Schools of Psychology
Content
Schools of Psychology
When psychology splitted off from its parental sciences Physiology & Philosophy and emerged as independent science a
contradiction aroused between the psychologists regarding the sc ope, area & subject matter of psychology.
From the late 1800’s unit the 1950’s psychologists were divided about what they should study? And how they should study
it. As a result, it gave birth to different ideologies. These different ideologies are regarded schools
School is a group of individuals who share certain fundamentals, methodology or theoretical points of view
Early Schools of Psychology
1. Structuralism
2. Functionalism
Modern Schools of Psychology
1.Behaviourism
2.Psychoanalysis
3.Gestalt Psychology
4.Humanistic Psychology
Structuralism
When psychology was first established as a science separate from biology and philosophy, the debate over how to describe
and explain the human mind and behaviour began.
Structuralism emerged as the first school of thought and some of the ideas associated with the structuralist school were
advocated by the founder of the first psychology lab, Wilhelm Wundt. One of Wundt's students, a man named Edward
B.Tichener, would later go on to formally establish and name structuralism, although he broke away from many of Wundt's
ideas
Structuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic
components. These Psychologists believed the chief purpose of psychology was to find the units or the elements which make
up the mind like the way chemists broken down elements into a periodic table. The main focus of this approach was breaking
down the mental processes into their most basic components and furthermore to understand how they interact with each
other and how they correlate with physical events.
Conscious experience then is the subject matter of Psychology. But the conscious experience which takes place within the
individual can only be observed by the experiencing person.
Consequently a special technique called introspection was introduced to observe this psychological experience.
Introspection is a process of having a person "look inward", focus on, and try to understand the emotion or thought they are
experiencing at that moment.
Its a highly personalised form of self observation in which a psychologist attempts to study his own conscious experience
scientifically, not in the haphazard & dreamy manner of everyday reflections, but in a detached, objective & systematic
manner.
Accordingly Titchner & his associates stated that every conscious experience constituted of elements called sensations,
images and feelings.
The structuralists investigations were restricted only to the conscious experience of normal adult human beings.
Structuralism was criticised for the unreliable nature of introspection in terms of scientific validity.
. Eventually this pitfall caused this way of studying the mind to give way to other approaches
Major Structuralist Thinkers
Wilhelm Wundt
Edward B. Titchener
Criticisms of Structuralism
The structuralists investigations were restricted only to the conscious experience of normal adult human beings.
Structuralism was criticised for the unreliable nature of introspection in terms of scientific validity.
Strengths of Structuralism
Structuralism is important because it is the first major school of thought in psychology.
Structuralism also influenced experimental psychology.
Functionalism
Structuralism was soon challenged by William James, and some other psychologist who felt that
their new field shouldn't focus on the structure of consciousness, but on its Functions.
James was interested to understand the mental process of "Adaptation", the process that helped
the humans (and animals also) adapt to their environment. James said that psychology should
concern with not only what the mind is made of but also how and why it works as it does. Because
of his practical emphasis on the functional- practical nature of mind the concept of psychology
became Functionalism
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the structuralism and was heavily influenced by the work of William James and the
evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin.
Functionalists sought to explain the mental processes in a more systematic and accurate manner. Rather than focusing on the
elements of consciousness, functionalists focused on the purpose of consciousness and behaviour. Functionalism also
emphasized individual differences, which had a profound impact on education.
Functionalism also used the method of Introspection as a tool. Functionalism covered some mental processes like
- Learning, Perceiving, Memory, Thinking, and Personality.
Major Functionalist Thinkers
William James
John Dewey
Harvey Carr
John Angell
Criticisms of Functionalism
"It is literature. It is beautiful, but it is not psychology," said Wilhelm Wundt of functionalist William James’ The Principles
of Psychology.
Strengths of Functionalism
Influenced behaviourism and applied psychology.
Influenced the educational system, especially with regards to John Dewey’s belief that children should learn at the
level for which they are developmentally prepared
Structuralism and functionalism had contrasting methodologies, but they were similar in that they both explore and explain
elements of consciousness. They eventually faded, but these two schools of thought heavily influenced psychology as a
science by pioneering new research methods and alternative lenses through which to view the human mind and behavior.
The ideas presented in these early approaches formed the foundation for behaviorism, applied psychology, and experimental
psychology.
Behaviourism
The term behaviourism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson based on the belief that behaviours
can be measured, trained, and changed.
He said that Psychologist should study only observable behaviour rather than states of consciousness or thought process( as
the Functionalists & Structuralists were doing in the previous schools of psychology).
Behaviourism also known as behavioural psychology is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviours are
acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviourists believe that our
responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviours
According to Watson, Behaviour is directly affected by stimuli in the environment, and the major goal of psychology is to
identify stimulus-response relationship
Watson’s approach to Behaviourism was strongly influenced by the research of the Russian Psychologist Ivan P. Pavlov.
Watson and the other behaviourists realised that human behaviour could also be changed by conditioning.
During the mid 1900’s, the American behavioural psychologist B.F.Skinner became known for his studies on how rewards &
punishment can influence behaviour. He believed that rewards or positive reinforcement is more effective in teaching new
and better behaviour
According to this school of thought behaviour can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of
internal mental states. It suggests that only observable behaviours should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions,
emotions, and moods are too subjective.
Strict behaviourists believe that any person could potentially be trained to perform any task, regardless of things like genetic
background, personality traits, and internal thoughts
Major Thinkers Who Influenced Behaviourism
Ivan Pavlov
B. F. Skinner
Edward Thorndike
John B. Watson
Clark Hull
Criticisms of Behaviourism
Many critics argue that behaviourism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human behaviour and that
behavioural theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings.
Behaviourism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning that occurs without the use
of reinforcement and punishment.
People and animals are able to adapt their behaviour when new information is introduced, even if a previous
behaviour pattern has been established through reinforcement.
Strengths of Behaviourism
Behaviourism is based upon observable behaviours, so it is easier to quantify and collect data and information
when conducting research.
Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioural intervention, behaviour analysis. These approaches
are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and adults.
Final Thoughts
While behaviourism is not as dominant today as it was during the middle of the 20th-century, it still remains an influential
force in psychology. Outside of psychology, animal trainers, parents, teachers, and many others make use of basic behavioral
principles to help teach new behaviours and discourage unwanted ones.
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud believed that people could be cured by making
conscious of their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining “insight”.
According to Freud and other psychoanalysts, from early childhood people repress (force out of conscious awareness) any
desires or needs that are unacceptable to themselves or to society. The repressed feelings can cause personality disturbances,
self-destructive behaviour, or even physical symptoms. Freud said that unconscious conflicts, usually related to sex or
aggression, were prime motivators of human behaviour
He was the first person who includes the unconscious mind in a formal psychological theory. Freud believed that all
behaviours -whether normal or abnormal -is influenced by psychological motives, often unconscious one. Freud's "Theory
of Unconscious Mind" has a great value to understand the behaviour especially abnormal behaviour.
The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e. make the unconscious
conscious. Psychoanalysis is commonly used to treat depression and anxiety disorders. It is only having a cathartic (i.e.
healing) experience can the person be helped and "cured".
Psychoanalysis is a method of treatment that helps people understand themselves, their relationships, and how they behave in
the world. Psychoanalytic treatment is based on the idea that we are frequently motivated to act by impulses that we don’t
recognize because they originate in our unconscious. These unconscious conflicts can create negative feelings – emotions
such as unhappiness, anxiety, or depression – which can be expressed in many ways, including self-destructive behaviour, or
difficulties with personal relationships or work.
Psychoanalysis is sometimes called the “talking cure” because during treatment the patient is encouraged to talk about
everything that comes to mind: their childhood, the present, fears, thoughts and dreams. Nothing is off limits. Talking like
this, with a psychoanalyst helping to identify patterns and recurring themes, helps people learn how they came to be who
they are and why they do and feel the things they do. It is this understanding of oneself that paves the way toward the
emotional freedom necessary to make substantive, lasting changes.
The key to psychoanalytic treatment is in the relationship the patient develops with the analyst. Typically, psychoanalysis
involves the patient coming several times a week, lying on a couch, and communicating as openly and freely as possible.
Psychoanalysis is a collaboration in which the patient and analyst work together to explore unconscious feelings, thoughts
and conflicts through talk.
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behaviour as a whole.
This school took birth in 1912 at Germany by efforts of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka. Gestalt
means wholeness. The word Gestalt is German and can be translated as 'seeing the whole picture all at once. '
Gestalt view of the whole as more than the sum of its parts. Gestalt psychology proposes a unique perspective on
human perception. Essentially, you could say Gestalt psychologists propose that we don't just see the world as it is;
we see it as we are
Have you ever noticed how a series of flashing lights often appears to be moving, such as neon signs or strands of Christmas
lights? According to Gestalt psychology, this apparent movement happens because our minds fill in missing information.
This belief that the whole is greater than the sum of the individual parts led to the discovery of several different phenomena
that occur during perception. Based upon this belief, Gestalt psychologists developed a set of principles to explain perceptual
organization, or how smaller objects are grouped to form larger ones. These principles are often referred to as the “laws of
perceptual organization.”
What are the Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization?
The Law of Similarity
The Law of Pragnanz
The Law of Proximity
The Law of Continuity
The Law of Closure
Humanistic Approach
Humanistic Psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to the
limitations of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory and Watson’s behaviourism.
Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individual's potential and stressed the importance of growth and selfactualization. Humanistic psychology because of its focus on consciousness and self awareness, is also labelled as
phenomenological
The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems result
from deviations from this natural tendency.
Major Humanistic Psychologists :
Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
Rollo May
When psychology splitted off from its parental sciences Physiology & Philosophy and emerged as independent science a
contradiction aroused between the psychologists regarding the sc ope, area & subject matter of psychology.
From the late 1800’s unit the 1950’s psychologists were divided about what they should study? And how they should study
it. As a result, it gave birth to different ideologies. These different ideologies are regarded schools
School is a group of individuals who share certain fundamentals, methodology or theoretical points of view
Early Schools of Psychology
1. Structuralism
2. Functionalism
Modern Schools of Psychology
1.Behaviourism
2.Psychoanalysis
3.Gestalt Psychology
4.Humanistic Psychology
Structuralism
When psychology was first established as a science separate from biology and philosophy, the debate over how to describe
and explain the human mind and behaviour began.
Structuralism emerged as the first school of thought and some of the ideas associated with the structuralist school were
advocated by the founder of the first psychology lab, Wilhelm Wundt. One of Wundt's students, a man named Edward
B.Tichener, would later go on to formally establish and name structuralism, although he broke away from many of Wundt's
ideas
Structuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic
components. These Psychologists believed the chief purpose of psychology was to find the units or the elements which make
up the mind like the way chemists broken down elements into a periodic table. The main focus of this approach was breaking
down the mental processes into their most basic components and furthermore to understand how they interact with each
other and how they correlate with physical events.
Conscious experience then is the subject matter of Psychology. But the conscious experience which takes place within the
individual can only be observed by the experiencing person.
Consequently a special technique called introspection was introduced to observe this psychological experience.
Introspection is a process of having a person "look inward", focus on, and try to understand the emotion or thought they are
experiencing at that moment.
Its a highly personalised form of self observation in which a psychologist attempts to study his own conscious experience
scientifically, not in the haphazard & dreamy manner of everyday reflections, but in a detached, objective & systematic
manner.
Accordingly Titchner & his associates stated that every conscious experience constituted of elements called sensations,
images and feelings.
The structuralists investigations were restricted only to the conscious experience of normal adult human beings.
Structuralism was criticised for the unreliable nature of introspection in terms of scientific validity.
. Eventually this pitfall caused this way of studying the mind to give way to other approaches
Major Structuralist Thinkers
Wilhelm Wundt
Edward B. Titchener
Criticisms of Structuralism
The structuralists investigations were restricted only to the conscious experience of normal adult human beings.
Structuralism was criticised for the unreliable nature of introspection in terms of scientific validity.
Strengths of Structuralism
Structuralism is important because it is the first major school of thought in psychology.
Structuralism also influenced experimental psychology.
Functionalism
Structuralism was soon challenged by William James, and some other psychologist who felt that
their new field shouldn't focus on the structure of consciousness, but on its Functions.
James was interested to understand the mental process of "Adaptation", the process that helped
the humans (and animals also) adapt to their environment. James said that psychology should
concern with not only what the mind is made of but also how and why it works as it does. Because
of his practical emphasis on the functional- practical nature of mind the concept of psychology
became Functionalism
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the structuralism and was heavily influenced by the work of William James and the
evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin.
Functionalists sought to explain the mental processes in a more systematic and accurate manner. Rather than focusing on the
elements of consciousness, functionalists focused on the purpose of consciousness and behaviour. Functionalism also
emphasized individual differences, which had a profound impact on education.
Functionalism also used the method of Introspection as a tool. Functionalism covered some mental processes like
- Learning, Perceiving, Memory, Thinking, and Personality.
Major Functionalist Thinkers
William James
John Dewey
Harvey Carr
John Angell
Criticisms of Functionalism
"It is literature. It is beautiful, but it is not psychology," said Wilhelm Wundt of functionalist William James’ The Principles
of Psychology.
Strengths of Functionalism
Influenced behaviourism and applied psychology.
Influenced the educational system, especially with regards to John Dewey’s belief that children should learn at the
level for which they are developmentally prepared
Structuralism and functionalism had contrasting methodologies, but they were similar in that they both explore and explain
elements of consciousness. They eventually faded, but these two schools of thought heavily influenced psychology as a
science by pioneering new research methods and alternative lenses through which to view the human mind and behavior.
The ideas presented in these early approaches formed the foundation for behaviorism, applied psychology, and experimental
psychology.
Behaviourism
The term behaviourism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson based on the belief that behaviours
can be measured, trained, and changed.
He said that Psychologist should study only observable behaviour rather than states of consciousness or thought process( as
the Functionalists & Structuralists were doing in the previous schools of psychology).
Behaviourism also known as behavioural psychology is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviours are
acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviourists believe that our
responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviours
According to Watson, Behaviour is directly affected by stimuli in the environment, and the major goal of psychology is to
identify stimulus-response relationship
Watson’s approach to Behaviourism was strongly influenced by the research of the Russian Psychologist Ivan P. Pavlov.
Watson and the other behaviourists realised that human behaviour could also be changed by conditioning.
During the mid 1900’s, the American behavioural psychologist B.F.Skinner became known for his studies on how rewards &
punishment can influence behaviour. He believed that rewards or positive reinforcement is more effective in teaching new
and better behaviour
According to this school of thought behaviour can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of
internal mental states. It suggests that only observable behaviours should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions,
emotions, and moods are too subjective.
Strict behaviourists believe that any person could potentially be trained to perform any task, regardless of things like genetic
background, personality traits, and internal thoughts
Major Thinkers Who Influenced Behaviourism
Ivan Pavlov
B. F. Skinner
Edward Thorndike
John B. Watson
Clark Hull
Criticisms of Behaviourism
Many critics argue that behaviourism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human behaviour and that
behavioural theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings.
Behaviourism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning that occurs without the use
of reinforcement and punishment.
People and animals are able to adapt their behaviour when new information is introduced, even if a previous
behaviour pattern has been established through reinforcement.
Strengths of Behaviourism
Behaviourism is based upon observable behaviours, so it is easier to quantify and collect data and information
when conducting research.
Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioural intervention, behaviour analysis. These approaches
are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and adults.
Final Thoughts
While behaviourism is not as dominant today as it was during the middle of the 20th-century, it still remains an influential
force in psychology. Outside of psychology, animal trainers, parents, teachers, and many others make use of basic behavioral
principles to help teach new behaviours and discourage unwanted ones.
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud believed that people could be cured by making
conscious of their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining “insight”.
According to Freud and other psychoanalysts, from early childhood people repress (force out of conscious awareness) any
desires or needs that are unacceptable to themselves or to society. The repressed feelings can cause personality disturbances,
self-destructive behaviour, or even physical symptoms. Freud said that unconscious conflicts, usually related to sex or
aggression, were prime motivators of human behaviour
He was the first person who includes the unconscious mind in a formal psychological theory. Freud believed that all
behaviours -whether normal or abnormal -is influenced by psychological motives, often unconscious one. Freud's "Theory
of Unconscious Mind" has a great value to understand the behaviour especially abnormal behaviour.
The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e. make the unconscious
conscious. Psychoanalysis is commonly used to treat depression and anxiety disorders. It is only having a cathartic (i.e.
healing) experience can the person be helped and "cured".
Psychoanalysis is a method of treatment that helps people understand themselves, their relationships, and how they behave in
the world. Psychoanalytic treatment is based on the idea that we are frequently motivated to act by impulses that we don’t
recognize because they originate in our unconscious. These unconscious conflicts can create negative feelings – emotions
such as unhappiness, anxiety, or depression – which can be expressed in many ways, including self-destructive behaviour, or
difficulties with personal relationships or work.
Psychoanalysis is sometimes called the “talking cure” because during treatment the patient is encouraged to talk about
everything that comes to mind: their childhood, the present, fears, thoughts and dreams. Nothing is off limits. Talking like
this, with a psychoanalyst helping to identify patterns and recurring themes, helps people learn how they came to be who
they are and why they do and feel the things they do. It is this understanding of oneself that paves the way toward the
emotional freedom necessary to make substantive, lasting changes.
The key to psychoanalytic treatment is in the relationship the patient develops with the analyst. Typically, psychoanalysis
involves the patient coming several times a week, lying on a couch, and communicating as openly and freely as possible.
Psychoanalysis is a collaboration in which the patient and analyst work together to explore unconscious feelings, thoughts
and conflicts through talk.
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behaviour as a whole.
This school took birth in 1912 at Germany by efforts of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka. Gestalt
means wholeness. The word Gestalt is German and can be translated as 'seeing the whole picture all at once. '
Gestalt view of the whole as more than the sum of its parts. Gestalt psychology proposes a unique perspective on
human perception. Essentially, you could say Gestalt psychologists propose that we don't just see the world as it is;
we see it as we are
Have you ever noticed how a series of flashing lights often appears to be moving, such as neon signs or strands of Christmas
lights? According to Gestalt psychology, this apparent movement happens because our minds fill in missing information.
This belief that the whole is greater than the sum of the individual parts led to the discovery of several different phenomena
that occur during perception. Based upon this belief, Gestalt psychologists developed a set of principles to explain perceptual
organization, or how smaller objects are grouped to form larger ones. These principles are often referred to as the “laws of
perceptual organization.”
What are the Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization?
The Law of Similarity
The Law of Pragnanz
The Law of Proximity
The Law of Continuity
The Law of Closure
Humanistic Approach
Humanistic Psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to the
limitations of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory and Watson’s behaviourism.
Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individual's potential and stressed the importance of growth and selfactualization. Humanistic psychology because of its focus on consciousness and self awareness, is also labelled as
phenomenological
The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems result
from deviations from this natural tendency.
Major Humanistic Psychologists :
Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
Rollo May
