Water Quality
Content
01/23/2009
Monday: List of at least 5 journals that have aquatic topics • • • • Water quality Water pollution Water resources Lake management
Water quality
• •
Pure and essential character Utility of the water
○ Drinking water ○ Industry ○ Agriculture
Water pollution
•
Human caused deviation from the norm that degrades its use
•
Impairment of the suitability of water for any of its benifitial uses (actual or potential) by human caused changes in the quality of the water
Types of pollution • • Thermal Chemical
○ Toxins/metals ○ Nutrients
• • •
Organic matter Sediment Pathogens
Point-source pollution
• •
Pollution that can be traced to a specific source Examples: storm water and sewer pipe
Non Point source pollution • • • Agriculture Mining Forestry
Water quality criteria
•
Value or limit associated that elicit a response
Water quality standards • • Criteria taken and done via rule making to establish requirements No human activity can result in an increase of ambient water temperature by more than 5 degrees. • • No drop in oxygen by more than 5mg Done to assure criteria are met
01/23/2009
1956 – Federal Water Pollution Control Act (first significant water quality legislation)
•
First attempt of the federal government to address water pollution nationally
• • •
Construction grants for sewage treatment facilities 5-year grants for research and planning for water quality control Federal Water Pollution Control Federation established (Cincinnati, Ohio)
•
Network established to collect water quality data
1965 – Water Quality Act
•
Required states to develop and submit qater quality standards for its interstate water and tributaries. And the federal government was empowered to review and accept/reject states’ water quality standards
•
More $$ for treatment facilities, construction and technical assistance
01/23/2009
1972 – Federal water Pollution Control Act (earlier laws did not address interastate waters and agriculture was not covered, modified several times since). • Section 101 – ambitious objective to restore and maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the nations waters. ○ Federal $ provided for treatment ○ Area-wide waste treatment management planning ○ $ for research and demonstration ○ Nodischarge into navigable waters ○ Fishable and swimmable waters by 1983 (since modified) ○ Prohibited discharge of toxic pollutants
•
Section 303 – Water Quality Standards and Implementation Plants (completed) ○ Required states to submit standards for EPA approval that meet or exceed national standards ○ Continuous planning
•
Section 304 – Information and Guidelines
01/23/2009
○ Requires EPA to supply state agencies with guidelines for identifying and evaluating the nature and extent of non-point source pollutants ○ Established processes, procedures and methods to control pollution resulting from non-point activities (agriculture, forestry, mining)
•
Section 402 – National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) ○ Permits required for discharge of pollutants ○ States develop their own programs that are approved by EPA ○ States must submit permit applications and recommendations to EPA
•
Section 404 – permits for Dredge and Fill Materials (wetland protection included)
•
Section 208 – Area-wide Waste Treatment Management
○ Designate problem areas ○ Continued planning and funding for non-point source control
01/23/2009
•
Section 315 – Clean Lakes ○ On a biennial basis each state must submit to EPA an identification and classification of all publically owned lakes ○ Must describe procedures for pollution control ○ Must list lakes that do not meet water quality standards ○ Must assess trends in water quality
•
Section 319 – non-point source management program (emphasis on BMP = best management practices) ○ Where most comes from
Overally, greater federal power to set and enforce standards (inter and intrastate). Plus, specifically addresses non-point pollution. Law has been modified many times to adjust to scientific concerns and technology
01/23/2009
2/3 of water that falls is transported elsewhere Brazil 20% of global water Residence time is how long a drop of water stays in a body of water Ocean = 2,500 years Atmosphere = 8 days Streams/Rivers = 1 month Lakes = depends on depth
Infiltration capacity
•
Depends on ○ Amount of water already in soil ○ Type of landscape
Wal-mart parking lot (will not infiltrate) Vegetation present Surface flow
•
Figure 5-4 (runoff) ○ Rising limb
01/23/2009
Mostly surface runoff Dust, “urban slober”
Picks up things ○ Falling limb Less surface runoff More subsurface flow Deposits things
01/23/2009
○ Results Bar configuration changes Sand bars move Changed water chemistry (on decending limb)
Figure 5-2 • Clearcutting makes rain more of a problem
Figure 1.10
•
Floodplain: when river hits peak flow and goes into floodplan it spreads nutrients into the floodplain as well as collecting the organic matter from the floodplains back into the river
•
“reach” of a river
○ encompasses pools and riffles riffles where bedrock/gravel deposits make water go at low flow as it travels over bedrock very little sand and clay
01/23/2009
Pool Zone of scour, deposits materials in it
Stream order classification
• • • •
1, channel, doesn’t always have water 2, where two headwater streams come together 3, where two second order streams come together 4, (hinkson)
4x as many 1st order as 2nd etc etc direct relationship between length of stream and order on world scale, very few 8th order/ 9th order streams
Move from forested to impervious surfaces
• • •
Decreased deep infiltration (i.e. aquifer refill) from 25% to 5% Increased runoff from 10% to 55% Decreased evapo-transpiration 40% to 30%
01/23/2009
Ecosystem • Def: Where chemicals cycles and energy flows within various compartments • Boundries?
○ There aren’t but it depends on what scope you want to use ○ Watershed is best use of limits
•
Ecosystem obeys laws of thermodynamics ○ Lake Tahoe basin Ship food in
•
Structure ○ Physical setting ○ Organization
Food web Native community Introductions Exotics
01/23/2009
○ Function How energy is transferred Green Plant Food Chain/Web • Upland ○ Grass Bunny • Primary ○ Herbivore Carnivore Lake • Sun and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous) lead to Coyote
01/23/2009
- Primary producers
○ Algae (vary in size remarkably) ○ Macrophytes ○ Periphyton (attached algae)
- Herbivores Macroinvertebrates Zooplankton Water fleas Filtration feeders Fish
- Carnivores Bass Birds
Autochthonous energy • Nutrients N + P > Primary > H > C > C
01/23/2009
○ All contribute to dead OM which returns as N and P watershed, nutrient cycling ○ Some herbivores also eat dead organic matter
• •
Bacteria are taking C-C-C and O2 and offputting CO2. Allochthonous energy
○ Energy produced outside the ecosystem and is transported in as dead organic matter ○ Example:
corn stock floating to a reservoir Decaying organic carbon Hog waste pool
○ Human impacts Organic carbon additions Add fish species Fertilizer runoff
01/23/2009
○ We depend on nutrient income from year to year in order to have primary production ○ Wet/dry year affects organic productivity
Dry year could have 1/3 of organic production wet year has • How do lakes get on landscape? ○ Glacier Carves it out Huge chunks of ice breaking off being left behind
Melting Caved in “kettle lake” Raisin cookie without the cookie
○ Oxbow lakes ○ Volcano lakes
Alaska Indonesia
01/23/2009
○ Dams 4k year history ○ Landslide lakes ○ Techtronic lakes
Lake Tahoe Faults cause movements
○ Sinkhole Karst topography Erodes out, limestone, collapses
○ Wind activity Playa lakes Nebraska sandhill lakes
Lake names • • • Margin of lake is littoral Benthic is bottom Perfundal is near bottom
01/23/2009
• •
Pelegic Trophogenic
○ Enough light for green plant production P/R > 1 R is respiration P is production
This level is determined by Water clarity • • • Which is determined by density of algo cells Clay materials/ suspended particles Color
Determines depth of light Hoping Production exceeds respiration
•
Tropholytic ○ Example being ocean floor ○ Depends on rain of organic matter from surface
01/23/2009
○ Below trophogenic ○ P/R < 1
•
Light ○ Some bounces off ○ Some enters body of water
Some of this scatters Some taken in by algae
DOC
Absorption
(color) absorbs light
○ Long wavelengths absorbed in upper centimeters Thus warmer ○ Decrease in light with depth
Light meter reading
01/23/2009
• • •
One meter, half the light is gone 2 meters, half of that half if gone (25% of surface) etc
O -------------------100% (Z) | | | | |
•
Productivity is a surface phenomena ○ Light decreases exponentially in a lake
•
Long wavelengths of light heat the lake but they are gone within a couple centimeters ○ Wind energy distributes it ○ Mixed water column
01/23/2009
○ Infrared molecules are absorbed at the surface
Color • • • Green, nutrients, algae cells, Dissolved organic carbon absorbs blue Blue, less nutrients, etc Brown lakes: suspended clay
Water molecule
• • • •
Dipole molecule H+ H+ (covalently bonded) to self, hydrogen bonded to each other
O-
break bonds to go from ice to water
○ ice tends to be fairly pure of chemicals compared to lake water ○ add of heat stenches hydrogen bonds
Density
01/23/2009
temp (see handout)
4 degrees C is max density of water beyond that hydrogen bonds are stretched which makes less hydrogen bonds in a given area ice floats because perfect tetrahedral cold water sinks warm goes to surface
Why does lake look blue? (test question)
Figure 3-4 Iced over lake
01/23/2009
1 meter ice 15%
depth 4 degrees
Melting
• • •
Lake warms incrementally (spring overturn) 4,5,6,7 sunny and not to winding will cause heat energy to not mix all the way to the bottom
○ determined by depth color of water
clear absorb more heat
hills/orientation of lake in relation to wind direction
01/23/2009
○ See figure 4-1 Mixed water, above curve is called Epilimnion Metalimnion
•
Also called Thermocline
Hypolimnion
In high temperatures a secondary thermocline can form Can effect algae
Uv light destroying cells etc
In early fall/ late summer Stratified lake Cooling of epilimnion Deepen epilimnion until thermal stratification is eradicated Cool bottom to 4 degrees, cool surface, creates ice
○ This kind of lake is called dimictic
01/23/2009
Winter stratification, cold over warm water Spring overturn, mixed Summer, warm over cold water Fall overturn then repeat
North are usually dimictic South they usually are monometic
• •
Only stratified summer Rest of the year it mixes without ice cover
Inflow • • Most lakes have around 28-32C temp in summer inflow comes in cold and will sink to bottom water column or interflow • cold water sinks
Oxygen
01/23/2009
• • • • •
Mirrors productivity of lake
Top of lake
------P/R (sent down lake as organic matter) O2
•
O2 decreases with depth ○ Depletion of O2 relates to increase of organic matter ○ Cold water holds more oxygen than warm water ○ Oxygen could go up with depth if bottom is colder and lakes lack organic matter
•
Oligotrophic ○ Low in nutrients, low in biomass, low in organic material ○ Tend to be clear, no alpha cells ○ O2 with depth
•
Eutrophic ○ Low clarity
01/23/2009
○ High nutrients ○ O2 depleation with depth
•
Mesotrophic ○ Between the two ○ 60% resivours in Missouri ○ 20% are Eutrophic ○ 10% are Oligotrophic
•
Hypereutrophic ○ Think about it
•
Problem ○ Warm surface, O2 depleation with depth ○ Increase temp 10 degrees, double metabolic activity (bacteria)
Water concentrations
•
Mg/l ppm (part per million)
01/23/2009
○ 0.040 mg/L P (phosphorous) • Mg/l ppb (parts per billion) ○ 40gm/L P
Total Particulate Dissolved
40 mg/L PO4-P
•
-P means weight of Phosphorous
40 mg/L PO4
Turbidity
•
NTU ○ Measure of tingle effect of light Hinkson data 8
01/23/2009
20 (rain started before this sample) 100 80 54
stable flow 10 12 13 10 11
variance of hinkson 3 to 300 NTU TP 2-718 ug/c
•
LOTO ○ 1980 15 ug/c TP 18 ug/L
01/23/2009
○ 1981 47 ug/L 168 ug/L
Cations in water sample
•
Ca ○ 15 mg L
•
Mg ○ 4.1 mg L
•
Na ○ 6.3 mg L
•
K ○ 2.3 mg L
Ozark • Ca ○ 24 mg L • Mg ○ 9 mg L
01/23/2009
•
Na ○ 3 mg L
•
K ○ 2 mg L
Anions
•
HCO3 ○ 58 mg L
•
SO4 ○ 11 mg L
•
Cl ○ 8 mg L
Ozark • HCO3 ○ 64 mg L • SO4 ○ 9 mg L • Cl ○ 4 mg L
01/23/2009
meq/L
•
charge measurement via its weight
Na+ Cl-
•
Good indicators of mammalian contamination
Hinkson
•
Highest turbidity ○ Lowest conductivity
Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting
•
01/23/2009
1998 – EPA sets goal for states to have criteria by 2003 • • 50% of monitored surface waters impacted by excess nutrients nutrients most common impairment causing pollutant
2003 • No states meet deadline ○ Nutrients are naturally occurring ○ Nutrients are not direct cause of impairments ○ Nutrients/algae are required for a healthy aquatic ecosystem ○ Diverse population of water bodies with multiple uses
2005
•
MoDNR and EPA agree on plan of action in July, with first stakeholders meeting in October ○ Focus on lakes/reservoirs first, followed by streams/rivers then wetlands
01/23/2009
○ Stakeholders include agency personnel, industry and agriculture representatives, environmental groups, scientists and general public
2007 • Scientific sub-committee formed in January ○ After 15 months many ideas had been discussed but none accepted by stakeholders 2008 • • Approach for setting nutrient criteria for reservoirs submitted to MO Clean Water Commission in April
Suggested Approaches
•
Impairment-based Approach ○ Reduce nutrients to levels that eliminate impairments associated with high concentrations of algae.
01/23/2009
Designate use Identify impairment • Relate impairment to Algal Chlorophyll (biomass) ○ Correlate Algal Chlorophyll to Nutrient Concentration • Problems ○ Difficult to identify impairments for some uses ○ Impairments that are identifiable do not always relate to algal chlorophyll levels
Drinking water odor problems Nutrient scale • Low nutrient and chlorophyll concentrations ○ Optimal range of water quality for swimming Really low ○ Optimal range of water quality for fish production mid to mid-high Reference Approach
01/23/2009
•
Reduce nutrient levels to match those that existed prior to human impacts. ○ Reference water bodies with little to no human impact Use this data to set criteria For example
16 lakes designated as pristine • take 75% percentile sets phosphorous criteria
•
If reference lakes are not available or numerous enough, criteria may be set using distribution of data from population of lakes or using EPA’s regional data.
Reservoirs
•
Focus on phosphorus ○ Consider differences in reservoirs Surface area = 10 – 53,800 acres Mean Depth = 4 – 62 feet Watershed = 80 – 4,000,000 acres
01/23/2009
Forest = 0-95% Grass = 0-78% Crop = 0 – 74% Urban 0 – 96%
•
Ecoregions ○ Decision Matrix for Phosphorus Influence of morphology, hydrology and watershed Identify “reference” phosphorus levels
○ Plains, highlands and border 88 reservoirs in plains 37 in highlands 16 in border
•
Decision Matrix ○ Influence of morphology, hydrology and watershed Plains % Historic Prairie, Dam Height and Residence Time
01/23/2009
because
•
Historic prairie land cover provides a measure of the inherent nutrient levels found in the soil in which reservoirs were built
•
Shallow reservoirs mix sporadically, increasing internal loading of nutrients, deeper reservoirs have a large volume of water that acts to dilute nutrient inputs
•
Residence Time is a theoretical measure of how long it takes inflows to move through a reservoir
○ Residence time = reservoir volume / average annual inflow volume ○ 300/100 = residence time of 3 years
(measured in acre/feet) logner residence time means
01/23/2009
increased sedimentation of nutrients
increased de-nitrification increased dilution of nutrient inputs
Residence Times in Missouri reservoirs range from <1 month to >6 years.
Shorter residence time, higher phosphorous
Higher residence time, lower phosphorous
Ozark Border and Ozark Highlands Dam Height
Reference phosphorus levels • • • No point sources of CAFOs within the watershed <20% of watershed in combined crop and urban coverage >50% of watershed in dominant historic land cover
01/23/2009
Took these water values • • Protect last 10% of range with least phosphorus Listed past 75% as above expected level of phosphorous
Zone A
•
Reservoirs that are either below 10th percentile line or predicted to be below said line
•
Phosphorus levels are lower than measured in most regional reservoirs – protect from degrading
•
Site specific phosphorus criterion set on long-term mean
Zone B • Reservoirs that are between 10th and 75th percentile lines or are predicted to be above 75th percentile line. • Phorphorus levels are comparable to most regional reservoirs – take no action • Phosphorus criterion will be set at 7th percentile value or predicted value (which ever is highest)
01/23/2009
Nitrogen and Chlorophyll
•
Base nitrogen and chlorophyll criteria on phosphorus criteria and desired relationship between parameters.
P= 1degree R= CCC to
• •
CO2 O2
P/R < 1
• •
Lots of respiration Depends on outside
P/R> 1 • Fixing carbon
01/23/2009
•
Net producer of organic material
First order stream
• •
Light limited, canopy cover, depends on outside nutrients Fairly low nutrients in headwaters
Bigger stream • • • Outside of canopy cover Autochonous growth of organic material More fine particulate material
Wet Lands
•
Values ○ Habitat ○ Water quality
01/23/2009
• •
Defined: wet soil and adapted vegetation Major plants:
○ mosses ○ Grasses – sedges (seagass) ○ Reeds – (cattail, common reed) ○ Trees ( mangroves, cypress, water willow, tupelo)
• •
Hydrology – open and closed (peat?) Wetland types
○ Bog mosses (closed, accumulate organic matter) ○ Marsh – grasses (open, not much buildup, washed away)
Extremely biologically productive ○ Swamp – trees (open) • Water quality ○ Slow water movement ○ High productivity ○ Nutrient demand
01/23/2009
Helps reduce nutrients ○ Organic matter Biomass, living and dead, provides surface area to filter pollutants ○ Microbial activity Hydrophyte • Water loving plants
Stream ecosystems
•
Nutrient spiraling ○ Nutrients = nitrogen, phosphorous, inorganic carbon ○ Energy = reduced carbon ○ Nutrients being picked up, transported and eventually deposited downstream
•
Rocky bottom of streams ○ Rocks flowing with nutrients ○ With light coming in ○ Algae develops, covers rocks
01/23/2009
○ Reason: light, nutrients and stability ○ Bubbles in algae growth
Photosynthesis Taking in CO2, releasing O2 A tension develops on bubble Lower cells get shaded out by algae growing on top of it. Lift occurs
Paraphyte chunk lifts and hits turbulence of stream
Break apart Able to reproduce in stream
○ Benthic Attached ○ Suspended algae In the stream ○ Relationships
01/23/2009
Benthic algae and nutrients Can correlate Can not relate due to
• • •
Light limitation Grazing by snails etc Flow
○ Flood can scour rocks, eliminate growth Forested streams Agriculture/row crop uplands
Some increase over time
Discharge from effluents Massive increase over time Does increased phosphorous and nitrogen increase algal growth on rocks? Phosphorous
01/23/2009
•
some increased growth
Nitrogen • Most increased growth
Both • Less
% forest increase decrease in phosphorous, nitrogen
○ Watershed area Surrogate for time in the system More algae per unit phosphorous • • Has spent more time growing algal cells Has grown into resources
Forest and nutrients • If area is calculated compared to % forest and % cropland ○ Can predict chlorophyll levels ○ Can explain 90% of variation
○ World wide
01/23/2009
Area relating to time algae cells has spent in stream Levels out Lake v. streams
A lot more chlorophyll in lake than streams at every level of phosphorus • • • Less light limitation Less flush from storms Stream must wait for benthic to be seed for in stream growth
•
Agriculture ○ Per person per year 1,000 kg of water for 1kg for corn 2,000 kg of water for 1kg of rice 620,000 gallons of water to sustain each American per year
○ Ag biggest polluter Provides
01/23/2009
Sediment • 21 metric tons lost from ag land per hectare
nutrients • • fertilizer CAFO – confined animal feeding operation
○ Hogs ○ Poultry
Grown on marginally productive land Cheap land Food for animals transported in from iowa, illinois, north missouri
Produces animal waste sulfur waste pits
01/23/2009
dumped as nutrient amendment on land
sometimes crop land, pasture land.
High in phosphorous same as dairy waste
Low in nitrogen
Animal equivalence Number of chickens to equal output of human Number of hogs equal to output of one human
• • • •
Sow Dairy cow Chicken Turkey
Waste Rich in nutrients High in phosphorous
01/23/2009
75% of soils that have received manure to provide nutrients
• • Previously
saturated with phosphorous
○ As recently as 25 years ago Smaller operations Part of grain produced were fed to animals People doing both row crop and animal husbandry
Now Producing same number of hogs but in high concentration Result Tremendous amount of nutrients added to landscape Nitrogen application has ramped up production
•
Can’t really apply it when plants need it the most
01/23/2009
•
Peak of growing season
○ For corn: july-august ○ Applied in Winter
NH4, bacteria nitrify it to NO3 NO3 runs through soil, really soluble Have to apply enough nitrogen to account for some loss and residual nitrogen will be available for plant
Ag production in same area Factors for bumper crop • Weather ○ Rain at right time • Temp
Bumper year produces
01/23/2009
•
Lower prices
Adding little extra nitrogen provides best chances for bumper crop
We have moved from system of Grain produced Animals taken care of Waste put back in for grain production
To piecing this system out Concentrating it
○ Little bit of nutrient slipping off farm is trivial economically Except, these amounts effect aquatic ecosystems Tragedy of the commons
○ High in phosphorous Low in nitrogen Trying to satisfy that demand
Produces runoff of high phosphorus and low nitrogen
01/23/2009
•
Danger: select for blue green algae that are nitrogen fixers
•
Really don’t want them in aquatic ecosystem
○ We put more nitrogen on land than we harvest Solutions • • Riparian forest buffer system Conservation Tillage
○ Harvest corn ○ Throw non-crop parts back to cover the soil
Blunts rainfall Reduces sediment loss
CAFO contribution to water quality Low flow – should be able to see it in nutrients such as potassium, etc
01/23/2009
• • •
Identified 100 streams with no cafos or cafos in next watershed Combination of forest and ag Picking up presence of CAFOs in streams, separate from cropland
○ Signs Nitrogen, phosphorous Enough effluent that we see saturation in some areas
•
Conservation tillage ○ Harvest produce, leave residual on landscape, organic matter on landscape Indication that it reduces sediment runoff Problem: not incorporating anything Tend to have surface runoff of fertilizers and herbicides Hard to pickup at more than one watershed level Push to put it in as general practice to reduce input into lake Erie Tragedy of the commons
01/23/2009
•
All these protection features can be put in but hard to measure outcome
• Urban
Might change in 5-10 years
○ Major push to deal with storm water runoff ○ Change in cities?
Porous pavement, water will go through, still support cars etc Need to reduce the loss of water off of the landscape in cities, encourage infiltration Retention basins could help
Encourages infiltration
Taken out curbs and gutters, curved streets Drainages on either side, natural vegetation
Local plants are ideal for water uptake when it is needed STL using Seattle as a model
01/23/2009
Great Lakes • Impeded by ○ Sediments ○ Exotic species
Sea lamprey Salmon introductions Zebra mussels
○ depletion of fish stocks ○ Polluted
•
Understood must reduce TMDL ○ Canada and US agreed to reduce effluent and nutrient inflow into these water bodies ○ Near shore phosphorous concentration is dropping ○ In certain drainages, watershed management plans, buy-in from stakeholders, reducing loss of nutrients from agriculture
•
Paleolimnology
01/23/2009
○ Taken cores out of sediment ○ Can tack western expansion ○ From sediment increase in diatoms ○ Record of increase of fertility in lake from when Romans put in road ○ During years of severe eutrification, shift away from diatoms toward bluegreen algae and green algae, shift in remaining diatoms toward ones tolerate toward enriched waters ○ Lower phosphorous and nitrogen, haven’t switched back ○ Still altered today
Zebra mussels • • • Entire change of food system Move toward benthic fish away from plankton fish Zebra mussels filter water taking away plankton and providing quite a lot of benthic food for those who can eat mussels
Nacy Radalaiss or Eugene Turner articles • Read abstract, look at tables and figures, read discussion, results ○ Dealing with nitrate
01/23/2009
○ Dealing with decrease in silica ○ Wetlands discussion
Gulf Hypoxia
•
Lake conditions ○ Decreasing O2 with depth ○ Falling Organic Matter ○ Temp decline ○ Salinity cline
Fresh water flowing over top of ocean water Move nutrients off land into water, generating algal bloom In productive areas of the planet, historic hypoxia
•
Streams ○ Output of nitrogen of upper Midwest killing off benthic fish in gulf
01/23/2009
○ Increased input of nitrogen down Mississippi river ○ Tied to use of nitrogen fertilizer
½ of total ○ Costal waters, nitrogen limited Algal biomass and algal chlorophyll linked to nitrogen • Costal zone, rich in sediments, rich in phosphorous ○ Get rid of it? Go anoxic We supply phosphorous in costal zones
Because • • Shallow Surface goes anoxic
Nitrogen going downriver (tied to fertz) Delivering less silica to coasts %BS
•
percent biogenic silica
01/23/2009
○ define: In river Higher nutrients Less flow = more algae
•
diatoms algae ○ silica cells ○ result: recent sediments
increased depositing of BS into sediments of river beds Mississippi river is carrying less silica than previously
Taken up by algae Algae settle out
01/23/2009
Lots of nitrogen and not as much silica, more organic matter heading to gulf than previously
Not normal kind a of algae More green and bluegreen
From upper Midwest Nitrogen, phosphorous silica Diatoms lowering silica content
As it flows Coast Deposit out due to size and salinity • Result: increase in organic matter ○ Pipeline of nitrogen toward coast, a by default nitrogen limited system ○ Most coast waters, nitrogen limited Increase in diatoms
01/23/2009
Because: denitrafication Dumped organic matter • • • • Results in less silica Results in different algae to grow Benthic system arises Fueling of green and bluegreen
Humans Doubling cycling of nitrogen Intensified agriculture Think of it as eutrification of the coasts Maybe tilting toward toxic algal forms
•
Solutions ○ fertilizer admit, “we’re a big part of the problem”
○ reduce broadscale use of anhydrous ammonia ○ can reduce nitrogen off landscape if land put back in wetlands ○ $100 billion for harvestable cropland ○ reduce 20-30% of chlorophyl runoff
01/23/2009
•
How do you convince farmer that there is collective problem from his economically unimportant loss of nitrogen?
• •
reduce anoxia Hypoxia
○ 2-3 mg/L of oxygen • caused by ○ increased productivity ○ reduced oxygen
Mississippi River • increase in ○ Nitrogen and phosphorous ○ Algal growth
•
Results in ○ Using SO2
Gulf • Algal growth sent to gulf
01/23/2009
Solution
• • • •
Limit nitrogen Decrease nitrogen use in agriculture Put wetlands back on landscape Riparian buffer
Chances of • • Reducing chlorophyll in gulf Duration of time oxygen present
Dinoflagalate
•
Human contributions ○ Coastal eutrofication ○ Change in fish demographics ○ Disappearance of top predator fish ○ Response to coastal enrichment ○ Runoff from hog lagoons
01/23/2009
•
Discovered in Chesapeake Bay ○ Has aerosol nuerotoxin
Red tide • Dioflagalate ○ Puts out toxins • Increased by coastal eutrophication
Toxic dioflagalates have increased throughout the globe
Freshwater toxins
•
Cyanobacterial Blooms and the potential for Toxins
Early in season
• • •
Ions in water Nitrogen in water Small algal cells
Late in season • Sucked down nitrogen
01/23/2009
• • •
Precipitated and diluted calcium out of system Shift to blue greens and large bluegreens Net Chlorophyll is going up Microcystin is going up as well
Conclusions
• • • •
Common in Midwest Seasonal patterns are unique Max doesn’t occur in any one season No nice relationship between environmental relationships and algal toxins
Research needs
• • • •
Consistent sampling protocols Predictive models Able to shut down beaches Methods for early detection
01/23/2009
Biochemical Oxygen demand • How much oxygen it takes to break all the carbon bonds
Organic matter
•
C-C-C ○ input oxygen ○ output CO2
Water oxygen saturation during the summer, 8 milligrams / L
Concentrated sewage
• • •
1000mg/L Total suspended solids 500 = 200 mg/L Biochemical Oxygen (BoD) 200
01/23/2009
Would result in water going anoxic due to oxygen demand
Treatment breakdown (important)
•
Primary treatment (results in taking out 1/3 of BoD) ○ Screen out materials ○ Skim out floating materials ○ Settle
•
Secondary treatment (biological, 2/3rds of BoD)
01/23/2009
○ Put oxygen in contact with organic matter (dissolved organic matter) Pushes off CO2. Sprinkle filter • Rocks ○ Zoogleal bacteria Grow on rocks, huge demand on carbon, don’t grow much protoplasm ○ Protozoans ○ Sewage worms
• • •
Spray arms, water pushed over rocks Denitification occurs Don’t flood it with BoD demand, would go anaerobic
Huge biochemical oxygen demand
• •
Want to oxidize to produce CO2 Product bacterial bodies
01/23/2009
Activated sludge
• • •
Water removed from primary treatment Fill tank of up with fresh load of sewage water Zoogleal bacteria in tank
○ Blows off CO2, infused with oxygen from jets • • • Jets of air oxygenizing water Protozoan feeds on zoogleal bacteria Turn off jets and all things settle
○ 2/3rds of bacteria goes to sludge dealing ○ reuse 1/3rd of bacteria goes through trickle filter or holding facility
•
vulnerable to shock ○ PH shifts or pesticides Bacteria will not perform to expectations Bacteria might do “bulking”
01/23/2009
Single cells instead of snot strands Engineers borrow activated sludge to re-seed
What to do with the sludge?
• • • •
Stick in tank and go anaerobic Eternal flame, methane coming off Liquids head to activated sludge Dry solids material
○ Methane used to run the plant or send to city gas supply, natural gas ○ Land apply solids
Milwaukee Minneapolis, St. Paul
○ Not done as much because of heavy metals concentrated in sludge
01/23/2009
Copper, chromium, mercury
Tertiary treatment (3)
• • • •
200 mg / L of BoD 10% left after 1st and second treatment 20mg/L NH4 > N03 solution
○ put in pond ○ spiny wheel ○ membrane filter ○ trickle filter
•
can ○ reduce BoD ○ Phosphorous reduction
Waste waster usually has 5mg/L Get rid of it?
01/23/2009
•
Microbial uptake (treat with bactera/algal uptake)
• •
Alum (Al+3PO+4) treatment Wetlands
○ Phosphorous uptake limited ○ Nitrogen reduction Ammonium (NH4) (toxic to fish) How?
NH4 – NO3 – N2 (BoD) • • Let go anaerobic Without oxygen goes to next best oxyidizing agent
○ NO3 Releases CO2 and N2 Ammonium can kill fish at high ph • Ammonium leads to algal blooms and high BoD • which raises ph
01/23/2009
Putting effluent into lake results in oxygen sag • Lowers oxygen in stream until bacteria satisfy the remaining BoD and oxidize the ammonium to nitrate • Extent of oxygen sag curve depends on
○ Volume of effluent ○ Volume of stream
•
Not much effect of ○ Low effluent high flow
•
Nutrients ○ High unless tertiary treatment ○ Oxidation ○ Uptake
In short, algae growth ○ Curve goes from low prior to effluent input, peaks and declines in a curve due to decreasing and uptake • Extreme conditions ○ Anoxic
01/23/2009
Sewage fungus can grow Algal growth downstream Change in macroinvertibrates
Inverts
• • •
Tolerant – EPT Community > index to fe Subjective score
○ %taxa • taken in comparison to region ○ habitat structure ○ water quality
both effect population structure • Prairie streams ○ Not a wonderful index Some extremely tolerant of harsh conditions.
01/23/2009
○ Nutrient enrichment Response seen most in algae Secondarily in invertebrates
Response will be little dampened in fish Can migrate
Bottled water
• •
When it entered the market, unregulated Tap water is regulated
Water treatment
•
Sand filter ○ Bottom – coarse gravel ○ Top – decreasing grain size
•
Result ○ Bacterial growth
01/23/2009
Binds up particles Bacteria is going to feed off of dissolved organic carbon
Reduces carbon Traps bacteria Traps viruses and protozonians Less particulate resulting water
•
Hit it with chlorine to keep bacteria down, reduce bacterial regrowth ○ Destroys cell membranes Oxidizes bacteria
Drinking water desires
• • • • •
Plentiful No disease No taste No order Cheap
01/23/2009
Sand filter
•
Chlorine/uv light ○ Off into consumers
Water supply from surface waters
• • • •
Algal cells Algal blooms occasional PH bump up Requires
○ Activated carbon Has bonding sights Attaches to dissolved organic carbon
○ Yellow drinking water? High dissolved organic carbon Caused by tanic acids
01/23/2009
Adding chlorine to water with high dissolved organic carbon • Problem: ○ High bladder/colon cancer Complex made by chlorine and organic carbon Limit 100 ppb Now
• ○ Fix: now use NH2Cl Or
80 ppb
Ozone Uv radiation
○ TTHM also called DBP
01/23/2009
Water softening • Hard water ○ High concentrations of divalent metallic ions • Soft water ○ Less calcium and magnesium ○ Less white crust
•
Salt involved is sodium carbonate ○ Replaces calcium/magnesium in the water ○ Results in higher sodium in soft water
Does not interact with soup Up sodium intake
MTBE • Gasoline additive ○ Migrates rapidly through groundwater Cancer precursor Arsonic • Increases tumors
01/23/2009
•
Problem when in water
NO3 - nitrate
•
10 miligrams per liter ○ NO3 – N Goes to blood stream, binds up with bloodstream Cuts off oxygen as it gets to blood
Fecal coliform
• • •
Bacteria indicative in GI tract Also environmental fecal As little as 1 fecal coliform per 100 milligrams of water
Geometric Mean Log 10
01/23/2009
• • •
1000 100 10
3 2 1
average: 370
6/3
log average is 2 or 100
fecal coliform standard
•
in guts of warm blooded animals ○ pretty good tracer of mammal contaminants in water ○ used as means of detecting potential contamination
miner’s canary sign of potential other contaminants
○ fecal coliforms limit for swimming water 200 cfu/100 ml no more than 10% of samples are supposed to have >400cfu/100ml
01/23/2009
○ 1000 cfu/100ml E. coli standard • More specific to human guts
Swim standards
•
Fecal coliforms ○ 200/100ml
•
E. Coli ○ 126/100ml
Lake Phewa, Hepal
•
N
Geometic Mean 10/100ml 53 701 2 41,5000 6,000
Open lake 20 Lake shore 23 Wash sites 25 Stream Pfirke Seti 29 5 5
01/23/2009
0157:H7
• • • •
E. Coli bacteria problem Related to hamburger recalls Can kill Can be related to water supply
Water borne pathogens
•
Cryptosporidium ○ Protozoan ○ Outbreak in Milwaukee
400,000 infected, boil order ○ Occupies wall of intestine ○ Feeds on material going through intestine ○ Releases a toxin ○ Reproduces by fission
01/23/2009
○
Forms cists
○ released out of feces ○ resistant to chlorination ○ survive in environment for awhile ○ 1976 realized could be problem in humans ○ ozone can cut cists numbers ○ more particles pass through during winter
biofilter of sand doesn’t act as well ○ common in South America ○ fairly common, even in pristine waters
•
Cyclospora ○ Causes diarrhea ○ Common on lettuce
•
Giardia ○ Bigger, cists are about twice as large ○ First described by levenhook ○ Common in humans, beavers, mule deer etc
01/23/2009
○
Protozon, releases cists, toxin
•
Entamoeba – protozoan ○ Similar to Giardia
Bacteria • Cholera – Vibrio ○ Humans are only known host ○ Toxins cause rapid loss of fluids and electrolytes ○ Treatment is lots of water and electrolytes ○ Can chlorinate and kill bacteria
•
Salmonilla – Typhoid fever ○ Close cousin to Cholera
•
Legionella ○ 1976 200 year celebration of US over 200 people became ill via convention hotel
01/23/2009
• •
pneumonia like fever like
new genera of bacteria water borne likes moderately hot water
•
associated with water vapor ○ inhaled dealing with it use hotter water don’t breath deeply in weak shower temp no person to person spread
Viruses •
tends to use iron for energy
65% of water borne disease are viruses ○ Hepatitis A
01/23/2009
Can be carried in water Common in North Chicago than South Chicago
○ Polio
North treatment didn’t have sand filtration
○ Rhoto viruses
Good water treatment Sand filtration Removes viruses
○ Associated with shallow wells • Schistosomiasis ○ Worms, problem in parts of Africa • Malaria ○ Water borne with insect host ○ 1million dead per year
Aquatic toxicology
01/23/2009
•
Toxic substances control act ○ Human made chemicals Kepone and Mirex Highly resistance box organic structure Lots of chlorine Used as ant bait in south Tossed waste products in river Don’t break down Persist for a long time Carcinogenic
PCB Poly-chlorinated Bifenals • • Associated with hydraulic fluids Extremely long lived chemicals
DDT Insect control Still used in many parts of the world
01/23/2009
• Love Canal
Bad news bears
Chemical company putting drums of waste in ground
•
Result
Xenobiotics – foreign chemicals Toxin > organism
Exposure
breaking down chemical, top priority for toxicologists
•
want to know, ○ Does chemical degrade? Primary degradation Cleaving anything off original compound (breaking integrity) • DDT (breaks down in anaerobic conditions) ○ DDD Degraded DDT
01/23/2009
Changes it significantly Clear Lake, CA Plankton 250x DDD as the water Fish 12,000x DDD as the water Fish eating birds 80,000x DDD as the water
Ultimate degradation Breaking down into carbon, chloride, nitrogen
○ UV degradation Breaks down chemicals ○ Biodegradation Breaks down via organisms Often have to be acclimated to these new chemicals ○ Influences to degradation PH Temperature Dissolved Oxygen
01/23/2009
○ Water insoluble compounds Don’t break down in water Prefer lipids Tend to persist Attracted to clay surfaces Absorbed by organisms
○ Water soluble compounds Easily accessible Readily degraded
○ Branchy organism Persists more ○ Straight strain compounds Tend to break down • ABS surfactant ○ Hardly degrade • LAS linear surfactant ○ Straight chain, breaks apart on way to sewage treatment plant
01/23/2009
•
Log concentration diagram ○ Straightens S curve ○ Y axis, response of population ○ X axis, concentration ○ LC50
How much of chemical will kill 50% of organisms How toxic it is
Use other markers chemicals to judge relative toxicity
Alter hardness of water Carbonate • • • Calcium carbonate Magnesium carbonate Buffer ph changes
○ Buffers carbonic coming out of fish ○ Soft water, puts out acid, does not buffer PH
01/23/2009
○ EC50 Zooplankton measure Effective concentration • • Toxicants ○ Not all animals are susceptible to toxicants Cold water fish tend to be more susceptible than warm water species Tests use representative species Poke them and they don’t move
Fathead minnow • Represents warm water fish response
Rainbow Trout • Represents cold water fish response
•
Acute exposure ○ Large amounts over short time ○ Effects are death or immobilization
•
Chronic exposure ○ Small amounts over long time
01/23/2009
○ Reduction in fecundity, etc
•
Log
Plastics
•
Toxic to aquatics
Dioxins • Not intentionally released
Tributal 10 • • • • Ship hauls If put in paint slows growth of barnacles Leaches out of paint Extremely toxic to mulluscs, oysters
Water naturally acidic, carbonic acid • • • Picks up chemicals from smoke stacks Drops ph in rain -log of hydrogen ions (pH)
01/23/2009
○ 10 fold from 6 - 7 normal 6.8 some pH 4.5
•
high 3s
drop in pH caused by ○ sulfuric acid (H2SO4) coal burning ○ nitric acid ( HNO3) > N2 > NOx automobiles NH3 from agriculture does neutralizing, but can become nitric acid
○ hydrogen chloride (HCl) burning garbage, industry • Prevailing winds, west to east ○ East Canada ○ Scandinavia
•
Ca(HCO3)
01/23/2009
•
Result
○ Lost species diversity ○ No recruitment, older fish less affected ○ Shellfish and mulluscs are susceptible (pH shock)
Rain drops Summer comes pH comes back up results in seasonal drop
○ eventual emitions controls scrubbers on smoke stacks burning garbage prohibited
○ limestone added to inflow ○ aquatic birds not effected by pH
but effects food web • management
01/23/2009
○ lakes have been fertilized stimulates algal production increases pH
•
Recovery ○ Follows foodweb Algae recover first Zooplankton Benthos Fish
•
Paleolimnology ○ Track changes with Lake cores Diatoms • Neutral to acidic to
• • • •
01/23/2009
• • • • • Hi Emily!
Monday: List of at least 5 journals that have aquatic topics • • • • Water quality Water pollution Water resources Lake management
Water quality
• •
Pure and essential character Utility of the water
○ Drinking water ○ Industry ○ Agriculture
Water pollution
•
Human caused deviation from the norm that degrades its use
•
Impairment of the suitability of water for any of its benifitial uses (actual or potential) by human caused changes in the quality of the water
Types of pollution • • Thermal Chemical
○ Toxins/metals ○ Nutrients
• • •
Organic matter Sediment Pathogens
Point-source pollution
• •
Pollution that can be traced to a specific source Examples: storm water and sewer pipe
Non Point source pollution • • • Agriculture Mining Forestry
Water quality criteria
•
Value or limit associated that elicit a response
Water quality standards • • Criteria taken and done via rule making to establish requirements No human activity can result in an increase of ambient water temperature by more than 5 degrees. • • No drop in oxygen by more than 5mg Done to assure criteria are met
01/23/2009
1956 – Federal Water Pollution Control Act (first significant water quality legislation)
•
First attempt of the federal government to address water pollution nationally
• • •
Construction grants for sewage treatment facilities 5-year grants for research and planning for water quality control Federal Water Pollution Control Federation established (Cincinnati, Ohio)
•
Network established to collect water quality data
1965 – Water Quality Act
•
Required states to develop and submit qater quality standards for its interstate water and tributaries. And the federal government was empowered to review and accept/reject states’ water quality standards
•
More $$ for treatment facilities, construction and technical assistance
01/23/2009
1972 – Federal water Pollution Control Act (earlier laws did not address interastate waters and agriculture was not covered, modified several times since). • Section 101 – ambitious objective to restore and maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the nations waters. ○ Federal $ provided for treatment ○ Area-wide waste treatment management planning ○ $ for research and demonstration ○ Nodischarge into navigable waters ○ Fishable and swimmable waters by 1983 (since modified) ○ Prohibited discharge of toxic pollutants
•
Section 303 – Water Quality Standards and Implementation Plants (completed) ○ Required states to submit standards for EPA approval that meet or exceed national standards ○ Continuous planning
•
Section 304 – Information and Guidelines
01/23/2009
○ Requires EPA to supply state agencies with guidelines for identifying and evaluating the nature and extent of non-point source pollutants ○ Established processes, procedures and methods to control pollution resulting from non-point activities (agriculture, forestry, mining)
•
Section 402 – National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) ○ Permits required for discharge of pollutants ○ States develop their own programs that are approved by EPA ○ States must submit permit applications and recommendations to EPA
•
Section 404 – permits for Dredge and Fill Materials (wetland protection included)
•
Section 208 – Area-wide Waste Treatment Management
○ Designate problem areas ○ Continued planning and funding for non-point source control
01/23/2009
•
Section 315 – Clean Lakes ○ On a biennial basis each state must submit to EPA an identification and classification of all publically owned lakes ○ Must describe procedures for pollution control ○ Must list lakes that do not meet water quality standards ○ Must assess trends in water quality
•
Section 319 – non-point source management program (emphasis on BMP = best management practices) ○ Where most comes from
Overally, greater federal power to set and enforce standards (inter and intrastate). Plus, specifically addresses non-point pollution. Law has been modified many times to adjust to scientific concerns and technology
01/23/2009
2/3 of water that falls is transported elsewhere Brazil 20% of global water Residence time is how long a drop of water stays in a body of water Ocean = 2,500 years Atmosphere = 8 days Streams/Rivers = 1 month Lakes = depends on depth
Infiltration capacity
•
Depends on ○ Amount of water already in soil ○ Type of landscape
Wal-mart parking lot (will not infiltrate) Vegetation present Surface flow
•
Figure 5-4 (runoff) ○ Rising limb
01/23/2009
Mostly surface runoff Dust, “urban slober”
Picks up things ○ Falling limb Less surface runoff More subsurface flow Deposits things
01/23/2009
○ Results Bar configuration changes Sand bars move Changed water chemistry (on decending limb)
Figure 5-2 • Clearcutting makes rain more of a problem
Figure 1.10
•
Floodplain: when river hits peak flow and goes into floodplan it spreads nutrients into the floodplain as well as collecting the organic matter from the floodplains back into the river
•
“reach” of a river
○ encompasses pools and riffles riffles where bedrock/gravel deposits make water go at low flow as it travels over bedrock very little sand and clay
01/23/2009
Pool Zone of scour, deposits materials in it
Stream order classification
• • • •
1, channel, doesn’t always have water 2, where two headwater streams come together 3, where two second order streams come together 4, (hinkson)
4x as many 1st order as 2nd etc etc direct relationship between length of stream and order on world scale, very few 8th order/ 9th order streams
Move from forested to impervious surfaces
• • •
Decreased deep infiltration (i.e. aquifer refill) from 25% to 5% Increased runoff from 10% to 55% Decreased evapo-transpiration 40% to 30%
01/23/2009
Ecosystem • Def: Where chemicals cycles and energy flows within various compartments • Boundries?
○ There aren’t but it depends on what scope you want to use ○ Watershed is best use of limits
•
Ecosystem obeys laws of thermodynamics ○ Lake Tahoe basin Ship food in
•
Structure ○ Physical setting ○ Organization
Food web Native community Introductions Exotics
01/23/2009
○ Function How energy is transferred Green Plant Food Chain/Web • Upland ○ Grass Bunny • Primary ○ Herbivore Carnivore Lake • Sun and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous) lead to Coyote
01/23/2009
- Primary producers
○ Algae (vary in size remarkably) ○ Macrophytes ○ Periphyton (attached algae)
- Herbivores Macroinvertebrates Zooplankton Water fleas Filtration feeders Fish
- Carnivores Bass Birds
Autochthonous energy • Nutrients N + P > Primary > H > C > C
01/23/2009
○ All contribute to dead OM which returns as N and P watershed, nutrient cycling ○ Some herbivores also eat dead organic matter
• •
Bacteria are taking C-C-C and O2 and offputting CO2. Allochthonous energy
○ Energy produced outside the ecosystem and is transported in as dead organic matter ○ Example:
corn stock floating to a reservoir Decaying organic carbon Hog waste pool
○ Human impacts Organic carbon additions Add fish species Fertilizer runoff
01/23/2009
○ We depend on nutrient income from year to year in order to have primary production ○ Wet/dry year affects organic productivity
Dry year could have 1/3 of organic production wet year has • How do lakes get on landscape? ○ Glacier Carves it out Huge chunks of ice breaking off being left behind
Melting Caved in “kettle lake” Raisin cookie without the cookie
○ Oxbow lakes ○ Volcano lakes
Alaska Indonesia
01/23/2009
○ Dams 4k year history ○ Landslide lakes ○ Techtronic lakes
Lake Tahoe Faults cause movements
○ Sinkhole Karst topography Erodes out, limestone, collapses
○ Wind activity Playa lakes Nebraska sandhill lakes
Lake names • • • Margin of lake is littoral Benthic is bottom Perfundal is near bottom
01/23/2009
• •
Pelegic Trophogenic
○ Enough light for green plant production P/R > 1 R is respiration P is production
This level is determined by Water clarity • • • Which is determined by density of algo cells Clay materials/ suspended particles Color
Determines depth of light Hoping Production exceeds respiration
•
Tropholytic ○ Example being ocean floor ○ Depends on rain of organic matter from surface
01/23/2009
○ Below trophogenic ○ P/R < 1
•
Light ○ Some bounces off ○ Some enters body of water
Some of this scatters Some taken in by algae
DOC
Absorption
(color) absorbs light
○ Long wavelengths absorbed in upper centimeters Thus warmer ○ Decrease in light with depth
Light meter reading
01/23/2009
• • •
One meter, half the light is gone 2 meters, half of that half if gone (25% of surface) etc
O -------------------100% (Z) | | | | |
•
Productivity is a surface phenomena ○ Light decreases exponentially in a lake
•
Long wavelengths of light heat the lake but they are gone within a couple centimeters ○ Wind energy distributes it ○ Mixed water column
01/23/2009
○ Infrared molecules are absorbed at the surface
Color • • • Green, nutrients, algae cells, Dissolved organic carbon absorbs blue Blue, less nutrients, etc Brown lakes: suspended clay
Water molecule
• • • •
Dipole molecule H+ H+ (covalently bonded) to self, hydrogen bonded to each other
O-
break bonds to go from ice to water
○ ice tends to be fairly pure of chemicals compared to lake water ○ add of heat stenches hydrogen bonds
Density
01/23/2009
temp (see handout)
4 degrees C is max density of water beyond that hydrogen bonds are stretched which makes less hydrogen bonds in a given area ice floats because perfect tetrahedral cold water sinks warm goes to surface
Why does lake look blue? (test question)
Figure 3-4 Iced over lake
01/23/2009
1 meter ice 15%
depth 4 degrees
Melting
• • •
Lake warms incrementally (spring overturn) 4,5,6,7 sunny and not to winding will cause heat energy to not mix all the way to the bottom
○ determined by depth color of water
clear absorb more heat
hills/orientation of lake in relation to wind direction
01/23/2009
○ See figure 4-1 Mixed water, above curve is called Epilimnion Metalimnion
•
Also called Thermocline
Hypolimnion
In high temperatures a secondary thermocline can form Can effect algae
Uv light destroying cells etc
In early fall/ late summer Stratified lake Cooling of epilimnion Deepen epilimnion until thermal stratification is eradicated Cool bottom to 4 degrees, cool surface, creates ice
○ This kind of lake is called dimictic
01/23/2009
Winter stratification, cold over warm water Spring overturn, mixed Summer, warm over cold water Fall overturn then repeat
North are usually dimictic South they usually are monometic
• •
Only stratified summer Rest of the year it mixes without ice cover
Inflow • • Most lakes have around 28-32C temp in summer inflow comes in cold and will sink to bottom water column or interflow • cold water sinks
Oxygen
01/23/2009
• • • • •
Mirrors productivity of lake
Top of lake
------P/R (sent down lake as organic matter) O2
•
O2 decreases with depth ○ Depletion of O2 relates to increase of organic matter ○ Cold water holds more oxygen than warm water ○ Oxygen could go up with depth if bottom is colder and lakes lack organic matter
•
Oligotrophic ○ Low in nutrients, low in biomass, low in organic material ○ Tend to be clear, no alpha cells ○ O2 with depth
•
Eutrophic ○ Low clarity
01/23/2009
○ High nutrients ○ O2 depleation with depth
•
Mesotrophic ○ Between the two ○ 60% resivours in Missouri ○ 20% are Eutrophic ○ 10% are Oligotrophic
•
Hypereutrophic ○ Think about it
•
Problem ○ Warm surface, O2 depleation with depth ○ Increase temp 10 degrees, double metabolic activity (bacteria)
Water concentrations
•
Mg/l ppm (part per million)
01/23/2009
○ 0.040 mg/L P (phosphorous) • Mg/l ppb (parts per billion) ○ 40gm/L P
Total Particulate Dissolved
40 mg/L PO4-P
•
-P means weight of Phosphorous
40 mg/L PO4
Turbidity
•
NTU ○ Measure of tingle effect of light Hinkson data 8
01/23/2009
20 (rain started before this sample) 100 80 54
stable flow 10 12 13 10 11
variance of hinkson 3 to 300 NTU TP 2-718 ug/c
•
LOTO ○ 1980 15 ug/c TP 18 ug/L
01/23/2009
○ 1981 47 ug/L 168 ug/L
Cations in water sample
•
Ca ○ 15 mg L
•
Mg ○ 4.1 mg L
•
Na ○ 6.3 mg L
•
K ○ 2.3 mg L
Ozark • Ca ○ 24 mg L • Mg ○ 9 mg L
01/23/2009
•
Na ○ 3 mg L
•
K ○ 2 mg L
Anions
•
HCO3 ○ 58 mg L
•
SO4 ○ 11 mg L
•
Cl ○ 8 mg L
Ozark • HCO3 ○ 64 mg L • SO4 ○ 9 mg L • Cl ○ 4 mg L
01/23/2009
meq/L
•
charge measurement via its weight
Na+ Cl-
•
Good indicators of mammalian contamination
Hinkson
•
Highest turbidity ○ Lowest conductivity
Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting
•
01/23/2009
1998 – EPA sets goal for states to have criteria by 2003 • • 50% of monitored surface waters impacted by excess nutrients nutrients most common impairment causing pollutant
2003 • No states meet deadline ○ Nutrients are naturally occurring ○ Nutrients are not direct cause of impairments ○ Nutrients/algae are required for a healthy aquatic ecosystem ○ Diverse population of water bodies with multiple uses
2005
•
MoDNR and EPA agree on plan of action in July, with first stakeholders meeting in October ○ Focus on lakes/reservoirs first, followed by streams/rivers then wetlands
01/23/2009
○ Stakeholders include agency personnel, industry and agriculture representatives, environmental groups, scientists and general public
2007 • Scientific sub-committee formed in January ○ After 15 months many ideas had been discussed but none accepted by stakeholders 2008 • • Approach for setting nutrient criteria for reservoirs submitted to MO Clean Water Commission in April
Suggested Approaches
•
Impairment-based Approach ○ Reduce nutrients to levels that eliminate impairments associated with high concentrations of algae.
01/23/2009
Designate use Identify impairment • Relate impairment to Algal Chlorophyll (biomass) ○ Correlate Algal Chlorophyll to Nutrient Concentration • Problems ○ Difficult to identify impairments for some uses ○ Impairments that are identifiable do not always relate to algal chlorophyll levels
Drinking water odor problems Nutrient scale • Low nutrient and chlorophyll concentrations ○ Optimal range of water quality for swimming Really low ○ Optimal range of water quality for fish production mid to mid-high Reference Approach
01/23/2009
•
Reduce nutrient levels to match those that existed prior to human impacts. ○ Reference water bodies with little to no human impact Use this data to set criteria For example
16 lakes designated as pristine • take 75% percentile sets phosphorous criteria
•
If reference lakes are not available or numerous enough, criteria may be set using distribution of data from population of lakes or using EPA’s regional data.
Reservoirs
•
Focus on phosphorus ○ Consider differences in reservoirs Surface area = 10 – 53,800 acres Mean Depth = 4 – 62 feet Watershed = 80 – 4,000,000 acres
01/23/2009
Forest = 0-95% Grass = 0-78% Crop = 0 – 74% Urban 0 – 96%
•
Ecoregions ○ Decision Matrix for Phosphorus Influence of morphology, hydrology and watershed Identify “reference” phosphorus levels
○ Plains, highlands and border 88 reservoirs in plains 37 in highlands 16 in border
•
Decision Matrix ○ Influence of morphology, hydrology and watershed Plains % Historic Prairie, Dam Height and Residence Time
01/23/2009
because
•
Historic prairie land cover provides a measure of the inherent nutrient levels found in the soil in which reservoirs were built
•
Shallow reservoirs mix sporadically, increasing internal loading of nutrients, deeper reservoirs have a large volume of water that acts to dilute nutrient inputs
•
Residence Time is a theoretical measure of how long it takes inflows to move through a reservoir
○ Residence time = reservoir volume / average annual inflow volume ○ 300/100 = residence time of 3 years
(measured in acre/feet) logner residence time means
01/23/2009
increased sedimentation of nutrients
increased de-nitrification increased dilution of nutrient inputs
Residence Times in Missouri reservoirs range from <1 month to >6 years.
Shorter residence time, higher phosphorous
Higher residence time, lower phosphorous
Ozark Border and Ozark Highlands Dam Height
Reference phosphorus levels • • • No point sources of CAFOs within the watershed <20% of watershed in combined crop and urban coverage >50% of watershed in dominant historic land cover
01/23/2009
Took these water values • • Protect last 10% of range with least phosphorus Listed past 75% as above expected level of phosphorous
Zone A
•
Reservoirs that are either below 10th percentile line or predicted to be below said line
•
Phosphorus levels are lower than measured in most regional reservoirs – protect from degrading
•
Site specific phosphorus criterion set on long-term mean
Zone B • Reservoirs that are between 10th and 75th percentile lines or are predicted to be above 75th percentile line. • Phorphorus levels are comparable to most regional reservoirs – take no action • Phosphorus criterion will be set at 7th percentile value or predicted value (which ever is highest)
01/23/2009
Nitrogen and Chlorophyll
•
Base nitrogen and chlorophyll criteria on phosphorus criteria and desired relationship between parameters.
P= 1degree R= CCC to
• •
CO2 O2
P/R < 1
• •
Lots of respiration Depends on outside
P/R> 1 • Fixing carbon
01/23/2009
•
Net producer of organic material
First order stream
• •
Light limited, canopy cover, depends on outside nutrients Fairly low nutrients in headwaters
Bigger stream • • • Outside of canopy cover Autochonous growth of organic material More fine particulate material
Wet Lands
•
Values ○ Habitat ○ Water quality
01/23/2009
• •
Defined: wet soil and adapted vegetation Major plants:
○ mosses ○ Grasses – sedges (seagass) ○ Reeds – (cattail, common reed) ○ Trees ( mangroves, cypress, water willow, tupelo)
• •
Hydrology – open and closed (peat?) Wetland types
○ Bog mosses (closed, accumulate organic matter) ○ Marsh – grasses (open, not much buildup, washed away)
Extremely biologically productive ○ Swamp – trees (open) • Water quality ○ Slow water movement ○ High productivity ○ Nutrient demand
01/23/2009
Helps reduce nutrients ○ Organic matter Biomass, living and dead, provides surface area to filter pollutants ○ Microbial activity Hydrophyte • Water loving plants
Stream ecosystems
•
Nutrient spiraling ○ Nutrients = nitrogen, phosphorous, inorganic carbon ○ Energy = reduced carbon ○ Nutrients being picked up, transported and eventually deposited downstream
•
Rocky bottom of streams ○ Rocks flowing with nutrients ○ With light coming in ○ Algae develops, covers rocks
01/23/2009
○ Reason: light, nutrients and stability ○ Bubbles in algae growth
Photosynthesis Taking in CO2, releasing O2 A tension develops on bubble Lower cells get shaded out by algae growing on top of it. Lift occurs
Paraphyte chunk lifts and hits turbulence of stream
Break apart Able to reproduce in stream
○ Benthic Attached ○ Suspended algae In the stream ○ Relationships
01/23/2009
Benthic algae and nutrients Can correlate Can not relate due to
• • •
Light limitation Grazing by snails etc Flow
○ Flood can scour rocks, eliminate growth Forested streams Agriculture/row crop uplands
Some increase over time
Discharge from effluents Massive increase over time Does increased phosphorous and nitrogen increase algal growth on rocks? Phosphorous
01/23/2009
•
some increased growth
Nitrogen • Most increased growth
Both • Less
% forest increase decrease in phosphorous, nitrogen
○ Watershed area Surrogate for time in the system More algae per unit phosphorous • • Has spent more time growing algal cells Has grown into resources
Forest and nutrients • If area is calculated compared to % forest and % cropland ○ Can predict chlorophyll levels ○ Can explain 90% of variation
○ World wide
01/23/2009
Area relating to time algae cells has spent in stream Levels out Lake v. streams
A lot more chlorophyll in lake than streams at every level of phosphorus • • • Less light limitation Less flush from storms Stream must wait for benthic to be seed for in stream growth
•
Agriculture ○ Per person per year 1,000 kg of water for 1kg for corn 2,000 kg of water for 1kg of rice 620,000 gallons of water to sustain each American per year
○ Ag biggest polluter Provides
01/23/2009
Sediment • 21 metric tons lost from ag land per hectare
nutrients • • fertilizer CAFO – confined animal feeding operation
○ Hogs ○ Poultry
Grown on marginally productive land Cheap land Food for animals transported in from iowa, illinois, north missouri
Produces animal waste sulfur waste pits
01/23/2009
dumped as nutrient amendment on land
sometimes crop land, pasture land.
High in phosphorous same as dairy waste
Low in nitrogen
Animal equivalence Number of chickens to equal output of human Number of hogs equal to output of one human
• • • •
Sow Dairy cow Chicken Turkey
Waste Rich in nutrients High in phosphorous
01/23/2009
75% of soils that have received manure to provide nutrients
• • Previously
saturated with phosphorous
○ As recently as 25 years ago Smaller operations Part of grain produced were fed to animals People doing both row crop and animal husbandry
Now Producing same number of hogs but in high concentration Result Tremendous amount of nutrients added to landscape Nitrogen application has ramped up production
•
Can’t really apply it when plants need it the most
01/23/2009
•
Peak of growing season
○ For corn: july-august ○ Applied in Winter
NH4, bacteria nitrify it to NO3 NO3 runs through soil, really soluble Have to apply enough nitrogen to account for some loss and residual nitrogen will be available for plant
Ag production in same area Factors for bumper crop • Weather ○ Rain at right time • Temp
Bumper year produces
01/23/2009
•
Lower prices
Adding little extra nitrogen provides best chances for bumper crop
We have moved from system of Grain produced Animals taken care of Waste put back in for grain production
To piecing this system out Concentrating it
○ Little bit of nutrient slipping off farm is trivial economically Except, these amounts effect aquatic ecosystems Tragedy of the commons
○ High in phosphorous Low in nitrogen Trying to satisfy that demand
Produces runoff of high phosphorus and low nitrogen
01/23/2009
•
Danger: select for blue green algae that are nitrogen fixers
•
Really don’t want them in aquatic ecosystem
○ We put more nitrogen on land than we harvest Solutions • • Riparian forest buffer system Conservation Tillage
○ Harvest corn ○ Throw non-crop parts back to cover the soil
Blunts rainfall Reduces sediment loss
CAFO contribution to water quality Low flow – should be able to see it in nutrients such as potassium, etc
01/23/2009
• • •
Identified 100 streams with no cafos or cafos in next watershed Combination of forest and ag Picking up presence of CAFOs in streams, separate from cropland
○ Signs Nitrogen, phosphorous Enough effluent that we see saturation in some areas
•
Conservation tillage ○ Harvest produce, leave residual on landscape, organic matter on landscape Indication that it reduces sediment runoff Problem: not incorporating anything Tend to have surface runoff of fertilizers and herbicides Hard to pickup at more than one watershed level Push to put it in as general practice to reduce input into lake Erie Tragedy of the commons
01/23/2009
•
All these protection features can be put in but hard to measure outcome
• Urban
Might change in 5-10 years
○ Major push to deal with storm water runoff ○ Change in cities?
Porous pavement, water will go through, still support cars etc Need to reduce the loss of water off of the landscape in cities, encourage infiltration Retention basins could help
Encourages infiltration
Taken out curbs and gutters, curved streets Drainages on either side, natural vegetation
Local plants are ideal for water uptake when it is needed STL using Seattle as a model
01/23/2009
Great Lakes • Impeded by ○ Sediments ○ Exotic species
Sea lamprey Salmon introductions Zebra mussels
○ depletion of fish stocks ○ Polluted
•
Understood must reduce TMDL ○ Canada and US agreed to reduce effluent and nutrient inflow into these water bodies ○ Near shore phosphorous concentration is dropping ○ In certain drainages, watershed management plans, buy-in from stakeholders, reducing loss of nutrients from agriculture
•
Paleolimnology
01/23/2009
○ Taken cores out of sediment ○ Can tack western expansion ○ From sediment increase in diatoms ○ Record of increase of fertility in lake from when Romans put in road ○ During years of severe eutrification, shift away from diatoms toward bluegreen algae and green algae, shift in remaining diatoms toward ones tolerate toward enriched waters ○ Lower phosphorous and nitrogen, haven’t switched back ○ Still altered today
Zebra mussels • • • Entire change of food system Move toward benthic fish away from plankton fish Zebra mussels filter water taking away plankton and providing quite a lot of benthic food for those who can eat mussels
Nacy Radalaiss or Eugene Turner articles • Read abstract, look at tables and figures, read discussion, results ○ Dealing with nitrate
01/23/2009
○ Dealing with decrease in silica ○ Wetlands discussion
Gulf Hypoxia
•
Lake conditions ○ Decreasing O2 with depth ○ Falling Organic Matter ○ Temp decline ○ Salinity cline
Fresh water flowing over top of ocean water Move nutrients off land into water, generating algal bloom In productive areas of the planet, historic hypoxia
•
Streams ○ Output of nitrogen of upper Midwest killing off benthic fish in gulf
01/23/2009
○ Increased input of nitrogen down Mississippi river ○ Tied to use of nitrogen fertilizer
½ of total ○ Costal waters, nitrogen limited Algal biomass and algal chlorophyll linked to nitrogen • Costal zone, rich in sediments, rich in phosphorous ○ Get rid of it? Go anoxic We supply phosphorous in costal zones
Because • • Shallow Surface goes anoxic
Nitrogen going downriver (tied to fertz) Delivering less silica to coasts %BS
•
percent biogenic silica
01/23/2009
○ define: In river Higher nutrients Less flow = more algae
•
diatoms algae ○ silica cells ○ result: recent sediments
increased depositing of BS into sediments of river beds Mississippi river is carrying less silica than previously
Taken up by algae Algae settle out
01/23/2009
Lots of nitrogen and not as much silica, more organic matter heading to gulf than previously
Not normal kind a of algae More green and bluegreen
From upper Midwest Nitrogen, phosphorous silica Diatoms lowering silica content
As it flows Coast Deposit out due to size and salinity • Result: increase in organic matter ○ Pipeline of nitrogen toward coast, a by default nitrogen limited system ○ Most coast waters, nitrogen limited Increase in diatoms
01/23/2009
Because: denitrafication Dumped organic matter • • • • Results in less silica Results in different algae to grow Benthic system arises Fueling of green and bluegreen
Humans Doubling cycling of nitrogen Intensified agriculture Think of it as eutrification of the coasts Maybe tilting toward toxic algal forms
•
Solutions ○ fertilizer admit, “we’re a big part of the problem”
○ reduce broadscale use of anhydrous ammonia ○ can reduce nitrogen off landscape if land put back in wetlands ○ $100 billion for harvestable cropland ○ reduce 20-30% of chlorophyl runoff
01/23/2009
•
How do you convince farmer that there is collective problem from his economically unimportant loss of nitrogen?
• •
reduce anoxia Hypoxia
○ 2-3 mg/L of oxygen • caused by ○ increased productivity ○ reduced oxygen
Mississippi River • increase in ○ Nitrogen and phosphorous ○ Algal growth
•
Results in ○ Using SO2
Gulf • Algal growth sent to gulf
01/23/2009
Solution
• • • •
Limit nitrogen Decrease nitrogen use in agriculture Put wetlands back on landscape Riparian buffer
Chances of • • Reducing chlorophyll in gulf Duration of time oxygen present
Dinoflagalate
•
Human contributions ○ Coastal eutrofication ○ Change in fish demographics ○ Disappearance of top predator fish ○ Response to coastal enrichment ○ Runoff from hog lagoons
01/23/2009
•
Discovered in Chesapeake Bay ○ Has aerosol nuerotoxin
Red tide • Dioflagalate ○ Puts out toxins • Increased by coastal eutrophication
Toxic dioflagalates have increased throughout the globe
Freshwater toxins
•
Cyanobacterial Blooms and the potential for Toxins
Early in season
• • •
Ions in water Nitrogen in water Small algal cells
Late in season • Sucked down nitrogen
01/23/2009
• • •
Precipitated and diluted calcium out of system Shift to blue greens and large bluegreens Net Chlorophyll is going up Microcystin is going up as well
Conclusions
• • • •
Common in Midwest Seasonal patterns are unique Max doesn’t occur in any one season No nice relationship between environmental relationships and algal toxins
Research needs
• • • •
Consistent sampling protocols Predictive models Able to shut down beaches Methods for early detection
01/23/2009
Biochemical Oxygen demand • How much oxygen it takes to break all the carbon bonds
Organic matter
•
C-C-C ○ input oxygen ○ output CO2
Water oxygen saturation during the summer, 8 milligrams / L
Concentrated sewage
• • •
1000mg/L Total suspended solids 500 = 200 mg/L Biochemical Oxygen (BoD) 200
01/23/2009
Would result in water going anoxic due to oxygen demand
Treatment breakdown (important)
•
Primary treatment (results in taking out 1/3 of BoD) ○ Screen out materials ○ Skim out floating materials ○ Settle
•
Secondary treatment (biological, 2/3rds of BoD)
01/23/2009
○ Put oxygen in contact with organic matter (dissolved organic matter) Pushes off CO2. Sprinkle filter • Rocks ○ Zoogleal bacteria Grow on rocks, huge demand on carbon, don’t grow much protoplasm ○ Protozoans ○ Sewage worms
• • •
Spray arms, water pushed over rocks Denitification occurs Don’t flood it with BoD demand, would go anaerobic
Huge biochemical oxygen demand
• •
Want to oxidize to produce CO2 Product bacterial bodies
01/23/2009
Activated sludge
• • •
Water removed from primary treatment Fill tank of up with fresh load of sewage water Zoogleal bacteria in tank
○ Blows off CO2, infused with oxygen from jets • • • Jets of air oxygenizing water Protozoan feeds on zoogleal bacteria Turn off jets and all things settle
○ 2/3rds of bacteria goes to sludge dealing ○ reuse 1/3rd of bacteria goes through trickle filter or holding facility
•
vulnerable to shock ○ PH shifts or pesticides Bacteria will not perform to expectations Bacteria might do “bulking”
01/23/2009
Single cells instead of snot strands Engineers borrow activated sludge to re-seed
What to do with the sludge?
• • • •
Stick in tank and go anaerobic Eternal flame, methane coming off Liquids head to activated sludge Dry solids material
○ Methane used to run the plant or send to city gas supply, natural gas ○ Land apply solids
Milwaukee Minneapolis, St. Paul
○ Not done as much because of heavy metals concentrated in sludge
01/23/2009
Copper, chromium, mercury
Tertiary treatment (3)
• • • •
200 mg / L of BoD 10% left after 1st and second treatment 20mg/L NH4 > N03 solution
○ put in pond ○ spiny wheel ○ membrane filter ○ trickle filter
•
can ○ reduce BoD ○ Phosphorous reduction
Waste waster usually has 5mg/L Get rid of it?
01/23/2009
•
Microbial uptake (treat with bactera/algal uptake)
• •
Alum (Al+3PO+4) treatment Wetlands
○ Phosphorous uptake limited ○ Nitrogen reduction Ammonium (NH4) (toxic to fish) How?
NH4 – NO3 – N2 (BoD) • • Let go anaerobic Without oxygen goes to next best oxyidizing agent
○ NO3 Releases CO2 and N2 Ammonium can kill fish at high ph • Ammonium leads to algal blooms and high BoD • which raises ph
01/23/2009
Putting effluent into lake results in oxygen sag • Lowers oxygen in stream until bacteria satisfy the remaining BoD and oxidize the ammonium to nitrate • Extent of oxygen sag curve depends on
○ Volume of effluent ○ Volume of stream
•
Not much effect of ○ Low effluent high flow
•
Nutrients ○ High unless tertiary treatment ○ Oxidation ○ Uptake
In short, algae growth ○ Curve goes from low prior to effluent input, peaks and declines in a curve due to decreasing and uptake • Extreme conditions ○ Anoxic
01/23/2009
Sewage fungus can grow Algal growth downstream Change in macroinvertibrates
Inverts
• • •
Tolerant – EPT Community > index to fe Subjective score
○ %taxa • taken in comparison to region ○ habitat structure ○ water quality
both effect population structure • Prairie streams ○ Not a wonderful index Some extremely tolerant of harsh conditions.
01/23/2009
○ Nutrient enrichment Response seen most in algae Secondarily in invertebrates
Response will be little dampened in fish Can migrate
Bottled water
• •
When it entered the market, unregulated Tap water is regulated
Water treatment
•
Sand filter ○ Bottom – coarse gravel ○ Top – decreasing grain size
•
Result ○ Bacterial growth
01/23/2009
Binds up particles Bacteria is going to feed off of dissolved organic carbon
Reduces carbon Traps bacteria Traps viruses and protozonians Less particulate resulting water
•
Hit it with chlorine to keep bacteria down, reduce bacterial regrowth ○ Destroys cell membranes Oxidizes bacteria
Drinking water desires
• • • • •
Plentiful No disease No taste No order Cheap
01/23/2009
Sand filter
•
Chlorine/uv light ○ Off into consumers
Water supply from surface waters
• • • •
Algal cells Algal blooms occasional PH bump up Requires
○ Activated carbon Has bonding sights Attaches to dissolved organic carbon
○ Yellow drinking water? High dissolved organic carbon Caused by tanic acids
01/23/2009
Adding chlorine to water with high dissolved organic carbon • Problem: ○ High bladder/colon cancer Complex made by chlorine and organic carbon Limit 100 ppb Now
• ○ Fix: now use NH2Cl Or
80 ppb
Ozone Uv radiation
○ TTHM also called DBP
01/23/2009
Water softening • Hard water ○ High concentrations of divalent metallic ions • Soft water ○ Less calcium and magnesium ○ Less white crust
•
Salt involved is sodium carbonate ○ Replaces calcium/magnesium in the water ○ Results in higher sodium in soft water
Does not interact with soup Up sodium intake
MTBE • Gasoline additive ○ Migrates rapidly through groundwater Cancer precursor Arsonic • Increases tumors
01/23/2009
•
Problem when in water
NO3 - nitrate
•
10 miligrams per liter ○ NO3 – N Goes to blood stream, binds up with bloodstream Cuts off oxygen as it gets to blood
Fecal coliform
• • •
Bacteria indicative in GI tract Also environmental fecal As little as 1 fecal coliform per 100 milligrams of water
Geometric Mean Log 10
01/23/2009
• • •
1000 100 10
3 2 1
average: 370
6/3
log average is 2 or 100
fecal coliform standard
•
in guts of warm blooded animals ○ pretty good tracer of mammal contaminants in water ○ used as means of detecting potential contamination
miner’s canary sign of potential other contaminants
○ fecal coliforms limit for swimming water 200 cfu/100 ml no more than 10% of samples are supposed to have >400cfu/100ml
01/23/2009
○ 1000 cfu/100ml E. coli standard • More specific to human guts
Swim standards
•
Fecal coliforms ○ 200/100ml
•
E. Coli ○ 126/100ml
Lake Phewa, Hepal
•
N
Geometic Mean 10/100ml 53 701 2 41,5000 6,000
Open lake 20 Lake shore 23 Wash sites 25 Stream Pfirke Seti 29 5 5
01/23/2009
0157:H7
• • • •
E. Coli bacteria problem Related to hamburger recalls Can kill Can be related to water supply
Water borne pathogens
•
Cryptosporidium ○ Protozoan ○ Outbreak in Milwaukee
400,000 infected, boil order ○ Occupies wall of intestine ○ Feeds on material going through intestine ○ Releases a toxin ○ Reproduces by fission
01/23/2009
○
Forms cists
○ released out of feces ○ resistant to chlorination ○ survive in environment for awhile ○ 1976 realized could be problem in humans ○ ozone can cut cists numbers ○ more particles pass through during winter
biofilter of sand doesn’t act as well ○ common in South America ○ fairly common, even in pristine waters
•
Cyclospora ○ Causes diarrhea ○ Common on lettuce
•
Giardia ○ Bigger, cists are about twice as large ○ First described by levenhook ○ Common in humans, beavers, mule deer etc
01/23/2009
○
Protozon, releases cists, toxin
•
Entamoeba – protozoan ○ Similar to Giardia
Bacteria • Cholera – Vibrio ○ Humans are only known host ○ Toxins cause rapid loss of fluids and electrolytes ○ Treatment is lots of water and electrolytes ○ Can chlorinate and kill bacteria
•
Salmonilla – Typhoid fever ○ Close cousin to Cholera
•
Legionella ○ 1976 200 year celebration of US over 200 people became ill via convention hotel
01/23/2009
• •
pneumonia like fever like
new genera of bacteria water borne likes moderately hot water
•
associated with water vapor ○ inhaled dealing with it use hotter water don’t breath deeply in weak shower temp no person to person spread
Viruses •
tends to use iron for energy
65% of water borne disease are viruses ○ Hepatitis A
01/23/2009
Can be carried in water Common in North Chicago than South Chicago
○ Polio
North treatment didn’t have sand filtration
○ Rhoto viruses
Good water treatment Sand filtration Removes viruses
○ Associated with shallow wells • Schistosomiasis ○ Worms, problem in parts of Africa • Malaria ○ Water borne with insect host ○ 1million dead per year
Aquatic toxicology
01/23/2009
•
Toxic substances control act ○ Human made chemicals Kepone and Mirex Highly resistance box organic structure Lots of chlorine Used as ant bait in south Tossed waste products in river Don’t break down Persist for a long time Carcinogenic
PCB Poly-chlorinated Bifenals • • Associated with hydraulic fluids Extremely long lived chemicals
DDT Insect control Still used in many parts of the world
01/23/2009
• Love Canal
Bad news bears
Chemical company putting drums of waste in ground
•
Result
Xenobiotics – foreign chemicals Toxin > organism
Exposure
breaking down chemical, top priority for toxicologists
•
want to know, ○ Does chemical degrade? Primary degradation Cleaving anything off original compound (breaking integrity) • DDT (breaks down in anaerobic conditions) ○ DDD Degraded DDT
01/23/2009
Changes it significantly Clear Lake, CA Plankton 250x DDD as the water Fish 12,000x DDD as the water Fish eating birds 80,000x DDD as the water
Ultimate degradation Breaking down into carbon, chloride, nitrogen
○ UV degradation Breaks down chemicals ○ Biodegradation Breaks down via organisms Often have to be acclimated to these new chemicals ○ Influences to degradation PH Temperature Dissolved Oxygen
01/23/2009
○ Water insoluble compounds Don’t break down in water Prefer lipids Tend to persist Attracted to clay surfaces Absorbed by organisms
○ Water soluble compounds Easily accessible Readily degraded
○ Branchy organism Persists more ○ Straight strain compounds Tend to break down • ABS surfactant ○ Hardly degrade • LAS linear surfactant ○ Straight chain, breaks apart on way to sewage treatment plant
01/23/2009
•
Log concentration diagram ○ Straightens S curve ○ Y axis, response of population ○ X axis, concentration ○ LC50
How much of chemical will kill 50% of organisms How toxic it is
Use other markers chemicals to judge relative toxicity
Alter hardness of water Carbonate • • • Calcium carbonate Magnesium carbonate Buffer ph changes
○ Buffers carbonic coming out of fish ○ Soft water, puts out acid, does not buffer PH
01/23/2009
○ EC50 Zooplankton measure Effective concentration • • Toxicants ○ Not all animals are susceptible to toxicants Cold water fish tend to be more susceptible than warm water species Tests use representative species Poke them and they don’t move
Fathead minnow • Represents warm water fish response
Rainbow Trout • Represents cold water fish response
•
Acute exposure ○ Large amounts over short time ○ Effects are death or immobilization
•
Chronic exposure ○ Small amounts over long time
01/23/2009
○ Reduction in fecundity, etc
•
Log
Plastics
•
Toxic to aquatics
Dioxins • Not intentionally released
Tributal 10 • • • • Ship hauls If put in paint slows growth of barnacles Leaches out of paint Extremely toxic to mulluscs, oysters
Water naturally acidic, carbonic acid • • • Picks up chemicals from smoke stacks Drops ph in rain -log of hydrogen ions (pH)
01/23/2009
○ 10 fold from 6 - 7 normal 6.8 some pH 4.5
•
high 3s
drop in pH caused by ○ sulfuric acid (H2SO4) coal burning ○ nitric acid ( HNO3) > N2 > NOx automobiles NH3 from agriculture does neutralizing, but can become nitric acid
○ hydrogen chloride (HCl) burning garbage, industry • Prevailing winds, west to east ○ East Canada ○ Scandinavia
•
Ca(HCO3)
01/23/2009
•
Result
○ Lost species diversity ○ No recruitment, older fish less affected ○ Shellfish and mulluscs are susceptible (pH shock)
Rain drops Summer comes pH comes back up results in seasonal drop
○ eventual emitions controls scrubbers on smoke stacks burning garbage prohibited
○ limestone added to inflow ○ aquatic birds not effected by pH
but effects food web • management
01/23/2009
○ lakes have been fertilized stimulates algal production increases pH
•
Recovery ○ Follows foodweb Algae recover first Zooplankton Benthos Fish
•
Paleolimnology ○ Track changes with Lake cores Diatoms • Neutral to acidic to
• • • •
01/23/2009
• • • • • Hi Emily!
