reading comprehension
Content
Chapter 1
DRAWING
CONCLUTION
A conclusion is a decision that you make based on the information you have. This
information comes from two places: Your head and the story. The reader needs to "draw a
conclusion" about what the author means.
When we draw a conclusion, we
take clues the author has given us and use what we already know from our own experiences
to help us understand what is happening in the story. Drawing conclusions refers to
information that is implied or inferred. This means that the information is never clearly
stated.
Writers often tell you more than they say directly. They give you hints or clues that
help you "read between the lines." Using these clues to give you a deeper understanding of
your reading is called inferring. When you infer, you go beyond the surface details to see
other meanings that the details suggest or imply (not stated). When the meanings of words are
not stated clearly in the context of the text, they may be implied - that is, suggested or hinted
at. When meanings are implied, you may infer them. Drawing Conclusions is very important
in understanding what is happening in a story. For example, many times an author will
describe story elements, rather than directly telling you where, when, who, and so forth. We
need to draw conclusions in order to understand the important parts of the story.
How do we draw conclusions to help us understand what we are reading?
As you read, think about the characters, setting, problem, plot, and solution.
Did
the
author
give
you
any
clues
to
think
about?
Use the story clues and what you already know from your own experiences (prior knowledge)
to draw a conclusion about what is happening in the story.
There are several ways to help you draw conclusions from what an author may be
implying. The following are descriptions of the various ways to aid you in reaching a
conclusion.
a. General Sense
The meaning of a word may be implied by the general sense of its context, as the meaning of
the word incarcerated is implied in the following sentence:
Murderers are usually incarcerated for longer periods of time than robbers.
You may infer the meaning of incarcerated by answering the question "What usually happens
to those found guilty of murder or robbery?" If you answered that they are locked up in
jail, prison, or a penitentiary, you correctly inferred the meaning of incarcerated.
b. Examples
When the meaning of the word is not implied by the general sense of its context, it may be
implied by examples. For instance,
Those who enjoy belonging to clubs, going to parties, and inviting friends often to their
homes for dinner are gregarious.
You may infer the meaning of gregarious by answering the question "What word or words
describe people who belong to clubs, go to parties a lot, and often invite friends over to their
homes for dinner?"
If you wrote social or something like: "people who enjoy the company of others", you
correctly inferred the meaning of gregarious.
c. Antonyms
An antonym is a word that presents an opposite. Antonyms are a very tricky and useful way of
drawing the audience into making an inference and finding meaning of a statement without explicitly
saying so. For example, you might present the following statement to a class, “Our football team has a
great deal of talent but the other team played them with unskilled opposition.” This use of an antonym
presents the teams in an opposite nature so even if you did not bluntly say, “Our team is good and
their team is bad,” the inference is clear. At the same time, the use of antonyms increases your
students' vocabulary and gives them a useful tool to communicate opposites without being direct.
d. Contrasts
Using contrasts allow you to take an idea and form a conclusion, placing one idea against
another. An example would be, “John confirmed mother had lost a lot of weight but Jennifer
held up a dress she had been wearing and started to laugh.” The contrast present is first noted
with the word “confirmed,” suggesting that what was said had truth to it. The second part of
the contrast appears with the dispute from Jennifer. Her behavior attempts to undermine the
first position that the mother had in fact lost weight. This position is a second and contrasting
position where the inference changes to reflect that she has not lost “a lot” of weight. The
second half of the sentence changes the first part's inference to conclude something
unexpected.
e. Clues
Sentences that lead you to draw a conclusion and make inferences are never written with
clear and concrete specifics. These sentences are always full of clues to guide you. In the case
of clues, the most significant ones will allow multiple inferences, pushing students to
evaluate their choices critically. For example, if students were to read, “Tomorrow is never
better than today,” then the students are forced to consider the meaning that the word “never”
presents as a clue. Does the sentence mean that life is as good as it will ever get right now?
Or does it mean that every day is equally sweet? This type of consideration will draw your
students into thinking about choosing one conclusion over the other.
f. Implications
When writing, you can choose to clearly state what it is that you want readers to see, or
you can choose to imply or implicate an idea by your words. When you imply, context is
what readers will use to discern you are saying. This type of writing gives students critical
thinking practice. For example, if you were to say, “My hair stays straight longer than yours,”
then you will imply several things. One inference could be that something inherent about
your hair makes it stay straighter longer. Another inference suggests that due to quality, one is
better than the other. All of this can be gleaned by not stating one position clearly but
allowing
students
to
make
their
own
inference.
In drawing conclusions (making inferences), you are really getting at the ultimate meaning of
things - what is important, why it is important, how one event influences another, how one
happening leads to another. Simply getting the facts in reading is not enough - you must think
about what those facts mean to you.
For Example
I’m hairy.
I have four legs.
I like to talk long walks and chase squirrels.
What am I?
Let’s Think! . . . What do we know?
I’m hairy.
Certain animals are hairy.
I have four legs.
Dog and cats have four legs.
I like to talk long walks with my owner and chase squirrels.
Only dogs like to take long walks with their owners and chase squirrels.
If we use what we already know, it helps us come to the right conclusion.
Cheapter 2: Cause and effect
Affect is usually a verb meaning to influence. Effect is usually a noun meaning result. When
used as a verb, effect means to cause. (Also see the usage notes below.)
NOTE: If you're in a professional field related to psychology or psychiatry, you are probably
familiar with a special use of affect (with stress on the first syllable) as a noun meaning "an
expressed or observed emotional response." However, this technical term seldom appears in
everyday (non-technical) writing.
Examples:
Volcanoes can temporarily affect the atmosphere.
"Arkansas summer mornings have a feathering effect on stone reality."
(Maya Angelou, Gather Together in My Name. Random House, 1974)
If you want to effect change in Washington, you have to vote.
"Despite differences in their effects on animals, a wide range of animal
diseases have the potential to affect producers and consumers in some
very
similar
ways."
(Kenneth H. Mathews, "Economic Effects of Major Livestock Diseases
Outbreaks,"
2003)
"Social life is imbued with affect. Every interaction with others can
influence our emotional state, and affect in turn plays an important role in
the way we form judgments and behave in strategic social situations."
(J.P. Forgas and C.A. Smith, "Affect and Emotion." The Sage Handbook of
Social Psychology, ed. by M.A. Hogg and J. Cooper. Sage, 2003)
"If you drink your milk, you will grow big and strong!" "If you clean up your toys, you can
go play outside." Most parents and caregivers talk to their child about cause and effect long
before we expect our children to understand those terms. We teach cause and effect every
time we help a young child recognize a relationship between two things, or when we
demonstrate that one event is the result of another.
Science seeks to explain and understand the natural world. Things happen for a reason: there
is a cause for every effect. In science, the cause explains why something happens. The effect
is the description of what happened. Many simple activities can be done at home and in the
backyard that will help develop your child's understanding of cause and effect. Consider these
ideas:
Ask your child, "What do you think will happen if we leave this Popsicle out in the sun?"
Allowing the Popsicle to melt provides an opportunity to talk about the sun's heat and its
effect on the icy popsicle. During the winter, do the same thing with small cups of water.
"What caused our water to turn into ice?"
Play a simple game in which you orally provide a situation (or a cause). Ask your child to fill
in an action (or an effect). For example, you could say, "It was snowing outside." Your child
could fill in, "All the kids got their sleds." "Someone rang the doorbell," could be answered
with "Our dog began to bark." This game is perfect for helping your child realize that there is
not one single right answer — as scientists they will learn that there can be several causes and
several effects.
Keep track of the plants in your yard. As you observe a plant thriving and growing, ask your
child why. Is the plant receiving good light and water? If the leaves on a plant are drooping,
ask your child what could be causing the droopy leaves. Does the plant need more sun? More
water? What effect could a new location and some water have on the plant?
Share the children's book If You Give a Mouse a Cookie with your child. Point out the use of
specific cause/effect words used in the book, including if … then. Keep a running tally of all
the causes and effects that happen in the story. For example, if you give a mouse a cookie,
he'll want a glass of milk to go with it. If you give him a glass of milk, he will ask for a straw,
etc.
Young children learn by engaging in activities that are real and meaningful to them —
activities that encourage the development of skills, knowledge, and ways of thinking and
learning. Parents can help teach children the early skills for literacy as well as science and
mathematics development by creating simple settings that encourage learning.
Immediate Causes and Ultimate Causes
"Determining causes and effects is usually thought-provoking and quite complex.
One reason for this is that there are two types of causes: immediate causes, which are readily
apparent because they are closest to the effect, and ultimate causes, which, being somewhat
removed, are not so apparent and may perhaps even be hidden. Furthermore, ultimate causes
may bring about effects which themselves become immediate causes, thus creating a causal
chain. For example, consider the following causal chain: Sally, a computer salesperson,
prepared extensively for a meeting with a client (ultimate cause), impressed the client
(immediate cause), and made a very large sale (effect). The chain did not stop there: the large
sale caused her to be promoted by her employer (effect)."
(Alfred Rosa and Paul Eschholz, Models for Writers, 6th ed. St. Martin's Press, 1998)
Composing a Cause/Effect Essay
"For all its conceptual complexity, a cause/effect essay can be organized quite simply. The
introduction generally presents the subject(s) and states the purpose of the analysis in a clear
thesis. The body of the paper then explores all relevant causes and/or effects, typically
progressing from least to most influential or from most to least influential. Finally, the
concluding section summarizes the various cause/effect relationships established in the body
of the paper and clearly states the conclusions that can be drawn from those relationships."
(Kim Flachmann, Michael Flachmann, Kathryn Benander, and Cheryl Smith, The Brief Prose
Reader. Prentice Hall, 2003)
Causes of Child Obesity
"Many of today's kids are engaged in sedentary pursuits made possible by a level of
technology unthinkable as recently as 25 to 30 years ago. Computer, video, and other virtual
games, the ready availability of feature films and games on DVD, plus high-tech
advancements in music-listening technology have come down into the range of affordability
for parents and even for the kids themselves. These passive pursuits have produced a
downside of reduced physical activity for the kids, often with the explicit or implicit consent
of
the
parents.
.
.
.
"Other fairly recent developments have also contributed to the alarming rise in child obesity
rates. Fast food outlets offering consumables that are both low in price and low in nutritional
content have exploded all over the American landscape since the 1960s, especially in
suburban areas close to major highway interchanges. Kids on their lunch breaks or after
school often congregate in these fast food outlets, consuming food and soft drinks that are
high in sugar, carbohydrates, and fat. Many parents, themselves, frequently take their children
to these fast food places, thus setting an example the kids can find justification to emulate."
(MacKie Shilstone, Mackie Shilstone's Body Plan for Kids. Basic Health Publications, 2009)
Cause and Effect in Jonathan Swift's
"'A Modest Proposal' is a brilliant example of the use of non-argumentative devices of
rhetorical persuasion. The whole essay, of course, rests broadly upon the argument of cause
and effect: these causes have produced this situation in Ireland, and this proposal will result
in these effects in Ireland. But Swift, within the general framework of this argument, does not
employ specific argumentative forms in this essay. The projector chooses rather to assert his
reasons and then to amass them by way of proof."
(Charles A. Beaumont, Swift's Classical Rhetoric. Univ. of Georgia Press, 1961)
Effect of auto mobile
"I worry about the private automobile. It is a dirty, noisy, wasteful, and lonely means of
travel. It pollutes the air, ruins the safety and sociability of the street, and exercises upon the
individual a discipline which takes away far more freedom than it gives him. It causes an
enormous amount of land to be unnecessarily abstracted from nature and from plant life and
to become devoid of any natural function. It explodes cities, grievously impairs the whole
institution of neighborliness, fragmentizes and destroys communities. It has already spelled
the end of our cities as real cultural and social communities, and has made impossible the
construction of any others in their place. Together with the airplane, it has crowded out other,
more civilized and more convenient means of transport, leaving older people, infirm people,
poor people and children in a worse situation than they were a hundred years ago."
(George F. Kennan, Democracy and the Student Left, 1968)
Examples and Effects of Entropy
"Because of its unnerving irreversibility, entropy has been called the arrow of time. We all
understand this instinctively. Children's rooms, left on their own, tend to get messy, not neat.
Wood rots, metal rusts, people wrinkle and flowers wither. Even mountains wear down; even
the nuclei of atoms decay. In the city we see entropy in the rundown subways and worn-out
sidewalks and torn-down buildings, in the increasing disorder of our lives. We know, without
asking, what is old. If we were suddenly to see the paint jump back on an old building, we
would know that something was wrong. If we saw an egg unscramble itself and jump back
into its shell, we would laugh in the same way we laugh as a movie run backward."
(K.C. Cole, "The Arrow of Time." The New York Times, March 18, 1982)
Cheapter 3: introduction point of view and context clue
1. Point of view
In a narrative, the point of view refers to who is telling the story. Understanding the point
of view of a story helps us to pay attention to how it is written. When we know the point of
view, we can learn more about the characters and the plot.
First-person point of view
When a story is told in first-person point of view, the narrator is a participant in the story.
First-person stories use first-person pronouns like I, me, and my.
I looked down from the rocky ledge. I could see everything around me from this location! I
hoped that I wouldn’t lose my balance.
Third-person point of view
When a story is told in third-person point of view, the narrator is not in the story. When a
story is told in third-person point of view, the narrator is outside of the story.
Travis looked down from the rocky ledge. He could see everything around him from this
location! He hoped that he wouldn’t lose his balance.
Stories told in third person use third-person pronouns like he, she, his, hers, and so on.
Secound-person point of view
Second-person point of view pulls the reader into the story with the pronouns you and your.
You feel a sense of excitement as you look at the kayak. This will be the day you have been
looking forward to!
Finding the narrator
Unless the narrator introduces himself or herself, we have to look at dialogue to figure out
the narrator of a story written from first-person point of view.
Who is the narrator?
Sylvia looked around. “Where are we?” she asked.
“Just off the trail,” I replied. “See?”
“Marco, there’s no trail over there,” Sylvia said.
My heart sank. She was right.
First-person narrators, Knowing that the story is from Marco’s point of view will help
us to understand his thoughts and feelings. We won’t learn as much about Sylvia
in this story, though, because we are seeing everything through Marco’s eyes.
Which point of view?
The wizard looked around. “Where is my apprentice?” he barked.
Eleza gulped. Already she was in trouble. “Yes, sir?” she asked.
“I need more sunflower petals for this spell,” the wizard grumbled. “Well, don’t just stand
there! Go!”
Third-person point of view !
The wizard looked around. “Where is my apprentice?” he barked.
Eleza gulped. Already she was in trouble. “Yes, sir?” she asked.
“I need more sunflower petals for this spell,” the wizard grumbled. “Well, don’t just stand
there! Go!”
Eleza scuttled to the sunflower patch. She thought that becoming a wizard’s apprentice would
be fun and exciting. Instead she was here in the garden, picking sunflower petals with the
grasshoppers.
“Hurry!” the wizard called from inside.
Why might an author choose to write a story with third-person limited point of view? When a
story is written from third-person omniscient point of view, the narrator reveals the thoughts
and feelings of all of the characters.
2. Context Clue
Contexs is Use the words surrounding the unknown word to help determine the unknown
word’s meaning. Context clue is Unknown word defined immediately following its use brief
definition, synonym, or restatement using punctuation-commas, parentheses or dashes. To
get meaning from what they read, successful readers need both a great many words in their
vocabularies and the ability to use various strategies to establish the meanings of new words
when they encounter them.
Writers and authors often include words or phrases to help their readers understand the
meaning of a new or difficult word. As a reader you often need to act similar to a detective
and put together clues from sentences surrounding an unknown word.You make an intelligent
“guess” as to what the definition of a word is without having to look up the word in the
dictionary.
Using context clues will help you by saving you time when reading and adding to
your vocabulary.
Do you know the meaning of the word consolidate?
Look at the cartoon on the next picture and see if the context—the words surrounding
the unfamiliar word—helps you figure out the meaning of the word.
What does consolidate mean?
a. separate
b. cancel
c. combine into one
Answer :
Frank and Ernest are seeking to combine all their small debts into “one giant
nightmare” of a loan.
The context tells you that consolidate means “combine into one.”
a. Definition or Synonym
A synonym is a word that means the same—or almost the same—as another word.
Sometimes you can determine the meaning of a word by finding its synonym in the
sentence.
Which words in this cartoon help you understand what humiliate means?
The words “I feel worthless enough already” help you understand that humiliate
means “to make feel ashamed.”
Watch for words that indicate that you are being given a definition, such as defined as,
means, is known as, the term is called.
Watch for synonyms, words that mean the same thing, such as big and large.
b. Contrast & Antonym
A word that means the opposite of another word.
Words that signal contrast
• On the other hand
• In contrast
• However
• But
• Yet
• Instead
• Even though
• Unlike
• Although
Example :
A sentence may contain an example or examples of an unfamiliar word.
Examples are probably the most direct type of context clue.
The author uses a word and then gives an example that describes or explains it.
Cheapter 4 : Fact and Opinion and the author’s intention
1. Fact and opinion
A fact is something that can be proven. An opinion is what someone thinks. Today is
rainy is a fact. You can prove it by looking outside. Rainy days sre wonderful is an opinion.
Not everyine would agree!
Facts are true statements that give us information about the topic or main idea.
Opinions will have clue words or phrases that will tell us that the statement is someone’s
feeling or
belief. It is important to be able to identify facts from opinions so that we are able to understand
what is real
from what is someone’s point of view or thought.
a. Find Facts
Try this: Take a highlighter to a news article from a website, magazine or newspaper.
Read through it, highlighting everything that is clearly represented as a fact. Look for
numbers. Look for historical information or references to current events. Look for technical
information. Every fact you find will be verifiable. You will be able to find another source
with exactly the same information. Do some Internet searches to verify the facts, which
teaches you to be a curious reader who wants to know more about a topic and the kind of
skeptical reader who doesn't accept every printed word as fact.
b. Spot Opinions
Even when writers are supposed to stick to facts, they sometimes interject opinions in
their writing. To spot opinions, look for language that signals the writer’s values creeping into
the writing. Words such as “best” and “worst” and their synonyms should alert skeptical
readers to an opinion. A statement such as, “Seat belts are the best way to prevent injuries in
car accidents” sounds true, but auto-safety experts might disagree. Often writers state
opinions as absolutes, using language such as “everyone” and “no one.” To counter that, you
should ask yourself whether a writer’s statement is always true and whether everyone would
agree with the idea.
c. Form Arguments
Writers can be very convincing about stating their opinions and surrounding them with
facts. You must consider the topic and the writer’s purpose. When writing about controversial
topics such as gun control or the death penalty, all sides of an issue should be covered equally
and represented without judgment. Otherwise, the author’s purpose may have been to
persuade you to one side. Rather than accepting the truth of what the writer says, try to form
fact-based arguments against writer’s propositions. If you can argue against what the text says
using facts, then you know you have been reading an opinion piece.
2. The Author’s Intention
Many different types of writing exist in the world, ranging from classic Shakespearean plays
to politicians' speeches to the screenplay treatments that inspired this summer's biggest
blockbuster hits. These works may vary in tone, genre and type, but as pieces of writing, they
should have one thing in common: a purpose.
Authors write for many different reasons. Those reasons are called the author's purpose.
Depending on the purpose, authors may choose all different sorts of writing formats, genres,
and vernacular. A simple trick to summarize the three main categories of author's purpose is
to use the acronym PIE, which stands for persuade, inform, and entertain.
2.1. Types of Author's Purpose
Although there are many reasons to write, to persuade, to inform and to entertain
represent the three main forms of author's purpose. Most other reasons can be grouped into
those three broader categories.
To Persuade
To persuade is the first main type of author's purpose. Text written to persuade means the
author's goal is to convince the reader to agree with the author. This might mean the author
wants the reader to think or even act in a specific way. This type of writing is extremely
common. Any piece which pushes a certain opinion or asks for some sort of call for action is
persuasive writing.
It is true that in these types of writing the author shares his opinion, but usually he also
provides facts and examples. This information serves to support the author's opinion and
further convince the reader to agree with him. Examples of persuasive writing include
speeches, advertisements, commercials, and newspaper editorials. Any forms of propaganda
are examples of pieces written to persuade. Look at the following picture and identify how
the author wants you to think or to act.
To Inform
The second main type of author's purpose is to inform. In this format, the author's goal is
to enlighten the reader about real world topics and provide facts on those topics. However, in
contrast to pieces written to persuade, these facts are not used to support a specific opinion.
The facts are presented in order to teach the reader. Examples of texts written to inform
include textbooks, cookbooks, newspapers, and encyclopedias.
All these forms are written in order to provide information to the reader. It is also important
to note that many authors present their works as informational texts, while at the same time
inserting their own opinions into the piece. As a reader, be sure to be ready for opinions
masked as information. For instance, some newspapers claim to only report the facts, but on
careful inspection it is clear it might be trying to persuade you to believe a specific idea. Be
on the lookout for these hidden opinions.
To Entertain
The final main category of author's purpose is to entertain. This contains almost all
examples of what you think of when you hear the word literature. Authors who write to
entertain have the goal of telling a story or describing real or imaginary characters, places and
events. This includes all pieces of fiction, which is literature that is not real.
Cheapter 5: Writer’s Technique (Style, Tone, Mood)
1. Style
Every author has his or her own style – that is, each author uses literary devices, tone,
and mood in a particular way that makes his or her writing recognizable.
When you read several books by the same author, you become accustomed to the author’s
style of writing and sometimes you look for authors with a similar style. Author’s style is the
way he or she uses words to make ideas come alive on the page.
Style is the way the writer uses words to create not only the events of story, but their
feel as well. A writer’s style is evident in his use of diction—word choices—and syntax—
word order and sentence construction. A style is the writer’s method to create mood and tone,
the feel of fiction. Style is also dependent on subject matter, what a write might explore and
what he’d never write about. For example, one writer might never feature a pedophile in a
story, another might write one as a heinous monster, and yet another might write one as a
tortured soul.
One writer might feature children in his works, another cowboys, and another serial killers or
detectives or archaeologists. Some writers write only about paranormal beings while others
write only of humans.
One writer might focus on contemporary events while others might think only of imagined
scenarios. Some writers might look to the past and others to the future.
Genre too can play a part in style. Genre can affect word choice, subject matter, setting
requirements and taboos, and the style of a story’s ending (happily ever after or tear-fest or
death of a major character).
Note: Non-fiction writers have their own styles as well. And it may be easier to identify a
writer’s style in a magazine article or other piece of writing than it is in fiction. For example,
if the writer of a magazine or blog article is patronizing, readers notice right away.
Every writer’s style is peculiar to him, yet he can alter that style to create the effects needed
for a scene or any other piece of writing.
If he needs a scholarly style, he’ll choose words and sentence rhythms to create such a style.
If he wants to sound like an aw-shucks country boy, he’ll choose words to convey that feel.
The writer can use jargon, words readers are comfortable with, to help those readers feel at
home with his approach or conclusions, even if he writes about a topic the readers disagree
with. Or the writer might use uncommon words to make readers feel ignorant or out of place
or to make himself (and what he writes) seem more valuable.
A writer might adopt a formal style, with few contractions, though I don’t recommend this for
fiction. People of all eras and ages have used contractions, so it wouldn’t be unusual for
almost any character to use them. And their use is simply easier on the reader, allowing him
to move through the text without unnecessary pauses. (There are exceptions, of course.)
In one story, a writer might use a lot of verbals (verbs used as something other than a verb),
including gerunds, participles, and infinitives. She might use a lot of absolute phrases or use
none. She might use short sentences, long sentences, one-word paragraphs or five-page
paragraphs. Whatever choices she makes that deal with word choice and how words are
arranged in phrases, sentences, and paragraphs is the writer’s style.
If she never uses adverbs or adjectives, that’s a style choice. If she uses three or four every
sentence, that’s also a style choice. (One I try to discourage in every situation unless a
character would use them to excess or as a way to create a deliberately bad sentence.)
A list of styles—
Anal Approachable
Business-like
Cold
Condescending
Confrontational Contemptuous
Conversational
Deceptive
Devious
Dictatorial
Diffident
Distant
Friendly
Literary
Loose
Overly familiar Patronizing
Forthright
Long-winded
Persuasive Political
Preachy
Rambling Sarcastic
Scholarly
Smarmy
Unsure
Uncaring
Author’s Style – Word Choice
Author can use formal or informal words on their writing.
Informal: Jason’s friends dished him.
Formal: Jason’s friends ignored him.
Formal:
Dear Sir,
After examining your job description, I feel I am an excellent
candidate. I have many years of experience performing these specific duties.
My résumé is attached. Please read it over at your convenience and contact me
if you have questions.
Sincerely,
Andrew Meyer
Informal:
Hey, Sara! What's going on tonight? Call me before you guys leave,
okay?
--Beth
Author’s Style –Sentence Length
Sentence lengths can vary. Example :
a. Janice went to the store. She bought a scarf.
b. Janice went to the department store, where she bought a woolen scarf.
Author’s Style – Dialogue
Author’s style dialogue shows the reader how characters speak and can show
the character’s background. Example :
a. “I flipped right outta the wagon after he jammed his foot on the brakes.”
b. “I am confident the hours he spent sailing the yacht enabled him to pass
the exam.”
2. Tone
Tone in fiction is the attitude of the narrator or viewpoint character toward
story events and other characters. In a story with first-person POV, tone
can also be the narrator’s attitude toward the reader.
In non-fiction, tone is the writer’s attitude toward subject matter and reader. So the
writer might come across as a know-it-all or a blowhard or as humble or solicitous.
We’re all familiar with a mother’s words to her mouthy son—Don’t you take that tone
with me, young man.
What does the mother mean by tone here? She’s talking about his sassy or smartalecky attitude. The child’s words and actions and facial expressions convey an
attitude his mother doesn’t approve of.
Examples of tone you might find in fiction are strident, uncaring, sassy, bossy,
unconcerned, or flip. Remember that these refer to the narrator’s (viewpoint
character’s) attitude.
A scene’s or story’s tone, expressed through the narrator’s attitude, could as easily be
one of fearlessness or fearfulness, disbelief or detachment, or maybe unconcern or
snarkiness or arrogance. Whatever attitude the narrator can take on, the scene or story
can take on. Tone is achieved through word choice (diction), sentence construction
and word order (syntax), and by what the viewpoint character focuses on. Tone is
created or altered by the way the viewpoint character/narrator treats the story problem
and other characters, and by the way he responds to the events surrounding him. Tone
can be manipulated by changing what the narrator focuses on and through his
changing reactions to what is going on in the story as well as by changing the words
used for his thoughts, action, and dialogue.
The tone of a scene can also be affected by manipulation of the sense elements. So
what the viewpoint character smells and how those odors affect him influence tone.
The menace of unrelenting footsteps on wooden stairs in the middle of the night or the
hurried thud of footsteps down a dark alley would contribute to a tone different from
the one created by the sounds of a toddler running down the hall to meet his daddy at
the door. The viewpoint character’s perception of and reaction to sights, sounds,
odors, touch, and taste add to tone.
What’s absent from a story can affect tone almost as strongly as what is present.
Exclude the narrator’s attitude toward someone he loves if you want to portray him as
distant and unfeeling; add in this attitude when it’s time to reveal this facet of his
personality. When you give him a scene with his love interest, it can have a tone far
different from those in other scenes featuring the same character.
He might notice his lover’s soft skin or the colors she uses or her smile, things he
doesn’t notice or comment on in other scenes. Keeping a tender attitude far from him
in scenes when he’s away from his lover will reveal much of who he is and perhaps
how much he relies on her to humanize him.
A long list of tones (attitude), but by no means an exhaustive one—
All-knowing
Anxious
Bold
Bossy
Calculating
Callous
Close-minded
Clueless
Confident
Confrontational
Crude
Cruel
Curious
Desperate
Devil-may-care
Diffident
Discouraging
Disingenuous
Dismissive
Encouraging
Erudite
Flippant
Flirtatious
Foolish
Helpful
Hip
Hopeful
Humorous
Hypocritical
Indifferent
Insistent
Intractable
Juvenile
Know-it-all
Lighthearted
Laid-back
Loving
Maternal
Meek
Open
Overbearing
Passionate
Paternal
Persnickety
Relaxed
Sarcastic
Sassy
Secretive
Sly
Smarmy
Smooth
Snide
Snotty
Stubborn
Suspicious
Uncouth
Upbeat
Urbane
Violent
Whiney
Wisecracking
3. Mood
Mood is what the reader feels while reading a scene or story. It’s not the reader’s
emotions, but the atmosphere (the vibe) of a scene or story. It’s what the reader reads
or feels or notices. Not all readers would necessarily report the same mood from a
scene, although the writer does hope to achieve a particular feel common to every
reader.
Mood can be expressed in terms such as dark, light, rushed, suspenseful, heavy,
lighthearted, chaotic, and laid-back.
The mood of each scene can differ from that of the scene before, but you will want
some consistency. Yet, as the story approaches the climax, the intensity levels should
change. Readers should feel that story events are coming to a head. While there should
be several points in your story at which the mood darkens or grows more menacing or
more comical, readers should feel a bigger change as the story heads to its conclusion.
(This feel of events rushing toward a conclusion can also be directed by pace, by a
reduced emphasis on general setting details, by to-the-point dialogue, and several other
factors. Mood is just one element that pulls the reader toward the story’s end.)
I typically suggest that writers examine their manuscripts around the two-thirds mark.
If the feel of the story doesn’t change somewhere near this point, do some rewriting.
You can make gradual changes to mood or you could change the level in large steps,
but do make changes, both to indicate that the high point is indeed approaching and so
readers can feel the shift.
Keep in mind that mood has to change for a reason and that something must happen
even to provoke an intensity change. Something must be different to make sense of
any mood change, whether the change is from mood to mood or level to level.
This change can be a physical event or a character’s sudden recognition of the meaning
of an earlier event or another character’s remark.
If you’ve got several story threads or subplots featuring different viewpoint characters,
the mood could switch each time you move from one subplot to the other.
While using strongly different moods is a marvelous way to differentiate story threads
and the scenes of different viewpoint characters, do be aware that readers have to
adjust each time you change. The adjustment might be smooth or jarring, and either
kind of change could work for the story, but don’t forget that it may be difficult for
readers to adapt to a new mood at the turn of a page. If they’re caught up in your
fiction (and manipulating mood is a great way to keep them involved), they may not
want to leave the dark scenes featuring your antagonist for a relatively lighter scene
featuring the main character’s sidekick. Use what you know of human nature and your
own feelings toward such changes to decide how and when to introduce scenes of
different moods.
While both mood and tone can change over the course of story, tone is the more
consistent element. Since it’s the attitude of the narrator, tone won’t change as often as
mood can.
A list of moods (atmosphere)—
Alarming
Brooding
Buoyant
Comical
Confining
Cool
Dark
Fantastical
Hopeful
Light
Melancholy
Ominous
Oppressive
Relaxed
Sexy
Spooky
Suspenseful
Warm
Cheapter 6: Figurative Language
1.1.
Figurative language, language used by writers to produce images in
readers minds and to express ideas in fresh, vivid, and imaginative ways.
Whenever you describe something by comparing it with something else,
you are using figurative language.
1.2.
Kind of figurative language
a. Simile
A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing
similarities between two different things. Unlike a metaphor, a simile
draws resemblance with the help of the words “like” or “as”. Therefore,
it is a direct comparison.
We can find simile examples in our daily speech. We often hear
comments like “John is as slow as a snail.” Snails are notorious for their
slow pace and here the slowness of John is compared to that of a snail.
The use of “as” in the example helps to draw the resemblance. Some
more examples of common similes are given below.
Our soldiers are as brave as lions.
Her cheeks are red like a rose.
He is as funny as a monkey.
The water well was as dry as a bone.
He is as cunning as a fox.
b. Simile Examples in Literature
1. Taken from a short story Lolita written by Vladimir Nabokov,
“Elderly American ladies leaning on their canes listed toward me like towers of
Pisa.”
This simile produces a humorous effect by comparing old women leaning on
walking sticks with the ancient leaning tower of Pisa.
2. In her novel To the Lighthouse, Virginia Woolf compares the velocity of her
thoughts about the two men with that of spoken words.
“. . . impressions poured in upon her of those two men, and to follow her thought
was like following a voice which speaks too quickly to be taken down by one’s
pencil . . .”
She says both are difficult to follow and cannot be copied in words by a pencil.
c. Metaphor
Metaphor is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden
comparison between two things or objects that are poles apart from each other but
have some characteristics common between them. In other words, a resemblance
of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some
common characteristics.
In simple English, when you portray a person, place, thing, or an action
as being something else, even though it is not actually that “something else,” you
are speaking metaphorically. “He is the black sheep of the family” is a metaphor
because he is not a sheep and is not even black. However, we can use this
comparison to describe an association of a black sheep with that person. A black
sheep is an unusual animal and typically stays away from the herd, and the person
you are describing shares similar characteristics.
Example:
My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)
The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not
difficult.)
It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not
a threat and life is going to be without hardships)
d. Hyperbole
Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning “over-casting” is a
figure of speech, which involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake
of emphasis. It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech.
For instance, when you meet a friend after a long time, you say, “Ages
have passed since I last saw you”. You may not have met him for three
or four hours or a day, but the use of the word “ages” exaggerates this
statement to add emphasis to your wait. Therefore, a hyperbole is an
unreal exaggeration to emphasize the real situation. Some other
common Hyperbole examples are given below.
Example:
My grandmother is as old as the hills.
I am dying of shame.
I am trying to solve a million issues these days.
It is important not to confuse hyperbole with simile and metaphor. It does
make a comparison but unlike simile and metaphor, hyperbole has a
humorous effect created by an overstatement.
e. Alliteration
Alliteration is a figure of speech in which a series of words, usually two or
more neighboring words, have the same first consonant sound; however,
sometimes repetition of sounds occur inside a word. Alliteration is used primarily
in poetry but can be used in various facets of literature as well as song lyrics,
names, quotations or any piece of writing.
The purpose of alliteration is to make text stand out and direct the reader's
attention to a particular section. Alliteration is commonly used to add interest to a
sentence and can be a great way to help you remember names and phrases.
The sounds created by alliteration establish a certain mood, emotion and rhythm
in text. For instance, in Dante's Inferno, Dante states: 'I saw it there, but I saw
nothing in it, except the rising of the boiling bubbles.' The repetition of the 'b'
sound mimics the sounds of bubbling. In the book Some Smug Slug, the 's' sound
is used throughout to represent the sliminess and slyness of the slug.
Examples:
Shannon spoke softly to save the day.
f.
Beth has been as busy as a bee.
Going green is as good as gold.
Personification
Personification is a figure of speech in which a thing, an idea or an
animal is given human attributes. The non-human objects are
portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability to act like
human beings. For example, when we say, “The sky weeps” we are
giving the sky the ability to cry, which is a human quality. Thus, we can
say that the sky has been personified in the given sentence.
The wind whispered through dry grass.
Thet flowers danced in the gentle breeze.
Time and tide waits for none.
g. Idiom
An expression having a special meaning different from the usual
meanings of the words. Example:
(as) sure as eggs is eggs
The easter bunny knows proper grammar when he hears it, and he
also knows good easter eggs when he sees them. Imagine his
reaction when he heard this grammatically incorrect expression and
saw these weird easter eggs! Sure as eggs is eggs, he was shocked!
The idion means something is true beyond any doubt.
At/on face value
Coins and banknotes have numbers on them to tell you their face
value. That’s the origin of this expression which, as an idiom, means
exactly what one can see or hear. Examples: “Robert’s very
trustworthy. If he says he will paint your picture, you can take his
word at face value.” “on face value, I believeyou.”
A bag of wind
I wonder why people say hogarth is such an interestong man. “Lily
yawned. “to me he is a bag og wind. “lily is either very unkind or
very honest, for a bag of wind is someone who talks a great deal;
and especially a person who boasts amd tell exaggerated stiries
that are hard to believe.
h. Onomatopoeia
The use of words that sound like what they mean such as, “hiss”,
“buzz”, “slam”, and “boom”
Example:
snap crackle pop
cock-a-doodle-do!
i.
j.
Honk your horn.
Clichés
An expression that has been used so often that it has become trite and
sometimes boring
Example :
many hands make light work.
Irony
Is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their
intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of thewords.
Example:
“oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.
Cheapter 7: Inferences
Inferences is to take a critical look at what you are reading and make an assumption
based on your own experiences. While we are reading, we are picturing the story
and asking ourselves questions about the story. We find clues in the text and can
make judgments, to answer these questions, based on what we know from our
experiences. Making inferences is important when you read. It can often help you
undertand what you are reading. Good readers, in fact, make inferences all the time
Take a look at this cartoon:
First let’s consider Lucy
What do we see?
By reading the picture,
we can see how the author drew her.
What do we know?
We know that when people look like that, they are usually angry.
We can infer that Lucy is
Angry
What do we know?
We know that Lucy is a “youth”. We
also know that when someone says
that someone else “never listens,” It’s
an insult.
Because Lucy wouldn’t want to insult
herself, we can infer that Lucy thinks
she is more
Mature
than Linus and Snoopy.
Cheapter 8: Understanding Meaning
DRAWING
CONCLUTION
A conclusion is a decision that you make based on the information you have. This
information comes from two places: Your head and the story. The reader needs to "draw a
conclusion" about what the author means.
When we draw a conclusion, we
take clues the author has given us and use what we already know from our own experiences
to help us understand what is happening in the story. Drawing conclusions refers to
information that is implied or inferred. This means that the information is never clearly
stated.
Writers often tell you more than they say directly. They give you hints or clues that
help you "read between the lines." Using these clues to give you a deeper understanding of
your reading is called inferring. When you infer, you go beyond the surface details to see
other meanings that the details suggest or imply (not stated). When the meanings of words are
not stated clearly in the context of the text, they may be implied - that is, suggested or hinted
at. When meanings are implied, you may infer them. Drawing Conclusions is very important
in understanding what is happening in a story. For example, many times an author will
describe story elements, rather than directly telling you where, when, who, and so forth. We
need to draw conclusions in order to understand the important parts of the story.
How do we draw conclusions to help us understand what we are reading?
As you read, think about the characters, setting, problem, plot, and solution.
Did
the
author
give
you
any
clues
to
think
about?
Use the story clues and what you already know from your own experiences (prior knowledge)
to draw a conclusion about what is happening in the story.
There are several ways to help you draw conclusions from what an author may be
implying. The following are descriptions of the various ways to aid you in reaching a
conclusion.
a. General Sense
The meaning of a word may be implied by the general sense of its context, as the meaning of
the word incarcerated is implied in the following sentence:
Murderers are usually incarcerated for longer periods of time than robbers.
You may infer the meaning of incarcerated by answering the question "What usually happens
to those found guilty of murder or robbery?" If you answered that they are locked up in
jail, prison, or a penitentiary, you correctly inferred the meaning of incarcerated.
b. Examples
When the meaning of the word is not implied by the general sense of its context, it may be
implied by examples. For instance,
Those who enjoy belonging to clubs, going to parties, and inviting friends often to their
homes for dinner are gregarious.
You may infer the meaning of gregarious by answering the question "What word or words
describe people who belong to clubs, go to parties a lot, and often invite friends over to their
homes for dinner?"
If you wrote social or something like: "people who enjoy the company of others", you
correctly inferred the meaning of gregarious.
c. Antonyms
An antonym is a word that presents an opposite. Antonyms are a very tricky and useful way of
drawing the audience into making an inference and finding meaning of a statement without explicitly
saying so. For example, you might present the following statement to a class, “Our football team has a
great deal of talent but the other team played them with unskilled opposition.” This use of an antonym
presents the teams in an opposite nature so even if you did not bluntly say, “Our team is good and
their team is bad,” the inference is clear. At the same time, the use of antonyms increases your
students' vocabulary and gives them a useful tool to communicate opposites without being direct.
d. Contrasts
Using contrasts allow you to take an idea and form a conclusion, placing one idea against
another. An example would be, “John confirmed mother had lost a lot of weight but Jennifer
held up a dress she had been wearing and started to laugh.” The contrast present is first noted
with the word “confirmed,” suggesting that what was said had truth to it. The second part of
the contrast appears with the dispute from Jennifer. Her behavior attempts to undermine the
first position that the mother had in fact lost weight. This position is a second and contrasting
position where the inference changes to reflect that she has not lost “a lot” of weight. The
second half of the sentence changes the first part's inference to conclude something
unexpected.
e. Clues
Sentences that lead you to draw a conclusion and make inferences are never written with
clear and concrete specifics. These sentences are always full of clues to guide you. In the case
of clues, the most significant ones will allow multiple inferences, pushing students to
evaluate their choices critically. For example, if students were to read, “Tomorrow is never
better than today,” then the students are forced to consider the meaning that the word “never”
presents as a clue. Does the sentence mean that life is as good as it will ever get right now?
Or does it mean that every day is equally sweet? This type of consideration will draw your
students into thinking about choosing one conclusion over the other.
f. Implications
When writing, you can choose to clearly state what it is that you want readers to see, or
you can choose to imply or implicate an idea by your words. When you imply, context is
what readers will use to discern you are saying. This type of writing gives students critical
thinking practice. For example, if you were to say, “My hair stays straight longer than yours,”
then you will imply several things. One inference could be that something inherent about
your hair makes it stay straighter longer. Another inference suggests that due to quality, one is
better than the other. All of this can be gleaned by not stating one position clearly but
allowing
students
to
make
their
own
inference.
In drawing conclusions (making inferences), you are really getting at the ultimate meaning of
things - what is important, why it is important, how one event influences another, how one
happening leads to another. Simply getting the facts in reading is not enough - you must think
about what those facts mean to you.
For Example
I’m hairy.
I have four legs.
I like to talk long walks and chase squirrels.
What am I?
Let’s Think! . . . What do we know?
I’m hairy.
Certain animals are hairy.
I have four legs.
Dog and cats have four legs.
I like to talk long walks with my owner and chase squirrels.
Only dogs like to take long walks with their owners and chase squirrels.
If we use what we already know, it helps us come to the right conclusion.
Cheapter 2: Cause and effect
Affect is usually a verb meaning to influence. Effect is usually a noun meaning result. When
used as a verb, effect means to cause. (Also see the usage notes below.)
NOTE: If you're in a professional field related to psychology or psychiatry, you are probably
familiar with a special use of affect (with stress on the first syllable) as a noun meaning "an
expressed or observed emotional response." However, this technical term seldom appears in
everyday (non-technical) writing.
Examples:
Volcanoes can temporarily affect the atmosphere.
"Arkansas summer mornings have a feathering effect on stone reality."
(Maya Angelou, Gather Together in My Name. Random House, 1974)
If you want to effect change in Washington, you have to vote.
"Despite differences in their effects on animals, a wide range of animal
diseases have the potential to affect producers and consumers in some
very
similar
ways."
(Kenneth H. Mathews, "Economic Effects of Major Livestock Diseases
Outbreaks,"
2003)
"Social life is imbued with affect. Every interaction with others can
influence our emotional state, and affect in turn plays an important role in
the way we form judgments and behave in strategic social situations."
(J.P. Forgas and C.A. Smith, "Affect and Emotion." The Sage Handbook of
Social Psychology, ed. by M.A. Hogg and J. Cooper. Sage, 2003)
"If you drink your milk, you will grow big and strong!" "If you clean up your toys, you can
go play outside." Most parents and caregivers talk to their child about cause and effect long
before we expect our children to understand those terms. We teach cause and effect every
time we help a young child recognize a relationship between two things, or when we
demonstrate that one event is the result of another.
Science seeks to explain and understand the natural world. Things happen for a reason: there
is a cause for every effect. In science, the cause explains why something happens. The effect
is the description of what happened. Many simple activities can be done at home and in the
backyard that will help develop your child's understanding of cause and effect. Consider these
ideas:
Ask your child, "What do you think will happen if we leave this Popsicle out in the sun?"
Allowing the Popsicle to melt provides an opportunity to talk about the sun's heat and its
effect on the icy popsicle. During the winter, do the same thing with small cups of water.
"What caused our water to turn into ice?"
Play a simple game in which you orally provide a situation (or a cause). Ask your child to fill
in an action (or an effect). For example, you could say, "It was snowing outside." Your child
could fill in, "All the kids got their sleds." "Someone rang the doorbell," could be answered
with "Our dog began to bark." This game is perfect for helping your child realize that there is
not one single right answer — as scientists they will learn that there can be several causes and
several effects.
Keep track of the plants in your yard. As you observe a plant thriving and growing, ask your
child why. Is the plant receiving good light and water? If the leaves on a plant are drooping,
ask your child what could be causing the droopy leaves. Does the plant need more sun? More
water? What effect could a new location and some water have on the plant?
Share the children's book If You Give a Mouse a Cookie with your child. Point out the use of
specific cause/effect words used in the book, including if … then. Keep a running tally of all
the causes and effects that happen in the story. For example, if you give a mouse a cookie,
he'll want a glass of milk to go with it. If you give him a glass of milk, he will ask for a straw,
etc.
Young children learn by engaging in activities that are real and meaningful to them —
activities that encourage the development of skills, knowledge, and ways of thinking and
learning. Parents can help teach children the early skills for literacy as well as science and
mathematics development by creating simple settings that encourage learning.
Immediate Causes and Ultimate Causes
"Determining causes and effects is usually thought-provoking and quite complex.
One reason for this is that there are two types of causes: immediate causes, which are readily
apparent because they are closest to the effect, and ultimate causes, which, being somewhat
removed, are not so apparent and may perhaps even be hidden. Furthermore, ultimate causes
may bring about effects which themselves become immediate causes, thus creating a causal
chain. For example, consider the following causal chain: Sally, a computer salesperson,
prepared extensively for a meeting with a client (ultimate cause), impressed the client
(immediate cause), and made a very large sale (effect). The chain did not stop there: the large
sale caused her to be promoted by her employer (effect)."
(Alfred Rosa and Paul Eschholz, Models for Writers, 6th ed. St. Martin's Press, 1998)
Composing a Cause/Effect Essay
"For all its conceptual complexity, a cause/effect essay can be organized quite simply. The
introduction generally presents the subject(s) and states the purpose of the analysis in a clear
thesis. The body of the paper then explores all relevant causes and/or effects, typically
progressing from least to most influential or from most to least influential. Finally, the
concluding section summarizes the various cause/effect relationships established in the body
of the paper and clearly states the conclusions that can be drawn from those relationships."
(Kim Flachmann, Michael Flachmann, Kathryn Benander, and Cheryl Smith, The Brief Prose
Reader. Prentice Hall, 2003)
Causes of Child Obesity
"Many of today's kids are engaged in sedentary pursuits made possible by a level of
technology unthinkable as recently as 25 to 30 years ago. Computer, video, and other virtual
games, the ready availability of feature films and games on DVD, plus high-tech
advancements in music-listening technology have come down into the range of affordability
for parents and even for the kids themselves. These passive pursuits have produced a
downside of reduced physical activity for the kids, often with the explicit or implicit consent
of
the
parents.
.
.
.
"Other fairly recent developments have also contributed to the alarming rise in child obesity
rates. Fast food outlets offering consumables that are both low in price and low in nutritional
content have exploded all over the American landscape since the 1960s, especially in
suburban areas close to major highway interchanges. Kids on their lunch breaks or after
school often congregate in these fast food outlets, consuming food and soft drinks that are
high in sugar, carbohydrates, and fat. Many parents, themselves, frequently take their children
to these fast food places, thus setting an example the kids can find justification to emulate."
(MacKie Shilstone, Mackie Shilstone's Body Plan for Kids. Basic Health Publications, 2009)
Cause and Effect in Jonathan Swift's
"'A Modest Proposal' is a brilliant example of the use of non-argumentative devices of
rhetorical persuasion. The whole essay, of course, rests broadly upon the argument of cause
and effect: these causes have produced this situation in Ireland, and this proposal will result
in these effects in Ireland. But Swift, within the general framework of this argument, does not
employ specific argumentative forms in this essay. The projector chooses rather to assert his
reasons and then to amass them by way of proof."
(Charles A. Beaumont, Swift's Classical Rhetoric. Univ. of Georgia Press, 1961)
Effect of auto mobile
"I worry about the private automobile. It is a dirty, noisy, wasteful, and lonely means of
travel. It pollutes the air, ruins the safety and sociability of the street, and exercises upon the
individual a discipline which takes away far more freedom than it gives him. It causes an
enormous amount of land to be unnecessarily abstracted from nature and from plant life and
to become devoid of any natural function. It explodes cities, grievously impairs the whole
institution of neighborliness, fragmentizes and destroys communities. It has already spelled
the end of our cities as real cultural and social communities, and has made impossible the
construction of any others in their place. Together with the airplane, it has crowded out other,
more civilized and more convenient means of transport, leaving older people, infirm people,
poor people and children in a worse situation than they were a hundred years ago."
(George F. Kennan, Democracy and the Student Left, 1968)
Examples and Effects of Entropy
"Because of its unnerving irreversibility, entropy has been called the arrow of time. We all
understand this instinctively. Children's rooms, left on their own, tend to get messy, not neat.
Wood rots, metal rusts, people wrinkle and flowers wither. Even mountains wear down; even
the nuclei of atoms decay. In the city we see entropy in the rundown subways and worn-out
sidewalks and torn-down buildings, in the increasing disorder of our lives. We know, without
asking, what is old. If we were suddenly to see the paint jump back on an old building, we
would know that something was wrong. If we saw an egg unscramble itself and jump back
into its shell, we would laugh in the same way we laugh as a movie run backward."
(K.C. Cole, "The Arrow of Time." The New York Times, March 18, 1982)
Cheapter 3: introduction point of view and context clue
1. Point of view
In a narrative, the point of view refers to who is telling the story. Understanding the point
of view of a story helps us to pay attention to how it is written. When we know the point of
view, we can learn more about the characters and the plot.
First-person point of view
When a story is told in first-person point of view, the narrator is a participant in the story.
First-person stories use first-person pronouns like I, me, and my.
I looked down from the rocky ledge. I could see everything around me from this location! I
hoped that I wouldn’t lose my balance.
Third-person point of view
When a story is told in third-person point of view, the narrator is not in the story. When a
story is told in third-person point of view, the narrator is outside of the story.
Travis looked down from the rocky ledge. He could see everything around him from this
location! He hoped that he wouldn’t lose his balance.
Stories told in third person use third-person pronouns like he, she, his, hers, and so on.
Secound-person point of view
Second-person point of view pulls the reader into the story with the pronouns you and your.
You feel a sense of excitement as you look at the kayak. This will be the day you have been
looking forward to!
Finding the narrator
Unless the narrator introduces himself or herself, we have to look at dialogue to figure out
the narrator of a story written from first-person point of view.
Who is the narrator?
Sylvia looked around. “Where are we?” she asked.
“Just off the trail,” I replied. “See?”
“Marco, there’s no trail over there,” Sylvia said.
My heart sank. She was right.
First-person narrators, Knowing that the story is from Marco’s point of view will help
us to understand his thoughts and feelings. We won’t learn as much about Sylvia
in this story, though, because we are seeing everything through Marco’s eyes.
Which point of view?
The wizard looked around. “Where is my apprentice?” he barked.
Eleza gulped. Already she was in trouble. “Yes, sir?” she asked.
“I need more sunflower petals for this spell,” the wizard grumbled. “Well, don’t just stand
there! Go!”
Third-person point of view !
The wizard looked around. “Where is my apprentice?” he barked.
Eleza gulped. Already she was in trouble. “Yes, sir?” she asked.
“I need more sunflower petals for this spell,” the wizard grumbled. “Well, don’t just stand
there! Go!”
Eleza scuttled to the sunflower patch. She thought that becoming a wizard’s apprentice would
be fun and exciting. Instead she was here in the garden, picking sunflower petals with the
grasshoppers.
“Hurry!” the wizard called from inside.
Why might an author choose to write a story with third-person limited point of view? When a
story is written from third-person omniscient point of view, the narrator reveals the thoughts
and feelings of all of the characters.
2. Context Clue
Contexs is Use the words surrounding the unknown word to help determine the unknown
word’s meaning. Context clue is Unknown word defined immediately following its use brief
definition, synonym, or restatement using punctuation-commas, parentheses or dashes. To
get meaning from what they read, successful readers need both a great many words in their
vocabularies and the ability to use various strategies to establish the meanings of new words
when they encounter them.
Writers and authors often include words or phrases to help their readers understand the
meaning of a new or difficult word. As a reader you often need to act similar to a detective
and put together clues from sentences surrounding an unknown word.You make an intelligent
“guess” as to what the definition of a word is without having to look up the word in the
dictionary.
Using context clues will help you by saving you time when reading and adding to
your vocabulary.
Do you know the meaning of the word consolidate?
Look at the cartoon on the next picture and see if the context—the words surrounding
the unfamiliar word—helps you figure out the meaning of the word.
What does consolidate mean?
a. separate
b. cancel
c. combine into one
Answer :
Frank and Ernest are seeking to combine all their small debts into “one giant
nightmare” of a loan.
The context tells you that consolidate means “combine into one.”
a. Definition or Synonym
A synonym is a word that means the same—or almost the same—as another word.
Sometimes you can determine the meaning of a word by finding its synonym in the
sentence.
Which words in this cartoon help you understand what humiliate means?
The words “I feel worthless enough already” help you understand that humiliate
means “to make feel ashamed.”
Watch for words that indicate that you are being given a definition, such as defined as,
means, is known as, the term is called.
Watch for synonyms, words that mean the same thing, such as big and large.
b. Contrast & Antonym
A word that means the opposite of another word.
Words that signal contrast
• On the other hand
• In contrast
• However
• But
• Yet
• Instead
• Even though
• Unlike
• Although
Example :
A sentence may contain an example or examples of an unfamiliar word.
Examples are probably the most direct type of context clue.
The author uses a word and then gives an example that describes or explains it.
Cheapter 4 : Fact and Opinion and the author’s intention
1. Fact and opinion
A fact is something that can be proven. An opinion is what someone thinks. Today is
rainy is a fact. You can prove it by looking outside. Rainy days sre wonderful is an opinion.
Not everyine would agree!
Facts are true statements that give us information about the topic or main idea.
Opinions will have clue words or phrases that will tell us that the statement is someone’s
feeling or
belief. It is important to be able to identify facts from opinions so that we are able to understand
what is real
from what is someone’s point of view or thought.
a. Find Facts
Try this: Take a highlighter to a news article from a website, magazine or newspaper.
Read through it, highlighting everything that is clearly represented as a fact. Look for
numbers. Look for historical information or references to current events. Look for technical
information. Every fact you find will be verifiable. You will be able to find another source
with exactly the same information. Do some Internet searches to verify the facts, which
teaches you to be a curious reader who wants to know more about a topic and the kind of
skeptical reader who doesn't accept every printed word as fact.
b. Spot Opinions
Even when writers are supposed to stick to facts, they sometimes interject opinions in
their writing. To spot opinions, look for language that signals the writer’s values creeping into
the writing. Words such as “best” and “worst” and their synonyms should alert skeptical
readers to an opinion. A statement such as, “Seat belts are the best way to prevent injuries in
car accidents” sounds true, but auto-safety experts might disagree. Often writers state
opinions as absolutes, using language such as “everyone” and “no one.” To counter that, you
should ask yourself whether a writer’s statement is always true and whether everyone would
agree with the idea.
c. Form Arguments
Writers can be very convincing about stating their opinions and surrounding them with
facts. You must consider the topic and the writer’s purpose. When writing about controversial
topics such as gun control or the death penalty, all sides of an issue should be covered equally
and represented without judgment. Otherwise, the author’s purpose may have been to
persuade you to one side. Rather than accepting the truth of what the writer says, try to form
fact-based arguments against writer’s propositions. If you can argue against what the text says
using facts, then you know you have been reading an opinion piece.
2. The Author’s Intention
Many different types of writing exist in the world, ranging from classic Shakespearean plays
to politicians' speeches to the screenplay treatments that inspired this summer's biggest
blockbuster hits. These works may vary in tone, genre and type, but as pieces of writing, they
should have one thing in common: a purpose.
Authors write for many different reasons. Those reasons are called the author's purpose.
Depending on the purpose, authors may choose all different sorts of writing formats, genres,
and vernacular. A simple trick to summarize the three main categories of author's purpose is
to use the acronym PIE, which stands for persuade, inform, and entertain.
2.1. Types of Author's Purpose
Although there are many reasons to write, to persuade, to inform and to entertain
represent the three main forms of author's purpose. Most other reasons can be grouped into
those three broader categories.
To Persuade
To persuade is the first main type of author's purpose. Text written to persuade means the
author's goal is to convince the reader to agree with the author. This might mean the author
wants the reader to think or even act in a specific way. This type of writing is extremely
common. Any piece which pushes a certain opinion or asks for some sort of call for action is
persuasive writing.
It is true that in these types of writing the author shares his opinion, but usually he also
provides facts and examples. This information serves to support the author's opinion and
further convince the reader to agree with him. Examples of persuasive writing include
speeches, advertisements, commercials, and newspaper editorials. Any forms of propaganda
are examples of pieces written to persuade. Look at the following picture and identify how
the author wants you to think or to act.
To Inform
The second main type of author's purpose is to inform. In this format, the author's goal is
to enlighten the reader about real world topics and provide facts on those topics. However, in
contrast to pieces written to persuade, these facts are not used to support a specific opinion.
The facts are presented in order to teach the reader. Examples of texts written to inform
include textbooks, cookbooks, newspapers, and encyclopedias.
All these forms are written in order to provide information to the reader. It is also important
to note that many authors present their works as informational texts, while at the same time
inserting their own opinions into the piece. As a reader, be sure to be ready for opinions
masked as information. For instance, some newspapers claim to only report the facts, but on
careful inspection it is clear it might be trying to persuade you to believe a specific idea. Be
on the lookout for these hidden opinions.
To Entertain
The final main category of author's purpose is to entertain. This contains almost all
examples of what you think of when you hear the word literature. Authors who write to
entertain have the goal of telling a story or describing real or imaginary characters, places and
events. This includes all pieces of fiction, which is literature that is not real.
Cheapter 5: Writer’s Technique (Style, Tone, Mood)
1. Style
Every author has his or her own style – that is, each author uses literary devices, tone,
and mood in a particular way that makes his or her writing recognizable.
When you read several books by the same author, you become accustomed to the author’s
style of writing and sometimes you look for authors with a similar style. Author’s style is the
way he or she uses words to make ideas come alive on the page.
Style is the way the writer uses words to create not only the events of story, but their
feel as well. A writer’s style is evident in his use of diction—word choices—and syntax—
word order and sentence construction. A style is the writer’s method to create mood and tone,
the feel of fiction. Style is also dependent on subject matter, what a write might explore and
what he’d never write about. For example, one writer might never feature a pedophile in a
story, another might write one as a heinous monster, and yet another might write one as a
tortured soul.
One writer might feature children in his works, another cowboys, and another serial killers or
detectives or archaeologists. Some writers write only about paranormal beings while others
write only of humans.
One writer might focus on contemporary events while others might think only of imagined
scenarios. Some writers might look to the past and others to the future.
Genre too can play a part in style. Genre can affect word choice, subject matter, setting
requirements and taboos, and the style of a story’s ending (happily ever after or tear-fest or
death of a major character).
Note: Non-fiction writers have their own styles as well. And it may be easier to identify a
writer’s style in a magazine article or other piece of writing than it is in fiction. For example,
if the writer of a magazine or blog article is patronizing, readers notice right away.
Every writer’s style is peculiar to him, yet he can alter that style to create the effects needed
for a scene or any other piece of writing.
If he needs a scholarly style, he’ll choose words and sentence rhythms to create such a style.
If he wants to sound like an aw-shucks country boy, he’ll choose words to convey that feel.
The writer can use jargon, words readers are comfortable with, to help those readers feel at
home with his approach or conclusions, even if he writes about a topic the readers disagree
with. Or the writer might use uncommon words to make readers feel ignorant or out of place
or to make himself (and what he writes) seem more valuable.
A writer might adopt a formal style, with few contractions, though I don’t recommend this for
fiction. People of all eras and ages have used contractions, so it wouldn’t be unusual for
almost any character to use them. And their use is simply easier on the reader, allowing him
to move through the text without unnecessary pauses. (There are exceptions, of course.)
In one story, a writer might use a lot of verbals (verbs used as something other than a verb),
including gerunds, participles, and infinitives. She might use a lot of absolute phrases or use
none. She might use short sentences, long sentences, one-word paragraphs or five-page
paragraphs. Whatever choices she makes that deal with word choice and how words are
arranged in phrases, sentences, and paragraphs is the writer’s style.
If she never uses adverbs or adjectives, that’s a style choice. If she uses three or four every
sentence, that’s also a style choice. (One I try to discourage in every situation unless a
character would use them to excess or as a way to create a deliberately bad sentence.)
A list of styles—
Anal Approachable
Business-like
Cold
Condescending
Confrontational Contemptuous
Conversational
Deceptive
Devious
Dictatorial
Diffident
Distant
Friendly
Literary
Loose
Overly familiar Patronizing
Forthright
Long-winded
Persuasive Political
Preachy
Rambling Sarcastic
Scholarly
Smarmy
Unsure
Uncaring
Author’s Style – Word Choice
Author can use formal or informal words on their writing.
Informal: Jason’s friends dished him.
Formal: Jason’s friends ignored him.
Formal:
Dear Sir,
After examining your job description, I feel I am an excellent
candidate. I have many years of experience performing these specific duties.
My résumé is attached. Please read it over at your convenience and contact me
if you have questions.
Sincerely,
Andrew Meyer
Informal:
Hey, Sara! What's going on tonight? Call me before you guys leave,
okay?
--Beth
Author’s Style –Sentence Length
Sentence lengths can vary. Example :
a. Janice went to the store. She bought a scarf.
b. Janice went to the department store, where she bought a woolen scarf.
Author’s Style – Dialogue
Author’s style dialogue shows the reader how characters speak and can show
the character’s background. Example :
a. “I flipped right outta the wagon after he jammed his foot on the brakes.”
b. “I am confident the hours he spent sailing the yacht enabled him to pass
the exam.”
2. Tone
Tone in fiction is the attitude of the narrator or viewpoint character toward
story events and other characters. In a story with first-person POV, tone
can also be the narrator’s attitude toward the reader.
In non-fiction, tone is the writer’s attitude toward subject matter and reader. So the
writer might come across as a know-it-all or a blowhard or as humble or solicitous.
We’re all familiar with a mother’s words to her mouthy son—Don’t you take that tone
with me, young man.
What does the mother mean by tone here? She’s talking about his sassy or smartalecky attitude. The child’s words and actions and facial expressions convey an
attitude his mother doesn’t approve of.
Examples of tone you might find in fiction are strident, uncaring, sassy, bossy,
unconcerned, or flip. Remember that these refer to the narrator’s (viewpoint
character’s) attitude.
A scene’s or story’s tone, expressed through the narrator’s attitude, could as easily be
one of fearlessness or fearfulness, disbelief or detachment, or maybe unconcern or
snarkiness or arrogance. Whatever attitude the narrator can take on, the scene or story
can take on. Tone is achieved through word choice (diction), sentence construction
and word order (syntax), and by what the viewpoint character focuses on. Tone is
created or altered by the way the viewpoint character/narrator treats the story problem
and other characters, and by the way he responds to the events surrounding him. Tone
can be manipulated by changing what the narrator focuses on and through his
changing reactions to what is going on in the story as well as by changing the words
used for his thoughts, action, and dialogue.
The tone of a scene can also be affected by manipulation of the sense elements. So
what the viewpoint character smells and how those odors affect him influence tone.
The menace of unrelenting footsteps on wooden stairs in the middle of the night or the
hurried thud of footsteps down a dark alley would contribute to a tone different from
the one created by the sounds of a toddler running down the hall to meet his daddy at
the door. The viewpoint character’s perception of and reaction to sights, sounds,
odors, touch, and taste add to tone.
What’s absent from a story can affect tone almost as strongly as what is present.
Exclude the narrator’s attitude toward someone he loves if you want to portray him as
distant and unfeeling; add in this attitude when it’s time to reveal this facet of his
personality. When you give him a scene with his love interest, it can have a tone far
different from those in other scenes featuring the same character.
He might notice his lover’s soft skin or the colors she uses or her smile, things he
doesn’t notice or comment on in other scenes. Keeping a tender attitude far from him
in scenes when he’s away from his lover will reveal much of who he is and perhaps
how much he relies on her to humanize him.
A long list of tones (attitude), but by no means an exhaustive one—
All-knowing
Anxious
Bold
Bossy
Calculating
Callous
Close-minded
Clueless
Confident
Confrontational
Crude
Cruel
Curious
Desperate
Devil-may-care
Diffident
Discouraging
Disingenuous
Dismissive
Encouraging
Erudite
Flippant
Flirtatious
Foolish
Helpful
Hip
Hopeful
Humorous
Hypocritical
Indifferent
Insistent
Intractable
Juvenile
Know-it-all
Lighthearted
Laid-back
Loving
Maternal
Meek
Open
Overbearing
Passionate
Paternal
Persnickety
Relaxed
Sarcastic
Sassy
Secretive
Sly
Smarmy
Smooth
Snide
Snotty
Stubborn
Suspicious
Uncouth
Upbeat
Urbane
Violent
Whiney
Wisecracking
3. Mood
Mood is what the reader feels while reading a scene or story. It’s not the reader’s
emotions, but the atmosphere (the vibe) of a scene or story. It’s what the reader reads
or feels or notices. Not all readers would necessarily report the same mood from a
scene, although the writer does hope to achieve a particular feel common to every
reader.
Mood can be expressed in terms such as dark, light, rushed, suspenseful, heavy,
lighthearted, chaotic, and laid-back.
The mood of each scene can differ from that of the scene before, but you will want
some consistency. Yet, as the story approaches the climax, the intensity levels should
change. Readers should feel that story events are coming to a head. While there should
be several points in your story at which the mood darkens or grows more menacing or
more comical, readers should feel a bigger change as the story heads to its conclusion.
(This feel of events rushing toward a conclusion can also be directed by pace, by a
reduced emphasis on general setting details, by to-the-point dialogue, and several other
factors. Mood is just one element that pulls the reader toward the story’s end.)
I typically suggest that writers examine their manuscripts around the two-thirds mark.
If the feel of the story doesn’t change somewhere near this point, do some rewriting.
You can make gradual changes to mood or you could change the level in large steps,
but do make changes, both to indicate that the high point is indeed approaching and so
readers can feel the shift.
Keep in mind that mood has to change for a reason and that something must happen
even to provoke an intensity change. Something must be different to make sense of
any mood change, whether the change is from mood to mood or level to level.
This change can be a physical event or a character’s sudden recognition of the meaning
of an earlier event or another character’s remark.
If you’ve got several story threads or subplots featuring different viewpoint characters,
the mood could switch each time you move from one subplot to the other.
While using strongly different moods is a marvelous way to differentiate story threads
and the scenes of different viewpoint characters, do be aware that readers have to
adjust each time you change. The adjustment might be smooth or jarring, and either
kind of change could work for the story, but don’t forget that it may be difficult for
readers to adapt to a new mood at the turn of a page. If they’re caught up in your
fiction (and manipulating mood is a great way to keep them involved), they may not
want to leave the dark scenes featuring your antagonist for a relatively lighter scene
featuring the main character’s sidekick. Use what you know of human nature and your
own feelings toward such changes to decide how and when to introduce scenes of
different moods.
While both mood and tone can change over the course of story, tone is the more
consistent element. Since it’s the attitude of the narrator, tone won’t change as often as
mood can.
A list of moods (atmosphere)—
Alarming
Brooding
Buoyant
Comical
Confining
Cool
Dark
Fantastical
Hopeful
Light
Melancholy
Ominous
Oppressive
Relaxed
Sexy
Spooky
Suspenseful
Warm
Cheapter 6: Figurative Language
1.1.
Figurative language, language used by writers to produce images in
readers minds and to express ideas in fresh, vivid, and imaginative ways.
Whenever you describe something by comparing it with something else,
you are using figurative language.
1.2.
Kind of figurative language
a. Simile
A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing
similarities between two different things. Unlike a metaphor, a simile
draws resemblance with the help of the words “like” or “as”. Therefore,
it is a direct comparison.
We can find simile examples in our daily speech. We often hear
comments like “John is as slow as a snail.” Snails are notorious for their
slow pace and here the slowness of John is compared to that of a snail.
The use of “as” in the example helps to draw the resemblance. Some
more examples of common similes are given below.
Our soldiers are as brave as lions.
Her cheeks are red like a rose.
He is as funny as a monkey.
The water well was as dry as a bone.
He is as cunning as a fox.
b. Simile Examples in Literature
1. Taken from a short story Lolita written by Vladimir Nabokov,
“Elderly American ladies leaning on their canes listed toward me like towers of
Pisa.”
This simile produces a humorous effect by comparing old women leaning on
walking sticks with the ancient leaning tower of Pisa.
2. In her novel To the Lighthouse, Virginia Woolf compares the velocity of her
thoughts about the two men with that of spoken words.
“. . . impressions poured in upon her of those two men, and to follow her thought
was like following a voice which speaks too quickly to be taken down by one’s
pencil . . .”
She says both are difficult to follow and cannot be copied in words by a pencil.
c. Metaphor
Metaphor is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden
comparison between two things or objects that are poles apart from each other but
have some characteristics common between them. In other words, a resemblance
of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some
common characteristics.
In simple English, when you portray a person, place, thing, or an action
as being something else, even though it is not actually that “something else,” you
are speaking metaphorically. “He is the black sheep of the family” is a metaphor
because he is not a sheep and is not even black. However, we can use this
comparison to describe an association of a black sheep with that person. A black
sheep is an unusual animal and typically stays away from the herd, and the person
you are describing shares similar characteristics.
Example:
My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)
The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not
difficult.)
It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not
a threat and life is going to be without hardships)
d. Hyperbole
Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning “over-casting” is a
figure of speech, which involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake
of emphasis. It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech.
For instance, when you meet a friend after a long time, you say, “Ages
have passed since I last saw you”. You may not have met him for three
or four hours or a day, but the use of the word “ages” exaggerates this
statement to add emphasis to your wait. Therefore, a hyperbole is an
unreal exaggeration to emphasize the real situation. Some other
common Hyperbole examples are given below.
Example:
My grandmother is as old as the hills.
I am dying of shame.
I am trying to solve a million issues these days.
It is important not to confuse hyperbole with simile and metaphor. It does
make a comparison but unlike simile and metaphor, hyperbole has a
humorous effect created by an overstatement.
e. Alliteration
Alliteration is a figure of speech in which a series of words, usually two or
more neighboring words, have the same first consonant sound; however,
sometimes repetition of sounds occur inside a word. Alliteration is used primarily
in poetry but can be used in various facets of literature as well as song lyrics,
names, quotations or any piece of writing.
The purpose of alliteration is to make text stand out and direct the reader's
attention to a particular section. Alliteration is commonly used to add interest to a
sentence and can be a great way to help you remember names and phrases.
The sounds created by alliteration establish a certain mood, emotion and rhythm
in text. For instance, in Dante's Inferno, Dante states: 'I saw it there, but I saw
nothing in it, except the rising of the boiling bubbles.' The repetition of the 'b'
sound mimics the sounds of bubbling. In the book Some Smug Slug, the 's' sound
is used throughout to represent the sliminess and slyness of the slug.
Examples:
Shannon spoke softly to save the day.
f.
Beth has been as busy as a bee.
Going green is as good as gold.
Personification
Personification is a figure of speech in which a thing, an idea or an
animal is given human attributes. The non-human objects are
portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability to act like
human beings. For example, when we say, “The sky weeps” we are
giving the sky the ability to cry, which is a human quality. Thus, we can
say that the sky has been personified in the given sentence.
The wind whispered through dry grass.
Thet flowers danced in the gentle breeze.
Time and tide waits for none.
g. Idiom
An expression having a special meaning different from the usual
meanings of the words. Example:
(as) sure as eggs is eggs
The easter bunny knows proper grammar when he hears it, and he
also knows good easter eggs when he sees them. Imagine his
reaction when he heard this grammatically incorrect expression and
saw these weird easter eggs! Sure as eggs is eggs, he was shocked!
The idion means something is true beyond any doubt.
At/on face value
Coins and banknotes have numbers on them to tell you their face
value. That’s the origin of this expression which, as an idiom, means
exactly what one can see or hear. Examples: “Robert’s very
trustworthy. If he says he will paint your picture, you can take his
word at face value.” “on face value, I believeyou.”
A bag of wind
I wonder why people say hogarth is such an interestong man. “Lily
yawned. “to me he is a bag og wind. “lily is either very unkind or
very honest, for a bag of wind is someone who talks a great deal;
and especially a person who boasts amd tell exaggerated stiries
that are hard to believe.
h. Onomatopoeia
The use of words that sound like what they mean such as, “hiss”,
“buzz”, “slam”, and “boom”
Example:
snap crackle pop
cock-a-doodle-do!
i.
j.
Honk your horn.
Clichés
An expression that has been used so often that it has become trite and
sometimes boring
Example :
many hands make light work.
Irony
Is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their
intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of thewords.
Example:
“oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.
Cheapter 7: Inferences
Inferences is to take a critical look at what you are reading and make an assumption
based on your own experiences. While we are reading, we are picturing the story
and asking ourselves questions about the story. We find clues in the text and can
make judgments, to answer these questions, based on what we know from our
experiences. Making inferences is important when you read. It can often help you
undertand what you are reading. Good readers, in fact, make inferences all the time
Take a look at this cartoon:
First let’s consider Lucy
What do we see?
By reading the picture,
we can see how the author drew her.
What do we know?
We know that when people look like that, they are usually angry.
We can infer that Lucy is
Angry
What do we know?
We know that Lucy is a “youth”. We
also know that when someone says
that someone else “never listens,” It’s
an insult.
Because Lucy wouldn’t want to insult
herself, we can infer that Lucy thinks
she is more
Mature
than Linus and Snoopy.
Cheapter 8: Understanding Meaning
