Venezuela

Venezuela
For other uses, see Venezuela (disambiguation).
Since the discovery of oil in the early 20th century,
“Venezuelan” redirects here.
For other uses, see Venezuela has the world’s largest oil reserves and has been
Venezuelan (disambiguation).
one of the world’s leading exporters of oil. Previously
an underdeveloped exporter of agricultural commodities
such as coffee and cocoa, oil quickly came to dominate
i
Venezuela ( /ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə/ VEN-ə-ZWAYL-ə; Spanexports and government revenues. The 1980s oil glut led
ish: [beneˈswela]), officially called the Bolivarian Reexternal debt crisis and a long-running economic
[1]
public of Venezuela (Spanish: República Bolivaria- to an
crisis,
in which inflation peaked at 100% in 1996 and
na de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast
poverty
rates rose to 66% in 1995[9] as (by 1998) per
of South America. Venezuela’s territory covers around
same level as 1963, down a third
916,445 km2 (353,841 sq mi) with an estimated popula- capita GDP fell to the
[10]
from
its
1978
peak.
tion around 33,221,865. Venezuela is considered a state
with extremely high biodiversity, with habitats ranging
from the Andes Mountains in the west to the Amazon
Basin rainforest in the south, via extensive llanos plains
and Caribbean coast in the center and the Orinoco River
Delta in the east.

The recovery of oil prices in the early 2000s gave
Venezuela oil fund not seen since the 1980s.[11] The
Venezuelan government then initiated populist policies
which initially boosted the Venezuelan economy and
facilitated social spending which significantly reduced
economic inequality and poverty.[11][12][13][14] Such populist policies were questioned since their initiation and
the over dependence on oil funds led to overspending on social programs while strict government polices created difficulties for Venezuela’s import reliant
businesses.[11][15][16] Venezuela under Hugo Chávez then
suffered “one of the worst cases of Dutch Disease in the
world” due to the Bolivarian government’s large dependence on oil sales.[17][18] Poverty and inflation began to
increase into the 2010s.[19] Venezuela devalued its currency in February 2013 due to the rising shortages in the
country[20] with shortages in Venezuela including milk,
flour, and other necessities and malnutrition then increasing, especially among children.[21][22] In 2014, Venezuela
entered an economic recession.[23] In 2015, Venezuela
had the world’s highest inflation rate with the rate surpassing 100%, becoming the highest in the country’s
history.[24] Economic problems, as well as crime and corruption, were some of the main causes of the 2014–15
Venezuelan protests.[25][26]

The territory currently known as Venezuela was colonized
by Spain in 1522 amid resistance from indigenous peoples. In 1811, it became one of the first SpanishAmerican colonies to declare independence, which was
not securely established until 1821, when Venezuela was
a department of the federal republic of Gran Colombia.
It gained full independence as a separate country in 1830.
During the 19th century, Venezuela suffered political turmoil and autocracy, remaining dominated by regional
caudillos (military strongmen) until the mid-20th century. Since 1958, the country has had a series of democratic governments. Economic shocks in the 1980s and
1990s led to several political crises, including the deadly
Caracazo riots of 1989, two attempted coups in 1992,
and the impeachment of President Carlos Andrés Pérez
for embezzlement of public funds in 1993. A collapse in
confidence in the existing parties saw the 1998 election
of former coup-involved career officer Hugo Chávez and
the launch of the Bolivarian Revolution, beginning with
a 1999 Constituent Assembly to write a new Constitution
of Venezuela.
Venezuela is a federal presidential republic consisting of
23 states, the Capital District (covering Caracas), and
federal dependencies (covering Venezuela’s offshore islands). Venezuela also claims all Guyanese territory
west of the Essequibo River, a 159,500-square-kilometre
(61,583 sq mi) tract dubbed Guayana Esequiba or the
Zona en Reclamación (the “zone being reclaimed”).[6]
Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin
America;[7][8] the vast majority of Venezuelans live in
the cities of the north, especially in the capital, Caracas,
which is also the largest city in Venezuela.

1 Etymology
In 1499, an expedition led by Alonso de Ojeda visited the
Venezuelan coast. The stilt houses in the area of Lake
Maracaibo reminded the navigator, Amerigo Vespucci,
of the city of Venice, so he named the region "Veneziola".[27] The name acquired its current spelling as a result of Spanish influence,[27] where the suffix -uela is
used as a diminutive term (e.g., plaza / plazuela, cazo /
cazuela); thus, the term’s original sense would have been
that of a “little Venice”.[28] The German term for the area,
1

2

2

HISTORY

"Klein-Venedig", also means little Venice (literally “small
Venice”).
Although the Vespucci story remains the most popular
and accepted version of the origin of the country’s name,
a different reason for the name comes up in the account of Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of the
Vespucci and Ojeda crew. In his work Summa de geografía, he states that they found an indigenous population who called themselves the "Veneciuela", which suggests that the name “Venezuela” may have evolved from
the native word.[29]

2

History

The Welser Armada exploring Venezuela

Main article: History of Venezuela
conform very well, for I have never read or
heard of such a large quantity of fresh water
being inside and in such close proximity to salt
water; the very mild temperateness also corroborates this; and if the water of which I speak
does not proceed from Paradise then it is an
even greater marvel, because I do not believe
such a large and deep river has ever been known
to exist in this world.[34]

Evidence exists of human habitation in the area now
known as Venezuela from about 15,000 years ago; leafshaped tools from this period, together with chopping and
planoconvex scraping implements, have been found exposed on the high riverine terraces of the Rio Pedregal in
western Venezuela.[30] Late Pleistocene hunting artifacts,
including spear tips, have been found at a similar series
of sites in northwestern Venezuela known as “El Jobo";
according to radiocarbon dating, these date from 13,000
His certainty of having attained Paradise made him name
to 7,000 BC.[31]
this region 'Land of Grace', a phrase that has become the
It is not known how many people lived in Venezuela becountry’s nickname.
fore the Spanish conquest; it may have been around one
[32]
and in addition to today’s indigenous peo- Spain’s colonization of mainland Venezuela started in
million,
ples, the population included groups such as the Kalina 1522, establishing its first permanent South American
(Caribs), Auaké, Caquetio, Mariche, and Timoto-cuicas. settlement in the present-day city of Cumaná. In the 16th
The number was reduced after the conquest, mainly century, Venezuela was contracted as a concession by
through the spread of new diseases from Europe.[32] Two the King of Spain to the German Welser banking family
main north-south axes of pre-Columbian population were (Klein-Venedig, 1528–1546). Native caciques (leaders)
present, producing maize in the west and manioc in the such as Guaicaipuro (circa 1530–1568) and Tamanaco
east.[32] Large parts of the llanos were cultivated through (died 1573) attempted to resist Spanish incursions, but
a combination of slash and burn and permanent settled the newcomers ultimately subdued them; Tamanaco was
put to death by order of Caracas’ founder, Diego de
agriculture.[32]
Losada.[35]

2.1

Colonization

In the 16th century, during the Spanish colonization,
indigenous peoples, such as many of the Mariches, themselves descendants of the Kalina, converted to Roman
Catholicism. Some of the resisting tribes or leaders
are commemorated in place names, including Caracas,
Chacao, and Los Teques. The early colonial settlements
focused on the northern coast,[32] but in the mid-18th century, the Spanish pushed farther inland along the Orinoco
River. Here, the Ye'kuana (then known as the Makiritare)
organized serious resistance in 1775 and 1776.[36]

Main articles: Spanish colonization of the Americas and
Colonial Venezuela
In 1498, during his third voyage to the Americas,
Christopher Columbus sailed near the Orinoco Delta and
then landed in the Gulf of Paria.[33] Amazed by the great
offshore current of freshwater which deflected his course
eastward, Columbus expressed in his moving letter to Isabella and Ferdinand that he must have reached Heaven
on Earth (terrestrial paradise):
Spain’s eastern Venezuelan settlements were incorporated into New Andalusia Province. Administered by
Great signs are these of the Terrestrial Parthe Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo from the early
adise, for the site conforms to the opinion of
16th century, most of Venezuela became part of the
Viceroyalty of New Granada in the early 18th century,
the holy and wise theologians whom I have
and was then reorganized as an autonomous Captaincy
mentioned. And likewise, the [other] signs

2.2

Independence

General starting in 1776. The town of Caracas, founded
in the central coastal region in 1567, was well-placed to
become a key location, being near the coastal port of La
Guaira whilst itself being located in a valley in a mountain
range, providing defensive strength against pirates and a
more fertile and healthy climate.[37]

3
the Battle of Carabobo on 24 June 1821.[41] On 24 July
1823, José Prudencio Padilla and Rafael Urdaneta helped
seal Venezuelan independence with their victory in the
Battle of Lake Maracaibo.[42] New Granada’s congress
gave Bolívar control of the Granadian army; leading it,
he liberated several countries and founded Gran Colombia.[41]

Sucre, who won many battles for Bolívar, went on to liberate Ecuador and later become the second president of
Bolivia. Venezuela remained part of Gran Colombia unMain article: Venezuelan War of Independence
After a series of unsuccessful uprisings, Venezuela, un- til 1830, when a rebellion led by Páez allowed the proclamation of a newly independent Venezuela; Páez became
the first president of the new republic.[43] Between onequarter and one-third of Venezuela’s population was lost
during these two decades of warfare (including perhaps
one-half of the white population),[44] which by 1830 was
estimated at about 800,000.[45]

2.2

Independence

The signing of Venezuela’s independence, by Martín Tovar y Tovar

José Gregorio Monagas abolished slavery in 1854.

The colors of the Venezuelan flag are yellow, blue, and
red: the yellow stands for land wealth, the blue for the
sea that separates Venezuela from Spain, and the red for
the blood shed by the heroes of independence.[46]

The Battle of Carabobo, during the Venezuelan War of Independence

der the leadership of Francisco de Miranda, a Venezuelan marshal who had fought in the American Revolution and the French Revolution, declared independence
on 5 July 1811.[38] This began the Venezuelan War of
Independence. However, a devastating earthquake that
struck Caracas in 1812, together with the rebellion of
the Venezuelan llaneros, helped bring down the first
Venezuelan republic.[39] A second Venezuelan republic,
proclaimed on 7 August 1813, lasted several months before being crushed, as well.[40]

Slavery in Venezuela was abolished in 1854.[45] Much
of Venezuela’s 19th-century history was characterized by
political turmoil and dictatorial rule,[47] including the Independence leader José Antonio Páez, who gained the
presidency three times and served a total of 11 years between 1830 and 1863. This culminated in the Federal
War (1859–1863), a civil war in which hundreds of thousands died, in a country with a population of not much
more than a million people. In the latter half of the century, Antonio Guzmán Blanco, another caudillo, served
a total of 13 years between 1870 and 1887, with three
other presidents interspersed.

In 1895, a longstanding dispute with Great Britain
about the territory of Guayana Esequiba, which Britain
claimed as part of British Guiana and Venezuela saw as
Venezuelan territory, erupted into the Venezuela Crisis
of 1895. The dispute became a diplomatic crisis when
Venezuela’s lobbyist William L. Scruggs sought to argue
Sovereignty was only attained after Simón Bolívar, aided that British behavior over the issue violated the United
by José Antonio Páez and Antonio José de Sucre, won States’ Monroe Doctrine of 1823, and used his influence

4

2

HISTORY

File:Gómez, 1928.jpg
Juan Vicente Gómez ruled Venezuela for 27 years (1908–
1935).
In 1899, Cipriano Castro, assisted by his friend Juan Vicente Gómez, seized power in Caracas, marching an army
from his base in the Andean state of Táchira. Castro
defaulted on Venezuela’s considerable foreign debts, and
declined to pay compensation to foreigners caught up in
Venezuela’s civil wars. This led to the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903, in which Britain, Germany, and Italy
imposed a naval blockade of several months, before international arbitration at the new Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague was agreed. In 1908, another dispute broke out with the Netherlands, which was resolved
when Castro left for medical treatment in Germany and
was promptly overthrown by Juan Vicente Gómez.

2.3 20th century

José Antonio Páez

in Washington, D.C., to pursue the matter. Then, US
President Grover Cleveland adopted a broad interpretation of the doctrine that did not just simply forbid new
European colonies, but declared an American interest in
any matter within the hemisphere.[48] Britain ultimately
accepted arbitration, but in negotiations over its terms
was able to persuade the US on many of the details. A
tribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the issue,
and in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to
British Guiana.[49]

The discovery of massive oil deposits in Lake Maracaibo
during World War I proved to be pivotal for Venezuela,
and transformed the basis of its economy from a heavy
dependence on agricultural exports. It prompted an
economic boom that lasted into the 1980s; by 1935,
Venezuela’s per capita gross domestic product was Latin
America’s highest.[50] Gómez benefited handsomely from
this, as corruption thrived, but at the same time, the new
source of income helped him centralize the Venezuelan
state and develop its authority.
He remained the most powerful man in Venezuela until his death in 1935, although at times he ceded the
presidency to others. The gomecista dictatorship system largely continued under Eleazar López Contreras, but
from 1941, under Isaías Medina Angarita, was relaxed,
with the latter granting a range of reforms, including the
legalization of all political parties. After World War II,
immigration from Southern Europe (mainly from Spain,
Italy, Portugal, and France) and poorer Latin American
countries markedly diversified Venezuelan society.
In 1945, a civilian-military coup overthrew Medina Angarita and ushered in a three-year period of democratic
rule under the mass membership Democratic Action, initially under Rómulo Betancourt, until Rómulo Gallegos
won the Venezuelan presidential election, 1947 (generally believed to be the first free and fair elections in
Venezuela). Gallegos governed until overthrown by a
military junta led by Marcos Pérez Jiménez and Gallegos’ Defense Minister Carlos Delgado Chalbaud in the
1948 Venezuelan coup d'état.
Pérez Jiménez was the most powerful man in the junta
(though Chalbaud was its titular president), and was suspected of being behind the death in office of Chalbaud,
who died in a bungled kidnapping in 1950. When the
junta unexpectedly lost the election it held in 1952, it ig-

2.4

Bolivarian Revolution

5

nored the results and Pérez Jiménez was installed as Pres- reinstated.
ident, where he remained until 1958.

2.4 Bolivarian Revolution
Main articles: Bolivarian Revolution and Presidency of
Hugo Chávez
A collapse in confidence in the existing parties led

Rómulo Betancourt (President 1945-1948/1959-1964), one of
the major democracy activists of Venezuela
Hugo Chávez, president from 1999 until his death in 2013.

The military dictator Pérez Jiménez was forced out on 23
January 1958.[51] In an effort to consolidate the young
democracy, the major political parties (with the notable
exception of the Communist Party of Venezuela) signed
the Punto Fijo Pact. Democratic Action and COPEI
would dominate the political landscape for four decades.
In the 1960s, substantial guerilla movements occurred,
including the Armed Forces of National Liberation and
the Revolutionary Left Movement, which had split from
Democratic Action in 1960. Most of these movements lay down their arms under Rafael Caldera's presidency (1969–74); Caldera had won the 1968 election for
COPEI, being the first time a party other than Democratic
Action took the presidency through a democratic election.
The election of Carlos Andrés Pérez in 1973 coincided
with the 1973 oil crisis, in which Venezuela’s income exploded as oil prices soared; oil industries were nationalized in 1976. This led to massive increases in public
spending, but also increases in external debts, which continued into the 1980s when the collapse of oil prices during the 1980s crippled the Venezuelan economy. As the
government started to devalue the currency in February
1983 to face its financial obligations, Venezuelans’ real
standards of living fell dramatically. A number of failed
economic policies and increasing corruption in government led to rising poverty and crime, worsening social
indicators, and increased political instability.[52]

to Chávez being elected president in 1998, and the
subsequent launch of a "Bolivarian Revolution", beginning with a 1999 Constituent Assembly to write a
new Constitution of Venezuela. Chávez also initiated
Bolivarian missions, programs aimed at helping the poor.
In April 2002, Chávez was briefly ousted from power in
the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt following popular demonstrations by his opponents,[54] but he was returned to power after two days as a result of demonstrations by poor Chávez supporters in Caracas and actions
by the military.[55][56]
Chávez also remained in power after an all-out national strike that lasted from December 2002 to February
2003, including a strike/lockout in the state oil company
PDVSA. The strike produced severe economic dislocation, with the country’s GDP falling 27% during the first
four months of 2003, and costing the oil industry $13.3
billion.[57] Capital flight before and during the strike led
to the reimposition of currency controls (which had been
abolished in 1989), managed by the CADIVI agency. In
the subsequent decade, the government was forced into
several currency devaluations.[58][59][60][61][62] These devaluations have done little to improve the situation of the
Venezuelan people who rely on imported products or locally produced products that depend on imported inputs
while dollar-denominated oil sales account for the vast
majority of Venezuela’s exports.[63] The profits of the oil
industry have been lost to “social engineering” and corruption, instead of investments needed to maintain oil
production.[64]

Economic crises in the 1980s and 1990s led to a political crisis in which hundreds died in the Caracazo riots of 1989, two attempted coups d'état in 1992,[53] and
the impeachment of President Carlos Andrés Pérez (reelected in 1988) for corruption in 1993. Coup leader Chávez survived several further political tests, including
Hugo Chávez was pardoned in March 1994 by president an August 2004 recall referendum. He was elected for anRafael Caldera, with a clean slate and his political rights other term in December 2006 and re-elected for a third

6

3

GEOGRAPHY

term in October 2012. However, he was never sworn
in for his third period, due to medical complications.
Chávez died on 5 March 2013 after a nearly two-year fight
with cancer.[65] The presidential election that took place
on Sunday, 14 April 2013, was the first since Chávez took
office in 1999 in which his name did not appear on the
ballot.[66]

Topographic map of Venezuela.

logically, its mainland rests on the South American Plate.
It has a total area of 916,445 km2 (353,841 sq mi) and a
land area of 882,050 square kilometres (340,560 sq mi),
making it the 33rd largest country. The territory it controls lies between latitudes 0° and 13°N, and longitudes
59° and 74°W.

Nicolas Maduro

Nicolás Maduro has been the President of Venezuela
since 14 April 2013, after winning the second presidential election after Chávez’s death, with 50.61% of
the votes against the opposition’s candidate Henrique
Capriles Radonski who had 49.12% of the votes. The
Democratic Unity Roundtable contested his appointment
as a violation of the constitution. However, the Supreme
Court of Venezuela ruled that under Venezuela’s Constitution, Nicolás Maduro is the legitimate president and
was invested as such by the Venezuelan Congress (Asamblea Nacional).[67][68][69]
Beginning in February 2014, hundreds of thousands of
Venezuelans have protested over high levels of criminal
violence, inflation, and chronic scarcity of basic goods
due to policies of the federal government.[70][71][72][73][74]
Demonstrations and riots have left over 40 fatalities
in the unrest between both Chavistas and opposition
protesters,[75] and has led to the arrest of opposition
leaders such as Leopoldo López[75][76] and Antonio
Ledezma.[77][78][79][80]

Shaped roughly like a triangle, the country has a 2,800
km (1,700 mi) coastline in the north, which includes numerous islands in the Caribbean, and in the northeast
borders the northern Atlantic Ocean. Most observers
describe Venezuela in terms of four fairly well-defined
topographical regions: the Maracaibo lowlands in the
northwest, the northern mountains extending in a broad
east-west arc from the Colombian border along the northern Caribbean coast, the wide plains in central Venezuela,
and the Guiana Highlands in the southeast.
The northern mountains are the extreme northeastern extensions of South America’s Andes mountain range. Pico
Bolívar, the nation’s highest point at 4,979 m (16,335 ft),
lies in this region. To the south, the dissected Guiana
Highlands contain the northern fringes of the Amazon
Basin and Angel Falls, the world’s highest waterfall, as
well as tepuis, large table-like mountains. The country’s
center is characterized by the llanos, which are extensive
plains that stretch from the Colombian border in the far
west to the Orinoco River delta in the east. The Orinoco,
with its rich alluvial soils, binds the largest and most important river system of the country; it originates in one of
the largest watersheds in Latin America. The Caroní and
the Apure are other major rivers.

Venezuela borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to
the east, and Brazil to the south. Caribbean islands
such as Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Curaçao, Aruba,
3 Geography
and the Leeward Antilles lie near the Venezuelan coast.
Venezuela has territorial disputes with Guyana (formerly
Main article: Geography of Venezuela
United Kingdom), largely concerning the Essequibo area,
and with Colombia concerning the Gulf of Venezuela.
Venezuela is located in the north of South America; geo- In 1895, after years of diplomatic attempts to solve

3.1

Climate

7

the border dispute, from Venezuela, the dispute over
the Essequibo River border flared up, it was submitted to a “neutral” commission (composed of British,
American, and Russian representatives and without a direct Venezuelan representative), which in 1899 decided
mostly against Venezuela’s claim.[81]
Venezuela’s most significant natural resources are
petroleum and natural gas, iron ore, gold, and other minerals. It also has large areas of arable land and water.

3.1

Climate

Main article: Climate of Venezuela
Los Roques archipelago.
Venezuela is entirely located in the tropics over the

Margarita Island.
TransAndean Highway at Sierra Nevada de Mérida.

east to west. The majority of the population lives in these
mountains.[47]

Federal Dependencies of Venezuela.

Equator to around 12° N. Its climate varies from humid
low-elevation plains, where average annual temperatures
range as high as 35 °C (95.0 °F), to glaciers and highlands
(the páramos) with an average yearly temperature of 8 °C
(46.4 °F). Annual rainfall varies from 430 mm (16.9 in)
in the semiarid portions of the northwest to over 1,000
mm (39.4 in) in the Orinoco Delta of the far east and the
Amazonian Jungle in the south. The precipitation level
is lower in the period from November to April and later
in the year from August to October. These periods are
referred to as hot-humid and cold-dry seasons. Another
characteristic of the climate is this variation throughout
the country by the existence of a mountain range called
“Cordillera de la Costa” which crosses the country from

The country falls into four horizontal temperature zones
based primarily on elevation, having tropical, dry, temperate with dry winters, and polar (alpine tundra) climates, amongst others.[82][83][84] In the tropical zone—
below 800 m (2,625 ft)—temperatures are hot, with
yearly averages ranging between 26 and 28 °C (78.8 and
82.4 °F). The temperate zone ranges between 800 and
2,000 m (2,625 and 6,562 ft) with averages from 12 to
25 °C (53.6 to 77.0 °F); many of Venezuela’s cities, including the capital, lie in this region. Colder conditions
with temperatures from 9 to 11 °C (48.2 to 51.8 °F) are
found in the cool zone between 2,000 and 3,000 m (6,562
and 9,843 ft), especially in the Venezuelan Andes, where
pastureland and permanent snowfield with yearly averages below 8 °C (46 °F) cover land above 3,000 meters
(9,843 ft) in the páramos.
The highest temperature recorded was 42 °C (108 °F)
in Machiques,[85] and the lowest temperature recorded
was −11 °C (12 °F), it has been reported from an uninhabited high altitude at Páramo de Piedras Blancas
(Mérida state),[86] even though no official reports exist,
lower temperatures in the mountains of the Sierra Nevada
de Mérida are known.

8

3.2

3

GEOGRAPHY

Biodiversity

Main articles: Fauna of Venezuela, Flora of Venezuela,
National symbols of Venezuela and List of birds of
Venezuela
Venezuela lies within the Neotropic ecozone; large por-

Mount Roraima.

The araguaney (Tabebuia chrysantha), Venezuela’s national tree.

Campylopterus ensipennis, endemic bird of Venezuela.

tions of the country were originally covered by moist
broadleaf forests. One of 17 megadiverse countries,[87]
Venezuela’s habitats range from the Andes Mountains in
the west to the Amazon Basin rainforest in the south, via
extensive llanos plains and Caribbean coast in the center
and the Orinoco River Delta in the east. They include
xeric scrublands in the extreme northwest and coastal
mangrove forests in the northeast.[47] Its cloud forests and
lowland rainforests are particularly rich.[88]

available on-line as part of the Cybertruffle Robigalia
database.[92] That database includes nearly 3,900 species
of fungi recorded from Venezuela, but is far from complete, and the true total number of fungal species already
known from Venezuela is likely higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi
worldwide have so far been discovered.[93]

Among plants of Venezuela, over 25,000 species of
orchids are found in the country’s cloud forest and lowland rainforest ecosystems.[88] These include the flor
de mayo orchid (Cattleya mossiae), the national flower.
Animals of Venezuela are diverse and include manatees, Venezuela’s national tree is the araguaney, whose charthree-toed sloth, two-toed sloth, Amazon river dolphins, acteristic lushness after the rainy season led novelist
and Orinoco crocodiles, which have been reported to Rómulo Gallegos to name it "[[l]a primavera de oro de
reach up to 6.6 m (22 ft) in length. Venezuela hosts a total los araguaneyes" (the golden spring of the araguaneyes).
of 1,417 bird species, 48 of which are endemic.[89] Im- Venezuela is among the top 20 countries in terms of
portant birds include ibises, ospreys, kingfishers,[88] and endemism.[94] Among its animals, 23% of reptilian and
the yellow-orange Venezuelan troupial, the national bird. 50% of amphibian species are endemic.[94] Although the
Notable mammals include the giant anteater, jaguar, and available information is still very small, a first effort has
the capybara, the world’s largest rodent. More than half been made to estimate the number of fungal species enof Venezuelan avian and mammalian species are found in demic to Venezuela: 1334 species of fungi have been tenthe Amazonian forests south of the Orinoco.[90]
tatively identified as possible endemics of the country.[95]
For the fungi, an account was provided by R.W.G. Some 38% of the over 21,000 plant species known from
Dennis[91] which has been digitized and the records made Venezuela are unique to the country.[94]

9

3.3

Environment

See also: Environmental issues in Venezuela
Venezuela is one of the 10 most biodiverse countries on
the planet, yet it is one of the leaders of deforestation
due to economic and political factors. Each year, roughly
287,600 hectares of forest are permanently destroyed and
other areas are degraded by mining, oil extraction, and
logging. Between 1990 and 2005, Venezuela officially
lost 8.3% of its forest cover, which is about 4.3 million
ha. In response, federal protections for critical habitat
were implemented; for example, 20% to 33% of forested
land is protected.[90] The country’s biosphere reserve is
part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; five
wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[96]
In 2003, 70% of the nation’s land was under conservation management in over 200 protected areas, including
43 national parks.[97] Venezuela’s 43 national parks include Canaima National Park, Morrocoy National Park,
and Mochima National Park. In the far south is a reserve
for the country’s Yanomami tribes. Covering 32,000 mi2
(almost 83,000 km2 ), the area is off-limits to farmers,
miners, and all non-Yanomami settlers.

4

incumbent leftist bloc United Socialist Party of Venezuela
(PSUV), its major allies Fatherland for All (PPT) and
the Communist Party of Venezuela (PCV), and the opposition bloc grouped into the electoral coalition Mesa
de la Unidad Democrática. This includes A New Era
(UNT) together with allied parties Project Venezuela,
Justice First, Movement for Socialism (MAS) and others. Hugo Chávez, the central figure of the Venezuelan
political landscape since his election to the Presidency in
1998 as a political outsider, died in office in early 2013,
and was succeeded by Nicolás Maduro (initially as interim President, before narrowly winning the Venezuelan
presidential election, 2013).

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Venezuela and Politics of
Venezuela
Following the fall of Marcos Pérez Jiménez in 1958,
Venezuelan politics were dominated by the Third Way
Christian democratic COPEI and the center-left social
democratic Democratic Action (AD) parties; this twoparty system was formalized by the puntofijismo arrangement. Economic crises in the 1980s and 1990s led to
a political crisis which resulted in hundreds dead in the
Caracazo riots of 1989, two attempted coups in 1992,
and impeachment of President Carlos Andrés Pérez for
corruption in 1993. A collapse in confidence in the existing parties saw the 1998 election of Hugo Chávez,
who had led the first of the 1992 coup attempts, and
the launch of a "Bolivarian Revolution", beginning with
a 1999 Constituent Assembly to write a new Constitution
of Venezuela.

National Assembly of Venezuela building

The Venezuelan president is elected by a vote, with direct and universal suffrage, and is both head of state and
head of government. The term of office is six years, and
(as of 15 February 2009) a president may be re-elected
an unlimited number of times. The president appoints
the vice president and decides the size and composition
of the cabinet and makes appointments to it with the involvement of the legislature. The president can ask the
legislature to reconsider portions of laws he finds objectionable, but a simple parliamentary majority can override these objections.

The opposition’s attempts to unseat Chávez included the
2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt, the Venezuelan
general strike of 2002–2003, and the Venezuelan recall
referendum, 2004, all of which failed. Chávez was reelected in December 2006, but suffered a significant defeat in 2007 with the narrow rejection of the Venezuelan
constitutional referendum, 2007, which had offered two The president may ask the National Assembly to pass an
packages of constitutional reforms aimed at deepening enabling act granting the ability to rule by decree in specithe Bolivarian Revolution.
fied policy areas; this requires a two-thirds majority in the
Two major blocs of political parties are in Venezuela: the Assembly. Since 1959, six Venezuelan presidents have

10

4 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

been granted such powers.

ergy integration. Globally, it seeks a "multi-polar" world
The unicameral Venezuelan parliament is the Asamblea based on strengthened ties among undeveloped countries.
Nacional (“National Assembly”). The number of members is variable – each state and the Capital district
elect three representatives plus the result of dividing the 4.2 Military
state population by 1.1% of the total population of the
country.[98] Three seats are reserved for representatives See also: National Armed Forces of the Bolivarian
of Venezuela’s indigenous peoples. For the 2011–2016 Republic of Venezuela
period the number of seats is 165.[99] All deputies serve
five-year terms.
The Bolivarian National Armed Forces of the Bolivarian
The voting age in Venezuela is 18 and older. Voting is Republic of Venezuela (Fuerza Armada Nacional Bolivariana, FANB) are the overall unified military forces of
not compulsory.[100]
Venezuela. It includes over 320,150 men and women, unThe legal system of Venezuela belongs to the Continental der Article 328 of the Constitution, in 5 components of
Law tradition. The highest judicial body is the Supreme Ground, Sea and Air. The components of the BolivarTribunal of Justice or Tribunal Supremo de Justicia, ian National Armed Forces are: the Venezuelan Army,
whose magistrates are elected by parliament for a single the Venezuelan Navy, the Venezuelan Air Force, the
twelve-year term. The National Electoral Council (Con- Venezuelan National Guard, and the Venezuelan National
sejo Nacional Electoral, or CNE) is in charge of electoral Militia.
processes; it is formed by five main directors elected by
the National Assembly. Supreme Court president Luisa
Estela Morales said in December 2009 that Venezuela
had moved away from “a rigid division of powers” toward
a system characterized by “intense coordination” between
the branches of government. Morales clarified that each
power must be independent adding that “one thing is separation of powers and another one is division”.[101]

4.1

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Venezuela
Throughout most of the 20th century, Venezuela maintained friendly relations with most Latin American and
Western nations. Relations between Venezuela and the
United States government worsened in 2002, after the
2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt during which the
U.S. government recognized the short-lived interim presidency of Pedro Carmona. In 2015, Venezuela was
declared a national security threat by U.S. President
Barack Obama.[102][103][104] Correspondingly, ties to various Latin American and Middle Eastern countries not
allied to the U.S. have strengthened. For example,
Palestinian foreign minister Riyad al-Maliki declared in
2015 that Venezuela was his country’s “most important
ally”.[105]
Venezuela seeks alternative hemispheric integration via
such proposals as the Bolivarian Alternative for the
Americas trade proposal and the newly launched panLatin American television network teleSUR. Venezuela
is one of the six nations in the world—along with Russia,
Nicaragua, Nauru, Vanuatu, and Tuvalu—to have recognized the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.
Venezuela was a proponent of OAS's decision to adopt
its Anti-Corruption Convention, and is actively working
in the Mercosur trade bloc to push increased trade and en-

A Sukhoi SU-30MKV of the venezuelan air force.

As of 2008, a further 600,000 soldiers were incorporated into a new branch, known as the Armed Reserve.
The President of Venezuela is the commander-in-chief of
the national armed forces. The main roles of the armed
forces are to defend the sovereign national territory of
Venezuela, airspace, and islands, fight against drug trafficking, to search and rescue and, in the case of a natural
disaster, civil protection. All male citizens of Venezuela
have a constitutional duty to register for the military service at the age of 18, which is the age of majority in
Venezuela.

4.3 Law and crime
Main articles: Law of Venezuela, Crime in Venezuela
and Corruption in Venezuela
Corruption in Venezuela is high by world standards, and
was so for much of the 20th century. The discovery of
oil had worsened political corruption,[106] and by the late
1970s, Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonso's description of oil as

11
“the Devil’s excrement” had become a common expression in Venezuela.[107] Venezuela has been ranked one of
the most corrupt countries on the Corruption Perceptions
Index since the survey started in 1995. The 2010 ranking placed Venezuela at number 164, out of 178 ranked
countries.[108] Similarly, the World Justice Project ranked
Venezuela 99th out of 99 countries surveyed in its 2014
Rule of Law Index.[109]
This corruption is shown with Venezuela’s significant involvement in drug trafficking, with Colombian cocaine
and other drugs transiting Venezuela towards the United
States and Europe. Venezuela ranks fourth in the world
for cocaine seizures, behind Colombia, the United States,
and Panama.[110] In 2006 the government’s agency for
combating the Illegal drug trade in Venezuela, ONA, was
incorporated into the office of the Vice-President of the
country. However, many major government and military officials have been known for their involvement with
drug trafficking; especially with the October 2013 incident of men from the Venezuelan National Guard placing
1.3 tons of cocaine on a Paris flight knowing they will not
face charges.[111]
Venezuela is among the most violent places on Earth. In
Venezuela, a person is murdered every 21 minutes.[112]
Violent crimes have been so prevalent in Venezuela that
the government no longer produces the crime data.[113]
In 2013, the homicide rate was approximately 79 per
100,000, one of the world’s highest, having quadrupled in
the past 15 years with over 200,000 people murdered.[114]
The country’s body count of the previous decade mimics
that of the Iraq War and in some instances had more civilian deaths even though the country is at peacetime.[115]
The capital Caracas has one of the greatest homicide rates
of any large city in the world, with 122 homicides per
100,000 residents.[116] In 2008, polls indicated that crime
was the number one concern of voters.[117] Attempts at
fighting crime such as Operation Liberation of the People have been done to crack down on gang-controlled
areas.[118]
Venezuela is especially dangerous toward foreign travelers and investors who are visiting. The United States
State Department and the Government of Canada have
warned foreign visitors that they may be subjected to
robbery, kidnapping for a ransom or sale to terrorist organizations[119] and murder, and that their own
diplomatic travelers are required to travel in armored
vehicles.[120][121] The United Kingdom’s Foreign and
Commonwealth Office has advised against all travel to
Venezuela.[122] Visitors have been murdered during robberies and criminals do not discriminate against their
victims. Recently, former Miss Venezuela 2004 winner Monica Spear and her husband were murdered with
her 5-year-old daughter being shot while visiting, and an
elderly German tourist was murdered only a few weeks
later.[123][124]

inmates.[125] They include; El Rodeo outside of Caracas, Yare Prison in the northern state of Miranda, and
several others. Venezuela’s prison system is heavily
overcrowded; its facilities have capacity for only 14,000
prisoners.[126]

5 States and regions of Venezuela
Main articles: States of Venezuela and Regions of
Venezuela
Venezuela is divided into 23 states (estados), a capital district (distrito capital) corresponding to the city of Caracas,
and the Federal Dependencies (Dependencias Federales,
a special territory). Venezuela is further subdivided into
335 municipalities (municipios); these are subdivided into
over one thousand parishes (parroquias). The states are
grouped into nine administrative regions (regiones administrativas), which were established in 1969 by presidential
decree.
The country can be further divided into ten geographical
areas, some corresponding to climatic and biogeographical regions. In the north are the Venezuelan Andes and
the Coro region, a mountainous tract in the northwest,
holds several sierras and valleys. East of it are lowlands
abutting Lake Maracaibo and the Gulf of Venezuela.
The Central Range runs parallel to the coast and includes
the hills surrounding Caracas; the Eastern Range, separated from the Central Range by the Gulf of Cariaco,
covers all of Sucre and northern Monagas. The Insular
Region includes all of Venezuela’s island possessions:
Nueva Esparta and the various Federal Dependencies.
The Orinoco Delta, which forms a triangle covering Delta
Amacuro, projects northeast into the Atlantic Ocean.

5.1 Largest cities

6 Economy

Main article: Economy of Venezuela
The Central Bank of Venezuela is responsible for developing monetary policy for the Venezuelan bolívar which
is used as currency. The currency is primarily printed
on paper and distributed throughout the country. The
President of the Central Bank of Venezuela is presently
Eudomar Tovar, who also serves as the country’s representative in the International Monetary Fund. According to the Heritage Foundation and the Wall Street Journal, Venezuela has the weakest property rights in the
world, scoring only 5.0 on a scale of 100; expropriation without compensation is not uncommon. Venezuela
has a Market-based mixed economy dominated by the
There are approximately 33 prisons holding about 50,000 petroleum sector, which accounts for roughly a third of
GDP, around 80% of exports, and more than half of

12

6 ECONOMY
poverty rates rise to 66% in 1995[9] as (by 1998) per
capita GDP fell to the same level as 1963, down a third
from its 1978 peak.[10] The 1990s also saw Venezuela experience a major banking crisis in 1994.

Graphical depiction of Venezuela’s product exports in 28 colorcoded categories.

government revenues. Per capita GDP for 2009 was
US$13,000, ranking 85th in the world.[51] Venezuela has
the least expensive petrol in the world because the consumer price of petrol is heavily subsidized.
More than 60% of Venezuela’s international reserves is
in gold, eight times more than the average for the region.
Most of Venezuela’s gold held abroad is located in London. On 25 November 2011, the first of US$11 billion of
repatriated gold bullion arrived in Caracas; Chávez called
the repatriation of gold a “sovereign” step that will help
protect the country’s foreign reserves from the turmoil in
the U.S. and Europe.[128] However government policies
quickly spent down this returned gold and in 2013 the
government was forced to add the dollar reserves of state
owned companies to those of the national bank in order
to reassure the international bond market.[129]

The recovery of oil prices after 2001 boosted the
Venezuelan economy and facilitated social spending.
With social programs such as the Bolivarian Missions,
Venezuela initially made progress in social development
in 2000s, particularly in areas such as health, education, and poverty. Many of the social policies pursued by Chávez and his administration were jumpstarted
by the Millennium Development Goals, eight goals that
Venezuela and 188 other nations agreed to in September 2000.[131] The sustainability of the Bolivarian Missions has been questioned due to the Bolivarian government’s overspending on public works and because the
Chávez government did not save funds for future economic hardships like other OPEC nations; with economic
issues and poverty rising as a result of their policies in
the 2010s.[15][16][17][132][133] In 2003 the government of
Hugo Chávez implemented currency controls after capital flight led to a devaluation of the currency. This led
to the development of a parallel market of dollars in
the subsequent years. The fallout of the 2008 global financial crisis saw a renewed economic downturn. Despite controversial data shared by the Venezuelan government showing that the country had halved malnutrition following one of the UN’s Millennium Development
Goals,[134][22] shortages of staple goods began to occur
in Venezuela and malnutrition began to increase.[22] In
early 2013, Venezuela devalued its currency due to growing shortages in the country.[135][136][137] The shortages
included, and may still include, necessities such as toilet
paper, milk, and flour.[138] Fears rose so high due to the
toilet paper shortage that the government occupied a toilet paper factory, and continued further plans to nationalize other industrial aspects like food distribution.[139][140]
Venezuela’s bond ratings have also decreased multiple
times in 2013 due to decisions by the president Nicolás
Maduro. One of his decisions was to force stores and
their warehouses to sell all of their products, which led to
even more shortages in the future.[141] Venezuela’s outlook has also been deemed negative by most bond-rating
services.[142]

Manufacturing contributed 17% of GDP in 2006.
Venezuela manufactures and exports heavy industry
products such as steel, aluminium and cement, with
production concentrated around Ciudad Guayana, near
the Guri Dam, one of the largest in the world and the
provider of about three-quarters of Venezuela’s electricity. Other notable manufacturing includes electronics
and automobiles, as well as beverages, and foodstuffs.
Agriculture in Venezuela accounts for approximately 3%
of GDP, 10% of the labor force, and at least a quarter of
Venezuela’s land area. Venezuela exports rice, corn, fish,
tropical fruit, coffee, beef, and pork. The country is not 6.1 Petroleum and other resources
self-sufficient in most areas of agriculture. In 2012, total
food consumption was over 26 million metric tonnes, a See also: History of the Venezuelan oil industry and
94.8% increase from 2003.[130]
Energy policy of Venezuela
Since the discovery of oil in the early 20th century,
Venezuela has been one of the world’s leading exporters
of oil, and it is a founding member of OPEC. Previously
an underdeveloped exporter of agricultural commodities
such as coffee and cocoa, oil quickly came to dominate
exports and government revenues. The 1980s oil glut led
to an external debt crisis and a long-running economic
crisis, which saw inflation peak at 100% in 1996 and

Venezuela has the largest oil reserves, and the eighth
largest natural gas reserves in the world, and consistently
ranks among the top ten world crude oil producers.[143]
Compared to the preceding year another 40.4% in crude
oil reserves were proven in 2010, allowing Venezuela to
surpass Saudi Arabia as the country with the largest reserves of this type.[144] The country’s main petroleum

13
deposits are located around and beneath Lake Maracaibo, the Gulf of Venezuela (both in Zulia), and in
the Orinoco River basin (eastern Venezuela), where the
country’s largest reserve is located. Besides the largest
conventional oil reserves and the second-largest natural
gas reserves in the Western Hemisphere,[145] Venezuela
has non-conventional oil deposits (extra-heavy crude oil,
bitumen and tar sands) approximately equal to the world’s
reserves of conventional oil.[146] The electricity sector
in Venezuela is one of the few to rely primarily on
hydropower, and includes the Guri Dam, one of the
Caracas Metro
largest in the world.
In the first half of the 20th century, US oil companies
were heavily involved in Venezuela, initially interested
only in purchasing concessions.[147] In 1943 a new government introduced a 50/50 split in profits between the
government and the oil industry. In 1960, with a newly
installed democratic government, Hydrocarbons Minister
Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonso led the creation of OPEC, the
consortium of oil-producing countries aiming to support
the price of oil.[148]
In 1973, Venezuela voted to nationalize its oil industry outright, effective 1 January 1976, with Petróleos
de Venezuela (PDVSA) taking over and presiding over
a number of holding companies; in subsequent years,
Venezuela built a vast refining and marketing system in
the U.S. and Europe.[149] In the 1990s PDVSA became
more independent from the government and presided
over an apertura (opening) in which it invited in foreign
investment. Under Hugo Chávez a 2001 law placed limits
on foreign investment.
The state oil company PDVSA played a key role in the
December 2002 – February 2003 national strike which
sought President Chávez' resignation. Managers and
skilled highly paid technicians of PDVSA shut down the
plants and left their posts, and by some reports sabotaged equipment, and petroleum production and refining by PDVSA almost ceased. Activities eventually were
slowly restarted by returning and substitute oil workers.
As a result of the strike, around 40% of the company’s
workforce (around 18,000 workers) were dismissed for
“dereliction of duty” during the strike.[150][151]

6.2

Transport

Main article: Transport in Venezuela
Venezuela is connected to the world primarily via air
(Venezuela’s airports include the Simón Bolívar International Airport in Maiquetía, near Caracas and La Chinita
International Airport near Maracaibo) and sea (with major sea ports at La Guaira, Maracaibo and Puerto Cabello). In the south and east the Amazon rainforest region has limited cross-border transport; in the west, there
is a mountainous border of over 2,213 kilometres (1,375
mi) shared with Colombia. The Orinoco River is navigable by oceangoing vessels up to 400 kilometres (250 mi)

inland, and connects the major industrial city of Ciudad
Guayana to the Atlantic Ocean.
Venezuela has a limited national railway system, which
has no active rail connections to other countries. The government of Hugo Chávez tried to invest in expanding it,
but Venezuela’s rail project is on hold due to Venezuela
not being able to pay the $7.5 billion and owing China
Railway nearly $500 million.[152] Several major cities
have metro systems; the Caracas Metro has been operating since 1983. The Maracaibo Metro and Valencia
Metro were opened more recently. Venezuela has a road
network of nearly 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi) in
length, placing the country around 45th in the world;[153]
around a third of roads are paved.

7 Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Venezuela
Further information: List of metropolitan areas in
Venezuela
Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin
America;[7][8] the vast majority of Venezuelans live in the
cities of the north, especially in the capital Caracas, which
is also the largest city. About 93% of the population lives
in urban areas in northern Venezuela; 73% live less than
100 kilometres (62 mi) from the coastline.[156] According to a study by sociologists of the Central University of
Venezuela, over 1.5 million Venezuelans, or about 4%
to 6% of the country’s population, left Venezuela following the Bolivarian Revolution.[157][158] Though almost
half of Venezuela’s land area lies south of the Orinoco,
only 5% of Venezuelans live there. The largest and most
important city south of the Orinoco is Ciudad Guayana,
which is the sixth most populous conurbation.[159] Other
major cities include Barquisimeto, Valencia, Maracay,
Maracaibo, Mérida, San Cristóbal and Barcelona–Puerto
la Cruz.

14

7.1

7 DEMOGRAPHICS

Ethnic groups

Main articles: Mestizo Venezuelan, White Venezuelan,
Afro-Venezuelan, Italo-Venezuelan, Arab Venezuelan
and Chinese Venezuelan
The people of Venezuela come from a variety of heritages. It is estimated that the majority of the population is of mestizo, or mixed, ethnic heritage. Nevertheless, in the 2011 census, which Venezuelans were asked
to identify themselves according to their customs and ancestry, the term mestizo was excluded from the answers.
The majority claimed to be mestizo or white — 51.6%
and 43.6%, respectively.[1] Practically half of the population claimed to be moreno, a term used throughout
Ibero-America that in this case means “dark-skinned” or
“brown-skinned”, as opposed to having a lighter skin (this
term connotes skin color or tone, rather than facial features or descent).

Canaries.[166][167] With the start of oil exploitation in the
early 20th century, companies from the United States began establishing operations in Venezuela, bringing with
them US citizens. Later, during and after the war,
new waves of immigrants from other parts of Europe,
the Middle East, and China began; many were encouraged by government-established immigration programs
and lenient immigration policies.[168] During the 20th
century, Venezuela, along with the rest of Latin America,
received millions of immigrants from Europe.[169][170]
This was especially true post-World War II, as a consequence of war-ridden Europe.[169][170][171] During the
1970s, while experiencing an oil-export boom, Venezuela
received millions of immigrants from Ecuador, Colombia, and the Dominican Republic.[171] Due to the belief that this immigration influx depressed wages, some
Venezuelans opposed European immigration.[171] The
Venezuelan government, however, were actively recruiting immigrants from Eastern Europe to fill a need for
engineers.[169] Millions of Colombians, as well as Middle Eastern and Haitian populations would continue immigrating to Venezuela into the early 21st century.[168]

Ethnic minorities in Venezuela consist of groups that
descend mainly from African or indigenous peoples;
2.8% identified themselves as "black" and 0.7% as
afrodescendiente (Afro-descendant), 2.6% claimed to be- According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published
long to indigenous peoples, and 1.2% answered “other by the US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants,
Venezuela hosted a population of refugee and asylum
races”.[1][1]
seekers from Colombia numbering 252,200 in 2007,
Among indigenous people, 58% were Wayúu, 7% Warao, and 10,600 new asylum seekers entered Venezuela in
5% Kariña, 4% Pemón, 3% Piaroa, 3% Jivi, 3% Añu, 2007.[172] Between 500,000 and one million illegal im3% Cumanágoto, 2% Yukpa, 2% Chaima and 1% migrants are estimated to be living in the country.[173]
Yanomami; the remaining 9% consisted of other indigeThe total indigenous population of the country is estinous nations.[160]
mated at about 500 thousand people (2.8% of the toAccording to an autosomal DNA genetic study conducted tal), distributed among 40 indigenous peoples.[174] The
in 2008 by the University of Brasília (UNB), the com- Constitution recognizes the multi-ethnic, pluri-cultural,
position of Venezuela’s population is 60.60% of Euro- and multilingual character of the country and includes
pean contribution, 23% of indigenous contribution, and a chapter devoted to indigenous peoples’ rights, which
16.30% of African contribution.[161]
opened up spaces for their political inclusion at national
and local level in 1999. Most indigenous peoples are concentrated in eight states along Venezuela’s borders with
Brazil, Guyana, and Colombia, and the majority groups
are the Wayuu (west), the Warao (east), the Yanomami
(south), and the Pemon (southeast).

7.2 Languages
Main article: Languages of Venezuela
Venezuelans around the world. This map also shows land area
of the neighboring country of Guyana, which is not part of
Venezuela

During the colonial period and until after the Second World War, many of the European immigrants to
Venezuela came from the Canary Islands,[162] which had
a significant cultural impact on the cuisine and customs
of Venezuela.[163][164][165] These influences on Venezuela
has led to the nation being called the 8th island of the

Although the country is mostly monolingual Spanish,
many languages are spoken in Venezuela. In addition
to Spanish, the Constitution recognizes more than thirty
indigenous languages, including Wayuu, Warao, Pemón,
and many others for the official use of the indigenous peoples, mostly with few speakers – less than 1% of the total
population. Immigrants, in addition to Spanish, speak
their own languages. Arabic is spoken by Lebanese and
Syrian colonies on Isla de Margarita, Maracaibo, Punto
Fijo, Puerto la Cruz, El Tigre, Maracay, and Caracas.

8.1

Art

Portuguese is spoken not only by the Portuguese community in Santa Elena de Uairén but also by much of the
population due to its proximity to Brazil. The German
community speaks their native language, while the Colonia Tovar speaks mostly an Alemannic dialect of German
called coloniero. English is the most widely used foreign
language in demand and is spoken by many professionals,
academics, and members of the upper and middle classes
as a result of oil exploration by foreign companies, in addition to its acceptance as a lingua franca. Culturally, English is common in southern towns like El Callao, for the
English-speaking native influence evident in folk songs
and calypso Venezuelan and French with English voices.
Italian instruction is guaranteed by the presence of a constant number of schools and private institutions because
the Italian government considered mandatory language
teaching at school level. Other languages spoken by large
communities in the country are Chinese and Galician,
among others.

15
The culture of Venezuela is a melting pot, which includes

The joropo, as depicted in a 1912 drawing by Eloy Palacios.

7.3

Religion

Religion in Venezuela according to the 2011 census.[175]
Catholic (71%)
Protestant (17%)
agnostic/atheist (8%)
Other religion (3%)
No answer (1%)
Main article: Religion in Venezuela

mainly three different families: The indigenous, African,
and Spanish. The first two cultures were in turn differentiated according to the tribes. Acculturation and assimilation, typical of a cultural syncretism, caused an arrival at
the current Venezuelan culture, similar in many respects
to the rest of Latin America, although the natural environment means that there are important differences.
The indigenous influence is limited to a few words of vocabulary and gastronomy and many place names. The
African influence in the same way, in addition to musical instruments like the drum. The Spanish influence
was predominant (due to the colonization process and
the socioeconomic structure it created) and in particular
came from the regions of Andalusia and Extremadura, the
places of origin of most settlers in the Caribbean during
the colonial era. An example of this includes buildings,
music, the Catholic religion, and language.

Spanish influences are evident in bullfights and certain
features of gastronomy. Venezuela was also enriched by
other streams of Indian and European origin in the 19th
century, especially from France. In the latest stage in the
major cities and regions oil of U.S. origin and manifestations of the new immigration of Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, increasing the already complex cultural mosaic.
According to the 2011 census, 88 percent of the populaFor example, from United States comes the influence of
tion is Christian, primarily Roman Catholic (71%), and
taste for baseball, US-style fast food, and current archithe remaining 17 percent Protestant. The Venezuelans
tectural constructions.
whitout religion are 8% (atheist 2% and agnostic or indifferent 6%), almost 3% of the population follow other
religion (1% of them are of santeria).[175]
8.1 Art

8

Culture

Main article: Art of Venezuela

Venezuelan art was initially dominated by religious moMain articles: Culture of Venezuela, Music of Venezuela, tifs. However, in the late 19th century, artists began
Sport in Venezuela and Immigration to Venezuela
emphasizing historical and heroic representations of the

16

8 CULTURE

8.3 Music

Young Mother by Venezuela-born Arturo Michelena, 1889

country’s struggle for independence.[176][177] This move
was led by Martín Tovar y Tovar.[177][178] Modernism
took over in the 20th century.[178] Notable Venezuelan Cover of Alma Llanera
artists include Arturo Michelena, Cristóbal Rojas,
Armando Reverón, Manuel Cabré; the kinetic artists Main article: Music of Venezuela
Jesús Soto, Gego and Carlos Cruz-Díez;[178] and contemporary artists as Marisol and Yucef Merhi.[179][180]
Indigenous musical styles of Venezuela are exemplified
by the groups Un Solo Pueblo and Serenata Guayanesa.
The national musical instrument is the cuatro. Typical
musical styles and pieces mainly emerged in and around
8.2 Literature
the llanos region, including Alma Llanera (by Pedro Elías
Gutiérrez and Rafael Bolívar Coronado), Florentino y el
Main article: Venezuelan literature
diablo (by Alberto Arvelo Torrealba), Concierto en la llanura by Juan Vicente Torrealba, and Caballo Viejo (by
Venezuelan literature was originally dominated by Simón Díaz).
Spanish influences; Venezuelan literature originated soon The Zulian gaita is also a very popular style, generally
after the Spanish conquest of the mostly pre-literate in- performed during Christmas. The national dance is the
digenous societies.[181] Following the rise of political lit- joropo.[182] Venezuela has always been a melting pot of
erature during the Venezuelan War of Independence, cultures and this can be seen in the richness and variety
Venezuelan Romanticism, notably expounded by Juan of its musical styles and dances: calipso, bambuco, fulía,
Vicente González, emerged as the first important genre cantos de pilado de maíz, cantos de lavanderas, sebucán,
in the region. Although mainly focused on narrative writ- and maremare.[183] Teresa Carreño was a world-famous
ing, Venezuelan literature was advanced by poets such as 19th century piano virtuoso. In the last years, Classical
Andrés Eloy Blanco and Fermín Toro.
Music has had great performances. The Simón Bolívar
Major writers and novelists include Rómulo Gallegos,
Teresa de la Parra, Arturo Uslar Pietri, Adriano González
León, Miguel Otero Silva, and Mariano Picón Salas. The
great poet and humanist Andrés Bello was also an educator and intellectual (He was also a childhood tutor and
mentor of Simón Bolívar). Others, such as Laureano Vallenilla Lanz and José Gil Fortoul, contributed to Venezuelan Positivism.

Youth Orchestra, under the baton of its principal conductor Gustavo Dudamel and José Antonio Abreu, has
hosted a number of excellent presentations in many European concert halls, notably at the 2007 London Proms,
and has received several honors. The orchestra is the pinnacle of El Sistema, a publicly financed voluntary sector
music education program now being emulated in other
countries.

8.5

Cuisine

In the early 21st century, a movement knwon as “Movida
Acústica Urbana” featured musicians trying to save some
national traditions, creating their own songs but using traditional instruments.[184][185]

8.4

Sport

Main article: Sport in Venezuela
See also: Baseball in Venezuela
The origins of baseball in Venezuela is unclear, although

17
the 2012 Basketball World Olympic Qualifying Tournament and the 2013 FIBA Basketball Americas Championship, which took place in Poliedro de Caracas.
Although not as popular in Venezuela as the rest of South
America, football, spearheaded by the Venezuela national
football team is gaining popularity as well. The sport is
also noted for having an increased focus during the World
Cup.[191] According to the CONMEBOL alphabetical rotation policy established in 2011, Venezuela is scheduled
to host the Copa América every 40 years.[192]
Venezuela is also home to Formula 1 driver, Pastor Maldonado.[193] At the 2012 Spanish Grand Prix, he claimed
his first pole and victory and became the first and only
Venezuelan to have done so in the history of Formula
1.[193] Maldonado has increased the reception of Formula
1 in Venezuela, helping to popularize the sport in the
nation.[194]
In the 2012 Summer Olympics, Venezuelan Rubén Limardo won a gold medal in fencing.[195]

8.5 Cuisine
Main article: Venezuelan cuisine
Estadio Universitario de Caracas

The Venezuelan cuisine, one of the most varied in the
region, reflects the climatic contrasts and cultures coexisting in Venezuela. Among them are hallaca, pabellón
criollo, arepas, pisca andina, tarkarí de chivo, jalea de
mango, and fried camiguanas.

8.6 Other
Internationally, Venezuela has been well documented for
its successes in beauty pageants.[196] Miss Venezuela is
a closely followed event throughout the country, and
Venezuela has received 6 Miss World, 7 Miss Universe,
6 Miss International and 2 Miss Earth titles.[196]
Cachamay Stadium

Venezuela ranks first in the Global Beauties webpage
list as the country with more international pageants titles
won. It also has a Guinness World Record, after Dayana
Mendoza, Miss Universe 2008 from Venezuela crowned
Stefania Fernandez, also from Venezuela as Miss Universe 2009, marking the first time over 50 years in the
competition that a country wins the title in two consecutive years.[197]

it is known that the sport was being played in the nation by
the late 19th century.[186] In the early 20th century, North
American immigrants who came to Venezuela to work in
the nation’s oil industry helped to popularize the sport in
Venezuela.[187] During the 1930s, baseball’s popularity
continued to rise in the country, leading to the foundation of the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League in Venezuela is the most successful country in Miss World
1945, and the sport would soon become the nation’s most and Miss International and is second in the Miss Universe
popular.[188][189]
pageant only surpassed by USA.
The immense popularity of baseball in the country
makes Venezuela a rarity among its South American
neighbors—association football, locally called fútbol, is
the dominant sport in the continent.[187][189][190] However, football, as well as basketball, are among the more
popular sports played in Venezuela.[191] Venezuela hosted

Carlos Raúl Villanueva was the most important Venezuelan architect of the modern era; he designed the Central
University of Venezuela, (a World Heritage Site) and its
Aula Magna. Other notable architectural works include
the Capitolio, the Baralt Theatre, the Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex, and the General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge.

18

11

SEE ALSO

Currently, large numbers of Venezuelan graduates seek
for a future elsewhere due to the country’s troubled economy and heavy crime rate. In a study titled Venezolana Community Abroad. A New Method of Exile by
Thomas Paez, Mercedes Vivas and Juan Rafael Pulido
of the Central University of Venezuela, over 1.35 million Venezuelan college graduates had left the country
since the beginning of the Bolivarian Revolution.[157][158]
It is believed nearly 12% of Venezuelans live abroad with
Ireland becoming a popular destination for students.[200]
According to Claudio Bifano, president of the Venezuelan Academy of Physical, Mathematical and Natural Sciences, more than half of medical graduates in 2013 had
left Venezuela.[201]

10 Health
Main articles: Health care in Venezuela and Mission
Barrio Adentro

Dayana Mendoza, Miss Universe 2008

9

Education

Central University of Venezuela

Main article: Education in Venezuela

Venezuela has a national universal health care system.
The current government has created a program to expand access to health care known as Misión Barrio Adentro,[202][203] although its efficiency and work conditions
have been criticized.[204][205][206] It has reported that
many of the clinics were closed and as of December 2014,
it was estimated that 80% of Barrio Adentro establishments were abandoned in Venezuela.[207][208]
Infant mortality in Venezuela is 19.33 deaths per 1,000
births for 2014, lower than the South American average (by comparison, the U.S. stands at 5.9 deaths per
1,000 births in 2013).[209] Child malnutrition (defined
as stunting or wasting in children under age five) stands
at 17%; Delta Amacuro and Amazonas have the nation’s highest rates.[210] According to the United Nations,
32% of Venezuelans lack adequate sanitation, primarily those living in rural areas.[211] Diseases ranging from
typhoid, yellow fever, cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis B,
and hepatitis D are present in the country.[212] Obesity is
prevalent in approximately 30% of the adult population
in Venezuela.[209]
Venezuela has a total of 150 plants for sewage treatment.
However, still 13% of the population lack access to drinking water, but this number has been dropping.[213]

During the economic crisis observed under President
The literacy rate for the adult population was already 91.1
Maduro’s presidency, medical professionals were forced
[198]
by 1998.
In 2008, 95.2% of the adult population was
to perform outdated treatments on patients.[214]
[199]
Net primary school enrollment rate was at
literate.
91% in 2005.[199] Net secondary enrollment rate was at
63% in 2005.[199] Venezuela has a number of universities, of which the most prestigious are the Central Uni- 11 See also
versity of Venezuela (UCV), founded in Caracas in 1721,
• Index of Venezuela-related articles
the University of Zulia (LUZ) founded in 1891, the University of the Andes (ULA), founded in Mérida State in
• International rankings of Venezuela
1810, and Simón Bolívar University (USB), founded in
Miranda State in 1967.
• List of Venezuelans

19
• Outline of Venezuela

12

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Según los datos estadísticos publicados por el INE, el total de población que se declaró indígena por sexo, arrojó
un resultado de 50,46% hombre y 49,54% mujeres representando 365.920 hombres y 359.208 mujeres para un
total de 725.148 personas que se declararon indígenas de
Venezuela.
Así mismo, se tomó el porcentaje de población por entidad donde el estado Zulia es la entidad con más indígenas
con un 61%, seguido del estado Amazonas con 10%, Bolívar con un 8%, Delta Amacuro con 6%, Anzoátegui 5%,
Sucre 3%, Apure y Monagas 2% mientras que en otras
entidades existe un 3% de población indígena.
Entre tanto, los pueblos indígenas con mayor población
se encuentran los Wayuu 58%, Warao 7%, Kariña 5%,
Pemón 4%, Piaroa, Jivi, Añu, Cumanágoto 3%, Yukpa,
Chaima 2%, el pueblo Yanomami 1% y otros pueblos con
un 9%.

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13 BIBLIOGRAPHY

13 Bibliography
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2002: Coup or Popular Rebellion? The Myth
of a United Venezuela”. Bulletin of Latin American Research (Wiley-Blackwell) 23 (3): 285–302.
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25
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University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-082974. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2010.

14 External links
• (Spanish) E-Government
• (English) Chief of State and Cabinet Members
• (English) Venezuela entry at The World Factbook
• (English) Venezuela at UCB Libraries GovPubs
• (English) Venezuela at DMOZ
• (English) Venezuela from the Library of Congress
Country Studies (1990)
• (English) Venezuela profile from the BBC News
• (Swedish) Geographic data related to Venezuela at
OpenStreetMap
• (English) Maps on Venezuela – Cartographic features
• (English) Key Development Forecasts for Venezuela
from International Futures
• (Arabic) Venezuela and Tourism from Sky Immigration
• Wikimedia Atlas of Venezuela

26

15

15
15.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
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15.2

Images

• File:Abolicion_de_la_esclavitud_en_Venezuela.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Abolicion_de_
la_esclavitud_en_Venezuela.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://encontrarte.aporrea.org/imagenes/103/abolicion-esclavitud1.
jpg Original artist: Unknown
• File:Alma_llanera.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Alma_llanera.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: S/D Original artist: Rafael Bolívar Coronado
• File:Bandera_de_Caracas.svg Source:
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class='image'><img alt='Coat of Arms of Caracas.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Coat_
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width='20'
height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.
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1.5x,
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• File:BatallaCarabobo01.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/BatallaCarabobo01.JPG License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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• File:CarreteraPicoElAguila.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/CarreteraPicoElAguila.jpg License:
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• File:Chavez-WSF2005.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Chavez-WSF2005.jpg License: CC BY 3.0
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• File:Coat_of_arms_of_Venezuela.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Coat_of_arms_of_Venezuela.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Extracted from Flag of Venezuela(state) in the xrmap flag collection 2.9 (ve.svg). Original
artist: Sigge Kotliar

15.2

Images

29

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Cte_cachamay_aereo.jpg Source:
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• File:Decrease2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Decrease2.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
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• File:Dos_Mosquises.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Dos_Mosquises.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
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• File:Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg Source:
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• File:Emblem_of_the_Bolivarian_Alliance_for_the_Americas.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/
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• File:Estadio_de_Béisbol_de_la_UCV_Caracas_4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Estadio_de_
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• File:Flag_of_Bolívar_State.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Flag_of_Bol%C3%ADvar_State.svg
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• File:Flag_of_Lara_State.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Flag_of_Lara_State.svg License: Public
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(talk · contribs)
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CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Guilherme Paula

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