What is Psychology

What exactly is psychology?
Answer:
Psychology is both an applied and academic field that studies the human mind and behavior.
Research in psychology seeks to understand and explain how we think, act and feel. As most
people already realize, a large part of psychology is devoted to the diagnosis and treatment of
mental health issues, but that's just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to applications for
psychology. In addition to mental health, psychology can be applied to a variety of issues that
impact health and daily life including performance enhancement, self-help, ergonomics,
motivation, productivity, and much more.
Early Psychology
Psychology evolved out of both philosophy and biology. Discussions of these two subjects date
as far back as the early Greek thinkers including Aristotle and Socrates. The word psychology is
derived from the Greek word psyche, literally meaning 'life' or 'breath.' Derived meanings of the
word include 'soul' or 'self.'
A Separate Science
The emergence of psychology as a separate and independent field of study truly came about
whenWilhelm Wundt established the first experimental psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany in
1879.
Wundt's work was focused on describing the structures that compose the mind. This
perspective relied heavily on the analysis of sensations and feelings through the use
of introspection, a highly subjective process. Wundt believed that properly trained individuals
would be able to accurately identify the mental processes that accompanied feelings,
sensations and thoughts.
Schools of Thought
Throughout psychology's history, a number of different schools of thought have thought have
formed to explain human thought and behavior. These schools of thought often rise to
dominance for a period of time. While these schools of thought are sometimes perceived as
competing forces, each perspective has contributed to our understanding of psychology. The
following are some of the major schools of thought in psychology.
 Structuralism
 Functionalism
 Psychoanalysis
 Behaviorism
 Humanism
 Cognitivism
Psychology Today
Today, psychologists prefer to use more objective scientific methods to understand, explain,
and predict human behavior. Psychological studies are highly structured, beginning with a
hypothesis that is then empirically tested. The discipline has two major areas of focus:
academic psychology and applied psychology. Academic psychology focuses on the study of
different sub-topics within psychology including personality, social behavior and human
development. These psychologists conduct basic research that seeks to expand our theoretical
knowledge, while other researchers conduct applied research that seeks to solve everyday
problems.
Applied psychology focuses on the use of different psychological principles to solve real world
problems. Examples of applied areas of psychology include forensic psychology, ergonomics,
and industrial-organizational psychology. Many other psychologists work as therapists, helping
people overcome mental, behavioral, and emotional disorders.
Psychology Research Methods
As psychology moved away from its philosophical roots, psychologists began to employ more
and more scientific methods to study human behavior. Contemporary researchers employ a
variety of scientific techniques including experiments, correlational studies longitudinal
research, and others to test, explain, and predict behavior.
Areas of Psychology
Psychology is a broad and diverse field. A number of different subfields and specialty areas have
emerged. The following are some of the major areas of research and application within
psychology:
 Abnormal Psychology is the study of abnormal behavior and psychopathology. This specialty
area is focused on research and treatment of a variety of mental disorders and is linked
to psychotherapy, and clinical psychology.
 Biological Psychology, also known as biopsychology, studies how biological processes
influence the mind and behavior. This area is closely linked to neuroscience and utilizes tools
such as MRI and PET scans to look at brain injury or brain abnormalities.
 Clinical Psychology is focused on the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental
disorders. It is also considered the largest employment area within psychology.
 Cognitive Psychology is the study of human thought processes and cognitions. Cognitive
psychologists study topics such as attention, memory, perception, decision-making,problem-
solving, and language acquisition.
 Comparative Psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal
behavior. This type of research can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of human
psychology.
 Developmental Psychology is an area that looks at human growth and development over
the lifespan. Theories often focus on the development of cognitive abilities, morality, social
functioning, identity, and other life areas.
 Forensic Psychology is an applied field focused on using psychological research and
principles in the legal and criminal justice system.
 Industrial-Organizational Psychology is a field that uses psychological research to enhance
work performance, select employee, improve product design, and enhance usability.
 Personality Psychology looks at the various elements that make up individual personalities.
Well-known personality theories include Freud's structural model of personality and the "Big
Five" theory of personality.
 School Psychology is the branch of psychology that works within the educational system to
help children with emotional, social, and academic issues.
 Social Psychology is a discipline that uses scientific methods to study social influence, social
perception and social interaction. Social psychology studies diverse subjects including group
behavior, social perception, leadership, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, and
prejudice.

Structuralism and Functionalism
Early Schools of Thought
When psychology was first established as a science separate from biology and philosophy, the
debate over how to describe and explain the human mind and behavior began. Structuralism
emerged as the first school of thought and some of the ideas associated with the structuralist
school were advocated by the founder of the first psychology lab, Wilhelm Wundt. One of
Wundt's students, an man named Edward B. Tichener, would later go on to formally establish
and name structuralism, although he broke away from many of Wundt's ideas.
Almost immediately other theories surfaced to vie for dominance in psychology. In response to
structuralism, an American perspective known as functionalism emerged under the influence of
thinkers such as Charles Darwin and William James.
In 1906, Mary Whiton Calkins published an article inPsychological Review asking for a
reconciliation between these two schools of thought. Structuralism and functionalism were not
so different, she argued, since both are principally concerned with the conscious self. Despite
this, each side continued to cast aspersions. William James wrote that structuralism had "plenty
of school, but no thought" (James, 1904), while Wilhelm Wundt dismissed functionalism as
"literature."
Eventually both of these schools of thought lost dominance in psychology, replaced by the rise
ofbehaviorism, psychoanalysis, and humanism.
Structuralism
Structuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking down mental
processes into the most basic components. Researchers tried to understand the basic elements
of consciousness using a method known as introspection. Wilhelm Wundt, founder of the first
psychology lab, is often associated with this school of thought despite the fact that it was his
student Edward B. Titchener who first coined the term to describe this school of thought.
While Wundt's work helped to establish psychology as a separate science and contributed
methods to experimental psychology, Wundt himself referred to his view of psychology as
volunteerism and his theories tended to be much more holistic than the ideas that Titchener
later introduced in the United States. Titchener's development of structuralism helped establish
the very first "school" of psychology, but structuralism itself did not last long beyond
Titchener's death.
Major Structuralist Thinkers
 Wilhelm Wundt
 Edward B. Titchener
Criticisms of Structuralism
 By today’s scientific standards, the experimental methods used to study the structures of the
mind were too subjective—the use of introspection led to a lack of reliability in results.


 Other critics argue that structuralism was too concerned with internal behavior, which is not
directly observable and cannot be accurately measured.
Strengths of Structuralism
 Structuralism is important because it is the first major school of thought in psychology.


 Structuralism also influenced experimental psychology.
Functionalism
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the structuralism and was heavily influenced by the work
of William James and the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. Functionalists sought to
explain the mental processes in a more systematic and accurate manner. Rather than focusing
on the elements of consciousness, functionalists focused on the purpose of consciousness and
behavior. Functionalism also emphasized individual differences, which had a profound impact
on education.
Major Functionalist Thinkers
 William James
 John Dewey
 Harvey Carr
 John Angell
Criticisms of Functionalism
 "It is literature. It is beautiful, but it is not psychology," said Wilhelm Wundt of functionalist
William James’ The Principles of Psychology (Fancher, R.E., 1996).
Strengths of Functionalism
 Influenced behaviorism and applied psychology.
 Influenced the educational system, especially with regards to John Dewey’s belief that
children should learn at the level for which they are developmentally prepared.

What Is Psychoanalysis?
The Psychoanalytic Approach to Psychology
Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic approach to
psychology. This school of thought emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on
behavior. Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, the
ego, and the superego.
Freud's theories of psychosexual stages, the unconscious, and dream symbolism remain a
popular topic among both psychologists and laypersons, despite the fact that his work is viewed
with skepticism by many today.
Many of Freud's observations and theories were based on clinical cases and case studies,
making his findings difficult to generalize to a larger population. Regardless, Freud's theories
changed how we think about the human mind and behavior and left a lasting mark on
psychology and culture.
Another theorist associated with psychoanalysis isErik Erikson. Erikson expanded upon Freud's
theories and stressed the importance of growth throughout the lifespan. Erikson's psychosocial
stage theory of personality remains influential today in our understanding of human
development.
Major Thinkers Associated With Psychoanalysis
 Sigmund Freud
 Anna Freud
 Erik Erikson
 Erich Fromm
 Carl Jung
 Karl Abraham
 Otto Rank
 Sabina Spielrein
Key Psychoanalysis Terms
Case Study - An in-depth study of one person. Much of Freud's work and theories were
developed through individual case studies. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's
life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes for behavior. The hope is that learning
gained from studying one case can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies
tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize results to a larger population.
Conscious - In Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, the conscious mind includes
everything that is inside of our awareness. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we
can think and talk about in a rational way.
Defense Mechanism - A tactic developed by the ego to protect against anxiety. Defense
mechanisms are thought to safeguard the mind against feelings and thoughts that are too
difficult for the conscious mind to cope with. In some instances, defense mechanisms are
thought to keep inappropriate or unwanted thoughts and impulses from entering the conscious
mind.
Ego - The ego is the part of personality that mediates the demands of the id, the superego and
reality. The ego prevents us from acting on our basic urges (created by the id), but also works to
achieve a balance with our moral and idealistic standards (created by the superego).
Id - The personality component made up of unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy
basic urges, needs and desires.
Superego - The component of personality composed of our internalized ideals that we have
acquired from our parents and from society. The superego works to suppress the urges of the id
and tries to make the ego behave morally rather than realistically.
Unconscious - A reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges and memories that outside of our
conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant,
such as feelings of pain, anxiety or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to
influence our behavior and experiences even though we are unaware of these underlying
influences.
Criticisms of Psychoanalysis
 Freud's theories overemphasized the unconscious mind, sex, aggression and childhood
experiences.
 Many of the concepts proposed by psychoanalytic theorists are difficult to measure and
quantify.
 Most of Freud's ideas were based on case studies and clinical observations rather than
empirical, scientific research.
Strengths of Psychoanalysis
 While most psychodynamic theories did not rely on experimental research, the methods and
theories of psychoanalytic thinking contributed to experimental psychology.
 Many of the theories of personality developed by psychodynamic thinkers are still influential
today, including Erikson's theory of psychosocial stages and Freud's psychosexual stage
theory..
 Psychoanalysis opened up a new view on mental illness, suggesting that talking about
problems with a professional could help relieve symptoms of psychological distress.

What Is Behaviorism?
The term behaviorism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson based on
the belief that behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed. Behaviorism was established
with the publication of Watson's classic paper "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913).
Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea
that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction
with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape
our behaviors.
According to this school of thought
1
, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable
manner with no consideration of internal mental states. It suggests that only observable
behaviors should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions, emotions, and moods are
too subjective.
As Watson's above quote suggests, strict behaviorists believe that any person could potentially
be trained to perform any task, regardless of things like genetic background, personality traits,
and internal thoughts (within the limits of their physical capabilities); all it takes is the right
conditioning.
There are two major types of conditioning:
1. Classical conditioning
2
is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally
occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired
with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to
evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two
elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus
3
and theconditioned response
4
.
2. Operant conditioning
5
Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental
conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for
behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a
consequence for that behavior.
Major Thinkers in Behaviorism
There are a number of important theorists and psychologists who left and indelible mark on
behaviorism, including:
 Ivan Pavlov
6

 B. F. Skinner
7

 Edward Thorndike
8

 John B. Watson
9

 Clark Hull
10

Important Events in Behaviorism
 1863 - Ivan Sechenov's Reflexes of the Brain was published. Sechenov introduced the
concept of inhibitory responses in the central nervous system.
 1900 - Ivan Pavlov began studying the salivary response and other reflexes.
 1913 - John Watson's Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It was published. The article outlined
the many of the main points of behaviorism.
 1920 - Watson and assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted the famous "Little Albert"
experiment
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.
 1943 - Clark Hull's Principles of Behavior was published.
 1948 - B.F. Skinner published Walden II in which he described a utopian society founded
upon behaviorist principles.
 1959 - Noam Chomsky published his criticism of Skinner's behaviorism, "Review of Verbal
Behavior."
 1971 - B.F. Skinner published his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, in which he argued that
free will is an illusion.
Criticisms of Behaviorism
 Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human
behavior and that behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences
such as moods, thoughts, and feelings.
 Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning that occurs
without the use of reinforcement
12
and punishment
13
.
 People and animals are able to adapt their behavior when new information is introduced,
even if a previous behavior pattern has been established through reinforcement.
Strengths of Behaviorism
 Behaviorism is based upon observable behaviors, so it is easier to quantify and collect data
and information when conducting research.
 Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral intervention, behavior
analysis
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, token economies, and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism. These
approaches are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both
children and adults.
Final Thoughts
While behaviorism is not as dominant today as it was during the middle of the 20th-century, it
still remains an influential force in psychology. Outside of psychology, animal trainers, parents,
teachers, and many others make use of basic behavioral principles to help teach new behaviors
and discourage unwanted ones.
What Is Humanistic Psychology?
The "Third Force" In Psychology
Humanistic psychology emerged during the 1950s as a reaction to psychoanalysis and
behaviorism, which dominated psychology at the time. Psychoanalysis was focused on
understanding the unconscious motivations that drive behavior while behaviorism studied the
conditioning processes that produce behavior. Humanist thinkers felt that both psychoanalysis
and behaviorism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic of emotions or failing
to take into account the role of personal choice.
Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individual's potential and stressed the
importance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology
is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems result from deviations
from this natural tendency.
During the late 1950s, Abraham Maslow and other psychologists held meetings to discuss the
development of a professional organization devoted to a more humanist approach to
psychology. They agreed that topics such as self-actualization, creativity, and individuality and
related topics were the central theme of this new approach. In 1961, they officially established
the American Association for Humanistic Psychology.
In 1962, Abraham Maslow published Toward a Psychology of Being, in which he described
humanistic psychology as the "third force" in psychology. The first and second forces were
behaviorism and psychoanalysis respectively.
However, it is not necessary to think of these three schools of thought as competing elements.
Each branch of psychology has contributed to our understanding of the human mind and
behavior. Humanistic psychology added yet another dimension that takes a more holistic view
of the individual.
Major Thinkers in Humanistic Psychology
 Abraham Maslow
 Carl Rogers
 Rollo May
 Erich Fromm
Important Events in Humanistic Psychology
 1943 - Abraham Maslow described his hierarchy of needs in "A Theory of Human
Motivation" published in Psychological Review.
 1951 - Carl Rogers published Client-Centered Therapy, which described his humanistic, client-
directed approach to therapy.
 1961 - The American Association for Humanistic Psychology is formed and the Journal of
Humanistic Psychology was established.
 1962 - American Association for Humanistic Psychology was formed.
 1971 - Humanistic psychology becomes an APA division.
Criticisms of Humanistic Psychology
 Humanistic psychology is often seen as too subjective; the importance of individual
experience makes it difficult to objectively study and measure humanistic phenomena. How
can we objectively tell if someone is self-actualized? The answer, of course, is that we
cannot. We can only rely upon the individual's own assessment of their experience.
 Another major criticism is that observations are unverifiable; there is no accurate way to
measure or quantify these qualities.
Strong Points of Humanistic Psychology
 One of the major strengths of humanistic psychology is that it emphasizes the role of the
individual. This school of psychology gives people more credit in controlling and determining
their state of mental health.
 It also takes environmental influences into account. Rather than focusing solely on our
internal thoughts and desires, humanistic psychology also credits the environment's
influence on our experiences.
 Humanistic psychology continues to influence therapy, education, healthcare and other
areas.
 Humanistic psychology helped remove some of the stigma attached to therapy and made it
more acceptable for normal, healthy individuals to explore their abilities and potential
through therapy.
Humanistic Psychology Today
Today, the concepts central to humanistic psychology can be seen in many other areas
including other branches of psychology, education, therapy, political movements and other
areas. For example, transpersonal psychology and positive psychology both draw heavily on
humanist influences.
The goals of humanistic psychology remain as relevant today as they were in the 1940s and
1950s. As Maureen O'Hara, former president of the Association of Humanistic Psychology,
explained, "As the world's people demand freedom and self-determination, it is urgent that we
learn how diverse communities of empowered individuals, with freedom to construct their own
stories and identities, might live together in mutual peace. Perhaps it is not a vain hope that is
life in such communities might lead to the advance in human consciousness beyond anything
we have yet experienced."
What Is Cognitive Psychology?
Cognitive psychology is a relatively young branch of psychology, yet it has quickly grown to
become one of the most popular subfields. Topics such as learning styles, attention, memory,
forgetting, and language acquisition are just a few of the practical applications for this science.
But what exactly is cognitive psychology? What do cognitive psychologists do?
Answer:
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how
people think, perceive, remember, and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this
branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and
linguistics.
The core focus of cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and store
information. There are numerous practical applications for cognitive research, such as
improving memory, increasing decision-making accuracy, and structuring educational curricula
to enhance learning.
Until the 1950s, behaviorism was the dominant school of thought in psychology. Between 1950
and 1970, the tide began to shift against behavioral psychology to focus on topics such as
attention, memory and problem-solving. Often referred to as the cognitive revolution, this
period generated considerable research on topics including processing models, cognitive
research methods and the first use of the term "cognitive psychology."
The term "cognitive psychology" was first used in 1967 by American psychologist Ulric Neisser
in his book Cognitive Psychology. According to Neisser, cognition involves "all processes by
which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is
concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant
stimulation, as in images and hallucinations... Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent
that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every
psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon."
How is Cognitive Psychology Different?
 Unlike behaviorism, which focuses only on observable behaviors, cognitive psychology is
concerned with internal mental states.
 Unlike psychoanalysis, which relies heavily on subjective perceptions, cognitive psychology
uses scientific research methods to study mental processes
Who Should Study Cognitive Psychology?
Because cognitive psychology touches on many other disciplines, this branch of psychology is
frequently studied by people in a number of different fields. The following are just a few of
those who may benefit from studying cognitive psychology.
 Students interested in behavioral neuroscience, linguistics, industrial-organizational
psychology, artificial intelligence, and other related areas.
 Teachers, educators, and curriculum designers can benefit by learning more about how
people process, learn, and remember information.
 Engineers, scientists, artists, architects, and designers can all benefit from understanding
internal mental states and processes.
Major Topics in Cognitive Psychology
 Perception
 Language
 Attention
 Memory
 Problem-Solving
 Decision-Making and Judgment
 Intelligence
Important People in the History of Cognitive Psychology
 Gustav Fechner
 Wilhelm Wundt
 Edward B. Titchener
 Hermann Ebbinghaus
 William James
 Wolfgang Kohler
 Edward Tolman
 Jean Piaget
 Noam Chomsky
 David Rumelhart
 James McClelland