Solar Energy the Future Fuel

TATA BP SOLAR
A SUMMER PROJECT REPORT ON Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

SUBMITTED TOWARDS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

(APPROVED BY AICTE, GOVT. OF INDIA)
(Equivalent to MBA) ACADEMIC SESSION (2007-2009)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF INTERNAL SUPERVISOR:
Prof. TIMIRA SUKHLA

SUBMITTED BY:
SHASHI KANT VASKAR (137)

EXTERNAL SUPERVISOR: Mr. Sanjay Dhar
INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES LAL QUAN, C-238, BULANDSHAHAR GHAZIABAD-201009

Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

This is to certify that Mr. SHASHI KANT VASKAR student of Post Graduate Diploma in Business Management from Institute of Management Studies, Ghaziabad has completed His Summer training project titled´ GLOBAL SCOPE AND OPPORTUNITIES OF SOLAR ENERGY ³, under my guidance and supervision .I wishes him all the best in future endeavours.

Prof. Timira Sukhla

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ³Hope and misery, toll and revelry, cheer and dejection««. Are all those going behind the success of this project?´ Any assignment puts to litmus test of an individual knowledge credibility or experience and thus sole efforts of an individual are not sufficient to accomplish the desire successful completion of a project involve interest and effort of many people and so this becomes obligatory on the part to record our thanks to those who helped us out in the successful completion of our project.

Life is a process of accumulating and discharging debts, not all of those can be measured. We can not hope to discharge them with simple words of thanks but we can certainly acknowledge them. At this level of understanding it is often difficult to comprehend and assimilate a wide spectrum of knowledge without proper guidance and advice. Hence, we would like to take this opportunity to express our Heartfelt Gratitude to Respected Prof. Timira Sukhla, PGDBM, IMS, Ghaziabad, for his round the clock Enthusiastic Support, Noble guidance and encouragement which made this project successful. We are extremely thankful to him for making this project watchful.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction 2. TATA Bp solar product line 3. Good response to solar energy promotion scheme 4. Solar Power Lightens Up with Thin-Film Technology 5. Solar-powered vision of the future 6. A Bright Future for Solar Energy 7. Why photovoltaic s?? 8. The Future of Solar Power Lies in the Northeast 9. Solar Powers Up, Sans Silicon 10. Bright Future for Solar Power Satellites 11. The Future of Solar-Powered Homes 12. How to brighten solar power's future 13. Reference

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Introduction
India Energy Market The Indian renewable energy (RE) industry is diversified and offers strong business prospects to U.S. companies. The market in India for RE business is estimated at USD 500 million and is growing at an annual rate of 15 percent. The major areas of investment are: solar energy, wind energy, small hydro projects, waste-to-energy, biomass and alternative fuel. The new RE policy of the Government of India (GOI) aimed at generating 10,000 MW through renewable and a non-conventional source by 2012 is expected to further boost the growth rate of this sector. Key factors responsible for growth in this sector include:
y y

Large demand-supply gap in electricity India is generously endowed with RE resources like solar, wind, bio-mass materials, urban and industrial wastes and small hydro resources

y y y y

Low gestation periods for setting up RE projects with quick return Conducive government policies The large number of financing options available for capital equipment Increasing awareness among industry that being environmentally responsible is economically sound.

The annual turnover of the RE industry in India is approximately USD 500 million. The investment in RE is estimated to be about USD 3 billion. Of the estimated potential of 100,000 MW from RE only about 3500 MW has been exploited to-date. The federal government has set a medium scale goal of electrification of 18,000 remote villages and meeting 10 percent of the country¶s power supply through RE by the year 2012. These targets are in addition to those fixed for other RE devices or programs including establishing 1 million biogas plants, 1 million SPV (Solar Photovoltaic) systems for lighting, 8,000 SPV pumps for irrigation, 10,000 SPV generators, stand-alone SPV power plants, solar water heating systems, solar air heating systems, solar cookers including large steam cooking systems, 360 energy demonstration parks and establishing more solar retail outlets and solar passive buildings, among other projects.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

The GOI is implementing various programs for utilizing solar energy such as solar PV (Photovoltaic) lighting and water pumping systems, solar cookers, solar thermal water heating systems and solar power generation throughout the country. Incentives include central financial assistance; 80 percent accelerated depreciation; relief in customs duty, excise duty and sales tax; soft loans; and government policies covering wheeling, banking, buy-back, and third-party sale of power are being formulated to encourage the use of non-conventional energy sources and to offset the initial cost. India has not been successful in keeping pace in this sector, despite a large demand supply gap with respect to energy requirements and ample renewable resource availability. The U.S. is the pioneer in this sector. Several U.S. companies such as GE Power Systems, Solar Wall, NRG System, Alstom Power, Astro Power, Shell, Duke Solar and Sundanzer play a major role in the Indian market. Although a few U.S. companies have market presence in India, industry experts feel that U.S has played a minimum role in tapping opportunities in this sector. There are projects for development that U.S. companies should consider if they are keen to enter the Indian market. Sub-sectors that continue to show a high growth rate and are expected to drive the RE market are briefly discussed below: Solar Energy: The scope of generating power and thermal applications using solar energy is promising. Only a fraction of the aggregate potential in renewable resources and in particularly solar energy is being used so far. Processed raw material for solar cells, large capacity SPV modules, film solar cells, SPV roof tiles, inverters, charge controllers etc., have good market potential in India. Biomass Energy: In a country like India, biomass holds considerable promise as 540 million tons of crop and plantation residues are produced every year, a large portion of which is either wasted, or used inefficiently. Conservative estimates indicate that even with the present utilization pattern of these residues and by using only the surplus biomass materials, estimated at about 150 million tons, about 17,000 MW of distributed power could be generated.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Hydro Projects: With numerous rivers and their tributaries in the country, the small hydro sector presents an excellent energy opportunity with an estimated potential of 15,000 MW. About 10 percent of this has been exploited so far. In order to accelerate the development of small hydropower in the country, the GOI also provides concessions for existing hydro projects including financial support for renovation, modernization and capacity upgrading of aging small hydro power stations. Energy from Wastes: The rising piles of garbage in urban areas caused by rapid urbanization and industrialization throughout India represent another source of non-conventional energy. Good potential exists for generating approx. 15,000 MW of power from urban and municipal wastes and approx. 100 MW from industrial wastes in India. Biofuels: The GOI recently mandated the blending of 5 percent fuel ethanol in 95 percent gasoline in 9 states and 4 union territories as of January 1, 2003. This mandate has created an approx. 3.6 billion liter demand for fuel ethanol in the entire country, and also further increase in the fuel ethanol component of the blend to 10% as of October 1, 2003. The significant demand growth creates a tremendous manufacturing opportunity for the U.S. fuel ethanol industry seeking to expand its investments internationally. A substantial import of fuel ethanol will be necessary to supply the product required to meet the burgeoning demand created by the currently effective GOI mandate. Note: We are not providing a data table because, in most of the segments of this sector, no reliable statistics are available.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

TATA BP SOLAR PRODUCT LINE
DOMESTIC SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEMS MODEL: ZING

y y y

Puf - Insulated Tank New, innovative Tank shape Unique Tank & Collector support structure

y

Sacrificial Anode to prevent galvanic corrosion

y

Ultrasonic Welding of Collectors for Superior Conductivity

y y y

3 Dimensional Polymer End Cap Unique ³Anti Condensation´ device Available in capacities of 100, 200 and 300 LPD

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Domestic Solar Water Heating Systems

Model: HOT MAX

Features
y

High

quality

tubes

made

from

borosilicate glass
y y y y

Withstands hail storms No clogging/choking Long lasting Inner coating of tubes consists of layers of copper, stainless steel and aluminium nitride

y y

Heats water to a very high temperature Makes hot water available even on partially cloudy days

y

High

quality

PUF

insulation

for

maintaining high temperature of water inside the tank
y

End caps made from Uv resistant ABS plastic enhances aesthetics of product

y

Powder coated support structure fr long life

y y y

Compact and light weight water heater Easy to install, operate and maintain Works efficiently with hard water with hardness uo to 600 ppm.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Solar Lanterns

Model: TATADEEP

y y

Ideal portable lighting system Bright, omnidirectional light - anytime, anywhere

y

Charging via Solar Module or AC Mains using optional Solarmite Charger

y

3 / 5 hours of continuousbright light on single charge for MK 3 model and 2 hours of light for MK 4 model

Solar Home Lighting System

Model: VENUS

y

Ready-to-use Kit containing solar module, battery, luminaires MCR charge controller and

y y y y y

Available in 2 models 3 - 4 hrs operation/day 4 days autonomy Cost-effective Minimum maintenance

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Solar Home Lighting Kits

Model: JUGNU

y

Packaged 12 V systems containing module, battery, regulator, high

efficiency electronics and luminaires
y

Ready-to-use Kit : easy to install, easy to use, negligible maintenance

y

Available in a wide range of MNES approved models

Solar Power Packs Model: ECOGENIE

Solar Water Pumping Systems

y y y

Surface and Submersible Types Up to 2HP rating pumps Can lift water from depths up to 166 ft. (50 m) and deliver up to 1,35,000 litres / day

y y

3 Position Manual Tracking Easy to install, minimum maintenance and completely serviceable

y

Over 2000 systems installed all over India

Solar Industrial Water Heating Systems
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Model: VAJRA

Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

y y y y y y

VAJRA Industrial Water Heating Systems Available from 750 LPD to higher capacities Thermosyphon and Forced Circulation Systems Custom-made to suit specific applications Insulated Stainless Steel Tank Selectively coated, Copper-Copper Collectors with Ultrasonic Welded Fins for better heat transfer

y

Collectors aluminium

have

corrosion-resistant,

extruded

sections with Stainless Steel Fasteners
y

HHC Systems also available on reques

Building Integrated Photovoltaic¶s BIPV can replace conventional glazing on Atria, Facade, Wall, Awnings, Pergola, Cladding
y

y

Roof,

Skylights,

Parapet

BIPV adds tremendous aesthetic value. Besides giving to a a very distinctive BIPV

appearance

building,

provides attractive combinations when used with conventional building

material
y

BIPV is µsustainable¶ building material. It generates clean electricity, which can meet part of the building¶s energy requirements

y

It is sturdy, leak-proof and all-weather

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

proof, with the ability to withstand high wind, hail, humidity and high ambient temperature Solar Street Lights Model: MARGADEEP

y

Four models : MV 3, MV 6, MV 7, MV 8

y y y y y y

PL 11 and SOX Lamps High efficiency PV batteries Galvanised steel pole Up to 4 days system autonomy Auto on / off, dusk-to-dawn operation Ready to install, negligible maintenance

Solar Road Flasher

y

Ideal in Accident-prone Areas, Ghat Sections, School & Hospital Areas, Construction Spots

y y y y y

3 days system autonomy Auto on/off, dusk/dawn operation Rugged and all-weather-proof design Visibility greater than 500 m Designed in line with IS:7537 ± 1974 specifications

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Good response to solar energy promotion scheme

KOCHI: A bank loan at two per cent interest may be the lowest ever offered by any financial institution in the history of modern banking. The loan, offered under a solar energy promotion scheme, is extended through a consortium of banks. There are two separate schemes, one supported by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the other by the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency. The loan under the UNEP scheme is extended through Canara Bank and South Malabar Gramin Bank while the loans under the IRERDA scheme are supplied through seven banks. The soft loan for lighting systems is being extended to individuals, self-help groups and small business establishments. The rate is 2 per cent for individuals, 3 per cent for institutions and 5 per cent for business establishments. The loan will cover up to 85 per cent of the cost of the project, subject to a maximum of Rs.25,000.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

The scheme has elicited good response from customers, according to Canara Bank officials. Introduced a few weeks ago, the marketing efforts are under way. Based on the initial enquiries, the officials are hopeful of a surge in demand for the loan in the months to come. The IREDA scheme envisages provision of loans under `accelerated development and deployment of solar water heating systems in domestic, industrial and commercial sectors.' The scheme is being implemented on a directive from the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources. There have been many enquiries from customers for buying solar lighting and heating systems after the introduction of the scheme recently, says G.Sivaramakrishnan, proprietor of Konark Systems, a solar power systems distributor. Solar power is the ideal solution to several problems arising out of power shortage, he says. The entrepreneur has already installed a solar power station at Nilackal telephone exchange, which caters to Pampa. The solar `stand alone power pack' provides continuous power and there is no need to depend on the power grid. The station is designed to take care of the power needs up to a week so that power supply is not disrupted during the monsoon season. The project was executed at a cost of Rs.3.5 lakhs and more such projects are being planned elsewhere. Mr. Sivaramakrishnan says though solar energy projects are more useful to the masses, they are not receiving enough attention in Kerala. "We always lag behind," he says, pointing out that a Rs.2-crore solar energy project was completed at the Vidhan Soudha annexe in Bangalore. Georgekutty Kurianapally, Managing Director of Lifeway Solar, a company developing solar energy equipments, is also of the opinion that there is vast scope for tapping solar energy in Kerala. "Green energy will occupy centrestage in the near future

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Australia: Alternative Energy Grants Geothermal Plant From geothermal power to better batteries, millions have been spent on alternative energy research grants in Australia, according to Rod Myer writing for The Age of Australia.

The AUD $23 million (approximately $17 million) spent by the Australian Federal Government under the first tranche of its $100 million (US $73m) pledge to aid the alternative energy sector has highlighted innovations by local companies to cure Australia's fossil fuel addiction.

Two companies awarded grants under the Renewable Energy Development Initiative (REDI) have developed a no-emissions alternative for base-load generation. Geodynamics received $5 million grant to help develop its geothermal electricity plant near Innamincka in the north of South Australia. Scope Energy, another betting its future on geothermal energy, received $3.9 million grant to aid development. Its principal, Roger Massey-Greene, says the grant will help finance a drilling program of 500-metre deep holes to prove up its resource. Scope plans to open a 50-megawatt plant, but Mr Massey-Greene says he hopes to see this expand to 1000 MW in the longer term. Scope has a geographic advantage, he believes. Its site is near Millicent, in the south-east of South Australia, meaning it is close to transmission lines and the population centres of Melbourne and Adelaide. "We expect the cost to be very competitive with combined-cycle gas power plants," Mr Massey-Greene said. Scope's geothermal technology will tap hot water heated deep in the earth and run it through a heat exchanger to generate electricity. Mr Massey-Greene likens this process to a "fridge operating in reverse". Geodynamics' system will pump water through hot rocks and use the resulting steam to generate power. Scope's wells will be as deep as 4.5 kilometres. The technology that Scope is planning has been in use at a plant in Italy that has operated for 101 years,.
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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Stage one of the plant is expected to cost $4 million per megawatt to construct, compared with about $750,000 for a combined-cycle gas plant. "But we have no fuel costs," Mr MasseyGreene said. Geothermal plants run at an output of about 98 per cent of rated capacity. Mr Massey-Green believes geothermal power has a great future. In New Zealand it provides 7 per cent of power needs and this could rise to as much as 15 per cent. Some in the market believe that Scope will float in the first half of 2006. Melbourne-based Katrix will use its $811,000 Renewable Energy Development Initiative grant to further develop its new fluid expander that may enable solar energy to be harnessed for electricity. Founder Attilio Demichelli says the expander, which does the job of a turbine, will allow solar thermal energy to be adapted for small-scale use far more cheaply than photovoltaic systems. Katrix is developing units in which solar energy will heat refrigeration fluid that will run through an expander linked to a generator to produce power. The expander is cheaper than a miniature turbine to build and has a number of advantages, including its ability to take gas or steam at 22 atmospheres (twenty two times atmospheric pressure) back to one atmosphere in one step. Katrix projects that in the Californian market ² once government solar energy grants are factored in ² its system will return its cost to consumers in two to three years, compared with 15 years for photovoltaic systems. Mr Demichelli, a private investor, and inventor Yannis Tropalis have invested over $3 million in the technology in three years.

Another REDI grant, of $290,000, has gone to V-Fuel, which is developing a vanadium bromide redox battery. The funding will help develop a prototype of a battery that its promoters hope will be efficient enough to use to store power from renewable energy plants. Efficient storage would enable technologies such as wind power and solar energy to get over a bugbear ² unpredictability, because no one knows when the sun will shine or the wind will blow.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

V-Fuel principal Michael Kazacos says the grant is crucial to the company, which has raised only $400,000 up to now. V-Fuel has developed a five-kilowatt battery but is aiming to produce a 50-kilowatt prototype. That, he says, will cost $1 million, and further funding is being sought from another federal grant scheme. "There is a lot of interest in Europe," Mr Kazacos said. "We have had offers of collaboration from there." The battery was 85 per cent efficient, he said, and "we are aiming at having a $200-per-kilowatt production cost". The vanadium bromide process was developed at the University of NSW by Professor Maria Skyllas-Kazacos, who is a principal of V-Fuel.

according to Origin - Sliver Cells are "long, ultra thin, quite flexible & perfectly bifacial"

Origin Energy received a $5 million grant to aid development of its facilities for manufacturing solar energy cells using photovoltaic sliver technology. The technology aims to cut the cost of solar energy cells by reducing silicon usage by up to 90 per cent. Sliver cells are micromachined to less than 70 microns thick with solar cell efficiency running at over 19%. Silicon is the most expensive part of a solar energy cell. Origin Energy says it costs $11,000 to fit a house with a one-kilowatt unit. This would take 20 years or more to pay itself off. However, as energy prices rise and production costs fall, this payback time will be cut. Origin Energy also owns a 19% stake in Geodynamics and offers Green Earth electricity from 100% renewable sources to Australian electricity consumers. For more green energy in Australia see the government Green Power website. Sun, Light and Heat: Light Control and Optimizing Energy in Offices and Other Buildings Daylight is solar energy. This is a trivial statement but comes lightly to the background when speaking of solar energy use. Photovoltaic modules and solar collectors make the sun's energy usable, but technologies that provide for optimal light efficiency in buildings and that make "living and working with the sun" enjoyable also use solar energy.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Measures taken to save electricity for lighting or conserving energy for heating are activities - a fact that the president of EUROSOLAR, Herman Scheer, does not tire of stressing. And in fact it seems as though the concept of passive solar energy use or of a "passive building" veils everything that is done here: effective daylight use and control as well as energy optimizing are the characteristics of three buildings that we present in cooperation with the BINE Information Service (BINE Informationsdienst).

Sun installation in the German Museum of Technology in Berlin. A fascinating play of light and shadow - but also an intelligent solution for transporting light: Collector mirrors and reflectors project sunlight into a tunnel that one passes through when entering the exhibit hall. Photo: BINE Information Service

The Institute for Solar Technologies (Institut für Solartechnologien) in Frankfurt/Oder, Germany, an office building in Weilheim/Teck and the German Museum of Technology in Berlin are examples of an energy concept in which sunlight and heat play central roles. Daylight technology (systems that control and transport sunlight) and the protection of exhibit pieces against radiation as well as favorable room climate are central for the museum building. That spaces with cozy qualities and considerable energy conservation potential are also possible in buildings that aren't used for dwelling is shown by projects sponsored by the Federal Ministry for Economy and Technology (Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie (BMWi)) for the research of "solar building". High Work Place Quality - Low Costs for Lighting and Heat Many factors influence how well someone feels at work-therefore also influencing job performance output. Among these are a comfortable temperature, good air quality, and the most natural and glare-free light possible. For the Solar Center in Frankfurt/Oder, an energy-

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

optimized building both was realized that offers: year-round comfortable work conditions and low energy demand. The modularly constructed façade system replaces the outside wall and at the same time guarantees the best possible supply of daylight and fresh air. In effect, this synergy façade combines the function of the building's walls with the tasks of household technology.

The windows are equipped with outside blinds over which a rigid daylight control system is installedartificial light is only activated by a light detector when needed.

Modular façade system on the south side of the Solar Center in Frankfurt/Oder. Photo: BINE Information Service

Integrated in the balustrade area of the façade are thermal air collectors and a photovoltaic system. Behind that is a heating, air-conditioning and ventilating machine with a heat exchanger.

This pence of equipment is connected to the active flow of air via a connection canal between the window's two panes of glass (gap between the conventional pane and the heatinsulating pane). In winter the incoming air is heated over the air collector and then led to the heat exchanger. There, another rise in

temperature follows due to the heat energy absorbed from the used air. Afterwards the preheated outside air comes to a convection heater in the room.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

This is then simultaneously supplied with fresh air and heated. On sunny days the output from collectors and the heat gain for the room's heating system are both adequate, and the used air is then led outside through the space between the windowpanes. Over the course of a year the photovoltaic system delivers the needed energy for the operation of the ventilation system. The collectors are turned off in the summer via a summer-winter circuit because the warm outside air comes in direct contact with the heat exchanger and there the cooler inside air can cool it. On very hot days cold water from an underground reservoir flows through the heaters, turning the heating system into a cooling system. Soil serves as the cold source. The concept fulfills the planners' expectations: The thermal heating and ventilation heating demands for the technology area are around 58 kilowatt hours per square meter and year and meet the requirements of the Energy Conservation Act (Energieeinsparverordnung (EnEV)). The energy demand for lighting and office technology was more than halved compared to a conventional building. And those working in the rooms are content: The lighting conditions are experienced as pleasant and adequate, and even during the summer rooms don't become overheated. Energy Efficiency without Extra Costs: Office Building as a Passive Building with Solar Heat and Solar Electricity The first passive office building in the German state of Baden-Wuerttemberg has been standing in Weilheim/Teck since the beginning of 2000. Its ecological design concept, the corresponding architecture and the economical aspects are convincing: Despite the difficult requirements for building ecology and the considerable energy conservation, one square meter of office area costs less than 1,000 ¼ (ca. $ 900) - no more than a conventionally constructed building.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

The building uses the sun's energy both actively and passively. By avoiding transmission and ventilation heat losses the energy demand for heating was reduced to under 15 kilowatt hours per square meter and yearmaking a conventional heating system as unnecessary as active air conditioning. Office building "Lamparter" as seen from the west. Photo: BINE Information Service

Passive cooling during the summer is achieved by a variety of methods including shadow elements, ground soil heat exchangers and night ventilation. Elements in place for lighting control minimized the need for artificial lighting, which is at just 7.2 kWh/m per year. Strict cost controls even made it possible to use funds from the budget to provide for solar heating and solar power systems. Warm Water and Electricity from the Sun In the entire building there are no heaters - the job of distributing heat is taken over by the ventilation system. With the help of temperature gauges warm air can be separately led to the top floor, or the north or south side. Used air is vented out from the common areas (conference rooms, stairways) of every floor, led to a heat exchanger and finally vented outside. In this way about 85 % of its heat can be absorbed by incoming air. Additionally, on cold days the outside air's temperature can be raised by an average of 4.6 Kelvin by using an earth-to-air heat exchanger. A connected bivalent condensing boiler provides the remaining needed heat. At 10.6 kWh/m , the actual heating energy demand is even lower than the planned value.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Passive office building "Lamparter": Energy supply system. Graphic: BINE Information Service

Contributing to the electric current supply is a 67 square meter photovoltaic system that is mounted on the flat roof and pent roof of the building. The estimated 6 to 7 megawatt hours (MWh) produced yearly correspond to 6.5 kWh/m of electricity based on the net heated floor area. By heating potable water, a solar thermal system supports the gas heating system with 1.5 kWh/m per year, and because the demand for this water is very low at just 2.6 liters per person per day, water heating can be up to 93 % covered by solar means. Outside the main heating period the water heating system runs for just one hour per day. Therefore it is accepted that the water temperature fluctuates. Overall, solar energy provides 20.9 kWh/m of the needed primary energy with solar-produced electricity covering about half of the energy used for lighting and the ventilation system.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Comparison of primary energy requirements for building technology in kilowatt-hours per square meter per year (kWh/m ). Graphic: BINE Information Service

Controlling and Transporting Light - The German Museum of Technology in Berlin With a usable floor area of 20,000 square meters, the expansion building of the German Museum of Technology is subdivided into departments for air and sea travel as well as accommodations for a library, workshops, a lounge and catering areas. In order to protect exhibit pieces from direct solar radiation, they were placed on the north side. The additional accommodations open towards the south and are characterized by a transparent façade design. With an energy concept, which meanwhile the museum is presenting in multimedia to bring visitors closer to the rising energy-efficient technology, it was also possible to reach a low energy standard here.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

The Berlin Institute for Construction, Environment and Solar Research Ltd. (Berliner Institut für Bau, Umwelt und Solarforschung GmbH (IBUS)) and the Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (Fraunhofer Institut für Bauphysik) in Stuttgart conducted the project's

implementation over many years. Expansion building of the German Museum of

Technology in Berlin, right of the exhibit hall with a hanging C-47 "Skytrain" and sometimes affectionately referred to as the "Gooney Bird". Photo: BINE Information Service

Despite demanding requirements it was still possible to get by without air-conditioning and the high energy needs associated with it. Planners stabilized the inside humidity (important for a museum) through the use of hygroscopic materials (the expanded clay in walls and wood-block paving on floors attract and absorb moisture and therefore dry the air in the museum). Light and Shadow The overhead light layout and the implementation of the daylight systems were optimized in detailed studies under an artificial sky. On the east façade, for example, it was effective to develop a daylight system that obtains the attractive city view, yet at the same time is able to fulfill its function of a visor against the sun and additionally has light-controlling qualities. Here the planners installed large lamellas at every story of the building. An inner transparent lamella wing was installed with an outer wing made of perforated metal. Depending on the angle of the lamella the degree of daylight screening can be varied without reducing the illumination. The floor areas of the museum that are further in and cannot be supplied with daylight by the facades led to the idea of installing a daylight transportation system along the paths that visitors take in the exhibit areas. Using three systems, planners bring sunlight into the building. Sun-tracking Fresnel lenses collect daylight that is then led all the way to the foyer in the second

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

floor via fluid light tubes. There, four daylight tubes are supplied with sunlight by this transport system.

Left: Light collectors (tracking Fresnel lenses). Right: Light tubes as a transportation system in further-in parts of the museum. Photos: BINE Information Service

A so-called sun installation throws sunlight into a well, which one walks through when entering the exhibit area. This occurs with the use of a mirror system that is composed of a single-axis sun tracking collector mirror (heliostat) and a stationary reflector.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Left: Heliostat. Right: The systems fulfill the lighting needs of the further-in interior parts of the building. Photos: BINE Information Service

A concave mirror (heliostat) with a surface area of about 14 square meters together with lighting reflectors supplies the interior of the museum with sunlight. With this modifiable system the various lighting tasks in the exhibit area can be met.

Solar energy boom may help world's poor

Global focus: The InterAcademy Council, says efforts to curb climate change must target vast numbers of people who lack basic energy (File photo) (AFP: solar systems) A surge in investment in solar power is bringing down costs of the alternative energy source, but affordability problems still dog hopes for the 1.6 billion people worldwide without electricity. The sun supplies only a tiny fraction - less than one-tenth of 1 per cent - of mankind's energy needs. But its supporters believe a solar era may be dawning, boosted by western funding to combat oil 'addiction' and climate change. Governments from Japan to Germany and the United States are helping the public wean themselves off fossil fuels.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

An average German household, for example, can earn over 2,000 euros ($A3,130) a year from subsidies to install solar panels - double their electricity bill - and pay off all costs within 10 years and earn a pure profit for a further 10. But there are few handouts in developing nations where it could be argued solar power is more relevant - in sunnier countries where many people have no electricity at all. A scientific body which groups academies worldwide, the InterAcademy Council, says efforts to curb climate change must target vast numbers of people who lack basic energy. "It's sad that 1.6 billion people live without electricity and 2 to 3 billion use energy in a primitive way very damaging to health," said Professor Steven Chu, a Nobel laureate physicist. Low income Low incomes and low subsidies, if any, can make clean energy a hard sell in developing countries. In the Indian state of Karnataka private firms, backed by state government subsidies, have over the last three to five years been pushing solar power for households in towns and cities, including giving discounts on power bills if solar is installed. The picture is very different for off-grid rural Indian communities which until now were dependent on kerosene, or paraffin, lamps for lighting, having no electricity access. "Kerosene is quite heavily subsidised but has limited availability in some rural areas, which has helped solar PV (photovoltaic) sales," said JP Painuly, senior energy planner at the Denmarkbased Risoe National Laboratory. "There are some solar PV programs that provide an extremely limited capital subsidy. It's not at a scale that makes it viable. Solar PV is still really expensive... more expensive than kerosene." Worldwide about 1.5 million people die annually from indoor pollution due to lighting and cooking.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

It is the health benefits that sell the more expensive panels together with the promise of a much brighter source of light than paraffin lamps so users can work and make money after dark, or read and educate themselves or their children. Economic difficulties The Solar Electric Light Company (SELCO) has supplied solar powered electricity to 75,000 households over the past 12 years in India, where 60 per cent of households lack electricity. Their standard solar panel, replacing three smoky paraffin lamps, costs $250, equal to at least 12 months' income for many rural households. One downside is that large parts of Karnataka get monsoon rains for about four months a year and people complain that solar systems are not effective in cloudy conditions. Another is that SELCO's small profits are making it difficult for the company to compete with salaries offered by Bangalore's Internet industry and expand outside its core Karnataka state. Many wealthier suburbs in Karnataka cities and towns have terraces of houses with solar water heaters - a more basic and widely available technology which heats water but does not supply electricity, unlike the solar PV panels. Manufacturing boom SELCO cuts costs by making fluorescent light bulbs and designing solar panels itself, but the panels are still more expensive than the more heavily subsidised oil lamps. Rapidly developing countries like China are joining a silicon solar cell manufacturing boom, helping to pare the price of the alternative technology and simple, economy panels could soon be affordable even to the rural poor, said Professor Chu. "Very inexpensive solar cells could be used by off-grid people to charge appliances that don't use a lot of power but make a world of difference," he said, listing items such as radios, mobile phones, water purifiers and bright, efficient lamps called light-emitting diodes (LEDs).

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

The World Bank last month announced a private sector competition to devise the best-value, low-carbon light source for poor households in Africa, as a way to flag up what it estimates is a $17 billion African market in off-grid lighting. UK-based solar company G24 Innovations this month started production of a low-cost, non silicon-based solar panel, which it says it will supply into the LED market in developing countries from next year.

Solar Power Lightens Up with Thin-Film Technology
The sun blasts Earth with enough energy in one hour²4.3 x 1020 joules²to provide all of humanity's energy needs for a year (4.1 x 1020 joules), according to physicist Steven Chu, director of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The question is how to most effectively harness it. Thin-film solar cells may be the answer: One recently converted 19.9 percent of the sunlight that hit it into electricity, surpassing the amount converted into power by mass-produced traditional silicon photovoltaics and offering the potential to unleash this renewable energy source.

Prices for high-grade silicon (that can generate electricity from sunlight) shot up in 2004 in response to growing demand, reaching as high as $500 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) this year. Enter thin-film solar cells²devices that use a fine layer of semiconducting material, such as silicon, copper indium gallium selenide or cadmium telluride, to harvest electricity from sunlight at a fraction of the cost. "The fundamental advantage of thin film comes in the form of the amount of material you need," says electrical engineer Jeff Britt, chief technology officer of thin-film manufacturer Global Solar Energy in Tucson, Ariz. "These are direct bandgap semiconductors. You can get by with one or two microns and still absorb 98 percent of the sunlight." (In other words, it takes at least 100 times less thin-film material to absorb the same amount of sunlight as traditional silicon photovoltaic cells.)

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Global Solar uses a technology known as copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) to make its thin-film solar cells. The company has already supplied the U.S. military and outdoor enthusiasts with portable field chargers, largely for communication and other small electronic devices powered by such cells. In March, the company opened a new factory in Tucson, where it plans to produce enough thin-film CIGS solar cells to generate 40 megawatts of electricity next year² enough to power roughly 15,000 average American homes; it hopes to boost the juice to 100 megawatts by 2010 in response to what it predicts will be a growing market.

"We're focusing on low-cost terrestrial power generation," Britt says. "It's intended for largescale, ground-based arrays." In other words, the types of solar farms previously dominated by traditional silicon photovoltaics now used to generate electricity from sunshine in states like Arizona and California. Global Solar is not alone. A host of companies, including HelioVolt, Nanosolar and others, are using CIGS technology in an attempt to cut the cost of producing photovoltaic cells. But there are other challenges. "The first hurdle is cost," says materials scientist B. J. Stanbery, CEO of HelioVolt in Austin, Tex., which is in the process of opening its first CIGS solar cell factory. "The second is efficiency [how much sunlight can be converted to power] and the third is the reliability, [which means the] lifetime of the device." Researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy's (DoE) National Renewable Energy Laboratory have succeeded in producing CIGS cells that can convert nearly 20 percent of the sunlight that falls on them into electricity. But manufacturers note that mass production reduces their efficiency because chemical processes are not as easy to control on an industrial assembly line.

"Benchtop is a great thing to measure because it tells you about the potential of the technology. It tells you nothing, however, about what people are actually making or can make," says Paul Wormser, senior director of product development for the Solar Energy Solutions Group at electronics manufacturer Sharp Electronics, headquartered in Osaka, Japan. "By the time you go into production, you're going to get about half" of the efficiency demonstrated in a lab under perfect conditions.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Sharp pairs amorphous silicon (fine layers of randomly arranged silicon) with layers of crystalline silicon (whose atoms are in a more structured lattice) to make its thin-film cells. It plans to increase its manufacturing capacity at its plant in Katsuragi, Japan, to produce enough cells to make 160 megawatts of electricity by October²and to bring its total annual output to enough cells to produce 1,000 megawatts by 2010 by building another factory in Sakai, Japan.

He denies speculation that thin-film solar cells will eventually kill the traditional crystalline silicon phtotvoltaics end of the business, noting that they are designed to supplement, not supplant, the old standbys. "Rumors of crystalline's demise are highly exaggerated," Wormser says. "We see thin-film as highly complementary to crystalline and concentrators."

But Wormser says that thin-film cells have the potential to produce more power over time than the older technology, because they resist the sun's heat better and produce more power when the temperature spikes. Durability may be an issue, however. Consequently, thin-film cells intended for large arrays use lower grade silicon (read: glass) to protect the delicate photovoltaic layers. For example, Tempe, Ariz.±based First Solar, Inc., which employs cadmium telluride in its thin-film solar cells, sells its modules encased in glass for either large arrays or rooftops. "The elegance of the solar business is that you construct a product and it just sits there generating power for 20 to 25 years," says company president, Bruce Sohn. In addition to offering solar modules at $1.25 a pop (compared with at least double that per module for traditional photovoltaics), First Solar has also instituted a process for recycling them at the end of their active lives. "Glass can be returned to the glass industry. Metals can be repurified and given back to us in the form of the cadmium telluride compound. Even the wires can be reused," Sohn says. "We really can recycle in excess of 90 percent of the weight of the product today in a perpetual, environmentally friendly life cycle." In fact, cadmium telluride solar cells are currently the most ecofriendly devices, even though they use a toxic heavy metal, primarily because they require the least energy²typically provided

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

by burning fossil fuels²to manufacture, says environmental engineer Vasilis Fthenakis, senior scientist at Brookhaven National Laboratory's National Photovoltaic Environment Research Center in Upton, N.Y., and Columbia University. Yet, cadmium telluride commands only about 30 percent of the thin-film market, according to DoE statistics, compared with amorphous silicon cells (such as those produced by Sharp and ECD Ovonics), which account for more than 60 percent; CIGS cells make up just about 1 percent of this market. But CIGS has the most potential efficiency (converting as much as 25 percent of incoming sunlight to electricity) of any of the thin-film technologies as well as of traditional photovoltaic cells, Heliovolt's Stanberry says. Würth Solar in Germany has mass-produced such cells that can convert as much as 13 percent of sunlight, according to Lawrence Kazmerski, director of the DoE's National Center for Photovoltaics in Golden, Colo. All of the thin-film technologies also offer the potential for ubiquity. That is, says Sharp's Wormser, "you have the opportunity with thin film to make what people refer to as a semitransparent photovoltaic module in place of a window on a building. It allows you to see out through the window, but from the outside it looks like tinted glass." The thin-film solar cells can be used in more flexible applications, such as so-called solar shingles, roofing materials that double as electricity generators. "It's going to serve the purpose of keeping out the elements, but it's also going to generate power for you," Global Solar's Britt says. This also eliminates the significant cost²typically at least doubling the price of a given module²of adding solar photovoltaic systems to already existing buildings. Alternative forms of electricity generation²or some kind of efficient energy storage, such as better batteries²would be necessary for those times when the sun is not shining. But thin-film solar cells hold the promise of harnessing the sun's power in an efficient and sustainable way² and displacing the burning of fossilized sunlight for energy that is contributing climate change± causing carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. "Combining this highest efficiency, lowest cost and most reliable thin-film technology directly into building construction materials will be the beginning of a revolution in solar power,"

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

HelioVolt's Stanbery says. "I worried that I wouldn't live to see the day when solar became an economically substantive part of our energy mix, but I think we're on the road to that happening finally. The best is yet to come."

A Bright Future for Solar Energy
Georgia Tech is playing an important role in photovoltaics' status as a leading contender in the search for clean, renewable energy sources. MIKE ROPP, A DOCTORAL STUDENT in Georgia Tech's School of Electrical and Computer Engineering (ECE), has just climbed nearly 150 feet of ladders to the barrel-vaulted roof of the Georgia Tech Aquatic Center. Wind whips menacingly over the sides and a stunning view of the Atlanta skyline lies to the south. "Welcome to my laboratory," he quips, flashing a ready grin photo by Stanley Leary and spreading his arms expansively. And what a laboratory it is. Spread over nearly three-quarters of an acre is what is believed to be the world's largest solar-powered energy system connected to a power grid and located on a single rooftop. The 342-kilowatt photovoltaic system ² which converts sunlight into electricity ² serves as both a research model and a supplementary power source for the Aquatic Center. It is also one of many projects conducted under the Georgia Institute of Technology's University Center of Excellence for Reseachers have reduced the time Photovoltaics Research and Education (UCEP), which is required to produce solar cells designed to help make photovoltaics (PV) a leading contender without losing efficiency. in the search for clean, renewable energy sources for the future.
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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Established in 1992 by the U.S. Department of Energy and supported by the DOE's Sandia National Laboratories, UCEP is one of only two national centers of excellence in PV research. (The second is at the University of Delaware.) Researchers are charged with advancing PV research, producing cheaper and more efficient solar cells, and training the next generation of PV scientists ² all with an eye toward giving the United States a competitive edge in photovoltaics. "I think the main reason the DOE decided to make us a university center of excellence was there was no other university at the time, other than the University of Delaware, that could do research all the way from photovoltaic materials to materials characterization, modeling, process development, fabrication, testing and analysis of cells," says Dr. Ajeet Rohatgi, who directs UCEP and is a Regents' Professor and Georgia Power Distinguished Professor in ECE. "Large grid-connected PV systems on campus make us even more unusual. There are very few places that have everything going on in one place." Dr. Joseph R. Romm, acting assistant secretary for the DOE's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, also notes that Georgia Tech "has an unusually strong interdisciplinary emphasis and a commitment to sustainable development." "There's also a good healthy emphasis on education," he says. "All of that adds up to the perfect setting for a center of excellence." Although proponents of photovoltaics say it's an ideal technology to supplement or replace traditional energy sources, PV power currently is less efficient (defined as the amount of energy a system produces divided by the energy that goes into it) and about four times more expensive. But 20 years ago, PV power was 50 times as expensive as traditional energy sources. UCEP researchers have made major contributions to bringing down this cost by designing and testing new PV systems and developing cheaper, more efficient solar cell technologies.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Olympic Legacy In the area of new PV systems, the Georgia Tech Aquatic Center is a standout example. Built to host swimming and diving events for the 1996 Summer Olympic and Paralympic Games, photo by Stanley Leary it is a lasting legacy for the campus and should provide significant, long-term data on how to build and maintain large-scale PV structures. "The goal is to get a better understanding of how these systems their work ² and their our their

performance, modeling The Georgia Tech Aquatic Center's roof holds a 342-kilowatt photovoltaic (PV) system, which will provide significant, long-term data on how to build and maintain large-scale PV structures. (200-dpi JPEG version - 362k)

reliability to

capability

predict

performance," says Rohatgi, who designed the $5.2 million system with Dr. Miroslav M. Begovic, also an ECE professor, and Richard Long, project support manager in Georgia Tech's Office of Facilities. Funding came from Georgia Tech, Georgia Power Company and the DOE. "We realize that photovoltaics is a technically viable source for supplying future energy needs, and we wanted to help in the demonstration of that," explains Chuck Huling, who coordinates research for Georgia Power. "The Olympics provided a wonderful opportunity to demonstrate this renewable technology to a local, national and international audience." During its first year, the system operated close to the efficiency level expected, although actual energy production was lower than predicted. Reasons included unexpected down time, periodic shutdowns for experiments and higher- than-usual temperatures during some months, which decreased the system's efficiency.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Why photovoltaic s??
The bottom line for renewable energy is not that it's a matter of if. It's a matter of when. When proponents of photovoltaics ² the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity ² argue their case, they note that two billion people in the world don't have access to electricity and that most conventional energy sources cause pollution, deplete natural resources or contribute to global warming. Photovoltaics (PV), or solar power, offers a clean, renewable alternative. The U.S. Department of Energy is supporting extensive research in this area, including establishment of Georgia Tech's University Center of Excellence for Photovoltaics Research and Education (UCEP). PV power operates on a simple principle: a cell is created from a semiconductor material like silicon. When sunlight hits the cell, photovoltage on an electric current is created, which flows through an external circuit and produces energy. Several cells can be wired together and encased in clear glass or plastic to form a panel or module. These can be connected into arrays ² to collect and produce more power ² then placed atop a building and either connected to an existing electrical system or linked to batteries. The process is silent and self-contained, with no moving parts, no emissions and sunlight as energy source. Compared to burning coal, for example, DOE officials estimate that every gigawatt hour of PV-generated electricity prevents the emission of up to 1,000 tons of carbon dioxide. Solar power also is versatile enough to supply nearly any energy need, from lighting and small appliances for a single home to water-pumping systems for farms or industrial activities for whole villages. Although PV power currently is less efficient and more expensive than conventional energy sources like coal, oil, natural gas and nuclear power, its advantages already make it the preferred choice in many everyday applications. Examples include calculators, U.S. Coast Guard

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

navigational beacons, highway emergency telephones, traffic warning signs, satellites and remote cabins and farms. It's also economically competitive in some parts of the United States now ² including Hawaii, where electricity is very expensive; Massachusetts and New York, where energy costs are high and local governments often support solar power; and California and Arizona, which have large remote areas and much sunlight. To help make photovoltaics more competitive, government, private industry and utility company partners have built or proposed dozens of projects, from large-scale power plants to programs that encourage home owners to install rooftop PV systems. Worldwide demand for solar power grew 290 percent from 1987 to 1995. But for such advances to continue, sustained commitment is needed. Federal funding for renewable energy sources, high during the oil crisis of the 1970s, fell sharply in the early 1980s and only began rebounding in the past decade. "We're at the point where we're ready to reap large returns on the investments that we've made over the years," says Dr. Joseph R. Romm, acting assistant secretary for the DOE's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. "You cannot profit optimally if you focus on lab work, then throw the results over the fence, assuming that the marketplace will pick them up. There needs to be a partnership with the private sector, and that's what we're doing at the DOE. "The bottom line for renewable energy, really, is not that it's a matter of 'if,'" he adds. "It's a matter of when and who profits."

It's also economically competitive in some parts of the United States now ² including Hawaii, where electricity is very expensive; Massachusetts and New York, where energy costs are high and local governments often support solar power; and California and Arizona, which have large remote areas and much sunlight.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

"The bottom line for renewable energy, really, is not that it's a matter of 'if,'" he adds. "It's a matter of when and who profits." From July 1996 to June 1997, the system produced 333.3 megawatt hours of electricity, which is 81.5 percent of the 409 megawatt hours predicted and enough energy for about 28 average Georgia homes. The rooftop system features a solar array made up of 2,856 photovoltaic modules, each with 72 multicrystalline silicon solar cells connected in series. A power conditioning system, or inverter, converts the array's direct current (DC) power to utility-compatible alternating current (AC) power, and a data acquisition system stores performance and meteorological information every 10 minutes. Researchers also built a 4.5-kilowatt, AC array at the entrance to the Callaway Student Athletic Complex. It differs from the Aquatic Center system in that each module converts the solar-generated DC power to AC power itself, which reduces costs and simplifies installation. "While UCEP has long been in the forefront of research in developing world-record efficient hardware, the PV systems will help us in becoming an authority in design and help assess the cost/benefit of the yet-to-be-built systems of the future," Begovic says.

New Processes and Materials But for photovoltaics to truly compete with conventional energy sources, production costs must be reduced, so Georgia Tech researchers are exploring several innovative techniques. One is rapid thermal processing (RTP), which researchers recently used to fabricate for the first time a silicon solar cell with the same 19 percent efficiency rating as cells produced by conventional furnace processing, but in half the time ² 81/2 hours rather than 17.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Conventional solar cell production generally involves three trips into a high-temperature furnace, and each step lasts one to three hours. The cells also must be cleaned between each step. With RTP fabrication, the front and back of the cell are formed simultaneously by a rapid thermal diffusion process that takes three minutes, and an oxide is grown on the front of the cell by a five- minute rapid thermal oxidation (RTO) process. Industrial manufacturers often delete the oxidation process, called passivation, to save money and increase output. Georgia Tech's RTO process offers a time-saving way to include this performance-enhancing step. Once a solar cell is created, metal contacts are added to extract the electrical power from the cell. This step is the most time-consuming; in RTP fabrication, for example, it accounts for 80 percent of the production process. The common techniques of evaporation and photolithography give good resolution and conductivity, but Rohatgi says many commercial manufacturers have switched to a quicker method called screen printing, which produces less efficient cells. In 1996, Georgia Tech researchers successfully integrated screen printing with RTP, slashing cell production time to 11/2 hours. Since then, they've raised cell efficiency from 14.7 percent to 16.3 percent and outlined modifications for future increases. "If we can make the solar cells very fast compared to what's being done out in industry today, without sacrificing the cell performance, that will obviously reduce the use of chemicals, gases and manpower, and it will increase the production capacity and throughput," Rohatgi explains. "This should result in significant reduction in the cost of solar cell modules." Researchers also are experimenting with a technique they call "Simultaneously Diffused, Textured, In-Situ Oxide AR-coated Solar Cell Process" or STAR. In this process, a single hightemperature furnace step can provide front and back surface diffusions simultaneously, in addition to front and back in-situ oxide surface passivation. The cell is textured and has an antireflection (AR) coating, to trap more light in the cell.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

So far, researchers have created cells with 20.1 percent efficiency. And although the STAR process is not as fast as RTP cell fabrication, Rohatgi says STAR is compatible with highthroughput machinery commonly used by the solar industry today, while RTP currently isn't. Another way to reduce the cost of photovoltaics is to make solar cells from less expensive materials. UCEP researchers are working with several promising silicon materials, including float zone, Czchralski, cast multicrystalline, EFG sheet and dendritic web silicon, and currently hold the record for high-efficiency multicrystalline silicon cells ² 18.6 percent. Crystalline silicon is used in about 80 percent of the solar cell modules produced today, Rohatgi says. The other 20 percent are made from amorphous silicon and thin film materials like cadmium telluride.

Industry's Importance: Today and Tomorrow Rohatgi attributes part of UCEP's success to close working relationships with more than two dozen U.S. solar manufacturers, including industry leaders like Solarex Corp., Siemens Solar Industries and ASE America Inc. photo by Gary Meek "To make our processing more manufacturable, we try to do applied research that can be easily transferred to industry," Rohatgi says. "That is part of the mandate from the DOE. Our job is not to just do blue-sky type research, [but to] focus on research that can lead to commercially viable solar cells." So far, UCEP is having no trouble meeting that Research done at Georgia Tech could help mandate. Researchers hold patents for seven lower the cost of producing photovoltaic production techniques and have applied for arrays. (200-dpi JPEG version - 283k) several others. They've published over 100 papers

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

in peer-reviewed journals and both refereed and non-refereed conference proceedings. UCEP also includes an Educational Support Program (ESP) Laboratory, where solar cells are fabricated and/or tested for other universities, and lab space in both ECE and the Microelectronics Research Center. Besides reducing solar costs and improving technologies, Rohatgi says future successes also will depend on transferring these new techniques from the laboratory to the production line. "The next step would be to scale up some of the novel technologies we're developing to a larger scale ² making larger-area cells, then transferring this know-how to industry," Rohatgi says. "Only then will industry get excited about it and be able to use it."

The Future of Solar Power Lies in the Northeast
by Jonathan Klein, Founder of the Topline Strategy Group Soon there will giant farms of photovoltaic panels baking in the sunlight of the southwest deserts, the resulting energy powering Phoenix, Las Vegas, and the rest of the region. If this vision of the future of solar power in the United States sounds right to you, it would probably come as a surprise to learn that some of the best potential customers for the solar power industry are homeowners and small businesses in the Northeast who will install small-scale systems on their property. When a panel generates more electricity, the cost of that electricity falls because the fixed price of the equipment is spread across more kilowatt-hours. The Southwest does enjoy a tremendous sunlight advantage over the Northeast, making solar power less expensive in that region. However, the advantage does not come close to compensating for the difference in electricity rates.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Today, even in the best case scenario, solar power still requires substantial subsidies. It will be another decade before it reaches the break even point -- that is, the point where solar power becomes economical without subsidies. Until then, industry growth will largely be determined by how far available subsidies can be stretched in order to support the installation of the most equipment possible. In a world where supply constraints are the industry's top problem, worrying about stretching subsidies to fuel more demand is probably the last item on everyone's agenda. However, even hypergrowth industries go through periods of faster and slower growth. Laying the groundwork now for fueling the next spurt of demand can mitigate or even eliminate any potential slowdown.

This requires a focus on stretching subsidy dollars, which in turn means focusing on the customers who require the least amount of subsidies to make solar power a profitable investment; namely, customers for whom the cost of solar electricity compares most favorably with the cost of conventional electricity. Remarkably, it is small solar installations in the Northeast that fit that bill, not large commercial installations in Arizona or Nevada.

This counter-intuitive finding comes from two studies our company recently released on solar electricity: What the Solar Power Industry Can Learn from Google and Salesforce.com and Massachusetts a Surprising Candidate for Solar Power Leadership. It is based upon the following three facts. Big installations have only a small cost advantage over small ones In striking contrast to all other power generation technologies, solar electricity equipment has very few economies of scale. Coal and gas-fired power plants, hydroelectric dams, nuclear reactors, solar thermal concentrators (with their acres of sun-tracking reflective troughs) and wind turbines (whose size dictate that they be situated in remote areas) are only practical for large commercial power generators to own and operate.

California Solar Cost Data Shows Modest Economies of Scale This is not the case for photovoltaics. This is because the basic unit of solar power is a single photovoltaic module, which typically generates 180 to 230 watts of power and takes up approximately 13 to 15 square feet. Installations with 10,000 modules are no more efficient than

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

those with 10 modules. The small economies of scale that do exist are driven by transaction costs, not the technology. Therefore, big customers enjoy only a very slight cost advantage over small ones when it comes to the cost of solar power equipment

Small customers pay a lot more for electricity than big customers While it costs about the same for big and small customers to purchase solar power equipment, the same is not true when it comes to purchasing electricity. On average, utilities pay power producers under $.03 per kilowatt-hour. Major industrial customers typically locate their plants near hydroelectric dams, which can provide ample low cost power, and large commercial customers are able to negotiate favorable rates. Smaller businesses and homeowners are the ones that end up paying the most for their electricity.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Since their higher electric rates more than offset their slightly higher equipment costs, smaller businesses and homeowners require far fewer subsidy dollars to make up the difference between the cost of conventional power and solar power. Taken together, these three factors mean that small customers in the Northeast, along with those in California and Nevada, are those for whom solar power is the most economically viable and require the least subsidies.

Prescriptions for the Industry Currently, there are two missing factors for making this strategy practical. One, subsidy programs in all of these states that are sufficient to support the development of a robust commercial industry (with the exception of California which already has such a program) and two, offerings and channels designed to serve a large number of smaller accounts. Our prescription: Make these two initiatives top priorities for the industry.

Solar Powers Up, Sans Silicon
In a world where sun-powered garden lights seem like a nifty idea, new technologies touted by solar energy startups sound very far out. Entrepreneurs promise that soon solar-energized "power plastic" will radically extend the battery life of laptops and cell phones. Ultra-cheap printed solar cells will enable construction of huge power-generating facilities at a fraction of today's costs. And technologies to integrate solar

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

power-generation capability into building materials will herald a new era of energy-efficient construction. Those are ambitious goals for a technology famous for powering pocket calculators, but investors are paying heed. This year, solar startups have snapped up more than $100 million in venture capital to develop printable materials capable of converting sunlight into electrical power. Soaring energy demand, as well as short supplies of polysilicon, a key ingredient in most solar cells, is fueling interest in alternative materials. "These technologies look incredibly more real than they did five years ago," said Dan Kammen, founding director of the Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory at the University of California at Berkeley. Kammen predicts solar sources, which today produce less than 1 percent of power consumed nationwide, could eventually meet one-fifth of U.S. energy demand. Printed solar cells, produced with conductive metals and organic polymers in place of silicon, could help. As early as next year, startups plan to begin manufacturing printed solar products for use in power-generating facilities, rooftop installations and portable gadgets. While industry experts don't expect manufacturing on a massive scale to be viable for years, production capability is ramping up quickly. Executives at Nanosolar, based in Palo Alto, California, plan to finish building a factory next year to churn out thin-film solar cells using copper-based semiconductors instead of silicon. "Silicon models are too expensive in the first place," said Martin Roscheisen, Nanosolar's CEO, who expects the company will be able to build a 400-megawatt plant for about $100 million. Providing equivalent capacity using silicon technology, Roscheisen estimated, would cost close to $1 billion. When Nanosolar's products become commercially available, Roscheisen plans to warranty the cells for 25 years -- similar to silicon solar products. Miasolé, in neighboring Santa Clara, California, has developed a competing thin-film photovoltaic cell using a layer of photoactive material containing a compound called CIGS. The

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

company plans to incorporate the technology into building materials and rooftop solar installations. On the shorter end of the power-generation life cycle, Konarka, a startup in Lowell, Massachusetts, has agreements in place with manufacturers to produce a printed "power plastic" to supply solar energy for portable devices. "When people think of solar, they think of rooftop, grid-connected. We're trying to change that mindset," said Daniel Patrick McGahn, Konarka's chief marketing officer. Unlike silicon-based solar cells used on rooftops today, Konarka's specialized plastics typically last years, but not decades. The company is marketing its technology for use in products with similar life spans. While research into printed photovoltaic technologies dates back decades, progress on nonsilicon applications has accelerated in recent years due to the shortage of polysilicon, said Travis Bradford, president of the Prometheus Institute for Sustainable Development in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Today, nearly 95 percent of solar cells use semiconductor-grade silicon, he estimates, but that should drop to around 80 percent over the next few years. To compete against silicon solar manufacturers, Bradford says developers of new technologies will need to show that they can be cost-effective. They'll also have to prove supplies of core materials are adequate for mass production and demonstrate that their products don't degrade too quickly. While he's optimistic about the prospects, he's not convinced any technology is meeting all the criteria today. "It takes a lot longer and a lot more money to commercialize technology than people think ... which is why crystalline silicon has been around for so long," he said. Still, printed photovoltaics could soon be ready for commercial use, said Raghu Das, CEO of research firm IDTechEx. The key hurdle remaining is to make materials resilient enough to last for years. Das expects manufacturers to resolve those concerns and produce viable printed photovoltaics in 2009 or 2010. He envisions large-scale deployment around 2012.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

In the meantime, solar startups entice investors with visions of clean, low-cost, energygenerating capability bundled into a range of products, from building materials to cell phones. While that vision may eventually prove realistic, says Das, it's still quite futuristic. "As plastics are used to make this and not silicon, it will be incredibly low-cost -- you could compare it to the cost of printing ink on paper," he said. "However, if it was ready today, everybody would be doing it."

Bright Future for Solar Power Satellites
Two new studies looking at the feasibility of space-based solar power - orbiting satellites that would serve as high-tech space dams - suggest the concept shouldn't be readily dismissed and could generate both Earth-bound and space-based benefits. These "powersats" would catch the flood of energy flowing from the Sun and then pump it to Earth via laser or microwave beam. On earth it would be converted to electricity and fed into power grids to be tapped by terrestrial customers. The thought of beaming energy to Earth via satellite was first brought to light in the late 1960s by Peter Glaser, a technologist at Arthur D. Little in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Into the 1970s and 1980s, the challenges of Space Solar Power (SSP) were reviewed numerous times. NASA, the Department of Energy, other government, industry and private groups have given the concept the once-over. A swarm of unknowns and criticisms always fly in tight formation around the prospect of energy-beaming satellites actually having any economic benefit to Earth. Among them: The size, complexity, and cost of an SSP undertaking are daunting challenges. International legal, political, and social acceptability issues abound. Health or environmental hazards from laser or microwave beams broadcast from space appear worrisome. Additionally, in the battle of energy market forces on Earth, any SSP constellation may prove far too costly to be worth metering.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

In 1995, NASA embarked on what's tagged as a Fresh Look study. SSP feasibility, technologies, costs, markets, and international public attitudes were addressed. In general, NASA found that the march of technology and America's overall space prowess has re-energized the case for SSP. NASA did point out, however, that launch cost to orbit remains far too high - but that this problem was being attacked. Investment strategy For the last few years, interest in SSP has grown, not only at NASA, but also in the U.S. Congress and the White House Office of Management and Budget. For its part, the space agency has scripted a research and technology, as well as investment roadmap. This SSP stepping stone approach would enhance other space, military, and commercial applications. A special study group of the National Research Council (NRC) has taken a new look at NASA's current SSP efforts. Their findings are in the NRC report: Laying the Foundation for Space Solar Power - An Assessment of NASA's Space Solar Power Investment Strategy. Richard Schwartz, dean of the Schools of Engineering at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana, chaired the 9-person NRC panel. While not advocating or discouraging SSP, the advisory team said "it recognizes that significant changes have occurred since 1979 that might make it worthwhile for the United States to invest in either SSP or its component technologies." The study urges a sharper look at perceived and/or actual environmental and health risks that SSP might involve. The NRC study group singled out several technological advances relevant to SSP:
y

Improvements have been seen in efficiency of solar cells and production of lightweight, solar-cell laden panels;

y

Wireless power transmission tests on Earth is progressing, specifically in Japan and Canada;

y

Robotics, viewed as essential to SSP on-orbit assembly, has shown substantial improvements in manipulators, machine vision systems, hand-eye coordination, task planning, and reasoning; and
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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy
y

Advanced composites are in wider use, and digital control systems are now state of the art - both developments useful in building an SSP.

ISS test platform Overall, the NRC experts gave NASA's SSP approach a thumbs-up. The space agency's current work is directed at technical areas "that have important commercial, civil, and military applications for the nation." A top recommendation is that industry experts, academia, and officials from other government agencies -- such as the Department of Energy, Defense Department, and the National Reconnaissance Organization -- should be engaged in charting SSP activities, along with NASA. The panel said that significant breakthroughs are required to achieve the final goal of SSP cranking out cost-competitive terrestrial power. The ultimate success of the terrestrial power application of powering-beaming satellites critically depends on "dramatic reductions" in the cost of transportation from Earth to geosynchronous orbit, the group reported. Furthermore, the SSP reviewers call for ground demonstrations of point-to-point wireless power transmission. NASA should study the desirability of ground-to-space and space-to-space demonstrations. In this area, the International Space Station could act as a platform to test out SSP-related hardware, the study group said. Energy as hope In summary, the NRC panel members noted that for any SSP program to churn out commercially competitive terrestrial electric power, breakthrough technologies are required. That being said, even if the ultimate goal of supplying competitive energy is not attained, the experts added: "«the technology investments proposed will have many collateral benefits for nearer-term, less-cost-sensitive space applications and for non-space use of technology advances."

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Hubert Davis, a committee member on the NRC study, sees SSP as perhaps the right technology for today. Throughout the 1970s, he managed future programs for the NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, and is now an independent aerospace consultant. "In looking at our current world situation, I believe that what is most needed is hope. Power from space may be one of the best means for us to offer that hope," Davis told SPACE.com. Davis said that an exploratory research, development and demonstration program for power from space is needed. It would be accompanied by a major international aid effort using terrestrial photovoltaics. In areas where no power exists, village "life support systems" can be established to provide potable water, lights, modern communications, refrigeration, information, and perhaps a few sewing machines, he said. "These complementary steps may buy us the time we need to fulfill this new hope«for everyone," Davis said. In-orbit power plug Following on the heels of the NRC's new look at SSP is an assessment completed by Resources for the Future (RFF) a Washington-based group that studies energy and environmental policy. It focuses on off-planet uses of an in-orbit "power plug", or as some label it, a "solar array on steroids." The idea is to have a filler-up facility for electrically hungry satellites, observatories, space platforms and the like. That study is titled: An Economic Assessment of Space Solar Power as a Source of Electricity for Space-Based Activities. RFF's Molly Macauley and James Davis of The Aerospace Corporation authored the piece. They observe that customers of a future SSP station could be many. Commercial telecommunications and remote sensing spacecraft, governmental research and defense satellites, space manufacturing facilities, as well as space travel and tourism industries could draw energy from such a station. There is a potentially large market that might benefit from this pay for power approach.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Another attractiveness of a space-based power station is leaving heavy solar panels back on Earth. Less massive spacecraft would be cheaper to orbit. That also means more science gear could be crammed onboard a satellite. "Our study argues that we could do testing and demonstrations of in-space power sooner than for terrestrial power," Macauley told SPACE.com. The researcher was also a member of the NRC study on SSP. Show me the energy Macauley and Davis surveyed satellite designers and operators, gleaning insight about the value of having an SSP "power depot" in space. Whisking watts of power through space to run commercial geostationary satellites looks like a very lucrative and large market, they report. On the other hand, while the willingness of potential customers to adopt a new power technology like SSP is promising, flight testing the idea would help boost adoption of the in-space energy idea. Early on, supplying power from an SSP could gain greater acceptance as a supplement, rather than a substitute for, an existing power system on a spacecraft, Macauley and Davis note. Macauley said that in future years the space-based power market could be really big in dollar terms. Still to be determined is where to place an SSP, or whether or not there's need for a constellation of SSP satellites. "Given our estimate of the market, can SSP designers create an SSP that's financially attractive? We also realize that other technological innovation in spacecraft power is proceeding apace with SSP," Macauley said. "So SSP advocates need to 'look over their shoulders' to stay ahead of those innovations and to capitalize on those that are complementary with SSP," she said. "The ownership and financing of SSP may be handled as a commercial venture," Macauley and Davis report, "perhaps in partnership with government during initial operation but then becoming a commercial wholesale cooperative." Once an SSP is fully deployed, the private sector is likely to be a far more efficient operator of the power plug in space, the researchers said.
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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

The Future of Solar-Powered Homes
It¶s a competition, now held every other year (this was the third Decathlon since 2002). It¶s produced by the Department of Energy as a showcase for the latest high-tech solar homes² designed and built by college students. The universities¶ engineering and architecture students begin working one or two years in advance to design a completely self-powered home. This year, there were 38 entries, mostly from the United States and Europe.

The top 20 teams got a unique invitation: to transport the houses, by truck or ship, piece by piece, from their schools to the Mall in Washington, D.C., the strip between the Washington Monument and the Capitol. The Energy Department gives each finalist team $100,000 to defray the transportation costs, although that¶s a drop in the bucket compared to the total amount some of these teams spent on their homes: up to $1 million, usually from donations and alumni. There they were, last month: 20 houses, reassembled, arrayed in a little solar village, fully operational and open to the public. (You can see a lot of photos at www.solardecathlon.org.)

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

The point of the event is to illustrate that ³solar´ no longer means ³hippy hangout,´ ³ugly box´ or ³Spartan shack.´ The homes are gorgeous on the inside, and, usually, on the outside. (Rules limit the house to 800 square feet, not counting porches, patios, and gardens; that, and the necessity to get them to Washington on trucks, dictated a certain boxiness to some of the floor plans.) There was nothing Spartan about these homes. In fact, the name Decathlon is a reference to the ten categories that these homes can rack up points in the contest: architecture, engineering, market viability, communications, comfort zone, appliances, hot water, lighting, energy balance (bonus points if you generate more power than you use), and ³getting around.´ These houses are completely ³off the grid´²they¶re not connected to the utility companies. Yet the teams have to live like normal Americans. Using only power from the sun, they have to keep the TV on six hours a day, run the computer five hours a day, cook meals, wash dishes, do two loads of laundry a week, take four 15-minute hot showers a week, keep the temperature between 70 and 78 degrees, maintain 40 to 60 percent humidity, and recharge an electric two-seater car (that¶s the ³getting around´ part). In short, they have to prove that living on solar power does not involve sacrifice. Far from it. Some of these houses had hot tubs, outdoor hot showers, SubZero refrigerators, mood lighting and full-blown home-entertainment systems. Most houses incorporated reclaimed and recycled materials, too. We saw furniture made from compressed fly ash from coal-burning power plants; beams and plywood made of bamboo, which grows four times as fast as hardwood; flooring reclaimed from demolished buildings; and so on. The University of Maryland team installed a wide, bookcase-sized, indoor waterfall²not just to soothe the soul, but to pull humidity out of the air. It was a desiccant solution²like the ³Do not eat´ packets that come in your electronics, but in liquid form²that absorbs moisture. Drier air inside means that you don¶t need to run the air conditioner as much. The saturated waterfall

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

flows out the bottom to an outdoor evaporator; the re-concentrated solution is pumped back in to the waterfall, and the cycle begins again. All of the houses used arrays of glass tubes, resembling black fluorescent lights, for hot water. They cook your water as high as 220 degrees, which ought to be hot enough for most people. From Germany, the University of Darmstadt¶s amazing house was a glass cube wrapped on all sides by what looked like beautiful wooden shutters. But in fact, these were louvers covered with solar panels²computer-controlled to track the sun¶s arc. The Germans¶ house was filled with cool energy touches²like the oven whose floor descends from the bottom to present your food, lowering like an elevator. The rising heat stays in the oven, rather than pouring into the kitchen as it does when you open a traditional oven door. The sheetrock of this home¶s walls was infused with paraffin (candle wax). Why? To absorb heat and liquefy during the day, and then release the heat and re-solidify at night. On the weekends, the lines to get into this house were an hour long. Maybe it¶s no surprise; Germany is really into solar power. By German law, if you have solar panels, the power company must buy any excess electricity you generate. As a result, families routinely pocket a handy $100 or $150 a month²from the local utility. There¶s a gold rush for roof space, and solar technology is a red-hot market. It¶s brilliant. In this country, however²well, not so much. Richard King, the Decathlon director, told me that utilities don¶t pay you for excess electricity. You can have a $0 electric bill, but you can¶t make money. In fact, although individual states (notably California) have some promising solar incentives, the United States has practically no national solar policy at all. There¶s only one solar-installation tax-incentive program²according to www.dsireusa.org, you can deduct up to 30 percent of the cost of solar panels, maximum $2,000²and it expires at the end of next year.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

No wonder, then, that I encountered a certain amount of cynicism, even among some of the participants and staff, about the Department of Energy¶s motives in mounting the Solar Decathlon. (³It¶s a PR stunt,´ muttered one when the camera wasn¶t rolling.) But you know what? It doesn¶t matter. The Solar Decathlon has grown up to become exactly what it¶s supposed to be: an amazing, inspiring, head-turning show, where the public can see just how far solar has come. I wish you could have seen it.

How to brighten solar power's future
THROUGHOUT the energy crisis of 2000 and 2001, as a confluence of political ineptitude and corporate greed led to rolling blackouts and breathtaking price spikes in electricity, the sun never stopped shining in California. It's time to connect the dots. Solar energy has the potential to help this state buffer the demand for new power plants that consume natural gas -- and leave Californians vulnerable to the types of wild price fluctuations that sent public utilities into bankruptcy and forced Gov. Gray Davis to grope for desperate financing schemes just to keep the lights on. One of the many lessons of the energy crisis was that California needed to develop a more diverse and reliable supply of electricity. Solar energy should be one of those elements. Two state senators, Republican John Campbell of Irvine and Democrat Kevin Murray of Los Angeles, have been pushing legislation to promote solar development in California. Their measure (SB1) has the endorsement of Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger, who has been compiling a commendable record of leadership on environmental issues. SB1 has been called the "million solar roofs" bill, though the actual number of units that result would depend on how Californians respond to the measure's incentives.
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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

"The energy crisis of a few years ago made it obvious and plain that we needed to gain control of our destiny," Murray said in a telephone interview last week. "There's no trader that can game the system and drive up the price of the sun." One of the more innovative provisions of the bill would require developers of subdivisions of 50 or more homes to offer solar panels as an option. A similar bill by Murray last year would have required a percentage of a development's homes to have solar panels, but its defeat led Murray to turn the mandate into an option in the latest version. Obviously, the appeal of the solar option requires more than a tug at a homeowner's conscience to do his or her part to reduce global warming and reduce the state's dependence on fossil fuels. Consumers are going to want to do the math: Does the $15,000 investment of a solar panel generate a sufficient return in lower utility bills? Today, for most homeowners, the answer is no -- though state rebates and tax credits help narrow the gap. The Campbell-Murray bill would extend state solar rebates for homes and businesses -- now set to expire in December 2007 -- through 2016. The cost of those subsidies would be covered by a fee on utility bills to be determined by the California Public Utilities Commission. The prospect of a new surcharge on utility bills has encountered resistance from The Utility Reform Network, a consumer advocacy group. The fee is expected to be in the range of 50 cents a month for most residential consumers. But it is important to note that ratepayers would be bearing the cost of any power plants that might have to be built if the solar option is not cultivated. Also, SB1 specifies that low-income customers would be exempt from the fee. Japan offers a model of how government policies can nurture an economically vital and environmentally beneficial solar industry. The island nation began its intensively subsidized solar effort in 1994 and within a decade it possessed nearly half of the world's photovoltaic capacity. Cost of the solar units dropped steadily -- as did the need for government subsidies, which are expected to be fully phased out in the next year.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Today, many Japanese homes actually generate more electricity than they consume, allowing homeowners to sell back the excess to their utility company. Campbell and Murray have a similar vision for California. "I think it probably would happen on its own, but it may take 10 years," Campbell said in a telephone interview last week. "What this will do is accelerate the process." California's residential development and energy-consumption patterns are ideally tailored to solar power. Much of the state's growth is occurring in the inland areas, where scorching summer days get the air conditioners blasting and put the greatest strain on the energy supply. The sun can be part of the solution. The Campbell-Murray bill cleared the Senate on a bipartisan 30-5 vote, but it faces a difficult course in the Assembly, where some members have a disturbing tendency to "take a walk" on measures opposed by powerful interests. Homebuilders are skeptical about the prospects for solar; utilities and manufacturers are objecting to the ratepayer surcharges; labor unions want to be assured a piece of the action. Nothing is ever easy in the politics of Sacramento. The biggest hurdle to passage of SB1 may be the effort by organized labor to include a provision that would require the payment of "prevailing wage" -- or union scale -- to installers of solar panels on all homes and businesses that receive state subsidies. But as Campbell noted, the purpose of this bill is to reduce the cost of solar energy. A prevailing-wage requirement would clearly be at odds with the spirit of SB1, which seeks to lower the cost of the systems. The development of solar energy is important to this state's long-term interest, both for its economy and its quality of life. The Assembly should send SB1 to the governor for his signature.

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Global scope and opportunities of solar energy

Reference
1. http://www.buyusa.gov/kern/18.ppt 2. http://www.buyusa.gov/kern/19.ppt 3. http://www.buyusa.gov/kern/20.ppt 4. http://www.buyusa.gov/kern/21.ppt 5. http://www.buyusa.gov/kern/22.ppt 6. http://www.buyusa.gov/kern/23.ppt 7. http://www.buyusa.gov/kern/24.ppt 8. http://www.buyusa.gov/kern/25.ppt 9. http://www.buyusa.gov/kern/26.ppt 10. http://www.buyusa.gov/kern/27.ppt 11. http://www.buyusa.gov/kern/28.ppt

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