Slavery in the United States

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Slavery in the United States http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States  (GDL; miéroles! a"ril #$! %#&'; %&::') *'/p'+ From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 An animation showing when United States States territories and states forbade or allowed slavery, 178!18"1#

$eter, a man who was enslaved in %aton &o'ge, (o'isiana,, 18"), whose scars res'lted from violent (o'isiana ab'se by a plantation overseer# $hoto on file with U#S# *ational Archives and &ecords Administration, Administration, online at archives#gov among others# +)# +)#

Slavery in the United Stateslasted as a legal

instit'tion 'ntil the passage of the -hirteenth  Amendment to the United States .onstit'tion in .onstit'tion  in 18"/# 0t had its origins with the nglish coloni2ation coloni2ation of  of *orth America firstnglish first in 3irginia in 3irginia in 1"47, altho'gh African slaves were bro'ght to Spanish Florida as Florida  as early as the 1/"4s# +1 5ost slaves were black and were

 

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held by whites, altho'gh some *ative Americans and free blacks also held slaves6 there was a small n'mber of white slaves as well# Slaves were spread to the areas where there was good 'ality soil for large plantations of high val'e cash crops, s'ch as cotton, s'gar, and coffee# -he maority of slaveholders were in the so'thern United States, States, where most slaves were engaged in an efficient machine!like gang system of agric'lt're, with farms of fifteen or more slaves proving to be far more prod'ctive than farms  witho't slaves#+citation needed  Also, these large gro'ps of slaves were tho'ght to work more efficiently if g'arded by a managerial class called overseers to ens're that the slaves did not waste a second of movement# From 1"/9 'ntil 18"/, slavery for life was legal within the bo'ndaries of m'ch of the present United States#+: %efore the widespread establishment slavery chattel slavery;o'tright the slave<, m'ch labor wasof organi2ed 'nder;o'tright a systemownership of bondedof labor known as indentured servitude. servitude. -his typically lasted for black alike,  alike, and it was a means of 'sing several years for white and white andblack labor to pay the costs of transporting people to the colonies# +) %y the 18th cent'ry, co'rt r'lings established the racial basis of the  American incarnation of o f slavery to slavery to apply chiefly to %lack  %lack Africans and  Africans and people of African descent, and occasionally to *ative Americans# Americans# 0n part beca'se of the s'ccess of tobacco as colonies, its labor!intensive character a cash crop in crop in the So'thern colonies, ca'sed planters to import more slaves for labor by the end of the 17th cent'ry than did thenorthern thenorthern colonies# colonies# -he So'th had a significantly high n'mber and proportion of slaves in the pop'lation# +)

-welve million Africans were shipped to the Americas the Americas from  from the 1"th +9+/ / to the 1th cent'ries#+9+  =f these, an estimated "9/,444 were bro'ght to what is now the United States# -he largest n'mber were %ra2il<# <#+"-he slave pop'lation in the shipped to %ra2il ;see %ra2il ;see slavery in %ra2il United States had grown to fo'r million by the 18"4 .ens's#+7 Slavery was one of the principal iss'es leading to the American the American .ivil War # After theUnion theUnion prevailed  prevailed in the war, slavery was

 

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abolished thro'gho't the United States with the adoption of the -hirteenth Amendment to the United States .onstit'tion# .onstit'tion #+8 +edit edit.olonial

America

Main article: Slavery in Colonial United States

-he first record of African slavery in .olonial America was made in 1"1# A %ritish pirate ship 'nder the >'tch flag, >'tch flag, the White Lion, had  slaves in a battle with a $ort'g'ese ship, $ort'g'ese ship, the capt'red :4 Angolan :4 Angolan slaves 5e ico co +   # -he Angolans S?o @o?o %aptista, bo'nd for 3eracr'2, 3eracr'2,5ei were from the kingdoms of *dongo and *dongo and Bongo Bongo,, and spoke + lang'ages of the %ant' gro'p %ant' gro'p # -he White Lion had been damaged first by the battle and then more severely in a great storm d'ring the late s'mmer when it came ashore at =ld $oint .omfort, site of 5onroe in  in 3irginia# 3irginia# -ho'gh the colony was in the present day Fort 5onroe middle of a period later known as C-he Dreat 5igrationC ;1"18! 1":)<, d'ring which its pop'lation grew from 9/4 to 9,444 residents, etremely high mortality rates from disease disease,, maln'trition, maln'trition, and war with *ative Americans kept Americans kept the pop'lation of able!bodied laborers low+14# With the >'tch ship being in severe need of repairs and s'pplies and the colonists being in need of able!bodied workers, the h'man cargo was traded for food and services# 0n addition to African slaves, 'ropeans, mostly 0rish, 0rish,+11 Scottish Scottish,, +1:  nglish, nglish, andDermans andDermans,,+1) were bro'ght over in s'bstantial +19

-hirteen  n'mbers as indent'red servants, servants, partic'larly in the %ritish -hirteen  .olonies #+1/ =ver half of all white immigrants to the nglish colonies .olonies# of *orth America d'ring the 17th and 18th cent'ries might have been indent'red servants#+1" 0n the 18th cent'ry n'mero's 'ropeans traveled to the colonies as redemptioners redemptioners##+17 -he white citi2ens of 3irginia, who had arrived from %ritain, decided to treat the first Africans in 3irginia as indent'red servants# As with 'ropean indent'red servants, the Africans were freed after a stated period and given the 'se of land and s'pplies by their former owners# Anthony owners# @ohnson, a former indent'red servant from Africa,  Anthony @ohnson, became a landowner on the astern Shoreand Shoreand a slave!owner# +18  -he maor problem with indent'red servants was that, in time,

 

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they wo'ld be freed, b't they were 'nlikely to become prospero's#  regions were already in the hands of -he best lands in the tidewater  regions wealthy plantation families by 1"/4, and the former servants became an 'nderclass# %aconEs &ebellion showed &ebellion showed that the poor laborers and farmers co'ld prove a dangero's element to the wealthy landowners# %y switching to p're chattel slavery, new white laborers and small farmers were mostly limited to those who co'ld afford to immigrate and s'pport themselves# 0n addition, improving economic conditions in ngland meant that fewer laborers wanted to migrate to the colonies as indent'red servants, so the planters needed to find new so'rces of labor# Slaves on a 3irginia plantation ; The Old Plantation, c# 174<

-he transformation from indent'red servit'de to racial happened grad'ally# -here were no slavery laws regarding slavery early in 3irginiaEs history# owever, by 1"94, the 3irginia co'rts had sentenced at least one black servant to slavery# 0n 1"/9, @ohn .asor , a black man, became the first legally recogni2ed slave in the present United States# A co'rt in *orthampton .o'ntyr'led .o'ntyr'led against .asor, declaring him property for property for life, CownedC by the black colonist Anthony @ohnson# Since persons with African origins were not nglish citi2ens birth, they were notDrinstead necessarily covered bygained nglish .ommonby(aw# (aw # li2abeth Bey Drinstead s'ccessf'lly  s'ccessf'lly her freedom in the 3irginia co'rts in 1"/" by making her case as the bapti2ed .hristian da'ghter of free nglishman -homas Bey# +1 Shortly after the li2abeth Bey trial, in 1"": 3irginia passed a law on partus, stating that any children of an enslaved mother wo'ld follow her stat's and a'tomatically be slaves, no matter if the father was a freeborn nglishman# -his instit'tionali2ed the power relationships and confined the possible scandal of mied!race children to within the slave 'arters# -he 3irginia Slave codes of codes of 174/ f'rther defined as slaves those people imported from nations

 

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that were not .hristian, .hristian, as well as *ative Americans who were sold to colonists by other *ative Americans# Americans# 0n 17)/, the tr'stees of the colony of Deorgia passed a law to prohibit slavery, which was then legal in the 1: other colonies# 0t was meant to eliminate the risk of slave rebellions and make Deorgia better able to defend against attacks from the Spanish to the so'th# 0t also s'pported the vision of DeorgiaEs original charter ! +:4+:1 to t'rn some of nglandEs poor into hardworking small farmers# +:4+:1 -he protestant scottish highlanders who settled what is now >arien DA added a moral anti!slavery arg'ment, which was rare at the time, in their 17) C$etition of the 0nhabitants of *ew 0nvernessCG 0t is shocking to h'man *at're, that any &ace of 5ankind and their $osterity sho'ld be sentancEd to perpet'al Slavery6 nor in @'stice can we think otherwise of it, that they are thrown amongst 's to be o'r Sco'rge one >ay or other for o'r SinsG And as Freedom m'st be as dear to them as it is to 's, what a Scene of orror m'st it bring abo'tH And the longer it is 'neec'ted, the bloody Scene m'st be the greater# +:4+:: :: I0nhabitants of *ew 0nverness, +:4+

%'t there was pop'lar s'pport for slavery and skillf'l lobbying by the colonists, and in 17/4 slavery again became legal in Deorgia# >'ring most of the %ritish colonial period, slavery eisted in all the colonies# $eople enslaved in the *orth typically *orth typically worked as ho'se servants, artisans, laborers and craftsmen, with the greater n'mber in cities# arly on, slaves in the So'th worked So'th worked primarily in plantations growing  growing indigo, indigo, rice rice,, agric'lt're, on farms and plantations cotton became a maor crop after the 174s# -obacco and tobacco6 tobacco6 cotton became was very labor intensive, as was rice c'ltivation#+:) 0n So'th .arolina in .arolina  in 17:4 abo't "/J of the pop'lation consisted of slaves# +:9  Slaves were 'sed by rich farmers and plantation owners who c'ltivate crops for commercial eport operations# %ackwoods s'bsistence farmers, a later wave of settlers, seldom owned slaves# Some of the %ritish colonies attempted to abolish the international slave trade, trade, fearing that the importation of new Africans wo'ld be

 

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disr'ptive# 3irginia bills to that effect were vetoed by the %ritish $rivy .o'ncil6 .o'ncil6 &hode 0sland 0sland forbade  forbade the import of slaves in 1779#  All of the colonies ecept Deorgia had Deorgia had banned or limited the African slave trade by 178"6 Deorgia did so in 178 ! altho'gh some of these laws were later repealed# +:/ -he %ritish West Africa S'adronEs S'adronEs slave trade s'ppression activities were assisted by forces from the United States *avy *avy,, starting in 18:4 with the USS Cyane # 0nitially, this consisted of a few ships# With the Webster!Ashb'rton -reaty of -reaty of 189:, the relationship was formalised and they ointly ran the Africa the Africa S'adron# S'adron#+:" +edit edit177"

to 18/4

editSecond Middle Passage +edit -he growing demand of cotton led many plantation owners west in search for more s'itable land# 0t was for this reason that slavery did not spread to the north, instead spreading west# +:7 istorian $eter Bolchin wrote, C%y breaking 'p eisting families and forcing slaves to relocate far from everyone and everything they knewC this migration Creplicated ;if on a red'ced level< many of +the horrorsC of the Atlantic slave trade#+:8 istorian 0ra %erlin called this forced migration the Second 5iddle $assage# $assage# .haracteri2ing it as the Ccentral eventK in the life of a slave between the American the American &evol'tion and &evol'tion  and the .ivil War, %erlin wrote that whether they were 'prooted themselves or simply lived in fear that they or their families wo'ld be invol'ntarily moved, Cthe massive deportation tra'mati2ed black people, both slave and free#C +:  Altho'gh complete statistics are lacking, lacki ng, it is estimated that 1,444,444 slaves moved west from the =ld So'th between So'th between 174 5aryland,, 3irginia, 3irginia, and 18"4# 5ost of the slaves were moved from 5aryland and the .arolinas# .arolinas# =riginally the points of destination were Bent'cky Bent'cky and  and -ennessee -ennessee,, b't after 1814 the states of the >eep  Alabama,, 5ississippi 5ississippi,,(o'isiana (o'isiana and  and -eas -eas receive  receive So'thG Deorgia, Deorgia, Alabama

 

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d the most# -his corresponded to the massive epansion of cotton c'ltivation in that region, which needed labor# 0n the 18)4s, almost )44,444 were transported, with Alabama and 5ississippi receiving 144,444 each# very decade between 1814 and 18"4 had at least 144,444 slaves moved from their state of origin# 0n the final decade before the .ivil War, :/4,444 were moved# 5ichael -adman, in a 18 book Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South, indicates that "4!74J of interregional migrations were the res'lt of the sale of slaves# 0n 18:4 a child in the Upper So'th had a )4J chance of being sold so'th by 18"4#+)4 Slave traders were responsible for the maority of the slaves that moved west# =nly a minority moved with their families and eisting owner# Slave traders had little interest in p'rchasing or transporting intact slave families, altho'gh in the interest of creating a Cself! reprod'cing n'mbersslave of men and womenthe were transported# labor %erlinforceC, wrote,e'al C-he internal trade became largest enterprise in the So'th o'tside the plantation itself, and probably the most advanced in its employment of modern transportation, finance, and p'blicity#C -he slave trade ind'stry developed its own 'ni'e lang'age with terms s'ch as Cprime hands, b'cks, breeding wenches, and fancy girlsC coming into common 'se#+)1 -he epansion of the interstate slave trade contrib'ted to the Ceconomic revival of once depressed seaboard statesC as demand accelerated the val'e of the slaves who were s'bect to sale#+): Some traders moved their CchattelsC by sea, with *orfolk to *orfolk to *ew =rleans being =rleans  being the most common ro'te, b't most slaves were forced to walk# &eg'lar migration ro'tes were established and were served by a network of slave pens, yards, and wareho'ses needed as temporary ho'sing for the slaves# As the trek advanced, some slaves were sold and new ones p'rchased# %erlin concl'ded, C0n all, the slave trade, with its h'bs and regional centers, its sp'rs and circ'its, reached into every cranny of so'thern society# Few so'therners, black or white, were 'nto'ched#C +))

 

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-he death rate for the slaves on their way to their new destination across the American So'th was m'ch less than that of the captives across the Atlantic =cean# 5ortality was still higher than the normal death rate# %erlin s'mmari2es the eperienceG ### the Second 5iddle $assage was etraordinarily lonely, debilitating, and dispiriting# .apt'ring the mo'rnf'l character of one so'thward marching coffle, an observer characteri2ed it as Ca procession of men, women, and children resembling that of a f'neral#C 0ndeed, with men and women dying on the march or being sold and resold, slaves became not merely commodified b't c't off from nearly every h'man attachment#### 5'rder and mayhem made the Second 5iddle $assage almost as dangero's for traders as it was for slaves, which was why the men were chained tightly and g'arded closely# ### -he coffles that marched slaves so'thward L like the slave ships that carried their ancestors westward L became mobile fortresses, and 'nder s'ch circ'mstances, flight was more common than revolt# Slaves fo'nd it easier L and far less perilo's L to slip into the night and follow the *orth Star to the fabled land of freedom than to confront their heavily armed overlords# +)9

=nce the trip was ended, slaves faced a life on the frontier significantly different from their eperiences back east# .learing trees and starting crops on virgin fields was harsh and backbreaking work# A combination of inade'ate n'trition, bad water, and eha'stion from both the o'rney and the work weakened the newly arrived slaves and prod'ced cas'alties# -he preferred locations of the new plantations at riversE edges, with mos'itoes and mos'itoes and other environmental challenges, threatened the s'rvival of slaves# -hey had ac'ired only limited imm'nities in their previo's homes# -he death rate was s'ch that, in the first few years of hewing a plantation o't of the wilderness, some planters preferred whenever possible to 'se rented slaves rather than their own#+)/ -he harsh conditions on the frontier increased slave resistance and led to m'ch more reliance on violence by the owners and overseers# 5any of the slaves were new to cotton fields and 'nacc'stomed to the Cs'nrise!to!s'nset gang laborC re'ired by their new life# Slaves were driven m'ch harder than when they were

 

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involved in growing tobacco or wheatback wheatback east# Slaves also had less time and opport'nity to improve the 'ality of their lives by raising their own livestock or livestock or tending vegetable gardens, for either their own cons'mption or trade, as they co'ld in the eastern so'th# +)"

0n (o'isiana it was s'gar , rather than cotton, that was the main crop# %etween 1814 and 18)4 the n'mber of slaves increased from 'nder 14,444 to over 9:,444# *ew =rleans became nationally important as a slave port and by the 1894s had the largest slave market in the co'ntry# >ealing with s'gar cane was even more physically demanding than growing cotton# $lanters preferred yo'ng males, who represented two!thirds of the slave p'rchases# -he largely yo'ng, 'nmarried male slave force made the reliance on violence by the owners Mespecially savage#K +)7 +edit editTreatment of slaves Stampp describes  describes the role of coercion in istorian Benneth 5# Stampp slavery, CWitho't the power to p'nish, which the state conferred 'pon the master, bondage co'ld not have eisted# %y comparison, all other techni'es of control were of secondary importance#C+)8 Stampp f'rther notes that while rewards sometimes led slaves to perform ade'ately, slaveholder, who wroteGmost agreed with an Arkansas *ow, 0 speak what 0 know, when 0 say it is like Ncasting pearls before swineE to try to pers'ade a negro to work# e m'st be made to work, and sho'ld always be given to 'nderstand that if he fails to perform his d'ty he will be p'nished for it# +)8

 According to both the $'lit2er $ri2e!winning $ri2e!winning historian >avid %rion >avis and >avis and historian 'gene Denovese Denovese,, treatment of slaves was both harsh and inh'mane# Whether laboring or walking abo't in p'blic, people living as slaves were reg'lated

 

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by legally a'thori2ed violence# >avis makes the point that, while some aspects of slavery took on a Cwelfare capitalistC look, Oet we m'st never forget that these same Cwelfare capitalistC plantations in the >eep So'th were essentially r'led by terror# ven the most kindly and h'mane masters knew that only the threat of violence co'ld force gangs of field hands to work from dawn to d'sk Cwith the discipline,C as one contemporary observer p't it, Cof a reg'lar trained army#C Fre'ent p'blic floggings reminded every slave of the penalty for inefficient labor, disorderly cond'ct, or ref'sal to accept the a'thority of a s'perior#+) %ill of sale for sale for the a'ction of the C*egro %oy @acobC for Cighty >ollars and a halfC to satisfy a money 'dgement against the CpropertyC of his owner, $rettyman %oyce# =ctober 14, 1847

Slaves that worked and lived plantations were  were commonly p'nished# on plantations p'nishment co'ld  co'ld come from the -hisp'nishment -his plantation owner or master, his wife, children ;white males<, and most often by the overseer# Slaves were p'nished with a variety of obects and instr'ments# Some of these incl'dedG whips, placed in chains andshackles andshackles,, vario's contraptions s'ch as metal collars, being hanged, and even forced to walk a treadmill# +94 -hose who inflicted pain 'pon the slaves also 'sed weapons s'ch as knives, g'ns, field tools, and obects fo'nd nearby# -he Whip  was=ne the most p'nishment performed onWhip was a slave# slavecommon said that,form M-heofonly p'nishment that 0 ever heard or knew of being administered slaves was whipping,K altho'gh he knew several that had been beaten to death for offenses s'ch as sassing a white person, hitting another negro, f'ssing, or fighting in their 'arters# +91  Slave overseers were a'thori2ed to whip and br'tali2e non! compliant slaves# According to an acco'nt by a plantation overseer to a visitor, CSome *egroes are determined never to let a white man whip them and will resist yo', when yo' attempt it6 of co'rse yo' m'st kill them in that caseC# +9: A former slave describes his witness to females being whipped# M-hey 's'ally

 

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screamed and prayed, tho'gh a few never made a so'nd#K +9) 0f the women were pregnant they often d'g a hole for them to place their bellies in while being whipped# After many of the slaves were whipped they wo'ld f'rther torment the slaves by b'rsting the blisters and r'bbing them with t'rpentine and red pepper# =ther incidents reported that after being beaten they wo'ld take a brick, grind it 'p into a powder, mi it with lard and r'b it all over them# +99 5etal collars were also commonly 'sed so that the slave wo'ld be reminded of his wrongdoings# 5any collars were thick and heavy6 they wo'ld often have spikes protr'ding, hassling the slave while doing fieldwork and preventing them from sleeping lying down# (o'is .ain, a former slave describes his witness to another slave being p'nished, M=ne nigger r'n to the woods to be a 'ngle nigger, b'thim# massa cotched with dog and took a hot iron and brands -hen he p'thim a bell onthe him, in a wooden frame what slip over the sho'lders and 'nder the arms# e made that nigger wear the bell a year and took it off on .hristmas for a present to him# 0t shoP did make a good nigger o't of him#K +9/ $lantation owners wo'ld sometimes hang their slaves beca'se the slave was ca'sing more tro'ble than he was worth or the owner didnPt deem them val'able any more# Slaves were p'nished forslow, a variety of reasons, mostas of r'nning the timeaway, it wasleaving for working too breaking a law s'ch the plantation witho't permission, or not following orders given too them# 5yers and 5assy describe the etent of many p'nishers, M-he p'nishment of deviant slaves was decentrali2ed, based on plantations, and crafted so as not to impede their val'e as laborers#K +9" (aws made to p'nish the whites for p'nishing their slaves were often weakly enforced or co'ld be easily avoided# An eample being in the case Smith v# ancock, here the defendant was 'stified in p'nishing his slave with physical ab'se beca'se he showed the co'rts that the slave was attending an 'nlawf'l meeting, disc'ssing rebellion,

 

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that he ref'sed to s'rrender, and resisted the arresting officer by force# +97 Whites often p'nished slaves in front of others to make an eample o't of them# A man named arding describes an incident where a woman assisted several men in a small rebellion, M-he women he hoisted 'p by the th'mbs, whippPd and slashed her with knives before the other slaves till she +98 died#K  5en and women were sometimes p'nished differently than the other se, according to the 178 report of the .ommittee of the $rivy .o'ncil, males were often shackled and women and girls were left freely to go abo't# +9 %y law, slave owners co'ld be fined for not p'nishing recapt'red r'naway slaves# Slave codes a'thori2ed, indemnified or indemnified or even re'ired the 'se of violence, and were deno'nced by abolitionists for abolitionists for their br'tality# %oth slaves and free blacks were reg'lated by the %lack .odes and .odes and had their movements monitored by slave patrols conscripted patrols conscripted from the white pop'lation which were allowed to 'se s'mmary p'nishment against escapees, sometimes maiming or killing them# 0n addition to physical ab'se and m'rder, slaves were at constant risk of losing members of their families if their owners decided to trade them for profit, p'nishment, or to pay debts# A few slaves retaliated by m'rdering owners and overseers, b'rning barns, killing horses, or staging work slowdowns# +/4 Stampp, witho't contesting DenoveseEs assertions concerning the violence and se'al eploitation eploitation faced  faced by slaves, does 'estion the appropriateness of a 5arian approach in analy2ing the owner! slave relationship#+/1 Denovese claims that beca'se the slaves were the legal property of their owners, it was not 'n's'al for enslaved black women to be raped by their owners, members of their ownerEs families, or their ownerEs friends# .hildren who res'lted from s'ch rapes were slaves as well beca'se they took the stat's of their mothers, 'nless freed by the slaveholder# *ell 0rwin $ainter and other historians have also doc'mented that So'thern

 

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history went Cacross the color line#C .ontemporary acco'nts .hesn't and  and Fanny Bemble, Bemble, both married in the planter by 5ary .hesn't class, as well as acco'nts by former slaves gathered 'nder the Works $rogress Administration Administration ;W$A<,  ;W$A<, all attested to the ab'se of women slaves by white men of the owning and overseer class# owever, the *obel economist &obert Fogel controversially Fogel controversially describes as a myth the belief that slave!breeding and se'al eploitation destroyed black families# e arg'es that the family was the basic 'nit of social organi2ation 'nder slavery, and to the economic interest of slave owners to enco'rage the stability of slave families, and most of them did so# 5ost slave sales were either of whole families or of individ'als at an age when it wo'ld have been normal for them to leave the family# +/:

 owever, eyewitness testimony from former slaves does not s'pport FogelEs view# Frederick >o'glass, >o'glass, who grew 'p as a slave in 5aryland, reported the systematic separation of slave families and widespread rape of slave women to boost slave n'mbers#+/) 0n the early 1)4s, members of the Federal WritersE $roect interviewed $roect  interviewed former slaves, and in doing so, prod'ced the only known original recordings of former slaves# 0n :447, the interviews were remastered and reprod'ced on modern .>s of radio proect# and in book form in con'nction with and the (ibrary .ongress, .ongress , Smithsonian $rod'ctions $rod'ctions and a national 0n the book and .> oral history proect called Rememerin! Slavery: "#rican "mericans Tal$ "out Their Personal %&periences o# Slavery and %mancipation, the editors wrote,  As masters applied applied their their stamp to th the e domestic lilife fe of the slave slave 'arter, slaves str'ggled to maintain the integrity of their families# Slaveholders had no legal obligation to respect the sanctity of the slaveEs marriage bed, and slave womenImarried or single I had no formal protection against their ownersE se'al advances# ###Witho't legal protection and s'bect s'bect to the masterEs whim, the slave family was always at risk#C +/9

 

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Some slave women, were 'sed for breeding more slaves# $lantation owners, wo'ld have intimate relations with a female slave in order to prod'ce more slaves# some slaves were even force to have se with others to increase pop'lation and to increase the slave prod'ct on the markets# -he book incl'des eamples of enslaved families torn apart when family members were sold o't of state and it contains eamples of se'al violations of the enslaved people by individ'als who held power over them# &eceipt for Q/44#44 payment for slave, 1894# ;USQ14,)44 ad'sted for inflation as of :447#< C&ecd of @'dge S# Williams his notes for five h'ndred >ollars in f'll payment for a negro man named *ed which negro 0 warrant to be so'nd and well and 0 do bind myself by these presents to forever warrant and defend the right and -itle of the said negro to the said Williams his heirs or assigns against the legal claims of all persons whatsoever# Witness my hand and seal this day and year above written# li2a Wallace +sealC

 According to Denovese, slaves were fed, clothed, ho'sed and provided medical care in the most minimal manner# 0t was common to pay small bon'ses d'ring the .hristmas season, .hristmas season, and some slave owners permitted their slaves to keep earnings and gambling profits# ;=ne slave, >enmark 3esey, 3esey, is known to have won a lottery and bo'ght his freedom#< 0n many ho'seholds, treatment of slaves varied with the slaveEs skin color# >arker!skinned slaves worked in the fields, while lighter! skinned ho'se servants had comparatively better clothing, food and ho'sing#+/4  As in $resident -homas @effersonEs @effersonEs ho'sehold, the presence of lighter!skinned slaves as ho'sehold servants was not merely an

 

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iss'e of skin color# Sometimes planters 'sed mied!race slaves as ho'se servants or favored artisans beca'se they were their children or other relatives# Several of @effersonEs ho'sehold slaves were children of his father!in!law @ohn Wayles and Wayles and the enslaved woman %etty emings, emings, who were bro'ght to the marriage by @effersonEs wife# 0n t'rn the widower @efferson had a long relationship with %etty and @ohn WayleEs da'ghter Sally emings,, a m'ch yo'nger enslaved woman who was mostly of emings white ancestry and half!sister to his late wife# -he emings children grew 'p to be closely involved in @effersonEs ho'sehold staff activities6 one became his chef# -wo sons trained as carpenters# -hree of his fo'r s'rviving mied!race children with Sally emings passed into white society as ad'lts#+// $lanters who had mied!race children sometimes arranged for their ed'cation, even in schools in the *orth, or as apprentices in crafts# =thers settled property on them# Some freed the children and their mothers# While fewer than in the Upper So'th, free blacks in blacks in the >eep So'th were So'th were more often mied! race children of planters and were sometimes the recipients of transfers of property and social capital# For instance, Wilberforce Wilberforce   University,, fo'nded by 5ethodist and University 5ethodist and African 5ethodist piscopal ;A5< piscopal  ;A5< representatives in =hio in =hio in 18/" for the ed'cation of African!American yo'th, was in its first years largely s'pported by wealthy so'thern planters who paid for the ed'cation of their mied!race children# When the war broke o't, the school lost most of its :44 st'dents# +/" -he college closed for a co'ple of years before the A5 .h'rch bo'ght it and began to operate it# Fogel arg'es that the material conditions of the lives of slaves compared favorably with those of free ind'strial workers# -hey were not good by modern standards, b't this fact emphasi2es the hard lot of all workers, free or slave, d'ring the first half of the 1th cent'ry# =ver the co'rse of his lifetime, the typical slave field hand received abo't 4J of the income he prod'ced# +/:  0n a s'rvey, /8J of historians and 9:J of economists

 

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disagreed with the proposition that the material condition of slaves compared favorably with those of free ind'strial workers# +/:

Slaves were considered legal non!persons ecept if they committed crimes# An Alabama co'rt asserted that slaves Care rational beings, they are capable of committing crimes6 and in reference to acts which are crimes, are regarded as persons# %eca'se they are slaves, they are incapable of performing civil acts, and, in reference to all s'ch, they are things, not persons#C+/7 0n 1811, Arth'r 1811, Arth'r William odge odge was  was the first slave owner eec'ted for the m'rder of a slave in the %ritish West 0ndies 0ndies## +/8 owever, he was not, as some have claimed, the first white eec'ted for  for the killing of a slave# person to have been lawf'lly eec'ted +/  &ecords indicate at least two earlier incidents# =n *ovember :), 17), in Williamsb'rg, 3irginia, 3irginia, two white men, .harles R'in and >avid White, were hanged for the m'rder of another white manEs black slave6 and on April :1, 177/, the Fredericksb'rg Fredericksb'rg newspaper,  newspaper, the 'ir!inia (a)ette reported that a white man, William $itman, had been hanged for the m'rder of his own black slave#+"4 +edit editSlave Codes -o help reg'late the relationship between slave and owner, incl'ding legal s'pport for keeping the slave as property,slave property, slave codes were codes  were established# While each state wo'ld have their own, most of the ideas were shared thro'gho't the slave states# 0n the codes for the >istrict of .ol'mbia, a slave is defined as Ma h'man being, who is by law deprived of his or her liberty for life, and is the property of another#K+"1 A paragraph from the %lack .ode of So'th .arolina, still valid in 18"), declared death as the penalty for him who dared Cto aid any slave in r'nning away or departing from his masterEs or employerEs service#C +": .odes from other states placed limits on relations allowed between black and white people# (o'isianaEs .ode *oir did not allow

 

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interracial marriage, and if children were a res'lt a fine of three h'ndred livres wo'ld have to be paid# -his code also stated children of a slave Cshall share the condition of their motherK +") if the childPs parents had different masters they wo'ld stay with the mother, and if the father was free and the mother a slave the children wo'ld also be slaves# +edit editWomen's rights While working on plantations and farms, women and men both had labor!intensive work# owever, m'ch of the hard labor was taken care of by men or by women who were past the child! bearing stage# Some of the labor!intensive obs given to women wereG cooking for the ownerEs ho'sehold as well as the slaves themselves, sewing, midwifery, pr'ning fields, and many other laborio's occ'pations# mily Winslow ! one of the women delegates not allowed into the 1894 World .onvention

0n 18)7, an Antislavery .onvention of  American Women met in *ew Oork .ity with .ity  with both black and white women participating# While Frederick >o'glass claims the 'nity of the anti!slavery ca'se and the fight for womenEs rights, saying, CWhen the tr'e history of the antislavery ca'se shall be written, women will occ'py a large space in its pages, for the ca'se of the slave has been pec'liarly womanEs ca'se#C +(ife and -imes of Frederick >o'glass , 1881 ('cretia 5ott and 5ott and li2abeth .ady Stanton had Stanton had first met at the convention and reali2ed the need for a separatewomenEs separate rights movement# At the (ondon womenEs rights movement# (ondon gathering  gathering Stanton also met other women delegates s'ch as mily Winslow, Abby So'thwick, li2abeth *eal, 5ary Drew, Drew, Abby Bimber, as well as Anti!slavery many other women# owever, d'ring Society meetings, which Stanton the 5assach'setts

 

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and Winslow attended, the hosts ref'sed to seat the women delegates# -his res'lted in a convention of their own to form a Csociety to advocate the rights of womenC# 0n 1898 at Seneca Falls, *ew Oork, Oork, Stanton and Winslow la'nched the womenEs rights movement, becoming one of the most diverse and social forces in American life#+"9 +edit editAbolitionist movement %eginning in the 17/4s, there was widespread sentiment d'ring the American the  American &evol'tion &evol'tion that  that slavery was a social evil ;for the co'ntry as a whole and for the whites< and sho'ld event'ally be abolished# All the *orthern states passed emancipation acts between 1784 and 18496 most of these arranged for grad'al emancipation and a special stat's for freedmen, so there were still a do2en Cpermanent apprenticesC in *ew @ersey in @ersey in 18"4#+"/ -he 5assach'setts .onstit'tion .onstit'tion of  of 1784 declared all men Cborn free and e'alC6 the slave R'ock Walker  s'ed  s'ed for his freedom on this basis and won his freedom, th's abolishing slavery in 5assach'setts# -hro'gho't the first half of the 1th cent'ry, a movement to end slavery grew in strength thro'gho't the United States# -his str'ggle took place amid strong s'pport for slavery among white So'therners, who profited greatly from the system of enslaved labor# -hese slave owners began to refer to slavery as the Cpec'liar instit'tion instit'tionCC in a defensive attempt to differentiate it from other eamples of forced labor# enry .lay ;1777L18/:<, .lay ;1777L18/:<, one of three fo'nders of the American .oloni2ation .oloni2ation Society Society,, the vehicle for ret'rning black Americans to greater (iberia##+"" freedom in Africa, fo'nding (iberia

0n the early part of the 1th cent'ry, a variety of organi2ations were established advocating the movement of black people from the United States to locations where they wo'ld enoy greater freedom6 some endorsed coloni2ation, coloni2ation,

 

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while others advocatedemigration advocatedemigration## >'ring the 18:4s and 18)4s  American .oloni2ation Socie Society ty ;A#.#S#<  ;A#.#S#< was the primary the American the vehicle for proposals to ret'rn black Americans to greater freedom and e'ality in Africa,+"" and in 18:1 the A#.#S# established colony of (iberia, (iberia, assisting tho'sands of former  African!American slaves and free black people ;with legislated limits< to move there from the United States# 5any white people  in America, with A#.#S saw this as preferable toemancipation toemancipation in fo'nder enry .lay believing6 .lay believing6 C'ncon'erable pre'dice res'lting from their color, they never co'ld amalgamate with the free whites of this co'ntryC# Slaveholders opposed freedom for blacks, b't saw repatriation as repatriation as a way of avoiding rebellions#  After 18)4, a religio's movement movem ent led by William (loyd Darrison declared Darrison  declared slavery to be a personal sin and sin and demanded the owners repent immediately and start the process of emancipation# -he movement was highly controversial and was a factor in ca'sing the American .ivil War # 3ery few abolitionists, s'ch as @ohn %rown, %rown, favored the 'se of armed force to foment 'prisings among the slaves6 others tried to 'se the legal system# 0nfl'ential leaders of the abolition movement ;1814!"4< incl'dedG 







Willi William am (loyd Darri Darrison son ! p'blished The Lierator  newspaper   newspaper  ar arrie riett %eecher %eec her Stowe St owe ! a'thor of Uncle Tom*s Cain Fre Frede deric rick k >o'glass >o'gl ass ! nationEs most powerf'l anti!slavery speaker, a former slave# 5ost famo's for his book +arrative in the Li#e o# rederic$ -ou!lass # arrie riett -'bm - 'bman an ! helped )/4 slaves escape from the So'th, ar became known as a Ccond'ctorC on the Undergro'nd &ailroad## &ailroad

 

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&ob &obert ert $'r $'rvis vis ! mied!race abolitionist who 'sed wealth for the black race, active in $hiladelphia and Anti!Slavery Society, helped h'ndreds of slaves on Undergro'nd &ailroad .harles es enry (ang (angston ston ! mied!race abolitionist in =berlin, .harl =hio66 one =hio of two people tried for =berlin!Wellington &esc'e, &esc'e, which gained national attention

Slave 'prisings that 'sed armed force ;1744 ! 18/< incl'deG 

















*ew Oork &evolt of 171: &ebellion ;17)<  ;17)< in So'th .arolina -he Stono &ebellion Oork k Slave 0ns'rr 0ns'rrectio ection n of 1791 17 91 *ew Oor Dab Dabrie rielEs lEs &ebell &ebellion ion ;1844< in 3irginia (o'isiana -erritory Slave &ebellion, led by .harles >eslondes ;1811< >eslondes  ;1811< Deorge e %oley %o ley &ebel &ebellion lion ;181/< in 3irginia Deorg >enma >enmark rk 3esey Uprising Up rising in i n So'th .arolin .a rolina a ;18::< -'rnerEs rEs &ebel &ebellion lion ;18)1< in 3irginia *at -'rne   Sei2're ;18)< on a Spanish ship -he  "mistad 

See also: List o# notale opponents o# slavery 

+edit editRising tensions

-he economic val'e of plantation slavery was magnified in 17) Whitney,, a device with the invention of the cotton gin by gin by li Whitney designed to separate cotton fibers from seedpods and the sometimes sticky seeds# -he invention revol'tioni2ed the cotton ind'stry by increasing fiftyfold the 'antity of cotton that co'ld be processed in a day# -he res'lt was the eplosive growth of the cotton ind'stry and greatly increased the demand for slave labor in the So'th#+"7

 

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 At the same time, the northern states banned ban ned slavery, tho'gh,  Aleis de -o'eville noted as Aleis as -o'eville  noted in -emocracy in "merica;18)/<, the prohibition did not always mean that the slaves were freed# -o'eville noted that as *orthern states provided for grad'al emancipation, they generally o'tlawed the sale of slaves within the state# -his meant that the only way to sell slaves before they were freed was to move them So'th# -o'eville does not doc'ment that s'ch transfers act'ally occ'rred m'ch# +"8 0n fact, the emancipation of slaves in the *orth led to the growth in the pop'lation of northern free blacks, from several h'ndreds in the 1774s to nearly /4,444 by 1814# +" @'st as demand for slaves was increasing, the s'pply was restricted# -he United States .onstit'tion, .onstit'tion, adopted in 1787, .ongress from  from banning the importation of importation of slaves 'ntil prevented .ongress 1848# =n @an'ary 1, 1848, .ongress banned f'rther imports#  Any new slaves wo'ld have to be descendants of ones c'rren c'rrently tly in the United States# owever, the internal American slave trade and the involvement in the international slave trade or the o'tfitting of ships for that trade by U#S# citi2ens were not banned# -ho'gh there were certainly violations of this law, slavery in America became, more or less, self!s'staining# +edit editThe War of 181 and slavery 181:,, %ritish &oyal *avy commanders *avy commanders of the >'ring the War of 181: blockading fleet, based at the %erm'da dockyard, dockyard, were given instr'ctions to enco'rage the defection of American slaves by offering freedom, as they did d'ring the &evol'tionary War# -ho'sands of black slaves went over to the .rown with their families, and were recr'ited into the ;)rd .olonial %attalion< &oyal 5arines on 5arines on occ'pied -angier 0sland 0sland,, in the .hesapeake# A f'rther company of colonial marines was raised at the %erm'da dockyard, where many freed slaves, men women and children, had been given ref'ge and employment# 0t was kept as a defensive force in case of an attack#

 

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-hese former slaves fo'ght for %ritain thro'gho't the Atlantic campaign, incl'ding the attack on Washington >#.#and the (o'isiana .ampaign, and most were later re!enlisted into %ritish West 0ndia regiments, or settled in -rinidad in -rinidad in A'g'st, 181", where seven h'ndred of these e!marines were granted land ;they reportedly organised themselves in villages along the lines of military companies<# 5any other freed American slaves were recr'ited directly into eisting West 0ndian regiments, or newly created %ritish Army 'nits# A few tho'sand freed slaves were later settled at *ova Scotia by the %ritish# Slaveholders primarily in the So'th eperienced considerable Closs of propertyC as tens of tho'sands of slaves escaped to %ritish lines or ships for freedom, despite the diffic'lties# -he plantersE complacency abo't slave CcontentmentC was shocked +74

by seeing slaves wo'ld risk so m'ch to be free#  Afterward, when some freed slaves had been settled at %erm'da,  of So'th .arolina .arolina tried  tried slaveholders s'ch as 5aor $ierce %'tler  of to pers'ade them to ret'rn to the United States, to no avail# +edit edit!nternal Slave Trade Slave traderEs b'siness in Atlanta  Atlanta,, Deorgia Deorgia,, 18"9# ;*ote b'ilding with sign reading CA'ction  *egro SalesC#<

With the movement in 3irginia and the .arolinas away from tobacco c'ltivation and toward mied agric'lt're, which was less labor intensive, planters in those states had ecess slave labor# -hey hired o't some slaves for occasional labor, b't planters also began to sell enslaved African Americans to traders who took them to markets in the >eep So'th for their epanding plantations# -he internal slave trade and forced migration of enslaved African Americans contin'ed for another half!cent'ry# -ens of tho'sands of slaves were transported from the Upper So'th, incl'ding Bent'cky and -ennessee which became slave! So'th,

 

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selling states in these decades, to the >eep So'th# So'th# -ho'sands of African American families were broken 'p in the sales, which first concentrated on male laborers# -he scale of the internal slave trade contrib'ted s'bstantially to the wealth of the >eep So'th# 0n 1894, *ew =rleansIwhich had the largest slave market and important shippingIwas the third largest city in the co'ntry and the wealthiest# %eca'se of the three!fifths compromise compromise in  in the U#S# .onstit'tion, slaveholders eerted their power thro'gh the Federal Dovernment and passed Federal f'gitive slave laws# laws # &ef'gees  and other from slavery fled the So'th across the =hio &iver  and parts of the 5ason!>ion (ine dividing (ine dividing *orth from So'th, to the *orth via the Undergro'nd &ailroad &ailroad## -he physical presence of =berlin,, and other *orthern  African Americans in .incinnati, .incinnati , =berlin towns agitated some white *ortherners, tho'gh others helped hide former slaves from their former owners, and others helped .anada## After 18/9,&ep'blicans 18/9,&ep'blicans f'med  f'med them reach freedom in .anada that the Slave $ower , especially the pro!slavery >emocratic $arty,, controlled two of the three branches of the Federal $arty government# 5ost *ortheastern states became free states thro'gh local emancipation# -he settlement of the 5idwestern states 5idwestern states after the &evol'tion led to their decisions in the 18:4s not to allow slavery# A *orthern block of free states 'nited into one contig'o's geographic area which shared an anti!slavery c'lt're# -he bo'ndary was the 5ason!>ion (ine ;between slave!state 5aryland and 5aryland and free!state $ennsylvania< $ennsylvania< and the =hio &iver# -he slave trade ;tho'gh not the legality of slavery< was abolished by .ongress in the >istrict of .ol'mbia as .ol'mbia as part of .ompromise of 18/4# the.ompromise the 18/4# +edit editReligio"s instit"tions $res'mption created and legitimi2ed American slavery# &eligio's leaders in the years leading 'p to the .ivil War were

 

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'nable to provide a definitive answer on the most diffic'lt 'estion of the periodG C>oes the %ible condemn or condone slavery#C istorian 5ark *oll in The Civil War as a Theolo!ical Crisis writes that a Mf'ndamental disagreement eisted over what the %ible had to say abo't slavery at the very moment when disp'tes over slavery were creating the most serio's crisis in the nationEs historyK ;p#:<# e attrib'tes m'ch of that to a certainty of black racial inferiority that was Cso serio'sly fied in the minds of white Americans, incl'ding most abolitionists###, that it overwhelmed biblical testimony abo't race, even tho'gh most $rotestant Americans claimed that Script're was in fact their +71Gp#7) s'preme a'thority in ad'dicating s'ch matters#K +71Gp#7) *orth and So'th grew f'rther apart in 189/ when the %aptist .h'rch and other denominations split into *orthern and So'thern organi2ations# -he So'thern %aptist .onvention formed on the premise that the %ible sanctions .onvention formed %ible sanctions slavery and that it was acceptable for .hristians to .hristians to own slaves# ;0n the :4th cent'ry, the So'thern %aptist .onvention reno'nced this interpretation#< .'rrently American %aptist n'merical strength is greatest in the former slave!holding states# +7:  *orthern %aptists opposed slavery# 0n 1899, the ome 5ission Society declared Society declared that a person co'ld not be a missionary missionary and  and still keep slaves as property# 5ethodist and  and $resbyterian $resbyterian ch'rches  ch'rches likewise divided north -he 5ethodist and so'th# %y the late 18/4s only the >emocratic $arty was a national instit'tion, altho'gh it split in the 18"4 election election## edit#istrib"tion of slaves +edit

 

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>istrib'tion of slaves in 18:4

 

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Census Year

# Free blacks

# Slaves

Ttal black 

 ! "ree Ttal S  ! black  blacks $$ulat%n " ttal

1790

697,681

9,!7

77,!08

79

3,9!9,!14

19

1800

893,60!

108,43

1,00!,037

108

,308,483

19

1810

1,191,36!

186,446

1,377,808

13

7,!39,881

19

18!0

1,38,0!!

!33,634

1,771,66

13!

9,638,43

18

1830

!,009,043

319,99

!,3!8,64!

137

1!,860,70!

18

1840

!,487,3

386,!93

!,873,648

134

17,063,33

17

180

3,!04,313

434,49

3,638,808

119

!3,191,876

16

1860

3,93,760

488,070

4,441,830

110

31,443,3!1

14

1870

0

4,880,009

4,880,009

100

38,8,371

13

/ttp.)))'en$u$ovpopulat 'en$u$ovpopulation+o'umentationt) ion+o'umentationt)p$006tab012l$ p$006tab012l$ Sou"'e. /ttp.))) Total Slave Population in US 1790-1860, by State[73] Census Year All States

1790 694,207

1800

1810

1820

1830

1840

1850

1860

887,61 1,130,78 1,529,01 1,987,42 2,482,79 3,200,60 3,950,546 2 1 2 8 8 0

Alabama

-

-

-

47,449

117,49

!3,3!

34!,844

43,080

A"#an$a$

-

-

-

-

4,76

19,93

47,100

111,11

%ali&o"nia

-

-

-

-

-

-

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,-gina 27 de 56

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,-gina 28 de 56

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Sout/ %a"olina

?i$'on$in

+edit edit$at T"rner% anti&literacy las 0n 18)1, a bloody slave rebellion took place in So'thampton .o'nty, 3irginia# 3irginia# A slave named *at -'rner , who was able to read and write and had Cvisions,C started what became known as *at -'rnerEs &ebellion or &ebellion or the So'thampton 0ns'rrection# With the goal of freeing himself and others, -'rner and his followers killed approimately fifty men, women and children, b't they were event'ally s'bd'ed by the militia# *at -'rner and his followers were hanged, hanged, and -'rnerEs body was flayed# flayed# -he militia also killed more than a h'ndred slaves who not been involved in the rebellion# Across the18)1 So'th, harshhad new laws were enacted in the aftermath of the -'rner &ebellion to c'rtail the already limited rights of African  Americans# -ypical was the following 3irginia 3irg inia law against ed'cating slaves, free blacks and children of whites and blacksG +79

# # # +very assemblage of negroes for the p'rpose of instr'ction in reading or writing, or in the night time for any p'rpose, shall be an 'nlawf'l assembly# assembly# Any 'stice may iss'e his warrant to any office or other person, re'iring him to enter any place where s'ch assemblage may be, and sei2e any negro therein6 and he, or any other 'stice, may order s'ch negro to be p'nished with stripes#

 

,-gina 29 de 56

0f a white person assemble with negroes for the p'rpose of instr'cting them to read or write, or if he associate with them in an 'nlawf'l assembly,, he shall be confined in ail not eceeding si months and assembly fined not eceeding one h'ndred dollars6 and any 'stice may re'ire him to enter into a recogni2ance, with s'fficient sec'rity, to appear before the circ'it, co'nty or corporation co'rt, of the co'nty or corporation where the offence was committed, at its net term, to answer therefor+sic , , and in the mean time to keep the peace and be of good behavio'r# +7/

-hese laws were often defied by individ'als, among whom was noted f't're .onfederate Deneral .onfederate Deneral Stonewall @ackson+citation needed # +edit edit18/4s +edit edit(leeding )ansas  After the passage of the Bansas!*ebraska Act, Act, 18/9, the border -erritory,, where the 'estion of wars broke o't in Bansas -erritory whether it wo'ld be admitted to the Union as a slave or slave or free state was state  was left to the inhabitants# Abolitionist @ohn %rownwas %rownwas active in the rebellion and killing in C%leeding C%leeding BansasC BansasC as were many white So'therners# At the same time, fears that the Slave $ower was sei2ing f'll control of the national government swept anti!slavery &ep'blicans into office# edit#red Scott +edit Scott was a 9" or 97!year old slave who s'ed for his >red Scott was freedom after the death of his owner on the gro'nds that he had lived in a territory where slavery was forbidden ;the northern part of the (o'isiana $'rchase, $'rchase, from which slavery was ecl'ded 'nder the terms of the 5isso'ri .ompromise<# .ompromise<# Scott filed s'it for freedom in 189" and went thro'gh two state trials, the first denying and the second granting freedom# leven years later the S'preme .o'rt denied .o'rt denied Scott his freedom in a sweeping decision that set the United States on co'rse for .ivil War # -he co'rt r'led that >red Scott was not aciti2en a citi2en who  who had a right to

 

,-gina 30 de 56

s'e in the Federal co'rts, and that .ongress had no constit'tional power to pass the 5isso'ri .ompromise# -he 18/7 >red Scott decision, decision, decided 7!:, held that a slave did not become free when taken into a free state6 .ongress co'ld not bar slavery from a territory6 and people of African descent imported into the United States and held as slaves, or their descendants co'ld not be citi2ens# F'rthermore, a state co'ld not bar slaveowners from bringing slaves into that state# -his decision, seen as 'n'st by many &ep'blicans incl'ding Abraham incl'ding  Abraham (incoln (incoln,, was also seen as proof that theSlave the Slave $ower  had  had sei2ed control of the S'preme .o'rt# -he decision, written by .hief @'stice  @'stice &oger %# -aney, -aney, barred slaves and their descendants from citi2enship# -he decision enraged abolitionists and enco'raged slave owners, helping to p'sh the co'ntry towards civil war#+7" +edit edit.ivil

War and mancipation

+edit edit18*+ ,residential election -he divisions became f'lly eposed with the 18"4 presidential election## -he electorate split fo'r ways# -he So'thern election >emocrats endorsed slavery, while the &ep'blicans deno'nced it# -he *orthern >emocrats said democracy re'ired the people $arty said  said to decide on slavery locally# -he .onstit'tional Union $arty the s'rvival of the Union was at stake and everything else sho'ld be compromised# (incoln, the &ep'blican, won with a pl'rality of pop'lar votes and a maority of electoral votes# votes# (incoln, however, did not appear on the ballots of ten so'thern statesG th's his election necessarily split the nation along sectional lines# 5any slave owners in the So'th feared that the real intent of the &ep'blicans was the abolition of slavery in states where it already eisted, and that the s'dden emancipation of fo'r million slaves wo'ld be problematic for the slave owners and for the

 

,-gina 31 de 56

economy that drew its greatest profits from the labor of people who were not paid# -hey also arg'ed that banning slavery in new states wo'ld 'pset what they saw as a delicate balance of free states and slave states# -hey feared that ending this balance co'ld lead to the domination of the ind'strial *orth with its preference for high tariffs on tariffs on imported goods# -he combination of these factors led the So'th to secede from the Union Union,, and th's began the American the  American .ivil War # *orthern leaders had viewed the slavery interests as a threat politically, and with secession, they viewed the prospect of a new so'thern nation, the .onfederate States of America, America, with control over the5ississippi the5ississippi &iver  and  and the West West,, as politically and militarily 'nacceptable# +edit edit

Civil War  -he conse'ent American conse'ent  American .ivil War , beginning in 18"1, led to the end of chattel slavery in America# *ot long after the war broke o't, thro'gh a legal mane'ver credited to Union Deneral %enamin F# %'tler , a lawyer by profession, slaves who came into Union CpossessionC were considered Ccontraband of warC## Deneral %'tler r'led that they were not s'bect to ret'rn to warC .onfederate owners as they had been before the war# Soon word spread, and many slaves so'ght ref'ge in Union territory, desiring to be declared Ccontraband#C 5any of the CcontrabandsC  oined the Union Army as Army as workers or troops, forming entire regiments of the U#S# .olored -roops -roops## =thers went to ref'gee camps s'ch as the Drand .ontraband .amp near .amp near Fort 5onroe or 5onroe  or fled to northern cities# Deneral %'tlerEs interpretation was reinforced when .ongress passed the .onfiscation Act of 18"1,, which declared that any property 'sed by the .onfederate 18"1 military, incl'ding slaves, co'ld be confiscated by Union forces# (incolnEs mancipation $roclamation $roclamation of  of @an'ary 1, 18") was a powerf'l move that promised freedom for slaves in the .onfederacy as soon as the Union armies reached them, and a'thori2ed the enlistment of African Americans in the Union

 

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 Army# -he mancipation $roclamation $roclamatio n did not free slaves in the Union!allied slave!holding states that bordered the .onfederacy# Since the .onfederate States did not recogni2e the a'thority of $resident (incoln, and the proclamation did not apply in states,, at first the proclamation freed only slaves who the border states had escaped behind Union lines# Still, the proclamation made the abolition of slavery an official war goal that was implemented as the Union took territory from the .onfederacy# According to the .ens's of 18"4, this policy wo'ld free nearly fo'r million slaves, or over 1:J of the total pop'lation of the United States# Simon (egree and Uncle -omG A scene from Uncle Tom*s Cain, historyEs most abolitionist novel  novel famo's abolitionist

Act abolished  abolished -he Ari2ona =rganic Act -he Ari2ona slavery on Febr'ary :9, 18") in the newly formed Ari2ona formed Ari2ona -erritory## -ennessee -erritory -ennessee and  and all of the border states ;eceptBent'cky ;eceptBent'cky<< abolished slavery by early 18"/# -ho'sands of slaves were freed by the operation of the mancipation $roclamation as Union armies marched across the So'th# mancipation as a reality came to the remaining so'thern slaves after the s'rrender of all .onfederate troops in spring 18"/#  At the beginning of the war, some Union Un ion commanders tho'ght tho'g ht they were s'pposed to ret'rn escaped slaves to their masters# %y 18":, when it became clear that this wo'ld be a long war, the 'estion of what to do abo't slavery became more general# -he So'thern economy and military effort depended on slave labor# 0t began to seem 'nreasonable to protect slavery while blockading So'thern commerce and destroying So'thern prod'ction# As one .ongressman p't it, the slaves CTcannot be ne'tral# As laborers, if not as soldiers, they will be allies of the rebels, or of the Union#C+77 -he same .ongressmanIand his fellow &adical &ep'blicansIp't press're on (incoln to rapidly

 

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emancipate the slaves, whereas moderate &ep'blicans came to accept grad'al, compensated emancipation and coloni2ation# +78  .opperheads .opperheads,, the border states and states and War >emocrats opposed >emocrats opposed emancipation, altho'gh the border states and War >emocrats event'ally accepted it as part of total war  needed  needed to save the Union# 0n 18"1, (incoln epressed the fear that premat're attempts at emancipation wo'ld mean the loss of the border states# e believed that Cto lose Bent'cky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game#C+7 At first, (incoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon .ameron and .ameron and Denerals @ohn .# Fremont ;in Fremont ;in 5isso'ri< and >avid 'nter  ;in  ;in So'th .arolina, Deorgia and Florida< in order to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War >emocrats# (incoln mentioned his mancipation $roclamation to members of his cabinet on @'ly :1, 18":# Secretary of StateWilliam State William # Seward told Seward  told (incoln to wait for a victory before iss'ing the proclamation, as to do otherwise wo'ld seem like Co'r last shriek on the retreatC#+84 0n September 18": the %attle of  Antietam provided  Antietam  provided this opport'nity, and the s'bse'ent War DovernorsE .onference added .onference added s'pport for the proclamation# +81  (incoln had already p'blished a letter +8:enco'raging the border states especially to accept emancipation as necessary to save the Union# later saidiss'ed that slavery was Csomehow the ca'se of the (incoln warC# +8) (incoln his preliminary mancipation $roclamation on $roclamation on September ::, 18":, and said that a final proclamation wo'ld be iss'ed if his grad'al plan based on compensated emancipation and vol'ntary coloni2ation was reected# =nly the >istrict of .ol'mbia accepted (incolnEs grad'al plan, and (incoln iss'ed his final mancipation $roclamation on @an'ary 1, 18")# 0n his letter to odges, (incoln eplained his belief that C0f slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong T And yet 0 have never 'nderstood that the $residency conferred 'pon me an 'nrestricted right to act officially 'pon this 'dgment and feeling ### 0 claim not to have

 

,-gina 34 de 56

controlled events, b't confess plainly that events have controlled me#C+89 Since the mancipation $roclamation was based on the $residentEs war powers, it only incl'ded territory held by .onfederates at the time# owever, the $roclamation became a symbol of the UnionEs growing commitment to add emancipation to the UnionEs definition of liberty#+8/ (incoln also played a leading role in getting .ongress to vote for the -hirteenth  Amendment,+8" which made emancipation 'niversal and permanent# nslaved African Americans did not wait for (incolnEs action before escaping and seeking freedom behind Union lines# From early years of the war, h'ndreds of tho'sands of African  Americans escaped to Union lines, especially in Union! controlled areas like *orfolk *orfolk and  and the ampton &oads region &oads region in 18": 3irginia, -ennessee from 18": on, the line of ShermanEs march, etc# So many African Americans fled to Union lines that commanders created camps and schools for them, where both ad'lts and children learned to read and write# -he American -he  American 5issionary Association entered Association entered the war effort by sending teachers so'th to s'ch contraband camps, for instance, establishing schools in *orfolk and on nearby plantations# 0n addition, nearly :44,444 African!American men served with distinction soldiersslaves# and sailors with Union troops# 5ost of those wereas escaped .onfederates enslaved capt'red black Union soldiers, and black soldiers especially were shot when trying to s'rrender at 5assacre##+87 -his led to a breakdown of the the Fort $illow 5assacre prisoner echange program, and the growth of prison camps s'ch as Andersonville as Andersonville prison prison in  in Deorgia, where almost 1),444 Union prisoners of war died of disease and starvation# +88 0n spite of the So'thEs shortage of manpower, 'ntil 18"/, most So'thern leaders opposed arming slaves as soldiers# owever,a few .onfederates disc'ssed arming slaves since the early

 

,-gina 35 de 56

stages of the war, and some free blacks had even offered to fight for the So'th# 0n 18": Deorgian .ongressman Warren Akin s'pported the enrolling of slaves with the promise of emancipation, as did the Alabama legislat're# S'pport for doing so also grew in other So'thern states# A few all black .onfederate militia 'nits, most notably the 1st (o'isiana *ative D'ard,, were formed in (o'isiana at the start of the war, b't were D'ard disbanded in 18":#+8 0n early 5arch, 18"/, 3irginia endorsed a bill to enlist black soldiers, and on 5arch 1) the .onfederate .ongress did the same#+4 -here still were over :/4,444 slaves in -eas# Word did not reach -eas abo't the collapse of the .onfederacy 'ntil @'ne 1, 18"/# African Americans and others celebrate that day -eas, =klahoma =klahomaand and as @'neteenth, @'neteenth, the day of freedom, in -eas, some other states# 0t commemorates the date when the news finally reached slaves at Dalveston, -eas# -eas# (egally, the last 94,444 or so slaves were freed in Bent'cky+1 by the final ratification of the -hirteenth Amendment to the .onstit'tion in .onstit'tion in >ecember 18"/# Slaves still held in *ew @ersey, >elaware, >elaware, West 3irginia, 3irginia, 5aryland, 5isso'ri Washington, >#.# >#.# also  also became legally free on this date date## andWashington, and edit&econstr'ction +edit

to present

>'ring &econstr'ction &econstr'ction,, it was a serio's 'estion whether slavery had been permanently abolished or whether some form of semi!slavery wo'ld appear after the Union armies left# =ver time a large civil rights movement arose movement arose to bring f'll civil rights and e'ality 'nder the law to all Americans# +edit editSharecro,,ing  An 18"7 federal law prohibited pro hibited a descendant descenda nt form of slavery known as sharecropping or sharecropping  or debt bondage bondage,, which still eisted in -erritory as  as a legacy of Spanish imperial r'le# r'le# the *ew 5eico -erritory %etween 14) and 199, the S'preme .o'rt r'led on several cases involving debt bondage of black Americans, declaring

 

,-gina 36 de 56

these arrangements 'nconstit'tional# 0n act'al practice, however, sharecropping arrangements often res'lted in peonage for peonage for both black and white farmers in the So'th# +edit editConvict leasing Main article: Convict lease

With emancipation a legal reality, white So'therners were concerned with both controlling the newly freed slaves and keeping them in the labor force at the lowest level# -he system of convict leasing began leasing began d'ring &econstr'ction and was f'lly implemented in the 1884s# -his system allowed private contractors to p'rchase the services of convicts from the state or local governments for a specific time period# African  Americans, d'e to Mvigoro's and a nd selective enforcement of laws and discriminatory sentencingK made 'p the vastwrites maority of the convicts leased#+: Writer >o'glas A# %lackmon of the systemG 0t was a form of bondage distinc distinctly tly different from that of the antebell'm So'th in that for most men, and the relatively few women drawn in, this slavery did not last a lifetime and did not a'tomatically a'tomatically etend from one generation to the net# %'t it was nonetheless slavery !! a system in which armies of free men, g'ilty of no crimes and entitled by law to freedom, were compelled to labor witho't compensation, were repeatedly bo'ght and sold, and were forced to do the bidding of white +) masters the reg'lar application of etraordinary physical coercion#thro'gh

+edit edit-d"cational iss"es -he anti!literacy laws after 18): contrib'ted greatly to the problem of widespread illiteracy facing the freedmen and freedmen and other  African Americans after mancipation mancipatio n and the .ivil War )/ years later# -he problem of illiteracy and need for ed'cation was seen as one of the greatest challenges confronting these people as they so'ght to oin the free enterprise systemand systemand s'pport themselves d'ring &econstr'ction and thereafter#

 

,-gina 37 de 56

.onse'ently, many black and white religio's organi2ations, former Union Army officers and soldiers, and wealthy philanthropists were inspired to create and f'nd ed'cational efforts specifically for the betterment of African Americans in the So'th# %lacks started their own schools even before the end of the war# *ortherners helped create n'mero's normal schools, schools, s'ch as those that became ampton University and University and -'skegee University,, to generate teachers# %lacks held teaching as a high University calling, with ed'cation the first priority for children and ad'lts# 5any of the most talented went into the field# Some of the schools took years to reach a high standard, b't they managed to get tho'sands of teachers started# As W# # %# >' %ois noted, the black colleges were not perfect, b't Cin a single generation they p't thirty tho'sand black teachers in the So'thC and Cwiped +9

o't the illiteracy of the maority of black people in the land#C *orthern philanthropists contin'ed to s'pport black ed'cation in the :4th cent'ry, even as tensions rose within the black comm'nity, eemplified by >r# %ooker -# Washington and %ois,, as to the proper emphasis between >r# W# # %# >' %ois ind'strial and classical academic ed'cation at the college level# .ollaborating with >r# %ooker -# Washington in Washington in the early decades of the :4th cent'ry, philanthropist @'li's &osenwald provided &osenwald  provided matching f'nds for comm'nity efforts to b'ild r'ral schools for black children# e insisted on white and black cooperation in the effort, wanting to ens're that white! controlled school boards made a commitment to maintain the schools# %y the 1)4s local parents had helped raise f'nds ;sometimes donating labor and land< to create over /,444 r'ral schools in the So'th# =ther philanthropists s'ch as enry # &ogers and &ogers  and Andrew  Andrew .arnegie, .arnegie , each of whom had arisen from modest roots to become wealthy, 'sed matching f'nd grants to stim'late local development of libraries and schools# +edit edit

A,ologies

 

,-gina 38 de 56

=n Febr'ary :9, :447, the 3irginia Deneral Assembly passed Assembly passed o'se @oint &esol'tion *'mber 7:8 acknowledging Cwith profo'nd regret the invol'ntary servit'de of Africans and the eploitation of *ative Americans, and call for reconciliation among all 3irginians#C+/ With the passing of this resol'tion, 3irginia became the first state to acknowledge thro'gh the stateEs governing body their stateEs negative involvement in slavery# -he passing of this resol'tion came on the heels of the 3irginia,, 944th anniversary celebration of the city of @amestown, 3irginia which was one of the first slave ports of the American colonies# =n @'ly )4, :448, the United States o'se of &epresentatives passed &epresentatives  passed a resol'tion apologi2ing for American slavery and s'bse'ent discriminatory laws#+" -he U#S# Senate 'nanimo'sly passed a similar resol'tion on @'ne 18, :446 it also eplicitly states that it cannot be 'sed for restit'tion claims#

+7

+edit edit Arg'ments 

'sed to 'stify slavery

See also: Proslavery in the anteellum United States

+edit edit.A necessary evil. 0n the 1th cent'ry, proponents of slavery often defended the instit'tion as a Cnecessary evilC# 0t was feared that emancipation wo'ld have more harmf'l social and economic conse'ences -homas than the contin'ation of slavery# 0n 18:4,-homas 18:4, @efferson wrote @efferson  wrote in a letter that with slaveryG We have the wolf by the ear, and we can neither hold him, nor safely let him go# @'stice is in one scale, and self!preservation self!preservation in the other# +8

&obert # (ee wrote (ee wrote in 18/"G -here are few, 0 believe, in this enlightened age, who will not acknowledge that slavery as an instit'tion is a moral and political evil# 0t is idle to epatiate on its disadvantages# 0 think it is a greater evil to the whiteinthan to the colored While my feelings aredeeply strongly enlisted behalf of the latter,race# my sympathies are more engaged for the former# -he blacks are immeas'rably better off here

 

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than in Africa, morally, physically, and socially# -he painf'l discipline they are 'ndergoing is necessary for their f'rther instr'ction as a race, and will prepare them, 0 hope, for better things# ow long their servit'de may be necessary is known and ordered by a mercif'l $rovidence# +

 Aleis de -oc'eville, -oc'eville , in -emocracy in "merica, also epressed an oppostion to slavery, b't felt that the eistence of a m'ltiracial society witho't slavery 'ntenable, and observed pre'dice against negroes increasing as they were granted more rights ;for eample, in northern states<# e considered the attit'des of white so'therners, and the concentration of the black pop'lation in the so'thLd'e to eportation res'lting from restrictions in the north, and climatic and economic reasonsLthat was bringing the white and black pop'lation to a state of e'ilibri'm, as a danger to master both races# -h's, the beca'se the not racial differences between and slave, latter of co'ld be emancipated#+144 +edit edit.A ,ositive good. owever, as the abolition agitation increased and the planting system epanded, apologies for slavery became more faint in the So'th# -hen apologies were s'perseded by claims that slavery was a beneficial scheme of labor control#@ohn control# @ohn .# .alho'n,, in a famo's speech in the Senate in .alho'n Senate in 18)7, declared that slavery was Cinstead of an evil, a goodIa positive good#C .alho'n s'pported his view with the following reasoningG in every civili2ed society one portion of the comm'nity m'st live on the labor of another6 learning, science, and the arts are b'ilt 'pon leis're6 the African slave, kindly treated by his master and mistress and looked after in his old age, is better off than the free laborers of 'rope6 and 'nder the slave system conflicts between capital and labor are avoided# -he advantages of slavery in this respect, he concl'ded, Cwill become more and more manifest, if left 'ndist'rbed by interference from witho't, as the co'ntry advances in wealth and n'mbers#C +141

 

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=thers who also moved from the idea of necessary evil to ammond and  and Deorge positive good are @ames enry ammond Fit2h'gh## ammond, like .alho'n, believed slavery was needed Fit2h'gh to b'ild the rest of society# 0n a speech to the Senate on 5arch 9, 18/8, ammond developed his 5'dsill -heory defending his view on slavery stating, MS'ch a class yo' m'st have, or yo' wo'ld not have that other class which leads progress, civili2ation, and refinement# 0t constit'tes the very m'd!sill of society and of political government6 and yo' might as well attempt to b'ild a ho'se in the air, as to b'ild either the one or the other, ecept on this m'd!sill#K e arg'ed that the hired laborers of the *orth are slaves tooG M-he differenceT is, that o'r slaves are hired for life and well compensated6 there is no starvation, no begging, no want of employment,K while those in +14:

 Deorge Fit2h'gh the *orth search wrote that,had Mtheto*egro is for b'temployment# a grown 'p child, and m'st be governed as a child#K 0n C-he Universal (aw of SlaveryC Fit2h'gh arg'es that slavery provides everything necessary for life and that the slave is 'nable to s'rvive in a free world beca'se he is la2y, and cannot compete with the intelligent 'ropean white race#+14) +edit edit*ative

Americans

or more details this topic, see  "mericans in theon United States. States . Slavery amon! +ative

+edit edit-nslavement of $ative Americans >'ring the 17th and 18th cent'ry, 0ndian slavery, slavery, the enslavement of *ative Americans by 'ropean colonists, colonists, was common# 5any of these *ative slaves were eported to off! shore colonies, especially the Cs'gar islandsC of the.aribbean the .aribbean## istorian Alan Dallay estimates that from 1"74!171/, %ritish slave traders sold between :9,444 and /1,444 *ative +149

 Americans from what is now the so'thern part of the U#S#

 

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Slavery of *ative Americans was organi2ed .alifornia thro'gh  thro'gh Franciscan missions, Franciscan missions, in colonial and colonial and 5eican .alifornia theoretically entitled to ten years of *ative labor, b't in practice maintaining them in perpet'al servit'de, 'ntil their charge was revoked in the mid!18)4s# Following the 1897L1898 invasion by U#S# troops, troops, *ative .alifornians were enslaved in the new state from statehood in 18/4 to 18"7# +14/ Slavery re'ired the posting of a bond by the slave holder and enslavement occ'rred thro'gh raids and a fo'r!month servit'de imposed as a p'nishment for 0ndian Cvagrancy CvagrancyC# C#+14" +edit editSlavery among $ative Americans -he aida aida and  and -lingit 0ndians -lingit 0ndians who lived along  AlaskaEs Es coast were traditionally known as fierce so'theast Alaska so'theast warriors and slave!traders, as far .alifornia# Slavery was hereditary after slaves raiding were taken asas prisoners of war  # *orthwest tribes,  tribes, abo't a 'arter of the  Among some $acific *orthwest +147+ +147+148 148 pop'lation were slaves#  =ther slave!owning tribes of *orth .reek of  of  America were, for eample, .omanche of .omanche of -eas, .reek Deorgia, the fishing societies, s'ch as the O'rok, O'rok, that lived along the coast from what is now Alaska to .alifornia, $awnee,, and Blamath# Blamath#+:) the $awnee  After 1844, the .herokees .herokees and  and some other tribes started b'ying and 'sing black slaves, a practice they contin'ed after being relocated to 0ndian -erritory in -erritory in the 18)4s#+14 -he nat're of slavery in .herokee society often society often mirrored that of white slave!owning society# -he law barred intermarriage of .herokees and blacks, whether slave or free# .herokee who aided slaves were p'nished with one h'ndred lashes on the back# 0n .herokee society, blacks were barred from holding office, bearing arms, and owning property, and they made it +114+111 111 illegal to teach blacks to read and write# +114+ %y contrast, the Seminoles welcomed Seminoles welcomed into their nation African ;%lack Seminoles<# Seminoles<#  Americans who had escaped slavery escaped slavery ;%lack

 

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+edit edit!ndian slavery after the -manci,ation

Proclamation  A few captives from other tribes who were 'sed ' sed as slaves were not freed when African!American slaves were emancipated# Ute Woman, a Ute by theUsed Arapaho later sold to a to .heyenne, wascapt'red one eample# as aand prostit'te for sale  American soldiers at .antonment .antonm ent in the 0ndian -erritory, she lived in slavery 'ntil abo't 1884 when she died of a hemorrhage res'lting from Cecessive se'al interco'rseC#+11: +edit edit%arbary

states

 According to &obert >avis, between 1 million and 1#:/ million millio n 'ropeans were capt'red by %arbary pirates pirates and  and sold as slaves +11)+119 +11)+119 *orth Africa and  and =ttoman mpire between mpire and 1th in Africa cent'ries#  %eca'se of the large between n'mbersthe of 1"th %ritons capt'red by the %arbary States and in other ven'es, captivity was the other side of eploration and empire# .aptivity narratives originated as a literary form in the 17th cent'ry# -hey were widely p'blished and read, preceding those of colonists capt'red by American 0ndians in *orth America# +11/ Slave!taking persisted into the 1th cent'ry when %arbary pirates wo'ld capt're ships and enslave the crew# %etween 1"4 and 1"1", ngland ngland alone  alone had 9"" merchant ships lost to %arbary

pirates#+11" United States commercial States commercial ships were not imm'ne from pirate attacks# 0n 178), the United States made peace with, and monarchy## 0n 1789 the first gained recognition from, the %ritish monarchy  American ship was sei2ed by pirates pira tes from 5orocco 5orocco## %y late 17), a do2en American ships had been capt'red, goods stripped and everyone enslaved# After some serio's debate, the government created the United States *avy in *avy in 5arch 179# -his new military presence helped to stiffen American resolve to resist the contin'ation of trib'te payments, leading to the two %arbary Wars Wars along  along the *orth African coastG the First

 

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%arbary War  from  from 1841 to 184/+117 and the Second %arbary War  in  in 181/# $ayments in ransom and trib'te to the %arbary states had amo'nted to :4J of United States government ann'al reven'es in 1844#+118 0t was not 'ntil 181/ that naval victories ended trib'te payments by the U#S# Some 'ropean nations contin'ed ann'al payments 'ntil the 18)4s#+11 +edit editFree

black people and slavery

Some slaveholders were black or had some black ancestry# 0n 18)4 there were ),77/ s'ch slaveholders in the So'th, with 84J of them located in (o'isiana, So'th .arolina, 3irginia, and 5aryland# -here were economic differences between free blacks of the Upper So'th and >eep So'th, with the latter fewer in n'mber, b't wealthier and typically of mied race# alf of the black slaveholders lived in cities rather than the co'ntryside, with most in *ew =rleans and.harleston and .harleston## specially *ew =rleans had a large, relatively wealthy free black pop'lation black pop'lation ;!ens de couleur < composed of people of mied race, who had become a third class between whites and enslaved blacks 'nder French and Spanish r'le# &elatively few slaveholders were Ms'bstantial planters#K =f those who were, most were of mied race, often endowed by white fathers with some property and social capital#+1:4 istorians @ohn ope Franklin and (oren Schweninger wroteGprofit!oriented  A large maority maority of prof it!oriented free black slaveholders slaveholders resided in the (ower So'th# For the most part, they were persons of mied racial origin, often women who cohabited or were mistresses of white men, or m'latto men ### # $rovided land and slaves by whites, they owned farms and plantations, worked their hands in the rice, cotton, and s'gar fields, and like their white contemporaries were tro'bled with r'naways# +1:1

istorian 0ra %erlin wroteG 0n slave societies, nearly everyone L free and slave L aspired to enter the slaveholding class, and 'pon occasion some former slaves rose into slaveholdersP ranks# -heir acceptance was gr'dging, as they

 

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carried the stigma of bondage in their lineage and, in the case of  American slavery, slavery, color in their skin skin##+1::

Free blacks were perceived Mas a contin'al symbolic threat to slaveholders, challenging the idea that NblackP and NslaveP were synonymo's#K Free blacks were seen as potential allies of f'gitive slaves and Mslaveholders bore witness to their fear and loathing of free blacks in no 'ncertain terms#C+1:) For free blacks, who had only a precario's hold on freedom, Mslave ownership was not simply an economic convenience b't indispensable evidence of the free blacksK determination to break with their slave past and their silent acceptance L if not approval L of slavery#K+1:9 istorian @ames =akes notes that, M-he evidence is overwhelming that the vast maority of black slaveholders were free men who p'rchased members of their families or who acted o't of benevolence#K+1:/ After 1814 so'thern states made it increasingly diffic'lt for any slaveholders to free slaves# =ften the p'rchasers of family members were left with no choice b't to maintain, on paper, the owner!slave relationship# 0n the 18/4s Mthere were increasing efforts to restrict the right to hold bondsmen on the gro'nds that slaves sho'ld be kept Nas far as possible 'nder the control of white men only#K +1:" 0n his 18/ statewide st'dy of black slaveholders in So'th .arolina, (arry Boger challenged this benevolent view# e fo'nd that the maority of black slaveholders appeared to hold slaves as a commercial decision# For instance, he noted that in 18/4 more than 84J of black slaveholders were of mied race, b't nearly 4J of their slaves were classified as black# +1:7 e also noted the n'mber of small artisans in .harleston who held slaves to help with their b'sinesses# +edit editistoriography

of American slavery

istorian $eter Bolchin, writing in 1), noted that 'ntil recently historians of slavery concentrated more on the behavior of

 

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slaveholders than on slaves# $art of this was related to the fact that most slaveholders were literate and able to leave behind a written record of their perspective# 5ost slaves were illiterate and 'nable to create a written record# -here were differences among scholars as to whether slavery sho'ld be considered a benign or a Mharshly eploitiveK instit'tion# +1:8 Bolchin described the state of historiography in the early twentieth cent'ry as followsG >'ring the first half of the twentieth cent'ry, a maor component of this approach was often simply racism, manifest in the belief that blacks were, at best, imitative of whites# -h's Ulrich %# $hillips, the eraEs most celebrated and infl'ential epert on slavery, combined a sophisticated portrait of the white plantersE life and behavior with cr'de passing generali2ations abo't the life and behavior of their black slaves# +1:8

istorians @ames =liver orton and (o'ise orton described $hillipsE mindset, methodology and infl'enceG is portrayal of blacks as passive, inferior people, whose African origins made them 'ncivili2ed, seemed to provide historical evidence for the theories of racial inferiority that s'pported racial segregation# >rawing evidence ecl'sively from plantation records, letters, so'thern newspapers, and other so'rces reflecting the slaveholderEs point of view, $hillips depicted slave masters who provided for the welfare of their slaves and contended that tr'e affection eisted between master and slave#+1:

-he racist attit'de concerning slaves carried over into the historiography of the >'nning School of reconstr'ction history, which dominated in the early :4th cent'ry# Writing in :44/, historian ric Foner statesG -heir acco'nt of the era rested, as one member of the >'nning school p't it, on the ass'mption of Mnegro incapacity#K Finding it impossible to believe that blacks co'ld ever be independent actors on the stage of history, with their own aspirations and motivations, >'nning et al# portrayed African Americans either as MchildrenK, ignorant d'pes manip'lated by 'nscr'p'lo's whites, or as+1)4 savages, their primal passions 'nleashed by the end of slavery#

 

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%eginning in the 1)4s and 194s, historiography moved away from the MovertK racism of the $hillips era# owever, historians still emphasi2ed the slave as an obect# Whereas $hillips presented the slave as the obect of benign attention by the owners, historians s'ch as Benneth Stampp changed the emphasis to the mistreatment and ab'se of the slave#+1)1 0n the c'lmination of the slave as victim, istorian Stanley 5# lkins in his 1/ work MSlaveryG A $roblem in American 0nstit'tional and 0ntellect'al (ifeK compared United States slavery to the br'tality of the *a2i concentration camps# camps# e stated the instit'tion destroyed the will of the slave, creating an Memasc'lated, docile SamboK SamboK who identified totally with the owner# lkinsE thesis immediately was challenged by historians# Drad'ally historians recogni2ed that in addition to the effects of the owner!slave relationship, slaves did not live in a Mtotally closed environment b't rather in one that permitted the emergence of enormo's variety and allowed slaves to p'rs'e important relationships with persons other than their master, incl'ding those to be fo'nd in their families, ch'rches and comm'nities#K &obert W# Fogel and Stanley (# ngerman in the 174s, thro'gh their work C-ime on the .ross,C presented the final attempt to salvage a version of the Sambo theory, pict'ring slaves as having internali2ed the $rotestant work ethic of ethic of their owners#  0n portraying the more benign version of slavery, they also arg'e in their 179 book that the material conditions 'nder which the slaves lived and worked compared favorably to those of free workers in the agric'lt're and ind'stry of the time#

+1):

0n the 174s and 184s, historians made 'se of archaeological records, black folklore, and statistical data to describe a m'ch more detailed and n'anced pict're of slave life# &elying also on a'tobiographies of e!slaves and former slave interviews cond'cted in the 1)4s by the WritersE $roect, it# Far historians described slavery asFederal the slaves eperienced from slavesE being strictly victims or content, historians showed

 

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slaves as both resilient and a'tonomo's in many of their activities# >espite the efforts at a'tonomy and their efforts to make a life within slavery, c'rrent historians recogni2e the precario'sness of the slaveEs sit'ation# Slave children 'ickly learned that they were s'bect to the direction of both their parents and their owners# -hey saw their parents disciplined 'st as they came to reali2e that they also co'ld be physically or verbally ab'sed by their owners# istorians writing d'ring this era incl'de @ohn %lassingame ;MSlave .omm'nityK<, 'gene Denovese ;M&oll, @ordon, &ollK<, (eslie oward =wens ;M-his Species of $ropertyK<, and erbert D'tman ;M-he %lack Family in Slavery and FreedomK<# +1)) 0mportant work on slavery has contin'ed6 for instance, in :44) Steven ahn p'blished the $'lit2e $ri2e!winning acco'nt ; " +ation under Our eet: lac$ Political Stru!!les in the Rural South #rom Slavery to the (reat Mi!ration <, which eamined

how slaves b'ilt comm'nity and political 'nderstanding even while enslaved, so they 'ickly began to form new associations and instit'tions when emancipated, incl'ding a black ch'rch separate from white control# +edit edit5odern

slavery

 Altho'gh slave ownership by private individ'als and an d b'sinesses has been illegal in the United States since 18"/, the -hirteenth  Amendment to the United States .onstit'tion .onstit'tio n specifically eempts the 'diciary, permitting the enslavement of individ'als Cas a p'nishment for crime where of the party shall have been d'ly convictedC#  occasionally prosec'tes -he United States >epartment of (abor  occasionally cases against people for false imprisonment and imprisonment andinvol'ntary invol'ntary servit'de## -hese cases often involve illegal immigrants who servit'de immigrants who are forced to work as slaves in factories to pay off a debt claimed by the people transported them into the cases havewho involved workers domestic workers# #+1)9United States# =ther

 

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-here have been incidents of slavery amongst illegal immigrants working in agric'lt're# -he 0mmokalee region 0mmokalee region in so'thern Florida, which grows most of the tomatoes eaten in the United States d'ring the cold months, has had many cases of slavery# Since 17, several prosec'tions have res'lted in over 1,444 slaves being freed#+1)/ The +e/ 0or$ Times+1)", A%. *ews+1)7, and The San rancisco Chronicle+1)8, among others, have reported on child and teenage se'al slavery in slavery in the United States# -here are also reports on children working in organi2ed criminal b'sinesses and in legitimate b'sinesses 'nder both h'mane and inh'mane conditions# 0n :44:, the U#S# >epartment of State repeated State repeated an earlier .0A estimate .0A estimate+1) that each year, abo't /4,444 women and children are bro'ght against their will to the United States for State .olin se'al eploitation#+194 Former Secretary of State  $owell said $owell  said that Cere and abroad, the victims of trafficking toil 'nder inh'man conditions !! in brothels, sweatshops, fields and even in private homes#C+191 +editSee 

also

 Abraham (incoln on slavery



.herokee ffreedmen reedmen controver co ntroversy sy



.oloni2a .oloni2ation tion and the fo'nding fo'nd ing of (iberia



.ornerstone one Speech .ornerst

 

Be mble Frances Anne Bemble istory of slavery



-rafficking cking 'man -raffi



'sh harb harbor or



0nd'str 0nd'strial ial slave



$ar $art' t's s



Slave ins'ra ins'rance nce in the United Unite d States



Slave rebellio rebellion n



Slavery in 00ndian ndian -erritory -e rritory



Soo'rner -r'th



Oork ;(e ;(ewis wis and .lark<



White g'ilt 

*otes

+edit

1#

%.

/ >avid %rion >avis, >avis, 1nhuman onda!e: The Rise and all o# Slavery in the +e/ World.  =ford University $ress# $ress# :44"# p# 1:9# / -he shaping of %lack AmericaG forthcoming 944th celebration reminds America that %lacks came before -he 5ayflower and were among the fo'nders of this co'ntry#;%(A.B 0S-=&O<;@amestown, 3A< ;0nterview<;cerpt< ! @et  ncyclopedia#com

 

,-gina 49 de 56 )# 9#

/# "#

7#

. # 14# 11# 1:# 1)# 19# 1/# 1"# 17# 18#

V a b -he First %lack Americans ! US *ews and World &eport / &onald Segal ;1/<# The lac$ -iaspora: ive Centuries o# the lac$ %&perience Outside "#rica# *ew OorkG Farrar, Stra's and Diro'# pp# 9# 0S%*  0S%* 4!)79!11)"!)# 4!)79!11)"!)# C0t is now estimated that 11,8"),444 slaves were shipped across the Atlantic# +*ote in originalG $a'l # (oveoy, C-he 0mpact of the Atlantic Slave -rade on AfricaG A &eview of the (iterat're,C in 2ournal o# "#rican 3istory  )4  )4 ;18<, p# )"8# ### 0t is widely conceded that f'rther revisions are more likely to be 'pward than downward#C / CR'ick g'ideG -he slave trade tradeC# C# bbc#co#'k# 5arch 1/, :447# &etrieved :447!11!:)# ltis,  W# # %# >' %ois 0nstit'te for African and / Stephen ># %ehrendt, >avid &ichardson, and >avid ltis,   African!American &esearch, &esearch ,arvard University University## %ased on Crecords for :7,:)) voyages that set o't to obtain slaves for the AmericasC# Stephen %ehrendt ;1<# C-ransatlantic Slave -radeC#  "#ricana: The 0S%*  4! %ncyclopedia o# the "#rican and "#rican "merican %&perience# *ew OorkG %asic .ivitas %ooks#  %ooks#  0S%* 9"/!44471!1## 9"/!44471!1 / 0ntrod'ction ! Social Aspects of the .ivil War  / Welcome to ncyclopdia %ritannicaEs D'ide to %lack istory V a b C5ystery of 3a#Es First Slaves 0s Unlocked 944 Oears (ater C# (ater C# www#washingtonpost#com# &etrieved :44!49!1# @amestown!!-imelineC# C# www#virt'alamestown#org# &etrieved :44!49!1# / C3irt'al @amestown!!-imeline / C-he 0rish in the .aribbean 1"91!18)7G An =verviewC / CWhite Slavery, what the Scots already knowC / Dottlieb 5ittleberger, C0ndent'red Servit'deC, Servit'deC, Fa'lkner University America, %y >eanna %arker, Frontier &eso'rces / 0ndent'red Servit'de in .olonial America, .romwellC , " / C-he c'rse of .romwellC,  " Short 3istory 3istory o# +orthern 1reland , %%.# &etrieved =ctober :9, :447# / White Servit'de / $rice  AssociatesG 0mmigrant Servants >atabase / FrontlineG Famo's Families

-a'nya %anks,.ent'ry C>angero's WomanG li2abeth BeyEs Freedom S'it ! S'becthood and &aciali2ed  &aciali2ed   &$. / 0dentity in (ovell Seventeenth .olonial 3irginiaC 3irginiaC, , >igital .ommons (aw, University of 5aryland (aw School, accessed :1 Apr :44 :4# V a b Scott, -homas Allan ;1/!47<# Cornerstones o# (eor!ia history # University of Deorgia $ress#  0S%* $ress# 0S%*  48:4)179)8, 7848:4)179)9 7848:4)179)9## slaveryC# C# &etrieved :44!14!49# :1# / C-h'rmondG Why DeorgiaEs fo'nder fo'ght slavery ::# / httpGXXen#wikiso'rce#orgXwikiX$etitionYagainstYtheY0ntrod'ctionYofYSlavery :)# V a b CSlavery in AmericaC, AmericaC, %ncyclopedia ritannica*s (uide to lac$ 3istory # &etrieved =ctober :9, :447# $op'lationC , South Carolina 1n#ormation 3i!h/ay # :9# / -rinkley, 5# CDrowth of So'th .arolinaEs Slave $op'lationC, &etrieved =ctober :9, :447# :/# / 5orison and .ommagerG (ro/th o# the "merican Repulic , pp# :1:!::4# :"# / "#rica S4uadron: The U.S. +avy and the Slave Trade, 56789565 :7# / Bolchin p# "# 0n 18)9, Alabama 18)9, Alabama,, 5ississippi, 5ississippi, and (o'isiana (o'isiana  grew half the nationEs cotton6 by 18/, along with  with Deorgia Deorgia,, they grew 78J# %y 18/ cotton growth in the the  .arolinas .arolinas  had fallen to 'st 14J of the 181:  there were less than )44,444 bales of cotton national total# %erlin p# 1""# At the end of the  the  War of 181: prod'ced nationally# %y 18:4 this fig're had increased to "44,444, and by 18/4 it had reached 9,444,444# :8# p# " %erlin, (enerations :# / / Bolchin o# Captivity; pp. 55958  )4# / %erlin, (enerations o# Captivity; pp. 5695<. =olchin p. <. =olchin notes that o!el and %n!erman maintained that 67> o# slaves moved /ith their #amilies ut ;most other scholars assi!n #ar !reater /ei!ht ... to slave sales.; Ransome ?p. @68A notes that o!el and %n!ermann ased their conclusions on the study o# some counties in Maryland in the 56Bs and attempt to e&trapolate that as re#lective o# the entire South over the entire period. )1# / %erlin, (enerations o# Captivity; pp. 595< ):# / Bolchin p# 8 ))# / %erlin, (enerations o# Captivity; pp. 5695D5 )9# / %erlin, (enerations o# Captivity; pp. 5D895DB )/# / %erlin, (enerations o# Captivity; p. 5D7 )"# / %erlin, (enerations o# Captivity; p. 5D@95DD  ). / %erlin, (enerations o# Captivity; pp. 5D<956  )8# V a b Stampp, -he $ec'liar 0nstit'tion p# 171 )# / >avis p# 1" 94# / C%lack peoples of America Slave p'nishments#C istory on the net# 5ay / :44# historyonthenew :444! :44, Web# 14 oct :44# ZhttpGXXwww#historyonthenet#comXSlaveY-radeXp'nishments#htm Z httpGXXwww#historyonthenet#comXSlaveY-radeXp'nishments#htm[# [# # 91# / &awick, Deorge $# CFrom S'ndown to S'n'p#C 5aking of the %lack .omm'nity 1# ;17:<G n# pag# Web# :1 *ov :44# #

 

,-gina 50 de 56 \inn " 9:# / oward \inn   " PeopleEs 3istory 3istory o# the Unit United ed States# *ew Oork, *ew OorkG arper .ollins $'blications, :44)# 9)# / httpGXXaae#greenwood#comXdoc#asp]i^19file0>^:444db8fchapter0>^:444db8f! p:444db8f744/)441path^XbooksXdpsX # p:444db8f744/)441path^XbooksXdpsX  # 99# / &awick, Deorge $# CFrom S'ndown to S'n'p#C 5aking of the %lack .omm'nity 1# ;17:<G n# pag# Web# :1 *ov :44# # 9/# / &awick, Deorge $# CFrom S'ndown to S'n'p#C 5aking of the %lack .omm'nity 1# ;17:<G n# pag# Web# :1 *ov :44# # 9"# / 5yers, 5artha, and @ames 5assey# C&ace, (abor, and $'nishment in $ostbell'm Deorgia#C @S-=& )8#: ;11<G :"7!:8"# Web# 18 *ov :44# ZhttpGXXwww#stor#orgX Z httpGXXwww#stor#orgX## 97# / httpGXXaae#greenwood#comXdoc#asp]i^9file0>^W(4798chapter0>^W(4798! 149"path^XprimarydocXgreenwood # 149"path^XprimarydocXgreenwood  # 98# / (asgrayt, >eborah# ArEnEt 0 a Woman]G Female Slaves in the $lantation So'th# :# *ew OorkG W#W# *orton  .ompany, 0nc#, 1# $rint# # '$. / (asgrayt, >eborah# ArEnEt 0 a Woman]G Female Slaves in the $lantation So'th# :# *ew OorkG W#W# *orton  .ompany, 0nc#, 1# $rint# # /4# V a b Denovese ;1"7< &. / Stampp, Benneth 5# C0nterpreting the SlaveholdersE WorldG a &eview#C Stampp writes, CDenovese writes with verve, and certainly he is never d'll# %'t, in my opinion, his attempt to demonstrate the s'periority of the 5arian interpretation of history m'st be ad'dged a fail're# Some may eplain this by arg'ing that the bookEs point of view is not in fact very 5arian# 5y own eplanation is that the antebell'm So'th, with its essentially racial defense of slavery, and with its emphasis on caste rather than class, is 'st abo't as 'npromising a place for the application of a 5arian interpretation of history as one can imagine#C -# C&eview of &obert William Fogel and Stanley (# ngerman,  ;Time on the Cross: The /:# V a b c  Weiss, -#  /)# /9# //# /"# /7# /8#

%conomics o# "merican +e!ro Slavery;  , %conomic 1", :441# %ook review# &etrieved =ctober :9, :447#3istory +e/s Services 9 oo$ Revie/s, *ovember / >o'glass, Frederick  Frederick CA'tobiography of Frederick >o'glass, >o'glass , A'tobiography of Frederick >o'glass, 567@. oo$. Retrieved 2une 5, 86. / Rememerin! Slavery: "#rican "mericans Tal$ "out Their Personal %&periences o# Slavery and %erlin,, 5arc Favrea', and Steven F# 5iller, p# 1::!)# 0S%* 78!1///8::87 by 0ra %erlin %mancipation edited by  / Annette Dordon!&eed, Dordon!&eed, The 3emin!ses o# Monticello: "n "merican amily , *ew OorkG W#W# *orton, :448 / @ames -# .ampbell,  Son!s o# Fion , *ew OorkG =ford University $ress, 1/, p#:/!:"4, accessed 1) @an :44 / .atterall, elen -#, d# 1:"# 2udicial Cases Concernin! Slavery and the +e!ro , Washington, >#.#G .arnegie 0nstit'te, p# :97 Andrew, The 3an!in! _libris,, :444, 0S%* 4!7)88!1)4!1 4!7)88!1)4!1## -he assertion is / @ohn Andrew,  3o d!e+1 , _libris 3an !in! o# "rthur 3od!e probably correct6 there appear to be no other records of any %ritish slave owners being eec'ted for holding slaves, and, given the ecitement which the odge trial created, it seems improbable that another eec'tion co'ld have occ'rred witho't attracting attention# Slavery as an instit'tion in the %ritish West 0ndies only contin'ed for another :) years after odgeEs death#

Concise 3istory o# the ritis ritish h 'ir!in 1slands , 0S%* 14!4)91)4/, page e98 /# / 3irgini a Da2ett "4# %lacks in$ickering, .olonial " America Da2ette / 3ernon , p55, Oscar Reiss, Mcarland G Company, 5<<DH  3irginia , "pril 85, 5DD@ , University of 5ary Washington Washington  >epartment of istoric $reservation archives 18"4#C -he (ibrary of "1# / CSlaves and the .o'rts, 1794!18"4 Slave code for the >istrict of .ol'mbia, 18"4#C-he .ongress# &etrieved on @'ly 1, :448 ":# / 5ee, Arth'r6 ammerton, @# A#6 0nnes, Arth'r >#, Carmsworth history of the world, 3ol'me 9C, 9C , 147, .armelite o'se, (ondon6 ;at sectionG CSocial Fabric of the Ancient World, 03CG in articleG William &omaine $atersonG C-he effects of the slave systemG manEs inh'manity to man its own retrib'tionC<6 at page :8)96 where the a'thor cites this ecerpt from the So'th .arolina %lack .ode after sayingGC.hristian slave states in the nineteenth cent'ry passed laws which are identical in spirit and almost in letter with the slave laws of %abylon# We saw that in %abylon death was the penalty for anyone who assisted a slave to escape# -he .ode declared that E if a man has ind'ced either a male or female slave from the ho'se of a patrician or plebeian to leave the city, he shall be p't to death#EC ;17:9<C .opyrightG %lackpast#org# &etrieved on @'ly 1, :44 ")# / C(o'isianaEs .ode *oir ;17:9<C .opyrightG "9# / Sklar, Bathryn# CWomen who speak for an ntire *ationC# American %ritish Women .ompared at the World Anti!slavery .onvention, (ondon 1894# -he $acific istorical &eview, 3ol# /, Wo# 9, *ovember 14# pp# 9/)!9#

S# *ewman, Trans#ormation o# "merican aolitionism: #i!htin! slavery in the early 0. / &ichard chapter  chapter 1

Repulic  (iberia $a'l .'ffee .'ffee,, advocated settling freed slaves in Africa# e gained ""# V a b C%ackgro'nd on conflict in (iberia  s'pport from free black leaders in the U#S#, and members of .ongress for an early emigration plan# From

 

,-gina 51 de 56 181/!181", he financed and captained a s'ccessf'l voyage to %ritish!r'led Sierra (eone where he helped a small gro'p of African!American immigrants establish themselves# .'ffee believed that African  Americans co'ld more easily Crise to be a peopleC in Africa than in the U#S# where slavery s lavery and legislated limits on black freedom were still in place# Altho'gh .'ffee died in 1817, his early efforts to help repatriate African Americans enco'raged the American .oloni2ation Society ;A.S< Society ;A.S< to lead f'rther settlements# -he A.S was made 'p mostly of R'akers and slaveholders, who disagreed on the iss'e of slavery b't fo'nd common gro'nd in s'pport of repatriation# Friends opposed slavery b't believed blacks wo'ld face better chances for freedom in Africa than in the U#S# -he slaveholders opposed freedom for blacks, b't saw  saw repatriation repatriation  as a way of avoiding rebellionsC## "7# / -he $eopleEs .hronology, 19 by @ames -rager  "8# / de -o'eville p# )"7# "# / %erlin, CDenerations of .aptivityC p# 149 74# / Simon Schama, Rou!h Crossin!s: ritain, the Slaves and the "merican Revolution, *ew OorkG arper.ollins, :44", p#94" 71# / *oll, 5ark# The Civil War as a Theolo!ical Crisis. .hapel illG University of *orth .arolina $ress, :44"# 0S%*G 7848478)41:)# 7:# / >epartment of Deography and 5eteorology, C%aptists as a $ercentage of all &esidents, :444C  3alparaiso University :444C University,, 3alparaiso, 0ndiana# StateC# C# &etrieved :447!1:!:8# 7)# / C-otal Slave $op'lation in US, 174!18"4, by State 79# / %as', %#>#, .hatteree, &#, ed#, 3istory o# %ducation in 1ndia under the rule o# the %ast 1ndia Company , .alc'ttaG 5odern &eview =ffice, pp# )L9, retrieved :44!4)!4 7/# / The Code o# 'ir!inia, &ichmondG William F# &itchie, 189, pp# 797L798 7"# / >on # Fehrenbacher, The -red Scott Case: 1ts Si!ni#icance in "merican La/ and Politics ;*ew OorkG =ford University $ress, 178< 77# / 5c$herson, attle Cry o# reedom page 9/ 78# / 5c$herson, attle Cry  page  page )//, 99L", 'ote from Deorge @'lian @'lian on  on 9/# 7# / (incolnEs letter to =# # %rowning, September ::, 18"1 The Man ehind the M Myths yths, page 14" 84# / Stephen %# =ates, "raham Lincoln: The 81# / 1ma!es o# "merica: "ltoona, by Sr# Anne Francis $'lling, :441, 14# 8:# / (etter to Dreeley, A'g'st ::, 18": 8)# / Abraham (incoln, Second 0na'g'ral Address, 5arch 9, 18"/ 89# / (incolnEs (etter to A# D# odges, April 9, 18"9 8/# / @ames 5c$herson, -he War that *ever Does Away 8"# / @ames 5c$herson, >rawn With the Sword, from the article Who Freed the Slaves] 87# / %r'ce .atton, +ever Call Retreat , page ))/ 88# / @ames 5c$herson, %attle .ry of Freedom, pages 71L78 8# / %ergeron, Arth'r W#, @r# (o'isianans in the .ivil War, C(o'isianaEs Free 5en of .olor in DrayC, University of 5isso'ri $ress, :44:, p# 147!14# 4# / @ay Winik, "pril 56@. The Month Month that Saved " "merica merica, p#/1!/  ;1:"< pp :"8!:74# 1# / # 5erton .o'lter, The Civil War and ReadIustment in =entuc$y  ;1:"< :# / (itwack ;18< p# :71 )# / %lackmon ;:448< p# 9 9# / @ames ># Anderson, The %ducation o# lac$s in the South, 5695<B@ , .hapel ill, *.G University of *orth .arolina $ress, 188, pp#:99!:9/ C3irginia Apologi2es for &ole in SlaveryC# SlaveryC# -he Washington $ost# /# / =E>ell, (arry ;:447!4:!:/<# C3irginia "# / .ongress Apologi2es for Slavery, @im .row 7# / -hompson, Brissah ;:44!4"!1<# CSenate CSenate %acks Apology for Slavery SlaveryC# C# The Washin!ton Post # &etrieved :44!4"!:1# 8# / @efferson, -homas#  -homas# C(ike a fire bell in the nightC nightC (etter  (etter to @ohn olmes, olmes, April ::, 18:4# Lirary o# Con!ress# &etrieved =ctober :9, :447# # / (ee, &## C&obert # (eeEs opinion regarding slaveryC, slaveryC, letter to president  president  Franklin $ierce $ierce,, >ecember :7, 18/"# civil/arhome.com# &etrieved =ctober :9, :447# 144# / Aleis de -oc'eville# C.hapter _3000G F't're .ondition =f -hree &aces 0n -he United StatesC# -emocracy in "merica ?'olume 5A# 1:1#  3istory o# the United States # *o copyright in the United States, p# 141# / %eard .#A# and 5#&# %eard# 1:1#  )1"# 14:# / @ames enry ammond# C-he E5'dsillE -heoryC# -heoryC# Senate floor speech, 5arch 9, 18/8# &etrieved @'ly :1, :448# SlaveryC  in The lac$ "merican: " -ocumentary 3istory , -hird 14)# / Deorge Fit2h'gh# C-he Universal (aw of SlaveryC  d# ;(eslie # Fishel, %enamin R'arles, ed#<# 174# &etrieved @'ly :1, :448# 149# / Dallay, Alan# ;:44:< The 1ndian Slave Trade: The Rise o# the %n!lish %mpire in the "merican South 4!)44!141)!7## 5D95D5# Oale University $ressG *ew Oork# 0S%* 4!)44!141)!7 18# ;Short Overvie/ o# Cali#ornia 1ndian 3istory; , .alifornia *ative American eritage 14/# / .astillo, #># 18#  .ommission, 5<<6. Retrieved Octoer 87, 8D.

 

,-gina 52 de 56 14"# / %easley, >elilah (#  (# ;118<# CSlavery in .alifornia,C The 2ournal o# +e!ro 3istory , 3ol# ), *o# 1# ;@an#<, pp# ))!99# 147# / >igital CAfrican American 3oicesC, 3oicesC, -i!ital 3istory # &etrieved =ctober :9, :447# WarfareC, civili)ation.ca# &etrieved =ctober :9, :447# 148# / Caida WarfareC, 14# / A history of the descendants of the slaves of .herokee can be fo'nd at St'rm, .irce# lood Politics, Racial Classi#ication, and Chero$ee +ational 1dentity: The Trials and Triulations o# the Chero$ee reedmen# American 0ndian R'arterly, 3ol# ::, *o# 1X:# ;Winter ! Spring, 18<, pp# :)4!:/8# 0n 18)/, 7#9J of .herokee families held slaves# 0n comparison, nearly one!third of white families living in .onfederate states owned slaves in 18"4# F'rther analysis of the 18)/ Federal .herokee .ens's can be fo'nd in 5clo'ghlin, WD# C-he .herokees in -ransitionG a Statistical Analysis of the Federal .herokee .ens's of 18)/C# E@o'rnal of American istory , 'ol. 7, B, 5<DD, p. D6. " discussion on the total numer o# Slave holdin! #amilies can e #ound in Olsen, Otto 3. ;3istorians and the e&tent o# slave o/nership in here 2une  2une 6, 8DA the Southern United States;, .ivil War istory, -ecemer 87 ?"ccessed here 1:8# C0nteresting ante!bell'm laws of the .herokee, now =klahoma historyC historyC## Chronicles 114# / >'ncan, @#W# 1:8#  o# O$lahoma *0G178!184# &etrieved @'ly 1), :447# nationC## Chronicles o# O$lahoma 1102G14/"!147:# 111# / >avis, @# %# 1))# CSlavery in the .herokee nationC &etrieved @'ly 1), :447# 11:# / $age 1:9, >onald @# %erthrong, The Cheyenne and "rapaho Ordeal: Reservation and "!ency Li#e in the 1ndian Territory, 56D@ to 5<D , University of =klahoma ;17"<, hardcover, 94: pages, 0S%* 4!84"1! 1:77!8 11)# / >avis, &obert# Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the arary Coast and 1taly, 5@956 #+: 119# / CWhen 'ropeans were slavesG &esearch s'ggests white slavery was m'ch more common than previo'sly believedC, believedC, Research +e/s, =hio State University 11/# / (inda .olley, Captives: ritain, %mpire and the World, 5956@ , (ondonG @onathan .ape, :44:, pp# !11 .oastC , %%., %%., 1 @'ly :44) 11"# / &ees >avies, C%ritish Slaves on the %arbary .oastC, 117# / -he 5arinersE 5'se'mG -he %arbary Wars, 1841!184/ 118# / =ren, 5ichael %# ;:44/!11!4)<# C-he C-he 5iddle ast and the 5aking of the United States, 177" to 181/ 181/C# C# &etrieved :447!4:!18# 11# / &ichard (eiby, C-errorists by Another *ameG -he %arbary $iratesC, $iratesC , The Washin!ton Post , =ctober 1/, :441 1:4# / Stampp p# 19# =akes pp#97!98# 1:1# / Franklin and Schweninger p# :41 1::# / %erlin, CDenerations of .aptivityC p#  1:)# / 5ason pp# 1!:4 1:9# / %erlin, (enerations o# Captivity , p# 1)8 1:/# / =akes pp# 97!98 1:"# / =akes pp# 97!9 1:7# / (arry Boger, lac$ Slaveo/ners: ree lac$ Masters in South Carolina, 5D<956 , .ol'mbia, S.G University of So'th .arolina $ress, 18/, Foreword 1:8#V a b Bolchin p# 1)9 1:# / orton and orton p# # >avid and -emin ;p# 794< add, C-he considerable scholarship of $hillips and his followers was devoted to rehabilitating the progressive image of white s'premacist society in the antebell'm So'th6 it provided a generally sympathetic and sometimes blatantly apologetic portrayal of slaveholders as a paternalistic breed of men#C 1)4# / Foner p# ii 1)1# / Bolchin p# 1)/# >avid and -emin p# 791# -he latter wrote, M-he vantage point correspondingly shifted from that of the master to that of his slave# -he reversal c'lminated in Benneth 5# StamppEs N-he $ec'liar 0nstit'tionP ;1/"<, which reected both the characteri2ation of blacks as a biologically and c'lt'rally inferior, childlike people, and the depiction of the white planters as paternal .avaliers coping with a veing social problem that was not of their own making#K 1):# / Bolchin p# 1)" 1))# / Bolchin pp# 1)7!19)# orton and orton p#  1)9# / Dilmore, @anet ;:449!4!:)<, 5odern slavery thriving in the United States Press Release: Modern slavery thrivin! in the U.S. , U. %erkely 1)/# / $olitics of the $lateG -he $rice of -omatoes, -omatoes , by %arry astbrook, (ourmet Ma!a)ine, 5arch :44 C >oes preparedness make a difference]C, difference] C, amily G community 1)"# / (andesman, $eter ;@'l :449<, C>oes health ;-he  ;-he *ew Oork -imes< -imes< 3 ;)<G 18"L7,  18"L7, 0SS*  0SS* 41"4!")7 41"4!")7,, $50> $50>  1//"") 1)7# / 5'rphy and Allen, A%. Allen, A%. *ews, *ews, httpGXXabcnews#go#comXD5AXAmericanFamilyXstory] id^:8)98/:page^1 1)8# / Fit2ma'rice, Fit2ma'rice,  earst .omm'nications, .omm'nications, httpGXXwww#sfgate#comXsetraffickingX 1)# / Wright, @ennifer ;:444<,  ;:444<, World/ide Tra!edy: U.S. +ot 1mmune to Se&ual Slavery , *ational =rgani2ation for Women

 

,-gina 53 de 56 194# / 'ictims o# Tra##ic$in! and 'iolence Protection "ct o# 8: Tra##ic$in! in Persons Report , U#S# >epartment of State, State, :44: 191# / $owell, .olin (# ;:44:!4"!4/<,  ;:44:!4"!4/<, Special rie#in! on Release o# Tra##ic$in! in Persons Report, 2une 88 , U#S# >epartment of State

+edit edit%ibliography +edit editPrimary so"rces =ctavia 3# &ogers#  Albert, =ctavia &ogers# The 3ouse o# onda!e Or Charlotte roo$s and Other Slaves# =ford 

University $ress, 11# $rimary so'rces with commentary#  commentary# 0S%* 4!1!/4"789!)













The 3ouse o# onda!e, onda !e, or, Charlotte roo$s ro o$s and Other Slaves, Slav es, Ori!inal and an d Li#e9 Li$e complete tet of original 184 edition, along with cover  title page images, at website

of University of *orth .arolina at .hapel ill %erlin, 0ra, @oseph $# &eidy, and (eslie S# &owlands, eds# reedom: " -ocumentary 3istory o# %mancipation, 565956D  /  / vol .ambridge University $ress, 18:# 3ery large collection of primary so'rces regarding the end of slavery %erlin, 0ra, 5arc Favrea', and Steven F# 5iller, eds# Rememerin! Slavery: "#rican "mericans Tal$  "out Their Personal Personal %&periences o# Slavery and %mancipation %mancipation -he *ew $ressG :447# 0S%* 78! 1///8::87 %lassingame, @ohn W#, ed# Slave Testimony: T/o Centuries o# Letters, Speeches, 1ntervie/s, and  "utoio!raphies#(o'isiana State University $ress, 177#  " +arrative o# the Li#e o# rederic$ -ou!lass, -ou!lass, an "merican Slave Slave ;189/< ;$roect D'tenbergG  D'tenbergG  +9 +9<, <, ;A'dio book at FreeA'dio#org +/ +/<< C-he eroic Slave#C "uto!raphs #or reedom# d# @'lia Driffiths %ostonG @ewett and .ompany, 18/)#

179!:)# Available at the >oc'menting the American So'th website+" website +"## Frederick >o'glass My onda!e and My reedom ;18//< ;$roect D'tenbergG +7< +7< Frederick >o'glass Li#e and Times o# rederic$ -ou!lass  ;18:< Slave  ;$roect D'tenberg< Frederick >o'glass .ollected Articles =f Frederick >o'glass, A Slave rederic$ -ou!lass: "utoio!raphies by Frederick >o'glass,  >o'glass,  enry (o'is Dates, @r# ditor# @r#  ditor# ;=mnib's of all three<0S%* three<0S%* 4!949/4!7!8 (itwa (itwack, ck, (eo (eon n een in the Storm So Lon!: L on!: The "#termath o# Slavery. ;17< Winner of the Awardf  f o orr history and the 184 $'lit2er $ri2e for istory# istory# 181 *ational %ook Award (itwack, ck, (eo (eon n +orth o# Slavery: The +e!ro in the ree States, 5D<956  ;University  ;University of .hicago (itwa $ressG 1"1< >oc'mentG C(ist *egroes at Spring Darden with their ages taken @an'ary 18:C ;title taken from doc'ment< 5isso'ri istory 5'se'm Archives Slavery .ollection &awick, Deorge $#, ed# The "merican Slave: " Composite "utoio!raphy  #  # 1 vols# Dreenwood $'blishing .ompany, 17:# .ollection of W$A interviews made in 1)4s with e!slaves +edit edit4istorical st"dies %erlin, 0ra# (enerations o# Captivity: " 3istory o# "#rican "merican Slaves. ;:44)< 0S%* 4!"79! 414"1!:## 414"1!: %erlin, 0ra# Many Thousands (one: The irst T/o Centuries o# Slavery in +orth "merica. arvard University $ress, 18#  18# 0S%* 4!"79!814:! %erlin, 0ra and &onald offman, eds# Slavery and reedom in the "!e o# the "merican Revolution University $ress of 3irginia, 18)# essays by b y scholars %lackmon, >o'glas A# Slavery y "nother +ame: The Re9%nslavement Re9%nslavement o# lac$ "mericans #rom the 78!4!)8/!/4":/!4## Civil War to World War 11.  ;:448<  ;:448<  0S%* 78!4!)8/!/4":/!4 %lassingame, @ohn W# The Slave Community: Plantation Li#e in the "nteellum South  =ford University $ress, 17#  17# 0S%* 4!1!/4:/")!" 4!1!/4:/")!"## >avid, $a'l A# and -emin, $eter# Slavery:The Pro!ressive 1nstitutionJ -he @o'rnal of conomic istory# 3ol# )9, *o# ) ;September 179< >avid %rion >avis# 1nhuman onda!e: The Rise and all o# Slavery in the +e/ World  ;:44"<  ;:44"<

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>e -oc'eville, Aleis# -emocracy in "merica. ;19 dition by Alfred A Bnopf, 0nc<  0nc< 0S%* 4!"7! 9)1)9! lkins, Stanley# Slavery : " Prolem in "merican 1nstitutional and 1ntellectual Li#e.  University of .hicago $ress, 17"# 0S%* 4!::"!:4977!9

 

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Fehrenbacher, >on # Slavery, La/, and Politics: The -red Scott Case in 3istorical Perspective =ford University $ress, 181 Fogel, &obert W# Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and all o# "merican Slavery  W#W#  W#W# *orton, 18# conometric approach Foner, ric# orever ree.;:44/< ;:44/<  0S%* 4!)7/!94:/!9 Franklin, @ohn ope and Schweninger# Runa/ay Slaves: Reels on the Plantation.  ;1< 0S%* 4! 1!/4899!7## 1!/4899!7

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The 1ndian Slave TradeRoll: Dallay, Alan#  ;:44:<# Denovese, 'gene ># Roll, 2ordan, The World the Slaves Made  $antheon %ooks, 179# Denovese, 'gene ># The Political %conomy o# Slavery: Studies in the %conomy and Society o# the Slave South;1"7< Denovese, 'gene ># and li2abeth Fo!Denovese, ruits o# Merchant Capital: Slavery and our!eois Property in the Rise and %&pansion o# Capitalism ;18)< ahn, Steven# C-he Dreatest Slave &ebellion in 5odern istoryG So'thern Slaves in the American .ivil War# War#CCSo't So'ther hern n Spaces Space s ;:449< igginbotham, A# (eon, @r# 1n the Matter o# Color: Race and the "merican Le!al Process: The Colonial Period.=ford University $ress, 178# 0S%* 4!1!/4:79/!4 orton, @ames =liver and orton, (ois # Slavery and the Ma$in! o# "merica. ;:44/< 0S%* 4!1! /174)!_ Bolchin, $eter# "merican Slavery, 55<956DD  ill  ill and Wang, 1)# S'rvey (itwack, (eon F# Troule in Mind: lac$ Southerners in the "!e o# 2im Cro/.  ;18< 0S%* 4!)9! /:778!## /:778!

5ason, 5atthew# Slavery and Politics in the %arly "merican Repulic.  ;:44"< 0S%* 1)G78!4!8478! )49!# 5organ, dm'nd S# "merican Slavery, "merican reedom reedom:: The Ordeal o# Colonial 'ir!inia 'ir!inia W#W# *orton, 17/# 5orris, -homas ># Southern Slavery and the La/, 55<956  University  University of *orth .arolina $ress, 1"# =akes, @ames# The Rulin! Race: " 3istory o# "merican Slaveholders.  ;18:< 0S%* 4!))!)174/!"# 4!))!)174/!"# &ansom, &oger (# Was 1t Really "ll That (reat to e a SlaveJ Agric'lt'ral istory, 3ol# 98, *o# 9 ;=ctober 179< Scarboro'gh, William B# The Overseer: Plantation Mana!ement in the Old South  ;189< Stampp, Benneth 5# The Peculiar 1nstitution: Slavery in the "nte9ellum South ;1/"< S'rvey Stampp, Benneth 5# C0nterpreting the SlaveholdersE WorldG a &eview#C Agric'lt'ral istory 174 99;9<G 947!91:# 0SS* 444:!198: -adman, 5ichael# Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South University of Wisconsin $ress, 18# Wright, W# ># 3istorians and SlaveryH " Critical "nalysis o# Perspectives and 1rony in "merican Slavery and Other Recent Wor$s  Washington, >#.#G University $ress of America ;178<

+edit edit&eferences &odrig'e2, @'ni's $#, ed# %ncyclopedia o# Slave Resistance and Reellion# Westport, .-G Dreenwood, :447# &odrig'e2, @'ni's $#, ed# %ncyclopedia o# %mancipation and "olition in the Transatlantic World #  Armonk, *OG *OG 5## Sharpe, Sharpe, :447# +edit editState and local st"dies Fields, %arbara @# Slavery and reedom on the Middle (round: Maryland -urin! the +ineteenth Century  Oale  Oale University $ress, 18/# .layton # @ewett and @ohn =# Allen6 Slavery in the South: " State9y9State 3istory  Dreenwood  Dreenwood $ress, :449 B'likoff, Alan# Toacco and Slaves: The -evelopment o# Southern Cultures in the Chesapea$e,













56956  University University of *orth .arolina $ress, 18"#The =eetoo/ah Society and the -e#inin! o# a 5inges, $atrick *#6 Slavery in the Chero$ee +ation: People, 56@@956D :44) :44) deals with 0ndian slave owners#

 

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5ohr, .larence (# On the Threshold o# reedom: Masters and Slaves in Civil War (eor!ia  University of Deorgia $ress, 18"# 5ooney, .hase .# Slavery in Tennessee 0ndiana University $ress, 1/7# =lwell, &obert# Masters, Slaves, G SuIects: The Culture o# Po/er in the South Carolina Lo/ Country, 5D795D< .ornell .ornell University $ress, 18# &eidy, @oseph $# rom Slavery to "!rarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South, Central (eor!ia, 569566 University University of *orth .arolina $ress, 1:#



Slaves and reemen in Civil War Louisiana &ipley, $eter#  (o'isiana State University $ress, &ivers, .# (arry 'gene# Slavery in lorida: Territorial -ays to %mancipation  University $ress of 17"# Florida, :444# Sellers, @ames %enson6 Slavery in "laama University of Alabama $ress, 1/4 Sydnor, .harles S# Slavery in Mississippi # 1)) -akagi, 5idori# Rearin! Wolves to Our O/n -estruction: Slavery in Richmond, 'ir!inia, 5D689 56@  University  University $ress of 3irginia, 1# -aylor, @oe Dray# +e!ro Slavery in Louisiana# (o'isiana istorical Society, 1")# Wood, $eter # lac$ MaIority: +e!roes in Colonial South Carolina #rom 5D throu!h the Stono Reellion W#W# *orton  .ompany, 179# +edit edit4istoriogra,hy @ohn %# %oles and velyn -# *olen, eds#, 1nterpretin! Southern 3istory: 3istorio!raphical %ssays in 3onor o# San#ord W. 3i!!inotham ;187<# &ichard # Bing, C5arism and the Slave So'thC,  "merican Kuarterly  Kuarterly  :  : ;177<, 117!)1# foc's on Denovese $eter Bolchin, CAmerican istorians and Antebell'm So'thern Slavery, 1/!189C, in William W illiam @# .ooper, 5ichael F# olt, and @ohn 5c.ardell, eds#,  " Master*s -ue: %ssays in 3onor o# -avid 3erert -onald  ;18/<,  ;18/<, 87!111 @ames 5# 5c$herson et al#, lac$s in "merica: ilio!raphical %ssays ;171<# $eter @# $arish6 Slavery: 3istory and 3istorians Westview $ress# 18 -'lloch, 'gh# The -eate on the "merican Civil War %ra  ;18< ch :!9 

















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reading

+edit edit5ral histories of e6&slaves



e#ore reedom When 1 2ust Can Rememer: T/enty9seven Oral 3istories o# ormer South Carolina Slaves %elinda 'rmence, 18# 0S%* 4!8/87!4"!_ e#ore reedom: orty9%i!ht Oral 3istories o# ormer +orth G South Carolina Slaves # %elinda



'rmence# 5entor %ooksG 14#  14# 0S%* 4!9/1!":781!9 (od Struc$ Me -ead, 'oices o# %&9Slaves .lifton # @ohnson 0S%* 4!8:8!49/!7



+edit edit 4istorical %radley %rad ley## fiction The Chaneysville 1ncident # *ew OorkG arper and &ow, 181# 0S%* 4!4"!41491!4# 4!4"!41491!4#  >avid 









 An eploration of of the long!term effects of slavery, slavery, set mainly iin n $ennsylvania in the the 174s, b't also  So'th# incl'ding scenes set in theantebell'm theantebell'm So'th# dward rd $# @one @ones s# The =no/n World # *ew OorkG Amistad, :44)# 0S%* 4!4"!4//7//! 4!4"!4//7//!## -he :44) dwa winner of the*ational the*ational %ook .ritic .ircle .ircle for  for fiction and :449 winner of the $'lit2er $ri2e for Fiction Fiction## -oni 5orri 5orrison son## eloved # *ew OorkG Alfred Bnopf, 187#  187#  0S%* 1!/84"4!1:4!4 1!/84"4!1:4!4## -he winner of the $ri2e,, this novel by *obel $ri2e  $ri2e la'reate 5orrison eamines the effect of slavery on 187 $'lit2er $ri2e one African!American family#  Alice &andall # The Wind -one (one# %ostonG o'ghton 5ifflin, :441# 0S%* 4!"18!11)4!7# 4!"18!11)4!7# A reimagining of the story of 5argaret 5itchellE 5itchellEs (one /ith the Wind  ;1)"< from the point of view of Scarlett =Eara =EaraEs Es half!sister .ynara, am'latto am'latto slave  slave on the =Eara plantation# %arry y Unswort Uns worth h# Sacred 3un!er # (ondonG amish amilon, 1:# 0S%* 4!:91!1)44)!9# 4!:91!1)44)!9# A 1: %arr winner of the %ooker $ri2e, $ri2e, this novel by a %ritish novelist centers aro'nd a rebellion on a %ritish slave ship bo'nd for America in the mid!18th cent'ry# -he novelEs climactic se'ence is set on the

coast of colonial Florida# +edit edit(iterary and c'lt'ral

criticism

 

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&yan, -im A# Calls and Responses: The "merican +ovel o# Slavery since (one /ith the Wind # %aton &o'geG &o'geG(o'isiana State University $ress, $ress, :448# 3an >eb'rg, William# Slavery and Race in "merican Popular Culture# 5adisonG 5adisonG University of Wisconsin $ress, $ress, 189#

+edit editternal

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%orn in Slaver Sla very yG Slave *arratives from the Federal WritersE W ritersE $roect, $roect, 1)"!1)8 rom the >ays of Slavery Slavery,, interviews of :) former slaves recorded between 1): and 17/, 3oices ffrom  American Folklife Folklife .enter, (ibrary (ibrary of .ongress &eport of the %rown University Steerin g .ommittee on Slavery Slaver y and @'stice Unive rsity Steering C@ohn %ro %rownEs wnEs body and bloodC bloo dC by Ari BelmanG a review in the the  -(S, -(S, Febr'ary 19, :447# a nd the 5aking Slavery and 5ak ing of America Am erica ! $%S ! W*-, *ew Oork ;9!$art Series< -imeli eline ne of Slavery in America -im 0mag es of slave 0mages s lavery ry drawn by -homas *ast *ast ;has  ;has backgro'nd m'sic< istory o off Slavery in America Americ a at Slaveryinamerica -eaching reso' reso'rces rces abo't Slavery and Abolition on blackhistory9sch blackhis tory9schools#com ools#com Slavery iin n the United States Sta tes from #*et ! conomic istory Services by @enny %# Wahl W ahl of .arleton .ollege 5ap of 18: 1 8:4 4 showing free and slave territories# .lassics on American Ame rican Slavery collection of old doc'ments available on!line thro'gh >insmore >oc'mentation >eh'mani2ing g 0nstit'tion 0nsti t'tion by *ell 0rvin $ainter, historian and a'thor of .reating %lack SlaveryG A >eh'mani2in  Americans Deorgia orgia ncyclope ncyclopedia dia ;Slavery in Antebell'm Deorgia< *ew De topics sidebarbooks#html WWW!3(G  American topics WWW!3(G =nline %ooks on Slavery in in America Slavery 0ll'strated, in the istories of \angara and 5a'ama, -wo *egroes Stolen From Africa and Sold 0nto Slavery# &elated by -hemselves# 5anchesterG -hemselves# 5anchesterG Wm# 0rwin, (ondonG Simpkin, 5arshall, and .o#, 189# &ecollections ions of Slavery Slaver y by a &'naway &'nawa y Slave# -he mancipator, A'g'st :), September 1), &ecollect September :4, =ctober 11, =ctober 18, 18)8# University of *or *orth th .arolina $ress $res s on finding freedom freed om and liberty in %*A!.anada %*A!.an ada  Acco'nt of an African African $rince Sold into Slavery Slavery ! 0slamica 5aga2ine 5aga2ine -he Undergro'n Undergro'nd d &ailroadG scape from Slavery Slaver y  Scholastic#com Stace ngland  -he Salt Bing Bings s concept 5'sic 5'si c .> on C-he =ld Slave o'seC in 0llinois 0llin ois Drand 3alley State Un University iversity .ivil War W ar and Slavery digital collection co llection S'san arba arbage ge $age and @'an @ 'an (ogan (oga n# C$rop 5aster at .harlestonEs Dibbes 5'se'm of  ArtC,, Southern Spaces, :1 September  ArtC :44#  httpGXXwww#so'thernspaces#orgXc :44# httpGXXwww#so'thernspaces#orgXcontentsX:44XpropmasterX ontentsX:44XpropmasterX1a#htm 1a#htm##

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