Printing

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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. Typically used for texts, the invention andspread of the printing press are widely regarded as the most influential events in the second millennium AD,[1] revolutionizing the way people conceive and describe the world they live in, and ushering in the period of modernity.[2] The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg in around 1440, based on existing screw presses. Gutenberg, a goldsmith by profession, developed a complete printing system, which perfected the printing process through all of its stages by adapting existing technologies to printing purposes, as well as making groundbreaking inventions of his own. His newly devised hand mould made for the first time possible the precise and rapid creation of metalmovable type in large quantities, a key element in the profitability of the whole printing enterprise. The mechanization of bookmaking led to the first mass production of books in history in assembly line-style.[3] A single Renaissance printing press could produce 3,600 pages per workday,[4]compared to forty by typographic hand-printing and a few by hand-copying.[5] Books of bestselling authors like Luther or Erasmus were sold by the hundreds of thousands in their lifetime.[6] From a single point of origin, Mainz, Germany, printing spread within several decades to over 200 cities in a dozen European countries.[7] By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes.[7] In the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies.[7] The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to an entire new branch of media, the press.[8] As early as 1620, the English statesman and philosopherFrancis Bacon could write that typographical printing has "changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world".[9] From its beginnings, printing was practiced also as a true art form, setting a high aesthetic and artistic standard, such as in the famous 42-line Bible. Today, incunables, or books printed before 1501, are among the most prized possessions of modern libraries. The unprecedented impact of Gutenberg-style printing on the long-term development of modern European and then world history is difficult to capture in its entirety. Attempts at analysing its manifold effects include the notion of a proper Printing Revolution and the creation of the Gutenberg

Galaxy. The ready availability and affordability of the printed word to the general public boosted thedemocratization of knowledge and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy. In Renaissance Europe, the arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the era of mass communication which permanently altered the structure of society: The relatively unrestricted circulation of information and (revolutionary) ideas transcended borders, captured the masses in theReformation and threatened the power of political and religious authorities; the sharp increase inliteracy broke the monopoly of the literate elite on education and learning and bolstered the emergingmiddle class. Across Europe, the increasing cultural self-awareness of its peoples led to the rise of proto-nationalism, accelerated by the flowering of the European vernacular languages to the detriment of Latin's status as lingua franca.[10] In the 19th century, the replacement of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press by steam-powered rotary presses allowed printing on anindustrial scale,[11] while Western-style printing was adopted all over the world, becoming practically the sole medium for modern bulk printing. Contents [hide]


1 History


1.1 Economic conditions and intellectual climate 1.2 Technological factors

○ • • •

2 How a printing press works 3 Gutenberg's press 4 The Printing Revolution


4.1 Mass production and spread of printed books 4.2 Circulation of information and ideas

○ • • •

5 Book printing as art form 6 Industrial printing presses 7 Printing capacity

• • • •

8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links

[edit]History [edit]Economic conditions and intellectual climate See also: History of capitalism and Medieval university

Medieval university class (1350s) The rapid economic and socio-cultural development of late medieval society in Europe created favorable intellectual and technological conditions for Gutenberg's invention: the entrepreneurial spirit of emerging capitalism increasingly made its impact on medieval modes of production, fostering economic thinking and improving the efficiency of traditional workprocesses. The sharp rise of medieval learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the timeconsuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating.[12] [edit]Technological factors See also: History of Western typography and Medieval technology At the same time, a number of medieval products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. Gutenberg took up these far-flung strands, combined them into one complete and functioning system, and perfected the printing process through all its stages by adding a number of inventions and innovations of his own:

Early modern wine press. Such screw presses were applied in Europe to a wide range of uses and provided Gutenberg with the model for his printing press. The screw press which allowed direct pressure to be applied on flat-plane was already of great antiquity in Gutenberg's time and was used for a wide range of tasks.[13] Introduced in the 1st century AD by the Romans, it was commonly employed in agricultural production for pressingwine grapes and (olive) oil fruit, both of which formed an integral part of the mediterranean and medieval diet.[14] The device was also used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns.[15] Gutenberg may have also been inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century and which worked on the same mechanical principles.[16] Gutenberg adopted the basic design, thereby mechanizing the printing process.[17] Printing, however, put a demand on the machine quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the pressing power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the printing process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed.[18]

Movable type sorted in a letter case and loaded in a composing stick on top The concept of movable type was not entirely new in the 15th century; sporadic evidence that thetypographical principle, the idea of creating a text by reusing individual characters, was well understood and employed in preGutenberg Europe had been cropping up since the 12th century and possibly before. The known examples range from Germany (Prüfening inscription) to England (letter tiles) to Italy.[19] However, the various techniques employed (imprinting, punching and assembling individual letters) did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps. A goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today.[20] The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a special hand mould, the matrix.[21] The Latin alphabet proved to be an enormous advantage in the process because, in contrast to logographic writing systems, it allowed the type-setter to represent any text with a theoretical minimum of only around two dozen different letters.[22] Another factor conducive to printing arose from the book existing in the format of the codex, which had originated in the Roman period. [23] Considered the most important advance in the history of the book prior to printing itself, the codex had completely replaced the ancient scrollat the onset of the Middle Ages (500 AD).[24] The codex holds considerable practical advantages over the scroll format; it is more convenient to read (by turning pages), is more compact, less costly, and, in particular, unlike the scroll, both recto and verso could be used for writing − and printing.[25]

A paper codex of the acclaimed 42-line Bible, Gutenberg's major work A fourth development was the early success of medieval papermakers at mechanizing papermanufacture. The introduction of water-powered paper mills, the first certain evidence of which dates to 1282,[26] allowed for a massive expansion of production and replaced the laborious handcraft characteristic of both Chinese[27] and Muslim papermaking.[28] Papermaking centres began to multiply in the late 13th century in Italy, reducing the price of paper to one sixth of parchment and then falling further; papermaking centers reached Germany a century later.[29] Despite this it appears that the final breakthrough of paper depended just as much on the rapid spread of movable-type printing.[30] It is notable that codices of parchment, which in terms of quality is superior to any other writing material,[31] still had a substantial share in Gutenberg's edition of the 42-line Bible.[32] After much experimentation, Gutenberg managed to overcome the difficulties which traditional water-based inks caused by soaking the paper, and found the formula for an oil-based ink suitable for high-quality printing with metal type.[33] [edit]How a printing press works

This woodcut from 1568 shows the left printer removing a page from the press while the one at right inks the text-blocks. Such a duo could reach 14,000 hand movements per working day, printing around 3,600 pages in the process.[4] A printing press, in its classical form, is a standing mechanism, ranging from 5 to 7 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 7 feet tall. Type arranged into pages is placed in a frame to make a forme, which itself is placed onto a flat stone or 'bed'. The type is inked, and the paper is held between a frisketand tympan (two frames covered with paper or parchment). These are folded down, so that the paper lies on the surface of the inked type. The bed is rolled under the platen, using a windlass mechanism, and the impression is made with a screw that transmits pressure through the platen. Then the screw is reversed, the windlass turned again to move the bed back to its original position, the tympan and frisket raised and opened, and the printed sheet removed. Such presses were always worked by hand. After around 1800, iron presses were developed, some of which could be operated by steam power. [edit]Gutenberg's press See also: Letterpress printing Johannes Gutenberg's work on the printing press began in approximately 1436 when he partnered with Andreas Dritzehn—a man he had previously instructed in gem-cutting—and Andreas Heilmann, owner of a paper mill. [34] However, it was not until a 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg that an

official record exists; witnesses' testimony discussed Gutenberg's types, an inventory of metals (including lead), and his type molds.[34] Having previously worked as a professional goldsmith, Gutenberg made skillful use of the knowledge of metals he had learned as a craftsman. He was the first to make type from an alloy oflead, tin, and antimony, which was critical for producing durable type that produced high-quality printed books and proved to be much better suited for printing than all other known materials. To create these lead types, Gutenberg used what is considered one of his most ingenious inventions,[34] a special matrix enabling the quick and precise molding of new type blocks from a uniform template. His type case is estimated to have contained around 290 separate letter boxes, most of which were required for special characters, ligatures, punctuation marks, etc.[35] Gutenberg is also credited with the introduction of an oil-based ink which was more durable than the previously used water-based inks. As printing material he used both paper and vellum (high-quality parchment). In the Gutenberg Bible, Gutenberg made a trial of coloured printing for a few of the page headings, present only in some copies.[36] A later work, the Mainz Psalter of 1453, presumably designed by Gutenberg but published under the imprint of his successors Johann Fust andPeter Schöffer, had elaborate red and blue printed initials.[37] [edit]The Printing Revolution The phenomenon of the Printing Revolution can be approached from a quantitative perspective which has its focus on the printing output and the spread of the related technology. It can also be analysed in terms of how the wide circulation of information and ideas acted as an "agent of change" (Eisenstein) in Europe and global society in general. [edit]Mass production and spread of printed books See also: Global spread of the printing press and List of early modern newspapers

Spread of printing in the 15th century from Mainz, Germany

The European book output rose from a few million to around one billion copies within a span of less than four centuries.[38] The invention of mechanical movable type printing led to an explosion of printing activities in Europe within only a few decades. From a single print shop in Mainz, Germany, printing had spread to no less than around 270 cities in Central, Western and Eastern Europe by the end of the 15th century.[39] As early as 1480, there were printers active in 110 different places in Germany, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, England, Bohemia and Poland.[7] From that time on, it is assumed that "the printed book was in universal use in Europe".[7] In Italy, a center of early printing, print shops had been established in 77 cities and towns by 1500. At the end of the following century, 151 locations in Italy had seen at one time printing activities, with a total of nearly three thousand printers known to be active. Despite this proliferation, printing

centres soon emerged; thus, one third of the Italian printers published in Venice.[40] By 1500, the printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million copies.[7] In the following century, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies.
[7]

European printing presses of around 1600 were capable of producing 3,600 impressions per workday.[4] By comparison, movable type printing in the Far East, which did not know presses and was solely done by manually rubbing the back of the paper to the page,[41] did not exceed an output of forty pages per day.[5] The vast printing capacities meant that individual authors could now become true bestsellers: Of Erasmus's work, at least 750,000 copies were sold during his lifetime alone (1469–1536).[42] In the early days of the Reformation, the revolutionary potential of bulk printing took princes and papacy alike by surprise. In the period from 1518 to 1524, the publication of books in Germany alone skyrocketed sevenfold; between 1518 and 1520, Luther's tracts were distributed in 300,000 printed copies.
[43]

The rapidity of typographical text production, as well as the sharp fall in unit costs, led to the issuing of the first newspapers (see Relation) which opened up an entirely new field for conveying up-to-date information to the public.[44] A lasting legacy are the prized incunable, surviving pre-16th century print works which are collected by many of the most prestigious libraries in Europe and North America.[45] [edit]Circulation of information and ideas See also: The Gutenberg Galaxy

"Modern Book Printing" sculpture, commemorating its inventor Gutenberg on the occasion of the 2006 World Cup in Germany The printing press was also a factor in the establishment of a community of scientists who could easily communicate their discoveries through the establishment of widely disseminated scholarly journals, helping to bring on the scientific revolution.[citation needed] Because of the printing press,authorship became more meaningful and profitable. It was suddenly important who had said or written what, and what the precise formulation and time of composition was. This allowed the exact citing of references, producing the rule, "One Author, one work (title), one piece of information" (Giesecke, 1989; 325). Before, the author was less important, since a copy ofAristotle made in Paris would not be exactly identical to one made in Bologna. For many works prior to the printing press, the name of the author has been entirely lost.[citation needed] Because the printing process ensured that the same information fell on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents, and indices became common, though they previously had not been unknown.[citation needed] The process of reading also changed, gradually moving over several centuries from oral readings to silent, private reading.[citation needed] The wider availability of printed materials also led to a drastic rise in the adult literacy rate throughout Europe.[citation needed] The printing press was an important step towards the democratization of knowledge.[46][47] Within fifty or sixty years of the invention of the printing press, the entire classical canon had been reprinted and widely

promulgated throughout Europe (Eisenstein, 1969; 52). Now that more people had access to knowledge both new and old, more people could discuss these works. Furthermore, now that book production was a more commercial enterprise, the first copyright laws[citation needed]were passed to protect what we now would call intellectual property rights[citation needed]. On the other hand, the printing press was criticized for allowing the dissemination of information which may have been incorrect.[48][49] A second outgrowth of this popularization of knowledge was the decline of Latin as the language of most published works, to be replaced by the vernacular language of each area, increasing the variety of published works. The printed word also helped to unify and standardize the spelling and syntax of these vernaculars, in effect 'decreasing' their variability. This rise in importance of national languages as opposed to pan-European Latin is cited as one of the causes of the rise of nationalism in Europe. [edit]Book printing as art form For years, book printing was considered a true art form. Typesetting, or the placement of the characters on the page, including the use ofligatures, was passed down from master to apprentice. In Germany, the art of typesetting was termed the "black art," in allusion to the ink-covered printers. It has largely been replaced by computer typesetting programs, which make it easy to get similar results more quickly and with less physical labor. Some practitioners continue to print books the way Gutenberg did. For example, there is a yearly convention of traditional book printers in Mainz, Germany. Some theorists, such as McLuhan, Eisenstein, Kittler, and Giesecke, see an "alphabetic monopoly" as having developed from printing, removing the role of the image from society. Other authors stress that printed works themselves are a visual medium. Certainly, modern developments in printing have revitalized the role of illustrations. [edit]Industrial printing presses

Koenig's 1814 steam-powered printing press At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, the mechanics of the handoperated Gutenberg-style press were still essentially unchanged, although new materials in its construction, amongst other innovations, had gradually improved its printing efficiency. By 1800, Lord Stanhope had built a press completely from cast iron which reduced the force required by 90%, while doubling the size of the printed area.[50] With a capacity of 480 pages per hour, it doubled the output of the old style press.[51] Nonetheless, the limitations inherent to the traditional method of printing became obvious. Two ideas altered the design of the printing press radically: First, the use of steam power for running the machinery, and second the replacement of the printing flatbed with the rotary motion of cylinders. Both elements were for the first time successfully implemented by the German printerFriedrich Koenig in a series of press designs devised between 1802 and 1818. [52] Having moved to London in 1804, Koenig soon met Thomas Bensley and secured financial support for his project in 1807.[50] Patented in 1810, Koenig had designed a steam press "much like a hand press connected to a steam engine."[50] The first production trial of this model occurred in April 1811. He produced his machine with assistance from German engineer Andreas Friedrich Bauer. Koenig and Bauer sold two of their first models to The Times in London in 1814, capable of 1,100 impressions per hour. The first edition so printed was on November 28, 1814. They went on to perfect the early model so that it could print on both sides of a sheet at once. This began the long process of making newspapers available to a mass audience (which in turn helped spread literacy), and from the 1820s changed the nature of book production, forcing a greater standardization in titles and other metadata. Their company Koenig & Bauer AG is still one of the world's largest manufacturers of printing presses today. The steam powered rotary printing press, invented in 1843 in the United States by Richard M. Hoe,[53] allowed millions of copies of a page in a single day. Mass production of printed works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, as continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a much faster pace. Also, in the middle of the 19th century, there was a separate development of jobbing presses, small presses capable of printing small-format pieces such as billheads, letterheads, business cards, and envelopes. Jobbing

presses were capable of quick set-up (average setup time for a small job was under 15 minutes) and quick production (even on treadle-powered jobbing presses it was considered normal to get 1,000 impressions per hour [iph] with one pressman, with speeds of 1,500 iph often attained on simple envelope work).[citation needed] Job printing emerged as a reasonably cost-effective duplicating solution for commerce at this time. By the late 1930s or early 1940s, printing presses had increased substantially in efficiency: a model by Platen Printing Press was capable of performing 2,500 to 3,000 impressions per hour.[citation needed] What are the Advantages Of Print Media over a number of other advertising media formats.

The advertising media format of the moment has to be Online advertising - but does it clean up in every department? The traditionalists (and magazine and newspaper publishers) will say no and the fact of the matter is that magazine advertising and newspaper advertising does have its advantages in the media advertising mix. One of the main advantages of print media is its capacity to excite and stimulate when people are in a relaxed frame of mind. Even though Internet Advertising has the edge in cost per lead terms, it is print media that seems to stay with us. If you run a campaign of magazine advertisements you are unlikely to be able to monitor the effectiveness of that schedule in direct response terms. However, print media seems to be moving away from direct response

anyway and is now positioning itself as a corporate, brand awareness or back-up media to other formats of advertising. One of the other main advantages of print media is its credibility. If you see it in print, it usually holds a higher position of respect and value - one thing that the internet is falling down on, due to the fact that it is very much a content-led format and therefore depends very much on results from search engines. Of course, people who want to make money from ad clicks are abusing this, by putting up very poor content. Whatever you say about print media, it is here to stay and continues to be a valuable tool for advertisers, publishers and readers like you and me. Take a look at our magazine and newspaper media listings in our media database. The print media is considered to be one of the most flourishing industries today. This medium is also particularly very popular to reach the target audience for advertisers. The different types of print media give a plethora of options for people to reach a varied bracket of users. So, be it newspapers or magazines, every medium has its particular advantages, a thing which should be considered to be of utmost importance by all advertisers and clients. However, print media also has its own disadvantages. Here, we shall take a quick look at the advantages and disadvantages of print media. Advantages of Print Media: • Different types of print media (newspapers and magazines) have a loyal readership. This can be very useful for advertisers as compared to advertising on the Internet. • If you are targeting a particular geographical area, you can do so with ease through print media. For example, a local newspaper would be a best medium to advertise about a new shopping complex. • You can choose the size of the advertisement space. This will help you to plan the budget of the expenses to be incurred while advertising.

• Certain forms of print media have a very loyal fans following in terms of readers. This would guarantee you added readership. • Magazines and newspapers are always in the eye amongst public. Magazines are read for a period of a month, which brings more attention to an advertisement. • You can even advertise through brochures or leaflets depending upon your target audience. If the information is in detail, a brochure can prove to be an apt option. A leaflet in that case, would be useful for a brief message. Disadvantages of Print Media: • The cost incurred can sometimes be expensive considering the medium you choose. • The shelf life of any particular print medium is limited. Newspapers for example, are amongst the public eye only for a day. • This medium may not always give you a wide reach. Internet, on the other hand, can target a global audience. • There is a limitation in terms of the kind of people who may actually read your message. The particular newspaper may not actually be accessible every time to your target group, which means, your message may be missed! The Internet on the other hand, can be accessed from anywhere. • You may have to plan months in advance to advertise in print media. It does not offer you flexibility when you are faced with a tight deadline. • Advertisements may get lost in all the clutter of editorial and ads by competitors. Thus, we can see, there are certain pros and cons of print media. With proper planning, you can opt for the right form to gain maximum coverage and make the best of this medium!

Printing, a manufacturing industry, experienced an industry decline after technological changes-especially the Internet-created more competition. Printing still maintains a solid ranking among industries, according to the Collegegrad website. Related Searches: • Digital Printing Services • Flyer Printing Companies 1. Industry Size


The printing industry was one of the larger manufacturing industries as of 2004, with industry projections up through 2014, according to the Collegegrad website. The industry employs 665,000 wage and salary workers, and 33,000 self-employed and unpaid family workers. Working Conditions Working conditions vary within the industry by specific job. Press operators work in noisy environments that require ear protection. Other jobs require attention to fine detail that can have a fatiguing effect. The average nonsupervisory employee worked a 38.4 hour week, compared with 40.8 hours across manufacturing industries, according to the Collegegrad website. Wages



○ Print production workers earned an average weekly wage of $604, lower than the $659 average weekly wage for production workers across all manufacturing industries. Outlook ○ Increased Internet use and printing process computerization have led to industry decline, which will continue. There is a decreased demand for some printed materials as more users now turn to the Internet for leisure reading and research.

1872 - 1877 A series of photographs can be viewed by stroboscopic disc. 1884 1887 George Eastman invents flexible photographic film.

Thomas Edison patents motion picture camera. 1888 Edison attempts to record picture photos onto a wax cylinder. 1891 - 1895 Dickson shoots numerous 15 second motion picturesusing Edison's kineograph, his motion picture camera. 1895 First public demonstration of motion pictures displayed in France. 1897 Development of the Cathode Ray Tube by Ferdinand Braun. 1907 Use of cathode ray tube to produce television images. 1923 Patent for the iconoscope, the forerunner of the picture tube. 1927 Talking films begin with Al Jolson in "The Jazz Singer". Early 1930s RCA conducts black and white broadcasting experiments. 1936 First television broadcast made available in London. 1938 Initial proposal for color TV broadcast made by George Valensi. 1945 There were fewer than 7,000 working TV sets in the country and only nine stations on the air; three in New York, two each in Chicago and Los Angeles, and one each in Philadelphia and Schenectady, N.Y. RCA that same month holds its first public demonstration of a new TV camera offering a sharper image than those then in use. Near the end of October, Gimbel's Department Store in Philadelphia holds the first large-scale TV demonstration. More than 25,000 people come over three weeks for a chance to watch NBC programs from New York and local shows sent out by Philco's Philadelphia station. 1946

The Blue Network, part of NBC, officially becomes theABC network. A 1941 FCC ruling required RCA to divest itself of one of its two networks; NBC Blue was sold in 1943 to Edward Noble for $8 million, and becomes ABC in 1945. NBC and Gillette stage what's billed as the first "television sports extravaganza" -- the Joe Louis-Billy Conn heavyweight fight at Yankee Stadium -- in June. The fight is a viewing success with an estimated audience of 150,000 watching 5,000 sets. For every TV set tuned into the fight, there are, on average, 30 people watching, many seeing an event on TV for the first time. In October, the Television Broadcasters Association declares "television is ready to proceed on an expanded basis," and that the new industry is "well on the way to becoming one of the most important in the nation." 1947 "Howdy Doody," a children's series, premieres live on NBC in December as a onehour Saturday program. Symbolic of the first generation nurtured on TV, the show remains on the air until 1960. In May, live theater equivalent to the Broadway stage comes to TV on a regular, commercially sponsored basis with the premiere of "Kraft Television Theatre." In March, FCC postpones final decisions on Color TV but reaffirms a goahead on existing standards. NBC debuts "Meet the Press," a kind of made-for-TV news conference. It goes on to become the oldest series on network TV. 1948 "The Ed Sullivan Show" (originally "Toast of the Town") makes its debut in June. Sponsored by Lincoln-Mercury, the show becomes one of

TV's longest-running and most successful variety series. The show airs on CBS into 1971, spurring the advancement of scores of show business careers. Advertisers accept the medium: Throughout the year, 933 sponsors buy TV time, a rise of 515% over 1947. By the fall, FCC has issued 108 licenses for new stations, with hundreds more applications pending across the nation. The earliest cable systems are born in remote areas of Pennsylvania and Oregon. Known then as Community Antenna Television, its function was simply to bring TV signals into communities where off-air reception was either non-existent or poor because of interfering mountains or distance. B.F. Goodrich sponsors the new TV series of radio comedy team George Burns and Gracie Allen. Milton Berle makes his TV debut in September as the master of ceremonies on"The Texaco Star Theater," which runs until 1956. By November, Mr. Berle is so popular the show earns the highest rating yet -- 86.7% of all TV households. 1949 By January, number of TV stations grows to 98 in 58 market areas. A special broadcast in January inaugurates East-Midwest TV linkage. Included in the broadcast is a one-hour sampler with the networks displaying their best: Arthur Godfrey for CBS, Ted Steele for DuPont, Milton Berle and Harry Richman for NBC, and for ABC a mystery show called "Stand By for Crime." The event moves Chicago Tribune to report: "The end of dull sustaining filler on television screens appears to be in sight." FCC adopts the Fairness Doctrine, making broadcasters responsible for seeking out and presenting all sides of an issue when covering controversy. (Earlier in the Communications Act of 1934 broadcasters were required to give "equal air time" to candidates running in elections.) U.S. Dept. of Commerce confirms TV's selling power when it reports in May: "Television's combination of moving pictures, sound and immediacy

produces an impact that extends television as an advertising medium into the realm of personal sales solicitation."

Betty Furness starts pitching refrigerators and appliances in TV spots for Westinghouse, launching a relationship that lasts more than 11 years and makes her one of the first stars created for commercial TV. 1950 In January, Arthur Godfrey and Faye Emerson are named most pleasing personalities in Look's TV awards show on CBS. National sponsors exit radio for TV at record rates, moving Varietyto describe the exodus as "the greatest exhibition of mass hysteria in biz annals." 1951 "Omnibus," one of commercial TV's most honored cultural series, debuts. Hosted byAlistair Cooke, the program takes in $5.5 million in advertising revenues during five years on the air, against $8.5 million in costs. "I Love Lucy," a half-hour filmed TV sitcom, is born. The show, unlike the live TV productions typical of the time, ranks No. 1 in the nation for four of its first six full seasons. It is sponsored by Philip Morris. CBS broadcasts the first color program on June 21, but only 25 receivers can accommodate mechanical color. Viewers of 12 million existing sets see only a blank screen.

"Hallmark Hall of Fame" series launches in December with "Amahl and the Night Visitors." 1952 National Association of Radio & Television Broadcasters ratifies a new Television Code establishing guidelines for content and addressing the concerns of social critics. Nearly half the code is devoted to advertising. In response to protests about program content, a House subcommittee investigates "offensive" and "immoral" TV programs and touches on wide range of topics -- from beer spots to dramas depicting suicide. Bob Hope takes his comedy from radio to TV when "The Bob Hope Show" debuts in October. Borden's Elsie the Cowbeats out actor Van Johnson and U.S. Sen. Robert Taft in recognition polls as one of America's most familiar faces. NBC's "Today" show, first and longest-running early-morning network show, bows with host Dave Garroway and chimpanzee sidekick J. Fred Muggs. By year's end, the number of TV households grows to 20 million, up 33% from previous year. U.S. advertisers spend a record $288 million on TV time, an increase of 38.8% from 1951. 1953 Color broadcasting officially arrives in the U.S. on Dec. 17, when FCC approves modified version of an RCA system. 1954

"Captain Kangaroo" the first network kids show, begins on CBS.

The Hamm's bear is introduced in a TV spot that initially runs as a sequel to a 1953 Hamm's commercial that featured beavers beating on tom-toms. The first color commercial televised in a local show was commissioned in March by Castro Decorators, New York, in a contract with WNBT. It was first telecast on Aug. 6. 1954 NBC launches "The Tonight Show," featuring comedian Steve Allen, on Sept. 27. For nearly four decades -until CBS' "Late Show With David Letterman" enters the scene in 1993 -- the show dominates late night. In April, groundwork is laid for the Television Advertising Bureau. For the first time, television is the leading medium for national advertising. 1955 Immensely popular daytime radio show "Queen For A Day" shifts to TV in January. Between radio and TV, the show had a run of nearly 20 years, although widely criticized as an exploitation of human misery, wrapped in commercial plugs. At the peak of popularity, NBC increased the show's length from 30 to 45 minutes to gain time to sell at the premium ad rate of $4,000 per minute.

Future U.S. President Ronald Reagan becomes host of "General Electric Theater," long-running anthology series on CBS (1953-61) in which many top Hollywood film stars appeared. One of NBC's perennial specials -- "Peter Pan" with Mary Martin and Cyril Richard -- first telecast in March as a live production. It's billed as the first network presentation of a full Broadway production. Videotape later makes it possible to present the show annually for several years. The classic Western series "Gunsmoke" begins its 20-year run on CBS. "The $64,000 Question," sponsored by Revlon, premieres in June on CBS, igniting a U.S. game show craze. 1956 Videotape is introduced by Ampex Corp. at a CBS-TV affiliates' session. Most TV shows at the time are produced by the kinescopeprocess. The 1939 movie "Wizard of Oz" debuts in November on CBS's "Ford Star Jubilee." After more than three decades of exposure, the feature is considered one of the most successful single programs in TV history and the longest continually sponsored theatrical movie on TV. 1957 Variety reports in May that during a typical week, viewers encounter 420 commercials totaling 5 hours, 8 minutes. By August, for the first time, more countries worldwide allow TV advertising than forbid it. < Host Jack Paar revives NBC-TV's "Tonight" show beginning on July 29. In an October report in the Journal of the American Medical Association, Dr. Meyer Naide identifies "television legs," blood clots that result from watching TV too long. CBS's "Ed Sullivan" show is the year's most-watched network program, with a 50.4 average audience rating. 1958 There are 525 cable TV systems serving 450,000 subscribers in the U.S. In February, CBS takes out a two-page ad in TV Guide in which it warns

the public: "Free television as we know it cannot survive alongside pay television." Advertising Age reports "videotape seems to be catching on like wildfire." By October, 61 TV stations in the U.S. use tape. By the end of the TV season, there are 22 network quiz shows; 18% of NBC's programming alone consists of quizzes. In August,contestant Herbert Stempel charges "Twenty-One" is rigged, triggering a congressional investigation. In December, Edward R. Murrow writes in TV Guide that viewers must recognize "television in the main is being used to distract, delude, amuse and insulate us." By year's end, ad expenditures in radio and TV cross the $2 billion mark. 1959 The cartoon ad character Mister Magoo becomes the nearsighted spokesman for General Electric bulbs. NBC's Sunday night hit "Bonanza"makes its debut. It becomes the highest-rated program of the 1960s and is on the air 14 years. 1960 DuPont Co. begins a two-year sponsorship of the "June Allyson Show," a series of dramatic plays. The first of four "great debates" between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon is broadcast on Sept. 26 across the country, breaking new ground in presidential campaigning. The most popular shows of the year include "Gunsmoke" and "Wagon Train." Audience share figures regularly exceed 50% for many of the most popular entries in prime time.

1961

In search of added profit, ABC stretches the station break between programs to 40 seconds from 30. The other networks follow. FCC Chairman Newton Minow delivers a May 9 speech in which he denounces U.S. TV as a "vast wasteland," calling for heightened federal regulation of the medium. The same day, Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey calls U.S. TV "the greatest single achievement in communication that anybody or any area of the world has ever known ." 1963 The New York chapter of the Congress of Racial Equalitypersuades Lever Bros. to air a network commercial featuring anAfrican-American, a spot for Wisk detergent that shows a black boy and white boy at play. On Aug. 28, Dr. Martin Luther Kingdelivers his "I have a dream" speech as millions watch on TV. On Nov. 22, President Kennedy is shot by a sniper in downtown Dallas, and TV coverage of the assassination and the funeral grip the nation and the world for four days. Shortly thereafter, Jack Ruby shoots accused presidential assassin Lee Harvey Oswald on an NBClive broadcast as the latter is being transported by law officials. TV surpasses newspapers as an information source for the first time; a November Roper poll indicates 36% of Americans find TV a more reliable source, compared with the 24% who favor print. Instant replay adds a new dimension to televised sports when it's featured in a telecast of an Army-Navy football game. In 1964, it becomes a standard technique and goes on to become controversial in the NFL. 1964

Negative political TV advertising is born with the "Daisy" spot for Lyndon Johnson's presidential candidacy, in which a mushroom cloud suggests GOP candidate Barry Goldwater would not hesitate to use nuclear warfare. Debate over the airing of cigarette commercials heats up after the U.S. Surgeon General issues a report finding smoking a health hazard. FCC issues its first cable regulation: Operators are required to black out programming that comes in from distant markets and duplicates a local market station's own programming, if the local station demands it. There are about 1 million homes wired for cable in the U.S. at the time.

73 million viewers tune in to the appearance on the "Ed Sullivan Show" of the British pop group, the Beatles. CBS is the champion of the "Big 3" networks -- demanding $50,000 from advertisers for a prime-time minute, while ABC brings in $45,000 and NBC brings in $41,000 for the same time. WOR-TV, New York, is the first station to air a program comprised only of commercials. The special features spots selected as Clio award winners at an earlier American Television Commercials Festival. It runs uninterrupted (without paid messages) until the end of the telecast, when two paid commercials are aired. 1965 Color TV booms as NBC leads the way and begins to use the phrase "The Full Color Network". By year's end, 96% of NBC's nighttime schedule is broadcast in color, along with all major programs, sports events and specials.

1966 A live-action representation of the comic strip Batman is brought to TV and achieves instant success with its star, Adam West. A New York Times Magazine article reports: "TV is not an art form or a cultural channel; it is an advertising medium ... it seems a bit churlish and unAmerican of people who watch television to complain that their shows are lousy. They are not supposed to be any good. They are supposed to make money." 1967 An opinion survey sponsored by National Association of Broadcasters shows a high level of public dissatisfaction with TV commercials and programs. Sixty-three percent of those surveyed would prefer TV without commercials. 1968 Manufacturers churn out 11.4 million new TV sets, up from the 5.7 million receivers made in 1960. NAB Code Authority increases scrutiny of violence in TV programming after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. and U.S. Sen. Robert F. Kennedy, a presidential candidate. Spending for TV in presidential campaigns increases to $27 million, from $10 million in 1960. 1969 Public Broadcasting Service begins, and in November launches "Sesame Street," one of the most influential achievements in children's TV. On July 20, astronaut Neil Armstrong takes mankind's first step on the moon as millions of U.S. viewers watch the historic event live on network TV. The U.S. Supreme Court applies the Fairness Doctrine to cigarettes -granting anti-smoking forces "equal time" on the air to reply to tobacco commercials. That same year, the FCC issues a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking to ban cigarette ads on TV and radio. As Congress debates the issue, tobacco companies and certain members of the Senate hold

discussions in which cigarette advertisers, in order to stave off controls on the sale of cigarettes, agree to stop advertising them on the air. 1970 FCC enacts the Financial Interest Syndication Rules (effective 1971), prohibiting the three major networks from owning and controlling the rebroadcast of prime-time shows. The rules ended controversial policies of withholding or delaying network hits from independent stations that could then program them against network news and prime-time fare. In the same action, FCC enacts the Prime Time Access Rule, limiting the networks' use of peak viewing time to three hours per night. The rule effectively shaved off 30 minutes of prime-time programming from the networks each night and returned it to the local stations in the top 50 markets. Action for Children's Television petitions the FCC to eliminate all commercials from children's TV programs, citing a variety of shortcomings in terms of quality and regulation of advertising. The petition fueled existing debate within the industry about advertising and children.

Coca-Cola's "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing" commercial saturates the radio and broadcast airwaves, becoming an instant hit. Coca-Cola goes on to sell a million records featuring a non-commercial version of the popular jingle. 1971 The transition from 60-seconds to 30-seconds as the standard length for commercials takes hold. The change began in the 1960s with the controversial practice of "piggybacking," or putting messages for two related products from one company into the same one-minute commercial. The networks cast aside concerns about corporate relationships and began selling 30-second units. As of Jan. 2, the 1970 congressional ban on radio and TV cigarette advertising takes effect, stripping the broadcast business of about $220 million in advertising.

The landmark series "All In The Family" debuts on CBS as one of the first sitcoms to contain realistic characters, mature themes and frank dialog. The show becomes the highestrated TV program of the decade, with a 23.1 average rating. There were 212 episodes done during its nine seasons on the air. "The Ed Sullivan Show" comes to an end after 23 seasons on CBS. Mr. Sullivan, the master of ceremonies for the show, dies in 1974. 1972 In response to growing concern over TV's effect on children, NAB and the networks agree to reduce commercial time in children's weekend fare from 16 minutes an hour to 12 minutes an hour (effective Jan. 1, 1973). Revisions in the code do away with "tie-ins," the mention of products in a program context, and with the use of program hosts or cartoon characters as the commercial pitchman. 1973 Variety reports in April that by a margin of 5-1, Americans judge TV commercials as "a fair price to pay for being able to view the programs." The Senate Watergate Hearings begin May 17. Together ABC, CBS and NBC offer almost 300 hours of rotated coverage, estimated to have cost a combined total of $10 million in lost ad revenues and air time. 1974 NAB adds additional curbs on ads to children, with a new policy limiting non-program material in weekend children's fare to 10 minutes hourly, effective Jan .1 , 1975. 1975 The Robert McNeil Report (later the McNeil-Lehrer Report) introduces a new news format to public broadcasting with the support of AT&T Co.

KNTV, San Jose, Calif., becomes the first U.S. station to run a TV commercial for Trojan condoms. The spot ran despite a NAB code that banned commercials for contraceptives. A study by the Council on Children, Media, and Merchandisingreveals that approximately 50% of ads in children's programming from 1965 to 1975 were for food, primarily sugared cereals, cookies, candies, and soft drinks; 30% were for toys. Time Inc. initiates the concept of linking satellite programming to cable systems with the launch of Home Box Office. On Sept. 30, the heavyweight boxing championship bout between Joe Frazier and Muhammad Ali is broadcast from Manila. Family viewing time is incorporated into the NAB TV code. It was decided that the time before 9 p.m. was supposed to be devoted to all members of the household. This results in a marked drop in violence on the air in "family time" during the 1975-76 season. In November 1976, a federal court overturns the policy, deeming it a violation of free speech. "Gunsmoke" comes to an end after a 20 year run on CBS. The show finishes among the top 10 programs 13 times. 1976 Ted Turner's WTBS, Atlanta, becomes a "superstation" to viewers in much of the U.S. via cable TV.

1977 More than 75% of TV-equipped homes are able to receive color on one or more sets.

ABC airs the first episode of its 26-hour miniseries "Roots"Jan. 23. The Jan. 30 installment becomes the third most-watched TV program in history, earning a 51% rating.

A Mississippi minister, Rev. Donald Wildmon, and his grass-roots protest group, American Family Association, organize a national "Turn Off TV Week" in February. Gross TV advertising revenues this year rise to $7.5 billion -- 20% of all U.S. advertising 1978 Viacom's Showtime cable network launched in March. Warner Cable establishes an interactive/videotex system called QUBE Ohio. Viewers were able to participate in public opinion polls by punching buttons their homes. Warner ended the experiment in 1984. 1979 A TV Guide poll in May indicates 44% of Americans are unhappy with what they find on their TV screens and 49% are watching TV less than they did a few years earlier. ESPN, a total sports network, makes its debut on cable. It becomes the largest and most successful basic cable channel, carried by virtually every cable system, and reaches more than 57 million households.

ESPN

1980 "Who Shot J.R?" a November episode of CBS' hit TV show "Dallas," reveals the identity of the attacker of J.R. Ewing (played by Larry Hagman) and breaks records by a drawing a 53.3 rating and 76 share.

Ted Turner's Cable News Network is born, lining up TV's two major sponsors, Procter & Gamble Co. and General Foods. In March, Walter Cronkite steps down after 19 years of anchoring the CBS evening news and is replaced by Dan Rather. Nielsen produces its first Cassandra ratings report for syndicated programming. MTV: Music Televisionmakes its debut in August. 1982 Alberto-Culver Co. experiments with "split 30" commercials. The test is not received warmly by the networks, which accept the commercials at the insistence of the advertiser but seek restrictions on use. Federal Judge Harold Greene outlaws NAB's TV code -- created for industry self-regulation -- in "U.S. vs. NAB." Court held the code violated the Sherman Anti-Trust Act by artificially increasing cost. Home ShoppingNetwork is launched.

1983

The final episode of "M*A*S*H" draws the largest audience in TV history. More than 125 million homes tuned in. The going rate for a : 30 on the 2 1/2-hour finale was $450,000. On Nov. 11, ABC broadcasts "The Day After," a two-hour made-for-TV film about thermonuclear war between the U.S. and Soviet Union, Because of its controversial nature, the movie appears with few advertisers but demolished the ratings of other TV programs that night. 1984 During the third quarter of the Super Bowl, Apple Computerintroduces the Macintosh computer with a 60-second Orwellian epic commercial called "1984," created by Chiat/Day. The spot, which cost $400,000 to produce and $500,000 to broadcast in its single national paid airing, launches a new computer technology, turns the Super Bowl into a major ad event and begins an era of advertising as news. Superstar Michael Jackson makes a highly publicized Pepsi-Cola commercial, and during a shoot his hair accidentally catches fire, requiring surgery to his scalp. The campaign, is considered the forerunner of big-budget celebrity ads. With the deregulation of the cable industry, Tele-Communications Inc. aggressively begins buying cable systems nationwide. By the end of the decade, TCI will have spent nearly $3 billion for 150 cable companies. 1985 In March, Capital Cities Communications buys ABC for $3.5 billion -proving network TV no longer remains an untouchable institution. 1986 In January, the anonymous "Herb" becomes the object of a national, $40 million manhunt by Burger King in what becomes the most elaborate advertising flop of the decade. The effort is dropped after four months. NBC's "The Cosby Show" breaks existing records for a network series by commanding $350,000 to $400,000 for 30 seconds of commercial time.

CBS undergoes a management shift in September when its board ousts Thomas H. Wyman, chairman-CEO. Replacing Mr. Wyman as acting chief executive is investor Laurence A. Tisch. The 1985-86 season marks the 60th anniversary of NBC and the first time it ever wins the prime-time ratings race. NBC hikes rates for early buys of 1986-87 season time, but ABC and CBS cut rates for first time. ABC, CBS and NBC have trouble selling commercial time for sports programs for the first time. Rates for the 1986 NFL season drop 15% from 1985. California Raisin Advisory Boardintroduces a hit commercial featuring dancing, singing, sneaker-clad raisins via new animation technology calledClaymation. It was done by Claymation creator Will Vinton. Spanish-language network Telemundo Group is launched by Reliance Capital Group. 1987 In January, San Francisco station KRON-TV becomes the first major market TV station in the U.S. to air a condom commercial. In April, 20th Century Fox owner Rupert Murdoch launches Fox Broadcasting Co. Playtex International makes history in May when networks begin airing its commercials showing women wearing bras. In August, five veteran admen die in a tragic rafting accident in Canadian rapids. Among those killed when their raft overturned in theChilko River was Robert Goldstein, VP-advertising for Procter & Gamble Co., and Richard O'Reilly, who headed the Partnership for a Drug-Free America. A.C. Nielsen Co.'s electronically advanced "people meter" is introduced to replace its 30-year-old diary system. "Wheel of Fortune," the highest-rated show in syndicated programming, draws an asking price of $95,000 for a 30-second spot, The show generates revenues of $400,000 an episode. More than 50% of U.S. households are now wired for cable.

1988 Barter syndication revenues total $875 million, up from $50 million in 1980. Widespread use of videocassette recorders zap away at the TV viewing audience. At the start of the year, almost 60% of TV households have a VCR -- up from 4% in 1982. 1989 Pay-per-view becomes a familiar part of cable TV service, reaching about one-fifth of all wired households. The broadcast networks reach an all-time low of 55% of the total TV audience in July. Nissan begins its new age "Rocks and Trees" campaign by Hill, Holliday, Connors, Cosmopulos, grabbing attention by never showing the product -- its luxury Infiniti. Instead, the spots feature nature scenes. BBDO pulls Pepsi commercials featuring pop singer Madonnaafter just one airing due to controversy over her "Like a Prayer" video. Time Inc. and Warner Communications announce a $14 billion merger. Fox's TV network earns $33 million in profits with just three nights of programming. Its animated sitcom, "The Simpsons" is considered a genuine hit. 1990 The Children's Television Act takes effect limiting the amount of commercialization in children's TV programming (including cable) and requiring operators to carry at least some programming designed to meet children's educational and informational needs. 1991 The broadcast TV networks and cable's CNN provide extensive coverage of the Persian Gulf War, which begins in January. But advertisers take a backseat; Procter & Gamble Co., Sears, Roebuck & Co., Pizza Hut and major airlines all refuse to air spots during news coverage of the war. NBC, for one, reports losses of $5 million as a result of canceled advertising and the cost of coverage. Coca-Cola Co. promises its sponsorship of

the 92 Olympics telecasts will be its biggest ever ever. Pepsi runs spots starring basketball great Magic Johnson as a spokesman, before the Olympics start. In June, the Clio Awards, one of advertising's best-known award shows, turns into a farce when poor financial management and organization forces finalists to rush onto the stage to claim statuettes. In October, the broadcast networks preempt afternoon soap operas and much of their evening and weekend schedules to cover the Senate Judiciary Committee's investigation of Anita Hill'saccusations of sexual harassment against Supreme Court justice nominee Clarence Thomas. More than 40 million U.S. households watch the two-day televised hearings; the networks lose an estimated $15 million to $20 million in ad revenue after pulling most commercials in favor of continuous coverage. Courtroom Television Network, owned jointly by Cablevision, NBC, Time Warner and American Lawyer Media, is established, providing 24-hour live and taped coverage of trials in 41 states. 1992 Infomercials become a hot ad medium. National Infomercial Marketing Association estimates infomercials generate sales of $750 million, more than double their revenues of 1988.

Johnny Carson, the king of late-night TV, retires as the longtime host of NBC's "Tonight Show." Jay Leno is named as his replacement. In August, NBC and cable partner Cablevision fail to meet projected goals for consumer purchase of their unusual Olympic Triplecast pay-perview alternative for comprehensive Olympic viewing. The venture ends up with losses of more than $100 million. 1993 By the start of year, 98% of U.S. households own at least one TV set, 64% have two or more sets.

After 11 years at NBC, David Lettermanannounces he's jumping to CBS. His new "Late Show With David Letterman" begins in August and, quickly moving to No. 1 in latenight ratings and bumping "The Tonight Show" from its longtime lead. In February, NBC issues a humiliating retraction and apology to General Motors Corp. on "Dateline NBC" for a staged oncameraexplosion during a report on alleged safety problems with GM trucks. During the controversy, GM temporarily shifts its ad budget to the network's entertainment and sports programming and threatens to cancel its $160 million-plus budget for NBC. The final episode of NBC's 11-year hit sitcom "Cheers" in May attracts 93.1 million viewers, with a 45.5 Nielsen rating. In a first-of-its-kind arrangement, Visa International signs a $3 million deal to become the official credit card of Atlanta, the host city of the 1996 Summer Olympics. Time Warner announces plans to launch a full-service interactive network in Orlando, Fla. "NYPD Blue" is an instant ratings hit on ABC's new fall prime-time lineup after attracting pre-debut attention for nudity and rough language. The hourlong police drama is the only new series to crack Nielsen Media Research's Top 20 in virtually every major adult demographic group. In October, the deliberately tasteless "Beavis and Butt-head"MTV animated series, the top-rated show on the music network, is attacked for allegedly inspiring a 5-year-old to start a fatal fire. In response, MTV agrees to run the show in a later time spot and the writers agree not to use references to fires in the future. Seattle's Bon Marche department store gives new meaning to subliminal advertsing with a spot for Frango chocolates. The commercial consists of four frames (each costing $945) and lasts less than a second. Running during "Evening Magazine," it cost the retailer $3,780 for airtime. Fox snares broadcast rights to National Football League's NFC Conference from CBS for $1.58 billion over four years.

1994 The Winter Olympics sets ratings records, becoming the most-watched event in TV history with 204 million U.S. viewers, or 83% of the country, watching at least some of CBS's coverage. Ratings are boosted by the controversy surrounding the women's figure skating competition; prior to the Olympics, U.S. figure skater Tonya Hardingwas involved in an attack on teammate Nancy Kerrigan. Speaking before the American Association of Advertising Agencies in May. P&G CEO Ed Artztwarns agency executives they risk losing control over clients and media unless they step up their participation in shaping the future of the new-media landscape. The world TV premiere of "Gettysburg" on TNT in June lives up to its epic billing by attracting the largest viewership ever for a movie on basic cable: 23 million people watch all or portions of the two-part special. The World Cup audience from 52 televised games reaches up to 33 billion people. Univision, the Spanish-language network, anticipates $24 million in ad revenue. ABC gets a 4.7 rating and 15 share for the 10 games prior to the final. Football legend and actor O.J. Simpsonis arrested as the primary suspect in the brutal murders of his former wife Nicole BrownSimpson and her friend Ronald Goldman. The incident throws the media into overdrive, as 95 million viewers watch at least some part of Mr. Simpson's freeway chase in June. In September, Blockbuster Entertainment and Viacom complete a $7.6 billion merger only five months after Viacom buys Paramount Communications for $9.5 billion. National Hockey League players delay start of season with strike announcement. Fox Network purchases NHL TV rights in September for $155 million. More than 43 million people tune in to at least some part of the highly touted "Baseball" documentary miniseries on PBS in September, giving it the largest cumulative audience in the network's 25-year history. A Major League Baseball strikederails the Baseball Network, a fledgling joint venture between NBC, ABC and the

league. The venture loses $95 million in advertising and nearly $500 million in national and local spending. 1996 Digital satellite dishes that are only 18 inches in diameter hit the market. They become the biggest selling electronic item in history next to the VCR. 1997 Mini DV is introduced as a new, higher definition, digital recording format. Perfect copies can be made from them without loosing any quality. 1999 Sony releases Digital 8 video format and the world prepares for Y2K. 2000 The year of the Digital Disc, aka DVD.

After years of speculation, the DVD finally takes hold and DVD movies are as common as those on VHS tape. Sony introduces CDCam video format. You can now record directly on a CD from a camcorder. AOL and Time Warner merge and become the largest company of it's kind in the world. 2001 DVD's becomes a major player in the home entertainment field. Most movie studios now release their movies on DVD, which is starting to catch up with VHS tape sales. 2002 Sony introduces the MicroMV Digital MPEG-2 tape based digital recorders. This system offers high resolution recorders

small enough to fit in the palm of your hand. It records digitally onto a tiny tape with files small enough to be transferred to a PC within minutes. It also has the ability to record video that can be played directly over the internet. 2003 First DVD camcorder is released, allowing total digital recording directly to disk in the MPEG2 format. DVD's gain in popularity and pre-recorded DVD's over take video tape rentals in stores. DVD's take up less room, are much higher quality, and contain many features not found on video tapes. They also can hold a lot more information and a single disc can have up to 6 hours of high quality video with multiple sound tracks. DVD's Out Sells VHS tapes., Disc sales go through the roof as DVD's surpass VHS as the most common format for home entertainment. The price of DVD's has also fallen as it's popularity increases. Blank DVD's can now be purchased for as little as 25 cents for a 4X disc. Just a year ago, prices were as high as $15.00 for a single 1X disc. Home DVD recorders are now as inexpensive as a good quality VCR. For more than 25 years, VHS dominated the world home entertainment market after winning a challenge from Sony's Betamax in the early 1980s. By next year, some retailers are actually going to stop selling VHS VCR's as the DVD format now dominates the home video market. DVD's also have the advantage of containing "Extra's" that movie studios add to encourage sales of their disc's. Another major advance this year is the use of large capacity hard drives to record video. Digital video recorders (VDR's) are available for under $1000.00. Some models combine a hard drive with a DVD burner so you can record 100's of hours of video on the hard drive and then burn what you really want to keep on the internal DVD burner. This is far superior to VHS VCR'. 2005 Flat screen TV's & HDTV are the "In" thing of the year.Almost all televisions sold are now flat LCD and Plasma screens. Some are only a few inches thick. Large screen Plasma and LCD TV's are also well within the reach of the average consumer. A 42" Plasma screen retails for as low as $1400.00 with prices getting lower as the year

2004

progresses. Hi Definition TV's, (known as HDTV) are also the big seller for 2005. A 42" Plasma HDTV usually retails for $4500.00 $7000.00. Some new 42" TV's even sell for as low as $999.00. By 2006 all television stations will switch to a HiDef broadcast. Click Here for more information on HDTV 2006 Flat screen TV's are larger and less expensive.They are finding their way into more & more homes as prices continue to drop and screen size gets larger. LCD TV's are now outselling plasma screens and projected to be the most popular kind of TVs in the world by 2009. Blu-Ray DVD's are released in the middle of the year. A single-layer Blu-ray disc, which is the same size as a DVD, can hold up to 27 GB of data -that's more than two hours of high-definition video or about 13 hours of standard video. A double-layer Blu-ray disc can store up to 54 GB, enough to hold about 4.5 hours of high-definition video or more than 20 hours of standard video. And there are even plans in the works to develop a disc with twice that amount of storage.

Toshiba introduces HD Disks as competition to the Sony Blu-ray. A format war starts with some companies backing Blu-ray and others backing HD. 2007 Organic LCD TV's (OLCD) are Introduced and promises to revolutionize flat panel displays with their thin size. Time Running Out on Analog TV's as the FCC deadline approaches. By 2009 all broadcasts are to be in Hi-def digital format. 2008 Blu-ray Seems to Win over HD Disks as Wal-Mart, Target, Netflix & Best Buy Stores commit to the Blue-ray format. Most Bluray players now also "Upconvert" which means that a regular DVD played on a Blu-ray system will almost have the definition of a hidef disc.

Government Gives Out Set-top Converter Coupons to people that don't have cable or satellite TV. Once the change over to all digital, anyone receiving TV from an antenna will need a converter in order to watch the new digital signals on older (non-digital) TV's. 2009 Hi-def is everywhere as all manufacturers release high definition TV's and monitors. Almost all sets now have the capability of displaying high resolution images. 1080 is considered the standard in the industry as the must have number of lines of resolution. HDMI digital output connects it all. It is the one cable that can now connect a TV or monitor to a hi-def cable box, satellite receiver and/or Blu-ray player. It delivers true 1080 picture quality as well as stereo audio all through one multi-pin connector. Now you don't have to have multiple wires running to your TV as it is all done through one HDMI cable.. Internet Widgets on Televisions as a way of integrating the web with TV. All you need is an internet enabled set or set-top box and you can watch certain Internet sites directly on your screen without having a computer hooked up. "NetFlix", "YouTube" and other providers stream the info to the set and allow you to watch Internet programming at the touch of your televisions remote control. Sony, Panasonic, Samsung and others make sets with Internet Widgets built in. 2010 3D movies and 3D television sets arrive. It started with James Cameron's blockbuster "Avatar". 3D has been around for decades, but this time it seems as though it is here to stay. Numerous movies have come out and all TV manufactures have released high definition 3D sets. Instead of those funky red/green cardboard glasses you now wear a modern hi-tech LCD pair that let's you watch the new sets with incredible clarity. Never before has

3D been so vivid. The images truly appear to jump off of the screen. New 3D Blu-ray players have also been introduced so you can watch your favorite movie (as soon as it's released on disc) in 3D at home. Several cable stations and networks are starting to deliver programs in 3D.

1. 1963: Kennedy Assassination Puts Focus on TV News Coverage

Photo © Getty Images Hard to believe now, but before the assassination of President Kennedy, most serious journalists wanted to work in radio or for a newspaper. TV was seen as an entertainment medium. The Kennedy assassination unfolded in a way that demonstrated the power of television. Radio couldn't show the shooting and newspapers couldn't capture the moment-by-moment drama. Film of the shooting could be replayed over and over to a horrified nation. Live reports from the hospital became more grim by the minute. The shooting death of Kennedy assassin Lee Harvey Oswald was also shown on TV. Television provided moving images as compared to the still photos in newspapers, and live TV broadcasts had the same immediacy as radio. The age of TV news had begun. Ads NFC Solns for Eventsone-touch social sharing at events Turn all attendees into an advocateexceleratedapps.com/facebook-rfid/ Class 1 to Class 12Free NCERT Solutions, Test Papers, Lessons, Animations, Videos, Puzzlewww.MeritNation.com

Aishwarya Rai BabySee Aishwarya Rai's Baby Girl Photos and more!hotklix.com/Aishwarya-Rai 2. 1968: Walter Cronkite Shifts Public Opinion of the Vietnam War

Photo © Getty Images Today, you can find personal opinion oozing through stories on cable TV news channels. It's easy to dismiss the noise when it's coming at you from all directions. Rewind time to the late 1960s. CBS News anchor Walter Cronkite, after reporting on the Vietnam War, decided the conflict could only end in stalemate. In a rare departure from straight news reporting, he spoke from his heart on an evening news broadcast. He said the war wasn't winnable. Some say that led President Johnson to negotiate with the North Vietamese and end his political career. Even after Cronkite's death in 2009, some critics blast him for liberal bias. But unlike most commentators today, Cronkite took time to investigate before delivering his views. 3. 1974: Newspaper Brings Down President Nixon

Photo © Getty Images Investigative journalism reached its peak with Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein of The Washington Post. Their pursuit of illegal activities involving President Nixon ultimately led to the Watergate investigationand his resignation.

They spent years working sources, like the famed "Deep Throat", and had the support of the newspaper's editors and owner. Woodward and Bernstein are immortalized in the bestselling book and Academy Award-winning film All the President's Men. Both the book and the movie show what it took to get one of the biggest news stories of the 20th century. This had many journalists eagar to pursue investigative work. In the years since, corporate and political pressures have often made this kind of reporting tough. 4. 1979: Iran Hostage Crisis Creates New Type of TV News Program

Photo © Getty Images America suffers through political crises regularly, but outside of war, theIran hostage crisis grabbed the country's attention like few others. Iranian militants captured 52 Americans after seizing the U.S. Embassy in Tehran. TV viewers needed information beyond the networks' evening newscasts. ABC News created a late-night news program that eventually became Nightline. Today, we take these programs for granted, but this was a year before the birth of CNN. Americans had few choices for news coverage. Nightline was different from a show like 60 Minutes because it was produced each day with live elements made possible by new satellite technology. Nowhere else could viewers get the day's top story with interviews and analysis. 5. 1986: Children Witness Disaster on Live TV

Photo © Getty Images Space shuttle launches had become so routine by 1986 that broadcast TV networks no longer provided live coverage. But thousands of school children were eagerly watching NASA TV for the January launch of the Challenger. That's because teacher Christa McAuliffe would be the first private citizen to fly. She was already a household name. The children got a close-up look at human tragedy when the space shuttle exploded. Parents, who might otherwise have broken the sad news of the disaster to their children at home, instead had to explain what their sons and daughters had witnessed in their classrooms. The media lesson was simple. Live TV never offers the chance to preview content before it is seen. The unknown can be heartbreaking. 6. 1987: Fairness Doctrine Repeal Creates Modern Talk Radio

Photo © Getty Images Most radio listeners wouldn't recognize why the Federal Communications Commission's repeal of the Fairness Doctrine was a landmark decision. But the effects are easy to see. The doctrine required broadcasters who allowed discussions of controversial issues on their airwaves to present opposing viewpoints. Starting in 1949, it was the law.

Once it was repealed, talk radio hosts like Rush Limbaugh could present just one side of an issue. A host could even push a political agenda. Today, talk radio is dominated by politically conservative hosts. People with liberal leanings are free to create their own programs, but most have not attracted large audiences. The marketplace made that decision, not the government. 7. 1991: The Persian Gulf War is Broadcast on Live TV

Photo © Getty Images Technology presented new opportunities in media coverage when America entered the Persian Gulf War with Iraq. People at home could watch live as the conflict unfolded. While major events of World War II were covered live on the radio, and the Vietnam War was presented on film, satellites made live TV coverage possible. Because the conflict produced a quick U.S. victory, military leaders like Gen. Norman Schwarzkopf became instant celebrities. President George H.W. Bush's popularity soared. But political leaders learned what those in media already knew -live broadcasts have almost no shelf life. Bush's popularity plummeted, and he was defeated for re-election a year later. 8. 1994: O.J. Simpson Drama Rivets the World's Attention

Photo © AFP / Getty Images When the O.J. Simpson story broke, people rushed to their TVs to follow the most compelling story of the decade. One of the country's most-loved football stars was charged with killing his ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and Ron Goldman. Because the story unfolded in Los Angeles, the tools were there to cover it. The live helicopter shots of Simpson fleeing in a Ford Bronco wouldn't have been possible in a remote area. California, unlike some states, allows cameras in courtrooms. When Simpson was put on trial, the testimony was available for people to watch -- and millions did. If not for TV, the "Trial of the Century" would've been a footnote in entertainment and sports history. Instead, it became a real-life legal drama no one can forget. Ads Los Angeles Sightseeing TourTop Ten Sightseeing ToursCheck Out Our Specials. Reserve Your Trip Nowwww.AllLosAngelesTours.com www.flipkart.comHuge Selection and Amazing Prices. Free Home Delivery - Above Rs.200www.flipkart.com 9. 1998: Monica Lewinsky Scandal Puts Sex in the Mainstream

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Taboo sex topics were forced onto news media because of the scandalous relationship between President Clinton and White House intern Monica Lewinsky. Never before had sex and politics become so entwined that it would impact U.S. history. Words never before printed in newspapers or uttered by news anchors provided important details to the investigation. Because Clinton's presidency was at stake, this story was more than just steamy fodder for the supermarket tabloids. In the end, both Clinton's marriage and his presidency survived, even though he was impeached by the U.S. House of Representatives. But media coverage of his recklessness further tarnished Americans' views of the presidency. 10. 2000: Presidential Election Errors in Judgment

Photo © Getty Images If you ever wanted to see a network TV news anchor squirm under pressure, election night 2000 provided the chance. They all had to do the unthinkable on live TV -- retract their network's projections over who won. They must have thought, "Are we the only ones to mess this up?" when they backtracked. That evening, they reported the race was Gore's, then "too close to call", then Bush's, then "too close to call" by the next day. The only accurate projection was that the race was indeed too close to call. No one's estimates could handle a margin of just a few hundred votes. We'll probably never again see a presidential race remain in question for so long. But we'll always remember how the news media exposed the flaws in the election process.

11. 2001: Covering 9/11, the Country's Worst Disaster

Photo © Getty Images Reporters have witnessed countless disasters, but nothing like the horror of the 9/11 terrorist attacks. The violence changed how post-9/11 news is covered. Threats of new attacks are covered seriously. Rumors of violence have journalists re-thinking what is news. Rumors are now reported if they have credibility. That's due in part to the government's color-coded terror alert system. When the government decided there was enough danger to change the code level, like from yellow to orange or red, the news media reported it. The alert system was retired in 2011. But its effects remain -possible violence is now reported, no matter how vague the information, even though most people now shrug off bulletins of possible trouble. 12. 2007: Social Media Takes the Lead in Breaking News

Photo © Getty Images The Virginia Tech shooting massacre left 32 people dead. Because it happened on a college campus, tech-savvy students showed the world the future of breaking news coverage. TV news crews weren't necessary. Text messages relayed information while cell phone video could be transmitted in an instant. This was a milestone in citizen journalism. The photos and video

didn't have the polish of a professional news organization, but they captured the panic that people on campus felt. In the future, consumers will decide if that's how they want their news. Everyday people producing raw news now compete with professional journalists, whose corporate sheen leaves some believing they're never getting the real news.










Email. Email is now an essential communication tools in business. It is also excellent for keeping in touch with family and friends. The advantages to email is that it is free ( no charge per use) when compared to telephone, fax and postal services. Information. There is a huge amount of information available on the internet for just about every subject known to man, ranging from government law and services, trade fairs and conferences, market information, new ideas and technical support. Services. Many services are now provided on the internet such as online banking, job seeking and applications, and hotel reservations. Often these services are not available off-line or cost more. Buy or sell products. The internet is a very effective way to buy and sell products all over the world. Communities. Communities of all types have sprung up on the internet. Its a great way to meet up with people of similar interest and discuss common issues.


There are many advantages of using the Internet, such as : • Global Audience Content published on the World Wide Web is immediately available to a global audience of users. This makes the World Wide Web a very cost-effective medium to

Provide Technical Support You can also use Web site to provide technical support to users. Because Web pages can be updated immediately with new information, various technical support literature can be immediately modified in light of new findings and







publish information. Reaching more than 190 countries. Operates 24 hours, 7 days a week You don't need to wait until resources are available to conduct business. From a consumer's perspective as well as a provider's business can be consummated at any time. The fact that the Internet is operational at all times makes it the most efficient business machine to date. Relatively Inexpensive It is relatively inexpensive to publish information on the Internet. At a fraction of the cost to publish information by traditional methods, various organizations and individuals can now distribute information to millions of users. It costs only a few thousand dollars to establish an Internet presence and publish content on the Internet. Product Advertising You can use the World Wide Web to advertise various products. Before purchasing a product, customers will be able to look up various product specification sheets and find out additional information. You can use the multimedia capabilities of the World Wide Web to make available not only various product







developments. This can be accomplished without having to distribute changes to all users affected by any changes using traditional mediums of information distribution, which are often quite costly compared to the World Wide Web. Create Online Discussion Forums By using applications such as WebBoard, it's possible to set up online discussion forums on the Web. Obtain Customer Feedback The interactive nature of the World Wide Web is ideal for obtaining customer feedback. You can easily set up a CGI script to obtain customer feedback about a product or service. Because customer feedback submitted by customers can be read immediately, it's possible to respond to various customer concerns in a timely manner, increasing customer satisfaction and quality of customer service. Immediate Distribution of Information When information is added to a Web site, it's immediately available for browsing by millions of Internet users. The World Wide Web is an ideal medium of information



specification sheets but also audio files, images, and even video clips of products in action. The beauty of the Web is that it allows customers to explore products in as much detail as they desire. If the client just wants a general overview, he or she can look at the advertising information. For those wanting more in depth information, you can provide white papers and product descriptions for download. The Web allows a business to provide timely information, you can simply place the information on the Web page and it is available immediately for your customers. Distribute Product Catalogs The World Wide Web is a very effective medium for distributing product catalogs. In the old days, putting together a product catalog used to be very costly in terms of time and money needed to publish and distribute it. The World Wide Web changes all this by allowing content developers to put together a sales catalog and make it available to millions of users immediately. Furthermore, unlike printed product catalogs that are usually updated around once a month, product catalogs on the World Wide Web can







distribution because it takes away the time lag associated with publishing content and actually making it available to users Easy Integration with Internal Information Systems Internet information systems deployed on the Internet can be easily integrated with internal information systems managed with office productivity applications such as Microsoft Office. Powerful Content Publishing Tools A new breed of Internet aware applications will start emerging in software stores by the time you read this. These applications will enable users to develop content for the World Wide Web by simply saving as an HTML file. In addition to software developers making existing applications Internet aware, various new, powerful, and easy-to use Internet content publishing applications are also being developed. These applications will make the task of publishing content on the Internet even easier. Most of these applications are developed for Windows users. Multimedia The capability to incorporate





be updated as needed to respond to various changing market conditions. Online Surveys Traditional methods of performing surveys are often relatively slow and expensive compared to online surveys conducted on the Internet. For example, in order to fill out various needs of customers or what they would like to see in a future product, it's often necessary to compile a list of address and mail a questionnaire to many customers. The success of such an attempt is not always guaranteed and can be very costly in terms of mailing the questionnaires and entering responses to a databases and analyzing it. On the other hand, you can use the World Wide Web to automate the whole process. For example, you can set up a CGI script to conduct online surveys. Results of such a survey can be automatically updated to a database. This database can then be used to keep a pulse on various opinions and needs of customers. Announcements With the World Wide Web, you can distribute various announcements to millions of users in a timely manner. Because there is virtually no



multimedia into Web pages is a major advantage of using World Wide Web to publish information. For example, many Web sites use sounds and video clips to make the content easier and more interesting to browse. Formatting Capabilities Content published on the World Wide Web can be richly formatted by using various HTML tags and graphic formats. The capability to do this is a major reason for the success of the World Wide Web. In addition to using HTML tags and various multimedia formats in Web pages, various interactive controls can also be added to a web page. This capability allows Web site content developers to create "active" Web sites. For example, before a user sends some information to a Web server for processing, a VBScript or JavaScript subroutine can be used to verify information typed in by the user. Various formatting capabilities, along with technologies such as Java and VBScript, make the World Wide Web a richly interactive medium that you can use to distribute information to millions of users.

time lag from the time it takes to publish information to making the information available to users, the Web is an ideal medium to publicize announcements. As more people discover the virtues of the Web and get connected to the Internet, the Web will become the medium of choice for many organizations and individuals to publicize various announcements.

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