Philosophy

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philosopher from from Miletus in Asia in Asia Minor , and one of the Seven Sages of Greece Greece.. Many, most notably Aristotle notably Aristotle,, regard him Thales a pre-Socratic  pre-Socratic Greek philosopher  as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition tradition.According .According to Bertrand Russell, Russell, "Western philosophy begins with Thales.Thales attempted to explain natural phenomena without reference to mythology and was tremendously influential in this respect. Almost all of the other pre-Socratic philosophers follow him in attempting to provide an explanation of ultimate substance, change, and the existence of the world -- without reference to mythology. Those philosophers were also influential, and eventually Thales' rejection of mythological explanations became an essential idea for the scientific revolution.. He was also the first to define general principles and set forth hypotheses, and as a result has been dubbed the "Father of Science". revolution Greek  Pre-Socratic Pre-Socratic  philosopher also philosopher also known as the father of philosophy active in the latter half of the 6th century BC BC.. One Anaximenes was an Archaic an Archaic Greek stud ent of  Anaximander   Anaximander . Anaximenes, like others in his school of thought, of the three Milesian philosophers, he is identified as a younger friend or student practiced material monism. monism. This tendency to identify one specific underlying reality made up of a material thing constitutes the bulk of the contributions for which Anaximenes is most famed. Other Phenomena

 Anaximenes used his observations and r easoning to provide causes f or other natural phenomena on the earth as well. Earthquakes he asserted were the result either of lack of moisture, which causes the earth to break apart because of how parched it is, or of overabundance thereof, which also causes cracks in the earth because of the excess of water. In either case the earth becomes weakened by its cracks and hills collapse, causing earthquakes. Lightning is also caused by a violent separation, this time of clouds by winds to create a bright, fire-like flash. Rainbows are formed when densely compressed air is touched by the rays of the sun.[11] These examples further show how Anaximenes like the other Milesians looked for the broader picture in nature, seeking unifying causes for diversely occurring events rather than treating each one on a case-by-case basis or attributing them to gods or a personified pers onified nature. Heraclitus was a pre-Socratic  pre-Socratic Greek philosopher , a native of the Greek city Ephesus Ephesus,, Ionia, Ionia, on the coast of   Asia Asia Minor . He was of distinguished parentage. Little is known about his early life and education, but he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the riddling nature of his philosophy and his contempt for humankind in general, he was called "The Obscure," and the "Weeping Philosopher."

Heraclitus is famous for his doctrine of change being central to the universe universe,, as stated in his famous saying, "You cannot step twice into the same river." He believed in the unity of opposites, opposites, stating that "the path up and down is one and the same," existing things being characterized by pairs of  contrary properties, and other explorations of the concept of dualism. His cryptic utterance that "all things come to be in accordance with this Logos, has been the subject of numerous interpretations. Anaximander was a pre-Socratic  pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus, Miletus, a city of Ionia of  Ionia;; Milet in modern Turkey Turkey.. He belonged to the Milesian school  school  and learned the teachings of his master Thales master Thales.. He succeeded Thales and became the second master of that school where he counted Anaximenes counted  Anaximenes   and Pythagoras amongst his pupils.

 Anaximander was one of the earliest Greek thinkers at the start of the Axial the  Axial Age, Age, the period from approximately 700 BC to 200 BC, during which similarly revolutionary thinking appeared in China, India, Iran, the Near East, and Ancient Greece. He was an early proponent of science of science and tried to observe and explain different aspects of the universe, with a particular interest in its origins, claiming that nature is ruled by laws, just like human philosophy   societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long. Like many thinkers of his time, Anaximander's contributions to philosophy relate to many disciplines. Parmenides was an ancient Greek Greek  philosopher  philosopher born born in Elea Elea,, a Greek city on the southern coast of Italy of  Italy.. He was the founder of the Eleatic school of 

philosophy. The single known work of Parmenides is a poem which has survived only in fragmentary form. In this poem, Parmenides describes two philosophy. Way of Truth Truth (a part of the poem), he explains how reality is one, change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, and views of reality of reality.. In The Way of  Way of  Opini on, he explains the world of appearances, which is false and deceitful. These thoughts strongly influenced Plato, unchanging. In The Way of  Plato, and through him, the whole of Western of Western philosophy. philosophy. was a Greek Greek  pre-Socratic philosopher and philosopher and a citizen of   Agrigentum, Agrigentum, a Greek city in Sicily Sicily.. Empedocles' philosophy is best known for being four Classical elements elements.. He also proposed powers called Love and Strife which would act as forces to the originator of the cosmogenic theory of the four Classical bring about the mixture and separation of the elements. These physical speculations were part of a history of the universe which also dealt with the Pythagoreans,, he supported the doctrine of reincarnation of reincarnation.. Empedocles is generally considered the last origin and development of life of  life.. Influenced by the Pythagoreans Greek philosopher to record his ideas in verse. Some of his work still survives today, more so than in the case of any other Presocratic philosopher. Empedocles' death was mythologized by ancient writers, and has been the subject of a number of literary treatments. Empedocles

Democritus was an Ancient philosopher born born in Abdera, in Abdera, Thrace Thrace,, Greece Greece.. He was an influential pre-Socratic philosopher and pupil of Leucippus of  Leucippus,, an Ancient Greek philosopher 

cosmos.. who formulated an atomic theory for the cosmos His exact contributions are difficult to disentangle from his mentor Leucippus mentor Leucippus,, as they are often mentioned together in texts. Largely ignored in Athens in  Athens,,  Aristotle. Plato is said to have disliked him so much that he wished all Democritus was nevertheless well-known to his fellow northern-born philosopher  Aristotle. his books burnt.Many consider Democritus to be the "father of modern science". Ionian  Greek Greek  philosopher  philosopher and and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism Pythagoreanism.. Most of our information about Pythagoras was an Ionian Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, thus very little reliable information is known about him. His followers pursued the religious rites and practices developed by Pythagoras, Pyt hagoras, and studied his philosophical philosophic al theories. The Pythagorean meeting-places were burned, and Pythagoras P ythagoras was forced to flee the city. Pythagoras made influential contributions to philosophy and religious teaching in the late 6th century BC. He is often revered as a great mathematician, mathematician, mystic and scientist scientist,, and he is best known for the Pythagorean theorem which bears his name. However, because legend and obfuscation cloud his work even more than with the other  other pre-Socratic pre-Socratic philosophers philosophers,, one can say little with confidence about his teachings, and some have questioned whether he contributed much to mathematics and natural philosophy philosophy.. It was said that he was the first man to call himself a philosopher, or lover of 

wisdom, and Pythagorean ideas exercised a marked influence on Plato Plato,, and through him, all of  of Western Western philosophy philosophy..

 

Protagoras was a pre-Socratic  pre-Socratic Greek  Greek philosopher  philosopher and and is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato. Plato. In his dialogue P r  ro   ta tago gora ras s, Plato credits him with having invented the role of the professional sophist or teacher of virtue. He is also believed to have created a major controversy during ancient times through his statement that man is the measure of all things. This idea was very revolutionary for the time and contrasting to other philosophical doctrines that claimed the universe was based on something objective, outside the human influence. Philosophy

Protagoras was also renowned as a teacher who addressed subjects connected to virtue and political life. He was especially involved in the question of  whether virtue could be taught, a commonplace issue of 5th Century BC Greece. Rather than educators who offered specific, practical training in rhetoric or public speaking, Protagoras attempted att empted to formulate a reasoned understanding, on a very general level, of a wide range of human rtho oepeia, or the correct use of words. phenomena. He also seems to have had an interest in orth His most famous saying is: "Man is the measure of all things: of things which are, that they are, and of things which are not, that they are not". Protagoras was a proponent of agnosticism of  agnosticism.. In his lost work, On the Gods Gods, he wrote: "Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not or of what sort they may be, because of the obscurity of the subject, and the brevity of human life. was a Classical Greek  Greek Athenian   Athenian philosopher . Credited as one of the founders of Western of Western philosophy philosophy,, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon,  Aristophanes. Many would claim that Plato's dialogues are the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity.  Aristophanes. Socrates

Plato's 's dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics of  ethics,, and it is this Platonic Socrates who Through his portrayal in Plato also lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, method, or elenchu elenchus s. It is Plato's Socrates that also made important and lasting contributions to the fields fi elds of  of epistemology epistemology and logic logic,, and the influence of his ideas and approach remains strong in providing a foundation for much western philosophy that followed.  As one recent commentator has put it, Plato, the idealist, offers "an idol, a master figure, for philosophy. A Saint, a prophet of the 'Sun-God', a teacher  condemned for his teachings as a heretic. Yet, the 'real' Socrates, like many of the other Ancient philosophers, remains at best enigmatic and at worst unknown. The Socratic problem

Forming an accurate picture of the historical Socrates and his philosophical viewpoints is problematic at best. This issue is known as the Socratic problem.. problem Socrates did not write philosophical texts. The knowledge of the man, his life, and his philosophy is based on writings by his students and contemporaries. Foremost among them is Plato Plato;; however, works by Xenophon Xenophon,, Aristotle,  Aristotle, and Aristophanes and Aristophanes also provide important insights. The difficulty of finding the ³real´ Socrates arises because these works are often philosophical or dramatic texts rather than straightforward histories. Aside from Thucydides and Xenophon, there are in fact no straightforward histories contemporary with Socrates that dealt with his own time and place. A corollary of this is that sources that do mention Socrates do not necessarily claim to be historically accurate, and are often partisan. However, it is also clear from other writings, and historical artifacts that Socrates was not simply a character, or invention, of Plato. The testimony of  Xenophon and Aristotle, alongside some of Aristophanes' work (especially The Cl ouds), can be usefully engaged in fleshing out our perception of  Socrates beyond Plato's work. Plato was a Classical  Greek  philosopher , mathematician, mathematician, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy the Academy in Athens in  Athens,, the first institution of  Classical  Greek

higher learning in the Western world. world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, Socrates , and his student, Aristotle student, Aristotle,, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western of Western philosophy and science. science. Plato was originally a student of Socrates, and was as much influenced by his thinking as by his apparently unjust execution. Plato's sophistication as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues; dialogues; thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have been ascribed to him. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts. Plato's dialogues have been used to teach a range of subjects, including philosophy, philosophy, logic, logic, rhetoric and mathematics mathematics.. Metaphysics

"Platonism" is a term coined by scholars to refer to the intellectual consequences of denying, as Socrates often does, the reality of the material world. In several dialogues, most notably the Republic, Socrates inverts the common man's intuition about what is knowable and what is real. While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real. In the Theaetetus Theaetetus, he says such people are "eu a-mousoi", an expression that means literally, "happily without the muses". In other  words, such people live without the divine inspiration that gives him, and people like him, access to higher insights about reality.

The word metaphysics from thetofact that Aristotle's musings divine reality came after ("meta") lecture division notes onofhis treatise ("physics"). The term isderives in fact applied Aristotle's own teacher, andabout Plato's "metaphysics" is understood ashis Socrates' reality intoon thenature warring and irreconcilable domains of the material and the spiritual. The theory has been of incalculable influence in the history of Western philosophy and religion. Aristotle was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato of  Plato and teacher of   Alexander Alexander the Great Great.. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, physics , metaphysics, poetry,, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates, Socrates, Aristotle is metaphysics, poetry

 

one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics. Renaissance,, although  Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics. physics. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late nineteenth century into modern formal logic logic.. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism metaphysics, Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages Ages,, and it continues to influence Christian theology theology,, especially Eastern Orthodox theology theology,, and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church Church.. His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue of  virtue ethics ethics.. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Thomas Aquinas was an Italian priest of the Catholic Church in the Dominican Order , and an immensely influential philosopher  philosopher and and theologian theologian   in the tradition of scholasticism of  scholasticism,, known as Doctor Angelicus and Doctor Communis or Doctor Universalis. He is frequently referred to as Thomas because "Aquinas" refers to his r esidence rather than his surname. He was the foremost classical classic al proponent of  of natural natural theology theology,, and the father of the

Saint

Thomistic school or of as philosophy and theology. influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern ideas, , particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law and political theory.philosophy was conceived as a reaction against, an agreement with, hisHis ideas  Aquinas is held in the Catholic Church to be the model teacher for those studying for the priesthood. priesthood. The works for which he is best-known are the S umma umma Theo Theol og  og ica ica and the S umma umma C ontra Gentiles Gentiles . One of the 33 Doctors of the Church Church,, he is considered the Church's greatest theologian and philosopher. Philosophy

By profession, Aquinas was a theologian rather than a philosopher. Indeed he nowhere characterizes himself as a philosopher, and the references to philosophers found in his own work refer to pagans rather than Christians. He was, nonetheless, a masterfully skilled philosopher. Much of his work bears upon philosophical topics, and in this sense may be characterized as philosophical. Aquinas' philosophical thought has exerted enormous influence on subsequent Christian theology, especially that of the Roman Catholic Church, extending to Western philosophy in general. Aquinas stands as a vehicle and modifier of Aristotelianism, Augustinian Neoplatonism and Proclean Neoplatonism. Epistemology

 Aquinas believed "that for the knowledge of any truth whatsoever man needs divine help, that the intellect may be moved by God to its act. However, he believed that human beings have the natural capacity to know many things without special divine revelation revelation,, even though such revelation occurs from time to time, "especially in regard to [topics of] faith. St.

Augustine was Bishop of  of Hippo Hippo Regius. Regius. He was a Latin Latin-speaking -speaking philosopher and philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Roman  Africa   Africa Province. Province.

of Plotinus Plotinus After his conversion to Christianity and In his early years he was heavily influenced by Manichaeism and afterward by the Neo-Platonism of  baptism, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and different perspectives. He believed that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom and fr amed the concepts of original of  original sin and and just  just war . When the Roman Empire in the West was starting to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God , distinct City of  of G God  was closely identified with the church, from the material Earthly City.His thought profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. Augustine's City  the community that worshipped God God.. of Königsberg.. Kant was the last influential philosopher of modern Kant was an 18th-century German philosopher from philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Europe in the classic sequence of the theory of knowledge during the Enlightenment beginning with thinkers John Locke, Locke, George Berkeley Berkeley,, and David Hume..[1]  Hume Immanuel

Kant created a new perspective in philosophy which had widespread influences on philosophy continuing through to the 21st century. century. He published ure important works on epistemology epistemology,, as well as works relevant to religion, law, and history. One of his most prominent works is the Critique of  P ure Reaso Rea son n, an investigation into the limitations and structure of reason itself. It encompasses an attack on traditional metaphysics and epistemology, epistemology, and ractical Reaso Reason n, which concentrates on highlights Kant's own contribution to these areas. The other main works of his maturity are the Critique of  P ractical ethics, and the Critique of  ethics, of Ju Judg  dg ment  ment , which investigates aesthetics and teleology. teleology. Kant suggested that metaphysics can be reformed through epistemology.He suggested that by understanding the sources and limits of human knowledge we can ask fruitful metaphysical questions. He asked if an object can be known to have certain properties prior to the experience of that object. He concluded that all objects about which the mind can think must conform to its manner of thought. Therefore if the mind can think only in terms of causality ± which he concluded that it does ± then we can know prior to experiencing them that all objects we experience must either be a cause or an effect. And so the grand questions of speculative metaphysics cannot be answered by the human mind, but the sciences are firmly grounded in laws of the mind. Kant¶s thought was very influential in Germany during his lifetime, moving philosophy beyond the debate between the rationalists and empiricists. The philosophers Fichte, Fichte, Schelling Schelling,, Hegel and Schopenhauer  Schopenhauer each each saw themselves as correcting and expanding the Kantian system, thus bringing about various forms of German of  German idealism. idealism. Kant continues to be a major influence on philosophy, influencing both analytic and continental philosophy. philosophy. Wilhelm Nietzsche was a 19th-century German German  philosopher and philosopher and classical philologist philologist.. Nietzsche's influence remains substantial within and postmodernism. His key ideas include the death of God God,, perspectivism perspectivism,, the Übermensch Übermensch,, the eternal beyond philosophy, notably in existentialism and postmodernism. recurrence,, and the will to power . recurrence

Friedrich

Nietzsche began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy.

 

Death of God, nihilism, perspectivism

The statement "God "God is dead", dead", occurring in several of Nietzsche's works (notably in The Gay S cience cience), has become one of his best-known remarks. On atheist;; others suggest that this statement reflects a more subtle understanding of divinity. In the basis of it, most commentators regard Nietzsche as an atheist Nietzsche's view, recent developments in modern science and the increasing secularization of European society had effectively 'killed' the Christian God, who had served as the basis for meaning and value in the West for more than a thousand years. Nietzsche claimed the death of God would eventually lead to the loss of any universal perspective on things, and along with it any coherent sense of  objective truth. Instead we would retain only our own multiple, diverse, and fluid perspectives. This view has acquired the name "perspectivism " perspectivism". ". nihilism,, the belief that nothing has any inherent importance and that life  Alternatively, the death of God may lead beyond bare perspectivism to outright nihilism lacks purpose. As Heidegger put the problem, "If God as the suprasensory ground and goal of all reality is dead, if the suprasensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory and above it its vitalizing and upbuilding power, then nothing more remains to which man can cling and by which Thus s S  p  pok  ok e Zarathus Zarathustra, therein introducing the concept of a value-creating Übermensch he can orient himself. Developing this idea, Nietzsche wrote Thu Übermensch..  According to Lampert, "the death of God must be followed by a long twilight of piety and nihilism Zarathustra's gift of the superman is given to a mankind not aware of the problem to which the superman is the solution. sociologist, and prominent classical liberal liberal  political theorist of the Victorian era era.. Herbert Spencer  was an English  English philosopher , sociologist, Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution of  evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human ethics, religion, anthropology, economics, mind, and human culture and societies. As a polymath, polymath, he contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, political theory, philosophy, biology, sociology, and psychology. He is best known for coining the concept " survival of the fittest fittest", ", which he did in Darwin's 's On the Ori g  g in in of   S  pecie  pecies s. This term strongly suggests natural selection, selection, yet as Spencer extended P rinciples rinciples of  Bi ol og  og y y  , after reading Charles Darwin evolution into realms of sociology and ethics, he also made use of Lamarckism of  Lamarckism.. Evolution

The first clear articulation of Spencer¶s evolutionary perspective occurred in his essay, 'Progress: Its Law and Cause', published in Chapman's Westmin Wes tmins ster Review in 1857, and which later formed the basis of the Fir st P rinciples rinciples of a of  a New  S y  y stem of  P hil  hil oso oso phy  . Spencer posited that all

structures in the universe develop from a simple, undifferentiated, homogeneity to a complex, differentiated, heterogeneity, while being accompanied by a process of greater integration of the differentiated parts. This evolutionary process could be found at work, Spencer believed, throughout the cosmos. g in in of  S  pecie  pecies s which was published two This attempt to explain the evolution of complexity was radically different from that to be found in Darwin¶s Ori g  years later. Spencer is often, quite erroneously, believed to have merely appropriated and generalized Darwin¶s work on natural selection. selection. But although after reading Darwin's work he coined the phr ase ''survival survival of the fittest fittest'' as his own term for Darwin's concept, and is often misrepresented as a thinker  who merely applied the Darwinian theory to society, he only grudgingly incorporated natural selection into his preexisting overall system.

is a term applied to the work of a number of 19thof 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences, generally held that the focus of philosophical thought should be to deal with the conditions of existence of the individual person and their emotions, actions, responsibilities, and thoughts.[3][4] The early 19th century philosopher Søren philosopher  Søren Kierkegaard, Kierkegaard, posthumously regarded as the father of existentialism,   sincerely,,  in spite of  maintained that the individual is solely responsible for giving his or her own life meaning and for living that life passionately and sincerely angst,, absurdity, absurdity, alienation, alienation, and boredom boredom.. many existential obstacles and distractions including despair , angst

Existentialism

Subsequent existential philosophers retain the emphasis on the individual, but differ, in varying degrees, on how one achieves and what constitutes a fulfilling life, what obstacles must be overcome, and what external and internal factors are involved, including the potential consequences of the existenceor non-existence existenceor  non-existence of God. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy, in both style and content, as War years years as a way to reassert the too abstract and remote from concrete human experience. Existentialism became fashionable in the post-World post- World War  importance of human individuality and freedom. f reedom. Nietzsche,, though it had forerunners in Existentialism is foreshadowed most notably by 19th-century philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche earlier centuries. Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is determined solely by its utility in providing happiness or pleasure as summed among all

of consequentialism,, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome. The most influential sentient beings. It is thus a form of consequentialism contributors to this ideology were Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill Mill.. Utilitarianism was described by Bentham as "the g reates reatest happiness happiness or g reates reatest f  t  f elicity  elicity  principle. Utility, the good to be maximized, has been defined by various thinkers as happiness or  or pleasure pleasure,, although preference utilitarians define it as the satisfaction of preferences. It may be described as a life stance,, with happiness stance h appiness or pleasure being of  of ultimate ultimate importance importance.. Utilitarianism can be characterised as a quantitative and reductionist approach to ethics. It can be contrasted with deontological ethics (which do not regard the consequences of an act as being a determinant of its moral worth) and virtue ethics (which focuses on character ), ), as well as with other  varieties of consequentialism consequentialism.. In general usage, the term utilitarian refers to a somewhat narrow economic or pragmatic viewpoint. Philosophical utilitarianism, however, is a much broader view that encompasses all aspects of people's lives. Types of Utilitarianism

 

Act v  v rule rule

 Act utilitarianism states that, when faced with a choice, we must first consider the likely consequences of potential actions and, from that, choose to do what we believe will generate most pleasur e. Collapse of rule utilitarianism into act utilitarianism

It has been argued that rule utilitarianism collapses into act utilitarianism, because for any given rule, in the case where breaking the rule produces more utility, the rule can be sophisticated by the addition of a sub-rule that handles cases like the exception. This process holds for all cases of  exceptions, and so the 'rules' will have as many 'sub-rules' as there are exceptional cases, which, in the end, makes an agent seek out whatever  outcome produces the maximum utility. Two-level

Two-level utilitarianism states that one should normally use 'intuitive' moral thinking, in the form of rule utilitarianism, because it usually maximizes happiness. However there are some times when we must ascend to a higher 'critical' level of reflection in order to decide what to do, and must think as an act utilitarian would. Motive

The motive approach attempts to deal realistically with how human beings actually function psychologically. Negative Negative utilitarianism requires us to promote the least amount of evil or harm, or to prevent the greatest amount of suffering of  suffering for the greatest

number.

v total total Average v 

this type of utilitarianism falls victim to the Repugnant Conclusion, Conclusion, whereby large numbers of people with very low but non-negative utility values can be seen as a better goal than a population of a less extreme size living in comfort. In other words, according to the theory, it is a moral good to breed more people on the world for as long as total happiness rises.  Communism is a sociopolitical movement that aims for a classless and stateless stateless  society society  structured upon communal ownership of property of  property..

Karl Marx posited that communism would be the final stage in society society,, which would be achieved through a proletarian revolution and only possible after  a transitional stage develops the productive forces, leading to t o a superabundance of  of goods goods and services services.. "Pure communism" communism" in the Marxian sense refers to a classless, stateless society, one where decisions on what to produce and what policies to pursue are made in the best interests of the collective society with the interests of every member of society given equal weight in the practical decision-making process in both the political and economic spheres of life. In modern usage, communism is often used to refer to the policies of the various communist states,, which were authoritarian governments that had centrally planned economies and ownership of all the means of production. states production. Most communist governments based their ideology on Marxism-Leninism Marxism-Leninism..  As a political ideology, communism is usually considered to be a branch of socialism of  socialism,, a broad group of economic and political philosophies that draw on Revolution.. Communism various political and intellectual movements with origins in the work of theorists of the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution attempts to offer an alternative to the problems with the capitalist capitalist  market economy and the legacy of imperialism of  imperialism and nationalism. nationalism.

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