to prints

Published on November 2016 | Categories: Documents | Downloads: 40 | Comments: 0 | Views: 259
of 32
Download PDF   Embed   Report

Comments

Content

Chapter 1 Transport
1. Circulatory system
- distribute oxygen & nutrient
- remove waste product
- protect body from disease

Cardiovascular system
Leucocytes

platelets

- colourless, irregular
shape

- lifespan 7 days
- irregular shape

- large TSA/V - rapid diffusion of
oxygen

- produce in bone marrow
& lymph nodes

- produce in
bone marrow

- biconcave dics shape & flexible

- able to squeeze throught
blood capillaries pores

- destory by
liver & spleen

erythrocytes
- lifespan 120 days
- produce in bone marrow

-consist heamoglobin, combine with
oxygen to form oxyheamoglobin &
carbon dioxide to form
carbaminoheamoglobin

Granulocytes

Agranulocytes

- granulor

- non-agranular cytoplasm

Basophils

Eosinophils

Neutrophils

Lymphocytes

Monocytes

- S-shape nucleus

- double-lobed nucleus

- 3-5 lobed nucleus

- rounded nucleus

-bean-shaped nuclues

- cure inflammation
& allergic reaction

- cure inflammation &
allergic reaction

- phagcytosis of bacteria

- produce antibodies

- phagocytosis of
bacteria

Plasma
- contain salts, digested food, vitamin, proteins (albumin- osmotic balance), enzyme & hormones
- Haemolymph (invertebrates) – transport water & insoluble salts through haemocytes
Hearts
- contract to pumps blood & relax to receive blood
1. Oxygenated blood enter left atrium via pulmonary veins, Deoxygenated blood enter right atrium via
vena cava. Both atria contract & push blood to ventricles through tricuspid (right) & bicuspid (left) valve.
2. Ventricles contract & pump oxygenated blood to aorta & deoxygenated blood to pulmonary arteries
blood through semi-lunar valve
Left ventricle thicker than right – to pump blood the every body parts
Valve – to prevent backflow of blood & to allow blood flow in a direction
Pressure gradient (produce when)
- right ventricle pumps blood to lungs while left ventricle pumps to the aorta
- Contraction of skeletal muscle cause vein to contract
Semilunar valves in vein - ( return blood to heart & prevent backflow of blood)
Blood pressure
A force of blood exerted on the wall of arteries
-Systolic pressure (120 mmHg) when ventricles contract
- Diastolic pressure (80 mmHg) when ventricle relax

Negative Feedback mechanism of blood pressure
Person in shock
Blood volume increase
Baroreceptor less stimulated
– increase rate of impulses to medulla oblongata
that send impulses to effector
1. Cardiac muscle & smooth muscle relax
2. Blood flow resistance decrease
3. Heart beat rate decrease
4. Vasodilation occurs ( widening of blood vessel)
Blood pressure decrease

Person injured or do vigorous exercise
Blood volume decrease
Baroreceptor stimulated
- decrease rate of impulses to medulla oblongata that
send impulses to effector
1. Cardiac muscle & smooth muscle contract
2. Blood flow resistance increase
3. Heart beat rate increase
4. Vasoconstriction occurs (narrowing of blood vessel)
Blood pressure increase

Insects (open circulatory system)
Vessels
site of chemical exchange
Haemocoel
consist haemolymph
Heart (1 or more)
pump heamolymph into vessel
Ostia
open when heart relax to allow heamolymph to flow through
(consist valve)
close when heart contract
Fish ( single circuit closed circulatory system)
1. Blood leave the ventricle to gill capillaries, gaseous exchange occur, then flow into a vessel to
systemic capillaries. Carbon dioxide diffuse out & oxygen diffuse in to blood then return to atrium
through vein
Amphibians (double circuit closed circulatory system)
1. Oxygenated blood from lung& skin enter left atrium, Deoxygenated blood from body enter right
atrium. Both atria contract & push blood to a ventricle.
2. Ventricles contract & pump mixed blood to pulmocutaneous circulation (lung & skin) & systemic
circulation (body).
Mammal & Bird (double circuit closed circulatory system)
1. Oxygenated blood from lungs enter left atrium, Deoxygenated blood from body enter right atrium.
Both atria contract & push blood to ventricles, then contract & pump oxygenated blood to systemic
circulation via aorta & deoxygenated blood to pulmonary circulation via pulmonary arteries
Blood does not mix- increase blood pressure & speed up delivery of oxygen to body.
Mechanism of blood clotting
1. When blood vessel damaged, platelets exposed to collegen fibres & release clotting factors that cause
the platelet sticky & release thromboplastin to convert prothrombin to thrombin with calcium & vitamin
K. Thrombin act as enzyme to convert fibrinogen to fibrin that form sticky net of fibres & traps red blood
cell.
Heparin – chemical that inhibits clot formation

Importance
1. Prevent excessive blood loss
2. Prevent microorganism entering
3. Maintain blood pressure & circulation of blood in a closed circulatory system
Haemophilia
- Lack of clotting factor that cause excessive bleeding
- caused vy recessive gene in X chromosome
Thrombosis
- Blood clot (thrombus)within blood vessel
- lead to stroke( in brain) & heat attack (in heart), Deep vein thrombosis (in legs )
Lymphatic system (single way & closed system)
- to fight against disease
- to produce electrolyte balance
- to transport lipid from digestive system
1. Lymph / Interstitial fluid
- squeezed from blood plasma into intercellular spaces by high pressure of arterial end
- consists water, dissolved nutrient & gases, hormones, proteins & waste product
- flowing supported by interstinal movements, single-way valves, contraction of skeletal muscle & blood
pressure change during respiration .
Lymph form intercellular space flow into lymphatic capillaries which merge into lymphatic vessel
(lymphatics), then into right lymphatic duct to right subclavian vein & thoracic duct to left subclavian
vein.
2. Lymph nodes
- In neck, groin & abdomen
Functions:
1. produce & store lymphocytes
2. Protect body against infection (swollen when infected)
3. Oedema ( excessive accumulation of lymph in intercellular space)
-cause by blocking of lymphatic vessel
Blood Plasma
- in blood vessel
- contain most protein
- Red & white blood cell & platelets
- Low lipid content

Interstitial fluid
- in intercellular spaces
- contain less protein
- leucocytes
- Low lipid content

Lymph
- in blood vessel
- contain more protein
- leucocytes
- high lipid content

First line
of
defence

- non-specific
-prevent
pathogen
entering the
body

Second
line of
defence

- non-specific
- phagocytes
(neutrophil &
monocyte)
- specific
defence

Third
line of
defence

Mucous membrane
- traps pathogen in air
- secretes mucus with lysozyme to kill pathogen
Skin (Tough)
- secrete sebum to form protective film & inhibits pathogen growth
- sweat contain lysozyme to kill pathogen
Hydrochloride acid in stomach - to kill pathogen
Tears & saliva contain lysozyme to prevent pathogen invasion
Phagocyte attracted to chemical released by pathogen, then engulf & ingest it
with pseudopodia. Lysosome release lysozyme to digest pathogen & the
digested product is release from the cell.
Antigens
- a protein that immune system recognize as foreign
- stimulate specific lymphocytes to produce antibody (destroy by lysozyme)
- binding site highly specific
Lysis – lysin bind & disintegrate pathogen
Opsonisation
– opsonin bind pathogen & act as marker for phagocyte to recognized & engulf it
Agglutination – agglutinin bind & clump pathogen so it cannot reproduce &
capture by phagocytes easily
Neutralisation
– antitoxins neutralizes toxin molecule & prevent from attaching to body cell

Active Immunity (permenant)

Passive Immunity (temporary)

individual produce own antibodies
Natural acquired Artificial acquired
- when individual - injection of vaccine
recovered from a (weakened pathogen)
disease
- through immunization &
vaccination
- rubella, mumps & poliomyelitis
- Delay immunity
- Before infection
- produce antibodies
- way of treatment
- second injection to fight disease

individual obtain ready- make antibodies
Natural acquired
Artificial acquired
- through breastfeeding - injection of antiserum
(colostrum) & mother
( laboratory animal
anitibodies cross
antibodies)
placenta to foetus
- Tetanus, rabies,
hepatitis & snake bites
- Immediate immunity
- After or have a high risk of infection
- does not produce antibodies
- way of prevention
- second injection to boost antibodies production

AIDS
- cause by HIV virus that destroy lymphocytes
- bind, insert its viral DNA, so that host cell produce new viruses that released into bloodstream
- cause immunity weak & vulnerable to disease
- transmitted by sexual intercourse, blood products, shared syringe needles, pregnancy & breastfeeding

Cardiovascular disease
1. cause by dysfunctional heart condition & blood vessel
2. Atherosclerosis
- fatty plaque( cholesterol) form & harden on arteries inner surface.
- cause arteries not elastic & narrow
- Heart attack when coronary arteries clot & stroke when cerebal arteries clot
Proper Nutrition
Healthy lifestyle
- Avoids high fats & cholesterol food
- Don’t smoke ( improve heart functioning &
- eat more soluble-fibre food (lower cholesterol level) lower cholesterol level
- eat more furit & vegetable( promote healthy blood
- Often exercise
circulation)
- Maintain balance diet
Xylem

Phloem

Translocation
(Importance)
Transpiration

(Importance)

- transport water & dissolved mineral salts (continuous from root to leaves)
1. ligninfied wall- support plant, increase water adhesion
2. perforated pits – allow water & mineral salts pass sideways
3. Tracheids – smaller & longer vessels than xylem
- transport organic substances
1. Sieve tubes - transport organic substances through translocation
2. Companion cells – provide nutrient & ATP to sieve tube
3. Parenchyma - store food substances
Transport of organic substances in phloem ( to growing & storage region)
- ensure plant survival
- To store & convert sucrose into other sugar
Water vapour lost through in plant. (Site: Stomata, Cuticle & Lenticels)
1. Sun heat up water & evaporate into spaces in between mesophyll cell & diffuse out
through stomata to less saturated atmosphere air
2. Osmosis between mesophyll cell cause water flow from xylem to outermost cells
- keep plant cool
- prevent plant witting by maintaining cell turgidity
- help to supply water
- help to transport & absorb water & mineral salts

Monocotyledons stem
Dicotyledons stem
Parenchyma store food substances Epidermis maintain plant shape & secrete waterproof cuticle
Monocotyledons root
Dicotyledons root
Parenchyma store food substances Sclerenchyma in pericycle support the root
Potometer – measure water uptake rate
Bubble photometer- measure water loss during transpiration
Factors affect transpiration rate
temperature
high - increase water evaporation rate
light intensity
high- stimulate stomata opening & photosynthesis rate
relative humidity
low - increase water evaporation rate
(difference of water concentration between sub-atomal spaces & atmosphere)
air movement
fast- remove water vapours fast

Guttation
Root pressure
Cohesion
Adhesion

- Root pressure push water out of hydathodes
- in humid morning ( air too saturated for water droplets to evaporate from the leave )
- a force pushing water from root to stem with ATP used
attraction force between same (water) molecule
attraction force between different molecule

Transport mechanism
First
1. Root hairs absorb water through osmosis as it is
hypertonic to soil water.
2. Water dilute cell sap & become hypotonic.
3. Water then passes from cell to endodermis
1. Endodermis secrete mineral ions into xylem &
create water potential gradient & root pressure to
flow water through osmosis

Second
1. Water evaporate during transpiration create
transpirational pull from root
2. Forces of cohesion & adhesion of water help
water draw up to leave
1. Guard cell turgid when stomata open & flaccid
when stomata close, which response to light
intensity & carbon dioxide level.

Guard cell
- control transpiration rate & regulate gaseous exchange
Opening of stomata
Closing of stomata
Guard cell potassium ions & glucose level increase, Guard cell potassium ions & glucose level decrease,
became hypotonic & water potential decrease,
became hypertonic & water potential increase,
water move in through osmosis, became turgid.
water move out through osmosis, became flaccid.

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Stimulus : Change that trigger body responses
Response : Reaction towards a stimulus
Coordination : regulation of body activities
Internal Stimuli : Blood osmotic pressure & glucose level
External Stimuli : Light, temperature, touch, pressure & sound
Chapter 2. Pathway of nerve transmission
Stimulus is detected by receptors & send impulses along afferent neurons to integrating centre for
analysis, then send impulses along efferent pathway to effector for response.
Negative feedback – corrective mechanism in opposite direction of environment change
Nervous system

Central Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

- proses, analyse & store
information & start response

- relay signals between CNS & body parts

Autonomic nervous System

Somatic Nervous System

Brain

Spinal Cord

- control involuntary action

- control voluntary action

- Primary
integration
organ

- control
reflex action

- has motor parts (efferent
neurons & effector)

- has sensory & moror parts

- connect
brain & PNS
- conduct
impulses to
& from the
brain

Human Brain
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Medulla Oblongata
Spinal Cord
Central Canal
Grey Matter
White Matter
Ventral root
Dorsal root
Spinal nerve

Sympathetic System

Parasympathetic System

- prepare for activity

- prepare for relazation

( Spinal Nerve)

( 12 Carnial & 31 Spinal
Nerve)

- control voluntary action, memory & intelligence ( action, hearing & tasting)
- left side control right body movement & vise-versa
- control body balance & movement
- give awareness of touch, pain & temperature (sense)
- control homeostasis, blood pressure, body temperature, sleep & thirst
- Produce hormones & control growth, reproduction & osmoregulation
- control involuntary action, act as reflex centre

- contains cerebrospinal fluid ( supply nutrient & act as shock absorber)
- maintain electrolyte balance in CNS
- contain neurons & dendrites
- contains myelin-coated axons of neurons that surrounds grey matter
- contain efferent neurons & conduct impulses from spinal cord to effector
- contain afferent neurons & conduct impulses from receptor to spinal cord
- Ganglion ( place afferent neurons clustered)
- contain ventral & dorsal roots

2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Neurons
Dendron / Dendrites

- conduct impulses
- provide large surface area to receive information
- integrate electrical signals & coordinate metabolic activities
- transmits impulses from cell body to synaptic terminal
- transmits impulses from neurons to effector or other neurons
- speed up the impulses transmission & protect axons

Cell body
Axon
Synaptic terminal
Myelin sheath

Impulses
Cell Body
Location

Afferent neurons
- from receptor to CNS
- Dorsal root ganglion
- whole body

Interneurons
- from afferent to efferent neurons
- Grey matter
- CNS ( not myelinated)

Efferent neurons
-from CNS to effector
- Grey matter
- whole body

Transmission of Information across synapses
Impulses form presynaptic neurons stimulate synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter into
synaptic cleft/ synapse & diffuse to dendrite of post-synaptic neurons that excites to produce impulses
-Converts electrical > chemical > electrical Signal, contain mitochondria (generate energy for transmission)

Function of synapse
1. control & integrate impulses
2. ensure impulses transmission in one direction

Characteristic
CNS
Reaction
Awareness
Effector

Voluntary action
under control of will
Cerebral cortex of cerebrum
Fast or Slow
aware action is taken
Skeletal muscles

Involuntary action
Not under control of will
Medulla Oblongata & hypothalamus
Fast
unaware action is taken
Skeletal muscles & Gland

Reflexes
- involuntary response to stimulus (rapid & automatic)
Importance :
1. Protect body from danger
2. Coordinate muscular function
3. Act as automatic response
4. Provide response before feeling pain
Reflex Arc
- nerve pathway that
produce reflex action

Knee-jerk reflex / Patella reflex
- Knee tendon is tapped by rubber
hammer. Quadriceps muscle stretched &
send impulses along afferent neurons to
spinal cord & back to efferent neurons to
then cause the leg jerk forward.

Burns cause receptors to send impulses along afferent neurons to spinal cord
for analysis, then relayed to interneurons & sent along efferent neurons to
effector. Cause triceps relax & biceps contracts to pull hand away.

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Parkinson’s Disease
1. Accelerating disorder of CNS due to low level of dopamine (neurotransmitter)
Alzheimer’s Disease
1. Neurological disorder that cause increasing loss of memory ( forgetful, confused, can’t read & write )

controls
signals
conveyed via
reaction
effect of action

Nervous system
voluntary & involuntary action
electrical signal
neurons
fast
reversible

Endocrine system
involuntary action
chemical signal
bloodstream
slow
irreversible

Transmission of Hormones
Stimulus affects endocrine secretes hormones into bloodstream to target organ, then bring response.
Hormones : chemical produced that conveyed thought out organism & produce response in target cell
Chapter 3
Growth : irreversible process with increase in mass, sixe & number of cells
Development: Change in shape, function & complexity
Growth Stages
Cell Division
2n, n : number of mitosis
Cell enlargement
Cell elongation : vacuolation in plants ( intake water to increase size & volume)
assimilation in animal ( intake of amino acid)
Cell differentiation Differs from each other with specific function
Dry mass: water content removed ( heating above 100oC until the mass is constant)
Growth curve in insects (egg > instar > Imago)
- discontinuous growth (ecdysis during instar)
- old exoskeleton shed, new exoskeleton grows meanwhile enlarge body volume. When exoskeleton
hardens, ecdysis stop
Primary growth in plants ( cell elongation of root & shoot)
1. Meristem cell undergoes mitosis (cell division)
- replace worn out root cap (root)
- give rise to leaf primordial which grow into leaves (shoot)
2. Cell elongation through vacuolation
3. Cell differentiation to give rises to phloem, xylem, epidermis & sclerenchyma

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Secondary growth ( increase in diameter of plant)
1. lateral meristems cell
( vascular cambium )
- divide to form cambial cells that link together into cambium rings,
- differentiate into secondary phloem (from outside cambium ring) & xylem (from inside cambium ring)
- causes primary phloem pushed outwards & xylem pushed inwards, & form vascular tissue.
(cork cambium)
- divide to form secondary cortex (inside cork cambium) & cork (outside cork cambium )

Plants
Sixe
Vascular Cambium
cork cambium
Stem
Lifespan

Undergoes secondary growth
Dicotyledons
large
present
present
woody
Long

Does not undergoes secondary growth
Monocotyledons
small
absent
absent
non-woody
short

Annual growth ring - ( growth of tree in 1 year)
Importance of Primary Growth
1. To achieve maximum length
2. To obtain sunlight
3. Form xylem (carries water & minerals)
4. Form phloem (carries organic substances)
5. Support plant with lignified xylem

Importance of Secondary Growth
1. Increase plant diameter
2. Support & Strengthen the plant
3. Produce more vascular tissue
4. Thick bark decrease water evaporation
5. Increase success of seed propagation

Economic Importance of Secondary Growth
1. Produce valuable timber
2. Produce large quantities of fruits
3. Produce ornamental plants
4. High commercial value
5. Supply material for buildings & furniture processing
Chapter 5
Inheritance
trait transmission from 1 generation to another generation
Gene
inheritance unit at a locus in chromosome.
- determine individual characteristic
Allele
Form of gene
Trait
a characteristic varies of others
Genotype
Genetic composition of organism
Phenotype
outward appearance of organism
Homozygote
Organism with 2 same allele
Heterozygote
Organism with 2 difference allele
Monohybrid Inheritance
Inheritance of single character
Dihybrid Inheritance
Inheritance of 2 characteristic, control by different gene
Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Mendel’s experiment (cross-breeding of dwarf & tall plant )
1. Remove stamens to prevent self-fertilization
2. Transfer pollen to stigma of another flower of contrasting trait
3. Seeds produced are collected, counted & grown.
4. First filial generation traits are recorded
5. Crossed filial generation plants
6. Seeds produced are collected, counted & grown.
7. Second filial generation traits are recorded

Result : 3 Tall ( TT & 2Tt) & 1 Short (tt)
All F1 Generation : genotype (Tt)
Reason Mendel choose pure-breeding plants
- can self fe rtilise
- have same trait as parent plant
- trait can pass down from generation to
generation

Law of Segregation
-Allele in pairs determine organism characteristic. One pair of allele can be carried in a single gamete
Importance
1. Meiosis produce gametes with one of each pair of genes
2. Meiosis I
- cross over occur to form chiasmata ( gene are swapped)
- homologous chromosome pair separated
3. Meiosis II
- chromatids separated
- gamete with unique individual chromosomes formed
Law of Independent Assortment
- Allele pair may combined with any other pair ( 4 possible allele combinations)
Blood groups
Blood Group

Antigen on RBC surface

Antibodies in serum

Donate blood to

Receive blood from

O
A
B
AB

A
B
A&B

anti-A & anti-B
anti-B
anti-A
-

A, AB, B & O
A & AB
B & AB
AB

O
A&O
B&O
A, B, AB & O

Rhesus system
1. When rhesus negative (Rh-) is exposed to rhesus positive (Rh+), the body produce antibodies in
plasma, and cause hemolysis
2. Rh- can receive Rh- only , but Rh+ can receive Rh+ & Rh- blood
3. Blood pass from foetus (Rh+) to mother(Rh-)due to leaky placenta, causes mother to produce
antibodies that harm the foetus . Prevented by injecting drug that inhibits the antibodies production.
Human karyotypes
- human have 22 pairs identical autosome & a pair of sex chromosome

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Sex-linked inheritance
ainheritance genes on sex chromosomes
Haemophilia
Lack of ability to clot, due to deficiency of clotting factor
Colour-blindness cannot distinguish colours
Thalassemia
Abnormal & lack of haemoglobin due to defective gene.
-Treated by blood transfusion & bone marrow transplant

Caused recessive allele
of chromosome X
Major (carrier), Minor
(have anaemia )

DNA

Long
polynucleotide condensation
chain

Nucleotides subunits of

- twisted / double helix structure
Phosphate
- thymine(T) paired adenine (A) by 2H bond
group
- guanine(G) paired cytosine (C) by 3H bond
- contain instructions for making protein (determine trait)

Pentose
sugar

Importance of genetics
1. Improve human lives
2. Improve quality of crops
3. Control genetic codes to create new organism
4. Identify the mechanism of genetic disease

Nitrogenous
base

Function of DNA fingerprinting
1. To identify criminal
2. To test potential organ donors
3. To study relationship among
human population
4. To confirm animal pedigrees

DNA fingerprinting
1. Distinguish individual of same species using DNA
(through different number of microsatellites at a locus)
2. 5% code for protein, 95% non-coding( microsatellites)
Human Genome Project ( study to map all human genes)
1. Determine gene that cause disease
2. Manufacture human protein
3. Treat common disease

DNA

Adult stem cell
- activated by injury or infection
Embryonic stem cell
- found at blastocyst
- develop into all tissues expect gamete

Potential Stem cell research
Stem cell
- undifferentiated cell that divide & develop into specific functional cell
Function:
1. generate new cell,
2. treat disease by replacing cell,
3. develop ways to manipulate gene

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Genetic Engineering
- modification of organism characteristic by manipulating DNA
a) Gene therapy
Insertion of genes to treat hereditary disease ( sickle cell anaemia )
1. Normal gene inserted into genome to replace non-functional cell
2. Homologous recombination occurs (normal swapped abnormal gene) & return normal gene function\
b) Genetically modified organism
- organism with genetic codes altered
i) genetically modified food
- improve crop with pest resistance & herbicide tolerance
- Insulin extracted from animal pancreas to treat diabetic
Manufacture of insulin
1. Plasmid is removed from bacteria & cut with restriction enzyme
2. mRNA extracted from pancreatic cell & reverse transcript to cDNA
3. cDNA is inserted into plasmid & introduced to plasmid free-bacteria
4. Bacteria divide during fermentation & human insulin is separated & purified.
Advantage
1. Produce more & different types of product
2. Develops new crop & livestock
3. Overcome food shortage
4. Food available at cheaper cost
5. Cope with environment problem

1. Safety is not proven
2. affect natural ecology
3. Natural equilibrium disturbed
4. Side-effect undetermined

Chapter 6 Variation
Difference in traits between individuals of the same species
Continuous variation
Discontinuous variation
- variation with no distinct categories that can be
-variation with distinct categories that can be
replaced
replaced
- characteristic different from others
- characteristic distinct & invariable from others
- quantitative in nature
- qualitative in nature
- influenced by environment
- not influenced by environment
- caused by genetic & environment factors
- caused by genetic factors
- 2 or more gene control a character
- 1 gene control 1 character
-Cannot be inherited
- can be inherited
- normal distribution graph
- discrete distribution graph
- height, weight & skin colour
- blood group, fingerprint & ability to roll tongue
Variation in Sexual Reproduction
1. Crossing over
- exchange of genes between homologous chromosome during prophase I
- form chiasmata (mix of paternal & maternal allele)
Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

2. Independent of assortment
-Chromosomes can line up in any orientation

Importance of variation
1. Increase survival & success rate in reproduction
2. Resistant to pests & diseases
3. Withstand severe weather

3. Random fertilization
- numerous male gametes fuse with any female gamete to form a unique zygote
Mutation in Genetic Variation
- spontaneous change of DNA
- irreversible & permanent
a) Mutagens
Physical mutagens
1. radiation ionises DNA bases & do not form complementary
base pairs. (Ultraviolet, gamma & X-rays)

Chemical mutagens
Damage DNA
(Asbestos, Benzene & Pesticides)

b) Chromosomal mutation
- sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis (anaphase)& form monosomy & trisomy gametes
Deletion
Chromosome segment breaks off & the 2 ends rejoins
Duplication
Chromosome segment copied twice
Inversion
Chromosome segment breaks off & & reversed middle piece is reinserted
Translocation
Chromosome breaks off & attached to another chromosome
1. Non-disjunction – chromosome fail to separate during meiosis
Down’s Syndrome
(Trisomy 21)

Turner’s Syndrome
(Monosomy)
Klinefelter’s
Syndrome (Trisomy)

Uneven parental chromosome division where sister chromatids fail to separate
- Extra copy of chromosome at chromosome 21
- Cause by increasing age of mother of radiation
- Mental retardation, short neck & slanted eyes
- female with 1 X chromosome, low level of sex hormones
- Men with extra X chromosome
- low level of testosterone & undevelop sex organs

c) Gene Mutation ( cause no protein produced)
Base addition
extra nucleotide sequence is added into chain
Base deletion
a segment of nucleotide chain is removed
Base duplication
a segment of nucleotide chain is repeated
Base inversion
nucleotide sequence is separated & rejoins in an inverted manner
Base substitution a segment of nucleotide chain is replaced another (Sickle-cell anaemia)
Diease
Sickle-cell Mutation of gene that synthesize heamoglobin.
anaemia Produce abnormal, sickling shape haemoglobin which is not efficient in transporting oxygen
Albinism Mutation of gene that control skin colour.
Unable to produce enzyme for production of melanin pigment, cause white / pink skin.

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Form 4
Chapter 1
Homeostasis (maintenance of internal environment for cells function optimally)
1. Regulating the internal environment
- Physical factors : temperature, blood pressure, osmotic pressure
- Chemical factors: salt content, sugar content, pH value
Regulation of body temperature:
1. Nervous system, circulatory system, muscular system, endocrine system
When Temperature raise, skin detect & send impulses to hypothalamus that send impulses to effectors
1. Blood vessel dilate to increase heat loss
2. Sweat gland secrete more sweat to cool body through evaporation
3. Hair erector muscle relax to reduce insulation (hair flatten)
4. Thyroid gland less stimulated (lower metabolic rate )
Regulation of blood glucose level (endocrine, circulatory & digestive system)
1. When glucose level high, pancreas secrete insulin & send to liver through circulatory system
2. insulin converts glucose into glycogen & blood glucose level decrease
3. When glucose level low, pancreas secrete glucagon & send to liver through circulatory system
4. Glucagon converts glycogen into glucose & blood glucose level increase
Regulation of blood pH level ( excretory, circulatory & respiratory system)
1. Kidney regulate hydrogen ions, hydroxyl ions & hydrogen carbonate ions content
Amoeba sp
Paramecium sp
Irregular shape
Fixed shape
one nucleus
two nucleus (mirco- & marco-)
Locomotion & Feeding using pseudopodium
Locomotion & Feeding using cilia
( cytoplasmic projection )
( rotate & spin along its axis)
Using pseudopodium engulf & enclose foods
The beating of cilia create water current that
through phagocytosis. Food package in food
carries food into cytostome. Form food vacuole &
vacuole & digested by lysozyme. Nutrient is
digested by hydrolytic enzyme. Waste is
absorbed & waste is egested
eliminated through anal pore
Binary Fission & Spore Formation ( Unfavorable)
Binary Fission & Conjugation ( Sexual)
Osmoregulation. Water diffuse in through osmosis, Water diffuse in through osmosis, contractile
vacuole expand, diffuse out when vacuole is full.
vacuole expand, & expel water when reached
Hence the vacuole shrink
plasma membrane by contraction
- Both live in pond & lake, eat algae & bacteria
- Both respiration through simple diffusion across plasma membrane

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Chapter 6 Type of Nutrition
food undergoes six major processes:
1. Ingestion : process of eating
2. Propulsion : passing of food down the GI tract swallowing : voluntary peristalsis : reflex, involuntary,
alternating contractions of muscles in body walls of GI organs
3. Mechanical digestion
prepares food for chemical digestion includes chewing, mixing with enzyme 4. Chemical digestion
Process which food is broken down to basic food blocks by enzymes in digestive juices
5. Absorption : passage of food particles into the blood-lymph
6. Defecation : elimination of indigestible food substances
BALANCE DIET
- diet contains the right amounts of different classes foods required by body
1. Carbohydrates (provide energy)
2. Proteins (Build new tissues / important in growth and repairing damaged tissues)
3. Fats (provide energy / storage of extra foods)
4. Water (act as medium for biochemical reaction / transportation of substances)
5. Vitamins (prevent diseases / efficient metabolism / important for normal growth)
6. Minerals (important for normal growth and development of teeth, bones and muscles)
7. Roughage / Dietary fiber (prevent constipation / stimulate peristalsis)
FACTORS EFFECTING DAILY ENERGY REQUIREMENT
Bomb calorimeter –calculate the energy value of various types of food samples.
The energy value/ calorific value - quantify of heat produced when one gram of food is completely oxidised.
Body size

- bigger body build, high metabolic rate, more body cells, more energy used

Gender
Age
Occupation
Climate

Male need more energy for body development- high metabolic rate, more active
Children need more energy for growth- high metabolic rate, more active
Person does heavy work needs more energy- more active
Colder place need more energy to maintain body tempPregnant mother need more energy to supply energy to foetus - high metabolic rate
Breast-feeding mother need more energy to produce milk
Low level of thyroxine- low metabolic rate, High level of thyroxine- high metabolic rate

Carbohydrates: (rice, noodles, potatoes)
 Source of energy for motion and growth
 Used to form supporting structures in plants (cell
wall)
 Effective methods for food storage
(starch/glycogen)
 Part of nucleus (DNA)
 Lack of it : become very weak

Proteins : (meat, fish, cheese, eggs)
 Make new cells for growing
 Repair & Replace damaged cells/tissues
 Make enzymes, antibodies & hormones
 Lack of it: kwashiorkor, very weak, muscle
are poorly developed

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Fat : ( oils, butter, milk, nuts)
 Supply energy
 Part of cell membrane
 Help absorb certain vitamins (ADEK)
 Too much: excess fat stored under the skin (obese)
 Too little: vitamins won’t be absorbed, cell
membrane won’t be formed normally
Vitamins:
 Organic compound
 Can be reused, small amount needed
 As Biological catalyst
i) Fat soluble vitamins, A,D,E,K
 Stored in the body fat
 No need to consume everyday (stored in the body)
ii) Water soluble vitamins, C and B
 Dissolved easily in water, easily lost
 Cannot be stored in the body, need to be consumed
everyday.
 Vitamin A
Function:
- Healthy Epithelial tissue growth,
- Formation of pigment in retina
- As antioxidant
Deficiency disease: Night blindness.
 Vitamin B1
Function:
- coenzyme for carbohydrates metabolism
- healthy nervous & muscular system (growth)
Deficiency disease: Beriberi (affects nervous system).
 Vitamin B3
Function: - healthy skin, digestive & nervous system
Deficiency disease: Pellagra.
 Vitamin B5
Function:
- coenzyme for carbohydrates, protein & fats metabolism
- antibody formation
- healthy skin nervous system
 Vitamin B5

Roughage/ fiber
o Higher water holding capacity
o Help peristalsis / bowel movement
o Prevent from constipation
o Lower the cholesterol
o Reduce the risk of heart disease

 Mineral salts:
 - inorganic substances
 - small amount needed
 Macronutrient - required in large amount
 Micronutrient - required in small amount
Iron - Formation of heamoglobin, prevent anaemia
Magnesium - Bone formation, impulses transmission,
energy metabolism
Phosphorus – Formation of bone & ATP

Potassium & Sodium – blood osmotic balance,
normal function of muscle & nervous system

Sulphur – energy metabolism & enzyme reaction



Iodine – thyroxine formation, prevent goitre



Zinc - growth

Water
 Medium for biochemical reactions
 Medium for transportation of respiratory
gases
 Regulates body temp.
 Removes excretory waste
 Maintain osmotic pressure
 Aids peristaltic movement
 Hydrolyse some food substances
 Dissolve most chemical substances

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Function:
- coenzyme for carbohydrates, protein & fats metabolism
- red blood cell formation
Deficiency disease: Anaemia & Diarrhoea
 Vitamin B12
Function: tissue & red blood cell formation
Deficiency disease: Anaemia
 Vitamin C
Function: Healthy skin & healing of wounds, as antioxidant
Deficiency disease: Scurvy
 Vitamin D/ Calcium/ flourine
Function: Strong bones & teeth.
Deficiency disease: Rickets (Soft / deformed bones)
 Vitamin E
Function:
- tissue & red blood cell formation,
- as antioxidant
- prevent sterility
 Vitamin K
Function: Help in blood clotting
Deficiency disease: Anaemia



MALNUTRITION
-unbalanced diet due to wrong proportions of nutrition for a long term
Anorexia Nervosa
believe themselves to be fat, extremlely thin, don’t want to eat.
Bulimia
Over concern with body weight, eat a lot and force themselves to
vomit
Overweight/ Obesity
high risk of diabetes,hypertension, heart attack
Over consumption of cholesterol &
arthrosclerosis (build up fatty deposits in the coronary arteries/
saturated fat:
blood vessels
Constipation
lack of dietary fiber.
High blood Pressure
Diabetes Mellitus
Osteoporosis

heart pump faster
excessive glucose in blood
lack of calcium, vitamin D & phosphorus

Digestion
Break down of complex food into simple form for body absorption
Physical Digestion
- breaking food into smaller pieces mechanically
- Mouth – chewing & slicing action
Mouth

Chemical Digestion
- Enzyme hydrolyse complex food into simoke
soluble food

1. Salivary amylase digest starch into maltose, lysozyme- kill bacteria
2. Food chewed & rolled into bolus
3. Tongue push bolus into pharynx, larynx rise & epiglottis close glottis, trachea is
closed

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

4. Bolus move down the oesophagus by peristalsis
Stomach
1. Gastric Gland secrete gastic juice :
- Pepsin digest protein into polypeptides
- Rennin coagulates milk & digest caseinogen into casein
- hydrochloride acid stop salivay amylase activity, kill bacteria & provide acidic
medium for rennin & pepsin
Duodenum
1. Pancreas secrete pancreatic juice:
(Start absorption)
- Pancreatic amylase digest starch, trypsin digest polypeptides, Lipase digest lipid
droplets
2. Bile produced by liver & stored by gall bladder:
- emulsify lipid into lipid droplets
Ileum (complete
1. Intestinal gland secrete intestinal juice
absorption)
- digest sucrose, lactose & maltose, peptides, lipid
* Digestion of albumen
Peristalsis – spontaneous contraction & relaxation of alimentary tube
Digestion of Cellulose in Human, Ruminants & Rodents
Similarities
1. Consume plant & digest starch, fats & protein
2. Digestive system with stomach, small & large intestine
3. Contain symbiotic bacteria ( protozoa ) to secrete cellulase
Differences
Human
Omnivores
Single stomach chamber

Ruminanats
Herbivores & Omnivores
Single stomach chamber

Small caecum
No protozoa
no chewing cud & regurgitate food
does no re-ingest faeces

Long & well-developed caecum
Protozoa in caecum
no chewing cud & regurgitate
food
re-ingest
faeces

Food Digestion Problem
Indigestion
(Incomplete food digestion)
- eat too much oily food
- eat too fast

Specific enzyme production
decrease
- damage of digestive glands
- diabetes mellitus & genetic factors

Rodents
Herbivores
Four Small caecum stomach
chamber
Big & not well-developed caecum
Protozoa in rumen
have chewing cud& regurgitate
food no re-ingest faeces
does
Formation of gallstone
(blocked bile duct)
- eat too much fatty food
- obesity

Structure of Small Intestine in Relation to Absorption
1. Villi absorbed most nutrient in the ileum,
4. Absorption in epithelial cell
factors:
Amino acid & glucose
facilitated transport
- folded walls to increase total surface area
fatty acid & glycerol
simple diffusion
- having very thin walled ( one cell thick )
Water
Osmosis
- having a network of blood capillaries
Mineral & Vitamin
simple diffusion & active
- Having lacteals for absorption of fatty acid &
transport
glycerol
2. Intestinal crypt
– make epithelial cell
- secrete lysozyme & intestinal juice (alkaline fluid & mucus) to increase fluid volume in gut
- goblet cell secrete mucus

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

3. Lacteals / lymphatic vessel
- absorb glycerol, fatty acids & fat soluble vitamins (ADEK) then transport via lymphatic system to
bloodstream
4. Blood capillaries from villi merge to form hepatic portal vein which transport nutrient to liver
Liver store & convert glucose in glycogen & amino acid into urea & flow processed nutrient into hepatic vein
Assimilation
- absorption of digested product by body cell
Fats & lipid
Amino acids
- stored by adipose tissue
- Excess - undergoes deamination into
(keep body warm & stored
urea
energy, protect body)
- glucose shortage -converted into
- oxidise to generate energy glucose
- build plasma membrane & - help on blood clotting
cholesterol
- growth & repair damaged tissue
- synthesis enzyme & hormones

Glucose
- excess – converted into glycogen
& stored in liver
-shortage – glycogen converted
back into glucose
- used in cellular respiration

Function of liver
- maintain blood glucose level by secretion of insulin & glucagon
- maintain body temperature
- manufacture bile, plasma protein (fibrinogen & prothrombin )& haemoglobin
- store vitamin fat soluble vitamin & nutrient
- detoxification of poisonous substances
- deamination of amino acid
- synthesis of vitamin A for blood clotting
Formation of Faeces
- water, vitamin & salt from undigested food are absorbed by colon
- mucus to lubricates movement of faeces along colon
- Beneficial synthesis vitamin K & B12, produce antibiotic to kill pathogenic & digest nutrient fragments
Constipation
Colon Cancer
Haemorrhoids
faeces hard & slow in passing due
cause by prolonged constipation & Veins around anus inflamed &
too large amount water loss
toxic accumulated in colon
swollen
Prevented by eat more roughage & drink more water & often exercise
Defecation
Discharging of faeces from large intestine through anus
Importance
1. Excrete waste & toxic substances
2. Avoid toxicity & poisoning in body
Gastritis
Inflammation of
stomach lining
Irregular meal time, too
much alcohol & smoking
Pain in abdomen

Obesity
Excessive body fats
above than a normal
weight
Eat too much fatty food
Lack of exercise

Anorexia Nervosa
Eating disorder by
consuming food
minimally
Low self-esteem

Bulimia Nervosa
Eating disorder by
consuming food
excessively
Depression,
misuse of laxatives

High risk of high blood
pressure, diabetes
mellitus & heart attack

believe themselves to be
fat, extremely thin, don’t
want to eat.

Over concern with body
weight, eat a lot and force
themselves to vomit

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Treated with antacids

Plants

in large amount
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sulphur
Magnesium

Overcoming with
practicing balanced diet

Macronutrient - required
-stem & leaf growth
-increase seed & fruit yeild
- help in protein & ATP synthesis
- help in photosynthesis &
fertilization
- help in protein & ATP synthesis
- help in chlorophyll formation
- help in protein synthesis
- promotes fruit development
- help in chlorophyll synthesis

Counseling & gradual
restoration through
nutrition


Micronutrient - required
in small amount
Boron
- help in cell wall formation
- promotes fruit development
Manganese
- help in photosynthesis &
fertilization
Copper
Zinc

- help in chlorophyll formation
- help in plant reproduction
- help in protein& auxin synthesis

Ferum

- help in chlorophyll synthesis

Leaf Structure in photosynthesis;
1. Flattened shape – increasing surface area
2. Thin – so that gases can diffuse quickly
3. A vascular system – to supply water & take away the products
4. Stomata – To allow gas exchange
5. Chloroplast (Palisade mesophyll cell) – to capture light energy
Terrestrial Plant
1. Waxy cuticle to prevent excessive water loss
2. Most chloroplast in palisade mesophyll to
maximise photosynthesis
3. Most stomata in lower epidermal layer to
maximize gaseous exchange
Floating plant
1. Waxy cuticle to prevent excessive water loss
2. Air sacs in aerenchyma tissue provide buoyant
force
3. Most stomata in upper epidermal layer to
maximize gaseous exchange

Often exercise & gradual
restoration through
nutrition

Importance :
1. Maintain oxygen & carbon dioxides
level in environment
2. Supplies food directly to green plant &
indirectly to animal

Submerged plant
1. Air sacs in aerenchyma tissue to support plant
2. Many small leaves – increase absorption of sunlight

Dry places plant
1. Waxy cuticle to prevent excessive water loss
2. Spiky leaves to prevent excessive water loss
3. Shuken stomata prevent excessive water loss
4. Shiny surface to reflect heat

Photosynthesis
Chlorophyll in granum capture sunlight & used to split water into hydrogen & oxygen
Carbon dioxide diffuse into stomata & oxygen released out of stomata
Hydrogen react with carbon dioxide to form glucose that store in starch grains.
Light reaction
require light energy
grana
photolysis of water
Form ATP
Produce water & oxygen
presence of light

Dark reaction
does not require light energy
stroma
Reduction carbon dioxide
Use ATP
produce glucose & water
after light reaction

Similarities
1. Occur in chloroplast & during the day

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

2. Catalysed by enzyme & involve chemical reaction
Factors
Carbon dioxide concentration
photosynthesis rate increase as
carbon dioxide concentration
increase up to a certain point
where light intensity &
temperature became the limiting
factors

Light Intensity
Photosynthesis rate is increase as
light intensity increase to a certain
point where carbon dioxide &
temperature became the limiting
factors

Temperature
Photosynthesis dark reaction is
catalysed by photosynthetic
enzyme
Optimum temperature 25-300C
the Temperature too high destroy
the enzyme and photosynthesis
stops.

Ways to improve food production
Direct seeding seed sown directly into soil

Save cost, labour & time, increase the yield

Hydroponics
Aeroponics

Better quality & quantity, Save space
Better quality & quantity, Save space

Breeding
Tissue Culture
Genetic
Engineering
Soil
management
Biological
control

growing in aerated culture solution
suspended in air with root sprayed with
nutrient
Dura sp & Pisifera sp = Tenera Sp
( Thick mesophyll, small shell & Big
kernel)
grow in culture medium
Manipulating DNA to produce organism
with new characteristic
Reduce soil erosion & leaching

natural prey-predator relation

high nutritional value, higher yield & pest
resistance
Better quantity & same quality as parent x
Enhance growth & nutritional properties
1. Add fertilizer consistently
2. ploughing to increase soil aeration
3. Practice crop rotation- improve soil
fertility
control pest & reduce pesticides usage

Importance of Food Processing
1. Food can last longer
2. Prevent spread of disease
3. increase fodd commercial value
4. Avoid food wastage
Ways (Food additives)
Food preservation, food enhancers, food colouring
Cooking
Caning
Drying
Fermentation
Sugar or Salt pickling
Pasteurisation
Refrigeration
Ultra Heat Treatment

High temperature kill bacteria
High temperature kill bacteria, vacuum prevent bacteria growth
Water removed from bacteria, sunlight kill bacteria
Ethanol remove water from bacteria & kill bacteria
create hypotonic solution to remove water from bacteria by osmosis
High temperature kill bacteria, maintain milk taste (720C-15sec, 630C-30 min, then
50C)
Low temperature prevent bacteria growth
High temperature kill bacteria (1320C-1sec)

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Chapter 7 Cellular Respiration
- Food oxidation to generate energy in body
Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic Respiration
- glucose oxidation in oxygen to release energy, CO2 - glucose oxidation in absence of oxygen to release little
& water
energy & lactic acid
- energy captured by ADP & fuses with
- Vigorous exercise cause oxygen debt in muscle, More
phosphate to form ATP (38)
oxygen is used than is inhaled,
-ATP can broke down to release energy,
- Fermentation by yeast used zymase to hydrolyse
phosphate & ADP when body required
glucose to form ethanol, energy & CO2
Occur in mitochondrion & cytoplasm
Occur in cytoplasm
Similarities
1. Occur in animal & plant cell
2. Cellular respiration that oxidise glucose to produce energy (ATP) with enzyme to catalyse
Adaptation of respiratory surface
1. thin (one cell thick)- effective gaseous exchange
2. moist – gases diffuse in before diffuse out
3. Large surface area – maximise gaseous exchange
Protozoa
- no respiratory structure
- large (TSA/V) ratio to maximise
gaseous exchange

- simple diffusion of gases occur
through plasma membrane

Insect
1. Abdominal relax & contract to change abdomen volume pressure.
2. Spiracles have valves which allow air, go in and out of tracheae which
reinforced with chitin rings to prevent them from collapsing
3. Trachea split into large number of tracheoles provides large surface
area & thin moist wall to maximise gaseous exchange
4. Air sacs to speed up gaseous exchange

Amphibians
Adaptation of skin
a) thin & moist ( secretion of mucus)
- allow fast & effective gaseous exchange
b) blood capillaries network under the skin
– maximise gaseous exchange

Breathing mechanism (petty)
1. Air inhaled into buccal cavity. Glottis close & buccal cavity
floor lowered to fill buccal cavity with air.
2. Glottis open, nostril closed & buccal cavity floor raised to
force air flow into lungs. Gaseous exchange occurs
3. Nostril open & lung muscle contract to exhale the air

Adaptation of lungs
a) numerous inner partition
large surface area-maximise gaseous
exchange
b) Covered with blood capillaries network
– maximise gaseous exchange
c)thin and moist membrane
– allow fast & effective gaseous exchange

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Fish
Adaptation of gills:
a) Thin lamella membrane
- allow fast & effective gaseous exchange
b) Rich of blood capillaries
– maximise gaseous exchange
c) Surrounded by water
– enable respiratory gases to be dissolve
d) Large surface area of filaments & lamellae
– maximise gaseous exchange

Breathing mechanism
1. Buccal cavity lowered to decrease buccal cavity
pressure
2. Water drawn flow into mouth & through
lamellae.
3. Oxygen diffuse from water to lamellae & carbon
dioxide diffuse from lamellae to water.
3. Mouth closed & buccal cavity raised to increase
buccal cavity pressure causing operculum to open &
water to flow out.

Countercurrent mechanism
1. Deoxygenated blood flows in opposite direction of
water current through blood capillaries in the
lamellae,
encounters higher O2 content water, concentration
gradient allows the O2 diffuse into the blood
2. When CO2 concemtration in blood is higher than in
water, CO2 diffused from blood into water
Adaptation of Alveoli
1. large number of alveoli
- increase surface area for gaseous exchange
2. One cell thick walls
– fast & effective gaseous exchange
3. Moist ( wall secrete moisture)
– fast & effective gaseous exchange
4. Surrounded by blood capillaries network
– maximise gaseous exchange
Inhalation
External intercostal muscles contract
Internal intercostal muscles relax
Rib cage move upwards and outwards
Diaphragm contracts and flattens
Volume of thoracic cavity increase resulting in low
air pressure in thoracic air cavity
Higher atmospheric pressure causes air to flow in
Transport of Oxygen
Partial oxygen pressure in alveoli higher than
in blood capillary, oxygen diffuses into blood
capillary.
Oxygen combine with heamoglobin to form
oxyheamoglobin
Partial oxygen pressure in blood capillary
higher than in body tissue. Oxyheamoglobin
release oxygen that difuses into body tissue

Exhalation
External intercostal muscles relax
Internal intercostal muscles contract
Rib cage move downwards and inwards
Diaphragm relaxes and returns to dome-shaped
Volume of thoracic cavity decrease resulting in highair
pressure in thoracic air cavity
Low atmospheric pressure causes internal air to flow
out

Transport of carbon dioxide
Partial carbon dioxide pressure in blood capillary lower
than in body tissue, carbon dioxide diffuses into blood
alveoli.Carbon dioxide
1. dissolved in blood plasma as bicarbonate ions (70%)
2. combines with heamoglobin to form
carbaminoheamoglobin
3. dissolved in blood plasma
Partial carbon dioxide pressure in alveoli lower than in
blood capillary. Carbaminoheamoglobin release carbon
dioxide that difuses into alveoli

Regulation respiration mechanism
1. During vigorous exercise, muscles require more O2 and glucose to release energy during cellular
respiration,
2. Rate of respiration increase, rate of breathing increase, heartbeat increase,
3. More O2 and glucose can be supplied for cellular respiration and more CO2 removed from the cells.

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

4. Rate of gaseous exchange between alveoli and blood capillaries increase
Regulation Mechanism of Carbon Dioxide Content
1. During vigorous exercise, more carbon dioxide produced, blood pH decrease, detect by chemoreceptors in
medulla oblongata that sent impulses to intercostal muscle to contract & relax rapidly, breathing rate
increase, more carbon dioxide eliminated, carbon dioxide concentration & blood pH return to normal
Regulation Mechanism of Oxygen Content
1. At high altitude/Fear, oxygen concentration decrease, detect by chemoreceptors in carotids & aortic bodies
that sent impulses to intercostal muscle & diaphragm to contract. Breathing rate increase, heartbeat increase,
more oxygen inhaled oxygen concentration level return to normal
Good habits to cultivate healthy respiration system
1. practice healthy diet & breathing exercise
2. do not smoke & avoids breathing polluted air
Respiration in plant
In mitochondrion for cellular respiration
Photosynthesis
light to chemical energy
CO2 & H2o is used, glucose & oxygen is formed
Water decomposed
Presence of sunlight
Store glucose
Involve chloroplast
Chlorophyll pigment needed
In green plant only

Respiration
chemical to light energy
glucose & oxygen is used, CO2 & H2O is formed
Glucose decomposed
All condition
Used glucose
Involve mitochondrion
Chlorophyll pigment not needed
In all organism

Photosynthesis rate is highest in midday (large amout of CO2 is formed)
Respiration rate is highest in midnight
(large amout of CO2 is used)
Compesation point
– no net exchange of oxygen & carbon dioxide (CO2 is formed = CO2 is used), Photosynthesis rate = Respiration
rate
Plant carries out anaerobic respiration during flood & initial stages of germination

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Chapter 8 Components of Environments
Abiotic components (Non-Living components)
– Light intensity
(photosynthesis affect growth in plant)
– Humidity
( High at night, low during day)
( affect rate of water loss)
– Temperature
(low – metabolic activities decrease)
– topography
Region aspect
high Altitude- low atmospheric pressure & temperature
steep slope – soil layer thinner & drier
– pH
( affect growth of organism)
– microclimate
( small habitat climate)

Biotic Components (Living components)
Producer (1st trophic level)
- Autotrophs (green plant), use organic substances
& sunlight to make food
Consumer
Heterotrophs, 1st herbivores, 2nd & 3rd carnivores
Decomposer
- digest organic substances & dead organism into
humus (used by plant)

Food chain - sequence of one organism feeding upon another
Food web - a series interrelated food chains
Number pyramid- show number of individuals at each trophic level of food chain at a period
Energy flows – Produce undergoes photosynthesis that absorb sunlight.
90% energy lost to the environment & 10% is converted into food
Energy transferred from one trophic level to another in the form of heat
Symbiosis( Interaction between different species)
1. Commensalism
- One species benefits, the the host is not affected
a)Epiphyte (plant grows another plant)
- pigeon orchids
False bulb (pseudobulbs)
Aerial roots
Spongy roots layer
sunken stoma

store water
absorbs water vapour from air
prevent tissue from drying out
reduce water loss due to evaporation

b) Epizoics
- barnacles on crab & remora fish on sharks ( free ride & food)
2. Mutualism
- both species of organisms benefit
1. Legumious plant provide food while rhizobium sp convert nitrogen gas into organic compound for
plant growth
2. Alga provide food while fungus prevent alga from drying out
Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

3. Parasitism
- one organism benefits from the host
a) Ectoparasites – feed on the surface of the host(e.g. ticks and fleas)
b) Endoparasites –shelter & feed on tissue in the host (e.g. tapeworms)
Prey-predator
An animal is haunted & eaten by a stronger animal
- regulate both organisms populations
Saprophytism
An organism lives and feeds on decaying organic matter.
•Saprophytes (plant)
- mushrooms, bread mould and bracket fungus.
•Saprozoites (bacteria)
- paramecium sp & amoeba sp
Competition
- two organisms to obtain limited basic needs of life
• living space, water, minerals, sunlight, food and mates.
a) Intraspecific completion ( between same species)
b) Interspecific competition (between different species )
colonization –a process where life take place & form a colony in a newly formed area
succession - a process where dominant plant replaced by another plant in a habitat (slow & continuous)
1) pioneer species
• dense root systems- to survive on dry & nutrient-poor soil.
• change habitat into more suitable habitat for another species to live.
2) dominant species
- Grow faster to out-compete pioneers
- occurs in stages until stable & matured community equilibrium with environment is formed. (climax community)
Colonisation and Succession in a Mangrove Swamp
Environmental conditions :
a) Soft muddy soil
b) Waterlogged soil which lacks oxygen
c) Seawater with high salinity (high salt content)
d) Strong sunlight & extreme heat.
a) Avicennia sp. (open area)& Sonneratia sp.(shaddy area) - pioneer species
- pneumatophores (Breathing roots with spongy tissue) - enable respiration of roots & provide support
- viviparous seedlings – geminate while attached to mother plant, float on water & ensure species survival
Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

b) Rhizophora sp. (successor)
- prop / stlit roots - enable respiration of roots & provide support
- viviparous seedlings –
i) geminate while attached to mother plant & ensures seeds get sufficient oxygen,
ii) ensure species survival & prevents seed from dehydration in the saline sea water,
c) Bruguiera sp. (2nd successor)
- pneumatophores (Breathing roots with spongy tissue) - enable respiration of roots & provide support
- buttress root - provide support
- thick cuticle & sunken stomata of leaves - reduce transpiration rate due to high temperature
d) Nypa sp & Pandanus sp (climax community)
Sampling technique
- to study the population size of an organism.
- involves collecting, counting, and observing organism studied.
- random and systematically.
i) quadrat sampling technique (plant)
- quadrat - square frame made of wood, string or metal. (depend on size & density of organism studied)
a)Frequency - number of times a species is found present when a number of times quadrats is thrown
b)Density - mean number of individuals of a species per unit area.
c)Percentage coverage = indication of quadrat area is occupied by a species. (high population)
ii) capture-mark-release &recapture technique (animal )
- animal sample is captured and marked with waterproof coloured ink, paint or nail varnish
- done in 3 days & done again in 3 months – enough time for random dispersal of organism
- birth rate & death rate due to old age, eaten by predator or migration
Taxonomy
Study of identifying, describing & naming organisms.
•based on similarities in their characteristics.
5 kingdoms.
Monera
- unicellular , no nuclear membrane no tissue formation & muscle
Protista
- unicellular , have nuclear membrane, no muscle
Fungi
- multicellular, no chlorophyll, have chitin wall & produce spore
Plantae
- multicellular, have chlorophyll & produce food (photosynthesis)
Animalia - multicellular, no chlorophyll & have well-developed tissue
Kingdom , Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
Naming in Latin
Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Bacteria
Amoeba & Paramecium
saprophytes
Plant
Animals

Genus name (capital) followed by species name ( small letter)
Biodiversity
Species
Population
Community
Ecosystem
Niche
Habitat

a diverse species of plants & animals interacting with one another
a group of organism with similar characteristic living in the same habitat
a group of organism of same species living in the same habitat at the same time
Several population of different species living in the same habitat in an ecosystem
A community of organism interact together & with natural environment
Role of an organism
environment where organism live

Microorganism
- microscopic organisms that cannot be seen by naked eye.
Protozoa sexual & asexual reproduction through cell division, have cilia, pseudopodium & flagella
Fungi
visible to naked eye, sexual & asexual reproduction through spore formation & budding
Bacteria
asexual reproduction through binary fission & spore formation, visible under light microscope
Algae
have cell wall made of cellulose, have chlorophyll, reproduce through fermentation & spore
(Protista) formation,
Virus
smallest microorganism, visible under electron microscope, infest on living cell for nutrition &
(Monera) respiration & reproduction. Have protein coat & form spore
Nitrogen cycle
To maintain balance of nitrogen content in the water, soil & atmosphere.
a) Nitrogen fixation( conversion of atmospheric nitrogen is to nitrogen compounds required for growth)
Nitrogen fixing bacteria (Nostoe sp & Rhizobium sp) in root nodules convert atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonium compounds that converted into plant protein, become animal protein when eaten by animal
b) Decomposition, Nitrification &Denitrification
1. When the animals and plants die, nitrifying bacteria, convert dead organism & waste matter into
nitrites(Nitrosomonas sp.) & nitrates(by Nitrobacter sp.).
2. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates into atmospheric nitrogen & complete the nitrogen cycle
Lightning energy causes oxygen combine with nitrogen to form nitrogen oxide. Combine with rain drops
to form nitric acid, then combines with the soil minerals to form nitrates & nitrites.
Decomposition
Saprophytes (putrefying bacteria & fungi) digest protein in dead organism into ammonium compounds.
& nutrient released in the soil
Alimentary canal of termites
Protozoa (Trichonympha sp). in alimentary canals termites secretes the cellulase & enables termite
digest cellulose in wood
Digestive system in humans
a) Symbiotic bacteria in colon (caecum) synthesis vitamin B12 (anaemia) and vitamin K. (blot clotting)
Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Chapter 9 Endangered Ecosystem
1. Green House Effect
- phenomenon of increasing temperature of the Earth
- heat is absorbed & trapped in atmosphere by greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane,CFC & nitrogen dioxide

- Effect: global warming, melting of polar caps & raising sea level, deteriorate health
Factors : increasing concentration of carbon dioxide
a) Burning of fuels in factories
b) Forest fires
c) Deforestation
d) Open burning of rubbish
e) Motor vehicles
2. Thinning of the ozone layer
- located at the stratosphere
- absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays from reaching the Earth’s surface.
- ozone hole - area with low ozone concentration
Factors: increasing levels of chlorofluorocarbon(CFC)
a) Coolants in air conditioners and refrigerators,
b) propellants in aerosol cans
Effect :
1. Increase world temperature
2. Change climate & weather patterns, wind direction
3. Destroy stomata and chlorophyll in the leaves, Rate of photosynthesis decreases
4. Destroy aquatic organisms, disturbs ecological balance.
5. Causes skin cancer, cataract, weakens immune system
CLC form chlorine atom under UV rays that react with ozone to form chlorine monoxide & oxygen gas.
Chlorine monoxide react oxygen in atmosphere to form oxygen gas & chlorine atom
3. Eutrophication
Factors : Excess fertilizers in lakes, pond or rivers.
1. high concentration of nitrates & phosphates promote algae bloom, increase algae population
- cover up lake surface, prevents sunlight from reaching submerged plants
- aerobic bacteria decompose more dead plants & reduces oxygen concentration in water
- increase biochemical oxygen demand(B.O.D) & cause death of aquatic organisms.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D)
- amount of oxygen taken up to decompose organic waste matter in water.
• measure amount of organic pollutant & water pollutions level
• more microorganisms, oxygen content decrease, B.O.D increase, pollution level increases,
Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

• Methylene blue solution decolourise when presence of oxygen in water is low
Deforestation
Important of rainforest
- Permanent removal of trees from forest
1. Habitat of flora & fauna
Effect
2. Provide food &
1. soil erosion & landslide
medicine
2. flash flood
3. Regulate world climate
3. global warming & climax change
4. Water catchment area
4. destroy natural habitat, extinction of species
5. destroy recreation area

Bad Agricultural pratices
1. Use excessive inorganic
fertilisers &pesticides
2. intensive farming
Effect
1. pollute water source
2. cause eutrophication &
flash flood
3. Soil structure changed

Mining – decrease soil nutrient , hydroelectric dam – flash flood
Burning of fossil fuel
- release carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide & nitrogen oxide – pollute air & cause acid rain

Air pollution – condition where pollutant enter air from various source
- cause haze (decrease light penetration, affect photosynthesis)
- cause acid rain – corrodes buildings, soil & water acidity increase, leeching of soil nutrient, affect plant
growth & cause health problems
Water pollution – condition where pollutant enter water from various source
Thermal pollution – increasing environmental temperature due to excess heat release
Noise pollution – unwanted man-made sound disrupts environment & people health & welfare
- factors : aeroplanes, machinery vehicles, factories machines, piling & drilling in construction area
- cause deafness, high blood pressure & headache
A) Biological control
• Method where predator is used to control the population of that pest in an area.
• use prey-predator interaction.
a) Does not pollute environment (stop use of pesticides.)
b) Does not kill other organisms
c) Is cheap and safe to use
B) Enforcement of Environment Quality Act
- prevent environmental pollution by control licensing & examines disposal of waste & smoke in industry
C) Education
- raise awareness & importance of protect healthy environment for society , recycle & less polluting
D) Preservation & Conservation of ecosystem
- replant trees after deforestation, restore mining land for agricultural, river cleaning, treat toxic & waste
before disposal, use unleaded petrol,
E) Use of renewable energy
Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

- Solar energy, wave energy & tidal energy – environment friendly

Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

Sponsor Documents

Or use your account on DocShare.tips

Hide

Forgot your password?

Or register your new account on DocShare.tips

Hide

Lost your password? Please enter your email address. You will receive a link to create a new password.

Back to log-in

Close