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The Dead Sea Region
The Dead Sea (Hebrew: Yam HaMelach [= sea of salt], Arabic: Bahr Lut [= sea of Lot]) lies some 400 m below sea level at the lowest point on the earth's surface, and is a part of the Syrian - East Africa Rift Valley, flanked by the Judean Mountains to the west and the Moab mountains to the east. The name Mare Mortuum (=Dead Sea) was devised by Jerome (Hieronymus about 347-419) because the 78km long, up to 18km wide sea is one of the most saline lakes in the world. It is mainly fed by the Jordan River in the north and by perennial springs and streams from the east and west. Having no outlet, the Dead Sea is a "terminal lake" which loses more than 180 cm of water by evaporation into the hot dry air every year. These results in high concentrations of salts and minerals in a unique composition that is particularly rich in chloride salts of magnesium, sodium, potassium, calcium, bromine and various others. The Dead Sea brine's chemical composition reflects erosion, as well as the recycling of older deposits. This region enjoys sunny and dry weather through out the year. On average it has 330 full days of sunshine per year. The low altitude also has other benefits as the ultraviolet rays are filtered through three natural layers: an extra atmospheric layer, an evaporation layer that exists above The Dead Sea, and a rather thick ozone layer. Vacationers and health-cure visitors (psoriasis) come to the many resorts on the shore. In the history of the region the Dead Sea goes all the way to remote antiquity. North of the Dead Sea is Jericho, the oldest city in the world. On the south shore of the Dead Sea were the cities Sodom and Gomorra which were destroyed in the times of Abraham. At Ein Gedi David hid from King Saul. To the Greeks the Dead Sea was "Lake Asphaltus" due to the surfacing asphalt. The Egyptians used Judean asphalt, the bituminous substance rising to the surface of the lake, for many industrial and medicinal purposes as well for embalming the mummies. Plants growing in lakeside oases (Ein Gedi), especially the balsam tree, produced valuable and highly sought-after cosmetics, perfumes and medicinal substances. Their value was of such great economic importance that wars were fought for their possession, as when Mark Anthony conquered the Dead Sea area for Cleopatra. On the Dead Sea's northern shore the Essenes settled in a community centre Qumran, who produced the famous DEAD SEA SCROLLS. King Herod had several palaces on the west bank of the Dead Sea. Massada is the most spectacular site. All our information on the history of Massada comes from Josephus Flavius Jewish War. It is there where a small group of rebellious Jewish zealots held out against the might of the Roman Legion. In the early part of the 20th century, the Dead Sea began to attract interests from chemists who deduced that the Sea was a natural deposit of potash and bromine. Dead Sea Works, a manufacturer and worldwide distributor of chemical products including various grades of Potash, KCl, Magnesium Chloride, Sodium Chloride and Bromine extracted from the mineral rich Dead Sea, has been operating since 1931. Dead Sea Works Ltd. (DSW) is one of the world's leading manufacturers of potash and makes a wide range of other products based on the extraction of Dead Sea minerals. These include magnesium chloride, industrial salts, anhydrous aluminum chloride, de-icers, table salt and bath salts. DSW products are exported to over 60 countries. Another plant is Dead Sea Magnesium, a joint venture between the Dead Sea Works and Volkswagen AG of Germany who started magnesium production. In recent years, the Dead Sea area haws become a health, rehabilitation, recreation and beauty spa. The combination of the year-round favorable climate, the thriving health and beauty centers, and the unique natural and historical tourist attractions, attract both vacationers and health-cure visitors from around the world. Modern facilities and hotels line the shore.
The Negev and the Arava Valley
"Negev" in Hebrew means south. Israel's Negev Desert, where Abraham, Isaac and Jacob tended their flocks, comprises 66%, over 13000km² of Israel. The Negev covers the greater amount of Israel's official Southern District. Triangular in shape, with the resort town of Eilat at its southern apex and Beer Sheva as its northern base; the western border is touching with the desert of the Sinai peninsula, and the eastern border is the Wadi Arava. Following a visit to Palestine in 1867, Mark Twain described the Negev Desert in his book "The Innocents Abroad" as "a desolation that not even imagination can grace with the pomp of life and action".
Five different ecological regions fall within the area of the Negev: -The Northern Negev, with 30cm of rain annually, is called the "Mediterranean Zone", with fairly fertile soils. -The Western Negev is characterized by 25cm of rain per year, with light and partially sandy soils. Sand dunes can reach heights of up to 28 feet. -The Central Negev, with the city of Beer Sheva in its midst, has an annual precipitation of 20cm and is characterized by impervious soil, allowing minimum penetration of water with greater soil erosion and water runoff. -The high plateau area of Ramat Hanegev stands 365-550 meter above sea level with extreme temperatures in summer and winter. The area has only 10cm of rain per year, with inferior and partially salty soils. -The Arava Valley along the Jordanian border stretches 180km from Eilat in the south to the tip of the Dead Sea in the north. Defined as very arid with barely 5cm of rain annually, the Arava has inferior soils in which little can grow without irrigation and special soil additives.
Because of these poor conditions, the Negev was largely undeveloped and sparsely populated during Israel's first five decades. In spite of this, Israel has succeeded in becoming a world leader in combating the desert and preventing desertification of fertile lands. Through responsible water and soil conservation programs, Israeli techniques have become models in sustainable land management, with worldwide implications. It was Ben Gurion who said: “It is in the Negev that the creativity and pioneer vigor of Israel shall be tested”. He made it is home when he went to live in kibbutz SdeBoker. Today, the hut where he lived is a museum. For centuries, the area has been "home" to Bedouins who have increasingly given up their nomadic lifestyle and settled in permanent homes. The Bedouin tribes in the Negev and the Sinai all trace their origins back to the Arabian Peninsula, somewhere between the 14th and 17th centuries. According to Bedouin traditions and historical evidence, these tribal ancestors came to the Negev for three main reasons. Some, such as the Masa'id, Suwarka, Tyaha and Ugbi, came in search of better pasturelands. Others such as the Tarabin, Muwaytat and Ahaywat came in search of economic gain, conveying and protecting Mecca-bound Muslims pilgrims between the Suez and Aqaba. Many, such as the Ayada, Dhullam and Muzayna tribes came fleeing from blood-revenge, often as a small clan, or even as individuals. Bedouin towns in the Negev include Rahat and Tel Sheva. The Negev has a few interesting cultural and geological attractions. Among these are three machteshim, which are unique in the region. Machtesh is a Hebrew word that does not really have a translation. Machteshim are formed when water seeps into the peek of a large mountain, eroding from the inside, creating a large lake. As the water level increases, the erosion increases, until the top of the mountain collapses inwards, creating a large lake with lots of debris at the bottom. The erosion process continues, until a gap erodes in one of the walls. When this happens, the water flows out leaving something really big that looks a bit like a crater, but with much steeper walls and (depending on the size of the mountain) often much, much, much bigger. Machteshim are spectacularly impressive natural occurrences because of the sheer drop and the sheer size. Three Machteshim are in Israel: HaMachtesh HaGadol (the big machtesh), HaMachtesh HaKatan (the small machtesh) and the largest Machtesh is called Machtesh Ramon, the town built next to it, is called Mitzpe Ramon. The Eastern Negev has two of the area's larger towns. The first is Arad, a development town that serves as a convenient stopover for visitors to the Dead Sea and Masada. The town is also popular because of its clean, dry air, which makes it a haven for people suffering from asthma and allergies. Nearby is Tel Arad, a site of a biblical town that is one of the
earliest known urban settlements. Further south, on the way to Eilat is Dimona, a town established in the 1950s to help absorb Jewish immigrants. Originally considered too remote and its climate too unpleasant for large-scale settlement, the town has grown to be a thriving community of more than 20,000. It is best known, perhaps, as the site of Israel's nuclear research program and is believed to be the site where nuclear weapons have been developed. It is also known as the home of the Black Hebrews, a sect that originally came from Chicago and settled in Dimona. Just beyond Dimona is Mamshit, one of the best preserved of the Nabatean towns. It was built in the first century, probably the last of the five cities the Nabateans built along the roads from their capital in Petra to the coast. For many years, before 200 BC, the Nabataeans had slowly emigrated from their homeland in Arabia into the Negev. And so it is that the Nabataeans like the Arabian tribes before and after them, began to slowly move out of the Arabian Desert and into the Sinai and Negev region. Diodorus tells us that as far back as 250 BC, Nabataean villages had sprung up along the shores of the Red Sea, and at important oasis in the desert. These small settlements would eventually grow to become important trade cities, located along the ancient trade routes that crisscrossed the wilderness. As the Nabataeans moved from being a nomadic people to being civilization builders, they applied their skills in water collection, so that they could provide their caravan stations with water. These water systems were expanded as the caravan stations grew in size, and eventually became small cities in their own right. Mamshit was annexed by the Romans in 106 C.E. and the town was renamed it Memphis. The town grew for several centuries until being abandoned after the Muslim conquest in 636. During the Byzantine era, three churches were constructed and the remains of some of the mosaics are still visible as are parts of the Roman city walls. In one room archaeologists found a bronze jar filled with 10.000 silver coins dating from the first and second centuries. Other Nabatean settlements are Avdat and Shivta. The Arava Valley forms part of the border between Israel to the west and Jordan to the east. The oldest kibbutz in the Arava is Kibbutz Yotvata, founded in 1957. Yotvata was named for an ancient town in the Arava that is mentioned once in the Bible. Kibbutz Lotan, which is one of Israel's newest kibbutzim, has a bird-watching center. In ancient times the Arava region was more settled than it is today. In Biblical times the area was a center of copper production; King Solomon apparently had mines here (Timna National Park).
Sea of Galilee
In the Bible the Sea of Galilee is known as the Sea of Kinneret, a name that is imaginatively associated with the Hebrew word kinor meaning a harp. The shape of the lake resembles a harp. It is also known as Lake Galilee or Lake Tiberias. The name Galilee refers to the region of Galilee in which it is located.It is Israel's largest freshwater reserve, 21km from north to south and 12 km wide, a maximum depth of 48 meters.
At 213 meters below sea level, it is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second lowest point in the world after the Dead Sea; it is fed by underground springs, but it mains source is the Jordan River (Hebrew: Yarden >Yarad Dan = comes from the Dan), which flows through it from north to south. The bottom of the lake is dark basalt sand, that is why the water of Kinneret is of dark blue color when you look at it from a distance. The Sea of Galilee can quickly become transformed by a violent storm. Winds funnel through the east-
west aligned Galilee hill country and stir up the waters quickly. More violent are the winds that come off the hills of the Golan Heights to the east. Trapped in the basin, the winds can be deadly to fishermen. Twenty-two species of fish are found in the lake. The Via Maris ("Maritime Route") passed its shores contributing to the wealth of the cities. In fact, Egyptian documents mention the hot springs on the shores of Lake Kinneret and their beneficial effects. In the period of the Roman occupation, King Herod received the city of Hippos (Susitha), which bordered on the east of the lake, and Herod's sons, Antipas and Philip, founded the cities of Tiberias and Julias (Bethsaida). Tiberias plays an important role in Jewish history.
It was part of the land bequeathed to Naphtali (Joshua 19:35). The Sanhedrin (the High Court of Israel during the period of the Second Temple) relocated to Tiberias from Sepphoris. In the Mishnaic and Talmudic period, Tiberias was an important spiritual center. The Mishna was completed in Tiberias in 200 C.E. under the supervision of Rabbi Yehuda Ha-Nasi ("Judah the Prince"). The Jerusalem Talmud was compiled in 400 C.E. After his death in 1204, the great Jewish sage Maimonides was buried in Tiberias. His tomb is on Ben Zakkai Street, a short distance from the town center. The street's namesake, Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai, is also believed to be buried nearby. Yet another shrine is the Tomb of Rabbi Akiva.
Moreover, it was also during the Roman period that the Lake Kinneret region served as the setting of Jesus' preaching, and later as the center of his apostles' activities. As a result, many churches were later built on these same shores, including Capernaum, home to at least five of the twelve disciples. The Church of the Beatitudes is said to be where the Sermon of the Mount was preached and Tabgha
believed to be the site where Jesus fed 5,000 followers from "five loaves of bread and two fishes", the place is called the Church of Multiplication. The nearby lakeside town of Migdal is the hometown of Mary Magdalene.The crusaders fought to control the lake area because of its historic connections with Christianity. The New Testament refers to the lake as the Sea of Galilee and the Sea of Gennesareth. In the modern era, the first collective settlements (kibbutzim) in the modern Jewish State were established in the southwest corner of the Sea of Galilee. Among them was Kibbutz Degania, forerunner of the hundreds of settlements that were yet to come.
The Arava Valley
The Arava Valley stretches between the Dead Sea in the north and the Red Sea (Eilat) in the south. It is a part of the Syrian-African Rift and includes both Israeli and Jordanian territories with varying levels and densities of agricultural and urban settlements on both sides of the border. This area falls within subtropical savanna area where the temperatures are much higher than in the neighboring areas at the same latitude; the temperature can rise to 48°C. It is also the base of erosion, i.e., runoff water and underground water accumulate in it. Because of these special conditions it enabled trees of Sudanian origin to establish in oases. The distribution of each tree is limited by its demand for high temperatures or resistance to low ones and by its resistance to soil salinity. Several desert springs support the salinity resistant date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), that is accompanied by rush (Juncus rigidus, J.arabicus). The Acacia species are the most drought resistant trees and form savannoid vegetation along the Arava. Deep sands in the Arava are covered by a sparse woodland of Persian haloxylon (Haloxylon persicum). Much of the area that was once covered by H. persicum is intensively cultivated at present.
Wet Salinas, where salty water moisten the soil throughout the year occur along the Jordan, Dead Sea and Arava valleys, and near the Mediterranean sea at Akko-Zevulun Valley. Nile Tamarisk (Tamarix nilotica) and other Tamarix species, which are highly resistant to salinity, thrive in desert salines. The largest continuous salt marshes are those in the southern Dead Sea area, and near Yotvata. Birds: Eilat is a key site for migration through the Middle East, and very large numbers of all types of birds pass through the area in both spring and autumn. Over 420 species have been recorded. Of prime importance are raptors: 1.2 million have been counted in a single spring season and 26.000 in autumn, and the flyway is especially concentrated for Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus), Black Kite (Milvus migrans, max. seasonal total 31.774), Levant Sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes), Steppe Buzzard (Buteo buteo vulpinus ,max. seasonal total 465.827) and Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis, max. seasonal total 75.053). Migrant White-winged Tern (Chlidonias leucopterus) also occur in especially high numbers. Numbers of migrating Great White Pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus) and Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) are highest in spring, and seasonal totals from the Moon Valley are given. Other breeding species include Verreaux's Eagle (Aquila verreauxii, not proven: records of 1-2 birds), Barbary Falcon (Falco pelegrinoides, 1-2 pairs), Lichtenstein's Sandgrouse (Pterocles lichtensteinii) and Dunn's Lark (Eremalauda dunni, 0-20 pairs, last bred 1989).
Yotvata is the modern name of an oasis with saline marshes located in Israel's southern Arava (rift valley), about 25 miles north of Eilat and Aqaba on the Red Sea.Yotvata is the oldest kibbutz in the Southern Arava. During the 60's and 70's other kibbutzim were founded; Eilot 1962, Grofit 1966, Ketura 1973 and Samar 1976.Later came Yahel, Elifaz and Lotan. In the 80's, in the Shizafon valley, Neve Harif and in the 90's, Neot Smadar. Each of these settlements is a partner in the area council of Hevel Eilot. The council provides the basic services necessary in spite of the distance from the centre of the country - 320 kms. from Tel Aviv, 200 from Be'er Sheva. These services include; education, public transport, refuse collecting, research and development and cultural events. The agricultural experimental station, where some members of Yotvata work, helps Yotvata. The station was developed in the 60's and is still involved in the agricultural development in the area. Just south of Yotvata are large wadis and their alluvial fans support open woodland of "Umbrella Acacia" (Acacia tortilis) and Acacia Thorns (Acacia raddiana), and here a few presumably native Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) also grow where water is close to the surface. There is a tiny relict group of Egyptian Doum Palm (Hyphaene thebaica) at En Evrona. Other habitats include beaches, agricultural fields, saltpans, sewage ponds and reed (Phragmites); a saltmarsh with large Suaeda bushes has now almost disappeared.
The Dead Sea (Hebrew: Yam HaMelach [= sea of salt], Arabic: Bahr Lut [= sea of Lot]) lies some 400 m below sea level at the lowest point on the earth's surface, and is a part of the Syrian - East Africa Rift Valley, flanked by the Judean Mountains to the west and the Moab mountains to the east. The name Mare Mortuum (=Dead Sea) was devised by Jerome (Hieronymus about 347-419) because the 78km long, up to 18km wide sea is one of the most saline lakes in the world. It is mainly fed by the Jordan River in the north and by perennial springs and streams from the east and west. Having no outlet, the Dead Sea is a "terminal lake" which loses more than 180 cm of water by evaporation into the hot dry air every year. These results in high concentrations of salts and minerals in a unique composition that is particularly rich in chloride salts of magnesium, sodium, potassium, calcium, bromine and various others. The Dead Sea brine's chemical composition reflects erosion, as well as the recycling of older deposits. This region enjoys sunny and dry weather through out the year. On average it has 330 full days of sunshine per year. The low altitude also has other benefits as the ultraviolet rays are filtered through three natural layers: an extra atmospheric layer, an evaporation layer that exists above The Dead Sea, and a rather thick ozone layer. Vacationers and health-cure visitors (psoriasis) come to the many resorts on the shore. In the history of the region the Dead Sea goes all the way to remote antiquity. North of the Dead Sea is Jericho, the oldest city in the world. On the south shore of the Dead Sea were the cities Sodom and Gomorra which were destroyed in the times of Abraham. At Ein Gedi David hid from King Saul. To the Greeks the Dead Sea was "Lake Asphaltus" due to the surfacing asphalt. The Egyptians used Judean asphalt, the bituminous substance rising to the surface of the lake, for many industrial and medicinal purposes as well for embalming the mummies. Plants growing in lakeside oases (Ein Gedi), especially the balsam tree, produced valuable and highly sought-after cosmetics, perfumes and medicinal substances. Their value was of such great economic importance that wars were fought for their possession, as when Mark Anthony conquered the Dead Sea area for Cleopatra. On the Dead Sea's northern shore the Essenes settled in a community centre Qumran, who produced the famous DEAD SEA SCROLLS. King Herod had several palaces on the west bank of the Dead Sea. Massada is the most spectacular site. All our information on the history of Massada comes from Josephus Flavius Jewish War. It is there where a small group of rebellious Jewish zealots held out against the might of the Roman Legion. In the early part of the 20th century, the Dead Sea began to attract interests from chemists who deduced that the Sea was a natural deposit of potash and bromine. Dead Sea Works, a manufacturer and worldwide distributor of chemical products including various grades of Potash, KCl, Magnesium Chloride, Sodium Chloride and Bromine extracted from the mineral rich Dead Sea, has been operating since 1931. Dead Sea Works Ltd. (DSW) is one of the world's leading manufacturers of potash and makes a wide range of other products based on the extraction of Dead Sea minerals. These include magnesium chloride, industrial salts, anhydrous aluminum chloride, de-icers, table salt and bath salts. DSW products are exported to over 60 countries. Another plant is Dead Sea Magnesium, a joint venture between the Dead Sea Works and Volkswagen AG of Germany who started magnesium production. In recent years, the Dead Sea area haws become a health, rehabilitation, recreation and beauty spa. The combination of the year-round favorable climate, the thriving health and beauty centers, and the unique natural and historical tourist attractions, attract both vacationers and health-cure visitors from around the world. Modern facilities and hotels line the shore.
The Negev and the Arava Valley
"Negev" in Hebrew means south. Israel's Negev Desert, where Abraham, Isaac and Jacob tended their flocks, comprises 66%, over 13000km² of Israel. The Negev covers the greater amount of Israel's official Southern District. Triangular in shape, with the resort town of Eilat at its southern apex and Beer Sheva as its northern base; the western border is touching with the desert of the Sinai peninsula, and the eastern border is the Wadi Arava. Following a visit to Palestine in 1867, Mark Twain described the Negev Desert in his book "The Innocents Abroad" as "a desolation that not even imagination can grace with the pomp of life and action".
Five different ecological regions fall within the area of the Negev: -The Northern Negev, with 30cm of rain annually, is called the "Mediterranean Zone", with fairly fertile soils. -The Western Negev is characterized by 25cm of rain per year, with light and partially sandy soils. Sand dunes can reach heights of up to 28 feet. -The Central Negev, with the city of Beer Sheva in its midst, has an annual precipitation of 20cm and is characterized by impervious soil, allowing minimum penetration of water with greater soil erosion and water runoff. -The high plateau area of Ramat Hanegev stands 365-550 meter above sea level with extreme temperatures in summer and winter. The area has only 10cm of rain per year, with inferior and partially salty soils. -The Arava Valley along the Jordanian border stretches 180km from Eilat in the south to the tip of the Dead Sea in the north. Defined as very arid with barely 5cm of rain annually, the Arava has inferior soils in which little can grow without irrigation and special soil additives.
Because of these poor conditions, the Negev was largely undeveloped and sparsely populated during Israel's first five decades. In spite of this, Israel has succeeded in becoming a world leader in combating the desert and preventing desertification of fertile lands. Through responsible water and soil conservation programs, Israeli techniques have become models in sustainable land management, with worldwide implications. It was Ben Gurion who said: “It is in the Negev that the creativity and pioneer vigor of Israel shall be tested”. He made it is home when he went to live in kibbutz SdeBoker. Today, the hut where he lived is a museum. For centuries, the area has been "home" to Bedouins who have increasingly given up their nomadic lifestyle and settled in permanent homes. The Bedouin tribes in the Negev and the Sinai all trace their origins back to the Arabian Peninsula, somewhere between the 14th and 17th centuries. According to Bedouin traditions and historical evidence, these tribal ancestors came to the Negev for three main reasons. Some, such as the Masa'id, Suwarka, Tyaha and Ugbi, came in search of better pasturelands. Others such as the Tarabin, Muwaytat and Ahaywat came in search of economic gain, conveying and protecting Mecca-bound Muslims pilgrims between the Suez and Aqaba. Many, such as the Ayada, Dhullam and Muzayna tribes came fleeing from blood-revenge, often as a small clan, or even as individuals. Bedouin towns in the Negev include Rahat and Tel Sheva. The Negev has a few interesting cultural and geological attractions. Among these are three machteshim, which are unique in the region. Machtesh is a Hebrew word that does not really have a translation. Machteshim are formed when water seeps into the peek of a large mountain, eroding from the inside, creating a large lake. As the water level increases, the erosion increases, until the top of the mountain collapses inwards, creating a large lake with lots of debris at the bottom. The erosion process continues, until a gap erodes in one of the walls. When this happens, the water flows out leaving something really big that looks a bit like a crater, but with much steeper walls and (depending on the size of the mountain) often much, much, much bigger. Machteshim are spectacularly impressive natural occurrences because of the sheer drop and the sheer size. Three Machteshim are in Israel: HaMachtesh HaGadol (the big machtesh), HaMachtesh HaKatan (the small machtesh) and the largest Machtesh is called Machtesh Ramon, the town built next to it, is called Mitzpe Ramon. The Eastern Negev has two of the area's larger towns. The first is Arad, a development town that serves as a convenient stopover for visitors to the Dead Sea and Masada. The town is also popular because of its clean, dry air, which makes it a haven for people suffering from asthma and allergies. Nearby is Tel Arad, a site of a biblical town that is one of the
earliest known urban settlements. Further south, on the way to Eilat is Dimona, a town established in the 1950s to help absorb Jewish immigrants. Originally considered too remote and its climate too unpleasant for large-scale settlement, the town has grown to be a thriving community of more than 20,000. It is best known, perhaps, as the site of Israel's nuclear research program and is believed to be the site where nuclear weapons have been developed. It is also known as the home of the Black Hebrews, a sect that originally came from Chicago and settled in Dimona. Just beyond Dimona is Mamshit, one of the best preserved of the Nabatean towns. It was built in the first century, probably the last of the five cities the Nabateans built along the roads from their capital in Petra to the coast. For many years, before 200 BC, the Nabataeans had slowly emigrated from their homeland in Arabia into the Negev. And so it is that the Nabataeans like the Arabian tribes before and after them, began to slowly move out of the Arabian Desert and into the Sinai and Negev region. Diodorus tells us that as far back as 250 BC, Nabataean villages had sprung up along the shores of the Red Sea, and at important oasis in the desert. These small settlements would eventually grow to become important trade cities, located along the ancient trade routes that crisscrossed the wilderness. As the Nabataeans moved from being a nomadic people to being civilization builders, they applied their skills in water collection, so that they could provide their caravan stations with water. These water systems were expanded as the caravan stations grew in size, and eventually became small cities in their own right. Mamshit was annexed by the Romans in 106 C.E. and the town was renamed it Memphis. The town grew for several centuries until being abandoned after the Muslim conquest in 636. During the Byzantine era, three churches were constructed and the remains of some of the mosaics are still visible as are parts of the Roman city walls. In one room archaeologists found a bronze jar filled with 10.000 silver coins dating from the first and second centuries. Other Nabatean settlements are Avdat and Shivta. The Arava Valley forms part of the border between Israel to the west and Jordan to the east. The oldest kibbutz in the Arava is Kibbutz Yotvata, founded in 1957. Yotvata was named for an ancient town in the Arava that is mentioned once in the Bible. Kibbutz Lotan, which is one of Israel's newest kibbutzim, has a bird-watching center. In ancient times the Arava region was more settled than it is today. In Biblical times the area was a center of copper production; King Solomon apparently had mines here (Timna National Park).
Sea of Galilee
In the Bible the Sea of Galilee is known as the Sea of Kinneret, a name that is imaginatively associated with the Hebrew word kinor meaning a harp. The shape of the lake resembles a harp. It is also known as Lake Galilee or Lake Tiberias. The name Galilee refers to the region of Galilee in which it is located.It is Israel's largest freshwater reserve, 21km from north to south and 12 km wide, a maximum depth of 48 meters.
At 213 meters below sea level, it is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second lowest point in the world after the Dead Sea; it is fed by underground springs, but it mains source is the Jordan River (Hebrew: Yarden >Yarad Dan = comes from the Dan), which flows through it from north to south. The bottom of the lake is dark basalt sand, that is why the water of Kinneret is of dark blue color when you look at it from a distance. The Sea of Galilee can quickly become transformed by a violent storm. Winds funnel through the east-
west aligned Galilee hill country and stir up the waters quickly. More violent are the winds that come off the hills of the Golan Heights to the east. Trapped in the basin, the winds can be deadly to fishermen. Twenty-two species of fish are found in the lake. The Via Maris ("Maritime Route") passed its shores contributing to the wealth of the cities. In fact, Egyptian documents mention the hot springs on the shores of Lake Kinneret and their beneficial effects. In the period of the Roman occupation, King Herod received the city of Hippos (Susitha), which bordered on the east of the lake, and Herod's sons, Antipas and Philip, founded the cities of Tiberias and Julias (Bethsaida). Tiberias plays an important role in Jewish history.
It was part of the land bequeathed to Naphtali (Joshua 19:35). The Sanhedrin (the High Court of Israel during the period of the Second Temple) relocated to Tiberias from Sepphoris. In the Mishnaic and Talmudic period, Tiberias was an important spiritual center. The Mishna was completed in Tiberias in 200 C.E. under the supervision of Rabbi Yehuda Ha-Nasi ("Judah the Prince"). The Jerusalem Talmud was compiled in 400 C.E. After his death in 1204, the great Jewish sage Maimonides was buried in Tiberias. His tomb is on Ben Zakkai Street, a short distance from the town center. The street's namesake, Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai, is also believed to be buried nearby. Yet another shrine is the Tomb of Rabbi Akiva.
Moreover, it was also during the Roman period that the Lake Kinneret region served as the setting of Jesus' preaching, and later as the center of his apostles' activities. As a result, many churches were later built on these same shores, including Capernaum, home to at least five of the twelve disciples. The Church of the Beatitudes is said to be where the Sermon of the Mount was preached and Tabgha
believed to be the site where Jesus fed 5,000 followers from "five loaves of bread and two fishes", the place is called the Church of Multiplication. The nearby lakeside town of Migdal is the hometown of Mary Magdalene.The crusaders fought to control the lake area because of its historic connections with Christianity. The New Testament refers to the lake as the Sea of Galilee and the Sea of Gennesareth. In the modern era, the first collective settlements (kibbutzim) in the modern Jewish State were established in the southwest corner of the Sea of Galilee. Among them was Kibbutz Degania, forerunner of the hundreds of settlements that were yet to come.
The Arava Valley
The Arava Valley stretches between the Dead Sea in the north and the Red Sea (Eilat) in the south. It is a part of the Syrian-African Rift and includes both Israeli and Jordanian territories with varying levels and densities of agricultural and urban settlements on both sides of the border. This area falls within subtropical savanna area where the temperatures are much higher than in the neighboring areas at the same latitude; the temperature can rise to 48°C. It is also the base of erosion, i.e., runoff water and underground water accumulate in it. Because of these special conditions it enabled trees of Sudanian origin to establish in oases. The distribution of each tree is limited by its demand for high temperatures or resistance to low ones and by its resistance to soil salinity. Several desert springs support the salinity resistant date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), that is accompanied by rush (Juncus rigidus, J.arabicus). The Acacia species are the most drought resistant trees and form savannoid vegetation along the Arava. Deep sands in the Arava are covered by a sparse woodland of Persian haloxylon (Haloxylon persicum). Much of the area that was once covered by H. persicum is intensively cultivated at present.
Wet Salinas, where salty water moisten the soil throughout the year occur along the Jordan, Dead Sea and Arava valleys, and near the Mediterranean sea at Akko-Zevulun Valley. Nile Tamarisk (Tamarix nilotica) and other Tamarix species, which are highly resistant to salinity, thrive in desert salines. The largest continuous salt marshes are those in the southern Dead Sea area, and near Yotvata. Birds: Eilat is a key site for migration through the Middle East, and very large numbers of all types of birds pass through the area in both spring and autumn. Over 420 species have been recorded. Of prime importance are raptors: 1.2 million have been counted in a single spring season and 26.000 in autumn, and the flyway is especially concentrated for Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus), Black Kite (Milvus migrans, max. seasonal total 31.774), Levant Sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes), Steppe Buzzard (Buteo buteo vulpinus ,max. seasonal total 465.827) and Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis, max. seasonal total 75.053). Migrant White-winged Tern (Chlidonias leucopterus) also occur in especially high numbers. Numbers of migrating Great White Pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus) and Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) are highest in spring, and seasonal totals from the Moon Valley are given. Other breeding species include Verreaux's Eagle (Aquila verreauxii, not proven: records of 1-2 birds), Barbary Falcon (Falco pelegrinoides, 1-2 pairs), Lichtenstein's Sandgrouse (Pterocles lichtensteinii) and Dunn's Lark (Eremalauda dunni, 0-20 pairs, last bred 1989).
Yotvata is the modern name of an oasis with saline marshes located in Israel's southern Arava (rift valley), about 25 miles north of Eilat and Aqaba on the Red Sea.Yotvata is the oldest kibbutz in the Southern Arava. During the 60's and 70's other kibbutzim were founded; Eilot 1962, Grofit 1966, Ketura 1973 and Samar 1976.Later came Yahel, Elifaz and Lotan. In the 80's, in the Shizafon valley, Neve Harif and in the 90's, Neot Smadar. Each of these settlements is a partner in the area council of Hevel Eilot. The council provides the basic services necessary in spite of the distance from the centre of the country - 320 kms. from Tel Aviv, 200 from Be'er Sheva. These services include; education, public transport, refuse collecting, research and development and cultural events. The agricultural experimental station, where some members of Yotvata work, helps Yotvata. The station was developed in the 60's and is still involved in the agricultural development in the area. Just south of Yotvata are large wadis and their alluvial fans support open woodland of "Umbrella Acacia" (Acacia tortilis) and Acacia Thorns (Acacia raddiana), and here a few presumably native Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) also grow where water is close to the surface. There is a tiny relict group of Egyptian Doum Palm (Hyphaene thebaica) at En Evrona. Other habitats include beaches, agricultural fields, saltpans, sewage ponds and reed (Phragmites); a saltmarsh with large Suaeda bushes has now almost disappeared.
