The Origin of Consciousness

The Origin of Consciousness [Part I] by Bert Thompson, Ph.D. Brad Harrub, Ph.D. [EDITOR’S NOTE: In the anuary and !ebruary "ssues o# Reason & Revelation, $e ran the #"rst "n a mu%t"&part ser"es o# art"'%es dea%"n( $"th the top"'s o# the or"("n o# the bra"n and m"nd, and the or"("n o# human 'ons'"ousness. Those t$o "nsta%%ments e)am"ned the "nsuperab%e prob%em that e*ery mater"a%"st"' theory o# or"("ns #a'es $hen attempt"n( to e)p%a"n+by pure%y natura% 'auses+ ho$ someth"n( as 'omp%e) as the bra"n and m"nd 'ame to be. The ,pr"% and -ay "ssues are de*oted to the e*en more d"##"'u%t prob%em o# the or"("n o# 'ons'"ousness. The %ate e*o%ut"on"st o# Har*ard, Stephen ay .ou%d, 'and"d%y adm"tted that /'ons'"ousness, *ou'hsa#ed on%y to our spe'"es "n the h"story o# %"#e on earth, is the most god-awfully potent evolutionary invention ever developed 0 12334, p. ")5. But how d"d "t de*e%op6 The ans$er to that 7uest"on has e%uded, and 'ont"nues to e%ude, mater"a%"st"' resear'hers "n e*ery d"s'"p%"ne+#rom s'"en'e to ph"%osophy. 8a%"ant 1and repeated95 attempts to e)p%a"n 'ons'"ousness ha*e been made, to be sure. But a%% ha*e #a%%en #ar short o# the mar:. Tu#ts ;n"*ers"ty ph"%osopher Dan"e% Dennett $as e*en so bo%d as to author a boo: $"th the se%#&'on(ratu%atory t"t%e, Consciousness Explained+$h"'h prompt%y $as dubbed by h"s #e%%o$ mater"a%"sts as Consciousness Ignored, be'ause "t #a"%ed so m"serab%y "n "ts 7uest. Rare%y "s a top"' o# su'h pro#ound s"(n"#"'an'e that I author"<e a spe'"a% doub%e "ssue o# Reason & Revelation to dea% $"th "t. But on o''as"on 1su'h as "n the -ay and une =>>? "ssues dea%"n( $"th the B"( Ban(5, the sub@e't matter "s s"mp%y so 'r"t"'a%%y "mportant, and so ur(ent "n "ts "mp%"'at"ons, that I #ee% a doub%e "ssue "s @ust"#"ed. Th"s "s one su'h o''as"on. ,s Dr. Harrub and I obser*ed "n our t$o&part ser"es on the or"("n o# (ender and reprodu't"on 1see Reason & Revelation, O'tober and No*ember =>>=5, e*o%ut"on"sts re#er to the or"("n o# se) as /the 7ueen o# prob%ems.0 I# that "s the 'ase, then sure%y the or"("n o# 'ons'"ousness 7ua%"#"es as /the :"n( o# prob%ems.0 I "n*"te you to @o"n us on $hat I be%"e*e you $"%% #"nd "s an abso%ute%y #as'"nat"n( @ourney "nto the or"("n o# the un"7ue aspe't o# human"ty that ma:es "t poss"b%e #or you to understand $hat you are read"n(+'ons'"ousness.A Bhen spea:"n( o# 'ons'"ousness 1a%so re#erred to "n the %"terature as /se%#&a$areness05, e*o%ut"on"sts #ree%y adm"t that, #rom the"r *anta(e po"nt at %east, /'ons'"ousness "s one’s most pre'"ous possess"on0 1E%bert, =>>>, p. =?25. Da*"d -a'Cay o# the ;n"*ers"ty o# Cee%e "n En(%and $rote: /[Dons'"ousness "sA #or us, the most "mportant aspe't o# a%%0 123EF, p. G3H5. Reno$ned pa%eoanthropo%o("st R"'hard Iea:ey stated the "ssue %":e th"s: /The sense o# se%#& a$areness $e ea'h e)per"en'e "s so br"%%"ant "t "%%um"nates e*eryth"n( $e th"n: and do...0 1233G, p. 2?35. In the"r boo:, Evolution, the %ate (enet"'"st Theodos"us Dob<hans:y and h"s 'o&authors $rote: /In po"nt o# #a't, self-awareness is the most immediate and incontrovertible of all realities. B"thout doubt, the human m"nd sets our spe'"es apart #rom nonhuman an"ma%s0 1Dob<hans:y, et a%., 2344, p. GF?, emp. added5. Er*"n Ias<%o, "n h"s *o%ume, Evolution: The Grand Synthesis, 'ommented: The phenomenon of mind is perhaps the most remar able of all the phenomena of the lived and e!perienced world. Its e)p%anat"on be%on(s to a (rand trad"t"on o# ph"%osophy+to the

perenn"a% /(reat 7uest"ons0 that ea'h (enerat"on o# th"n:ers ans$ers ane$...or despa"rs o# ans$er"n( at a%% 123H4, p. 22E, e%%"ps"s "n or"(., emp. added5. The %ate Robert Besson, $ho $as a mu'h&respe'ted Hoo*er Inst"tut"on Sen"or Resear'h !e%%o$, obser*ed "n h"s boo:, Beyond Natural Selection: I"#e has a dua% nature: "ts mater"a% bas"s and the essen'e o# #un't"ona%"ty and respons"*eness that d"st"n(u"shes %"*"n( th"n(s and #%our"shes at h"(her %e*e%s o# e*o%ut"on. The material and the mental are both real, @ust as are 'ausat"on and $"%%. The m"nd der"*es r"'hness #rom these t$o s"des, %":e #ee%"n( and bod"%y #un't"on, %o*e and se), the sp"r"tua% and the 'arna%, the @oy o# 'reat"on and the sat"s#a't"on o# bod"%y $ants 12334, p. =4H, emp. added5. Or, as ph"%osopher -"'hae% Ruse remar:ed: / The important thing from our perspective is that consciousness is a real thing . Be are sent"ent be"n(s0 1=>>2b, p. =>>, emp. added5. S"r Dyr"% H"nshe%$ood, pro#essor o# 'hem"stry at the Imper"a% Do%%e(e "n Iondon, 'ommented: /I a%most hes"tate to say th"s "n a s'"ent"#"' (ather"n(J but one does @ust $onder what would be the point or purpose of anything at all if there were not consciousness anywhere" 0 123EF, p. F>>, emp. added5. ,nd 'reat"on"sts 'erta"n%y a(ree. In h"s $or:, Understanding the Present: Science and the Soul o !odern !an, the"st Bryan ,pp%eyard obser*ed: I"(ht, (ra*"ty, e*en the $ho%e b"o%o("'a% rea%m are re%ated to us on%y "n the most super#"'"a% $ay: $e re#%e't %"(ht, "# dropped $e #a%% and $e ha*e a body system rou(h%y 'omparab%e to a %ar(e number o# an"ma%s. #ll of which is trivial compared with the one attribute we have that is denied to the rest of nature$consciousness 1233=, pp. 23?&23G, emp. added5. Kes, 'ons'"ousness "s a /rea% th"n(.0 But $hy "s "t an /"mportant th"n(06 Stephen ay .ou%d 'on'%uded: Dons'"ousness, *ou'hsa#ed on%y to our spe'"es "n the h"story o# %"#e on earth, "s the most (od& a$#u%%y potent e*o%ut"onary "n*ent"on e*er de*e%oped. ,%thou(h a''"denta% and unpred"'tab%e, "t has ("*en "o#o sapiens unpre'edented po$er both o*er the h"story o# our o$n spe'"es and the %"#e o# the ent"re 'ontemporary b"osphere 12334, p. ")5. B"th 'ons'"ousness has 'ome the ab"%"ty to 'ontro%+$e%%+a%most e*eryth"n(9 But $"th that /unpre'edented po$er0 has 'ome unpre'edented respons"b"%"ty be'ause, as e*en e*o%ut"on"sts are $ont to adm"t, a't"ons ha*e 'onse7uen'es. Be%%&:no$n e*o%ut"on"st Dona%d .r"##"n, "n the =>>2 re*"sed ed"t"on o# h"s '%ass"' te)t, $ni#al !inds: Beyond Cognition to Consciousness, adm"tted as mu'h $hen he $rote: It "s se%#&e*"dent that $e are a$are o# at %east some o# $hat (oes on around us and that $e th"n: about our s"tuat"on and about the probab%e resu%ts o# *ar"ous a't"ons that $e m"(ht ta:e. This sort of conscious sub%ective mental e!perience is significant and useful because it often helps us select appropriate behavior 1p. "), emp. added5. /Se%e't"n( appropr"ate beha*"or0 1or, as the 'ase may be, not se%e't"n( appropr"ate beha*"or5 be'omes a :ey po"nt "n th"s d"s'uss"on. ,s e*o%ut"on"sts ohn E''%es and Dan"e% Rob"nson 'orre't%y obser*ed "n The %onder o Being "u#an: &ur Brain and &ur !ind: /Bhether one

ta:es human be"n(s to be L'h"%dren o# .od,’ Ltoo%s o# produ't"on,’ Lmatter "n mot"on,’ or La spe'"es o# pr"mate’ has 'onse7uen'es0 123HG, p. 25. Kes, as $e $"%% sho$, "t 'erta"n%y does. T&' ()*+T',*- O. &/)#0 CO0+CIO/+0'++ Dons'"ousness "s unden"ab%y rea%. ,nd "t does ha*e 'onse7uen'es+someth"n( that pra't"'a%%y e*ery rat"ona% human #ree%y a':no$%ed(es. But admitting a%% o# that turns out to be the easy part. The d"##"'u%ty ar"ses "n e)p%a"n"n( why+$hy 'ons'"ousness e)"stsJ $hy "t "s rea%J $hy "t $or:s the $ay "t doesJ $hy "t /has 'onse7uen'es.0 Bhen "t 'omes to e)p%a"n"n( the or"("n o# 'ons'"ousness, e*o%ut"on"sts 'on'ede 1to use the"r e)a't $ords5: /D%ear%y, $e are "n deep troub%e0 1E''%es and Rob"nson, 23HG, p. 245. ust ho$ /deep0 that /troub%e0 rea%%y "s, appears to be one o# the most $"de%y :no$n+yet best&:ept+se'rets "n s'"en'e. In a 'hapter 1/The Human Bra"n and the Human Person05 he authored #or the boo:, !ind and Brain: The !any' aceted Pro(le#s, E''%es $rote: The emer(en'e and de*e%opment o# se%#&'ons'"ousness..."s an utter%y myster"ous pro'ess.... The 'om"n(&to&be o# se%#&'ons'"ousness "s a mystery that 'on'erns ea'h person $"th "ts 'ons'"ous and un"7ue se%#hood 123H=, pp. HF,345. Or, as Br"t"sh phys"'"st ohn Po%:"n(horne put "t: /The human psy'he has re*ea%ed "ts shado$y and e%us"*e depths0 123HE, p. F5. Dons"der the #o%%o$"n( adm"ss"ons #rom those $"th"n the e*o%ut"onary 'ommun"ty, and as you do, not"'e the des'r"pt"*e terms 1/prob%em,0 /mystery,0 /pu<<%e,0 /r"dd%e,0 /'ha%%en(e,0 et'.5 that (enera%%y are emp%oyed "n any d"s'uss"on o# 'ons'"ousness. Consciousness is the highest manifestation of life1 but as to its origin1 destiny1 and the nature of its connection with the physical body and brain$these are as yet unsolved metaphysical 2uestions, the ans$er to $h"'h 'an on%y be #ound by 'ont"nued resear'h "n the d"re't"on o# h"(her phys"'a% and psy'h"'a% s'"en'e 1Darr"n(ton, 23=?, p. FG, emp. added5. 0obody has the slightest idea how anything material could be conscious . Nobody e*en :no$s $hat "t $ou%d be %":e to ha*e the s%"(htest "dea about ho$ anyth"n( mater"a% 'ou%d be 'ons'"ous 1!odor, 233=, p. F, emp. added5. Be need to '%ose the (ap bet$een the phys"'a% and sub@e't"*e rea%ms o# th"s top"' be#ore $e 'an hope to rea'h an understand"n( o# 'ons'"ousness. /ntil then it remains, a''ord"n( to Scienti ic $#erican, /biology3s most profound riddle0 1 ohanson and Ed(ar, 233E, p. 2>4, emp. added5. The problem of consciousness tends to embarrass biologists . Ta:"n( "t to be an aspe't o# %"*"n( th"n(s, they #ee% they shou%d :no$ about "t and be ab%e to te%% phys"'"sts about "t, $hereas they ha*e noth"n( re%e*ant to say 1Ba%d, 233G, p. 2=3, emp. added5. Be be%"e*e that the emergence of consciousness is a s eleton in the closet of orthodo! evolutionism.... It rema"ns @ust as en"(mat"' as "t "s to an orthodo) e*o%ut"on"st as %on( as "t "s re(arded as an e)'%us"*e%y natura% pro'ess "n an e)'%us"*e%y mater"a%"st $or%d 1E''%es and Rob"nson, 23HG, pp. 24,2H, emp. added5. Bhat the 'onne't"on, or the re%at"onsh"p, "s bet$een $hat (oes on menta%%y "n the m"nd and $hat (oes on phys"'a%%y "n the bra"n, nobody :no$s. Perhaps $e sha%% ne*er :no$. The so-called mind4brain problem has proved so elusive1 many have come to regard it as a mystery of ultimate significance.... ;n%":e %ess&'omp%"'ated phys"'a% stru'tures, the brain is accompanied by consciousness. #s we said earlier1 we do not now why this should be . !or the t"me be"n( at %east, $e must s"mp%y a''ept "t as a brute #a't 1Stannard, =>>>, pp. G2&G=,GG, emp. added5.

The emergence of full consciousness...is indeed one of the greatest of miracles 1Popper and E''%es, 2344, p. 2=3, emp. added5. CO0+CIO/+0'++ 5'.I0'5 The past three de'ades ha*e $"tnessed a ser"ous and not"'eab%e "n'rease "n "nterest "n the sub@e't o# 'ons'"ousness, a''ompan"ed by a sur(e o# pub%"'at"ons, ne$ s'"ent"#"' andMor ph"%osoph"'a% @ourna%s, and s'"ent"#"' meet"n(s 1#or e)amp%es $"th"n the %ast #e$ years see: .reen#"e%d, =>>=J To%son, =>>=J Iemon"':, =>>?a, =>>?bJ P"n:er, =>>?5. One $ou%d th"n: that s"n'e so much has been $r"tten on the top"' o# 'ons'"ousness, sure%y the de#"n"t"on o# th"s o#t’&d"s'ussed "ssue $ou%d be a stra"(ht#or$ard, s"mp%e matter. Th"n: a(a"n9 [One d"'t"onary on psy'ho%o(y had the #o%%o$"n( entry under /'ons'"ousness0: /Dons'"ousness "s a #as'"nat"n( but e%us"*e phenomenonJ "t "s "mposs"b%e to spe'"#y $hat "t "s, $hat "t does or $hy "t e*o%*ed. Noth"n( $orth read"n( has been $r"tten about "t0 1Suther%and, 23H35.A S'"ent"sts and ph"%osophers 'annot e*en a(ree on the de#"n"t"on o# the term, mu'h %ess on the or"("n o# that $h"'h they are attempt"n( to de#"ne.

Our En(%"sh $ord /'ons'"ousness0 has "ts roots "n the Iat"n conscio, #ormed by the 'oa%es'en'e o# cu# 1mean"n( /$"th05 and scio 1mean"n( /:no$05. In "ts or"("na% Iat"n sense, to be 'ons'"ous o# someth"n( $as to share :no$%ed(e o# "t, $"th someone e%se, or $"th onese%#. ,s En(%"sh s'ho%ar D.S. Ie$"s noted "n h"s Studies in %ords: , /$ea:ened0 sense o# conscientia 'oe)"sted "n Iat"n $"th the stron(er sense, $h"'h "mp%"es shared :no$%ed(e: "n th"s $ea: sense conscientia $as, s"mp%y, :no$%ed(e. ,%% three senses 1:no$%ed(e shared $"th another, :no$%ed(e shared $"th onese%# and, s"mp%y, :no$%ed(e5 entered the En(%"sh %an(ua(e $"th /'ons'"en'e,0 the #"rst e7u"*a%ent o# conscientia. The $ords /'ons'"ous0 and /'ons'"ousness0 #"rst appear ear%y "n the 24th 'entury, rap"d%y #o%%o$ed by /se%#&'ons'"ous0 and /se%#&'ons'"ousness0 123E>5.

Dons'"ousness, ho$e*er, has be'ome a rather amb"(uous term "n "ts e*eryday usa(e. It 'an re#er to: 125 a $a:"n( stateJ 1=5 e)per"en'eJ and 1?5 the possess"on o# any menta% state. It may be he%p#u% to the reader to pro*"de an e)amp%e o# ea'h o# these three usa(es: 125 the "n@ured $or:er %apsed "nto un'ons'"ousnessJ 1=5 the 'r"m"na% be'ame 'ons'"ous o# a terr"b%e sense o# dread at the thou(ht o# be"n( apprehendedJ and 1?5 I am 'ons'"ous o# the #a't that somet"mes I (et on your ner*es. ,nthony O’Hear su((ested: In be"n( 'ons'"ous o# myse%# as myse%#, I see myse%# as separate #rom $hat "s not myse%#. In be"n( 'ons'"ous, a be"n( rea'ts to the $or%d $"th #ee%"n(, $"th p%easure and pa"n, and responds on the bas"s o# #e%t needs.... Dons'"ousness "n*o%*es rea't"n( to st"mu%" and #ee%"n( st"mu%" 12334, pp. ==,?H5. The phrase /se%#&'ons'"ousness,0 at t"mes, 'an be e7ua%%y amb"(uous, as "t may "n'%ude: 125 proneness to embarrassment "n so'"a% sett"n(sJ 1=5 the ab"%"ty to dete't our o$n sensat"ons and re'a%% our re'ent a't"onsJ 1?5 se%#&re'o(n"t"onJ 1G5 the a$areness o# a$arenessJ and 1F5 se%#& :no$%ed(e "n the broadest sense 1see Neman, =>>2, 2=G:2=EG5. O’Hear $ent on to su((est: , se%#&'ons'"ous person, then, does not s"mp%y ha*e be%"e#s or d"spos"t"ons, does not s"mp%y en(a(e "n pra't"'es o# *ar"ous sorts, does not @ust respond to or su##er the $or%d. He or she "s a$are that he or she has be%"e#s, pra't"'es, d"spos"t"ons, and the rest. It "s th"s a$areness o# myse%# as a sub@e't o# e)per"en'e, as a ho%der o# be%"e#s, and an en(a(er "n pra't"'es, $h"'h 'onst"tutes my se%#& 'ons'"ousness. , 'ons'"ous an"ma% m"(ht be a :no$er, and $e m"(ht e)tend the ep"thet /:no$er0 to ma'h"nes "# they re'e"*e "n#ormat"on #rom the $or%d and mod"#y the"r responses a''ord"n(%y. 6ut only a self-conscious being nows that he is a nower1pp. =?&=G, emp. added5. Neurob"o%o("st ,nton"o Damas"o be%"e*es that 'ons'"ousness 'omes "n t$o d"##erent #orms. !"rst "s /core consciousness,0 $h"'h "s %"m"ted to the here and no$, and "s $hat $e share $"th other h"(her pr"mates. The se'ond, $h"'h "s the "n(red"ent humans possess that ma:es us un"7ue, he has %abe%ed as /e!tended consciousness.0 Th"s type o# 'ons'"ousness adds a$areness o# past and #uture to the m") 1see Tattersa%%, =>>=, p. 4?5. Nobe% %aureate .era%d Ede%man, d"re'tor o# neuros'"en'es and 'ha"rman o# the department o# neurob"o%o(y at the S'r"pps Resear'h Inst"tute 1233=, pp. 224&2=?5, be%"e*es $e shou%d d"st"n(u"sh bet$een $hat he 'a%%s /pr"mary 'ons'"ousness0 1e7u"*a%ent to Damas"o’s /'ore 'ons'"ousness05 and /h"(her&order 'ons'"ousness0 1e7u"*a%ent to Damas"o’s /e)tended 'ons'"ousness05. [Stan#ord ;n"*ers"ty b"o%o("st Pau% Ehr%"'h pre#ers the terms /'ons'"ousness0 and /"ntense 'ons'"ousness0 1=>>>, pp. 22>&22=5.A Bhat "s "n*o%*ed "n the trans"t"on #rom pr"mary to h"(her 'ons'"ousness "s that the sub@e't o# the 'ons'"ousness does not mere%y /ha*e0 e)per"en'es, but "s ab%e, o*er and abo*e that, to re#"ne, a%ter, and report "ts e)per"en'es. Pr"mary 'ons'"ousness %a':s any not"on o# an e)per"en'e or se%#. In other $ords, a /non&se%#&'ons'"ous0 'reature "s a$are o# andMor ab%e to rea't to st"mu%". But h"(her&order 'ons'"ousness represents an a$areness o# the p%ans, "deas, and 'on'epts by $h"'h one ma:es one’s $ay "n the $or%d. Ian Tattersa%% 'ommented: /...[IA# 'ons'"ousness $ere someth"n( more sus'ept"b%e to s'"ent"#"' ana%ys"s than "t "s, $e $ou%d 'erta"n%y :no$ a %ot more about "t by no$ than $e do+$h"'h "s *ery %"tt%e "ndeed0 1p. F35. Dona%d ohanson and B%a:e Ed(ar, "n the"r boo:, )ro# *ucy to *anguage, adm"tted that /'ons'"ousness, be"n( "nherent%y s"n(u%ar and sub@e't"*e, "s a tr"':y prospe't #or ob@e't"*e s'"ent"#"' ana%ys"s...0 1233E, p. 2>45. True enou(h. But, as "t turns out, de#"n"n( "t "s no %ess o# a /tr"':y prospe't.0 Nobe% %aureate S"r !ran'"s Dr"': $as not e*en

$"%%"n( to ("*e "t a try. In h"s boo:, The $stonishing "ypothesis: The Scienti ic Search or the Soul, he %amented: E*eryone has a rou(h "dea o# $hat "s meant by 'ons'"ousness. It "s better to a*o"d aprecise de#"n"t"on o# 'ons'"ousness be'ause o# the dan(ers o# premature de#"n"t"ons. ;nt"% the prob%em "s understood mu'h better, any attempt at a #orma% de#"n"t"on "s %":e%y to be e"ther m"s%ead"n( or o*er%y restr"'t"*e or both. I# th"s seems %":e 'heat"n(, try de#"n"n( #or me the $ord gene 1233G, p. =>, emp. "n or"(.5. R"'hard Iea:ey, on the other hand, $as at %east $"%%"n( to "n7u"re: /Bhat is 'ons'"ousness6 -ore spe'"#"'a%%y, $hat "s "t for6 Bhat "s "ts function6 Su'h 7uest"ons may seem odd, ("*en that ea'h o# us e)per"en'es %"#e throu(h the med"um o# 'ons'"ousness, or se%#&a$areness0 1233G, p. 2?3, emp. "n or"(.5. Indeed, su'h 7uest"ons doseem a b"t odd, 'ons"der"n( a%% the /press0 ("*en to the sub@e't o# 'ons'"ousness o*er the past many years. But, as ,dam Neman $rote "n the e)tens"*e re*"e$ o# 'ons'"ousness he prepared #or the u%y =>>2 "ssue o# the s'"ent"#"' @ourna%, Brain: /Bhether s'"ent"#"' obser*at"on and theory $"%% y"e%d a 'omp%ete a''ount o# 'ons'"ousness rema"ns a %"*e "ssue0 12=G:2=EG5. , /%"*e "ssue0 "ndeed9 ust (ett"n( s'"ent"sts and ph"%osophers to a(ree on a standard, 'oherent de#"n"t"on seems to be an a%most "mposs"b%e tas:. In h"s 2334 *o%ume, The *arge+ the S#all and the "u#an Brain , Br"t"sh mathemat"'a% phys"'"st S"r Ro(er Penrose as:ed: / 7hat is consciousness" 7ell1 I don3t now how to define it. I thin this is not the moment to attempt to define consciousness1 since we do not now what it is ...0 1p. 3H, emp. addedJ Penrose’s 'entra% thes"s "s that 'ons'"ousness must be /someth"n( outs"de o# nown phys"'s,0 p. 2>=5. But the #a't that /$e do not :no$ $hat "t "s0 has not pre*ented peop%e #rom o##er"n( a *ar"ety o# de#"n"t"ons #or /our most pre'"ous possess"on,0 'ons'"ousness. ohanson and Ed(ar $ent on to say: !"rst, what is consciousness" 0o single definition may suffice for such an elusive concept , but $e 'an des'r"be 'ons'"ousness as se%#&a$areness and se%#&re#%e't"on, the ab"%"ty to #ee% pa"n or p%easure, the sensat"on o# be"n( a%"*e and o# be"n( us, the sum o# $hate*er passes throu(h the m"nd 1p. 2>4, emp. added5. The"r su((est"on that /no s"n(%e de#"n"t"on may su##"'e #or su'h an e%us"*e 'on'ept0 has been e'hoed by se*era% others $ho ha*e broa'hed the pu<<%e o# 'ons'"ousness. In h"s =>>2 boo:, $ !ind So Rare, Danad"an psy'ho%o("st -er%"n Dona%d 'ommented: [BAe must m"nd our de#"n"t"on o# 'ons'"ousness. It "s not rea%%y a un"tary phenomenon, and a%%o$s more than one de#"n"t"on. In #a't, "t en'ompasses at %east three '%asses o# de#"n"t"on. The #"rst "s the de#"n"t"on o# 'ons'"ousness as a state.... , se'ond '%ass o# #un't"ona% de#"n"t"on ta:es an architectural approa'h, $hereby 'ons'"ousness "s de#"ned as a p%a'e "n the m"nd.... The th"rd de#"n"t"on o# 'ons'"ousness ta:es a #ran:%y human&'entered *"e$ o# 'o(n"t"on and has more to do $"th en%"(htenment, or "%%um"nat"on, than $"th mere attent"on. Th"s "s therepresentational approa'h... 1pp. 22H,223, 2=>, emp. "n or"(.5.

!or ;n"*ers"ty o# Bash"n(ton neurob"o%o("st B"%%"am Da%*"n, 'ons'"ousness 'ons"sts o# /'ontemp%at"n( the past and #ore'ast"n( the #uture, p%ann"n( $hat to do tomorro$, #ee%"n( d"smay $hen see"n( a tra(edy un#o%d, and narrat"n( our %"#e story.0 !or Dambr"d(e ;n"*ers"ty psy'ho%o("st N"'ho%as Humphrey, an essent"a% part o# 'ons'"ousness "s /ra$ sensat"on.0 ,''ord"n( to Ste*en Harnad, ed"tor o# the respe'ted @ourna%, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, /'ons'"ousness "s @ust the 'apa'"ty to ha*e e)per"en'es0 1#or do'umentat"on o# statements by Da%*"n, Humphrey, and Harnad, see Ie$"n, 233=, pp. 2F?&2FG5. ,nd, e*en thou(h Ro(er Penrose started out by adm"tt"n(, /I don’t :no$ ho$ to de#"ne "tJ I th"n: th"s "s not the moment to attempt to de#"ne 'ons'"ousness, s"n'e $e do not :no$ $hat "t "s,0 that d"d not pre*ent h"m #rom o##er"n( up h"s o$n set o# de#"n"t"ons #or 'ons'"ousness. It seems to me that there are at %east t$o d"##erent aspe'ts to 'ons'"ousness. On the one hand, there are passive man"#estat"ons o# 'ons'"ousness, $h"'h "n*o%*e awareness. I use th"s 'ate(ory to "n'%ude th"n(s %":e per'ept"ons o# 'o%our, o# harmon"es, the use o# memory, and so on. On the other hand, there are "ts activeman"#estat"ons, $h"'h "n*o%*e 'on'epts %":e #ree $"%% and the 'arry"n( out o# a't"ons under our #ree $"%% 12334, pp. 3H&33, emp. "n or"(.5. Not"'e ho$ o#ten /'ons'"ousness0 seems to be t"ed to /a$areness0 1or /se%#&'ons'"ousness0 to /se%#&a$areness056 There’s a reason #or that: the t$o #re7uent%y are used "nter'han(eab%y "n the s'"ent"#"' and ph"%osoph"'a% %"terature. E''%es noted: /One 'an a%so use the term se%#&a$areness "nstead o# se%#&'ons'"ousness, but I pre#er se%#&'ons'"ousness be'ause "t re%ates d"re't%y to the se%#&'ons'"ous m"nd0 1233=, p. ?5. The %ate e*o%ut"on"st o# Har*ard, C"rt%ey !. -ather, o##ered h"s persona% op"n"on $hen he sa"d: /[,A$areness "s a term that I pre#er to 'ons'"ousness0 123HE, p. 2=E5. In h"s boo:, The Evolution o Consciousness, Stan#ord ;n"*ers"ty b"o%o("st Robert Ornste"n su((ested: /6eing conscious is being aware of being aware . It "s one step remo*ed #rom the ra$ e)per"en'e o# see"n(, sme%%"n(, a't"n(, mo*"n(, and rea't"n(0 12332, pp. ==F&==E, emp. added5. Pau% Ehr%"'h, "n h"s =>>> te)t, "u#an Natures: Genes+ Cultures+ and the "u#an Prospect , a%so addressed the "ntr"(u"n( 'on'ept o# /se%# 0 'ons'"ousness. Be ha*e a 'ont"nuous sense o# /se%# 0+o# a %"tt%e "nd"*"dua% s"tt"n( bet$een our ears+and, perhaps e7ua%%y "mportant, a sense o# the threat o# death, o# the potent"a% #or that "nd"*"dua%+our se%#+to 'ease to e)"st. I 'a%% a%% o# th"s sort o# a$areness (intense consciousness-8 it is central to human natures and is perhaps the least understood aspect of those natures 1p. 22>, emp. added5. ,nd, %ast but not %east, o# 'ourse, %et "t be noted that e*en thou(h 'erta"n s'"ent"sts and ph"%osophers do not :no$ $hat 'ons'"ousness is, they do :no$ $hat "t is not. ,s e*o%ut"onary human"st erome B. E%bert put "t "n h"s =>>> boo:, $re Souls Real,: Be 'an de#"ne 'ons'"ousness as what it is li e to be a person who is awa e or dreaming and has a normally functioning brain.... By our de#"n"t"on, 'ons'"ousness "s "nterrupted by dream%ess s%eep, and "t returns $hen $e a$a:en or ha*e a dream. By a%most anyone’s de#"n"t"on, 'ons'"ousness %ea*es $hen a person "s under (enera% anesthet"' dur"n( sur(ery. The #a't that 'ons'"ousness 'an be ha%ted and restarted "s e*"den'e that "t "s due to the operat"on o# a pro'ess, rather than the presen'e o# a spiritual entity. Th"s "s 'ons"stent $"th the *"e$ that 'ons'"ousness ar"ses #rom a dynam"' pro'ess $"th"n the bra"n, rather than #rom the presumab%e 'ont"nuous "nd$e%%"n( o# a sou% 1p. ==?, emp. "n or"(.5.

Or, to 7uote Ro(er Penrose: /I am su((est"n( that there are not mental ob%ects floating around out there which are not based in physicality- 12334, p. 34, emp. added5. So mu'h, then, #or the "dea that se%#&'ons'"ousness or se%#&a$areness has any /sp"r"tua%0 or"("n or s"(n"#"'an'e. 7&*$#05 5I5 CO0+CIO/+0'++ #,I+'" &O7$

Bhen S"r Car% Popper and S"r ohn E''%es stated "n the"r '%ass"' te)t, The Sel and -ts Brain, that /the emergence of full consciousness...is indeed one of the greatest of miracles ,0 they d"d not o*erstate the 'ase 12344, p. 2=35. Be sure to not"'e the"r use o# the $ord /emer(en'e.0 The /m"ra'%e0 o# the /emer(en'e0 o# 'ons'"ousness has to do $"th t$o th"n(s: 125 the reason #or "ts e)"sten'eJ and 1=5 the fact o# "ts e)"sten'e. In other $ords,why d"d 'ons'"ousness ar"se, and how d"d "t do so6 7hy 5id Consciousness #rise" !rom the outset, %et us state $hat "s a''epted as 'ommon :no$%ed(e 1and $hat "s @ust as read"%y adm"tted5 $"th"n the s'"ent"#"' 'ommun"ty: e*o%ut"onary theory 'annot be("n to e)p%a"n why 'ons'"ousness arose. In our est"mat"on, one o# the most #as'"nat"n( boo:s pub%"shed $"th"n the %ast th"rty years $as a *o%ume $"th the seem"n(%y unpro#ess"ona% t"t%e, The Encyclopaedia o -gnorance 1see Dun'an and Beston&Sm"th, 23445. But, a%thou(h the t"t%e may appear some$hat $h"ms"'a%, the 'ontent o# the *o%ume "s anyth"n( but. In 'hapter a#ter 'hapter, d"st"n(u"shed, a$ard&$"nn"n( s'"ent"sts 1su'h as Nobe% %aureate S"r !ran'"s Dr"': and t$o&t"me Nobe% %aureate I"nus Pau%"n(5 enun'"ated and e)p%a"ned some o# the most "mportant th"n(s "n the $or%d+things of which science is completely ignorant . Interest"n(%y, one o# the 'hapters "n the boo:, $r"tten by R"'hard .re(ory 1pro#essor o# neuropsy'ho%o(y and d"re'tor o# the bra"n and per'ept"on %aboratory at the ;n"*ers"ty o# Br"sto% "n En(%and5, $as /Dons'"ousness.0 In h"s d"s'uss"on, Dr. .re(ory as:ed: Bhy, then, do $e need 'ons'"ousness6 Bhat does 'ons'"ousness ha*e that the neura% s"(na%s 1and phys"'a% bra"n a't"*"ty5 do not ha*e6 Here there "s someth"n( o# a parado), #or "# the a$areness o# 'ons'"ousness does not ha*e any e##e't+"# 'ons'"ousness "s not a 'ausa% a(ent+then "t seems use%ess, and so shou%d not ha*e de*e%oped by e*o%ut"onary pressure. I#, on the other hand, "t "s use#u%, "t must be a 'ausa% a(ent: but then phys"o%o("'a% des'r"pt"on "n terms o# neura% a't"*"ty 'annot be 'omp%ete. Borse, $e are on th"s a%ternat"*e stu': $"th menta%"st"' e)p%anat"ons, $h"'h seem outs"de s'"en'e 12344, p. =44, parenthet"'a% "tem and emp. "n or"(.5. In th"s br"e# assessment, .re(ory has "so%ated se*era% :ey po"nts. !"rst, $hat does 'ons'"ousness ha*e that the bra"n does not6 Se'ond, "# 'ons'"ousness does not ha*e some /rea% #un't"on,0 then, ob*"ous%y, nature $ou%d ha*e /se%e'ted a(a"nst0 "t+and "t ne*er $ou%d ha*e appeared "n the #"rst p%a'e. Th"rd, "# 'ons'"ousness does "ndeed ha*e some #un't"on, "n %"(ht o# our :no$%ed(e about ho$ the neura% net$or: o# the bra"n operates, what is that function6 ,nd "# there "s bene#"'"a% #un't"on, $hy ha*en’t the bra"ns o# an"ma%s se%e'ted #or "t6 To e'ho .re(ory’s 7uest"on, /Bhy do $e need 'ons'"ousness60 .ood 7uest"on. Ph"%osopher -"'hae% Ruse noted some o# the ma@or hurd%es "n*o%*ed "n /nature0 be"n( ab%e to /se%e't0 #or 'ons'"ousness $hen he as:ed:

E*en "# one a(rees that 'ons'"ousness "s "n some sense 'onne'ted to or emer(ent #rom the bra"n+ and ho$ 'ou%d one deny th"s6+consciousness must have some biological standing in its own right.... But $hat "s 'ons'"ousness, and $hat #un't"on does "t ser*e6 Bhy shou%d not an un'ons'"ous ma'h"ne do e*eryth"n( that $e 'an do6 1=>>2a, p. 4=, emp. added5. Some mater"a%"sts, o# 'ourse, ha*e su((ested that a ma'h"ne can do /e*eryth"n( $e 'an do.0 The em"nent Br"t"sh phys"o%o("st Iord E.D. ,dr"an, "n the 'hapter he authored on /Dons'"ousness0 #or the boo:, Brain and Conscious Experience, 'on'%uded: /,s #ar as our pub%"' beha*"or "s 'on'erned, there is nothing that could not be copied by machinery1 nothing therefore that could not be brought within the framewor of physical science 0 123EF, p. =G>, emp. added5. [Iord ,dr"an’s remar:s $ere made at a s'"ent"#"' sympos"um he%d at the 8at"'an dur"n( the $ee: o# September =H&O'tober G, 23EG. !o%%o$"n( h"s spee'h, the sem"nar part"'"pants en(a(ed "n a roundtab%e d"s'uss"on that 'entered on ,dr"an’s %e'ture. One o# those "n attendan'e $as B"%der Pen#"e%d, the reno$ned Danad"an neurosur(eon, $ho dry%y responded to Iord ,dr"an: /I had "n m"nd to as: $hether the robot 'ou%d, "n any 'on'e"*ab%e $ay, see a @o:e. I th"n: not. Sense o# humor $ou%d, I suspe't, be the %ast th"n( that a ma'h"ne $ou%d ha*e0 1as 7uoted "n E''%es, 23EE, p. =GH5. Br"%%"ant stro:e9 So mu'h #or a ma'h"ne be"n( ab%e to do e*eryth"n( humans 'an do.A E*o%ut"onary theory has no ade7uate ans$er to the 7uest"on o# ho$ 'ons'"ousness arose, as e*o%ut"on"sts E''%es and Rob"nson adm"tted. [,A%% mater"a%"st theor"es o# the m"nd are "n 'on#%"'t $"th b"o%o("'a% e*o%ut"on.... E*o%ut"onary theory ho%ds that on%y those stru'tures and pro'esses that s"(n"#"'ant%y a"d "n sur*"*a% are de*e%oped "n natura% se%e't"on. If consciousness is causally impotent1 its development cannot be accounted for by evolutionary theory 123HG, p. ?4, emp. added5. Or, as .re(ory had noted years ear%"er: I# the bra"n $as de*e%oped by Natura% Se%e't"on, $e m"(ht $e%% suppose that 'ons'"ousness has sur*"*a% *a%ue. But #or th"s "t must, sure%y, ha*e 'ausa% e##e'ts. 6ut what effects could awareness1 or consciousness1 have" 12344, p. =4E, emp. added5. E*o%ut"on"sts may not be ab%e to e)p%a"n $hat 'ausa% e##e't1s5 'ons'"ousness m"(ht poss"b%y ha*e that $ou%d endo$ "t $"th a /sur*"*a% *a%ue0 s"(n"#"'ant enou(h #or /nature0 to /se%e't,0 but one th"n( "s 'erta"n: most o# them are not $"%%"n( to (o so #ar as to su((est that 'ons'"ousness does not e)"st, or that "t "s un"mportant to human"ty. ,s Ruse put "t: The a*era(e e*o%ut"on"st, ho$e*er, part"'u%ar%y the a*era(e Dar$"n"an, #ee%s e)treme%y un'om#ortab%e $"th su'h a d"sm"ss"*e att"tude. Consciousness seems a very important aspect of human nature. Bhate*er "t may be, 'ons'"ousness "s so mu'h a part o# $hat "t "s to be human that Dar$"n"ans are %oath to say that natura% se%e't"on had no or %"tt%e ro%e "n "ts produ't"on and ma"ntenan'e 1=>>2b, pp. 234, emp. added5. Bh"%e the /a*era(e Dar$"n"an0 may "ndeed be /e)treme%y un'om#ortab%e0 $"th the su((est"on that natura% se%e't"on had /no or %"tt%e ro%e "n the produ't"on and ma"ntenan'e o# 'ons'"ousness,0 the truth o# the matter "s that no Dar$"n"an 'an e)p%a"n why, or how, natura% se%e't"on 'ou%d ha*e p%ayed any part $hatsoe*er "n su'h a pro'ess. Ket, as R"'hard He"nber( obser*ed "n h"s boo:, Cloning the Buddha: The !oral -#pact o Biotechnology:

S"n'e no better mater"a% e)p%anat"on "s apparent%y a*a"%ab%e, "t "s assumed that $hate*er e)p%anat"on "s at hand+ho$e*er ob*"ous "ts short'om"n(s+must betrue. Natura% se%e't"on thus be'omes an "ns'rutab%e, (od%":e a(en'y 'apab%e o# produ'"n( m"ra'%es 12333, p. 42, emp. "n or"(.5. !rom an e*o%ut"onary *"e$po"nt, 'ons'"ousness doesn’t do anyth"n(. It doesn’t /he%p0 the neura% '"r'u"ts "n the bra"n. It apparent%y doesn’t ha*e any /(reat b"o%o("'a% s"(n"#"'an'e,0 and "t doesn’t seem to besto$ any "nnate /sur*"*a% bene#"t0 on "ts possessor. Be as:, then, what is left6 Or, to repeat .re(ory’s 7uest"on: /Bhy do $e need 'ons'"ousness60 7hy 5o 7e 0eed Consciousness" !rom an e*o%ut"onary *"e$po"nt, maybe $e don’t. B.H. Thorpe, "n h"s 'hapter, /Etho%o(y and Dons'"ousness,0 #or the boo:, Brain and Conscious Experience, as:ed re(ard"n( 'ons'"ousness: /Is there a (ood se%e't"*e reason #or "t, or "s there @ust no reason at a%% $hy the an"ma% shou%d not ha*e (ot on 7u"te as $e%% $"thout ha*"n( de*e%oped th"s apparent%y stran(e and ne$ #a'u%ty60 123EF, p. G345. Perhaps, am"dst a%% the other /happenstan'es0 resu%t"n( #rom b"%%"ons o# years o# e*o%ut"on, 'ons'"ousness "s, to put "t b%unt%y, a /7u"r:y a''"dent.0 Iron"'a%%y 1or maybe not5, those are the e)a't $ords the %ate e*o%ut"on"st Stephen ay .ou%d used to des'r"be the or"("n o# 'ons'"ousness $hen he sa"d: The not&so&h"dden a(enda "n a%% th"s "s a 'on'ern $"th human 'ons'"ousness. Kou 'an’t b%ame us #or be"n( #as'"nated $"th 'ons'"ousnessJ "t’s an enormous pun'tuat"on "n the h"story o# %"#e. I view it as a 2uir y accident 1as 7uoted "n Ie$"n, 233=, pp. 2GF&2GE, emp. added5. Or, as S"r !red Hoy%e obser*ed o# .ou%d’s re#eren'e to 'ons'"ousness be"n( /an enormous pun'tuat"on "n the h"story o# %"#e0: /Pro#essor .ou%d a''epts human 'ons'"ousness as an e)'ept"on to h"s (enera% thes"sJ "t "s a phenomenon sudden "n "ts appearan'e and e)'ept"ona% "n "ts nature0 1Hoy%e and B"':ramas"n(he, 233?, p. 2445. Theodos"us Dob<hans:y su((ested: Se%#&a$areness "s, then, one o# the #undamenta%, and poss"b%y the most #undamenta%, 'hara'ter"st"' o# the human spe'"es. This characteristic is an evolutionary novelty J the b"o%o("'a% spe'"es #rom $h"'h man:"nd has des'ended had on%y rud"ments o# se%#&a$areness, or perhaps %a':ed "t a%to(ether 123E4, p. EH5. ,n /e)'ept"ona% e*o%ut"onary no*e%ty60 Truth be to%d, "t "s so e)'ept"ona% that some e*o%ut"on"sts ha*e ("*en up a%to(ether try"n( to #"(ure out $hy 'ons'"ousness e)"sts "n the #"rst p%a'e. One su'h prom"nent #"(ure "n the #"e%d "s Br"t"sh ph"%osopher Do%"n -'."nn. In spea:"n( about -'."nn’s *"e$s on our "nab"%"ty to e)p%a"n the or"("n o# 'ons'"ousness, ames Tre#"% $rote "n h"s boo:, $re %e Uni.ue,: Others ha*e su((ested more esoter"' ar(uments about the #undamenta% un:no$ab"%"ty o# 'ons'"ousness. !or e)amp%e, ph"%osopher Do%"n -'."nn o# Rut(ers ;n"*ers"ty has su((ested, on the bas"s o# an ar(ument #rom e*o%ut"onary theory, that the human m"nd "s s"mp%y not e7u"pped to dea% $"th th"s part"'u%ar prob%em. H"s bas"' ar(ument "s that nothing in evolution has ever re2uired the human mind to be able to deal with the operation of the human brain 12334, p. 2HE, emp. added5. In h"s =>>> *o%ume, "u#an Natures: Genes+ Cultures+ and the "u#an Prospect , Pau% Ehr%"'h d"s'ussed th"s part"'u%ar s"tuat"on as $e%% $hen he remar:ed that -'."nn doubts

...that $e $"%% e*er understand ho$ a pattern o# e%e'tro'hem"'a% "mpu%ses "n our ner*ous systems "s trans%ated "nto the r"'h e)per"en'e o#, say, $at'h"n( an opera or #%y"n( an a"rp%ane. He be%"e*es that our minds did not evolve in such a way as to enable us to answer that 2uestion1 which may be fated to remain unanswered for a very long time1 if not forever 1p. 22=5. Some e*o%ut"on"sts, ho$e*er, are not 7u"te ready to thro$ "n the to$e% @ust yet. Rather than adm"t de#eat, they ha*e opted to de#end the *"e$ that the /$hy0 o# 'ons'"ousness has someth"n( to do $"th the bra"n+a%thou(h they adm"tted%y are not at a%% sure what or how. Stephen ay .ou%d be%"e*ed that the bra"n e*o%*ed, (ot b"((er, and someho$ produ'ed 'ons'"ousness as an /e)aptat"on.0 Bhat, e)a't%y, "s an e)aptat"on6 Iet .ou%d e)p%a"n. [BAhat sha%% $e 'a%% stru'tures that 'ontr"bute to #"tness, but e*o%*ed #or other reasons, and $ere %ater 'o&opted #or the"r 'urrent ro%e6 They ha*e no name at present, and [E%"sabethA 8rba and I su((est that they be 'a%%ed /e)aptat"ons0 123HG, p. EEJ #or 8rba re#eren'e, see .ou%d and 8rba, 23H=5. In other $ords, a b"( bra"n d"d not e*o%*e "n order to /produ'e 'ons'"ousness.0 I# you $"%% pardon the un"ntended tru"sm, "t had other th"n(s /on "ts m"nd.0 Instead, #or one reason or another 1that no one seems 7u"te ab%e to e)p%a"n5, 'ons'"ousness /@ust happened0 as a #ortu"tous and une)pe'ted by&produ't. .ou%d d"s'ussed human 'ons'"ousness as one o# the bra"n’s /e)apt"*e poss"b"%"t"es0 $hen he $rote: ,n arm bu"%t #or one th"n( 'an do others 1I am no$ typ"n( $"th #"n(ers bu"%t #or other purposes5. But a bra"n bu"%t #or some #un't"ons 'an do orders o# ma(n"tude more s"mp%y by *"rtue o# "ts bas"' 'onstru't"on as a #%e)"b%e 'omputer. 0ever in biological history has evolution built a structure with such an enormous and ramifying set of e!aptive possibilities . The bas"s o# human #%e)"b"%"ty %"es "n the unse%e'ted 'apa'"t"es o# our %ar(e bra"n 123HG, pp. E4&EH, parenthet"'a% "tem "n or"(., emp. added5. One th"n( rema"ns 'erta"n: 'ons'"ousness does appear to be 'onne'ted to the bra"n. Ket that 'auses as many prob%ems as "t does so%ut"ons, as .re(ory obser*ed: Be be%"e*e that 'ons'"ousness "s t"ed to %"*"n( or(an"sms: espe'"a%%y human be"n(s, and more part"'u%ar%y to spe'"#"' re("ons o# the human bra"n.... Th"s "n turn (enerates the 7uest"on: /Bhat "s the re%at"on bet$een 'ons'"ousness and the matter or #un't"ons o# the bra"n60 ...One troub%e about 'ons'"ousness "s that "t 'annot be 1or has not yet been5 "so%ated #rom bra"ns, to study "t "n d"##erent 'onte)ts 12344, pp. =4G,=4E, parenthet"'a% "tem "n or"(.5. R"'hard Iea:ey 'h"med "n to a(ree: The most ob*"ous 'han(e "n the hom"n"d bra"n "n "ts e*o%ut"onary tra@e'tory $as, as noted, a tr"p%"n( o# s"<e. S"<e $as not the on%y 'han(e, ho$e*erJ the o*era%% or(an"<at"on 'han(ed, too. ...This difference in organi9ation presumably underlies in some way the generation of the human mind as opposed to the ape m"nd. I# $e :ne$ $hen the 'han(e "n 'on#"(urat"on o''urred "n human preh"story, $e $ou%d ha*e a '%ue about the emer(en'e o# human m"nd 1233G, pp. 2GF, emp. added5.

One $"de%y he%d *"e$ re(ard"n( the @ump #rom the three pounds o# matter "ns"de a human s:u%% be"n( /@ust0 a bra"n, to the type o# 'omp%e) bra"n that perm"ts andMor produ'es 'ons'"ousness, appears to be that on'e the bra"n rea'hed a 'erta"n s"<e, 'ons'"ousness more or %ess @ust /ta((ed a%on( #or the r"de.0 Or, as Ruse hypothes"<ed: S'a%e o# "nte%%"(en'e a''ord"n( to bra"n s"<e .enera% op"n"on 1my op"n"on95 "s that someho$, as bra"ns (ot b"((er and better dur"n( an"ma% e*o%ut"on, 'ons'"ousness started to emer(e "n a pr"m"t"*e sort o# $ay. Bra"ns de*e%oped #or 'a%'u%at"n( purposes and consciousness emerged and1 as it were1 got dragged along . -ost Dar$"n"ans th"n: that at some po"nt, 'ons'"ousness 'ame "nto "ts o$n r"(ht 1=>>2b, pp. 234&23H, parenthet"'a% "tem "n or"(., emp. added5. There are, ho$e*er, a number o# /a%ternat"*e e)p%anat"ons0 #or $hy the bra"n u%t"mate%y de*e%oped 'ons'"ousness. .re(ory %"sted @ust a #e$ 1out o# a s"<ab%e number5 $hen he $rote: It has been su((ested that: 125 m"nd and bra"n are not 'onne'ted 1ep"phenomena%"sm5J or 1=5 that the bra"n (enerates 'ons'"ousnessJ or 1?5 that 'ons'"ousness dr"*es the bra"nJ or 1G5 that they both $or: "n para%%e% 1%":e a pa"r o# "dent"'a% '%o':s5 $"thout 'ausa% 'onne't"on 12344, p. =43, parenthet"'a% "tems "n or"(.5. Then a(a"n, there are those $ho are not 7u"te so e'stat"' about the 'on'ept o# "n'reased bra"n s"<e be"n( so%e%y respons"b%e #or someth"n( as "mportant and 7u")ot"' as 'ons'"ousness. !or e)amp%e, "n h"s boo:, Co#plexity: *i e at the Edge o Chaos, Ro(er Ie$"n obser*ed: I #ound many b"o%o("sts d"st"n't%y un'om#ortab%e $"th ta%:"n( about "n'rease "n bra"n s"<e as a measure o# 'omp%e)"ty. /I’m host"%e to a%% sorts o# myst"'a% ur(es to$ard (reat 'omp%e)"ty,0 sa"d R"'hard Da$:"ns $hen I as:ed h"m $hether an "n'rease "n 'omputat"ona% 'omp%e)"ty m"(ht be 'ons"dered an "ne*"tab%e part o# the e*o%ut"onary pro'ess. /Kou’d %":e to th"n: that be"n( ab%e to so%*e prob%ems 'ontr"butes to Dar$"n"an #"tness, $ou%dn’t you6,0 sa"d ohn -aynard Sm"th. /But "t’s hard to re%ate "n'reased bra"n s"<e to #"tness. ,#ter a%%, ba'ter"a are #"t0 1233=, p. 2GE5. Ste*en P"n:er, the em"nent psy'ho%o("st #rom -IT, "s no happ"er $"th the "dea that /a b"( bra"n e)p%a"ns "t a%%0 than some o# the rest o# h"s e*o%ut"onary 'o%%ea(ues. In The *anguage -nstinct, he %amented: # large-brained creature is sentenced to a life that combines all the disadvantages of balancing a watermelon on a broomstic 1 running in place in a down %ac et1 and for women1 passing a large idney stone every few years. #ny selection on brain si9e itself would surely have favored the pinhead. Se%e't"on #or more po$er#u% 'omputat"ona% ab"%"t"es 1%an(ua(e, per'ept"on, reason"n(, and so on5 must ha*e ("*en us a b"( bra"n as a by&produ't+not the other $ay around9 1233G, pp. ?4G&?4F, parenthet"'a% "tems "n or"(., emp. added5. !urthermore, /bra"n s"<e,0 as "t turns out, does not %"*e up to "ts *aunted reputat"on. Bra"n s"<e and "nte%%e't amon( %"*"n( peop%e ha*e been thorou(h%y e)p%ored by, amon( others, su'h s'"ent"sts as e*o%ut"on"st B. Ie.ros D%ar:, $ho reported that s:u%%s #rom humans o# norma%

"nte%%"(en'e *ary "n 'ran"a% 'apa'"ty any$here #rom 3>>'' to =,?>> ''. In #a't, Dr. D%ar: d"s'ussed one 'omp%ete%y norma% human be"n( $hose bra"n s"<e $as a mere 4=> '' 1see D%ar:, 23FH, pp. ?F4&?E>, Ho$e, 2342, p. =2?5. I# natura% se%e't"on d"d not /'hoose0 'ons'"ousness 1be'ause "t has no /'ausa% e##e'ts05, "# 1#rom an e*o%ut"onary po"nt o# *"e$5 'ons'"ousness has no :no$n #un't"on , and "# /e*o%*"n( a b"( bra"n0 "s not an ade7uate e)p%anat"on #or 'ons'"ousness+then, to repeat our or"("na% 7uest"on, why d"d 'ons'"ousness ar"se "n the #"rst p%a'e6 Bhat does "t do6 Some e*o%ut"on"sts ha*e su((ested that 'ons'"ousness arose /so that peop%e 'ou%d pro'ess %an(ua(e.0 But, as Br"(ht noted: Peop%e $ho '%a"m to ha*e a s'"ent"#"' ans$er usua%%y turn out to ha*e m"sunderstood the 7uest"on. !or e)amp%e, some peop%e say that 'ons'"ousness arose so that peop%e 'ou%d pro'ess %an(ua(e.... But, $hate*er "t may #ee% %":e, the 1o#ten unspo:en5 prem"se o# modern beha*"ora% s'"en'e "s that $hen you are "n 'on*ersat"on $"th someone, a%% the 'aus"n( happens at a phys"'a% %e*e%. That someone #%aps h"s or her ton(ue, (enerat"n( phys"'a% sound $a*es that enter your ear, tr"((er"n( a se7uen'e o# phys"'a% pro'esses "n your bra"n that u%t"mate%y resu%t "n the #%app"n( o# your o$n ton(ue, and so on. In short: the e!perience o# ass"m"%at"n( someone’s $ords and #ormu%at"n( a rep%y "s super#%uous to the ass"m"%at"on and the rep%y, both o# $h"'h are @ust "ntr"'ate me'han"'a% pro'esses 1=>>>, p. ?>4, parenthet"'a% "tem and emp. "n or"(.5. Peter B"%son as:ed: But ho$ "s se%#&'ons'"ousness poss"b%e6...Be m"(ht 'hoose to '"te 'erta"n su((est"ons that %an(ua(e "s the prere7u"s"te, #or "t "s on%y $"th the a"d o# %an(ua(e that $e 'an #"nd the $ay to ("*e rea%"ty, by art"'u%at"on to the "n'hoate "ntu"t"on o# the d"*"ded se%#. But %an(ua(e may p%ay th"s ro%e on%y "n a me'han"'a% sense, by pro*"d"n( a means o# e!pressing and symboli9ing 'ons'"ousness 123H>, pp. HF&HE, emp. "n or"(.5. /E)press"n(0 and /symbo%"<"n(0 'ons'"ousness, ho$e*er, are not the same as /e)p%a"n"n(0 'ons'"ousness. ,%$yn S'ott, "n h"s boo:, Stair/ay to the !ind: The Controversial Ne/ Science o Consciousness, su((ested that /'ons'"ousness ("*es an e*o%ut"onary ad*anta(e to the spe'"es that de*e%ops "t0 1233F, p. 2E=5. But $hat, spe'"#"'a%%y, m"(ht that ad*anta(e be6 B.H. Thorpe 'hose the s"mp%est opt"on o# a%%: /The produ't"on o# 'ons'"ousness may ha*e been an e*o%ut"onary ne'ess"ty, "n that "t may ha*e been the on%y $ay "n $h"'h h"(h%y 'omp%e) %"*"n( or(an"sms 'ou%d be'ome #u%%y *"ab%e0 123EF, p. G3?5. ,dam Neman, "n the re*"e$ o# the sub@e't o# 'ons'"ousness that he $rote #or the @ourna%, Brain, 'hose a d"##erent ta't: /[IAt 'an be ar(ued, at a 'on'eptua% %e*e%, that the 'on'ept o# one’s o$n m"nd presupposes the 'on'ept o# other m"nds0 1=>>2, 2=G:2=H25. In an art"'%e he $rote #or Ne/ Scientist t"t%ed /Nature’s Psy'ho%o("sts0 1and, %ater, "n h"s boo:, $ "istory o the !ind5, N"'ho%as Humphrey se"<ed on that thou(ht to pro*"de one e)amp%e o# the type o# theor"es that ha*e been proposed to e)p%a"n the /e*o%ut"onary ad*anta(e0 o# 'ons'"ousness. He su((ested that the purpose o# 'ons'"ousness "s to a%%o$ /so'"a% an"ma%s0 to mode% another’s beha*"or on the bas"s o# the"r "ns"(ht "nto another 'reature’s psy'ho%o("'a% mot"*at"on. In other $ords, our :no$%ed(e o# our o$n menta% states supp%"es us $"th "ns"(ht "nto the menta% states under%y"n( the a't"ons o# others+$h"'h then: 1a5 pro*"des us $"th the ab"%"ty to pred"'t $hat someone e%se "s %":e%y to doJ and 1b5 thereby be'omes a ma@or determ"nant o# our o$n b"o%o("'a% su''ess 1234H5. Or, as Pau% Ehr%"'h as:ed:

Bhat 'ou%d ha*e been the se%e't"*e ad*anta(e that %ed to the e*o%ut"on o# "ntense 'ons'"ousness6 Th"s type o# 'ons'"ousness he%ps us to maneu*er "n a 'omp%"'ated so'"ety o# other "nd"*"dua%s, ea'h o# $hom "s a%so "ntense%y 'ons'"ous. Intense 'ons'"ousness a%so a%%o$s us to p%ay $"thout a't"n( out the p%ans and to 'ons"der that other "nd"*"dua%s probab%y a%so are p%ann"n( 1=>>>, p. 22?5. Not to be outdone, -er%"n Dona%d, "n $ !ind So Rare, o##ered up h"s o$n suppos"t"on. /Dons'"ous 'apa'"ty,0 he $rote, /may be seen as an e*o%ut"onary adaptat"on "n "ts o$n r"(ht, $hose *ar"ous #un't"ons ha*e e*o%*ed to opt"m"<e or boost 'o(n"t"*e pro'ess"n(0 1=>>2, p. 2?25. [,h, yes+/opt"m"<"n( 'o(n"t"*e pro'ess"n(.0 ,nd e)a't%y ho$ $ou%d 'ons'"ousness 1$h"'h, as Dr. E''%es adm"tted, "s /'ausa%%y "mpotent05 a''omp%"sh that6A Then, %ast, but 'erta"n%y not %east, Ruse $e"(hed "n $"th h"s (uess. S%o$%y but pos"t"*e%y, bra"n s'"ent"sts do #ee% that they are (rop"n( to$ard some understand"n( o# the *"rtues o# 'ons'"ousness, o*er and abo*e the operat"on o# b%"nd automata. It "s #e%t that consciousness may act as a ind of filter and guide$coordinating all the information thrown up by the brain. Dons'"ousness he%ps to pre*ent the bra"n #rom (ett"n( o*er%oaded, as happens a%% too o#ten $"th 'omputers. Dons'"ousness re(u%ates e)per"en'e, s"#t"n( throu(h the "nput, us"n( some and re@e't"n( some and stor"n( some... 1=>>2b, p. 23H, emp. added5. Thus, 'ons'"ousness, so $e are to%d: 1a5 a'ts a #"%ter or (u"de to 'oord"nate a%% the "n#ormat"on thro$n up by the bra"nJ 1b5 pre*ents the bra"n #rom (ett"n( o*er%oadedJ 1'5 re(u%ates e)per"en'eJ 1d5 s"#ts throu(h "nput "nto the bra"nJ and 1d5 re@e'ts some e)per"en'e and stores others. Pretty "mpress"*e a'h"e*ement, $ou%dn’t you say, #or the nebu%ous /someth"n(0 re#erred to as 'ons'"ousness that, supposed%y, /natura% se%e't"on had no or %"tt%e ro%e "n produ'"n(0 1Ruse5, /"s 'ausa%%y "mpotent0 1E''%es5, /"s #undamenta%%y un:no$ab%e0 1-'."nn5, and /"s not a 'ausa% a(ent0 1.re(ory5. ,nd that, "n turn, br"n(s us to our ne)t 7uest"on. &ow 5id Consciousness #rise" It "s not enou(h to as: why 'ons'"ousness arose. One a%so must "n7u"re as to how'ons'"ousness or"("nated. In !an: The Pro#ising Pri#ate, B"%son as:ed: [HAo$ "s "t poss"b%e #or one spe'"es, the human, to de*e%op 'ons'"ousness, and part"'u%ar se%#& 'ons'"ousness, to su'h a de(ree that "t be'omes o# 'r"t"'a% "mportan'e #or the "nd"*"dua%’s san"ty and sur*"*a%6 ,nd $hat "s the mean"n( o# th"s de*e%opment "n and #or human e*o%ut"on6 123H>, p. HG5. Human 'ons'"ousness "s so per*as"*e, and so unden"ab%e, that the me'han"sm o# "ts e)"sten'e must be e)p%a"ned. But ho$6 One pra't"'a%%y 'an en*"s"on Stephen ay .ou%d shru(("n( h"s shou%ders "n e)asperat"on, and s"(h"n( "n #rustrat"on, as he adm"tted: /...[BAe must *"e$ the e*o%ut"on o# human 'ons'"ousness as a %u':y a''"dent that o''urred on%y by the #ortunate 1#or us5 'on'atenat"on o# numerous "mprobab"%"t"es0 123HG, p. EG, parenthet"'a% "tem "n or"(.5. !"*e years %ater, he 'ont"nued "n the same *e"n: / "o#o sapiens may #orm on%y a t$"(, but "# %"#e mo*es, e*en #"t#u%%y, to$ard (reater 'omp%e)"ty and h"(her menta% po$ers, then the e*entua% or"("n o# se%#&'ons'"ous "nte%%"(en'e may be "mp%"'"t "n a%% that 'ame be#ore0 123H3, p. GF5. ,#ter another #"*e years had passed, he $rote: "o#o sapiens d"d not appear on the earth, @ust a (eo%o("' se'ond a(o, be'ause e*o%ut"onary theory pred"'ts su'h an out'ome based on themes o# pro(ress and "n'reas"n( neura% 'omp%e)"ty. Humans arose, rather, as a #ortu"tous and 'ont"n(ent out'ome o# thousands o# %"n:ed e*ents, any one o#

$h"'h 'ou%d ha*e o''urred d"##erent%y and sent h"story on an a%ternat"*e path$ay that $ou%d not ha*e %ed to 'ons'"ousness 1233G, =42[GA:HE5. Then, t$o years %ater, "n h"s boo:, )ull "ouse: The Spread o Excellence ro# Plato to 0ar $in, Dr. .ou%d 'on'%uded: I# a %ar(e e)traterrestr"a% ob@e't+the u%t"mate random bo%t #rom the b%ue+had not tr"((ered the e)t"n't"on o# d"nosaurs EF m"%%"on years a(o, mamma%s $ou%d st"%% be sma%% 'reatures, 'on#"ned to the noo:s and 'rann"es o# a d"nosaur’s $or%d, and "n'apab%e o# e*o%*"n( the %ar(er s"<e that bra"ns b"( enou(h #or se%#&'ons'"ousness re7u"re. I# a sma%% and tenuous popu%at"on o# protohumans had not sur*"*ed a hundred s%"n(s and arro$s o# outra(eous #ortune 1and potent"a% e)t"n't"on5 on the sa*annas o# ,#r"'a, then "o#o sapiens $ou%d ne*er ha*e emer(ed to spread throu(hout the (%obe. 7e are glorious accidents of an unpredictable process with no drive to comple!ity1 not the e!pected results of evolutionary principles that yearn to produce a creature capable of understanding the mode of its own necessary construction 1233E, p. =2E, parenthet"'a% "tem "n or"(., emp. added5. Bh"%e "t "s 'on*en"ent to surm"se that 'ons'"ousness "s the resu%t o# a /'ont"n(ent out'ome o# thousands o# %"n:ed e*ents,0 or a /(%or"ous a''"dent,0 su'h spe'u%at"on does not e)p%a"nhow 'ons'"ousness arose. So ho$ d"d "t ar"se6 On o''as"on 17u"te o#ten, "n #a't5, e*o%ut"on"sts ha*e been :no$n to 'r"t"'"<e 'reat"on"sts #or the"r re%"an'e on $hat the e*o%ut"on"sts see as /@ust&so0 stor"es 1a phrase #rom Rudyard C"p%"n(’s 'h"%dren’s boo: o# the same t"t%e, "n $h"'h #an'"#u% e)p%anat"ons are o##ered #or adaptat"ons, su'h as the e%ephant’s trun:5. But, as the o%d ada(e su((ests, /the sau'e that "s (ood #or the (oose a%so "s (ood #or the (ander.0 Or, to put "t another $ay, e*o%ut"on"sts are not abo*e $ea*"n( the"r o$n /@ust&so0 stor"es+$hen "t su"ts the"r purpose. Stephen ay .ou%d+e##e't"*e popu%ar"<er o# e*o%ut"on that he $as+spun a #as'"nat"n( ta%e o# ho$ he thou(ht 'ons'"ousness e*o%*ed. By h"s best (uess, human consciousness is rooted in the destruction of the dinosaurs EF&4> m"%%"on years a(o as the resu%t o# a ("ant astero"d h"tt"n( the Earth and dr"*"n( them to e)t"n't"on 1233E, p. =2E5. Does th"s str":e you as a b"t odd6 Does "t %ea*e you $onder"n( e)a't%y ho$ the d"nosaurs’ dem"se 'ou%d poss"b%y a''ount #or, o# a%% th"n(s, human consciousness6 I"tt%e $onder, then, that Dr. .ou%d 'on'%uded "n an art"'%e 1/The E*o%ut"on o# I"#e on the Earth05 he $rote #or the O'tober 233G "ssue o# Scienti ic $#erican: /"1 sapiens "s but a t"ny, %ate&ar"s"n( t$"( on %"#e’s enormous%y arbores'ent bush+a sma%% bud that $ou%d a%most sure%y not appear a se'ond t"me "# $e 'ou%d rep%ant the bush #rom seed and %et "t (ro$ a(a"n0 1=42[GA:325. ,s #ar as .ou%d and many o# h"s 'o%%ea(ues are 'on'erned, "o#o sapiens may be noth"n( but a /t"ny t$"(0 or a /sma%% bud.0 But human 'ons'"ousness 1/our most pre'"ous possess"on,0 /the (reatest o# m"ra'%es05 has de#"ed e*ery attempt by e*o%ut"on"sts to e)p%a"n e"ther the reason #or "ts e)"sten'e or the me'han"sm %ead"n( to "ts de*e%opment. !urther 'omp%"'at"n( matters "s the ob*"ous and unden"ab%e #a't that our 'ons'"ousnessMse%#&a$areness a%%o$s us to e)per"en'e 1and e)press95 $hat Ro(er Penrose has re#erred to as /non&'omputab%e e%ements0+th"n(s %":e 'ompass"on, mora%"ty, and many others+that mere neura% a't"*"ty "s e)treme%y hard pressed to e)p%a"n. ,s Dr. Penrose put "t:

There are some types o# $ords $h"'h $ou%d seem to "n*o%*e non&'omputab%e e%ements+#or e)amp%e, @ud(ement, 'ommon sense, "ns"(ht, aesthet"' sens"b"%"ty, 'ompass"on, mora%"ty.... These seem to me to be th"n(s $h"'h are not @ust #eatures o# 'omputat"ons.... I# there "ndeed e)"sts some sort o# 'onta't $"th P%aton"' abso%utes $h"'h our a$areness enab%es us to a'h"e*e, and $h"'h 'annot be e)p%a"ned "n terms o# 'omputat"ona% beha*"our, then that seems to me to be an important issue 12334, p. 2=F, #"rst e%%"ps"s "n or"(., se'ond e%%"ps"s and emp. added5.

,n "mportant "ssue6 Ta%: about understatement9 It "s d"##"'u%t enou(h to try to "n*ent /@ust&so0 stor"es to e)p%a"n why 'ons'"ousness arose "n the #"rst p%a'e, and then to e)p%a"n how "t d"d so. But to try to e)p%a"n the ro%e that 'ons'"ousness p%ays "n su'h /"mportant "ssues0 $"th"n human"ty as 'ommon sense, @ud(ment, aesthet"'s, 'ompass"on, and mora%"ty+$e%%, %et’s @ust say that -"'hae% Ruse had "t r"(ht $hen he obser*ed: /I hard%y need say that all of these suggestions raise as many 2uestions and problems as they answer . Ph"%osophers and s'"ent"sts are $or:"n( hard to$ard ans$ers and reso%ut"ons0 1=>>2b, pp. 233&=>>, emp. added5. ,nthony O’Hear, "n h"s boo:, Beyond Evolution: "u#an Nature and the *i#its o Evolutionary Explanation, remar:ed: /Bhat "s 'ru'"a%%y at "ssue here "s not ho$ human se%#&'ons'"ousness m"(ht ha*e 'ome about, but $hat "ts s"(n"#"'an'e "s on'e "t has 'ome about0 12334, p. ==5. In a spe'"a% ,pr"% 2>, =>>> "ssue o# Ti#e ma(a<"ne de*oted to the sub@e't o# /8"s"ons o# Spa'e and S'"en'e,0 Ste*en P"n:er, pro#essor o# bra"n and 'o(n"t"*e s'"en'es at -IT and author o# "o/ the !ind %or2s, produ'ed an art"'%e t"t%ed /B"%% the -"nd !"(ure Out Ho$ the Bra"n Bor:s6,0 "n $h"'h he 'on'%uded: B"%% $e e*er understand the bra"n as $e%% as $e understand the heart, say, or the :"dney6 B"%% mad s'"ent"sts or d"'tators ha*e the means to 'ontro% our thou(hts6 B"%% neuro%o("sts s'an our bra"ns do$n to the %ast synapse and dup%"'ate the $"r"n( "n a s"%"'on 'h"p, ("*"n( our m"nds eterna% %"#e6 No one 'an say. The human bra"n "s the most 'omp%e) ob@e't "n the :no$n un"*erse, $"th b"%%"ons o# 'hatter"n( neurons 'onne'ted by tr"%%"ons o# synapses. No s'"ent"#"' prob%em 'ompares to "t. 1The Human .enome Pro@e't, $h"'h "s try"n( to read a %on( mo%e'u%ar senten'e 'omposed o# b"%%"ons o# %etters, "s s"mp%e by 'ompar"son.5... One challenge is that we are still clueless about how the brain represents the content of our thoughts and feelings 1=>>>, 2FF[GA:32, parenthet"'a% "tem "n or"(., emp. added5. Or, as bra"n s'"ent"st ohn Be%o## adm"tted "n an art"'%e t"t%ed /The -"nd&Bra"n Prob%em0: /The #a't "s that, %ea*"n( as"de myth"'a% and re%"("ous 'osmo%o("es, the position of mind in nature

remains a total mystery.... ,t present there "s no a(reement e*en as to $hat $ou%d 'ount here as de'"s"*e e*"den'e0 1233G, emp. added5. Be $ou%d %":e to '%ose th"s d"s'uss"on about how 'ons'"ousness arose $"th the #o%%o$"n( statements #rom Bryan ,pp%eyard. Hard s'"en'e $"%% #"(ht ba': at th"s po"nt by attempt"n( to deny th"s "s a prob%em at a%%. Se%#& 'ons'"ousness "s mere%y a by&produ't o# e*o%ut"onary 'omp%e)"ty. ,n"ma%s de*e%op %ar(er bra"ns as sur*"*a% me'han"sms. O*er m"%%"ons o# years these bra"ns atta"n a$esome %e*e%s o# m"n"atur"<at"on and or(an"<at"onJ "ndeed, they be'ome the most 'omp%"'ated th"n(s "n the un"*erse. Then, one day, th"s 'omp%e)"ty ("*es r"se to someth"n( utter%y unpre'edented.... The reason su'h e)p%anat"ons #ee% "nade7uate, e*en thou(h, as 'h"%dren o# the s'"ent"#"' a(e, $e probab%y a''ept them at the ba': o# our m"nds, "s that they are "n'oherent. They do not e!plain self-consciousness1 they e!plain comple!ity. O# 'ourse, the hard e*o%ut"on"st may st"%% respond by '%a"m"n( that th"s "s a by&produ't o# 'omp%e)"ty. The e%aborat"ons and anoma%"es o# our %an(ua(e and our a$areness are mere%y a :"nd o# surp%us 'apa'"ty to "d%e that happens to o''ur "n the bra"n.... In rea%"ty, they are tr"*"a%+"n the $ords o# Peter ,t:"ns they are /spe'"a% but not s"(n"#"'ant.0 But, a(a"n, th"s "s "n'oherent. Ho$ 'an "t be /not s"(n"#"'ant0 that $e are ab%e to use and understand the $ords /not s"(n"#"'ant06 Bhat mean"n( 'an the $ord /s"(n"#"'ant0 ha*e "n su'h a 'onte)t6 S"(n"#"'ant to $hat6 If self-consciousness is (not significant1- then where on earth is significance to be found"1233=, pp. 23G,23F&23E, emp. added5. Be 'ou%d not ha*e sa"d "t any better ourse%*es. I# human 'ons'"ousness does not ran: as be"n( /s"(n"#"'ant,0 $hat does6 ':O;/TIO0#,* 6I#+ #05 T&' O,I<I0 O. &/)#0 CO0+CIO/+0'++ B"as "s a d"##"'u%t th"n( to adm"t. It a%so "s a d"##"'u%t th"n( to o*er'ome. Some $ou%d e*en say "mposs"b%e. Dona%d ohanson, "n h"s boo:, *ucy: The Beginnings o "u#an2ind 1$h"'h d"s'usses $ustralopithecus a arensis, ar(uab%y the best&:no$n /hom"n"d0 #oss"% "n the $or%d5, addressed th"s "ssue "n an adm"rab%y 'and"d manner $hen he $rote: /There "s no su'h th"n( as a tota% %a': o# b"as. I ha*e "tJ e*erybody has "t.0 But Dr. ohanson d"d not stop there. He $ent on to note: /The insidious thing about bias is that it does ma e one deaf to the cries of other evidence0 1 ohanson and Edey, 23H2, p. =44, emp. added5. Oh, ho$ true. ,nd the *era'"ty o# th"s assessment "s espe'"a%%y e*"dent $hen the b"as "n*o%*es an "ntra'tab%e determ"nat"on to %"*e $"thout .od. B"%% Durant $as a se%#&pro'%a"med human"st and a*o$ed athe"st, yet he ne*erthe%ess $rote: /The (reatest 7uest"on o# our t"me "s not 'ommun"sm *s. "nd"*"dua%"sm, not Europe *s. ,mer"'a, not e*en the East *s. the BestJ "t "s $hether men 'an bear to %"*e $"thout .od0 123?=, p. =?5. The stee%y reso%*e /to %"*e $"thout .od0 has be'ome the mantra o# many s'"ent"sts and ph"%osophers. S"r u%"an Hu)%ey, h"mse%# an athe"st, 'ompared .od to the d"sappear"n( a't per#ormed by the Dhesh"re 'at "n $lice3s $dventures in %onderland $hen he $rote: /The supernatura% "s be"n( s$ept out o# the un"*erse.... .od "s be("nn"n( to resemb%e not a ru%er, but the %ast #ad"n( sm"%e o# a 'osm"' Dhesh"re 'at0 123F4, p. F35. To Hu)%ey, and thousands o# others %":e h"m, /the .od ar(ument0 has been e##e't"*e%y routed.

D"sbe%"e# "n .od, thou(h, "s an a priori de'"s"on that is not based on evidence= T"me and a(a"n, em"nent athe"sts, a(nost"'s, s:ept"'s, and "n#"de%s ha*e made the"r pos"t"ons "n th"s re(ard 'rysta% '%ear. The $"de%y pub%"shed 'omments o# the %ate b"o'hem"st and s'"en'e $r"ter, Isaa' ,s"mo*, are an e)'e%%ent e)amp%e. In a thou(ht&pro*o:"n( "nter*"e$ by the ed"tor o# The "u#anist, Pau% Curt<, Dr. ,s"mo* $as as:ed ho$ he $ou%d '%ass"#y h"mse%#. He responded: /Emot"ona%%y, I am an athe"st. I don’t ha*e the e*"den'e to pro*e that .od doesn’t e)"st, but I so stron(%y suspe't he doesn’t that I don’t $ant to $aste my t"me0 1,s"mo*, 23H=, =[=A:35. On'e a person 'omes to the de'"s"on that he /stron(%y suspe'ts0 that .od does not e)"st, $here does that %ea*e h"m6 B"th .od out o# the p"'ture, t$o #a'ts be'ome prom"nent+and prob%emat"' +*ery 7u"':%y. !"rst, a natura%"st"' system o# or"("ns 1".e., or(an"' e*o%ut"on5 must be "n*o:ed to e)p%a"n, not @ust man’s or"("n, but everything9 ,s Hu)%ey $ent on to say three years a#ter he made the abo*e statement: /The earth $as not 'reatedJ "t e*o%*ed. So d"d a%% the an"ma%s and p%ants that "nhab"t "t, "n'%ud"n( our human se%*es, m"nd and sou% as $e%% as bra"n and body. So d"d re%"("on0 123E>, pp. =F=&=F?5. .eor(e .ay%ord S"mpson o# Har*ard $rote that e*o%ut"on /a'h"e*es the aspe't o# purpose $"thout the "nter*ent"on o# a purposer, and has produ'ed a *ast p%an $"thout the a't"on o# a p%anner0 123G4, p. GH35. In a str"'t%y redu't"on"st s'heme, the "dea that or(an"sms de%"berate%y pursue (oa%s must be re@e'ted, s"n'e /purpose0 'annot be redu'ed to the %a$s o# phys"'s. B"o%o("st ,%e) No*":o## $rote: /On%y $hen purpose $as e)'%uded #rom des'r"pt"ons o# a%% b"o%o("'a% a't"*"ty...'ou%d b"o%o("'a% prob%ems be proper%y #ormu%ated and ana%y<ed0 123GF, 2>2:=2=&=2?5. ,nother s'"ent"st #rom Har*ard, E.O. B"%son 1$ho "s a':no$%ed(ed as the /#ather o# so'"ob"o%o(y05, $e"(hed "n on th"s same theme "n h"s boo:, &n "u#an Nature, $hen he 'ommented on the *ery #"rst pa(e: /I# human:"nd e*o%*ed by Dar$"n"an natura% se%e't"on, (enet"' 'han'e and en*"ronmenta% ne'ess"ty, not .od, made the spe'"es0 1234H, p. 25. Or, as Bro$n ;n"*ers"ty e*o%ut"on"st Cenneth -"%%er put "t "n h"s 2333 *o%ume, )inding 0ar/in3s God: -y part"'u%ar re%"("ous be%"e#s or yours not$"thstand"n(, it is a fact that in the scientific world of the late twentieth century1 the displacement of <od by 5arwinian forces is almost complete . Th"s *"e$ "s not a%$ays art"'u%ated open%y, perhaps #or #ear o# o##end"n( the #a"th#u%, but the %"terature o# s'"en'e "s not a (ood p%a'e to :eep se'rets. S'"ent"#"' $r"t"n(, espe'"a%%y on e*o%ut"on, sho$s th"s d"sp%a'ement '%ear%y 1p. 2F, emp. added5. Se'ond, $"th .od seem"n(%y ha*"n( been /d"sp%a'ed,0 %":e "t or not, man "s on h"s o$n. S"mpson remar:ed "n h"s boo:, *i e o the Past: )an stands alone in the universe , a un"7ue produ't o# a %on(, un'ons'"ous, "mpersona% mater"a% pro'ess $"th un"7ue understand"n( and potent"a%"t"es. These he owes to no one but himself1 and it is to himself that he is responsible. He "s not the 'reature o# un'ontro%%ab%e and undeterm"nab%e #or'es, but "s h"s o$n master. He 'an and must de'"de and mana(e h"s o$n dest"ny 123F?, p. 2FF, emp. added5. Nobe% %aureate a'7ues -onod, "n h"s d"sma%%y depress"n( #agnu# opus, Chance and Necessity, 'on'%uded: /-an at %east :no$s he "s a%one "n the un#ee%"n( "mmens"ty o# the un"*erse, out o# $h"'h he has emer(ed on%y by 'han'e0 12342, p. 2H>5. But -onod’s 'omments are /%"(hthearted0 'ompared to those o# another Nobe% %aureate. Ste*en Be"nber(, "n h"s boo: about

the or"("n and #ate o# the ;n"*erse, The )irst Three !inutes, penned $hat many be%"e*e are some o# the most ser"ous%y d"shearten"n( $ords "ma("nab%e. Read them and $eep. ,s I $r"te th"s I happen to be "n an a"rp%ane at ?>,>>> #eet, #%y"n( o*er Byom"n( en route home #rom San !ran'"s'o to Boston. Be%o$, the earth %oo:s *ery so#t and 'om#ortab%e+#%u##y '%ouds here and there, sno$ turn"n( p"n: as the sun sets, roads stret'h"n( stra"(ht a'ross the 'ountry #rom one to$n to another. It is very hard to reali9e that this all is %ust a tiny part of an overwhelmingly hostile universe. It "s e*en harder to rea%"<e that th"s present un"*erse has e*o%*ed #rom an unspea:ab%y un#am"%"ar ear%y 'ond"t"on, and #a'es a #uture e)t"n't"on o# end%ess 'o%d or "nto%erab%e heat. The more the universe seems comprehensible1 the more it also seems pointless 12344, pp. 2FG&2FF, emp. added5. ,%as, then, as R"'hard Iea:ey and Ro(er Ie$"n put "t "n the"r boo:, &rigins: /There "s no %a$ that de'%ares the human an"ma% to be d"##erent, as seen "n th"s broad b"o%o("'a% perspe't"*e, #rom any other an"ma%0 12344, p. =FE5. , b%ea: thou(ht, to be sure+but #rom an e*o%ut"on"st’s se%#&"mposed *"e$, "nes'apab%y true ne*erthe%ess. P"'ture ta:en "n =>>G by the Hubb%e spa'e te%es'ope o# the stru'ture and or(an"<at"on o# a port"on o# the ;n"*erse. Perhaps no$ "s the t"me to as:: 7here does all of this inevitably lead" ,'t"ons ha*e 'onse7uen'es, and be%"e#s ha*e "mp%"'at"ons. In a 'hapter t"t%ed /S'"ent"#"' Human"sm0 "n h"s boo:, The "u#anist $lternative, Pau% Curt< 'on'%uded: To adopt su'h a s'"ent"#"' approa'h unreser*ed%y "s to a''ept as ultimate in all matters of fact and real e!istence the appeal to the evidence of e!perience alone$a court subordinate to no higher authority, to be o*er&r"dden by no pre@ud"'e ho$e*er 'om#ortab%e 1234?, p. 2>3, emp. added5. That /h"(her author"ty0 must be a*o"ded at a%% 'ost. Herman . E':e%mann, "n an art"'%e t"t%ed /Some Don'%ud"n( Thou(hts on E*o%ut"onary Be%"e#,0 e'hoed an "nterest"n( re#ra"n $hen he as:ed: /Is "t poss"b%e that one 'an ha*e too h"(h an emot"ona% sta:e "n $ant"n( to ha*e a .od& %ess un"*erse60 12332, p. ?GF5. That /emot"ona% sta:e0 "s a dr"*"n( #or'e beh"nd the re#usa% to subm"t to that /h"(her author"ty.0 I# you doubt that, then %"sten to the adm"ss"on o# Har*ard (enet"'"st R"'hard Ie$ont"n. Be ta:e the s"de o# s'"en'e in spite o# the patent absurd"ty o# some o# "ts 'onstru'ts, in spite o# "ts #a"%ure to #u%#"%% many o# "ts e)tra*a(ant prom"ses o# hea%th and %"#e, in spite o# the to%eran'e o# the s'"ent"#"' 'ommun"ty #or unsubstant"ated @ust&so stor"es, be'ause we have a prior commitment1 a commitment to naturalism. It is not that the methods and institutions of science somehow compel us to accept a material e!planation of the phenomenal world1 but1 on the contrary1 that we are forced by our a priori adherence to material causes to 'reate an apparatus o# "n*est"(at"on and a set o# 'on'epts that produ'e mater"a% e)p%anat"ons, no matter ho$ 'ounter& "ntu"t"*e, no matter ho$ myst"#y"n( to the un"n"t"ated. -oreo*er, that mater"a%"sm "s abso%ute, #or we cannot allow a 5ivine .oot in the door 12334, p. ?2, "ta%"'s "n or"(., emp. added5.

Or, as ,%$yn S'ott 'on#essed: In the realm of science1 one3s attitude toward what >arl Popper called (the great tradition of materialism- is often used as an inde! of respectability . Those $ho turn a$ay #rom th"s trad"t"on to 'ons"der the nature o# 'ons'"ousness run the r"s: o# be"n( mar:ed as #%a:es $ho m"(ht a%so be%"e*e "n psy'ho:"nes"s 1spoon bend"n(5, menta% te%epathy, '%a"r*oyan'e, pre'o(n"t"on, and the %":e. The safest course$especially for the young scientist$is to shun such temptations and concentrate on the data from a particular level of the hierarchy 1233F, p. 2E4, parenthet"'a% "tem "n or"(., emp. added5. )aterialism &uman Consciousness in ;ight of

On'e the s'"ent"sts and ph"%osophers ha*e adm"tted the"r b"as a(a"nst .od and the supernatura%, and there#ore ha*e %"m"ted themse%*es to the pure%y natura%"st"' e)p%anat"ons o##ered by or(an"' e*o%ut"on, they are se*ere%y 'onstra"ned "n re(ard to ho$ they 'an e)p%a"n human 'ons'"ousness +$hat Popper and E''%es 'a%%ed /the (reatest o# m"ra'%es.0 These "nd"*"dua%s desperate%y des"re +"ndeed, must ha*e+e*o%ut"on as an e)p%anat"on #or /$hate*er e)"sts0 1and that 'erta"n%y "n'%udes human 'ons'"ousness5. ,s S"r !ran'"s Dr"': put "t: /The u%t"mate a"m o# the modern mo*ement "n b"o%o(y "s "n #a't to e)p%a"n all o# b"o%o(y "n terms o# phys"'s and 'hem"stry0 123EE, p. 2>, emp. added5. Em"% du&Bo"s&Reymand 12H2H&2H3E5, the #ounder o# e%e'tro'hem"stry, and Hermann *on He%mho%t< 12H2=&2H3G5, the #amed .erman phys"o%o("st and phys"'"st $ho $as the #"rst to measure the speed o# ner*e "mpu%ses, a(reed: / #ll the a't"*"t"es o# %"*"n( mater"a%, "n'%ud"n( 'ons'"ousness, are u%t"mate%y to be e)p%a"ned "n terms o# phys"'s and 'hem"stry0 1as 7uoted "n Iea:e, 23EG, se'. G, pp. F&E, emp. added5. R"'hard Iea:ey obser*ed: Th"s "s one o# the parado)es o# "o#o sapiens: $e e)per"en'e the un"ty and d"*ers"ty o# a m"nd shaped by eons o# %"#e as hunter&(atherers. Be e)per"en'e "ts un"ty "n the 'ommon possess"on o# an a$areness o# se%# and a sense o# a$e at the m"ra'%e o# %"#e. ,nd $e e)per"en'e "ts d"*ers"ty "n the d"##erent 'u%tures+e)pressed "n %an(ua(e, 'ustoms, and re%"("ons+that $e 'reate and that 'reate us. 7e should re%oice at so wondrous a product of evolution 1233G, p. 2F4, emp. added5. Robert Ornste"n $rote "n The Evolution o Consciousness: Our m"nd d"d not spr"n( #rom a des"(ner, nor #rom a set o# "dea% and "dea%"<ed pro(rams.... Instead, it evolved on the same adaptive basis as the rest of biological evolution , us"n( the pro'esses o# random (enerat"on and se%e't"on o# $hat "s so (enerated.... The story o# the m"nd %"es "n many a''"dents and many 'han(es o# #un't"on 12332, pp. G&F, emp. added5. Ornste"n $ent on to say: Bor:"n( "n su'h bound%ess t"me, a%% e*o%ut"on needs "s a t"ny and 'ons"stent ad*anta(e at any po"nt #or th"n(s to add up.... In m"%%"ons o# years, and $"th a (enerat"on t"me o# #"*e years, there "s an "mmense t"me #or adaptat"ons to ta%%y up "n prehumans. ,nd, "n %"*"n( be"n(s $ho reprodu'e 7u"':%y 1"n an"ma%s, (enerat"on t"mes are on%y three or #our years, and "n ba'ter"a, a%most no t"me5, ma@or 'han(es 'an o''ur "n on%y a #e$ thousand years. E1 coli, the ba'ter"um o# 'ho"'e #or resear'h, has a (enerat"on 'y'%e o# hours. .ranted so mu'h t"me, and se%e't"on #or ad*anta(es, a%% the biological miracles have had plenty of time and plentyof chance to have happened 1p. =H, parenthet"'a% "tem and "ta%"'s "n or"(., emp. added5.

,%an Dress%er dry%y 'ommented "n h"s boo:, 4oyage to the Great $ttractor: /The un"*erse has "n*ented a $ay to :no$ "tse%# 0 1233G, p. ??F5. Or has "t6 Dan /b"o%o("'a% m"ra'%es0 o''ur @ust be'ause there "s supposed to ha*e been /p%enty o# t"me and p%enty o# 'han'e60 -onod $"st#u%%y $rote: /Dhan'e a%one "s the sour'e o# e*ery "nno*at"on, o# a%% 'reat"on "n the b"osphere.... ,%% #orms o# %"#e are the produ't o# 'han'e...0 1234=, pp. 22>,2E45. Su'h a *"e$, ho$e*er, as'r"bes to /'han'e0 propert"es that "t does not, and 'annot, possess. Sprou%, .erstner, and I"nds%ey addressed th"s %o("'a% #a%%a'y and 'on'%uded: /Dhan'e "s "n'apab%e o# 'reat"n( a s"n(%e mo%e'u%e, %et a%one an ent"re un"*erse. Bhy not6 Dhan'e "s no th"n(. It "s not an ent"ty. It has no be"n(, no po$er, no #or'e. It 'an e##e't noth"n( #or "t has no 'ausa% po$er $"th"n "t0 123HG, p. 22H5. One o# the t$ent"eth 'entury’s most em"nent e*o%ut"on"sts $as !ren'h <oo%o("st P"erre&Pau% .rassO, /$hose :no$%ed(e o# the %"*"n( $or%d,0 a''ord"n( to e*o%ut"onary (enet"'"st Theodos"us Dob<hans:y, /$as en'y'%oped"'0 1234F, =3:?4E5. In h"s '%ass"' tome, Evolution o *iving &rganis#s, Dr. .rassO 'and"d%y addressed the "dea o# 'han'e be"n( respons"b%e #or e*o%ut"on $hen he $rote: /To insist...that life appeared 2uite by chance and evolved in this fashion is an unfounded supposition which I believe to be wrong and not in accordance with the facts0 12344, p. 2>4, emp. added5. .rassO a%so addressed, as d"d Ornste"n "n h"s 7uote abo*e, ba'ter"a% (enerat"on t"mes and the"r re%e*an'e to e*o%ut"on. In #a't, Dr. .rassO d"s'ussed the *ery m"'roor(an"sm, Escherichia coli, that Ornste"n ment"oned+yet dre$ an ent"re%y d"##erent 'on'%us"on. Ba'ter"a, the study o# $h"'h has #ormed a (reat part o# the #oundat"on o# (enet"'s and mo%e'u%ar b"o%o(y, are the or(an"sms $h"'h, be'ause o# the"r hu(e numbers, produ'e the most mutat"ons. ... [BAa'ter"a, desp"te the"r (reat produ't"on o# "ntraspe'"#"' *ar"et"es, e)h"b"t a (reat #"de%"ty to the"r spe'"es. The ba'"%%usEscherichia coli, $hose mutants ha*e been stud"ed *ery 'are#u%%y, "s the best e)amp%e. The reader $"%% a(ree that it is surprising1 to say the least1 to want to prove evolution and to discover its mechanisms and then to choose as a material for this study a being which practically stabili9ed a billion years ago 1p. H4, emp. added5. In sp"te o# a%% th"s, numerous s'"ent"sts and ph"%osophers e)h"b"t a do((ed determ"nat"on to e)p%a"n the "n'red"b%e nature o# human 'ons'"ousness+a determ"nat"on that, "# $e may :"nd%y say so, "s "tse%# incredible9 ,nd they are not the %east b"t shy about adm"tt"n( the"r bu"%t&"n b"as. Do%"n -'."nn put the matter "n perspe't"*e 7u"te $e%% $hen he sa"d: ,esolutely shunning the supernatural , I th"n: "t "s unden"ab%e that "t must be "n *"rtue o# so#e natura% property o# the bra"n that or(an"sms are 'ons'"ous. There @ust has to be some e)p%anat"on #or ho$ bra"ns ["ntera't $"thA m"nds 1233?, p. E, "ta%"'s "n or"(., emp. added5. In other $ords, no$ that "t has been de'%ared 1by $hat a%most amounts to d"*"ne #"at5 that<od d"d not do "t, then "t’s ob*"ous that /someth"n( e%se0 must ha*e. There @ust has to be some naturalistic e)p%anat"on #or ho$ bra"ns "ntera't $"th m"nds9 ,s .ordon ,%%port summar"<ed the prob%em: /!or t$o (enerat"ons, psy'ho%o("sts ha*e tr"ed e*ery 'on'e"*ab%e $ay o# a''ount"n( #or the "nte(rat"on, or(an"<at"on and str"*"n( o# the human person $"thout ha*"n( re'ourse to the postu%ate o# a se%# 0 123FF, p. ?45.

Bhate*er that e)p%anat"on may be, and $here*er that /se%# 0 may ha*e 'ome #rom, there "s one th"n( e*o%ut"on"sts :no$ "t "s not+.od and the supernatura%. Ian .%ynn, "n h"s boo:, $n $nato#y o Thought: The &rigin and !achinery o the !ind, adm"tted as mu'h $hen he $rote: -y o$n start"n( pos"t"on 'an be summed up "n three statements: #"rst, that the on%y m"nds $hose e)"sten'e $e 'an be 'on#"dent o# are asso'"ated $"th 'omp%e) bra"ns o# humans and some other an"ma%sJ se'ond, that $e 1and other an"ma%s $"th m"nds5 are the produ't o# e*o%ut"on by natura% se%e't"onJ and, th"rd, that neither in the origin of life nor in its subse2uent evolution has there been any supernatural interference$that is1 anything happening contrary to the laws of physics. ...If the origin of life can be e!plained without invo ing any supernatural processes1 it seems more profitable to loo elsewhere for clues to an understanding of the mind 12333, p. F, emp. added5. S'ott addressed th"s same 'on'ept. Bhat, then, "s the essen'e o# 'ons'"ousness6 ,n ans$er to th"s 7uest"on re7u"res the spe'"#"'at"on o# an /e)tra "n(red"ent0 beyond mere me'han"sm. Trad"t"ona%%y th"s "n(red"ent has been 'a%%ed the soul, a%thou(h the beha*"or"sts dea%t $"th the hard prob%em by deny"n( "t. .rom the perspective of natural science1 both of these approaches are unacceptable 1233F, p. 24=, "ta%"'s "n or"(., emp. added5. Dr"': $rote: The "dea that man has a d"sembod"ed sou% "s as unne'essary as the o%d "dea that there $as a I"#e !or'e. Th"s "s "n head&on 'ontrad"'t"on to the re%"("ous be%"e#s o# b"%%"ons o# human be"n(s a%"*e today. Ho$ $"%% su'h a rad"'a% 'han(e be re'e"*ed6 1233G, p. =E25. The 'omm"tment to mater"a%"sm and natura%"sm e*"n'ed by su'h statements "s o*er$he%m"n(. D%aude Bernard, the pro(en"tor o# modern phys"o%o(y, be%"e*ed that the 'ause o# all phenomena "s matter, and that determ"n"sm "s /the #oundat"on o# a%% s'"ent"#"' pro(ress and 'r"t"'"sm0 1as 7uoted "n Cety, 23E>, 2?=:2HE?5. Thomas Hu)%ey re#%e'ted th"s pos"t"on $hen he obser*ed: /Thou(hts are the e)press"on o# mo%e'u%ar 'han(es "n the matter o# %"#e, $h"'h "s the sour'e o# our other *"ta% phenomena0 12H4>b, p. 2F=5. Hu)%ey a%so sa"d: /-"nd "s a #un't"on o# matter, $hen that matter has atta"ned a 'erta"n de(ree o# or(an"<at"on0 12H42, p. GEG5. He there#ore 'on'%uded: /Thou(ht "s as mu'h a #un't"on o# matter as mot"on "s0 12H4>a, p. ?425. ,adical )aterialism$# (.ishy- Theory These stra"ned ma'h"nat"ons+ea'h o# $h"'h "s "n*o:ed to deny any p%a'e to .od and the supernatura%+rem"nd us o# the no$&#amous story to%d by S"r ,rthur Edd"n(ton "n h"s boo:, The Philosophy o Physical Science, about the "'hthyo%o("st and h"s /spe'"a%0 net #or 'at'h"n( #"sh. Iet us suppose that an "'hthyo%o("st "s e)p%or"n( the %"#e o# the o'ean. He 'asts a net "nto the $ater and br"n(s up a #"shy assortment. Sur*ey"n( h"s 'at'h, he pro'eeds "n the usua% manner o# a s'"ent"st to systemat"se $hat "t re*ea%s. He arr"*es at t$o (enera%"sat"ons: 125 No sea&'reature "s %ess than t$o "n'hes %on(. 1=5 ,%% sea&'reatures ha*e ("%%s. These are both true o# h"s 'at'h, and he assumes tentat"*e%y that they $"%% rema"n true ho$e*er o#ten he repeats "t. In app%y"n( th"s ana%o(y, the 'at'h stands #or the body o# :no$%ed(e $h"'h 'onst"tutes phys"'a% s'"en'e, and the net #or the sensory and "nte%%e'tua% e7u"pment $h"'h $e use "n obta"n"n( "t. The 'ast"n( o# the net 'orresponds to obser*at"onJ #or nowledge which has not been or could not be obtained by observation is not

admitted into physical science. ,n on%oo:er may ob@e't that the #"rst (enera%"sat"on "s $ron(. /There are p%enty o# sea&'reatures under t$o "n'hes %on(, on%y your net "s not adapted to 'at'h them.0 The "'hthyo%o("st d"sm"sses th"s ob@e't"on 'ontemptuous%y. /,nyth"n( un'at'hab%e by my net "s ipso acto outs"de the s'ope o# "'hthyo%o("'a% :no$%ed(e. In short, /$hat my net 'an’t 'at'h "sn’t #"sh.0 Or+to trans%ate the ana%o(y+I# you are not s"mp%y (uess"n(, you are '%a"m"n( a :no$%ed(e o# the phys"'a% un"*erse d"s'o*ered "n some other $ay than by the methods o# phys"'a% s'"en'e, and adm"tted%y un*er"#"ab%e by su'h methods. Kou are a metaphys"'"an 123FH, p. 2E5. In No*ember 23H=, at the Isthmus Inst"tute "n Da%%as, Te)as, #our reno$ned e*o%ut"on"sts $ho $ere Nobe% %aureates+S"r ohn E''%es, I%ya Pr"(o("ne, Ro(er Sperry, and Br"an osephson+ too: part "n a ser"es o# *ery #ran: d"s'uss"ons narrated by Norman Dous"ns, the h"(h%y esteemed ed"tor o# the Saturday Revie/ #or more than a 7uarter o# a 'entury. Three years %ater, "n 23HF, the #our Nobe% %aureates re%eased an abso%ute%y ama<"n( boo:, No(el Pri5e Conversations, 'onta"n"n( the ent"re te)t o# those d"s'uss"ons, a%on( $"th -r. Dous"ns’ narrat"*e 'omments. In h"s /Pre%ude,0 Dous"ns $rote: ,%thou(h ea'h represented a d"##erent s'"ent"#"' d"s'"p%"ne they had one th"n( "n 'ommon: ea'h had re'e"*ed the Nobe% Pr"<e, ea'h had used the ("#ts o# "nte%%"(en'e they had re'e"*ed "n ser*"'e o# human %"#e.... ,nother e%ement a%so un"tes the #our Nobe% Iaureates. 'ach of them is concerned about the relation between the human mind and human brain1 about the role of human consciousness in an evolving universe1 about the interplay between time and mind1 about the world as a (wor of art- which cannot simply be reduced to neural events within the brain or to immutable mechanisms measured by 2uantum analysis 1pp. G&F, emp. added5. In h"s boo:, The %onder o Being "u#an: &ur Brain and &ur !ind, Dr. E''%es $rote: Bhen su'h troub%es ar"se "n the h"story o# thou(ht, "t "s usua% to adopt some be%"e# that /sa*es0 the day. !or e)amp%e, the den"a% o# the rea%"ty o# menta% e*ents, as "n rad"'a% mater"a%"sm, "s an easy 'op&out.... ,adical materialism should have a prominent place in the history of human silliness 1E''%es and Rob"nson, 23HG, p. 24, emp. added5. Be a(ree $ho%ehearted%y9 It "s 'om#ort"n( to :no$ that there are men o# s'"en'e as esteemed as S"r ohn E''%es $ho are $"%%"n( to adm"t as mu'h. It a%so "s 'om#ort"n( to :no$ that there are other "nd"*"dua%s o# the same stature "n s'"en'e $ho are $"%%"n( to step #or$ard and say essent"a%%y the same th"n(. Dons"der, as @ust one e)amp%e, the "n#ormat"on that #o%%o$s "n the 'on'%us"on to th"s port"on o# our d"s'uss"on. CO0C;/+IO0 ,s $e br"n( Part I o# th"s ser"es to a '%ose, $e $ou%d %":e to %ea*e you $"th the thou(ht& pro*o:"n( 'omments o# Nobe% %aureate Br"an osephson. But be#ore $e do, $e $ou%d %":e to o##er -r. Dous"ns’ assessment o# $hat you are about to read. Dr. osephson has proposed that the inclusion of <od or )ind in science is not only plausible1 but may even be necessary if science is ever to fully understand 0ature or to o*er'ome "ts d"##"'u%t"es "n e)p%a"n"n( phenomena %":e e*o%ut"on and 'reat"*"ty 1p. 3F, emp. added5. No$, osephson’s remar:s:

!"rst%y, s'"en'e 'asts the spot%"(ht $h"'h "t uses to sear'h #or :no$%ed(e *ery se%e't"*e%yJ "n other $ords what scientists choose to loo at1 to try to e!plain in scientific terms1 is rather restricted1 rather biased. #nd the content of science is biased in a materialistic direction .... ,n a%ternat"*e approa'h #or the s'"ent"st "s to say, Iet’s "n*est"(ate the oppos"te *"e$, ".e., that perhaps we should be ta ing <od or )ind into account in science J $hat $ou%d a s'"en'e %oo: %":e $h"'h had .od "n there p%ay"n( a part, a''ount"n( thereby #or part"'u%ar phenomena6 There are *ar"ous $ays "nto th"s prob%em, and the $ay I’m (o"n( to ta:e "s to say that if we want to put <od or )ind into science1 then the primary feature of )ind1 the one which is most closely connected with the science we3ve got1 is intelligence 1as 7uoted "n Dous"ns, 23HF, pp. 32,3=& 3?,3G, parenthet"'a% "tem "n or"(., emp. added5. Ho$ *ery re#resh"n(9 ,nd the #a't that su'h statements 'ome #rom a Nobe% %aureate $ho "s an adm"tted e*o%ut"on"st, "s, to say the *ery %east, surpr"s"n(. But Dr. osephson "s not a%one "n su'h th"n:"n(. The em"nent Br"t"sh theoret"'a% phys"'"st 1and #ormer -aster o# Pueen’s Do%%e(e, Dambr"d(e5 ohn Po%:"n(horne e)pressed s"m"%ar thou(hts "n an art"'%e he $rote "n =>>2 1/;nderstand"n( the ;n"*erse05 #or pub%"'at"on "n the $nnals o the Ne/ 6or2 $cade#y o Sciences. Those o# us pr"*"%e(ed to be s'"ent"sts are so e)'"ted by the 7uest to understand the $or:"n(s o# the phys"'a% $or%d that $e se%dom stop to as: ourse%*es $hy $e are so #ortunate. &uman powers of rational comprehension vastly e!ceed anything that could be simply an evolutionary necessity for survival1 or plausibly construed as some sort of collateral spin-off from such a necessity .... I be%"e*e that s'"en'e "s poss"b%e be'ause the phys"'a% $or%d "s a 'reat"on and $e are, to use an an'"ent and po$er#u% phrase, 'reatures /made "n the "ma(e0 o# the Dreator.... B"th, #or e)amp%e, Pau% Da*"es "n h"s boo: The !ind o God, I cannot regard this dawning of consciousness as being %ust a fortunate accident in the course of an essentially meaningless cosmic history .... Bhat I ha*e sou(ht to sho$ "s that re%"("ous be%"e*ers $ho see a d"*"ne -"nd and Purpose beh"nd the un"*erse are not shutt"n( the"r eyes and "rrat"ona%%y be%"e*e "mposs"b%e th"n(s. 7e have reason for our beliefs. They ha*e 'ome to us throu(h that sear'h #or mot"*ated understand"n( that "s so 'on(en"a% to the s'"ent"st 13F>:244,24H,243,2H=, emp. added5. Human po$ers o# rat"ona% 'omprehens"on do "ndeed /*ast%y e)'eed anyth"n( that 'ou%d be s"mp%y an e*o%ut"onary ne'ess"ty.0 The pr"mary #eature o# m"nd, "t seems, "s "nte%%"(en'e+$h"'h $e see a%% around us. Perhaps that "s $hat dro*e Edd"n(ton to say, short%y be#ore he d"ed: /The "dea o# a un"*ersa% m"nd, or Io(os, $ou%d be, I th"n:, a #a"r%y p%aus"b%e "n#eren'e #rom the present state o# s'"ent"#"' theory0 1as 7uoted "n Heeren, 233F, p. =??5. Or, as ohn Be%o## put "t "n h"s art"'%e on /The -"nd&Bra"n Prob%em0: ...[T]he position of mind in nature remains a total mystery. It could be that there e!ists some sort of a cosmic mind , perhaps 'o&e7ua% $"th the mater"a% un"*erse "tse%#, from which each of our individual minds stems and to which each ultimately returns. ,%% $e 'an say "s that "t %oo:s as "# a #ra(ment o# m"nd&stu## be'omes atta'hed to an "nd"*"dua% or(an"sm, at or near b"rth, and therea#ter pers"sts $"th th"s symb"ot"' re%at"onsh"p unt"% that or(an"sm per"shes 1233G, emp. added5. ,(a"n, $e say, ho$ *ery re#resh"n(. -ater"a%"sm 'erta"n%y has not d"spro*ed the e)"sten'e o# our oh&so&*"ta% /"nner se%#.0 Nor $"%% "t e*er. Ste*en .o%dber(, "n h"s boo:, Seduced (y Science+ $as 'orre't $hen he e)p%a"ned:

)odern science certainly does not claim that it can prove the none!istence of the soul . On the 'ontrary, the dom"nant ph"%osoph"'a% assumpt"on o# most t$ent"eth&'entury s'"ent"sts has been pre'"se%y the oppos"te: s'"en'e dea%s $"th #a%s"#"ab%e propos"t"ons, that "s, propos"t"ons that 'an be demonstrated $ron( "n an emp"r"'a% test.... [SA'"en'e s"mp%y does not spea: to the *a%"d"ty o# other systems, su'h as metaphys"'s, pure mathemat"'s, or %o("' 12333, p. 2H5. E''%es $arned "n h"s ."##ord Ie'tures 1presented at the ;n"*ers"ty o# Ed"nbur(h "n 2344&234H5: Be must not '%a"m to be se%#&su##"'"ent. If we espouse the philosophy of monist-materialism1 there is no base on which we can build a meaning for life or for the values . Be $ou%d be 'reatures o# 'han'e and '"r'umstan'e. ,%% $ou%d be determ"ned by our "nher"tan'e and our 'ond"t"on"n(. Our #ee%"n( o# #reedom and o# respons"b"%"ty $ou%d be but an "%%us"on. ,s a(a"nst that I $"%% present my be%"e# that there is a great mystery in our e!istence and in our e!periences of life that is not e!plicable in materialist terms 12343, p. 2>, emp. added5. ,#ter one has r"(ht%y re@e'ted mon"st"' mater"a%"sm, $hat, then, "s %e#t6 E''%es and Rob"nson obser*ed: Be re@e't mater"a%"sm be'ause, as $e ha*e seen, "t doesn’t e!plain our 'on'epts but den"es them. It "s at th"s po"nt that $e, as nob%e and rat"ona% be"n(s, 'an ("*e *ent to the ur("n(s o# #a"thJ not #a"th as the *e"% o# "(noran'e, s%oth, or #ear, but #a"th as a state o# m"nd *"nd"'ated by the e##orts o# reason and 'ommon sense 123HG, p. 24?, emp. added5. It "s "n*"(orat"n( to see a man o# the stature o# S"r ohn E''%es spea: o# #a"th be"n( /*"nd"'ated by the e##orts o# reason and 'ommon sense.0 Ro(er Sperry $ent on to say: /-ore than e*er there "s need today to ra"se our s"(hts to h"(her *a%ues abo*e those o# mater"a% se%#&"nterest, e'onom"' (a"n, po%"t"'s, produ't"on po$er, da"%y needs #or persona% subs"sten'e, et', to h"(her, more %on( term, more (od&%":e pr"or"t"es0 1as 7uoted "n Dous"ns, 23HF, pp. 2FH&2F35. .erman phys"'"st -a) P%an':, "n h"s Scienti ic $uto(iography and &ther Papers 123F>5, $rote: Re%"("on and natura% s'"en'e do not e)'%ude ea'h other, as many 'ontemporar"es o# ours $ou%d ha*e us be%"e*e or #earJ they mutua%%y supp%ement and 'ond"t"on ea'h other. The most "mmed"ate proo# o# the 'ompat"b"%"ty o# re%"("on and natura% s'"en'e, e*en under the most thorou(h 'r"t"'a% s'rut"ny, "s the h"stor"' #a't that the *ery (reatest natura% s'"ent"sts o# a%% t"mes+men su'h as Cep%er, Ne$ton, Ie"bn"<+$ere permeated by a most pro#ound re%"("ous att"tude. Re%"("on and natura% s'"en'e are #"(ht"n( a @o"nt batt%e "n an "n'essant, ne*er re%a)"n( 'rusade a(a"nst s:ept"'"sm and a(a"nst do(mat"sm, a(a"nst d"sbe%"e# and a(a"nst superst"t"on, and the ra%%y"n( 'ry "n th"s 'rusade has a%$ays been, and a%$ays $"%% be: /On to .od90 1as 7uoted "n E''%es, 233=, p. =G45. Sad%y, ho$e*er, the per'ept"on pers"sts that /#a"th0 has someho$ /%ost out0 to s'"en'e+an "dea that Dr. E''%es $or:ed #e*er"sh%y dur"n( h"s %"#et"me to d"spe%. In the end, E''%es $as 'ompe%%ed to adm"t: Be ha*e to be open to some deep dramat"' s"(n"#"'an'e "n th"s earth%y %"#e o# ours that may be re*ea%ed a#ter the trans#ormat"on o# death. Be 'an as:: Bhat does th"s %"#e mean6 Be #"nd ourse%*es here "n th"s $onder#u%%y r"'h and *"*"d 'ons'"ous e)per"en'e and "t (oes on throu(h %"#eJ but "s that the end6 Th"s se%#&'ons'"ous m"nd o# ours has th"s myster"ous re%at"onsh"p $"th the bra"n and as a 'onse7uen'e a'h"e*es e)per"en'es o# human %o*e and #r"endsh"p, o# the $onder#u% natura% beaut"es and o# the "nte%%e'tua% e)'"tement and @oy ("*en by appre'"at"on and understand"n( o# our 'u%tura%

her"ta(es. Is th"s present %"#e a%% to #"n"sh "n death or 'an $e ha*e hope that there $"%% be #urther mean"n( to be d"s'o*ered6... 1233=, p. =F25. T$enty&#"*e years ear%"er, Dr. E''%es had been e*en more spe'"#"'. He $rote, "n'red"b%y: The ar(uments presented by [,mer"'an b"o%o("st H.S.A enn"n(s preclude me from believing that my e!periencing self has an e!istence that merely is derivative from my brain $"th "ts b"o%o("'a% or"("n, and $"th "ts de*e%opment under "nstru't"ons der"*ed #rom my (enet"' "nher"tan'e. I# $e #o%%o$ enn"n(s, as I do, "n h"s ar(uments and "n#eren'es, we come to the religious concept of the soul and its special creation by <od.... I 'annot be%"e*e that th"s $onder#u% d"*"ne ("#t o# a 'ons'"ous e)"sten'e has no #urther #uture, no poss"b"%"ty o# another e)"sten'e under some other, un"ma("nab%e 'ond"t"ons 123E4, p. =G, emp. added5. Ne"ther 'an $e9 [to be 'ont"nuedA ,'.','0C'+ ,dr"an, E.D. 123EF5, /Dons'"ousness,0 Brain and Conscious Experience 1Rome, Ita%y: Pont"#"'a ,'adem"a S'"entar"um5, pp. =?H&=GH. ,%%port, .ordon 123FF5, Beco#ing 1Ne$ Ha*en, DT: Ka%e ;n"*ers"ty Press5. ,pp%eyard, Bryan 1233=5, Understanding the Present: Science and the Soul o !odern !an1Ne$ Kor:: Doub%eday5. ,s"mo*, Isaa' 123H=5, /Inter*"e$ $"th Isaa' ,s"mo* on S'"en'e and the B"b%e,0 Pau% Curt<, Inter*"e$er, )ree -n.uiry, =[=A:E&2>, Spr"n(. Be%o##, ohn 1233G5, /The -"nd&Bra"n Prob%em,0 [On&%"neA, ;RI: http:MMmoeb"us.psy.ed.a'.u:Mdua%"smMpapersMbra"ns.htm%, emp. "n or"(. [NOTE: Th"s art"'%e $as pub%"shed or"("na%%y "n The 7ournal o Scienti ic Exploration 1233G5, 8o%. H, No. G.A Darr"n(ton, Here$ard 123=?5, *i e: -ts &rigin and Nature 1."rard, CS: Ha%deman& u%"us5. D%ar:, B. Ie.ros 123FH5, /Bones o# Dontent"on,0 -deas o "u#an Evolution, ed. D. Ho$e%%s 1Dambr"d(e, -,: Har*ard ;n"*ers"ty Press5, pp. ?F4&?E>. Dous"ns, Norman 123HF5, /Dommentary,0 "n No(el Pri5e Conversations 1Da%%as, TQ: Saybroo:5. [Th"s boo: "s a re'ord o# 'on*ersat"ons that o''urred "n No*ember, 23H= at the Isthmus Inst"tute "n Da%%as, Te)as, amon( #our Nobe% %aureates: S"r ohn E''%es, I%ya Pr"(o("ne, Ro(er Sperry, and Br"an osephson.A Dr"':, !ran'"s 123EE5, & !olecules and !en 1Seatt%e, B,: ;n"*ers"ty o# Bash"n(ton Press5. Dr"':, !ran'"s 1233G5, The $stonishing "ypothesis: The Scienti ic Search or the Soul 1Ne$ Kor:: S"mon R S'huster5.

Dob<hans:y, Theodos"us 123E45, /Dhan("n( -an,0 Science, 2FF:G>3&G2F, anuary =4. Dob<hans:y, Theodos"us 1234F5, /Dar$"n or LOr"ented’ E*o%ut"on6,0 Evolution, 234F, =3:?4E5. Dob<hans:y, Theodos"us, !. . ,ya%a, ..I. Stebb"ns, and .B. 8a%ent"ne 123445, Evolution 1San !ran'"s'o, D,: B.H. !reeman5. Dona%d, -er%"n 1=>>25, $ !ind So Rare 1Ne$ Kor:: B.B. Norton5. Dress%er, ,%an 1233G5, 4oyage to the Great $ttractor 1Ne$ Kor:: Cnop#5. Dun'an, Rona%d and -"randa Beston&Sm"th, -gnorance1O)#ord, En(%and: Per(amon5. eds. 123445, The Encyclopaedia o

Durant, B"%%, ed. 123?=5, &n the !eaning o *i e 1Ne$ Kor:: Ion( and Sm"th5. E''%es, ohn D., ed. 123EE5, Brain and Conscious Experience 1Rome, Ita%y: Pont"#"'a ,'adem"a S'"entar"um5. E''%es, ohn D. 123E45, /E*o%ut"on and the Dons'"ous Se%#,0 The "u#an !ind: $ 0iscussion at the 89:;<= No(el Con erence, ed. ohn D. Ros%ans:y 1,msterdam: North&Ho%%and Pub%"sh"n( Do.5. E''%es, ohn D. 123435, The "u#an !ystery 1Iondon: Rout%ed(e5. [Th"s boo: "s the te)t o# the ."##ord Ie'tures presented by Dr. E''%es at the ;n"*ers"ty o# Ed"nbur(h "n 2344&234H.A E''%es, ohn D. 123H=5, !ind & Brain: The !any' aceted Pro(le#s 1Bash"n(ton, D.D.: Para(on House5. E''%es, ohn D. 1233=5, The "u#an Psyche 1Iondon: Rout%ed(e5. E''%es, ohn D. and Dan"e% N. Rob"nson 123HG5, The %onder o Being "u#an: &ur Brain and &ur !ind 1Ne$ Kor:: The !ree Press5. E''%es, ohn D., Ro(er Sperry, I%ya Pr"(o("ne, and Br"an osephson 123HF5, No(el Pri5e Conversations 1Da%%as, TQ: Saybroo:5. E':e%mann, Herman . 123325, /Some Don'%ud"n( Thou(hts on E*o%ut"onary Be%"e#,0 Evidence or )aith: 0eciding the God >uestion, ed. ohn B. -ont(omery 1Da%%as, TQ: Bord5. Edd"n(ton, ,.S. 123FH5, The Philosophy o Physical Science 1,nn ,rbor, -I: ;n"*ers"ty o# -"'h"(an Press5. Ede%man ..- 1233=5, Bright $ir+ Brilliant )ire 1Iondon: Pen(u"n5. Ehr%"'h, Pau% R. 1=>>>5, "u#an Natures: Prospect1Bash"n(ton, D.D.: Is%and Press5. Genes+ Cultures+ and the "u#an

E%bert, erome B. 1=>>>5, $re Souls Real, 1,mherst, NK: Prometheus5.

!odor, erry ,. 1233=5, /The B"( Idea: Dan There be a S'"en'e o# -"nd6,0 Ti#es *iterary Supple#ent, u%y ?. .%ynn, Ian 123335, $n $nato#y o Thought: The &rigin and !achinery o the !ind 1Ne$ Kor:: O)#ord ;n"*ers"ty Press5. .o%dber(, Ste*en 123335, Seduced (y Science 1Ne$ Kor:: Ne$ Kor: ;n"*ers"ty Press5. .ou%d, Stephen ay 123HG5, /Is a Ne$ and .enera% Theory o# E*o%ut"on Emer("n(6,0 spee'h ("*en at Hobart Do%%e(e !ebruary 2G, 23H>J as 7uoted "n Iuther Sunder%and 123HG5, 0ar/in3s Enig#a 1San D"e(o, D,: -aster Boo:s5. .ou%d, Stephen ay 123H35, %onder ul *i e: The Burgess Shale and the Nature o "istory 1Ne$ Kor:: B.B. Norton5. .ou%d, Stephen ay 1233G5, /The E*o%ut"on o# I"#e on the Earth,0 Scienti ic $#erican, =42[GA:HF&32, O'tober. .ou%d, Stephen ay 1233E5, )ull "ouse: The Spread o Excellence ro# Plato to 0ar/in 1Ne$ Kor:: Three R"*ers Press5. .ou%d, Stephen ay 123345, /!ore$ord: The Pos"t"*e Po$er o# S:ept"'"sm,0 %hy People Believe %eird Things, -"'hae% Shermer 1Ne$ Kor:: B.H. !reeman5. .ou%d, Stephen ay and E%"sabeth S. 8rba 123H=5, /E)aptat"on+, -"ss"n( Term "n the S'"en'e o# !orm,0 Paleo(iology+ H[2A:G&2F. .rassO, P"erre&Pau% 123445, Evolution o *iving &rganis#s 1Ne$ Kor:: ,'adem"' Press5. .reen#"e%d, Susan 1=>>=5, Psychiatry+2H2:32&3?. /-"nd, Bra"n and Dons'"ousness,0 British 7ournal o

.re(ory, R"'hard I. 123445, /Dons'"ousness,0 The Encyclopaedia o -gnorance, ed. Rona%d Dun'an and -"randa Beston&Sm"th 1O)#ord, En(%and: Per(amon5, pp. =4?&=H2. .r"##"n, Dona%d R. 1=>>25, $ni#al !inds: Beyond Cognition to Consciousness 1Dh"'a(o, II: ;n"*ers"ty o# Dh"'a(o Press5, re*"sed ed"t"on. Heeren, !red 1233F5, Sho/ !e God 1Bhee%"n(, II: Sear'h%"(ht Pub%"'at"ons5. He"nber(, R"'hard 123335, Cloning the Buddha: The !oral -#pact o Biotechnology 1Bheaton, II: Puest Boo:s5. H"nshe%$ood, Dyr"% 123EF5, /D"s'uss"on,0 Brain and Conscious Experience 1Rome, Ita%y: Pont"#"'a ,'adem"a S'"entar"um5. Hoy%e, !red and Dhandra B"':ramas"n(he 1233?5, &ur Place in the Cos#os 1Iondon: .-. Dent5.

Ho$e, .eor(e 123425, /E*o%ut"on and the Prob%em o# -an,0 Scienti ic Studies in Special Creation, ed. Ba%ter E. Iammerts 1.rand Rap"ds, -I: Ba:er5, pp. =>E&==H. Humphrey, N"'ho%as 1234H5, /Nature’s Psy'ho%o("sts, Ne/ Scientist, 4H:3>>&3>?. Hu)%ey, u%"an 123F45, Religion %ithout Revelation 1Ne$ Kor:: -entor Boo:s5. Hu)%ey, u%"an 123E>5, /The E*o%ut"onary 8"s"on,0 -ssues in Evolution [8o%ume ? o# Evolution $ ter 0ar/in, ed. So% Ta)A, 1Dh"'a(o, II: ;n"*ers"ty o# Dh"'a(o Press5. Hu)%ey, Thomas H., 12H4>a5, /Des'artes,0 *ay Ser#ons+ $ddresses+ and Revie/s 1Iondon: D. ,pp%eton5. Hu)%ey, Thomas H. 12H4>b5, /On the Phys"'a% Bas"s o# I"#e,0 *ay Ser#ons+ $ddresses+ and Revie/s 1Iondon: D. ,pp%eton5. Hu)%ey, Thomas H. 12H425, /-r. Dar$"n’s Dr"t"'s,0 Conte#porary Revie/, No*ember. ohanson, Dona%d D. and B%a:e Ed(ar 1233E5, )ro# *ucy to *anguage 1Ne$ Kor:: Ne*raumont5. ohanson, Dona%d D. and -a"t%and Edey 123H25, *ucy: The Beginnings o "u#an2ind 1Ne$ Kor:: S"mon R S'huster5. Cety, S.S. 123E>5, /, B"o%o("st E)am"nes the -"nd and Beha*"or,0 Science, 2?=:2HE?. Curt<, Pau% 1234?5, /S'"ent"#"' Human"sm,0 The "u#anist $lternative, ed. Pau% Curt< 1Bu##a%o, NK: Prometheus5. Ias<%o, Er*"n 123H45, Evolution: The Grand Synthesis 1Boston, -,: Ne$ S'"en'e I"brary5. Iea:e, Dhaun'ey D. 123EG5, /Perspe't"*es "n ,daptat"on: H"stor"'a% Ba':(round,0 "and(oo2 o Physiology 1Bash"n(ton, D.D.: ,mer"'an Phys"o%o("'a% So'"ety5. Iea:ey, R"'hard 1233G5, The &rigin o "u#an2ind 1Ne$ Kor:: Bas"'5. Iea:ey R"'hard and Ro(er Ie$"n 123445, &rigins 1Ne$ Kor:: E.P. Dutton5. Iemon"':, -"'hae% D. 1=>>?a5, /The Po$er o# -ood,0 Ti#e, 2E2[?A:EG&E3, anuary =>. Iemon"':, -"'hae% D. 1=>>?b5, /Kour -"nd, Kour Body,0 Ti#e, 2E2[?A:E?, anuary =>. Ie$"n, Ro(er 1233=5, Co#plexity: *i e at the Edge o Chaos 1Ne$ Kor:: -a'm"%%an5. Ie$"s, D.S. 123E>5, Studies in %ords 1Dambr"d(e, En(%and: Dambr"d(e ;n"*ers"ty Press5. Ie$ont"n, R"'hard 123345, /B"%%"ons and B"%%"ons o# Demons,0 The Ne/ 6or2 Revie/, anuary 3.

-a'Cay, Da*"d 123EF5, /D"s'uss"on,0 Brain and Conscious Experience 1Rome, Ita%y: Pont"#"'a ,'adem"a S'"entar"um5. -ather, C"rt%ey !. 123HE5, The Per#issive Universe 1,%bu7uer7ue, N-: ;n"*ers"ty o# Ne$ -e)"'o Press5. -'."nn, Do%"n 1233?5, The Pro(le# o Consciousness: Essays To/ards a Resolution 1-a%den, -,: B%a':$e%%5. -"%%er, Cenneth R. 123335, )inding 0ar/in3s God: $ Scientist3s Search or Co##on Ground Bet/een God and Evolution 1Ne$ Kor:: D%"## Street Boo:s5. -onod, a'7ues 123425, Chance and Necessity, trans. ,. Ba"nhouse 1Ne$ Kor:: Cnop#5. -onod, a'7ues 1234=5, Chance and Necessity 1Iondon: Do%%"ns5. No*":o##, ,%e) 123GF5, /The Don'ept o# Inte(rat"*e Ie*e%s o# B"o%o(y,0 Science, 2>2:=2=&=2?, -ar'h =. O’Hear, ,nthony 123345, Beyond Evolution: "u#an Nature and the *i#its o Evolutionary Explanation 1Ne$ Kor:: O)#ord ;n"*ers"ty Press5. Ornste"n, Robert 123325, The Evolution o Consciousness 1Ne$ Kor:: Prent"'e Ha%%5. Penrose, Ro(er 123345, The *arge+ the S#all and the "u#an Brain 1Dambr"d(e, En(%and: Dambr"d(e ;n"*ers"ty Press5. P"n:er, Ste*en 1233G5, The *anguage -nstinct 1Ne$ Kor:: B"%%"am -orro$5. P"n:er, Ste*en 1=>>>5, /B"%% the -"nd !"(ure Out Ho$ the Bra"n Bor:s6,0 Ti#e, 2FF[2GA:3>& 32, ,pr"% 2>. P"n:er, Ste*en 1=>>?5, /,re Kour .enes to B%ame6,0 Ti#e, 2E2[?A:33&2>>, anuary =>. P%an':, -a) 123F>5, Scienti ic $uto(iography and &ther Papers 1Iondon: B"%%"ams and Nor(ate5. Po%:"n(horne, ohn 123HE5, &ne %orld: The -nteraction o Science and Theology 1Pr"n'eton, N : Pr"n'eton ;n"*ers"ty Press5. Po%:"n(horne, ohn 1=>>25, /;nderstand"n( the ;n"*erse,0 $nnals o the Ne/ 6or2 $cade#y o Sciences, 3F>:24F&2H=. Popper, Car% R. and ohn D. E''%es 123445, The Sel and -ts Brain 1Ber%"n: Spr"n(er&8er%a(5. Ruse, -"'hae% 1=>>2a5, Can a 0ar/inian Be a Christian, 1Ne$ Kor:: Dambr"d(e ;n"*ers"ty Press5. Ruse, -"'hae% 1=>>2b5, The Evolution %ars 1Ne$ Bruns$"':, N : Rut(ers ;n"*ers"ty Press5.

S'ott, ,%$yn 1233F5, Stair/ay to the !ind: Consciousness1Ne$ Kor:: Spr"n(er&8er%a(5.

The Controversial Ne/ Science

o

S"mpson, .eor(e .ay%ord 123G45, /The Prob%em o# P%an and Purpose "n Nature,0 Scienti ic !onthly, pp. GH2&GH3. S"mpson, .eor(e .ay%ord 123F?5, *i e o the Past 1Ne$ Ha*en, DT: Ka%e ;n"*ers"ty Press5. Sprou%, R.D., ohn .erstner, and ,rthur I"nds%ey 123HG5, Classical $pologetics 1.rand Rap"ds, -I: Nonder*an5. Stannard, Russe%% 1=>>>5, The God Experi#ent: Can Science Prove the Existence o God, 1-ah$ay, N : Pau%"st Press5. Suther%and, Stuart 123H35, /Dons'"ousness,0 The !ac#illan 0ictionary o Psychology 1Iondon: -a'm"%%an5. Tattersa%%, Ian 1=>>=5, The !on2ey in the !irror: Essays on the Science o %hat !a2es Us "u#an 1Ne$ Kor:: Har'ourt5. Thorpe, B.H. 123EF5, /Etho%o(y and Dons'"ousness,0 Brain and Conscious Experience+ ed. ohn D. E''%es 1Rome, Ita%y: Pont"#"'a ,'adem"a S'"entar"um5, pp. G4>&F>F. To%son, ay 1=>>=5, /The .host Hunters,0 U1S1 Ne/s & %orld Report+ 2??[=?A:GG&GF, De'ember 2E. Tre#"%, ames 123345, $re %e Uni.ue, $ Scientist Explores the Unparalleled -ntelligence o the "u#an !ind 1Ne$ Kor:: ohn B"%ey R Sons5. Ba%d, .eor(e 1233G5, /The Dosmo%o(y o# I"#e and -"nd,0 Ne/ !etaphysical )oundations o !odern Science, ed. B"%%"s Harman and ane D%ar: 1Sausa%"to, D,: Inst"tute o# Noet"' S'"en'es5, pp. 2=?&2?2. Be"nber(, Ste*en 123445, The )irst Three !inutes 1Ne$ Kor:: Bas"' Boo:s5. Besson, Robert 123345, Beyond Natural Selection 1Dambr"d(e, -,: -IT Press5. B"%son, Ed$ard O. 1234H5, &n "u#an Nature 1Dambr"d(e, -,: Har*ard ;n"*ers"ty Press5. B"%son, Peter . 123H>5, !an+ The Pro#ising Pri#ate 1Ne$ Ha*en: Ka%e ;n"*ers"ty Press5. Br"(ht, Robert 1=>>>5, Non5ero: The *ogic o "u#an 0estiny 1Ne$ Kor:: Pantheon5. Neman, ,dam 1=>>25, /Dons'"ousness,0 Brain, 2=G[4A:2=E?&2=H3, u%y.

The Origin of Consciousness [Part II] by Bert Thompson, Ph.D. Brad Harrub, Ph.D.

[EDITOR’S NOTE: Part I o# th"s t$o&part ser"es appeared "n the ,pr"% "ssue. Part II #o%%o$s be%o$, and 'ont"nues, $"thout "ntrodu'tory 'omments, $here the #"rst art"'%e ended.A T&'O,I'+ O. T&' O,I<I0 O. &/)#0 CO0+CIO/+0'++ In h"s 2334&233H ."##ord Ie'tures at the ;n"*ers"ty o# Ed"nbur(h, Ho%mes Ro%ston sa"d to h"s aud"en'e: /Humans do seem to be an e)'ept"ona% spe'"es0 12333, p. 2EG5. Indeed $e do. ,nd one o# the th"n(s that ma:es us /e)'ept"ona%0 "s the rea%"ty o# our se%#&'ons'"ousness. E*o%ut"on"sts a':no$%ed(e, to use -"'hae% Ruse’s $ords, that /'ons'"ousness "s a rea% th"n(0 1=>>2, p. =>>5. ,dam Neman, "n 'omment"n( on the #a't that human se%#&a$areness "s "ntu"t"*e, d"s'ussed @ust ho$ /rea%0 "t "s. The #"rst "ntu"t"on "s that 'ons'"ousness "s a robust phenomenon $h"'h deser*es to be e)p%a"ned rather than be"n( e)p%a"ned a$ay. Sensory e)per"en'es %":e those o# 'o%our, sound or pa"n, the s"mp%est and most *"*"d "nstan'es o# 'ons'"ousness, are phenomena $h"'h any #u%% des'r"pt"on o# the $or%d must re':on $"th.... The se'ond "ntu"t"on "s that 'ons'"ousness "s bound up $"th our phys"'a% be"n(.... The th"rd "ntu"t"on "s that consciousness ma es a difference. It seems se%#& e*"dent that mu'h o# our beha*"our "s e)p%a"ned by menta% e*entsJ "# $e 'ou%d not see or hear or tou'h, "# $e 'ou%d not e)per"en'e pa"n or p%easure, "# $e %a':ed 'ons'"ous des"res and "ntent"ons, $e $ou%d not and 'ou%d not beha*e as $e do 1=>>2, 2=G:2=H=, emp. added5. But 'ons'"ousness "s more than mere%y /a rea% th"n(.0 It "s important+be'ause /it ma es a difference=0 Stephen ay .ou%d 'a%%ed "t the /most (od&a$#u%%y potent e*o%ut"onary "n*ent"on e*er de*e%oped0 12334, p. ")5. ohanson and Ed(ar a%most b%ush"n(%y obser*ed that "t /adds %ayers o# r"'hness to our %"*es0 1233E, p. 2>45. Er$"n Ias<%o re#erred to "t as /perhaps the most remar:ab%e o# a%% the phenomena o# the %"*ed and e)per"en'ed $or%d0 123H4, p. 22E5. Su'h 'omments pro*"de po$er#u% test"mony to the u%t"mate "mportan'e o# human 'ons'"ousness. Robert ahn and Brenda Dunne, "n the 'hapter they 'o&authored 1/The Sp"r"tua% Substan'e o# S'"en'e05 #or the boo:, Ne/ !etaphysical )oundations o !odern Science , 'ommented on the s"(n"#"'an'e o# the ro%e o# 'ons'"ousness $hen they $rote: In our a(e, ho$e*er, as s'"en'e and "ts der"*at"*e te'hno%o("es press #or$ard "nto "n'reas"n(%y abstra't and probab"%"st"' doma"ns o# 7uantum and re%at"*"st"' me'han"'s, the role of spirit or consciousness+$hether d"*"ne or human, "nd"*"dua% or 'o%%e't"*e+"n the stru'ture and operat"on o# the phys"'a% $or%d "nes'apab%y returns to more pra(mat"' and theoret"'a% re%e*an'e, and can no longer casually be set aside if the goal is a truly comprehensive understanding of nature 1233G, p. 2F4, emp. added5. Indeed, the ro%e o# 'ons'"ousness 'an /no %on(er 'asua%%y be set as"de.0 Bhat S"r Car% Popper and S"r ohn E''%es unhes"tat"n(%y 'a%%ed /the (reatest o# m"ra'%es+the emer(en'e o# #u%% 'ons'"ousness0 12344, p. 2=35, must somehow be e!plained+a #a't that e*en e*o%ut"on"sts

read"%y 'on'ede. E''%es h"mse%# 'ommented: /...[TAhere are no$ s"(ns that the 'ons'"ous se%# or psy'he 'an be re#erred to "n Lpo%"te’ s'"ent"#"' d"s'ourse $"thout e*o:"n( an outra(e *er("n( on obs'en"ty90 1233=, p. =?G5. Dome $"th us, then, as $e en(a(e "n a /po%"te d"s'ourse0 re(ard"n( the 'ons'"ous se%#. ,nd as $e be("n, %et us do so by not"n( that, as E''%es and Rob"nson sa"d about humans, /$e are not Lbas"'a%%y’ or L#undamenta%%y or Lat root’ <y(otesJ $e are persons, the most e)traord"nary produ't"on o# a%%0 123HG, p. F2, emp. "n or"(.5. ,dm"tt"n( that #a't, ho$e*er, has ser"ous "mp%"'at"ons, as they $ent on to note. There "s "n a%% o# th"s a 'h"%%"n( ne(%e't o# $hat 'an on%y be 'a%%ed a mora% po"nt o# *"e$.... Bhat "s the mora% po"nt o# *"e$, and ho$ "s "t re%ated to human happ"ness6... B"thout be"n( spe'"#"' at th"s po"nt, $e may say that the moral point of view begins with man3s awareness of the fact of his own transcendence8 the recognition that human persons are different from and rise above those utterly material events comprised in the purely physical cosmos . E*en "# a '"t"<en has had spe'"a% tra"n"n( "n s'"en'e, he "s st"%% 'ond"t"oned "n h"s da"%y per'ept"ons by a per*as"*e #etaphysics that "mposes a de#"n"te 'hara'ter on the #u%% ran(e o# 'o(n"t"*e, emot"ona%, so'"a%, and aesthet"' pro'esses+the processes that are brought to bear on the serious matter of life 1"ta%"'s "n or"(., emp. added, pp. *"", *"""5. Human persons unden"ab%y /are d"##erent #rom, and r"se abo*e, those utter%y mater"a% e*ents 'ompr"sed "n the pure%y mater"a% 'osmos.0 Dob<hans:y and h"s 'o&authors #ree%y adm"tted: /B"thout doubt, the human m"nd sets our spe'"es apart #rom nonhuman an"ma%s0 12344, p. GF?5. Kes, "t does+#ar, #ar apart9 The 7uest"on "s: 7hy" Ho$ does the .enera% Theory o# E*o%ut"on a''ount #or the or"("n o# the emer(en'e o# #u%% 'ons'"ousness+/the (reatest o# m"ra'%es06 It "s our "ntent here to ans$er that 7uest"on. Be $ou%d %":e to re*"e$ and d"s'uss a *er"tab%e p%ethora o# theor"es that has been proposed "n $hat $e be%"e*e are #a"%ed attempts to e)p%a"n the or"("n o# human 'ons'"ousness. T&'O,I'+ O. &/)#0 CO0+CIO/+0'++ Spea:"n( "n broad stro:es, there are t$o ma"n approa'hes to $hat most s'"ent"sts and ph"%osophers re#er to as the /m"nd&body prob%em.0 In The Natural "istory o the !ind , .ordon Tay%or assessed them as #o%%o$s: They are :no$n as the dualist and monist, terms I sha%% not be ab%e to a*o"d us"n(. Dua%"sts ma"nta"n that the bra"n and the m"nd are t$o d"st"n't be"n(sJ mon"sts assert that they are on%y one th"n( seen #rom t$o d"##erent an(%es, so to spea:.... None o# these *"e$s, I may as $e%% $arn you, stands up to "nspe't"on 12343, pp. =>&=2, emp. added5. Be $ou%d %":e to re*"e$ these t$o broad (roups, and the"r subd"*"s"ons, "n some deta"%. Then, as $e br"n( th"s d"s'uss"on on 'ons'"ousness to a '%ose, $e $ant to o##er a th"rd a%ternat"*e that does /stand up to "nspe't"on.0 5ualism The 'on'ept :no$n as dualism "s attr"buted to the se*enteenth&'entury !ren'h phys"'"anMmathemat"'"anMph"%osopher RenO Des'artes 12F3E&2EF>5, $ho probab%y "s most #amous #or h"s $e%%&:no$n d"'tum, /I th"n:, there#ore I am.0 Interest"n(%y, ho$e*er, the "dea #or

dua%"sm d"d not or"("nate $"th Des'artes 1a%thou(h he "s the one $ho (enera%%y re'e"*es 'red"t #or "t5. Some t$e%*e hundred years ear%"er, ,u(ust"ne, "n h"s City o God 122.=E5, had $r"tten: B"thout any de%us"*e representat"on o# "ma(es and phantasms, I am most 'erta"n that I am, and that I :no$ and de%"(ht "n th"s. In respe't o# these truths, I am not a#ra"d o# the ar(uments o# the ,'adem"'"ans, $ho say, /Bhat "# you are de'e"*ed60 !or "# I am de'e"*ed, I am. !or he $ho "s not, 'annot be de'e"*edJ and "# I am de'e"*ed, by th"s same to:en I am 1see Dustan'e, 23H>, p. =H5. In the end, ho$e*er, "t $as Des'artes $ho /reso%*ed to ta:e myse%# as an ob@e't o# study and to emp%oy a%% the po$ers o# my m"nd "n 'hoos"n( the paths I shou%d #o%%o$0 1as 7uoted "n !"n'her, 23HG, p. 2E5. The paths Des'artes 'hose e*entua%%y des"(nated h"m as the #ather o# the m"ndMbody theory o# interactionism. In h"s 2EG= boo:, 0iscourse on !ethod and the !editations, Des'artes su((ested that the m"nd $as e*ery b"t as rea% as matter, yet $as ent"re%y separate #rom matter+and there#ore #rom the bra"n as $e%%. In Des'artes’ %an(ua(e, the m"nd $as res cogitans 1th"n:"n( substan'es5, as opposed to the bra"n, $h"'h $as res extensa 1mater"a% or phys"'a% substan'es5. Des'artes e*en thou(ht he had %o'ated the a'tua% /seat0 o# 'ons'"ousness "n the bra"n+the p"nea% (%and. ,rne By%%er summar"<ed Des'artes’ *"e$s as #o%%o$s: Des'artes...be%"e*ed that m"nd states and phys"'a% states are mutua%%y "ntera't"*e+throu(h the p"nea% (%and "n the bra"n. Thus arose the Dartes"an m"nd&body dua%"sm that st"%% "n#%uen'es modern s'"ent"#"' th"n:"n( "n th"s #"e%d 1233E, p. =2?5. It "s someth"n( o# an understatement to su((est that dua%"sm /st"%% "n#%uen'es modern s'"ent"#"' th"n:"n( "n th"s #"e%d.0 In h"s '%ass"' 23G3 boo:, The Concept o !ind, Br"t"sh ph"%osopher ."%bert Ry%e re#erred to dua%"sm as /the o##"'"a% do'tr"ne0 1p. 225. In 'omment"n( on that phrase, ,ustra%"an phys"'"st and mathemat"'"an Pau% Da*"es as:ed "n h"s boo:, God and the Ne/ Physics: Bhat are the #eatures o# the dua%"st"' theory o# the m"nd6 The /o##"'"a% do'tr"ne0 (oes someth"n( %":e th"s. The human be"n( 'ons"sts o# t$o d"st"n't, separate :"nds o# th"n(s: the body and the sou%, or m"nd. The body a'ts as a sort o# host or re'epta'%e #or the m"nd, or perhaps e*en as a pr"son #rom $h"'h %"berat"on may be sou(ht throu(h sp"r"tua% ad*an'ement or death.... Ho$e*er, the m"nd 1or sou%5 "s not %o'ated "ns"de the bra"n, or any other part o# the bodyJ or "ndeed any$here "n spa'e at a%%.... ,n "mportant #eature o# th"s p"'ture "s that the m"nd "s a th"n(J perhaps e*en more spe'"#"'a%%y, a substan'e. Not a phys"'a% substan'e, but a tenuous, e%us"*e, aether"a% sort o# substan'e 123H?, p. 43, parenthet"'a% "tem "n or"(.5. ames Tre#"% summed "t up %":e th"s: One $ay o# %oo:"n( at th"s 7uest"on 1$h"'h "s a%most 'erta"n%y $ron(5 "s to "ma("ne that some$here "n the bra"n "s an /I0 $ho "s $at'h"n( the #"na% produ'ts o# the pro'ess"n( o# s"(na%s by neurons. The essen'e o# th"s *"e$ "s that there "s someth"n( "n /m"nd0 that trans'ends 1or at %east "s d"st"n't #rom5 the $or:"n(s o# the phys"'a% bra"n. The se*enteenth&'entury !ren'h ph"%osopher and mathemat"'"an RenO Des'artes ad*o'ated su'h a *"e$ o# m"ndMbody dua%"sm, so the hypothet"'a% p%a'e $here menta% "ma(es are *"e$ed "s o#ten re#erred to as the /Dartes"an Theater0 1233E, pp. =24&=2H, parenthet"'a% "tems "n or"(.5. The #as'"nat"n( boo:, No(el Pri5e Conversations, "n'%udes the te)t o# a ser"es o# /'on*ersat"ons0 that o''urred "n No*ember 23H=, at the Isthmus Inst"tute "n Da%%as, Te)as, amon( #our Nobe%

%aureates: S"r ohn E''%es, I%ya Pr"(o("ne, Ro(er Sperry, and Br"an osephson. Norman Dous"ns $as the moderator #or those 'on*ersat"ons. ,#ter %"sten"n( to Drs. E''%es and Sperry d"s'uss the"r resear'h, do'ument"n( that the m"nd e)erts a s"(n"#"'ant "n#%uen'e on the bra"n, Dous"ns $as 'onstra"ned to say that $hen $e see e*"den'e su'h as that produ'ed by the s'"ent"#"' resear'h o# Nobe% %aureates %":e Sperry and E''%es, $h"'h sho$s ...that m"nd "s "n 'har(e o# bra"n, $e spontaneous%y re'o(n"<e the"r 'on*"'t"on as someth"n( $e’*e a%$ays :no$n or at %east suspe'ted. Bhat (r"ps us as $e %"sten to these men "s not on%y the e%e(an'e o# the"r demonstrat"ons, nor the sheer%y rat"ona% #or'e o# the"r ar(uments, but the"r e*erydayness.... 7e find ourselves agreeing with +perry and 'ccles because what they say seems (right- 123HF, pp. ?3&G>, emp. added5. Perhaps that e)p%a"ns, at %east "n part, $hy, as Tre#"% $ent on to remar:, that /[tAh"s so&'a%%ed m"nd&body dua%"sm has p%ayed a ma@or ro%e "n th"n:"n( about menta% a't"*"ty e*er s"n'e Des'artes0 12334, p. 2H25. But that "s not a%% that Dr. Tre#"% had to say. He a%so 'ommented: /Ph"%osophers ha*e, "n #a't, $r"tten %on( and deta"%ed 'r"t"7ues o# the Dartes"an approa'h to the $or%d0 12334, p. 2H25. Iater, $e $"%% return to the "dea beh"nd Tre#"%’s 'omment that /there "s a sense "n $h"'h someth"n( %":e Des'artes’ pro'edure rema"ns *a%"d #or the 7uest"on o# human 'ons'"ousness,0 be'ause he "s abso%ute%y r"(ht "n su'h an assessment. !or no$, ho$e*er, $e $ou%d %":e to 'on'entrate on h"s statement that ph"%osophers ha*e $r"tten /%on( and deta"%ed 'r"t"7ues o# the Dartes"an approa'h to the $or%d.0 Indeed they ha*e. ,nd so ha*e the"r 'ounterparts "n the s'"ent"#"' 'ommun"ty. In h"s e)haust"*e re*"e$ on /'ons'"ousness0 #or the @ourna% Brain, Neman remar:ed that /there "s a deep d"ssat"s#a't"on $"th the Dartes"an separat"on o# body and m"nd0 1=>>2, 2=G:2=EG5. True enou(h. But, as the em"nent Br"t"sh phys"o%o("st, Iord E.D. ,dr"an, adm"tted: /[,A(reement "n re@e't"n( dua%"sm has not been 'oup%ed $"th a(reement "n a''ept"n( anyth"n( e%se0 123EF, p. =?35. The 7uest"on, then, "s why "s there su'h a /deep d"ssat"s#a't"on06 S"mp%y put, there "s a deep d"ssat"s#a't"on $"th the Dartes"an *"e$ that body and m"nd are separate be'ause: 1a5 su'h a 'on'ept "s deemed /uns'"ent"#"'0J 1b5 "t does not a(ree $"th e*o%ut"onary 'on'eptsJ and 1'5 st"%% $orse 1at %east "n the eyes o# many5, "t has /theo%o("'a% o*ertones.0 Danad"an anthropo%o("st ,rthur D. Dustan'e addressed these matters "n The !ysterious !atter o !ind. -ost o# the "mportant th"n:ers $ho #o%%o$ed Des'artes re@e'ted "ntera't"on"sm. It $as not a testab%e hypothes"s. #bove all1 it introduced the supernatural into the picture and thus removed the concept from the scientific laboratory into the theological seminary .... Bhat emer(ed $as a determ"nat"on to redu'e e*eryth"n( to phys"'s and 'hem"stry, or perhaps more pre'"se%y to phys"'s and mathemat"'s... 123H>, p. ?2, emp. added5. Har*ard’s C"rt%ey -ather $as a b"t more b%unt $hen he $rote "n The Per#issive Universe: I :no$ o# no s'"ent"#"'a%%y *er"#"ab%e data that $ou%d support the "dea that the human sou% "s a separate ent"ty "nserted #rom abo*e or $"thout "nto the human body and res"d"n( there"n dur"n( a person’s %"#et"me.... E7uat"n( thus the human sou% $"th the sp"r"tua% aspe'ts o# the %"#e o# man, "t #o%%o$s that the soul1 li e the body or the mind1 is a product of evolutionary processes ... 123HE, p. 24G, emp. added5.

,s Sperry put "t: [,A 'entra% re7u"rement "mposed by s'"en'e $ou%d seem to be a re%"n7u"shment o# dua%"st 'on'epts "n 'on#orman'e $"th the e)p%anat"on o# m"nd "n mon"st&menta%"st terms. Su'h a sh"#t #rom *ar"ous dua%"st"', other$or%d%y be%"e#s to a mon"st"', th"s&$or%d #a"th, $ou%d mean that our p%anet shou%d no %on(er be 'on'e"*ed, or treated, as mere%y a $ay&stat"on to someth"n( better beyond. Th"s present $or%d and %"#e $ou%d thus "n ea'h 'ase, a'7u"re an added re%at"*e *a%ue and mean"n( 1as 7uoted "n Dous"ns, 23HF, pp. 2F3&2E>5. Or, to use -ather’s $ords: /The 'on'%us"on "s "nes'apab%e. -an:"nd’s dest"ny "s that o# an earth& bound 'reature. Sa%*at"on must be sou(ht here on th"s terrestr"a% p%anet0 123HE, p. 2F45. Neman thus 'on'%uded: The su((est"on that 'ons'"ous e*ents are "dent"'a% $"th the 'orrespond"n( neura% e*ents o##ers a redu't"on"st and mater"a%"st, or phys"'a%"st, so%ut"on to the m"nd&body prob%em.... 7hy should consciousness be an e!ception to the stream of successful reductions of phenomena once considered to be beyond the reach of science" 12=G:2=H=, emp. added5. ."%bert Ry%e’s boo:, The Concept o !ind, p%ayed a 'r"t"'a% ro%e "n $hat many today *"e$ as the #"na% debun:"n( o# Dartes"an dua%"sm. Ry%e stated '%ear%y that h"s (oa% $as to e)pun(e on'e and #or a%% the /o##"'"a% do'tr"ne0 o# $hat he 'a%%ed /the do(ma o# the (host "n the ma'h"ne0 1pp. 2F& 2E5. In #a't, he $as the one $ho "n*ented that no$&#amous phrase. Ro(er Ie$"n, "n h"s d"s'uss"on o# human 'ons'"ousness "n Co#plexity: *i e at the Edge o Chaos, su((ested that /Dartes"an dua%"sm dom"nated ph"%osoph"'a% th"n:"n( #or three 'entur"es unt"% the Br"t"sh ph"%osopher ."%bert Ry%e e##e't"*e%y demo%"shed "t0 1233=, p. 2F45. Ry%e’s *"'"ous atta': upon Dartes"an dua%"sm $as mere%y the #"rst o# many to #o%%o$, %ead"n( Har*ard’s E.O. B"%son to 'on'%ude: 8"rtua%%y a%% 'ontemporary s'"ent"sts and ph"%osophers e)pert on the sub@e't a(ree that the m"nd, $h"'h 'ompr"ses 'ons'"ousness and rat"ona% pro'ess, "s the bra"n at $or:. They ha*e re@e'ted the m"nd&bra"n dua%"sm o# RenO Des'artes... 1233H, p. 3H5. Or, as -"'hae% Iemon"': $rote "n the anuary =>, =>>? "ssue o# Ti#e ma(a<"ne: /Des'artes $as dead $ron(0 12E2[?A:E?5. )onism 7as Des'artes /dead $ron(06 Be su((est that, no, he $as not. ,nd $e $"%% ha*e more to say on that short%y. But #or no$, $e $ou%d %":e to e)am"ne mon"st"' theor"es o# 'ons'"ousness. ,s $e be("n, perhaps a de#"n"t"on o# /mon"sm0 $ou%d be "n order. The $#erican "eritage 0ictionary de#"nes mon"sm as: the *"e$ "n metaphys"'s that rea%"ty "s a un"#"ed $ho%e and that a%% e)"st"n( th"n(s 'an be as'r"bed to or des'r"bed by a s"n(%e 'on'ept or systemJ the do'tr"ne that m"nd and matter are #ormed #rom, or redu'"b%e to, the same u%t"mate substan'e or pr"n'"p%e o# be"n(. In spea:"n( about the 'on'ept o# mon"sm, Ruse o##ered th"s assessment:

Consciousness1 in some way1 is simply a manifestation of the physical world . Sp"no<a and h"s modern&day #o%%o$ers do not $ant to say that 'ons'"ousness does not e)"st, or that "t "s s"mp%y mater"a% substan'e "n a trad"t"ona% $ay. Dons'"ousness "s ob*"ous%y not round, or red, or hard, or anyth"n( %":e that. Rather, 'ons'"ousness "n some sense "s emer(ent #rom or an aspe't o# mater"a% substan'es. In other words1 the notion of material substance has to be e!tended1 from red and round and hard1 to include consciousness1=>>2, pp. 233&=>>, emp. added5. ,''ord"n( to th"s *"e$, the human bra"n "s 'ons"dered to be an e%e'tro'hem"'a% ma'h"ne. The m"nd and the bra"n are one, $"th the m"nd be"n( mere%y an e)tens"on o# the phys"'a% me'han"sms o# the bra"n 1and be"n( ent"re%y dependent upon those me'han"sms #or "ts e)"sten'eMe)press"on5. The p"%%ar upon $h"'h modern neura% s'"en'e "s #ounded+mater"a%"st"' mon"sm+'ontends that all beha*"or "s a re#%e't"on o# bra"n #un't"on. Thus, a''ord"n( to th"s *"e$, e*eryth"n( that a person th"n:s, says, and does 'an be a''ounted #or by 'erta"n phys"'a% a't"ons "n the bra"n. The /m"nd0+su'h as "t "s+there#ore "s redu'ed to a ran(e o# #un't"ons 'arr"ed out by the phys"'a% matter $"th"n the bra"n. Th"s redu't"*e perspe't"*e a%%o$s e*o%ut"on"sts to then de'%are that matter "s a%% that e)"sts, and that the human bra"n and m"nd e*o%*ed #rom %o$er an"ma%s, so that humans ha*e no /sp"r"tua%0 'omponent. There "s, so "t has been sa"d, no /(host "n the ma'h"ne.0 Today, /#or the most part, mater"a%"sm, the ph"%osoph"'a% a%ternat"*e to dua%"sm, dom"nates modern th"n:"n( about 'ons'"ousness0 1Ie$"n, 233=, p. 2F45. Kes, "t 'erta"n%y does. Iord ,dr"an, "n the 'hapter he $rote on /Dons'"ousness0 #or the boo:, Brain and Conscious Experience, adm"tted: ...[BAy the be("nn"n( o# the 'entury, "t $as be'om"n( more respe'tab%e #or psy'ho%o("sts to use some :"nd o# mon"sm as a $or:"n( hypothes"s and e*en to be $ho%e&hearted beha*"or"sts 123EF, p. =?35. The %ate, em"nent Br"t"sh e%e'trophys"o%o("st, S"r ohn E''%es, $r"t"n( "n h"s boo:, The "u#an Psyche, 'ommented: The dominant theories of the brain-mind relationship that are today held by neuroscientists are purely materialistic "n the sense that the bra"n "s ("*en 'omp%ete mastery. The e)"sten'e o# m"nd or 'ons'"ousness "s not den"ed, but "t "s re%e(ated to the pass"*e ro%e o# menta% e)per"en'es a''ompany"n( some types o# bra"n a't"on, as "n psy'honeura% "dent"ty, but $"th abso%ute%y no e##e't"*e a't"on on the bra"n.... ,'tua%%y, "t "s rare #or th"s to be stated so ba%d%y, but desp"te a%% the soph"st"'ated 'o*er&up the s"tuat"on "s e)a't%y as stated. #n effective causality is denied to the self-conscious mind per se 1233=, p. 24, emp. added5. Dr. E''%es’ assessment "s abso%ute%y 'orre't, and o##ers a spr"n(board #rom $h"'h $e 'an be("n our "n*est"(at"on "nto /the dom"nant theor"es o# the bra"n&m"nd re%at"onsh"p.0 ,adical )aterialism ?.unctionalism@ Durrent%y, there e)"sts a sma%%&but&*o'a% (roup o# ph"%osophers that parades under the t"t%e o# /the rad"'a% mater"a%"sts.0 Pre*"ous%y, $e 7uoted #rom E''%es and Rob"nson, $ho noted: /The e)"sten'e o# m"nd or 'ons'"ousness "s not den"ed e!cept by radical materialists ...0 123HG, p. ?G, emp. added5. ,''ord"n( to E''%es, "n rad"'a% mater"a%"sm, /there "s a den"a% or repud"at"on o# the e)"sten'e o# menta% e*ents. They are s"mp%y "%%usory. The bra"n&m"nd prob%em "s a non&prob%em0 1233=, pp. 24&2H5. Today, "t "s un%":e%y that anyone "s better :no$n #or de#end"n( the 'on'ept o# rad"'a% mater"a%"sm "n a more #orm"dab%e #ash"on than ph"%osopher Dan"e% D. Dennett 1o# Tu#ts

;n"*ers"ty "n Boston5, $hose re*eren'e #or ."%bert Ry%e’s $or: "s unabashed, and $ho has $r"tten a s%e$ o# boo:s on human 'ons'"ousness 123HG, 23H4, 2332, 233E, 233H5, "n'%ud"n( one t"t%ed Consciousness Explained 123325. Spea:"n( o# that boo: and "ts author, ,ndre$ Bro$n $rote "n The 0ar/in %ars: It "s d"##"'u%t to th"n: o# anyone e%se $ho $ou%d ha*e the se%#&'on#"den'e to $r"te a boo: 'a%%ed s"mp%y Consciousness Explained, or the ner*e, on'e "t $as #"n"shed, to pub%"sh the 'ontents under that t"t%e. It’s a $onder#u% boo:J but "t doesn’t e)p%a"n 'ons'"ousness. The heart of 5ennett3s position seems to be that consciousness itself is a misleading category1 and that the only way to ma e sense of it is to redefine all one3s terms in terms of e!ternally visible states and behaviours.... He has de*oted h"s %"#e to e)or'"s"n( the (host #rom the ma'h"ne 12333, pp. 2F?,2FG, emp. added5. Pau% Ehr%"'h $ent on re'ord as stat"n(: /In Consciousness Explained, he ta:es an "nterest"n( 'ut at the prob%em, but he does not Le)p%a"n’ 'ons'"ousness to my sat"s#a't"on0 1=>>>, p. 22=5. Nor d"d he e)p%a"n "t to anyone e%se’s. In h"s 233G boo:, "o/ the Sel Controls -ts Brain, S"r ohn E''%es 7uoted Dennett’s statement #rom pa(e =2 o# Consciousness Explained, /human 'ons'"ousness "s @ust about the %ast sur*"*"n( mystery,0 and then $ry%y 'ommented: /It "s st"%% a mystery at the end o# h"s GEH&pa(e boo:0 1p. ?25. In a re*"e$ o# Dennett’s =>>? boo:, )reedo# Evolves, that he authored #or the -ar'h =, =>>? "ssue o# the Ne/ 6or2 Ti#es, .a%en Stra$son 1pro#essor o# ph"%osophy at the ;n"*ers"ty o# Read"n( "n En(%and, and author o# )reedo# and Belie 5 $rote: In the %ast se*era% years, the ph"%osopher Dan"e% D. Dennett has pub%"shed t$o *ery %ar(e, "nterest"n( and "n#%uent"a% boo:s. The #"rst, Consciousness Explained 123325, a"med to a''ount #or a%% the phenomena o# 'ons'"ousness $"th"n the (enera% theoret"'a% #rame$or: set by 'urrent phys"'s. It #a"%ed, o# 'ourse, and 'ame to be a##e't"onate%y :no$n as Consciousness -gnored... 1=>>?5. Dennett has "ndeed /de*oted h"s %"#e to e)or'"s"n( the (host #rom the ma'h"ne.0 Spea:"n( o# h"mse%#, and others o# h"s "%:, he $rote: !or other, more theoret"'a%%y dar"n( resear'hers, there "s a ne$ ob@e't o# study, the m"ndMbra"n. Th"s ne$%y popu%ar 'o"na(e n"'e%y e)presses the pre*a"%"n( mater"a%"sm o# these resear'hers, $ho happ"%y adm"t to the $or%d and to themse%*es that $hat ma:es the bra"n part"'u%ar%y #as'"nat"n( and ba##%"n( "s that someho$ or other "t isthe m"nd 12332, pp. ?H&?3, emp. "n or"(.5. ,s one m"(ht e)pe't, the rad"'a% mater"a%"sm espoused by Dennett has not (one o*er $e%% $"th those $ho be%"e*e that 'ons'"ousness does e)"st, and that "t does matter. E*en amon( some o# h"s e*o%ut"on"st 'o%%ea(ues, h"s "deas ha*e dra$n 'ons"derab%e 1and substant"a%5 'r"t"'"sm. In assess"n( Dennett’s $or:, Tre#"% $rote: The prob%em 'omes $hen Dennett approa'hes the prob%em o# 'ons'"ousness. The #"rst t"me I read h"s boo:, I be'ame 'on#used be'ause about ha%#$ay throu(h I be(an to th"n:, /Hey+th"s (uy doesn’t th"n: that 'ons'"ousness e)"sts.0 ...;nt"% you ha*e e)p%a"ned ho$ I 'ome to that 'entra% 'on'%us"on about my o$n e)"sten'e, you ha*e not so%*ed the prob%em o# 'ons'"ousness. *ou certainly won3t solve the problem by denying that consciousness e!ists. !or me, read"n( Dennett’s boo: $as a %"tt%e %":e read"n( a deta"%ed d"s'uss"on on the $or:"n(s o# a transm"ss"on, on%y to be to%d that there "s no su'h th"n( as a 'ar 12334, pp. 2H=&2HG, emp. added5.

T$o aspe'ts o# rad"'a% mater"a%"sm are '%ose%y asso'"ated $"th Dennett. The #"rst "s $hat he persona%%y re#ers to as /the "ntent"ona% stan'e,0 $h"'h, not 'o"n'"denta%%y, happens to be the t"t%e o# one o# h"s boo:s 123H45. Dennett’s de#"n"t"on "n that boo: $as th"s: /The "ntent"ona% stan'e "s the strate(y o# pred"'t"on and e)p%anat"on that attr"butes be%"e#s, des"res, and other L"ntent"ona%’ states to systems+%"*"n( and non%"*"n(0 1p. G3F5. Dona%d .r"##"n, "n $ni#al !inds, 'ons"dered Dennett’s pos"t"on, and 'on'%uded: The 'ontemporary ph"%osopher Dan"e% Dennett has ad*o'ated $hat he 'a%%s /the "ntent"ona% stan'e0 $hen ana%y<"n( not on%y human and an"ma% 'o(n"t"on but a%so many e)amp%es o# se%#&re(u%at"n( "nan"mate me'han"sms.... H"s "ns"sten'e on "n'%ud"n( su'h s"mp%e de*"'es as thermostats "n th"s e)tended 'ate(ory o# "ntent"ona% systems leads him to deny any special status to conscious mental e!periences.... 5ennett appears to be arguing that if a neurophysiological mechanism were shown to organi9e and guide a particular behavior pattern1 this would rule out the possibility that any conscious mental e!periences might accompany or influence such behavior... 1=>>2, p. =E?, emp. added5. .r"##"n, o# 'ourse, "s reno$ned "n h"s o$n r"(ht #or h"s $or: $"th an"ma% 'ons'"ousness+$h"'h "s $hy he %ater ra"sed the "ssue o# ho$ Dennett’s $or: 7uest"ons /$hether 'ons'"ous menta% e)per"en'es o''ur "n other spe'"es0 1p. =E?5. But Dennett’s pos"t"on does not 7uest"on 'ons'"ousness so%e%y /"n other spe'"es.0 It "s most notor"ous #or 'a%%"n( "nto 7uest"on $hether 'ons'"ousness o''urs "n humans. The se'ond aspe't o# rad"'a% mater"a%"sm '%ose%y asso'"ated $"th Dennett "s the 'on'ept o# /#un't"ona%"sm.0 Th"s *"e$ u%t"mate%y ar"ses #rom Dennett’s stron( t"es to the art"#"'"a% "nte%%"(en'e 1,I5 'ommun"ty. In re*"e$"n( Dennett’s pos"t"on, ohanson and Ed(ar e)p%a"ned that he ...ar(ues that 'ons'"ousness 'an be understood #rom the metaphor o# a 'omputer. He *"e$s the m"nd as the so#t$are to the bra"n’s hard$are, a pro(ram that $r"tes a narrat"*e o# our e)per"en'e, ed"ted and 'omp"%ed #rom the mu%t"p%e dra#ts o# "n#ormat"on stream"n( "nto the bra"n. In th"s *"e$, the present moment o# sensat"on "s "ns"(n"#"'ant 'ompared to the subse7uent menta% re#%e't"on and 'ontemp%at"on, #rom $h"'h mean"n( ar"ses. Dons'"ousness+the m"nd+"s s"mp%y a produ't o# the bra"n... 1233E, p. 2>45. I# a%% o# th"s str":es you as a b"t odd, %et us reassure you that you are not a%one. In #a't, e*en Dennett h"mse%#, as the 'urrent h"(h pr"est o# #un't"ona%"sm, has 'on'eded that #re7uent%y h"s "deas are not terr"b%y $e%% re'e"*ed. Be%o## noted: In d"sm"ss"n( the th"rd so%ut"on #rom #urther 'ons"derat"on, I 'an do no better than ohn Sear%e 1 The Rediscovery o the !ind, 233=, p. H5 $hen he says, /if your theory results in the view that consciousness does not e!ist1 you have simply produced a reductio ad absurdum of your theory0 1233G, emp. added5. Be a(ree. Su((est"n( that 'ons'"ousness 1a.:.a., se%#&a$areness5 does not e)"st is absurd9 In Beyond Natural Selection, Robert Besson 'on'%uded: Se%#&a$areness "s a spe'"a% 7ua%"ty o# the m"nd.... Se%#&a$areness "s d"##erent #rom "n#ormat"on pro'ess"n(J e*en $hen 'on#used and unab%e to th"n: '%ear%y, one may be *"*"d%y a$are o# one’s se%# and one’s 'on#us"on. The essen'e o# m"nd "s %ess data pro'ess"n( than $"%%, "ntent"on, "ma("nat"on,

d"s'o*ery, and #ee%"n(. I# some :"nds o# th"n:"n( 'an be "n"t"ated by a 'omputer, others 'annot 12334, p. =445. Ro(er Ie$"n remar:ed: To say that the bra"n "s a 'omputer "s a tru"sm, be'ause, un7uest"onab%y, $hat (oes on "n there "s 'omputat"on. But so #ar, no man&made 'omputer mat'hes the human bra"n, e"ther "n 'apa'"ty or des"(n.... Dan a 'omputer th"n:6 ,nd, u%t"mate%y, 'an a 'omputer (enerate a %e*e% o# 'ons'"ousness that Dan Dennett or N"': Humphrey, or anyone e%se, has "n m"nd6 1233=, p. 2E>5. .ood 7uest"ons, those. ,nd $e a%% :no$ the ans$ers to them, do $e not6 One %ast "tem bears ment"on"n( "n re(ard to rad"'a% mater"a%"sm. It has a 'ounterpart "n psy'ho%o(y+beha*"or"sm. Pau% Da*"es 'ommented on th"s #a't $hen he $rote: The mater"a%"st be%"e*es that menta% states and operat"ons are noth"n( but phys"'a% states and operat"ons. In the #"e%d o# psy'ho%o(y, materialism becomes what is nown as behaviourism1 which proclaims that all humans behave in a purely mechanical way in response to e!ternal stimuli 123H?, p. H=, emp. added5. ,''ord"n( to beha*"or"sts, on%y the bra"n e)"sts, and m"nd "s mere%y an /o##&shoot0 o# "t 1".e., m"nd "s an /ep"phenomenon0+a 'on'ept d"s'ussed be%o$5. In the d"s'"p%"ne o# beha*"or"sm, /m"nd has no "ndependent e)"sten'e, and the 7uest"on o# the or"("n o# m"nd "s ent"re%y se'ondary to the 7uest"on o# the or"("n and nature o# bra"n t"ssue0 1Dustan'e, 23H>, p. =25. But su'h a pos"t"on presents "ts o$n set o# prob%ems. Br"t"n( under the t"t%e o# /Dons'"ousness0 #or The Encyclopaedia o -gnorance, R"'hard .re(ory d"s'ussed some o# them. One 'an $e%% "ma("ne that the phys"'a% state o# %a': o# #ood "s mon"tored, and s"(na%ed to bra"n re("ons $h"'h a't"*ates #ood&see:"n( beha*"ourJ and $e m"(ht des'r"be th"s "n an an"ma%, or another person, to "n'%ude a sensat"on %":e our #ee%"n( o# hun(er. It "s more d"##"'u%t to 'on'e"*e a phys"o%o("'a% state #or shame, or (u"%t, or pr"de.... The issue is important. It raises the 2uestion of how physiology is related to psychology1 and whether consciousness can be affected or controlled apart from physiological changes 12344, pp. =4H&=43, emp. added5. Beha*"or"sm has #a%%en onto hard t"mes o# %ate+and #or a number o# (ood reasons, amon( $h"'h are the ones summar"<ed be%o$ by Be%o##, $ho re#erred to beha*"or"sm as /methodo%o("'a%%y m"s%ead"n(, ph"%osoph"'a%%y #a%se, and "deo%o("'a%%y pern"'"ous.0 ,nd that $as the :"ndest th"n( he had to say9 Read on. -y #"rst 'har(e a(a"nst Beha*"our"sm "s that "t 'omm"ts $hat ,%dous Hu)%ey on'e 'a%%ed /The Or"("na% S"n o# the Inte%%e't: O*ers"mp%"#"'at"on.0 ...Se'ond%y, I re(ard beha*"our"sm as "n'ompat"b%e $"th any (enu"ne mora%"ty.... Our 'on'%us"ons $ere that "t $as methodo%o("'a%%y m"s%ead"n(, ph"%osoph"'a%%y #a%se and "deo%o("'a%%y pern"'"ous. But "n the end, perhaps its most glaring fault is simply a certain unmista able silliness which 2ualifies it1 surely1 as one of the oddest intellectual aberrations of the twentieth century 123E=, pp. G4,GH,G3, "ta%"'s "n or"(., emp. added5. In h"s 233G boo:, "o/ the Sel Controls -ts Brain, S"r ohn E''%es thre$ do$n the (aunt%et "n $hat he termed a /'ha%%en(e to a%% mater"a%"sts0 1p. )5. He e)pressed sharp 'r"t"'"sm o#, amon(

others, !ran'"s Dr"': and h"s 'o%%aborator, Dhr"sto# Co'h, $hen he re#erred to the"r $or: as /s'"en'e #"'t"on o# a b%atant :"nd0 1p. ?>5. But he reser*ed h"s harshest 'r"t"'"sm #or Dan"e% Dennett’s brand o# rad"'a% mater"a%"sm $hen he re#erred to #un't"ona%"sm as an /"mpo*er"shed and empty theory0 1p. ??5. Bhy 'hara'ter"<e #un't"ona%"sm "n su'h term"no%o(y6 To use ohn Sear%e’s un'omprom"s"n( $ords: /...the deeper ob@e't"on 'an be put 7u"te s"mp%y: the theory has left out the mind0 1as 7uoted "n Neman, =>>2, 2=G:2=H?, emp. added5. Panpsychism In h"s '%ass"' $or:, *ay Ser#ons, $ddresses+ and Revie/s, Thomas H. Hu)%ey had a 'hapter t"t%ed /On the Phys"'a% Bas"s o# I"#e.0 B"th"n that 'hapter $as th"s statement: /Thou(hts are the e)press"on o# mo%e'u%ar 'han(es "n the matter o# %"#e, $h"'h "s the sour'e o# our other *"ta% phenomena0 12H4>, p. 2F=5. Iord ,dr"an 'on'%uded: /...[NAo$ $e 'an add that there "s no need to "n*o:e e)traphys"'a% #a'tors to a''ount #or any o# the pub%"' a't"*"t"es o# the bra"n. ...Dons'"ousness "s a %o("'a% 'onstru't"on.... It ar"ses $hen un'ons'"ous pro'esses are "nte(ratedJ "ts base %"ne "n the "nd"*"dua% and "n the an"ma% :"n(dom "s arb"trary0 123EF, pp. =?3&=G>,=GE5. Th"s "s the essen'e o# the *"e$ :no$n as panpsy'h"sm. Bhen .re(ory "n7u"red, /Bhat "s the re%at"on bet$een 'ons'"ousness and the matter or #un't"ons o# the bra"n60 12344, p. =4G5, he h"t at the *ery heart o# panpsy'h"sm, $h"'h "s the 'on'ept that / some primordial consciousness attaches to all matter1 presumably even to atoms and subatomic particles 0 1E''%es and Rob"nson, 23HG, p. ?4, emp. added5. ,s E''%es and Rob"nson remar:ed "n re(ard to the rad"'a% mater"a%"sm that $e d"s'ussed abo*e: The a%ternat"*e "s to espouse panpsy'h"sm. ,%% types o# panpsy'h"sts e*ade the prob%ems by propos"n( that there is a protoconsciousness in all matter , e*en "n e%ementary part"'%es9 ,''ord"n( to panpsy'h"sm, the e*o%ut"onary de*e%opment o# bra"n "s asso'"ated mere%y $"th an amp%"#"'at"on and re#"nement o# $hat $as a%ready there as a property o# a%% matter. It mere%y "s e)h"b"ted more e##e't"*e%y "n the 'omp%e) or(an"<at"ons o# the bra"ns o# h"(her an"ma%s 1p. 2G, emp. added5. Hu)%ey put "t %":e th"s: /-"nd "s a #un't"on o# matter, $hen that matter has atta"ned a 'erta"n de(ree o# or(an"<at"on0 12H42, p. GEG5. But, there "s a 'a*eat. To 7uote E''%es, $h"%e /"t "s asserted that a%% matter has an "ns"de menta% or protopsy'h"'a% state, since this state is an integral part of matter1 it can have no action on it0 1233=, p. 24, emp. added5. ,''ord"n( to th"s *"e$, then, 'ons'"ousness does e)"st+e*ery$here, a%% the t"me, "n e*ery mater"a% th"n(. In the 'ase o# human be"n(s, "t /@ust happened0 to 'ome to(ether "n a /'erta"n de(ree o# or(an"<at"on0 that perm"tted 'ons'"ousness to be e)pressed, and (enerated se%#& a$areness as the end resu%t. Ho$e*er, a#ter a%% "s sa"d and done, as Rupert She%dra:e 'orre't%y noted: /The 'ons'"ous se%# [hasA...a rea%"ty $h"'h "s not mere%y der"*at"*e #rom matter0 123H2, p. =>?5. Pau% Da*"es 'ommented: /Be st"%% ha*e no '%ue ho$ m"nd and matter are re%ated, or $hat pro'ess %ed to the emer(en'e o# m"nd #rom matter "n the #"rst p%a'e0 1233F5. B"th some understatement, Neman 'on#essed: /[BAe ha*e no '%ear understand"n( o# $hat :"nd o# property 'ou%d render phys"'a% e*ents "ntr"ns"'a%%y menta%0 1=>>2, 2=G:2=HG5. Not surpr"s"n(%y, then, E''%es and Rob"nson 'on'%uded: /[Panpsy'h"smA #"nds no support $hatsoe*er "n phys"'s0 123HG, p. ?45. Nor, $e m"(ht add, does "t #"nd any support $hatsoe*er any$here e%se9 'piphenomenalism

The 'are#u% reader $"%% ha*e not"'ed that, #rom t"me to t"me dur"n( our d"s'uss"on o# the 'on'ept o# 'ons'"ousness, $e ha*e used the terms /ep"phenomenon,0 /ep"phenomena,0 or /ep"phenomena%"sm.0 Be purpose%y postponed any d"s'uss"on o# ep"phenomena%"sm unt"% th"s po"nt, be'ause "t "s best 'ons"dered under the sub@e't o# the mon"st&mater"a%"st *"e$s that $e are d"s'uss"n( here. Ep"phenomena%"sm, a''ord"n( to E''%es, "s the *"e$ that /menta% states e)"st "n re%at"on to some mater"a% happen"n(s, but 'ausa%%y are 'omp%ete%y "rre%e*ant0 1233=, pp. 245. The Ne/ !erria#' %e(ster 0ictionary de#"nes an ep"phenomenon as /a se'ondary phenomenon a''ompany"n( another and 'aused by "t.0 !or e)amp%e, patho%o("sts #re7uent%y use the $ord to re#er to the se'ondary symptoms o# a d"sease. So, $hen E''%es states that ep"phenomena%"sm su((ests that menta% states e)"st, but /'ausa%%y are 'omp%ete%y "rre%e*ant,0 h"s po"nt "s that, %":e "n a d"sease, the symptom does not cause anything1 but is itself caused by something else . That, "n essen'e, "s ho$ ep"phenomena%"sm $or:s. ,s %on( a(o as 2H4>, Shad$orth Hod(son, "n h"s boo:, The Theory o Practice+ proposed that 'ons'"ous menta% e*ents $ere 'aused by phys"'a% 'han(es $"th"n the ner*ous system, but 'ou%d not themse%*es 'ause any phys"'a% 'han(es. ,s one $r"ter stated the "ssue: /I":e the $h"st%e o# a ra"%$ay en("ne 1$h"'h does not a##e't the en("ne5, or the 'h"me o# a '%o': 1$h"'h does not a##e't the '%o':5, they $ere 'aused by 1and a''ompan"ed5 phys"'a% e*ents, but they d"d not themse%*es a't as 'ausa% a(ents. In a s%"(ht%y %ater term"no%o(y, they $ere epiphenomena...0 1.%ynn, 2333, p. H, parenthet"'a% "tems and emp. "n or"(.5. The man $ho on o''as"on re#erred to h"mse%# as /Dar$"n’s bu%%do(,0 Thomas Henry Hu)%ey 12H=F&2H3F5, 'o"ned the term /ep"phenomena%"sm0 "n an art"'%e he authored #or the )ortnightly Revie/ "n 2H4G. The t"me $as r"pe #or h"m to or"("nate su'h a 'on'ept s"n'e, as Be%o## e)p%a"ned: ...the *"e$ that pre*a"%ed amon( s'"ent"sts o# the %ate 23th 'entury $as to %oo: #or the 'auses o# our beha*"our "n the bra"n a%one.... !or the ep"phenomena%"st, the bra"n $as a ma'h"ne, %":e e*eryth"n( e%se "n nature, and the m"nd no more than a pass"*e re#%e't"on o# "ts a't"*"ty 1233G5. Hu)%ey, there#ore, proposed that as the no"se o# the babb%"n( broo: "s on%y a by&produ't o# the rush"n( $ater, so the m"nd, thou(h d"st"n't #rom the bra"n, "s ne*erthe%ess on%y a by&produ't o# "t. The bra"n there#ore 'auses the m"nd as the broo: 'auses the babb%"n(, but the m"nd 'annot ha*e any "n#%uen'e on the bra"n any more than the babb%"n( 'an ha*e any "n#%uen'e on the broo:. Th"s $as termed ep"phenomena%"sm 1Dustan'e, 23H>, p. =?5. Today, #rom the perspe't"*e o# the redu't"on"st&mater"a%"st, ep"phenomena%"sm "s as (ood an e)p%anat"on as any, s"n'e /so #ar as $e 'an te%%, menta% a't"*"ty "s a%$ays asso'"ated $"th ner*ous a't"*"ty0 1.%ynn, p. 35. .r"##"n $rote: Dons'"ous th"n:"n( may $e%% be a core function o# 'entra% ner*ous systems. ...The #a't that $e are 'ons'"ous%y a$are o# on%y a sma%% #ra't"on o# $hat (oes on "n our bra"ns has %ed many s'"ent"sts to 'on'%ude that 'ons'"ousness "s an ep"phenomenon or tr"*"a% by&produ't o# neura% #un't"on"n( 1=>>2, p. ?, emp. "n or"(.5. Re#err"n( to human 'ons'"ousness as a /tr"*"a% by&produ't0 or a mere /s"de e##e't0 seems to be the he"(ht o# #o%%y 1"# not 'on'e"t5. Be"n( as:ed to th"n: o# se%#&a$areness as a /symptom0 o# a

/d"sease0 1".e., the bra"n5 "s not mu'h better. ,nd, apparent%y, $e are not the on%y ones $ho th"n: so. In The %onder o Being "u#an: &ur Brain and &ur !ind , E''%es and Rob"nson re#erred to the 'on'ept o# ep"phenomena%"sm as /("bber"sh.0 The ep"phenomena%"st’s 'ausa% theory shou%d not be 'on#used $"th the ord"nary 'ausa% %a$s o# the phys"'a% s'"en'es. The %atter are 'on#"ned to the manner "n $h"'h #or'e and matter are d"str"buted "n t"me and spa'e. But $"th ep"phenomena%"sm $e are #a'ed $"th a rad"'a%%y d"##erent ent"ty+ a #ental ent"ty+ta:en to be nonmater"a% and nonphys"'a%. If it e!ists at all1 then by definition it cannot be composed of or reduced to material elements or combinations thereof . To say that "t /ar"ses0 #rom these "s, a%as, ("bber"sh 123HG, p. FF, "ta%"'s "n or"(., emp. added5. But $hy "s th"s the 'ase6 The t$o authors 'ont"nued: But note that "n any pure%y phys"'a% "ntera't"on, "t "s ne*er necessary that e*ent , 'ause e*ent BJ "t "s mere%y 'ont"n(ent%y the 'ase, ("*en the 'ompos"t"on and %a$s o# the phys"'a% $or%d, that e*ents o# type , happen to 'ause or #a"th#u%%y %ead to e*ents o# type B. ,''ord"n(%y, to ar(ue that bra"n states, "n a natura%&'ausa% #ash"on, produ'e menta% states "s to adm"t that "t 'ou%d be other$"se. #ll purely natural phenomena could be other than they are . Thus, the ep"phenomena%"st, to the e)tent that he endorses a 'ausa% theory o# bra"n&m"nd re%at"onsh"ps, 'an ne*er estab%"sh that the bra"n "s necessary "n order that there be m"nd. There "s noth"n( %o("'a%%y 'ontrad"'tory "n the '%a"m that there are m"nds $"thout bra"n andMor bra"ns $"thout m"nds.... On'e "t "s (ranted that there are (enu"ne%y menta% 1nonphys"'a%5 e*ents, "t #o%%o$s that an e)haust"*e "n*entory o# the physical un"*erse and "ts %a$s must be "n'omp%ete as an "n*entory o# rea% e)"stents, be'ause menta% e*ents are %e#t out. I# there 'an be m"nd "n add"t"on to matter, there 'an be m"nd $"thout matter 1p. FF, emp. "n or"(.5. Bhe$9 No ep"phenomena%"st $ou%d $"%%"n(%y $ant to (o that far, $e 'an assure you. -"nd $"thout matter6 E''%es and Rob"nson are abso%ute%y 'orre't, o# 'ourse: /To ar(ue that bra"n states...produ'e menta% states "s to adm"t that "t 'ou%d be other$"se.0 ,nd "t (ets pro(ress"*e%y $orse #or the ep"phenomena%"st, as Ian .%ynn po"nted out "n h"s boo:, $n $nato#y o Thought: The &rigin and !achinery o the !ind. [I]f mental events are epiphenomena1 they cannot have any survival value . Dar$"n’s stru((%e #or e)"sten'e "s a stru((%e "n the phys"'a% $or%d, and "# menta% e*ents 'annot 'ause phys"'a% e##e'ts they 'annot a##e't the out'ome "n that stru((%e. 6ut if they cannot affect the outcome$if they have no survival value$why should we have evolved brains that ma e them possible" ... That they ma:e 'ons'"ous thou(ht poss"b%e "s not re%e*ant, #or thou(ht that mere%y a''ompan"es beha*"our $"thout "n#%uen'"n( "t $"%% be "(nored by natura% se%e't"on.... 'ven if the notion that mental events are epiphenomena is true1 it leaves une!plained what most needs e!plaining. 7hy should particular physical changes in our nervous systems cause feelings or thoughts" 'ven epiphenomena need to be accounted for .... So desp"te "ts prom"s"n( start, the not"on that menta% e*ents are ep"phenomena has not (ot us out o# the d"##"'u%t"es that a 'omb"nat"on o# 'ommon sense and phys"'s (ot us "nto 12333, pp. 2>,22&2=, emp. added5. It seems that $e :eep return"n( to that phrase /'ommon sense.0 ,nd r"(ht%y so9 Bou%d that there $ere more o# "t "n d"s'uss"ons by ph"%osophers and s'"ent"sts re(ard"n( the sub@e't o# human 'ons'"ousness. 0onreductive )aterialism4'mergent )aterialism

B"thout doubt, one o# the most *o'a% supporters o# mon"st"' mater"a%"sm "s S"r !ran'"s Dr"':, $ho su((ested "n h"s 233G boo:, The $stonishing "ypothesis, that, e*entua%%y, everything$"%% be e)p%"'ab%e "n terms o# the neura% path$ays $"th"n the bra"n+a '%a"m that he 'orre't%y "dent"#"ed "n the t"t%e o# h"s boo: as /aston"sh"n(90 Dur"n( the t$ent"eth 'entury, re#"nements o# mon"st"'&mater"a%"st"' 'on'epts appeared under the name o# nonreductive materialism. The Br"t"sh ph"%osopher D.D. Broad and 'erta"n o# h"s 'ontemporar"es he%d the *"e$ that the bra"n "s the seat o# a%% menta% 'apa'"t"es, but they s"mu%taneous%y ma"nta"ned that $h"%e /menta% states0 emerge from the phys"'a% substratum o# the bra"n, those menta% states are not reducible to the bra"n. Th"s *"e$ 'ame to be :no$n as emergent materialism 1see By%%er, 233E, p. =2F5. In the $ords o# erome E%bert: 'mergent properties of matter [are] described as properties that emerge from matter when special circumstances apply to it1 such as the organi9ation of the matter into large numbers of similar units that can interact with each other. Consciousness may be the most challenging e!ample of such an emergent property . It ("*es matter a rad"'a%%y ne$ property that "s a'7u"red on%y under *ery spe'"a% 'ond"t"ons. Th"n: o# $hat a t"ny #ra't"on o# the so%ar system’s matter "s 'ons'"ous9 1=>>>, pp. =2F,=G?, emp. "n or"(.5. ,%$yn S'ott 'on'urred: /Thus, I su((est, 'ons'"ousness "s an emergent phenomenon, one born o# many d"s'rete e*ents #us"n( to(ether as a s"n(%e e)per"en'e0 1233F, p. ?, emp. "n or"(.5. One o# the best&:no$n ad*o'ates o# emer(ent"sm "s ph"%osopher ohn Sear%e. In oppos"t"on to the pure redu't"on"sts, Sear%e ar(ues that #"rst&person menta% e)per"en'es 1/I am "n pa"n05 'annot be redu'ed to mere neura% #"r"n(s, #or "n so do"n(, "mportant #"rst&person #eatures 1%":e sub@e't"*"ty5 are %ost. In oppos"t"on to the dua%"sts, ho$e*er, Sear%e su((ests that the str"'t d"'hotomy bet$een menta% and phys"'a% propert"es shou%d be d"s'arded. -enta% propert"es are s"mp%y /one :"nd o# property0 that phys"'a% th"n(s 'an possess. Pain and other mental phenomena are %ust features of the brain ?and perhaps the rest of the central nervous system 5 [see Sear%e, 23HG, p. 23, emp. addedA. Dons'"ousness, there#ore, "s s"mp%y a h"(her&order #eature o# the bra"n. Sear%e ardent%y den"es that 'ons'"ousness trans'ends the phys"'a%, or that "t possesses 'ausa% po$ers that 'annot be e)p%a"ned mere%y as the resu%t o# *ar"ous "ntera't"ons amon( the bra"n’s neurons. ,''ord"n( to th"s *"e$, as Re"'henba'h and ,nderson po"nted out, /'ons'"ousness has no %"#e o# "ts o$n apart #rom that "n $h"'h "t "s rea%"<ed. But be'ause o# th"s, Sear%e’s emer(ent"st *"e$ %ea*es no room #or #ree mora% a(en'y0 1233F, p. =HE5. Su'h an assessment "s 'orre't, as Dr. Sear%e h"mse%# adm"tted: #s long as we accept this conception of how nature wor s1 then it doesn3t seem that there is any scope for the freedom of the will be'ause on th"s 'on'ept"on the m"nd 'an on%y a##e't nature "n so #ar as "t "s a part o# nature. But "# so, then %":e the rest o# nature, "ts #eatures are determ"ned at the bas"' m"'ro&%e*e% o# phys"'s 123HG, p. 3?, emp. added5. Dons'"ousness, then, a''ord"n( to th"s *"e$ "s someth"n( that has /emer(ed #rom0 the neura% path$ays o# the bra"n, but, "n and o# "tse%#, "s not redu'"b%e to those neura% path$ays. ,nother $e%%&:no$n ad*o'ate o# the nonredu't"*e phys"'a%"st *"e$po"nt "s Ro(er Sperry $ho, %":e S"r !ran'"s Dr"': and S"r ohn E''%es, "s a Nobe% %aureate "n -ed"'"ne or Phys"o%o(y. Dr. Sperry, ho$e*er, adopted a *"e$ d"ametr"'a%%y opposed to that o# Dr"':’s mon"st&mater"a%"sm, yet $as un$"%%"n( to a''ept the #orm o# dua%"sm ad*o'ated by E''%es. He 'on'%uded:

Consciousness is conceived to be a dynamic emergent property of brain activity1 neither identical with nor reducible to1 the neural events of which it is mainly composed .... Dons'"ousness e)erts potent"a% 'ausa% e##e'ts on the "nterp%ay o# 'erebra% operat"ons.... In the pos"t"on o# top 'ommand at the h"(hest %e*e%s "n the h"erar'hy o# bra"n or(an"<at"on, the sub@e't"*e propert"es $ere seen to e)ert 'ontro% o*er the b"ophys"'a% and 'hem"'a% a't"*"t"es at subord"nate %e*e%s 1as 7uoted "n ee*es, 233H, p. HH, emp. added5. Sperry’s 'on'ept "s $hat "s re#erred to as a /top&do$n *"e$0 1%":e that o# Dr. E''%es5 $here menta% e*ents are ("*en onto%o("'a% pr"or"ty. But, un%":e E''%es, Sperry "s adamant about a*o"d"n( any h"nt o# dua%"sm. Thus, $h"%e the emer(ent mater"a%"sts may '%a"m that menta% states emer(e #rom the phys"'a% substratum o# the bra"n $"thout be"n( redu'"b%e to the bra"n, the #a't rema"ns, as Ernst -ayr noted, /emer(ent"sm "s a thorou(h%y mater"a%"st"' ph"%osophy0 123H=, p. EG5. Indeed "t "s. Sperry, "n a 'hapter 1/Ho%d"n( Dourse ,m"dst Sh"#t"n( Parad"(ms05 he authored #or the boo:,Ne/ !etaphysical )oundations o !odern Science, d"s'ussed the 'on'epts beh"nd emer(ent mater"a%"sm. He be(an by not"n( that, "n emer(ent mater"a%"sm, /the trad"t"ona% d"##eren'e bet$een the phys"'a% and the menta% 1as sub@e't"*e%y per'e"*ed5 "s de%"berate%y reta"ned, but $"th these pre*"ous%y separate, dua% rea%ms not "ne)tr"'ab%y mer(ed...0 1233G, p. 22>, parenthet"'a% "tem "n or"(.5. In Sperry’s *"e$, 'ons'"ous andMor menta% phenomena are /dynam"', emer(ent phenomena 1or 'on#"(urat"ona%5 propert"es o# the %"*"n( bra"n "n a't"on0 1as 7uoted "n Dous"ns, 23HF, p. EE, parenthet"'a% "tem "n or"(.5. In 'omment"n( on th"s, Dous"ns remar:ed: Th"s seems to "mp%y that the sour'e o# menta% "ntent"ons "s the bra"n "tse%# "n %"*"n( a't"on+but that on'e these emer(ent menta% propert"es appear, they ha*e 'ausa% 'ontro% poten'y o*er the /%o$er0 a't"*"t"es o# the bra"n at the subnu'%ear, nu'%ear and mo%e'u%ar %e*e%s. )ind emerges from brain1 then ta es charge as chief or director in the comple! chain of command within the brain . In Sperry’s *"e$, there "s no need to appea% to any sour'e outs"de the %"*"n( bra"n "n order to e)p%a"n the or"("n and e)"sten'e o# menta% phenomena 123HF, pp. EE&E4, emp. added5. Dous"ns "s 'orre't. Sperry h"mse%# stated: One 'an a(ree that the s'"ent"#"' e*"den'e spea:s a(a"nst any prep%anned purpos"*e des"(n o# a supernatura% "nte%%"(en'e. ,t the same t"me the e*"den'e sho$s that the (reat bu%: o# the e*o%*"n( $eb o# 'reat"on "s (o*erned by a 'omp%e) pattern o# (reat "ntr"'a'y $"th many mutua%%y re"n#or'"n( d"re't"*e, purpos"*e 'onstra"nts at h"(her %e*e%s, part"'u%ar%y. The /(rand order%y des"(n0 "s, "n a sense, a%% the more remar:ab%e #or ha*"n( been se%#&de*e%oped 123HF, p. H45. But Sperry d"d not stop there. Rather, he $ent on to 'omment: In my *"e$, mental phenomena as dynamic emergent properties of physical brain states become ine!tricably interfused with1 and thus inseparable from1 their physiologic substrates.... [IAt st"%% seems to me a m"sta:e o*era%% to abandon the a(e&o%d 'ommon&sense d"st"n't"on bet$een m"nd and matter, the menta% and the phys"'a%. Th"s bas"' 'ommon d"st"n't"on %on( pre'eded the *ar"ed ph"%osoph"' @ar(on and s'"ent"#"' term"no%o(y. The highly distinctive specialness of conscious states with their sub%ective 2ualities does not go away %ust because they are ta en to be emergent properties of physical brain processes 1pp. 2>3&22>,222, emp. added5.

B"th a%% due respe't, Dr. Sperry 1d"st"n(u"shed s'"ent"st and Nobe% %aureate that he "s5 appears to /$ant "t both $ays.0 He be%"e*es that "t "s a m"sta:e to abandon the d"st"n't"on bet$een the phys"'a% and the menta%, and adm"ts that 'ons'"ousness endo$s a /h"(h%y d"st"n't"*e spe'"a%ness0 that does not d"sappear @ust be'ause someone 1%":e h"m5 '%a"ms that "t "s mere%y an /emer(ent property o# phys"'a% bra"n pro'esses.0 Ket he $ants to be%"e*e that /the s'"ent"#"' e*"den'e spea:s a(a"nst any prep%anned purpos"*e des"(n o# a supernatura% "nte%%"(en'e0 and that /there "s no need to appea% to any sour'e outs"de the %"*"n( bra"n "n order to e)p%a"n the or"("n and e)"sten'e o# menta% phenomena.0 R"'hard He"nber( 'ontrad"'ted Sperry $"th 'ommon&sense #a'ts o# nature $hen he remar:ed: Be ea'h ma:e p%ans, #ormu%ate (oa%s, and pursue strate("es rout"ne%y. ,nd there "s e*ery "nd"'at"on that other 'reatures do the same, "# perhaps not as 'ons'"ous%y. The e*"den'e "s so persuas"*e that many b"o%o("sts $ho other$"se subs'r"be to a redu't"on"st&me'han"st *"e$ are ne*erthe%ess #or'ed to a':no$%ed(e some 'apa'"ty o# "nner purpose on the part o# or(an"sms 12333, pp. EF,E4&EH5. E*o%ut"on"st S"r ohn E''%es stron(%y d"sa(reed $"th h"s Nobe% Pr"<e&$"nn"n( e*o%ut"on"st 'o%%ea(ue, Ro(er Sperry, $hen he $rote: .reat d"sp%ay "s made by a%% *ar"et"es o# mater"a%"sts that the"r bra"n&m"nd theory "s "n a''ord $"th natura% %a$ as "t no$ "s. Ho$e*er, th"s '%a"m "s "n*a%"dated by t$o most $e"(hty 'ons"derat"ons. !"rst%y, nowhere in the laws of physics or in the laws of the derivative sciences1 chemistry and biology1 is there any reference to consciousness or mind .... Re(ard%ess o# the 'omp%e)"ty o# e%e'tr"'a%, 'hem"'a% or b"o%o("'a% ma'h"nery, there "s no statement "n the /natura% %a$s0 that there "s an emer(en'e o# th"s stran(e non&mater"a% ent"ty, 'ons'"ousness or m"nd. Th"s "s not to a##"rm that 'ons'"ousness does not emer(e "n the e*o%ut"onary pro'ess, but mere%y to state that its emergence is not reconcilable with the natural laws as at present understood 1233=, pp. 23&=>, emp. added5. Sperry may want emer(ent mater"a%"sm to be true, but, as E''%es has so e%o7uent%y po"nted out, su'h /"s not re'on'"%ab%e $"th the natura% %a$s as at present understood.0 5ualist-Interactionism ,s $e be(an our e)am"nat"on o# theor"es o# human 'ons'"ousness, $e 7uoted .ordon Tay%or, $ho assessed a number o# the theor"es o# the m"nd and then stated: /None o# these *"e$s, I may as $e%% $arn you, stands up to "nspe't"on0 12343, pp. =>&=25. Our 'omment at the t"me $as: /,s $e br"n( th"s d"s'uss"on on 'ons'"ousness to a '%ose, $e $ant to o##er a th"rd a%ternat"*e that does Lstand up to "nspe't"on.’ 0 Be no$ ha*e rea'hed that po"nt. Ear%"er, $e 7uoted #rom ,dam Neman $ho, "n h"s re*"e$ o# 'ons'"ousness #or the @ourna% Brain, ment"oned that /the 'urrent #as'"nat"on $"th 'ons'"ousness re#%e'ts the mount"n( "nte%%e'tua% pressure to e)p%a"n ho$ L*"ta% a't"*"ty’ "n the bra"n (enerates a Lmenta% e%ement,’ $"th r"'h sub@e't"*e 'ontent0 1=>>2, 2=G:2=HG5. In other $ords, the pressure "s on to ans$er the 7uest"on: 7hence comes consciousness" Sure%y, by no$ "t "s e*"dent #rom our re*"e$ that a%% o# the mon"st&mater"a%"st"' 'on'epts ha*e #a"%ed m"serab%y to o##er any 'o(ent, 'ons"stent, and ade7uate theory about the or"("n o# human 'ons'"ousness. ,':no$%ed(ment o# that #a't prompts the 7uest"on: Bhy, then, do so many s'"ent"sts and ph"%osophers '%"n( to the mon"st&mater"a%"st *"e$po"nt6 7e are convinced that the monist-materialistic view has remained so deeply ingrained because the only legitimate alternative$some form of dualism$postulates a supernatural

origin for human self-awareness= ,nd $e 'annot do better to pro*e our po"nt than to o##er the #o%%o$"n( 7uote #rom Dan"e% Dennett. In short, the m"nd "s the bra"n. ,''ord"n( to the mater"a%"sts, $e 'an 1"n pr"n'"p%e5 a''ount #or e*ery menta% phenomenon us"n( the same phys"'a% pr"n'"p%es, %a$s, and ra$ mater"a%s that su##"'e to e)p%a"n rad"oa't"*"ty, 'ont"nenta% dr"#t, photosynthes"s, reprodu't"on, nutr"t"on, and (ro$th. It is one of the main burdens of this boo to e!plain consciousness without ever giving in to the siren song of dualism.... The standard ob@e't"on to dua%"sm $as a%% too #am"%"ar to Des'artes h"mse%# "n the se*enteenth 'entury, and "t "s #a"r to say that ne"ther he nor any subse7uent dua%"st has e*er o*er'ome "t 'on*"n'"n(%y. I# m"nd and body are d"st"n't th"n(s or substan'es, they ne*erthe%ess must "ntera'tJ the bod"%y sense or(ans, *"a the bra"n, must "n#orm the m"nd, must send to "t or present "t $"th per'ept"ons or "deas or data o# some sort, and then the m"nd, ha*"n( thou(ht th"n(s o*er, must d"re't the body "n appropr"ate a't"on. Hen'e the *"e$ "s o#ten 'a%%ed Dartes"an "ntera't"on"sm or "ntera't"on"st dua%"sm.... There "s the %ur:"n( susp"'"on that the most attra't"*e #eature o# m"nd stu## "s "ts prom"se o# be"n( so myster"ous that "t :eeps s'"en'e at bay #ore*er. This fundamentally unscientific stance of dualism is1 to my mind1 its most dis2ualifying feature1 and is the reason why in this boo I adopt the apparently dogmatic rule that dualism is to be avoided at all costs. It "s not that I th"n: I 'an ("*e a :no':&do$n proo# that dua%"sm, "n a%% "ts #orms, "s #a%se or "n'oherent, but that, ("*en the $ay dua%"sm $a%%o$s "n mystery, accepting dualism is giving up 12332, pp. ??,?G,?4, parenthet"'a% "tem "n or"(., emp. added5. In Dennett’s *"e$, monistic-materialism must rule= Per"od. The a''eptan'e o# someth"n(+ anyth"n(+outs"de o# s'"en'e "s unth"n:ab%e, and represents $hat Nobe% %aureate a'7ues -onod re#erred to as /an"m"sm0 1be%"e# "n sp"r"ts5. In h"s boo:, Chance and Necessity, -onod addressed th"s matter "n *ery b%unt terms. ,n"m"sm estab%"shed a 'o*enant bet$een nature and man, a pro#ound a%%"an'e outs"de o# $h"'h seems to stret'h on%y terr"#y"n( so%"tude. -ust $e brea: th"s t"e be'ause the postu%ate o# ob@e't"*"ty re7u"res "t6 [-onod ans$ers /Kes90+BTMBHA ...[,A%% these systems rooted "n an"m"sm e)"st outs"de ob@e't"*e :no$%ed(e, outs"de truth, and are stran(ers and #undamenta%%y hostile to s'"en'e, $h"'h they are $"%%"n( to use but do not respe't or 'her"sh. The d"*or'e "s so (reat, the lie so flagrant1 that it can only obsess and lacerate anyone who has some culture or intelligence, or "s mo*ed by that mora% 7uest"on"n( $h"'h "s the sour'e o# a%% 'reat"*"ty. It "s an a##%"'t"on, that "s to say, #or a%% those $ho bear or $"%% bear the respons"b"%"ty #or the $ay "n $h"'h so'"ety and 'u%ture $"%% e*o%*e.... The an'"ent 'o*enant "s "n p"e'esJ man nows at last that he is alone in the universe3s unfeeling immensity1 out of which he emerged only by chance 1234=, pp. ?2,242&24=,2H>, "ta%"'s "n or"(., emp. added5. ,n"m"sm, says -onod, "s a /%"e so #%a(rant, that "t 'an on%y obsess and %a'erate anyone $ho has some 'u%ture or "nte%%"(en'e.0 Bhy does he $r"te "n su'h terr"#y"n(%y an(ry $ords about a be%"e# "n someth"n( other than the mon"st&mater"a%"st *"e$po"nt6 Perhaps Darr"n(ton ans$ered that 7uest"on best $hen he $rote that "n an"m"sm ...$e ha*e the $or%d&o%d not"on o# m"nd or sou%, and body, e)"st"n( as separate ent"t"es, "n#%uen'"n( ea'h other. -"nd "s here supposed to "n#%uen'e matter, and ut"%"<e "t #or the purposes o# "ts man"#estat"on. Bere su'h a theory true, "t $ou%d o# 'ourse enab%e us to a''ept not on%y the rea%"ty o# psy'h"' phenomena but the persistence of individual human consciousness after death. The

main ob%ection to this doctrine is that it postulates a form of dualism1 which is very obno!ious to many minds= It "s poss"b%e, ho$e*er, that su'h a do'tr"ne may one day be #or'ed upon us by the (radua%%y "n'reas"n( e*"den'e #urn"shed us by psy'h"'a% resear'h 123=?, p. F?, "ta%"'s "n or"(., emp. added5. Those o# the mon"st&mater"a%"st bent :no$ #u%% $e%% $hat the "mp%"'at"ons $ou%d be "# they $ere to perm"t 1or, per"sh the thou(ht, a''ept5 any #orm o# dua%"sm. ,s Dustan'e as:ed: /[HAo$ 'an $e a''ount #or Lm"nd’ "# "t d"d not or"("nate "n the phys"'a% $or%d60 123H>, p. =>5. Iet us ans$er that by 7uot"n( t$o o# -onod’s e*o%ut"on"st 'o%%ea(ues+E''%es and Rob"nson. It "s not "n doubt that ea'h human re'o(n"<es "ts o$n un"7ueness.... +ince materialist solutions fail to account for our e!perienced uni2ueness1 we are constrained to attribute the uni2ueness of the psyche or soul to a supernatural creation . To ("*e the e)p%anat"on "n theo%o("'a% terms: Ea'h sou% "s a D"*"ne 'reat"on, $h"'h "s /atta'hed0 to the (ro$"n( #etus at some po"nt bet$een 'on'ept"on and b"rth. It "s the 'erta"nty o# the "nner 'ore o# un"7ue "nd"*"dua%"ty that ne'ess"tates the /D"*"ne 'reat"on.0 7e submit that no other e!planation is tenable 123HG, p. G?, emp. added5. Stron( stu##, that9 But e7ua%%y stron( $as the"r out&and&out 'ondemnat"on o# the mon"st& mater"a%"st *"e$po"nt. [TAhe den"a% o# the rea%"ty o# menta% e*ents, as "n rad"'a% mater"a%"sm, "s an easy 'op&out.... ,adical materialism should have a prominent place in the history of human silliness. 7e regard promissory materialism as a superstition without a rational foundation . The more $e d"s'o*er about the bra"n, the more '%ear%y do $e d"st"n(u"sh bet$een the bra"n e*ents and the menta% phenomena, and the more $onder#u% do both the bra"n e*ents and the menta% phenomena be'ome. Promissory materialism is simply a religious belief held by dogmatic materialists...who often confuse their religion with their science 123HG, pp. 24,?E, emp. added5. So $hat "s the a%ternat"*e6 Dar$"n’s 'ontemporary, ,%#red Russe% Ba%%a'e, addressed that 7uest"on "n 23>? $hen he $rote 1at the a(e o# H>5 h"s '%ass"' $or:, !an3s Place in Nature: $ Study o the Results o Scienti ic Research in Relation to the Unity or Plurality o %orlds . The other body and probab%y mu'h %ar(er $ou%d be represented by those who1 holding that mind is essentially superior to matter and distinct from it1 cannot believe that life1 consciousness1 mind are products of matter. They ho%d that the mar*e%ous 'omp%e)"ty o# #or'es, $h"'h appear to 'ontro% matter, "# not a'tua%%y to 'onst"tute "t, are and must be mind products 1as 7uoted "n By%%er, 233E, p. =?2, emp. added5. ames Tre#"% 'on'eded: /Nonethe%ess, there is a sense in which something li e 5escartes3 procedure remains valid for the 2uestion of human consciousness 0 12334, p. 2H2, emp. added5. Pau% Da*"es $rote: /...[PAhys"'s, $h"'h %ed the $ay #or a%% other s'"en'es, "s no$ mo*"n( to$ards a more a''ommodat"n( *"e$ o# m"nd...0 123H?, p. H5. He "s 'orre't. In #a't, spea:"n( o# Dartes"an dua%"sm, Dustan'e ma"nta"ned: The theory 'annot be d"spro*ed so %on( as there are menta% phenomena $hose neura% 'orre%ates rema"n un:no$n. That there are menta% phenomena 'annot be doubted #or reasons $h"'h are %o("'a%%y 'ompu%s"*e and $ere adopted 1thou(h not "n*ented5 by Des'artesJ they 'annot be doubted be'ause the *ery a't o# doubt"n( them estab%"shes the"r rea%"ty. The reality of conscious e!istence is confirmed each time it is denied .... -ost o# the "mportant th"n:ers $ho #o%%o$ed Des'artes re@e'ted "ntera't"on"sm.... 6ut slowly1 as the evidence has accumulated1 it appears that the

monistic view is showing signs of insufficiency and a new dualism is in the ma ing 123H>, pp. ?>,?2, "ta%"'s and parenthet"'a% "tems "n or"(., emp. added5. Dustan'e, too, "s 'orre't. There "s, "n #a't, a /ne$ dua%"sm "n the ma:"n(.0 In spea:"n( o# the e*o%ut"onary emer(en'e o# se%#&'ons'"ousness, #or e)amp%e, *ar"ous $r"ters 1e.(., Ia':, 23E2, p. 2=HJ Ioren<, 2342, =:24>5 ha*e e*en broa'hed the sub@e't o# the /unbr"d(eab%e (ap or (u%# bet$een sou% and body.0 Dar% un( summed up th"s "dea o# a separate m"ndMbody "ntera't"on $hen he sa"d: /I s"mp%y be%"e*e that some part o# the human Se%# or Sou% "s not sub@e't to the %a$s o# spa'e and t"me0 1as 7uoted "n Da*"es, 23H?, p. 4=5. Iord ,dr"an tart%y snorted "n d"sa(reement: /...[TAhe (u%# bet$een menta% and mater"a% 'an s'ar'e%y be 'a%%ed se%#&e*"dent.0 Then he 7u"et%y $ent on to adm"t: Ket #or many o# us there "s st"%% the one th"n( $h"'h does seem to %"e outs"de that t"dy and #am"%"ar #rame$or:. That th"n( "s ourse%#, our e(o, the /I0 $ho does the per'e"*"n( and the th"n:"n( and a't"n(, the person $ho "s a$are o# h"s "dent"ty and h"s surround"n(s. ,s soon as $e %et ourse%*es 'ontemp%ate our o$n p%a'e "n the p"'ture, $e seem to be stepp"n( outs"de the boundar"es o# natura% s'"en'e 123EF, pp. =?3,=G>5. Or, as E''%es 'on'%uded: /It "s my thes"s that $e ha*e to re'o(n"<e that the un"7ue se%#hood "s the resu%t o# a supernatura% 'reat"on o# $hat "n the re%"("ous sense "s 'a%%ed a sou%0 123H=, p. 345. But not"'e Darr"n(ton’s 'on'%us"on 1as stated abo*e5: /It "s poss"b%e, ho$e*er, that su'h a do'tr"ne may one day be #or'ed upon us by the (radua%%y "n'reas"n( e*"den'e #urn"shed us by psy'h"'a% resear'h0 123=?, p. F?5. E*en Neman, se*enty&e"(ht years %ater "n h"s e)haust"*e, peer& re*"e$ed art"'%e on 'ons'"ousness, adm"tted that /a number o# 'ommentators be%"e*e that some *ers"on o# th"s...Ldua%&aspe't’ theory ho%ds out the (reatest prom"se o# an e*entua% so%ut"on to the ph"%osoph"'a% 'onundrum o# 'ons'"ousness0 1=>>2, 2=G:2=HG5. Ro(er Ie$"n 'on'eded: [!Aor the most part, mater"a%"sm, the ph"%osoph"'a% a%ternat"*e to dua%"sm, dom"nates modern th"n:"n( about 'ons'"ousness.... True, Dartes"an dualism is not completely dead, as e*"den'ed "n the *"e$s o# S"r ohn E''%es, one o# th"s 'entury’s (reatest neuro%o("sts... 1233=, p. 2F4, emp. added5. In an art"'%e+/S'"ent"sts "n Sear'h o# the Sou%0+that he $rote #or Science 0igest+ ohn .%"edman obser*ed: !rom Ber:e%ey to Par"s and #rom Iondon to Pr"n'eton, prom"nent s'"ent"sts #rom #"e%ds as d"*erse as neurophys"o%o(y and 7uantum phys"'s are 'om"n( out o# the '%oset and admitting they believe in the possibility1 at least1 of such unscientific entities as the immortal human spirit and divine creation123H=, 3>[4A:44, emp. added5. One o# the s'"ent"sts d"s'ussed at some %en(th by -r. .%"edman $as S"r ohn E''%es o# .reat Br"ta"n. Dan"e% Dennett $rote "n h"s boo:, Consciousness Explained: /E*er s"n'e ."%bert Ry%e’s '%ass"' atta': 123G35 on $hat he 'a%%ed Des'artes’ Ldo(ma o# the (host "n the ma'h"ne,’ dua%"sts ha*e been on the de#ens"*e0 12332, p. ??5. 0ot any more= ,%%o$ us to "ntrodu'e you to ohn Dare$ E''%es+the man Ro(er Ie$"n 'a%%ed /one o# th"s 'entury’s (reatest neuro%o("sts.0 Dr. E''%es, unt"% h"s death "n 2334 at the a(e o# 3G, $as one o# the $or%d’s most em"nent e%e'trophys"o%o("sts. He (raduated "n 23=3 $"th a D.Ph"%. 1the Br"t"sh e7u"*a%ent o# an ,mer"'an

Ph.D.5 #rom O)#ord, $here he matr"'u%ated on a Rhodes s'ho%arsh"p under Nobe% %aureate S"r Dhar%es Sherr"n(ton+the man E''%es on'e 'a%%ed /the (reatest neuros'"ent"st o# the a(e0 1E''%es, 233G, p. 2?5. He ser*ed as a pro#essor o# phys"o%o(y at ,ustra%"an Nat"ona% ;n"*ers"ty #rom 23F=&23EE, $as :n"(hted by Pueen E%"<abeth II "n 23FH, and #"*e years %ater "n 23E? $on the Nobe% Pr"<e "n -ed"'"ne or Phys"o%o(y 1shared $"th ,%an I. Hod(:"n and ,ndre$ !. Hu)%ey5 #or h"s resear'h on the b"ophys"'a% propert"es o# synapt"' transm"ss"on. .%"edman, "n h"s 23H= art"'%e on /S'"ent"sts "n Sear'h o# the Sou%,0 had th"s to say about Dr. E''%es: ,t a(e 43, S"r ohn E''%es "s not (o"n( /(ent%e "nto the n"(ht.0 St"%% tr"m and *"(orous, the (reat phys"o%o("st has de'%ared $ar on the past ?>> years o# s'"ent"#"' spe'u%at"on about man’s nature. B"nner o# the 23E? Nobe% Pr"<e "n Phys"o%o(y or -ed"'"ne #or h"s p"oneer"n( resear'h on the synapse+the po"nt at $h"'h ner*e 'e%%s 'ommun"'ate $"th the bra"n+ 'ccles strongly defends the ancient religious belief that human beings consist of a mysterious compound of physical and intangible spirit.... Our nonmaterial self controls its (liaison brain- the way a driver steers a car or a programmer directs a computer. )an3s ghostly spiritual presence1 says 'ccles1 e!erts %ust the whisper of a physical influence on the computerli e brain1 enough to encourage some neurons to fire and others to remain silent . Bo%d%y ad*an'"n( $hat #or most s'"ent"sts "s the (reatest heresy o# a%%, E''%es a%so asserts that our nonmater"a% se%# sur*"*es the death o# the phys"'a% bra"n 13>[4A:44, emp. added5. Bh"%e there are many other th"n(s $e 'ou%d say about Dr. E''%es and the *ar"ous honors and a$ards that $ere besto$ed upon h"m dur"n( h"s %en(thy and "mpress"*e pro#ess"ona% 'areer, these are enou(h to 'on*"n'e the reader o# h"s 7ua%"#"'at"ons to spea: on the sub@e'ts that he "s about to address. ,nyone #am"%"ar $"th neurophys"o%o(y andMor neurob"o%o(y :no$s the name o# S"r ohn E''%es. [One o# us 1BH5 stud"ed Dr. E''%es’ $or:s $h"%e earn"n( a Ph.D. "n neurob"o%o(y.A But #or those $ho m"(ht not be #am"%"ar $"th th"s ama<"n( (ent%eman, $e $ou%d %":e to "ntrodu'e Dr. E''%es *"a the #o%%o$"n( 7uotat"on, der"*ed #rom a 'hapter 1/The Do%%apse o# -odern ,the"sm05 that Norman .e"s%er authored #or the boo:, The -ntellectuals Spea2 &ut $(out God 1$h"'h, by the $ay, a%so 'onta"ned a 'hapter by E''%es5. .e"s%er $rote: The e)treme #orm o# mater"a%"sm be%"e*es that m"nd 1or sou%5 is matter. -ore modern #orms be%"e*e m"nd "s reduci(le to matter or dependent on "t. &owever1 from a scientific perspective much has happened in our generation to lay bare the clay feet of materialism. )ost noteworthy among this is the 0obel Pri9e winning wor of +ir Aohn 'ccles. &is wor on the brain demonstrated that the mind or intention is more than physical. &e has shown that the supplementary motor area of the brain is fired by mere intention to do something1 without the motor corte! of the brain ?which controls muscle movements@ operating . So, "n e##e't, the m"nd "s to the bra"n $hat an ar'h"*"st "s to a %"brary. The #ormer "s not redu'"b%e to the %atter 123HG, pp. 2G>&2G2, parenthet"'a% "tem and "ta%"'s "n or"(., emp. added5. E''%es, and h"s %"#e%on( #r"end, S"r Car% Popper, the #amed Br"t"sh ph"%osopher o# s'"en'e, *"e$ed the m"nd as a d"st"n't%y non&mater"a% ent"ty. But ne"ther d"d so #or re%"("ous reasons. Dr. E''%es $as a 'omm"tted Dar$"n"an e*o%ut"on"st 1as $as Popper5. Rather, they be%"e*ed $hat they d"d about the human m"nd be'ause o# the"r s'"ent"#"' resear'h9 Spea:"n( spe'"#"'a%%y o# human se%#& 'ons'"ousness, E''%es $rote: It "s dependent on the e)"sten'e o# a su##"'"ent number o# su'h 'r"t"'a%%y po"sed neurons, and, 'onse7uent%y, on%y "n su'h 'ond"t"ons are $"%%"n( and per'e"*"n( poss"b%e. Ho$e*er, "t "s not

ne'essary #or the $ho%e 'orte) to be "n th"s spe'"a% dynam"' state.... On the bas"s o# th"s 'on'ept [a't"*"ty o# the 'orte)+BTMBHA $e 'an #a'e up ane$ to the e)traord"nary prob%ems "nherent "n a stron( dua%"sm+"ntera't"on o# bra"n and 'ons'"ous m"nd, bra"n re'e"*"n( #rom 'ons'"ous m"nd "n a $"%%ed a't"on, and "n turn transm"tt"n( to m"nd "n 'ons'"ous e)per"en'es.... ;et us be 2uite clear that for each of us the primary reality is our consciousness$everything else is derivative and has a second-order reality. Be ha*e tremendous "nte%%e'tua% tas:s "n our e##orts to understand ba##%"n( prob%ems that %"e r"(ht at the 'enter o# our be"n( 123EE, pp. ?2=,?=4, emp. added5. Dr. E''%es spent h"s ent"re adu%t %"#e study"n( the bra"n&m"nd prob%em, and 'on'%uded that the t$o $ere ent"re%y separate. In the boo: #rom $h"'h $e 7uoted abo*e 1 No(el Conversations5, Norman Dous"ns, $ho moderated a ser"es o# 'on*ersat"ons amon( #our Nobe% %aureates, "n'%ud"n( Dr. E''%es, made the #o%%o$"n( statement: /Nor $as S"r ohn E''%es '%a"m"n( too mu'h $hen he insisted that the action of non-material mind on material brain has been not merely postulated1 but scientifically demonstrated 0 123HF, p. EH, emp. added5. E''%es h"mse%#, "n h"s boo:, The Understanding o the Brain, $rote: Bhen I postu%ated many years a(o, #o%%o$"n( [S"r Dhar%esA Sherr"n(ton, that there $as a spe'"a% area o# the bra"n "n %"a"son $"th 'ons'"ousness, I 'erta"n%y d"d not "ma("ne that any de#"n"t"*e e)per"menta% test 'ou%d be app%"ed "n a #e$ years. But no$ $e ha*e th"s d"st"n't"on bet$een the dom"nant hem"sphere "n %"a"son $"th the 'ons'"ous se%#, and the m"nor hem"sphere $"th no su'h %"a"son 1234?, p. =2G5. Be#ore $e pro'eed, $e $ou%d %":e to add th"s note. On -ar'h 2F, 23F=, the British !edical 7ournal ran an ob"tuary not"'e #or S"r Dhar%es Sherr"n(ton. The not"'e read as #o%%o$s: The death, on -ar'h G, 23F= o# S"r Dhar%es Sherr"n(ton at the a(e o# 3G mar:ed the pass"n( o# the man o# (en"us $ho %a"d the #oundat"ons o# our :no$%ed(e o# the #un't"on"n( o# the bra"n and sp"na% 'ord. H"s '%ass"' $or: -ntegrative $ction o the Nervous Syste#+ pub%"shed "n 23>E, "s st"%% a sour'e o# "nsp"rat"on to phys"o%o("sts a%% o*er the $or%d. It $as repr"nted as re'ent%y as 23G4 #or the #"rst post&$ar 1Bor%d Bar II5 Internat"ona% Don(ress on Phys"o%o(y. H"s $or: d"d #or neuro%o(y $hat the atom"' theory d"d #or 'hem"stry. It "s st"%% re#resh"n( as "t $as "n 23>E, and "t has needed no re*"s"on. Ho$ embarrass"n( "t must be #or e*o%ut"on"sts to ha*e to adm"t that th"s /(en"us,0 $ho $as respons"b%e #or %ay"n( /the #oundat"on o# our :no$%ed(e o# the #un't"on"n( o# the bra"n and sp"na% 'ord,0 to%d one o# h"s pr"<ed students, S"r ohn E''%es, @ust pr"or to h"s 1Sherr"n(ton’s5 death: /.or me now1 the only reality is the human soul 0 1as 7uoted "n Popper and E''%es, 2344 p. FF, emp. added5. Bhat an ama<"n( statement #rom the man $ho 'onstru'ted many o# the p"%%ars on $h"'h modern neuroanatomy no$ stands9 Dous"ns 'ont"nued: 'ccles is the one who showed that the mental acts of intention initiatethe burst of discharges in a nerve3s brain cell. He has tr"ed to re&en#ran'h"se the human m"nd, to (et s'"en'e to re'o(n"<e th"n:"n( as a more 'omprehens"*e human a't"*"ty than the mere operat"on o# neura% me'han"sms.... [BAoth o# you [E''%es and Sperry+BTMBHA ha*e rea'hed your conclusions through the rigorous discipline of the laboratory. If you are persuaded that mental realities initiate and direct biochemical reactions in the brain1 it is scientific e!perimentation1 not philosophical speculation1 that has convinced you 123HF, pp. FE, =2,F4, "ta%"'s "n or"(., emp. added5. Bhat, pre'"se%y, "s the re%at"onsh"p bet$een m"nd and bra"n6 E''%es ans$ered as #o%%o$s.

Ho$ 'an the menta% a't o# "ntent"on a't"*ate a'ross the m"nd&bra"n #ront"er those part"'u%ar S-, [supp%ementary motor area+BTMBHA neurons "n the appropr"ate 'ode #or a't"*at"n( the motor pro(rams that br"n( about "ntended *o%untary mo*ements6 The ans$er "s that, despite the so-called (insuperable- difficulty of having a non-material mind act on a material brain1 it has been demonstrated to occur by a mental intention$no doubt to the great discomfiture of all materialists and physicalists 123HF, pp. FF&FE, emp. "n or"(.5. [7]e have discovered that mental intentions act upon the +)# in a highly selective1 discriminating manner. In a #ash"on $h"'h "s not yet #u%%y understood, menta% "ntent"ons are ab%e to a't"*ate a'ross the m"nd&bra"n #ront"er those particular S-, neurons that are 'oded #or "n"t"at"n( the spe'"a%"<ed motor pro(rams that 'ause *o%untary mo*ements. ,s I remar:ed ear%"er, th"s may present an /"nsuperab%e0 d"##"'u%ty #or some s'"ent"sts o# mater"a%"st bent, but the fact remains1 and is demonstrated by research1 that non-material mind acts on material brain 1as 7uoted "n Dous"ns, 23HF, pp. E2&E=,HF&HE, "ta%"'s "n or"(., emp. added5. In The %onder o Being "u#an: &ur Brain and &ur !ind , E''%es and Rob"nson d"s'ussed the resear'h o# three (roups o# s'"ent"sts 1Robert Porter and Dob"e Br"n:man, N"%s Iassen and Per Ro%and, and Hans CornhSber and Iuder Dee':e5, a%% o# $hom produ'ed start%"n( and unden"ab%e e*"den'e that a /mental intention- preceded an actual neuronal firing$thereby establishing that the mind is not the same thing as the brain1 but is a separate entity altogether 123HG, pp. 2FE&2EG, emp. added5. ,s E''%es and Rob"nson 'on'%uded: But "t "s "mpress"*e that many o# the samp%es o# se*era% hundred S-, ner*e 'e%%s $ere #"r"n( probab%y about one&tenth o# a se'ond before the ear%"est d"s'har(e o# the pyram"da% 'e%%s do$n to the sp"na% 'ord.... Thus there "s stron( support #or the hypothes"s that the S-, "s the so%e re'"p"ent area o# the bra"n #or menta% "ntent"ons that %ead to *o%untary mo*ements 1pp. 2F4,2E>, emp. "n or"(.5. Interest"n(%y, E''%es $as not the #"rst to do'ument th"s type o# "ndependen'e "n re(ard to the m"nd’s a't"on on the bra"n, as he h"mse%# 'on'eded: Remar:ab%e ser"es o# e)per"ments "n the %ast #e$ years ha*e trans#ormed our understand"n( o# the 'erebra% e*ents 'on'erned $"th the "n"t"at"on o# a *o%untary mo*ement. It 'an no$ be stated that the #"rst bra"n rea't"ons 'ause by theintention to move are "n ner*e 'e%%s o# the supplementary motor area 1S-,5. It "s r"(ht at the top o# the bra"n, most%y on the med"a% sur#a'e. Th"s area $as re'o(n"<ed by the reno$ned neurosur(eon B"%der Pen#"e%d $hen he $as st"mu%at"n( the e)posed human bra"n "n the sear'h #or ep"%ept"' /#o'"0 1re("ons o# aberrant a't"*"ty asso'"ated $"th ep"%ept"' se"<ures5 [E''%es and Rob"nson, 23HG, p. 2FE, parenthet"'a% "tems and emp. "n or"(.A. In 23E2, Danad"an neurosur(eon B"%der Pen#"e%d reported a dramat"' demonstrat"on o# the rea%"ty o# a't"*e m"nd at $or:. He obser*ed m"nd a't"n( "ndependent%y o# the bra"n under 'ontro%%ed e)per"menta% 'ond"t"ons that $ere reprodu'"b%e at $"%% 1see Pen#"e%d, 23E2J 234FJ Dustan'e, 23H>, p. 235. Dr. Pen#"e%d’s pat"ent su##ered #rom ep"%epsy, and had one hem"sphere o# h"s tempora% %obe e)posed #rom a pre*"ous sur(ery. Pen#"e%d reported: Bhen the neurosur(eon app%"es an e%e'trode to the motor area o# the pat"ent’s 'erebra% 'orte), 'aus"n( the oppos"te hand to mo*e, and $hen he as:s the pat"ent $hy he mo*ed the hand, the response "s: /I d"dn’t do "t. Kou made me do "t.0...It may be sa"d that the pat"ent th"n:s o# h"mse%# as ha*"n( an e)"sten'e separate #rom h"s body. On'e $hen I $arned a pat"ent o# my "ntent"on to st"mu%ate the motor area o# the 'orte), and 'ha%%en(ed h"m to :eep h"s hand #rom mo*"n( $hen the e%e'trode $as app%"ed, he se"<ed "t $"th the other hand and stru((%ed to ho%d "t st"%%. Thus one hand,

under the 'ontro% o# the r"(ht hem"sphere dr"*en by an e%e'trode, and the other hand, $h"'h he 'ontro%%ed throu(h the %e#t hem"sphere, $ere 'aused to stru((%e a(a"nst ea'h other. 6ehind the (brain action- of one hemisphere was the patient3s mind . Beh"nd the a't"on o# the other hem"sphere $as the e%e'trode 1as 7uoted "n Coest%er, 23E4, pp. =>?&=>G, emp. added5. Pen#"e%d $ent on to 'on'%ude: But $hat "s "t that 'a%%s upon these me'han"sms, 'hoos"n( one rather than another6 Is "t another me'han"sm or "s there "n the m"nd someth"n( o# d"##erent essen'e6 To de'%are that these t$o are one does not ma:e them so. But "t does b%o': the pro(ress o# resear'h 1p. =>G5. ;pon '%os"n( h"s sur("'a% pra't"'e, Dr. Pen#"e%d $rote: Throu(hout my o$n s'"ent"#"' 'areer, I, %":e the other s'"ent"sts, ha*e stru((%ed to pro*e that the bra"n a''ounts #or the m"nd. But no$, perhaps, the t"me has 'ome $hen $e may pro#"tab%y 'ons"der the e*"den'e as "t stands, and as: the 7uest"on: Do bra"n&me'han"sms a''ount #or the m"nd6 Can the mind be e!plained by what is now nown about the brain" If not1 which is more reasonable of the two possible hypothesesB that man3s being is based on one element1 or on two" 1234F, p. )""", emp. added5. Pen#"e%d’s #"na% obser*at"ons 'aused h"m to re#%e't as #o%%o$s: Th"s "s the 'orre't s'"ent"#"' approa'h #or a neurophys"o%o("st: to try to pro*e that the bra"n e)p%a"ns the m"nd and that m"nd "s no more than a #un't"on o# the bra"n. But dur"n( th"s t"me o# ana%ys"s, I found no suggestion of action by a brain-mind mechanism that accounts for mind-action .... In the end I 'on'%ude that there "s no good evidence, "n sp"te o# ne$ methods, su'h as the emp%oyment o# st"mu%at"n( e%e'trodes, the study o# 'ons'"ous pat"ents, and the ana%ys"s o# ep"%ept"' atta':s, that the brain alone can carry out the wor that the mind does. I conclude that it is easier to rationali9e man3s being on the basis of two elements than on the basis of one 1234F, pp. 2>G,22G, emp. added5. These are the $ords o# a phys"'"an $ho stud"ed the bra"n #or de'ades, and $ho 'o%%e'ted and ana%y<ed the data #"rsthand. In The !ystery o the !ind, Pen#"e%d 'on'%uded that the m"nd m"(ht *ery $e%% be /a distinct and different essence 0 1p. E=, emp. added5. Be a(ree $ho%ehearted%y. ,.O. .omes, "n h"s 'hapter, /The Bra"n&Dons'"ousness Prob%em "n Dontemporary S'"ent"#"' Resear'h0 #or the boo:, Brain and Conscious Experience, $rote: ...[RAesear'h "s #re7uent%y 'ondu'ted as "# the $ho%e o''urren'es under study $ere u%t"mate%y noth"n( more than the trans#ormat"ons o# some phys"o%o("'a% e*ents "nto othersJ the menta% phenomena "n*o%*ed are e"ther "(nored or ("*en on%y a se'ondary "mportan'e. ...Ho$ 'an phys"'a% sense re'eptors a##e't sense6 &ow can a reaction in the brain condition a reaction in the mind" Ho$ 'an the 1o#ten 7uoted95 /en'hanted %oom0 o# ner*e "mpu%ses "n the bra"n, $h"'h a%$ays $ea*es mean"n(#u%, but ne*er ab"d"n(, patterns+ho$ 'an th"s /%oom0 e*o:e su'h r"'h menta% e)per"en'es as the *"s"on o# e*eryth"n( $e see, a%% the sounds $e hear, a%% the bod"%y sensat"ons $e may e*er be'ome a$are o#6 123EF, p. GGH, GGE, parenthet"'a% "tem "n or"(., emp. added5. In the boo: 'onta"n"n( the Nobe% %aureate 'on*ersat"ons on these matters, Dous"ns 'ommented: /The 7uest"on natura%%y ar"ses: where do mental intentions come from1 what is their source1 their origin"0 123HF, pp. EE&E4, emp. added5. These /menta% "ntent"ons0 are tru%y "mportant, as Ian Tattersa%% adm"tted $hen he $rote:

E*erybody 'an a(ree that a ma@or aspe't o# 'ons'"ousness "s the ab"%"ty to #orm "ntent"onsJ and nobody $"%% d"spute that human be"n(s spend mu'h o# the"r %"*es "n th"s a't"*"ty, ho$e*er ho%%o$ those "ntent"ons may e*entua%%y turn out to be 1=>>=, p. FH5. So ho$ d"d E''%es ans$er the 7uest"on o# $here these menta% "ntent"ons or"("nate6 He responded: /In 'ontrast to these mater"a%"st or para%%e%"st theor"es are the dua%"st&"ntera't"on theor"es. The essential feature of these theories is that mind and brain are independent entities...0 1E''%es and Rob"nson, 23HG, p. ?F, emp. added5. By $ay o# summary, here "s E''%es’ *"e$: The se%#&'ons'"ous m"nd "s a't"*e%y en(a(ed "n read"n( out #rom the mu%t"tude o# a't"*e 'enters at the h"(hest %e*e% o# bra"n a't"*"ty, name%y, the %"a"son modu%es that are %ar(e%y "n the dom"nant 'erebra% hem"sphere. The se%#&'ons'"ous m"nd se%e'ts #rom these modu%es a''ord"n( to attent"on and "nterest, and #rom moment to moment "nte(rates "ts se%e't"on to ("*e un"ty e*en to the most trans"ent e)per"en'es. !urthermore, the se%#&'ons'"ous m"nd a'ts upon these neura% 'enters mod"#y"n( the dynam"' spat"otempora% patterns o# the neura% e*ents. Thus it is proposed that the self-conscious mind e!ercises a superior interpretative and controlling role upon the neural events .... The present hypothes"s re(ards the neurona% ma'h"nery as a mu%t"p%e) o# rad"at"n( and re'e"*"n( stru'tures: the e!perienced unity comes1 not from a neurophysiological synthesis1 but from the proposed integrating character of the self-conscious mind 123H=, pp. =GG&=GF, emp. added5. It $as the 'on'ept o# the /se%#&'ons'"ous m"nd0 to $h"'h Dr. E''%es de*oted h"s %"#e’s resear'h, and on $h"'h he spo:e and $rote so o#ten. In h"s "n*"ted %e'ture at the 234F Nobe% Don#eren'e, he rem"nded h"s #e%%o$ Nobe% %aureates: There "s the 'ont"nua% e)per"en'e that the se%#&'ons'"ous m"nd 'an effectively a't on the bra"n e*ents. Th"s "s most o*ert%y seen "n *o%untary a't"on, but throu(hout our $a:"n( %"#e $e are de%"berate%y e*o:"n( bra"n e*ents $hen $e try to re'a%% a memory or to re'apture a $ord or phrase or to e)press a thou(ht or to estab%"sh a ne$ memory. Th"s hypothes"s ("*es a pr"me ro%e to the a't"on o# the se%#&'ons'"ous m"nd, an a't"on o# 'ho"'e and sear'h"n( and d"s'o*er"n( and "nte(rat"n(.... # ey component of the hypothesis is that the unity of conscious e!perience is provided by the self-conscious mind and not by the neural machinery of the liaison areas of the cerebral hemisphere.... !urthermore, the a't"*e ro%e o# the se%#&'ons'"ous m"nd "s e)tended "n our hypothes"s to e##e't 'han(es "n the neurona% e*ents. Thus not on%y does "t read out se%e't"*e%y #rom the on&(o"n( a't"*"t"es o# the neurona% ma'h"nery, but it also modifies these activities 12344, pp H2,H=,H?, emp. "n or"(.5. E''%es then 'on'%uded by say"n(: There must be a partial independence of the self-conscious mind from the brain events with which it interacts. !or e)amp%e, "# a de'"s"on "s to be #ree%y made "t must be "n"t"ated "n the se%#& 'ons'"ous m"nd and then 'ommun"'ated to the bra"n #or e)e'ut"*e a't"on. Th"s se7uen'e "s e*en more ne'essary "n the e)er'"se o# 'reat"*e "ma("nat"on, $here flashes of insight become e!pressions by triggering appropriate brain actions 1p. H4, emp. "n or"(.5. Ho$, then, $ou%d Dr. E''%es 'ate(or"<e h"mse%#6 He 'erta"n%y does not #"t the des'r"pt"on o# a mon"st&mater"a%"st. Is he then a str"'t dua%"st6 Does he 'ons"der h"mse%# a *"ta%"st6 Bhat pos"t"on does he ta:e as a resu%t o# h"s #as'"nat"n(, Nobe% Pr"<e&$"nn"n( d"s'o*er"es6 In h"s boo:, The "u#an !ystery, he 7ue%%ed any susp"'"ons.

I# I shou%d be as:ed to e)press my ph"%osoph"'a% pos"t"on, I $ou%d ha*e to adm"t that I am an an"m"st on -onod’s de#"n"t"on. ,s a dua%"st I be%"e*e "n the rea%"ty o# the $or%d o# m"nd or sp"r"t as $e%% as "n the rea%"ty o# the mater"a% $or%d. !urthermore I am a #"na%"st "n the sense o# be%"e*"n( that there "s some Des"(n "n the pro'esses o# b"o%o("'a% e*o%ut"on that has e*entua%%y %ed to us se%#& 'ons'"ous be"n(s $"th our un"7ue "nd"*"dua%"tyJ and $e are ab%e to 'ontemp%ate and $e 'an attempt to understand the (randeur and $onder o# nature, as I $"%% attempt to do "n these %e'tures 12343, pp. 3&2>5. E*entua%%y, S"r ohn 'ame to re#er to h"mse%# as a /dua%"st&"ntera't"on"st0 1as d"d S"r Car% Popper5. E''%es 'a%m%y adm"tted: #s a dualist-interactionist1 I believe that my e!perienced uni2ueness lies not in the uni2ueness of my brain1 but in my psyche. It "s bu"%t up #rom the t"ssue o# memor"es o# the most "nt"mate :"nd #rom my ear%"est re'o%%e't"on on$ards to the present.... It "s "mportant to d"s'%a"m a so%"ps"st"' so%ut"on o# the un"7ueness o# the se%#. Our d"re't e)per"en'es are o# 'ourse sub@e't"*e, be"n( der"*ed so%e%y #rom our bra"n and se%#. The e)"sten'es o# other se%*es are esta(lished by "ntersub@e't"*e 'ommun"'at"on 1233=, p. =?4, "ta%"'s "n or"(., emp. added5. Popper and E''%es presented the"r *"e$s "n the"r mass"*e E>>&pa(e boo: pub%"shed "n 2344, The Sel and -ts Brain: $n $rgu#ent or -nteractionis# , $h"'h be'ame an o*ern"(ht sensat"on, and u%t"mate%y a '%ass"' "n "ts #"e%d. In h"s port"on o# that *o%ume, Popper $rote: 6ut the human consciousness of self transcends , I suggest1 all purely biological thought.... [OAn%y a human be"n( 'apab%e o# spee'h 'an re#%e't upon h"mse%#. I th"n: that e*ery or(an"sm has a pro(ramme. 6ut I also thin that only a human being can be conscious of parts of this programme1 and revise them critically 1Popper and E''%es, 2344, p. 2GG, emp. added5. !our years be#ore that boo:’s pub%"'at"on, E''%es $ent on re'ord as stat"n(: I $as a dua%"st, no$ I am a trialist9 Dartes"an dua%"sm has be'ome un#ash"onab%e $"th many peop%e. They embra'e mon"sm "n order to es'ape the en"(ma o# bra"n&m"nd "ntera't"on $"th "ts perp%e)"n( prob%ems. But S"r Car% Popper and I are "ntera't"on"sts, and $hat "s more, trialist interactionists9 1234?, p. 2H3, emp. "n or"(.5. In the se't"on that he $rote #or The Sel and -ts Brain, Popper d"s'ussed h"s *"e$ 1shared by E''%es5 that rea%"ty shou%d be seen as ha*"n( three d"##erent aspe'ts, $h"'h he subse7uent%y %abe%ed as Bor%d I, Bor%d II, and Bor%d III. Bor%d I "s the ob@e't"*e $or%d o# physical entities. Bor%d II "s the sub@e't"*e psy'h"' inner reality o# ea'h human be"n(. Bor%d III "s the $or%d o# human culture 1".e., the $or%d o# "deas5. Popper and E''%es both a(reed that / the selfconscious mind is an independent entity to be superimposed upon the neural machinery 0+ a super"mpos"t"on that 'an %ead to a *ar"ety o# "ntera't"ons "n the bra"n as "t mo*es bet$een Bor%ds I, II, and III. Dont"nuous sub@e't"*e "ntera't"ons e)"st bet$een Bor%d I and Bor%d II, as $e%% as 'u%tura% "ntera't"ons a##e't"n( both Bor%d I and Bor%d II. Dr. E''%es h"mse%# per#ormed numerous e)per"ments "n $h"'h ner*e 'e%%s "n the S-,d"s'har(ed +so%e%y as a resu%t o# menta% "ntent"on+ before the 'e%%s respons"b%e #or motor a't"*"ty. He d"s'ussed on numerous o''as"ons the s'"ent"#"' e*"den'e substant"at"n( that the m"nd "s a separate ent"ty #rom the bra"n+e*"den'e that he had (athered throu(h a %"#et"me o# study on the bra"n&m"nd prob%em 1see E''%es, 234?, 2343J 23H=J 23HGJ 23H3, 233=, 233G5. Dr. E''%es stated:

/7e are a combination of two things or entitiesB our brains on the one hand1 and our conscious selves on the other0 123HG, p. ??, emp. added5. Dou%d Popper and E''%es be onto someth"n( here6 Dou%d there be a /$or%d,0 $"th"n ea'h human, 'onta"n"n( a /psy'h"' "nner rea%"ty06 ay To%son, "n an art"'%e 1/The .host Hunters05 that he penned #or the De'ember 2E, =>>= "ssue o# U1S1 Ne/s & %orld Report, used humans’ ab"%"ty to emp%oy symbo%"' %an(ua(e 1"n a $ay that no an"ma% 'an5 to "n7u"re about /a person beneath the persona%"ty.0 ;s"n( %an(ua(e at "ts most re#"ned %"m"t+"rony+sho$s ho$ $e o#ten mean someth"n( more or other than $hat $e say. )ight that not be a tantali9ing glimpse of a self beyond the mere representation of the self1 a person beneath the personality" # ghost in the machine1 after all 6 12??[=?A:GE, emp. added5. E*en Pau% Da*"es $as 'onstra"ned to as:: Dan the m"nd someho$ rea'h "nto the phys"'a% $or%d o# e%e'trons and atoms, bra"n 'e%%s and ner*es, and 'reate e%e'tr"'a% #or'es6 Does m"nd rea%%y a't on matter "n de#"an'e o# the #undamenta% pr"n'"p%es o# phys"'s6 #re there1 indeed1 two causes of movement in the material worldB one due to ordinary physical processes and the other due to mental processes" ... The on%y m"nds o# $h"'h $e ha*e d"re't e)per"en'e are those asso'"ated $"th bra"ns 1and ar(uab%y 'omputers5. Ket nobody ser"ous%y su((ests that .od, or departed sou%s, ha*e a bra"n. 5oes the notion of a disembodied mind1 let alone a mind completely decoupled from the physical universe1 ma e any sense"123H?, pp. 4F,4=, parenthet"'a% "tem and emp. "n or"(.5. Bh"%e the 'omm"tted mon"st&mater"a%"st $ou%d ans$er /no0 to e*ery one o# Dr. Da*"es’ 7uest"ons, our resear'h ans$ers /yes0 to ea'h o# them. B"th the a*a"%ab%e s'"ent"#"' e*"den'e 1#rom reputab%e s'"ent"sts su'h as Pen#"e%d, E''%es, and others5 $h"'h do'uments that m"nddoes "ntera't $"th matter 1the bra"n5, $hat other 'on'%us"on 'ou%d one poss"b%y rea'h6 ,s E''%es put "t: These 'ons"derat"ons %ead me to the a%ternat"*e hypothes"s o# dua%"st&"ntera't"on"sm. It is really the commonsense view1 namely that we are a combination of two things or entitiesB our brains on the one hand8 and our conscious selves on the other 123H=, pp. HH, emp. added5. Herbert !e"(% adm"tted: 8"ta%"sts or "ntera't"on"sts...ho%d that b"o%o("'a% 'on'epts and %a$s are not redu'"b%e to the %a$s o# phys"'s, and hen'e+a ortiori+that psy'ho%o("'a% 'on'epts and %a$s are %":e$"se "rredu'"b%e.... The upshot o# th"s %on("sh d"s'uss"on on the d"##eren'e bet$een the s'"ent"#"' and the ph"%osoph"'a% 'omponents o# the m"nd&body prob%em "s th"s: If interactionism or any genuine emergence hypotheses are sensibly formulated1 they have empirical content and entail incisive limitations of the scope of physical determinism 123E4, pp. 4,2H, emp. added5. Not %on( a#ter !e"(% $rote that "ntera't"on"sm hypotheses, "# /sens"b%y #ormu%ated,0 'ou%d ha*e /emp"r"'a% 'ontent,0 S"r ohn E''%es 'ame a%on( and /sens"b%y #ormu%ated0 h"s dua%"st& "ntera't"on"st theory+and then pro*"ded the /emp"r"'a% 'ontent0 to (o a%on( $"th "t. ,nd $here does su'h /emp"r"'a% 'ontent0 %ead6 Da*"es "n7u"red: /Does the not"on o# a d"sembod"ed m"nd, %et a%one a m"nd 'omp%ete%y de'oup%ed #rom the phys"'a% un"*erse, ma:e any sense60 Be

respond that "t most 'erta"n%y does. E''%es, Pen#"e%d, and others ha*e sho$n 'on'%us"*e%y that mind e!ists independently of matter. The thou(ht, then, o# a /un"*ersa% m"nd0 that stands beh"nd th"s ;n"*erse no %on(er sounds 7u"te so #ar&#et'hed. In #a't, Har*ard’s Nobe% %aureate, .eor(e Ba%d, "n the 'hapter he $rote 1/The Dosmo%o(y o# I"#e and -"nd05 #or Ne/ !etaphysical )oundations o !odern Science, addressed th"s *ery theme. I had a%ready #or some t"me ta:en "t as a #ore(one 'on'%us"on that the m"nd+'ons'"ousness+'ou%d not be %o'ated. It "s essent"a%%y absurd to th"n: o# %o'at"n( a phenomenon that y"e%ds no phys"'a% s"(na%s, the presen'e or absen'e o# $h"'h, outs"de o# humans the"r %":e, 'annot be "dent"#"ed. But #urther than that, m"nd "s not on%y not %o'atab%e, "t has no location. It "s not athing "n spa'e and t"me, not measurab%eJ hen'e, as I sa"d at the be("nn"n( o# th"s 'hapter, not ass"m"%ab%e as s'"en'e. ,nd yet "t "s not to be d"sm"ssed as an ep"phenomenon: "t "s the #oundat"on, the 'ond"t"on that ma:es s'"en'e poss"b%e.... , #e$ years a(o "t o''urred to me that these seem"n(%y *ery d"sparate prob%ems m"(ht be brou(ht to(ether. ,nd th"s 'ou%d happen throu(h the hypothes"s that mind, rather than be"n( a *ery %ate de*e%opment "n the e*o%ut"on o# %"*"n( th"n(s, restr"'ted to or(an"sms $"th the most 'omp%e) ner*ous systems+a%% o# $h"'h I had be%"e*ed to be true+ has been there always. #nd that this universe is life-breeding because the pervasive presence of mind had guided it to be so 1233G, pp. 2=H,2=3, emp. added5. Dr. Ba%d "s "n (ood 'ompany "n sens"n( $hat he 'a%%ed /the per*as"*e presen'e o# m"nd.0 The %ate, d"st"n(u"shed astronomer #rom .reat Br"ta"n, S"r ,rthur Edd"n(ton, adm"tted: /The "dea o# a un"*ersa% m"nd, or Io(os, $ou%d be, I th"n:, a #a"r%y p%aus"b%e "n#eren'e #rom the present state o# s'"ent"#"' theory0 1as 7uoted "n Heeren, 233F, p. =??5. O*er se*enty years a(o, phys"'"st S"r ames eans $rote: Today there "s a $"de measure o# a(reement $h"'h on the phys"'a% s"de o# s'"en'e approa'hes a%most unan"m"ty, that the stream o# :no$%ed(e "s head"n( to$ards a non&me'han"'a% rea%"ty: the ;n"*erse be("ns to %oo: more %":e a (reat thou(ht than a (reat ma'h"ne. )ind no longer loo s li e an accidental intruder into the realm of matter8 we are beginning to suspect that we ought rather to hail it as the Creator and governor of the realm of matter .... Be d"s'o*er that the ;n"*erse sho$s e*"den'e o# a des"(n"n( or 'ontro%%"n( Po$er that has someth"n( "n 'ommon $"th our o$n m"nds 123?>, emp. added5. In a d"s'uss"on "n the"r 'o%%e(e b"o%o(y te)tboo:1 The Ne/ Biology5 about the or"("n o# the (enet"' 'ode, Robert ,u(ros and .eor(e Stan'"u as:ed: Bhat 'ause "s respons"b%e #or the or"("n o# the (enet"' 'ode and d"re'ts "t to produ'e an"ma% and p%ant spe'"es6 It 'annot be matter be'ause o# "tse%# matter has no "n'%"nat"on to these #orms, any more than "t has to the #orm Pose"don or the #orm o# a m"'ro'h"p or any other art"#a't. There must be a cause apart from matter that is able to shape and direct matter. Is there anything in our e!perience li e this" *es1 there isB our own minds . The statue’s #orm or"("nates "n the m"nd o# the art"st, $ho then subse7uent%y shapes matter, "n the appropr"ate $ay.... .or the same reasons there must be a mind that directs and shapes matter in organic forms 123H4, p. 232, emp. added5. Or, to 7uote N,S, astronomer Robert astro$: /That there are $hat I, or anyone $ou%d 'a%% supernatura% #or'es at $or: "s no$, I th"n:, a s'"ent"#"'a%%y pro*en #a't0 123H=, p. 2H5.

Phys"'"st !reeman Dyson authored an art"'%e 1/-an:"nd’s P%a'e "n the Dosmos05 #or U1S1 Ne/s and %orld Report, not"n(: The m"nd, I be%"e*e, e)"sts "n some *ery rea% sense "n the un"*erse. But "s "t pr"mary or an a''"denta% 'onse7uen'e o# someth"n( e%se6 The pre*a"%"n( *"e$ amon( b"o%o("sts seems to be that the m"nd arose a''"denta%%y out o# mo%e'u%es o# DN, or someth"n(. I #"nd that *ery un%":e%y. It seems more reasonable to thin that mind was a primary part of nature from the beginning and we are simply manifestations of it at the present stage of history 123HH, p. 4=, emp. added5. In h"s art"'%e, /The -"nd&Bra"n Prob%em,0 ohn Be%o## made a start%"n( adm"ss"on. The #a't "s that, %ea*"n( as"de myth"'a% and re%"("ous 'osmo%o("es, the pos"t"on o# m"nd "n nature rema"ns a tota% mystery. It could be that there e!ists some sort of a cosmic mind , perhaps 'o& e7ua% $"th the mater"a% un"*erse "tse%#, from which each of our individual minds stems and to which each ultimately returns. ,%% $e 'an say "s that "t %oo:s as "# a #ra(ment o# m"nd&stu## be'omes atta'hed to an "nd"*"dua% or(an"sm, at or near b"rth, and therea#ter pers"sts $"th th"s symb"ot"' re%at"onsh"p unt"% that or(an"sm per"shes 1233G, emp. added5. Then, $"th an e*en bo%der ta't, ,rne By%%er dared to as: "n h"s boo:, The Creating Consciousness: /7hat if there e!isted a mind before people... perhaps a 'ons'"ousness $e $"%% one day #"nd "n another part o# the ;n"*erse, perhaps a un"*ersa% 'ons'"ousness #"e%d: The Planetary )ind0 1233E, p. ==?, emp. added5. ust th"n:. /Bhat "# 0 there e)"sted a m"nd be#ore peop%e+a /un"*ersa%Mp%anetaryM'osm"' -"nd Bho 'ou%d /atta'h a #ra(ment o# m"nd&stu## 0 to an "nd"*"dua% or(an"sm at 'on'ept"on6 ust th"n:9 ,s R"'hard He"nber( remar:ed "n Cloning the Buddha: The !oral -#pact o Biotechnology: But at %east the sp"r"tua% *"e$ %ea*es open the door #or the poss"b"%"ty that our e)p%anat"ons #or b"o%o("'a% phenomena are st"%% "n'omp%ete "n some #undamenta% $ay. To premature%y '%ose that door m"(ht be a pro#ound error. I# $e th"n: $e ha*e essent"a%%y the $ho%e p"'ture o# $hat %"#e "s and ho$ "t $or:s, $hen "n rea%"ty $e ha*e on%y a part o# that p"'tureJ "# our $or:"n( ph"%osophy systemat"'a%%y e)'%udes 'erta"n :"nds o# e*"den'e and 'erta"n :"nds o# e)p%anat"onsJ and #urther, "# $e a't on our ph"%osophy "n $ays that ha*e (%oba% reper'uss"ons, then $e 'ou%d be (ett"n( ourse%*es "nto ser"ous troub%e "ndeed. , sp"r"tua% perspe't"*e, e*en "n "ts $ea:est and most (enera%"<ed #orm, $ou%d ho%d that present material e!planations for biological and psychological realities are necessary but not sufficient. +omething else must be ta en into account 12333, pp. 4G&4F, emp. added5. That /someth"n( e%se0 o# $h"'h He"nber( $rote "s the /'osm"' m"nd,0 /un"*ersa% m"nd,0 or /m"nd that e)"sted be#ore peop%e,0o# $h"'h the $r"ters abo*e spo:e. ,nd they are not the on%y ones to a':no$%ed(e the ne'ess"ty o# su'h. ,s erome E%bert 'orre't%y noted: /The sou% be%"e# "s so bas"' "n our 'u%ture that, throu(h ord"nary 'ommun"'at"ons, most o# us 'ome to be%"e*e that a net$or: o# neurons 'annot, by "tse%#, (enerate our thou(hts and a$areness o# the $or%d0 1=>>>, p. =245. Ho$ *ery true. Be 'ou%d not ha*e sa"d "t better ourse%*es. ,'.','0C'+ ,dr"an, E.D. 123EF5, /Dons'"ousness,0 Brain and Conscious Experience 1Rome, Ita%y: Pont"#"'a ,'adem"a S'"entar"um5, pp. =?H&=GH.

,u(ros Robert and .eor(e Stan'"u 123H45, The Ne/ Biology 1Boston, -,: Ne$ S'"en'e I"brary5. Be%o##, ohn 123E=5, The Existence o !ind 1Iondon: -a'."bbon and Cee5. Be%o##, ohn 1233G5, /The -"nd&Bra"n http:MMmoeb"us.psy.ed.a'.u:Mdua%"smMpapersMbra"ns.htm%. Prob%em,0 [On&%"neA, ;RI:

Bro$n, ,ndre$ 123335, The 0ar/in %ars 1Iondon: S"mon R S'huster5. Darr"n(ton, Here$ard 123=?5, *i e: -ts &rigin and Nature 1."rard, CS: Ha%deman& u%"us5. Darter, N"': 1=>>=5, /,re There ,ny Insurmountab%e Obsta'%es to Des'artes’ Dua%"sm6,0 [On& %"neA, ;RI: http:MM$$$.re*"se."tMre*"se "tMEssayIabM;nder(raduateMPh"%osophyMeGG.htm. Dotter"%%, Rodney 1233H5, Enchanted *oo#s: Conscious Co#puters1Dambr"d(e, En(%and: Dambr"d(e ;n"*ers"ty Press5. Net/or2s in Brains and

Dous"ns, Norman 123HF5, /Dommentary,0 "n No(el Pri5e Conversations 1Da%%as, TQ: Saybroo:5. Dustan'e, ,rthur D. 123H>5, The !ysterious !atter o !ind 1.rand Rap"ds, -I: Nonder*an5. Da*"es, Pau% 123H?5, God and the Ne/ Physics 1Ne$ Kor:: S"mon R S'huster5. Da*"es, Pau% 1233F5, /Phys"'s and the -"nd http:MMpr"nt.#"rstth"n(s.'omM#t"ssuesM#t3F>HMart"'%esMda*"es.htm%. o# .od,0 [On&%"neA, ;RI:

Dennett, Dan"e% D. 123HG5, El(o/ Roo# 1Dambr"d(e, -,: Brad#ord5. Dennett, Dan"e% D. 123H45, The -ntentional Stance 1Dambr"d(e, -,: -IT Press5. Dennett, Dan"e% D. 123325, Consciousness Explained 1Boston, -,: I"tt%e, Bro$n5. Dennett, Dan"e% D. 1233E5, ?inds o !inds 1Ne$ Kor:: Bas"' Boo:s5. Dennett Dan"e% D. 1233H5, Brainchildren 1Ne$ Kor:: Pen(u"n5. Dob<hans:y, Theodos"us 123E45 /Dhan("n( -an,0 Science, 2FF:G>3&G2F, anuary =4. Dob<hans:y, Theodos"us, !. . ,ya%a, ..I. Stebb"ns, and .B. 8a%ent"ne 123445, Evolution 1San !ran'"s'o, D,: B.H. !reeman5. Dyson, !reeman 123HH5, /-an:"nd’s P%a'e "n the Dosmos,0 U1S1 Ne/s and %orld Report+ p. 4=, ,pr"% 2H. E''%es, ohn D., ed. 123EE5, Brain and Conscious Experience 1Rome, Ita%y: Pont"#"'a ,'adem"a S'"entar"um5. E''%es, ohn D. 1234?5, The Understanding o the Brain 1Ne$ Kor:: -'.ra$&H"%%5.

E''%es, ohn D. 123445, /The Bra"n&-"nd Prob%em as a !ront"er o# S'"en'e,0 The )uture o Science: 9:<@ No(el Con erence, ed. T"mothy D.I. Rob"nson 1Ne$ Kor:: ohn B"%ey R Sons5, pp. 4?&2>G. E''%es, ohn D. 123435, The "u#an !ystery 1Iondon: Rout%ed(e5. E''%es, ohn D. 123H=5, !ind & Brain: The !any' aceted Pro(le#s 1Bash"n(ton, D.D.: Para(on House5. E''%es, ohn D. 123H35, Evolution o the Brain: Creation o the Sel 1Iondon: Rout%ed(e5. E''%es, ohn D. 1233=5, The "u#an Psyche 1Iondon: Rout%ed(e5. E''%es, ohn D. 1233G5, "o/ the Sel Controls -ts Brain 1Ne$ Kor:: Spr"n(er&8er%a(5. E''%es, ohn D. and Dan"e% N. Rob"nson 123HG5, The %onder o Being "u#an: &ur Brain and &ur !ind 1Ne$ Kor:: The !ree Press5. E''%es, ohn D., Ro(er Sperry, I%ya Pr"(o("ne, and Br"an osephson 123HF5, No(el Pri5e Conversations 1Da%%as, TQ: Saybroo:5. Ehr%"'h, Pau% R. 1=>>>5, "u#an Natures: Prospect1Bash"n(ton, D.D.: Is%and Press5. Genes+ Cultures+ and the "u#an

E%bert, erome B. 1=>>>5, $re Souls Real, 1,mherst, NK: Prometheus5. !e"(%, Herbert 123E45, The A!entalB and the APhysicalB 1-"nneapo%"s, -N: ;n"*ers"ty o# -"nnesota Press5. !"n'her, a': 123HG5, The "u#an BodyCThe Brain: !ystery o !atter and !ind+ ed. Roy B. P"n'hot 1Ne$ Kor:: Torstar Boo:s5. .e"s%er, Norman 123HG5, /The Do%%apse o# -odern ,the"sm,0 The -ntellectuals Spea2 &ut $(out God, ed. Roy ,. 8ar(hese 1Dh"'a(o, II: Re(nery5, pp. 2=3&2F=. .%"edman, ohn 123H=5, /S'"ent"sts "n Sear'h o# the Sou%,0 Science 0igest, 3>[4A:44&43,2>F, u%y. .%ynn, Ian 123335, $n $nato#y o Thought: The &rigin and !achinery o the !ind 1Ne$ Kor:: O)#ord ;n"*ers"ty Press5. .omes, ,.O. 123EF5, /The Bra"n&Dons'"ousness Prob%em "n Dontemporary S'"ent"#"' Resear'h,0 Brain and Conscious Experience 1Rome, Ita%y: Pont"#"'a ,'adem"a S'"entar"um5, pp. GGE&GE3. .ou%d, Stephen ay 123345, /!ore$ord: The Pos"t"*e Po$er o# S:ept"'"sm,0 %hy People Believe %eird Things, -"'hae% Shermer 1Ne$ Kor:: B.H. !reeman5.

.re(ory, R"'hard I. 123445, /Dons'"ousness,0 The Encyclopaedia o -gnorance, ed. Rona%d Dun'an and -"randa Beston&Sm"th 1O)#ord, En(%and: Per(amon5, pp. =4?&=H2. .r"##"n, Dona%d R. 1=>>25, $ni#al !inds: Beyond Cognition to Consciousness 1Dh"'a(o, II: ;n"*ers"ty o# Dh"'a(o Press5, re*"sed ed"t"on. Heeren, !red 1233F5 Sho/ !e God 1Bhee%"n(, II: Sear'h%"(ht Pub%"'at"ons5. He"nber(, R"'hard 123335, Cloning the Buddha: The !oral -#pact o Biotechnology 1Bheaton, II: Puest Boo:s5. Hod(son, Shad$orth 12H4>5, The Theory o Practice 1Iondon: Ion(mans, .reen, Reader, Dyer5. Hu)%ey, Thomas H. 12H4>5, /On the Phys"'a% Bas"s o# I"#e,0 *ay Ser#ons+ $ddresses+ and Revie/s 1Iondon: D. ,pp%eton5. Hu)%ey, Thomas H. 12H425, /-r. Dar$"n’s Dr"t"'s,0 Conte#porary Revie/, No*ember. ahn, Robert .. and Brenda . Dunne 1233G5, /The Sp"r"tua% Substan'e o# S'"en'e,0 Ne/ !etaphysical )oundations o !odern Science, ed. B"%%"s Harman and ane D%ar: 1Sausa%"to, D,: Inst"tute o# Noet"' S'"en'es5, pp. 2F4&244. astro$, Robert 123H=5, /, S'"ent"st Dau(ht Bet$een T$o !a"ths,0 Inter*"e$ $"th B"%% Durb"n,Christianity Today, ,u(ust E. eans, ames 123?>5, The 8*ondon= Ti#es, No*ember F. ee*es, -a%'o%m 1233H5, /Bra"n, -"nd and Beha*"or,0 %hatever "appened to the Soul: Scienti ic and Theological Portraits o "u#an Nature , ed. Barren S. Bro$n, Nan'ey -urphy, and H.N. -a%ony 1-"nneapo%"s, -N: !ortress Press5, pp. 4?&3H. ohanson, Dona%d D. and B%a:e Ed(ar 1233E5, )ro# *ucy to *anguage 1Ne$ Kor:: Ne*raumont5. Coest%er ,rthur 123E45, Ghost in the !achine 1Iondon: Hut'h"nson5. Ia':, D. 123E25, Evolutionary Theory and Christian Belie : The Unresolved Con lict 1Iondon: -etheun5. Ias<%o, Er*"n 123H45, Evolution: The Grand Synthesis 1Boston, -,: Ne$ S'"en'e I"brary5. Iemon"':, -"'hae% D. 1=>>?5, /Kour -"nd, Kour Body,0 Ti#e, 2E2[?A:E?, anuary =>. Ie$"n, Ro(er 1233=5, Co#plexity: *i e at the Edge o Chaos 1Ne$ Kor:: -a'm"%%an5. Ioren<, C. 123425, Studies in $ni#al and "u#an Behavior 1Iondon: -euthen5. -ather, C"rt%ey !. 123HE5, The Per#issive Universe 1,%bu7uer7ue, N-: ;n"*ers"ty o# Ne$ -e)"'o Press5.

-ayr, Ernst 123H=5, The Gro/th o Biological Thought 1Dambr"d(e, -,: Har*ard ;n"*ers"ty Press5. -onod, a'7ues 1234=5, Chance and Necessity 1Iondon: Do%%"ns5. Pen#"e%d, B"%der 123E25, /The Phys"o%o("'a% Bas"s o# the -"nd.0 !an and Civili5ation: Control o the !ind, ed. S.-. !arber and R.H.I. B"%son 1Ne$ Kor:: -'.ra$&H"%%5, pp. ?&24. Pen#"e%d, B"%der 1234F5, The !ystery o the !ind 1Pr"n'eton, N : Pr"n'eton ;n"*ers"ty Press5. Penrose, Ro(er 123345, The *arge+ the S#all and the "u#an Brain 1Dambr"d(e, En(%and: Dambr"d(e ;n"*ers"ty Press5. Popper, Car% R. and ohn D. E''%es 123445, The Sel and -ts Brain 1Ber%"n: Spr"n(er&8er%a(5. Re"'henba'h, Bru'e and 8. E%*"n( ,nderson 1233F5, &n Behal o God 1.rand Rap"ds, -I: Eerdmans5. Ro%ston, Ho%mes 123335, Genes+ Genesis and God 1Dambr"d(e, En(%and: Dambr"d(e ;n"*ers"ty Press5. Ruse, -"'hae% 1=>>25, The Evolution %ars 1Ne$ Bruns$"':, N : Rut(ers ;n"*ers"ty Press5. Ry%e, ."%bert 123G35, The Concept o !ind 1Ne$ Kor:: Barnes and Nob%e5. S'ott, ,%$yn 1233F5, Stair/ay to the !ind: Consciousness1Ne$ Kor:: Spr"n(er&8er%a(5. The Controversial Ne/ Science o

Sear%e, ohn 123HG5, !inds+ Brain and Science 1Dambr"d(e, -,: Har*ard ;n"*ers"ty Press5. Sear%e, ohn 1233=5, The Rediscovery o the !ind 1Dambr"d(e, -,: -IT Press5. She%dra:e, Rupert 123H25, $ Ne/ Science o *i e: The "ypothesis o )or#ative Causation 1Ios ,n(e%es, D,: Tar'her5. Sperry, Ro(er 1233G5, /Ho%d"n( Dourse ,m"dst Sh"#t"n( Parad"(ms,0 Ne/ !etaphysical )oundations o !odern Science, ed. B"%%"s Harman and ane D%ar: 1Sausa%"to, D,: Inst"tute o# Noet"' S'"en'es5, pp. 34&2=2. Stra$son, .a%en 1=>>?5, )reedo# Evolves: E*o%ut"on E)p%a"ns It ,%% #or Kou,0 Ne/ 6or2 Ti#es, [On&%"neA, ;RI: http:MM$$$.nyt"mes.'omM=>>?M>?M>=Mboo:sMre*"e$M>>=STR,BT.htm%, -ar'h =. Tattersa%%, Ian 1=>>=5, The !on2ey in the !irror: Essays on the Science o %hat !a2es Us "u#an 1Ne$ Kor:: Har'ourt5. Tay%or, .ordon Rattray 123435, The Natural "istory o the !ind 1Ne$ Kor:: E.P. Dutton5.

To%son, ay 1=>>=5, /The .host Hunters,0 U1S1 Ne/s & %orld Report+ 2??[=?A:GG&GF, De'ember 2E. Tre#"%, ames 1233E5, 9D9 Things 6ou 0on3t ?no/ $(out Science and No &ne Else 0oes Either1Boston, -,: Hou(hton -"##%"n5. Tre#"%, ames 123345, $re %e Uni.ue, $ Scientist Explores the Unparalleled -ntelligence o the "u#an !ind 1Ne$ Kor:: ohn B"%ey R Sons5. Ba%d, .eor(e 1233G5, /The Dosmo%o(y o# I"#e and -"nd,0 Ne/ !etaphysical )oundations o !odern Science, ed. B"%%"s Harman and ane D%ar: 1Sausa%"to, D,: Inst"tute o# Noet"' S'"en'es5, pp. 2=?&2?2. Besson, Robert 123345, Beyond Natural Selection 1Dambr"d(e, -,: -IT Press5. B"%son, Ed$ard O. 1233H5, Consilience 1Ne$ Kor:: Cnop#5. By%%er, ,rne ,. 1233E5, The Creating Consciousness: Science as the *anguage o God 1Den*er, DO: -urray and Be':5. Neman, ,dam 1=>>25, /Dons'"ousness,0 Brain, 2=G[4A:2=E?&2=H3, u%y.