Theme in Nigerian Politics

POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA IN PUBLIC ADMIN AND POLICY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AZARE
UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
IN AFFILIATION WITH

LECTURE NOTES ON:

THEMES IN THE NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
PGDPAP 621 – (2 UNITS)

COURSE OUTLINE: The purpose of this course unit is to sensitize the students with some of the developments in the politics of Nigeria since independence. TOPICS: 1. A critical appraisal of federalism and national question. 2. Constitutionalism, ideology and national integration 3. Party politics and political participation 4. Military incursion into politics.

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A CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF FEDERALISM AND NATIONAL QUESTIONS In modern times, federalism is a type of polity operating as constitution which works on two or more levels of government; as a nation and as a collection of related but self-standing units. Under such an arrangement, there exists a central government whose power is supreme and covers all parts of the country. In a federation, responsibilities are shared among the component parts. The items for which the central government takes responsibility are listed under the “EXCLUSIVE LIST” while that of the subordinate states come under the “RESIDUAL LIST”. There is also the “CONCURRENT LIST” of issues or items over which the central government and the states could legislate. But whenever there is friction in such cases the power of the central government prevails. What the above means is that the component government of a federation derives from the constitution and they accept the superiority of the central authority. But the central authority cannot strip the component states of the power given to them by the constitution except the constitution is amended to that effect. That is each component government is sovereign within its own sphere of competence, and it is empowered to establish all the apparatus of government for the implementation of its activities and policies. Countries that operate federalism include: United States of America, Switzerland, Canada, and Australia (old federations) Nigeria, India, Pakistan, Malaysia, the West Indies and Zimbabwe (new federations). THE ORIGIN OF NIGERIAN FEDERALISM The Federal System of Government in Nigeria geminated during the Colonial era, when in 1939 Sir Bernard Boudillon who took over from Sir Hugh Clifford divided the southern protectorate into the Eastern and Western Provinces. He did not introduce the principle for regionalism, but proposed the establishment of regional councils to serve as provincial legislatures which would have advisory powers only. They were to be provincial councils below the regional councils to serve as advisory committees on matters of welfare and development. At the centre, he proposed a Central Council in Lagos that would consist of regional council
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members to be known as Federal Council. However, the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 and his retirement militated against the implementation of his proposals. In 1946 when Sir Arthur Richards became the governor, he adopted most of the Bernard Boudillon’s proposals in the 1946 Richards Constitution and retained the three regions and consolidated them by the introduction of the principles of regionalism. Having setup the three regions, Richards setup regional legislature without introducing federalism. Members of these regions met for the first time at the newly created Legislative Council in Lagos, and that marked the beginning of a political contact between the North and South. The Richard’s Constitution was reviewed in a political conference in 1950 in Ibadan. The conference recommended the adoption of a federal system of government in Nigeria. The Richard’s constitution was replaced by an “improved” federal constitution in 1951 that is in the Macpherson constitution which was drawn up after extensive consultations with Nigerian political leaders. Hence, from 1950 Nigeria was responsible for shaping their political system. Therefore, the Macpherson Constitution laid a social foundation for Nigerian federalism by the introduction of “quasi” federal system of government in the country. In 1953 the issue of federalism topped the agenda in a conference in London from July 30th to August 22nd, 1953. The three major political parties NCNC, NPC and AG were fully represented at the conference. Before this, the Colonial Secretary had in May, 1953 informed the House of Commons that the 1946 Constitution of Nigeria would be received because of the heterogeneous nature of the Nigerian society. Thus, in 1954 Lyttleton Constitution; federalism was officially adopted in Nigeria with the power clearly divided among the central and regional governments. Federal government was vested with “EXCLUSIVE POWER”. The federal and regional government legislated on “CONCURRENT LIST” while “RESIDUAL LIST” was reserved for the regions.
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FEATURES OF A FEDERAL GOVERNMENT In a federal system of government the state is divided into unequal parts or levels of government. Powers are shared from the constitution among the levels of government. For example, in Nigeria power is shared between the federal, the state and the local government. The power of the federal government is EXCLUSIVE which includes: defense, arms, ammunition and explosives, currency coinage and legal tender, customs and exercise duties, bankruptcy and insolvency, immigration, deportation of persons who are not Nigerian citizens, diplomatic consular and trade representation, drugs and poisons, export duties, exchange control, external affairs, extradition, incorporation, regulation and winding up of bodies, corporate other than co-operative societies, local government councils and bodies, corporate established directly by any law enacted by a House of Assembly, insurance, maritime, shipping and navigation, meteorology and mining. Under the 1979 Constitution, there are functions that both federal and state governments can legislate upon and execute; this is known as CONCURRENT POWER. Antiquities and monuments, archives, collection of taxes, electoral laws, electric power, exhibition of cinematograph films, industrial, commercial or agricultural development, scientific and technological research, statistics, university, post-primary education among others, but where a state law is in conflict with that of the federal government on these subject, the federal law will prevail. The power given to the State/Local Government is known as RESIDUAL POWER which include: the consideration and the making of recommendations to state commission on economic planning or any similar body on the economic development of the state, collection of rates, radio and television licenses, establishment and maintenance of cemeteries, burial grounds and homes for the destitute or infirm, licensing of bicycles, trucks, canoes, wheelbarrows and cars, markets, motor parks, registration of all births, deaths and marriages, provision and maintenance of public conveniences and refuse disposal, the provision and maintenance of primary education, the development of agriculture and natural resources, the provision and maintenance of health services, and such other functions as
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may be conferred on a local government council by the House of Assembly of the state. 1. Written/Rigid Constitution. 2. Each level of government has co-ordinate supremacy with regards to their respective functions. 3. States that practice federalism are likely to have multi-ethnic groups (heterogeneous population). 4. There is duplication of ministries or dual public services. 5. It has very large land mass. 6. There must be an umpire (adjudicator), usually a supreme court to resolve inter-governmental disputes over the boundaries of their legal authority. 7. Once a federation is established, the component parts are usually not allowed to secede or separate. PRE-REQUISITES/CONDITIONS FOR FEDERALISM In the establishment or adoption and continuance of a federation, the following factors are desirable. A. DESIRE FOR UNION: - the autonomous states must see the need to unite and establish a common government for their common interest. The union becomes necessary for security, political or economic reasons, that is, it is only through union that they could be protected against foreign encroachment, strength in external relations to develop foreign trade, remove internal trade barriers and internecine warfare and through union that independence could be achieved. B. GEOGRAPHICAL PROXIMITY: - states that are closed by, forms a federation. Geographical nearness or contiguity of states can make small states to form a federation. Federation may not work out if the states that wish to form the federation are not within the same geographical zone. C. DESIRE FOR LOCAL INDEPENDENCE AND AUTONOMY: besides desiring for union, component units also desire to be independent and autonomous, thereby preserving their differences in culture, history, religion and language. Despite their diversities and desire to be under one national government, they still need to retain regional independence. D. EXISTENCE OF HETEROGENEOUS SOCIETY: - federalism is formed in a state with multiple ethnic groups which differ in culture and region. It is expected that the federation will
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protect the interest of all the diverse groups of people thus, the slogan “UNITY IN DIVERSITY”. E. LARGE LAND MASS AND POPULATION: F. DESIRE FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: natural and economic resources are not evenly distributed. Therefore, the need by the federating units to pull resources together for social and economic development of the state necessitated federalism. G. FEAR OF DOMINATION BY MINORITY ETHNIC GROUPS: H. SIMILARITY OF POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS AND HISTORICAL/COLONIAL EXPERIENCE MERITS OF FEDERALISM Federalism has a number of merits which makes it acceptable in many countries. These include: 1. It makes possible the exertion of local autonomy by allowing the component states to develop at their own pace within the limit of their natural and human resources. 2. It recognizes and preserves the diversity of the people by allowing them to still maintain their ways of culture, religion etc despite forming the federation. 3. It minimizes conflicts since there is unity in diversity and resources are pulled together for common purposes. 4. It made governance of a large area and population easier by devolution/decentralizing the process of governance. 5. The tendency of the central government becoming autocratic is checked by the component government. There is constitutional balance of power to avoid the usurpation of powers or function of one by the other. 6. It reduces the fear of domination usually expressed by minorities. DEMERITS OF FEDERALISM Federalism has a number of disadvantages, they are as follows: i. In its attempt to strengthen unity, federalism tends to encourage and entrench disunity through local disputes such as ethnic conflicts, boundary crisis etc.

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Federalism encourages sectional consciousness, such that national consciousness is reduced, individuals become loyal to their states than the nation at large. iii. Federalism operates with a complex administrative structure, which duplicates or multiplies areas on which meager resources may be spent. Thus, it is expensive in both money and manpower. iv. There is always likely to be tension between the state and federal government on a number of policy issues and their implementation. For example, who controls local government, resource control, revenue sharing etc. v. Constitutional amendment is difficult because of rigidity of the constitution; this creates delay in the process of decision making, brings conservation even if it does not auger well for change desired in the policy. vi.Threat to secede may jeopardize the federation as in Nigeria in 1967 (civil war). vii. Discrimination of citizen of “other” state “non-indigenes” has become a common phrase when it comes to employment, education, religion and socio-cultural events. The situation is worsened by the introduction of quota system and federal character.
ii.

CONSTITUTIONALISM, INTEGRATION

IDEOLOGY

AND

NATIONAL

Introduction Constitutionalism cannot be well understood, without first understanding the term constitution. This is because constitution and constitutionalism are two sides of the same coin. The existence of constitution is what gave birth to the concept of constitutionalism. Hence, the discussion of constitution in every modern world states is fundamental, because constitution is the principle which governs the organization of government, its institution, its basic beliefs and the goals and the relationship of the individuals to the state. The word “Constitution” has been defined and expressed in various ways, but the one which can be regarded as being very accurate is the one given by Austine Ranney. He says “a constitution is the whole body of fundamental rules written or
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unwritten, legal and extra legal according to which a particular government operates”. A constitution therefore, contains such laws which are above ordinary laws of a given state. It is the principles which guide and direct the making of ordinary laws. This implies that constitution is the basis upon which a government must rule a given state if such a government wants to rule constitutionally. TYPES OF CONSTITUTION There are basically six (6) types of constitution, these are: 1. Written constitution 2. Unwritten constitution 3. Rigid constitution 4. Flexible constitution 5. Unitary constitution 6. Federal constitution SOURCES OF CONSTITUTION The laws of the constitution are derived from many sources. These sources include the following: 1. Parliamentary Acts or Statutes 2. Conventions 3. Constitutional Conferences 4. Judicial decisions or precedents 5. Charters 6. Customs and norms 7. Writings/commentaries of prominent persons 8. International laws 9. Treaties by civil government 10. Past experiences. CONSTITUTIONALISM Constitutionalism simply refers to a regime of constitutional order, that is, the process of carrying out government business in accordance with laid down fundamental laws of the land; be it written or unwritten. Constitutionalism is thus, a government based on rules rather than caprice and arbitrariness. It implies essentially a constitutional or limited government, a system of restraints on both the rulers and the ruled. A country is said to be practicing constitutionalism when the power of government is
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limited so that human rights such as freedom of speech, free press, due process of law, security of persons and the likes are formally and infact protected from abridgement by either officials or private individuals. Constitutionalism is bounded by the notion of the rule of law, and it embraces the idea that government should be conducted according to the laid down procedures and that officials of the government should be guided by the law in the discharge of their duties and not the discretional or arbitrary use of power. Following this therefore, constitutionalism is the antithesis of totalitarianism, that is, government by unrestrained rulers. Drawing from the above, a constitutional government is one that respects constitutionalism and gives respect to the rule of law and liberty of citizens, there is separation of powers and a system of checks and balances, toleration of opposition, press freedom, fearless and independent judiciary as well as accountability, responsibility, transparency and responsiveness of government to the people. Quite unfortunately, most states in the third world countries are claiming to be constitutional or practicing constitutionalism with outright abuse to the basic principles of the concept. Most of these countries practice constitutionalism in a delusion or myth. Constitutionalism goes beyond an intent or lip service. The operation and pattern of governance in these states are marked by arbitrariness of power by the ruling parties; non observance of the rule of law; intolerance of the opposition; through the studying of political competition and bulldozing of opponents in to utter passivity; there is lack of transparency, responsiveness and responsibility. Political leaders in some of these states behave like tin gods without any regard to the rule of constitutionalism as the case may be. WAYS TO ENSURE CONSTITUTIONALISM IN THE WORLD COUNTRIES 1. Existence of constitution or process of providing one 2. The application of the “rule of law” 3. Independent press and judiciary
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3RD

4.

Application of the theory of separation of power and check and balances of the arms of government.

MEANING, FEATURES AND FUNCTIONS OF IDEOLOGY What is Political Ideology? The word “Ideology” is said to have been coined by the French philosopher, Antoine Destitt de Tracy during the French revolution. It originally meant “science of ideas”. The term has, however, acquired other various meanings over time. For instance, Marxists view it as the ideas which the Capitalist ruling class uses to rationalize and justify the Capitalist system and its privileged position in it. Espousing a similar view, the Socialist, Karl Mannheim conceived ideology as the interest-based and biased ideas of the dominant class in the society. There are also analysts who insist that the term ideology refers to the class that inform despotic and totalitarian rule while liberal democratic systems have philosophy. In a view to perceive ideology solely as the rationalization of the dominant class in society or the belief system that informs authoritarian rule is a limited conception of the term. Historical experience indicates that both the dominant groups and those that seek to displace them may have ideologies. It is also valid to state that every system of government whether democratic or despotic does have an animating ideology. For this reasons therefore, Rodee and his colleagues defined “Ideology” as “the values or principles that those who exercise or seek political power refer to in order to lend legitimacy to their acts”. A more comprehensive definition views ideology as “the belief system that explains and justifies a preferred political order for society, either existing or proposed, and offers a strategy … for its attainment… It includes a set of basic assumptions, both normative and empirical, about the nature and purpose of man and society. FEATURES OF POLITICAL IDEOLOGY As has been noted by Christenson et’al, ideologies manifest some characteristics in different digress in order to distinguish itself from other forms of political ideas, doctrines and
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programmes that influence political conduct. These characteristics are: 1. Ideologies often evolved in situations of acute social strain, when people feel they are neglected or threatened under existing conditions. 2. Ideology contains different levels of explanations and beliefs. It usually includes: sophisticated arguments, simplified principles, slogans and symbols. 3. Ideology is a systematic pattern of thought; each ideology consists of logically related ideas which offer an explanation of present realities and a vision of the future. 4. Ideology includes empirical statements about the extent human condition and normative statements indicating the preferred order of things. 5. Each ideology tends to be exclusive, absolute and universal; every ideology claims to contain exclusively the “true” principles of progress and development and to possess universal applicability. 6. Ideology seeks to motivate action and organization: ideology seeks not only to inform but additionally to motivate commitment and concrete action towards the realization of its vision for society. It also requires an organization through which its principles are to be disseminated and implemented. 7. Ideology personalized, scriptualized and programmatic - This implies that most of the major ideologies have their founding fathers, martyrs and charismatic leaders. Furthermore, each has its sacred documents and programme of action for realizing its agenda for society. Examples of founding fathers or martyrs of political ideology are: Plato (427-347, BC), Aristotle (384-322, BC), St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), John Locke (1632-1704), Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) etc. 8. While am ideology may undergo slow changes in its tenets, it is resistant to fundamental alterations in its world view. FUNCTIONS OF IDEOLOGY Political ideology performs a number of functions for movements and societies for which it provides under structure. These include:
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1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

LEGITIMATION OF LEADERSHIP: - those who occupy positions of authority often justify their positions and actions by reference to certain ideological tenets. By so doing, ideology provides government with legitimacy and helps it to obtain compliance from citizens without constant resort to the threat or actual use of force. For instance, the liberal democratic ideology was used by pro-democracy organizations in Nigeria to challenge continued military rule. PROMOTION OF SOCIAL COHERENCE: - ideology promotes unity among members of the society by specifying the collective goals and designating appropriate mechanisms for actualizing individual and group aspiration. FACILITATES CONFLICT MANAGEMENT: - by specifying the collective purpose and means of attaining them, ideology enables political struggles to become contestations over principles and not personalities. GUIDE TO POLICY CHOICE AND ASSESSMENT OF CONDUCT: - ideology provides the framework for making policy choices by the government and the parameters for assessing the conduct of officials and the performance of government. DYNAMIC FORCE IN LIFE: - every ideology provides an explanation of reality to its adherence and seeks to motivate them to action.

INTEGRATION THEORY Integration is a voluntary process in which independent units overlook all or part of one’s steps in order to achieve one’s aims within a unify framework. Integration takes place in the set of independent and separate organs and units. As a result of amalgamation of several units, one large unit is created which actors voluntarily give up their powers and choose new techniques to mutually and jointly solve their differences and issues. Karl Deutch defines integration as a process in which independent units move towards mutual solidarity and consequently achieve. He further maintained that integration generally, means to make a whole out of parts, that is, to turn from previously separate units into components of a coherent
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system. An integrated political community Deutch posits is a collection of political actors whose interdependence is sufficient to make a substantial difference to the outcome of some of each other relevant decisions. PARTY POLITICS AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Political participation is the involvement of the citizens of a country in the activities concerning politics and government of that country. It is the disposition, ability and willingness of the citizens to take active part in political activities with the implicit or explicit aim of influencing the decisions of government. It includes all those activities of citizens that attempt to influence the structure of government, the selection of government authorities, or the policies of government (Conway, 1991). Political participation covers such aspects of political leaders during elections, supporting existing policies, authorities, or seeking to change any of these and maintaining frequent contact with the government, by constantly submitting memoranda containing suggestions and proposals of how things should be done, by agreeing to serve in certain committees, boards, and work groups, activities of interest groups attending political meetings etc. However, the extent of individuals participation in politics depend on the type of government in operation. For instance, the level of political participation is more in democratic government than that of military junta. WAYS BY WHICH CITIZENS PARTICIPATE IN POLITICS Citizens take part in politics through a number of ways. In Nigeria for instance, it is conventional that during democratic rule, citizen take parts in politics by: i) Becoming member of political parties of their choice, contesting elective positions at the National, State and local levels. ii) Casting votes to elect candidate of one’s choice thereby citizens signaling their feelings and express their choice of leaders, policies and programmes. iii) Holding of public offices elective, appointive or nominative.

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iv) Commenting on political issues and debates through mass media, public for a, writing or conversation with people or phone calls. v) Sponsoring political parties and candidates financially and morally. vi) Attending political rallies, meetings and campaigns. vii) Performing of ad-hoc duties during elections. viii)Protest behavior and interest group activity expressed by way of demonstrations, rebellion or revolution. FACTORS THAT AFFECT POLITICAL PARTICIPATION i) Political socialization. ii) Socio-economic Status (SES) iii) Ethnicity iv) Psychological factors v) Legal or constitutional factor vi) The mass media PURPOSE OR REASONS FOR POLITICAL PARTICIPATION i) It makes it possible for one to be involved in choosing competent individual that will occupy government positions and represent the people effectively. ii) One may take part in politics with hope of being elected or appointed into public office. iii) It serves the purpose of offering an opportunity for a citizen to fulfill his curve duty and obligations. iv) Citizen can influence government policies. v) It serves educational purposes by informing others about their rights and the need for people to defend them. PARTY POLITICS DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA: EVOLUTION AND

PARTY POLITICS IN THE PRE-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD Party politics has been the bedrock of political activities in Nigeria since the colonial period. As far back as the early 1920s, political associations had been in existence in the country. The most powerful group emerged during the period before independence was the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), formed in 1923 by the Nationalist Movement led by Herbert Macaulay. The activities of the party were restricted to
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Lagos. It contested and won elections into the 3 seats of the legislative council. The Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM), which emerged in 1936 was also restricted to Lagos and Ibadan. Since then, various political associations have emerged. These were however, more often than not regionally and ethnically based. The three prominent ones were the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) (which later became the National Council of Nigerian Citizens, following the exit of Cameroons from Nigeria) formed in 1945, The Action Group, (AG) established in 1951, and the Northern Peoples’ Congress (NPC) which also emerged in 1951. While the NCNC had majority of its supporters among the Ibos in the Eastern Part of Nigeria, the AG had a wide spectrum of its followership among the Yorubas in the Western region, and the NPC as its name suggested was dominated by the Hausa-Fulani in the Northern part of the country. The parties could not be differentiated ideologically. Although, these political parties were formed during the colonial period, they all existed till the post-independence era. POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE FIRST REPUBLIC (1960-1966) Since Nigeria’s attainment of independence in 1960, different party systems have emerged. In the first republic there existed a multi-party system. The three prominent parties formed during the pre-independence era i.e. NCNC, AG and the NPC, remained the most formidable parties in the country. Information about the formation of these political parties has shown that, they were base on tribal and ethnic origin. For instance, the NPC has its own origin from Jam’iyar Mutanen Arewa formed by Dr. A. B. Dikko, Mallam Aminu Kano, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, Yahaya Gusau, Sir Ahmadu Bello and was in control of the Northern regional government from 1951 till 1966, while the NCNC that was led by Herbert Macaulay and Dr. Nmandi Azikwe had its origin from Igbo league and remained dominant\ in the Eastern region during the same period. The AG was developed from Egbe Omo Oduduwa Group founded by Chief Awolowo and having power in the Western region 1951 until 1962 when the party broke into factions. A new regional party, the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) formed by the late Chief S. L. Akintola’s faction of the AG during the crisis which engulfed the
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party, controlled the government of the western region from January 1963 until 1966. The federal government was formed by a coalition of the NPC and the NCNC after the 1959 Federal election. The AG was in opposition under the leadership of its national leader, the late Chief Obafemi Awolowo. The NPC remained dominant in the National Government which was formed after the 1964 federal election. Before this election, the NPC/NCNC coalition government had broken leading to the emergence of new alliance as mentioned below. Several smaller parties also emerged, including the Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU) others are the United Middle Belt Congress (UMBC), the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), the Niger-Delta Congress (NDC) and the United National Independent Party (UNIP). Some of these later joined the major parties to form alliances, particularly during the 1964 federal elections. So there was an alliance between the NPC and the NNDP, leading to the emergence of the Nigerian National Alliance (NNA). Similarly, there emerged the United Progressive Grand Alliance (UGPA), an alliance that comprised the NCNC, the AG and the Northern Progressive Front (NPF) which itself was an amalgam of the Northern Element Progressive Union (NEPU) and United Middle Belt Congress (UMBC). POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE SECOND REPUBLIC (19791983) In the second republic the country also practices militarism. The five out of 19 political associations that fulfilled the stipulated conditions and requirements for party formation were registered as political parties in December, 1978. The five political parties beat the same familiar paths with their predecessors. Because they were still identified with particular ethnic and sectional interests in one hand and in the other common interest, presume by translated to be national interests. The (NPN) National Party of Nigeria led by Chief Adisa Akinloye and presidential flag bearer Alhaji Shehu Shagari proves to be Northern establishment. Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) led by Chief Obafemi Awolowo and prominent members, professor Ambros
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Ali, Chief Adekunle Ajasin and M.C.K. Ajuluchukwu, based primarily in the Yoruba-speaking of the west. Alhaji Ibrahim Waziri as founder for Nnamdi Azikwe as presidential candidates and A. Ogunsanya as chairman led the Nigerian Peoples Party (NPP) based solidly in the Igbo speaking east. Many Nigerians of socialist persuasion who did not care to support any of these three establishmentarian parties, rallied to the peoples Redemption Party (PRP) with its founder and party’s presidential candidate in person of Alhaji Aminu Kano. Alhaji Waziri Ibrahim led the Great Nigeria Peoples Party (GNPP). This party emerged as a reminder of intra-emirate political division between the Hausa-speaking majority with its traditional ruling class of mainly Fulani descent on the one hand and the Kanurispeaking people of North-eastern Nigeria on the other. The NPN dominated the politics of the second republic. Apart from its control of the Federal Government, the Party also controlled most of the State governments. The UPN, NPP, GNPP and PRP formed government in other states till 1983 when they were toppled by military coup. THE POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE BOTCHED THIRD REPUBLIC (1989-1993) In the botched 3rd Republic i.e. 1992-1993, the pendulum changed as the country witnessed the emergence of a two-party system, following the sudden cancellation of the political association, formed by the politicians and applied for registration as political parties which only 13 associations were able to meet some of the NEC guidelines. The 13 political association were: Peoples Front of Nigeria (PFN), Liberal Convention (LC), Nigeria National Congress (NNC), Peoples Solidarity Party (PSP), National Union Party (NUP), United Nigeria Democratic Party (UNDP), Patriotic Nigerians Party (PNP), Nigerian Peoples Welfare Party (NPWP), Ideal Peoples Party (IPP), All Nigeria Peoples Party (ANPP), Peoples Patriotic Party (PPP), Republican Party of Nigeria (RPN) and Nigerian Labour Party (NLP). NEC later recommended only six out of the 13 in order to meet AFRC (Armed Forces Ruling Councils) requirements they were: PSP, NNC, PFN, LC, NLP and RPN. The government however did
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not authorize the registration of any of these associations on the excuse that they did not met the laid down criteria and all very closely related to the banned political parties of first and second republics which characterized personality cults and money-bags. On this note, the government on October 7, 1989 declared the formation of SDP and NRC as two “grassroots” parties for the country. Social Democratic Party (SDP) and National Republican Convention (NRC) were formed by president Babangida in order to minimize the political effects of ethno-sectional particularism, religious sectarianism and ideological extremism. But alas these parties appeared to resemble an all-too-familiar political pattern. The Northern emirate sector allied with the southeast versus the southwest and minority sectors in the North. In the conduct of elections during this period, the open ballot system (OBS) was adopted, principally to reduce rigging and electoral malpractice associated with the secret ballot system, which had been in used hitherto. In the 1990 local governments election the SDP secured 232 chairmanship positions. In the gubernatorial elections contested in 1991 NRC won 16 states of the 30 states of the federation while SDP won in 14 states. The SDP won majority of the seats in the National Assembly Election and was presumed the winner of the annulled presidential election of June 12, 1993 contested between Alhaji Bashir Tofa from Kano the presidential candidate of NRC and Chief M. K. O. Abiola the presidential candidates for SDP. THE POLITICAL PARTIES OF THE ILL-FATED FOURTH REPUBLIC (1995-1998) The advert of General Sani Abacha into power following the collapse of the 3rd Republic saw to the re-emergence of multiparty system in the country. Thus, five political parties were registered to take part in his transition programme. The parties were: the United Nigerian Congress Party (UNCP); the Democratic Party of Nigeria (DPN); the Grassroots Democratic Movement (GDM); the Congress for National Convention (CNC) and the national Centre Party of Nigeria (NCPN). These political parties lacked autonomy, as they were government sponsored political parties. Elections were conducted into the local, states
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and national assemblies and were manipulated by the government. However, winners of the states and national assembly elections were yet to be sworn into office at the death of the mentor of the ill-fated republic. In a bid to transmute into a civilian president, Abacha manipulated himself to be adopted as the sole presidential candidate of the five political parties derogatively titled “five fingers of a leprous hand”. Unfortunately or fortunately his manipulations through various means (suppressing all oppositions, coercing candidates, the “two million man march in march” led by Daniel Kalu’s Abacha sponsored Youth Earnestly Asked for Abacha (YEAA) to succeed himself despite wide spread opposition terminated on his sudden death on June 8, 1998 and brought his transition programme to an abrupt end. POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE FOURTH REPUBLIC (19992003) Following the sudden death of Abacha, General Abdulsalami Abubakar, former, Defense Minister during Abacha’s regime took over the mantle of leadership on June 8, 1998. On assuming office the five political parties formed by Abacha were scrapped and the controversial local council, state and national assembly elections held under Abacha’s regime was cancelled. New political parties were established to take part in the transition programme put in place by Abubakar and scheduled to terminate in May 1999. Nine political associations: the Movement for Democracy and Justice (MDJ), the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), All Peoples Party (APP), Alliance for Democracy (AD), Democratic Advance Movement (DAM); National Solidarity Movement (NSM); United Democratic Peoples’ Party (UNDP), Peoples Redemption Party (PRP), United Democratic Party (UDP). However, out of the nine political associations only three were finally registered to contest the state and national assembly elections and the election of gubernatorial and presidential candidates. These were the People Democratic Party (PDP) with Chief Olusegun Obasanjo as Presidential Candidate, the Alliance for Democracy (AD), and the All Peoples’ Party (APP) which
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jointly presented Chief Olu Falae as its presidential candidate to contest under the platform of APP. The PDP won the presidential election and emerged the dominant party in all the elections. It won governorship elections in 21 states of the 36 states of the federation and secured majority seats in the local, state and national assemblies. The APP and AD did not have wide national support. In particular, political events showed the AD to behaving support limited to the southwest where it won six states Oyo, Ogun, Lagos, Ekiti and Osun. Thus the PDP reputed to be the “Largest political party in Africa” had the widest geographical spread followed by the APP while the AD had been seen as a tribal and ethnic party. In the emerging republic (2003-2007) thirty political parties have been registered and vied for various positions at the local, state and national levels, the parties are: People Democratic Party (PDP), All Nigerian People Party (ANPP), Alliance for Democracy (AD), United Nigeria Peoples Party (UNPP), United Democratic Party (UDP), the Green Party of Nigeria (GPN), the Democratic Alternative (DA), Progress Action Congress (PAC), People Salvation Party (PSP), Peoples Redemption Party (PRP), Peoples Mandate Party (PMP), National Action Council (NAC), National Conscience Party (NCP), National Redemption Party (NRP), National Mass Movement of Nigeria (NMMN), New Democrats (ND); New Nigeria Peoples Party (NNPP); Nigeria Advance Party (NAP), Nigeria People Congress (NPC), Party for Social Democracy (PSD), Movement for Democracy and Justice (MJP), Masses Movement of Nigeria (MMN), Liberal Democratic Party of Nigeria (LDPN), Justice Party (JP), Community Party of Nigeria (CPN), Better Nigeria Progressive Party (BNPP), All Peoples Liberation Party (APLP), All Progressive Grand Alliance (APGA) and the Africa Renaissance Party (ARP). Of all the political parties that filled candidates for the presidential elections, the battle line was between the ANPP candidate Muhammadu Buhari and the PDP candidate who won, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo. PDP ruled for consecutive 8 years and in 2007 another election held and once again ushered in PDP candidate as president in person of Alhaji Umar Musa ‘Yar’adua.
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MILITARY INCURSION INTO POLITICS CONCEPT OF MILITARY The concept of military is used to define an institution which is characterized by the legitimate use of force in modern societies. In other words, the military as an institution is synonymous with organized violence and its legitimate use. Military as a term also connotes the various arms of the armed forces, i.e. Navy, Army and Air Force. Historically, the institution of the military is as old as the state. This is in the sense that, the state has authority and legitimacy which is invariably backed by force and it is the institution of the military that provide this backing for the authority and the legitimacy of the state. Historically, since the emergence of the state all societies at one time or the other had standing armies whose primary responsibilities were associated with the protection and defense of the territorial integrity of these societies. It is also used to support foreign policies particularly in conquest or empire building. This indicates that historically, military officers even in ancient times played significant roles in their societies. But even in those times, there were occasion when military officers or commanders felt powerful enough to challenge or overthrow constituted authorities in such a manner that they become significant key players in the politics of their societies. In modern times, the military has become a very professional sophisticated and relatively advanced institution of organized use of violence. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MILITARY IN NIGERIA Nigerian military has a colonial origin, as is generally known as its genesis is related to the history of the creation of armed forces by the British after the Berlin West African Conference in order to facilitate colonial conquest. In 1897, the colonial government created the West African frontier force and was put under the command of Captain Lugard. Lugard’s main responsibilities was to first of all use these force to provide security for British Commercial interest in West African Coastal Regions and particularly in Niger-Delta Region where the royal Niger Company had an effective presence and was also trying to present French Economic Interest.
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Before the formation of the West African Frontier Force, the Royal Niger Commercial Interests were protected by Royal Niger Constabulary Force and Gold Coast Constabulary in the Gold Cost area. All of these were merged in creating West African Frontier. In forming this force, Lugard recruited the Africana’s as the ranks and files and British Volunteers as officers. The total cost of forming these forces was 100,000 pounds. The Africans recruited were organized into companies and were trained with Lokoja as their Headquarters. In December 1898 there were battalions. By 1965, the army Nigerian inherited had been largely Americanized because officers have been trained in Europe and were placed under the total edge of British Commanding Officers and then these officers took over from the departing colonialists what is significant is that, the professional training that these got inculcated alien values and beliefs about professionalism, discipline and esprit de corps. Values which came into direct conflict after independence with the politics of ethnicity, regionalism and religion. The contradiction between these values subsequently underline the factors for understanding the phenomenon of corps and counter corps and prolong military rule in Nigeria. CAUSES OF MILITARY INTERVENTION INTO POLITICS In Nigeria, military rule is a norm rather than the exception, because the country had been ruled by the military for 30 to 49 years of independence. The decades of 1960 was characterized by the disappointments of the promises of independent leaders of the 3rd world countries and the replacement of almost all of the Nationalist government that achieve independence for their countries with the military regimes. Africa attained independence with great enthusiasm, but the enthusiasm was soon short lived when Togo set a dangerous precedence in sub-sahara Africa, which later spread like wild fire to other African countries. By September 14, 1960 starting with the Republic of Zaire to July, 1975, there were no less than thirty three military coups in independent African countries.
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MILITARY RULE is the involvement of the armed forces as a direct and active participant in policy making and governance in a state. It is the unconstitutional takeover of the machinery of administration of the state by members of the armed forces based on martial laws – decrees and edicts. Military comes in to power through coup d’état which could be either bloodless or bloody. The reasons for military intervention in politics are many and varied. Normally, each coup may have its own peculiar reasons. However, some of the common reasons for coup are as follows: 1. INDISCIPLINE AND GENERAL POLITICAL INSTABILITIES BY CIVILIAN POLITICIAN: - civilian politicians created and sustained indiscipline and political instabilities, which threaten the territorial integrity of their country. The cause of political instability in Nigeria has been traced to indiscipline among the political actors. Many politicians of successful republics saw politics as a matter of life and death. Every contestant believed that he must either win an election or heaven will fall. Cases of victimization, intimidation or elimination of political opponents were ripe. Each of the political parties kept thugs who served as bodyguards to top party leaders. During election campaign these thugs use to break up the rules of opposing parties or to beat up opponents. Whenever two opposing groups of thugs meet, a battle is ensured. Electoral malpractices were also common, election officials and the police were bribed to inflate election results in favour of the candidate of the ruling party. To cap it all, there was the tendency to cling tenaciously to power even when the electorates have rejected them. The results of all these negative behaviors were chaos and disorder, which the police were often incapable of handling. The outcome of this was the intervention of the military, which invariably marked the end of another era in order to arrest chaos, to protect the territorial integrity of these countries and in order to provide stability required for political and economic development. 2. CORRUPTION AND NEPOTISM: - some scholars have argued that, military intervened in order to stop corruption by civilian government and introduce discipline and culture adaptability. Loss of integrity and popularity of the civilian political leaders
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3.

4.

5.

due to their incompetency, resulted in corrupt practices, such as bribery, embezzlement of public funds through inflation of contracts, kick back, over invoicing, theft, the diversion of public funds for party activities, mismanagement of the economy, indiscipline, squander mania, insensitivity to people’s needs and aspirations, nepotism, sectionalism etc were common phenomena of which resulted in to political chaos. PHENOMENON OF CONTAGIOUS EFFECT OR BAND WAGON EFFECT: - this theory has it that military intervention is brought about as a result of successful military coups in other countries. The demonstration or contagious effect presupposes that events in one country could influence events in another. In other words, the phenomenon of military intervention in Nigeria particularly in 1960 could be explained by what is called phenomenon of contagious effect; a situation of military intervention in a neighboring country seems to aspire a take power in other country leading to chain reaction. ECONOMIC HARDSHIP: - other scholars attempt to explain military rule in relation to dis-satisfaction about socio-economic condition within the armed forces. And quite often on the basis of disagreement between officers in the armed forces and civilian governors. In other words, these scholars have argued quite a number of military coups can be explained because the armed forces felt ignored or marginalized particularly in the distribution of offices and resources in the society. Furthermore, past experiences have shown that economic hardship could precipitate political instability. When people are pushed to the wall, they may express their discontentment to the authority by creating civil disobedience. Newspapers could champion the move by writing inciting and provocative articles, all of which could provide a fertile ground for staging a coup. POLITICIZATION OF THE MILITARY: - military were politicized through the inspirations they got from either former colonial powers or in particular the USA, in order to remove from power nationalist post independent regimes which were identified by these foreign forces as either too radical, too Marxist or too pro-soviet to be left in power in their countries. Beside foreign forces, the politicians themselves encouraged
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the military in this direction. It is not surprising that the activities of the first republic in Nigeria reminded military to see themselves as the only viable opposition. As such, the first military coup of 15th January, 1966 gave military a taste of political power, haven tasted power, and they found it difficult to relinquish it to politician totally. Even when they handed such power to politicians as we have witnessed in 1979, the military only waited for the least opportunity to strike again as we saw in 1983. For example, we had a top member of the ruling party in the 2nd Republic boasting that there was no alternate to the NPN and the NPN will continue to remain in power willy-nilly except it was overthrown by the military. Another example was an open letter written to General Sani Abacha by Professor Bolaji Akinyemi on 29th October, 1993, urging the General to move the military to return to return to administrative scene of Nigeria. He said in his letter among other things “the solution does not lie in continuing as we are going now … we are drifting …” such statements will not only remind the military of the need to strike at the opportune time but was capable of frustrating other political parties who might in turn, engineer the military to strike under flimsy excuses. By and large, the frequent request and involvement of the army in dealing with crises such as the Tiv riot of 1964, the 1965 crisis of the west, the 1964 general election crisis and census crisis, the Kaduna Kano, Niger-Delta and Jos crisis from 1990s to 2010 are all examples of politicization of the military. REVOLUTIONARY VANGUADISM, INDISCIPLINE AND CLEAVAGE WITHIN THE ARMED FORCES: - a group of scholars have attempted to give a radical interpretation of military intervention. These scholars have argued that some coups have occurred because of certain officers who considered themselves as revolutionary vanguards, as people who were identified with the causes of downtrodden and who then take over power in order to bring about revolutionary transformation of their societies. In the same vein, some people rightly believed that indiscipline within the army was responsible to the incessant military coups and counter coups. President Ibrahim Badamasi
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6.

Babangida once lent some weight to this assertion in his message to the 1990 graduating cadets of the Nigerian Defence Academy (NDA) during their Passing out Parade (POP) in Kaduna on Saturday, 22nd September 1990. In the message read on his behalf by General Sani Abacha, the president said inter alia “from 1966 to date, our involvement in politics has adversely affected our peculiar organizational ethos, professional discipline, dedication and above all esprit de corps …”, that was why we have had cases of relatively junior military officers staging coups against their superiors. Coups were also staged to alter the status quo as in the case of Major Orkar led coup of 22nd April 1990; it might also be to restore the status quo or redress tribal imbalance as in the case of the counter coup of 29th July 1966. All these coups were manifestations of clearages within the armed forces based on ethnicity, religion and class related. REGIMES UNDER MILITARY RULE IN NIGERIA When Britain decided to hand over power to Nigerians, the First Republic was emerged with Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as Prime Minister and Dr. Nnamdi Azikwe as President. The country was divided into three (3) regions being headed by Premiers. The recognition of Tafawa Balewa regime was very unstable right from the foundation. This is because of the Western Nigerian crisis and subsequent treasonable felony charged against Chief Obafemi Awolowo and some members of his political party. Unfortunately, these crises of legitimacy persisted and discontent mainly southern regions, which infiltrated a group of Igbo army officers of the east to struck on 15th January 1966. The military incursion into the political arena in Nigeria started on 15th January 1966 when the first coup d’etats successfully terminated the First Republic. The coup popularly regarded to as the coup of five majors, which was led by Major Kaduna Nzeogwu, was bloody both in planning and execution. The First Republic Prime Minister, the Premiers of the then Northern and Western Regions, the then Federal Minister of Finance and some top ranking military officers mostly of the Northern origin were assassinated in the putsch. The plotters never assumed power; instead Major General Aguiy Ironsi who was then Army
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Commander took over and became the first military Head of State of Nigeria. The government of Ironsi faced the crisis of legitimacy as the North was not happy with the non-trial of the coup plotter of January 1966, with the feeling that the coup was anti-north in execution. Moreover, the Ironsi’s change of federal structure of government with Unitary System was interpreted by the North as calculated attempt to bring the Northern Region under Southern control and Igbo domination. The agony of these three phenomena resulted into massacre of southerners mostly Igbos that were living in the North. On 26th July 1966, the army mutinied. This resulted in the death of Ironsi and numerous other officers of southern origin including Lieutenant Colonel Fajuyi, a Yoruba. A second coup had taken place in less than a year; Lieutenant Colonel Yakubu Gowon middle belter from Angas tribe emerged as the new Head of State. When Gowon assumed power, he restored the federal form of government. He released from custody a number of prominent politicians including Chief Obafemi Awolowo and Chief Anthony Enahoro. He also summoned a conference in Lagos to review the constitution and advice on the nation’s future. There were series of terrorism and violence against Igbos in the north and counter violence against the northerners in the south. In October 1966, Lieutenant Colonel Ojukwu ordered all non-easterners out of the region, as he declared he could no longer be responsible for their safety. In May 1967, the eastern consultative assembly empowered Ojukwu to declare the Republic of Biafra as an independent state. In order to retain the control of the nation and legitimacy of his government, Gowon announced creation of 12 states instead of 4 regions. The twelve state notwithstanding the Biafra continued their match, no taxes were remitted to Lagos from the east, and all the federal assets were seized. By July 1967, the civil war had started. Thus, this marked the height of the crisis of legitimacy of the government as the east strongly refused to support the government of Gowon. The war ended in 1970 without genuine national unity. The Igbos were kept out of the mainstream of Nigerian politics (Agboola, 1990). The regime was terminated in a bloodless coup on 29th July 1975 for what the coupist referred to as his ineptitude and inaction.
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The third coup détats produced General Murtala Ramat Mohammed as the third military Head of State and Commander in Chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces. The new regime of Murtala was welcomed with a great sense of relief by the general Nigerian populace. Murtala had proved that “one crowded hour of glorious life is worth an age without a name” (Sidi H. Ali). He wasted no time in ordering inquiry into corruption and inefficiency. This exercise led to many dismissal and compulsory retirement and confiscation of ill gotten assets. He increased the number of states from 12 to 19. He went further and announced a new date for the return to civilian rule. This was to be 1979. He also faced boldly the issue of demobilization so as to cut Nigerian army to size. His announcement of plan to affect this led to an abortive coup of 13th February 1976 in which he was regrettably assassinated. The fourth coup led by Lieutenant Colonel B. Dimka was unsuccessful in spite of its bloody nature both in planning and execution. On Murtala’s death the mantle of leadership fell on his Chief of Army Staff, General Olusegun Obasanjo, who pledged himself to complete his predecessor’s reforms and return the country to civilian rule as planned. By 1 st October 1979, the country returned to civilian rule after a number of preparatory activities and series of elections ending in the prudential election of 11th August 1979. The Second Republic was a presidential system of government operated in the American model. It was presided by Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN). There was a lot of infighting in all the political parties resulting in acrimony and mistrust. After the first term of four years, the NPN won again to continue with another four-year term. The Second Republic was full of corruption, tribalism etc the ship of the nation was heading towards a rock. The people lost hope and faith in the government. The government in turn lost the support and allegiance of the people. On December 31st 1983, the military once again overthrew the regime of Shagari in a bloodless coup thereby terminating the Second Republic. Major General Muhammad Buhari became the Head of State and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. Buhari came to power
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when the nation was yearning for someone to deliver her from economic, social and political troubles. He quite indeed determined to deal with those problems and those who threatened the nation’s survival. He somehow attempted to beat the same path with Murtala. In due regard, the government had no problem of legitimacy with the people, but with the military as they were divided. In August 27th 1985, General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida who became the next Nigerian President overthrew Buhari in a palace coup. The first Nigerian military leader to assume the title of president; Babangida had assumed power to give Nigerian more liberal and democratic government. Though he ruled by decree in the military government tradition; in September 1986 he announced the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) and put to bed the IMF loan. The application of what brought mixed feeling and reactions from people. In 1986, some military officers were alleged to have planned a coup, which leaked before execution. It was alleged to been the bloodiest coup in Nigeria in terms of intention, planning and execution but it was not successful. Instead, the coup plotters were sentenced to death by execution. This included Major General Mamman Vatsa and nine other military officers. In addition, six law-abiding military officers tragically lost their lives when the presidential aircraft that was dispatched to Makurdi to bring a coup suspect mysteriously crashed near Bukuru, Plateau State. On 22nd April 1990, a group of army officers attempted to overthrow the Babangida’s administration for the second time. Dodan Barrack came under heavy artillery bombardment; although the president was saved by providence, he lost his Aide –De Corp (ADC) and some loyal officers and men of the Armed Forces during an encounter with the mutineers. The total number of people killed in connection with the coup were 69 and 37 suspects were declared wanted. In its attempt to legitimize its leadership, Babangida’s administration announced the return to civil rule with an elaborate time-table. The transition programme that became a mirage as the government had hidden agenda to perpetuate
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itself in power. Haven discovered the “maradonic” movement of Babangida, he stepped aside in a historic manner, without concluding the election of June 12 that was believed to have been won by Alhaji Moshood Abiola. An Interim National government led by Chief Earnest Shonekan was quickly put in place. The government faced a major crisis of legitimacy; in fact, the Lagos High Court declared the government a “bastard” having no legal backing and people supported it, thus, social uprising and complete disorder (Ukaej, 2000). In such a politically rowdy situation, General Sani Abacha staged a coup and declared himself Head of State and Commander in Chief of Armed Forces. In November 1993 military once again returned to governance. In Abacha’s battle to legitimize his government, he loaded his cabinet with experienced and old politicians, christening his regime ä child of necessity”. He enjoyed the support of people who viewed in the shortest possible time Abacha would hand over power to Abiola. As time went on, it became clear the vice versa was the case. In 1994, Chief Abiola decided to declare himself the president of Nigeria. According to Abacha’s government this was a treasonable felony; Abiola was arrested and later died in jail. A lot of water have passed under the bridge of Abacha’s government, few among was the Ogboni Crisis and eventual hanging of Sarowiwa, the attempted coup of December 1995 and the eventual imprisonment of General Olusegun Obasanjo, General Yarádua, Lt. General Oladipodiya the then Deputy to Abacha and many other military officers mostly Yoruba on 21 st December 1997. Abacha’s transition programme was consistently inconsistent, resulting to future loss in credibility and support. He intended to perpetuate in power in the style of what people popularly refer to as “Tazarce”. However, as fate would have Abacha incling to power until his death on 8th June, 1998. On Abacha’s death, the mantle of leadership fell on General Abdulsalami Alhaji Abubakar. This regime released from detention several alleged coup pltters of Abacha’s regime including Obasanjo and Olapodiya. When he came into power the
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country was close to a state anarchy, when some people were strongly calling for secession. There was intense fear that there could be an outbreak of crisis. Abdulsalami had series of meetings with various associations and some pressure groups such as traditional rulers, trade unions, NADECO leaders, Ohanaeze and other professional associations. At the end of the day, the outcome of these meetings was an unfolded time-table for the transition to civil rule that terminated the eleven months old Abdulsalami’s regime on May 29th 1999. Abdulsalami honestly followed the time as it was planned and elections were finally conducted and he handed over the mantle of leadership to the elected democratic government of Chief Olusegun Obasanjo on May 29th, 1999 and sisnce then till now the Nigeria is in the hand of civilian democratic government. ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES GOVERNMENT IN NIGERIA A. OF MILITARY IN

ACHIVEMENTS i. By defeating the Biafrans and suppressing forces of disintegration, the military have succeeded in keeping the Nigeria one. ii. The promulgation of the 1978 land use decree and the establishment of river basin development authorities and agricultural development programmes which facilitated reforms in agriculture and encouraged integrated and large scale farming. iii. The establishment of Aladja and Ajaokuta Steel Complexes and the refinaries at Kaduna, Warri etc which were designed to reduce Nigeria’s dependence on foreign imports. iv. The creation of 36 states and over 700 local governments reduced the fears of ethnic domination prevalent during the first republic and brought government closer to the people. v. Reforms of the local government system aimed at democratizing the local government and making them more efficient and responsive to the needs of the people at the grassroots level. vi. Communication was given priority, good road networks and airports were constructed. Improvements were made in railways and water ways. Port facilities were increased
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considerably; the same applies to telephone and telecommunication system. vii. Large number of institutions from primary, secondary to tertiary education was established in many parts of the country. viii. The NYSC scheme was introduced to bring greater national awareness among the youths. ix. The setting up of the PTF assisted greatly in the reconstruction, rehabilitation and renovation of roads, water work, water ways, education and health facilities, public utilities etc nationwide. x. Relocating the federal capital territory to Abuja. xi. The making of the 1999 constitution which improved the legal framework for the present democratic system of government. xii. The establishment of other government agencies and programmes for developments and awareness e.g. WAI, MAMSER, NOA, ethical revolution, FEAP, Better Life Programmes etc. B. FAILURES i. Despite the series of transition programmes conceived and implemented under various military regimes, military rule has not succeeded in establishing a stable democracy in the country. By frequently intervening, the military did not give the civilian politicians sufficient time to nurse democracy to maturity. ii. Military rule has not succeeded in achieving true national integration and the inculcation of partriotism in Nigerians. iii. The military was not able to manage the huge oil revenue obtained during the oil boom year to efficiently industrialized the country, modernize agriculture, eliminate illiteracy among Nigerians, reduce poverty considerably, provide free medical and educational services to Nigerians and improve the quality of life for the vast majority of Nigerians. iv. The military instituted mass retrenchments and dismissal of about 10,000 public servants for incompetence and corruption without following due process. This great flush out that took place later bred insecurity and corruption in the public service. The purges also led to the loss of esprit de
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corp, the mutuality of corporation which is vital to an effective and efficient working of the public service. v. Military leaders could not change the monocultural nature of the Nigerian economy. Governments continue to rely heavily on the sale of oil for revenue and foreign exchange. vi. The economic measures taken by the military regimes to restore the economy led to devaluation of the naira, heavier debt burden, more inflation, high level of unemployment, higher rate of corruption and embezzlement in the public service, higher rate of crime, decline in industrial growth, near collapse of public education and health care facilities and mass poverty. Nigeria’s status change from a middle income country to one of the 30 poorest nations in the world. vii. Military involvement in politics has deprived the armed forces of its fine officers, and reduced the level of professionalism in the armed forces; soldiers are poorly housed. Furthermore, the military did not succeed in reducing its independence on imported weapons and equipments.

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