Verification and Validation

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Verification and validation
“IV&V” redirects here. For NASA’s IV&V Facility, see Validation is intended to ensure a product, service, or sysIndependent Verification and Validation Facility.
tem (or portion thereof, or set thereof) result in a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof)
Verification and validation are independent procedures that meets the operational needs of the user. For a new
development flow or verification flow, validation procethat are used together for checking that a product, service, or system meets requirements and specifications dures may involve modeling either flow and using simulations to predict faults or gaps that might lead to invalid
and that it fulfills its intended purpose.[1] These are critical components of a quality management system such as or incomplete verification or development of a product,
ISO 9000. The words “verification” and “validation” are service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof). A
sometimes preceded with “independent”, indicating that set of validation requirements (as defined by the user),
the verification and validation is to be performed by a dis- specifications, and regulations may then be used as a basis
interested third party. “Independent verification and val- for qualifying a development flow or verification flow for
a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set
idation” can be abbreviated as "IV&V".
thereof). Additional validation procedures also include
In practice, the usage of these terms varies. Sometimes those that are designed specifically to ensure that modifithey are even used interchangeably.
cations made to an existing qualified development flow or
The PMBOK guide, a standard adopted by IEEE, defines verification flow will have the effect of producing a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof)
them as follows in its 4th edition:[2]
that meets the initial design requirements, specifications,
• “Validation. The assurance that a product, service, and regulations; these validations help to keep the flow
or system meets the needs of the customer and other qualified. It is a process of establishing evidence that proidentified stakeholders. It often involves acceptance vides a high degree of assurance that a product, service,
and suitability with external customers. Contrast or system accomplishes its intended requirements. This
often involves acceptance of fitness for purpose with end
with verification.”
users and other product stakeholders. This is often an
• “Verification. The evaluation of whether or not a external process.
product, service, or system complies with a regula- It is sometimes said that validation can be expressed by
tion, requirement, specification, or imposed condi- the query “Are you building the right thing?"[3] and vertion. It is often an internal process. Contrast with ification by “Are you building it right?".[3] “Building the
validation.”
right thing” refers back to the user’s needs, while “building it right” checks that the specifications are correctly
implemented by the system. In some contexts, it is re1 Overview
quired to have written requirements for both as well as
formal procedures or protocols for determining compliVerification is intended to check that a product, service, ance.
or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof) meets a set It is entirely possible that a product passes when verified
of design specifications. In the development phase, ver- but fails when validated. This can happen when, say, a
ification procedures involve performing special tests to product is built as per the specifications but the specificamodel or simulate a portion, or the entirety, of a product, tions themselves fail to address the user’s needs.
service or system, then performing a review or analysis
of the modeling results. In the post-development phase,
verification procedures involve regularly repeating tests
devised specifically to ensure that the product, service, or 2 Activities
system continues to meet the initial design requirements,
specifications, and regulations as time progresses. It is a Verification of machinery and equipment usually conprocess that is used to evaluate whether a product, ser- sists of design qualification (DQ), installation qualifivice, or system complies with regulations, specifications, cation (IQ), operational qualification (OQ), and perforor conditions imposed at the start of a development phase. mance qualification (PQ). DQ may be performed by a
Verification can be in development, scale-up, or produc- vendor or by the user, by confirming through review and
tion. This is often an internal process.
testing that the equipment meets the written acquisition
1

2

3 CATEGORIES OF VALIDATION

specification. If the relevant document or manuals of ma- 3 Categories of validation
chinery/equipment are provided by vendors, the later 3Q
needs to be thoroughly performed by the users who work Validation work can generally be categorized by the folin an industrial regulatory environment. Otherwise, the lowing functions:
process of IQ, OQ and PQ is the task of validation. The
typical example of such a case could be the loss or ab• Prospective validation – the missions conducted
sence of vendor’s documentation for legacy equipment
before new items are released to make sure
or do-it-yourself (DIY) assemblies (e.g., cars, computers
the characteristics of the interests which are
etc.) and, therefore, users should endeavour to acquire
functioning properly and which meet safety
DQ document beforehand. Each template of DQ, IQ, OQ
standards.[9][10] Some examples could be legislative
and PQ usually can be found on the internet respectively,
rules, guidelines or proposals,[11][12][13] methods,[14]
whereas the DIY qualifications of machinery/equipment
theories/hypothesis/models[15][16] products and
can be assisted either by the vendor’s training course maservices[17][18]
terials and tutorials, or by the published guidance books,
• Retrospective validation – a process for items that
such as step-by-step series if the acquisition of machinare already in use and distribution or production.
ery/equipment is not bundled with on- site qualification
The validation is performed against the written
services. This kind of the DIY approach is also applicable
specifications or predetermined expectations, based
to the qualifications of software, computer operating sysupon their historical data/evidences that are docutems and a manufacturing process. The most important
mented/recorded. If any critical data is missing,
and critical task as the last step of the activity is to genthen the work can not be processed or can only be
erating and archiving machinery/equipment qualification
completed partially.[9][19][20] The tasks are considreports for auditing purposes, if regulatory compliances
ered necessary if:
are mandatory.
Qualification of machinery/equipment is venue dependent, in particular items that are shock sensitive and require balancing or calibration, and re-qualification needs
to be conducted once the objects are relocated. The
full scales of some equipment qualifications are even
time dependent as consumables are used up (i.e. filters) or springs stretch out, requiring recalibration, and
hence re-certification is necessary when a specified due
time lapse.[4][5] Re-qualification of machinery/equipment
should also be conducted when replacement of parts,
or coupling with another device, or installing a new
application software and restructuring of the computer
which affects especially the pre-settings, such as on
BIOS, registry, disk drive partition table, dynamicallylinked (shared) libraries, or an ini file etc., have been
necessary. In such a situation, the specifications of the
parts/devices/software and restructuring proposals should
be appended to the qualification document whether the
parts/devices/software are genuine or not. Torres and Hyman have discussed the suitability of non genuine parts
for clinical use and provided guidelines for equipment
users to select appropriate substitutes which are capable to avoid adverse effects.[6] In the case when genuine
parts/devices/software are demanded by some of regulatory requirements, then re-qualification does not need to
be conducted on the non genuine assemblies. Instead, the
asset has to be recycled for non regulatory purposes.
When machinery/equipment qualification is conducted
by a standard endorsed third party such as by an ISO standard accredited company for a particular division, the
process is called certification.[7][8] Currently, the coverage of ISO/IEC 15408 certification by an ISO/IEC 27001
accredited organization is limited, the scheme requires a
fair amount of efforts to get popularized.

• prospective validation is missing, inadequate
or flawed.
• the change of legislative regulations or standards affects the compliance of the items being released to the public or market.
• reviving of out-of-use items.
Some of the examples could be validation of:
• ancient
scriptures
that
controversial[21][22]
• clinical decision rules[23]
• data systems[24][25]

remain

• Full-scale validation
• Partial validation – often used for research and pilot
studies if time is constrained. The most important
and significant effects are tested. From an analytical
chemistry perspective, those effects are selectivity,
accuracy, repeatability, linearity and its range.
• Cross-validation
• Re-validation/Locational or Periodical validation –
carried out, for the item of interest that is dismissed, repaired, integrated/coupled, relocated, or
after a specified time lapse. Examples of this
category could be relicencing/renewing driver’s license, recertifying an analytical balance that has
been expired or relocated, and even revalidating
professionals.[26][27] Re-validation may also be conducted when/where a change occurs during the
courses of activities, such as scientific researches
or phases of clinical trial transitions. Examples of
these changes could be

3
• sample matrices[28][29]
• production scales

[30][31]

• population profiles and sizes[32][33]
• out-of-specification] (OOS) investigations,
due to the contamination of testing reagents,
glasswares, the aging of equipment/devices,
or the depreciation of associated assets
etc.[34][35]
In GLP accredited laboratories, verification/revalidation will even be conducted very
often against the monographs of the Ph.Eur.,
IP to cater for multinational needs or USP and
BP etc to cater for national needs.[36] These
laboratories must have method validation as
well.[37]
• Concurrent validation – conducted during a routine
processing of services, manufacturing or engineering etc. Examples of these could be
• duplicated sample analysis for a chemical
assay
• triplicated sample analysis for trace impurities
at the marginalized levels of detection limit,
or/and quantification limit
• single sample analysis for a chemical assay by a
skilled operator with multiplicated online system suitability testings

The tests are based on the concept that the equipment, electronics, analytical operations and samples to be analyzed constitute an integral system
that can be evaluated as such. System suitability
test parameters to be established for a particular
procedure depend on the type of procedure being
validated”.[41] In some cases of analytical chemistry,
a system suitability test could be rather a method
specific than universal. Such examples are chromatographic analysis, which is usually media (column, paper or mobile solvent) sensitive [42][43][44]
However to the date of this writing, this kind of
approaches are limited to some of pharmaceutical
compendial methods, by which the detecting of impurities, or the quality of the intest analyzed are critical (i.e., life and death). This is probably largely due
to
• their intensive labouring demands and
time consumption [45]
• their confinements by the definition of the
term defined by different standards.
To solve this kind of difficulties, some regulatory bodies or compendial methods usually
provide the advices on what the circumstances
or conditions that the performing of a specified system suitability test should be beared and
compulsory.

5 Industry references

These terms generally apply broadly across industries and
institutions. In addition, they may have very specific
meanings and requirements for specific products, reguThe most tested attributes in validation tasks may include, lations, and industries. Some examples:
but are not limited to
• Software and computer systems
Main article: Verification and validation (software)
• Selectivity/specificity

4

Aspects of validation

• Accuracy and precision
• Repeatability
• Reproducibility
• Limit of detection – especially for trace elements
• Limit of quantification
• Curve fitting and its range
• System suitability – In a broad way, it usually includes a test of ruggedness among intercollaborators, or a test of robustness within an organization [38][39][40] However, the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) has specifically defined
it for its administration, as “System suitability testing is an integral part of many analytical procedures.

• Food and Drug
• Pharmaceuticals The design, production, and
distribution of drugs are highly regulated. This
includes software systems. For example in the
USA, the Food and Drug Administration have
regulations in Part 21 of the Code of Federal
Regulations.[46] Nash et al. have published a
book which provides a comprehensive coverage on the various validation topics of pharmaceutical manufacturing processes.[47] Some
companies are taking a risk-based approach to
validating their GAMP system if one understands the regulatory requirements very well
while the most of others follows the conventional process [48][49] It is a part of GxP management. The aspects of validation and verification are even more intense and emphasized

4

9
if an OOS occurs.[50] Very often under this circumstance, a multiplicated sample analysis is
required for conducting the OOS investigation
in a testing laboratory.
• Medical devices The FDA (21 CFR) has validation and verification requirements for medical devices. See guidance:[46][51][52][53] and
ISO 13485

6 See also
• Accreditation
• Change control
• Certification of voting machines
• Comparability

• Manufacturing process and cleaning validation
are compulsory and regulated by the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration [9][54][55][56]

• Cross-validation

• Food hygiene: example

• Integrity Testing

[57]

• Clinical laboratory medicine:
ISO
15198:2004 Clinical laboratory medicine—In
vitro diagnostic medical devices—Validation
of user quality control procedures by the
manufacturer
Main article: Validation (drug manufacture)

NOTES AND REFERENCES

• Formal verification

• ISO 17025
• System testing
• Systematic political science
• Usability testing
• Functional verification

• Health care: example [58]
• Greenhouse gas: ISO 14064 ANSI/ISO: Greenhouse gases — Requirements for greenhouse gas
validation and verification bodies for use in accreditation or other forms of recognition

• Verification and Validation (software)
• Verification and Validation of Computer Simulation
Models

7 Further reading

• Traffic and transport
• Road safety audit
• Periodic motor vehicle inspection
• Aircraft noise: example [59]

Majcen, N.; Taylor, P. (2010). “Practical examples on
traceability, measurement uncertainty and validation in
chemistry” 1 (ISBN 978–92–79–12021–3). European
Union. p. 217.

• Aircraft:

8 External links

• Model:
• (Ni-Cd) cells: example [60]
• ICT Industry: example

[61]

• Civil engineering
• Buildings –
• Roads –
• Bridges –
• Economics
• Accounting
• Agriculture – applications vary from verifying agricultural methodology and production processes to
validating agricultural modeling [62][63][64][65][66]
• Real estate appraisal – audit reporting and
authentication [67]

• Maturity of verification and validation in ICT companies
• Organisational maturity and functional performance

9 Notes and references
[1] Global Harmonization Task Force - Quality Management Systems - Process Validation Guidance
(GHTF/SG3/N99-10:2004 (Edition 2) page 3
[2] IEEE. “IEEE Guide--Adoption of the Project Management Institute (PMI®) Standard A Guide to
the Project Management Body of Knowledge
p.
452.
(PMBOK® Guide)--Fourth Edition”.
doi:10.1109/IEEESTD.2011.6086685.
Retrieved 7
December 2012.
[3] Barry Boehm, Software Engineering Economics, 1981

5

[4] Analytical & Precision Balance Co. “Welcome”. Retrieved 18 March 2008.

(Springer) 27 (2): 207. doi:10.1007/s11239-008-02034.

[5] Scientech. “External Calibration”. Retrieved 18 March
2008.

[17] Ames, D. et al.; Keogh, A.M.; Adams, J.; Harrigan, S.;
Allen, N. (1996). “Prospective validation of the EBASDEP — A short sensitive screening instrument for depression in the physically ill elderly”. European Psychiatry
(Elsevier) 11 (Supplement 4): 361s. doi:10.1016/09249338(96)89148-6.

[6] Torres, Rebecca E.; William A. Hyman (2007).
“Replacement Parts-Identical, Suitable, or Inappropriate?". Retrieved 29 March 2008.
[7] AppLabs. “ISV, IHV Certification Programs”. Archived
from the original on 16 February 2008. Retrieved 26
March 2008.
[8] AppLabs. “AppLabs attains ISO27001:2005 accreditation”. Retrieved 26 March 2008.
[9] “Guideline on general principles of process validation”.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 12 July
2008.
[10] “Prospective validation”. Groupe Novasep. Retrieved 24
September 2008.
[11] Quinn, James et al.; McDermott, D; Stiell, I; Kohn, M;
Wells, G (2006). “Prospective Validation of the San Francisco Syncope Rule to Predict Patients With Serious Outcomes”. Annals of Emergency Medicine (Elsevier) 47 (5):
448–454.
doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2005.11.019.
PMID 16631985.
[12] Sangiovanni, A. et al.; Manini, M; Iavarone, M; Fraquelli, M; Forzenigo, L; Romeo, R; Ronchi, G; Colombo, M
(2007). “Prospective validation of AASLD guidelines for
the early diagnosis of epatocellular carcinoma in cirrhotic
patients”. Digestive and Liver Disease (Elsevier) 40 (5):
A22–A23. doi:10.1016/j.dld.2007.12.064.
[13] Germing, U. et al.; Strupp, C; Kuendgen, A; Isa, S; Knipp,
S; Hildebrandt, B; Giagounidis, A; Aul, C et al. (2006).
“Prospective validation of the WHO proposals for the
classification of myelodysplastic syndromes”. Haematologica 91 (12): 1596–1604. PMID 17145595. Retrieved
24 September 2008.
[14] Sciolla, Rossella et al.; Melis, F; Sinpac, Group (2008).
“Rapid Identification of High-Risk Transient Ischemic
Attacks: Prospective Validation of the ABCD Score”.
Stroke (American Heart Association) 39 (2): 297–
302. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.107.496612. PMID
18174479.
[15] Pfisterer, Matthias et al.; Bertel, O; Bonetti, P; Brunnerlarocca, H; Eberli, F; Erne, P; Galatius, S; Hornig, B et al.
(2008). “Drug-eluting or bare-metal stents forlarge coronary vessel stenting? The BASKET-PROVE (PROspective Validation Examination) trial: Study protocol and design”. American Heart Journal (Mosby-Year Book Inc.)
115 (4): 609–614. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2007.11.011. Retrieved 24 September 2008.
[16] Van Geest-Daalderop, Johanna H. H. et al.; Hutten, Barbara A.; Péquériaux, Nathalie C. V.; Levi, Marcel; Sturk,
Augueste (2008). “Improvement in the regulation of the
vitamin K antagonist acenocoumarol after a standard initial dose regimen: prospective validation of a prescription model”. Journal of Thrombosis and Thrombolysis

[18] Kidwell, Chelsea S. et al.; Starkman, S; Eckstein, M;
Weems, K; Saver, JL (2000). “Identifying Stroke in the
Field: Prospective Validation of the Los Angeles Prehospital Stroke Screen (LAPSS)". Stroke (American Heart
Association) 31 (1): 71–76. doi:10.1161/01.str.31.1.71.
PMID 10625718. Retrieved 24 September 2008.
[19] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. “Ch. 4 PROCESS
VALIDATION in Medical Device Quality Systems Manual". Retrieved 6 August 2009.
[20] Groupe Novasep. “Retrospective validation”. Retrieved
24 September 2008.
[21] Vieth, Erich. “Who changed the Bible and why? Bart
Ehrman’s startling answers”. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
[22] Arlandson, James M. “Domestic violence in Islam”. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
[23] Hart, D.; S.W. Smith (2007). “Retrospective Validation
of a Clinical Decision Rule to Safely Rule Out Subarachnoid Hemorrhage in Emergency Department Headache
Patients”. Annals of Emergency Medicine 50 (3): S102–
S103. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2007.06.388.
[24] Kluger, Michael D. et al. “Retrospective Validation of a
Surveillance System for Unexplained Illness and Death:
New Haven County, Connecticut”. Retrieved 26 September 2008.
[25] Fine, Leon G. et al. “How to evaluate and improve the
quality and credibility of an outcomes database: validation and feedback study on the UK Cardiac Surgery Experience”. Retrieved 26 September 2008.
[26] Department of Health (United Kingdom). “The White
Paper Trust, assurance and safety: The regulation of
health professionals”. Retrieved 30 September 2008.
[27] Merkur, Sherry. “Physician revalidation in Europe”.
Royal College of Physicians. Retrieved 30 September
2008.
[28] Australian Pesticides & Veterinary Medicines Authority (2004). “Guidelines for the Validation of Analytical
Methods for Active Constituent, Agricultural and Veterinary Chemical Products” (PDF). Retrieved 12 July 2009.
[29] Bressolle, Françoise et al.; Brometpetit, M; Audran, M
(1996). “Validation of liquid chromatographic and gas
chromatographic methods Applications to pharmacokinetics”. Journal of Chromatography B 686 (1): 3–10.
doi:10.1016/S0378-4347(96)00088-6.
[30] Peptisyntha S.A. (2009). “Commercial scale production”.
Retrieved 12 July 2009.

6

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[31] del Rosario Alemán, María (2007). “Downstream Processing: A Revalidation Study of Viral Clearance in the
Purification of Monoclonal Antibody CB.Hep-1”. Retrieved 12 July 2009.
[32] El Eman, Khaled et al.; Brown, A; Abdelmalik, P (2009).
“Evaluating Predictors of Geographic Area Population
Size Cut-offs to Manage Re-identification Risk”. Journal
of the American Medical Informatics Association 16 (2):
256–266. doi:10.1197/jamia.M2902. PMC 2649314.
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[33] Tollman, Stephen M et al.; Kahn, Kathleen; Sartorius,
Benn; Collinson, Mark A; Clark, Samuel J; Garenne,
Michel L (2008). “Implications of mortality transition for
primary health care in rural South Africa: a populationbased surveillance study”. Journal of the American
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[34] United States Department of Health & Human Services
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[35] Health Canada (2004). “Validation Guidelines for Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms (GUIDE-0029)". Retrieved 12
July 2009.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

[44] Li, Yong-guo et al.; Chen, M; Chou, GX; Wang, ZT;
Hu, ZB (2004). “Ruggedness/robustness evaluation and
system suitability test on United States Pharmacopoeia
XXVI assay ginsenosides in Asian and American ginseng by high-performance liquid chromatography”. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 35 (5):
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15336355.
[45]

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2009.

[46]
[47] Nash, Robert A. et al. (2003). Pharmaceutical Process Validation: An International Third Edition. Informa
Healthcare. p. 860. ISBN 0-8247-0838-5.
[48] De Caris, Sandro et al. “Risk-based equipment qualification: a user/supplier cooperative approach” (PDF). Retrieved 15 June 2008.
[49] Ocampo, Arlene et al.; Lum, Steven; Chow, Frank (2007).
“Current challenges for FDA-regulated bioanalytical laboratories for human (BA/BE) studies. Part I: defining
the appropriate compliance standards – application of the
principles of FDA GLP and FDA GMP to bioanalytical
laboratories”. The Quality Assurance Journal (John Wiley
& Sons) 11 (1): 3–15. doi:10.1002/qaj.399.

[36] Food and Drug Administration (United States) (May
2001). “Guidance for Industry: Bioanalytical Method
Validation” (PDF). Retrieved 12 July 2009.

[50] “Guidance for Industry:
Investigating Out-ofSpecification (OOS) Test Results for Pharmaceutical
Production” (PDF). Food and Drug Administration
(United States). 2006. Retrieved 12 July 2009.

[37] Method
Validation;
Method-Validation/

[51] “Guidance for Industry: Cybersecurity for Networked
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http://www.caspharma.com/

[38] Health Sciences Authority. “Guidance Notes on Analytical Method Validation: Methodology” (PDF). Retrieved
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[39] Heyden, Y. Vander et al.; S.W. Smith (2001). “Guidance for robustness/ruggedness tests in method validation”. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis (Elsevier) 24 (5–6): 723–753. doi:10.1016/S07317085(00)00529-X. PMID 11248467.
[40] Ermer, Joachim; John H. McB. Miller (2005). Method
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[41] “Calibration of dissolution test apparatus (USP apparatus
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[42] Szsz, Gy. et al.; Gyimesi-Forrás, K.; Budvári-Bárány,
Zs. (1998). “Optimized and Validated HPLC Methods for Compendial Quality Assessment. III. Testing of Optical Purity Applying 1-Acid-Glycoprotein
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[43] Agilent. “System suitability testing for Aripiprazole quality control with the Agilent 1120 Compact LC and ZORBAX C-18 columns”. Retrieved 29 June 2009.

[52] “General Principles of Software validation; Final Guidance for Industry and FDA Staff” (PDF). Food and Drug
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[53] “Guidance for Industry and FDA Staff: Medical Device
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[54] “Guide to inspections validation of cleaning processes”.
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[55] Nassani, Mowafak. “Cleaning validation in the pharmaceutical industry”. Retrieved 20 March 2008.
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[57] “Discussion Paper On Proposed Draft Guidelines For The
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Retrieved 10 February 2011.

7

[58] http://www.transfusionguidelines.org.uk/docs/pdfs/oig_
tools_qa_bb_e-issue_validation.pdf
[59] http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/68/in01_731.pdf
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[62] Masako, Tsujimoto. “Verification of genetic recombination by hypha fusion of Pyricularia oryzas using transducing gene as marker. (the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries Natl. Agricultural Res. Center S).”. Retrieved 20 March 2008.
[63] Vollmer-Sanders, Carrie Lynn et al. “Implications of the
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[64] Haboudane, Driss et al.
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vegetation indices and novel algorithms for predicting
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[66] Randolph, Susan et al. “Monitoring the Realization of the
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[67] Pruitt, Kirk; Ryan Paul Chamberlain. “Method and system for authenticating appraisal reports”. Retrieved 15
September 2008.

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10.1

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• Verification and validation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verification_and_validation?oldid=629834356 Contributors: Deb,
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Avoided, DepartedUser4, Addbot, SpellingBot, TutterMouse, CanadianLinuxUser, Wireless friend, TundraGreen, JakobVoss, Alfie66,
Luckas-bot, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, Citation bot, MithrasPriest, Maxis ftw, LilHelpa, Capricorn42, LordArtemis,
Shirik, FrescoBot, Thayts, Oashi, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Gulbenk, JSo9-10, RjwilmsiBot, DexDor, Jeffspc88mx, JackStoneS, Sustainableengineering, RustyRoad, ZéroBot, H3llBot, MajorVariola, Crm1003, Donner60, Ego White Tray, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar,
Amr.rs, RichardOSmith, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Wbm1058, Ramaksoud2000, Ninabhm, PhnomPencil, Altaïr, T.hetton, BattyBot,
HairyWoodpecker, Btd7, Kuldeepsheoran1, Rcbart, Bizioo, Onpeters, Jixtacom, Monkbot and Anonymous: 131

10.2

Images

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

10.3

Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

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