William Allan Kritsonis, PhD

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The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research Summer 2008

The Effects of Free Day Care Services on High School Graduation Rates of Counseling Teen Mothers: Implications for Joyce Pappas Finch, Ed.D.

L one Star C olle llegg e William Allan Kritsonis, PhD Professor and Faculty Mentor PhD Program in Educational Leadership The Whitlowe R. Green College of Education

Prairie View A&M University Member of the Texas A&M University System Prairie View, Texas Visiting Lecturer (2005) Oxford Round Table University of Oxford, Oxford, England Distinguished Alumnus (2004) College of Education and Professional Studies Central Washington University Special Note: Thanks to Dr. Kimberly Grantham Griffith and Dr. William Allan Kritsonis for getting the article published in the United States of America. 

This website stores data such as  ________________  ________ _______________ _______________ ________________ ________________ _______________ _______________ ________________ ___________ ___ cookies to enable essential site ABSTRACT functionality, as well as marketing, personalization, and analytics. You This studyatexamined may change your settings any time the effects of free day care services on high school graduation rates of teen mothers. The sample consisted of 167 teen mothers in three suburban or accept the default settings.

public school districts in the fourth largest city of the United States. Three statistically significant differences were found, and they were free day care services, Privacy Policy family status, and grade level. Learning about pregnant and parenting teens is a worthwhile tool for counselors in order to divest themselves of harmful stereotypes Marketing when counseling this vulnerable population . Personalization  ____________________________________________________  ________________________ _________________________________________________ _____________________ Analytics Save

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K eyw ywo or ds:  family status, shotgun marriages, teen mothers, free day care services Teens are having children when they are children themselves. For the past 15 years, the United States saw a decline in teen births. However, the National Vital Statistics (Martin, Hamilton, Sutton, Ventura, Menacker, Kirmeyer, & Munson, 2007) reported teen  births rose in 2006, and this was the first time teen births increased since 1991. This increase indicated that more thanteenage ever a significant American teensand were having unplanned pregnancies causing mothers to number drop outofof high school to live in  poverty (Planned Parenthood, 2007). The United States still records the highest teen  pregnancy rate among industrialized nations (Yoo, Johnson, Rice, & Manuel, 2004).

History of Early Childbearing

Historically, early childbearing was common before and after World War II, the 1950s, and most of the 1960s. However, there is no professional literature concerning teen  births at this period of time because the teen mother married the father of her baby. bab y. These marriages were referred to as “shotgun marriages.” If a teen became pregnant 40 years ago, she and baby’s father would drop out of high school and marry. He would get a job in a factory, buy a house, and put his child or children through school (DeWitt, 1994). Furstenberg (2003) declared that at the height of the baby boom birth, which was in 1957, 96.3 per 1,000 women were teen mothers. This figure meant that almost 10 percent of teenagers were giving birth every year as compared to five percent today (Furstenberg, 2003). As long as the pregnant teen married the father of her baby, the public was not concerned even though these marriages were at a greater risk of failure (Furstenberg, 2003). By the late 1960s, pregnant teens and women decided not to marry the fathers of their babies, and the first to see a decline in marriage was among the poor Black (Furstenberg, 2003). Black teen births rose because the teen mother did not think a “shotgun marriage” was the solution. Deindustrialization and the loss of union jobs among Blacks were factors contributing to marital instability and out-of-wedlock childbearing among Blacks as opposed to Whites (Furstenberg, 2003). This website stores data such as cookies to enable essential site Lifelong Difficulties Associated with Teen Mothers functionality, as well as marketing, personalization, and analytics. You In today’s industrialized world, teenage childbearing jeopardizes the teen mother’s may change your settings at any time education (SmithBattle, 2003). This interruption in education limits her opportunities op portunities in the or accept the default settings.

labor market, which leads to continued poverty, dependence on welfare, and low-skilled  jobs (SmithBattle, 2003). It is estimated that 80 percent of teen mothers end up on welfare Privacy Policy (VanLenten, 2007). They face enormous odds because the majority of ten mothers come from poor and low-income families (Amin, Browne, Ahmed, & Soto, 2006). According to Marketing Lerman (1997), the heart of the teen mothers’ condition is poverty, and poverty is more Personalization influential than race or ethnicity. There is a relationship between abuse (physical and sexual) and early pregnancy (Philliber, Brooks, Lehrer, Oakley, & Waggoner, 2003). Analytics Save

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  Another difficulty encountered by teenage childbearing is they are more likely to have little or no prenatal care, their babies are born prematurely, and they have low birth weight babies (Caulfield & Thomson, 1997). Many teen mothers do not acknowledge they are pregnant until their second trimester (Erickson, 1998). After birth, the children are more likely to have poor health, to grow up without fathers, and to suffer from abuse and neglect (Caulfield & Thomson, 1997).

Statistics

Several important statistics surround adolescent childbearing. The United States government spends $25 to $50 billion a year on teenage childbearing (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2006). Twenty-five percent of teen mothers have another child within two years of giving birth to their first child (Williams & Sadler, 2001). One-third of American children are born to unmarried parents (Winter, 2005). Approximately 97 per 1,000 women aged 15-19 (one million American teenagers) become pregnant each year (Planned Parenthood, 2000). Teenagers aged 15-19 account for 73 percent of young women who become pregnant (Planned Parenthood, 2003). Less than one-third of teens who begin their families before the age of 18 graduate from high school, and only 1.5  percent earn a college degree before the age of 30 (March of o f Dimes, 2006). Seventy-five  percent of pregnant teens had mothers who had teen pregnancies (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2006). Six out of seven teen births are to teen mothers near or  below poverty income levels (Roth & Hendrickson, 1998). One in three girls in the United States gets pregnant at least once before they turn 20 (Kane, 2006).

Data Analysis

The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not free day care services for teen mothers increased their high school graduation rates. These free day care services were either on-site at the teen’s high school, at neighborhood day care centers funded by the grant money of the teen parenting education program, or were at neighborhood day This website stores suchinaswhich the Houston-Galveston area council oversaw subsidized state and care data centers cookies to enable essential federal childsite care funding. functionality, as well as marketing, The independent variables were free day care services, age when first child was personalization, and analytics. You delivered, level when first child was delivered, ethnicity, and family status. Family may change your settings grade at any time status settings. indicated with whom the teen mother lived with when she delivered her first child. or accept the default The population for the investigation consisted of teen mothers who attended high school in three suburban public school districts in the fourth largest city in the United Privacy Policy States. Those teen mothers who gave live birth, kept their child, and had only one child were considered for this research study. If a teen mother had two or more children or gave Marketing her child up for adoption, she was not considered. Teen mothers had to be between 13 and Personalization 19 years of age. The available population consisted of 337 teen mothers during the 20052006 and 2006-2007 school years, and from that available population, the sample of the Analytics Save

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 population consisted of 167 teen mothers. There were 48 from one school district, 50 from another, and 69 from the third. Four teen mothers or 2.4 percent were 14 years of age when they gave birth to their first child. Seventeen or 10.2 percent were 15 years of age when they gave birth to their first child. Forty-five or 26.9 percent were 16 years of age when they gave birth to their first child. Fifty-nine or 35.3 percent were 17 years of age, 31 or 18.6 percent were 18 years of age, andwhen 11 orshe 6.6delivered percent were 19 years age. No teen mother in this study was 13 years of age her first child.ofThere were a total of 167 teen mothers aged 14-19 years of age (See Table 1).

Table 1

Frequency Distribution of Participants According to Age (N=167)

Age

Percent

14

4

2.4

15

17

10.2

16

45

26.9

17

59

35.3

18

31

18.6

19

11

6.6

167

100.0

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Frequency

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There were four teen mothers or 2.4 percent who were in eighth grade when they delivered their first child. Twenty-four or 14.4 percent were in ninth grade when they delivered their first child. Forty-one or 24.6 percent were in tenth, 53 or 31.7 percent in eleventh, and 45 or 26.9 percent in twelfth. There were a total of 167 teen mothers in grades 8-12 when they delivered their first child (See Table 2).

Table 2

Frequency Distribution of Participants According to Grade Level (N=167)

Grade

Frequency

8

4

2.4

9

24

14.4

10

41

24.6

11

53

31.7

12

45

26.9

167

100.0

Total

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Percent

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Family status indicated with whom the teen mother lived with at the time she delivered her first child. Fifty-seven or 34.1 percent of the teen mothers lived with their mothers. Sixty-five or 38.9 percent lived with their mother and father, and 11 or 6.6 lived with their mother and step-father. Thirty-four or 20.4 percent lived with other. The other category included the teen mother’s father, grandparent(s), boyfriend and his family,  boyfriend, brother and sister-in-law, father and step-mother, aunt, husband, and mother, father, and her boyfriend, which totaled 167 teen mothers (See Table 3). Table 3

Frequency Distribution of Participants According to Family Status (N=167)

Family Status

Percent

Mother

57

34.1

Mother & Father

65

38.9

Mother & Step Father

11

6.6

Other

34

20.4

Total

167

100.0

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Frequency

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The ethnic make-up of the teen mothers consisted of Black, Hispanic, White, and Asian. No other ethnic groups were represented. There were 53 or 31.7 percent Black teen mothers, 92 or 55.1 percent Hispanic, 12 or 7.2 percent White, and ten or six percent Asians, which totaled 167 teen mothers (See Table 4).

Table 4

Frequency Distribution of Participants According to Ethnicity (N=167)  ____________________________________________________  ________________________ _________________________________________________ _____________________ Ethnicity

Frequency

Percent

Black

53

31.7

Hispanic

92

55.1

White

12

7.2

Asian

10

6.0

Total

167

100.0

Fifty-four or 32.3 percent teen mothers did not have free day care services. One hundred and thirteen or 67.7 percent of the teen mothers did have free day care services, which totaled 167 teen mothers (See Table 5).

Table 5 This website stores data such as Distribution of Participants According to Free Day Care Services cookies to enable essentialFrequency site functionality, as well as marketing, (N=167) personalization, and analytics. You may change your settings at any time or accept the default settings.

Free Day Care Services

Frequency

Percent

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 No

54

32.3

Yes

113

67.7

Total

167

100.0

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Forty-nine or 29.3 percent of the teen mothers did not graduate from high school. One hundred and eighteen or 70.7 percent of the teen mothers did graduate from high school, which totaled 167 teen mothers (See Table 6).

Table 6

Frequency Distribution of Participants According to Graduation (N=167)

Graduation Rate

Frequency

Percent

 No

49

29.3

Yes

118

70.7

Total

167

100.0

The design that was used in this investigation was causal-comparative or ex post facto. In the files of each director of the parenting education program were the names of the teen mothers, age and grade level when delivered her first child, ethnicity, family status, was she a graduate or a drop-out, and was she receiving free day care services or was she not receiving free day care services. Permission was granted to the researcher from each suburban school district. If the teen mother’s child was born 31 days or less before her next  birthday, her age was calculated as the age she was to be on her next birthday. The sampling procedure consisted of simple random sampling. The teen mothers with a child who attended a free day care service and those whose child did not attend a free day service were randomly selected from the available population. If the teen This website stores data care such as mother gavesitebirth to her baby the last six weeks before she graduated, she did not cookies to enable essential  participate in the study. Each teen mother who participated in the study was assigned a functionality, as well as marketing, personalization, and analytics. You because the total number of participants number of 1-167 participants was 167. A two-sample Chi may change your settings at any time Square test for the five hypotheses was used because the variables were nominal. or accept the default settings.

Results

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Five null hypotheses were formulated and tested in this study, and all five hypotheses were tested for statistically significant differences between the variables. There Personalization was a statistically significant difference as related to free day care services, family status, Analytics Save

and grade level when delivered first child. However, there was no statistically significant difference as related to ethnicity and age when delivered first child. Accept All

 

Table 7 reported the overall results of teen mothers who graduated and did not graduate and whether they had free day care services or did not have free day care services using a two-sample Chi Square test. There were 24 teen mothers who did not graduate and did not have free day care services. Twenty-five did not graduate, but had free day care services, making it a total of 49 teen mothers out of 167 who did not graduate. Thirty teen mothers graduated but did not have free day care services. Eighty-eight graduated and had free day care making it adid total 118free teenday mothers out of 167 graduated. Fifty-four out services, of 167 teen mothers notofhave care services, and that 113 out of 167 did have free day care services. There was a statistically significant difference found  between graduation rates and free day care services (X2=8.781, df=1, P<.05). Thus, Hypothesis 1 was rejected.

Table 7

Chi Square Summary Table Regarding the Graduation Rates of Teen Mothers and Free Day Care Services (N=167) Day Care Graduated

No

Yes

 No

24

25

49

Yes

30

88

118

Total

54

113

167

2

df=1, X =8.781, This website stores data such as P=.003** ** Significant cookies to enable essential siteat the .01 level functionality, as well as marketing, personalization, and analytics. You may change your settings at any time or accept the default settings. Privacy Policy Marketing Personalization Analytics Save

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Total

 

Presented in Table 8 are the overall results for teen mothers who graduated or did not graduate and the influence of ethnicity using a two-sample Chi Square test. Seventeen Black teen mothers did not graduate; 29 Hispanics did not graduate; two Whites did not graduate; and one Asian did not graduate, which was a total of 49 out of 167 teen mothers that did not graduate. Thirty-six Black teen mothers did graduate; 63 Hispanics graduated; ten Whites did graduate; and nine Asians did graduate, which was a total of 118 out of 167 teen mothers did graduate. Blackwas teennomothers participated in thedifference study, 92 Hispanics, 12that Whites, and 10 Fifty-three Asians. There statistically significant  between high school graduation rates and ethnicity (X2=.3.136, df=3, P>.05). Thus, Hypothesis 2 was accepted.

Table 8

Chi Square Summary Table Regarding the Graduation Rates of Teen Mothers and Ethnicity (N=167)

Graduated

Asian

Total

 No

17

29

2

1

49

Yes

36

63

10

9

118

Total

53

92

12

10

167

2

X =3.136, df=3, P=.371

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Black

Ethnicity Hispanic White

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Table 9 indicated the overall results of teen mothers who graduated or did not graduate and the teen mother’s family status at the time she delivered her first child using a two sample Chi Square test. Twenty-six teen mothers who did not graduate lived with their mother; ten who did not graduate lived with their mother and father; one who did not graduate lived with her mother and step-father; and 12 who did not graduate lived with other, which was a total of 49 who did not graduate. Thirty-one did graduate and lived with their 55 mother did graduate and lived with their andand father; 10with did graduate and lived mother; with their and step-father; and 22 didmother graduate lived other, which was a total of 118 who did graduate. Fifty-seven teen mothers lived with their mother; 65 lived with their mother and father; 11 lived with their mother and step-father; and 34 lived with other. There was a statistically significant difference between high school graduation rates and family status (X2=.001, df=3, P<.01). Therefore, Hypothesis 3 was rejected.

Table 9

Chi Square Summary Table Regarding the Graduation Rates of Teen Mothers and Family Status (N=167)

Family Graduated

 No Yes

Mother

Mother & Father

26

10

1

55

10

22

118

65

11

34

167

31

Total This website stores data such as 57 cookies to enable essential site 2 functionality, asXwell as marketing, =16.144, df=3, P=.001** personalization, analytics. at You **and Significant the .01 level may change your settings at any time or accept the default settings. Privacy Policy Marketing Personalization Analytics Save

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Mother & Step-Father

Other

Total

12

49

 

Table 10 reported the results of whether teen mothers graduated or did not graduate and the age they were when delivered their first child using a two-sample Chi Square test.  No teen mothers in this study were 13 years of age when they delivered their first child. There were no teen mothers that were 14 years of age and did not graduate; six were 15 years and did not graduate; 17 were 16 years and did not graduate; 16 were 17 years and did not graduate; seven were 18 years and did not graduate; and three were 19 years and did not graduate, whichof was totaldid of 49 teen mothers notand graduate. Four teen mothers were 14 years agea and graduate; 11 werethat 15 did years did graduate; 28 were 16 years and did graduate; 43 were 17 years and did graduate; 24 were 18 years and did graduate; and eight were 19 years and did graduate, which was a total of 118 teen mothers that did graduate. There were a total of four teen mothers 14 years of age; 17 teen mothers 15 years of age; 45 teen mothers 16 years of age; 59 teen mothers 17 years of age; 31 teen mothers 18 years of age; and 11 teen mothers 19 years of age. There was no statistically significant difference between graduation rates and age when the teen delivered her first child (X2=4.343, df=5, P>.05). Therefore, Hypothesis 4 was accepted.

Table 10

Chi Square Summary Table Regarding the Graduation Rates of Teen Mothers and Age (N=167)

Age Graduated

 No

14

15

16

17

18

19

Total

0

6

17

16

7

3

49

11

28

43

24

8

118

17

45

59

31

11

167

This website stores data such as 4 cookies to enableYes essential site functionality, as well as marketing, personalization, and analytics. You Total 4 may change your settings at any time or accept the default settings. 2

X =4.343, df=5, P=.501

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Presented in Table 11 are the results of graduation rates of teen mothers and the grade they were in when they delivered their first child using a two-sample Chi Square test. There were three teen mothers in eighth grade and did not graduate; 14 were in ninth and did not graduate; 15 were in tenth and did not graduate; 14 were eleventh and did not graduate; and three were in twelfth and did not graduate, which was a total of 49 that did not graduate. One teen mother was in eighth grade and graduated; 10 were in ninth and graduated; 26 were in tenthwhich and graduated; eleventh and graduated; andFour 42 were in twelfth and graduated, was a total39ofwere 118 in teen mothers that graduated. teen mothers were in eighth grade when they delivered their first child; 24 were in ninth grade; 41 were in tenth grade; 53 were in eleventh grade; and 45 were in twelfth. There was a statistically significant difference between high school graduation rates and the grade the teen mother was in when she delivered her first child (X 2=26.169, df=4, P<.05). Hence, Hypothesis 5 was rejected.

Table 11

Chi Square Summary Table Regarding the Graduation Rates of Teen Mothers and Grade Level (N=167)

Grade Graduated

8

9

10

11

12

 No

3

14

15

14

3

49

Yes

1

10

26

39

42

118

24

41

53

45

167

This website stores data such as 4 cookies to enableTotal essential site functionality, as well as marketing, personalization, analytics. YouP=.000** X2and =26.169, df=4, may change your settings at any time ** Significant at the .01 level or accept the default settings.

Total

Discussion Privacy Policy

It is not surprising that this study showed a statistically significant difference

Marketing  between graduation rates of teen mothers and free day care services. The review of related

literature supported this finding. Several school districts throughout the United States have Personalization incorporated free day care services for teen mothers, which have enabled them to graduate

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from high school. These school districts with on-site day care services showed increase in teen mothers’ attendance, improved grades, were taught important life skills, and showed Accept All

 

lowered drop-out rates. While the teen mother attended school, her child attended a free day care service staffed with professional personnel. There was a statistically significant difference between high school graduation rates and family status. Fifty-seven of the teen mothers lived with their mother at the time their first baby was born; 65 lived with their mother and father; 11 lived with mother and stepfather; and 34 lived with other. The review of related literature supported this finding. Larsonhomes. (2004) Cosby affirmed that low-income teen mothers were raising their children  parent and Poussaint (2007) reported that in the 1950s five out of in sixsingleBlack children were born into a two-parent home, and today, two out of six are born into a two parent home. High school graduation rates and the grade the teen mother was in when she delivered her first child showed a statistically significant difference. In a study conducted  by the public health nurse case managers in southern California, 56 percent of teen mothers who had their first child before their 18 th  birthday were still in school (Hermann, VanCleve, & Levisen, 1998). In this study, only three teen mothers who were seniors did not gradate, and 42 teen mothers who were seniors graduated. Ethnicity and age when the mother delivered her first child were not factors in high school gradation rates. Lerman (1997) asserted that poverty has a greater influence on teen  pregnancy than race or eethnicity. thnicity. The review of related literature did not indicate that age influenced graduation rates. Evidence has shown that the very youngest teens, less than 15 years of age, usually become pregnant as the result of coercion and were sexually abused  by someone they knew (Roth & Hendrickson, 1998).

Conclusion

Teen pregnancy has been referred to as the ills of society, this na tion’s most urgent  problem, a national scandal, deviant, root cause c ause of poverty p overty in America’s time, and failure of American society. The majority of teen mothers did not intentionally become pregnant,  but once they did, an overwhelming majority kept their babies instead of giving them up for adoption or having an abortion. Lerman (1997) declared that over one-half of teen mothers had been raped by someone they knew, and the younger the teen mother at the time data she became This website stores such as pregnant, the older the father of her baby. The site lower the income of the teen, the greater the possibility she will become a teen cookies to enable essential Low-income and poor teens are not given the same advantages in life as the functionality, asmother. well as marketing, personalization, and analytics. You middleto upper-class. They attend schools that have less than adequate building facilities, may change your settings at any time not enough books for each student, and incompetent teachers. Before long, they are not or accept the default settings. achieving on grade level, lose interest in school, begin skipping school, and eventually,  become high school dropouts if they even make it to high school. To many low-income and poor teens, motherhood is the one thing they can succeed, and having a child is not Privacy Policy seen as an additional hardship and not seen as preventing them from furthering their education. They know that they are ill equipped for college and do not see themselves as Marketing ever being able to attend college. Personalization Poor and low-income teen mothers feel as if they are achieving something. Having Analytics Save

aFree baby to care themservices is not just baby to another teen mother, but athe part of life’s journey. day in another many public school districts throughout United States have Accept All

 

enabled teen mothers to graduate while assisting them with parenting skills and prope health and nutrition for their child.

Implications for Counselors

Thosethem. in theCounselors field of counseling have a responsibility to thisstereotypes vulnerable concerning population in assisting must divest themselves of harmful this population by playing a direct role in helping them through career, educational, and  personal counseling. The counselors’ doors must stay open for teen mothers to feel that they have someone to speak with because teen pregnancy and teen parenting is not going to go away. Counselors should not operate in a vacuum and should not view motherhood as her only role, but as one of the many facets of her identity. Teen mothers are a special at risk population who need encouragement as well as guidance. The counselor should be an advocate for teen mothers. Counselors are in a position to become advocates for them by gathering data on the resources that are available, such as Medicaid and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). Cities have free clinics that the teen mother can go to as soon as she acknowledges that she is pregnant in order to receive prenatal care because it is not uncommon for teen mothers to have low birth weight infants. Each school counselor should have a list of these free clinics in his/her office so the teen can receive medical attention for her baby’s health as well as her h er own. Resources available for  teen  teen mothers can  be gathered from other mental health professions, such as the school nurse, the crisis counselor, and the social worker. Once these resources are made available, counselors can develop ways of distributing this data to all the counselors in the district no matter the grade level. When counselors work with teen mothers, it is important impo rtant for them to understand the teen mother’s neighborhood, family, and culture of her family or else the counselor will contribute to her alienation and dependence. If the counselor establishes a respectful relationship, he/she will validate validate the teen mothers’ struggles struggles,, strengths, and aspirations. A counselor who tries to conform the poor or low-income teen mother to middle-class childbearing styles is contributing to her maternal anxiety. When a counselor is working with data a teen mother to conform her to prevailing norms when these are not suited to her This website stores such as ownessential experiences, these norms become a source of oppression and makes mothering far cookies to enable site difficult for her rather than less difficult. functionality, asmore well as marketing, personalization, and analytics. If teenYou mothers have dropped out of high school, the counselor must work may change your settings at any time diligently to encourage them to reenroll in school. If the counselor is aware of the or accept the default settings. resources available to the teen mother, such as on-site day care or applying through government agencies that subsidize state and federal child care funding, one can become a  positive influence for that teen mother. Schools have social workers that make house visits, Privacy Policy and the counselor can ask the social worker to make a house visit to the teen mother who Marketing has dropped out of school. Once the teen mother comes back to school, the counselor can meet with her on a regular basis to assess her needs as well as becoming he herr confidant. Personalization Payne, DeVol, and Smith (2001) asserted that those that have risen above poverty Analytics

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andhelp hopelessness had ainmentor. men tor. Teen mothers no different that them they the y too need mentors to them achieve school, to help themare parent, and toinhelp emotionally and Accept All

 

 physically. In the high schools, counselors, administrators, and teachers are mentors to athletes and help them fill out forms for college entrance exams, assist them filling out college applications, tutor them in their classes, and become advocates for them in classroom situations. Counselors, classroom teachers, and administrators can also become mentors to teen mothers. Many of these teen mothers are the first person in their family to graduate from high school, and these mentors can assist with the various options available after high school. Group counseling is another recommendation for teen mothers. In many high schools, the teen mother is required to take a parenting class, especially if she has her child at the on-site day care. The teen parenting groups can be conducted by counselors during the teen mothers’ parenting class. If the group is conducted during this class, the teen mothers are not pulled out of an academic class. Teen mothers usually miss more school than teens that do not have a child because when the teen’s child is sick the teen mo ther is the one who stays home with her child. Her class work suffers, and the further behind she gets the more stress she encounters in her life. These groups need to be teen centered rather than program centered, personal rather than generic, and thought provoking rather than guilt provoking. It is a time when every teen mother and her child are recognized as an individual, and cultural heritage and traditions can be incorporated in these groups. Cities have local pregnancy centers, and counselors can volunteer their time counseling this special population. Most of the review of literature centered around the teen mother. However, emphasis should also be placed on the teen father. It is more difficult to gain access to the fathers of these babies because only 23 percent are teen fathers (Erickson, 1998). “Among teen mothers aged 15 to 17, more than half are 20 years of age or older; 25 percent of them are three to five years; and 19 percent are more than six years older than the teen mother” (Erickson, 19 98, p. 12). If the fathers of the babies are enrolled in high school, they can also enroll in a parenting class, but it is not healthy for them to be in the same class as the mother of their baby. It makes for an unpleasant classroom situation if they are not speaking with one another or if they have broken up. With them being in two different classes, they are able to speak openly about matters of concern without feeling threatened. In conclusion, counselors have the capacity of motivating teen mothers to complete high school, and in many cases, they can be the anchor in teen mothers’ lives. When teen mothers to complete high school, return to school as soon as they are This website stores data are suchmotivated as released by site their doctor, and become involved in school activities, they are less likely to cookies to enable essential a second child. Counselors must be skillful when working with them and knowing functionality, ashave well as marketing, personalization, andand analytics. how whenYou to advise a teen, when to listen attentively, and when not to give advice. may change your settings at any timethem with their educational The goal is to assist educ ational and career choices during this stressful and or accept the default settings. sometimes, depressing period of their lives. Privacy Policy Marketing Personalization Analytics Save

Implications for Further Research

Studies addressing free day care services whether they are on-site or funded

through state andoffederal agenciesshould that subsidize child care andSince how they to graduation rates teen mothers be conducted and centers compared. this relate research Accept All

 

study found a statistically significant difference between graduation rates of teen mothers and free day care services, other school districts that have free day care services would  benefit by conducting their own research study to see if free day care services enabled their teen mothers to graduate. The findings also indicated that family status (who the teen mother lived with at the time she delivered her first child) and the grade she was in when she delivered her first child had an effect on high school graduation rates. These results attention theand benefits ofgovernment day care services within the school setting and those area draw councils of the to state federal that subsidize child care funding. Also, these results contribute to the vast amount of literature concerning the  beneficial outcomes for teen mothers and their children when support services are available. When school districts provide these day care services, teen mothers are able to complete high school. While they are attending classes, their children are supervised by competent day care professionals. Schools providing on-site day care services are able to  justify their continued funding when results are positive. Future studies can be conducted to see if there was a difference in the teen mother’s grade point average (GPA) before and after giving birth to her child. SmithBattle (2003) studied teen mothers over a period of 12 years and discovered that many of the teen mothers became more responsible by improving their academics after giving birth to their child. Williams and Sadler (2001) avowed that one-fourth of teen mothers had another child within two years of giving birth to her first child. A future study could be conducted to see if this statistic is accurate in their school district. Another study could be conducted to see if graduation rates of teen mothers were higher if the day care service was on-site or if it was at neighborhood day care centers funded through the local agency that has been designated as the financial aid entity. Teen mothers experience stress and depression when they acknowledge they are  pregnant, and it continues throughout their pregnancy and after the birth of their baby. Inventories can be administered to measure the level of their stress and depression. Lerman (1997) acknowledged that the younger the teen mother, the older the father of her baby. Many fathers abandon the mothers, and the mothers are left to administer all the financial and emotional needs of her baby. A future study involving the fathers of their babies could  be conducted concerning issues such as their involvement or lack of involvement in the their baby’s life, monies contributed or lack of monies contributed to the support of their  baby,data andsuch whether This website stores as or not they graduated from high school. Teensite birth rates increased in 2006, and that was the first time since 1991 that birth cookies to enable essential functionality, asrates well increased. as marketing, With the election of a new president in 2008, it will be interesting to see if personalization, and analytics. You be appropriated to programs assisting teen mothers graduate from high more monies will may change your settings at any time school. or accept the default settings.

References Privacy Policy

Amin, R., Browne, D. C., Ahmed, J., & Soto, T. (2006, April). A study of an alternative school for pregnant and/or parenting teens: Quantitative and qualitative evidence. Personalization Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal , 23, 172-195. Caulfield, R., & Thomson, M. (1999, September). Early parenthood: tracking parenting Marketing

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teens 49-52.after graduation from high school.  Early Childhood Education Journal , 27, Accept All

 

Cosby, B., & Poussaint, A. F. (2007). Come on, people: On the path from victims to Victors. Tennessee: Thomas Nelson. DeWitt, K. (1994, August). Teen moms who beat the odds.  Essence, 25, 271-275. Erickson, P. L. (1998). Latina adolescent childbearing in east Los Angeles. Texas: University of Texas Press. Furstenberg, F. F. (2003). Teenage childbearing as a public issue and private concern.  Annual Review of Sociology , 29, 23-30. Hermann, M. M., VanCleve, L., & Levinsen, L. (1998, December). Parenting competence, social support, and self-esteem in teen mothers case managed by public health nurses. Public Health Nursing , 15, 432-439. Kane, A. (2006, September). Keep them married. Policy & Practice of Public Human Services, 64, 36. Lerman, E. (1997). Teen moms: The pain and the promise. California: Morning Glory Press. March of Dimes. 2006. Retrieved February Februar y 13, 2008, from http://www.marchofdimes.com/  professionals/143321159.asp Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Sutton, P. D., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., Kirmeyer, S., & Munson, M. L. (2007, December 5). Births: Final data for 2005.  National Vital Statistics Reports, 56. Retrieved December 14, 2007, from NVSS database.

 National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2006). Retrieved February 15, 2008, from http://www.teenpregnancy.org Payne, R., DeVol, P., & Smith, T. D. (2001).  Bridges out of poverty: Strategies for  professionals and communities. Texas: aha! Process, Inc. Philliber, S., Brooks, L., Lehrer, L. P., Oakley, M., & Waggoner, S. (2003, Fall). Outcomes of teen parenting programs in New Mexico. Adolescence, 38, 535-553. Planned Parenthood. (2007). Pregnancy and childbearing among U. S. Teens. Retrieved September 29, 2007, from http://www.plannedparenthood.org/news-articles-press/  politics-policy-issues/teen-pregnancy  politics-policy-issues /teen-pregnancy Planned Parenthood. (2003). Reducing teenage pregnancy. Retrieved September 29, 2007, from http://www.plannedparenthood.org/news-articles-press/polit http://www.plannedparenthood.org/news-articles-press/politics-policy-issues/ ics-policy-issues/ teen-pregnancy Roth, J., & Hendrickson, J. (1998, September). The risk of teen mothers having low birth weight babies: Implications of recent medical research for school health personnel. This website stores data such as  Journal cookies to enable essential site of School Health, 68, 271-280. functionality, asSmithBattle, well as marketing, L. (2003, September). The vulnerabilities of teenage teena ge mothers: Challenging personalization, and analytics. Youassumptions. Public Health Nursing , 20, 29-40.  prevailing may change your settings at any time November). Teenage mothers at age 30. Western Journal of SmithBattle, L. (2005, or accept the default settings.  Nursing Research, 27, 831-850. VanLenten, B. (2007, March 1). Today’s pregnant teen: How can healthcare h ealthcare professionals  combat this prevalent pandemic? International Journal of Childbirth Education, Privacy Policy 22, 12-16. Marketing Williams, E. G., & Sadler, L. S. (2001, February). Effects of an urban high school school-based -based Personalization child care center on self-selected adolescent parents and their children. Journal of School Health, 9, 47-52. Analytics

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Winter, M. (2005). Fragile families and child wellbeing.  Human Ecology, 32, 17. Accept All

 

Yoo, S., Johnson, C. C., Rice, J., & Manuel, P. (2004). A qualitative evaluation of the students of service (SOS) program for sexual abstinence in Louisiana.  Journal of School Health, 74, 329-334. Zachry, E. M. (2005). Getting my education: ed ucation: Teen mothers’ experiences in school be before fore and after motherhood. Teachers College Record , 107, 2566-2598. 

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