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(A) Describe the factors which impact service organization Ans: Factors which impact service organization:  Absence of Inventory Buffer:

Goods can be held as inventory, which is a buffer that dampens the impact on production activity of fluctuations in sales volume. Services cannot be stored. The airplane seat, hotel room, hospital operating room, or the hours of lawyers, physicians, scientists, and other professionals that are not used today are gone forever. Thus, although a manufacturing company can earn revenue in the future from products that are on hand today, a service company cannot do so. It must try to minimize its unused capacity.

Moreover, the costs of many service organizations are essentially fixed in the short run. In the short run, a hotel cannot reduce its costs substantially by closing off some of its rooms. Accounting firms, law firms, and other professional organizations are reluctant to layoff professional personnel in times of low sales volume because of the effect on morale and the costs of rehiring and training.



Difficulty in Controlling Quality:

A manufacturing company can inspect its products before they are shipped to the consumer, and their quality can be measured visually or with instruments (tolerances, purity, weight, color, and so on). A service company cannot judge product quality until the moment the service is rendered, and then the judgments are often subjective. Restaurant management can examine the food in the kitchen, but customer satisfaction depends to a considerable extent on the way it is served. The quality of education is so difficult to measure that few educational organizations have a formal quality control system.



Labor Intensive:

Manufacturing companies add equipment and automate production lines, thereby replacing labor and reducing costs. Most service companies are labor intensive and cannot do this. Hospitals do add expensive equipment, but mostly to provide better treatment, and this increases costs. A law firm expands by adding partners and new support personnel.



Multi-Unit Organizations:

Some service organizations operate many units in various locations; each unit relatively small. These organizations are fast-food restaurant chains, auto rental companies, gasoline service stations, and many others. Some of the units are owned; others operate under a franchise. The similarity of the separate units provides a common basis for analyzing budgets and evaluating performance not available to the manufacturing company. The information for each unit can be compared with system wide or regional averages, and high performers and low performers can be identified. However because units differ in the mix of services they provide, in the resources that they use, and in other ways, care must be taken in making such comparisons.

(B) Explain special characteristics of professional organization which would have a bearing on their control system.

Ans: Special Characteristics of Professional Organization:  Goals:

A dominant goal of a manufacturing company is to earn a satisfactory profit, specifically a satisfactory return on assets employed. A professional

organization has relatively few tangible assets; its principal asset is the skill of its professional staff, which doesn't appear on its balance sheet. Return on assets employed, therefore, is essentially meaningless in such organizations. Their financial goal is to provide adequate compensation to the professionals.

In many organizations, a related goal is to increase their size. In part, this reflects the natural tendency to associate success with large size. In part, it reflects economies of scale in using the efforts of a central personnel staff and units responsible for keeping the organization up to- date. Large public accounting firms need to have enough local offices to enable them to audit clients who have facilities located throughout the world.  Professionals:

Professional organizations are labor intensive, and the labor is of a special type. Many professionals prefer to work independently, rather than as part of a team. Professionals who are also managers tend to work only part time on management activities; senior partners in an accounting firm participate actively in audit engagements; senior partners in law firms have clients. Education for most professions does not include education in management, but quite naturally stresses the skills of the profession, rather than management; for this and other reasons, professionals tend to look down on managers. Professionals tend to give inadequate weight to the financial implications of their decisions; they want to do the best job they can, re- I regardless of its cost. This attitude affects the attitude of support staffs and nonprofessionals in the organization; it leads to inadequate cost control.  Output and Input Measurement:

The output of a professional organization cannot be measured in physical terms, such as units, tons, or gallons. We can measure the number of hours a

lawyer spends on a case, but this is a measure of input, not output. Output is the effectiveness of the lawyer's work, and this is not measured by the number of pages in a brief or the number of hours in the courtroom. We can measure the number of patients a physician treats in a day, and even classify these visits by type of complaint; but this is by no means equivalent to measuring the amount or quality of service the physician has provided. At most, what is measured is the physician's efficiency in treating patients, which is of some use in identifying slackers and hard workers. Revenues earned is one measure of output in some professional organizations, but these monetary amounts, at most, relate to the quantity of services rendered, not to their quality (although poor quality is reflected in reduced revenues in the long run). Furthermore, the work done by many professionals is non repetitive. No two consulting jobs or research and development projects are quite the same. This makes it difficult to plan the time required for a task, to set reasonable standards for task performance, and to judge how satisfactory the performance was. Some tasks are essentially repetitive: the drafting of simple wills, deeds, sales contracts, and similar documents; the taking of a physical inventory by an auditor; and certain medical and surgical procedures. The development of standards for such tasks may be worthwhile, although in using these standards, unusual circumstances that affect a specific job must be taken into account.  Small Size:

With a few exceptions, such as some law firms and accounting firms, professional organizations are relatively small and operate at a single location. Senior management in such organizations can personally observe what is going on and personally motivate employees. Thus, there is less need for a sophisticated management control system, with profit centers and formal

performance reports. Nevertheless, even a small organization needs a budget, a regular comparison of performance against budget, and a way of relating compensation to performance.  Marketing:

In a manufacturing company there is a clear dividing line between marketing activities and production activities; only senior management is concerned with both. Such a clean separation does not exist in most professional organizations. In some, such as law, medicine, and accounting, the profession's ethical code limits the amount and character of overt marketing efforts by professionals (although these restrictions have been relaxed in recent years). Marketing is an essential activity in almost all organizations, however. If it can't be conducted openly, it takes the form of personal contacts, speeches, articles, conversations on the golf course, and so on. These marketing activities are conducted by professionals, usually by professionals who spend much of their time in production work-that is, working for clients. In this situation, it is difficult to assign appropriate credit to the person responsible for "selling" a new customer. In a consulting firm, for example, a new engagement may result from a conversation between a member of the firm and an acquaintance in a company, or from the reputation of one of the firm's professionals as an outgrowth of speeches or articles. Moreover, the professional who is responsible for obtaining the engagement may not be personally involved in carrying it out. Until fairly recently, these marketing contributions were rewarded subjectively- that is, they were taken into account in promotion and compensation decisions. Some organizations now give explicit credit, perhaps as a percentage of the project's revenue, if the person who "sold" the project can be identified.

What is a Non - Profit Organization? How is the performance of this organization evaluated? Answer: Introduction A nonprofit organization, as defined by law, is an organization that cannot distribute assets or income to, or for the benefit of, its members, officers, or directors. The organization can, of course, compensate its employees, including officers and members, for services rendered and for goods supplied. This definition does not prohibit an organization from earning a profit; it prohibits only the distribution of profits. A nonprofit organization needs to earn a modest profit, on average, to provide funds for working capital and for possible “rainy days.” Performance evaluation of nonprofit organization For any organization, the most important reasons to measure performance are to improve effectiveness and to acquire information that will allow the organization to drive its agenda forward. If the motivation for doing evaluation remains outside an organization, the evaluation will have limited impact. To do performance assessment effectively, an organization must commit to adopting a culture of measurement, because acceptance must come from senior management, staff, funders, and board members alike.  Board self-evaluation Members of the Board of Directors should regularly evaluate the quality of their activities on a regular basis. Activities might include staffing the Board with new members, developing the members into well-trained and resourced members, discussing and debating topics to make wise decisions, and supervising the CEO. Probably the biggest problem with Board self-evaluation is that it does not occur frequently enough. As a result, Board members have no clear impression of how they are performing as members of a governing Board. Poor Board operations, when undetected, can adversely affect the entire organization.  Staff and volunteer (individual) performance evaluation Most of us are familiar with employee performance appraisals, which evaluate the quality of an individual’s performance in their position in the organization. Ideally, those appraisals reference the individual’s written job description and performance goals to assess the quality of the individual’s progress toward achieving the desired results described in those documents. Continued

problems in individual performance often are the results of poor strategic planning, program planning and staff development. If overall planning is not done effectively, individuals can experience continued frustration, stress and low morale, resulting in their poor overall performance. Experienced leaders have learned that continued problems in performance are not always the result of a poor work ethic – the recurring problems may be the result of larger, more systemic problems in the organizations.  Program evaluation Program evaluations have become much more common, particularly because donors demand them to ensure that their investments are making a difference in their communities. Program evaluations are typically focused on the quality of the program’s process, goals or outcomes. An ineffective program evaluation process often is the result of poor program planning – programs should be designed so they can be evaluated. It can also be the result of improper training about evaluation. Sometimes, leaders do not realize that they have the responsibility to verify to the public that the nonprofit is indeed making a positive impact in the community. When program evaluations are not performed well, or at all, there is little feedback to the strategic and program planning activities. When strategic and program planning are done poorly, the entire organization is adversely effected.  Evaluation of cross-functional processes Cross-functional processes are those that span several systems, such as programs, functions and projects. Common examples of major processes include information technology systems and quality management of services. Because these cross-functional processes span so many areas of the organization, problems in these processes can be the result of any type of ineffective planning, development and operating activities.  Organizational evaluation Ongoing evaluation of the entire organization is a major responsibility of all leaders in the organization. Leaders sometimes do not recognize the ongoing activities of management to actually include organizational evaluations – but they do. The activities of organizational evaluation occur every day. However, those evaluations usually are not done systematically. As a result, useful evaluation information is not provided to the strategic and program planning processes. Consequently, both processes can be ineffective because they do not focus on improving the quality of operations in the workplace.

(C) Q. Explain different organizational goals. Comment on goal of shareholder value maximization in particular. Goals Although we often refer to the goals of a corporation, a corporation does not have goals; it is an artificial being with no mind or decision-making ability of its own. Corporate goals are determined by the chief executive officer (CEO) of the corporation, with the advice of other members of senior management, and they are usually ratified by the board of directors. In many corporations, the goals originally set by the founder persist for generations. Examples are Henry Ford, Ford Motor Company; Alfred P. Sloan, General Motors Corporation; Walt Disney, Walt Disney Company; George Eastman, Eastman Kodak; and Sam Walton, Wal-Mart. Economic Goals Shareholder's value, Earning per share and Market value, all relate to maximizing shareholder's value, which is not a desirable goal, because what is 'maximum' is difficult to determine. Although optimizing shareholder value may be one goal, but there are other stakeholders in the business also such as customers, employees, creditors, community and so on. Again, shareholder value is usually equated with the market value of the company's stock. But market value is not an accurate measure of the worth of shareholders' investments. Besides, such value can be obtained only when the share is traded in the stock exchange. It is interesting to note that Henry Ford's operating philosophy was 'satisfactory profit', not 'maximum profit'. He said, "A reasonable profit is right, but not too much. So, it has been my policy to force the price of the car down as fast as production would permit and give the benefit to the user and laborers, with resulting surprisingly enormous benefit to ourselves" Other goals such as adding new products, or product-line or new business actually indicate normal organizational growth.

Social Goals However, every organization has its share of responsibility towards the local community where it is situated, and the public at large. It is very difficult to incorporate in Management Control System such goals as taking

pride in an organization which cares for the society and renders service to the public. Of course, any concrete structural programme indicating its operational expenses, methods of providing service, personnel involved in rendering service and the nature of the service in details can, however, be mentioned through an appropriate system. Profitability In a business, profitability is usually the most important goal. Return on investment can be found by simply dividing profit (i.e., revenues minus expenses) by investment, but this method does not draw attention to the two principal components: profit margin and investment turnover. In the basic form of this equation, "investment" refers to the shareholders' investment, which consists of proceeds from the issuance of stock, plus retained earnings. One of management's responsibilities is to arrive at the right balance between the two main sources of financing: debt and equity. The shareholders' investment (i.e., equity) is the amount of financing that was not obtained by debt, that is, by borrowing. For many purposes, the source of financing is not relevant; "investment" thus means the total of debt capital and equity capital. "Profitability" refers to profits in the long run, rather than in the current quarter or year. Many current expenditure (e.g., amounts spent on advertising or research and development) reduce current profits but increase profits over time. Some CEOs stress only part of the profitability equation. Jack Welch, former CEO of General Electric Company, explicitly focused on revenue; he stated that General Electric should not be in any business in which its sales revenues were not the largest or the second largest of any company in that business. This does not imply that Welch neglected the other components of the equation; rather, it suggests that in his mind there was a close correlation between market share and return on investment. Other CEOs, however, emphasize revenues for a different reason: For them, company size is a goal. Such a priority can lead to problems. If expenses are too high, the profit margin will not give shareholders a good return on their investment. Even if the profit margin is satisfactory, the organization may still not earn a good return if the investment is too large. Some CEOs focus on profit either as a monetary amount or as a percentage of revenue. This focus does not recognize the simple fact that if additional

profits are obtained by a greater than proportional increase in investment, each dollar of investment has earned less. Maximizing Shareholder alue In the 1980s and 1990s the term shareholder value appeared frequently in the business literature. This concept is that the appropriate goal of a for-profit corporation is to maximize shareholder value. Although the meaning of this term was not always clear, it probably refers to the market price of the corporation's stock. We believe, however, that achieving satisfactory profit is a better way of stating a corporation's goal, for two reasons. First, "maximizing" implies that there is a way of finding the maximum amount that a company can earn. This is not the case. In deciding between two courses of action, management usually selects the one it believes will increase profitability the most. But management rarely, if ever, identifies all the possible alternatives and their respective effects on profitability. Furthermore, profit maximization requires that marginal costs and a demand curve be calculated, and managers usually do not know what these are. If maximization were the goal, managers would spend every working hour (and many sleepless nights) thinking about endless alternatives for increasing profitability; life is generally considered to be too short to warrant such an effort. Second, although optimizing shareholder value may be a major goal, it is by no means the only goal for most organizations. Certainly a business that does not earn a profit at least equal to its cost of capital is not doing its job; unless it does so, it cannot discharge any other responsibilities. But economic performance is not the sole responsibility of a business, nor is shareholder value. Most managers want to behave ethically, and most feel an obligation to other stakeholders in the organization in addition to shareholders. Example: Henry Ford's operating philosophy was satisfactory profit, not maximum profit. He wrote let me say right here that I do not believe that we should make such an awful profit on our cars. A reasonable profit is right, but not too much. So it has been my policy to force the price of the car down as fast as production would permit, and give the benefits to the users and laborers-with resulting surprisingly enormous benefits to ourselves. By rejecting the maximization concept, we do not mean to question the validity of certain obvious principles. A course of action that decreases expenses without affecting another element, such as market share, is sound. So is a course of action that increases expenses with a greater than proportional increase in revenues, such as expanding the advertising budget.

So, too, are actions that increase profit with a less than proportional increase in shareholder investment (or, of course, with no such increase at all), such as purchasing a cost-saving machine. These principles assume, in all cases, that the course of action is ethical and consistent with the corporation's other goals. An organization's pursuit of profitability is affected by management's willingness to take risks. The degree of risk-taking varies with the personalities of individual managers. Nevertheless there is always an upper limit; some organizations explicitly state that management's primary responsibility is to preserve the company's assets, with profitability considered a secondary goal. The Asian .financial crisis during 1996-1998 is traceable, in large part, to the fact that banks in Asia's emerging markets made what appeared to be highly profitable loans without paying adequate attention to the level of risk involved. Multiple Stakeholder pproach Organizations participate in three markets: the capital market, the product market, and the factor market. A firm raises funds in the capital market, and the public stockholders are therefore an important constituency. The firm sells its goods and services in the product market, and customers form a key constituency. It competes for resources such as human capital and raw materials in the factor market and the prime constituencies are the company's employees and suppliers and the various communities in which the resources and the company's operations are located. The firm has a responsibility to all these multiple stakeholders-shareholders, customers, employees, suppliers, and communities. Ideally, its management control system should identify the goals for each of these groups and develop scorecards to track performance. Example: In 2005, the Acer Group, headquartered in Taiwan, was one of the largest computer companies The Company subscribed to the multiple stakeholder approach and managed its internal operations to satisfy the needs of several constituencies. To quote Stan 'Shih,-the founder, "The customer is number 1, the employee is number 2, the shareholder is number 3. I keep this message consistent with all my colleagues. I even consider the company's banks, suppliers, and others we do business with are our stakeholders; even society is stakeholder. I do my best to run the company that way." Lincoln Electric Company is well known for its philosophy that employee satisfaction was more important than shareholder value. James Lincoln wrote:

"The last group to be considered is the stockholders who own stock because they think it will be more profitable than investing more in any other way. The absentee stockholder is not' of any value to the customer or to the worker, since he has no knowledge of nor interest in the company other than greater dividends and advance in the price of his stock." Donald F. Hastings, chairman and chief executive officer, emphasized that this was still the company's philosophy in 1996. (d) Q. Discuss and illustrate differences and similarities between - Strategy Formulation and Management Control - Management Control and Task Control ANSWER Some Distinction between Strategy Formulation and management Control Characteristics a) Focus of plan b) Complexities Strategy Formulation Management Control

On one aspect at a time On entire organisation Many variables hence Less complex complex of Tailor-made for the Integrated, more issue, more external internal and historical, and predictive, less more accurate. accurate. Unstructured and Rhythmic, definite irregular, each problem pattern, set procedure being different Relatively difficult

c) Nature information

d) Structure

e) Communication of Relatively simple information f) Purpose of estimates g) Persons involved Show expected results Staff and management

Lead to desired result top

top Line and management

h) No. involved

of

persons Small

Large

i) Mental activity

Creative, analytical

Administrative, persuasive

j) Planning and control

Planning dominant but Emphasis on both some control planning and control Tends to be long Tends to be short

k) Time horizon l) End result

Policies and precedents Action within policies laid Less difficult

m) Appraisal of job Extremely difficult done

b) Some Distinction between Management Control and Task Control Characteristics a) Focus of plan Task Control Management control

Single task or transaction On entire organisation

to Integrated, more b) Nature of information Tailor-made operation, specific, often internal and historical, non- financial, real time more accurate c) Persons involved Supervisors Line and management top

d) Mental activity

Follow directives or Administrative, none as in case of persuasive machines or set objectives Day to day Tends to be short

e) Time horizon

f) Type of cost

Engineered- Existence of Discretionary- Control is objective standard more difficult due to against which actuals subjective consideration. can be compared makes control easier.

Write Short Notes on 1. Zero Based Budgeting 2. Internal Control\

Zero Based Budgeting: Zero-based budgeting is a technique of planning and decision-making which reverses the working process of traditional budgeting. In traditional incremental budgeting, departmental managers justify only increases over the previous year budget and what has been already spent is automatically sanctioned. No reference is made to the previous level of expenditure. By contrast, in zero-based budgeting, every department function is reviewed comprehensively and all expenditures must be approved, rather than only increases.[1] Zero-based budgeting requires the budget request be justified in complete detail by each division manager starting from the zero-base. The zero-base is indifferent to whether the total budget is increasing or decreasing. The term "zero-based budgeting" is sometimes used in personal finance to describe the practice of budgeting every dollar of income received, and then adjusting some part of the budget downward for every other part that needs to be adjusted upward. It would be more technically correct to refer to this practice as "active-balanced budgeting". Advantages of Zero-Based Budgeting: 1. 2. 3. 4. Efficient allocation of resources, as it is based on needs and benefits. Drives managers to find cost effective ways to improve operations. Detects inflated budgets. Municipal planning departments are exempt from this budgeting practice. 5. Useful for service departments where the output is difficult to identify.

6. Increases staff motivation by providing greater initiative and responsibility in decision-making. 7. Increases communication and coordination within the organization. 8. Identifies and eliminates wasteful and obsolete operations. 9. Identifies opportunities for outsourcing. 10.Forces cost centers to identify their mission and their relationship to overall goals. Disadvantages of Zero-Based Budgeting: 1. Difficult to define decision units and decision packages, as it is timeconsuming and exhaustive. 2. Forced to justify every detail related to expenditure. The R&D department is threatened whereas the production department benefits. 3. Necessary to train managers. Zero-based budgeting must be clearly understood by managers at various levels to be successfully implemented. Difficult to administer and communicate the budgeting because more managers are involved in the process. 4. In a large organization, the volume of forms may be so large that no one person could read it all. Compressing the information down to a usable size might remove critically important details. 5. Honesty of the managers must be reliable and uniform. Any manager that exaggerates skews the results Internal Control: Internal control is defined as a process affected by an organization's structure, work and authority flows, people and management information systems, designed to help the organization accomplish specific goals or objectives.[1] It is a means by which an organization's resources are directed, monitored, and measured. It plays an important role in preventing and detecting fraud and protecting the organization's resources, both physical (e.g., machinery and property) and intangible (e.g., reputation or intellectual property such as trademarks). At the organizational level, internal control objectives relate to the reliability of financial reporting, timely feedback on the achievement of operational or strategic goals, and compliance with laws and regulations. At the specific transaction level, internal control refers to the actions taken to achieve a specific objective (e.g., how to ensure the organization's payments to third parties are for valid services rendered.) Internal control procedures reduce process variation, leading to more predictable outcomes

Describing Internal Controls: Internal controls may be described in terms of: a) the objective they pertain to; and b) the nature of the control activity itself. Objective categorization Internal control activities are designed to provide reasonable assurance that particular objectives are achieved, or related progress understood. The specific target used to determine whether a control is operating effectively is called the control objective. Control objectives fall under several detailed categories; in financial auditing, they relate to particular financial statement assertions,[5] but broader frameworks are helpful to also capture operational and compliance aspects: 1. Existence (Validity): Only valid or authorized transactions are processed (i.e., no invalid transactions) 2. Occurrence (Cutoff): Transactions occurred during the correct period or were processed timely. 3. Completeness: All transactions are processed that should be (i.e., no omissions) 4. Valuation: Transactions are calculated using an appropriate methodology or are computationally accurate. 5. Rights & Obligations: Assets represent the rights of the company, and liabilities its obligations, as of a given date. 6. Presentation & Disclosure (Classification): Components of financial statements (or other reporting) are properly classified (by type or account) and described. 7. Reasonableness-transactions or results appear reasonable relative to other data or trends. Activity categorization Control activities may also be described by the type or nature of activity. These include (but are not limited to):
 

Segregation of duties - separating authorization, custody, and record keeping roles to limit risk of fraud or error by one person. Authorization of transactions - review of particular transactions by an appropriate person.

    

Retention of records - maintaining documentation to substantiate transactions. Supervision or monitoring of operations - observation or review of ongoing operational activity. Physical safeguards - usage of cameras, locks, physical barriers, etc. to protect property. Analysis of results, periodic and regular operational reviews, metrics, and other key performance indicators (KPIs). IT Security - usage of passwords, access logs, etc. to ensure access restricted to authorized personnel. S

) Write short notes on a. Concept of profit centre in non-profit organization b. Management control in matrix structures c. Implications of differentiated strategies on controls. Ans. a) Concept of profit centre in NPO By law NPO are allowed to make profit but are restrained from distributing it to owners and management This way they are non profit making organizations (from the owner's point of view). Such organizations include religious, charitable and educational trusts. Prime goal of management control systems in such organization is enhancing the service spread first and if possible then cost control rather and than operating efficiency. On the financial front, they enjoy many concessions from the government such as taxes, subsidies, grants etc so also they attract special control from these assisting institutes. Characteristics: 1. Absent of profit performance measure leads to problems in assessing the efficiency of the organization. If the organization shows large net income it may be because that NPO may not be providing the services to the extent possible/ expected. If the organization shows net losses it may show the NPO facing risk of bankruptcy. Hence non availability of clear-cut performance

yardstick makes the problem of control worst. 2. NPO's have contributed capital Plant: NPOs do not have shareholder as its stakeholder. The capital contribution to the business comes by way of contributions to assets such as building and equipments. Second kind of contribution could be in the form of monetary assistance, which entitles the organization to reap the interest on it keeping the principal amount intact. 3. Operating Assets represents the resources used for running day to day activities. And the contributed assets are not allowed to mix up with the operating assets. 4. Fund accounting: NPO need to keep two types of financial statements one set for contributed capital and another for operating capital. The nature of the contributed capital is beyond control of the management and therefore management concentrates on controlling the operating assets/investments. 5. Governance: Usually NPO are managed by trusts, who exercise less control on operational matters. Hence performance control is less demanding from owners' point of view and difficult from the point of view of management.

These characteristics pose difficulty in pricing of the product/services - what could be appropriate price? Usually it is set at total/full cost. The more stress expected on allocation of scare resources. Though not stricter control, but a sense of control can be built among the managers by way of using budgets for various activities and expenses. Non profit basis makes performance evaluation quite impossible. But one can make the things easier by concentrating on adherence to costs budgets, and enhancing the service base.

b) Management control in matrix structures Matrix organizational structure assigns multiple responsibilities to the functional heads. Evaluation of performance of such organizational entities is very difficult. Though they offer economies of using scares functional staff, it poses problems of casting the individual responsibility. This form of organization is very complex, from the point of view of management control system. At the end we must not forget that the management control system is for the organization and not the organization exists for management control system. One has to mold and remold the management control system to suit the given organization structure A citation by Anthony is worth noting in this regard. Usually in an advertisement agency, account supervisors are shifted from one account to another on periodic basis, this practice allows the agency to look at the account from the perspectives of different executives. However taking in to consideration the time lag of result realization in such services is quite large. And this may pose problem of performance assessment of a particular executive. This does not mean a control system designer should insist on abandoning the rotation system of the executives. Matrix structure offers advantages such as faster decision making process, efficiency and effectiveness but simultaneously it may pose problems such as added complexity in control function, assignment of responsibility and authority etc.

c) Implications of differentiated strategies on controls Different corporate strategies imply the following differences in the context in which control systems need to be designed: As firms become more diversified,

corporate-level managers may not have significant knowledge of, or experience in, the activities of the company's various business units. If so, corporate-level managers for highly diversified firms cannot expect to control the different businesses on the basis of intimate knowledge of their activities, and performance evaluation tends to be carried out at arm's length. Singleindustry and related diversified firms possess corporatewide core

competencies (on which the strategies of most of the business units are based. Communication channels and transfer of competencies across business units, therefore, are critical in such firms. In contrast, there are low levels of interdependence among the business units of unrelated diversified firms. This implies that as firms become more diversified, it may be desirable to change the balance in control systems from an emphasis on fostering cooperation to an emphasis on encouraging entrepreneurial spirit.

 Strategic

planning:

given

the

low

level

of

interdependencies,

conglomerates tend to use vertical strategic planning systems-that is, business units prepare strategic plans & submit to senior management to review & approve. The horizontal dimension might be incorporated into the strategic planning process in a number of different ways. First, a group executive might be given the responsibility to develop a strategic plan for the group as a whole that explicitly identifies synergies across individual business units within the group. Second, strategic plans of individual business units could have an interdependence section, in which the general manager of the business unit identifies the focal linkages with other business units and how those linkages will be exploited. Third, the corporate office could require joint strategic plans for interdependent business units. Finally, strategic plans of individual business units could be

circulated to managers of similar business units to critique and review. These methods are not mutually exclusive. In fact, several of them could be pursued fruit. fully at the same time.  Budgeting: The chief executives of single-industry firms may be able to control the operations of subordinates through informal and personally oriented mechanisms, such as frequent personal interactions. This lessens the need to rely as heavily on the budgeting system as the tool of control. On the other hand, in a conglomerate it is nearly impossible for the chief executive to rely on informal interpersonal interactions as a control tool; much of the communication and control has to be achieved through the formal budgeting stem. This implies the following budgeting system characteristics in a conglomerate. Business unit managers have somewhat greater influence in developing their budgets since they, not the corporate office, possess most of the information about their respective product/market environments. Greater emphasis is often placed on meeting the budget since the chief executive has no other informal controls available.  Transfer Pricing: Transfers of goods and services between business units are more frequent in single-industry and related diversified firms than in conglomerates. The usual transfer pricing policy in a conglomerate is to give sourcing flexibility to business units and use arm's-length market prices. However, in a single-industry or a related diversified firm, synergies may be important, and business units may not be given the freedom to make sourcing decisions.  Incentive Compensation: The incentive compensation policy tends to differ across corporate strategies in the following ways Use of formulas: Conglomerates, in general, are more likely to use formulas

to determine business unit managers' bonuses; that is, they may base a larger portion of the bonus on quantitative, financial measures, such as X percent bonus on actual economic value added (EVA) in excess of budgeted EVA. These formula-based bonus plans are employed because senior management typically is not familiar with what goes on in a variety of disparate businesses. Senior managers of single-industry and related diversified firms tend to base a larger fraction of the business unit managers’ bonus on subjective factors. In many related diversified firms, greater degrees of interrelationships imply that one unit's performance can be affected by the decisions and actions of other units. Therefore, for companies with highly interdependent business units, formula-based plans that are tied strictly to financial performance criteria could be counterproductive.  Profitability measures: In the case of unrelated diversified firms, the incentive bonus of the 'business unit managers tend to be determined primarily by the profitabi1ity of that unit, rather than the profitability of the firm~ Its purpose is to motivate managers to act as though the business unit were their own company. In contrast, single-industry and related diversified firms tend to base the incentive bonus of a business unit manager on both the performance of that unit and the performance of a larger organizational unit (such as the product group to which the business unit belongs or perhaps even .the overall corporation). When business units are interdependent, the more the incentive bonus of general managers emphasizes the separate performance of each unit, the greater the possibility of interunit conflict. On the other hand, basing the bonus of general managers more on the overall corporate performance is likely to encourage greater interunit cooperation, thereby increasing managers'

motivation to exploit interdependencies rather than their individual results.  Business Unit Strategy: Diversified corporations segment themselves into business units and typically assign different strategies to the individual business units. Many chief executive officers of multi business organizations do not adopt a standardized, uniform approach to controlling their business units; instead, they tailor the approach to each business unit's strategy.The strategy of a business unit depends on two interrelated aspects: (1) Its mission ("What are its overall objectives?") and (2) its competitive advantage. ("How should the business unit compete in its industry to accomplish its mission?"). Typically business units choose from four missions: build, hold, harvest, and divest. The business unit has two generic ways to compete and develop a sustainable competitive advantage: low cost and differentiation.  Mission The mission for existing business units could be either build, hold, or harvest. These missions constitute a continuum, with "pure build" at one end and "pure harvest" at the other end. To implement the strategy effectively, there should be congruence between the mission chosen and the types of controls used. The mission of the business unit influences the uncertainties that general managers face and the short-term versus longterm trade-offs they make. Management control systems can be systematically varied to help motivate the man ager to cope effectively with uncertainty and make appropriate short-term versus long term trade-offs. Thus, different missions often require systematically different management control systems.  Mission and Uncertainty "Build" units tend to face greater environmental uncertainty than "harvest" units for several reasons: Build strategies typically are undertaken in the growth stage of the product life cycle,

whereas harvest strategies typically are undertaken in the mature decline stage of the product life cycle. Such factors as manufacturing process; product technology; market demand; relations with suppliers, buyers, and distribution channels; number of competitors; and competitive structure change more rapidly and are more unpredictable in the growth stage than in the mature/decline stage. An objective of a build business unit is to increase market share. Because the total market share of all firms in an industry is 100 percent, the .battle for market share is a zero-sum game; thus, a build strategy puts a business unit in greater conflict with its competitors than does a harvest strategy. Competitors' actions are likely to be unpredictable, and this contributes to the uncertainty that build business units face. On both the input side and the output side, build managers tend to experience greater dependencies on external individuals and organizations than do harvest managers. For instance, a build mission signifies additional capital investment (greater dependence on capital markets), expansion of capacity (greater dependence on the technological environment), increase in market share (greater dependence on customers and competitors), increase in production volume (greater dependence on raw material suppliers and labor markets), and so on. The greater the external dependencies a business unit faces, the greater the uncertainty it confronts.Build business units are often in new and evolving industries; thus, build managers are likely to have less experience in their industries. This also contributes to the greater uncertainty that managers of build units face in dealing with external constituencies.  Mission and Time Span The choice of build versus harvest strategies has implications for short-term versus long-term profit trade-offs. The sharebuilding strategy includes (a) price 'cutting, (b) major R&D expenditures (to

introduce new products), and (c) major market development expenditures. These actions are aimed at establishing market leadership, but they depress short-term profits. Thus, many decisions that a build unit manager makes, today may not result in profits until some future period. A harvest strategy, on the other hand, concentrates on maximizing short-term profits.  Strategic Planning When the environment is uncertain, the strategic planning process is especially important management needs to think about how to cope with the uncertainties, and this usually requll1 longer-range view of planning than is possible in the annual budget. If the environment is stable, there may be no strategic planning process at all or only a broadbrush strategic plan. Thus, the strategic planning process is more critical and more important for build, as compared with harvest, business units. Nevertheless, some strategic planning of the harvest business units may be necessary because the company's overall strategic plan must encompass all of its businesses to effectively balance cash flows. In screening capital investments and allocating resources, the system may be more quantitative and financial for harvest units. A harvest business unit operates in a mature industry and does not offer tremendous new investment possibilities. Hence, the required earnings rate for such a business unit may be relatively high to motivate the manager to search for project with truly exceptional returns. Because harvest units tend to experience stable environments with predictable products, technologies, competitors, and customers),

discounted cash flow PCF) analysis often can be used more confidently. The required information used to evaluate investments from harvest units is primarily financial. A build unit, however, is positioned on the growth stage of the product life cycle. Since the corporate office wants to take advantage of the opportunities in a growing market, senior management may set a

relatively low discount rate, thereby motivating build managers to forward more investment ideas to corporate office. Given the product/market uncertainties, financial analysis of some projects from build units may be unreliable. For such projects, nonfinancial data are more important.  Budgeting The calculational aspects of variance analysis comparing actual results with the budget identify variances as either favorable or unfavorable. However, a favorable variance does not necessarily imply favorable performance, nor does an unfavorable variance imply unfavorable performance. The link between a favorable or unfavorable variance, on the one hand, and favorable or unfavorable performance, on the other hand, depends on the strategic context of the business unit under evaluation.  Incentive Compensation Syste In designing an incentive compensation package for business unit managers, the following questions need to be resolved: 1. 1. What should the size of incentive bonus payments be relative to the general manager's base salary? Should the incentive bonus payments have upper limits? 2. What measures of performance (e.g., profit, EVA, sales volume, market share, product development) should be used when deciding the general manager's incentive bonus awards? If multiple performance measures are employed, how should they be weighted? 3. How much reliance should be placed on subjective judgments in deciding on the bonus amount? 4. How frequently (semiannual, annual, biennial, etc.) should incentive awards be made?

With respect to the first question, many firms use the principle that the riskier the strategy, the greater the proportion of the general manager's compensation in bonus compared to salary (the "risk/return" principle). They maintain that because managers in charge of more uncertain task situations should be willing.to take greater risks, they should have a higher percentage of their remuneration in the form of an incentive bonus. Thus, "build" managers are more likely than "harvest" managers to rely on bonuses. As to the second question, when rewards are tied to certain performance criteria, behaviour ls influenced by the desire to optimize performance with respect to those criteria. Some performance criteria (cost control, operating profits, and cash flow from operations) focus more on short-term results, whereas other performance criteria (market share, new product development, market development, and people development) focus on long-term profitability. Thus, linking incentive bonus to short-term criteria tends to promote a short-term focus on the part of the general manager and, similarly, linking incentive bonus to long-term criteria is likely to promote long-term focus. Considering the relative differences in time horizons of build and harvest managers, it may not be appropriate to use a single, uniform financial criterion, such as operating profits, to evaluate the performance of every business unit. A better idea would be louse multiple performance criteria, with differential weights for each criterion depending on the business unit's mission. The third question asks how much subjective judgment should affect bonus amounts. At one extreme, a manager's bonus might be a strict formula-based plan, with the bonus tied to performance on quantifiable criteria (e.g., X percent bonus on actual profits in excess of budgeted profits). At the other

extreme, a manager's incentive bonus amounts might be based solely on the superior's subjective judgment or discretion. Alternatively, incentive bonus amounts might also be based on a combination of formula-based and subjective approaches. Performance on most long-term criteria (market development, new-product development, and people development) is harder to measure objectively than is performance along most short-run criteria (operating profits, cash flow from operations, and return on investment).As already noted, build managers- in contrast with harvest managers, should concentrate more on the long run, so they typically are evaluated more subjectively than are harvest managers.

As to the final question, the frequency of bonus awards does influence the time horizon of managers. More frequent bonus awards encourage managers to concentrate on short-term performance since they have the effect of motivating managers to focus on those facets of the business they can affect in the short run.  Competitive Advantage A business unit can choose to compete. Either

as a differentiated player or as a low-cost player, Choosing a differentiation 'approach, rather than a low-cost approach, increases uncertainty of a business unit's task environment for three reasons.

1. Product innovation is more critical for differentiation business units than for low cost business units. This is partly because a low-cost business unit, with primary emphasis on cost reduction, typically prefers to keep its product offerings stable over time; a differentiation business unit, with its primary focus on uniqueness & exclusivity, is likely to engage in greater product innovation.

2. A low cost business unit typically tend to have narrow product lines to minimize the inventory carry costs as well as to benefit from scale economies. Differentiation business units on the other hand tend to have a broader set of products to create uniqueness.

3. Low cost business units typically produce no-frill commodity products& these products succeed primarily because they have lower prices than competing products. However product differentiation business units succeed if customers perceive that the products have advantages over competing products. Since the customer perception is difficult to learn about, & since customer loyalty is subject to change resulting from actions of competitors or other reasons, the demand for differentiated products is typically more difficult to predict than the demand for commodities.

Q. Explain some factors which may influence top management style and the implication of the top management style on management control. The management control function in an organization is influenced by the style of senior management. The style of the chief executive officer affects the management control process in the entire organization. Similarly, the style of the business unit manager affects the unit's management control process, and the style of functional department managers affects the management control process in their functional areas.

 Differences in Management Styles Managers manage differently. Some rely heavily on reports and certain formal documents; others prefer conversations and informal contacts.

Some are analytical; others use trial and error. Some are risk takers; others are risk averse. Some are process oriented; others are results oriented. Some are long-term oriented; others are short-term oriented. Some emphasize monetary rewards; others emphasize a broader set of rewards. Management style is influenced by the manager's background and personality. Background includes things like age, formal education, and experience in a given function, such as manufacturing, technology, marketing, or finance. Personality characteristics include such variables as the manager's willingness to take risks and his or her tolerance for ambiguity.

 Implications for Management Control The various dimensions of management style significantly influence the operation of the control systems. Even if the same reports with the same set of data go with the same frequency to the CEO, two CEOs with different styles would use these reports very differently to manage the business units. Style affects the management control process – how the CEO prefers to use the information, conducts performance review meetings, and so on – which in turn affects how the control system actually operates, even if the formal structure does not change under a new CEO. In fact, when CEOs change, subordinates typically infer what the new CEO really wants based on how he or she interacts during the management control process.  Personal versus Impersonal Controls Presence of personal versus impersonal controls in organizations is an aspect of managerial style. Managers differ on how much importance they attach to formal budgets and reports as well as informal conversations and other personal contacts. Some managers are "numbers oriented"; they want a large flow of quantitative information, and they spend much time analyzing this information and deriving tentative conclusions from it. Other managers are "people oriented"; they look at a few numbers, but they usually arrive at their conclusions by talking with people, judging the relevance and importance of what they learn partly on their appraisal of the other person. They visit various locations and

spend time talking with both supervisors and staff to get a sense of how well things are going. Managers' attitudes toward formal reports affect the amount of detail they want, the frequency of these reports, and even their preference for graphs rather than tables of numbers, and whether they want numerical reports supplemented with written comments. Designers of management control systems need to identify these preferences and accommodate them.

 Tight versus Loose Controls A manager's style affects the degree of tight versus loose control in any situation. The manager of a routine production responsibility center can be controlled relatively tightly or loosely, and the actual control reflects the style of the manager's superior. Thus, the degree of tightness or looseness often is not revealed by the content of the forms or aspects of the formal control documents, rules, or procedures. It is a factor of how these formal devices are used. The degree of looseness tends to increase at successively higher levels in the organization hierarchy: higher -level managers typically tend to pay less attention to details and more to overall results. The style of the CEO has a profound impact on management control. If a new senior manager with a different style takes over, the system tends to change correspondingly. It might happen that the manager's style is not a good fit with the organization's management control requirements. If the manager recognizes this incongruity and adapts his or her style accordingly, the problem disappears. If, however, the manager is unwilling or unable to change, the organization will experience performance problems. The solution in this case might be to change the manager.

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