed from the underground aquifers over the life of the gas field, mainly from the coal seams themselves. This may lower the water table on a regional scale, and appropriate disposal methods must also be found for this groundwater. The lowering of the water table, the possibly mixing of previously separate groundwater systems and the disposal of unwanted groundwater all begin within the exploration phase and under an exploration tenement
-
Groundwater contamination Waste water, or ‘produced water’ – surface contamination by dissolved mineral salts or organic compounds; × ‘Produced water’ includes all water produced by drilling, including ground water (or ‘formation water’) and water introduced by the drilling or testing operations. The main type of pollution hazard associated with water produced during the extraction of coal seam methane is the high concentration of dissolved salts. Other possible pollutants include crude oil released by coal-bearing strata into the water in some coalfields.
-
HALOGENATED HYDROCARBON Sources Halogenated hydrocarbons are derivatives of hydrocarbons (that is, organic compounds that only contain carbon and hydrogen atoms) which include some halogen atoms within their chemical structure. The most commonly encountered halogens in halogenated hydrocarbons are fluorine and chlorine, but sometimes bromine or iodine occur, or combinations of any of these.
-
Some halogenated hydrocarbons occur naturally, being synthesized by halogenations reactions occurring during combustion of biomass containing the constituent atoms (that is, carbon, hydrogen, and halogens). For example, these syntheses occur commonly but at low rates during forest fires. However, most species of halogenated hydrocarbons are synthetic, and are manufactured by humans as industrially useful materials, or are incidentally produced as a by-product during industrial chemical reactions, or during the incineration of municipal waste.
Uses Chlorinated hydrocarbons are a well known group, with a wide variety of uses. × A number of these chemicals have been used as insecticides, including DDT, DDD, lindane, chlordane, aldrin, and dieldrin. × Others have been used as herbicides, especially 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. × Polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs have been widely used as dielectric fluids in electrical transformers and for other purposes.
-
Chlorofluorocarbon are another group of halogenated hydrocarbons that have been used extensively in refrigeration, air conditioning, and for cleaning electrons.
Type of hazard produced Dioxins, including the deadly TCDD, are trace contaminants synthesized during the manufacture of other chlorinated hydrocarbons and in spontaneous chlorination reactions in incinerators and pulp mills.
-
Chlorinated
hydrocarbons
are
associated
with
some
well
known
environmental problems, because most of these chemicals are persistent in the environment, and they accumulate in organisms, sometimes causing toxicity. Chlorofluorocarbons or freons are another group of halogenated
hydrocarbons. After their use these chemicals are often discharged to the atmosphere, where they are very persistent, and appear to be involved in ozone-destroying reactions occurring in the stratosphere. This is an important environmental problem, because ozone is critical in screening life on Earth's surface from the deleterious effects of exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation, which can cause skin cancers, cataracts, and other problems. In recognition of the environmental problems associated with these chemicals, the manufacturing and use of chlorofluorocarbons are rapidly being curtailed through international agreements.
NON-HALOGENATED HYDROCARBON Sources Uses Type of hazard produced
EXPLOSIVES Sources All chemical explosives, whether solid, liquid, or gas, consist of a fuel, a substance that burns, and an oxidizer, a substance that provides oxygen for the fuel. The burning and the resulting release and expansion of gases during explosions can occur in a few thousandths or a few millionths of a second. The rapid expansion of gases produces a destructive shockwave. The greater the pressure of the shockwave, the more powerful the blast.
-
Fire or combustion results when a substance combines with oxygen gas. Many substances that are not explosive by themselves can explode if oxygen is nearby. Turpentine, gasoline, hydrogen, and alcohol are not explosives. In the presence of oxygen in the air, however, they can explode if ignited by a flame or spark.
-
The reaction of oxygen with other atoms such as nitrogen and carbon can produced the most power chemical explosives. Nitrogen is usually introduced through the action of nitric acid, which is often mixed with sulphuric acid. Nitrogen is an important component of common chemical explosives like TNT, nitro-glycerine, gunpowder, guncotton, nitrocellulose, picric acid, and ammonium nitrate.
-
Another source of explosion can happen when very fine powders or dust mixes with air in an enclosed space. Anytime a room or building is filled with dust of flammable substances such as wood, coal, or even flour, a spark can start a fire that will spread so fast through the dust cloud that an explosion will result. Dust explosions such as these have occurred in silos where grain is stored.
Uses Explosives continue to have many important peacetime uses in fields like engineering, construction, mining, and quarrying. They propel rockets and space shuttles into orbit. Explosives are also used to bond different metals, like those in United States coins, together in a tight sandwich. Explosives carefully applied to carbon produce industrial diamonds for as cutting, grinding and polishing tools.
-
"Slurry explosives," are liquid and can be poured into place. One popular explosive for industrial use is made from fertilizers like ammonium nitrate or urea, fuel oil, and nitric or sulphuric acid. This "ammonium nitrate-fuel oil" or ANFO explosive has replaced dynamite as the explosive of choice for many peacetime uses.
-
Other explosives in use today include PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate), Cyclonite or RDX, a component of plastic explosives, and Amatol, a mixture of TNT (trinitrotoluene) and ammonium nitrite.
-
Nuclear explosives have evolved too. They are more compact than they were in the mid-part of the century. Today they fit into artillery shells and missiles launched from land vehicles. Weapons designers also have created "clean" bombs that generate little radioactive fallout and "dirty" bombs that generate more radioactive fallout than older versions. Explosions of "neutron" bombs have been designed to kill humans with neutron radiation but cause little damage to buildings compared to other nuclear explosives.
Type of hazard produced Secondary explosives (TNT, HMX, and RDX) have historically been discussed within the realm of safety related issues versus an HTRW waste classification perspective.
-
Explosives-contaminated process waste waters can be subdivided into two categories: red water from the manufacture of TNT and pink water which
include any wash water associated with load, assemble, and pack operations or with the demilitarization of munitions involving contact with finished explosive. Despite their names, red and pink water cannot be identified by colour. Both are clear when they emerge from their respective processes and subsequently turn pink, light red, dark red, or black when exposed to light. The chemical composition of pink water varies depending on the process and explosive operation from which it is derived; red water has a more defined chemical composition. Pink water is a wastewater generated in the production and handling of high explosive munitions. The principal contaminants in pink water are
trinitrotoluene (TNT) and cyclo trimethylene trinitramine (RDX); they are transferred to water in wash down operations, and washout and steamout of old munitions. TNT and RDX are persistent contaminants that are regulated in discharges from Army Ammunition Plants. Chemical compounds such as TNT and RDX are resistant to aerobic attack because the nitro compounds act as electron-withdrawing substituent. Other substituent that cause the same effect are halogens, such as chlorine, which is often found in synthetic organic compounds persistent in the natural environment. Under ambient environmental conditions, explosives are highly persistent in soils and groundwater, exhibiting a resistance to naturally occurring volatilization, bio-degradation, and hydrolysis. Where biodegradation of TNT occurs, 2-AmDNT and 4-AmDNT are the most commonly identified transformation products. Photochemical decomposition of TNT to TNB occurs in the presence of sunlight and water, with TNB being generally resistant to further photo degradation. TNB is subject to biotransformation to 3,5dinitroaniline, which has been recommended as an additional target analyte in EPA Method 8330. Picrate is a hydrolysis transformation product of tetryl, and is expected in environmental samples contaminated with tetryl. Site investigations indicate that TNT is the least mobile of the explosives and most frequently occurring soil contamination problem. RDX and HMX are the most mobile explosives and present the largest groundwater contamination problem. TNB, DNTs, and tetryl are of intermediate mobility and frequently
occur as co-contaminants in soil and groundwater. Metals are cocontaminants at facilities where munitions compounds were handled, particularly at OB/OD sites.
PESTICIDES Sources Pesticides can be classified by target organism, chemical structure, and physical state. Pesticides can also be classed as inorganic, synthetic, or biological (bio pesticides), although the distinction can sometimes blur. Bio pesticides include microbial pesticides and biochemical pesticides. Plantderived pesticides, or "botanicals", have been developing quickly. These include the pyrethroids, rotenoids, nicotinoids, and a fourth group that includes strychnine and scilliroside.
-
Many pesticides can be grouped into chemical families. Prominent insecticide families include organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates. Organochlorine hydrocarbons (e.g. DDT) could be and separated other into
dichlorodiphenylethanes,
cyclodiene
compounds,
related
compounds. They operate by disrupting the sodium/ potassium balance of the nerve fiber, forcing the nerve to transmit continuously. Some major of sources of pesticides is came from chemical warfare developers and is mainly the rough agricultural practices and use of concentrated pesticides and fertilisers which are used for a better yield. Uses Pesticides are used to control organisms that are considered to be harmful. For example, they are used to kill mosquitoes that can transmit potentially deadly diseases like West Nile virus, Yellow Fever, and Malaria. They can also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause allergic reactions. Insecticides can protect animals from illnesses that can be caused by parasites such as
fleas. Pesticides can prevent sickness in humans that could be caused by mouldy food or diseased produce.
-
Herbicides can be used to clear roadside weeds, trees and brush. They can also kill invasive weeds that may cause environmental damage. Herbicides are commonly applied in ponds and lakes to control algae and plants such as water grasses that can interfere with activities like swimming and fishing and cause the water to look or smell unpleasant. Uncontrolled pests such as termites and mould can damage structures such as houses. Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage rodents and insects that infest food such as grain.
Type of hazard produced Pesticides may cause acute and delayed health effects in those who are exposed. Pesticide exposure can cause a variety of adverse health effects. These effects can range from simple irritation of the skin and eyes to more severe effects such as affecting the nervous system, mimicking hormones causing reproductive problems, and also causing cancer. A 2007 systematic review found that "most studies on non-Hodgkin lymphoma and leukaemia showed positive associations with pesticide exposure" and thus concluded that cosmetic use of pesticides should be decreased. Strong evidence also exists for other negative outcomes from pesticide exposure including neurological, birth defects, fatal death, and neurodevelopment disorder.
-
Pesticide use raises a number of environmental concerns. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including non-target species, air, water and soil. Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides are one of the causes of water pollution, and some pesticides are persistent organic pollutants and contribute to soil contamination.
-
In addition, pesticide use reduces biodiversity, reduces nitrogen fixation, contributes to pollinator decline, destroys habitat (especially for birds), and
threatens endangered species. Pests can develop a resistance to the pesticide (pesticide resistance), necessitating a new pesticide. Alternatively a greater dose of the pesticide can be used to counteract the resistance, although this will cause a worsening of the ambient pollution problem.
METALS Sources Almost all metals present in the environment have been biogeochemically cycled since the formation of the Earth. Human activity has introduced additional processes that have increased the rate of redistribution of metals between environmental compartments, particularly since the industrial revolution.
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Although a few metals occur uncombined in nature, the great majority are found combined in their ores. The separation of metals from their ores is called extractive metallurgy. Metals are mixed with each other in definite amounts to form alloys; a mixture of mercury and another metal is called an amalgam. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, and brass contains copper and zinc. Steel is an alloy of iron and other metals with carbon added for hardness.
Uses Uses of common metals × Iron Cast iron is used for making pipes, sinks, cylinders, stoves and so on. Wrought iron is used for making agricultural implements, wire nets, chairs, nails, etc. It is also used for making cores of electromagnets.
Iron is converted into different kinds of steel. The steel is used for making tools, ships, bridges, machinery, etc.
× Aluminium It is used for making paints and mirrors. It is used for making utensils, aluminium foil, electric wires, etc., as it is malleable and ductile. Since it is a light metal, it is used for making the body of ships, cars, etc. For making alloys such as duralumin and magnesium, etc., which are very strong. These alloys are used for making aircraft, rockets, etc.
× Copper Extensively used for making electric appliances. For making electric conductors for generators and electrical transmission. As electrodes for electroplating applications. Used in printed circuit boards for electric circuits of electronic equipments. For making certain alloys like brass, bronze and German silver.
× Zinc The metal is used principally as a protective coating, or galvanizer, for iron and steel; as an ingredient of various alloys, especially brass; as plates for dry electric cells; and for diecasting. Zinc dust is used as an important reducing agent in the manufacture of synthetic drugs, perfumes, etc.
× Lead Lead is used for making many alloys. It is used for making lead pipes and containers for corrosive liquids.
It is used in storage batteries. It is used for making protective screens for X-rays and other harmful radiations. Underground telephone cables are protected by lead covering.
Type of hazard produced Suspected or proven effects of metals on human health:
Metal
Organic diseases
Neurological and psychiatric effects
Aluminium
Joint pains, bone calcium
Dementia, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, encephalopathy with loss of memory, concentration and mobility
Arsenic
Type 2 diabetes
Damage to nervous system, leading to weakness, deafness, paraesthesia, organic psychoses with drowsiness, agitation, stupor, delirium, schizophrenia
Calcium
Damage to kidneys and lungs, fragile bones, anaemia, increased risk of cancer if inhaled.
No reference found at this stage
Mercury
Brain damage, autoimmune disease (rheumatic arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis), cardiovascular diseases (such as hypertension), liver cancer
Diminished intelligence, speech disorders, restlessness, eggressiveness, visul and hearing disorders, polyneuropathy, myasthenia gravis, Alzheimer’s
Nickel
Allergies, dermatitis, eczema
Headaches, dizziness, lack of sleep
Lead
Haematological and cardiovascular effects (hypertension), kidney damage
Depression that may lead to suicide, lack of attention, damage to visual intelligence and motor functions, memory disorders, learning difficulties, fatigue, agitation, aggressiveness, psychoes, hallucinations, peripheral polyneuropathy, encephalopathy, saturnism (lead poisoning)
Organic zinc
Stomach cramps, nausea, vomiting, anaemia, damage to the pancreas.
Cerebral oedema with nausea, vomiting, dizziness, visual disorders, cramps, forgetfulness, fatigue, lack of interest, headaches, sleeping difficulties.
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Environment effects: × Chromium often accumulates in aquatic life, adding to the danger of eating fish that may have been exposed to high levels of chromium. × (tambah lah lagi... heee copy kat kwn yg lain...)
