Report Power Factor Controller

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Acknowledgement
We take immense pleasure in thanking Lect.Mrs.Manjeet Sandhu
and Dr.H.S.Sagar, our beloved Director for having permitted us to
carry out this project ork.
We ish to e!press our deep sense of gratitude to our "nternal
guide, Ms.#ajneesh $aur for her able guidance and useful
suggestions, hich helped us in completing the project ork, in time.
Words are inade%uate in offering our thanks to the &roject 'rainees
and &roject (ssistants, S))S"*' for their encouragement and
cooperation in carrying out the project ork.
+inally, yet importantly, e ould like to e!press our heartfelt thanks
our beloved parents or their blessings, our friends , classmates for
their help and ishes for the successful completion of this project.
-.arun Dadal/ -Sumit $umar/ -Saminder Singh/
Certificate
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
'his is to certify that &roject entitled 0Power Factor Controller” is
submitted in partial fulfillment for the aard of degree )1'*2H
-*lectronics and 2ommunication *ngineering/ of &unjab 'echnical
3niversity has been successfully completed by Mr..arun Dadal
having #oll 4o. 567898:;;<.
He has done as good job under my guidance=supervision.
-Mrs.Manjeet Sandhu/ -Ms.#ajneesh $aur/ -Dr.&arampal Singh/
&roject >uide &roject 2oordinator H?D 1 *2*
Certificate
'his is to certify that &roject entitled 0Power Factor Controller” is
submitted in partial fulfillment for the aard of degree )1'*2H
-*lectronics and 2ommunication *ngineering/ of &unjab 'echnical
3niversity has been successfully completed by Mr.Sumit $umar
having #oll 4o. 567898:;6<.
He has done as good job under my guidance=supervision.
-Mrs.Manjeet Sandhu/ -Ms.#ajneesh $aur/ -Dr.&arampal Singh/
&roject >uide &roject 2oordinator H?D 1 *2*
Certificate
'his is to certify that &roject entitled 0Power Factor Controller” is
submitted in partial fulfillment for the aard of degree )1'*2H
-*lectronics and 2ommunication *ngineering/ of &unjab 'echnical
3niversity has been successfully completed by Mr.Saminder Singh
having #oll 4o. 567898:;:7.
He has done as good job under my guidance=supervision.
-Mrs.Manjeet Sandhu/ -Ms.#ajneesh $aur/ -Dr.&arampal Singh/
&roject >uide &roject 2oordinator H?D 1 *2*
'able of 2ontents
@. "ntroduction to the &roject.
A. )lock Diagram
<. 2ircuit Diagram.
9. 2omponent List.
7. Working
5. 4otes on Microcontroller
7.@ "ntroduction
7.A (rchitecture
7.< &in Description
7.9 Special +unction #egisters
7.7 "nstructions
:. &oer Supply
6. )ibliography.
! Introd"ction#
'he poer factor of an (2 electrical poer system is defined as the ratio of the
real poer floing to the load, to the apparent poer in the circuit, and is a
dimensionless number beteen 1@ and @. #eal poer is the capacity of the
circuit for performing ork in a particular time. (pparent poer is the product of
the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and
returned to the source, or due to a non1linear load that distorts the ave shape
of the current dran from the source, the apparent poer ill be greater than
the real poer. ( negative poer factor occurs hen the device hich is
normally the load generates poer hich then flos back toards the device
hich is normally considered the generator.
"n an electric poer system, a load ith a lo poer factor dras more current
than a load ith a high poer factor for the same amount of useful poer
transferred. 'he higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution
system, and re%uire larger ires and other e%uipment. )ecause of the costs of
larger e%uipment and asted energy, electrical utilities ill usually charge a
higher cost to industrial or commercial customers here there is a lo poer
factor.
Linear loads ith lo poer factor -such as induction motors/ can be corrected
ith a passive netork of capacitors or inductors. 4on1linear loads, such as
rectifiers, distort the current dran from the system. "n such cases, active or
passive poer factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and
raise the poer factor. 'he devices for correction of the poer factor may be at
a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built into poer1
consuming e%uipment.
$! %lock &iagram#'
&oer
Supply
"ncrement
Sitch

687@
#elay
L*D
Decrement
Sitch

L2D
(! Circ"it &iagram ) Main Circ"it#'
*! +i,t of Com-onent,#'
.!No! Com-onent /t0!
@ "26;287@, @
A 2rystal B @A MHC @
< 2ap B <<p+ A
9 Sitch <
7 "2 )ase B 98 &in @
5 ?pto1coupler B M2'Ae @
: 'ransistor 776 1 &4& @
6 'ransistor 79: 1 4&4 @
@8 L*D @
@@ #esistances 9.:k,8.A7W A
@A #esistances @8k,8.A7W A
@< 2onnecting ires @8 "nch
@9 'ransformer AA8=@A, @( @
@7 Diodes "4988: 9
@5 2ap.9:8 D+ @
@: 2ap.@888 D+ @
@6 #elay @
@; L2D @
1!Working#'
"n our project e have to sitches through hich e can change the value of
poer factor -one for increment and other for decrement/ and to observe the
output e have a relay circuit, if the value of poer factor increases then at a
certain level relay ill sitch into on state automatically hich ill further sitch
on the L*D hich shos that the capacitive load is added. Here @5!A L2D ill
be used to display &oer +actor value.

2! Microcontroller 34516#'
WE+COME TO THE WOR+& OF THE
MICROCONTRO++ER.!
Look around. 4otice the smart 0intelligentE systemsF )e it the '.., ashing
machines, video games, telephones, automobiles, aero planes, poer systems,
or any application having a L*D or a L2D as a user interface, the control is
likely to be in the hands of a micro controllerG
Measure and control, thatHs here the micro controller is at its best.
Micro controllers are here to stay. >oing by the current trend, it is obvious that
micro controllers ill be playing bigger and bigger roles in the different activities
of our lives.
'hese embedded chips are very small, but are designed to replace components
much bigger and bulky in siCe. 'hey process information very intelligently and
efficiently. 'hey sense the environment around them. 'he signals they gather
are tuned into digital data that streams through tributaries of circuit lines at the
speed of light. "nside the microprocessor collates and calculators. 'he softare
has middling intelligence. 'hen in a split second, the processed streams are
shoved out.
W7at i, t7e -rimar0 difference 8etween a
micro-roce,,or and a micro controllerF
3nlike the microprocessor, the micro controller can be considered to be a true
02omputer on a chipE.
"n addition to the various features like the (L3, &2, S& and registers found on a
microprocessor, the micro controller also incorporates features like the #?M,
#(M, &orts, timers, clock circuits, counters, reset functions etc.
While the microprocessor is more a general1purpose device, used for read, rite
and calculations on data, the micro controller, in addition to the above functions
also controls the environment.
T7e 451#
'he 687@ developed and launched in the early 68Is, is one of the most popular
micro controller in use today. "t has a reasonably large amount of built in #?M
and #(M. "n addition it has the ability to access e!ternal memory.
'he generic term I6!7@I is used to define the device. 'he value of ! defining the
kind of #?M, i.e. !J8, indicates none, !J<, indicates mask #?M, !J:, indicates
*&#?M and !J; indicates **&#?M or +lash.
A note on ROM#
'he early 687@, namely the 68<@ as designed ithout any #?M. 'his device
could run only ith e!ternal memory connected to it. Subse%uent developments
lead to the development of the &#?M or the programmable #?M. 'his type had
the disadvantage of being highly unreliable.
'he ne!t in line, as the *&#?M or *rasable &rogrammable #?M. 'hese
devices used ultraviolet light erasable memory cells. 'hus a program could be
loaded, tested and erased using ultra violet rays. ( ne program could then be
loaded again.
(n improved *&#?M as the **&#?M or the electrically erasable &#?M.
'his does not re%uire ultra violet rays, and memory can be cleared using circuits
ithin the chip itself.
+inally there is the +L(SH, hich is an improvement over the **&#?M. While
the terms **&#?M and flash are sometimes used interchangeably, the
difference lies in the fact that flash erases the complete memory at one stroke,
and not act on the individual cells. 'his results in reducing the time for erasure.
&ifferent microcontroller, in market!
• &"2 K
?ne of the famous microcontrollers used in the industries. "t is based on
#"S2 (rchitecture hich makes the microcontroller process faster than other
microcontroller.
• "4'*LK
'hese are the first to manufacture microcontrollers. 'hese are not as
sophisticated other microcontrollers but still the easiest one to learn.
• ('M*LK
(tmelHs (.# microcontrollers are one of the most poerful in the embedded
industry. 'his is the only microcontroller having @kb of ram even the entry
stage. )ut it is unfortunate that in "ndia e are unable to find this kind of
microcontroller.
Intel 451
"ntel 687@ is 2"S2 architecture hich is easy to program in assembly language
and also has a good support for High level languages.
'he memory of the microcontroller can be e!tended up to 59k.
'his microcontroller is one of the easiest microcontrollers to learn.
'he 687@ microcontroller is in the field for more than A8 years. 'here are lots of
books and study materials are readily available for 687@.
&eri9ati9e,
'he best thing done by "ntel is to give the designs of the 687@ microcontroller to
everyone. So it is not the fact that "ntel is the only manufacture for the 687@
there more than A8 manufactures, ith each of minimum A8 models. Literally
there are hundreds of models of 687@ microcontroller available in market to
choose. Some of the major manufactures of 687@ are
 (tmel
 &hilips
P7ili-,
'he &hilipsLs 687@ derivatives has more number of features than in any
microcontroller. 'he costs of the &hilips microcontrollers are higher than the
(tmelHs hich makes us to choose (tmel more often than &hilips.
&alla,#
allas has made many revolutions in the semiconductor market. DallasHs 687@
derivative is the fastest one in the market. "t orks < times as fast as a 687@ can
process. )ut e are unable to get more in "ndia.
Atmel#
'hese people ere the one to master the flash devices. 'hey are the
cheapest microcontroller available in the market. (tmelHs even introduced a
A8pin variant of 687@ named A87@. 'he (tmelHs 687@ derivatives can be got in
"ndia less than :8 rupees. 'here are lots of cheap programmers available in
"ndia for (tmel. So it is alays good for students to stick ith 687@ hen you
learn a ne microcontroller.
1!$ Arc7itect"re
(rchitecture is must to learn because before learning ne machine it is
necessary to learn the capabilities of the machine. 'his is some thing like before
learning about the car you cannot become a good driver. 'he architecture of the
687@ is given belo.
'he 687@ doesnHt have any special feature than other microcontroller. 'he only
feature is that it is easy to learn. (rchitecture makes us to kno about the
hardare features of the microcontroller. 'he features of the 687@ are

 9$ )ytes of +lash Memory
 @A6 ! 61)it "nternal #(M
 +ully Static ?perationK @ MHC to A9 MHC
 <A &rogrammable "=? Lines
 'o @51)it 'imer=2ounters
 Si! "nterrupt Sources -7 .ectored/
 &rogrammable Serial 2hannel
 Lo &oer "dle and &oer Don Modes
LetHs no move on to a practical e!ample. We shall ork on a simple practical
application and using the e!ample as a base, shall e!plore the various features
of the 687@ microcontroller.
2onsider an electric circuit as follos,
'he positive side -Mve/ of the battery is connected to one side of a sitch. 'he
other side of the sitch is connected to a bulb or L*D -Light *mitting Diode/.
'he bulb is then connected to a resistor, and the other end of the resistor is
connected to the negative -1ve/ side of the battery.
When the sitch is closed or Lsitched onH the bulb glos. When the sitch is
open or Lsitched offH the bulb goes off.
"f you are instructed to put the sitch on and off every <8 seconds, ho ould
you do itF ?bviously you ould keep looking at your atch and every time the
second hand crosses <8 seconds you ould keep turning the sitch on and off.
"magine if you had to do this action consistently for a full day. Do you think you
ould be able to do itF 4o if you had to do this for a month, a yearFF
4o ay, you ould sayG
'he ne!t step ould be, then to make it automatic. 'his is here e use the
Microcontroller.
)ut if the action has to take place every <8 seconds, ho ill the microcontroller
keep track of timeF
E:ec"tion time
Look at the folloing instruction,
Clr -!5
'his is an assembly language instruction. "t means e are instructing the
microcontroller to put a value of LCeroH in bit Cero of port one. 'his instruction is
e%uivalent to telling the microcontroller to sitch on the bulb. 'he instruction
then to instruct the microcontroller to sitch off the bulb is,
.et -!5
'his instructs the microcontroller to put a value of LoneH in bit Cero of port one.
DonHt orry about hat bit Cero and port one means. We shall learn it in more
detail as e proceed.
'here are a set of ell defined instructions, hich are used hile
communicating ith the microcontroller. *ach of these instructions re%uires a
standard number of cycles to e!ecute. 'he cycle could be one or more in
number.
Ho is this time then calculatedF
'he speed ith hich a microcontroller e!ecutes instructions is determined by
hat is knon as the crystal speed. ( crystal is a component connected
e!ternally to the microcontroller. 'he crystal has different values, and some of
the used values are 5MHN, @8MHN, and @@.87; MHC etc.
'hus a @8MHN crystal ould pulse at the rate of @8,888,888 times per second.
'he time is calculated using the formula.
4o of cycles per second J 2rystal fre%uency in HN = @A.
+or a @8MHN crystal the number of cycles ould be,
@8,888,888=@AJ6<<<<<.<<<<< cycles.
'his means that in one second, the microcontroller ould e!ecute
6<<<<<.<<<<< cycles.
'herefore for one cycle, hat ould be the timeF 'ry it out.
'he instruction clr [email protected] ould use one cycle to e!ecute. Similarly, the instruction
setb [email protected] also uses one cycle.
So go ahead and calculate hat ould be the number of cycles re%uired to be
e!ecuted to get a time of <8 secondsG
>etting back to our bulb e!ample, all e ould need to do is to instruct the
microcontroller to carry out some instructions e%uivalent to a period of <8
seconds, like counting from Cero upards, then sitch on the bulb, carry out
instructions e%uivalent to <8 seconds and sitch off the bulb.
Oust put the hole thing in a loop, and you have a never ending on1off
se%uence.
Let us no have a look at the feat"re, of t7e 451 core, keeping the above
e!ample as a reference,
! 4'8it CP;! 3Con,i,ting of t7e <A= and <%= regi,ter,6
Most of the transactions ithin the microcontroller are carried out through the L(H
register, also knon as the (ccumulator. "n addition all arithmetic functions are
carried out generally in the L(H register. 'here is another register knon as the L)H
register, hich is used e!clusively for multiplication and division.
'hus an 61bit notation ould indicate that the ma!imum value that can be input
into these registers is L@@@@@@@@H. &uCCledF
'he value is not decimal @@@, @@,@@@G "t represents a binary number, having an
e%uivalent value of L++H in He!adecimal and a value of A77 in decimal.
We shall read in more detail on the different numbering systems namely the
)inary and He!adecimal system in our ne!t module.
$! *> on'c7i- ROM
?nce you have ritten out the instructions for the microcontroller, here do you
put these instructionsF
?bviously you ould like these instructions to be safe, and not get deleted or
changed during e!ecution. Hence you ould load it into the L#?MH
'he siCe of the program you rite is bound to vary depending on the application,
and the number of lines. 'he 687@ microcontroller gives you space to load up to
9$ of program siCe into the internal #?M.
9$, thatHs allF Well just ait. Pou ould be surprised at the amount of stuff you
can load in this 9$ of space.
?f course you could alays e!tend the space by connecting to 59$ of e!ternal
#?M if re%uired.
(! $4 80te, on'c7i- RAM
'his is the space provided for e!ecuting the program in terms of moving data,
storing data etc.
*! ($ I?O line,! 3Fo"r' 4 8it -ort,@ la8eled P5@ P@ P$@ P(6
"n our bulb e!ample, e used the notation [email protected]. 'his means bit Cero of port one.
?ne bit controls one bulb.
'hus -ort one ould have 6 bits. 'here are a total of four ports named p8, p@,
pA, p<, giving a total of <A lines. 'hese lines can be used both as input or
output.
1! Two 2 8it timer, ? co"nter,!
( microcontroller normally e!ecutes one instruction at a time. Hoever certain
applications ould re%uire that some event has to be tracked independent of the
main program.
'he manufacturers have provided a solution, by providing to timers. 'hese
timers e!ecute in the background independent of the main program. ?nce the
re%uired time has been reached, -remember the time calculations described
aboveF/, they can trigger a branch in the main program.
'hese timers can also be used as counters, so that they can count the number
of events, and on reaching the re%uired count, can cause a branch in the main
program.
2! F"ll &"-le: ,erial data recei9er ? tran,mitter!
'he 687@ microcontroller is capable of communicating ith e!ternal devices like
the &2 etc. Here data is sent in the form of bytes, at predefined speeds, also
knon as baud rates.
'he transmission is serial, in the sense, one 8it at a time.
A! 1' interr"-t ,o"rce, wit7 two -riorit0 le9el, 3Two e:ternal and t7ree
internal6
During the discussion on the timers, e had indicated that the timers can trigger
a branch in the main program. Hoever, hat ould e do in case e ould
like the microcontroller to take the branch, and then return back to the main
program, ithout having to constantly check hether the re%uired time = count
has been reachedF
'his is here the interrupts come into play. 'hese can be set to either the
timers, or to some e!ternal events. Whenever the background program has
reached the re%uired criteria in terms of time or count or an e!ternal event, the
branch is taken, and on completion of the branch, the control returns to the main
program.
&riority levels indicate hich interrupt is more important, and needs to be
e!ecuted first in case to interrupts occur at the same time.
4! On'c7i- clock o,cillator!
'his represents the oscillator circuits ithin the microcontroller. 'hus the
hardare is reduced to just simply connecting an e!ternal crystal, to achieve the
re%uired pulsing rate.
1!( PIN &e,cri-tion OF IC 4BC1!
."--l0 pin of this ic is pin no 98. 4ormally e apply a 7 volt
regulated dc poer supply to this pin. +or this purpose either e use
step don transformer poer supply or e use ; volt battery ith
:687 regulator.
$ Cro"nd pin of this ic is pin no A8. &in no A8 is normally connected to
the ground pin -4ormally negative point of the poer supply.
( DTA+ is connected to the pin no @6 and pin no @; of this ic. 'he
%uartC crystal oscillator connected to Q'(L@ and Q'(LA &"4. 'hese
pins also needs to capacitors of <8 pf value. ?ne side of each
capacitor is connected to crystal and other pis are connected to the
ground point. 4ormally e connect a @A MHC or @@.87;A MHC crystal
ith this "2. )ut e use crystal up to A8 MHC to this pin.
* RE.ET &"4. &in no ; is the reset pin of this ic.. "t is an active high
pin. ?n applying a high pulse to this pin, the micro controller ill reset
and terminate all activities. 'his is often referred to as a poer on
reset. 'he high pulse must
)e high for a minimum of A machine cycles before it is alloed to go
lo.
7. PORT5 &ort 8 occupies a total of 6 pins. Pin no ($ to -in no (B. "t
can be used for input or output. We connect all the pins of the port 8
ith the pull1up resistor -@8 k ohm/ e!ternally. 'his is due to fact that
port 8 is an open drain mode. "t is just like a open collector transistor.
2! PORT. (LL the ports in microcontroller are 6 bit ide -in no to -in
no 4 because it is a 6 bit controller. (ll the main register and sfr all is
mainly 6 bit ide. &ort @ is also occupies a 6 pins. )ut there is no need
of pull up resistor in this port. 3pon reset port @ act as a input port. 3pon
reset all the ports act as a input port
:. ORT$! &ort A also have a 6 pins. "t can be used as a input or output.
'here is no need of any pull up resistor to this pin!
6. PORT (. &ort< occupies a total 6 pins from pin no @8 to pin no @:. "t can
be used as input or output. &ort < does not re%uire any pull up resistor.
'he same as port @ and portA. &ort < is configured as an output port
on reset. &ort < has the additional function of providing some
important signals such as interrupts. &ort < also use for serial
communication.
;. A+E (L* is an output pin and is active high. When connecting an 68<@
to e!ternal memory, port 8 provides both address and data. "n other
ords, the 68<@ multiple!es address and data through port 8 to save
pins. 'he (L* pin is used for de1multiple!ing the address and data by
connecting to the "2 :9ls<:< chip.
@8. P.EN! &S*4 stands for program store enable. "n an 68<@ based system
in hich an e!ternal rom holds the program code, this pin is connected
to the ?* pin of the rom.
@@. EA! *(. "n 6;c7@ 6:7@ or any other family member of the ateml 6;c7@
series all come ith on1chip rom to store programs, in such cases the
*( pin is connected to the .cc. +or family member 68<@ and 68<A is
hich there is no on chip rom, code is stored in e!ternal memory and
this is fetched by 68<@. "n that case *( pin must be connected to >4D
pin to indicate that the code is stored e!ternally.
1!* .PECIA+ F;NCTION RECI.TER 3 .FR6 A&&RE..E.!
(22 (223M3L('?# 8*8H
) ) #*>"S'*# 8+8H
&SW &#?>#(M S'('3S W?#D 8D8H
S& S'(2$ &?"4'*# 6@H
D&'# D('( &?"4'*# A )P'*S
D&L L?W )P'* ?+ D&'# 6AH
D&H H">H )P'* ?+ D&'# 6<H
&8 &?#'8 68H
&@ &?#'@ ;8H
&A &?#'A 8(8H
&< &?#'< 8)8H
'M?D'"M*#=2?34'*# M?D* 2?4'#?L 6;H
'2?4'"M*# 2?34'*#S 2?4'#?L 66H
'H8 '"M*# 8 H">H )P'* 62H
'L? '"M*# 8 L?W )P'* 6(H
'H@ '"M*# @ H">H )P'* 6DH
'L@ '"M*# @ L?W )P'* 6)H
S2?4S*#"(L 2?4'#?L ;6H
S)3+ S*#"(L D('( )3++*# ;;H
&2?4&?W*# 2?4'#?L 6:H
1!1 In,tr"ction,#'
.ingle %it In,tr"ction,#'
.ET% %IT S*' 'H* )"' J@
C+R %IT 2L*(# 'H* )"' J8
CP+ %IT 2?M&L"M*4' 'H* )"' 8 J@, @J8
E% %IT@ TARCET O3M& '? '(#>*' "+ )"' J@
EN% %IT@ TARCET O3M& '? '(#>*' "+ )"' J8
E%C %IT@ TARCET O3M& '? '(#>*' "+ )"' J@ ,'H*4 2L*(# 'H*
)"'

MOF IN.TR;CTION.
M?. instruction simply copy the data from one location to another location
MOF &@ .
2opy the data from-S/ source to D-destination/
MOF R5@A R 2opy contents of ( into #egister #8
MOF R@A R 2opy contents of ( into register #@
MOF A@R( R 2opy contents of #egister #< into (ccumulator.
D"#*2' L?(D"4> 'H#?3>H M?.
MOF A@G$(H R Direct load the value of A<h in (
MOF R5@G$7 R direct load the value of @Ah in #8
MOF R1@G5FBH R Load the +; value in the #egister #7
A&& IN.TR;CTION..
(DD instructions adds the source byte to the accumulator - (/ and place the
result in the (ccumulator.
MOF A@ G$1H
A&& A@G*$H R )P 'his instruction e add the value 9Ah in (ccumulator -
9AHM A7H/
A&&A@R( R)y 'his instruction e move the data from register r< to
accumulator and then add the contents of the register into
accumulator .
S3)#?3'"4* 2(LL +342'"?4.
ACA++@ TARCET A&&RE..
)y 'his instruction e call subroutines ith a target address ithin Ak bytes
from the current program counter.
+CA++, '(#>*' (DD#*SS.
ACA++ is a limit for the A k byte program counter, but for upto 59k byte e use
L2(LL instructions.. 4ote that L2(LL is a < byte
instructions. (2(LL is a to byte instructions.
AEMP TARCET A&&RE...
'his is for absolute jump
AEMP stand for absolute jump. "t transfers program e!ecution to the target
address unconditionally. 'he target address for this
instruction must be ithin A k byte of program memory.
+EMP is also for absolute jump. "t transfers program e!ecution to the target
address unconditionally. 'his is a < byte instructions LOM&
jump to any address ithin 59 k byte location.
IN.TR;CTION. RE+ATE& TO THE CARRY
EC TARCET
O3M& '? 'H* '(#>*' "+ 2P +L(> J@
ENC TARCET
O3M& '? 'H* '(#>*' (DD#*SS "+ 2P +L(> "S J 8
IN.TR;CTION. RE+A.TE& TO E;MP WITH ACC;M;+ATOR
EH TARCET
O3M& '? '(#>*' "+ ( J 8
ENH TARCET
O3M& "+ (223M3L('?# "S 4?' N*#?
'his instruction jumps if register ( has a value other than Cero
IN.TR;CTION. RE+ATE& TO THE ROTATE
#L (
#?'('* L*+' 'H* (223M3L('?#
)P 'his instruction e rotate the bits of ( left. 'he bits rotated out of ( are
rotated back into ( at the opposite end
## (
)y this instruction e rotate the contents of the accumulator from right to left
from LS) to MS)
##2 (
'his is same as ## ( but difference is that the bit rotated out of register first
enter in to carry and then enter into MS)
R+C A
#otate Left through carry.
Same as above but shift the data from MS) to carry and carry to LS)
RET
'his is return from subroutine. 'his instruction is used to return from a
subroutine previously entered by instructions L2(LL and (2(LL.
RET
'his is used at the end of an interrupt service routine. We use this instruction
after interrupt routine,
P;.H!
'his copies the indicated byte onto the stack and increments S& by one. 'his
instruction supports only direct addressing mode.
POP!
&?& +#?M S'(2$.
'his copies the byte pointed to be S& to the location hose direct address is
indicated, and decrements S& by @. 4otice that this instruction supports only
direct addressing mode.
&PTR In,tr"ction,#
MOF &PTR@G2 %IT FA+;E
L?(D D('( &?"4'*#
'his instruction load the @5 bit D&'# register ith a @5 bit immediate value
M?. 2 (,S(MD&'#
'his instruction moves a byte of data located in program #?M into register (.
'his allos us to put strings of data, such as look up table elements.
M?.2 (,S(M&2
'his instruction moves a byte of data located in the program area to (. the
address of the desired byte of data is formed by adding the program counter
-&2/ register to the original value of the accumulator.
"42 )P'*
'his instruction adds @ to the register or memory location specified by the
operand.
"42 (
"42 #n
"42 D"#*2'
D*2 )P'*
'his instruction subtracts @ from the byte operand. 4ote that 2P is unchanged
D*2 (
D*2 #n
D*2 D"#*2'
Arit7metic In,tr"ction,#
(4L test1byte, source1byte
'his perform a logical (4D operation
'his performs a logical (4D on the operands, bit by bit, storing the result in the
destination. 4otice that both the source and destination values are byte BsiCe
only

D". ()
'his instruction divides a byte accumulator by the byte in register ). "t is
assumed that both register ( and ) contain an unsigned byte. (fter the division
the %uotient ill be in register ( and the remainder in register ).
'M?D -'"M*# M?D*/ #*>"S'*#
)oth timers is the 6;c7@ share one register 'M?D. 9 LS) bit for the timer 8 and
9 MS) for the timer @.
"n each case loer A bits set the mode of the timer
3pper to bits set the operations.
CATE# >ating control hen set. 'imer=counter is enabled only hile the "4'Q
pin is high and the '#! control pin is set. When cleared, the timer is enabled
henever the '#! control bit is set
C?T# 'imer or counter selected cleared for timer operation - input from internal
system clock/
M@ Mode bit @
M8 Mode bit 8
M M5 MO&E OPERATINC MO&E
8 8 8 @< )"' '"M*#=M?D*
8 @ @ @5 )"' '"M*# M?D*
@ 8 A 6 )"' (3'? #*L?(D
@ @ < S&L"' '"M*# M?D*
&SW - &#?>#(M S'('3S W?#D/
2P &SW.: 2(##P +L(>
(2 &SW.5 (3Q"L"(#P 2(##P
+8 &SW.7 (.("L()L* +?# 'H* 3S*# +#? >*4*#(L
&3#&?S*
#S@ &SW.9 #*>"S'*# )(4$ S*L*2'?# )"' @
#S8 &SW.< #*>"S'*# )(4$ S*L*2'?# )"' 8
8. &SW.A ?.*#+L?W +L(>
11 &SW.@ 3S*# D*+"4()L* )"'
& &SW.8 &(#"'P +L(> S*'=2L*(#*D )P H(#DW(#*
PCON RECI.ATER 3 NON %IT A&&RE..A%+E6
"f the SM?D J 8 - D*+(3L' ?4 #*S*'/
'H@ J 2#PS'(L +#*T3*42P
A751111 UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU
<69 Q )(3D #('*
"f the SM?D "S J @
2#PS'(L +#*T3*42P
'H@ J A7511111111111111111111111111111111111111
@;A Q )(3D #('*
'here are to ays to increase the baud rate of data transfer in the 687@
@. 'o use a higher fre%uency crystal
A. 'o change a bit in the &2?4 register
&2?4 register is an 6 bit register. ?f the 6 bits, some are unused, and some are
used for the poer control capability of the 687@. 'he bit hich is used for the
serial communication is D:, the SM?D bit. When the 687@ is poered up, D:
- SM?D )"'/ ?+ &2?4 register is Cero. We can set it to high by softare and
thereby double the baud rate
)aud #ate 2omparison for SM?D J 8 (4D SM?D J@
TH 3 &ECIMA+6 HED .MO& I5 .MO& I
1< +D ;588 @;A88
15 +( 9688 ;588
1@A +9 A988 9688
1A9 *6 @A88 A988
DTA+ I !51B$ MHH

"* -"4'*##3&' *4()L* #*>"S'?#/
*( "*.: Disable all interrupts if *( J 8, no interrupts is acknoledged
"f *( is @, each interrupt source is individually enabled or disabled
)y sending or clearing its enable bit.
"*.5 4?' implemented
*'A "*.7 enables or disables timer A overflag in 6;c7A only
*S "*.9 *nables or disables all serial interrupt
*'@ "*.< *nables or Disables timer @ overflo interrupt
*Q@ "*.A *nables or disables e!ternal interrupt
*'8 "*.@ *nables or Disables timer 8 interrupt.
*Q8 "*.8 *nables or Disables e!ternal interrupt 8
"4'*##3&' &#"?#"'P #*>"S'*#
"f the bit is 8, the corresponding interrupt has a loer priority and if the bit is @
the corresponding interrupt has a higher priority
"&.: 4ot "mplemented, #eserved +or +uture 3se.
"&.5 4ot "mplemented, #eserved +or +uture 3se
&'A "&.7 Define the 'imer A "nterrupt &riority Level
&S "&.9 Defines the Serial &ort "nterrupt &riority Level
&'@ "&.< Defines the 'imer @ "nterrupt &riority Level
&Q@ "&.A Defines *!ternal "nterrupt @ &riority Level
&'8 "&.@ Defines the 'imer 8 "nterrupt &riority Level
&Q8 "&.8 Defines the *!ternal "nterrupt 8 &riority Level
S2?4K S*#"(L &?#' 2?4'#?L #*>"S'*# , )"' (DD#*SS()L*
S2?4
SM8 K S2?4.: Serial &ort mode specifier
SM@ K S2?4.5 Serial &ort mode specifier
SMA K S2?4.7
#*4 K S2?4.9 Set=cleared by the softare to *nable=disable reception
')6 K S2?4.< the ;
th
bit that ill be transmitted in modes A and <,
Set=cleared
)y softare
#)6 K S2?4.A "n modes A ,<, is the ;
th
data bit that as received. "n
mode @,
"f SMA J 8, #)6 is the stop bit that as received. "n mode
8
#)6 is not used
'@ K S2?4.@ 'ransmit interrupt flag. Set by hardare at the end of the
6
th
bit
'ime in mode 8, or at the beginning of the stop bit in the
other
Modes. Must be cleared by softare
#@ S2?4.8 #eceive interrupt flag. Set by hardare at the end of the
6
th
bit
'ime in mode 8, or halfay through the stop bit time in the
other
Modes. Must be cleared by the softare.
CON TIMER CO;NTER CONTRO+ RECI.TER
'his is a bit addressable
'+@ '2?4.: 'imer @ overflo flag. Set by hardare hen the
'imer=2ounter @
?verflos. 2leared by hardare as processor
'#@ '2?4.5 'imer @ run control bit. Set=cleared by softare to turn 'imer
2ounter @ ?n=off
'+8 '2?4.7 'imer 8 overflo flag. Set by hardare hen the
timer=counter 8
?verflos. 2leared by hardare as processor
'#8 '2?4.9 'imer 8 run control bit. Set=cleared by softare to turn timer
2ounter 8 on=off.
"*@ '2?4.< *!ternal interrupt @ edge flag
"'" '2?4.A "nterrupt @ type control bit
"*8 '2?4.@ *!ternal interrupt 8 edge
"'8 '2?4.8 "nterrupt 8 type control bit.
451 In,tr"ction .et
Arit7metic O-eration,
Mnemonic Description SiCe 2ycles
(DD (,#n (dd register to (ccumulator -(22/. @ @
(DD (,direct (dd direct byte to (22. A @
(DD (,S#i (dd indirect #(M to (22 . @ @
(DD (,Vdata (dd immediate data to (22 . @ A
(DD2 (,#n (dd register to (22 ith carry . @ @
(DD2 (,direct (dd direct byte to (22 ith carry. A @
(DD2 (,S#i (dd indirect #(M to (22 ith carry. @ @
(DD2 (,Vdata (dd immediate data to (22 ith carry. A @
S3)) (,#n Subtract register from (22 ith borro. @ @
S3)) (,direct Subtract direct byte from (22 ith borro A @
S3)) (,S#i Subtract indirect #(M from (22 ith borro. @ @
S3)) (,Vdata Subtract immediate data from (22 ith borro.A @
"42 ( "ncrement (22. @ @
"42 #n "ncrement register. @ @
"42 direct "ncrement direct byte. A @
"42 S#i "ncrement indirect #(M. @ @
D*2 ( Decrement (22. @ @
D*2 #n Decrement register. @ @
D*2 direct Decrement direct byte. A @
D*2 S#i Decrement indirect #(M. @ @
"42 D&'# "ncrement data pointer. @ A
M3L () Multiply ( and ) #esultK ( W1 lo byte, ) W1 high byte. @ 9
D". () Divide ( by ) #esultK ( W1 hole part, ) W1 remainder. @ 9
D( ( Decimal adjust (22. @ @
+ogical O-eration,
Mnemonic Description SiCe 2ycles
(4L (,#n (4D #egister to (22. @ @
(4L (,direct (4D direct byte to (22. A @
(4L (,S#i (4D indirect #(M to (22. @ @
(4L (,Vdata (4D immediate data to (22. A @
(4L direct,( (4D (22 to direct byte. A @
(4L direct,Vdata (4D immediate data to direct byte. < A
?#L (,#n ?# #egister to (22. @ @
?#L (,direct ?# direct byte to (22. A @
?#L (,S#i ?# indirect #(M to (22. @ @
?#L (,Vdata ?# immediate data to (22. A @
?#L direct,( ?# (22 to direct byte. A @
?#L direct,Vdata ?# immediate data to direct byte. < A
Q#L (,#n *!clusive ?# #egister to (22. @ @
Q#L (,direct *!clusive ?# direct byte to (22. A @
Q#L (,S#i *!clusive ?# indirect #(M to (22. @ @
Q#L (,Vdata *!clusive ?# immediate data to (22. A @
Q#L direct,( *!clusive ?# (22 to direct byte. A @
Q#L direct,Vdata Q?# immediate data to direct byte. < A
2L# ( 2lear (22 -set all bits to Cero/. @ @
2&L ( 2ompliment (22. @ @
#L ( #otate (22 left. @ @
#L2 ( #otate (22 left through carry. @ @
## ( #otate (22 right. @ @
##2 ( #otate (22 right through carry. @ @
SW(& ( Sap nibbles ithin (22. @ @
&ata Tran,fer
Mnemonic Description SiCe 2ycles
M?. (,#n Move register to (22. @ @
M?. (,direct Move direct byte to (22. A @
M?. (,S#i Move indirect #(M to (22. @ @
M?. (,Vdata Move immediate data to (22. A @
M?. #n,( Move (22 to register. @ @
M?. #n,direct Move direct byte to register. A A
M?. #n,Vdata Move immediate data to register. A @
M?. direct,( Move (22 to direct byte. A @
M?. direct,#n Move register to direct byte. A A
M?. direct,direct Move direct byte to direct byte. < A
M?. direct,S#i Move indirect #(M to direct byte. A A
M?. direct,Vdata Move immediate data to direct byte. < A
M?. S#i,( Move (22 to indirect #(M. @ @
M?. S#i,direct Move direct byte to indirect #(M. A A
M?. S#i,Vdata Move immediate data to indirect #(M. A @
M?. D&'#,Vdata@5 Move immediate @5 bit data to data pointer register.
< A
M?.2 (,S(MD&'# Move code byte relative to D&'# to (22 -@5 bit address/.
@ A
M?.2 (,S(M&2 Move code byte relative to &2 to (22 -@5 bit address/.
@ A
M?.Q (,S#i Move e!ternal #(M to (22 -6 bit address/. @ A
M?.Q (,SD&'# Move e!ternal #(M to (22 -@5 bit address/. @ A
M?.Q S#i,( Move (22 to e!ternal #(M -6 bit address/. @ A
M?.Q SD&'#,( Move (22 to e!ternal #(M -@5 bit address/. @ A
&3SH direct &ush direct byte onto stack. A A
&?& direct &op direct byte from stack. A A
Q2H (,#n *!change register ith (22. @ @
Q2H (,direct *!change direct byte ith (22. A @
Q2H (,S#i *!change indirect #(M ith (22. @ @
Q2HD (,S#i *!change lo order nibble of indirect
#(M ith lo order nibble of (22 @ @
%oolean Faria8le Mani-"lation
Mnemonic Description SiCe 2ycles
2L# 2 2lear carry flag. @ @
2L# bit clear direct bit. A @
S*') 2 Set carry flag. @ @
S*') bitSet direct bit A @
2&L 2 2ompliment carry flag. @ @
2&L bit 2ompliment direct bit. A @
(4L 2,bit (4D direct bit to carry flag. A A
(4L 2,=bit (4D compliment of direct bit to carry. A A
?#L 2,bit ?# direct bit to carry flag. A A
?#L 2,=bit ?# compliment of direct bit to carry. A A
M?. 2,bit Move direct bit to carry flag. A @
M?. bit,2 Move carry to direct bit. A A
O2 rel Oump if carry is set. A A
O42 rel Oump if carry is not set. A A
O) bit,rel Oump if direct bit is set. < A
O4) bit,rel Oump if direct bit is not set. < A
O)2 bit,rel Oump if direct bit is set , clear bit. < A
Program %ranc7ing
Mnemonic Description SiCe 2ycles
(2(LL addr@@ (bsolute subroutine call. A A
L2(LL addr@5 Long subroutine call. < A
#*' #eturn from subroutine. @ A
#*'" #eturn from interrupt. @ A
(OM& addr@@ (bsolute jump. A A
LOM& addr@5 Long jump. < A
SOM& rel Short jump -relative address/. A A
OM& S(MD&'# Oump indirect relative to the D&'# @ A
ON rel Oump relative if (22 is Cero. A A
O4N rel Oump relative if (22 is not Cero. A A
2O4* (,direct,rel 2ompare direct byte to (22 and jump if not e%ual.
< A
2O4* (,Vdata,rel 2ompare immediate byte to (22 and jump if not e%ual.
< A
2O4* #n,Vdata,rel 2ompare immediate byte to register and jump if not e%ual.
< A
2O4* S#i,Vdata,rel 2ompare immediate byte to indirect and jump if not e%ual.
< A
DO4N #n,rel Decrement register and jump if not Cero. A A
DO4N direct,rel Decrement direct byte and jump if not Cero. < A
?ther "nstructions
Mnemonic DescriptionSiCe 2ycles
4?& 4o operation. @ @
2 Power ."--l0 Circ"it#'
Tran,former#'
'ransformer orks on the principle of mutual inductance. We kno that if to
coils or indings are placed on the core of iron, and if e pass alternating
current in one inding, back emf or induced voltage is produced in the second
inding. We kno that alternating current alays changes ith the time. So if
e apply (2 voltage across one inding, a voltage ill be induced in the other
inding. 'ransformer orks on this same principle. "t is made of to indings
ound around the same core of iron. 'he inding to hich (2 voltage is applied
is called primary inding. 'he other inding is called as secondary inding.

.oltage and current relationshipK
Let .
@
volts be input alternating voltage applied to primary inding. "
@
(mp is
input alternating current through primary inding. .
A
volt is output alternating
voltage produced in the secondary. "
A
amp be the current floing through the
secondary.
'hen relationship beteen input and output voltages is given by
.
@
=.
A
J 4
@
=4
A
#elationship beteen input and output currents is
"
@
="
A
J 4
A
=4
@
-Where 4
@
is no. of turns of coil in primary and 4
A
is number of turns in
secondary /
We kno that &oer J 2urrent Q .oltage. "t is to be noted that input poer is
e%ual to output poer. &oer is not changed. "f .
A
is greater than .
@
, then "
A
ill
be less than "
@
. 'his type of transformer is called as step up transformer. "f .
@
is
greater than .
A
, then "
@
ill be less than "
A
. 'his type of transformer is called as
step don transformer.
+or step up transformer, 4
A
X4
@
, i.e., number of turns of secondary inding is
more than those in primary.
+or step don transformer, 4
@
X4
A
, i.e., numbers of turns of primary inding is
more than those in secondary.
#*S"S'?#S
'he flo of charge -or current/ through any material, encounters an opposing
force similar in many respect to mechanical friction. 'his opposing force is called
resistance of the material. "t is measured in ohms. "n some electric circuits
resistance is deliberately introduced in the form of the resistor.
#esistors are of folloing typesK
@. Wire ound resistors.
A. 2arbon resistors.
<. Metal film resistors.
Wire Wo"nd Re,i,tor,#
Wire ound resistors are made from a long -usually 4i12hromium/ ound on a
ceramic core. Longer the length of the ire, higher is the resistance. So
depending on the value of resistor re%uired in a circuit, the ire is cut and
ound on a ceramic core. 'his entire assembly is coated ith a ceramic metal.
Such resistors are generally available in poer of A atts to several hundred
atts and resistance values from @ohm to @88k ohms. 'hus ire ound
resistors are used for high currents.
Car8on Re,i,tor,#
2arbon resistors are divided into three typesK
a. 2arbon composition resistors are made by mi!ing carbon grains ith
binding material -glue/ and moduled in the form of rods. Wire leads
are inserted at the to ends. (fter this an insulating material seals the
resistor. #esistors are available in poer ratings of @=@8, @=6, @=9 ,
@=A , @.A atts and values from @ ohm to A8 ohms.
b. 2arbon film resistors are made by deposition carbon film on a ceramic
rod. 'hey are cheaper than carbon composition resistors.
c. 2ement film resistors are made of thin carbon coating fired onto a
solid ceramic substrate. 'he main purpose is to have more precise
resistance values and greater stability ith heat. 'hey are made in a
small s%uare ith leads.

Metal Film Re,i,tor,#
'hey are also called thin film resistors. 'hey are made of a thin metal coating
deposited on a cylindrical insulating support. 'he high resistance values are not
precise in valueR hoever, such resistors are free of inductance effect that is
common in ire ound resistors at high fre%uency.
Faria8le Re,i,tor,#
&otentiometer is a resistor here values can be set depending on the
re%uirement. &otentiometer is idely used in electronics systems. *!amples are
volume control, tons control, brightness and contrast control of radio or '... sets.
F",i8le Re,i,tor,#
'hese resistors are ire ound type and are used in '... circuits for protection.
'hey have resistance of less than @7 ohms. 'heir function is similar to a fuse
made to blo off henever current in the circuit e!ceeds the limit.
#esistance of a ire is directly proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its thickness.
# L
# @=(
RE.I.TOR CO+OR CO&E
E:am-le# k or 555 o7m,


,t
$
nd
(
rd
*
t7



%and
%and $
%and (
%and *
CO+O;R CO&E.
2?L?3# 43M)*# M3L'"&L"*# 2?L?3# '?L*#(42*
)lack
)ron
#ed
8
@
A
@8
8
@8
@
@8
A

>old
Silver
4o colour
7Y
@8Y
A8Y
?range
Pello
>reen
)lue
.iolet
>rey
White
>old
Silver
<
9
7
5
:
6
;
@8
<
@8
9
@8
7
@8
5
@8
:
@8
6
@8
;
@8
1@

@8
1A

CAPACITOR.
( capacitor can store charge, and its capacity to store charge is called
capacitance. 2apacitors consist of to conducting plates, separated by an
insulating material -knon as dielectric/. 'he to plates are joined ith to
leads. 'he dielectric could be air, mica, paper, ceramic, polyester, polystyrene,
etc. 'his dielectric gives name to the capacitor. Like paper capacitor, mica
capacitor etc.
'ypes of 2apacitorsK

Ca-a
2apacitors can be broadly classified in to categories, i.e., *lectrolytic
capacitors and 4on1*lectrolytic capacitors as shon if the figure above.
Electrol0tic Ca-acitor#
*lectrolytic capacitors have an electrolyte as a dielectric. When such an
electrolyte is charged, chemical changes takes place in the electrolyte. "f its one
plate is charged positively, same plate must be charged positively in future. We
call such capacitors as polariCed. 4ormally e see electrolytic capacitor as
polariCed capacitors and the leads are marked ith positive or negative on the
Fi:ed Faria8le
Electr Non'
Gang
conden
Trimme
r
Mica Paper Ceramic
can. 4on1electrolyte capacitors have dielectric material such as paper, mica or
ceramic. 'herefore, depending upon the dielectric, these capacitors are
classified.
Mica Ca-acitor#
"t is sandich of several thin metal plates separated by thin sheets of mica.
(lternate plates are connected together and leads attached for outside
connections. 'he total assembly is encased in a plastic capsule or )akelite
case. Such capacitors have small capacitance value -78 to 788pf/ and high
orking voltage -788. and above/. 'he mica capacitors have e!cellent
characteristics under stress of temperature variation and high voltage
application. 'hese capacitors are no replaced by ceramic capacitors.
Ceramic Ca-acitorK
Such capacitors have disc or hollo tabular shaped dielectric made of ceramic
material such as titanium dio!ide and barium titanate. 'hin coating of silver
compounds is deposited on both sides of dielectric disc, hich acts as capacitor
plates. Leads are attached to each sides of the dielectric disc and hole unit is
encapsulated in a moisture proof coating. Disc type capacitors have very high
value up to 8.88@uf. 'heir orking voltages range from <. to 58888.. 'hese
capacitors have very lo leakage current. )reakdon voltage is very high.
Pa-er Ca-acitor#
"t consists of thin foils, hich are separated by thin paper or a!ed paper. 'he
sandich of foil and paper is then rolled into a cylindrical shape and enclosed in
a paper tube or encased in a plastic capsules. 'he lead at each end of the
capacitor is internally attached to the metal foil. &aper capacitors have
capacitance ranging from 8.888@uf to A.8uf and orking voltage rating as high
as A888..
THE &IO&E
Diodes are polariCed, hich means that they must be inserted into the &2) the
correct ay round. 'his is because an electric current ill only flo through
them in one direction -like air ill only flo one ay trough a tyre valve/. Diodes
have to connections, an anode and a cathode. 'he cathode is alays
identified by a dot, ring or some other mark.
'he &2) is often marked ith a Msign for the cathode end. Diodes come in all
shapes and siCes. 'hey are often marked ith a type number. Detailed
characteristics of a diode can be found by looking up the type number in a data
book. "f you kno ho to measure resistance ith a meter then test some
diodes. ( good one has lo resistance in one direction and high in other. 'hey
are specialiCed types of diode available such as the Cener and light emitting
diode -L*D/.

J
.YM%O+. OF &IFFERENT &IO&E.
anode cat7ode
simple diode Cener diode


IC
"2 -"ntegrated 2ircuit/ means that all the components of the circuit are fabricated
on same chip. Digital "2s are a collection of resistors, diodes, and transistors
fabricated on a single piece of semiconductor, usually silicon called a substrate,
hich is commonly referred to as LaferH. 'he chip is enclosed in a protective
plastic or ceramic package from hich pins e!tend out connecting the "2 to
other device. Suffi! 4 or & stands for dual1in1line -plastic package -D"&// hile
suffi! O or " stands for dual1in1lime ceramic package. (lso the suffi! for W stands
for flat ceramic package.
'he pins are numbered counter clockise hen vieed from the top of the
package ith respect to an identity notch or dot at one end of the chip.'he
manufacturerHs name can usually be guessed from its logo that is printed on the
"2. 'he "2 type number also indicates the manufacturerHs code. +or e.g. DM 986
4 S4 :989 indicates 4ational Semiconductor and 'e!as "nstruments.
?ther e!amples areK
+air 2hild K 3(, 3(+
4ational Semiconductor K DM, LM, LH, L+, and '(.
Motorola K M2, M+2.
Sprague K 3$4, 3LS, 3LQ.
Signetic K 4=s, 4*=S*, and S3.
)urr1)ron K )).
'e!as "nstruments K S4.
'he middle portion i.e. the "2 type number tells about the "2 function and also
the family, hich the particular "2 belongs to."2Hs that belongs to standard ''L
series have an identification number that starts ith :9R for e.g. :98A, :9LS89,
:9S89 etc. "2Hs that belongs to standard 2M?S family their number starts ith
9, like 9888, 97@), 9:A9), @988. 'he :92, :9H2, :9(2 , :9(2' series are
neer 2M?S series.
.arious series ith ''L logic family areK1

Standard ''L :9.
Schottky ''L :9s.
Lo poer Schottky :9LS.
(dvance Schottky :9(S.
(dvanced Lo &oer Schottky :9(Ls.
(lso there are various series ith 2M?S logic family as metal state 2M?S 98 or
@98.
Power ."--l0
+or ''L circuits, the poer supply pin is labeled .
cc
and its nominal value.
+or 2M?S "2s, the poer supply pin is labeled as .
DD
, its nominal value
range from '< to @6..
;nconnected In-"t,
(n unconnected input is called 0floating inputE. 'he floating ''L input acts
as logic @. High level is applied to it. 'his characteristic is often used hen
testing a ''L circuit. ( floating ''L input ill measure a D2 level beteen
@.9. to @.6. hen checked ith .?M as oscilloscope. "f a 2M?S input is
left floating, it may have disastrous results. 'he "2 may become
overheated and eventually destroy itself. +or this reason, all inputs to
2M?S circuit must be connected to a L?W or H">H level or to the output
of another "2.
A!%i8iliogra-70
@. *D2 by Sanjeev >upta.
A. 687@ Microcontroller by $ennith (yala

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